I n fin  it e riches  in  a little  room 

— CHRISTOPHER  MARLOWE 


New  Americanized 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA 

BRITANNICA 

( Twentieth  Century  Edition ) 

A DICTIONARY  uF 

ARTS,  SCIENCES,  and  LITERATURE 
with  Many  Articles  by  Special  Writers 

FULLY  ILLUSTRATED 

and  Revised  throughout  to  Date,  with  over 
ONE  HUNDRED  COLORED  , MAPS 


IN  TEN  VOLUMES 

VOL.  X — TRIBUNE  — ZYMOTIC 

BIOGRAPHICAL  SUPPLEMENT 


The  Saalfield  Publishing  Company 

New  York  AKRON,  OHIO  Chicago 


Copyright,  1890,  by  Belford-Clarke  Co. 
Copyright,  1896,  by  The  Werner  Company 
Copyright,  1904,  by  The  Saalfield  Publishing  Company 
Copyright,  1905,  by  The  Saalfield  Publishing  Company 
Copyright,  1906,  by  The  Saalfield  Publishing  Company 
Copyright,  1907,  by  The  Saalfield  Publishing  Company 


A.  E.  B. 


MADE  BY 

THE  WERNER  COMPANY 

AKRON,  OHIC. 


LIST  OF  MAPS 

VOLUME  X. 

Turkey  in  Europe • • ♦ • 5948 

Turkey  in  Asia  • *.*•••.•«.. 5953 

United  States  • 5987 

Utah  ........ . . 6115 

Vermont  ...... 6171 

Virginia 6214 

Washington  6267 

West  Indies  6325 

West  Virginia . . .6328 

Wisconsin  . 6375 

Wyoming • * 6408 


/ 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/details/newamericanizede10ency 

— 


BIOGRAPHIES 


in  this  volume  will  be  found  biographical  sketches  of  the  following  persons, 
not  to  be  found  in  the  English  edition: 


Towle,  George  M. 
Townsend,  George  A* 
Townsend,  Luther  T. 
Towson,  Nathan,  Gen. 

Toy,  Crawford  H.,  LL.D. 
Tracy,  Albert  H. 

Tracy,  Benjamin  F. 

Traill,  Henry  D.,  D.C.L. 
Trau twine,  John  C. 

Treat,  Robert. 

Trelawney,  Sir  John. 
Trenchard,  Stephen  D. 
Trenholm,  George  A. 
Trevelyan,  Sir  George. 
Trevor,  George,  D.D. 
Trimble,  Isaac  R.,  Gen. 
Trimble,  Robert. 

Tristram,  Henry  B.,  LL.D, 
Trobriand  de,  Philip,  Baron. 
Trochu,  Louis  Jules,  Gen. 
Trollope,  Edward,  Bishop. 
Trollope,  Thomas  A. 

Troost,  Gerhard. 
Trowbridge,  Edmund. 
Trowbridge,  John. 
Trowbridge,  John  T. 
Trowbridge,  William  P. 
Trumbull,  James  H.,  LL.D. 
Trumbull,  Lyman. 

Truxtun,  Thomas. 

Truxtun,  William  T. 

Try  on,  William. 

Tschudi,  Friederich  von. 
Tschudi,  Johann  J.  von. 
Tseng,  Marquis. 


Tuck,  Joseph  H. 

Tucker,  Beverly. 

Tucker,  Henry  St.  George. 
Tucker,  John  Randolph,  LL.D. 
Tucker,  John  Randolph. 
Tucker,  Luther. 

Tucker,  Samuel. 

Tucker,  St.  George. 

Tucker,  Thomas  T. 

Tuckerman,  Henry  T. 
Tuckerman,  Joseph,  D.D. 

Tuke,  D.  H.,  LL.D. 

Tulane,  Paul. 

Tulloch,  John. 

T upper,  Sir  Charles. 

Tupper,  Martin  F. 

Turner,  Charles  T. 

Turner,  Charles  Y. 

Turner,  Godfrey  W. 

Turner,  Nathaniel. 

Turner,  Thomas. 

Turr,  Stephen,  Gen. 

Tuttle,  Daniel  S. 

Tuttle,  Herbert. 

Twiggs,  David  E.,  Gen. 

Twiss,  Sir  Travers. 

Tyler,  Daniel,  Gen. 

Tyler,  Erastus  B.,  Gen. 

Tyler,  Lyon  G. 

Tyler,  Moses  Coit,  LL.D. 

Tyler,  Roy  all. 

Tylor,  Edward  B.,  F.R.b. 
Tyndale,  Hector. 

Tyndall,  John.  LL.D. 

Tyner,  James  IN. 


ii 


BIOGRAPHIES  . 


Tyng,  Stephen  H.,  D.D. 
Ullmann,  Daniel. 

Ulrich,  Charles  F. 

Uncas,  Chief. 

Underwood,  Francis  H. 
Underwood,  John  W.  H. 
Underwood,  Joseph  R. 
Underwood,  Lucius  M.,  Ph.D. 
Upchurch,  John  J. 

Upfold,  George,  Bishop. 

Upham,  Charles  W. 

Upham,  Samuel  F.,  D.D. 

Upham,  Thomas  C.,  D.D. 
Upshur,  Abel  P. 

Upshur,  John  H. 

Vail,  Alfred. 

Vail,  Thomas  H.,  Bishop. 
Valentine,  Edward  V. 
Vallandigham,  Clement  L. 
Vambery,  Arminius. 

Van  Arsdale,  John. 

Van  Buren,  John. 

Vance,  Zebulon  B. 

Van  Cleve,  Horatio  P.,  Gen. 
Van  Cortland,  Orloff  S. 
Vancouver,  George. 

Van  Dam,  Rip. 

Vanderbilt,  Cornelius. 

Vanderbilt,  William  H. 
Vanderlyn,  John. 

Van  Dorn,  Earl,  Gen. 

Van  Elten,  Hendrik. 

Van  Ness,  Cornelius  P.,  Gen. 
Van  Rensselaer,  Henry  K. 

Van  Rensselaer,  Philip  S. 

Van  Rensselaer,  Stephen,  LL.D. 
Van  T wilier,  Wonter. 

Van  Vleck,  Henry  J.,  Bishop. 
Vapereau,  Louis  G. 

Varick,  Richard. 

Vassar,  Mathew. 

Vandreuil,  Marquis. 

Vaughan,  Benjamin,  LL.D. 
Vaughan,  Charles  J.,  D.D. 
Vaughan,  Herbert,  Bishop. 

Vaux,  William  S. 

Vaux,  William  S.  W. 

Vedder,  Elihu. 

Veitch,  John,  M.A. 

Venable,  Charles  S. 

Vennor,  Henry  G. 

Vera,  Augusto. 

Verdi,  Guiseppe. 

Verdon,  Sir  George. 

Vergennes,  Charles  G, 

Verne,  Jules. 

Verney,  Sir  Harry. 

Verplanck,  Gulian  C. 


Verrazano,  Giovanni. 

Vest,  George  G. 

Vetch,  Samuel. 

Vezin,  Hermann. 
Viordot-Garcia,  Mdme. 

Vibert,  J.  G. 

Victoria-Alexandrina,  Queen. 
Victoria,  Guadalupe. 

Vidaurri,  Santiago. 

Viel-Castil,  Louis,  Comte  de. 
Vigfusson,  Gudbrand,  M.A. 
Vignon,  Nicholas. 

Vilas,  William  F. 

Villard,  Henry. 

Villen  euve,  Comte  de. 

Villiers,  Charles  Pelham,  M.P. 
Villiers,  Frederic. 

Vincennes,  Jean,  B.  B. 
Vincent,  Charles  E.  H. 

Vinton,  Alexander  H. 

Vinton,  Francis. 

Vinton,  Francis  L. 

Vinton,  Samuel  F. 
Viollet-Leduc,  Eugene. 
Viomeuil,  Baron  de. 

Virchow,  Rudolf. 

Virtue,  John,  Bishop. 

Vizcaino,  Sebastian. 

Vogt,  Karl,  M.D. 

Volk,  Leonard  W. 

Voorhees,  Daniel  W. 

Voysey,  Charles,  B.A. 

Wace,  Henry,  D.D. 

Waddel,  John  N. 

Waddell,  James  J. 
Waddington,  W.  H. 

Wade,  Benjamin  F. 

Wade,  Sir  Thomas. 

Wadhams,  Edgar  P. 
Wadsworth,  James  S. 

Wagner,  Hermann. 

Wagner,  John. 

Wagner,  Moritz. 

Wagner,  Rudolf  J. 

Wagner,  Wilhelm, 

Waite,  Morrison  R.,  LL.D. 
Walden,  John  W. 

Wales,  Prince  of. 

Walker,  Amasa. 

Walker,  Francis  A. 

Walker,  Frederick  A. 

Walker,  Frederick  W. 

Walker,  James. 

Walker,  Leroy  Pope. 

Walker,  Robert  J. 

Walker,  Sears  C. 

Walker,  William. 

Walker,  William  D. 


Walker,  William  H.  T. 
Wallace,  Alfred  S.,  F.L.S. 
Wallace,  Donald  M. 

Wallace,  John  W. 

Wallace,  Lewis,  Gen. 

Wallace,  Robert,  M.F. 
Wallace,  William  H.  L.,  Gen. 
Wallace,  William  R. 

Wallace,  William  V. 

Wallack,  James  W. 

Wallack,  John  L. 

Waller,  Thomas  M. 

Wallis,  Henry,  F.R.S* 

Wallis,  S.  Teackle. 

Wallo-n,  Henri  A. 

Walpole,  Spencer. 

Walpole,  Spencer  H. 

Walsh,  Archbishop. 

Walsh,  John. 

Walsh,  John  Henry,  F.R.S. 
Walsh,  Robert. 

Walshe,  Walter  Hayle,  M.D* 
Walsham,  Sir  John. 

Walter,  John,  M.A. 

Walter,  Thomas  M. 

Walton,  George. 

Walworth,  Mansfield  T. 
Walworth,  Reuben  H.,  LL.D* 
Wanamaker,  John. 

Wanklyn,  James  A.,  M.R.C.S. 
Ward,  Adolphus  W.,  LL.D. 
Ward,  Artemas. 

Ward,  Genevieve. 

Ward,  Henry  A. 

Ward,  J.  Q.  A. 

Ward,  Lester  F. 

Ward,  Richard. 

Ward,  Thomas  H.,  M.A. 
Ward,  William  H. 

Warder,  John  A. 

Waring,  George  E. 

Warner,  Charles  Dudley. 
Warner,  Susan. 

Warre,  Edmond,  D.D. 

Warren,  Gouverneur  K* 
Warren,  Henry  W. 

Warren,  Joseph. 

Warren,  Joseph. 

Warren,  Mercy. 

Warren,  William. 

Warren,  William  F. 
Warnngton,  Lewis. 

Washburn,  C.  C.,  Gen. 
Washburn,  Israel. 

Washburne,  Elihu  B. 
Washington,  Bushrod. 
Washington,  William. 
Waterhouse,  Alfred,  R.A. 


Waterlow,  Sir  Sidney. 
Watkin,  Sir  Edward. 

Watson,  Alfred  A. 

Watson,  Elkanah. 

Watson,  James  C. 

Watson,  John  D.,  R.W.C.  * 
Watson,  Lord. 

Watson,  Thomas  H. 
Watterson,  Henry. 

Watts,  Alaric  A. 

Watts,  George  F.,  R.A, 
Waugh,  Edwin. 

Way  land,  Francis,  LL.D. 
Wayne,  Anthony,  Gen. 
Wayne,  James  M.,  Justice. 
Weathers,  William,  D.D. 
Weaver,  James  B.,  Gen. 
Webb,  Alexander  S. 

Webb,  James  Watson. 
Webber,  W.  T.  T.,  Bishop. 
Webster,  Augusta. 

Webster,  Fletcher. 

Webster,  Joseph  D. 

Webster,  Sir  Richard. 
Wedmore,  Frederick. 

Weed,  Edwin  G. 

Weed,  Stephen  H. 

Weed,  Thurlow. 

Weeks,  Robert  K. 

Weems,  Mason  L. 

Weigel,  Erhard. 

Weir,  Harrison  W* 

Weir,  J.  A. 

Weir,  John  F. 

Weir,  Robert  W. 

Weitzel,  Godfrey. 

Welby,  Amelia. 

Welch,  John. 

Welcker,  F.  G. 

Welcker,  K.  T. 

Weldon,  C.  W. 

Weldon,  Georgina. 

Welldon,  James  E.,  Re*», 
Welles,  E.  R.,  D.D. 

Welles,  Gideon. 

Welling,  J.  C. 

Wells,  C.  W. 

Wells,  David  A. 

Wells,  H.  C. 

Wells,  Henry  T.,  R.A. 
Wells,  Horace,  M.D. 

Wells,  James  Madison. 

Wells,  Sir  Thomas. 

Wells,  Walter- 
Welsh,  Alfred  Hi  a 
Wemyss,  Earl  of. 

Wentworth,  John. 
Wentworth,  Sir  John* 


BIOGRAPHIES. 


rv 

Werder,  August  von. 
Wertmliller,  Adolph  M. 

West,  Benjamin. 

West,  Sir  Lionel. 

West,  W.  E. 

Westcott,  Brooke  F.,  D.D. 
Westcott,  Thompson. 
Westlake,  John,  Q.C. 
Westminster,  Duke  of. 
Westwood,  John  O. 

Wetherill,  Charles  M. 

Wetzel,  Lewis. 

Wharton,  Francis,  LL.D. 
Wharton,  Thomas  I. 
Whatcoat,  Richard. 

Wheatley,  Phillis. 

Wheaton,  Henry. 

Whedon,  Daniel. 

Wheeler,  George  M. 

Wheeler,  Joseph. 

Wheeler,  William  A. 

Wheeler,  William  A. 
Wheelock,  E. 

Wheelock,  John. 

Wheelwright,  William. 
Whelan,  Bishop. 

Whipple,  Abraham. 

Whipple,  A.  W. 

Whipple,  Edwin  P. 

Whipple,  H.  B.,  Bishop, 
Whipple,  William. 

Whistler,  George  W. 

Whistler,  James  A. 

Whitaker,  O.  W.,  Bishop. 
Whitcomb,  John. 

White,  Andrew  D. 

White,  Anthony  W. 

White,  Daniel  A. 

White,  Edward,  Rev. 

White,  Horace. 

White,  Hugh  L. 

White,  Joseph  B. 

White,  Peregrine. 

White,  Phillips. 

White,  Richard  Grant 
White,  Thomas. 

White,  William. 

White,  Sir  William. 

White,  William  H. 

Whitehead,  Cordand,  Bishop 
Whitehouse,  PL  }.,  Bishop. 
Whiting,  Henry,  Gen. 
Whiting,  William. 

Whiting,  William  H.  C. 
Whitman,  Sarah  H.  E. 
Whitman,  Walter. 

Whitney,  Anne. 

Whitney,  Adeline  D. 


Whitney,  Eli. 

Whitney,  Josiah  D 
Whitney,  Myrcn  D. 

Whitney,  William  C. 

Whitney,  William  D. 

Whittemore,  Amos. 

Whittier,  John  Greenleaf. 

Whittle,  Francis  McN.,  Bishop. 
Whittlesey,  Francis. 

Whittredge,  Worthington. 
Whitworth,  Sir  Joseph. 

Whymper,  Edward. 

Whyte,  William  Pinkney. 
Wickersham,  James  P.,  LL.D. 
Wickes,  Lambert. 

Wickes,  Stephen,  M.D. 

Wickham,  Edward  C.,  Rev. 
Wickham,  William  C.,  Gen. 
Wigfall,  Lewis  T.,  Gen. 

Wiggins,  Ezekiel  S. 

Wightmann,  William  M.,  Bishop. 
Wilberforce,  Ernest  R.,  Bishop. 
Wilcox,  Cadmus  M.,  Gen. 

Wild,  Edward  A.,  Gen. 

Wilde,  Oscar. 

Wilde,  Richard  D. 

Wilde,  Sir  William. 

Wilder,  Burt  G.,  M.D. 

Wilder,  Marshall  P. 

Wildey,  Thomas. 

Wilhelm,  J.  August. 

Wilkes,  Charles. 

Wilkinson,  G.  H.,  Bishop. 
Wilkinson,  James,  Gen. 

Wilkinson,  J.  J.  G.,  M.D. 
Wilkinson,  Jesse. 

Wilks,  Samuel,  LL.D. 

Willard,  Emma  H. 

Willard,  Sylvester  D.,  M.D. 
Willcox,  O.  B.,  Gen. 

Willey,  W.  T.,  LL.D 
William  I.,  Emperor. 

William  II.,  Emperor. 

William,  King  of  the  Netherlands. 
William,  Duke  of  Bruns  dck. 
Williams,  Channing  M.,  Bishop. 
Williams,  Charles. 

Williams,  E.  P.,  Capt. 

Williams,  George  W. 

Williams,  Henry  S-,  LL.L 
Williams,  Henry  W.,  M.D 
Williams,  James. 

Williams,  James  W.,  D.D. 
Williams,  John,  LL.D. 

Williams,  John. 

Williams,  Jonathan. 

Williams,  J.  J.,  Archbishop, 
Williams,  Otho  H.,  Gen. 


BIOGRAPHIES. 


Williams,' Samuel  W.,  LL.D. 

Williams,  Thomas. 

Williams,  Sir  William. 

Williamson,  A.  W.,  LL.D. 

Williamson,  Hugh. 

Willis,  N.  P. 

Wills,  William  G. 

Wilmarth,  Lemuel  E. 

Wilmer,  Richard  H.,  Bishop. 

Wilmot,  David. 

Wilson,  A.  W.,  Bishop. 

Wilson,  Augusta  J.  Evans  (Sec  Evans). 
Wilson,  Daniel,  LL.D. 

Wilson,  H.  B.,  Rev. 

Wilson,  J.  M.,  Rev. 

Wilson,  James. 

Wilson,  James. 

Wilson,  James  G. 

Wilson,  James  F. 

Wilson,  Sir  Adam. 

Wilson,  Sir  Charles  R. 

Wilson,  Sir  Charles  W. 

Wilson,  Theodore  D. 

Wiman,  Erastus. 

Winchell,  Alexander,  1,1*  A 
Winchell,  Newton  H. 

Windom,  William. 

Windhorst,  Ludwig. 

Winebrenner,  John. 

Winder,  John  H.,  Gen. 

Winmarleigh,  Lord. 

Winslow,  John  A.,  Admiral 
Winslow,  Josiah. 

Winslow,  Miron. 

Winsor,  Justin,  LL.D. 

Winter,  William. 

Winthrop,  Robert  C. 

Winthrop,  Theodore. 

Wirt,  William. 

Wise,  George  D. 

Wise,  Henry  A.,  Gen. 

Wise,  Henry  Augustus 
Wise,  John. 

Wise,  John  S. 

Wise,  O.  Jennings. 

Wise,  Richard. 

Wissler,  Jacques. 

Wistar,  Caspar,  M.D. 

Withered,  James. 

Withers,  J.  M. , Gen. 

Withers,  R.  E. 

Witherspoon,  John,  D.D. 

Wolcott,  Oliver,  Gov. 

Wolcott,  Roger,  Gov. 

Wolfe,  Catharine  L. 

Wolfe,  Sir  Henry. 

Wolfe,  John  D. 

Wolseley,  Lord. 


Wood,  Alfonso. 

Wood,  Devolson. 

Wood,  Fernando. 

Wood,  George  B.,  LL.D. 

Wood,  James,  Gov. 

Wood,  John,  F.R.S. 

Wood,  John  G.,  Rev. 

Wood,  Sir  Henry  E. 

Wood,  Thomas  J. 

Wood,  Thomas  W. 

Woodall,  William,  M.P. 
Woodberry,  George  E. 
Woodbridge,  William  C. 
Woodbury,  Daniel  P.,  Gen. 
Woodbury,  Levi. 

Woodhouse,  James. 

Woods,  Sir  Albert. 

Woods,  Leonard,  D.D. 

Woods,  William  B.,  LL.D. 
Woodward,  Aubertine. 
Woodward,  J.  J.,  M.D. 
Woodworth,  Samuel. 

Wool,  John  E.,  Gen. 

Woolman,  John. 

Woolner,  Thomas,  R.A. 
Woolsey,  Theodore  D.,  LI«.D. 
Wooster,  David,  Gen. 

Worcester,  Bishop  of. 

Worcester,  Joseph  E.,  LLb. 
Worden,  John  L.,  Admiral. 
Wordsworth,  Charles,  Bishop 
Wordsworth,  John,  Bishop. 

Work,  H.  C. 

Worth,  Thomas. 

Worth,  William  J.,  Gen. 
Worthen,  A.  H. 

Worthington,  George,  Bishop 
Wrangel,  Charles  M.  von. 
Wrangell,  Baron  von. 

Wratislow,  Albert  H.,  Rev. 
Wright,  Arthur  W.,  Ph.D. 
Wright,  Elizur. 

Wright,  Fanny. 

Wright,  George  F. 

Wright,  Horatio  G.,  Gen. 

Wright,  Sir  James. 

Wright,  Joseph. 

Wright,  Luther. 

Wright,  William,  LL.D. 
Wiillerstorf,  Baron  von. 

Wurtele,  Jonathan  S.  C.,  D.G.Iu 
Wurtz,  Charles  A. 

Wurtz,  Henry. 

Wylde,  Henry. 

Wyllys,  George. 

Wyman,  Jeffries,  M.D. 

Wyman,  Robert  H.,  Admiral 
Wyncoop,  Henry. 


> 


VI 


BIOGRAPHIES. 


Wyndham,  Charles. 

Wynn,  Richard. 

Wynns,  Thomas. 

Wythe,  George,  LL.D. 
Xavier,  Francis 
Xavier,  Jerome. 

Xeres,  Francisco 
Ximines,  Augusten  L. 
Ximines,  de  Carmona. 
Ximines,  Francis. 

Ximines,  Francisco. 
Ximines,  Leonardo. 
Ximines,  Pedro. 

Ximines,  de  Quesada. 
Ximines,  Rodrigo. 
Ximines,  Vincente. 
Xuares,  Gaspar. 

Xuares,  Roderick. 

Xy lander,  Gulielmus. 
Xylander,  J.  K.  L.  von. 
Yale,  Elihu. 

Yale,  Linus. 

Yancey,  William  L. 

Yates,  Abraham. 

Yates,  Edmund  H. 

Yates,  Peter. 

Yates,  Richard,  Gov. 
Yates,  Robert. 

Yeames,  William  F.,  RJL 


Yell,  Archibald,  Col. 

Yeo,  J.  Burney,  M.D. 

Ye  well,  George  H. 

Yonge,  Charles  D.,  M.A, 
Yonge,  Charlotte  M. 

York,  Archbishop  of. 
Youmans,  Edward  L.,  M.D. 
Young,  Sir  Allen. 

Young,  Brigham. 

Young,  Charles  A.,  LL.P, 
Young,  Lord. 

Young,  Sir  John. 

Young,  John  Russell. 

Young,  Samuel. 

Yule,  Henry. 

Zalinski,  E.  L.  G.,  Capt 
Zanardelli,  Giuseppe. 

Zeiliu,  Jacob,  Gen. 

Zeller,  Edward. 

Zenger,  John  P. 

Zetland,  Earl  of. 
Zimmermann,  Agnes. 
Zimmern,  Helen. 

Zola,  Emile. 

Zollicoffer,  F.  K.,  Gen, 
Zorrilla,  Jos6 
Zorrilla,  Manuel  A. 
Zukertort,  J.  H.,  Dr* 


AMERICANIZED 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA  BRITANNICA. 

VOLUME  X. 


T R I 


TRIBUNE  {tribunus)  was  a name  assigned  to  officers 
of  several  different  descriptions  in  the  constitution  of 
ancient  Rome.  The  connection  of  the  word  with  tribus , 
“tribe,”  is  obvious.  The  original  tribunes  were  no 
doubt  the  commanders  of  the  several  contingents  of 
cavalry  and  infantry  which  were  supplied  to  the  Roman 
army  by  the  early  gentilician  tribes — the  Ramnes,  the 
Tities,  and  the  Luceres.  In  the  historical  period  the 
infantry  in  each  legion  were  commanded  by  six  tribunes, 
and  the  number  six  is  probably  to  be  traced  to  the 
doubling  of  the  three  tribes  by  the  incorporation  of  the 
new  elements  which  received  the  names  of  Ramnes 
secundi , Tities  secundi , Luceres  secundi.  The  tribuni 
celenmi  or  commanders  of  the  cavalry  no  longer  existed 
tn  the  later  times  of  the  republic,  having  died  out  with 
the  decay  of  the  genuine  Roman  cavalry.  So  long  as 
the  monarchy  lasted  these  tribunes  were  doubtless  nom- 
inated by  the  commander-in-chief,  the  king ; and  the 
nomination  passed  over  on  the  establishment  of  the  re- 
public to  his  successors,  the  consuls.  But,  as  the  army 
increased,  the  popular  assembly  insisted  on  having  a 
voice  in  the  appointments,  and  from  362  B.C.  six  trib- 
unes were  annually  nominated  by  popular  vote,  while  in 
31 1 the  number  was  raised  to  sixteen,  and  in  207  to 
twenty-four,  at  which  figure  it  remained.  The  tribunes 
thus  elected  ranked  as  magistrates  of  the  Roman  people, 
and  were  designated  tribuni  militum  a popttlo,  while 
those  who  owed  their  office  to  the  consuls  bore  the 
curious  title  of  tribuni  rufuli.  The  rights  of  the 
assembly  passed  on  to  the  emperors,  and  “ the  military 
tribunes  of  Augustus  ” were  still  contrasted  with  those 
nominated  in  the  camp  by  the  actual  commanders. 
The  obscure  designation  tribunus  (cranus , “tribune  of 
the  treasury,”  had  also,  in  all  probability,  a connection 
with  the  early  organization  of  the  army.  The  officer 
thus  designated  was  at  any  rate  the  paymaster  of  the 
troops,  and  the  soldier  who  was  defrauded  of  his  pay 
was  allowed  to  exact  it  from  this  tribune  by  a very 
summary  process. 

But  by  far  the  most  important  tribunes  who  ever 


characteristic  outcome  of  the  long  struggle  between  the 
two  orders,  the  patrician  and  the  plebeian.  When  in 
494  b.c.  the  plebeian  legionaries  met  on  the  Sacred 
Mount  and  bound  themselves  to  stand  by  each  other  to 
the  end,  it  was  determined  that  the  plebeians  should  by 
themselves  annually  appoint  executive  officers  to  stand 
over  against  the  patrician  officers — two  tribunes  to  con- 
front the  two  consuls,  and  two  helpers  called  sediles  to 
balance  the  two  patrician  helpers,  the  quaestors.  The 
revolution  must  have  ended  in  something  which  was 
deemed  by  both  the  contending  bodies  to  be  a binding 
compact,  although  the  lapse  of  time  has  blotted  out  its 
terms.  Yet  there  must  have  been  a formal  acceptance 
by  the  patricians  of  the  plebeian  conditions  ; and  most 
probably  the  oath  which  was  first  sworn  by  the  insut- 
gents  was  afterward  taken  by  the  whole  community, 
and  the  “ sacrosanctity  ” of  the  plebeian  officials  be- 
came a part  of  the  constitution.  There  must  also  have 
been  some  constitutional  definition  of  the  powers  of  the 
tribunes.  These  rested  at  first  on  an  extension  of  the 
power  of  veto  which  the  republic  had  introduced.  Just 
as  one  consul  could  annul  an  act  or  order  of  his  col- 
league, so  a tribune  could  annul  an  act  or  order  of  a 
consul,  or  of  any  officer  inferior  to  him.  There  was  no 
doubt  a vague  understanding  that  only  acts  or  orders 
which  sinned  against  the  just  and  established  practice 
of  the  constitution  should  be  annulled,  and  then  only 
in  cases  affecting  definite  individuals.  The  tribune  was 
to  give  his  help  against  illegality  in  concrete  instances. 
The  cases  which  arose  most  commonly  concerned  the 
administration  of  justice  and  the  levying  of  troops. 

The  tribunes  continued  to  exist  till  a late  period, 
with  gradually  vanishing  dignity  and  rights;  but  it  is 
not  necessary  here  to  trace  their  decay  in  detail. 

The  name  “ tribune  ” was  once  again  illuminated  by  a 
passing  glory  when  assumed  by  Cola  di  Rienzi.  The 
movement  which  he  headed  was  in  many  respects  ex- 
tremely like  the  early  movements  of  the  plebeians 
against  the  patricians.  (.See  Rienzi.) 

TRICHINA,  TRICHINOSIS.  See  Nematoidea 


existed  in  the  Roman  community  were  the  tribunes  of  | and  Parasitism.  Trichinae  are  parasites  inhabiting  the 
the  commons  ( tribuni  plebis).  These  were  the  most  [ structural  tissues  of  animals. 

59*9 


TRI 


5920 

TRICHINOPOLI,  a district  ot British  India,  in  the 
Madras  presidency,  lying  betweeu  io°  37 ' and  1 1°  30' 
N.  latitude  and  78°  12  and  790  30'  E.  longitude.  Its 
area  is  3,561  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
and  northwest  by  Salem,  on  the  north  and  northeast  by 
South  Arcot;  on  the  east  and  southeast  by  Tanjore, 
on  the  south  by  Pudukottai  state  and  Madura,  and  on 
the  west  by  Coimbatore. 

In  1901  the  population  of  the  district  was  1,215,033 
(males  586,434,  females  628,599),  of  whom  Hindus 
numbered  1,119,434,  Mohammedans  34,104,  and 
Christians  58,809.  The  only  town  with  a population 
exceeding  10,000  is  Trichinopoli,  the  capital  with  104,- 
690  inhabitants.  This  city  is  chiefly  noticeable  for  its 
strong  fort,  perched  on  a granite  peak  500  feet  high, 
And  the  group  of  temples  and  temple  buildings  situated 
on  and  around  it.  The  town  next  in  importance  is 
Srirangam,  ( q.v .)  The  chief  crops  of  the  district  are 
rice,  cotton,  tobacco,  indigo,  sugar-cane,  cocoa-nut, 
plantain,  areca-nnt,  and  chillies;  and  the  most  impor- 
tant local  industries  are  weaving  and  the  manufacture  of 
cigars.  The  principal  exports  are  grain  of  all  kinds, 
especially  rice;  the  imports,  tobacco  and  salt. 

TRICOLOR,  means  literally  a flag  in  three  colors, 
but  is  generally  applied  to  flags  of  three  colors  in  equal 
masses.  The  French  tricolor,  now  the  accepted  national 
flag,  is  blue,  white,  and  red,  divided  vertically;  that  of 
the  German  Empire  is  black,  white,  and  red,  divided 
horizontally.  Italy’s  flag  is  green,  white,  and  red,  divided 
vertically;  the  flag  of  Belgium  is  black,  yellow,  and 
fed,  divided  vertically.  Holland  has  a red,  white,  and 
blue  flag,  divided  horizontally.  The  tricolor  of  the 
United  States  is  blue,  white,  and  red,  divided  horizon- 
tally. 

TRIC  TRAC.  See  Backgammon. 

TRICYCLE.  Though  velocipedes  were  made  and 
used  more  than  100  years  ago,  none  were  practically 
successful  until  the  brothers  Starley  constructed  in  1876 
the  Coventry  tricycle.  One  of  the  earliest  descriptions 
ofa  cycle  occurs  in  the  Journal  de  Paris  July  17,  1779. 
Somewhat  later  M.  Richard  invented  a machine  driven 
by  mechanism  almost  identical  with  that  of  the  modern 
omnicycle,  but  without  the  expanding  segments.  Early 
in  the  nineteenth  century  the  cranked  axle  worked  by 
treadles  and  levers  came  into  fashion ; then  the  heavy 
four-wheelers  were  preferred.  All  these  machines,  how- 
ever, labored  under  three  fatal  defects — it  was  almost 
impossible  to  drive  them  up-hill,  to  check  them  in  going 
down-hill,  and  to  prevent  their  overturning  in  rounding 
a corner. 

It  was  the  success  of  the  early  bicycle  (see  Bicycle) 
which  suggested  the  belief  that  a serviceable  tricycle 
could  be  made.  One  of  these  bicycles  was  specially 
constructed  for  ladies,  the  hind  wheel  being  placed  well 
on  one  side;  but,  though  it  could  be  ridden,  it  was  not 
a commercial  success.  The  brothers  Starley,  by  putting 
a second  small  wheel  in  front  of  the  large  driving  wheel 
and  on  the  same  side  as  the  small  hind  wheel,  gave  sta- 
bility to  the  machine ; it  was  steered  by  turning  the 
small  wheels  opposite  ways,  and  driven  by  the  large 
wheel  by  means  of  cranks  and  connecting  rods.  The 
same  machine  with  chain  driving — the  Coventry  rotary 
—is  still  very  largely  used.  In  1877  James  Starley,  it 
is  believed  without  any  knowledge  of  the  gear  used  by 
Fowler  for  traction  engines,  reinvented  the  same  dif- 
ferential gear  for  tricycles.  By  this  the  same  force  is, 
under  all  circumstances,  applied  to  each  of  two  equal 
driving  wheels,  and  the  evil  effects  of  driving  a single 
wheel  are  done  away  with.  This  gear  was  used  in  the 
Original  Salvo  tricycle,  which  is  the  type  of  the  surest 
machine  at  the  present  day.  In  the  early  days  of  the 
modern  tricycle  other  designs  were  carried  out,  which 


have  now  become  practically  obsolete.  In  one  form  the 
hind  wheel  of  a bicycle  vras  replaced  by  a pair  of  equal 
wheels,  one  on  each  side,  but  the  instability  of  such  » 
construction  was  fatal.  In  another,  the  Challenge,  the 
two  wheels  were  placed  in  front  of  the  large  driver  and 
turned  together  to  steer  the  machine ; stability  was  ob- 
tained  by  putting  the  rider  in  front  of  the  large  wheel 
and  lower  down,  the  power  being  communicated  by 
cranks  and  connecting  rods.  But  the  weight  of  this 
machine  and  the  small  proportion  of  the  load  on  the 
driving  wheel  were  serious  defects. 

Single-driving  rear-steerers  were  at  this  time  very 
common,  and,  though  highly  objectionable,  are  still  to 
be  seen.  Rear-steerers  were  improved  by  making  both 
front  wheels  drivers  and  allowing  for  the  overrunning 
of  one  or  the  other  by  clutch,  as  in  the  Cheylesmore,  or 
by  ratchet  driving;  but  steering  by  the  hind  wheel  is  es- 
sentially wrong,  and  these  machines  are  avoided  by  ex- 
perienced riders.  Rear-steerers  have,  however,  lately 
been  made  with  a through  axle  and  differential  gear 
(Rover),  the  rider  being  placed  further  back  so  as  to  in- 
crease the  load  on  the  steering  wheel ; but  the  evil  of 
rear-steering  is  only  reduced,  not  removed.  The  clutch 
is  also  employed  on  some  front -steerers  ; and,  though  in 
certain  respects  it  has  an  advantage  over  the  differential 
gear,  for  general  use  it  is  not  so  suitable.  The  differen- 
tial gear  is  an  essential  feature  of  the  modern  tricycle. 
In  the  manufacture  of  improved  tricycles  America  is  far 
ahead  of  any  other  country,  large  manufactures  having 
sprung  up  in  late  years. 

Machines  in  which  the  arms  instead  of  the  legs 
supply  the  power  are  made,  and  are  of  immense  serv- 
ice to  those  who  have  lost  the  use  of  their  legs. 

Owing  to  the  inconvenience  caused  by  doorways  being 
often  too  narrow  to  allow  a tricycle  to  pass  through, 
many  machines  are  made  to  fold  up  into  a narrower 
space  or  to  shut  up  like  a telescope. 

It  is  important  that  the  rider  should  be  so  placed  that 
he  can,  without  leaning  forward,  put  most  of  his  weigh', 
on  the  treadles,  and  this  is  more  than  ever  needed  as 
the  steepness  of  an  ascent  increases,  because  the  slope 
of  the  machine  has  a contrary  effect.  Sliding  seats 
were  arranged  for  this  purpose;  but  Mr.  Warner  Jones 
has  made  use  of  a swinging  frame  which  the  rider  can 
lock  in  any  position  he  pleases.  It  is  this  same  swing- 
ing frame  which  gives  such  comfort  to  the  rider  of  the 
Otto  bicycle;  placing  him  at  all  times  in  the  position 
most  suitable  T>r  the  occasion. 

Carrier  tricycles,  in  which  due  provision  is  made  for 
the  proper  distribution  of  the  load,  are  largely  used  by 
the  post  office  and  by  tradesmen  in  their  business.  The 
“ Coventry  chair”  is  a kind  of  bath  chair  driven  as  a 
tricycle  by  a rider  behind.  When  invalids  have  over* 
come  a certain  prejudice  as  to  the  danger  of  this  kind 
of  vehicle,  it  will  no  doubt  be  more  generally  used. 

In  machines  for  two  riders  the  riders  sit  side  by  side 
( sociables ) or  one  is  placed  before  the  other  [tandems). 
Sociable  machines  are  both  front-steering  and  rear- 
steering. Rear-steerers  with  each  rider  driving  the 
wheel  on  his  side  only  are  nearly  as  objectionable  as  the 
single-driving  rear-steerer.  Front-steering  sociables 
with  differential  gear  are  safe  and  comfortable;  but  all 
sociables  are  slow  machines.  For  nearly  every  make  of 
single  tricycle  there  is  a corresponding  tandem. 

TRIESTE  (Germ.  Priest,  Slav.  Trst,  Lat.  Tergeste). 
The  principal  seaport  of  the  Austrian-Hungarian  em- 
pire, is  picturesquely  situated  at  the  northeast  angle  of 
the  Adriatic  Sea,  in  the  Gulf  of  Trieste,  and  at  the  foot 
of  the  barren  Karst  Hills.  The  capacious  harbor,  con- 
sisting of  two  parts,  the  old  and  the  new,  is  protected 
by  extensive  moles  and  breakwaters,  and  has  been 
greatly  improved  within  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years. 


T R I 


From  the  harbor  the  Canal  Grande  extends  iulo  the 
town,  allowing  large  vessels  to  unload  at  the  ware- 
houses. At  the  end  of  the  Mole  Sta  Teresa  is  a light- 
house upward  of  ioo  feet  high.  The  population  of  the 
town  (6,424  in  1758)  and  district  of  Trieste  in  1901  was 
144,844,  of  whom  94,544  belonged  to  the  town  proper, 
and  134,143  to  the  town  and  suburbs.  The  town  pop- 
ulation is  very  heterogeneous,  but  the  Italian  element 
far  exceeds  all  the  rest.  There  are  about  5,000  Ger- 
mans, and  also  numerous  Greeks,  English,  and  French. 

TRIGGER-FISH.  See  File-Fish. 

TRIGONOMETRY  is  primarily  the  science  which 
is  concerned  with  the  measurement  of  plane  and  spheri- 
cal triangles,  that  is,  with  the  determination  of  three  of 
the  parts  of  such  triangles  when  the  numerical  values 
of  the  other  three  parts  are  given.  Since  any  plane  tri- 
angle can  be  divided  into  right-angled  triangles,  the 
solution  of  all  plana  triangles  can  be  reduced  to  that  of 
right-angled  triangles;  moreover,  according  to  the 
theory  of  similar  triangles,  the  ratios  between  pairs  of 
sides  of  a right-angled  triangle  depend  only  upon  the 
magnitude  of  the  acute  angles  of  the  triangle,  and  may, 
therefore,  be  regarded  as  functions  of  either  of  these 
angles.  The  primary  object  of  trigonometry,  therefore, 
requires  a classification  and  numerical  tabulation  of 
these  functions  of  an  angular  magnitude ; the  science  is, 
however, now  understood  to  include  the  complete  inves- 
tigation not  only  of  such  of  the  properties  of  these  func- 
tions as  are  necessary  for  the  theoretical  and  practical 
solution  of  triangles  but  also  of  all  their  analytical 
properties.  It  appears  that  the  solution  of  spherical 
triangles  is  effected  by  means  of  the  same  functions  as 
are  required  in  the  case  of  plane  triangles.  The  trigo- 
nometrical functions  are  employed  in  many  branches  of 
mathematical  and  physical  science  not  directly  con- 
cerned with  the  measurement  of  angles,  and  hence  arises 
the  importance  of  analytical  trigonometry.  The  solu- 
tion of  triangles  of  which  the  sides  are  geodesic  lines  on 
a spheroidal  surface  requires  the  introduction  of  other 
functions  than  those  required  for  the  solution  of  tri- 
angles on  a plane  or  spherical  surface,  and  therefore 
gives  rise  to  a new  branch  of  science,  which  is  from 
analogy  frequently  called  spheroidal  trigonometry. 
Every  new  class  of  surfaces  which  may  be  considered 
would  have  in  this  extended  sense  a trigonometry  of  its 
own,  which  would  consist  of  an  investigation  of  the 
nature  and  properties  of  the  functions  necessary  for 
the  measurement  of  the  sides  and  angles  of  triangles 
bounded  by  geodesics  drawn  on  such  surfaces. 

The  Indians,  who  were  much  more  apt  calculators 
than  the  Greeks,  availed  themselves  of  the  Greek  geom- 
etry which  came  from  Alexandria,  and  made  it  the  basis 
of  trigonometrical  calculations.  The  principal  improve- 
ment which  they  introduced  consists  in  the  formation  of 
tables  of  half-chords  or  sines  instead  of  chords.  Like  the 
Greeks,  they  divided  the  circumference  of  the  circle  into 
360  degrees  or  2 1,600  minutes,  and  they  found  the  length 
in  minutes  of  the  arc  which  can  be  straightened  out 
into  the  radius  to  be  3,438'.  The  value  of  the  ratio  of 
the  circumference  of  the  circle  to  the  diameter  used  to 
make  this  determination  is  62,832 : 20, 000, or  tt  ==  3. 1416, 
which  value  was  given  by  the  astronomer,  Aryabhata 
(476-550),  in  a work  called  Aryabhatlva , written  in 
verse,  which  was  republished  in  Sanskrit  by  Doctor 
Kern  at  Leyden  in  1874.  The  Indians  did  not  apply 
their  trigonometrical  knowledge  to  the  solution  of  tri- 
angles; for  astronomical  purposes  they  solved  right- 
angled  plane  and  spherical  triangles  by  geometry. 

The  Arabs  were  acquainted  with  Ptolemy’s  Almagest, 
and  they  probably  learned  from  the  Indians  the  use  of 
the  sine.  The  celebrated  astronomer  of  Batnse,  Abu 
Abdallah  Mohammed  b.  Jabir  al-Batt&ni  (Bategnius), 


5921 

who  died  in  929/930  a.  d.,  and  whose  Tables  were 
translated  in  the  twelfth  century  by  Plato  of  Tivoli  into 
Latin,  under  the  title  De  scientia  stellarum , employed 
the  sine  regularly,  and  was  fully  conscious  of  the  advan- 
tage of  the  sine  over  the  chord;  indeed,  he  remarks  that 
the  continual  doubling  is  saved  by  the  use  of  the 
former.  Abu  ’1-Wafa  of  Bagdad  was  the  first  to  intro- 
duce the  tangent  as  an  independent  function ; his 
“umbra”  is  the  half  of  the  tangent  ofthedouble  arc, 
and  the  secant  he  defines  as  the  “ diameter  umbrae.  ” He 
employed  the  umbra  to  find  the  angle  from  a table  and 
not  merely  as  an  abbreviation  for  sin  / cos;  this  improve  - 
ment  was,  however,  afterward  forgotten,  and  the  tangent 
was  reinvented  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Ibn  Yunos 
of  Cairo,  who  died  in  1008,  showed  even  more  skill  than 
Al-Battani  in  the  solution  of  problems  in  spherical  trig- 
onometry and  gave  improved  approximate  formulae  for 
the  calculation  of  sines.  Among  the  West  Arabs,  Abu 
Mohammed  Jabir  b.  Aflah,  known  as  Geberb.  Aflah,who 
lived  at  Seville  in  the  eleventh  century,  wrote  an  astron- 
omy in  nine  books,  which  was  translated  into  Latin  in  the 
twelfth  century  by  Gerard  of  Cremona,  and  was  pub- 
lished 1534.  The  first  book  contains  a trigonometry 
which  is  a considerable  improvement  on  that  in  the 
Almagest.  Arrachel,  a Spanish  Arab,  who  lived  in  the 
twelfth  century,  wrote  a work  of  which  we  have  an 
analysis  by  Purbach,  in  which,  like  the  Indians,  he 
made  the  sine  and  the  arc  for  the  value  30  45'  coincide. 

Purbach  (1423-1461),  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Vienna,  wrote  a work  entitled  Tractatus  super proposi- 
tiones  Ptolemcei  de  sinubus  et  chordis  (Nuremberg, 
1541).  This  treatise  consists  of  a development  of 
Arrachel’s  method  of  interpolation  for  the  calculation  of 
tables  of  sines,  and  was  published  by  Regiomontanus  at 
the  end  of  one  of  his  works.  Johannes  Muller  (1436- 
1476),  known  as  Regiomontanus  (q.v.),  was  a pupil 
of  Purbach  and  taught  astronomy  at  Padua;  he  wrote 
an  exposition  of  the  Almagest  and  a more  important 
work,  De  triangulis  planis  et  sphericis  cum  tabulis 
sinuum,  which  was  published  in  1533,  a later  edition 
appearingin  1561.  He  reinvented  the  tangent  and  cal- 
culated a table  of  tangents  for  each  degree,  but  did  not 
make  any  practical  applications  ofthis  table, and  did  not 
use  formulae  involving  the  tangent.  His  work  was  the 
first  complete  European  treatise  on  trigonometry,  and 
contains  a number  of  interesting  problems ; but  his 
methods  were  in  some  respects  behind  those  of  the 
Arabs.  Copernicus  (1473-1543)  gave  the  first  simple 
demonstration  of  the  fundamental  formula  of  spherical 
trigonometry;  the  Trigonometria  Copernici  was  pub- 
lished by  Rheticus  in  1542.  George  Joachim  (1514- 
1576),  known  as  Rheticus  (q.v.),  wrote  Opus  Palati- 
num  de  triangulis , which  contains  tables  of  sines, 
tangents,  and  secants  of  arcs  at  intervals  of  10”  from 
o°  to  900. 

A new  stage  in  the  development  of  the  science  was 
commenced  after  Napier’s  invention  of  logarithms  in 
1614.  Napier  also  simplified  the  solution  of  spherical 
triangles  by  his  well-known  analogies  and  by  his  rules 
for  the  solution  of  right-angled  triangles.  The  first 
tables  of  logarithmic  sines  and  tangents  were  con- 
structed by  Edmund  Gunter  (1581-1626),  professor  of 
astronomy  at  Gresham  College,  London ; he  was  also 
the  first  to  employ  the  expressions  cosine,  cotangent, 
and  cosecant  for  the  sine,  tangent,  and  secant  of  the 
complement  of  an  arc.  A treatise  by  Albert  Girard 
(1590-1634),  published  at  The  Hague  in  1626,  contains 
the  theorems  which  give  areas  of  spherical  triangles  and 
polygons,  and  applications  of  the  properties  of  the 
supplementary  triangles  to  the  reduction  of  the  numbev 
of  different  cases  in  the  solution  of  spherical  triangles. 
He  used  the  notation  sin,  tan,  sec  fQT  sine,  tangent 


5922 


T R I 


and  secant  of  an  arc.  In  tkj  second  half  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  the  theor^  of  inhnite  series  was  devel- 
oped by  Wallis,  Gregory,  Mercator,  and  afterward  by 
Newton  and  Leibnitz.  In  the  Analysis  per  cequationes 
numero  terminorum  infinitas,  which  was  written  before 
1669,  Newton  gave  the  series  for  the  arc  in  powers  of 
its  sine;  from  this  he  obtained  /ie  series  for  the  sine 
and  cosine  in  powers  of  the  arc;  but  these  series  were 
given  in  such  a form  that  the  law  of  the  formation  of 
the  coefficients  was  hidden.  James  Gregory  discovered 
in  1670  the  series  for  the  arc  in  pov.  ers  of  the  tan- 
gent and  for  the  tangent  and  secant  in  powers  of  the 
arc.  The  first  of  these  series  was  also  discovered 
independently  by  Leibnitz  in  1673,  and  published 
without  proof  in  the  Acta  eruditorum  for  1682.  The 
series  for  the  sine  in  powers  of  the  arc  he  published 
in  1693;  this  he  obtained  by  differentiation  of  a series 
with  undetermined  coefficients. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  the  science  began  to  take  a 
more  analytical  form ; evidence  of  this  is  given  in  the 
works  of  Kresa  in  1720  and  Mayer  in  1727.  Oppel’s 
Analysis  triangulorum  (1746)  was  the  first  complete 
work  on  analytical  trigonometry.  None  of  these 
mathematicians  used  the  notation  sin, cos,  tan,  which  is 
the  more  surprising  in  the  case  of  Oppel,  since  Euler 
had  in  1744  employed  it  in  a memoir  in  the  Act, a erudi- 
torum. The  greatest  advance  was,  however,  made  by 
Euler,  who  brought  the  science  in  all  essential  respects 
into  the  state  in  which  it  is  at  present.  He  introduced 
the  present  notation  into  general  use,  whereas  until  his 
time  the  trigonometrical  functions  had  been,  except  by 
Girard,  indicated  by  special  letters,  and  had  been  re- 
garded as  certain  straight  lines  the  absolute  lengths  of 
which  depended  on  the  radius  of  the  circle  in  which 
they  were  drawn.  Euler’s  great  improvement  consisted 
in  his  regarding  the  sine,  cosine,  etc.,  as  functions  of 
the  angle  only,  thereby  giving  to  equations  connecting 
these  functions  a purely  analytical  interpretation, 
instead  of  a geometrical  one  as  heretofore.  The  expo- 
nential values  of  the  sine  and  cosine,  De  Moivre’s  the- 
orem, and  a great  number  of  other  analytical  properties 
of  the  trigonometrical  functions  are  due  to  Euler,  most 
of  whose  writings  are  to  be  found  in  the  Memoirs  of 
the  St.  Petersburg  Academy.  For  the  various  formu- 
lae and  operations  connected  with  the  science  the  reader 
is  referred  to  any  standard  work  on  the  subject. 
TRILOBITES.  See  Crustacea. 

TRILOGY, the  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  a group 
of  three  tragedies,  either  connected  by  a common  sub- 
ject or  each  representing  a distinct  story.  Of  the 
classic  trilogy  the  most  perfect  specimen  is  the  Oresteia 
of  iEschylus.  The  three  comedies  of  Beaumarchais 
form  a comic  trilogy,  Schiller’s  Wallenstein  is  a tril- 
ogy, and  of  the  modern  the  most  famous  is  that  of 
Swinburne,  made  up  of  Chastelard,  Bothwell,  and 
Mary  Stuart. 

TRINCOMALEE,  a town  and  naval  station  in  the 
island  of  Ceylon,  is  situated  on  the  northeast  coast — 
which  is  bold,  rocky,  and  picturesquely  wooded — by 
road  1 13  miles  north-northeast  of  Kandy,  in  8°  33'  30" 
N.  latitude  and 8i°  13'  10"  E.  longitude.  There  is  an 
admiralty  dockyard,  and  the  town  is  the  principal  naval 
station  in  the  Indian  seas.  The  breadth  of  the  streets 
and  esplanades  somewhat  atones  for  the  mean  appear- 
ance of  the  houses,  but  the  town  generally  has  a gloomy 
and  impoverished  aspect.  Pearl  oysters  are  found  in 
the  lagoon  of  Tambalagam  to  the  west  of  the  bay. 
The  government  buildings  include  the  barracks,  the 
public  offices  and  residences  of  the  civil  and  naval 
authorities,  and  the  official  house  of  the  officer  com- 
manding-in-chief in  the  Indian  seas.  There  is  a hos- 
pital and  outdoor  dispensary,  and  also  a friend-in-need 


society.  The  population  of  Trincomalee  in  1901  was 
13,180. 

TRINIDAD,  a West  Indian  island,  lying  northeast 
of  Venezuela,  between  io°  3'  and  io°  50'  N.  lati- 
tude and  6i°  39'  and  62°  W.  longitude,  being  the 
most  southern  of  the  chain  of  islands  separating  the  At- 
lantic from  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Its  area  is  1, 754  square 
miles,  or  nearly  1,123,000  acres.  In  shape  the  island 
is  almost  rectangular,  but  from  its  northwest  and  south- 
west corners  project  two  long  horns  toward  Venezuela, 
inclosing  the  Gulf  of  Paria.  The  northwest  horn  ter- 
minates in  several  islands,  in  one  of  the  channels  be- 
tween which  (the  Boca  Grande)  lies  the  small  British 
island  of  Patos.  The  general  aspect  of  Trinidad  is  level. 
Three  parallel  ranges,  varying  from  600  to  3, 100  feet  in 
height  and  clothed  with  forests,  run  from  east  to  west. 
The  plains  are  watered  by  numerous  streams,  and  the 
mountains  are  deeply  furrowed  by  innumerable  ravines. 
The  rivers  fallinginto  thegulf  are  somewhat  obstructed 
by  shallows,  especially  the  Caroni  and  the  Couva.  The 
soil,  which  is  fertile,  consists  of  clay,  loam,  and  alluvial 
deposits.  The  Moriche  palm  and  mountain  cabbage,  as 
well  as  the  cedar  and  the  balata,  are  prominent  objects. 
Poisonous  and  medicinal  plants  grow  everywhere,  and 
the  woods  contain  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  timber. 
There  are  two  mineral  springs.  The  most  curious 
natural  feature  of  the  island  is  the  pitch  lake  in  La  Brea, 
ninety  acres  in  extent,  which  furnishes  an  important 
export.  The  climate  is  healthy,  the  mean  temperature 
being  in  January  76°  Fahr.  and  in  September  790;  it 
occasionally  reaches  900. 

The  population,  which  numbered  109,638  in  1871, 
was  returned  in  1 881  at  153, 128  (83, 716  males  and  69,- 
412  females),  and  in  1901  at  253,250.  Of  the  total  area 
about  300,000  acres  are  cultivated.  The  principal  pro- 
ductions of  the  island  are  sugar  and  cocoa;  coffee  is 
also  becoming  important.  Trinidad  has  suffered  much 
from  the  effect  of  foreign  state  bounties,  especially  the 
export  premiums  of  Germany  and  France.  The  prin- 
cipal towns  are  connected  by  railway  lines. 

Trinidad  was  discovered  by  Columbus  on  July  31, 
1496.  It  remained  in  Spanish  possession  (although  its 
principal  town,  San  Jose  deOruna,  was  burned  by  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  in  1595)  until  1797,  when  a British  ex- 
pedition from  Martinique  caused  its  capitulation,  andit 
was  finally  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1802  by  the  treaty 
of  Amiens.  Its  real  starting-point  as  a productive 
country  was  in  1871,  when  the  Madrid  Government  be- 
gan to  attract  foreign  immigrants.  Trinidad  is  still 
strictly  a crown  colony  of  Great  Britain.  The  legislat- 
ive council  includes  the  governor  as  president,  and  six 
official  and  eight  unofficial  members,  all  appointed  by 
the  crown.  During  the  labor  crisis  caused  by  eman- 
cipation and  the  subsequent  equalization  of  the  Brit- 
ish duties  on  free  and  slave-grown  sugar,  the  colony 
was  greatly  assisted  by  the  skillful  administration  of 
Lord  Harris,  governor  from  1846  to  1851. 

TRINIDAD,  the  capital  of  Las  Animas  county, 
Colo.,  situated  on  the  Las  Animas  or  Purgatory  river 
almost  at  the  base  of  the  Raton  Mountains,  is  the 
center  of  arich  farming  and  grazing  country,  and  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  extensive  coal  mines  from  the 
products  of  which  a superior  quality  of  coke  is  manu- 
factured. Trinidad  is  connected  with  Denver,  210  miles 
to  the  north,  by  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  railroad 
and  with  Kansas  City  and  the  east  by  way  of  the 
southern  extension  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa 
Fe  road.  It  is  a growing  and  prosperous  city,  fully  up 
to  the  requirements  of  the  times,  and  rapidly  growing 
in  prominence  and  influence.  The  city  is  supplied  with 
the  latest  improved  electric  light  and  street  railway 
systems,  thoroughly  equipped  and  managed,  also  with 


TRI 


jne  savings  and  two  national  banks,  three  daily  and 
fwo  weekly  papers  in  addition  to  one  monthly  publica- 
tion, five  churches,  an  academy,  an  institute,  several 
graded  schools,  hotels,  etc.,  also  machine  shops,  found- 
ries, iron  works,  smelting  and  reduction  works,  lum- 
ber and  planing  mills,  broom  and  cigar  factories,  brew- 
eries, etc.  The  population,  which  was  2,226  in  1880, 
was  in  1900  estimated  at  5,345. 

TRINITARIANS  ( Ordo  Sanctee  Trinitatis  et  Cap- 
torufn),  a religious  order  instituted  about  the  year  1197 
by  Innocent  III.,  at  the  instance  of  John  de  Matha 
(1160-1213)  and  Felix  de  Valois  [off.  1212),  for  the  ran- 
som of  captives  among  the  Moors  and  Saracens.  The 
rule  was  the  Augustinian,  the  dress  white  with  a red 
and  blue  cross.  De  Matha  was  the  first  general  and 
De  Valois  the  first  abbot  of  the  mother  house  at  Cerf- 
froid,  near  Meaux,  where  the  idea  of  the  institution  had 
originated  in  a miraculous  apparition.  In  the  eighteenth 
century  they  had  in  all  about  300  houses  ; but  the  order 
is  now  almost  extinct. 

TRINITY,  The  doctrine  of  the,  is  the  highest  and 
most  mysterious  doctrine  of  the  Christian  religion.  It 
declares  that  there  are  three  persons  in  the  Godhead, 
the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  that 
these  three  are  the  same  in  substance,  equal  in  power 
and  in  glory;  one  Eternal  God.  The  Athanasian 
Creed  asserts  the  Catholic  faith  to  be  that  we  worship 
one  God  as  Trinity,  and  Trinity  as  in  Unity,  neither 
tonfounding  the  persons  nor  dividing  the  substance,  for 
there  is  one  person  of  the  Father,  another  of  the  Son, 
and  another  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  but  the  Godhead  of  the 
Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  all 
one,  the  glory  equal,  and  the  majesty  co-eternal.  It  is 
admitted  that  the  doctrine  is  not  given  in  its  fully 
developed  form  in  the  Scriptures,  and  no  doctrine  has 
given  rise  to  so  much  discussion  within  the  Christian 
Church.  It  was  not  until  the  third  century  that  any 
attempt  at  formulating  the  doctrine  was  made,  but  in 
the  Nicene  Creed  the  Church  defined  the  relation  of  the 
Son  to  the  Father,  and  later  in  the  Niceno-Constantino- 
politan  Creed,  the  relation  of  the  Spirit  to  the  Father. 
A further  clause,  “ filidquej * was  added  afterward  to 
determine  the  procession  of  the  Spirit  from  the  Son  as 
well  as  the  Father,  but  this  was  never  accepted  by  the 
Eastern  Church.  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  in  its 
entirety,  is  accepted  not  only  by  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  but  also  by  the  great  Protestant  communions, 
the  only  exception  being  the  Unitarians  and  some  of  the 
so-called  liberal  faiths. 

TRINITY,  a river  of  Texas,  which  flows  into  Gal- 
veston bay  about  forty  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Galves- 
ton. It  is  navigable  for  small  boats  for  more  than  300 
miles. 

TRINITY,  a river  of  California,  which  rises  in  the 
Coast  range  and  flows  into  the  Klamath  river. 

TRINITY  COLLEGE,  Cambridge,  England,  was 
founded  by  King  Henry  VIII.  in  1546  and  is  one  of 
the  most  important  colleges  of  the  University.  Among 
the  noted  men,  who  have  been  students  and  tutors  at 
Trinity,  must  be  reckoned  General  Whitgift,  Doctor 
Barrows,  Doctor  Bentley,  William  Whewell,  Francis, 
Lord  Verulam,  Sir  Edward  Coke,  Cowley,  the  poet, 
and  Lord  Byron. 

TRINITY  COLLEGE,  Oxford,  was  founded  by 
Henry  VIII.,  and  fills  an  important  place  in  the  list  of 
Oxford  institutions  of  learning. 

TRINITY  HOUSE,  Corporation  of.  An  asso- 
ciation of  English  mariners,  which  originally  had  its 
headquarters  at  Deptford  in  Kent.  In  its  first  charter, 
received  from  Henry  VIII.  in  1514,  it  was  described 
as  the  “guild  or  fraternity  of  the  most  glorious  and 
andividaole  Trinity  of  St.  Clement,”  the  court  being 


5923 

made  to  consist  of  master,  wardens,  and  assistants,  num 
bering  thirteen  in  all  and  elected  annually  by  the 
brethren.  Deptford  having  been  made  a royal  dock 
yard  by  Henry  VIII.,  and  being  the  station  where  out 
going  ships  were  supplied  with  pilots,  the  corporation 
rapidly  developed  its  influence  and  usefulness.  B) 
Henry  VIII.  it  was  intrusted  with  the  direction  of  the 
new  naval  dockyard.  From  Elizabeth,  who  conferred 
on  it  a grant  of  arms  in  1573,  it  received  authority  to  erect 
beacons  and  other  marks  for  the  guidance  of  navigators 
along  the  coasts  of  England.  It  was  also  recognized  as 
the  authority  in  the  construction  of  vessels  for  the  royal 
navy.  By  an  Act  of  1836  they  received  powers  to  pur« 
chase  from  the  crown,  as  well  as  from  private  pra 
prietors,  all  interests  in  coast  lights.  For  the  mainte 
nance  of  lights,  buoys,  etc.,  they  had  power  to  raise 
money  by  tolls,  the  surplus  being  devoted  to  the  relief 
of  old  and  indigent  mariners  or  their  near  relatives.  In 
1853  the  control  of  the  funds  collected  by  the  corporation 
was  transferred  to  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  the  money 
over  which  the  brethren  were  allowed  independent 
control  was  ultimately  reduced  to  the  private  income 
derived  from  funded  and  trust  property.  Their  practical 
duties  in  the  erection  of  lighthouses,  buoys,  and  beacons 
remain  as  important  as  ever,  the  number  of  persons 
employed  in  their  service  being  over  800.  They  also 
examine  navigating  lieutenants  in  the  royal  navy,  and 
act  as  nautical  advisers  in  the  high  Court  of  Admiralty 

TRINITY  SUNDAY,  which  immediately  follows 
Whitsunday,  was  in  the  older  liturgies  regarded, 
merely  as  the  “ Octave  ” of  Pentecost.  The  habit  of 
keeping  it  as  a distinct  festival  seems  to  have  sprung  up 
about  the  eleventh  century.  According  to  Gervase  oil 
Canterbury,  it  was  Thomas  Becket  who  introduced  ifi 
into  England  in  1162.  The  universal  observance  of 
was  established  by  Pope  John  XXII.  in  1334. 

TRIO,  in  music,  is  a piece  for  three  voices. 

TRIPLE  ALLIANCE,  a name  given  to  two 
different  treaties  well  known  in  history.  The  first  was 
concluded  in  1688  between  England  and  Holland  and 
Sweden,  its  object  being  the  protection  of  the  Nether- 
lands. The  second  was  made  between  Great  Britain, 
France  and  Holland  against  Spain,  and  guaranteed  the 
Protestant  succession  in  England,  and  that  of  the  Duke 
of  Orleans  in  France. 

TRIPLET,  in  music,  is  when  a note  is  divided  into 
three  parts  instead  of  two,  as  when  a minim  is  divided 
into  three  crotchets,  or  a crotchet  into  three  quavers^ 
the  group  is  called  a triplet. 

TRIPOD,  from  the  Latin  tripos , threefooted.  Any 
table  or  article  of  furniture  supported  by  three  feet 

TRIPOLI,  a North  African  state,  bounded  by  the 
Mediterranean  on  the  north,  by  the  desert  of  Barca  (or 
Libyan  Desert),  which  separates  it  from  Egypt,  on  the 
east,  by  the  Sahara  and  Fezzan  on  the  southeast,  south* 
and  southwest,  and  by  Tunis  on  the  northwest.  The 
country  is  made  up  of  a strip  of  fertile  soil  adjacent  tc 
the  sea,  with  vast  sandy  plains  and  parallel  chains  of 
rocky  mountains,  which  finally  join  the  Atlas  range 
near  Kairwan,  in  Tunis.  It  is  naturally  divided  into 
five  parts,  viz. — Tripoli  proper,  to  the  northeast  of 
which  is  the  plateau  of  Barca  and  Jebel  al-Akhdar,  to 
the  south  the  oasis  of  Fezzan,  to  the  southeast  that  of 
Aujala,  and  to  the  southwest  that  of  Ghadames.  It  is 
very  badly  watered;  the  rivers  are  small,  and  the  desert 
wells  and  watering  places  are  often  dry.  As  regaids 
the  coast,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  fix  the  exact  border 
between  Egypt  and  Tripoli.  The  seaboard  of  the 
Libyan  Desert  is  so  little  known  to  Europeans  that  the 
spacious  harbors  of  Tebruk  (Tabraca  and  Tabarka)  and 
Bomba  (Bombsea)  have  almost  escaped  notice.  The 
land  bordering  the  sea  to  the  west  of  Cape  R&s  al-Tfa*. 


TRI 


5924 

does  not  partake  of  the  sterile  character  of  the  wastes 
of  Barca.  The  district  of  Jebel  al-Akhdar  (“  the  Green 
Mountain  ”),  which  intervenes  between  Ras  al-Tin  and 
Benghazi,  abounds  in  wood,  water  and  other  resources; 
but  its  ports  are  scarcely  worthy  of  the  name,  except 
Derna  (Darnis),  where  vessels  from  Alexandria  call  to 
embark  honey,  wool,  and  wax.  From  Mersa  Suza 
(Apollonia,  later  Sozusa),  now  a mere  boat  cove,  but 
once  a powerful  city  of  Cyrenaica,  to  Benghazi,  the 
coast  abounds  in  extensive  ruins.  Benghazi  itself,  on  the 
Bay  of  Sidra  (Syrtis  Major),  is  an  insignificant  fortified 
town  trading  in  cattle  and  other  produce.  The  princi- 
pal products  of  the  country  are  corn,  barley,  olives,  saf- 
fron, figs,  and  dates — these  last  being  perhaps  the 
finest  in  the  whole  of  North  Africa.  Fruit  also  is  abun- 
dant in  certain  parts,  and  so  are  many  kinds  of  veg- 
etables. The  horses  and  mules,  though  small,  are  capa- 
ble of  much  hard  work.  The  native  tissues  and 
pottery  are  almost  as  good  as  those  of  Tunis.  Great 
quantities  of  castor  oil  come  from  Tadjura.  In  conse- 
quence of  recent  events  in  Tunis,  Tripoli  has  become 
the  last  surviving  center  of  the  caravan  trade  to  North- 
ern Africa.  It  is  at  least  250  miles  nearer  the  great 
marts  of  the  interior  than  either  Tunis  or  Algiers.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  commerce  of  Tripoli  is  in  the 
hands  of  British  merchants  or  dealers  in  British  goods, 
who  send  cloth,  cutlery,  and  cotton  fabrics  southward, 
and  receive  in  return  esparto-grass,  ivory,  and  ostrich 
feathers.  The  population  of  the  country  consists  of 
Moors,  Arabs,  Kabyles,  Kuluglis  (descendants  ofTurk- 
ish  fathers  and  Moorish  mothers),  Turks,  Jews,  Euro- 

Eeans,  and  Negroes.  Nothing  like  a census  has  ever 
een  attempted,  and  the  number  of  inhabitants  is  pure- 
ly a matter  of  conjecture.  In  the  interior  the  popula- 
tion is  very  scattered,  and  it  is  not  probable  that  the 
total  exceeds  from  800,000  to  1,000,000.  The  Euro- 
peans (2,500  or  3,000)  on  the  coast  are  nearly  all 
Maltese.  There  is  a Jewish  colony  of  about  4,000  in 
the  capital,  and  the  trade  is  almost  entirely  in  their 
hands  and  in  those  of  the  Maltese. 

Since  1835  Tripoli  has  lost  the  semi-independent 
character  of  a regency  which  it  formerly  enjoyed  in 
common  with  Tunis,  and  has  become  a vilayet  or  out- 
lying province  of  the  Turkish  empire.  For  adminis- 
trative purposes  it  is  divided  into  five  districts,  which 
are  again  subdivided  into  twenty-five  cantons,  the 
former  being  governed  by  motasarrifs  and  the  latter  by 
caimacams.  Each  village  has  its  sheikh,  who  is  assisted 
by  a sort  of  municipal  council.  Since  the  invasion  of 
Tunis  by  the  French,  the  Turkish  garrison  of  Tripoli 
has  been  considerably  reinforced,  and  many  new  fortifi- 
cations are  partially  erected  on  the  coast.  The  chief 
judge  or  cadi  is  nominated  by  the  Pcrte;  the  muftis 
are  subject  to  his  authority.  There  are  also  a criminal 
court  and  a commercial  tribunal.  The  taxes  are  col- 
lected by  a receiver-general,  also  nominated  from  Con- 
stantinople, and  they  press  very  heavily  on  all  classes 
of  the  inhabitants.  The  principal  sources  of  revenue 
are  the  usual  Mohammedan  taxes.  The  constant  suc- 
cession of  Turkish  governors,  each  of  whom  invariably 
follows  a different  policy  from  that  of  his  predecessor, 
has  been  fatal  to  the  material  progress  of  the  country. 
There  are  few  elementary  schools  in  the  capital,  and  in- 
struction in  the  interior  is  entirely  limited  to  the  Koran. 

Tripoli,  the  capital  of  the  above  country,  is 
situated  in  320  53'  40"  N.  latitude  and  130  n'  32"  E. 
longitude,  on  a promontory  stretching  out  into  the 
Mediterranean  and  forming  a small  bay.  The  streets 
are  narrow,  dirty,  and  unpaved;  there  is  no  European 
quarter  properly  so  called:  Tripoli  is  still  a typical 
Moorish  city.  Its  population  numbers  about  20,000. 
TRIPOLI  LTardbuius ),  a town  of  Syria* capital  of 


Liwa,  on  the  river  Kadisha  or  Abu  ‘All,  in  340  26'  N 
latitude  and  350  50'  E.  longitude,  is  situated  in  a.  fertile 
maritime  plain  covered  with  orchards  and  dominated  by 
a castle  overhanging  a gorge  of  the  river,  some  parts  of 
which  are,  perhaps,  the  work  of  the  crusaders.  The 
port  (Al-Mind)  is  about  two  miles  distant,  on  a small 
peninsula.  The  population  is  estimated  at  17,000,  with 
the  port  at  24,000  or  a little  more. 

TRIPOLITZA,  officially  Tripolis,  a town  of  Greece, 
capital  of  the  nomarchy  of  Arcadia,  is  situated  in  a plain 
3,000  feet  above  sea- level,  twenty-two  miles  southwest  of 
Argos.  The  name  has  reference  to  the  three  ancient 
cities  of  Mantinea,  Pallantium,  and  Tegea,  of  which 
Tripolitza  is  the  modern  representative.  Before  the 
war  of  independence  it  was  the  capital  of  the  Morea 
and  the  seat  of  a pasha,  with  about  20,000  inhabitants; 
but  in  1821  it  was  taken  and  sacked  by  the  insurgents, 
and  m 1821;  its  ruin  was  completed  by  Ibrahim  Pasha. 
The  town  has  since  been  rebuilt,  and  in  1900  con- 
tained about  12,000  inhabitants. 

TRISMEGISTUS.  See  Hermes  Trismegistus. 

TRISTAN.  A hero  of  Arthurian  romance. 

TRISTAN  DA  CUNHA,  a group  of  three  small 
volcanic  islands,  situated  in  the  South  Atlantic  nearly 
midway  between  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  coast 
of  South  America,  the  summit  of  the  largest  being  in 
37°  5*  5°,;  S.  latitude  and  120  16'  40"  W.  longitude. 
They  rise  from  the  low  submarine  elevation  which  runs 
down  the  center  of  the  Atlantic  and  on  which  are  like- 
wise situated  Ascension,  St.  Paul’s  Rocks,  and  the 
Azores.  The  prevailing  winds  are  westerly.  December 
to  March  is  the  fine  season.  The  climate  is  mild  and 
on  the  whole  healthy,  the  temperature  averaging  68° 
Fahr.  in  summer,  550  in  winter — sometimes  falling  to 
40°.  Rain  is  frequent ; hail  and  snow  fall  occasionally 
on  the  lower  grounds.  The  sky  is  usually  cloudy. 
The  islands  have  a cold  and  barren  appearance.  The 
tide  rises  and  falls  about  four  feet. 

The  islands  were  discovered  and  named  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  1506.  The  Dutch  described  them  in  1643. 
D’Etcheverri  landed  on  them  in  the  year  1 767,  when  he 
gave  Nightingale  and  Inaccessible  Islands  their  names. 
Their  exact  geographical  position  was  determined  by 
Captain  Denham  in  1852,  and  the  Challenger  com- 
pleted the  exploration  of  the  group  in  1873.  When 
first  discovered  the  islands  were  uninhabited.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  several  sealers  resided  on  them  for 
longer  or  shorter  periods.  In  1816  the  islands  were 
taken  possession  of  by  Great  Britain.  In  1817  the  gar- 
rison was  withdrawn,  but  Corporal  William  Glass,  his 
wife  and  family,  and  two  men  were  allowed  to  remain. 
This  small  colony  received  additions  from  time  to  time 
from  shipwrecks,  from  whalers,  and  from  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  In  1826  there  were  seven  men  and  two 
women  besides  children.  In  1873  there  were  eighty- 
four  inhabitants,  in  1886  ninety-seven.  They  possess 
cattle,  sheep,  and  geese.  There  are  usually  good  potato 
crops.  The  settlement  has  always  been  on  the  flat 
stretch  of  land  on  the  northwest  of  Tristan,  and  is 
called  Edinburgh.  Two  Germans  lived  for  several 
years  on  Inaccessible  Island,  but  with  this  exception 
there  have  been  no  settlements  either  on  this  or  on 
Nightingale  Island. 

TRITON.  The  genus  Triton  was  constituted  by 
Laurenti,  in  his  Synopsis  Reptilium,  and  the  name  was 
adopted  by  nearly  all  writers  on  Amphibia.  In  Brit. 
Mus.  Cat.:  Batrachia  Gradientia,  by  G.  A.  Boulenger, 
the  genus  is  expanded  and  called  by  the  name  Molge . 
which  was  used  by  Merrem  in  his  Tentamen  Syst. 
Amphibia , 1820.  The  genus  belongs  to  the  division 

fecodanta  of  the  family  Saiamandrida  in  Strauchh 


TRI. 

classification  (see  Amphibia).  The  definition  of  Molge 
given  by  Boulenger,  which  closely  agrees  with  that  of 
Triton  adopted  by  Strauch,  is  as  follows:  Tongue  free 
along  the  sides,  adherent  or  somewhat  free  posteriorly. 
Palatine  teeth  in  two  straight  or  slightly  curved  series. 
Fronto-squamosalarch  present  (except  in  M.  cr  is  tat  us), 
ligamentous  or  bony.  Toes  five.  Tail  compressed.  In 
Bell’s  British  Reptiles , four  species  were  described  as  oc- 
curring in  Britain.  According  to  Boulenger,  there  are 
only  three  British  species,  Molge  cristata,  Boul.  (Lau- 
renti),  M.  vulgaris , Boul.  (Linn.),  and  M.  palmata , 
Boul.  (Schneider). 

Boulenger  recognizes  nineteen  species  of  Molge,  of 
which  thirteen  are  European.  Only  two  species  occur 
in  America.  Strauch  gives  twenty  species. 

TRIUMPH,  an  honor  awarded  to  generals  in  ancient 
Rome  for  decisive  victories  over  foreign  enemies;  for 
victories  in  civil  war  or  over  rebels  a triumph  was  not 
allowed.  The  triumph  consisted  of  a solemn  procession, 
which,  starting,  from  the  Campus  Martius  outside  the 
city  walls,  passed  through  the  city  to  the  Capitol. 
Rome  was  en  fete,  the  streets  gay  with  garlands,  the 
temples  open.  The  procession  was  headed  by  the  mag- 
istrates and  senate,  who  were  followed  by  trumpeters  and 
then  by  the  spoils,  which  included  not  only  arms,  stand- 
ards, statues,  etc.,  but  also  representations  of  battles, 
and  of  the  towns,  rivers,  and  mountains  of  the  conquered 
country,  models  of  fortresses,  etc.  Next  came  the  vic- 
tims destined  for  sacrifice,  especially  white  oxen  with 
gilded  horns.  They  were  followed  by  the  prisoners  who 
n ad  not  been  sold  as  slaves  but  kept  to  grace  the  triumph; 
they  were  put  to  death  when  the  procession  reached  the 
Capitol.  The  chariot  which  carried  the  victorious  gen- 
eral (triumphator)  was  crowned  with  laurel  and  drawn 
by  four  horses.  The  general  was  attired  like  the  Cap- 
itoline  Jupiter  in  robes  of  purple  and  gold  borrowed 
from  the  treasury  of  the  god;  in  his  right  hand  he  held 
a laurel  branch,  in  his  left  an  ivory  scepter  with  an  eagle 
at  the  point.  Above  his  head  the  golden  crown  of  Jup- 
iter was  held  by  a slave  who  reminded  him  in  the  midst 
of  his  glory  that  he  was  a mortal  man.  Last  came  the 
soldiers  shouting  Io  triumphe  and  singing  songs  both  of 
a laudatory  and  scurillous  kind.  On  reaching  the  tem- 
ple of  Jupiter  on  the  Capitol,  the  general  placed  the 
laurel  branch  (in  later  times  a palm  branch)  on  the  lap 
of  the  image  of  the  god,  and  then  offered  the  thank 
offerings.  A feast  of  the  magistrates  and  senate,  and 
sometimes  of  the  soldiers  and  people,  concluded  the 
ceremony. 

TRIUMVIRATE,  in  Latin,  “composed  of  three,” 
the  name  given  in  Roman  history  to  the  private  league 
entered  into  between  Pompey,  Crassus  and  Caesar.  It 
is  applied  with  greater  accuracy  to  the  division  of  the 
Roman  Government  between  Augustus,  Mark  Antony, 
and  Lepidus  in  the  civil  wars  that  followed  the  murder 
of  Caesar. 

TRIVANDRUM,  a town  of  India,  capital  of  the 
native  state  of  Travancore  (q.v.),  is  situated  in  8°  if 
3"  N.  latitude  and  76°  59'  9"  E.  longitude,  near  the 
coast,  not  far  from  Cape  Comorin.  It  is  the  residence 
of  the  maharajah,  and  contains  an  observatory  and  a 
museum,  besides  several  other  fine  buildings.  Com- 
mercially it  is  inferior  in  importance  to  Aleppi,  the 
trade  center  of  the  state.  In  1901  it  had  a population  of 
40,652. 

TKOAD  and  TROY.  The  Troad  [fj  TpyaS),  or 
land  of  Troy,  is  the  northwestern  promontory  of  Asia 
Minor.  The  name  “Troad”  is  never  used  by  Homer 
—who  calls  the  land,  like  the  city,  Tpoirj — but  is 
known  to  Herodotus.  The  Troad  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Hellespont  and  the  westernmost  part  of 
the  Propontis,  on  the  west  by  the  Ege an  Sea,  and  on 


-TRO  5925 

the  south  by  the  Gulf  of  Adramyttium.  The  eastern 
limit  was  variously  defined  by  ancient  writers.  In  the 
widest  acceptation,  the  Troad  was  identified  with  the 
whole  of  western  and  southwestern  Mysia,  from  the 
Esepus,  which  flows  into  the  Propontis  a little  west  of 
Cyzicus,  to  the  Caicus,  which  flows  into  the  E gean 
south  of  Atarneus.  But  the  true  eastern  boundary  is 
undoubtedly  the  range  of  Ida,  which,  starting  from  near 
the  southeast  angle  of  the  Adramyttian  Gulf,  sends  its 
northwestern  spurs  nearly  to  the  coast  of  the  Propontis, 
in  the  region  west  of  the  Esepus  and  east  of  the  Grani- 
cus.  Taking  Ida  for  the  eastern  limit,  we  have  the 
definition  which,  as  Strabo  says,  best  corresponds  with 
the  actual  usage  of  the  name  Troad.  Ida  is  the  key  tc 
the  physical  geography  of  the  whole  region;  and  it  ii 
the  peculiar  character  which  this  mountain-system  im- 
parts to  the  land  west  of  it  that  constitutes  the  real  dis- 
tinctness of  the  Troad  from  the  rest  of  Mysia. 

In  the  Homeric  legend,  with  which  the  story  of  the 
Troad  begins,  the  people  called  the  Troes  are  ruled  by 
a king  Priam,  whose  realm  includes  all  that  is  bounded 
by  “Lesbos,  Phrygia,  and  the  Hellespont”  (II.,  xxiv. 
544),  i.e.y  the  whole  “ Troad,”  with  some  extension  of 
it,  beyond  Ida,  on  the  northwest.  According  to  H omer, 
the  Achseans  under  Agamemnon  utterly  and  finally  de- 
stroyed Troy,  the  capital  of  Priam,  and  overthrew  his 
dynasty. 

A new  period  in  the  history  of  the  Troad  begins  with 
the  foundation  of  the  Greek  settlements.  The  earliest 
and  most  important  of  these  were  Eolic.  Lesbos  and 
Cyme  in  Eolis  seem  to  have  been  the  chief  points  from 
which  the  first  Eolic  colonists  worked  then:  way  into 
the  Troad. 

Among  the  Greek  towns  in  the  Troad,  three  stand 
out  with  especial#prominence — Ilium  in  the  north,  Assus 
in  the  south,  and*  Alexandria  Troas  in  the  west.  The 
site  of  the  Greek  Ilium  is  marked  by  the  low  mound  of 
Hissarlik  (“  place  of  fortresses”)  in  the  Trojan  plain, 
about  three  miles  from  the  Hellespont.  The  early  Greek 
settlers  in  the  Troad  naturally  loved  to  take  Homeric 
names  for  their  towns.  The  fact  that  Homer  places 
the  town  of  Dardania  far  inland  on  the  slopes  of  Ida, 
did  not  hinder  the  founders  of  the  Eolic  Dardanus 
from  giving  that  name  to  their  town  on  the  shores  of  the 
Hellespont.  The  site  of  the  historical  Thymbra,  again, 
cannot  be  reconciled  withthat^of  the  Homeric  Thymbra. 
Similarly,  the  choice  of  the  name  Ilion  in  no  way  justi- 
fies the  assumption  that  the  Greek  settlers  found  that 
spot  identified  by  tradition  with  the  site  of  the  town 
which  Homer  calls  Uios.  It  does  not  even  warrant  the 
hypothesis  that  they  found  a shrine  of  Athene  Ilias  ex* 
isting  there.  For  them,  it  would  be  enough  that  the 
sounding  name  could  be  safely  appropriated — the  true 
site  of  Homeric  Ilias  being  forgotten  or  disputed — and 
that  their  town  was  at  least  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Homeric  battlefields.  The  Greek  Ilium  may  have  been 
founded  about  700  B.C.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sec* 
ond  century  B.C.  Ilium  was  in  a state  of  decay.  As 
Demetrius  of  Scepsis  tells  us,  the  houses  “ had  not  even 
roofs  of  tiles,”  but  merely  of  thatch.  Such  a loss  of 
prosperity  is  sufficiently  explained  by  the  incursions  ol 
the  Gauls  and  the  insecure  state  of  the  Troad  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  third  century.  The  temple  of  the 
Ilian  Athene,  however,  retained  its  prestige.  A disas- 
ter befell  the  place  in  85  B.C.,  when  Fimbria  took  it,  and 
left  it  in  ruins;  but  Sulla  caused  it  to  be  rebuilt. 
Augustus,  while  confirming  its  ancient  privileges,  gave 
it  new  territory.  Caracalla  (211-217  A.D. ) visited  Ilium, 
and  like  Alexander  paid  honors  to  the  tomb  of  Achilles. 
The  latest  coins  found  on  the  site  are  those  of  Constan- 
tius  II.  (337-361).  In  the  fourth  century,  as  some 
rhetorical  “Letters”  of  that  age  show,  the  Ilians  still 


TRO 


5926 

did  a profitable  trade  in  attracting  tourists  by  their 
pseudo-Trojan  memorials.  After  the  fourth  century 
the  place  is  lost  to  view.  But  we  find  from  Constantine 
Porphyrogenitus  (91 1-959)  that  in  his  day  it  was  one  of 
the  places  in  the  Troad  which  gave  names  to  bishoprics. 

While  the  Greek  Ilium  at  Hissarlik  owed  its  im- 
portance to  a sham  pretension,  which  amused  sight- 
seers and  occasionally  served  politicians,  Assus,  on  the 
south  coast,  has  an  interest  of  a more  genuine  kind,  and 
is,  indeed,  a better  type  of  ancient  town  life  in  the 
Troad.  Assus  affords  the  only  harbor  on  the  fifty 
miles  of  coast  between  Cape  Lectum  and  the  east  end 
of  the  Adramyttian  Gulf;  hence  it  must  always  have 
been  the  chief  shipping  place  for  the  exports  of  the 
southern  Troad.  Too  much  off  the  highways  to  become 
a center  of  import  trade,  it  was  thus  destined  to  be  a 
commercial  town,  content  with  a modest  provincial  pros- 
perity. The  great  natural  strength  of  the  site  protected 
it  against  petty  assailants;  but,  like  other  towns  in  that 
region,  it  has  known  many  masters — Lydians,  Persians, 
the  kings  of  Pergamum,  Romans,  and  Ottoman  Turks. 
From  the  Persian  wars  to  about  350  B.C.  Assus  enjoyed 
at  least  partial  independence.  Under  its  Turkish  name 
of  Beihram,  Assus  is  still  the  commercial  port  of  the 
southern  Troad,  being  the  place  to  which  loads  of 
valonia  (acorn-cups  for  tanning)  are  conveyed  by  camels 
from  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  recent  excavations 
at  Assus,  conducted  by  explorers  representing  the 
Archaeological  Institute  of  America,  have  yielded  results 
far  more  valuable  for  the  history  of  Greek  art  and  archi- 
tecture than  any  excavations  yet  undertaken  in  the 
Troad.  The  sculptures  form  one  of  the  most  important 
links  yet  discovered  between  Oriental  and  early  Greek  art, 
especially  in  respect  of  the  types  of  animals.  Alexan- 
dria Troas  stood  on  the  west  coast  at  nearly  its  middle 
point,  a little  south  of  Tenedos.  It  was  built  by 
Antigonus,  perhaps  about  310  B.c.,andwas  called  by 
him  Antigonia  Troas.  Early  in  the  next  century  the 
name  was  changed  by  Lysimachus  to  Alexandria  Troas, 
in  honor  of  Alexander’s  memory.  As  the  chief  port  of 
northwest  Asia  Minor,  the  place  prospered  greatly  in 
Roman  times,  and  the  existing  remains  sufficiently 
attest  its  former  importance.  The  site  is  now  called 
Eski  Stambub. 

The  modern  discussion  as  to  the  site  of  Homeric 
Troy  maybe  considered  as  dating  from  Lechevalier’s 
visits  to  the  Troad  in  1785-86.  Homer  describes  Troy 
as  “a  great  town,”  “with  broad  streets,”  and  with  a 
high  acropolis,  or  “Pergamus,”  rising  above  it,  from 
which  precipitous  rocks  descend  abruptly  to  the  plain 
beneath.  These  are  the  precipices  over  which  the 
Trojans  proposed  to  hurl  the  wooden  horse,  “ when 
they  had  dragged  it  to  the  summit.”  Homer  marks 
the  character  of  the  acropolis  by  the  epithets  “lofty,” 
“windy,”  and  more  forcibly  still  by  “beetling.”  One 
site  in  the  Trojan  plain,  and  one  only  satisfies  this  most 
essential  condition.  It  is  the  hill  at  its  southern  edge 
called  the  Bali  Dagh,  above  the  village  of  Bunarbashi. 
It  has  a height  of  about  400  feet,  with  sheer  precipices 
descending  on  the  south  and  southwest  to  the  valley  of 
the  Scamander  (Mendere).  Remains  found  upon  it — 
though  it  has  never  yet  been  thoroughly  explored— 
show  it  to  have  been  the  site  of  an  ancient  city. 

The  result  of  the  excavations  conducted  by  Doctor 
Schliemann  on  the  mound  of  Hissarlik  has  been  to  lay 
bare  the  remains  of  the  Greek  Ilium,  and  also,  below 
these,  some  prehistoric  remains  of  a rude  and  poor  kind. 
In  Troy , his  first  book  on  the  subject,  the  explorer  held 
that  the  remains  of  the  Greek  Ilium  ceased  at  a depth  of 
six  feet  below  the  surface,  and  that  all  the  other  remains, 
down  to  fifty-two  and  one-half  feet,  were  prehistoric. 
He  distinguished  the  latter  into  five  groups,  represent- 


ing five  prehistoric  “ cities  ” which  had  succeeded  each 
other  on  the  site ; and  in  his  second  work,  II ios , he 
added  to  these  a sixth  prehistoric  city,  on  the  strength 
of  some  scanty  vestiges  of  supposed  Lydian  workman- 
ship, found  at  a depth  of  six  and  one-half  feet.  In 
both  books,  Homeric  Troy  was  identified  with  the  third 
prehistoric  city  from  the  bottom,  which  was  supposed 
to  have  been  destroyed,  though  not  totally,  by  fire.  In 
Doctor  Schliemann’s  third  volume,  Troja , Troy  was 
identified,  no  longer  with  the  third  city,  but  with  the 
second,  of  which  the  supposed  area  was  now  enlarged. 

We  can  no  longer  either  prove  or  disprove  that  these 
prehistoric  remains  are  those  of  a town  which  was  once 
taken  after  a siege,  and  which  originally  gave  rise  to  the 
legend  of  Troy.  But  most  certainly  it  is  not  the  “ lofty  ” 
Troy  of  which  the  Homeric  poet  was  thinking  when  he 
embodied  the  legend  in  the  Iliad.  The  conception  of 
Troy  which  dominates  the  Iliad  is  based  on  the  site  at 
Bunarbashi,  and  suits  no  other.  The  Iliad  makes  it 
clear  that  the  general  description  of  the  Trojan  plain 
was  founded  on  accurate  knowledge.  At  this  day  all  the 
essential  Homeric  features  can  be  recognized.  And  it 
is  probable  that  the  poet  who  created  the  Troy  of  the 
Iliad  knew,  personally  or  by  description,  a strong  town 
on  the  Bali  Dagh  above  Bunarbashi.  The  legend  of 
the  siege  may  or  may  not  have  arisen  from  an  older 
town  at  Hissarlik,  which  had  then  disappeared.  The 
poet  might  naturally  place  his  Troy  in  a position  like 
that  of  the  existing  strong  city  on  the  Bali  Dagh,  giving 
it  a “ beetling  ” acropolis  and  handsome  buildings,  while 
he  also  reproduced  the  general  course  of  the  rivers  and 
that  striking  feature — an  indelible  mark  of  the  locality— 
the  natural  springs  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  just  beyond 
the  city  gates  on  the  northwest.  But,  while  he  thus 
imagined  his  Troy  in  the  general  likeness  of  the  town  on 
the  Bali  Dagh,  he  would  retain  the  privilege  of  a poet 
who  was  adorning  an  ancient  legend,  and  whose  theme 
was  a city  that  had  long  ago  vanished.  Instead  of  feel- 
ing bound  to  observe  a rigorous  accuracy  of  local  detail, 
he  would  rather  feel  impelled  to  avoid  it ; he  would  use 
his  liberty  to  introduce  some  traits  borrowed  from  other 
scenes  known  to  him,  or  even  from  imagination. 

TROGLODYTES  {rpooWodvrai)  a Greek  word 
meaning  “cave-dwellers.”  Caves  have  been  widely 
used  as  human  habitations  both  in  prehistoric  and  in 
historic  times  (see  Cave),  and  ancient  writers  speak  of 
Troglodytes  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  as  in  Moesia 
near  the  lower  Danube  (Strabo,  vii.  5,  p.  318),  in  the 
Caucasus  (Id.,  xi.  5,  p.  506),  but  especially  in  various 
parts  of  Africa  from  Libya  (Id.,  xvii.  3,  p.  828)  to  the 
Red  Sea.  Herodotus  (iv.  183)  tells  of  a race  of 
Troglodyte  Ethiopians  in  inner  Africa,  very  swift  of 
foot,  living  on  lizards  and  creeping  things,  and  with  a 
speech  like  the  screech  of  an  owl.  The  Garamantes 
hunted  them  for  slaves.  It  has  been  supposed  that 
these  Troglodytes  may  be  Tibbus,  who  still  in  part  are 
cave-dwellers.  Aristotle  also  {Hist.  An. , vii.  12)  speaks 
of  a dwarfish  race  of  Troglodytes  on  the  upper  course 
of  the  Nile,  who  possessed  horses  and  were  in  his 
opinion  the  Pygmies  of  fable.  But  the  best  known  of 
these  African  cave-dwellers  were  the  inhabitants  of 
the  “Troglodyte  country”  on  the  coast  of  the  Red 
Sea,  who  reached  as  far  north  as  the  Greek  port  of 
Berenice. 

TROGON,  a word  apparently  first  used  as  English 
by  Shaw  {Mus.  Leverianum , p.  177)  in  1792,  and  now 
for  many  years  accepted  as  the  general  name  of  certaiii 
birds  forming  the  Family  Trogonidce  of  modern  omi 
thology,  the  species  Trogon  curucui  of  Linnaeus  being 
its  type. 

The  Trogons  are  birds  of  moderate  size*  the  smallest 
| ie  hardly  bigger  than  a Thrush  and  the  largest  less 


TRO 


bulky  than  a Crow,  in  most  of  them  the  bill  is  very 

■wide  at  the  gape,  which  is  invariably  beset  by  recurvea 
bristles.  They  seize  most  of  their  food,  whether  cater- 
pillars or  fruits,  on  the  wing,  though  their  alar  power 
is  not  exceptionally  great,  their  flight  being  described 
as  short,  rapid,  and  spasmodic.  Their  feet  are  weak  and 
of  a unique  structure,  the  second  toe,  which  in  most 
birds  is  the  inner  anterior  one,  being  reverted,  and  thus 
the  Trogons  stand  alone,  since  in  all  other  birds  that 
have  two  toes  before  and  two  behind  it  is  the  outer  toe 
that  is  turned  backward.  The  plumage  is  very  remark- 
able and  characteristic.  There  is  not  a species  which 
has  not  beauty  beyond  most  birds,  and  the  glory  of  the 
group  culminates  in  the  Quezal,  (q.v. ) But  in  others 
golden  green  and  steely  blue,  rich  crimson  and  tender 
pink,  yellow  varying  from  primrose  to  amber,  vie  with 
one  another  in  vivid  coloration,  or  contrasted,  as  hap- 
pens in  many  species,  with  a warm  tawny  or  a somber 
slaty  gray — to  say  nothing  of  the  delicate  freckling  of 
black  and  white,  as  minute  as  the  markings  of  a moth’s 
wing — the  whole  set  off  by  bands  of  white,  producing 
an  effect  hardly  equaled  in  any  group.  It  rs  impossible 
within  brief  space  to  describe  its  glowing  tints;  but  the 
plumage  is  further  remarkable  for  the  large  size  of  its 
contour  feathers,  which  are  extremely  soft  and  so  loosely 
seated  as  to  come  off  in  scores  at  a touch,  and  there  is 
no  down.  The  tail  is  generally  a very  characteristic 
feature,  the  rectrices,  though  in  some  cases  pointed, 
being  often  curiously  squared  at  the  tip,  and  when  this 
is  the  case  they  are  usually  barred  ladder-like  with  white 
and  black. 

The  Trogons  form  a very  well-marked  Family,  be- 
longing to  the  multifarious  group  treated  in  the  present 
series  of  articles  as  Picarice.  While  they  chiefly  abound, 
and  have  developed  their  climax  of  magnificence,  in  the 
tropical  parts  of  the  New  World,  they  yet  occur  in  the 
tropical  parts  of  the  Old.  About  sixty  species  of 
Trogons  are  recognized,  which  Gould  in  the  second 
edition  of  his  Monograph  of  the  Family  (1875)  divides 
into  seven  genera ; but  their  characters  are  hardly  laid 
down.  Pharomacrus , Euptilotis , and  Trogon  inhabit 
the  mainland  of  tropical  America,  no  species  passing  to 
the  northward  of  the  Rio  Grande  nor  southward  of 
the  forest  district  of  Brazil,  while  none  occur  on  the 
west  coast  of  Peru  or  Chili.  Prionotelus  and  Tmeto - 
irogon.  each  with  one  species,  are  peculiar  respectively 
to  Cuba  and  Hispaniola,  The  African  form  Hapalo - 
derma  has  two  species,  one  found  only  on  the  west 
coast,  the  other  of  more  general  range.  The  Asiatic 
Trogons,  Harpactes  (with  eleven  species  according  to 
the  same  authority),  occur  from  Nepal  to  Malacca,  in 
Ceylon,  and  in  Sumatra,  Java,  and  Borneo,  while  one 
species  is  peculiar  to  some  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 

TROGUS,  Cn.  Pompeius,  a Roman  historian, 
nearly  contemporary  with  Livy.  Although  the  epitome 
of  his  historical  writings  by  Justin,  and  a few  fragments, 
are  all  that  have  come  down  to  us,  there  is  abundant 
reason  to  believe  that  he  deserves  a place  in  the  history 
©f  Roman  literature  by  the  side  of  Sallust,  Livy,  and 
Tacitus.  Of  his  life  little  is  known.  He  was  almost 
certainly  of  Greek  descent.  He  wrote,  after  Aristotle 
and  Theophrastus,  books  on  the  natural  history  of 
animals  and  plants,  used  by  the  elder  Pliny,  who  calls 
Trogus  “one  of  the  most  precise  among  authorities” 
(1 auctor  ipse  e sever  is simis).  But  the  principal  work  of 
Trogus  consisted  of  forty-four  Libri  Historiarum 
Philippicamm.  This  was  a great  history  of  the  world, 
or  rather  of  those  portions  of  it  which  came  under  the 
sway  of  Alexander  and  his  successors.  For  the  ancient 
history  of  the  East,  Trogus,  even  in  the  present  muti- 
lated state  of  his  historical  work,  often  proves  to  be  an 
authority  of  great  importance. 


5927 

TROITSK,  a dbtrict  town  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Orenburg,  situated  in  a fertile  steppe  392  miles 
to  the  northeast  of  Orenburg,  on  the  Siberian  highway, 
is  one  of  those  towns  which  have  grown  rapidly  of  late 
in  the  southeast  of  Russia.  Cotton,  silk,  and  especially 
horses  and  cattle,  are  imported,  while  leather,  cotton, 
and  woolen  and  metal  wares  are  exported.  An  active 
trade  in  corn  for  the  L ral  gold  mines  is  carried  on. 
The  population  in  1898  was  15,000. 

TROLLOPE,  Anthony,  English  novelist,  was 
born  in  Keppel  street,  Russell  square,  London,  accord- 
ing to  most  authorities,  on  April  24,  1815;  in  his  own 
Autobiography  he  merely  gives  the  year.  Trollope’s 
mother,  Frances  Milton,  according  to  her  son,  was 
nearly  thirty  when  she  married,  in  1809.  By  her  hus- 
band’s wish,  she  made  a strange  journey  to  America 
in  1827,  for  the  purpose  of  setting  up  a kind  of  fancy 
shop  in  Cincinnati,  which  failed  utterly.  Her  visit, 
however,  furnished  her  with  the  means  of  writing  The 
Domestic  Planners  of  the  Americans.  For  some  time 
Mrs.  Trollope  wrote  chiefly  travels;  but  she  soon  be- 
came known  as  a novelist,  and  was  very  industrious. 
Her  novels,  the  best  of  which  are  probably  The  Vicar 
of  Wrexhill  and  The  Widow  Barnaby , are  now  rarely 
read. 

Anthony  Trollope  was  the  third  son.  By  his  own 
account,  few  Englishmen  of  letters  have  had  an  unhap- 
pier  childhood  and  youth.  In  August,  1841,  he  ob- 
tained the  appointment  of  clerk  to  one  of  the  post-office 
surveyors  in  a remote  part  of  Ireland. 

Trollope  had  always  dreamt  of  novel-writing,  and  his 
Irish  experiences  seemed  to  supply  him  with  promising 
subjects.  With  some  assistance  from  his  mother  he  got 
his  first  two  books,  The  Macdermots  of  Ballycloran 
and  The  Kellys  and  the  O'  Kellys,  published,  the  one  in 
1847,  the  other  the  next  year.  But  neither  was  in  the 
least  a success,  though  the  second,  perhaps,  deserved  to 
be;  and  a third,  La  Vende'e , which  followed  in  1850, 
besides  being  a much  worse  book  than  either,  was  an 
equal  failure.  Trollope  made  various  other  literary 
attempts,  but  for  a time  ill-fortune  attended  all  of  them. 
Meanwhile  he  was  set  on  anew  kind  of  post-office  work, 
which  suited  him  even  better  than  his  former  employ- 
ment— a sort  of  roving  commission  to  inspect  rural  post 
deliveries  and  devise  their  extension,  first  in  Ireland, 
then  throughout  the  west  of  England  and  South  Wales. 
It  was  during  this  work  that  he  struck  the  vein  which 
gave  him  fortune  and  fame — which  might  perhaps  have 
given  him  more  fame  and  not  much  less  fortune  if  he 
had  not  worked  it  so  hard — by  conceiving  The  Warden. 
This  was  published  in  1855.  It  brought  him  little 
immediate  profit,  nor  was  even  Barchester  Towers , 
which  followed,  very  profitable,  though  it  contains  his 
freshest,  his  most  original,  and,  with  the  exception  of 
The  Last  Chronicle  of  Barset,  his  best  work.  The  two 
made  him  a reputation,  however,  and,  in  1858,  he  was 
able,  for  the  first  time,  to  sell  a novel,  The  Three  Clerks , 
for  a substantial  sum,  £250  ($1,250).  A journey  on 
post-office  business  to  the  West  Indies  gave  him  material 
for  a book  of  travel,  The  West  Indies  and  the  Spanish 
Main , which  he  frankly  and  quite  truly  acknowledges 
to  be  much  better  than  some  subsequent  work  of  his  in 
the  same  kind.  From  this  time  his  production  (mainly 
of  novels)  was  incessant,  and  the  sums  which  he  received 
were  very  large,  amounting  to  nearly  £70,000  ($350,000) 
in  the  twenty  years  between  1859  ar>d  I^79-  All  these 
particulars  are  given  with  great  minuteness  by  himself, 
and  are  characteristic.  The  full  high  tide  of  his  fortunes 
began  when  the  Cornhill  Magazine  was  established  in 
the  autumn  of  1859.  He  was  asked  at  short  notice  to 
write  a novel,  and  wrote  Ft;amley  Parsonage,  which  was 
extremefy  popular ; two  hovels  immediately  preceding 


TRO 


5928 


it,  The  Bertrams  and  Castle  Richmond , had  been  much 
less  successful. 

A life  thus  spent  could  not  be  very  eventful,  and  its 
events  maybe  summed  up  rapidly.  In  1858  he  went  to 
Egypt  also  on  post-office  business,  and,  at  the  end  of 
1859,  he  got  himself  transferred  from  Ireland  to  the 
eastern  district  of  England.  Here  he  took  a house  at 
Waltham.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  establishment 
of  The  Fortnightly  Review  in  1865 ; he  was  editor  of 
St.  Paul's  for  some  time  after  1867;  and,  at  the  end  of 
that  year,  he  resigned  his  position  in  the  post-office. 
He  stood  for  Beverley  and  was  defeated;  he  received 
from  his  old  department  special  missions  to  America  and 
elsewhere  (he  had  already  gone  to  America  in  the  midst 
of  the  Civil  Waf).  He  went  to  Australia  in  1871,  and, 
before  going,  broke  up  his  household  at  Waltham. 
When  he  returned  he  established  himself  in  London, 
and  lived  there  till  1880,  when  he  removed  to  Harting 
on  the  confines  of  Sussex  and  Hampshire.  He  had 
visited  South  Africa  in  1877,  and  traveled  elsewhere. 
On  November  3,  1882,  he  was  seized  with  paralysis, 
and  died  on  December  6th. 

TROLLOPE,  Mrs.  Frances,  born  in  England 
in  1780,  the  daughter  of  a clergyman  was  married  in 
1809  to  Mr.  Anthony  Trollope,  barrister.  In  1827  she 
came  to  the  United  States  and  remained  here  for  three 
years,  and  on  her  return  to  England  she  published  a 
book  called  Domestic  Life  of  the  Americans , charac- 
terized by  its  superficiality  and  ill  temper.  She  also 
wrote  The  Widow  Barnaby , and  its  sequel,  The 
Widow  Married,  which  books  were  somewhat  popular 
in  their  day.  Mrs.  Trollope  was  the  mother  of  Thomas 
Adolphus,  the  well  known  author,  and  Anthony 
Trollope  (<?.v.), still  better  known  as  a novelist. 

TROLLOPE,  Thomas  Adolphus,  born  in  England, 
April  29,  1810,  was  the  son  of  Mrs.  Trollope,  the 
authoress,  and  brother  of  Anthony  Trollope,  ( q.v .) 
He  was  educated  at  Winchester  and  Oxford,  and  in 
1841  settled  at  Florence,  Italy,  and  engaged  in  literature. 
He  wrote  a great  many  novels,  besides  A Summer  in 
Brittany , Story  of  the  Life  of  Pius  IX , and  other  works. 
He  died  November  11,  1892. 

TROMBONE,  a musical  instrument  of  brass.  It 
has  a cupped  mouthpiece,  and  is  formed  of  two  princi- 
pal parts — the  bell,  the  bore  of  which  gradually  widens, 
and  the  slide,  which  is  composed  of  two  cylindrical  tubes 
parallel  to  each  other,  upon  which  two  other  tubes, 
communicating  at  their  lower  extremities  by  a pipe 
curved  in  a half  circle,  glide  without  loss  of  air.  The 
mouthpiece  is  adapted  to  one  of  the  upper  ends  of  the 
slide  and  the  bell  to  the  other  end.  When  the  slide, 
which  is  moved  by  the  right  hand,  is  closed,  the  instru- 
ment is  at  its  highest  pitch;  the  note  is  lowered  in  pro- 
portion as  the  column  of  air  is  lengthened  by  drawing 
out  the  slide. 

Of  all  wind  instruments  the  trombone  has  perhaps 
been  least  modified  in  form;  changes  have  occasionally 
been  attempted,  but  for  the  most  part  with  only  trifling 
success.  The  innovation  which  has  had  the  most  vogue 
dates  from  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century;  it  con- 
sisted in  bending  the  tube  of  the  bell  in  a half  circle 
above  the  head  of  the  executant,  which  produced  a very 
bizarre  effect.  It  also  gave  rise  to  very  serious  incon- 
veniences: by  destroying  the  regularity  of  the  propor- 
tions of  the  bell  it  prejudicially  affected  the  quality  of 
tone  and  intonation  of  the  instrument.  For  a long 
time  the  curved  bell  with  its  serpent’s  mask  was  main- 
tained in  military  music,  and  it  is  only  about  twenty 
years  ago  that  it  was  completely  given  up.  By  giving  a 
half  turn  more  to  the  bell  tube  its  opening  was  directed 
to  the  back  of  the  executant;  but  this  form,  in  fashion  1 
for  a little  while  about  1830*  was  not  long  adhered  to,  [ 


and  the  trombone  reassumed  its  primitive  form,  which 

is  still  maintained. 

TROMP,  the  name  of  two  famous  Dutch  admirals, 

I.  Martin  Harpertzoon  Tromp  was  born  at 
Brielle,  South  Holland,  in  1597.  At  the  age  of  eight 
he  made  a voyage  to  the  East  Indies  in  a merchantman, 
but  was  made  prisoner  and  spent  several  years  on 
board  an  English  cruiser.  On  making  his  escape  to  Hol- 
land he  entered  the  navy  in  1624,  and  in  1637  was  made 
lieutenant-admiral.  In  February,  1639,  surprised, 
off  the  Flemish  coast  near  Gravelines,  a large  Spanish 
fleet,  which  he  completely  destroyed,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing September  he  defeated  the  combined  fleets  of  Spain 
and  Portugal  off  the  English  coast — achievements  which 
placed  him  in  the  first  rank  of  Dutch  naval  commanders. 
On  the  outbreak  of  war  with  England,  Tromp  appeared 
in  the  Downs  in  command  of  a large  fleet  and  anchored 
off  Dover.  Several  indecisive  engagements  followed. 
On  June  3d  he  fought  an  indecisive  battle  with  the 
English  fleet  under  Dean  in  the  Channel,  but  the  ar- 
rival of  reenforcements  under  Blake  on  the  following 
day  enabled  the  English  to  turn  the  scale  against  him 
and  he  retired  to  the  Texel  with  the  loss  of  seventeen 
ships.  Greatly  discouraged  by  the  results  of  the  battle, 
the  Dutch  sent  commissioners  to  Cromwell  to  treat 
for  peace,  but  the  proposal  was  so  coldly  received  that 
war  was  immediately  renewed,  Tromp  again  appearing 
in  the  Channel  toward  the  end  of  July,  1653.  In  the 
hotly-contested  conflict  which  followed  with  the  Eng- 
lish under  Monk  on  the  29th  Tromp  was  shot  by  a 
musket  bullet  through  the  heart.  He  was  buried  with 
great  pomp  at  Delft,  where  there  is  a monument  to  his 
memory  in  the  old  church. 

II.  Cornelius  Tromp,  the  second  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Rotterdam  on  September  9,  1629. 
At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  commanded  a small  squadron 
charged  to  pursue  the  Algerian  pirates.  In  1652  and 
1653  he  served  in  Van  Galen’s  fleet  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  after  the  action  with  the  English  fleet  off 
Leghorn,  March  13,  1653,  in  which  Van  Galen  was 
killed,  Tromp  was  promoted  to  be  rear-admiral.  On 
July  13,  1665,  his  squadron  was  by  a hard  stroke  of  ill 
fortune  defeated  by  the  English  under  the  duke  of 
York.  In  the  following  year  Tromp  served  under  De 
Ruyter,  and  on  account  of  De  Ruyter’s  complaints  of 
his  negligence  in  the  action  of  August  5th  he  was  de- 
prived of  his  command.  He  was,  however,  reinstated 
in  1673  by  the  stadtholder  William,  afterward  king  of 
England,  and  in  the  actions  of  June  7th  and  14th, 
against  the  allied  fleets  of  England  and  France,  mani- 
fested a skill  and  bravery  which  completely  justified  his 
reappointment.  In  1675  he  visited  England,  when 
Charles  II.  created  him  a baron.  In  the  following  year 
he  was  named  lieutenant-admiral  of  the  United  Prov- 
inces. He  died  at  Amsterdam,  May  29,  1691,  shortly 
after  he  had  been  appointed  to  the  command  of  a 
fleet  against  France.  Like  his  father  he  was  buried  at 
Delft. 

TROMSO,  a town  of  Norway,  capital  of  the  amt  of 
the  same  name  and  an  episcopal  see,  stands  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  a low  fertile  islet  of  the  same  name  be- 
tween Hvaloe  and  the  mainland,  in  69°  38'  N.  latitude 
and  180  55'  E.  longitude.  The  main  specialty  of  the 
place  is  bears'  skins  and  other  kinds  of  fur.  The  her- 
ring fishery  of  Tromso  is  very  productive,  and  the  activ- 
ity of  the  town  is  further  increased  by  the  circumstance 
that  it  is  the  port  of  call  for  ships  making  for  the  seal 
fishing  and  walrus  hunting  on  Spitzbergen  and  Nova 
Zembla.  Tromso  was  founded  in  1794.  The  popula- 
tion, which  in  1816  did  not  exceed  300,  was  5,809  in 
1898. 

TRONDHJEM.  See  Throndhjem. 


T R O 


TROPHY,  originally  a memorial  of  victory  erected 
on  the  scene  of  a battle.  The  Romans  did  not  erect 
trophies  but  decorated  the  buildings  of  Rome  with  the 
shields  and  spoils  of  the  vanquished. 

TROPICS,  two  parallels  of  latitude  on  the  terrestrial 
globe  passing  through  the  most  northerly  and  southerly 
points  on  the  earth’s  surface  at  which  the  sun  is  verti- 
cal. The  tropic  north  of  the  Equator  is  called  the 
tropic  of  Cancer,  and  the  south  one  the  tropic  of  Capri- 
corn. The  tropics  are  not  fixed  at  a uniform  distance 
from  the  Equator,  but  the  limits  of  variation  are  very 
narrow;  in  round  numbers  they  may  be  located  at  230 
30',  north  and  south  respectively. 

TROPIC-BIRD,  so  called  of  sailors  from  early 
times,  because,  as  Dampier,  among  many  others,  testi- 
fies, it  is  “never  seen  far  without  either  Tropick,”  and 
hence,  indulging  a pretty  fancy,  Linnaeus  bestowed  on 
it  the  generic  term,  continued  by  modern  writers,  of 
Phcethon , in  allusion  to  its  attempt  to  follow  the  path  of 
the  sun.  There  are  certainly  three  well-marked  species 
of  this  genus,  but  their  respective  geographical  ranges 
have  not  yet  been  definitely  laid  down.  All  of  them 
can  be  easily  known  by  their  totipalmate  condition,  in 
which  the  four  toes  of  each  foot  are  united  by  a web, 
and  by  the  great  length  of  the  two  middle  tail-quills, 
which  project  beyond  the  rest,  so  as  to  have  gained  for 
the  birds  the  names  of  “Rabijunco,”  “Paille-en-queue,”  ' 
and  “ Pijlstaart  ” among  mariners  of  different  nations. 
These  birds  fly  to  a great  distance  from  land,  and  seem 
lo  be  attracted  by  ships,  frequently  hovering  round  or 
even  settling  on  the  mast-head. 

TROPPAU  (Slavonic  Opava),  the  chief  town  of  Aus- 
trian Silesia,  is  a busy  commercial  place  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Oppa,  close  to  the  Prussian  border.  T roppau 
manufactures  large  quantities  of  cloth,  especially  for  the 
army  ; and  its  industrial  establishments  include  a large 
sugar-refinery  and  manufactories  of  machines  and  stoves. 
In  1900  the  population  was  23,562.  German  is  spoken 
in  the  town  proper,  but  a dialect  of  Polish  prevails  in 
the  suburbs. 

TROTZENDORFF,  or  Trocedorfius,  Valentin 
Friedland,  called  Trotzendorff  from  his  birthplace, 
near  Gorlitz,  in  Prussian  Silesia,  was  born  on  February 
14,  1490,  of  parents  so  poor  that  they  could  not  keep 
him  at  school.  The  boy  taught  himself  to  read  and 
write  while  herding  cattle;  he  made  paper  from  birch 
bark,  and  ink  from  soot.  When  difficulties  were  over- 
come and  he  was  sent  for  education  to  Gorlitz,  his 
mother’s  last  words  were  “stick  to  the  school,  dear 
son.”  The  words  determined  his  career:  he  refused  all 
ecclesiastical  promotion,  and  lived  and  died  a school- 
master. His  system  of  education  and  discipline  speedily 
attracted  attention.  He  made  his  best  elder  scholars 
the  teachers  of  the  younger  classes,  and  insisted  that  the 
way  to  learn  was  to  teach.  He  organized  the  school  in 
such  a way  that  the  whole  ordinary  discipline  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  boys  themselves.  The  fame  of  the 
Goldberg  school  extended  over  all  Protestant  Germany, 
and  a large  number  of  the  more  famous  men  of  the  fol- 
lowing generation  were  taught  by  Trotzendorff.  He 
died  on  April  20,  1556. 

TROUBADOURS.  See  Provencal  Literature, 
and  France. 

TROUGHTON,  Edward,  instrument  maker,  was 
born  in  the  parish  (if  Corney  in  Cumberland,  England, 
in  October,  1753.  He  joined  his  elder  brother  John  in 
carrying  on  the  business  of  mathematical  instrument 
makers  in  Fleet  Street,  London,  and  continued  it  alone 
after  his  brother’s  death,  until  he  in  1826  took  W. 
Simms  as  a partner.  He  died  in  London  on  June  12, 

,8&- 

TROUT-  See  Salmonid^e  ; also  Angling. 


5929 

T ROUVILLE,  a fashionable  seaside  town  of  France, 
chef-lieu  of  the  department  of  Calvados,  and  a port  of 
the  English  channel,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Touques,  on  the  right  bank,  136  miles  west-north- 
west of  Paris  and  34  northeast  of  Caen  by  mil. 
In  1886  the  population  was  5,750  (commune  6,300). 
Deauville,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Touques,  opposite 
Trouville,  is  remarkable  for  its  casino,  terrace,  and  fine 
mansions,  but  except  during  the  race-week  in  August, 
is  comparatively  deserted.  In  1901  its  population  was 
2,500  (commune  2,820). 

TROVER,  or  trover  and  conversion,  the  name  of  a 
form  of  an  old  action  in  law,  corresponding  to  the  mod- 
ern action  of  conversion.  It  was  brought  for  damages 
for  the  detention  ofa  chattel,  and  differed  from  detinue  in 
that  the  latter  was  brought  for  the  return  of  the  chattel 
itself.  The  name  trover  is  due  to  the  action  having 
been  based  on  the  fictitious  averment  in  the  plaintiff’s 
declaration  that  he  had  lost  the  goods  and  that  the  de- 
fendant had  found  them.  An  action  of  trover  lay  (as  an 
action  of  conversion  still  lies)  in  every  case  where  the 
defendant  was  in  possession  of  a chattel  of  the  plaintiff 
and  refused  to  deliver  it  up  on  request,  such  refusal 
being  prima  facie  evidence  of  conversion.  The  dam- 
ages recoverable  are  usually  the  value  of  the  chattel  con 
verted. 

TROWBRIDGE,  an  ancient  town  of  Wilts,  Eng., 
is  situated  on  the  river  Mere  or  Biss,  a feeder  of  the 
Avon,  and  on  a branch  of  the  Great  Western  railway, 
thirty- three  miles  northwest  of  Salisbury  and  ninety- 
seven  and  one-half  west  of  London.  The  principal 
industry  is  the  manufacture  of  kerseymere  and  of  broad 
and  other  woolen  cloths,  established  as  early  as  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.  The  town  is  governed  by  a local  board 
of  health  of  twenty-one  members.  The  population  of 
the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  2,080  acres)  in  1871  was 
11,508,  and  in  1901  it  was  13,040. 

TROY.  See  T road. 

TROY,  the  county  seat  of  Rensselaer  county,  N.  Y., 
is  situated  in  42°  44'  N.  latitude  and  730  41'  W. 
longitude,  upon  the  east  bank  of  the  Hudson  river, 
at  the  head  of  tidewater.  It  is  nearly  north  of  New 
York  city  (147  miles)  and  somewhat  north  of  west 
from  Boston  (136  miles).  The  city,  which  has  a length 
of  about  4 miles,  with  an  average  breadth  of  1 mile, 
is  built  mainly  upon  a level  terrace  slightly  elevated 
above  the  river,  but  of  late  years  the  residence  portion 
has  extended  up  the  hills  (rising  to  400  feet)  which 
limit  this  plain  on  the  east.  It  is  in  the  main  regularly 
laid  out,  and  is  traversed  by  street  railways.  Troy  is 
situated  at  what  is  practically  the  terminus  of  the  Erie 
canal,  connecting  the  Hudson  river  (here  navigable 
for  vessels  of  eight  to  ten  feet  draught)  with  Lake 
Erie,  and  of  the  Champlain  canal.  It  has  three  rail- 
roads, by  which  it  is  connected  with  New  York  on  the 
south,  Buffalo  on  the  west,  and  also  with  the  east  and 
north.  The  principal  industries,  which  in  1900  gave 
employment  to  22,481  persons,  are  the  manufacture 
of  men’s  furnishing  goods,  malt  liquors,  and  foundry 
and  machine  shop  products.  The  value  of  the  products 
was  $28,209,259.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  the  Rensselaer 
Polytechnic  Institute,  which  was  for  many  years  the 
leading  engineering  school  of  the  United  States,  and 
still  maintains  a high  reputation.  The  population, 
which  in  1810  was  only  3,8q5,  had  in  1830  risen  t©  11,- 
556,  and  by  1900  to  60,651. 

TROY,  Jean  Francois  de,  a French  painter, 
highly  endowed  by  nature,  was  bom  at  Paris  m 1679. 
Among  the  most  considerable  of  his  works  are  thirty- 
six  compositions  painted  for  the  hotel  of  De  Live  (1729), 
and  a series  of  the  story  of  Esther,  designed  for  the 
( Gobelins  while  De  Troy  was  director  of  the  school  ot 


' ILL 


TRO-TRU 


5930 

France  at  Rome  (1738-51) — a post  which  he  resigned  in 
a fit  of  irritation  at  court  neglect.  He  did  not  expect  to 
be  taken  at  his  word,  but  found  himself  forced  to  return 
to  F ranee,  and  was  making  ready  to  leave  when  he  died 
suddenly  (January  24,  1752)  of  an  attack  on  the  lungs. 

TROY,  West.  See  West  Troy. 

TROYES,  a town  of  France,  formerly  the  capital  of 
Champagne,  and  now  chef-lieu  of  the  department  of 
Aube,  and  an  episcopal  see,  is  104  miles  southeast  of 
Paris  by  the  railway  to  Belfort,  at  the  junction  of  the 
line  from  Orleans  to  Chalons.  The  chief  industry  of 
Troyes  and  the  surrounding  district  is  the  manufacture 
of  cotton  and  woolen  hosiery,  which  is  woven  almost 
entirely  by  hand,  and  is  exported  to  America  and 
Switzerland.  One-fourth  of  the  population  live  by 
subsidiary  industries.  There  are  fourteen  cotton  mills 
with  10,000  spindles,  bleaching,  dressing,  and  dye 
works,  work-shops  for  making  looms,  needle  factories, 
iron  and  copper  foundries,  eight  flour  mills,  and  nursery 
and  market  gardens.  A trade  is  carried  on  in  pork  and 
cheese.  A few  miles  from  the  town  stands  the  curious 
church  of  St.  Andrew  (sixteenth  century),  with  a re- 
markable portal.  The  population  in  1901  was  53,159. 

TROYES,  Chrestien  de.  See  Chrestien  de 
Troyes,  and  Romance. 

TROY  WEIGHT.  A troy  pound  contains  12 
ounces,  and  each  ounce  contains  20  pennyweights,  and 
each  pennyweight  24  grains;  thus,  a pound  contains 
5,760  grains,  and  is  to  the  avoirdupois  pound  as  144  to 
175.  Troy  weights  were  formerly  used  for  medicines, 
and  are  still  used  in  weighing  the  precious  metals. 

TRUCE.  A suspension  of  hostilities  between  two 
armies  or  states  for  a period  agreed  upon.  An  armistice 
differs  from  a truce,  in  that  it  is  made  for  a few  days 
only,  as,  for  instance,  for  the  burying  of  the  dead,  while 
a truce  may  be  for  months  or  years,  and  is  usually  ac- 
companied by  the  disarmament  of  the  armies. 

TRUCE  OF  GOD.  The  orderly  administration  of 
justice  and  the  universal  peace,  which  the  Roman  em- 
pire established  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Atlantic,  did 
not  long  survive  the  inroads  of  the  Teutonic  tribes  who 
in  western  Europe  divided  the  inheritance  of  the  Latin 
world.  All  the  early  Teutonic  codes,  being  based, 
however  remotely,  on  the  right  of  private  war  and 

{irivate  vengeance,  might  discourage,  but  were  power- 
ess  to  abolish,  the  instinct  which  impels  the  members 
of  half-civilized  communities  to  avenge  their  own 
wrongs.  Hence  the  pax  Romanadxed  with  the  empire. 
At  the  moment  when  western  Europe  threatened  to 
sink  back  into  the  chaos  from  which  it  had  been  won  by 
Rome,  the  church  came  forward  to  arrest  the  process 
of  its  dissolution.  Speaking  at  first  in  her  own  inter- 
est and  in  that  of  the  poor,  whose  great  protector  she 
claimed  to  be,  she  decreed  a special  peace  for  the  un- 
armed clerk  and  the  industrious  husbandman.  The 
council  of  Charroux  in  Poitou  led  the  way  in  989. 
With  the  opening  of  the  next  century  the  movement 
spread  over  Aquitaine  and  the  rest  of  France.  Every- 
where the  bishops  set  themselves  to  exact  from  the 
whole  diocese,  noble  and  simple  alike,  a novel  oath  to 
abstain  from  violence  and  to  respect  the  sanctity  of 
churches.  The  times,  however,  were  hardly  ripe  for 
the  inauguration  of  an  era  of  peace,  and,  on  the  whole, 
it  may  be  said  that  the  “ Peace  of  God  ” was  at  best  cut 
a somewhat  ineffectual  protection  to  churches,  priests, 
and  laborers.  If  there  was  any  hope  of  restraining  the 
mutual  feuds  of  the  barons  it  must  be  by  other  means. 
And  here  the  church  again,  recognizing  the  impossibil- 
ity of  absolutely  stopping  all  feudal  warfare,  endeavored 
to  limit  it.  This  limitation  of  the  right  of  perpetual 
warfare,  redu  ced  to  writing,  sanctioned  by  an  oath,  and 
confirmed  by  the  decrees  of  councils,  assumed  the  name 


of  the  “Truce  of  God”  {treva  or  ireuga  Dei).  The 
truce  of  God  seems  to  have  been  first  established  at  the 
synod  of  Tuluges,  near  Perpignan  in  Roussillon,  on 
May  16,  1627.  In  accordance  with  its  decrees  all  war. 
fare  was  to  be  suspended  from  noon  on  Saturday  till 
prime  on  Monday;  and  the  peace  of  God  was  perma 
nently  extended  to  all  monks,  clerks,  bishops,  and 
churches.  Like  the  pax  ecclesice , this  laudable  exam- 
ple was  soon  followed  elsewhere.  About  1041  it  ex- 
tended itself  over  Aquitaine  and  all  France;  in  1042 
the  council  of  Caen,  under  the  sanction  of  Duke  Will- 
iam, established  it  in  Normandy — a country  in  which 
according  to  a contemporary  writer  (Rudolph  Glaber, 
v.  1),  it  was  not  at  first  accepted.  By  this  time  its 
terms  had  been  much  enlarged;  and  we  may  perhaps 
take  the  provisions  of  a second  synod  at  Tuluges  (1041) 
as  representing  its  normal  form.  According  to  this 
synod  the  treuga  Dei  was  to  last  from  the  Wednesday 
evening  to  the  Monday  morning  in  every  week,  from 
the  beginning  of  Advent  to  the  octave  of  the  Epiph- 
any, from  the  beginning  of  Lent  to  the  octave  of 
Pentecost,  for  the  feasts  of  the  Holy  Cross,  the  three 
great  feasts  of  the  Virgin,  and  those  of  the  twelve 
apostles  and  a few  other  saints.  More  usually  the  in- 
terval between  the  Epiphany  octave  and  Lent  and  that 
from  Easter  to  Rogations  were  left  subject  to  the 
weekly  truce  only.  Thus  from  being  a mere  local  insti- 
tution it  spread  rapidly  over  all  France,  and  seems  to 
have  crossed  into  Germany,  Italy,  Spain,  and  England. 
It  had  also  its  special  courts  and  methods  of  procedure. 
Excommunication  and  banishment  for  seven  or  thirty 
years  were  its  penalties. 

TRUCK  SYSTEM.  See  Labor. 

TRUFFLE,  the  name  of  several  different  species  of 
subterranean  fungi  which  are  used  as  food.  The 
species  sold  in  English  markets  is  Tuber  cestivum;  the 
commonest  species  of  French  markets  is  T.  melanospo- 
rum , and  of  Italian  the  garlic-scented  T.  magnatum. 
Of  the  three,  the  English  species  is  the  least  excellent, 
and  the  French  is  possibly  the  best.  The  truffle  used 
for  Perigord  pie  ( p&te  de  foie  gras)  is  71  melanosporum. 
When,  however,  the  stock  of  71  melanosporum  happens 
to  be  deficient,  some  manufacturers  use  inferior  species 
of  Tuber , such  as  the  worthless  or  dangerous  Chcero- 
myces  meandriformis.  Even  the  rank  and  offensive 
Scleroderma  vulgare  (one  of  the  puffball  series  of 
fungi)  is  sometimes  used  for  stuffing  turkeys,  sausages, 
etc.  Indeed,  good  truffles,  and  then  only  71  cestivum,  are 
seldom  seen  in  English  markets.  The  taste  of  71 
melanosporum  can  be  detected  in  Perigord  pie  of  good 
quality.  True  and  false  truffles  can  easily  be  distin- 
guished under  the  microscope. 

When  the  plant  is  eaten  raw  the  taste  is  sweet  and 
sugary,  but  when  cooked  it  is  hardly  agreeable.  The 
odor  belonging  to  many  truffles  is  so  potent  that  their 
places  of  growth  can  be  readily  detected  by  the  odor  ex- 
haled from  the  ground.  Squirrels,  hogs,  and  other  ani- 
mals commonly  dig  up  truffles  and  devour  them,  and' 
pigs  and  dogs  have  long  been  trained  to  point  out  the 
places  where  they  grow.  Pigs  will  always  eat  truffles,  j 
and  dogs  will  do  so  occasionally ; it  is  therefore  usual  to] 
give  the  trained  pig  or  dog  a small  piece  of  cheese  or 
some  little  reward  each  time  it  is  successful. 

TRUMBULL,  the  surname  of  more  than  one  indi- 
vidual  of  note  in  the  literature,  art,  and  politics  of 
America. 

1.  Benjamin  Trumbull  was  born  at  Hebron,  Conn., 
on  December  19,  1735,  and  died  at  North  Haven, 
Conn.,  February  2,  1820.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1759,  and  entered  the  ministry.  His  literary  work  was 
considerable,  the  most  important  being  the  standard 
History  of  Connecticut  to  1 764. 


T R U 


2.  John  Trumbull  was  born  at  Waterbury,  Conn., 
April  24,  1750,  and  died  at  Detroit,  Mich.,  May  12, 
1831.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1767,  and  became  a 
lawyer  and  author  of  high  reputation.  His  best  work 
is  M'Fingal,  a Hudibrastic  poem,  intended  to  serve  the 
Whig  side  in  the  American  Revolution. 

3.  John  Trumbull,  son  of  the  following,  was  born 
at  Lebanon,  Conn.,  June  6,  1756,  and  died  at  New 
York  city  November  10,  1843.  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1773,  studied  painting  with  Benjamin  West  in 
London,  and  left  at  his  death  a number  of  historical 
works.  The  earlier  of  these  are  the  better  ; the  later 
and  larger  were  painted  for  the  capitol  at  Washington. 

4.  Jonathan  Trumbull  was  born  at  Lebanon, 
Conn.,  June  10,  1710,  and  died  at  the  same  place  August 
17,  1785.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1727,  and  be- 
came a lawyer  and  colonial  politician.  His  place  in 
American  history  was  gained  as  governor  of  Connecti- 
cut from  1769  until  1783,  through  the  whole  period  of 
the  American  Revolution.  He  was  a trusted  supporter 
and  confidential  adviser  of  Washington,  who  was  accus- 
tomed to  speak  of  him  as  “ Brother  Jonathan,”  and  the 
term  has  since  passed  into  popular  use  as  equivalent  to 
the  people  of  the  United  States. 

5.  Jonathan  Trumbull,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Lebanon,  Conn.,  March  26,  1740,  and  died  at 
the  same  place  August  7,  1809.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1759,  and  served  as  member  of  Congress,  1789-95 
(being  speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  during 
the  last  two  years  of  his  term),  as  United  States  senator, 
1795-96,  and  as  governor  of  Connecticut,  1798-1809. 

TRUMPET,  a musical  instrument,  consisting  of  a 
long,  narrow  brass  tube,  cylindrical  for  the  greater  part 
of  its  length:  the  fusiform  development  which  terminates 
in  the  bell  or  opening  of  the  lower  end  only  begins  at  a 
point  that  varies  from  a third  to  a fourth  of  the  total 
length  from  that  extremity.  The  air  inside  is  set  in 
vibration  by  the  lips  (which  act  as  true  reeds)  applied 
to  the  edges  of  a basin-like  mouthpiece  fitted  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  instrument.  The  material  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  production  of  that  brilliant  quality  of  tone 
by  which  the  trumpet  is  so  easily  distinguished  from 
every  other  mouthpiece  instrument:  the  difference  is 
partly  due  to  the  distinct  form  given  to  the  basin  of  the 
mouthpiece,  but  principally  to  the  proportions  of  the 
column  of  air  determined  by  the  conical  or  cylindrical 
form  of  its  envelope. 

The  credit  of  having  bent  the  tube  of  the  trumpet  in 
three  parallel  branches,  thus  creating  its  modern  form, 
has  usually  been  claimed  for  a Frenchman  named  Mau- 
rin  (1498-1515).  But  the  transformation  was  really 
made  in  Italy  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
as  is  proved  by  the  bas-reliefs  of  Luca  della  Robbia  in- 
tended to  ornament  the  organ  chamber  of  the  cathedral 
of  Florence;  there  a trumpet  having  the  tube  bent  back 
as  just  described  is  very  distinctly  figured.  The  shape 
of  the  trumpet,  as  seen  in  the  bas-reliefs  of  Luca  della 
Robbia,  was  retained  for  more  than  300  years:  the  first 
alterations  destined  to  revolutionize  the  whole  technique 
of  the  instrument  were  made  about  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Notwithstanding  the  imperfections 
of  the  trumpet  during  this  long  period,  the  performers 
upon  it  acquired  an  astonishing  dexterity. 

TRUMPET,  Speaking  and  Hearing.  The  speak- 
ing trumpet,  though  some  instrument  of  the  kind  ap- 
pears to  have  been  in  earlier  use  in  more  than  one  part 
of  the  world,  is  connected  in  its  modern  form  with  the 
name  of  Athanasius  Kircher  and  that  of  Sir  Samuel 
Morland,  who  in  1670  proposed  to  the  Royal  Society  of 
London  the  question  of  the  best  form  for  a speaking 
trumpet.  Lambert,  in  the  Berlin  Memoirs  for  1763,  j 
seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  give  a theory  of  the  ac-  | 


593 1 

tion  of  this  instrument,  based  on  an  altogether  imagi- 
nary analogy  with  the  behavior  of  light.  In  this 
theory,  which  is  still  commonly  put  forward,  it  is  as* 
sumed  that  sound,  like  light,  can  be  propagated  in  rays. 
This,  however,  is  possible  only  when  the  aperture 
through  which  the  wave-disturbance  passes  into  free 
air  is  large  compared  with  the  wave-length.  If  the 
fusiform  mouth  of  the  speaking  trumpet  were  half  a 
mile  or  so  in  radius,  Lambert’s  theory  might  give  an 
approximation  to  the  truth.  But  with  trumpets  whose 
aperture  is  only  a foot  in  diameter  at  most  the  problem 
is  one  of  diffraction ; and  it  has  not  yet  been  seriously 
studied  from  this  point  of  view. 

In  the  case  of  the  hearing  trumpet,  the  disturbance  is 
propagated  along  the  converging  tube  much  in  the  same 
way  as  the  tide- wave  is  propagated  up  the  estuary  of  a 
tidal  river. 

Until  the  theory  has  been  rigorously  worked  out  the 
only  safe  course  to  adopt  in  manufacturing  either  class 
of  instruments  is  to  be  guided  by  the  results  of  varied 
trials. 

The  theoretical  foundations  of  the  subject  will  be 
found  in  Lord  Rayleigh’s  Sound  and  in  Sir  G.  Airy’s 
Tides  and  Waves , respectively.  In  speaking  and  hear- 
ing trumpets  alike  all  reverberation  of  the  instrument 
should  be  avoided  by  making  it  thick  and  of  the  least 
elastic  materials,  and  by  covering  it  externally  with 
cloth. 

TRUMPETER,  or  Trumpet  Bird,  a native  of  South 
America,  first  described  in  1747  by  De  La  Condamine. 
There  are  many  species,  but  a description  of  one  will 
serve  for  all.  The  chief  distinctions  between  the  species 
lie  in  color  and  size,  and  it  will  be  here  enough  to  des- 
cribe briefly  the  best  known  of  them,  Psophia  crepitans . 
This  is  about  the  size  of  a large  barndoor  Fowl;  but  its 
neck  and  legs  are  longer,  so  that  it  is  a taller  bird.  The 
head  and  neck  are  clothed  with  short,  velvety  feathers; 
the  whole  plumage  is  black,  except  that  on  the  lower 
front  of  the  neck  the  feathers  are  tipped  with  golden 
green,  changing  according  to  the  light  into  violet,  and 
that  a patch  of  dull,  rusty  brown  extends  across  the 
middle  of  the  back  and  wing-coverts,  passing  into  ash- 
color  lower  down,  where  they  hang  over  and  conceal 
the  tail.  The  legs  are  bright  pea-green.  The  habits 
of  this  bird  are  very  wonderful,  and  it  is  much  to  be 
wished  that  fuller  accounts  of  them  had  appeared.  The 
curious  soundit  utters,  noticed  by  the  earliest  observers, 
has  been  already  mentioned,  and  by  them  also  was  it? 
singularly  social  disposition  toward  man  described. 
Nothing  can  be  positively  asserted  as  to  its  mode  oi 
nidification ; but  its  eggs,  according  to  Mr.  E.  Bartlett, 
are  of  a creamy  white,  rather  round,  and  about  the  size 
of  Bantams’. 

TRUMPET  FISH,  a fish  of  the  family  of  Fistula* 
ridce , remarkable  for  its  elongated  and  tubular  snout. 
It  is  abundant  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  sold  in  the 
Italian  markets.  Its  length  is  about  five  inches,  the 
snout  projecting  about  one  and  a half  inches  in  front 
of  the  eyes. 

TRUMPET  FLOWER.  The  popular  name  of  a 
flowering  shrub  of  the  genera  Bignonia  and  tecoma , 
natives  of  the  southern  States  of  America.  It  is  a climb- 
ing shrub  with  conjugate  leaves  and  heart  shaped  oblong 
leaflets. 

TRURO,  a city,  municipal  borough,  and  port  of 
Cornwall,  England,  is  situated  on  a kind  of  peninsula 
formed  by  the  rivers  Allen  and  Kenwyn,  which  below 
the  town  unite  with  a branch  of  Falmouth  harbor 
called  Truro  creek  or  river.  ' Truro  is  300  miles  south- 
west of  London  by  the  Great  Western  railway,  and 
11  north  of  Falmouth.  There  is  sufficient  depth  of 
water  in  the  channel  of  Truro  creek  to  permit  vessels 


TR  U 


5932 

of  seventy  tons  burden  to  come  up  to  the  town  quay. 
The  principal  imports  are  coal  from  Wales  and  timber 
from  Norway,  and  the  exports  consist  of  tin,  iron  ores, 
lead  and  zinc,  from  the  mines  in  the  neighborhood. 
The  population  of  the  municipal  borough  (area  1,171 
acres)  in  1901  was  about  12,619. 

TRUSS,  an  instrument  used  in  the  palliative  term  of 
hernia  with  a view  to  preventing  its  descent,  and,  if 
possible,  of  effecting  a permanent  cure.  It  consists 
essentially  of  a pad  or  cushion  attached  to  a spring,  with 
straps  so  arranged  that  its  position  may  be  retained 
during  the  varied  postures  of  the  body.  Great  me- 
chanical improvements  have  been  made  of  late  years  in 
the  construction  of  trusses,  and  no  person  suffering  from 
hernia  should  purchase  a truss  without  consultation  with 
a surgeon  or  expert. 

TRUSSING  (in  ship-building),  diagonal  timbers  or 
iron  plates  crossing  the  ribs  internally  and  consolidating 
the  hull  of  the  ship.  Iron  is  now  mostly  used,  as  being 
lighter  and  stronger  than  wood. 

TRUST.  In  Roman  and  English  law  alike  that  legal 
relation  between  two  or  more  persons  implied  in  the 
word  trust  was  of  comparatively  late  growth.  The  trust 
of  English  law  is  probably  based  upon  a combination  of 
the  Roman  conceptions  of  usus  and  jideicommissum. 
To  usus  is  perhaps  due  the  name,  as  well  as  the  idea,  of 
that  right  over  property  coordinate  with  the  right  of 
the  nominal  owner,  possessed  by  the  person  having  the 
use.  To  jideicommissum  appears  to  be  due  the  name,  as 
well  as  the  idea  of  that  confidence  reposed  in  another, 
which  is  the  essence  of  the  modern  trust. 

A trust  in  English  law  is  defined  by  Mr.  Lewin, 
adopting  Coke’s  definition  of  a use,  as  “a  confidence 
reposed  in  some  other,  not  issuing  out  of  the  land,  but  as 
a thing  collateral;  annexed  in  privity  to  the  estate  of  the 
land,  and  to  the  person  touching  the  land,  for  which 
cestui  que  trust  has  no  remedy  but  by  subpoena  in  Chan- 
cery. ” The  term  trust  or  trust  estate  is  also  used  to  de- 
note the  beneficial  interest  of  the  cestui  que  trust.  The 
term  truster  is  not  used,  as  it  is  in  Scotland,  to  denote 
the  creator  of  the  trust.  A trust  has  some  features  in 
common  with  contract;  but  the  great  difference  be- 
tween them  is  that  a contract  can  only  be  enforced  by  a 
party  or  one  in  the  position  of  a party  to  it,  while  a 
trust  can  be,  and  generally  is,  enforced  by  one  not  a 
party  to  its  creation.  It  has  more  resemblance  to  jidei- 
commissum. But  the  latter  could  only  be  created  by  a 
testamentary  instrument,  while  a trust  can  be  created 
either  by  will  or  inter  vivos;  nor  was  there  any  trace  in 
Roman  law  of  that  permanent  legal  relation  which  is 
suggested  by  the  position  of  trustee  and  cestui  que  trust. 
The  heir,  too,  in  Roman  law  was  entitled,  from  70  a.d. 
to  the  reign  of  Justinian,  to  one-fourth  of  a hereditas 
fideicommissaria  as  against  the  beneficiary,  while  the 
very  essence  of  the  trust  is  its  gratuitous  character. 
Trusts  may  be  divided  in  more  than  one  way,  according 
to  the  ground  taken  as  the  basis  of  division.  One  di- 
vision, and  perhaps  the  oldest,  as  it  rests  on  the  author- 
ity of  Bacon,  is  into  simple  and  special , the  first  being 
where  the  trust  is  simply  vested  in  a trustee  and  the 
nature  of  the  trust  left  to  construction  of  law,  the  second 
where  there  is  an  act  to  be  performed  by  the  trustee. 
Another  division  is  into  lawful  and  unlawful , and  cor- 
responds to  Bacon’s  division  into  intents  or  confidences 
and  frauds,  covins,  or  collusions.  A third  division  is 
into  public  and  private , the  former  being  synonymous 
with  charitable  trusts.  A division  often  adopted  in 
modern  text  books  is  into  express , implied , and  con- 
structive. An  express  trust  is  determined  by  the  person 
creating  it.  It  may  be  either  executed  or  executory , the 
former  where  the  limitations  of  the  equitable  interest 
are  complete  and  final,  the  latter  where  such  limitations 


are  intended  to  serve  merely  as  minutes  for  perfecting 
the  settlement  at  some  future  period,  as  in  the  case  of 
marriage  articles  drawn  up  as  a basis  of  marriage  settle- 
ment to  be  in  conformity  with  them.  An  implied  trust 
is  founded  upon  the  intention  of  the  person  creating  it; 
examples  of  it  are  a resulting  trust,  a precatory  trust, 
and  the  trust  held  by  the  vendor  on  behalf  of  the  pur- 
chaser of  an  estate  after  contract  and  before  convey- 
ance. In  this  case  the  vendor  is  sometimes  called  a 
trustee  sub  modo  and  the  purchaser  a cestui  gue  trust 
sub  modo.  A constructive  trust  is  judicially  created 
from  a consideration  of  a person’s  conduct  in  order  to 
satisfy  the  demands  of  justice,  without  reference  to  in- 
tention. The  distinction  between  an  implied  and  a con- 
structive trust  is  not  always  very  consistently  maintained. 
Thus  the  position  of  a vendor  toward  a purchaser  after 
contract  is  sometimes  called  a constructive  trust.  The 
present  law  governing  trusts  rests  upon  the  doctrines  of 
equity  as  altered  by  legislation.  Its  great  importance 
has  led  to  its  becoming  one  of  the  most  highly  devel- 
oped departments  of  equity.  The  devolution  of  succes- 
sive interests  in  wills  and  settlements  is  almost  wholly 
attained  by  means  of  trusts. 

Who  may  be  a Trustee  or  Cestui  que  Trust. — The 
modern  trust  is  considerably  more  extensive  in  its  opera- 
tion than  the  ancient  use.  There  are  certain  persons 
who  for  obvious  reasons,  even  if  not  legally  disqualified, 
ought  not  to  be  appointed  trustees.  Such  are  infants, 
lunatics,  persons  domiciled  abroad,  felons,  bankrupts,  and 
cestuis  que  trustent.  The  appointment  of  any  such  per- 
son, or  the  falling  of  any  existing  trustee  into  such  a 
position,  is  generally  ground  for  application  to  the  court 
for  appointment  of  new  trustee  in  his  place.  Any  one 
may  be  a cestui  que  trust  except  a corporation  aggre- 
gate; which  cannot  be  a cestui  que  trust  of  real  estate 
without  a license  from  the  crown. 

Creation  and  Extinction  of  the  Trust. — A trust  may 
be  created  either  by  act  of  a party  or  by  operation  of 
law.  Where  a trust  is  created  by  act  of  a party,  the 
creation  at  common  law  need  not  be  in  writing.  The 
Statute  of  Frauds  altered  the  common  law  by  enacting 
that  all  declarations  or  creations  of  trusts  or  confidences 
of  any  lands,  tenements,  or  hereditaments  shall  be  mani- 
fested and  proved  by  some  writing,  signed  by  the  party 
who  is  by  law  enabled  to  declare  such  trust,  or  by  his 
last  will  in  writing,  or  else  they  shall  be  utterly  void 
and  of  none  effect.  Trusts  arising  or  resulting  by  im- 
lication  or  construction  of  law  are  excepted,  and  it 
as  been  held  that  the  statute  applies  only  to  real  estate 
and  chattels  real,  so  that  a trust  of  personal  chattels 
may  still  be  declared  by  parol.  The  declaration  of  a 
trust  by  the  crown  must  be  by  letters  patent.  Trusts 
created  by  will  must  conform  to  the  requirements  of 
the  Wills  Act.  Except  in  the  case  of  charitable  trusts, 
the  cestui  que  trusts  must  be  a definite  person.  An  un- 
lawful  trust  is  one  which  contravenes  the  policy  of  the 
law  in  any  respect.  Examples  of  such  trusts  are  trusts 
for  a corporation  without  license,  for  a perpetuity,  and 
for  purposes  subversive  of  morality,  such  as  trusts  for 
illegitimate  children  to  be  hereafter  born.  Superstitious 
u ses  also  fall  un  der  this  h ead.  There  are  also  certain  trusts 
which  are  avoided  by  statute  under  particular  circum- 
stances, such  as  settlements  in  fraud  of  creditors.  The 
law  cannot  be  evaded  by  attempting  to  constitute  a se- 
cret trust  for  an  unlawful  purpose.  If  an  estate  be 
devised  by  words  prima  facie  carrying  the  beneficial 
interest,  with  an  understanding  that  the  devisee  will 
hold  the  estate  in  trust  for  such  a purpose,  he  may  be 
compelled  to  answer  as  to  the  secret  trust,  and  on  ac- 
knowledgment or  proof  of  it  there  will  be  a resulting 
trust  to  the  heir-at-law.  The  rules  of  equity  in  charita- 
ble trusts  are  less  strict  than  *hose  p^oDted  in  Drivate 


TR  U 


trusts.  Charitable  trusts  must  be  iawtui,  they 

must  not  contravene  the  Statutes  of  Mortmain;  but  a 
wider  latitude  of  construction  is  allowed  in  order  to 
carry  out  the  intentions  of  the  founder,  and  they  will 
not  be  allowed  to  fail  for  want  or  uncertainty  of  objects 
to  be  benefited.  The  court,  applying  the  doctrine  of  cy 
pres,  will,  on  failure  of  the  original  ground  of  the  char- 
ity, apply  the  funds  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  same 
manner.  On  this  principle  gifts  originally  made  for 
purely  charitable  purposes  have  been  extended  to  edu- 
cational purposes.  Further,  trustees  of  a charity  may  act 
by  a majority,  but  ordinary  trustees  cannot  by  the  act 
of  a majority  (unless  specially  empowered  so  to  do)  bind 
a dissenting  minority  or  the  trust  property.  A trust 
estate  is  subject  as  far  as  possible  to  the  rules  of  law 
applicable  to  a legal  estate  of  a corresponding  nature, 
in  pursuance  of  the  maxim,  “ Equity  follows  the  law.” 
Thus  trust  property  is  assets  for  payment  of  debts,  may 
be  taken  in  execution,  passes  to  creditors  in  bankruptcy, 
and  is  subject  to  dower  and  curtesy,  to  the  rules  against 
perpetuities,  and  to  the  Statutes  of  Limitation.  This 
assimilation  of  the  legal  and  equitable  estates  has  been 
produced  partly  by  judicial  decisions,  partly  by  legisla- 
tion. A trust  is  extinguished,  as  it  is  created,  either  by 
act  of  a party  or  by  operation  of  law.  An  example  of 
the  former  mode  of  extinction  is  a release  by  deed,  the 
general  means  of  discharge  of  a trustee  when  the  pur- 
poses of  the  trust  have  been  accomplished.  Extinction 
by  operation  of  law  takes  place  when  there  is  a failure 
of  the  objects  of  the  trust:  e.g.,  if  the  cestui  que  trust 
die  intestate  without  heirs  or  next  of  kin,  the  trustee 
retains  the  property  discharged  of  the  trust  if  it  be  real 
estate,  if  it  be  personalty  it  falls  to  the  crown.  Equi- 
table interests  in  real  estate  abroad  are  as  a rule  subject 
to  the  lex  loci  rei  sitce , and  a court  has  no  jurisdiction 
to  enforce  a trust  or  settle  a scheme  for  the  administra- 
tion of  a charity  in  a foreign  country. 

Rights  and  Duties  of  the  Trustee.  — The  principal 
general  properties  of  the  office  of  trustee,  as  given  by 
Mr.  Lewin,  are  these: — (i)  A trustee  having  once  ac- 
cepted the  trust  cannot  afterward  renounce.  (2)  He 
cannot  delegate  it.  (3)  In  the  case  of  co-trustees  the 
office  must  be  exercised  by  all  the  trustees  jointly.  (4) 
On  the  death  of  one  trustee  there  is  survivorship:  that 
is,  the  trust  will  pass  to  the  survivors  or  survivor.  (5) 
One  trustee  shall  not  be  liable  for  the  acts  of  his  co- 
trustee. (6)  A trustee  shall  derive  no  personal  benefit 
from  the  trusteeship. 

Rights  and  Duties  of  the  Cestui  que  Trust. — These 
may  be  to  a great  extent  deduced  from  what  has  been 
already  said  as  to  the  correlative  duties  and  rights  of  the 
trustee.  The  cestui  que  trust  has  a general  right  to  the 
due  management  of  the  trust  property,  to  proper 
accounts,  and  to  enjoyment  of  the  profits.  He  can  as 
a rule  only  act  with  the  concurrence  of  the  trustee,  un- 
less he  seeks  a remedy  against  the  trustee  himself. 
Thus  the  trustee  must  be  a party  to  an  action  brought 
in  respect  of  the  trust  estate,  and  must  join  in  present- 
ing a petition  in  bankruptcy  on  account  of  a debt  due  to 
the  estate,  but  the  cestui  que  trust  on  giving  indemnity 
can  require  the  trustee  to  lend  his  name  as  a party.  He 
may  also  require  the  trustee  to  execute  conveyances  of 
the  legal  estate  according  to  his  directions.  Trust 
property,  if  parted  with  by  the  trustee  in  fraud  of  the 
trust  may  be  followed  by  the  cestui  que  trust,  even  into 
the  hands  of  a purchaser  for  value  with  notice  of  the 
trust.  The  cestui  que  trust  may  lose  his  rights  by 
fraud,  by  laches,  and  by  concurrence  or  acquiescence  in 
9 breach  of  trust. 

In  New  York  and  some  other  States  uses  and  trusts 
have  been  abolished  (with  certain  exceptions),  and 
every  estate,  subject  to  those  exceptions,  is  deemed  a 

372 


5933 

legal  right  cognizable  in  courts  of  law.  The  exceptions 
are  in  New  York  implied  trusts  and  express  trusts  to 
sell  land  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  to  sell,  mortgage, 
or  lease  lands  for  the  benefit  of  legatees,  or  for  the  pur- 
pose of  satisfying  any  charge  thereon,  to  receive  the 
rents  and  profits  of  lands  and  apply  them  to  the  use  of 
any  person  during  the  life  of  such  person  or  any  shorter 
term,  or  to  receive  such  rents  and  profits,  and  accumu- 
late  the  same  within  the  limits  allowed  by  the  law. 
Trusts  of  personalty  for  public  purposes  are  very  gen- 
erally  allowed  in  States  where  private  trusts  do  not 
exist.  Provisions  similar  to  those  of  the  English 
Statute  of  Frauds  have  been  generally  adopted  by  the 
States  which  recognize  private  trusts.  Some  States  go 
farther  than  the  statute  and  allow  the  creation  of  trusts 
(other  than  those  arising  by  implication  or  operation  of 
law)  only  by  means  of  will  or  deed.  Where  the  trust 
is  of  real  estate,  the  deed  must  generally  be  registered 
(see  Registration).  Forms  of  deeds  of  trust  are 
given  in  the  Statutes  of  Virginia  and  other  States.  The 
English  doctrine  of  cy  pres  seems  to  have  been  adopted 
only  in  Pennsylvania.  Conveyances  in  trust  for  the 
settler  are  generally  void  against  creditors  by  the  policy 
of  the  Acts  of  Elizabeth.  By  the  legislation  of  some 
States  a freehold  may  commence  in  futuro  without  the 
operation  of  the  Statute  of  Uses.  Societies  of  pro- 
fessional trustees,  receiving  a percentage  of  the  income 
of  the  property  as  payment  for  their  trouble  and 
liability,  are  frequently  recognized  by  law.  Such  soci- 
eties are  generally  under  an  obligation  to  make  period- 
ical returns  of  their  receipts  and  expenditure.  A pub- 
lic trustee  as  a corporation  sole  exists  in  some  States. 
Trustee  process  in  the  New  England  States  is  what  is 
generally  known  as  garnishee  process  in  England,  that 
is,  a means  of  reaching  property  and  credits  of  a debtor 
in  the  hands  of  third  persons  for  the  benefit  of  an  at- 
taching creditor. 

TRUSTS  have  come  into  prominence  during  a com- 
paratively recent  period  and  are  known  under  defini- 
tions as  varied  as  authorities  concerning  their  legality 
are  conflicting  and  indecisive.  They  were  originally 
suggested,  it  is  said,  by  the  presence  and  prosperity  in 
the  United  States  of  cooperative  associations,  and 
when  first  created  were  conducted  and  managed,  it  is 
further  stated,  in  harmony  with  the  principles  applica- 
ble to  cooperative  organizations.  They  attracted  but 
limited  attention  at  first,  but  public  opinion  influenced 
by  latter  developments  has  since  undergone  a change 
in  respect  to  the  value  of  trusts  and  they  are  now  re- 
garded as  agencies  that  “ have  inflicted  serious  injury 
upon  the  people”  in  “limiting  the  supply  and  enhanc- 
ing the  price  of  many  articles  of  necessity,  at  the  pleas- 
ure of  their  managers.  ” W.  W.  Cook,  a member  oi 
the  New  York  bar  and  an  authority  on  the  subject  of 
trusts,  states  that  the  word  is  used  “ to  designate  any 
combination  of  producers  for  the  purpose  of  controlling 
prices  and  suppressing  competition.”  S.  C.  J.  Dodd, 
general  solicitor  and  originator  of  the  Standard  Oil 
Trust,  defines  a trust  as  “ an  arrangement  by  which  the 
stockholders  of  various  corporations  place  their  stocks 
in  the  hands  of  trustees  and  take  in  lieu  thereof  certifi- 
cates showing  each  shareholder’s  equitable  interest  in 
all  the  stocks  so  held.  The  result  is  twofold:  (1)  The 
stockholders  thereby  become  interested  in  all  the  cor 
porations  whose  stocks  are  thus  held,  and  (2)  the  trus- 
tees  elect  the  directors  of  the  several  corporations.” 

The  first  application  of  the  system  of  Trusts,  as  now 
understood,  to  American  industries  took  the  shape  of 
syndicates  for  the  purpose  of  securing  under  one  manage- 
ment the  control  and  operation  of  a number  of  railroads 
or  other  corporate  interests  of  a similar  character.  The 
transportation,  refining  and  handling  of  crude  petroleum 


TRU— TSA 


5934 

gave  birth  to  another  syndicate,  but  in  1882  the  Stand- 
ard Oil  Trust  was  created  and,  though  at  present  inactive, 
its  organization  is  still  maintained  and  its  property 
managed  according  to  the  policy  adopted  when  the  Trust 
was  established.  Its  success  was  immediate  and  pro- 
nounced. The  Cotton  Seed  Oil  Trust,  formed  about 
1882,  was  the  next  combination  to.be  organized,  and 
since  that  date  the  number  has  steadily  increased,  almost 
every  department  of  commerce,  manufactures,  and  trade 
having  been  enlisted,  in  the  face  of  public  disapproval 
and  in  some  instances  of  legal  opposition.  Public 
opinion  has  declared  and  still  contends  that  combi- 
nations organized  for  the  purpose  of  controlling  the 
prices  of  commodities,  particularly  those  included 
among  the  necessaries  of  life  without  regard  to  the 
natural  laws  of  supply  and  demand,  are  not  only  unlaw- 
ful but  cannot  be  justified  upon  any  plea  of  commercial 
enterprise,  and  insisted  that  inasmuch  as  they  des- 
troyed legitimate  competition  they  should  be  made  the 
subject  of  judicial  investigation  and  determination. 
Notwithstanding  the  objections  thus  raised  to  their 
organization  and  continuance,  trusts  have  grown  in 
number  and  importance,  and  now  exert  an  influence 
correspondingly  potent.  Those  prominent,  and  said  to 
be  prospering,  embrace  trusts  formed  for  the  purpose 
of  limiting  the  production  and  regulating  the  prices  of 
sugar,  oatmeal,  gas,  coal,  whitelead,  jute  bagging,  bind- 
ing-twine, lead  pencils,  strawboard,  whisky,  and  some 
other  articles  coming  under  the  head  of  necessaries. 
Their  formation  and  operations  have  been  accomplished 
and  conducted  up  to  a recent  date  without  any  serious 
opposition  having  been  made,  though  wherever  the 
question  has  been  raised  a majority  of  decisions  was 
declared  against  them  on  the  ground  that  they  are  com- 
binations in  restraint  of  trade,  and  consequently  void. 
In  the  case  of  the  Central  Ohio  Salt  Company  vs. 
Guthrie,  the  supreme  court  of  Ohio  laid  down  the  rule, 
that  combinations  organized  to  purchase  commodities 
from  the  manufacturer  for  sale  to  the  publicwere  illegal 
on  the  ground  that  they  destroyed  competition  in  trade, 
established  monopolies  and  tended  to  advance  the  mar- 
ket prices  to  the  injury  of  the  public.  The  supreme 
court  of  Pennsylvania  has  promulgated  similar  views, 
and  the  supreme  court  of  Louisiana,  in  a case  where  a 
number  of  parties  owning  a large  quantity  of  Indian 
bagging  combined  and  agreed  not  to  sell  except  upon 
the  consent  of  a majority  of  those  who  were  parties  to 
the  agreement,  refused  to  uphold  the  agreement,  be- 
cause it  was  “ palpably  and  unequivocally  a combination 
in  restraint  of  trade  and  to  enhance  the  price  in 
the  market  of  an  article  of  prime  necessity  to 
cotton-planters;  such  combinations,”  the  court  fur- 
ther declared,  were  “ contrary  to  public  order, 
and  cannot  be  enforced  in  a court  of  justice.”  In 
the  case  of  the  Chicago  Gas  Trust,  involving  the  legality 
of  trusts,  Judge  Collins  held  that  it  was  illegal  and  a 
fraud  upon  the  stockholders  of  companies  composing  the 
trust  for  whose  benefit  a receiver  was  appointed,  thus 
practically  terminating  its  existence.  The  most  impor- 
tant decision,  however,  thus  far  made,  was  that  an- 
nounced by  the  court  of  appeals  of  New  York,  during 
June,  1890,  affirming  the  judgment  of  dissolution 
against  the  North  River  Sugar  Refining  Company,  and 
declaring  the  sugar  trust  an  unlawful  combination.  The 
suit  was  originally  instituted  before  the  supreme  court  of 
New  York  city,  upon  the  relation  of  the  State  for  a for- 
feiture of  the  charter  of  the  North  River  Company,  on 
the  ground  that  a trust  to  increase  prices  was  illegal  and 
that  any  company  by  becoming  a member  of  such  trust 
thereby  surrenders  its  charter.  The  supreme  court  took 
such  view  of  the  case  and  upon  appeal  the  points  at  is- 
ue  were  elaborately  presented  with  the  result  above 


stated.  The  decision  says : “ The  question  to  be  de 
lermined  is  whether  the  conduct  of  the  defendant  com- 
pany in  aiding  to  form  the  trust  was  illegal.  In  all  o( 
the  points  which  were  reviewed  it  is  found  that  the  cor- 
poration was  doing  a public  injury,  and  in  avoiding  the 
State  law  which  compels  reservation  of  corporate  rights 
proved  unfaithful  to  its  charter  and  duties.  It  is  a viola- 
tion of  law  for  corporations  to  enter  into  a partnership, 
as  shown  in  the  case  of  Whittenton  vs.  Upton,  10  Gray, 
596,  which  furnishes  the  reasons  at  length.  If  the  trust 
had  been  properly  formed  as  a corporation  under 
the  laws  the  twenty  separate  companies  would 
have  been  dissolved,  and  not  remain  in  existence 
as  in  this  case.  'The  present  corporation  or  trust  puts 
upon  the  market  a capital  stock  defiant  of  actual 
values  and  capable  of  unlimited  expansion.  If  cor- 
porations can  combine  and  mass  their  forces  in  a solid 
trust  with  little  added  risk  to  capital  already  in,  without 
limit  to  magnitude,  a tempting  and  easy  road  is  opened 
to  enormous  combinations,  vastly  exceeding  in  number 
and  strength  any  possibilities  of  individual  ownership. 
The  law  seeks  to  protect  individuals  rather  than  com- 
binations. The  defendant  corporation  has  violated  its 
charter  and  failed  in  the  performance  of  its  corporate 
duties,  and  that  in  respects  so  material  and  important  as 
to  justify  a judgment  of  dissolution.”- 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  clearly  apparent  that  the 
tendency  of  judicial  opinions  is  against  the  legality  of 
trust  combinations.  Eminent  representatives  of  the 
judiciary  in  States  not  herein  quoted  entertain  similar 
views,  as  also  do  many  practitioners,  notwithstanding 
there  are  members  of  the  bar  of  cbnceded  abilities,  large 
experience,  and  amply  provided  with  authorities,  who 
contend  that  a violation  of  the  right  claimed  by  persons 
or  corporations  to  combine  for  the  “ purposes  of  con- 
trolling the  means  of  production,  even  though  they  are 
able  to  control  the  business  of  a continent,”  is  an  in- 
vasion of  personal  rights  that  should  be  summarily  dealt 
with.  Such  seems  to  be  the  condition  of  affairs  touch- 
ing the  question  of  trusts  at  present.  And  until  the 
same,  so  far,  at  least,  as  those  existing  in  the  United 
States  are  concerned,  is  definitely  determined  by  the 
court  of  last  resort,  the  corporate  death  of  such  combi- 
nations will  doubtless  be  indefinitely  deferred. 

TRUXILLO,  a town  of  Spain  with  a population  of 
9,800,  and  considerable  trading.  It  was  the  birthplace 
of  Pizarro,  who  was  buried  there. 

TRUXILLO,  a town  of  Peru,  founded  in  1535  by 
Pizarro,  who  named  it  after  his  birthplace  in  Spain.  It 
has  a population  of  about  10,000,  and  exports  consid- 
erable quantities  of  rice  and  spices. 

TRYSAIL,  a small  fore-and-aft  sail  mounted  by  a 
cutter  or  schooner  in  a storm,  when  the  wind  is  too 
violent  to  permit  her  to  carry  her  ordinary  canvas. 

TSARITSYN,  a district  town  of  the  government  of 
Saratoff,  Russia,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  lower 
Volga,  where  it  suddenly  turns  toward  the  southeast, 
only  forty  miles  distant  from  the  Don.  The  town  has 
grown  rapidly  since  the  completion  of  the  railway  sys- 
tem, and  has  a large  trade  in  naphtha  from  Baku,  which 
is  shipped  up  the  Volga  to  Tsaritsyn  and  Sent  thence  by 
rail  to  the  interior  of  Russia.  The  railway  between  the 
Baskunchak  salt  lakes  of  Astrakhan  and  the  Volga  has 
made  Tsaritsyn  also  a depot  for  the  salt  trade.  In 
addition  Tsaritsyn  is  the  center  of  the  trade  connected 
with  the  mustard  plantations  of  Sarepta,  Dubovka,  and 
the  neighborhood.  The  fisheries  of  the  place  are  also 
important.  The  population  (6,750  in  1861)  numbered 
55,967  in  1898.  It  is  still  larger  in  summer,  Tsaritsyn 
having  become  the  gathering- place  of  poor  people  in 
search  of  work,  and  the  misery  ana  filth  in  its  poorer 
quarters  are  very  great. 


TS A— TUB 


TSARSKOYE  SELO,  a district  town  of  Russia,  in 
the  government  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  an  imperial  res- 
idence, eighteen  miles  to  the  south  of  the  capital,  is 
situated  on  the  Duderhof  Hills,  and  consists  of  the 
town  proper,  surrounded  by  several  villages  and  a Ger- 
man colony,  which  are  summer  resorts  for  the  inhabit- 
ants of  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  imperial  parks  and 
palaces.  The  population  numbered  17,000  in  1898. 

TSCHUDI,  or  Schudy,  the  name  of  one  of  the 
oldest  and  most  distinguished  families  of  the  land  of 
Glarus,  Switzerland.  In  literature,  its  most  eminent 
member  was  Giles  or  ^Egidius  Tschudi  (1505-72), 
who,  after  having  served  his  native  land  in  various 
offices,  in  1558  became  the  chief  magistrate  or  “land- 
ammann.”  Originally  inclined  to  moderation,  he  be- 
came later  in  life  more  and  more  devoted  to  the  cause 
of  the  counter- Reformation.  It  is,  however,  as  the 
historian  of  the  Swiss  Confederation  that  he  is  best 
known.  In  1538  his  book  on  Rhaetia,  written  in  1528, 
V/ftS  published  in  Latin  and  in  German — De  prisca  ac 
ve/a  Alpina  Rhcetia , or  Die  uralt  wahrhafftig  Alpisch 
Rkdtia. 

TSE-NAN  FOO,  the  capital  city  of  the  province  of 
Shantung  in  China,  stands  in  36°  40'  N.  latitude  and 
1 1 7°  i*  E.  longitude.  It  is  situated  in  one  of  the  earli- 
est settled  districts  of  the  empire,  and  figures  repeatedly 
in  the  records  of  the  wars  which  troubled  the  country 
during  the  six  centuries  that  preceded  the  Christian  era. 
The  most  noticeable  feature  about  the  city  is  three 
springs  outside  the  west  gate,  which  throw  up  as  many 
streams  of  tepid  water  to  a height  of  about  two  feet. 
This  water,  which  is  pleasant  to  the  taste,  and  is  highly 
prized  for  its  healing  qualities,  flows  in  such  abundant 
quantities  that  it  fills  the  moat  and  forms  a fine  lake  in 
the  northern  quarter  of  the  city.  With  the  taste  which 
Chinamen  always  show  in  such  matters,  the  lake  is 
divided  into  a number  of  water  avenues  by  floating 
banks,  on  which  flowers  and  trees  are  skillfully  ar- 
ranged, and  is  further  adorned  with  several  picturesque 
summer  houses,  which  form  points  of  attraction  to 
picnic  parties  and  pleasure-seekers  during  the  warmer 
months.  Its  waters  abound  with  many  species  of  edi- 
ble fish.  The  population  of  the  town  is  reckoned  at 
about  100,000. 

TSETSE  FLY  ( Glossina  morsitans).  The  tsetse 
fly,  so  much  dreaded  by  the  traveler  in  South  Africa, 
belongs  to  the  sub-family  Muscince  and  is  closely  allied 
to  Stomoxys.  It  is  scarcely  larger  than  the  common 
house  fly,  which  it  resembles  in  its  general  shape.  It 
can,  however,  be  easily  distinguished  by  its  color  and 
the  position  of  its  wings.  The  bite  of  the  tsetse  is 
innocuous  to  man  and  is  not  more  painful  than  that  of 
a gnat.  Large  game,  goats,  and  apparently  all  animals 
while  suckling,  are  also  unaffected  by  it.  But  to  the 
horse,  ox,  and  dog  it  is  fatal.  The  poison  may  take 
effect  after  a few  days,  or  the  animal  may  remain 
apparently  unaffected  for  some  months;  but  eventually 
symptoms  of  poisoning  appear.  These  symptoms 
seem  to  be  rather  variable;  as  a rule  swellings  arise 
under  the  jaws  and  around  the  navel,  the  eyes  and  nose 
begin  to  run,  and,  although  the  animal  continues  to 
graze,  it  becomes  more  and  more  emaciated,  suffers  vio- 
lently from  purging,  and  at  length  succumbs  to  extreme 
exhaustion.  The  fly  is  said  to  avoid  animal  excreta, 
and  in  some  parts  a paste  composed  of  milk  and  manure 
is  smeared  on  cattle  which  are  about  to  pass  through 
ihe  “ fly-belts.  ” This  affords  a certain  amount  of  pro- 
tection. Lion’s  fat  is  used  in  the  same  way,  and ’is  said 
$0  be  efficacious. 

TUAM,  a market  town  and  episcopal  city  of  Galway, 

dand,  is  the  terminus  of  the  Athenry  and  Tuam  rail- 
and  lies  20  miles  northeast  of  Galway  and  129 


5935 

west  of  Dublin.  The  town  has  a considerable  retail 
trade,  and  is  a center  for  the  disposal  of  agricultural 
produce.  From  4,223  in  1871  the  population  decreased 
to  3,267  in  1901. 

TUAMOTU  ARCHIPELAGO,  a broad  belt  ol 
seventy  coral  islands  lying  between  140  5'  and  230  22' 
S.  latitude  and  134°  25'  and  148°  40'  W.  longitude,  and 
now  under  the  protection  of  France.  They  trend  in 
irregular  lines  in  a northwest  and  southeast  direction, 
and  cover  1,500  miles  of  the  Pacific,  the  easternmost 
Tuamotus  being  3,600  miles  from  Peru.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  a few  insignificant  islands  the  archipelago 
consists  of  atolls,  mostly  chains  of  low  islets  that  crown 
the  reefs  and  sometimes  also  obstruct  the  deep  lagoons 
which  they  encircle.  The  largest  island,  Nairsa  (Dean’s 
Island),  with  a lagoon  forty-five  miles  long  by  fifteen 
wide,  is  made  up  of  twenty  islets.  Fakarava,  the  next 
in  size,  consists  of  fifteen  islets,  and  its  oblong  lagoon 
affords  the  best  anchorage  in  the  group.  Hao  has  fifty 
islets,  and  its  lagoon  is  dangerously  studded  with  coral. 
The  symmetrically  placed  eleven  islets  of  Anao  suggest- 
ed to  Captain  Cook  the  name  of  Chain  Island.  Mata- 
hiva,  Niau,  and  Mururoa  are  good  specimens  of  the 
horse-shoe-shaped  atoll.  Nengonengone,  Fangataufa, 
and  Marutea,  true  lagoon  islands,  form  unbroken  rings 
round  their  lake-like  lagoons.  In  a few  of  the  smaller 
atolls  the  lagoons  have  been  completely  silted  up.  To 
the  southeast  lie  the  Gambier  Islands,  a cluster  of  four 
larger  and  many  smaller  volcanic  islets,  inclosed  in,  one 
wide  reef.  This  group  was  discovered  by  Captain 
Wilson  of  the  London  Missionary  Society  in  1797. 
Tahitian  teachers  were  sent  thither  in  1834;  but  Catho- 
lic missionaries  followed  in  1836,  and  converted  the 
entire  population.  The  natives,  once  very  numerous, 
now  number  less  than  a thousand,  and  are  still  decreas. 
ing.  Coral  grows  luxuriantly  everywhere.  From  the 
abundance  of  pearl-oysters  the  archipelago  gets  its  name 
of  Pearl  Islands;  pearl-fishing  indeed  is  the  only  remu- 
nerative industry.  Under  French  control  the  newest 
appliances  for  obtaining  shells  have  now  mostly  super- 
seded the  laborious  diving  of  the  natives.  The  Tna- 
motus  are  very  thinly  inhabited  by  a fine,  strong 
Polynesian  race,  more  muscular  and  mostly  darker- 
skinned  than  that  inhabiting  Tahiti.  Fn  the  west  con- 
siderable intermixture  with  other  races  ha?  taken  p 5ac& 
Of  the  habits  of  the  people  little  is  known. 

TUBERCLE.  See  Phthisis. 

TUBEROSE.  The  cultivated  tuberose  [Polianthes 
tuoerosa ) is  allied  to  the  Mexican  agaves  and  is  a nativ( 
of  the  same  country.  The  tuberous  root-stock  sends 
up  a stem  three  feet  in  height,  with  numerous  lanceo- 
late leaves  and  terminal  racemes  of  white  funnel-shaped, 
very  fragrant  flowers.  Each  flower  is  about  one  and  a 
half  inches  long,  with  a long  tube  and  a six-parted  limb. 
The  stamens  are  six  in  number,  emerging  from  the 
upper  part  of  the  tube,  and  bear  linear  anthers.  The 
ovary  is  three-celled;  but  the  mature  fruit  and  seed  are 
not  botanically  known.  The  plant  is  largely  grown  in 
the  United  States. 

TUBE-WELL  is  an  American  contrivance,  having 
for  its  object  the  obtaining  of  a small  supply  of  water  in 
a very  short  space  of  time  by  the  application  of  a limited 
amount  of  manual  power.  The  apparatus  comprises 
three  parts — a tube  or  well,  a rammer  or  monkey,  and  a 
pump.  The  tube  consists  of  an  iron  pipe  about  one 
and  one-quarter  inches  in  diameter,  made  in  pieces  of 
convenient  length,  which  can  be  screwed  together  end 
to  end.  The  pipe  terminates  at  the  lower  end  in  a 
solid  tempered  steel  point,  and  is  perforated  for  about 
sixteen  inches  from  the  end  with  small  lateral  apertures. 
The  pipe  is  driven  a short  way  into  the  ground,  just 
sufficient  to  keep  it  upright  without  falling,  and  is  tem- 


5936  TUB- 

porarily  kept  in  that  position  by  hand.  A strong  iron 
clamp  is  similarly  fixed  higher  up.  Two  pulleys  are 
supported  by  the  upper  clamp.  The  rammer,  or  mon- 
key, consists  of  a fifty-pound  iron  weight,  which  slides 
up  and  down  the  tube  encircling  it  like  a ring  or  belt. 
The  rammer  being  raised  by  two  men  is  allowed  to  fall 
with  its  full  weight  on  the  lower  clamp,  thus  giving  a 
series  of  blows  which  drive  the  tube  into  the  ground. 
When  the  lower  clamp  becomes  level  with  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  it  is  raised  up  the  tube;  as  is  likewise  the 
other  clamp,  which  supports  the  two  pulleys.  Succes- 
sive lengths  of  tube  and  successive  shiftings  of  the 
clamps  afford  the  means  of  enabling  the  perforated  end 
of  the  tube  to  reach  soil  whence  water  can  be  obtained. 
When  the  symptoms  appear  of  water  having  been 
reached,  a small  suction  pump  is  applied  and  the  water 
pumped.  It  is  only  when  water  is  expected  to  be 
reached  at  a moderate  distance  below  the  surface  that 
this  apparatus  is  available,  as  it  is  not  powerful 
enough  for  great  depths,  nor  is  the  bore  of  the  tube 
sufficient  for  a large  influx  of  water;  but  the  required 
conditions  being  found  to  exist,  the  apparatus  saves  a 
large  amount  of  ordinary  boring.  As  the  water  is 
pumped  up,  the  loose  sand  and  gravel  disappear  from 
the  point  of  the  tube,  allowing  the  formation  of  a small 
pool  or  well,  while  small  pebbles  which  collect  around 
the  perforations  act  as  a sort  of  filter.  The  tube  can  be 
txtracted  from  the  ground  by  forcing  the  rammer  up- 
ward against  the  upper  clamp. 

TUBINGEN,  the  university  town  of  Wurtemberg,  is 
lcturesquely  situated  on  the  hilly  and  well-wooded 
anks  of  the  Neckar,  at  the  junction  of  the  Ammer  and 
Steinlach,  eighteen  miles  south  of  Stuttgart,  and  on  the 
southeast  border  of  the  Black  Forest.  Tubingen’s 
chief  claim  to  attention  lies  in  its  famous  university, 
founded  in  1477  by  Duke  Eberhard.  The  university 
adopted  the  Reformed  faith  in  1534,  and  in  1536  a Prot- 
estant theological  seminary — the  so-called  Stift — was 
incorporated  with  it.  In  1817  a Roman  Catholic  theo- 
logical faculty  (the  w Convict”)  and  a faculty  of  politics 
and  economics  were  added,  and  in  1863  a faculty  of 
science.  The  leading  faculty  has  long  been  that  of  theol- 
ogy, and  an  advanced  school  of  theological  criticism, 
the  founder  and  chief  light  of  which  was  F.  C.  Baur, 
is  known  as  the  Tubingen  school.  The  pop.  (1900)  was 
j5>338-  The  country  in  the  neighborhood  of  Tubin- 
gen is  very  attractive ; one  ot  the  most  interesting  points 
is  the  former  Cistercian  monastery  of  Bebenhausen, 
founded  in  1185,  and  now  a royal  hunting-chateau. 

TUCKER,  Abraham,  holds  a place  of  his  own 
among  the  English  moralists  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
He  was  born  in  London,  of  a Somerset  family, 
September  2,  1705.  In  1721  Tucker  entered  Merton 
College,  Oxford,  as  a gentleman  commoner.  In  1736 
he  married  Dorothy  Barker,  the  daughter  of  a 
neighboring  landed  proprietor.  His  wife,  to  whom  he 
was  fondly  attached,  died  in  1 754,  leaving  him  with  two 
daughters.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  education  of 
his  daughters,  and  from  this  time  onward  began  to  oc- 
cupy himself  with  the  composition  of  the  work  by 
which  he  is  known — The  Light  of  Nature  Pursued. 
In  1765  the  first  four  volumes  of  his  work  were  pub- 
lished under  the  pseudonym  of  Edward  Search.  The  re- 
maining three  volumes  did  not  appear  till  after  his  death. 
He  died  on  November  20,  1774. 

TUCKER,  Josiah,  dean  of  Gloucester  from  1758, 
a sagacious  and  candid  writer  on  politics  and  political 
economy,  was  born  in  17 11  and  died  in  1799. 

TUCSON,  a city  in  Pima  county,  Arizona  Ter- 
ritory, is  situated  in  320  13'  N.  latitude  and  no° 
53'  W.  longitude  at  an  elevation  of  2,403  feet  above  the 
<ea,  upon  the  Santa  Cvuz  river  and  on  the  Southern 


-TUL 

Pacific  Railroad,  about  seventy  miles  from  the  Mexican 
frontier.  The  surrounding  country  is  arid  and  barren, 
except  where  it  has  been  fertilized  by  irrigation.  The 
climate  is  exceedingly  hot  and  dry.  The  principal  in- 
dustries of  Tucson,  besides  stockrearing,  are  connected 
with  mining,  as  it  is  a supply  point  for  mining  districts 
in  the  neighboring  mountains  and  has  several  smelting 
works.  The  population,  which  in  i860  was  915,  in  1870 
3,224,  had  grown  by  1890  to  5,150,  and  in  1900  had 
increased  to  7,531.  About  one-half  are  of  foreign 
birth,  a large  proportion  being  Mexicans.  Tucson 
is  one  of  the  oldest  settlements  in  the  United 
States,  having  been  founded  as  a Jesuit  mission  by  the 
Spaniards  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

TUCUMAN,  or,  more  fully,  San  Miguel  de  Tucu- 
MAN,  capital  of  the  province  of  Tucuman,  in  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  is  a straggling  town,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Tala.  The  surrounding  district  is  fertile,  and  also 
produces  excellent  timber.  Leather  and  sugar  are  the 
principal  objects  of  industry.  The  population  was  re- 
cently estimated  (1901)  at  50,000. 

TUDELA,  a city  of  S^ain,  in  the  province  of  Na- 
varre, is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ebro  where 
it  is  joined  by  the  Queyles,  and  on  the  railway  from 
Zaragoza  to  Pamplona,  about  fifty  miles  to  the  north- 
west of  the  former  city.  The  manufactures  of  the 
place  (cloth,  silk,  pottery)  are  unimportant.  There  is 
some  trade  in  wine  and  oil.  The  population  within  the 
municipal  boundaries  in  1897  was  12,086. 

TUDOR,  House  of.  See  Henry  VII.  and  Lan- 
caster,  House  of. 

TUKE,  Samuel,  English  philanthropist,  son  ol 
Henry  Tuke,  born  at  York  in  1784,  greatly  advanced 
the  cause  of  the  amelioration  of  the  condition. of  the  in- 
sane, and  devoted  himself  largely  to  the  York  Retreat, 
the  methods  of  treatment  pursued  in  which,  he  made 
more  widely  known  by  his  Description  of  the  Retreat 
near  York , etc.  (York,  1813).  His  writings  on  the 
construction  of  asylums  and  on  other  subjects  connected 
with  the  insane  are  well  known.  He  died  in  1857. 

TUKE,  William,  English  philanthropist,  was  born 
at  York  in  1732.  He  devoted  himself  to  many  philan- 
thropic objects,  but  his  name  is  more  especially  known 
in  connection  with  the  humane  treatment  of  the  insane, 
for  whose  care  he  projected,  in  1792,  the  Retreat  at 
York,  which  became  famous  both  abroad  and  in  Great 
Britain  as  an  institution  in  which  a bold  attempt  was 
made  to  manage  lunatics  without  the  excessive  restraints 
then  regarded  as  essential.  When  he  died,  in  1822,  the 
superiority  of  the  treatment  adopted  at  the  Retreat  was 
fully  acknowledged. 

TUKE,  Henry,  son  of  the  preceding  and  father  of 
Samuel  Tuke,  cooperated  with  his  father  in  the  reform 
at  the  York  Retreat.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
moral  and  theological  treatises,  which  have  been  trans- 
lated into  German  and  French.  He  was  born  in  1756, 
and  died  in  1814. 

TULA,  a government  of  central  Russia,  bounded  by 
Moscow  on  the  north,  Ryazan  on  the  east,  Tamboff 
and  Orel  on  the  south,  and  Kaluga  on  the  west,  has  an 
area  of  11,950  square  miles.  Devonian  limestones, 
dolomites,  and  sandstones  appear  chiefly  in  the  south- 
west ; Lower  and  Middle  Carboniferous  limestones  and 
clays  occupy  the  remainder  of  the  area.  The  former 
contain  deposits  of  coal,  which  are  now  worked  (chiefly 
at  Malevka  and  Novoselsk)  to  the  extent  of  nearly 
1,500,000  hundredweights  annually.  Jurassic  clays  are 
found  in  patches  here  and  there.  Glacial  boulder  clay 
covers  most  of  the  region,  while  Lacustrine  deposits  are 
widely  spread  in  the  valleys  and  depressions.  Iron-ore 
is  found  all  over  the  government;  limestone,  fire-clay, 
and  notterv  clav  are  also  obtained  The  soil  is  black 


TU  L 


earth  in  the  south  and  east  and  clay  or  sandy  clay  in  the 
northwest.  The  climate  is  less  rigorous  than  that  of 
Moscow,  the  average  yearly  temperature  being  40. 2° 
Fahr.  (January,  13.8°  ; July,  67.5°). 

The  population  of  the  government  is  1,432,743. 
They  are  all  Great  Russians,  and  either  Orthodox 
Greeks  or  Raskolniks.  Their  chief  occupation  is  agri- 
culture, 70  per  cent,  of  the  area  being  arable. 
Nearly  one-half  of  the  soil  belongs  to  landlords  and 
merchants,  and  the  other  half  to  the  peasant  communi- 
ties  (53  per  per  cent,  of  the  area,  and  58  per  cent,  of 
the  land  under  culture).  Beet-root  culture  is  increasing 
(8,520  acres  in  1885,  yielding  59,800  hundredweights  of 
sugar).  The  growth  of  tobacco  is  also  spreading  (10, • 
000  hundredweights  in  1885).  There  were  in  1883 
380,620  horses,  203,500  cattle,  and  786,000  sheep. 
Manufactures  are  rapidly  developing.  Petty  trades, 
especially  the  manufacture  of  tea-urns,  small  brass  ware, 
and  harmoniums,  and  also  weaving,  are  extensively 
carried  on  and  support  a lively  export  trade;  timber,  raw 
metals,  and  various  manufactured  wares  are  imported. 
The  government  is  traversed  by  the  Moscow  and  Se- 
bastopol and  the  Ryazhsk  and  Vyazemsk  railways,  as 
well  as  by  the  Oka.  The  government  is  divided  into 
twelve  districts,  the  chief  towns  of  which  with  their  pop- 
ulation in  1898  are  Tula  (see  below),  Alexin  (4,960), 
Bogoroditsk  (8,030),  Byeleff  (9,300),  Epifan  (3,820), 
Efremoff  (7,770),  Kashira  (4,010),  Krapivna  (1,560), 
Novosil  (4,660),  Odoeff  (5,140),  and  Tchern  (2,675). 
Byeleff,  Alexin  and  Kashira  are  important  loading 
places  on  the  Oka.  The  villages  Malevka  (coal  mines) 
and  Nikitino  have  more  than  5,000  inhabitants  each, 

TULA,  capital  of  the  above  government  is  situated 
on  the  Upa,  120  miles  by  rail  to  the  south  of  Moscow. 
It  is  built  in  the  broad  but  low,  marshy,  and  unhealthy 
valley  of  the  Upa  and  is  divided  into  three  parts — the 
Posad  on  the  left  bank,  the  Zaryetskaya  or  Oruzheinaya 
on  the  right  bank,  and  Tchulkova  between  the  Upa  and 
the  Tulitsa.  It  is  an  old  town  of  Old  Russia,  but  its 
growth  began  only  toward  the  end  of  the  eigthteenth 
century  after  the  manufacture  of  arms  had  commenced, 
and  now,  1898,  its  population  has  reached  111,048.  They 
are  employed  chiefly  either  at  the  imperial  gun  factory 
or  at  numerous  private  factories  (about  130  with  4,350 
men)  and  small  workshops.  The  main  branch  of  the 
industry  is  the  making  of  rifles  (from  20,000  to  30,000 
annually).  Next  in  importance  comes  the  manufacture 
of  samovars  (tea-urns),  in  which  more  than  5,000  per- 
sons are  engaged  All  sorts  of  cutlery  and  ironmong- 
ery are  manufactured  in  the  small  workshops  of  Tula, 
which  have  a high  repute  in  Russia. 

TULIP  ( Tulipa ),  a genus  of  bulbous  herbs  belong- 
ing to  the  Liliaceee.  The  species  are  found  wild  along 
the  northern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  the  Levant, 
Armenia,  Caucasus,  Persia,  Central  Asia,  and  Afghan- 
istan. The  cup-shaped  flowers  have  six  regular  seg- 
ments in  two  rows,  as  many  free  stamens,  and  a three- 
celled  ovary  with  a sessile  stigma,  which  ripens  into  a 
leathery,  many-seeded  capsule.  The  species  are  numer- 
ous, and  are  distinguished  one  from  another  by  the 
scales  of  the  bulb  being  wooly  or  smooth  on  the  inner 
surface,  by  the  character  of  the  flower-stalks,  by  the 
filaments  being  hairy  or  otherwise,  and  by  other  char- 
acteristics. Owing  to  the  great  beauty  of  the  flowers  they 
have  been  favorites  in  gardens  for  two  or  three  centuries, 
and  have  been  crossed  and  recrossed  till  it  has  become 
almost  impossible  to  refer  the  plants  to  their  original 
types.  The  early  flowering  “ V an  Thol  ” tulips,  the 
segments  of  which  are  mostly  scarlet  with  yellow  edges, 
are  derived  from  T.  suaveolens , a native  of  the  Caspian 
region.  T.  Gesneriana , a native  of  Armenia  and  cen- 
tral Russia,  is  the  origin  of  some  of  the  later  flowering 


5937 

varieties.  During  the  last  few  years  a large  number  o! 
new  species  have  been  discovered  in  Turkestan,  and  in- 
troduced into  Europe.  Some  of  these  are  very  beauti' 
ful,  and  render  it  probable  that  by  intercrossing  with  the 
older  species  still  further  difficulties  will  be  presented 
in  the  way  of  identification.  This  innate  power  of  vari- 
ation has  enabled  the  florist  to  obtain,  and  ultimately  to 
“ fix,”  so  many  remarkable  varieties.  At  the  present 
day  tulips  are  less  fashionable  than  they  once  were,  and 
consequently  the  enormous  prices  given  for  new  or  im- 
proved varieties  no  longer  obtain,  though,  even  now, 
large  sums  are  asked  for  special  bulbs. 

TULLAMORE,  one  of  the  capitals,  and  now  the 
assize  town  of  King’s  county,  Ireland,  is  situated  on 
the  Grand  canal,  fifty-nine  miles  west-southwest  from 
Dublin,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a branch  from  the 
Great  Southern  and  Western  railway.  It  stands  upon 
what  may  be  called  a fertile  island  of  the  great  Bog  of 
Allen,  and  has  within  the  last  half  century  risen  into 
some  importance.  The  population  amounted  in  1901 
to  5,100,  mostly  Roman  Catholics.  It  is  a place  of  con- 
siderable business,  commanding  from  its  central  position 
the  inland  traffic  of  a very  large  and  fertile  district.  A 
large  trade  in  grain  and  agricultural  produce  is  carried 
on  with  Dublin  by  the  canal  There  is  a large  distillery, 
extensive  breweries  and  several  tanneries;  and  Tullamore 
is  the  center  of  a busy  cattle  trade.  The  schools,  both 
conventual  and  national,  are  excellent  and  numerously 
attended.  There  are  a jail  and  court-house,  barracks, 
Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant  churches,  etc.  A news- 
paper is  published  here  every  week.  Within  a few 
miles  is  situated  the  extensive  Jesuit  College  of  Tulla- 
beg,  which  receives  about  150  pupils. 

TULLE,  a town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  the  de- 
partment of  Correze  and  a bishop’?  see,  is  sixty-one 
miles  east-northeast  of  Perigueux  by  the  railway  from 
Bordeaux  to  Clermond-Ferrand.  The  town  rises  pict- 
uresquely on  both  banks  of  the  Correze,  a sub-tribu- 
tary of  the  Dordogne.  The  Correze,  crossed  by  four 
bridges,  flows  between  embankments,  and  the  narrow 
streets  on  the  steep  left  bank  are  connected  by  stairs. 
Of  the  twelfth  century  cathedral  only  the  porch  and  the 
nave  of  six  bays  remain,  the  choir  and  transept  having 
been  destroyed  in  1793;  but  there  is  a fourteenth  cent- 
ury tower,  with  a fine  stone  steeple.  The  principal  in- 
dustry is  the  manufacture  of  firearms.  The  govern- 
ment establishments  employ  from  1,500  to  3,000 
workmen,  and  can  turn  out  70,000  guns  annually. 
Manufactories  for  the  variety  of  lace  called  “ tulle n 
were  first  established  here.  There  is  a collection  of  the 
firearms  of  all  nations.  The  population  in  1889  was 
10,635,  and  was  in  1901,  13,500. 

TULLE,  a term  restricted  in  England  to  a fine  bob- 
bin-net of  silk,  used  for  veils,  scarfs,  millinery  pur- 
poses, and  trimmings  of  ladies’  dresses,  etc.  The  French 
used  the  word  to  mean  all  machine-made  lace  the  basis 
of  which  is  the  intertwisted  net-work  made  on  the  bob- 
bin-net machine.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  town 
of  Tulle  in  France,  ( q.v .) 

TULLOCH,  John,  Scottish  theologian,  was  born  in 
Perthshire  in  1823,  and  received  his  university  educa- 
tion at  St.  Andrews  and  Edinburgh.  In  1845  he  be- 
came minister  of  St.  Paul’s,  Dundee,  and  in  1849  °f 
Kettins,  in  Strathmore,  where  he  remained  for  six  years. 
His  literary  gifts,  shown  in  his  contributions  to  various 
reviews,  as  well  as  his  talent  for  society,  drew  attention 
to  him,  and  in  1854  he  was  appointed  to  the  principal- 
ship  of  St.  Mary’s  College,  St.  Andrews.  The  appoint- 
ment was  immediately  followed  by  the  appearance  of  his 
Burnet  prize  essay  on  Theism.  At  St.  Andrews,  where 
he  held  along  with  the  principalship  the  post  of  professor 
of  systematic  theology  and  apologetics,  his  work  as  a 


5938  TUL- 

teacher  was  distinguished  by  several  features  which  at 
that  time  were  new.  No  one,  except  perhaps  Dr. 
Robert  Lee,  has  done  more  during  the  last  generation 
to  widen  the  national  church.  For  three  years  before 
his  death  he  was  convener  of  the  church  interests  com- 
mittee of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  which  had  to  deal  with 
a great  agitation  for  disestablishment.  His  death  took 
place  at  Torquay  February  13,  1886. 

TULLUS  HOSTILIUS,  third  legendary  king  of 
Rome,  is  represented  a$  having  reigned  for  thirty-two 
years  (670-038  B.c).  His  successful  wars  with  Alba, 
Fiaente,  and  Veii  shadow  forth  the  earlier  conquests  of 
Latian  territory  and  the  first  extension  of  the  Roman 
domain  beyond  the  walls  of  Rome.  (See  Rome,  ante.) 

TUMKUR,  or  Toomkoor,  a district  of  India,  in 
the  west  of  the  Nandidrug  division  of  Mysore.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Bellary  district,  on  the 
east  by  Kolar  and  Bangalore,  on  the  south  by  Mysore, 
and  on  the  west  by  Chitaldrug  and  Hassan.  Tumkur 
consists  chiefly  of  elevated  land  intersected  by  river  val- 
leys. The  principal  streams  are  the  J ayamangala  and 
the  Shimsha.  The  mineral  wealth  of  Tumkur  is  con- 
siderable; iron  is  obtained  in  large  quantities  from  the 
hill  sides,  and  excellent  building  stone  is  quarried.  The 
slopes  of  the  Devaray-durga  Hills,  a tract  of  eighteen 
square  miles,  are  clothed  with  forests. 

In  1901  the  population  of  Tumkur  numbered  413,- 
183  (males  203,253,  females  209,930),  embracing  395,- 
443  Hindus,  17,130  Mohammedans,  and  603  Christians. 
Tumkur  town,  situated  at  the  base  of  the  Devaray- 
durga  Hills,  forty-three  miles  northwest  of  Bangalore, 
with  a population  of  9,909,  is  the  administrative  head- 
quarters. 

TUMOR.  See  Pathology  and  Surgery. 

TUMULUS.  ee  Bap  rows. 

TUNBRIDGE,  or  Tonbridge,  a town  of  Kent, 
England,  is  situated  on  rising  ground  above  the  Med- 
way, and  on  the  South-Eastern  railway,  forty-one 
miles  (by  rail)  southeast  of  London  and  thirty- three 
northwest  of  Hastings.  The  Medway  is  crossed  by  a 
stone  bridge,  erected  in  1775.  The  town  consists  chiefly 
of  one  long  main  street  and  a large  number  of  suburban 
villas.  There  are  gunpowder  mills  on  the  banks  of  the 
Medway;  and  wool-stapling,  brewing,  and  tanning  are 
carried  on.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  dis- 
trict (area  1,200  acres)  in  1881  was  9,317,  and  was  in 
1901  13,000. 

TUNBRIDGE  WELLS,  an  inland  watering-place 
)f  England,  chiefly  in  Kent  but  partly  in  Sussex,  is  situ- 
ated in  the  midst  of  charming  and  picturesque  scenery, 
>n  the  South-Eastern  railway  and  at  the  terminus  of  a 
branch  line  of  the  London,  Brighton  and  South  Coast 
/ailway,  forty-six  miles  (by  rail)  southeast  of  London 
and  five  south  of  Tunbridge.  It  owes  its  popularity  to 
its  chalybeate  spring  and  its  romantic  situation.  The 
veils  are  situated  near  the  Parade  (or  Pantiles),  a walk 
associated  with  fashion  since  the  time  of  their  discovery. 
The  town  is  built  in  a picturesquely  irregular  manner, 
and  a large  part  of  it  consists  of  districts  called  “ parks,  ” 
occupied  by  villas  and  mansions.  On  Rusthall  com- 
mon, about  a mile  from  the  town,  is  the  curiously 
shaped  Toad  Rock,  and  about  a mile  southwest  the 
striking  group  called  High  Rocks.  The  population  of 
die  urban  sanitary  district  (area  3,351  acres)  is  24,308. 

The  town  owes  its  rise  to  the  discovery  of  the  medic- 
inal springs  by  Dudley,  Lord  North,  in  1606.  Plenri- 
etta  Maria,  wife  of  Charles  I.,  retired  to  drink  the  waters 
at  Tunbridge  after  the  birth  of  her  eldest  son  Charles. 
Soon  after  the  Restoration  it  was  visited  by  Charles  II. 
and  Catherine  of  Braganza.  It  was  a favorite  residence 
of  Anne  previous  to  her  accession,  and  from  that  time 
became  one  of  the. special  resorts  of  London  fashion. 


-TUN 

It  reached  the  height  of  its  comparative  populanty  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  is  specialty 
associated  with  Colley  Cibber,  Samuel  Johnson,  Cum- 
berland the  dramatist,  Garrick,  Richardson,  Reynolds, 
Beau  Nash,  Miss  Chudleigh,  and  Mrs.  Thrale.  The 
Tunbridge  of  that  period  is  sketched  with  much  graphic 
humor  in  Thackeray’s  Virginians. 

T’UNG-CHOW,  a sub-prefectural  city  in  Chih-li, 
the  metropolitan  province  of  China,  is  situated  on  the 
banks  of  the  Peiho,  about  twelve  miles  southeast  oi 
Peking.  Like  most  Chinese  cities,  T’ung-Chow  has 
appeared  in  history  under  various  names.  By  the 
founder  of  the  Han  dynasty  (206  B.C.)  it  was  called 
Lu-Hien;  with.the  rise  of  the  T’ang dynasty  (618  a.d.) 
its  name  was  changed  to  Heuen-Chow;  and,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  with  the  advent  of  the 
Kin  dynasty  to  power,  Heuen-Chow  became  T’ung- 
Chow.  The  city  marks  the  highest  point  at  which  the 
Peiho  is  navigable,  and  here  merchandise  for  the  capital 
is  transferred  to  a canal,  by  which  it  reaches  Peking. 
The  city,  which  is  faced  on  its  eastern  side  by  the  river, 
and  on  its  other  three  sides  is  surrounded  by  populous 
suburbs,  is  upward  of  three  miles  in  circumference. 
The  place  derives  its  importance  from  the  fact  that  it  is 
the  port  of  Peking.  Its  population  was  estimated  at 
about  50,000  in  1897. 

TUNGSTEN  (Germ,  wolfram , or,  antiquated,  scheel), 
one  of  the  metallic  elements  of  chemistry.  The  mineral 
tungsten  (meaning  in  Swedish  “ heavy  stone  ”)  used  to 
be  taken  for  a tin  ore  until  this  was  disproved  by 
Cronsted.  Scheele  showed,  in  1 781,  that  it  is  a compound 
of  lime  with  a peculiar  acid,  the  metallic  nature  of  which 
was  recognized  in  the  same  year  by  Bergmann.  It 
occurs  only  as  a component  of  a number  of  relatively 
rare  minerals,  the  most  important  of  which  are  wolfram 
or  wolframite,  and  scheelite  (tungsten)  (see  Miner- 
alogy). The  metal  is  prepared  from  the  pure  oxide 
WO;i  by  reduction  with  hydrogen  in  a platinum  tube  at 
a high  temperature.  It  forms  resplendent  tin-white  or 
gray  plates,  or  a dull  black  powder  similar  to  hydrogen- 
reduced  iron.  It  is  more  difficult  to  fuse  than  even 
Manganese,  ( q.v .)  It  is  unalterable  in  ordinary  air; 
oxygen  and  even  chlorine  act  upon  it  only  at  a high 
temperature.  Hydrochloric  and  sulphu  ric  acid  do  not 
attack  it.  Nitric  acid  attacks  it  slowly,  aqua  regia 
readily,  with  formation  of  the  trioxide  W03. 

TUNGUSES,  a wide-spyead  Asiatic  people,  forming 
a main  branch  of  the  Mongol  division  of  the  Mongol- 
Tartar  family.  They  are  the  Tung-hu  of  the  Chinese, 
probably  a corrupt  form  of  tonki  or  donki , that  is, 
“men”  or  “people.”  The  Russian  form  fungus , 
wrongly  supposed  Jo  mean  “ lake  people,  ” appears  to 
occur  first  in  the  Dutch  writer  Massa  (1612);  but  the 
race  has  been  known  to  the  Russians  ever  since  they 
reached  the  Yenisei.  The  Tungus  domairf,  covering 
many  hundred  thousand  square  miles  in  central  and  east 
Siberia  and  in  the  Amur  basin,  stretches  from  the  Yenisei 
eastward  to  the  Pacific,  where  it  occupies  most  of  the 
seaboard  between  Corea  and  Kamchatka.  It  also 
reaches  the  Arctic  Ocean  at  two  points,  in  theNisovaya 
tundra,  west  of  the  Khatanga  river,  and  in  a compara- 
tively small  inclosure  in  the  Yana  basin  over  against 
the  Liakhoff  (New  Siberia)  Archipelago.  But  the-  Tun- 
guses  proper  are  chiefly  centered  in  the  region  watered 
by  the  three  large  eastern  tributaries  of  the  Yenisei, 
which  from  them  take  their  names  of  the  Upper,  Middle 
or  Stoney,  and  Lower  Tunguska.  The  Amur  is  still 
mainly  a Tungus  river  almost  from  its  source  to  its 
mouth ; the  Oroches  (Orochus),  Daurians,  Birars,  Golds, 
Manegrs,  Sanagirs,  Ngatkons,  Nigidals,  and  some  other 
aboriginal  tribes  scattered  along  the  main  stream  and  its 
affluents — the  Shilka,  Sungari,  and  Usuri — are  all  otf 


TUN 


Tungus  stock  and  speech.  On  the  Pacific  the  chief 
subdivisions  of  the  race  are  the  Lamuts,  or  “ sea  people,  ” 
grouped  in  small  isolated  hunting  communities  round 
the  west  coast  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  and  further  south 
the  Yu-pi-ta-tze  (“  fish  clad  ”),  the  Tazi  of  the  Russians, 
between  the  Amur  delta  and  Corea.  The  whole  race, 
exclusive  of  Manchus,  numbers  probably  about  80,000, 
of  whom  15,000  are  in  the  Amur  basin,  the  rest  in 
Siberia. 

TUNICATA.  This  group  of  animals  was  formerly 
regarded  as  constituting  along  with  the  Polyzoa  and  the 
Brachiopoda  the  invertebrate  class  Molluscoidea.  It  is 
now  known  to  be  a degenerate  branch  of  the  Chordata , 
and  to  be  more  nearly  related  to  the  Vertebrata  than  to 
any  group  of  the  Inver tebrata.  More  than  2,000 years 
ago  Aristotle  gave  a short  account  of  a Simple  Ascidian 
under  the  name  of  Tethyum.  He  described  the  appear- 
ance and  some  of  the  more  important  points  in  the  anat- 
omy of  the  animal.  From  that  time  onward  to  a little 
more  than  a century  ago,  although  various  forms  of 
Ascidians  had  been  briefly  described  by  writers  on 
marine  zoology,  comparatively  little  advance  was  made 
upon  the  knowledge  of  Aristotle.  Schlosser  and  Ellis, 
in  a paper  containing  a description  of  Botryllus , pub- 
lished in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  of  the  Royal 
Society  for  1756,  first  brought  the  Compound  Ascidians 
into  notice;  but  it  was  not  until  the  commencement  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  as  a result  of  the  careful  ana- 
tomical investigations  of  Cuvier  upon  the  Simple  Ascid- 
ians, and  of  Savigny  upon  the  Compound,  that  the 
close  relationship  between  these  two  groups  of  the 
Tunicata  was  conclusively  demonstrated.  Up  to  1816, 
the  date  of  publication  of  Savigny’s  great  work,  the  few 
Compound  Ascidians  then  known  had  been  generally 
regarded  as  Al'cyonaria , or  as  Sponges;  and,  although 
many  new  Simple  Ascidians  had  been  described  by  O. 
F.  Millie^  and  others,  their  internal  structure  had  not 
been  investigated.  Lamarck,  in  1816,  chiefly  as  the 
result  of  the  anatomical  discoveries  of  Savigny  and 
Cuvier.,  instituted  the  class  Tunicata , which  he  placed 
between  the*  Radiata  and  the  Verifies  in  his  system  of 
classification.  The  Tunicata  included  at  that  time, 
besides  the  Simple  and  the  Compound  Ascidians,  the 
pelagic  forms  Pyrosoma , which  had  been  first  made 
known  by  Peron,  in  1804,  anc^  Salpa9  described  by 
Forskal,  in  1775. 

The  most  important  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  Tuni- 
cata is  the  date  of  the  publication  of  Kowalevsky’s 
celebrated  memoir  upon  the  development  of  a Simple 
Ascidian.  The  tailed  larva  had  been  previously  dis- 
covered and  investigated  by  several  naturalists — nota- 
bly H.  Milne- Edwards,  J.  P.  van  Beneden,  and  Khron; 
but  its  minute  structure  had  not  been  sufficiently  ex- 
amined, and  the  meaning  of  what  was  known  of  it  had 
not  been  understood.  It  was  reserved  for  Kowalevsky, 
in  1866,  to  demonstrate  the  striking  similarity  in  struct- 
ure and  in  development  between  the  larval  Ascidian  and 
the  vertebrate  embryo. 

As  a type  of  the  Tunicata , Ascidia  mentula , one  of 
the  larger  species  of  the  Simple  Ascidians,  may  be 
taken.  This  species  is  found  in  most  of  the  European 
seas,  generally  in  shallow  water  on  a muddy  bottom. 
It  has  an  irregularly  ovate  form,  and  is  of  a dull  gray 
color.  It  is  attached  to  some  foreign  object  by  one 
end.  The  opposite  end  of  the  body  is  usually  narrow'-, 
and  it  has  a terminal  opening  surrounded  by  eight 
rounded  lobes.  This  is  the  mouth  or  branchial  aper- 
ture, and  it  always  indicates  the  anterior  end  of  the  ani- 
mal. About  half  way  back  from  the  anterior  end,  and 
on  a rounded  projection,  is  the  atrial  or  cloacal  aper- 
ture— an  opening  surrounded  by  six  lobes — which  is 
ilways  placed  upon  the  dorsal  region.  When  the 


5939 

Ascidian  is  living  and  undisturbed,  water  is  being  con- 
stantly drawn  in  through  the  branchial  aperture  and 
passed  out  through  the  atrial.  If  colored  particles  be 

laced  in  the  water  near  the  apertures,  they  are  seen  to 

e sucked  into  the  body  through  the  branchial  aperture, 
and  after  a short  time  some  of  them  are  ejected  with 
considerable  force  through  the  atrial  aperture.  The 
current  of  water  passing  in  is  for  respiratory  purposes, 
and  it  also  conveys  food  into  the  animal.  The  atrial 
current  is  mainly  the  water  which  has  been  used  in  res- 
piration, but  it  also  contains  all  excretions  from  the 
body,  and  at  times  the  ova  and  spermatozoa  or  the  em- 
bryos. 

In  most  Ascidians  the  eggs  are  fertilized  in  the  peri- 
branchial  cavity,  and  undergo  most  of  their  develop- 
ment before  leaving  the  parent;  in  some  cases,  how- 
ever, the  eggs  are  laid,  and  fertilization  takes  place  in 
the  surrounding  water. 

The  embryo  is  hatched  about  two  or  three  days  after 
fertilization,  in  the  form  of  a tadpole-like  larva,  which 
swims  actively  through  the  sea  by  vibrating  its  long 
tail.  The  anterior  end  of  the  body  is  provided  with 
three  adhering  papillae  in  the  form  of  epiblastic  thicken- 
ings.  In  the  free-swimming  tailed  larva  the  nervous 
system,  formed  from  the  walls  of  the  neural  canal,  be- 
comes considerably  differentiated. 

After  a short  free- swimming  existence  the  fully  de- 
veloped tailed  larva  fixes  itself  by  its  anterior  adhering 
papillae  to  some  foreign  object,  and  then  undergoes  a 
remarkable  series  of  retrogressive  changes,  which  con- 
vert it  into  the  adult  Ascidian.  The  tail  atrophies,  un- 
til nothing  is  left  but  some  fatty  cells  in  the  posterior 
part  of  the  trunk.  The  adhering  papillae  disappear  and 
are  replaced  functionally  by  a growth  of  the  test  over 
neighboring  objects.  The  nervous  system  with  its  sense 
organs  atrophies  until  it  is  reduced  to  the  single  small 
ganglion,  placed  on  the  dorsal  edge  of  the  pharynx,  and 
a slight  nerve  cord  running  for  some  distance  posteriorly. 
Slight  changes  in  the  shape  of  the  body  and  a further 
growth  and  differentiation  of  the  branchial  sac,  peribran- 
chial  cavity,  and  other  organs  now  produce  gradually 
the  structure  found  in  the  adult  Ascidian. 

TUNING  FORK,  a small  bar  of  cast  tool  steel  with 
tolerably  defined  edges,  bent  into  a fork  with  two 
prongs.  A handle  of  the  same  metal  extending  from 
the  bend  of  the  fork  serves  as  a sound-post  to  transmit 
the  vibrations  of  the  fork  to  any  resonance  board  or 
body  convenient  for  reenforcing  the  sound.  The  fork 
is  set  in  vibration  by  striking  one  of  the  prongs  against 
any  hard  substance,  by  pressing  the  prongs  together  if 
the  fork  is  a light  one,  or,  if  it  is  large,  by  drawing  a 
double  bass  bow  across  one  of  the  prongs.  The  ordi- 
nary use  of  a tuning  fork  is  to  serve  as  a pitch  carrier  or 
standard,  for  which  it  is  particularly  suited  owing  to 
the  permanence  with  which  it  maintains  the  pitch  to 
which  it  may  be  tuned.  It  is  flattened  by  heat  and 
sharpened  by  cold  about  1 vibration  in  20,000  for  every 
degree  Fahr.,  so  that'  the  exact  pitch  always  depends 
upon  the  temperature.  A tuning  fork  is  tuned  by 
filing  the  ends  of  the  prongs  or  between  them  near  the 
ends  to  make  it  sharper,  or  by  filing  between  them  near 
or  at  the  bend  to  make  it  flatter.  Less  filing  is  required 
to  flatten  than  to  sharpen.  The  tuning  fork  is  of  value 
in  certain  physical  investigations,  from  the  constancy 
of  its  rate  of  vibration.  In  England  it  is  generally 
tuned  to  C in  the  treble  clef,  because  organ-builders 
start  their  tuning  from  that  note;  in  France  it  is  tuned 
to  A in  the  treble  clef,  which  is  the  note  of  the  third 
open  string  of  the  violin. 

TUNIS,  Regency  of,  formerly  one  of  the  Earbary 
states  of  North  Africa,  but  since  1881  a dependency  of 
France,  whose  resident-general  exercise  all  real  author 


TUN 


5940 

ity  in  the  nominal  dominions  of  the  bey.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  west  by  Algeria,  on  the  north  by  the  western 
basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  east  from  Cape  Bon 
to  the  Gulf  of  Gabes  (Kabis)  by  the  eastern  basin  of 
the  same  sea,  and  on  the  southeast  by  the  province  of 
Tripoli.  On  the  south  the  boundary  is  the  Sahara  and 
the  frontier  lin^  is  indefinite.  The  greatest  breadth 
from  east  to  west  is  about  150  miles,  the  length  from 
north  to  south  about  300  miles.  The  population  does 
not  exceed  a million  and  a half. 

Tunis  is  formed  by  the  prolongation  toward  the  east 
of  the  two  great  mountain  chains  of  Algeria  (q.v.), 
and  closely  resembles  that  country  in  its  physical 
features,  products,  and  climate;  see  Africa.  The 
northern  Algerian  chain  (the  Little  Atlas)  is  prolonged 
through  Tunis  to  Ras  Sidi  ‘Ah'  al-Makki,  the  highest 
summits  never  attaining  an  altitude  of  4,000  feet.  It 
forms  a picturesque,  fertile,  and  well- watered  region, 
with  extensive  cork  woods  in  its  western  parts,  and  sep- 
arated from  the  southern  mountains  by  the  valley  (the 
ancient  Zeugitana)  of  the  Mejerda  (the  ancient 
Bagradas),  the  most  important  river  of  north  Africa, 
which  after  a tortuous  course  of  nearly  300  miles  falls 
into  the  Gulf  of  Tunis  at  Porto  Farina.  The  basin  of 
the  Mejerda,  which  is  now  traversed  by  the  railway 
from  Algiers  to  Tunis,  is  very  fertile,  and  many  impor- 
tant ruins  testify  to  its  prosperity  in  Roman  times.  The 
rich  lacustrine  deposits  in  the  Dakhila,  or  plain  of  Bulla 
Regia,  show  that  it  was  only  in  relatively  recent  times 
that  its  upper  waters  found  a passage  to  the  sea  by  cut- 
ting a deep  gorge  through  the  cretaceous  barrier  that 
shuts  in  this  upland  plain  upon  the  east.  The  upland 
district  from  Tebessa  southward  sinks  into  the  desert  by 
a step-like  series  of  great  plateaus,  separated  by  rugged 
walls  of  variegated  marls,  sands,  and  alluvium,  torn  into 
fantastic  shapes,  and  scored  with  deep  ravines  by  streams 
which  at  some  remote  period  of  copious  rainfall  poured 
down  into  the  Sahara,  Farther  east  the  plateaus  disap- 
pear,  and  the  mountains  rise  like  a rampart  from  the 
Sibakh  or  Saharian  marshes  and  salt-flats.  Even  the 
Saliar  of  Tunis  abounds  in  fertile  oases. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  at  Susa  IS750  Fahr., 
the  mean  of  the  winter  or  rainy  season  6o°  and  of  the 
hot  season  9 70.  At  Tunis  the  temperature  rarely  ex- 
ceeds 90°,  except  with  a wind  from  the  Sahara.  The 
prevailing  winds  from  May  to  September  are  east  and 
northeast  and  during  the  rest  of  the  year  northwest  and 
east.  A rainy  season  of  about  two  months  usually  be- 
gins in  January;  the  spring  season  of  verdure  is  over  in 
May;  summer  ends  in  October  with  the  first  rains. 
Violent  winds  are  common  at  both  equinoxes. 

Flora  and  Fauna  are  generally  the  same  as  those  of 
Algeria,  {q.v.)  The  lion  and  panther  are  almost  ex- 
tinct, but  the  sportsman  finds  in  abundance  the  wild 
boar,  partridge,  Carthage  fowl,  quail,  and  snipe.  The 
African  moufflon  still  exists  in  the  southern  mountains. 
Herds  of  buffaloes  are  found  in  the  district,  of  Mater. 
The  stag  occurs  in  the  eastern  districts.  The  camel,  now 
so  important,  was  hardly  known  here  before  the  Roman 
sovereignty. 

Cork  and  “ zen  ” trees  cover  about  360,000  acres  to- 
ward the  Algerian  frontier,  and  the  pine  and  deciduous 
oak  almost  as  large  an  area  south  of  the  Mejerda;  but 
the  country  is  much  less  wooded  than  in  antiquity.  The 
richness  of  the  grain  crops  is  still  remarkable,  in  spite  of 
imperfect  cultivation.  Olives  and  many  excellent  fruits 
are  largely  produced,  and  vineyards  have  been  much  ex- 
tended since  the  French  occupation.  The  oases  of  the 
Jerid  are  devoted  to  the  date  palm  and  produce  the  best 
dates  known  in  the  market. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Tunis,  like  that  of  Algeria,  is 
considerable,  but  it  has  been  imperfectly  explored. 


The  industrious  Berbers  (Kabyles),  the  oldest  stock 
in  the  country,  are  lees  sharply  marked  off  from  the 
Arabs  than  in  Algeria,  but  are  distinguishable  by  their 
lighter  complexion  and  often  fair  hair.  They  form  a 
large  part  of  the  population  in  the  northern  and  eastern 
mountains,  and  in  the  island  of  Jerba  (Jirba).  They 
are  organized  in  tribes  with  purely  democratic  self- 
government,  and  laws  of  their  own,  w'hich  are  not  those 
of  the  Koran.  The  pastoral  Arab  nomads  are  de- 
scended from  the  second  Arab  invasion,  which  began  in 
the  eleventh  century.  They  have  little  agriculture  and 
are  still  as  indolent  and  unruly  as  their  ancestors.  The 
Arabs  of  the  towns  are  usually  known  as  Moors;  among 
them  the  Spanish  Moors,  descendants  of  the  Andalu- 
sian refugees,  form  an  exclusive  and  aristocratic  class. 
The  pure  Turks  and  the  Kuluglis  (sons  of  Turkish 
fathers  by  Moorish  women  or  slave  girls)  are  no  longer 
numerous.  Of  Europeans  there  are  some  10,000  * 
Italians,  8,000  Maltese,  and  4,000  French  (exclusive  of 
the  army).  The  Jews  number  some  50,000,  of  whom 
perhaps  half  are  in  the  capital.  The  trade  of  the  coun- 
try is  largely  in  their  hands.  Pop.  estimated  at  1,900,000. 

For  the  capital,  Tunis,  see  below.  Of  the  coast 
towns  Sfax  and  Susa  have  separate  notices;  Bizerta 
(Benzert).  the  ancient  Hippo  Zarytus,  is  the  chief  place 
on  the  north  coast,  with  5,000  inhabitants.  On  the 
east  coast  are  Hammamet  (Hamamat),  with  3,700  in- 
habitants; Monastir,  with  5,600  inhabitants  and  a trade 
in  cereals  and  oils;  Mahdfya  (Mehedia),  with  6,300  in- 
habitants, the  fallen  city  of  the  Fatimites,  which  since 
the  French  occupation  has  begun  to  rise  again,  and  has 
a new  harbor;  and  Gabes  (Kabis)  on  the  Syrtis,  a group 
of  small  villages,  with  an  aggregate  population  of 
14,000,  the  port  of  the  shott  country  and  a depot  of  the 
esparto  trade.  Of  the  inland  towns  thie  holy  city  of 
Kairwan  (q.v.)  is  the  most  remarkable.  Its  fine 
mosques  are  now  open  to  visitors. 

The  history  of  Tunis  begins  with  the  establishment  of 
the  Phoenician  colonies;  see  Phoenicia  and  Carthage. 
The  Punic  settlers  Semitized  the  coast,  # but  left  the 
Berbers  of  the  interior  almost  untouched.  The  Romans 
entered  into  the  heritage  of  the  Carthaginians  and  of 
the  vassal  kings  of  Numidia,  and  Punic  speech  and 
civilization  gave  way  to  Latin,  a change  which  from  the 
time  of  Caesar  was  helped  on  by  Italian  colonization. 
Carthage  was  the  second  city  of  the  Latin  part  of  the 
empire,  “ after  Rome  the  busiest  and  perhaps  the  most 
corrupt  city  of  the  West,  and  the  chief  center  of  Latin 
culture  and  letters.”  In  the  early  history  of  Latin 
Christianity  Africa  holds  a more  important  place  than 
Italy.  Lost  to  Rome  by  the  invasion  of  the  Vandals, 
who  took  Carthage  in  439,  the  province  was  recovered 
by  Belisarius  a century  later  (533-4),  and  remained 
Roman  till  the  Arab  invasion.  The  empire  of  the 
Fatimites  rested  on  Berber  support,  and  from  that  time 
forth  till  the  advent  of  the  T urks  the  dynasties  of  north 
Africa  were  really  native,  even  when  they  claimed 
descent  from  some  illustrious  Arab  stock. 

The  Conquest  of  Algiers  by  the  Turks  gave  a danger- 
ous neighbor  to  Tunis,  and  after  the  death  of  Moham- 
med the  Hafsite  in  1525  a disputed  succession  supplied 
Khair  al-Dfn  Barbarossa  with  a pretext  for  occupying 
the  city  in  the  name  of  the  sultan  of  Constantinople. 
In  1573  the  Turks  retreated  on  the  approach  of  Don 
John,  who  had  dreams  of  making  himself  king  ofTunis; 
but  this  success  was  not  followed  up,  and  in  the  nexl 
year  Sultan  Selim  II.  sent  a strong  expedition,  which 
drove  the  Spaniards  from  Tunis  and  Goletta,  and 
reduced  the  country  to  a Turkish  province.  The  civil 
administration  was  now  placed  under  a pasha ; but  in  a 
I few  years  a military  revolution  transferred  the  supreme 
I power  to  a dey  elected  by  the  janissaries,  who  formed 


TUN 


594  i 


the  army  of  occupation.  The  government  of  the  deys 
lasted  till  1705.  From  1631  to  1702  the  office  of  bey 
was  hereditary  in  the  descendants  of  Murad,  a Corsican 
renegade,  and  their  rivalry  with  the  deys  and  internal 
dissensions  kept  the  country  in  constant  disorder. 

Frequent  wars  with  Algiers  form  the  chief  incidents  in 
the  internal  history  of  Tunis  under  the  beys.  Under 
deys  and  beys  alike  Tunis  was  essentially  a pirate  state. 
Occasional  acts  of  chastisement,  of  which  the  bombard- 
ment of  Porto  Farina  by  Blake  in  1655  was  the  most 
notable,  and  repeated  treaties,  extorted  by  European 
powers,  checked  from  time  to  time,  but  never  put  an 
end  to,  the  habitual  piracies,  on  which  indeed  the  pub- 
lic revenue  of  Tunis  was  mainly  dependent.  The 
powers  were  generally  less  concerned  for  the  captives 
than  for  the  acquisition  of  trading  privileges,  and  the 
beys  took  advantage  of  the  commercial  rivalry  of  Eng- 
land and  France  to  play  off  the  one  power  against  the 
other.  The  release  of  all  Christian  slaves  was  not 
effected  till  after  the  bombardment  of  Algiers ; and  the 
definite  abandonment  of  piracy  may  be  dated  from  the 
presentation  to  the  bey  in  1819  of  a collective  note  of 
the  powers  assembled  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  The  French 
had  long  regarded  the  dominions  of  the  bey  as  their 
natural  inheritance,  and  in  1881,  having  got  a grievance 
against  the  bey  in  a commercial  transaction  of  the 
French  African  Society,  a French  force  crossed  the 
Algerian  frontier  under  pretext  of  chastising  the  inde- 
pendent Kroumir  or  Khomair  tribes  in  the  northeast  of 
the  regency,  and,  quickly  dropping  the  mask,  advanced 
on  the  capital  and  compelled  the  bey  to  accept  the 
French  protectorate.  The  actual  conquest  of  the  coun- 
try was  not  effected  without  a serious  struggle  with 
Moslem  fanaticism;  but  all  Tunis  was  brought  com- 
pletely under  French  jurisdiction  and  administration, 
supported  by  military  posts  at  every  important  point. 
The  power  of  the  bey  is  null  and  his  dignity  merely 
nominal. 

Tunis,  capital  of  the  regency  of  the  same  name,  in 
36°  50'  N.  latitude  and  io°  12'  E.  longitude,  is  situated 
on  an  isthmus  between  two  salt  lakes,  a marshy 
sebkha  to  the  southwest  and  the  shallow  Boheira,  to 
the  northeast.  The  latter  is  twelve  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  on  the  side  opposite  Tunis  is  connected 
with  the  Bay  of  Tunis  at  the  port  of  Goletta  (Halk  al- 
Wad)  by  a short  canal.  The  old  town,  of  which  the 
walls  have  in  great  part  disappeared,  lies  between 
two  suburbs, "the  Ribat  al-Soweika  on  the  north  and 
the  Ribat  Bab  al-Jezira  on  the  south.  These  suburbs 
were  surrounded  by  a wall  in  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Between  the  old  town  and  the 
Marine  Gate  on  the  Boheira  a European  quarter,  con- 
taining the  palace  of  the  resident,  public  offices,  the 
provisional  cathedral,  and  huge  blocks  of  new  houses  in 
the  French  style  have  sprung  up.  At  the  extreme  west 
of  the  old  town  is  the  citadel,  now  used  as  barracks, 
whose  lofty  circuit  includes  the  mosque  built  by  Abu 
Zakariya  the  Hafsite  in  1232.  To  the  same  century  be- 
longs the  great  mosque  of  the  Olive  Tree  (Jami‘al- 
Zeituna)  in  the  center  of  the  town,  with  its  many 
domes  and  spacious  cloister,  which  possesses  a library 
and  serves  as  a college  for  some  450  students  of  Moslem 
learning.  The  chief  attraction  of  the  old  town  lies  in 
its  bazaars,  which  retain  their  Oriental  character  unim- 
paired. Water  is  supplied  to  numerous  fountains  byan 
ancient  aqueduct  from  Jebel  Zaghwan,  repaired  at  a 
cost  of  half  a million  sterling  by  the  late  Bey  Moham- 
med al-Sadik.  The  population  of  Tunis  is  about  170,- 
000,  of  whom  one-fifth  are  Jews  and  one-fifth  Europe- 
ans, chiefly  Maltese  and  Italians.  Theenvirons  of  Tunis 
are  admirable  from  the  beautiful  views  they  present; 
the  finest  prospects  are  from  the  hill  on  the  southeast, 


and  from  the  Belveder  on  the  north  of  the  town. 
Tunis  was  a Carthaginian  city,  and  is  repeatedly  men- 
tioned in  the  history  of  the  Punic  wars.  Strabo  speaks 
of  its  hot  baths  and  quarries.  Under  the  Arabs  it  rose 
to  importance,  became  the  usual  port  for  those  going 
from  Kairwan  to  Spain,  and  was  one  of  the  residences 
of  the  Aghlabites.  In  the  tenth  century  it  suffered 
severely,  and  was  repeatedly  pillaged  in  the  wars  of  the 
Fatimites  with  Abu  Yazld  and  the  Zenata  Berbers. 

TUNNELING.  The  process  of  making  a more  01 
less  horizontal  underground  passage,  or  tunnel,  without 
removing  the  top  soil,  is  known  as  tunneling.  In  formet 
times  any  long  tube-like  passage,  however  constructed, 
was  called  a tunnel.  At  the  present  day  the  word  is 
sometimes  popularly  applied  to  an  underground  passage 
constructed  by  trenching  down  from  the  surface  to 
build  the  arching  and  then  refilling  with  the  top  soil ; 
but  a passage  so  constructed,  although  indistinguishable 
from  a tunnel  when  completed,  is  more  correctly  termed 
a “covered  way,”  and  the  operations  “cutting  and 
covering,”  instead  of  tunneling.  Making  a small  tun- 
nel, afterward  to  be  converted  into  a larger  one,  is 
called  “ driving  a heading,  ” and  in  mining  operations 
small  tunnels  are  termed  “galleries,”  “driftways,”  and 
“adits.”  If  the  underground  passage  is  vertical  it  is  a 
shaft;  if  the  shaft  is  commenced  at  the  surface  the 
operations  are  known  as  “ sinking,”  and  it  is  called  a 
“rising”  if  worked  upward  from  a previously  con- 
structed heading  or  gallery. 

Tunneling  has  been  effected  by  natural  forces  to  a 
far  greater  extent  than  by  man.  In  limestone  districts 
innumerable  swallow-holes,  or  shafts,  have  been  sunk 
by  the  rain  water  following  joints  and  dissolving  the 
rock,  and  from  the  bottom  of  these  shafts  tunnels  have 
been  excavated  to  the  sides  of  hills  in  a manner  strictly 
analogous  to  the  ordinary  method  of  executing  a tunnel 
by  sinking  shafts  at  intervals  and  driving  headings  there- 
from. Many  rivers  find  thus  a course  underground. 

The  mammoth  cave  of  Kentucky  and  the  Peak  caves 
of  Derbyshire  are  examples  of  natural  tunneling. 

Tunneling  is  also  carried  on  to  an  enormous  extent 
by  the  action  of  the  sea.  Where  the  Atlantic  rollers 
break  on  the  west  coast  of  Ireland,  on  the  seaboard  of 
the  western  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  elsewhere, 
numberless  caves  and  tunnels  have  been  formed  in  the 
cliffs,  beside  which  artificial  tunneling  operations  appear 
insignificant.  The  most  gigantic  subaqueous  demolition 
hitherto  carried  out  by  man  was  the  blowing  up,  in 
1885,  °f  Flood  Rock,  a mass  about  nine  acres  in  extent, 
near  Long  Island  Sound,  New  York.  To  effect  this 
gigantic  work  by  a single  instantaneous  blast  a shaft 
was  sunk  sixty-four  feet  below  sea  level,  from  the  bot- 
tom of  which  four  miles  of  tunnels  or  galleries  were 
driven  so  as  to  completely  honeycomb  the  rock.  The 
roof  rock  ranged  from  ten  feet  to  twenty-four  feet 
in  thickness,  and  was  supported  by  467  pillars  fifteen 
feet  square;  13,286  holes,  averaging  nine  feet  in  length 
and  three  inches  in  diameter,  were  drilled  in  the  pil- 
lars and  roof.  About  80,000  cubic  yards  of  rock  were 
excavated  in  the  galleries  and  275,000  remained  to  be 
blasted  away.  The  holes  were  charged  with  no  tons 
of  “ rackarock,”  a more  powerful  explosive  than  gun- 
powder, which  was  fired  by  electricity,  when  the  sea  was 
lifted  100  feet  over  the  whole  area  of  the  rock. 

With  so  many  examples  of  natural  caves  and  tunnels 
in  existence  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  tunneling 
was  one  of  the  earliest  works  undertaken  by  man,  first 
for  dwellings  and  tombs,  then  for  quarrying  and  mining, 
and  finally  for  water  supply,  drainage,  and  other  re- 
quirements of  civilization.  Petrie  has  traced  the 
method  of  underground  quarrying  followed  by  the 
Egyptians  opposite  the  Pyramids.  Parallel  galleries 


TUN 


5942 

about  20  feet  square  were  driven  into  the  rock  and  cross 
gallerjes  cut,  so  that  a hall  300  to  400  feet  wide  was 
formed,  with  a roof  supported  by  rows  of  pillars  20  feet 
square  and  20  feet  apart.  Blocks  of  stone  were  re- 
moved by  the  workmen  cutting  grooves  all  round  them, 
and,  where  the  stone  was  not  required  for  use,  but 
merely  had  to  be  removed  to  form  a gallery,  the  grooves 
were  wide  enough  for  a man  to  stand  up  in.  Where 
granite,  diorite,  and  other  hard  stone  had  to  be  cut,  the 
work  was  done  by  tube  drills  and  by  saws  supplied  with 
corundum,  or  other  hard  gritty  material,  and  water — 
the  drills  leaving  a core  of  rock  exactly  like  that  of  the 
modern  diamond  drill.  Pliny  refers  to  the  tunnel  con- 
structed for  the  drainage  of  Lake  Fucino  as  the  greatest 
public  work  of  the  time.  It  was  by  far  the  longest 
tunnel  in  the  world,  being  more  than  three  and  one- 
half  miles  in  length,  and  was  driven  under  Monte 
Salviano,  which  necessitated  shafts  no  less  than  400  feet 
in  depth.  It  is  stated  that  30,000  laborers  were  occu- 
pied eleven  years  in  its  construction.  With  modern^ 
appliances  such  a tunnel  could  be  driven  from  the  two 
ends  without  intermediate  shafts  in  eleven  months. 

No  practical  advance  was  made  on  the  tunneling 
methods  of  the  Romans  until  gunpowder  came  into  use. 
Old  engravings  of  mining  operations  early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  show  that  excavation  was  still  accom- 
plished by  pickaxes  or  hammer  and  chisel,  and  that  wood 
fires  were  lighted  at  the  ends  of  the  headings  to  split 
and  soften  the  rock  in  advance.  Crude  methods  of  ven- 
tilation by  shaking  cloths  in  the  headings  and  by  plac- 
ing inclined  boards  at  the  top  of  shafts  are  also  on  rec- 
ord. In  1825  Brunei  commenced  and  in  1843  com- 
pleted the  Thames  tunnel,  which  was  driven  at  points 
through  liquid  mud  by  the  aid  of  a “ shield  ” at  a cost 
of  about  $6,500  per  lineal  yard.  It  is  now  used  by  the 
East  London  railway.  In  1872  Chesborough  began 
tunneling  under  the  Detroit  river,  between  Canada  and 
Michigan,  but  the  work  was  abandoned  owing  to  con- 
tinued irruptions  of  water  after  some  600  yards  of 
headings  had  been  driven.  The  most  important  sub- 
aqueous work  yet  accomplished — the  Severn  tunnel, 
four  and  one-third  miles  in  length — was  commenced  in 
1873  and  finished  in  1886.  The  bed  of  the  Severn  is 
formed  principally  of  marls,  sandstones,  and  conglom- 
erates in  nearly  horizontal  strata,  overlying  highly  in- 
clined coal  measures,  shales,  and  sandstones,  which  are 
also  exposed  in  the  bed  of  the  river.  The  tunnel  is  made 
almost  wholly  in  the  Trias  and  Coal  Measure  forma- 
tions, but  for  a short  distance  at  its  eastern  end  it 
passes  through  gravel.  The  tunnel  is  for  a double  line 
of  railway  and  is- lined  throughout  with  vitrified  bricks 
set  in  Portland  cement  mortar.  The  total  amount  of 
water  raised  at  all  the  pumping  stations  isabout  27,000,- 
000  gallons  in  twenty-four  hours;  but  the  total  pump- 
ing power  provided  is  equal  to  66,000,000  gallons  in 
twenty-four  hours. 

Another  example  of  subaqueous  tunneling,  second 
only  in  importance  to  the  foregoing,  is  the  Mersey  tun- 
nel, the  length  of  which  between  the  pumping  shafts  on 
each  side  of  the  river  is  one  mile. 

Proposals  for  the  construction  of  a tunnel  about  thirty 
miles  in  length  to  connect  England  and  France  have 
been  brought  forward  periodically  from  the  commence- 
ment of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  nothing  was  done 
until  1881,  when  preliminary  works  of  some  importance 
were  commenced  by  Sir  Edward  Watkin  and  the  South- 
Eastern  Railway  Company,  At  the  proposed  point  of 
crossing  the  deepest  part  of  the  channel  is  210  feet, 
and,  as  the  beds  on  the  English  side  and  those  on  the 
French  side,  so  far  as  relates  to  the  gray  chalk  and 
chalk  marl,  are  each  225  feet  thick,  it  is  assumed  that 
those  Strata  are  continuous  and  that  the  tunnel  would 


be  driven  through  a watertight  material.  Shafts  ha*e 
been  sunk  near  Folkestone,  and  experimental  headings 
have  been  driven  2,000  yards  under  the  sea,  on  the  line 
of  the  tunnel.  The  heading,  seven  feet  in  diameter,  was 
cut  by  a Beaumont  boring  machine,  having  two  arms 
with  steel  teeth,  and  driven  by  compressed  air;  the  usual 
rate  of  progress  was  fifteen  lineal  yards  per  day. 

A partially  constructed  subaqueous  tunnel  now  lies 
drowned  under  the  Hudson  river  at  New  York.  An 
attempt  was  made  to  drive  a double  tunnel  through  the 
mud  and  silt  forming  the  river  bed.  In  1880,  when 
about  a hundred  yards  had  been  completed,  the  water 
burst  in,  and  twenty  men  were  drowned. 

Small  subaqueous  tunnels  have  been  driven  through* 
clay  without  difficulty  under  Lakes  Michigan  and  Erie, 
and  elsewhere  in  America.  In  England  a heading  was 
driven  nearly  across  the  Thames  in  1807,  and  eighty 
years  later  two  iron-lined  tunnels  (each  10  ft.  6 in.)  were 
constructed  under  the  river  close  to  the  foundation  of 
London  Bridge,  with  the  aid  of  a simple  annular  shield 
advanced  by  six  hydraulic  presses.  Where  open  gravel 
or  water  has  to  be  tunneled  through  a diaphragm  must 
be  fitted  to  the  shield.  Mallet  proposed  in  1858  to 
carry  in  this  way  a tubular  tunnel  across  the  English 
Channel. 

Where  a great  thickness  of  rock  overlies  a tunnel,  it 
is  necessary  to  do  the  work  wholly  from  the  two  ends, 
without  intermediate  shafts.  The  problem  resolves 
itself  into  devising  the  most  expeditious  way  of  excavat- 
ing and  removing  the  rock,  and  there  are  none  of  the 
uncertainties  and  difficulties  which  make  subaqueous 
tunneling  of  so  high  an  interest.  Experience  has  led  to 
great  advances  in  speed  and  economy,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  following  particulars  of  the  three  tunnels 
through  the  Alps,  the  longest  yet  constructed: 


Tunnel. 

Length. 

Progress  per  Day. 

Cost 

Miles. 

Lineal  Yards. 

Per  Lineal  Yard. 

Mont  Cenis. 

I'A 

2-57 

$1,130 

St.  Gotthard 

9l/s 

6.01 

715 

Arlberg 

6 1-5 

9.07 

540 

In  1857  the  first  blast  was  fired  in  connection  with  the 
Mont  Cenis  works;  in  1861  machine  drilling  was  in- 
troduced; and  in  1871  the  tunnel  was  opened  for  traffic. 
With  the  exception  of  about  300  yards  the  tunnel  is 
lined  throughout  with  brick  or  stone.  Little  interest 
now  attaches  to  the  method  of  tunneling  adopted  at 
Mont  Cenis,  as  it  is  in  several  respects  obsolete. 

In  1872  the  St.  Gotthard  tunnel  was  commenced  and 
in  1881  the  first  locomotive  ran  through  it.  Mechanical 
drills  were  used  from  the  commencement.  Tunneling 
was  carried  on  by  driving  in  advance  a top  heading 
about  eight  feet  square,  then  enlarging  this  sideways, 
and  finally  sinking  the  excavation  to  invert  level.  Air 
for  working  the  rock-drills  was  compressed  to  seven 
atmospheres  by  turbines  of  about  2,000  horse-power. 
Six  to  eight  Ferroux  drills,  making  about  180  blows  a 
minute,  were  mounted  on  a carriage  and  pushed  up  to 
the  point  of  attack. 

The  driving  of  the  Arlberg  tunnel  was  commenced 
in  1880  and  the  work  was  completed  in  little  more  than 
three  years.  The  main  heading  was  driven  along  the 
bottom  of  the  tunnel  and  shafts  were  opened  up  twenty - 
hve  tc  seventy  yards  apart,  from  which  smaller  head- 
ings were  driven  right  and  left.  The  tunnel  was 
enlarged  to  its  full  section  at  different  points  simultane- 
ously in  lengths  of  eight  yards,  the  excavation  of  each 
occupying  about  twenty  days,  and  the  masonry  fourteen 
days.  Ferroux  percussion  air  drills  and  Brandt  rotary 
hydraulic  drills  were  used,  and  the  performance  of  the 


tun— TUR 


5943 


latter  was  especially  satisfactory.  After  each  blast  a 
fine  spray  of  water  was  injected,  which  assisted  the  ven- 
tilation materially.  In  the  St.  Gotthard  tunnel  the 
discharge  of  the  air  drills  was  relied  on  for  ventilation. 
In  the  Arlberg  tunnel  over  8,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per 
minute  were  thrown  in  by  ventilators.  In  a long  tun- 
nel the  quick  transport  of  materials  is  of  equal  impor- 
tance with  rapid  drilling  and  blasting. 

The  new  Croton  aqueduct  tunnel  from  Croton  dam  to 
the  reservoir  in  New  York  is  worthy  of  note  both  for 
its  great  length  and  the  rapid  progress  made  with  it. 
The  distance  is  thirty-three  and  one-fourth  miles  and 
practically  the  whole  is  tunneled  through  rock.  Shafts 
were  sunk  about  one  and  one-half  miles  apart  and  head- 
ings driven  each  way.  Ingersoll  drills  were  chiefly 
used,  and  the  rate  of  advance  with  the  headings  was  in 
1886  one  and  one-fourth  miles  per  month.  The  old 
Croton  aqueduct  was  seven  feet  eight  inches  wide  by 
eight  feet  five  inches  high;  the  new  one  is  thirteen  feet 
seven  inches  in  width  and  height. 

Where  tunnels  have  to  be  carried  through  soft  soil 
and  in  proximity  to  valuable  buildings  special  precau- 
tions have  to  be  taken  to  avoid  settlement. 

TUNNY  ( Thynnus  thynnus),  one  of  the  largest 
fishes  of  the  family  of  Mackerels,  belongs  to  the  genus 
of  which  the  Bonito  ( Th.  pelamys ) and  the  Albacores 
( Th . albacora,  Th.  alalonga , etc.)  are  equally  well- 
known  members.  From  the  latter  the  tunny  is  dis- 
tinguished by  its  much  shorter  pectoral  fins,  wlrch  reach 
backward  only  to,  or  nearly  to,  the  end  of  the  first 
dorsal  fin.  It  possesses  nine  short  finlets  behind  ihe 
dorsal,  and  eight  behind  the  anal  fin.  Its  color  is  dark 
bluish  above,  and  grayish,  tinged  and  spotted  with 
silver  below.  The  tunny  is  a pelagic  fish,  but  period- 
ically approaches  the  shore,  wandering  in  large  shoals, 
at  least  in  the  Mediterranean,  within  well- ascertained 
areas  along  the  coast.  The  regularity  of  its  appearance 
on  certain  parts  of  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  has 
led  to  the  establishment  of  a systematic  fishery,  which 
has  been  carried  on  from  the  time  of  the  Phoenicians  to 
the  present  day.  Immense  numbers  of  tunnies  were 
caught  on  the  Spanish  coast  and  in  the  sea  of  Marmora, 
where,  however,  this  industry  has  much  declined.  The 
Sardinian  tunnies  were  considered  to  be  of  superior  ex- 
cellence. The  greatest  number  is  now,  caught  on  the 
north  coast  of  Sicily,  the  fisheries  of  this  island  sup- 
plying most  of  the  preserved  tunny  which  is  exported,  to 
other  parts  of  the  world.  The  tunny  occurs  also  in  the 
South  Pacific ; but  several  other  species  seem  to  take  its 
place  in  the  Indo-Pacific  Ocean.  It  is  one  of  the 
largest  fishes,  attaining  to  a length  of  ten  feet  and  to  a 
weight  of  more  than  a thousand  pounds. 

TUNSTALL,  a market  town  of  Staffordshire,  Eng- 
land. The  to.vn  is  chiefly  the  growth  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  in  1811  numbered  only  1,677  inhabitants. 
The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  690 
acres)  was  14,244  in  1881,  and  is  now  (1901)  18,500. 

TUPELO  (Nyssa),  a genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Alangiacece , natives  of  North  America,  chiefly  of  the 
.southern  parts  of  the  United  States;  having  simple 
alternate  leaves,  mostly  entire,  greenish  inconspicuous 
flowers  at  the  extremity  of  long  stalks,  the  fruit  a drupe. 
JV.  villosa  attains  the  height  of  60  to  70  feet.  It  is 
often  called  black  gum  tree.  N.  tomentosa,  the  large 
tupelo,  is  a lofty  and  beautiful  tree,  remarkable  for  the 
extraordinary  enlargement  of  the  base  of  the  trunk, 
which  is  sometimes  eight  or  nine  feet  in  diameter,  while 
at  no  great  height  the  diameter  diminishes  to  fifteen  or 
twenty  inches.  The  fruit  resembles  a small  olive,  and 
is  preserved  in  the  same  way.  N.  candicans  or  capita ta, 
the  Ogeechee  lime  or  sour  gum  tree,  is  a small  tree,  of 
which  the  fruit  is  very  acid  and  is  used  like  that  of  the 


lime.  The  wood  of  all  the  species  is  soft,  that  of  the 
large  tupelo  remarkably  so. 

TUPPER,  Martin  Farquhar,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S., 
a poet  rather  popular  than  great,  was  born  July  17,  1810, 
and  died  November  29,  1889.  His  father,  Martin  Tup- 
per,  was  a well-known  London  surgeon,  of  a family 
originally  German,  which  had  long  been  settled  in 
Guernsey,  Martin  Tupper  was  educated  at  the  Charter- 
house,  and  afterward  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  On 
leaving  college  he  entered  himself  as  a student  at  Lin- 
coln’s Inn,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1835;  but  litera- 
ture had  more  charms  for  him  than  the  law,  which  he 
never  seriously  prosecuted.  In  1832  he  published 
anonymously  a small  volume  of  poems  which  attracted 
little  attention.  For  this  lack  of  success  he  was,  how- 
ever, amply  repaid  on.  the  appearance,  in  1839,  of  his 
Proverbial  Philosophy.  The  popularity  of  this  work 
in  England,  and  still  more  in  America,  has  ever  since 
been  immense  and  almost  unprecedented.  The  critics 
have  indeed  been  less  kind  to  it  than  the  reading  public- 
and  the  fame  of  Mr.  Tupper  has  long  been  a topic  of 
mirth  to  the  wits  of  the  literary  guild;  but  from  the 
serene  height  of  his  fortieth  edition  an  author  can  per- 
haps afford  to  smile  at  the  attacks  of  the  envious  gen- 
eration below. 

A fair  criticism  would  probably  adjudge  that  while 
there  is  nothing  in  Proverbial  Philosophy  to  justify  its 
enormous  success — so  far  as  mere  circulation  is  success  — 
the  book  is  yet  something  better  than  a mere  con- 
glomeration of  stupid  platitudes,  which  its  detractors  so 
confidently  proclaim  it  to  be.  Besides  this  work,  on 
which  his  reputation,  such  as  it  may  be,  rests,  he  has 
published  The  Crock  of  Gold,  a tale;  Geraldine,  a 
sufficiently  ludicrous  attempt  to  complete  Coleridge’s 
inimitable  fragment  Christabel ; with  various  other 
works  in  prose  and  verse. 

TURANIAN.  This  word  means  etymologically  no 
more  than  “not  Iranian,”  and  in  this  sense  the  word 
Turan  was  used  by  Sasanian  monarchs  to  cover  those 
parts  of  their  realm  that  did  not  belong  to  Iran.  The 
application  of  the  word  to  denote  the  Ural-Altaic  family 
of  languages  is  extremely  unfortunate  and  seems  to  be 
falling  out  of  use.  See  Philology. 

TURBINE.  See  Hydromechanics. 

TURBOT,  the  largest  and  best  known  ot  a genus  of 
flat  fishes,  Rhombus , which  bears  the  appropriate  sys- 
tematic name  of  Rh.  maximus.  The  turbot  has  great 
width  of  body,  and  is  scaleless,  but  it  is  covered  with 
conical  bony  tubercles.  The  eyes  are  on  the  left  side 
of  the  body,  the  lower  being  slightly  in  advance  of  the 
upper ; the  mouth  is  large  and  armed  with  teeth  of  uni- 
formly minute  size.  The  turbot  is  found  all  round  the 
coasts  of  Europe  (except  in  the  extreme  north),  pre- 
ferring a flat  sandy  bottom  with  from  ten  to  fifty  fathoms 
of  water.  The  broad  banks  of  the  Dutch  coast  are  a 
favorite  resort.  It  is  a voracious  fish,  and  feeds  on 
other  fish,  crustaceans,  and  mollusks.  It  seems  to  con- 
stantly change  its  abode,  wandering  northward  during 
the  summer,  and  going  into  deeper  water  in  the  cold 
season.  The  turbot  is  also  common,  though  not  abun- 
dant, in  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  replaced  in  the  Black 
Sea  by  an  allied  species  with  much  larger  bony  tubercles 
(Rh.  Maoticns).  Both  species  grow  to  a large  size, 
being  usually  sold  at  from  five  to  ten  pounds  ; but  the 
common  turbot  is  stated  to  attain  to  a weight  of  thirty 
pounds. 

TURENNE,  Henri  de  la  Tour  d’ Auvergne, 
Vi comte  de,  a famous  French  general  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  was  the  second  son  of  Henry,  Due  de 
Bouillon,  by  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  William  I.,  prince  of 
Orange,  and  was  born  at  Sedan  on  September  n,  i6it. 
He  was  carefully  educated  in  the  strictest  doctrine  of 


TU  R 


5944; 

the  reformed  religion,  and  at  the  age  of  thirteen  was 
sent  to  learn  war  from  his  uncles  Maurice  and  Henry 
of  Nassau  in  the  campaigns  of  these  princes  against 
the  Spaniards.  In  1626  he  received  a commission  as 
captain  of  infantry  in  the  service  of  Holland,  and  by 
1630  had  shown  such  military  capacity  that  Richelieu 
invited  him  back  to  France  and  appointed  him  colonel 
of  a regiment.  He  was  present  at  the  relief  of  Casale, 
and  on  June  21,  1635,  was  made  a marechal  de  camp 
for  his  services  at  the  siege  of  La  Motte  in  Lorraine 
under  De  la  Force.  In  that  year  he  took  command  of 
a division  in  the  army  under  Cardinal  La  Valette  in  the 
defense  of  Mainz.  In  1636  he  was  present  under  La 
Valette  at  the  siege  of  Saverne,  where  he  was  wounded, 
and  in  the  campaign  in  Franche  Comte;  in  1637  he 
served  under  the  same  commander  in  Flanders,  took 
Landrecies,  and  drove  back  the  cardinal  infant  from 
Maubeuge.  In  1638  he  served  under  Bernhard  of 
Saxe- Weimar  at  the  siege  of  Breisach,  and  in  the 
following  year  was  transferred  to  the  army  of  D’Har- 
court  in  Italy.  It  was  at  this  epoch  that  he  established 
his  fame  as  a general.  In  November,  1639,  he  covered 
the  retreat  of  the  army,  and  fought  a famous  engage- 
ment, known  as  the  battle  of  the  “ route  de  Quiers ; ” 
in  1640  he  saved  Casale,  and  insisted  upon  not  abandon- 
ing the  siege  of  Turin,  which  town  surrendered  on  Sep- 
tember 24th;  in  1641  he  took  Coni,  Ceva,  and  Mon- 
dovi;  and  on  March  11,  1642,  he  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  was  appointed  by  Riche- 
lieu in  1643  to  the  command  of  the  army  in  Italy,  under 
Thomas  of  Savoy,  although  his  brother,  the  Due  de 
Bouillon,  had  just  before  been  arrested  as  an  accomplice 
in  the  conspiracy  of  Cinq  Mars.  Mazarin  did  not  ex- 
hibit quite  so  much  confidence  in  Turenne,  and  in 
December,  1643,  removed  him  from  Italy,  but  he  soft- 
ened the  transference  by  creating  Turenne  a marshal  of 
France  on  May  16,  1644. 

Turenne’sfour  campaigns  in  Germany,  which  largely 
contributed  to  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  have  always 
been  regarded  as  models  in  the  art  of  war.  In  May, 
1645,  Turenne  was  surprised  by  Mercy  at  Marienthal 
and  defeated;  but  he  skillfully  concentrated  the  remains 
of  his  army  and  retreated  into  Hesse,  where  he  was 
soon  joined  by  D’Enghien.  The  two  marshals,  having 
reorganized  their  army,  marched  against  Mercy  and 
totally  defeated  him  at  Nordlingen  on  August  3,  1645, 
when  Mercy  was  killed.  D’Enghiem  again  left  the 
army  to  Turenne,  who,  in  conjunction  with  the  Swedish 
army  under  Wrangel,  overran  Franconia  and  Swabia, 
taking  all  the  fortresses  there  in  1646.  In  1647  he  con- 
ducted a still  more  masterly  campaign,  and  after  beating 
the  Bavarians  and  Imperialists  in  two  engagements  he 
and  the  Swedes  occupied  Bavaria,  and  drove  the  old 
duke  out  of  his  dominions. 

When  the  troubles  of  the  Fronde  (see  France  and 
Mazarin)  broke  out,  Turenne,  who  was  in  command 
of  the  veteran  troops  of  Bernhard  of  Saxe-Weimar  in 
Alsace,  hesitated  which  side  to  take,  till  the  Duchesse 
de  Longueville  (, q.v .)  with  whom  he  fell  violently  in 
love,  persuaded  him  to  side  with  the  parlement.  But 
his  troops  refused  to  follow  him,  and  he  had  to  fly  with 
her  to  Flanders.  He  there  took  a command  in  the 
Spanish  army  under  Don  Estevan  Gomar,  and,  when 
trying  to  raise  the  siege  of  R6thel,  was  utterly  defeated 
by  Du  Plessis-Praslin.  But  in  1652  he  defeated  Cond6 
at  Gien,  and  nearly  annihilated  his  army  in  the  battle 
of  the  Faubourg  St.  Antoine.  When  the  troubles  of 
the  Fronde  were  over,  Turenne  marched  upon  the 
frontier,  and  in  several  'campaign:,  defeated  the  Span- 
iards. In  these  campaigns  he  had  once  more  to  fight 
against  Cond<§,  general-in-chief  of  the  armies  of  Spain, 
and  in  1654  he  showed  fiis  superiority  hy  raising  the 


siege  of  Arrag  and  driving  the  Spaniards  from  their 
lines.  In  1656  Cond6,  assisted  by  Don  John  of  Austria, 
won  an  exactly  similar  victory  and  relieved  Valenciennes, 
which  Turenne  was  besieging.  The  prolonged  contest 
between  the  two  was  decided  in  1658  by  Turenne’s 
victory  of  the  Dunes,  in  which  Cromwell’s  contingent  of 
6,000  soldiers  took  part. 

Louis  XIV.  now  began  to  rule  in  reality,  and  one  of 
his  first  acts  was  to  create  Turenne  in  1660  marshal- 
general  of  the  armies  of  France.  Seven  years  later 
Turenne  occupied  French  Flanders  and  took  all  the 
fortresses  in  that  province.  It  was  in  1668  that  Turenne 
made  his  notorious  change  of  faith.  Born  of  Calvinist 
parents  and  educated  a Protestant,  he  had  in  compli- 
ance of  the  tenets  of  his  religion  refused  to  marry  one 
of  Richelieu’s  nieces  in  1639,  and  had  eventually  mar- 
ried a daughter  of  the  Protestant  Marshal  de  la  Force. 
But  it  can  hardly  be  believed  that  he  was  converted  at 
the  age  of  fifty-seven  from  religious  convictions.  In 
1672  the  second  great  European  war  broke  out,  brought 
about  by  the  ambition  of  Louis  XIV.  Turenne  once 
more  took  command  of  the  army,  which  the  king  accom- 
panied, and  speedily  occupied  the  greater  part  of  Hol- 
land, which,  however,  they  were  forced  to  evacuate 
owing  to  the  Dutch  cutting  their  dykes.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  Turenne  marched  into  Westphalia  to  oppose 
the  imperialist  forces,  and,  though  his  army  was  small 
compared  to  that  of  Montecuculi,  the  imperialist  general, 
he  managed  to  make  head  against  both  him  and  the 
elector  of  Brandenburg.  In  1673  he  was  compelled  to 
act  on  the  defensive;  but  in  1674,  in  spite  of  his  inferi- 
ority of  numbers,  he  boldly  resumed  the  aggressive. 
Crossing  the  Rhine  at  Philippsburg  in  June,  and  march- 
ing rapidly  to  Sinsheim,  he  defeated  the  imperialist  gen- 
eral Caprara  and  the  duke  of  Lorraine.  After  the  rout 
of  Colmar  and  the  defeat  of  Tiirkheim  which  followed 
it,  he  laid  waste  the  greater  part  of  Alsace,  as  a defen- 
sive measure  against  another  advance  of  the  imperialists. 
He  then  advanced  into  the  heart  of  Germany,  and  again 
met  Montecuculi,  who  had  succeeded  the  elector  of 
Brandenburg  as  general-in-chief.  The  two  generals 
maneuvered  for  four  months  in  much  the  same  way  as 
Wellington  and  Marmont  marched  and  counter-marched 
before  the  battle  of  Salamanca;  at  last,  on  July  27, 
1675,  their  field  of  battle  was  chosen,  and,  as  Turenne 
was  directing  the  position  of  a battery,  he  was  struck  by 
a cannon  ball  and  killed  on  the  spot. 

TURGAI,  a Russian  province  in  Central  Asia,  form- 
erly a part  of  the  Kirghiz  steppe,  and  now  embodied  in 
the  governor-generalship  of  the  Steppes,  is  bounded  by 
Uralsk  and  Orenburg  on  the  west  and  north,  by  Akmo  - 
linsk  on  the  east,  and  by  Syr-Daria  and  the  Sea  of  Aral 
on  the  south.  This  extensive  and  irregularly- shaped 
territory,  which  has  an  area  (176,800  square  miles)  as 
large  as  that  of  Caucasia  and  Transcaucasia  taken  to- 
gether, belongs  to  the  Aral-Caspian  depression.  The 
steppe  land  of  Turgai  is  only  some  300  feet  above  the 
sea-level,  and  is  dotted  with  lakes,  of  which  the  Tchol- 
gardenghiz,  which  receives  the  Turgai  and  its  tributary 
the  Irghiz,  is  the  largest.  The  Turgai  was,  at  a recent 
epoch,  a large  river  flowing  into  the  Sea  of  Aral  and  re- 
ceiving an  extensive  system  of  tributaries,  which  are  now 
lost  in  the  sands  before  joining  it. 

The  climate  of  Turgai  is  exceedingly  dry  and  conti- 
nental. Orsk,  a town  of  Orenburg,  on  its  northwestern 
border,  has  a January  as  cold  as  that  of  the  west  coast 
of  Nova  Zembla  ( — 40  Fahr.),  while  in  July  it  is  as  hot 
as  July  in  Morocco  (73°);  the  corresponding  figures  for 
Irghiz,  in  the  center  of  the  province,  are  70  and  770. 
At  Irghiz  and  Orsk  the  annual  rainfall  is  somewhat 
under  ten  and  twelve  inches  respectively  (three  inches  is 
summer). 


TU  R 


The  population  of  Turgai  was,  in  1898,  453,123,  all 
nomad  Kirghiz,  with  the  exception  of  some  £,600,  who 
are  settled  in  four  villages  officially  described  as  towns. 
Agriculture  is  in  its  earliest  stage  of  development ; but 
some  800,000  bushels  of  grain  are  raised  in  the  south- 
west by  the  Kirghiz,  who  sell  some  of  it  in  Orenburg. 
Cattle-breeding  is  the  chief  occupation,  and  within  the 
province  there  are  some  800,000  horses,  335,000  cattle, 
about  200,000  camels,  and  more  than  2,000,000  sheep. 
But  the  want  of  fodder  in  spring  occasions  violent  mur- 
rains which  sometimes  result  in  actual  famine  among 
the  Kirghiz.  The  four  settlements  of  the  province  are 
Turgai,  chief  town  and  seat  of  the.  provincial  adminis- 
tration, with  less  than  400  inhabitants,  and  the  “ dis- 
trict towns  ” of  Irghiz  (920),  Ak-tube  (400),  and  Kara- 
butak  (300),  the  last  two  being  more  or  less  fortified. 
Several  merchants  in  these  carry  on  trade  with  the  Kir- 
ghiz, exchanging  manufactured  goods  for  wool  and 
skins,  which  are  sent  to  the  frontier  settlements  of 
Orenburg. 

TURGENEF  (or  Tourguenief),  Ivan  Serge- 
jevitsch,  one  of  the  best  known  of  modern  Russian 
novelists,  was  born  at  Orel  November  9,  1818,  educated 
at  Moscow  and  Berlin,  and  obtained  a post  under  the 
minister  of  the  interior.  He  became  known  as  a poet 
in  1843.  He  was  banished  in  1852  for  his  liberalism; 
and,  though  afterward  pardoned,  has  lived  mostly  in 
Paris,  and  Baden.  Turgenef  was  a very  prolific  author. 
Of  his  novels,  the  chief  that  have  been  translated  are 
Russian  Life , Fathers  and  Sons , Smoke , Liza,  Spring 
Floods , and  Virgin  Soil.  He  died  September  3,  1883. 

TURGOT.  Anne  Robert  Jacques  Turgot, 
Marquis  de  l’Aulne,  French  statesman  and  econ- 
omist, was  born  at  Paris,  May  10,  1727.  His  family, 
which  was  ancient  and  noble,  is  said  to  have  been  orig- 
inally Scottish,  but  had  long  been  settled  in  Normandy. 
His  ancestors  early  abandoned  the  sword  for  the  robe. 
Both  his  father  and  grandfather  had  been  in  the  civil 
service  of  the  state;  nis  father  was  “ prevot  des  mar- 
chands  ” at  Paris,  and  won  a high  reputation  as  a mag- 
.strate  and  administrator.  Turgot  in  his  childhood  was 
timid,  and  showed  in  company  an  absent  and  embar- 
rassed air.  He  obtained  his  early  education  at  the 
College  Louis-le-Grand,  and  was  afterward  a student  of 
the  College  du  Plessis.  He  then  entered  the  seminary 
of  St.  Sulpice,  and  thence  passed  to  the  Sorbonne  with 
the  view  of  taking  his  license  in  theology.  But  he  de- 
cided finally,  in  1751,  not  to  follow  the  ecclesiastical 
profession. 

As  prior  of  the  Sorbonne  (an  honorary  office  con- 
ferred annually  on  some  distinguished  student)  he  wrote 
and  delivered  publicly  in  1 750  two  remarkable  pieces — 
one  On  the  Benefits  which  the  Christian  Religion  has 
conferred  on  Mankind , the  other  On  the  Historical 
Progress  of  the  Human  Mind.  Having  chosen  the 
law  as  his  profession,  he  was  appointed  in  1752  “ con- 
seiller  substitut  du  procureur  general,”  and  afterward 
“conseiller  au  parlement.”  Turgot  wrote  (1753) 
Letters  to  a Vicar-General  on  Toleration  and  a pam- 
phlet entitled  Le  Conciliateur'm  favor  of  religious  liberty 
and  against  the  interference  of  the  temporal  power  in 
theological  disputes.  In  1753  he  became  “ maitre  des 
requetes.”  Turgot  accompanied  Gournay  in  1755  and 
1756  in  his\>fficial  tours  of  inspection  as  intendant  of 
commerce,  and  on  Gournay’s  death  in  1759  he  wrote 
his  J^loge.  He  contributed  about  this  period  several 
articles  to  the  Encyclopedic. 

Shortly  after  'the  accession  of  Louis  XVI.  Turgot 
was  appointed  by  Maurepas  (July  19,  1 774)  minister 
of  marine,  and  in  that  capacity  began  at  once  to  initiate 
important  reforms,  and  to  conceive  far-reaching  proj- 
ects. But  he  filled  the  post  only  for  five  weeks,  being 


5945 

then  (August  21st)  promoted  to  the  ministry  of  finance. 
In  his  new  office  he  addressed  to  the  young  king  a 
declaration  of  the  principles  by  which  he  intended  t<j 
be  guided : “ No  bankruptcy,  no  increase  of  taxation, 
and  no  borrowing.”  Economy  and  wise  management 
were  to  be  his  only  resources.  By  a decree  of  Septem- 
ber, 13,  1774,  he  reestablished  free  trade  in  grain 
within  the  kingdom,  which  had  been  suspended  by 
Terray,  and  authorized  the  importation  of  supplies 
from  abroad;  the  traffic  in  other  alimentary  substances 
was  also  relieved  of  many  impediments,  and  various 
monopolies  and  exclusive  privileges  were  abolished ; the 
octroi  taxation  was  reformed,  public  works  promoted, 
and  improvements  in  agriculture  encouraged.  Some  of 
these  measures  were  made  the  pretext  for  disturbances, 
known  as  la  guerre  des  farines , which  Turgot  always 
suspected  the  Prince  de  Conti  of  having  fomented.  A 
vile  conspiracy  having  poisoned  Louis’  mind  against 
him,  he  addressed  to  tne  king  an  eloquent  letter  in 
which  he  pointed  out  the  grave  perils  impending  over 
the  throne  and  the  state,  and  warned  Louis  that 
princes  who  are  tempted  to  give  themselves  up  to  the 
direction  of  the  courtiers  should  remember  the  fate  of 
Charles  I.  The  minister  received  his  dismissal  on 
May  12,  1776.  He  had  been  in  office  only  twenty 
months,  of  which  he  had  lost  six  in  repressing  sedition, 
and  for  seven  more  had  been  confined  to  his  bed  by  the 
gout ; but  he  had  done  during  his  tenure  an  extraor- 
dinary amount  of  work.  Voltaire,  however,  nobly 
avenged  Turgot  on  his  enemies  in  his  £ pitre  d un 
Homme.  The  fallen  minister  devoted  his  remaining 
years  to  his  favorite  studies,  especially  to  physical 
science  and  the  ancient  poets ; he  enjoyed  the  society  of 
Lavoisier,  D’Alembert,  Condorcet,  Bossut,  Rochon, 
And  Rouelle,  and  attended  the  meetings  of  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions,  of  which  he  was  elected  vice-director 
in  1777.  He  also  corresponded  with  Price  and  Frank- 
lin, and,  if  we  may  believe  Condorcet,  with  Adam 
Smith,  whose  acquaintance  he  had  made  at  Paris  in 
1766.  Turgot  died  at  Paris  on  March  1 8,  1781. 

TURIN,  a city  of  northern  Italy,  formerly  the 
capital  of  Piedmont  and  the  Sardinian  states  and  now 
the  chief  town  of  a province  in  the  compartimento  of 
Piedmont,  is  situated  in  the  alluvial  valley  of  the  Po, 
just  above  the  confluence  of  the  Dora  Riparia.  The 
M onte  dei  Cappuccini  in  the  neighborhood  reaches  922 
and  La  Superga  2,405  feet.  As  viewed  from  the  east 
the  city  stands  out  boldly  against  the  Alps.  Taken  as 
a whole  Turin  may  be  described  as  a very  modern  city, 
with  broad  and  regular  streets,  and  large  squares  and 
public  gardens.  The  cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Baptist 
is  a cruciform  Renaissance  building  dating  from  the  close 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  site  was  first  occupied  by 
a church  erected,  it  is  said,  by  the  Lombard  duke  Agilulf 
(seventeenth  century).  Of  the  secular  buildings  the 
more  interesting  are  the  Madama  palace,  first  erected  by 
William  of  Montferrat  in  the  close  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  the  extensive  royal  palace  begun  in  the  sev- 
enteenth century.  The  university,  founded  in  1400  by 
Lodovico  di  Acaja,  has  faculties  of  jurisprudence,  medi- 
cine and  surgery,  literature  and  philosophy,  and  the 
mathematical,  physical,  and  natural  sciences.  The 
number  of  students  enrolled  was  2,132  in  1886.  About 
1876  the  old  university  buildings,  erected  in  1713  by  the 
Genoese  architect  Ricca,  began  to  prove  too  small  for 
their  purpose ; and  at  the  present  time  new  buildings, 
fitted  more  especially  for  the  medical  and  scientific  de- 
partments, are  being  erected.  The  area  of  the  botanic- 
al gardens  has  also  been  extended  and  the  observatory 
enlarged.  The  medical  school  derives  advantage  from 
the  number  of  important  hospitals  in  the  city.  The 
academy  of  sciences  was  founded  in  1757. 


TUR 


5946 

The  industries  of  Turin  and  its  suburbs  give  employ- 
ment to  17,936  persons  (13,305  men,  4,031  women). 
Spinning-mills,  weaving-factories,  “ vesta  ” factories 
(De  Medici),  breweries,  and  iron-works  are  among  the 
more  extensive  establishments.  The  commercial  rela- 
tions of  the  city  are  very  extensive.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
central  offices  of  the  North  Italian  railway;  and  the 
central  station  is  one  of  the  most  imposing  buildings  of 
its  class  in  the  country.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
at  Turin  is  530  Fahr.  (Jan.  36°,  July  740),  with  a max- 
imum of  96°  and  a minimurh  of  4.  i°.  Mists  are  fre- 
quent in  the  winter  mornings,  and  to  a less  degree  in 
autumn.  Snow  seldom  falls  in  any  great  quantity,  and 
on  an  average  only  on  seven  days  per  annum.  The 
rainfall,  distributed  over  100  days,  reaches  thirty- two 
inches — December  being  1.6  and  April  4.3.  The  pop- 
ulation of  Turin  was  only  about  4,200  in  1377  and  9,000 
in  1580;  but  by  1702  it  was  returned  as  43,866.  In 
1848  it  had  risen  to  136,849,  and  in  1861  to  204,715. 
In  spite  of  the  changes  caused  by  the  removal  of  the 
capital,  first  to  Florence  and  then  to  Rome,  the  census 
of  1901  showed  335,639  innauitiMits  (commune  352,832). 
Between  1859  and  1865  Turin  was  the  capital  of  united 
Italy.  Among  the  many  men  of  mark  born  in  Turin 
it  is  enough  to  mention  Lagrange,  Gioberti,  Cesare 
Balbo,  Cavour,  Marochetti  the  sculptor,  D’Azeglio,  and 
Sommellier. 

TURKESTAN.  The  terms  “ Turkestan  ’’and  “ Cen- 
tral Asia”  are  often  used  indiscriminately  to  descnoe 
the  whole  of  the  immense  territory  to  the  east  of  the 
Caspian,  comprised  between  Siberia  on  the  north  and 
Khorasan  (Persia),  Afghanistan,  and  Tibet  on  the 
south,  or  to  designate  separate,  sometimes  arbitrarily 
determined,  parts  of  the  same  region.  In  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century  the  whole  of  the  territory 
just  named,  with  its  great  variety  of  altitudes,  climate, 
inhabitants — these  last  differing  as  much  in  their  his- 
tory as  in  their  present  characteristics — was  comprised 
under  the  vague  denominatian  of  High  Tartary,  or 
High  or  Interior  Asia.  After  the  appearance  of  Hum- 
boldt’s first  draft  of  Asie  Centrale  in  1831,  the  term 
5‘  Central  Asia  ” came  into  favor.  The  name  Central 
Asia  can  still  be  used  with  great  advantage  to  designate 
that  immense  portion  of  the  continent  to  the  east  of  the 
Caspian  and  the  LTst-Urt  plateau  which  is  limited  on 
the  north  by  the  important  climatic  and  geo-botanic 
boundary  of  the  Irtish  and  Aral  water-parting  and  the 
Great  or  Ektagh  Altai,  on  the  east  by  the  eastern  Gobi, 
and  on  the  south  by  the  northern  border  of  the  Khor 
plateau  (Altyn-Tagh  and  Kuen-Lun),  the  Hindu-Kush, 
and  the  Kopet-Dagh.  Extensive  as  it  is,  this  territory 
has  its  own  climatic  and  geo-botanic  features ; it  forms 
a distinct  part  of  the  continent,  when  the  orography  of 
Asia  is  broadly  viewed  ; and  its  inhabitants  have  anum- 
ner  of  common  characteristics  resulting  directly  from 
the  physical  features  of  the  territory.  But  this  im- 
mense area  must  be  subdivided ; and  its  subdivisions  be- 
come apparent  as  soon  as  the  orographical  features  are 
grasped. 

Two  great  plateaus  constitute  the  two  backbones,  as 
it  were,  of  the  orographical  structure  of  Asia — that  of 
eastern  Asia,  an  immense  triangle  stretching  north-east- 
wards, having  the  Himalayas  for  its  base  and  the  penin- 
sula of  the  Tchuktchis  for  its  apex;  and  that  of  western 
Asia,  which  extends  at  right  angles  to  the  above,  from 
the  lower  Indus  to  the  Black  Sea.  The  Hindu-Kush 
connects  these  two  massive  swellings,  both  continents 
of  the  oldest  formation  in  Asia.  Both  are  fringed  on 
their  northern  edges  by  lofty  chains  of  mountains.  The 
Tian-Shan,  the  Altai,  the  Sayan,  and  the  Vitim  mount- 
ains rise  in  a long  succession  on  the  borders  of  the 
former*  while  a series  of  chains,  which  might  be  de* 


scribed  under  the  general  name  of  Kopet-Dagh,  con- 
tinued into  the  Transcaucasian  chains,  rise  on  the 
northeastern  edge  of  the  western  plateau. 

An  immense  trapezoidal  depression  occupies  the  angle 
on  the  west  where  the  great  plateaus  meet,  and  this 
depression  is  West  Turkestan.  Its  southeastern  limits 
are  the  Hindu-Kush  and  the  Tian-Shan;  on  its  south- 
western edge  it  has  the  Iranian  plateau;  and  its  northwest 
and  northeast  boundaries  correspond  with  the  edge  of 
the  Ust-Urt  and  the  Irtish  and  Aral  water-parting, 
which  separates  it  from  Siberia.  The  trapezium  is  1,100 
miles  long  from  southwest  to  northeast,  and  900  miles 
wide  from  southeast  to  northwest.  It  thus  includes, 
not  only  the  depression  at  the  junction  of  the  two  pla- 
teaus, but  also  the  girdle  of  alpine  tracts  which  fringes 
them,  and  in  whose  deep  and  sheltered  valleys  the  Turk- 
ish and  partly  Iranian  population  of  Turkestan  find  a 
fertile  soil  and  plenty  of  water  for  their  fields,  while 
their  herds  graze  on  the  rich  alpine  meadows  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  Tian-Shan.  Not  orographically  only  but 
also  in  respect  of  its  recent  geological  past,  its  climate, 
flora,  fauna,  and  inhabitants,  this  region  forms  a geo- 
graphical domain  by  itself,  quite  distinct  from  the 
steppes  of  southeastern  Russia,  the  prairies  of  Siberia, 
and  the  two  great  plateaus  by  which  it  is  inclosed;  and, 
although  it  is  easily  subdivided  into  two  parts — the  dry 
lowlands  of  the  Transcaspian  depression  and  the  plains 
and  highlands  of  Turkestan  proper — it  presents  one 
geographical  whole  when  contrasted  with  the  surround- 
ing regions.  West  Turkestan  is  often  called  Russian 
Turkestan,  as  distinguished  from  Chinese  or  East 
Turkestan. 

This  second  great  region  of  Central  Asia  also  has 
well-defined  limits.  A glance  at  any  recent  map 
shows  that  there  is  in  the  great  eastern  plateau  a de- 
pression bordered  by  the  deep  slopes  of  the  Pamir 
(Humbol  .’s  Bolor)  on  the  west,  the  border-ridges  of 
Tibet  (Kuen-Lun  and  Altyn-Tagh)  on  the  south,  the 
eastern  Tian-Shan  on  the  north,  and  the  western 
Gobi  on  the  east.  Although  we  call  it  a depression, 
because  it  is  much  lower  than  the  surrounding  plateaus, 
it  is  itself  a plateau,  ranging  from  3,000  to  4,000  feet 
above  sea-level.  This  depression,  the  Hang-hai  of  the 
Chinese,  which,  during  the  later  Tertiary  arid  earlier 
Quaternary  period,  was  covered  by  a sea,  of  which  a 
very  small  survival  still  exists  in  Lob-Nor,  is  now 
drained  by  the  Tarim.  Its  deserts,  in  which  human 
settlements  are  now  very  rare,  though  formerly  the 
population  was  much  denser,  have  been  described  under 
a variety  of  names,  Little  Bokhara,  Alty-shar  or  Jity- 
shar,  Kashgaria,  and  so  on);  but  the  name  of  East 
Turkestan  has  prevailed,  and  there  is  no  reason  for 
abandoning  it,  provided  it  is  not  confounded  with 
Dzungaria  (< q.v .)  in  the  north  and  the  great  Desert  of 
Gobi  in  the  east. 

West  Turkestan  has  an  area  of  nearly  410,000 
square  miles,  and  a population  of  nearly  5,000,000.  It 
presents  a very  great  variety  of  aspects,  including  the 
lonely  plateau  of  Pamir,  in  height  second  only  to  that 
of  Tibet;  the  immense  complex  of  alpine  tracts  described 
under  the  general  name  of  Tian-Shan  (three  times  as 
long  as  the  Alps  of  Europe),  which  lift  their  snow-clad 
eaks  four  and  nearly  five  miles  above  the  sea,  and  feed 
uge  glaciers,  while  their  deep  valleys  and*  gorges  par- 
take of  almost  every  variety  of  climate  and  vegetation; 
rich  prairies  and  still  wider  lowlands  descending  below 
the  level  of  the  ocean;  and  deserts  where  the  winds, 
burning  hot  or  icy,  but  always  dry,  have  free  scope  to 
modify  the  surface,  which  is  bare  of  vegetation. 

Nevertheless  West  Turkestan  is  sharply  divide  into 
two  parts — the  highlands  in  the  southeast  and  the  plains 
and  deserts  In  the  northwest.  The  former  carer  an 


TU  R 


■Area  nearly  1,000  miles  long  by  270  broad,  of  which  the 
northern  parts  are  described  under  the  general  name  of 
Tian-Shan  (properly,  T’han-Shan).  Iheir  distinctive 
feature  is  that,  like  the  highlands  of  Siberia,  they  con- 
stitute a high  border-ridge,  running  west-southwest  to 
east-northeast  on  the  edge  of  the  great  plateau  of 
eastern  Asia.  The  Hindu-Kush,  with  its  snow-clad 
summits  of  18,000  and  20,000  feet,  limits  the  highlands 
of  Turkestan  to  the  southeast.  At  the  foot  of  its 
northwestern  slope  it  has  the  plateau  of  Pamir — the 
“Roof  of  the  World” — with  an  area  of  about  37,000 
square  miles.  A series  of  chains,  gently  sloping  and 
dome-shaped,  rising  4,000  or  5,000  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  plateau,  traverse  it  from  southwest  to  north- 
east. 

Nearly  150  miles  to  the  northwest  of  the  Hindu-KUsh 
lies  the  northwestern  border  of  the  Pamir,  fringed  by 
the  lofty  Trans-Alai  Mountains.  Their  crest,  covered 
with  snow,  rises  nearly  four  miles  above  the  sea  (Kauf- 
mann  Peak  23,000  feet);  but  the  traveler  approaching 
them  from  the  south  would  hardly  guess  their  height, 
because  their  southern  slope  toward  the  wildernesses  of 
the  plateau,  themselves  13,000  feet  high,  is  very  gentle. 

Like  the  highlands  of  Siberia,  those  of  Turkestan  are 
fringed  by  a girdle  of  plains,  having  an  altitude  of  from 
1,000  to  1,500  feet,  and  these  again  are  skirted  by  an 
immense  lowland  area  reaching  only  400,  300,  and  150 
feet,  or  even  sinking  below  the  level  of  the  ocean. 
These  plains  and  lowlands  cover  nearly  650,000  square 
miles.  The  dryness  of  the  climate  is  excessive:  rain 
falls  only  where  the  hills  cause  the  clouds  to  condense, 
the  soil  elsewhere  being  moistened  only  occasionally  by 
a few  showers.  Two  rivers  only — the  .Syr  and  the  Amu 
—succeed  in  crossing  the  desert  and  reaching  the  Sea 
of  Aral. 

The  whole  area  is  now  undergoing  geological  changes 
on  a vast  scale.  Rivers  have  changed  their  courses, 
and  lakes  their  outlines.  Far  away  from  their  present 
shores  the  geologist  finds  indubitable  traces  of  the  recent 
presence  of  the  lakes  in  the  shells  they  have  left  amid 
the  sands.  Traces  of  former  rivers  and  channels,  which 
were  the  main  arteries  of  prosperous  regions  within  the 
period  of  written  history,  have  now  disappeared.  Of 
the  highly  developed  civilizations  which  grew  up  and 
flourished  in  Bactriana,  Bokhara,  and  Samarkand  the 
last  traces  are  now  undergoing  rapid  obliteration  with 
the  desiccation  of  the  rivers  and  lakes. 

The  climate  of  West  Turkestan  is  exceedingly  dry 
and  continental.  Although  the  country  is  comprised 
within  the  latitudes  of  Sicily  and  Lyons,  it  has  a south 
Norwegian  January  and  a Persian  summer.  Temper- 
atures of  more  than  ioo°  Fahr.  in  the  shade  are  com- 
mon, and  the  heat  is  rendered  still  more  unbearable  by 
the  reflection  from  a soil  destitute  of  vegetation.  The 
winter  is  for  the  most  part  so  cold  that  the  average 
temperature  for  January  is  below  the  freezing  point, 
and  even  reaches  ou  Fahr.  Snow  falls  for  several 
months  on  the  lower  Syr-Daria,  and,  were  it  not  blown 
away  by  the  winds,  sledge  communication  would  be 
possible.  This  river  is  frozen  for  an  average  of  1 23 
days  every  year  in  its  lower  parts,  and  nearly  100  days 
at  Perovsk.  The  fauna  of  Turkestan  belongs  to  the 
great  zoo-geographical  domain  of  northern  Asia,  and  is 
only  differentiated  by  the  presence  of  species  which  have 
disappeared  from  the  peripheric  parts  of  the  Old  World 
and  now  find  a refuge  in  the  remotest  regions  of  the 
uninhabited  plateau.  From  the  great  Palseoarctic 
region  it  is  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  Himalayan 
species.  It  would  be  impossible  to  describe  in  **  few 
words  the  avifauna.  No  fewer  than  385  species  are 
recorded,  most  of  them  being  middle-European  and 
Mediterranean.  A large  number  were  formerly  known 


594? 

only  in  the  Himalayas,  or  in  Persia,  while  others  have 
their  origin  in  east  Asia.  The  commonest  are  mostly 
European.  As  for  the  very  rich  insect  fauna,  of  which 
full  descriptions  are  now  accessible,  it  is  worthy  of  note 
that  among  the  Lepidoptera  of  the  Pamir  there  is  an 
interesting  mixture  of  Tian-Shan  with  Himalayar 
species. 

As  a whole  the  flora  of  Turkestan  belongs  to  that  of 
Central  Asia,  which  was  formerly  continued  by  geo- 
botanists as  far  west  as  the  steppes  of  Russia,  but 
which  must  now  be  considered  as  a separate  region 
subdivided  into  two — the  Central  Asian  proper  and  that 
of  the  Gobi. 

The  arable  land  occupies  less  than  a fiftieth  of  the 
whole  area  of  West  Turkestan,  even  when  the  Trans- 
caspian deserts  are  left  out  of  account.  The  remainder 
is  nearly  equally  divided  between  pasture  land  and 
desert  (sandy  steppe  and  barren  mountain).  Owing  to 
a very  equitable  distribution  of  irrigation  water  in  ac* 
cordance  with  Moslem  Law,  agriculture  and  garden, 
ing  have  reached  a high  stage  of  development  in  tht 
oases.  Two  crops  are  usually  taken  every  year 
Wheat,  barley,  millet,  pease,  lentils,  rice,  sorghum, 
lucerne,  and  cotton  are  the  chief  agricultural  products 
Carrots,  melons,  vegetable  marrows,  and  onions  are 
extensively  grown.  Rye  and  oats  are  cultivated  in  Kaza- 
linsk  and  Kopal.  Corn  is  exported.  Owing  to  the 
irrigation,  total  failure  of  crops  and  consequent  famines 
are  unknown,  unless  among  the  Kirghiz  shepherds. 
The  kitchen  gardens  of  the  Mohammedans  are,  as  a rule, 
admirably  kept.  Potatoes  are  grown  only  by  the  Rus- 
sians. The  cultivation  of  cotton  is  rapidly  extending  as 
also  is  sericulture,  which  is  chiefly  carried  on  in  Ferg- 
hana, whence  silk  cocoons  are  an  important  item  of 
export.  Cattle-breeding  is  extensively  pursued,  and  in 
Russian  Turkestan  alone  recent  estimates  show  400,000 
camels,  1,600,000  horses,  1,200,000  cattle,  and  11,000,- 
000  sheep.  This  last  figure,  however,  is  but  a very 
rough  estimate — the  flocks  on  the  Kirghiz  steppe  being 
so  large  that  the  proprietors  themselves  do  not  know 
their  exact  numbers.  Murrains  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence ; a recent  one  resulted  in  a terrible  famine  amon j 
the  Kirghiz.  Live  cattle,  hides,  wool,  camel-hair,  tal- 
low, felt,  and  leather  are  exported  to  a considerabk 
extent. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Turkestan  is  considerable. 
Traces  of  auriferous  sands  have  been  discovered  at  manj 
places,  but  the  percentage  of  gold  is  too  poor  to  make 
the  working  remunerative.  Silver,  lead,  and  iron  ores 
occur  at  several  places;  but  the  want  of  fuel  is  an  ob- 
stacle to  their  exploitation.  The  vast  coal-beds  of  Kulja 
and  several  inferior  ones  in  Turkestan  are  not  yet  seri- 
ously worked,  the  total  yearly  output  being  only  some 
1 20,ooohundredweights.  The  naphtha  wells  of  F erghana 
and  the  layers  of  graphite  about  Sairam-Nor  are  also  neg- 
lected. There  are  abundant  deposits  of  gypsum,  alum, 
kaolin,  marble,  and  similarmaterials.  Notwithstanding 
the  salt  springs  of  Ferghana  and  Syr-Daria,  the  salt  lakes 
of  the  region,  and  the  rock-salt  strata  of  the  Alexan- 
drovsk  Mountains,  salt  is  imported. 

Turkestan  has  no  manufacturing  industry  carried  on. 
by  means  of  machinery,  except  a few  distilleries  and! 
two  establishments  for  dressing  raw  cotton.  But  there’ 
is  a great  variety  of  artisan  work,  which,  however,  has 
been  for  some  time  declining  and  now  stands  at  a rather 
low  level. 

Turkestan  has  no  lack  of  populous  cities,  which,  not- 
withstanding recent  vicissitudes,  continue  to  be  impor- 
tant for  their  trade,  while  several  others  are  widely 
famous  for  the  part  they  have  playec.  ,n  history. 
Khokand,  Marghilan,  Namangan,  and  Andijan  in 
Ferghana;  Tashkend  and  Khojend  in  Syr-Daria; 


594? 


TUR 


Samarkand  in  Z^alsfeatt;  Bokhara  and  Khiva  in 
the  independent  Khanates  have  each  from  o to 
100,000  inhabitants. 

The  Kuruk-Tagh  and  the  steep  slope  of  the  G&shtth 
'Gobi  separate  East  Turkestan  from  the  higher  let  race 
of  the  plateau,  so  that  about  Lob- Nor  the  Tarim  de- 
ipression  is  narrowed  to  a width  of  about  I00  miles;  and 
vm  the  ninety-eighth  meridian,  at  Lake  Tchitt-sheft-h'b, 
fche  steep  edge  of  the  Gobi  meets  the  sptttfc  of  the  Nan- 
'Shan  Mountains.  In  its  physical  features  it  forms  a 
connecting  link  between  the  Chinese  territories  and 
the  Aral-Caspian  depression.  It  covers  about  465,000 
square  miles,  but  has  hardly  more  than  1,000,000  in- 
habitants. 

Although  lying  at  a high  altitude  (Kashgar  4,000  feet 
and  Yarkand  4,120  feet),  it  has  the  character  of  a de- 
gression in  comparison,  not  only  with  the  mountains, 
Wt  also  with  the  lofty  plateaus  which  surround  it— 
Tibet,  Pamir,  and  the  TiamShan  syrts. 

One  river  only,  the  Tarim — now  lost  ih  \ne  marshes 
of  Lob-Nor — and  its  tributaries,  water  this  region.  It 
is  formed  by  the  confluence  Of  several  rivers  flowing 
from  the  semicircle  of  mountains  which  fence  in  Last 
Turkestan  on  the  south,  west,  and  Worth.  The 
Kashgar-Daria  rises  under  the  name  of  Kizil-sU  on  the 
Alai.  The  Yarkand- Daria  has  its  origin  in  a high 
valley  between  the  Kuen-Lun  and  Karakorum  Mount- 
ains. The  Tarim  is  navigable  for  steamers  from  the 
confluence  of  the  Yarkand  and  Khotan  rivers  all  the 
way  to  Lob-Nor.  These  rivers,  however*  do  hdt  bring 
Gdfe  to  the  immense  deserts,  the  aspect  Of  which  recalls 
partly  the  Aral-Caspian  depression  and  partly  the 
Mongolian  Gobi.  Their  undulating  surface  fe  t'dVeted 
with  a gravelly  soil,  out  of  which  all  the  lifter  particles 
have  been  winnowed  by  the  Wind,  and  it  neSounds 
©mder  the  hoofs  of  the  passing  hordes;  graSs  covers  \'t 
only  in  the  beginning  of  spring.  aM  there  occur 

clayey  deposits  with  an  efflorescence  of  salt,  which  is 
hard  in  summer  but  impassable  after  rains.  Then  come 
immense  areas  of  loose  sand,  which  is  raised  in  clouds 
by  storms  of  wind,  and  the  hills  of  which,  moving  on 
like  waves,  invade  the  cultivated  fields  that  have  been 
conquered  by  laborious  effort  from  the  desert.  The 
features  with  which  the  traveler  in  the  Sahara,  or  oh 
the  plateau  of  eastern  Iran  about  Lake  Zareh  (Hamm) 
is  familiar,  are  here  reproduced  on  the  same  large  scale, 
^^e  Takla-makan  desert  north  of  Khotan  covers  o . 
000  square  miles.  ^ 

The  vegetation  of  the  interior  of  East  Turkestan  is 
very  poor,  being  the  same  as  that  of  the  steppes  ©if 
West  Turkestan.  Immense  areas  are  covered  with 
balsolacea;  and  the  gravelly  ground  is  clothed  in  spring 
with  a rich  carpet  of  grass.  The  oases  possess  all  the 
plants  which  are  cultivated  in  West  Turkestan— the 
mulberry,  walnut,  pear,  apple,  apricot,  olive,  and  vine. 
Cotton,  rice,  maize,  millet,  and  wheat  are  grown. 

As  a rule,  the  mammals  are  not  numerous,  and  the 
fauna  closely  resembles  that  of  the  Tian-Shan.  It 
seems  to  be  owing  to  the  loneliness  of  its  deserts  that 
East  I urkestan  has  preserved  the  wild  ancestors  of  our 
domestic  animals.  Besides  the  wild  ass  {Equus  hemi - 
^?^)  Prjevalsky  discovered  in  the  Dzungarian  steppes 
the  wild  horse— the  real  ancestor  of  our  domestic  hoVse 
—and  on  the  plateau  of  Tsaidam  the  wild  camel  and  the 
wild  yak. 

Raw  cotton  and  silk  are  exported  to  a considerable 
amount.  Mineral  resources  are  not  wanting,  but  the 
mining  industry  is  in  a primitive  condition.  Gold  is  ob- 
tained from  alluvial  deposits  at  Kiria,  coa,  # Kashgar, 
jade  m Khotan,  and  sulphur  and  saltpeter  at  Utch- 
Turfan. 

Kashgar  ( q.v .),  surrounded  by  a series  of  populous 


Village's,  fe  fcjife  clii'el  commercial  cehtfer,  diving  tb  its 
pdsitidft  On  the  highway  to  Lake  Issyk-kiil.  It  is  siif- 
Votthded  by  forts,  one  standing  at  the  confluence  of  the 


dynasty 


©rte;  it  is  renowned  for  its  gold  mines,  and  espe- 
cially for  its  jade  and  its  musk.  Copper  kettles,  carpets, 
some  silk,  and  felt  ware  are  manufactured.  Sanju 
(7,000)  houses,  Kilian,  Pialma,  Guma,  Kargalyk,  and 
Posgan,  on  the  slopes  of  the  Kuen-Lun  between  Yark- 
and and  Khotan,  are  the  richest  parts  df  the  fegidfli 
The  population  is  miked,  Aryans  and  Turanians  beiiig 
thoroughly  intermingled.  On  the  sldpfes  df  the  Pamifi 
about  Sary-kol,  them  is  a purely  Atyah  population  oi 
Persian  GaltcMs,  kilgbiz  and  KarU-Kirghiz  inhabit 
the  aldpes  bit  the  Tian- Shan.  Kalmucks  decut  in  the 
ftdttheast;  and  in  the  central  pahs  the  pdpUlatiOh  cdU- 
sists  of  Turkish  Uiid  tlzbegs  and  of  PefSiati  Tajak  . 
— the  MAngdiian  elemetlt  ihtreasihg  tdWafd  the  ftdfth- 
t&st.  The  language  is  Turkish,  like  that  Spoken  ih 
West  Turkestan  , With  several  Varieties  of  patois  and  a 
considerable  addition  of  Chinese  tybFdi;, 

The  aggregate  population  df  Tlirkestah,  esti- 
mated between  ffy5,t3ob  atid,  1,590,080  in  1825,  is  now 
(1900)  hardly  more  than  6oo;ooo:  Kutopatkifi  8sti : 
mates  it  at  t^objcfcJO;  Lbts^ih  at  68&b08.  TnApbp’lh 
Iatidrt  Of  the  Ighibf  bWhs  may  Ob  stated  approximately  Is 
rbilbWs — Yarkand,  &6,db8;  Kashgdr,  50,060;  Khotlh, 
48,00b;  Saftjii,  35,808^  Ak-^tii  20,bb8;  Kina.  i> 


35, bob;,  AR-stti  20,000:  Kma,  15,086; 
I angrd-hiisar,  id, 800;  Kargaijrk,  io, 6685 
TUKKfey.  Somewhere  about  the  sdcond  decade  bt 
the  thirteenth  centUt y |he  little  T UfkiSh  tribe  winch  in  due 
ppiiyse  was  Vo  found  thb&ttpman  empire  fled  before. ife 
Mdhgbls tftbm.  its  dfigiii4i  home, ih. central  AmMl 
plsshig  through  Persia,  entered  Armdiiia,  titidfer 
leadership  of  Suleyman  Shah,  its  hereditary  chief. 

In  1300  (a.H.  699)  the  Seljuk  empire  (see  Seljuks)  fell 
to  pieces  under  the  onslaught  of  the  Mongols,  who  were, 
however,  powerless  to  replace  it  by  any  government  of 
their  own.  Ten  separate  Turkish  dynasties  arose  from 
its  ruins.  These  principalities  were  all  eventually 
merged  in  that  of  the  ‘Osmdnlte,  once  the  least  among 
them,  and  the  inhabitants  assumed  the  nathe  df  Otto- 
man. HeWcb  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  fteObtb 
called  Ottomans  owe  their  name  to.  a series  df  pSliUMl 
events.  On  the  collaps'd  df  the  Seljuk  power  the  Greeks 
retained  hardly  &ny  possessions  in  Asia  except  Bithynia 
and  Tbebizond.  Armenia  was  abandoned  for  a time  to 
Idving  Tartar  or  Turkman  tribes;  till  sdpVe  Sikty  8? 
seventy  years  later  one  or  t\Vo  petty  local  dynasties 
sprang  up  and  founded  short-lived  states. 

To  Suleymdn  the  Ottomans  owe  their  first  establish- 
ment in  Europe:  one  night  that  prince,  accompanied  by 
a few  companions,  crossed  the  Hellespont  on  a raft  and 
surprised  the  town  of  Galipoli  (Gallipoli).  The  next 
day  he  brought  over  a number  of  Turkish  troops,  with 
whose  assistance  he  possessed  himself  of  many  of  the 
neighboring  towns  and  villages;  but  his  career  was  cut 
short  by  a fatal  fall  from  his  horse  when  out  hunting. 
Urkhan  did  not  long  survive  his  son,  grief  at  whose  un- 
timely end  is  said  to  have  hastened  his  own  death,  iff 
J359  (7oi).  This  monarch  is  celebrated  for  the  number 
of  mosques,  colleges,  and  other  public  institutions  that 
he  founded.  During  his  reign  the  Ottoman  army  wai 
thoroughly  organized,  and  a body  of  regular  paid 
soldiers  was  raised,  which  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  mil- 
itary power  of  the  state,  though  the  old  irregular  militia 
was  still  called  out  whenever  a campaign  was  to  be  un- 
dertaken. ( The  famous  corps  of  the  janissaries  (Turkish 
yem  chert,  t.e.,  ‘‘new  troop”)  was  instituted  at  this 
time.  It  consisted  of  the  children  of  Christian  subjects* 


till*  Slouthl 

blauM'l 

fW® 

Danube  \ 


•Xnajovt 


\Ka^a3^^C 


gJiKeutJ  I 

th'  8ci'ft<an\ c.Eminth 


^^^rox1 

> „ Li?!^  -Ofloilorrad 


-a;  a s t e u v 


1 : 

iilL-'A 


jS&Htari; 


*S/  rin t TQe'/<//Aap(jyP||Uf|)l)OnOllS~ 


nsAra -Wp'riil) 
Masdatch 


" Cl; 

AMsaj/:*! 


■ I 

\ 


’ Sea,d-MarmoraT^‘ 

om  ''tcCT- 


Samothraki 


\r.aiijjKni! 

Kurd  off  A 


£tep 

UriiaJSl'rlkirhjIWi. 


* SMYRNA 


Stamp  hunt  It. 


BALKAN  STATES 


tferlgo 
1 >'■<<■■>  > 


Through  Railways  - 
Other  «« 

Size  of  type  indicates  relative 


TUR 


594? 


Who  were  erJiica^d1  as  iVT ii‘s  s tlliIriain's  andbrought  iipT6  a 
rrtflitar^  life; 

Havirig  ta'k&ii  the  city  of  Angora  from  certain  terri- 
ufti£l  lords  mid,  incited'  by  the  prince  of  Karan^n,  had 
attacked  the  Ottoiiiafi  dominions,  Murad  I.,  the  son  and 
Successor  of  Orkhan,  found  him$?lf  fr^e  to  Extend  his 
ffe'glesMons  across  the  Hellespont.  He  fe^lhwith  passed 
over  into  Etbeipfi,  where  he  and  his  general  sAbn 
reduced  almost  all  Kot^melk,  capturing  Adrianople, 
Philippopolis,  and  many  other  of  importance. 

These  successes  alarmed  the  Christian  princes,  who 
determined  to  make  a vigorous  effort  to  drive  thd  Turks 
feack  iritQ  Asia.  The  kings  of  Bosnia,  Hungary,  and 
Serbia  dce'drdiiigty  rtiafehed  with  a large  army  upon 
Adfidntfple’j  but  Were  surpris’d  during  the  night  and 
Completely  defeated  by  Art  inferior  Tufkkh  force. 

B|yezfd  1.,  stfrnarri^d  Vildirirfi!,-  Thunderbolt”  did 
ffitfen  to  secure  the  position  of  tiid  ^bomaihs  in  Burb’jjCV 
taking  rrtdny  0(  the1  towns  Which  still  retrained  to  the 
Christians  ifi  Rotrmelia.  in  Asia  he  annexed  fh4  ft'- 
ffkiMrtej  Turkish  principalities,  aftd  pushed  his  cotf- 
duestS  a’s  faif  aS  CsesarOa  and  Sfva:s.  Bayezvd  indicted 
' an  overwhelming  defeat  oh  the  Christians,  He  turned1 
ni£  attention'  to  Constantinople  the  reduction  and 
Shtie^atibh  of  Which  he  had  long  meditated,  When  he 
Was  summoned  W rde€i  TfnVur,  the  Tartar  conquer, 
Who  had  iiivaded  his  Asiafk  dominions  and  taken 
S*fv|s.  , Th'e  Ottoman  and  Tartar  fldste  encountered 
each  other  dpt  side.  Angora,  and  there  the  former  sH&- 
tained  their  first  dissktrouis'  overthrow,  Bayezfd  being 
taken  prisoner  and  his  arrfry  Wra'ctically  annihilated. 
$ext  year,  1403  (805),  he  died  in  captivity;  th’e  story  of 
nfd  having  been  imprisoned  in  an  iron  cage  is  Heft  coh* 
firmed  by  the  Thfkisii  historians,  and  is  most  probably 
fictitious.  After  this  vidtdfj  Tfmfir  overran  the  Otto- 
man territories  in  Asia,  taking  dftd  seeking  Brusa, 
Nieaga,  and  many  other  cities. 

Oil  the  Withdrawal  of  Timur  from  Asia  Minor,  the 
four  surviving  sofiS  hi  B^yezfdl,  fought  for  what  was  left 
of  their  father’s  kingdom;  dtiSi  fen  years  of  civil  war 
Success  finally  rested  with  MuhammCa^  Wfo  hlofte  of  the 
four  is  reckoned  among  the  Ottoman  sovef^h#:  . The 
Turks  were  next  called  upon  to  face  the  most  formidable' 
Christian  engmy  they  had  yet  encountered,  namely 
Hunyadv,  the  illegitimate  son  of  Sigismund,  king  of 
Hfifigafy;  This  famous  general,  afW  having  iflfikled 
several  severe  though  fiof  very  important  defeats  upon 
his  adversaries,  invaded  European  Turkey  with  a large 
&fmy  bf  Hungarians,  Poles,  Servians,  Bosnians,  Wala- 
fcfaidns,  dfid  Ffdrtkisn  crusaders,  the  last-named  being 
tiiider  the  command  of  Cardinal  Julian.  The  Ottoman 
army  was  utterly  routed,  Sophia  taken,  and  the  chain 
of  the  Balkans  forced. 

Muhammed  II.  determined  to  accomplish  the  long- 
cherished  design  of  his  house,  and  make  Constantinople 
the  capital  of  the  ‘Osmanli  empire.  He  easily  found  a 
pretext  for  declaring  war  against  Constantine  Falaeologus 
and  in  the  spring- of  1453  (857)  led  an  immense  army  to 
beleaguer  the  city.  His  troops  covered  the  ground 
before  the  landward  walls  between  the  Sea  of  Marmora 
and  the  Golden  Horn;  but  he  found  that  even  his 
monster  cannon  could  do  but  little  against  the  massive 
fortifications.  At  length  he  resolved  to  assail  the  city 
from  its  weakest  side,  that  facing  the  Golden  Horn. 
But  the  Greeks,  having  foreseen  the  likelihood  of  an  at- 
tack from  this  quarter,  had  thrown  a great  chain  across 
the  entrance  to  the  harbor,  thereby  blocking  the  passage 
against  the  hostile  ships.  The  Ottomans,  however, 
constructed  a road  of  planks,  five  miles  long,  across  the 
piece  of  ground  between  the  Bosphorus,  where  theft 
own  fleet  li  ’ ' ~ ' 

Along  this 

373 


iy,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  Golden  Horn, 
road  they  hauled  a number  of  their  galleys, 


With  sails  set  to  receive  the  aid  of  the  favoring  wind, 
smtf  launched  them  safely  in  the  harbor,  whence  they 
canriomvd-ed  with  more  effect  the  weaker  defenses  of 
the  city.  This  compelled  the  Greek  emperor  to  with- 
draw a portion  of  his  little  garrison  from  the  porefc 
wti&d  the  more  seriotfe  attack  was  being  made,  to  re> 
pair  the  destruction  wrought  fn  this  new  quarter.  A& 
dawn  on  May  3p6h  the  Ottomans  advanced  to  store® 
thfc  efty.  The  Christians  offered  a desperate  resistance, 
but  in  Vain.  The  emperor  died  fighting  in  the  fore- 
front of  the  ba/fctle,  and  at  no'on  Muhammed  rode  in 
triumph  into  his  f?£#  capital  and  went  straight  to  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Sophia  j'  there,  before  the  high  altar, 
wb^’fe  the  preceding  night  Constantine  had  received  the 
Holy  SaOf ament,  he  prostrated  himself  in  the  Moslem 
act  of  worship;  The  capture  of  Constantinople  is  not; 
the  only  exploit  id  which  Muhammed  owes  his  sur- 
name of  Fatih,  of  the  Conqueror:  he  also  reduced 
§£*'Via  and  Bosnia,  overthrew  and  annexed  the  Greek 
empire  bf  Trebizond  and  the  Turkish  principality  of 
ifCa'fa’mah,  acquired  the  suzerainty  of  the  Crimea,  and 
wofi  many  of  the  inlands  of  the  Greek  Archipelago  from 
the  Venetians  and  Genoese. 

Selim  I.  was  personally  the  greatest  of  the  Ottoman 
monafehs : his  unflinching  courage  and  tireless  vigor 
were  not  more  remarkable  than  his  political’  sagacity 
and  hfe  literary  and  poetic  talents;  but  so  merciless 
was  he  that  he  has  always  been  known  in  Turkish  his- 
tory as  YaWtfZ  Selim  or  Selim  the  Grim.  Happily  ti?r 
En¥ope  he  turned  Ms  attention  to  the  neighboring  Mo- 
haiflffi^d'aii  states  and  left  the  Christian  powers  in  peace. 
Selim’s  niO£t  important  campaign  was  against  the  Mem- 
Mks  of  Egypt.  This  body  of  Eastern  chivalry  offered 
a*  most'  gallant  resistant  to  the  ‘Osmanlis;  but,  possess- 
ing rid  artillery,  which  they  disdained  as  unbecoming 
men  of  va top,  fhey  were  defeated  in  a series  of  engage- 
ments, c id  Selim  and  his  army  entered  Cairo  as  con- 
(p’^ors  in  1517  (923).  The  results  of  this  war  were 
momenta  and  far-reaching;  the  Ottoman  empire  was 
greatly  increased  by  the  addition  of  Egypt,  Syria,  and 
the  Hejaz,  of  all  of  #hich  the  Memfaks  had  been  lords; 
the  caliphate  of  Islam  wa&  won  for  the'  Itouse  of  ‘Os- 
mam,  Sdfm  constraining  the  representative*  £>f  the  old 
Abb^sid  family,  who  resided,  a purely  spiritual  prince, 
at  Cairo1, • ?©’  make  over  to  him  and  his  heirs  the*  rights 
and  priyheg&  of  successors  of  the  Prophet.  The 
sultan  at  the  same  time  acquired  from  him  the  sacred 
banner  and  other  reifies  of  the  founder  of  Island  whieftf 
had  been  handed  down  to>  the  Arabian  prince  from  his- 
fathers,  and  which  are  now  preserved  in  the  seraglio  afct 
Constantinople.  # 

Suleyman  I.,  who  succeeded  his  father  Selim  as  sul- 
tan, had  not  been  long  on  the  throne  before  he  found 
himself  involved  in  a war  with  the  king  of  Hungary. 
He  marched  northward  with  a powerful  army  and 
wrested  from  the  enemy  several  places  of  importance, 
including  the  strongly  fortified  city  of  Belgrade.  Foonr 
years  after  the  conquest  of  Rhodes  the  sultan  again  in- 
vaded Hungary,  where  in  the  renowned  battle  off 
Mohacz  he  annihilated  the  army  of  the  Magyars  and! 
slew  their  king.  Thence  he  marched  along  the  Danube; 
to  Buda-Pesth,  which  opened  its  gates  to  him,  and! 
there  he  rested  a little  while  before  starting  on.  hi& 
homeward  way.  The  disturbed  state  of  Asia  Minor 
hastened  Suleyman’s  departure ; but  in  three  years 
(1C29)  he  was  back  at  Buda,  ostensibly  as  the  ally  of 
Zapplva,  a Hungarian  who  claimed  the  throne  left 
vacant  by  Louis,  who  fell  at  Mohacz.  herdmand  of 
Austria  had  opposed  the  claim  of  Zapolya,  who  thereon 
had  applied  to  the  sultan  for  aid,  which  that  monarch 
was  most  willing  to  accord.  The  troops  of  Ferdinand 
| beftg  driven  from  Buda,  Sqleym&q,  appopipapftd  by  his 


TU  R 


5950 

prot6g6,  advanced  upon  Vienna,  On  September  27, 
1529,  the  vast  Turkish  host,  under  the  personal  com- 
mand of  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  family  of  ‘Osman, 
laid  siege  to  the  capital  of  the  German  empire,  and  on 
the  14th  of  the  following  month,  after  a most  desperate 
assault  carried  on  for  four  days,  the  invaders  were  com- 
pelled to  retire,  leaving  the  city  in  the  possession  of  its 
heroic  defenders.  The  torrent  of  Turkish  military 
might  had  now  reached  its  northern  limit:  once  again  it 
vainly  swept  round  the  walls  of  Vienna,  but  further  it 
never  went. 

On  the  death  of  Ahmed  II.  in  the  year  1695  (1106) 
Mustafa  II.,  son  of  Muhammed  IV.,  was  girt  with  the 
sword  of  ‘Osman.  The  new  sultan,  aware  of  the  piti- 
ful condition  to  which  the  empire  had  sunk,  in  part,  at 
least,  through  the  negligence  and  indifference  of  his  pre- 
decessors, resolved,  to  restore  the  old  Ottoman  usages, 
and  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  armies.  His  first 
campaign  was  altogether  successful ; he  recaptured  sev- 
eral important  fortresses  and.  totally  defeated  a great 
Austrian  army.  During  the  following  winter  he  worked 
hard  to  repair  the  finances  and  bring  the  forces  of  the 
empire  into  a higher  state  of  efficiency;  and,  when  he 
set  out  in  the  spring  against  the  Austrians,  fortune  con- 
tinued to  smile  upon  his  banners.  He  defeated  the 
duke  of  Saxe,  raised  the  siege  of  Temesvar,  and 
strengthened  the  garrisons  of  those  fortresses  which 
Turkey  still  held  in  Hungary.  But  in  the  next  year, 
1697,  all  was  changed;  Prince  Eugene  was  at  the  head 
of  the  Austrians,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Theiss,  near 
Zenta,  the  Turks  sustained  an  overwhelming  defeat, 
which  compelled  the  sultan  to  retreat  to  Temesvar. 
Thence  he  returned  to  Constantinople,  and  never  again 
led  an  army  against  the  enemy. 

Although  the  peace  of  the  empire  was  often  broken 
during  his  reign,  Ahmed  III.  was  not  of  a warlike  dis- 
position, and  all  the  representations  and  entreaties  of 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  who  after  the  disaster  of  Pul- 
towa  had  taken  refuge  in  Turkey,  failed  to  induce  him 
to  reopen  hostilities  with  the  czar.  The  menacing 
preparations  of  Russia  in  the  south  had  more  influence 
with  the  Porte  than  the  prayers  of  the  Swedish  king, 
and  in  1711  the  new  grand  vizier,  Baltaji  Muhammed, 
marched  into  Moldavia  to  meet  the  forces  of  Peter  the 
Great,  who  had  formed  an  entrenched  camp  near  the 
village  of  Hush,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Pruth.  Here 
the  vizier  blockaded  him,  and  after  two  days’  severe 
fighting  compelled  him  to  surrender  with  all  his  army. 
By  the  treaty  which  followed,  the  czar  pledged  himself, 
among  other  things,  to  restore  the  fortress  of  Azoff  and 
all  its  dependencies  to  the  sultan,  and  to  grant  the  king 
of  Sweden  a free  and  safe  passage  to  his  own  country 
through  the  Muscovite  dominions.  The  lenity  of 
Baltaji  Muhammed  in  not  destroying  the  czar  and  his 
army  when  they  were  within  his  grasp  caused  such  dis- 
content at  Constantinople  that  he  was  dismissed  from 
the  vizierate. 

After  the  long  and  resultless  war  with  Persia,  hos- 
tilities again  broke  out  with  Russia  in  1736.  Marshal 
Munnich  stormed  the  lines  of  Perekop  and  devastated 
the  Crimea;  but  he  was  unable  to  maintain  his  army 
there,  and  retreated  with  greatly  diminished  forces. 
Azoff  was  taken  by  General  Lascy;and  in  the  following 
year  Otchakoff  fell  into  the  hands  of  Munnich,  while 
the  Crimea  was  again  invaded  and  ravaged.  Austria 
now  joined  Russia,  and  the  Porte  had  to  sustain  a war 
in  Servia  and  Bosnia  as  well  as  on  the  coast  of  the 
Black  Sea.  The  double  combat  was  carried  on  with 
very  different  results.  While  the  Russians  won  victory 
after  victory,  and  finally  penetrated  the  heart  of  Molda- 
via, the  Austrians  were  defeated  and  driven  across  the 
Danube.  On  their  advancing  from  Belgrade  in  the 


summer  of  1739,  they  were  defeated  with  great  loss  at 
Krotzka,  and  compelled  to  sue  for  peace.  The  treaty 
of  Belgrade,  which  was  signed  on  September  1,  1739, 
restored  to  the  Porte  Belgrade  and  Orsova,  with  the 
portions  of  Servia,  Bosnia,  and  Walachia  which  it  had 
ceded  to  Austria  at  the  peace  of  Passarowitz.  Russia, 
unable  to  continue  the  war  with  a victorious  Turkish 
army  ready  to  fall  upon  its  flank,  had  to  conclude  peace 
on  very  moderate  terms. 

After  this  followed  the  wars  with  the  empress  Cather- 
ine, before  whose  genius  and  resources  it  seemed  as  if 
Turkey  must  inevitably  sink  into  nothingness.  The 
first  contest  was  provoked  by  the  armed  intervention 
of  the  empress  in  Polish  affairs  and  her  well-known 
intrigues  with  rebellious  subjects  of  the  Porte.  War 
was  rashly  declared  by  Mustafa  III.  in  October,  1768. 
In  1771  the  Russians  invaded  and  conquered  the  Crimea. 
Austria  now  took  alarm,  and  signed  a convention  with 
the  Porte  preparatory  to  armed  intervention.  But  the 
partition  of  Poland  reunited  the  three  neighboring 
Christian  powers  and  prevented  a general  war.  The 
Russians  crossed  the  Danube,  and,  though  unsuccess- 
ful in  their  attempts  upon  Silistria  and  Varna,  so  com- 
pletely defeated  the  Turkish  forces  in  the  field  that  on 
July  21,  1774,  the  Porte  concluded  peace  at  Kutchuk- 
Kainardji  under  conditions  more  unfavorable  than  those 
which  it  had  rejected  in  the  previous  year.  The  Tartar 
territory  of  the  Crimea,  with  Kuban  and  the  adjoining 
districts,  was  made  into  an  independent  state,  Russia 
retaining  Azoff,  Kertch,  and  Kinburn.  By  other 
clauses  in  the  treaty  the  obligations  restraining  Russia 
from  making  fortifications  and  placing  ships  of  war 
on  the  Black  Sea  were  annulled.  It  received  the  right 
of  free  navigation  for  its  merchant  ships  on  all  Turkish 
waters,  and  the  right  of  placing  consuls  at  all  Turkish 
ports.  These  last  two  conditions  were  of  great  histori- 
cal importance  through  their  effect  upon  Greece. 

The  stipulation  that  the  Crimea  and  adjoining  dis- 
tricts should  be  made  into  an  independent  state  was  of 
course  not  intended  by  Russia  to  be  anything  more 
than  a veil  for  annexation;  and  in  1783  Catherine 
united  this  territory  to  her  dominions.  She  had  now 
definitely  formed  the  plan  of  extinguishing  Turkish 
sovereignty  in  Europe  and  placing  her  younger  grand- 
son on  the  throne  of  a restored  Greek  kingdom.  The 
boy  was  named  Constantine ; his  whole  education  was 
Greek  and  such  as  to  fit  him  for  the  throne  of  Constan- 
tinople. Joseph  II.  of  Austria  threw  himself  eagerly  into 
the  plan  for  a partition  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  and  in 
1788  followed  Russia  into  war.  Otchakoff  was  stormed 
by  Suwaroff  on  December  16,  1788.  In  the  following 
year  the  Turkish  armies  were  overthrown  by  Suwaroff 
in  Moldavia  and  by  the  Austrian  Laudon  on  the  south 
of  the  Danube.  The  fate  of  the  Ottoman  empire 
seemed  to  tremble  in  the  balance ; it  was,  however, 
saved  by  the  convulsions  into  which  Joseph’s  reckless 
autocracy  had  thrown  his  own  dominions,  and  by  the 
triple  alliance  of  England,  Prussia,  and  Holland,  now 
formed  by  Pitt  for  the  preservation  of  the  balance  of 
power  in  Europe.  Joseph  died  in  1790;  his  successor 
Leopold  II.  entered  into  negotiations,  and  concluded 
peace  at  Sistova  in  August,  1791,  relinquishing  all  his 
conquests  except  a small  district  in  Croatia.  Catherine 
continued  the  war  alone.  Ismail  was  captured  by 
Suwaroff  with  fearful  slaughter,  and  the  Russian  armies 
pushed  on  south  of  the  Danube. 

Catherine’s  successor  Paul  (1796-1801)  made  it  his 
business  to  reverse  his  mother’s  policy  by  abandoning 
the  attack  on  Turkey.  Bonaparte’s  invasion  of  Egypt 
and  the  destruction  of  the  French  fleet  by  Nelson  at  the 
battle  of  the  Nile  led  the  Porte  to  join  the  second  coali« 
tion  against  France.  Bonapan*.,  invading  Syria,  was 


/ 


X longituflt  80  Em  J~  ft  on  90  Greenwich.  K-__J 


TUR 


checked  and  turned  back  at  Acre,  where  Jezzar  Pasha 
was  assisted  in  his  strenuous  defense  by  an  English 
squadron  under  Sir  Sydney  Smith.  A Turkish  army 
was  meanwhile  transported  from  Rhodes  to  the  Egyp- 
tian coast.  This  army  was  destroyed  by  Bonaparte  on 
his  return  to  Egypt  at  the  battle  of  Aboukir  on  July 
25,  1799,  after  which  Bonaparte  set  sail  for  France, 
leaving  the  Egyptian  command  to  Kleber.  Kleber,  cut 
off  from  all  communication  with  France  and  threatened 
by  superior  Turkish  forces,  entered  into  a convention 
at  El  Arish  for  the  evacuation  of  Egypt.  This  conven- 
tion, however,  was  annulled  by  Lord  Keith,  the  Eng- 
lish admiral,  and  Kleber  replied  by  giving  battle  to  the 
Turks  and  defeating  them  at  Heliopolis  on  March  20, 
1800.  Egypt  was  finally  wrested  from  the  French  by 
the  English  expedition  under  Abercromby,  and  restored 
to  the  sultan. 

On  the  restoration  of  peace  France  reassumed  its  an- 
cient position  as  the  friend  and  ally  of  the  Porte.  The 
sultan  now  on  the  throne  was  Selim  III.  (1789-1807). 
Though  the  results  of  the  war  of  the  second  coalition 
had  been  favorable  to  Turkey,  the  Ottoman  empire  was 
in  a most  perilous  condition. 

When  the  third  European  coalition  against  France 
was  in  course  of  formation  Russian  and  French  influ- 
ences were  in  rivalry  at  Constantinople.  The  victories  of 
Napoleon  in  1805  gave  him  the  ascendancy,  and  his 
envoy  prevailed  upon  the  sultan  to  dismiss,  without  con- 
sulting Russia,  the  hospodars  of  Walachia  and  Moldavia, 
who  were  considered  to  be  agents  of  the  court  of  St. 
Petersburg.  This  was  a breach  of  the  engagement 
made  by  the  sultan  in  1802,  and  it  was  followed  by  the 
entry  of  Russian  troops  into  the  principalities.  England, 
as  the  ally  of  Russia,  sent  a fleet  under  Admiral  Duck- 
worth through  the  Dardanelles  to  threaten  Constanti- 
nople. While  the  admiral  wasted  time  in  negotiations, 
the  French  ambassador,  General  Sebastiani,  taught  the 
Turks  how  to  fortify  their  capital.  The  English  admiral 
found  that  he  could  do  nothing,  and  repassed  the  Dar- 
danelles, suffering  some  loss  on  the  passage.  The  treaty 
of  Tilsit  ended  the  war  between  France  and  Russia, 
and  provided  for  the  nominal  mediation  of  Napoleon 
between  Russia  and  the  Porte.  A truce  followed  be- 
tween the  armies  on  the  Danube. 

Mahmud  II.  (1808-1839)  was  the  only  sultan  of 
modern  times  who  possessed  the  qualities  of  a great  ruler. 
The  difficulties  of  his  reign  were  enormous.  He  be- 
longed to  an  epoch  when  the  Ottoman  empire  might 
fairly  be  considered  as  in  actual  dissolution.  This  he  to 
some  extent  arrested,  and  the  reforms  which  he  effected, 
partial  and  imperfect  as  they  were,  have  prolonged  the 
existence  of  the  Turkish  state  to  our  own  day. 

After  the  convulsions  of  1848  the  sultan  incurred  the 
enmity  of  the  autocratic  courts  by  refusing  to  give  up 
Kossuth  and  other  exiles  who  had  taken  refuge  within 
his  dominions.  The  suppression  of  the  National  Hun- 
garian Government  by  Russia  in  1849  had  heightened 
in  the  emperor  Nicholas  the  sense  of  his  own  power. 
He  now  looked  forward  to  the  speedy  extinction  of 
Turkey,  and  in  1853  proposed  to  the  British  ambassador, 
Sir  H.  Seymour,  a plan  for  the  division  of  “ the  sick 
man’s  ” inheritance  as  soon  as  he  should  expire.  Dis- 
putes between  France  and  Russia  relating  to  the  rights 
of  the  Latin  and  Greek  Churches  in  certain  sacred  places 
were  made  the  occasion  for  the  assertion  of  a formal  claim 
on  the  part  of  the  czar  to  a protectorate  over  all  Chris- 
tians in  Turkey'belonging  to  the  Greek  Church,  This 
claim  not  being  acknowledged  by  the  Porte,  a Russian 
army  entered  the  Danubian  principalities.  After  in- 
effective negotiations  war  was  declared  by  the  sultan 
on  October  4,  1853.  Hostilities  commenced  in  Wal- 
achia, and  the  Turkish  fleet  was  attacked  and  destroyed 


5951 

at  Sinope,  England  and  France  allied  themselves  with 
the  Porte,  and  landed  an  army  at  V ama  in  the  spring  of 
the  following  year.  Silistria  was  successfully  defended 
by  the  Turks;  and,  on  the  occupation  of  the  Danubian 
principalities  by  Austria,  the  allies  took  up  the  offensive 
and  transferred  their  forces  to  the  Crimea.  The  siege 
of  Sebastopol  followed,  ending  in  its  capture  in  Sep- 
tember, 1855.  Meanwhile  Russian  and  Turkish  forces 
were  opposed  in  Asia.  Kars  maintained  a gallant  de- 
fense, but  succumbed  to  famine  two  months  after  the 
fall  of  Sebastopol.  The  peace  of  Paris  followed,  by 
’which  Russia  ceded  to  Turkey  the  portion  of  Bessara- 
bia adjacent  to  the  mouth  of  the  Danube.  The  Black 
Sea  was  neutralized,  Russia  and  the  Porte  alike  engag- 
ing to  keep  no  war-ships  and  to  maintain  no  arsenals 
there.  The  exclusive  protectorate  of  Russia  over  the 
Danubian  principalities  was  abolished,  and  the  auton- 
omy of  these  provinces,  as  well  as  of  Servia,  placed 
under  the  guarantee  of  all  the  powers. 

The  Crimean  War  gave  to  part  of  the  Balkan  popu- 
lation twenty  years  more  of  national  development  under 
the  slackened  grasp  of  the  Porte;  and  by  extinguishing 
the  friendship  of  Austria  and  Russia  it  rendered  the 
liberation  of  Italy  possible.  But  each  dir^  .c  proviso  of 
the  treaty  of  Paris  seemed  made  only  to  be  mocked  by 
events.  A new  series  of  massacres  in  the  Lebanon  in 
i860  caused  France  to  land  a force  in  Syria.  Wallachia 
and  Moldavia  formed  themselves  into  a single  state 
under  the  name  of  Roumania,  to  which  the  house  of 
Hohenzollern  soon  afterward  gave  a sovereign.  Bosnia 
and  Montenegro  took  up  arms.  Servia  got  rid  of  its 
Turkish  garrisons.  Crete  fought  long  for  its  independ- 
ence, and  seemed  for  a moment  likely  to  be  united  to 
Greece  under  the  auspices  of  the  powers;  but  it  was 
ultimately  abandoned  to  its  Turkish  masters.  The 
overthrow  of  France  in  the  war  of  1870  and  the  conse- 
quent isolation  of  England  led  Russia  to  declare  the 
provision  of  the  treaty  of  Paris  which  excluded  its  ships 
of  war  and  its  arsenals  from  the  Black  Sea  to  be  no 
longer  in  force.  To  save  appearances,  the  British  Gov- 
ernment demanded  that  the  matter  should  be  referred  to 
a European  conference,  where  Russia’s  will  was  duly 
ratified. 

A few  years  later  the  horizon  of  eastern  Europe  visibly 
darkened  with  the  coming  storm.  Russian  influences 
were  no  doubt  at  work;  but  the  development  of  national 
feeling  which  had  so  powerfully  effected  every  other 
part  of  Europe  during  the  nineteenth  century  could  not 
remain  without  effect  among  the  Christian  races  of  the 
Balkan  peninsula.  In  1875  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
revolted.  In  the  meantime  the  government  of  ‘Abd-uL 
‘Aziz  (1861-76)  had  become  worse  and  worse.  The 
state  was  bankrupt.  Ignatieff,  the  Russian  ambassador, 
gained  complete  ascendancy  in  the  palace,  and  frustrated 
every  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  better  Turkish  states- 
men to  check  the  torrent  of  misrule.  His  creature, 
Mahmud  Pasha,  maintained  his  place  in  spite  of  uni 
versal  contempt,  until  a conspiracy  was  formed  at 
Constantinople,  which  cost  the  sultan  his  throne  (May 
30,  1876)  and  a few  days  later  his  life.  His  imbecile 
successor,  Murad  V.,  gave  place  after  a reign  of  three 
months  to  ‘Abd-ul-Hamfd  II.  The  Bosnian  insur 
rection  had  already  extended  to  Bulgaria,  and  the 
slaughter  of  the  Turkish  inhabitants  in  certain  villages 
had  been  avenged  by  massacres  of  the  most  fearful 
character.  Servia  and  Montenegro  took  up  arms. 
The  resources  of  European  diplomacy  were  exhausted 
in  fruitless  attempts  to  gain  from  the  Porte  some  real 
securities  for  better  government,  and  in  April,  1877, 
Russia  declared  war.  The  neutrality  of  Austria  had 
been  secured  by  a secret  agreement  permitting  that 
country  to  occupy  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  if  Russia 


TU  R 


5952 

should  extend  Sts  influence  beyond  the  Balkans.  The 
Bulgarian  massacres  had  excited  such  horror  and  in- 
dignation in  England  that  Lord  Beaconsfield  was  forced 
to  remain  neutral. 

Turkey  was.  thus  left  without  an  ally.  The  Russians 
entered  Bulgaria  in  June;  and,  while  Rustchuk  was 
besieged,  their  advanced  guard  under  Gourko  hurried 
across  the  Balkans.  Meanwhile  Osman  Pasha,  coming 
from  Widdin,  occupied  and  fortified  Plevna  on  the 
Russian  line  of  march.  Against  his  redoubts  the  Rus- 
sians, ill  commanded,  threw  themselves  in  vain,  and 
Gourko  was  compelled  to  fall  back  on  the  Shipka  Pass* 
But  in  December  the  capture  of  Plevn'a,  in  which 
Roumanian  troops  cooperated,  set  free  the  invading 
army,  and  the  march  on  Constantinople  was  resumed. 
The  Balkans  were  passed  in  midwinter;  Adrianople 
was  occupied;  and  the  Turkish  armies  were  captured 
or  annihilated.  The  Russians  now  pressed  forward  to 
the  very  suburbs  of  Constantinople,  and  on  March  3, 
1878,  peace  was  concluded  at  San  Stefano.  In  Asia  the 
Russians  had  captured  Kars  and  were  besieging  Erze- 
roum.  The  treaty  of  San  Stefano  ceded  to  Russia  the 
portion  of  Bessarabia  taken  from  it  in  1856,  together 
with  the  Dobrudja,  and  also  Kars,  Batoum,  and  the 
adjoining  territory  in  Asia.  It  recognized  the  independ- 
ence of  Servia,  Montenegro,  and  Roumania,  and 
largely  extended  the  territory  of  the  first  two.  Bulgaria 
was  constituted  an  autonomous  state,  though  tributary 
to  the  Porte,  and  was  defined  so  as  to  extend  to  the 
/Egean  Sea  and  to  include  the  greater  part  of  the 
country  between  the  Balkans  and  the  coast.  Crete, 
Thessaly,  and  Epirus  were  to  receive  the  necessary 
Teforms  at  the  hands  of  a European  commission.  To 
diis  treaty  Great  Britain  refused  to  give  its  assent,  and 
vigorous  preparations  were  made  for  war.  The  fleet, 
was  at  the  Dardanelles,  and  Indian  troops  were  brought 
to  Malta.  Russia  could  no  longer  count  on  the  neutral- 
ity of  Austria.  Under  these  circumstances  the  court 
of  St.  Petersburg  consented  to  submit  the  treaty  to  a 
European  congress,  which,  after  a secret  agreement 
had  been  made  between  Russia  and  England  on  the 
principal  points  of  difference,  assembled  at  Berlin.  The 
’.reaty  of  San  Stefano  received  various  modifications,  the 
principal  being  a reduction  of  the  territory  included  in 
Bu^aria  and  the  division  of  that  state  into  two  parts. 
Bulgaria  north  of  the  Balkans  was  constituted  an  auton- 
omous principality;  Bulgaria  south  of  the  Balkans  was 
made  into  a province,  with  the  title  of  Eastern 
Roumelia,  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  sultan, 
but  with  a Christian  governor  and  an  autonomous 
administration.  Austria  received  Bosnia  and  Her- 
zegovina. The  territory  ceded  to  Servia  and  Mon- 
tenegro by  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano,  as  well  as 
that  ceded  to  Russia  in  Asia,  was  somewhat  diminished. 
The  Porte  was  advised  to  make  some  cession  of  terri- 
tory to  Greece,  and  the  line  of  frontier  subsequently 
recommended  gave  to  Greece  Janina  as  well  as  Thes- 
saly. The  usual  promises  of  organic  reform  were  made 
by  Turkey.  By  a separate  convention  England  under- 
took the  defense  of  A siatic  Turkey  and  received  Cy- 
prus. The  organization  of  Eastern  Roumelia  was  duly 
taken  in  hand  by  a European  commission  and  brought 
to  a favorable  conclusion;  but  it  was  not  until  a naval 
demonstration  had  been  made  by  England  that  the  final 
cession  of  Dulcigno  to  the  Montenegrins  was  effected, 
and  that  Thessaly,  without  Epirus,  was  given  up  to 
Greece.  Alexander  of  Battenberg  became  prince  of 
Bulgaria.  By  a popular  movement  in  1885  Bulgaria 
and  Eastern  Roumelia  were  united  into  a single 
state.  This  revolution  occasioned  the  utmost  dis- 
leasure  at  St.  Petersburg;  and  under  Russian  in- 
uence  Prince  Alexander  was  kidnapped  and  torced  to 


abdicate.  The  Porte  offered  no  armed  resistance  to 

the  union. 

Since  the  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1878,  the  extremely 
irregular  frontiers  of  European  Turkey  are  contermin- 
ous with  Greece  in  the  south,  and  in  the  north  with 
Montenegro,  Austria,  Servia,  and  Roumania,  being 
separated  from  the  last  country  partly  by  the  Danube, 
partly  by  a conventional  line  drawn  from  Silistria  on 
that  river  to  Mangalia  on  the  Black  Sea.  By  the  Ber- 
lin congress  Roumania  and  Servia,  hitherto  vassal 
states,  were  made  absolutely  independent  kingdoms, 
Roumania  at  the  same  time  receiving  the  district  of 
Dobrudja  between  the  lower  Danube  and  the  Black 
Sea,  and  Servia  those  of  Nish  and  Leskovatz  about  the 
upper  Morava  river.  Montenegro  was  also  recognized 
as  an  independent  principality,  with  an  increase  of  ter- 
ritory, which  gave  it  a sea  frontier  limited  southward 
by  the  river  Boyana,  and  including  the  Albanian  port-* 
of  Dulcigno  and  Antivari  on  the  Adriatic.  Th« 
Greco-Turkish  frontier  was  also  shifted  north,  Greece 
obtaining  most  of  Thessaly  and  a strip  of  Epirus 
(South  Albania),  so  that  since  1881  the  border  line  runs 
from  near  Mount  Olympus  on  the  Gulf  of  Saloniki 
(40°  N.  latitude)  west  to  the  Pindus  range,  then  southwest 
to  the  Gulf  of  Arta  on  the  Ionian  Sea.  A still  more 
serious  step  was  taken  toward  disintegration  by  the 
withdrawal  of  Bulgaria  and  Eastern  Roumelia  from 
the  immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  Sublime  Porte.  The 
former  was  constituted  a tributary  principality,  with 
representative  institutions,  and  Eastern  Roumelia  was 
erected  into  an  autonomous  province,  both  under  the 
guarantee  of  the  European  powers.  But  in  1885  the 
latter  province  declared  for  union  with  Bulgaria,  and 
since  then  these  two  territories  have  practically  formed 
one  state  administered  from  Sophia,  Europe  assenting 
and  Turkey  consenting  (imperial  firman  of  April  6, 
1886)  to  the  retrocession  to  Turkey  of  the  Moslem  dis- 
tricts of  Kirjali  and  the  Rhodope.  In  the  year  1878 
Austria  occupied  and  assumed  the  civil  administration 
of  the  northwestern  provinces  of  Bosnia  and  Herze- 
govina, besides  taking  military  possession  of  the  con- 
tiguous strategical  district  of  Novi-Bazar.  The  direct 
possessions  of  the  sultan  have  thus  been  reduced  in 
Europe  to  a strip  of  territory  stretching  continuously 
across  the  Balkan  Peninsula  from  the  Bosphorus  to  the 
Adriatic,  and  lying  in  the  east  mainly  between  40°  and 
420  and  in  the  west  between  390  and  43°  N.  latitude.  T o 
these  must  be  added  the  Turkish  islands  in  the  yEgean 
usually  reckoned  to  Europe,  that  is,  Thasos,  Samo- 
thrace,  Imbros,  and,  in  the  extreme  south,  Crete  or  Can- 
dia,  with  estimated  (1897)  areas  and  populations  as 
under: — 


Provinces. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population. 

Constantinople 

2,702 

1,136,000 

Adrianople 

15,015 

1,006,500 

Salonica 

13,684 

1,165,400 

Monastir 

10,690 

847,400 

Kossova 

12,100 

961,000 

Scutari  (Albania) 

4,5i6 

322,000 

Janina 

7,045 

648,000 

Immediate  Possessions 

65,752 

6,086,300 

Bulgaria  (including  Eastern  Rou- 

3,733,189 

melia)  autonomous 

37,860 

Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and  Novi- 

1.591,036 

bazar— under  Austria-Hungary . 

23  ,*570 

Crete,  Samos,  and  Egypt 

403.506 

10,185,132 

Total  European  Turkey 

530,688 

21,595,657 

For  detailed  accounts  of  the  physical  features,  climate, 
fauna,  and  flora  of  these  regions,  the  reader  is  referred 


TUR 


to  the  articles  Albania,  Bosnia,  Bulgaria,  Constan- 
tinople, Epirus,  Herzegovina,  Macedonia,  and 
Thrace.  Here  it  will  suffice  to  remark  in  a general 
way  that  the  territory  still  directly  administrated  from 
Stamboul  comprises  one  of  the  most  favored  regions  of 
the  temperate  zone.  The  whole  region  enjoys  a some- 
what southerly  aspect,  sheltered  from  the  north  by  the 
lofty  crests  of  the  Rilo  Dagh  and  northern  Pindus,  and 
in  every  way  admirably  suited  for  the  cultivation  of 
most  cereals,  as  well  as  of  cotton,  tobacco,  madder,  the 
* mulberry,  the  vine,  and  fruits.  Here  maize  yields  such 
a bountiful  harvest  that,  although  originally  introduced 
from  America,  it  has  long  been  regarded  as  indigenous, 
and  for  the  Italians  is  simply  the  Turkish  corn  (“  gran 
turco  ”)  in  a preeminent  sense.  The  inhabitants  also, 
Greeks  intermingled  with  Turks  in  the  east,  with  Bul- 
garians in  the  west,  are  intelligent  and  industrious, 
noted  for  their  skill  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets  and 
other  woven  goods,  of  saddlery,  arms,  and  jewelry. 

Turkey,  or  the  Ottoman  empire  ( Osmanli  Vilaieli), 
embraces  extensive  territories  in  southeastern  Europe, 
western  Asia,  and  northern  Africa,  grouped  mainly 
round  the  eastern  waters  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 
along  both  sides  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  west  coast  of  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  the  southern  and  western  shores  of 
the  Black  Sea.  These  territories  form  an  aggregate  of 
provinces  and  states,  some  under  the  direct  control  of 
the  sultan,  some  enjoying  a large  share  of  political  au- 
tonomy, some  practically  independent,  either  adminis- 
tered by  foreign  powers  or  ruled  by  hereditary  vassals  or 
tributary  princes.  The  extent  of  the  Ottoman  empire 
is  about  i,579>982  square  miles,  and  its  population 
40,440,957.. 

The  mainstay  of  the  Ottoman  dynasty  is  the  Asiatic 
portion  of  the  empire,  where  the  Mohammedan  religion 
is  absolutely  predominant,  and  where  the  naturally 
vigorous  and  robust  Turki  race  forms  in  Asia  Minor  a 
compact  mass  of  many  millions,  far  outnumbering  any 
other  single  ethnical  element  and  probably  equaling  all 
taken  collectively.  Here  also,  with  the  unimportant 
exception  of  the  islands  of  Samos  and  Cyprus  and  the 
somewhat  privileged  district  of  Lebanon,  all  the  Turk- 
ish possessions  constitute  vilayets  directly  controlled  by 
the  Porte.  They  comprise  the  geographically  distinct 
regions  of  the  Anatolian  plateau  (Asia  Minor),  the 
Armenian  and  Kurdish  highlands,  the  Mesopotamian 
lowlands,  the  hilly  and  partly  mountainous  territory  of 
Syria  and  Palestine,  and  the  coastlands  of  west  and 
northeast  Arabia.  The  changes  caused  by  the  Russo- 
Turkish  War  of  1878  were  the  cession  to  Persia  of  the 
little  district  of  Kotur  on  the  eastern  frontier  and  to 
Russia  of  the  districts  of  Kars  and  Batoum  on  the 
northeast  frontier,  while  to  England  were  conceded  the 
military  occupation  and  administration  of  Cyprus. 
Asiatic  Turkey  is  conterminous  on  the  east  with  Russia 
and  Persia;  in  the  southwest  it  incloses  on  the  west, 
north,  and  northeast  the  independent  part  of  Arabia. 
Toward  Egypt  the  frontier  is  a conventional  line  drawn 
from  Akabah  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Akabah  north- 
westward to  the  little  port  of  El  Arish  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Elsewhere  Asiatic  Turkey  enjoys  the  advan- 
tage of  a sea  frontage,  being  washed  in  the  northwest 
and  west  by  the  Euxine,  Egean,  and  Mediterranean,  in 
the  southwest  by  the  Red  Sea,  and  in  the  southeast  by 
the  Persian  Gulf. 

The  above  enumerated  five  natural  divisions  of  Asiatic 
Turkey  are  divided  for  administrative  purp'oses  into 
about  twenty  vilayets,  which,  however,  have  been  and 
still  are  subject  to  considerable  fluctuations.  The  sub- 
joined grouping,  with  areas  and  populations,  is  based 
mainly  on  data  lately  communicated  confidentially  to 
thtJ  Government  by  Mr.  Redhopsft.  His 


5953 


mates  of  population  have  been  strikingly  confirmed  by 
the  official  returns  that  have  for  the  first  time  just  been 
made  for  certain  provinces  in  Asia  Minor  and  the  Ar- 
menian highlands.  Thus  the  census  of  the  Trebizond 
vilayet,  completed  in  1898,  gave  a total  of  1,163,800. 
So  also  the  (1897)  census  for  the  Erzeroum  vilayet  gives 
597,000,  or  998,000  including  the  territory  ceded  to  Russia 
in  1878. 


Provinces. 


Broussa,  with  Biga  and  Ismid 

Aidin  (Smyrna) 

Castamouni 

Angora 

Konia 

Adana 

Sivas  

Trebizond 

Erzeroum  and  Van 

Diarbekr  with  Aziz 

Bitlis 

Bagdad  

Mossul  and  Bassora 

Aleppo  and  Zor 

Syria  and  Beyrouth 

Jerusalem  and  Lebanon 

Hedjaz  and  Yemen 

Tripoli  and  Benghazi 

Archipelago  

Asiatic,  African,  and  Arabian 
Turkey  


Area  in 

Popula- 

Sq. Miles. 

tion. 

35,434 

1,979,100 

20,844 

1,396,500 

19, 184 

1,018,900 

26,055 

892,900 

39,68i 

1,088,000 

14,359 

403,400 

24,240 

1,086,500 

11,850 

1,163,800 

35,203 

1,027,000 

26,943 

1,046,800 

10,345 

398,600 

54,503 

850,000 

45,702 

500,300 

63,189 

1,095,800 

35,589 

1,489,300 

10,731 

732,500 

173,700 

1,050,000 

398,900 

1,300,000 

2,744 

325,900 

1,049,294 

18,845,300 

Detailed  descriptions  of  Asiatic  Turkey  will  be  found 
under  the  separate  articles  Arabia,  Armenia,  Asia 
Minor,  Kurdistan.  Mesopotamia,  Palestine,  and 
Syria.  Of  these  natural  divisions  Asia  Minor  or  Ana- 
tolia is  by  far  the  most  important  for  extent,  population, 
and  natural  resources.  It  constitutes  an  elevated  and 
fertile  plateau  inclosed  by  irregular  mountain  ranges, 
which  in  the  Taurus  and  Antitaurus  on  the  south  and 
east  rise  to  from  7,000  to  10,000  feet,  culminating  in  the 
volcanic  Erjish-Dagh,  or  Argseus,  nearly  12,000  feet 
high.  The  western  rivers — Granicus,  Xanthus  (Sea- 
mander),Hermus,  Simois,  Meander — although  renowned 
in  song  and  history,  are  comparatively  insignificant 
coast-streams,  rushing  from  the  escarpment  of  the 
plateau  down  to  their  fjord-like  estuaries  in  the  Egean. 
None  of  the  rivers  are  navigable  to  any  distance  from 
their  mouths,  and  in  the  absence  of  good  means  of 
communication  the  very  rich  resources  of  the  plateau  in 
minerals  and  agricultural  produce  have  hitherto  been 
little  developed. 

This  lowland  region  is  separated  by  the  more  elevated 
Syrian  desert  or  steppe  from  the  much  smaller  and  less 
productive  provinces  of  Syria  and  Palestine.  Here  the 
main  physical  features  are  at  once  simple  and  yet  strik- 
ing. The  narrow,  hilly  region  disposed  north  and  south 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  desert,  and  stretch 
ing  for  over  400  miles  between  Anatolia  and  the  Sinai 
Peninsula,  culminates  toward  the  center  in  the  parallel 
Libanus  and  Antilibanus  (10,000  to  11,000  feet),  in- 
closing between  them  the  fertile  depression  of  the  Beka* 
(Coele-Syria).  The  stupendous  ruins  of  Baalbek, 
standing  at  the  highest  point  of  this  depression  in  300 
N.  latitude,  mark  the  parting  line  between  the  northern 
and  southern  water-sheds  of  the  region. 

Turkey’s  Arabian  possessions  comprise,  besides  El 
Hasa  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  low-lying  hot,  and  in- 
salubrious Tehama  and  the  southwestern  highland* 
(vilayets  of  Hejaz  and  Yemen)  stretching  continuously 
along  the  east  side  of  the  Red  Sea,  ana  including  the 
two  hojv  cities  of  Mecca  *nd  Medina-  These  are  hejd 


TUR 


5954 


by  military  occupation,  probably  at  a loss  to  the  imperial 
exchequer,  and  certainly  a'gainst  the  wishes  of  the  in- 
habitants. But  these  drawbacks  are  supposed  to  be 
more  than  compensated  by  the  political  prestige  derived 
from  the  possession  of  the  Holy  Land  by  Islam. 

Since  the  abandonment  of  Eastern  or  Egyptian 
Soudan  in  1884,  consequent  on  the  revolt  of  the  Mahdi, 
and  the  occupation  of  Tunis  by  the  French  in  1881, 
Turkey  in  Africa  has  been  reduced  to  the  two  territories 
of  Egypt  and  Tripolitana  with  Barca  and  Fezzan, 
jointly  occupying  the  northeast  corner  of  the  continent. 
Of  these  Tripolitana  alone  is  directly  administered,  con- 
stituting the  pashalik  or  vilayet  of  Tripoli.  Egypt, 
whose  southern  frontier  was  temporarily  fixed  in 
January,  1887,  at  the  station  of  Akashe  above  Wady 
Haifa,  near  the  second  cataract  in  Lower  Nubia  (220 
N.  latitude),  has  formed  a practically  independent 
principality  under  the  dynasty  of  Mehemet  Ali  since 
1841,  subject  only  to  an  annual  tribute  of  $3,500,000  to 
the  Porte.  The  areas  and  populations  of  Turkey  in 
Africa  were  estimated  as  follows  in  1897  : — 


Tripoli,  with  Benghazi 

Kgypt,  tributary  principality 


Total  Turkey  in  Africa 


Area  in 

Popula- 

Sq. Miles. 

tion. 

398,900 

800,000 

400,000 

9.734,405 

798,900 

10,534,405 

Turkey  is  essentially  a theocratic  absolute  monarchy, 
being  subject  in  principle  to  the  direct  personal  control 
of  the  sultan,  who  is  himself  at  once  a temporal  auto- 
crat and  the  recognized  caliph,  that  is,  “ successor”  of  the 
Prophet,  and  consequently  the  spiritual  head  of  the 
Moslem  world  (see  Mohammedanism). 

The  grand  vizier  ( sadr-azam ),  who  is  nominated  by  the 
sultan,  presides  ex-officio  over  the  privy  council  ( mejliss - 
i-khass ),  which,  besides  the  sheikhu  ’1-Islam,  comprises 
the  ministers  of  home  and  foreign  affairs,  war,  finance, 
marine,  trade,  public  works,  justice,  public  instruc- 
tion, and  worship,  with  the  president  of  the  council 
of  state  and  the  grand  master  of  artillery.  For 
administrative  purposes  the  immediate  possessions  of 
the  sultan  are  divided  into  vilayets  (provinces),  which 
are  again  subdivided  into  sanjaks  or  mutessariks  (arron- 
dissements),  these  into  kazas  (cantons),  and  the  kazas 
«ito  nahies  (parishes  or  communes).  A vali  or  governor- 
general,  nominated  by  the  sultan,  stands  at  the  head  of 
the  vilayet,  and  on  him  are  directly  dependent  the  pashas, 
effendis,  beys,  and  other  administrators  of  the  minor 
divisions.  All  these  officials  unite  in  their  own  persons 
the  judicial  and  executive  functions,  and  all  alike  are  as 
a rule  thoroughly  corrupt,  venal  in  the  dispensation  of 
justice,  oppressors  of  the  subject,  embezzlers  of  the  pub- 
lic revenues,  altogether  absorbed  in  amassing  wealth 
during  their  mostly  brief  and  precarious  tenure  of 
office.  Foreigners  settled  in  the  country  are  specially 
protected  from  exactionsby  the  so-called  “capitulations,” 
m virtue  of  which  they  are  exempt  from  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  local  courts  and  amenable  for  trial  to  tribunals 
presided  over  by  tneir  respective  consuls.  Cases  be- 
tween foreigners  of  different  nationalities  are  heard  in 
the  court  of  the  defendant,  and  between  foreigners  and 
Turkish  subjects  in  the  local  courts,  at  which  a consu- 
lar dragoman  attends  to  see  that  the  trial  is  conducted 
according  to  law. 

The  trade  returns  for  the  last  few  years  show  that 
the  country  is  slowly  recovering  from  the  disastrous 
consequences  of  the  Russo-Turkish  War.  Exclusive  of 
coasting  craft,  the  mercantile  fleet  of  Turkey  in  1885 
consisted  of  fourteen  steamers  of  1 1 ,000  tons  and  400 
sailing  vessels  of  65,000  tons. 


All  branches  of  the  foreign  trade,  together  with  most 

of  the  local  traffic  and  the  banking  business,  are  almost 
exclusively  in  the  hands  of  Greeks,  Armenians,  Jews, 
and  foreigners.  The  Turks  and  other  Mohammedans 
are  engaged  nearly  altogether  in  agricultural  and  pas- 
toral pursuits.  But  the  land,  especially  in  Anatolia,  is 
gradually  passing  from  its  Moslem  owners  into  the 
possession  of  Christian  mortgagees.  Scarcely  any  ac- 
curate agricultural  returns  are  available,  except  for  one 
or  two  districts. 

Previous  to  1880  Turkey  was  commonly  regarded  as 
practically  bankrupt.  But  since  then  a considerable 
improvement  has  been  effected.  Trustworthy  data  are 
still  wanting;  but  a careful  estimate  gave  the  gross 
revenue  and  expenditure  of  1884  at  $60,500,000  and 
$60,300,000  respectively,  the  expenditure  including 
over  $1,600,000  available  for  state  creditors.  The 
public  debt  stood  at  $530,000,000  in  1S90.  The  sultan, 
is  reported  to  draw  a sum  of  from  $5,000,000  to 
$10,000,000  annually  from  the  public  revenues  for  the 
support  of  the  seraglio  or  imperial  household  of  over 

5.000  persons. 

Until  1886  the  military  service,  compulsory  on  all 
Moslems  over  eighteen  years  of  age,  was  kept  up  by 

45.000  annual  recruits  drawn  by  ballot;  but  in  Novem- 
ber of  that  year  universal  conscription  of  the  whole 
able-bodied  male  population  was  decreed.  By  this 
measure  the  army,  hitherto  reckoned  at  about  160,000 
men,  with  a.  war  strength  of  from  450,000  to  500,000, 
will  be  probably  raised  to  a permanent  footing  of  1 .000,- 
000  effectives  under  the  flag  and  in  the  reserves.  These 
will  continue  to  be  grouped  in  the  three  categories  of 
the  nizam  or  regulars  in  active  service,  the  redif  or  first 
reserve,  and  the  mustahfiz  or  second  reserve.  The 
navy  at  the  beginning  of  1890  comprised  fifteen  large 
and  several  smaller  ironclads  (monitors,  gunboats,  etc.), 
a number  of  mostly  old-fashioned  steamers,  and  fourteen 
torpedo  boats,  and  was  manned  by  30,000  sailors  and 

10.000  marines  (nominal  strength),  raised  by  conscrip- 
tion or  voluntary  enlistment  and  serving  for  twelve 
years  in  the  active  and  reserve  classes. 

Public  instruction  is  much  more  widely  diffused 
throughout  the  empire  than  is  commonly  supposed. 
This  is  due  partly  to  the  Christian  communities,  no  ta- 
bly the  Maronites  and  others- in  Syria,  the  Anatolian 
and  Roumelian  Greeks,  and  the  Armenians  of  the  east- 
ern provinces  and  of  Constantinople.  Education  is  prac- 
tically limited  among  the  Mohammedans  to  reading  and 
writing  and  the  study  of  the  Koran. 

Besides  administrative  and  financial  reforms,  one  of 
the  most  pressing  needs  is  improved  means  of  commu- 
nication. In  Trebizond  the  route  from  the  coast  at 
Unieh  through  Niksar  to  Sivas  has  recently  been  com- 
pleted to  the  limits  of  the  vilayet.  But  the  works  on 
the  more  important  road  from  Kirasun  to  Kara-hissar 
fvr  the  silver  and  lead  mines  at  Lijessy  are  still  sus 
{•ended,  owing  to  disputes  between  the  contiguous  pro- 
vincial administrations.  Many  of  the  great  historic 
highways  are  also  much  out  of  repair.  At  the  end  of 
1899  only  2,980  miles  of  railway  were  completed  in  the 
empire,  of  which  1,267  were  in  Europe  and  1,713  in  Asia. 
The  chief  cities  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  with  their  popu- 
lations (1897)  are:  Constantinople,  1,125,000;  Salonica, 
105,000 ; Smyrna,  201,000 ; Bagdad,  1.45,000 ; Adrian- 
ople,  81,000;  Damascus,  140,500;  Aleppo,  127,150; 
Beirut,  118,800;  Mecca,  60,000;  Jerusalem,  42,000;  Er- 
zerum,  385900;  Trebizond,  35,000;  Brdssa,  76,303; 
Kaisarieh,  72,00;  Kerbela,  65,000;  Mosul,  61,000;  Me- 
dineh,  48,000 ; Adana,  45,000 ; Koniah,  44,000 ; Sivas,  43,- 
100;  Bitlis,  38,800;  Diarbekr,  34,000;  Cairo,  570,062; 
Alexandria,  319,766. 

The  telegraph  system  is  much  more  developed,  com- 


TUR 


prising  (1897)  23,440  miles,  with  38,400  miles  of  wire  and 
75°  stations.  The  yearly  average  of  letters  and  pack^ 
ages  of  all  sorts  sent  through  the  1,031  postoffices  scarcely 
•exceeds  23,800,000. 

TURKEY’,  an  abbreviation  for  Turkey-Cock  or 
Turkey-Hex  as  the  case  may  be,  a well-known  large 
domestic  gallinaceous  bird.  How  it  came  by  this  name 
has  long  been  a matter  of  discussion,  for  it  is  certain 
that  this  valuable  animal  was  introduced  to  Europe  from 
the  New  World,  and  in  its  introduction  had  nothing  to 
do  with  Turkey  or  with  Turks,  even  in  the  old  and  ex- 
tended sense  in  which  that  term  was  applied  to  all 
Mahometans.  But  it  is  almost  as  unquestionable  that 
the  name  was  originally  applied  to  the  bird  which  we 
know  as  the  Guinea-Fowl  (y.^.),  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  some  authors  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  curiously  confounded  these  two  species.  As 
both  birds  became  more  common  and  better  known, 
the  distinction  was  gradually  perceived,  and  the  name 
“ Turkey”  clave  to  that  from  the  New  World — possibly 
because  of  its  repeated  call-note — to  be  syllabled  turk , 
turk,  turk , Vhereby  it  may  be  almost  said  to  have 
named  itself.  But  even  Linnaeus  couW  not  clear  himself 
cf  the  confusion,  and  unhappily  misapplied  the  name 
Meleagris , undeniably  belonging  to  the  Guinea-Fowl, 
as  the  generic  term  for  what  we  now  know  as  the  Turkey, 
adding  thereto  as  its  specific  designation  the  word  stallo- 
pavo , taken  from  the  Gallopava  of  Gesner,  who,  though 
not  wholly  free  from  error,  was  less  mistaken  than  some 
of  his  contemporaries  and  even  successors. 

The  Turkey,  so  far  as  we  know,  was  first  described 
by  Oviedo  in  his  Sutnario  de  la  Natural  Historia  de  las 
Indias , said  to  have  been  published  in  1527.  He,  not 
unnaturally,  includes  both  Curassows  and  Turkeys  in 
one  category,  calling  both  “ Pavos”  (Peafowls);  but  he 
carefully  distinguishes  between  them,  pointing  out 
among  other  things  that  the  latter  make  a wheel  ( hacen 
la  rueda)  of  their  tail,  though  this  was  not  so  grand  or 
so  beautiful  as  that  of  the  Spanish  “ Pavo,”  and  he  gives 
a faithful  though  short  description  of  the  Turkey.  The 
chief  point  of  interest  in  his  account  is  that  he  speaks 
of  the  species  having  been  already  taken  from  New 
Spain  (Mexico)  to  the  islands  and  to  Castilla  del  Oro 
(Darien),  where  it  bred  in  a domestic  state  among  the 
Christians.  Much  labor  has  been  given  by  various 
naturalists  to  ascertain  the  date  of  its  introduction  to 
Europe,  to  which  we  can  at  present  only  make  an  ap- 
proximate attempt ; but  after  all  that  has  been  written 
it  is  plain  that  evidence  concurs  to  show  that  the  bird 
was  established  in  Europe  by  1530.  There  is  no  need 
to  describe  here  a bird  so  familiar  and  in  these  days  so 
widely  distributed.  As  a denizen  of  our  poultry- yards 
(see  Poultry)  there  are  at  least  two  distinct  breeds, 
though  crosses  between  them  are  much  commoner  than 
purely-bred  examples  of  either.  That  known  as  the 
Norfolk  breed  is  the  taller  of  the  two,  and  is  said  to  be  the 
more  hardy.  Its  plumage  is  almost  entirely  black,  with 
very  little  luster,  but  the  feathers  of  the  tail  and  some 
of  those  of  the  bade  have  a brownish  tip.  The  chicks 
also  are  black,  with  occasionally  white  patches  on  the 
head.  The  Tther  breed,  called  the  Cambridgeshire,  is 
much  more  variegafed  in  color,  and  some  parts  of  the 
plumage  have  a bright  metallic  gloss,  while  the  chicks 
are  generally  mottled  with  brownish-gray.  White,  pied 
and  buff  Turkeys  are  also  often  seen,  and  if  care  be 
taken  they  are  commonly  found  to  “breed  true.”  The 
northern  form  of  wild  Turkey,  whose  habits  have  been 
described  in.  much  detail  by  all  the  chief  writers  on 
North- American  birds,  is  now  extinct  in  the  settled 
parts  of  Canada  and  the  eastern  States  of  the  Union, 
wher2  it  was  once  so  numerous ; and  in  Mexico  the 
southern  form,  which  would  seem  to  have  been  never 


5955 

abundant  since  the  conquest,  has  been  for  many  years 
rare.  Further  to  the  south,  on  the  borders  of  Guate- 
mala and  British  Honduras,  there  exists  a perfectly 
distinct  species,  M.  ocellatay  whose  plumage  almost  vies 
with  that  of  a Peacock  in  splendor,  while  the  bare  skin 
which  covers  the  head  is  of  a deep  blue  studded  with 
orange  caruncles. 

The  genus  Meleagris  is  considered  to  enter  into  the 
Family  Phasianidcet  in  which  it  forms  a Subfamily 
Meleagrincey  peculiar  to  North  and  Central  America. 
The  fossil  remains  of  three  species  have  been  described 
by  Professor  Marsh — one  from  the  Miocene  of  Colorado, 
and  two,  one  much  taller  and  the  other  smaller  than 
the  existing  species,  from  the  Post- Pliocene  of  New 
Jersey.  Both  the  last  had  proportionally  long  and 
slender  legs. 

TURKEY-RED.  This  celebrated  color — the  most 
durable,  and  perhaps  one  of  the  most  beautiful  which 
has  yet  been  produced  in  cotton,  is  dyed  by  a process 
supposed  to  have  been  in  practice  in  India  from  im- 
memorial time.  It  passed  from  thence  through  other 
parts  of  Asia,  to  the  countries  of  the  Levant,  and  was 
introduced  into  France  about  the  middle  of  the  last 
century.  The  first  successful  attempt  to  introduce  it 
into  Great  Britain  was  made  in  Glasgow  in  1783,  by  a 
Rouen  dyer  named  Papillon,  in  conjunction  with  Mr. 
Geo.  Macintosh,  the  father  of  the  inventor  of  water- 
proof cloth.  By  an  agreement  with  the  Trustees  for 
Manufactures  in  Scotland,  Papillon  allowed  them  to 
make  his  process  public  in  1803;  and  since  then  Turkey, 
red  dyeing  has  been  extensively  carried  on  in  Glasgow 
and  its  neighborhood  and  also  in  Lancashire. 

There  was  a mode  of  dyeing  cotton  red  with  madder 
practiced  by  calico  printers — the  cloth  being  previously 
bleached  with  chloride  of  lime — where  the  whole  pro- 
cess only  occupied  a day  or  two.  But  in  the  case  of 
Turlcey-red,  which  is  also  a madder  dye,  the  operations 
are  long  and  tedious,  and  the  bleaching  with  chloride  of 
lime  is  especially  objectionable.  The  following  is  an 
outline  of  the  steps  for  the  Turkey-red  process  as 
usually  conducted:  1.  Unbleached  calico  is  thoroughly 
washed  at  a dash  wheel  or  other  washing  machine  and 
then  boiled  for  some  time  in  a solution  of  carbonate  of 
soda.  2.  The  cloth  is  soaked  in  a bath  containing  a 
soapy  emulsion  of  olive  oil,  sheep’s  dung,  carbonate  of 
soda  and  water;  and  allowed  to  remain  for  a week  or 
more  impregnated  with  the  solution,  after  which  it  is 
aired  in  the  field  and  dried  in  stoves.  This  operation  is 
repeated  at  least  three  times.  3.  The  next  stage,  some- 
times called  “ liquoring,”  consists  in  passing  the  cloth 
through  an  emulsion  of  olive  oil  and  carbonate  of  soda, 
but  without  sheep’s  dung;  after  which  it  is  aired  in  the 
field,  and  dried  in  stoves,  as  in  the  last  operation.  The 
“liquoring”  is  repeated  at  least  four  times.  4.  The 
cloth  now  requires  to  be  soaked  in  a weak  alkaline  lye 
of  pearl-ash  and  soda,  in  order  to  remove  any  excess 
of  oil.  5.  The  cloth  is  warmed  in  a bath  containing  a 
mixture  of  powdered  oak-galls  and  sumach,  or  either 
of  these  substances  alone,  the  operation  being  some- 
times  called  “ galling,”  and  sometimes  “ sumaching.” 
6.  The  cloth  is  next  steeped  for  twelve  hours  in  a solu- 
tion of  alum,  partially  neutralized  by  carbonate  of  soda, 
but  sometimes  acetate  of  alumina  is  used  instead  of 
alum.  Without  this  treatment,  the  dye  could  not  be 
fixed  upon  the  cotton.  7.  When  thoroughly  washed, 
the  cloth  is  ready  to  receive  the  red  dye,  which  is  pro- 
duced by  immersing  it  in  a decoction  of  madder,  to 
which  some  chalk  and  bullock’s  blood  are  sometimes 
added. 

It  is  put  into  the  dye-beck  when  cold,  and  kept  in  it 
for  two  hours  after  it  has  been  raised  to  the  boiling 
point.  It  is  next  boiled  in  a weak  solution  of  soap  and 


TUR 


5956 

soda,  which  removes  a brown  coloring  matter  present  in 
the  madder  dye,  but  more  fugitive  than  the  red  portion. 
Finally  the  dyed  cloth  is  cleared  or  brightened  by 
boiling  it  in  solution  of  chloride  of  tin,  and  then  wash- 
ing and  drying  it.  A more  recent  plan  is  to  employ 
khloride  of  lime  for  the  clearing. 

The  theory  of  Turkey-red  dyeing  is  not  well  under- 
stood, which  so  far  accounts  for  the  fact,  that  it  has 
rieen  found  impossible  materially  to  shorten  the  proe- 
ms. The  three  most  essential  operations  are  the  oiling, 
©r  rather  the  impregnation  with  an  oleaginous  soap,  the 
mordanting  with  alumina,  and  the  dyeing  with  madder; 
but  it  is  found,  that  if  any  of  the  numerous  dippings  in 
trie  oily  emulsions  are  left  out  the  color  is  inferior  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  omissions.  This  is  the 
least  understood  part  of  the  process,  and  is  no  doubt 
tke  cause  of  the  rich  appearance  of  the  dye,  which  ap- 
proaches some  of  the  fine  reds  produced  in  wool.  Be- 
sides being  largely  used  in  the  plain  state,  Turkey- red 
cloth  is  extensively  employed  for  handkerchiefs  with 
white  patterns  produced  upon  them  by  discharging  the 
color. 

1'URKS.  The  use  of  the  name  “Turks  ” has  never 
been  limited  in  a clear  and  definite  way  from  the  time  of 
tne  Byzantine  authors  to  the  present  day.  To  the 
iormer,  as  also  to  the  Arabs,  it  has  a collective  sense  like 
Scythians  or  Huns;  at  the  present  day  we  are  wont  to 
restrict  the  name  to  the  Osmanli  Turks,  though  they 
Chemselves  refuse  to  be  called  T urks,  having,  as  they 
hold,  ceased  to  be  such  in  becoming  imbued  with  Arabo- 
Persian  culture.  On  the  other  hand,  when  we  speak  of 
Uigurs  and  Tartars,  we  mean  tribes  who  style  them- 
selves Turks  and  really  are  such.  It  is  only  by  the  aid 
of  historical  and  linguistical  evidence  that  we  can 
determine  the  true  limits  of  the  Turkish  name. 

The  principal  Turkish  peoples  are  the  followyig. 
(I.)  By  a popular  distinction  the  Turks  of  Siberia  and 
Russia,  with  some  colonies  in  Turkey,  are  styled 
Tatars  (see  Tartars),  though  the  Yakuts,  of  northern 
Siberia  are  not  usually  included  in  this  term.  The 
Yakuts,  who  are  perhaps  a mixture  of  Turkish  and 
Tungus  tribes,  deviating  from  the  ordinary  course  of 
Turkish  wanderings,  are  settled  about  the  lower  Lena, 
and  number  probably  200,000.  They  are  nominally 
Christians.  (II.)  On  the  Kirghiz  (Kara-Kirghiz  and 
Kazaks)  and  Kara-Kalpaks  see  Kirghiz.  (III.)  Uzbeg 
is  a political,  not  an  ethnological  denomination,  origin- 
ating from  Uzbeg  Khan  of  the  Golden  Horde  (1312- 
1340).  The  Uzbegs  are  a mixed  race  of  different 
Turkish  tribes.  According  to  Kostenko,  they  num- 
ber 201,972  in  the  Russian  provinces  of  Sir-Daria, 
Ferghana,  Zerafshan,  and  Amu-Daria,  and  Vambery 
conjectures  that  there  are  1,000,000  more  in  Bokhara, 

700.000  in  Khiva,  and  200, 000 under  Afghan  supremacy, 

giving  a total  number  of  about  2,000,000.  (IV.)  The 

eastern  Turks  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Tian-Shan 
Mountains  at  Kashgar,  Ust-turfan,  Ak-su,  Sairam, 
Kutcha,  Yarkand,  Khotan,  etc.,  are  the  remnants  of 
the  ancient  Uigurs;  and  of  the  same  origin  are  the 
Taranjis  (= agriculturists),  settled  in  the  Ili  valley  and 
elsewhere.  The  number  of  the  latter  is  given  as  about 

50.000  ; that  of  the  former  may  be  estimated  from  the 
statements  of  Forsyth  and  Kuropatkin  at  about  1,000,- 
000  for  the  whole  district,  the  great  majority  being 
Turks  and  the  rest  Mohammedan  Chinese  (Sungans). 
(V.)  The  Turcomans  (properly  Turkmans)  inhabit  the 
steppe  east  of  the  Caspian  and  south  of  the  Oxus  from 
Astrabad  to  the  Paropamisus.  (VI.)  The  Turkish 
nomads  scattered  throughout  Persia  are  partly  the  de- 
scendants of  the  Ghuzz  tribes  that  invaded  the  country 
at  the  Seljukian  period  ; others  have  migrated  thither  in 
the  following  centuries. 


(VII.)  The  Osmanlis,  under  which  term  are  compre. 
fended  all  the  Turkish  subjects  of  the  sultan  of  Turkey, 
consist  chiefly  of  the  following  elements.  (1)  Turk- 
manian  tribes  and  Turks  of  every  description.  The 
Mongolian  invasion  drove  the  obscure  ancestors  of  this 
the  most  illustrious  Turkish  dynasty  to  Asia  Minor, 
whence  they  gradually  spread  to  the  province  of  Khoda- 
wendikyar  (Bithynia).  (2)  Tartars  scattered  among  the 
rest  of  the  population,  but  forming  a large  colony 
in  the  Dobrudja.  (3)  The  so-called  Kizil-bashis  or 
“Red  Heads,”  a nickname  of  the  Shi‘itic  Turkish 
immigrants  from  Persia,  who  are  found  chiefly  in  the 
plains  from  Kara-hissar  along  Tokat  and  Amasia  to 
Angora.  (4)  Turkmenian  tribes — Yuruks  and  Got- 
chebes  (words  meaning  “ nomads  ” and  characteristic  of 
their  most  distinctive  quality) — who  occupy  the  mount- 
ains in  summer  and  descend  into  the  plains  in  winter, 
though  some  are  settled  in  the  plains  of  Cili^a  near 
Tarsus  and  Adana,  the  rest  being  semi-nomads. 
Reclus  estimates  the  total  number  of  Turks  in  Europe 
at  1,500,000  and  35,000  Tartars.  For  AsiaiMinor  sta- 
tistics are  wanting;  but  P.  de  Tchihatchef,  the  chief 
authority  for  matters  relating  to  this  peninsula,  thinks 
that  6,000,000  is  a fair  estimate  for  the  total  population, 
including  Greeks,  Armenians,  Kurds,  etc: , but  exclud- 
ing the  islands.  It  appears  therefore  necessary  to  re- 
duce the  already  moderate  number  of  Osmanlis  given 
by  Vambe’y  (10,000,000)  to  about  6,000,000. 

TURMERIC,  the  tuberous  root  of  Curcuma  longay 
L. , an  herbaceous  perennial  plant  belonging  to  the  na- 
tural order  Zingiber acece.  It  is  a native  of  Southern 
Asia,  being  cultivated  on  a large  scale  both  on  the 
mainland  and  in  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 
Turmeric  has  been  used  from  a remote  period  both  as 
a condiment  and  as  a dye  stuff,  and  to  a more  limited 
extent  as  a medicine.  In  Europe  it  is  employed  chiefly 
as  a dye,  also  as  an  ingredient  in  curry  powder  and  as  a 
chemical  test  for  alkalies.  The  root  is  prepared  by 
cleaning  it  and  drying  it  in  an  oven. 

Turmeric  has  a characteristic  odor  and  an  aromatic 
taste.  The  aroma  it  owes  to  a complex  essential  oil, 
which  consists  principally  of  an  alcohol  called  turmerol , 
which  differs  from  carvol  in  being  unable  to  combine 
with  hydrogen  sulphide;  the  other  constituents  of  the 
oil  have  not  been  determined.  The  cultivation  of  tur- 
meric is  carried  on  most  successfully  in  light,  rich  soil 
in  well-watered  districts. . The  plant  is  easily  propa- 
gated by  offsets.  An  acre  yields  about  2,000  pounds. 
Turmeric  is  said  to  grow  in  large  quantities  on  the 
slopes  of  hills  bordering  the  plains  of  the  Beni  in  Bo 
livia  and  also  in  Panama. 

TURNAU,  a walled  town  of  Bohemia,  circle  of  Jung. 
Bunzlau,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Iser,  fifty  miles  north- 
east of  Prague.  It  has  a church  built  in  1825,  which  is 
reckoned  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  Bohemia.  Tur- 
nau  has  manufactures  of  cotton,  woolens,  and  more 
particularly  of  artificial  gems,  which  are  exported  in 
great  quantities  to  the  United  States.  Population, 
4,900.  Here  was  fought  in  July,  1866,  a battle  between 
the  Prussians  and  Austrians,  in  which  the  former  were 
victorious. 

TURNER,  Charles,  an  English  engraver,  was  born 
at  Woodstock  in  1773.  He  entered  the  schools  of  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1795;  and,  engraving  in  stipple  in 
the  manner  of  Bartolozzi,  he  was  employed  by  Aider- 
man  Boydell.  His  finest  plates,  however,  are  in  mez- 
zotint, a method  in  which  he  engraved  J.  M.  W. 
Turner’s  Wreck  and  twenty-four  subjects  of  his  Liber 
Studiorum,  Reynolds’  Marlborough  Family,  and  many 
of  Raeburn’s  best  portraits,  including  those  of  Sir  Wal- 
ter Scott,  Lord  Newton,  Doctor  Hamilton,  Profs.  Du- 
gald  Stewart  and  John  Robison,  and  Doctor  Adam.  In 


TU  R 


1828  he  was  elected  an  associate  engraver  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  He  died  in  London  on  August  I,  1857. 

TURNER,  Joseph  Mallord  William,  one  of  the 
greatest  painters  of  the  English  school,  was  born  in 
London  on  April  23,  1775.  The  earliest  known  draw- 
ing by  Turner,  a view  of  Margate  church,  dates  from 
his  ninth  year.  It  was  also  about  this  time  that  he  was 
sent  to  his  first  school  at  New  Brentford.  Of  educa- 
tion, as  the  term  is  generally  understood,  he  received 
but  little.  He  never  mastered  his  native  tongue,  nor 
was  he  able  in  after  life  to  learn  any  foreign  language. 
Notwithstanding  this  lack  of  scholarship,  one  of  his 
strongest  characteristics  was  a taste  for  associating  his 
works  with  personages  and  places  of  legendary  and 
historical  interest,  and  certain  stories  of  antiquity  seem 
to  have  taken  root  in  his  mind  very  strongly.  By  the 
time  Turner  had  completed  his  thirteenth  year  his 
school  days  were  over  and  his  choice  of  an  artist’s 
career  settled.  Part  of  his  time  was  employed  in  mak- 
ing drawings  at  home,  which  he  exhibited  for  sale  in 
his  lather’s  shop  window,  two  or  three  shillings  being 
the  usual  price.  He  colored  prints  for  engravers, 
washed  in  backgrounds  for  architects,  went  out  sketch- 
ing with  Girtin,  and  made  drawings  in  the  evenings  for 
Doctor  Munro  “for  half  a crown  and  his  supper.”  In 
1789  Turner  became  a student  of  the  Royal  Academy. 
He  also  worked  for  a short  time  in  the  house  of  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds,  with  the  idea,  apparently,  of  becom- 
ing a portrait  painter;  but,  the  death  of  Reynolds  occur- 
ring shortly  afterward,  this  intention  was  abandoned. 
In  1790  Turner’s  name  appears  for  the  first  time  in  the 
catalogue  of  the  Royal  Academy,  the  title  of  his  solitary 
contribution  being  View  of  the  Archbishop's  Palace , 
Lambeth . About  1 792  he  received  a commission  from 
Walker,  the  engraver,  to  make  drawings  for  his  Copper- 
Plate  Magazine , and  this  topographical  work  took  him 
co  many  interesting  places. 

Until  1792  Turner’s  practice  had  been  almost  exclus- 
ively confined  to  water  colors,  and  his  early  works  show 
how  much  he  was  indebted  to  some  of  his  contempora- 
ries. There  are  few  of  any  note  whose  style  he  did  not 
copy  or  adopt.  His  first  exhibited  oil  picture  appeared 
in  the  Academy  in  1793,  and  during  the  next  four  years 
he  contributed  no  less  than  thirty-nine  works  to  the 
Academy. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  the  exhibition  of  his  works  in 
1798  was  followed  by  his  election  to  the  associateship  of 
the  Royal  Academy.  That  he  should  have  attained  to 
this  position  before  completing  his  twenty-fourth  year 
says  much  for  the  wisdom  and  discernment  of  that  body, 
which  further  showed  its  recognition  •of  his  talent  by 
electing  him  an  Academician  four  years  later.  Turner 
owed  much  to  the  Academy.  Mr.  Ruskin  says,  “ It 
taught  him  nothing.  ” He  enjoyed  the  dignity  of  Acade- 
mician for  nearly  half  a century,  and  during  nearly  the 
whole  of  that  period  he  took  an  active  share  in  the 
direction  of  the  Academy’s  affairs.  With  his  election 
to  the  associqteship  of  the  Academy  in  1799,  Turner’s 
early  struggles  may  be  considered  to  have  ended.  He 
had  emancipated  himself  from  hack  work,  had  given  up 
making  topographical  drawings  of  castles  and  abbeys 
for  the  engravers — drawings  in  which  mere  local  fidelity 
was  the  principal  object — and  had  taken  to  compos- 
ing as  he  drew.  His  pictures  of  1797-99  had  shown 
that  he  was  a painter  of  no  ordinary  power,  one  hav- 
ing much  of  the  poet  in  him,  and  able  to  give  expres- 
sion to  the  mystery,  beauty,  and  inexhaustible  fullness 
of  nature. 

Turner  visited  Scotland  in  1800,  and  in  1801  or  1802 
he  made  his  first  tour  on  the  continent.  In  the  following 
year,  of  the  seven  pictures  he  exhibited  six  were  of 
foreign  subjects,  among  them  Bonneville,  the  Festival 


5957 

upon  the  Opening  of  the  Vintage  of  MAcon , and  a well 
known  Calais  Pier  in  the  National  Gallery. 

In  1804  Turner  made  a second  tour  on  the  continent, 
and  in  the  following  year  painted  the  Shipwreck  and 
Fishing  Boats  in  a Squall  (in  the  Ellesmere  collection), 
seemingly  in  direct  rivalry  of  Vandervelde,  in  1806  the 
Goddess  of  Discord  in  the  Garden  of  the  Hesperides  (in 
rivalry  of  Poussin),  and  in  1807  the  Sun  rising  through 
Vapor  (in  rivalry  of  Claude).  The  last  two  are  notable 
works,  especially  the  Sun.  In  after  years  it  was  one  of 
the  works  he  left  to  the  nation,  on  the  special  condition 
of  its  being  hung  beside  the  Claudes  in  the  National 
Gallery.  In  this  same  year  (1807)  Turner  commenced 
his  most  serious  rivalry.  Possibly  it  arose  out  of  a desire 
to  break  down  Claude  worship,  the  then  prevailing 
fashion,  and  to  show  the  public  that  there  was  a living 
artist  not  unworthy  of  taking  rank  beside  him.  That 
the  Liber  Studiorum  was  suggested  by  the  Liber  Veri- 
tatis  of  Claude,  and  was  intended  as  a direct  challenge 
to  that  master,  is  beyond  doubt.  The  first  of  th e Liber 
drawings  was  made  in  the  autumn  of  1806,  the  othersat 
intervals  till  about  1815.  They  are  of  the  same  size  as 
the  plates  and  carefully  finished  in  sepia.  About  fifty  of 
them  are  now  to  be  seen  in  the  Turner  rooms  of  the 
National  Gallery.  The  issue  of  the  Liber  began  in 
1807  and  continued  at  irregular  intervals  till  1819, 
when  it  stopped  at  the  fourteenth  number. 

The  plates,  which  cost  the  subscribers  only  five  shil- 
lings apiece,  were  so  little  esteemed  that  in  the  early 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  they  were  sometimes 
used  for  lighting  fires.  So  much  has  fashion,  or  public 
taste,  changed  since  then  that  a fine  proof  of  a single 
plate  has  sold  for  $1,050.  The  seventy  plates  of  the 
Liber  contain  an  almost  complete  epitome  of  Turner’s 
art.  The  imaginative  faculty  he  possessed  was  of  the 
highest  order,  and  it  was  further  aided  by  a memory  of 
the  most  retentive  and  unerring  kind. 

In  1813  Turner  commenced  the  series  of  drawings, 
forty  in  number,  for  Cooke’s  Southern  Coast.  This 
work  was  not  completed  till  1826. 

Crossing  the  Brook  appeared  in  the  Academy  of  1815. 
It  may  be  regarded  as  a typical  example  of  Turner’s 
art  at  this  period,  and  marks  the  transition  from  his 
earlier  style  to  that  of  his  maturity.  Dido  Building 
Carthage  also  belongs  to  this  period.  It  hangs  beside 
the  Claudes  in  the  National  Gallery.  It  pertains  to  the 
old  erroneous  school  of  historical  painting.  Towering 
masses  of  Claudesque  architecture  piled  up  on  either 
side,  porticoes,  vestibules,  and  stone  pines,  with  the 
sun  in  a yellow  sky  represent  the  Carthage  of  Turner’s 
imagination.  With  all  its  faults  it  is  still  the  finest 
work  of  the  class  he  ever  painted.  Carthage  and  its 
fate  had  a strange  fascination  for  him.  He  returned 
again  to  this  theme  in  1817,  when  he  exhibited  his 
Decline  of  the  Carthaginian  Empire:  Hostages  Leav- 
ing Carthage  for  Rome — a picture  which  Mr.  Ruskin 
describes  as  “ little  more  than  an  accumulation  of 
academy  student’s  outlines  colored  brown.” 

Hitherto  he  had  painted  in  browns,  grays,  and  blues, 
using  red  and  yellow  sparingly.  He  had  gradually  been 
advancing  from  the  sober  gray  coloring  of  Vandervelde 
and  Ruysdael  to  the  mellow  and  richer  tones  of  Claude. 
His  works  now  begin  to  show  a heightened  scale  of 
color,  gradually  increasing  in  richness  and  splendor  and 
reaching  its  culminating  point  in  such  works  as  the 
Ulysses , Childe Harold' s Pilgrimage,  the  Golden  Bough, 
and  the  Fighting  Timeraire.  All  these  works  belong 
to  the  middle  period  of  Turner’s  art  (1829-39),  when 
his  powers  were  entirely  developed  and  entirely  un- 
abated. Much  of  his  most  beautiful  work  at  this  period 
is  to  be  found  in  his  water-color  drawings. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  greatest  services  Turner  rendered 


T U R 


5958 

to  the  art  of  England  was  the  education  cf  a whole 
/school  of  engravers.  No  better  proof  can  be  found  of 
the  immense  advance  made  than  by  comparing  the 
work  of  the  landscape  engravers  of  the  pre-Turnerian 
period  with  the  work  of  Miller,  Goodall,  Willmore, 
Cooke,  Wallis,  Lupton,  C.  Turner,  Brandard,  Cousen, 
and  others  who  worked  under  his  guidance.  The  art 
of  steel  engraving  reached  its  highest  development  in 
England  at  this  time.  Rogers’  Italy  (1830)  and  his 
Poems  (1834)  contain  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  and 
lelicate  of  the  many  engravings  executed  after  Turner’s 
drawings. 

From  this  period  onward  till  about  1840  Turner’s 
life  was  one  of  unceasing  activity.  Nothing  is  more 
astonishing  than  his  prodigious  fertility;  he  rose  early, 
worked  from  morning  till  night,  entirely  absorbed  in  his 
art,  and  gradually  became  more  and  more  solitary  and 
isolated.  Between  1829  and  1839  he  sent  fifty-five 
pictures  to  the  Royal  Academy,  painted  many  others 
on  private  commission,  made  over  400  drawings  for 
engravers,  besides  thousands  of  studies  and  sketches 
from  nature.  His  industry  accounts  for  the  immense 
quantity  of  work  he  left  behind  him. 

The  first  of  Turner’s  Venetian  pictures  (. Bridge  of 
Sighs , Ducal  Palace  and  Custom  House , Venice, 
Canaletti  Painting)  appeared  in  the  Academy  in  1833. 
Compared  with  the  sober,  prosaic  work  of  Canaletti, 
Turner’s  pictures  of  Venice  appear  like  poetic  dreams. 
Splendor  of  color  and  carelessness  of  form  generally 
characterize  them.  Venice  appeared  to  him  “ a city  of 
rose  and  white,  rising  out  of  an  emerald  sea  against  a 
sky  of  sapphire  blue.”  Many  of  these  Venetian  pict- 
ures belong  to  his  later  manner,  and  some  of  them,  The 
Sun  of  Venice  Going  to  Sea  (1843),  Approach  to  Venice 
(1844),  and  Venice,  Evenings  Going  to  the  Ball  (1845) 
to  his  latest.  As  Turner  grew  older  his  love  of  brilliant 
color  and  light  became  more  and  more  a characteristic. 

The  Fighting  Temeraire  Tugged  to  her  Last  Berth 
to  be  Broken  Up  was  exhibited  in  the  Academy  of 
1839.  By  many  it  is  considered  one  of  his  finest  works. 
Turner  had  all  his  life  been  half  a sailor  at  heart;  he 
loved  the  sea,  and  shipping,  and  sailors  and  their  ways; 
many  of  his  best  pictures  are  sea  pieces;  and  the  old 
ships  of  Collingwood  and  Nelson  were  dear  to  him. 
Hence  the  pathetic  feeling  he  throws  around  the  Fight- 
ing Temeraire.  The  Slave  Ship , another  important 
sea  picture,  was  exhibited  in  the  following  year;  and  in 
1842  Peace:  Burial  at  Sea , commemorative  of  Wilkie. 

Turner  had  now  reached  his  sixty-seventh  year,  but 
no  very  marked  traces  of  declining  power  are  to  be  seen 
in  his  work.  Many  of  the  water-color  drawings  be- 
longing to  this  period  are  of  great  beauty,  and,  although 
a year  or  two  later  his  other  powers  began  to  fail,  his 
faculty  for  color  remained  unimpaired  almost  to  the 
end.  He  paid  his  last  visit  to  the  Continent  in  1843, 
wandering  about  from  one  place  to  another,  and  avoid- 
ing his  own  countrymen,  an  old  and  solitary  man.  At 
his  house  in  Queen  Anne  street  they  were  often 
ignorant  of  his  whereabouts  for  months,  as  he  seldom 
took  the  trouble  to  write  to  any  one.  Two  years  later 
(1845)  his  health  gave  way  and  with  it  both  mind  and 
sight  began  to  fail. 

After  1845  all  the  pictures  shown  by  Turner  belong 
to  the  period  of  decay — mere  ghosts  and  shadows  of 
what  once  had  been.  In  1850  he  exhibited  for  the  last 
time,  and  on  December  19,  1851,  he  died.  He  was 
buried  in  St.  Paul’s  cathedral,  in  deference  to  a wish  he 
had  himself  expressed. 

He  left  the  large  fortune  he  had  amassed  (about  $700,- 
000)  to  found  a charity  for  the  “ maintenance  and  sup- 
port of  male  decayed  artists,  being  born  in  England, 
and  of  English  parents  only,  and  of  lawful  issue.”  His 


pictures  he  bequeathed  to  the  nation,  on  condition  tfcal 
they  were  to  be  exhibited  in  rooms  of  'heir  own,  and 
that  these  rooms  were  to  be  called  “ Turner’s  Gallery.” 

TURNER,  Sharon,  the  Anglo-Saxon  historian,  was 
born  in  London,  September  25,  1768,  articled  attorney 
at  the  age  of  fifteen,  and  succeeded  to  the  business  be- 
fore the  period  of  his  clerkship  had  expired.  He  con- 
tinued, however,  to  gratify  his  literary  taste  and  after 
years  of  hard  learning,  and  patient  collection  of  mate- 
rials, published,  1799-1805,  The  History  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons , in  three  volumes,  a work,  with  all  its  imperfec- 
tions, that  has  given  its  author  a permanent  place  in 
English  literature.  Other  writings  of  Turner’s  are 
The  History  of  England  from  the  Norman  Conquest 
to  1 yog  (1814);  History  of  Henry  VIII.  (1826);  and 
Reigns  of  Edward  VI.,  Mary , and  Elizabeth  (1829);  all 
of  which  were  subsequently  republished  together  under 
the  title  of  History  of  England  from  the  Earliest  Pe. 
riod  to  the  Death  of  Elizabeth.  He  died  in  1847. 

TURNHOUT,  a town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province 
of  Antwerp,  stands  in  the  middle  of  a wide  plain.  It 
is  a prosperous  manufacturing  and  commercial  center, 
the  chief  industries  being  the  weaving  of  cottons  and 
linens  (especially  ticking),  lace-making,  paper-making, 
brick-making,  dyeing,  bleaching.  The  population  -of 
the  commune  is  18,000. 

TURNING.  See  Lathe. 

TURNIP.  See  Agriculture  and  Horticulture. 
TURNIP-FLY,  Turnip-Flea,  or  Earth  Flea- 
Beetle,  the  name  applied  to  several  species  of  Haltica 
which  infest  turnip  fields  and  do  considerable  damage 
to  crops.  The  genus  belongs  to  the  family  Chrysomel- 
idce , and  includes  about  100  species.  The  turnip-fly 
most  usually  met  with,  Haltica  nemorum , is  scarcely 
2mm.  in  length  and  of  a shining  black  color,  with 
two  ocherous  yellow  longitudinal  bands  running  along 
each  wing-case;  the  bands  are  slightly  sinuous  and  bend 
inward  at  the  hinder  end.  Of  the  eleven -jointed 
antennae  the  first  three  segments  are  yellow  and  the 
remainder  black.  The  remarkable  power  of  jumping 
has  given  rise  to  the  name  turnip-flea. 

Another  species  H»  concinna , has  a greenish  yellow 
or  brassy  appearance,  and  the  tibiae  of  the  two  posterior 
legs  are  armed  with  a thorn-like  hook.  A third  species, 
H.  consobrina , is  of  a dark  blue  color  above,  while 
another  species,  H.  obscurella , often  very  abundant,  is 
of  a lighter  blue  color,  and  larger  than  those  mentioned 
above. 

The  beetles  »egin  pairing  during  April,  and  continue 
all  through  the  summer.  The  female  lays  but  few 
eggs,  usually  one  a day.  The  eggs  are  deposited  on 
the  under  surface  of  a leaf,  close  under  one  of  the  pro- 
jecting veins;  they  possess  a protective  coloring.  The 
development  within  the  egg  lasts  ten  days,  at  the  end  of 
which  a small  larva  creeps  out,  and  at  once  eats  its  way 
through  the  lower  epidermis  of  the  leaf  into  the  meso- 
phyll  and  there  forms  long  winding  burrows.  The 
larva  or  maggot  is  of  a yellowish  color  and  somewhat 
cylindrical  in  form.  The  larval  condition  lasts  about 
six  days;  the  maggot  then  leaves  the  leaf  and  buries 
itself  some  one  or  two  inches  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
earth;  here  it  turns  into  a chrysalis.  From  this  the 
full-grown  beetle  emerges  after  an  interval  of  fourteen 
days,  and  it  is  in  this  stage  of  its  life-history  that  it 
proves  most  destructive  to  the  turnip  crop.  Several 
broods  may  be  produced  each  season. 

TURNPIKE  ROADS  is  the  name  applied  to  the 
roads  which  ft  Jin  about  the  year  1700  were  constructed 
in  England  by  private  enterprise,  the  consideration 
being  that  a charge  should  be  made  by  the  lessees  of 
the  roads  based  upon  the  traffic  passing  over  them,  and 
that  they  should  be  secured  in  the  same  for  a definite 


T U R 5959 


period.  Under  this  system  thousands «of  miles  of  road 
were  constructed  in  England  and  Wales,  but  the  system 
itself  possessed  this  disadvantage — that  the  toll-charges 
acted  as  a prohibition  in  the  vicinity  of  cities.  So  far 
as  the  country  districts  were  concerned  the.  turnpike 
system  was  a good  one,  but  where  traffic,  as  in  the  im- 
mediate neighborhood  of  cities,  became  very  great,  the 
toll-charge  became  far  in  excess  of  the  cost  of  main- 
taining the  roads.  This  was  especially  true  in  regard 
to  London  and  other  great  English  cities,  and  about 
i860  a movement  for  freeing  all  roads  from  tolls  was  in- 
augurated by  a number  of  members  of  parliament  and 
other  well  known  persons.  About  ten  years  later  the 
last  of  the  toll-gates  was  removed  and  the  turnpike  sys- 
tem is  now  a thing  of  the  past. 

TURNSTONE,  the  name  given  to  a shore-bird, 
from  its  habit  of  turning  over  with  its  bill  such  stones 
as  it  can  to  seek  its  food  in  the  small  crustaceans  or  other 
animals  lurking  beneath  them.  It  is  the  Tringa  inter- 
pres  of  Linnaeus  and  Strepsilas  interpres  of  most  later 
writers,  and  is  remarkable  as  being  perhaps  the  most 
cosmopolitan  of  birds;  for,  though  properly  belonging 
to  the  northern  hemisphere,  there  is  scarcely  a sea-coast 
in  the  world  on  which  it  may  not  occur:  it  has  been  ob- 
tained from  Spitzbergen  to  the  Strait  of  Magellan  and 
from  Point  Barrow  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and 
New  Zealand. 

The  Turnstone  is  about  as  big  as  an  ordinary  snipe; 

' rat,  compared  with  most  of  its  allies  of  the  group 
limicolce,  to  which  it  belongs,  its  form  is  somewhat 
teavy,  and  its  legs  are  short.  Still  it  is  brisk  in  its 
movements,  and  its  variegated  plumage  makes  it  a 
^leasing  bird.  Seen  in  front,  its  white  face,  striped 
with  black,  and  broad  black  gorget  attract  attention  as 
it  sits,  often  motionless,  on  the  rocks;  while  in  flight 
:he  white  of  the  lower  part  of  the  back  and  white  band 
icross  the  wings  are  no  less  conspicuous  even  at  a 
list  an  ce. 

TURPENTINE  consists  of  the  oleo-resins  which 
txude  from  certain  trees,  especially  from  some  conifers 
tnd  from  the  terebinth  tree,  Pistacia  Terebinthus , L. 
it  was  to  the  product  of  the  latter,  now  known  as  Chian 
turpentine,  that  the  term  was  first  applied.  The  tree 
js  a native  of  the  islands  and  shores  of  the  Mediterran- 
ean, passing  eastward  into  Central  Asia ; but  the  res- 
inous exudation  found  in  commerce  is  collected  in  the 
island  of  Scio.  On  exposure  to  the  air  it  becomes  dry, 
’lard,  and  brittle.  In  their  general  characteristics,  tur- 
pentines are  soft  solids  or  semi-fluid  bodies,  consisting  of 
2.  mixture  of  one  or  more  resins  with  essential  oils,  which, 
although  differing  in  physical  properties,  have  a compo- 
sition corresponding  to  the  formula  Cl0H76.  They 
also  contain  minute  quantities  of  oxygenated  oils. 
Formerly  they  had  considerable  reputation  in  medicine, 
and  they  still  continue  to  be  employed  in  plasters  and 
ointments ; but  their  great  use  is  in  the  arts,  for  which 
they  are  separated  by  distillation  into  rosin  or  coloph- 
ony (see  Rosin)  and  oil  or  spirit  of  turpentine. 

Crude  or  common  turpentine  is  the  commercial  name 
which  embraces  the  oleo-resin  yielded  by  several  co- 
niferous trees,  both  European  and  American.  In  the 
United  States  the  turpentine-yielding  pines  are  the 
swamp  pine,  P.  palustrus , and  the  loblolly,  P.  Tceda , 
both  inhabiting  North  and  South  Carolina,  Georgia, 
and  Alabama.  Venice  turpentine  is  yielded  by  the 
larch  tree,  Larix  europceay  from  which  it  is  collected 
principally  in  Tyrol.  The  so-called  Canada  balsam , 
from  Abies  balsamea  (see  Balsam)  is  also  a true  tur- 
pentine. 

Oil  of  turpentine  as  a commercial  product  is  obtained 
front  all  or  any  of  these  oleo-resins,  but  on  a large  scale 
ontv  *rom  crude  or  common  turpentine.  The  essential 


oil  is  rectified  by  redistillation  with  water  and  alkaline 
carbonates,  and  the  water  which  the  oil  carries  over  with 
it  is  removed  by  a further  distillation  over  calcium  chlo- 
ride. Oil  of  turpentine  is  a colorless  liquid  of  oily  consist- 
ence, with  a strong  characteristic  odor  and  a hot  dis- 
agreeable taste.  Oil  of  turpentine  is  largely  used  in  the 
preparation  of  varnishes,  and  as  a medium  by  painters 
in  their  “ flat  ” colors. 

TURPIN,  archbishop  of  Rheims  and  the  Suppositi- 
tious author  of  Historia  Karoli  Magni  et  Rotholandi  is 
probably  to  be  identified  with  Tilpin,  who  was  arch- 
bishop of  Rheims  toward  the  end  of  the  eighth  century. 
This  Tilpin  is  alluded  to  by  Hincmar  (845-882),  his  third 
successor  in  the  see.  According  to  Flodoard.  Charles 
Martel  drove  Ragobert,  bishop  of  Rheims,  from  his 
office,  putting  in  his  place  a warrior-clerk,  Milo.  Tilpin 
was  present  at  the  synod  of  Rome  in  769,  and  Pope  Ha- 
drian, at  the  request  of  Charlemagne,  sent  him  a pallium 
and  confirmed  the  rights  of  his  church.  According  to 
Flodoard,  he  substituted  monks  for  canons  in  the 
monastery  of  St.  Remigius;  and  seventeenth  century 
tradition  ascribed  to  him  an  ancient  pontificate , still 
extant  in  Marlot’s  days  (seventeenth  century).  This  is 
all  that  authentic  history  and  trustworthy  tradition 
teach  about  the  author  to  whom  the  common  voice  of 
the  Middle  Ages  ascribed  the  Historia  Caroli  Magni. 

TURQUOISE,  a blue  or  bluish  green  mineral  valued, 
when  cut  and  polished,  as  an  ornamental  stone.  The 
finest  variety  occurs  in  Persia,  whence  it  originally 
reached  Western  Europe  by  way  of  Turkey,  and  thus 
came  to  be  called  b*  the  Venetians,  who  imported  it, 
turchesa , and  by  the  French  turquoise.  It  is  chemically 
a hydrated  phosphate  of  aluminum,  associated  with  a 
variable  proportion  of  hydrated  phosphate  of  copper,  to 
which  it  owes  much  of  its  color.  The  green  tints  of 
certain  varieties  appear  to  be  due  to  admixture  with 
salts  of  iron. 

The  mineral  has  lever  been  found  crystallized,  but 
occurs  as  veins,  nc  Jules,  stalactitic  masses,  and  incrus- 
tations. Large  pieces  are  exceedingly  rare.  The  spe- 
cific gravity  of  turquoise  is  about  2.75,  and  its  hardnes? 
below  6;  it  takes  a fair  polish  and  exhibits  a feeble  lus- 
ter. It  is  usually  cut  en  cabochon  or  with  a low  convex 
surface,  and  in  the  East  is  frequently  engraved  with 
Persian  and  Arabic  inscriptions,  generally  passages 
from  the  Koran — th~  inc  characters  being  in  many 
cases  gilt.  Such  objects  are  worn  as  amulets.  The 
turquoise  has  always  been  associated  with  curious  super- 
stititLns,  th  most  common  being  the  notion  that  it 
changes  color  with  variations  in  the  state  of  its  owner’s 
health,  or  even  in  sympathy  with  his  affections.  Persia 
is  the  chief  center  of  the  turquoise  trade,  where  the 
same  mines  have  been  worked  for  at  least  eight  cent- 
uries. The  finest  stones  are  found  near  Nishapur  in 
Khorasan  (see  Persia). 

Turquoise  is  commonly  imitated  by  enamels,  but  of 
late  some  ingenious  counterfeits  have  been  made  with 
the  same  chemical  composition  as  the  natural  stone.  To 
increase  the  deception,  pieces  of  ocherous  matter  are 
inserted  at  the  back  of  the  artificial  turquoise,  to  imi- 
tate the  natural  matrix. 

TURRETIN,  or  Turretini.  Three  theologians  of 
this  name  figure  in  the  history  of  Genevan  theology. 

1.  Benoit  Turretin,  the  son  of  Francesco  Turre- 
tini,  a native  of  Lucca,  who  settled  in  Geneva  in  1579, 
was  born  in  that  town  on  November  9,  1588.  He  was 
ordained  a pastor  in  Geneva  in  1612,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  1618.  In  1620  he  represented  the 
Genevan  Church  at  the  national  synod  of  Alais,  and  in 
1621  he  was  sent  on  a successful  mission  to  the  states 
general  of  Holland,  and  to  the  authorities  of  the  Han- 
seatic towns,  with  reference  to  the  defense  of  Geneva 


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5960  T U R - 

against  the  threatened  attacks  of  the  duke  of  Savoy.  He 
published  in  1618-20  a defense  of  the  Genevan  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible.  Benoit  T urretin  died  at  Geneva  on 
March  4,  1631. 

2.  Francois  Turretin,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Geneva  on  October  17,  1623.  After  studying 
theology  in  Geneva,  Holland,  and  France,  he  became  a 
pastor  in  Geneva  in  1647;  after  a brief  pastorate  at 
Leyden,  he  again  returned  to  Geneva  as  professor  of 
theology  in  1653.  He  was  one  of  the  most  influential 
supporters  of  the  Formula  Consensus  Helvetica , and  of 
the  particular  type  of  Calvinistic  theology  which  that 
symbol  embodied.  His  Institutio  Theologice  Elendicce 
has  passed  through  frequent  editions.  F.  Turretin 
died  at  Geneva  on  September  28, 1687. 

3.  Jean  Alphonse  Turretin,  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Geneva  on  August  13,  1671.  In  1697  he 
became  professor  of  church  history.  During  the  next 
forty  years  of  his  life  he  enjoyed  great  influence  in 
Geneva  as  the  advocate  of  a more  liberal  theology  than 
had  prevailed  under  the  preceding  generation,  and  it 
was  largely  through  his  instrumentality  that  the  use  of 
the  Formula  Consensus  Helvetica  as  a symbol  was  dis- 
continued in  1725.  He  died  at  Geneva  on  May  1, 
1737- 

TURTLE.  See  Tortoise. 

TUSCANY  (Ital.  Toscana ),  one  of  the  sixteen  cont- 
partimenti  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  contains  eight 
provinces — Arezzo,  Florence,  Grosseto,  Leghorn,  Luc- 
ca, Massa-Carrara,  Pisa,  and  Siena — and  has  an  area  of 
9,287  square  miles,  with  a population  of  2,208,869. 
In  1859,  immediately  before  it  united  with  the  kingdom 
of  Sardinia,  the  grand-duchy  of  Tuscany,  exclusive  of 
Massa-Carrara,  which  then  belonged  to  Modena,  but 
including  the  islands  of  Gorgona,  Elba,  Pianosa, 
Formica,  Montecristo,  Giglio,  and  Gianutra,  as  well  as 
the  duchy  of  Lucca  (united  to  it  in  1847),  had  an  area 
9,304  square  miles,  with  a 1 op.  (1901)  of  2,548,154. 
I'he  territory  included  during  the  later  centuries  within 
the  limits  of  Tuscany  was  known  in  an  earlier  time  as 
Etrusca,  or  Etruria.  It  was  the  cradle  of  the  Etruscan 
race  (undoubtedly  of  Phoenician  origin),  and  probably 
the  race  which  attained  a higher  civilization  than  any 
other  in  prehistoric  times.  It  was  the  seat  of  a powerful 
and  warlike  nation  before  Rome  itself  was  founded, 
and  its  language  has  been  preserved  almost  in  its 
native  purity  even  to  this  day.  Tradition  tells  of  the 
deeds  of  the  great  chiefs  who  ruled  in  Etruria,  who 
carried  their  conquests  to  the  very  walls  of  Rome,  and 
who  supported  the  ancient  kings  in  their  efforts  to 
recover  the  supremacy  which  the  Tarquinshad  forfeited. 

Etruria  (cj.v.)  was  finally  annexed  to  Rome  in  351 
B.c.  (see  Rome),  and  constituted  the  seventh  of  the 
eleven  regions  into  which  Italy  was,  for  administrative 
purposes,  divided  by  Augustus.  Under  Constantine  it 
was  united  into  one  province  with  U rnbria,  an  arrange- 
ment which  subsisted  until  at  least  400.  After  the  fall 
of  the  Western  empire  Tuscia,  with  other  provinces  of 
Italy,  came  successively  under  the  sway  of  Herulians, 
Ostrogoths,  and  Greek  and  Lombard  dukes.  The  title 
of  grand-duke  of  Tuscany  was  conferred  on  Cosmo  de’ 
Medici  by  Pius  V.  in  1567,  and  the  emperor  (Maximilian 
II.),  after  withholding  his  consent  for  some  years,  ulti- 
mately confirmed  it  to  Cosmo’s  successor  in  1576.  In 
1735,  in  view  of  the  childlessness  of  Giovan  Gastone, 
the  last  of  the  Medici,  the  succession  of  Francis,  duke 
of  Lorraine,  afterward  emperor  Francis  I. , was  arranged 
for  by  treaty.  In  1765  he  was  succeeded  as  grand-duke 
by  his  second  son  Leopold  (see  Leopold  II.),  who,  on 
becoming  emperor  in  1790,  handed  Tuscany  over  to  his 
second  son  Ferdinand,  third  grand-duke  of  the  name. 
The  ducbv  was  occuDied  by  the  French  in  170Q-  ceded 


to  Louis,  prince  of  Parma,  by  the  convention  of  Madrid 
in  1801,  and  annexed  to  the  French  empire  in  1808. 
Ferdinand,  however,  was  reinstated  in  1814,  and  on  his 
death  in  1824  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Leopold,  second 
grand-duke  of  the  name,  who  was  deposed  by  the  con- 
stituent assembly  on  August  16,  i860. 

Tl/SCULUM,  an  ancient  Latin  city,  situated  in  a 
commanding  posit  ion  on  one  of  the  eastern  ridges  of  the 
Alban  Hills,  near  the  site  of  the  modern  Frascati, 
((/.v.)  It  has  a very  beautiful  and  extensive  view  of 
the  Campagna,  with  Rome  lying  fifteen  miles  distant  to 
the  northwest,  on  the  west  the  sea  near  Ostia,  and  the 
long  range  of  the  Sabine  Hills  on  the  northeast. 
According  to  tradition,  the  city  was  founded  by  Tele- 
gonus,  the  son  of  Ulysses  and  Circe.  When  Tarquinius 
Superbus  was  expelled  from  Rome  his  cause  was  es- 
poused by  the  chief  of  Tusculum,  Octavius  Mamilius, 
who  took  a leading  part  in  the  formation  of  the  Latin 
League,  composed  of  the  thirty  principal  cities  of 
Latium,  banded  together  against  Rome.  Mamilius 
commanded  the  Latin  army  at  the  battle  of  Lake  Regil- 
lus.  At  this  battle  (497  B.c.)  Mamilius  was  killed,  and 
the  predominance  of  Rome  among  the  Latin  cities  was 
practically  established.  From  that  time  Tusculum  be- 
came an  ally  of  Rome,  and  on  that  account  frequently 
incurred  the  hostility  of  the  other  Latin  cities.  During 
the  Imperial  period  little  is  recorded  about  Tusculum; 
but  soon  after  the  transference  of  the  seat  of  empire  to 
Constantinople  it  became  a very  important  stronghold, 
and  for  some  centuries  its  counts  occupied  a leading 
position  in  Rome,  and  were  specially  influential  in  tha 
selections  of  thepopes.  During  the  twelfth  century  there 
were  constant  struggles  between  Rome  and  T usculum, 
and  toward  the  close  of  the  century  the  Romans,  sup- 
ported by  the  German  emperor,  gained  the  upper  hand, 
and  the  walls  of  Tusculum,  together  with  the  greater 
part  of  the  city,  were  destroyed. 

TUSSER,  Thomas,  poet,  was  born  about  1527. 
In  1543  he  was  elected  to  King’s  College,  Cambridge, 
and  soon  afterward  exchanged  to  Trinity  Hall.  On 
leaving  the  university  he  was  for  about  ten  years  at 
court,  probably  in  some  musical  capacity.  He  then 
settled  as  a farmer  in  Suffolk,  near  the  river  Stour,  an 
employment  which  he  seems  to  have  regarded  as  com- 
bining the  chief  essentials  of  human  felicity.  Subse- 
quently he  lived  successively  at  Ipswich,  West  Dereham, 
Norwich,  and  London.  There  he  died  in  April,  1580. 

TUTTLINGEN,  a town  of  Wurtemberg,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Danube,  twenty  miles  west-southwest 
of  Sigmaringen.  It  has  manufactures  of  knives,  needles, 
cloth,  cotton,  hosiery,  linen,  and  silk,  and  carries  on 
besides  some  trade  in  corn.  Population  (1900),  13,530. 
It  is  historically  notable  as  the  scene  of  a battle  in  1643, 
during  the  Thirty  Years’  War,  in  which  an  Austro- 
Bavarian  force,  under  Hatzfeld  and  Mercy,  defeated 
the  French. 

TUTUILA,  an  island  in  the  Pacific,  belonging  to  the 
group  of  the  Navigator’s  or  Samoan  Islands  (<?.v.),  is 
about  seventeen  miles  long  and  five  miles  broad,  and  is 
said  to  contain  nearly  3,800  inhabitants.  The  coast  is 
bold,  and  the  island  is  traversed  by  sharp-peaked  mount- 
ains, highly  picturesque  in  outline,  and  rising  from  2,500 
to  3,500  feet.  The  harbor  of  Pago  Pago,  an  ancient 
crater,  is  very  deep,  and  completely  landlocked  by  lofty 
mountains.  The  mountains  are  clothed  with  dense 
green  forests,  comprising  the  bamboo,  banana,  cocoa- 
nut  tree  and  other  palms.  Between  the  months  0/ 
November  and  May  fearful  hurricanes  break  over  the 
island.  The  island  now  belongs  to  the  United  States. 

TVER,  a government  of  central  Russia,  on  the 
upper  Volga,  bounded  by  Pskoff  and  Novgorod  on  the 
west  and  north.  Yaroslavl  and  Vladimir  on  the 


TVE— TYB 


and  Moscow  and  Smolensk  on  the  south;  it  has  an 
area  of  25,225  square  miles.  Lying  on  the  southern 
slope  of  the  Valdai  plateau,  and  intersected  by  deep 
valleys,  it  has  the  aspect  of  a hilly  region,  but  is  in 
reality  a plateau  ranging  from  800  to  1,000  feet  in 
height.  Its  highest  parts  are  in  the  northwest,  where 
the  Volga,  Western  Dwina,  and  Msta  rise  in  marshes 
and  lakes. 

Nearly  the  whole  of  Tver  is  watered  by  the  upper 
Volga  (350  miles)  and  its  tributaries,  several  of  which 
(Vazuza,  Dubna,  Sestra,  Tvertsa,  and  the  tributaries  of 
the  Mologa)  are  navigable.  The  Vyshnevolotsk  system 
of  canals  connects  the  Volga  (navigable  some  sixty  miles 
from  its  source)  with  the  Baltic,  and  the  Tikhvin  sys- 
tem connects  the  Mologa  with  Lake  Ladoga.  The 
Msta,  which  flows  into  Lake  Ilmen,  and  its  tributary, 
the  Tsna,  water  Tver  in  the  northwest,  and  the  West- 
ern Dwina  rises  in  Ostashkoff.  This  network  of  rivers 
highly  favors  navigation;  as  many  as  3,000  boats  yearly 
pass  through  the;  Vyshnevolotsk  system,  and  grain,  lin- 
seed, spirits,  flax,  hemp,  timber,  metals,  and  manufact- 
ured ware  are  shipped  from,  or  brought  to,  the  river 
ports  of  the  government.  The  population  (1,812,825 
in  1898)  is  unequally  distributed,  and  in  the  districts  of 
Kalyazin  and  Kashin  attains  a density  not  much  less 
than  that  of  the  more  highly  favored  black-earth  prov- 
inces of  southeast  Russia  (sixteen  and  seventeen  per 
square  mile).  Apart  from  some  100,000  Karelians  and 
a few  Poles  and  foreigners,  the  people  are  all  Great 
Russians.  The  fisheries  in  the  lakes  and  rivers  are 
productive.  The  peasants  are  principally  engaged  in 
various  manufactures.  The  chief  centers  of  trade,  be- 
sides the  city  of  Tver,  are  Byezhetsk,  Rzheff,  Kashin, 
Ostashkoff,  Torshok,  Krasnyi  Kholm,  and  Vesiegonsk 
during  its  fair. 

Tver,  capital  of  the  above  government,  lies  102  miles 
by  rail  to  the  northwest  of  Moscow,  on  both  banks  of 
the  Volga.  The  low  right  bank  is  protected  from  in-* 
undations  by  a dam.  As  a whole,  the  town  is  but 
poorly  built.  The  oldest  church  dates  from  1564,  and 
the  cathedral  from  1689.  An  imperial  palace,  the 
courts,  and  the  postoffice  rank  among  its  best  buildings. 
A public  garden  occupies  the  site  of  the  former  fortress. 
The  pop.  (1898)  was  53,477.  The  manufactures,  chiefly 
of  cotton,  employ  5,900  workmen  (5,710  at  the  cotton 
mills),  and  a number  of  nail-making  workshops  employ 
some  800  men. 

. TWEED,  a river  in  the  south  of  Scotland,  has  its 
rise  in  thesouthwest  corner  of  Peeblesshire.  The  stream 
flowingfrom  Tweed’s  Well,  about  1,500  feet  above  sea- 
level,  is  generally  regarded  as  its  source,  although  the 
honor  is  also  claimed  for  other  streams  issuing  from 
a higher  elevation.  For  the  first  thirty-six  miles  of  its 
course  it  intersects  the  county  of  Peebles — frequently  on 
this  account  called  Tweeddale — in  a northeasterly  direc- 
tion, passing  between  verdant  hills  separated  by  valleys 
watered  by  its  numerous  affluents.  It  crosses  Selkirk- 
shire in  a southeasterly  direction,  and,  having  received 
the  Ettrick  from  the  south  on  the  borders  of  Roxburgh- 
shire, flows  northward  past  Abbotsford,  forming  for 
about  two  miles  the  boundary  between  the  counties  of 
Selkirk  and  Roxburgh.  The  last  two  miles  of  its 
course  before  reaching  Berwick  are  iq  England.  Though 
the  latter  part  of  its  course  is  through  a comparatively 
level  country,  the  scenery  along  the  river  is  full  of  charm, 
owing  to  the  picturesque  variety  of  its  finely  wooded 
banks.  The  associations  connected  with  the  keeps  and 
castles  of  the  Tweed  have  supplied  materials  for  several 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott’s  poems  and  romances;  and  its 
varied  beauties  have  been  sung  by  Hogg,  Leyden,  Thom- 
son, and  many  others.  The  total  area  drained  by  it  is 
about  1,870  square  miles,  and  its  total  length  is  97 


5961 

miles.  Next  to  the  Tay  it  is  the  largest  river  in  Scot- 
land. The  river  is  one  of  the  best  in  Scotland  for  trout 
and  salmon  fishing. 

TWEEDS.  See  Woolen  and  Worsted  Manu- 
factures. 

TWELVE  TABLES.  See  Roman  Law  and  Rome. 

TWENTY-FOUR  PARGANAS,  the  metropolitan 
district  of  the  lieutenant-governorship  of  Bengal,  India, 
takes  its  name  from  the  territory  originally  ceded  to  the 
East  India  Company,  which  contained  twenty-four 
parganas  or  sub-districts.  1 1 has  an  area  of  2 , 1 24  square 
miles,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Nadiya,  on  the 
northeast  by  Jessore,  on  the  south  and  southeast  by  the 
Sundarbans,  and  on  the  west  by  the  river  Hu^lf 
(Hooghly).  The  country  consists  for  the  most  part  of 
a vast  alluvial  plain  within  the  delta  of  the  Ganges,  a:  d 
is  everywhere  watered  by  numerous  rivers,  all  branch  sfl 
of  the  Hugli. 

In  1901  the  population  of  the  district,  exclusive  ofl 
Calcutta,  numbered  1,869,859  (males  975,430,  females 
894,429),  embracing  1,153,040  Hindus, 701, 306  Moham- 
medans, and  13,976  Christians.  The  ten  following 
municipalities  had  each  a population  of  upwards  of 
10,000 — South  Suburban,  51,658;  Agarpara,  30,317; 
Barangar,  29,982;  Naihati,  21,533;  Nawabganj,  17,702; 
Basurhat,  14,843;  South  Dum  Dum,  14,108;  Baduria, 
12,981;  Rajpore,  10,576;  and  Barasat,  10,533. 

TWICKENHAM,  a town  of  Middlesex,  England,  is 
situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Thames  and  on  the 
London  and  South-Western  railway,  eleven  and  one- 
fourth  miles  southwest  of  London  by  rail.  It  is  a 
straggling  and  irregular  town,  but  has  many  fine  subur- 
ban villas;  and  the  district  is  noted  for  its  sylvan  beauty. 
Population  (1901)  19,500. 

TWILIGHT.  The  light  of  what  is  called  the  “ sky  * 
depends  upon  the  scattering  or  reflection  of  direct  sun- 
light in  the  earth’s  atmosphere,  mainly  if  not  entirely 
due  to  those  fine  dust  particles  which  (as  we  have 
recently  learned)  form  the  necessary  nuclei  for  con- 
densation of  aqueous  vapor.  Were  it  not  for  these 
particles  the  sky  would  appear  by  day  as  it  does  in  a 
clear  winter  night,  and  the  stars  would  be  always  visible. 
Alpine  climbers  and  aeronauts,  when  they  have  left  the 
grosser  strata  of  the  atmosphere  below  them,  find  this 
state  of  things  approximated  to;  and  even  at  the  sea- 
level  the  blue  of  the  sky  is  darker  when  the  air  contains 
but  few  motes.  After  the  sun  has  set,  its  rays  continue 
for  a time  to  pass  through  parts  of  the  atmosphere 
above  the  spectator’s  horizon,  and  the  scattered  light 
from  these  is  called  twilight.  It  is,  of  course,  most 
brilliant  in  the  quarter  where  the  sun  has  set.  Before 
sunrise  we  have  essentially  the  same  phenomenon,  but 
it  goes  by  the  name  of  “dawn.”  The  brilliancy  of 
either  depends  upon  several  conditions,  of  which  the 
chief  is,  of  course,  the  degree  by  which  the  sun  has 
sunk  below  the  horizon.  But  the  amount  of  dust  in 
the  air  affects  the  phenomenon  in  two  antagonistic  ways: 
it  diminishes  the  amount  of  sunlight  which  reaches  the 
upper  air  after  passing  close  to  the  earth  and  it  increases 
the  fraction  of  this  light  which  is  scattered  to  form 
twilight.  Hence  no  general  law  can  be  laid  down  as  to 
the  duration  of  twilight;  but  it  is  usual  to  state  (roughly) 
that  it  lasts  until  the  sun  is  about  180  under  the  horizon. 

TV  BEE,  an  island  and  sound  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Savannah  river,  Georgia.  The  sound  is  a bay  of  the 
Atlantic,  extending  from  the  Tybee  Island  on  the  south 
to  Hilton  Head  on  the  north,  opening  to  Point  Royal 
entrance  by  Cooper’s  river,  Wall’s  Cut,  Lazaretto 
creek,  and  other  channels.  The  island  is  six  miles 
long  by  three  wide,  and  was  occupied  in  1861  by  Gen- 
eral Sherman,  who  erected  batteries  for  the  reduction 
of  Fort  Pulaski,  which  capitulated  April  II,  1862. 


5962  T Y B — 

TYBURN,  previously  to  1783  the  chief  place  of 
execution  in  London,  was  situated  near  the  northeastern 
corner  of  Hyde  Park,  at  the  western  extremity  of  Oxford 
street,  and  at  the  point  where  the  Edgware  and  Ux- 
bridge roads  unite.  It  took  the  name  from  a small 
stream  which  ran  from  Hampstead  to  the  Thames 
through  St.  James’  Park,  but  which  has  long  since 
disappeared.  The  gallows  seems  to  have  been  a per- 
manent erection,  resting  on  thtee  posts,  whence  the 
phrase,  “Tyburn’s  triple  tree.”  Wooden  galleries  were 
erected  near  for  the  accommodation  of  spectators. 
Hogarth’s  “ Idle  Apprentice”  was  executed  at  Tyburn ; 
and  the  print  which  represents  the  scene  gives  a good 
idea  of  an  execution  there.  The  criminal  was  conveyed 
all  the  way  from  Newgate  to  Tyburn,  a distance  of 
about  two  miles,  by  Holborn  and  the  Tyburn  road, 
now  Oxford  street,  but  in  the  seventeenth  century  a 
“ sloughy  country  road;”  As  Oxford  street  and  London 
generally  spread  westward,  the  long  procession  became 
inconvenient,  and  the  place  of  execution  was,  on  Decem- 
ber 9,  1783,  removed  to  the  Old  Bailey  or  Newgate, 
where  it  has  since  remained.  In  early  times  the 
frequency  of  executions  rendered  the  office  of  the  hang- 
man more  important  than  it  is  now.  Throughout  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (thirty-eight  years)  the  average 
number  of  persons  executed  in  England  was  about 
two  thousand  annually.  In  our  own  time,  the  corre- 
sponding number  has  sunk  to  twelve;  formerly  the  hang- 
man must  have  had  almost  daily  work.  This  fact,  taken 
in  connection  with  the  increase  of  population,  and  the 
employment  of  the  Tyburn  hangman  in  state  executions, 
explains  the  important  place  he  occupied  in  popular 
imagination  and  the  frequent  mention  of  him  in  contem- 
porary literature.  The  first  on  record  was  “ one  Bull,” 
who  flourished  in  1593.  He  was  succeeded  by  Derrick, 
referred  to  in  the  Fortunes  of  Nigel , and  mentioned 
in  a political  broadside  as  living  in  1647.  In  the  ballad 
of  The  Penitent  Tailor , published  in  the  same  year, 
reference  is  made  to  his  successor,  Gregory  Brandon — 

“ I had  been  better  to  have  lived  in  beggary, 

Than  to  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  Gregory.” 

In  Gregory’s  time  it  became  a custom  to  prefix 
“ Squire  ” to  the  names  of  the  Tyburn  hangmen.  This 
is  said  to  have  originated  in  a practical  joke  played 
upon  the  Garter  King  of  Arms.  He  was  induced  to 
certify  the  authenticity  of  a coat  of  arms  of  a gentle- 
man named  Gregory  Brandon,  who  was  supposed  to 
reside  in  Spain, but  who  turned  out  to  be  the  hangman. 
The  Garter  King  was  committed  to  prison  for  his 
negligence  and  hence  the  popular  error,  that  “ an  ex- 
ecutioner who  has  beheaded  a state  prisoner  becomes  an 
esquire.  ” Gregory  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Richard. 

“ Squire  Dun  ” followed;  and  after  him  Jack  Ketch,  or 
“ Squire  Ketch,”  first  mentioned  in  1678.  He  was  the 
executioner  who  beheaded  Lord  Russell  and  the  duke 
of  Monmouth. 

TYCHO  BRAHE.  See  Brahe. 

TYE,  Christopher,  an  English  musician  of  note  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  born  at  Westminster  in 
1500,  educated  at  the  King’s  Chapel,  and  held  the  office 
of  musical  instructor  to  Edward  VI.,  when  prince  of 
Wales.  He  received  the  degree  of  Mus.  Doc.  from 
the  University  of  Cambridge  in  1545,  and  from  Oxford 
in  1548.  Under  Elizabeth  he  was  organist  to  the 
Chapel  Royal,  and  produced  various  services  and  an- 
thems, some  of  which  are  yet  in  repute  among  musicians. 

TYLDESLEY  with  SHAKERLEY,  a town  of 
Lancashire,  England,  is  situated  II  miles  west-northwest 
of  Manchester  and  199  northwest  of  London.  The 
population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  2,490 
acres)  in  1901  was  10,954. 

TYLER,  John,  tenth  president  of  the  United  States, 


TYL  ' 

was  the  son  01  Judge  John  Tyler,  some  time  governoi 
of  Virginia,  and  was  born  at  Greenway  in  that  State 
March  29,  1790.  In  1802  he  entered  the  grammar 
school  of  William  and  Mary.  After  graduating  in 
1806  he  entered  on  the  study  of  law,  and  in  1809  was 
called  to  the  bar,  where  his  progress  from  the  first  was 
rapid.  He  became  a member  of  the  State  legislature 
in  December,  1811.  In  1813  he  raised  a company  in 
defense  of  Richmond.  In  December,  1816,  he  was 
elected  to  the  house  of  representatives,  where  he  dis- 
played much  readiness  and  skill  in  debate  as  an  uncom- 
promising advocate  of  popular  lights.  In  1825  he  was 
elected  governor  of  Virginia  by  a large  majority,  and 
the  following  year  was  reelected  unanimously.  In  1827 
he  was  chosen  a United  States  senator.  He  opposed 
Clay  on  the  tariff  question  in  1832,  delivering  a speech 
against  the  protective  duties  which  lasted  three  days; 
but  he  voted  for  Clay’s  Compromise  Bill  of  1833.  He 
was  the  only  senator  who  voted  against  the  Force  Bill 
on  February  20th  of  this  year,  a singularity  of  conduct 
which  somewhat  damaged  his  reputation  in  Virginia. 
Although  opposed  to  the  establishment  of  the  United 
States  Bank,  he  supported  the  resolutions  in  1835  cen- 
suring President  Jackson  for  the  removal  of  the  depos- 
its, on  the  ground  that  the  procedure  was  unconstitu- 
tional. In  consequence  of  a vote  of  the  Virginia  legis- 
lature instructing  him  to  vote  for  the  expurgation  of 
these  resolutions  from  the  senate  journal  he  resigned 
February  21,  1836.  His  action  led  the  Whigs  to  bring 
him  forward  as  a candidate  for  the  vice-presidency,  but 
he  only  received  forty-seven  electoral  votes.  For 
some  time  after  this  he  ceased  to  take  an  active  part  in 
politics;  removing  in  the  end  of  the  year  from  Glouces- 
ter to  Williamsburg,  where  he  had  better  opportunities 
for  legal  practice,  he  devoted  his  chief  attention  to  his 
professional  duties.  At  the  Whig  convention  which 
met  at  Harrisburg,  Penn.,  December  ^4,  1839,  he 
Was  nominated  again  for  the  vice-presidency  on  the 
Harrison  ticket,  and  elected  in  November,  1840.  On 
the  death  of  Harrison,  soon  after  his  inauguration  in 
1841,  Tyler  succeeded  him.  His  elevation  to  the  pres- 
idency was  thus  accidental  in  a double  sense,  for  he  had 
been  nominated  for  the  vice-presidency  to  reconcile  the 
extreme  faction.  His  policy  in  office  (see  United 
States)  was  opposed  to  the  party  who  nominated  him 
and  was  on  Democratic  lines.  In  1845  he  was  succeeded 
by  Polk,  and  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in 
retirement  from  active  duties.  He  was  nominated  in 
1861  for  the  lower  house  of  the  Confederate  congress, 
but  died  at  Richmond  on  the  18th  of  the  following 
January. 

TYTLER,  the  county  seat  of  Smith  county,  Tex.,  is 
the  center  of  an  agricultural  district  of  large  area  and 
exceptional  productivity.  It  is  eligibly  located  on  the 
Northern  division  of  the  International  and  Great 
Northern,  and  on  the  St.  Louis,  Arkansas  and  Texas 
railroads,  250  miles  north  of  Galveston,  and  100  miles 
west  of  south  of  Shreveport,  La.  Its  desirable  situation, 
with  transportation  accommodations  equally  desirable, 
and  the  enterprising  character  of  the  inhabitants  have 
combined  to  give  an  impetus  to  the  growth  and  pros- 
perity of  Tyler  as  valuable  as  it  is  permanent,  and  to 
attract  thither  a class  of  citizens  both  substantial  and 
influential,  with  results  that  are  readily  apparent  in  the 
financial  and  commercial  resources  of  the  city.  Tyler 
now  contains  two  banks,  one  daily,  and  three  weekly 
papers,  seven  churches,  a court  house,  public  library 
with  from  10,000  to  15,000  volumes,  a valuable  educa- 
tional system,  embracing  among  its  auxiliaries  the 
Charpwood  Institute,  a number  of  hotels,  public  halls, 
and  many  stores,  and  mercantile  ventures.  There  are 
also  established  two  machine  shops,  one  foundry,  one 


TYM 

fruit  cannery,  together  with  cigar,  broom,  and  ice  fac- 
tories. The  population  of  the  city,  which  was  2,423  in 
1880,  was  in  1900,  8,069. 

TYMPANUM  (Lat.  a drum),  in  anatomy,  the  mid- 
dle ear.  In  architecture,  the  flat  space  left  within  the 
sloping  and  horizontal  cornices  of  the  pediment  of 
classical  architecture  usually  filled  with  sculpture;  also 
the  space  between  the  arch  and  lintel  of  doorways  in 
Gothic  architecture,  which  is  frequently  enriched  with 
Sculpture. 

TYNDALE,  William,  translator  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  Pentateuch  (see  English  Bible),  was  born 
in  Gloucestershire  about  the  year  1484.  About  his 
twentieth  year  he  went  to  Oxford,  where  tradition 
has  it  that  he  was  entered  of  Magdalen  Hall.  He 
afterward  resided  at  Cambridge.  Ordained  to  the 
priesthood  toward  the  close  of  1521,  he  entered  the 
household  of  Sir  John  Walsh,  Little  Sodbury,  Glouces- 
tershire, in  the  capacity  of  chaplain  and  domestic 
tutor.  Here  he  spent  two  years,  and  in  the  course  of 
his  private  studies  began  to  contemplate  seriously 
the  work  of  translating  the  New  Testament  into 
English.  Finding  publication  impossible  in  England 
he  sailed  for  Hamburg  in  May,  1524.  After  visiting 
Luther  at  Wittenberg,  he  settled  in  Cologne,  where  he 
made  some  progress  with  a quarto  edition  of  his  New 
Testament,  when  the  interference  of  the  authorities  of 
the  town  compelled  his  flight  to  Worms.  The  octavo 
edition  was  here  completed  in  1526.  From  1530 
onward  he  lived  chiefly  in  Antwerp,  but  of  his  life 
there  hardly  anything  is  recorded.  At  last  he  was 
arrested  and  thrown  into  prison  in  the  castle  of  Vilvorde, 
some  six  miles  from  Brussels,  in  1535.  Having  been 
found  guilty  of  heresy,  he  was  put  to  death  by  stran- 
gling, and  his  body  afterward  burnt  at  the  stake  on 
October  6,  1536. 

TYNE,  a river  in  the  northeast  of  England,  is  formed 
of  two  branches,  the  North  Tyne,  rising  in  the 
Cheviots  on  the  borders  of  Roxburgh,  and  the  South 
Tyne,  rising  at  Tynehead  Fell,  at  the  southeastern  ex- 
tremity of  Cumberland. 

The  coal  trade  of  the  Tyne  is  the  most  important  in 
England,  and  for  its  general  shipping  trade  the  river 
ranks  next  in  importance  to  the  Thames  and  the  Mer- 
sey. The  principal  ports  are  Newcastle  and  North  and 
South  Shields,  but  below  Newcastle  the  river  is  every- 
where studded  with  piers  and  jetties. 

TYNEMOUTH,  a municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  of  England,  ir  Northumberland,  includes  the 
townships  of  Chirton,  Cullercoates,  North  Shields, 
Preston,  and  Tynemouth.  This  last,  the  principal 
watering-place  on  this  part  of  the  coast,  is  picturesquely 
situated  on  a promontory  on  the  north  side  of  the  Tyne 
at  its  mouth.  The  population  of  the  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough  of  Tynemouth  (incorporated  in 
1849;  area  4>3°3  acres),  divided  into  the  three  wards  of 
North  Shields,  Percy,  and  Tynemouth,  was  48,118  in 
1901. 

TYPE-FOUNDING.  See  Typography. 
TYPE-WRITING.  See  Writing  Machines. 

TYPHON,  or  TYPHOEUS,son,  according  to  Hesiod, 
of  the  Earth  and  Tartarus,  is  described  as  a grisly  mon- 
ster with  a hundred  dragons’  heads  who  was  conquered 
and  cast  into  Tartarus  by  Zeus. 

TYPHOONS  (Chinese  Tei-fun,  i.e.,  hot  wind; 
the  word,  it  may  scarcely  be  said,  has  no  connection  with 
the  Typhon  of  mythology)  are  violent  storms  which 
blow  on  the  coast  of  Tonauin  and  China  as  far  north 
as  Ningpo,  and  on  the  southeast  coasts  of  Japan. 
Varenius,  in  his  Geographia  Naturalise  describes  them 
as  “ storms  which  rage  with  such  intensity  and  fury  that 
those  who  have  never  seen  them  can  form  no  concep- 


- T Y P 59^3 

tion  of  them;  one  would  say  that  heaven  and  earth 
wished  to  return  to  their  original  chaos.’1  1 ney  occur 
from  May  to  November;  but  it  is  during  the  months  of 
July,  August,  and  September  that  they  are  most  free 
querit.  They  resemble  the  storms  of  Western  Europe 
in  then-  general  characteristics,  with  this  difference,  that 
the  main  features  are  more  strongly  marked.  There  is 
a depression  of  the  barometer  over  a space  more  or 
less  circular  in  form,  accompanying  the  typhoon,  but  it 
is  generally  more  contracted  in  area,  and  deeper  and 
more  abrupt  than  in  ordinary  storms.  It  is  not  un- 
common for  the  barometer,  at  the  center  of  the  depres* 
sion,  to  read  28.3  inches,  and  on  rare  occasions  to  fall 
even  as  low  as  27  inches;  and  the  changes  of  pressure 
are  very  rapid,  frequently  two  or  three  inches  in  an  hour. 

It  is  this  enormous  difference  of  atmospheric  pressure 
between  neighboring  places,  and  the  consequent  rapidity 
of  the  fluctuations,  which  give  to  these  storms  their  ter* 
rible  destructive  energy,  the  law  regulating  the  strength 
of  the  wind  being  that  it  is  proportioned  to  the  differ- 
ence of  pressure  between  the  place  from  which  it  comes 
and  the  place  toward  which  it  blows.  The  low  pressure 
in  this  center  is  confined  to  a very  limited  space,  and 
since  all  around  this  space  the  pressure  is  greater,  it  fol- 
lows that  the  level  of  the  sea  there  will  be  higher. 
Hence,  a high  wave  is  frequently  found  to  accompany 
these  storms,  advancing  inland,  carrying  with  it  ruin 
and  destruction,  and  not  infrequently  bearing  ships  far 
over  the  level  fields,  where  they  are  left  stranded  a con- 
siderable distance  from  the  sea. 

Typhoons  have  their  origin  in  the#ocean  to  the  east 
of  China,  especially  about  Formosa,  Luzon,  and  th6 
islands  immediately  to  the  south.  They  thence  proceed, 
in  four  cases  out  of  five,  from  east-northeast  toward 
west-southwest,  more  rarely  from  east-southeast  to 
west-northwest,  and  scarcely  ever  from  north  to  south, 
or  from  south  to  north;  in  other  words,  their  course  is 
generally  along  the  coast  of  China.  The  body  of  the 
storm  advances  at  the  rate  of  twelve  miles  an  hour  and 
upward,  within  which  the  winds  blow  often  from  80 
to  100  miles  an  hour,  whirling  around  the  center 
of  atmospheric  depression  in  a direction  contrary  to  the 
motion  of  the  hands  of  a watch,  as  all  storms  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  do.  They  thus  rotate  in  a direc- 
tion south,  east,  north,  or  west,  and  travel  along  the  coast, 
so  the  coast  feels  the  northern  side  of  the  storm;  while 
at  a distance  from  the  coast  the  southern  side  is  alone 
experienced.  The  southwest  coast  Monsoons  {q.v. ) 
prevail  in  summer  over  Southern  Asia,  to  the  eastward 
of  which  are  the  northeast  trade  winds.  (See  Winds.) 
Here,  then,  are  two  great  aerial  currents  flowing  con- 
tiguously, but  in  opposite  directions,  each  highly  charged 
with  moisture,  especially  the  southwest  current,  which 
they  have  taken  up  from  the  oceans  they  have  traversed. 
It  is  highly  probable  that  the  typhoons  take  the  origin 
from  these  opposing  currents,  as  whirlpools  do  at  the 
meeting  of  two  sea  currents;  and  their  intensity  is 
aggravated  by  the  large  quantity  of  heat  disengaged  in 
the  condensation  of  the  vapor  of  the  atmosphere  into 
the  deluges  of  rain  which  fall  during  the  storm,  ten  or 
twelve  inches  of  rain  frequently  falling  in  one  day. 

Much  yet  remains  to  be  done  toward  the  examination 
and  explanation  of  this  remarkable  class  of  storms,  the 
first  and  essential  step  being  the  establishment  of 
meteorological  stations  on  the  Chinese  coast,  in  Japan, 
in  Formosa,  and  in  Luzon. 

TYPHUS,  TYPHOID,  and  RELAPSING  FE- 
VERS.  These  are  conveniently  considered  together,  as 
they  constitute  the  important  class  of  continued  fevers, 
having  certain  characters  in  common,  although  each  is 
clearly  distinguishable  from  the  others.  The  following 
is  a general  account  of  the  more  salient  features  of  each- 


TYP 


5964 

Typhus  is  a continued  fever  of  highly  contagious  na- 
ture, lasting  for  about  fourteen  days  and  characterized 
mainly  by  great  prostration  of  strength,  severe  nervous 
symptoms,  and  a peculiar  eruption  on  the  skin.  It  has 
received  numerous  other  names,  such  as  spotted,  pesti- 
lential, putrid,  jail,  hospital  fever,  etc.  It  appears  to 
have  been  known  for  many  centuries  as  a destructive 
malady,  frequently  appearing  in  epidemic  form  in  all 
countries  in  Europe.  Typhus  fever  would  seem  to  have 
been  observed  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world;  but,  al- 
though not  unknown  in  warm  countries,  it  has  most 
frequently  prevailed  in  temperate  or  cold  climates. 

The  causes  concerned  in  its  production  include  both 
the  predisposing  and  the  exciting.  Of  the  former  the 
most  powerful  of  all  are  those  influences  which  lower 
the  health  of  a community,  especially  overcrowding 
and  poverty.  Hence  this  fever  is  most  frequently  found 
to  affect  the  poor  of  large  cities  and  towns,  or  to  ap- 
pear where  large  numbers  of  persons  are  living  crowded 
together  in  unfavorable  hygienic  conditions,  as  has 
often  been  seen  in  prisons,  workhouses,  etc.  Armies 
in  the  field  are  also  liable  to  suffer  from  this  dis- 
ease; for  instance,  during  the  Crimean  War  it  caused 
an  enormous  mortality  among  the  French  troops. 
This  disease  is  now  much  less  frequently  encountered 
in  medical  practice  than  formerly — a fact  which  must 
mainly  be  ascribed  to  the  great  attention  which  in 
recent  times  has  been  directed  to  improvement  in  the 
sanitation  of  towns,  especially  to  the  opening  up  of 
crowded  localities  so  as  to  allow  the  free  circulation 
through  them  of,  fresh  air.  All  ages  are  liable  to 
typhus,  but  the  young  suffer  less  severely  than  the  old. 
The  disease  appears  to  be  communicated  by  the  exhala- 
tions given  off  from  the  bodies  of  those  suffering  from 
the  fever,  and  those  most  closely  in  contact  with  the 
sick  are  most  apt  to  suffer.  This  is  shown  by  the  fre- 
quency with  which  nurses  and  physicians  take  typhus 
from  cases  under  their  care.  As  in  all  infectious  mala- 
dies, there  is  often  observed  in  typhus  a marked  pro- 
clivity to  suffer  in  the  case  of  individuals,  and  in  such 
instances  very  slight  exposure  to  the  contagion  may 
convey  the  disease.  Typhus  is  highly  contagious 
throughout  its  whole  course  and  even  in  the  early  period 
of  convalescence.  The  contagion,  however,  is  ren- 
dered less  active  by  the  access  of  fresh  air;  hence  this 
fever  rarely  spreads  in  well-aired  rooms  or  houses  where 
cases  of  the  disease  are  under  treatment.  As  a rule 
one  attack  of  typhus  confers  immunity  from  risk  of 
others,  but  numerous  exceptions  have  been  recorded. 

Typhus  fever  may  prove  fatal  during  any  stage  of  its 
progress  and  in  the  early  convalescence,  either  from 
sudden  failure  of  the  heart’s  action — a condition  which, 
is  specially  apt  to  arise — from  the  supervention  of  some 
nervous  symptoms,  such  as  meningitis  or  of  deepening 
coma,  or  from  some  other  complication,  such  as  bron- 
chitis. Further,  a fatal  result  sometimes  takes  place 
before  the  crisis  from  sheer  exhaustion,  particularly  in 
the  case  of  those  whose  physical  or  nervous  energies 
have  been  lowered  by  hard  work,  inadequate  nourish- 
ment and  sleep,  or  intemperance,  in  all  which  condi- 
tions typhus  fever  is  apt  to  assume  an  unusually  serious 
form.  The  mortality  from  typhus  fever  is  estimated  by 
Murchison  and  others  as  averaging  about  18  per  cent, 
of  the  cases,  but  it  varies  much  according  to  the  severity 
of  type  (particularly  in  epidemics),  the  previous  health 
and  habits  of  the  individual,  and  very  specially  the  age 
— the  proportion  of  deaths  being  in  striking  relation  to 
the  advance  of  life.  Thus,  while  in  children  under  fif- 
teen the  death-rate  is  only  5 per  cent.,  in  persons  over 
fifty  it  is  about  46  per  cent. 

The  treatment  of  typhus  fever  includes  the  prophy- 
lactic measures  of  attention  to  the  sanitation  of  the  more 


densely  populated  portions  of  towns.  The  opening  up 
of  cross  streets  intersecting  those  which  are  close-built 
and  narrow,  whereby  fresh  air  is  freely  admitted,  ha* 
done  much  to  banish  typhus  fever  from  districts  where 
previously  it  was  endemic. 

Typhoid  or  Enteric  Fever  {evrepov,  the  in- 
testine) is  a continued  fever  characterized  mainly  by 
its  insidious  onset,  by  a peculiar  course  of  the  tem- 
perature, by  marked  abdominal  symptoms  occurring  in 
connection  with  a specific  lesion  of  the  bow;els,  by  an 
eruption  upon  the  skin,  by  its  uncertain  duration,  and 
by  a liability  to  relapses. 

This  fever  has  received  various  names,  such  as  gastric 
fever,  abdominal  typhus,  infantile  remittent  fever,  slow 
fever,  nervous  fever,  etc.  Up  till  a comparatively  recent 
period  typhoid  was  not  distinguished  from  typhus  fever. 
The  distinction  between  the  two  diseases  appears  to 
have  been  first  accurately  made  in  1836  by  Messrs. 
Gerhard  and  Pennock  of  Philadelphia,  and  still  more 
fully  demonstrated  by  Dr.  A.  P.  Stewart  of  Glasgow 
(afterward  of  London).  Subsequently  all  doubt  upon 
the  subject  was-  removed  by  the  careful  clinical  and 
pathological  observations  made  by  Sir  William  Jenner 
at  the  London  fever  hospital  (1849-51).  A clear  dis- 
tinction has  been  established  between  the  two  fevers, 
not  only  as  regards  their  phenomena  or  morbid  features, 
but  equally  as  regards  their  origin.  While  typhus  fever 
is  a disease  of  overcrowding  and  poverty,  typhoid  may 
occur  where  such  conditions  are  entirely  excluded;  and 
the  connection  of  this  malady  with  specific  emanations 
given  off  from  decomposing  organic  or  faeculent  matters, 
or  with  contamination  of  food  or  water  by  the  products 
of  the  disease,  is  now  almost  universally  admitted. 
Typhoid  fever  is  much  less  directly  communicable  from 
the  sick  to  the  healthy  than  typhus.  The  infective  agent 
appears  to  reside  in  the  discharges  from  the  bowels, 
in  which,  particularly  when  exposed  and  undergoing 
decomposition,  the  contagion  seems  to  multiply  and  to 
acquire  increased  potency.  Thus,  in  sewers,  drains,  etc., 
in  association  with  putrefying  matter,  it  may  increase  in- 
definitely, and  by  the  emanations  given  off  from  such 
decomposing  material  accidentally  escaping  into  houses, 
or  by  the  contamination  of  drinking  water  in  places 
where  wells  or  cisterns  are  exposed  to  fsecal  or  sewage 
pollution,  the  contagion  is  conveyed.  Of  the  precise 
nature  of  the  contagious  principle  we  have  as  yet  no 
full  information,  but  there  appears  to  be  strong  reason 
for  believing  that  a specific  microbe  or  organism  plays 
a part  in  the  propagation  of  the  disease. 

Typhoid  fever  is  most  common  among  the  young,  the 
majority  of  the  cases  occurring  between  the  ages  of 
fifteen  and  twenty-five.  But  children  of  any  age  may 
suffer,  as  may  also,  though  more  rarely,  persons  at  or 
beyond  middle  life.  It  is  of  as  frequent  occurrence 
among  the  well-to-do  as  among  the  poor.  The  greater 
number  of  cases  appear  to  occur  in  autumn.  In  all 
countries  this  fever  seems  liable  to  prevail;  and,  while 
some  of  its  features  may  be  modified  by  climate  and 
locality,  its  main  characteristics  and  its  results  are  essen- 
tially the  same  everywhere. 

The  symptoms  characterizing  the  onset  of  typhoid 
fever  are  very  much  less  marked  than  those  of  most 
other  fevers,  and  the  disease  in  the  majority  of  instances 
sets  in  somewhat  insidiously.  Indeed,  it  is  no  uncom- 
mon thing  for  patients  with  this  fever  to  go  about  for  a 
considerable  time  after  its  action  has  begun.  The  most 
marked  of  the  early  symptoms  are  headache,  lassitude, 
and  discomfort,  together  with  sleeplessness  and  feverish- 
ness, particularly  at  night;  this  last  symptom  is  that  by 
which  the  disease  is  most  readily  detected  in  its.  early 
stages.  The  peculiar  course  of  the  temperature  is  also 
one  of  the  most  important  diagnostic  evidences  of  this 


TYP 


fever  iO*  pulse  in  an  ordinary  case,  although  more 
rapid  than  normal,  is  not  accelerated  to  an  extent  cor- 
responding to  the  height  of  the  temperature,  and  is,  at 
ieast  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  fever,  rarely  above  ioo 
degrees.  In  severe  and  protracted  cases,  where  there  is 
evidence  of  extensive  intestinal  ulceration,  the  pulse  be- 
comes rapid  and  weak,  with  a dicrotic  character  indica- 
tive of  cardiac  feebleness.  There  is  much  thirst  and  in 
some  cases  vomiting.  Splenic  and  hepatic  enlargement 
may  be  made  out.  From  an  early  period  in  the  disease 
abdominal  symptoms  show  themselves  with  greater  or 
less  distinctness  and  are  frequently  of  highly  diagnostic 
significance.  The  abdomen  is  somewhat  distended  or 
tumid,  and  pain  accompanying  some  gurgling  sounds 
may  be  elicited  on  light  pressure  about  the  lower  part  of 
the  right  side  close  to  the  groin — the  region  correspond- 
ing to  that  portion  of  the  intestine  in  which  the  morbid 
changes  already  referred  to  are  progressing.  Diarrhea 
is  a frequent  but  by  no  means  constant  symptom. 

About  the  beginning,  or  during  the  course  of  the 
second  week  of  the  fever,  an  eruption  frequently  makes 
its  appearance  on  the  skin.  It  consists  of  isolated 
spots,  oval  or  round  in  shape,  of  a pale  pink  or  rose 
color,  and  of  about  one  to  one  and  a half  lines  in 
diameter.  They  are  seen  chiefly  upon  the  abdomen, 
chest,  and  back,  and  they  come  out  in  crops,  which 
continue  for  four  or  five  days  and  then  fade  away. 
They  do  not  appear  to  have  any  relation  to  the  severity 
of  the  attack,  and  in  a very  considerable  proportion  of 
cases  (particularly  in  children)  they  are  entirely  absent. 
These  various  symptoms  persist  throughout  the  third 
week,  usually,  however,  increasing  in  intensity.  The 
patient  becomes  prostrate  and  emaciated;  the  tongue  is 
dry  and  brown,  the  pulse  quickened  and  feeble,  and  the 
abdominal  symptoms  more  marked;  while  nervous  dis- 
turbance is  exhibited  in  delirium,  in  tremors  and  jerk- 
ings  of  the  muscles  [subsultus  tendinum ),  in  drowsi- 
ness, and  occasionally  in  “coma  vigil.”  In  severe 
cases  the  exhaustion  reaches  an  extreme  degree, 
although  even  in  such  instances  the  condition  is  not  to 
be  regarded  as  hopeless.  In  favorable  cases  a change 
for  the  better  may  be  anticipated  between  the  twenty- 
first  and  twenty-eighth  days,  more  usually  the  latter. 
It  does  not,  however,  take  place  as  in  typhus  by  a well- 
marked  crisis,  but  rather  by  what  is  termed  a “lysis” 
or  gradual  subsidence  of  the  febrile  symptoms,  espe- 
cially noticeable  in  the  daily  decline  of  both  morning 
and  evening  temperature,  the  lessening  of  diarrhea, 
and  improvement  in  pulse,  tongue,  etc.  Convalescence 
proceeds  slowly  and  is  apt  to  be  interrupted  by  relapses 
(due  not  infrequently  to  errors  in  diet),  which  are 
sometimes  as  severe  and  prolonged  as  the  original 
attack,  and  are  attended  with  equal  or  even  greater 
risks.  Should  such  relapses  repeat  themselves,  the 
case  may  be  protracted  for  two  or  three  months,  but 
this  is  comparatively  rare. 

The  mortality  in  typhoid  fever  varies  with  the  char- 
acter of  the  outbreak,  the  general  health  and  surround- 
ings of  the  individuals  attacked,  and  other  conditions. 
At  one  time  it  was  regarded  as,  on  an  average,  about 
the  same  as  that  of  typhus;  but  under  modern  methods 
of  treatment  the  chances  of  recovery  are  much  greater, 
and  the  death-rate  may  be  stated  as  about  12  per  cent., 
or  perhaps  somewhat  less. 

The  treatment  embraces  those  prophylactic  measures 
which  aim  at  preventing  the  escape  of  sewer  gases  into 
dwelling  houses  by  careful  attention  to  the  drainage 
and  plumber  work,  and  also  secure  an  abundant  supply 
of  pure  water  for  domestic  use  (see  Hygiene,  Sewer- 
age, and  Ventilation).  When  an  outbreak  of  the 
fever  occurs  in  a family,  all  such  matters  should  be  spe- 
cially inquired  into,  and  the  sources  of  milk  supply  care- 

374 


5965 

fully  scrutinized.  The  discharges  from  the  bowels  o! 
the  typhoid  patient  should  be  at  once  disinfected  with 
carbolic  acid  or  other  similar  agent,  and  the  greatest 
care  taken  as  to  their  disposal,  with  the  view  of  obviat- 
ing any  risk  of  contamination  of  drinking  water,  etc. 
The  general  management  is  conducted  upon  the  same 
principles  as  are  observed  in  the  case  of  typhus,  except 
that  in  typhoid  fever  very  special  care  is  necessary  in  re- 
gard to  diet. 

Relapsing  Fever  is  a continued  fever  occasionally 
appearing  as  an  epidemic  in  communities  suffering  from 
scarcity  or  famine.  It  is  characterized  mainly  by  its 
sudden  invasion,  with  violent  febrile  symptoms,  which 
continue  for  about  a week  and  end  in  a crisis,  but  are 
followed,  after  another  week,  by  a return  of  the  fever. 

This  disease  has  received  many  other  names,  the  best 
known  of  which  are  famine  fever,  short  fever,  synocha, 
bilious  relapsing  fever,  recurrent  typhus,  and  spirillum 
fever.  As  in  the  case  of  typhoid,  relapsing  fever  was 
long  believed  to  be  simply  a form  of  typhus.  The  dis- 
tinction between  them  appears  to  have  been  first  clearly 
established  in  1826,  in  connection  with  an  epidemic  in 
Ireland.  Outbreaks  of  relapsing  fever  have  occurred 
in  all  parts  of  the  world  at  times  and  in  places  where 
famine  has  arisen ; but  the  disease  has  been  most 
closely  observed  and  studied  in  epidemics  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  Germany,  Poland,  Russia,  America, 
and  India.  It  has  frequently  been  found  to  prevail 
along  with  an  epidemic  of  typhus  fever. 

Relapsing  fever  is  highly  contagious,  and  appears, 
like  typhus,  to  be  readily  communicated  by  the  exhala- 
tions from  the  body.  Relapsing  fever  is  most  commonly 
met  with  in  the  young.  One  attack  does  not  appear  to 
protect  from  others,  but  rather,  according  to  some 
authorities,  engenders  liability. 

The  extreme  contagiousness  of  relapsing  fever  has 
occasionally  been  shown  by  its  spreading  widely  when 
introduced  into  a district,  even  among  those  who  had 
not  become  predisposed  by  destitution  or  other  depress- 
ing conditions.  The  contagion,  like  that  of  typhus,  ap- 
pears to  be  most  active  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
patient  and  to  be  greatly  lessened  by  the  access  of  fresh 
air.  It  is  capable  of  being  conveyed  by  clothing.  The 
incubation  of  the  disease  is  about  one  week.  The 
symptoms  of  the  fever  then  show  themselves  with  great 
abruptness  and  violence  by  a rigor,  accompanied  with 
pains  in  the  limbs  and  severe  headache.  The  febrile 
phenomena  are  very  marked,  and  the  temperature  quick- 
ly rises  to  a high  point  (I05°-I07°  Fahr.),  at  which  it  com 
tinues  with  little  variation,  while  the  pulse  is  rapid 
(100-140),  full,  and  strong.  There  is  intense  thirst,  a 
dry,  brown  tongue,  bilious  vomiting,  tenderness  ovei 
the  liver  and  spleen,  and  occasionally  jaundice.  Some- 
times a peculiar  bronzy  appearance  of  the  skin  is 
noticed,  but  there  is  no  characteristic  rash  as  in  typhus. 
There  is  much  prostration  of  strength.  After  the  con- 
tinuance  of  these  symptoms  for  a period  of  from  five 
to  seven  days,  the  temperature  suddenly  falls  to  the. 
normal  point  or  below  it,  the  pulse  becomes  corre- 
spondingly slow,  and  a profuse  perspiration  occurss 
while  the  severe  neadache  disappears  and  the  appetite 
returns.  Except  for  a sense  of  weakness,  the  patient 
feels  well  and  may  even  return  to  work,  but  in  some 
cases  there  remains  a condition  of  great  debility,  accom- 
panied with  rheumatic  pains  in  the  limbs.  This  state 
of  freedom  from  fever  continues  for  about  a week, 
when  there  occurs  a well-marked  relapse  with  scarcely 
less  abruptness  and  severity  than  in  the  first  attack,  and 
the  whole  symptoms  are  of  the  same  character,  but 
they  do  not,  as  a rule,  continue  so  long,  and  they 
terminate  in  a crisis  in  three  or  four  days,  after  which 
convalescence  proceeds  satisfactorily.  Second,  thirds 


T Y P 


5966 

and  even  fourth  relapses,  however,  may  occur  in  excep- 
tional cases.  The  mortality  in  relapsing  fever  is  com- 
paratively small,  about  5 per  cent,  being  the  average 
death-rate  in  epidemics  (Murchison).  The  fatal  cases 
occur  mostly  from  the  complications  common  to  con- 
tinued fevers.  The  treatment  is  essentially  the  same 
as  that  for  typhus  fever  (see  above). 

TYPOGRAPHY  (writing  by  types)  is  the  art  of 
printing  (cast  metal)  movable  types  on  paper,  vellum, 
etc.  It  is  quite  distinct,  not  only  from  writing,  but 
from  xylography  or  wood  engraving,  /.<?.,  the  art  of  cut- 
ting figures,  letters,  or  words  on  blocks  of  wood  and 
taking  impressions  from  such  blocks,  by  means  of  ink 
or  any  other  fluid  colored  substance,  on  paper  or  vellum. 

Although  the  art  of  writing  and  that  of  block-printing 
both  differ  widely  from  printing  with  movable  metal 
types,  yet  this  last  process  seems  to  have  been  such  a 
gradual  transition  from  block  printing,  and  block  print- 
ing in  its  turn  to  have  been  such  a natural  outcome  of 
the  many  trials  that  were  probably  made  to  produce 
books  in  some  more  expeditious  manner  than  could  be 
done  with  hand  writing,  that  a cursory  glance  at  these 
two  processes  will  not  seem  out  of  place,  all  the  less  as 
a discussion  on  the  origin  and  progress  of  typography 
could  hardly  be  understood  without  knowing  the  state 
of  the  literary  development  at  the  time  that  printing  ap- 
peared. 

The  art  of  printing,  i.  e. , of  impressing  (by  means  of 
certain  forms  and  colors)  figures,  pictures,  letters,  words, 
lines,  whole  pages,  etc.,  on  other  objects,  as  also  the 
art  of  engraving,  which  is  inseparably  connected  with 
printing,  existed  long  before  the  fifteenth  century.  Im- 
pressions from  stamps  are  found  instead  of  seals  on 
charters  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Manuscripts  of  the 
twelfth  century  show  initials  which,  on  account  of  their 
uniformity,  are  believed  to  have  been  impressed  by 
means  of  stamps  or  dies.  But  the  idea  of  multiplying 
representations  from  one  engraved  plate  or  block  or 
other  form  was  unknown  to  the  ancients,  whereas  it  is 
predominant  in  what  we  call  the  art  of  block-printing, 
and  especially  in  that  of  typogr  aphy,  in  which  the  same 
types  can  be  used  again  and  again. 

Block-printing  and  printing  with  movable  types  seem 
to  have  been  practiced  in  China  and  Japan  long  before 
they  were  known  in  Europe.  It  is  said  that  in  the  year 
175  the  text  of  the  Chinese  classics  was  cut  upon  tablets, 
which  were  erected  outside  the  university,  and  that  im- 
pressions were  taken  of  them,  some  of  which  are  said  to 
be  still  in  existence.  Printing  from  wooden  blocks  can 
be  traced  as  far  back  as  the  sixth  century,  when  the 
founder  of  the  Suy  dynasty  is  said  to  have  had  the  re- 
mains of  the  classical  books  engraved  on  wood,  though 
it  was  not  until  the  tenth  century  that  printed  books 
became  common.  In  Japan  the  earliest  example  of 
block -printing  dates  from  the  period  764-770.  It  is 
said  that  the  Chinese  printed  with  movable  types  (of 
clay)  from  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century.  The 
authorities  of  the  British  Museum  exhibit  as  the  earliest 
instance  of  Corean  books  printed  with  movable  types  a 
work  printed  in  1337.  To  the  Coreans  is  attributed  the 
invention  of  copper  types  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 
century. 

From  such  evidence  as  we  have  it  would  seem  that 
Europe  is  not  indebted  to  the  Chinese  or  Japanese  for 
the  art  of  block-printing,  nor  for  that  of  printing  with 
movable  types. 

In  Europe,  as  late  as  the  second  half  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  every  book  (including  school  and  prayer  books), 
and  every  public  and  private  document,  proclamation, 
bull,  letter,  etc.,  was  written  by  hand;  all  figures  and 
pictures,  even  playing-cards  and  images  of  saints,  were 
drawn  with  the  pen  or  painted  with  a brush.  In  the 


thirteenth  century  there  already  existed  a kind  of  book 
trade.  The  organization  of  universities  as  well  as  that 
of  large  ecclesiastical  establishments  was  at  that  time 
incomplete,  especially  in  Italy,  France,  and  Germany, 
without  a staff  of  scribes  and  transcribers  ( scriptores ), 
illuminators,  lenders,  sellers,  and  custodians  of  books 
(stationarii  librorum,  librarii ),  and  pergamenarii,  i.e. 
persons  who  prepared  and  sold  the  vellum  or  parch- 
ment required  for  books  and  documents.  The  books 
supplied  were  for  the  most  part  legal,  theological,  and 
educational,  and  are  calculated  to  nave  amounted  to 
above  100  different  works.  As  no  book  or  document 
was  approved  unless  it  had  some  ornamented  and 
illuminated  initials  or  capital  letters,  there  was  no 
want  of  illuminators.  The  workmen  scribes  and  tran- 
scribers were,  perhaps  without  exception,  caligraphers, 
and  the  illuminators  for  the  most  part  artists.  Beauti- 
fully written  and  richly  illuminated  manuscripts  on 
vellum  became  objects  of  luxury  which  were  eagerly 
bought  and  treasured  up  by  princes  and  people  of  dis- 
tinction. 

When  all  this  writing,  transcribing,  illuminating, 
etc.,  had  reached  their  period  of  greatest  development, 
the  art  of  printing  from  wooden  blocks  (block-printing, 
xylography)  on  silk,  cloth,  etc.,  vellum,  and  paper  made 
its  appearance  in  Europe.  It  seems  to  have  been 
practiced,  so  far  as  we  have  evidence,  on  cloth,  etc., 
and  vellum  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century,  and  on 
paper  as  far  back  as  the  second  half  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  It  is  certain  that  in  about  1400  xylography  was 
known  all  over  Germany,  Flanders,  and  Holland. 

In  these  blocks,  as  in  wood-engraving  now,  the  lines 
to  be  printed  were  in  relief.  The  block,  after  the 
picture  or  the  text  had  been  engraved  upon  it,  was  first 
thoroughly  wetted  with  a thin,  watery,  pale  brown 
material,  much  resembling  distemper;  then  a sheet  of 
damp  paper  was  laid  upon  it,  and  the  back  of  the  paper 
was  carefully  rubbed  with  some  kind  of  dabber  or 
burnisher,  usually  called  a frotton , till  an  impression 
from  the  ridges  of  the  carved  block  had  been  transferred 
to  the  paper.  In  this  fashion  a sheet  could  only  be 
printed  on  one  side  (anopisthographic);  and  in  some 
copies  of  block-books  we  find  the  sides  on  which  there 
is  no  printing  pasted  together  so  as  to  give  the  work  the 
appearance  of  an  ordinary  book. 

Formerly  it  was  the  general  opinion  that  playing-cards 
had  been  the  first  products  of  xylography;  but  the  earli- 
est  that  have  been  preserved  to  us  are  done  by  hand, 
while  the  printed  ones  date  from  the  fifteenth  century, 
therefore  from  a period  in  which  woodcuts  were  already 
used  for  other  purposes.  It  is  believed  that  some  of  the 
wood  engravings  and  block-books  were  printed  in  mon- 
asteries. 

The  earliest  dated  woodcut  that  we  know  of  is  the  St 
Christopher  of  1423,  preserved  in  the  library  of  Lord 
Spencer  at  Althorp.  The  Mary  engraving,  which  is 
preserved  at  Brussels  and  apparently  bears  the  date 
mccccxviii.,  is  now  declared  to  be  of  1468,  the  date  hav- 
ing been  falsified.  The  next  date  after  that  of  the  St. 
Christopher  is  1437,  found  on  a woodcut  preserved  in 
the  imperial  library  at  Vienna.  It  was  discovered  in 
1779  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Blaise  in  the  Black  Forest, 
and  represents  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Sebastian,  with 
fourteen  lines  of  text.  The  date,  however,  is  said  by 
others  to  refer  to  a concession  of  indulgences.  A wood- 
cut,  preserved  in  the  library  at  Vienna,  which  represents 
St.  Nicholas  deTolentino,  has  the  date  1440,  but  written 
in  by  hand. 

Leaving  out  of  sight  the  question  as  to  when,  where, 
and  by  whom  the  art  of  printing  with  movable  metal 
types  was  invented,  and  taking  our  stand  on  well-authen- 
ticated dates  in  such  printed  documents  as  have  been 


TY  P 


preserved  to  us,  we  find  that  the  first  printed  date,  1454, 
occurs  in  two  different  editions  of  the  same  letters  of 
indulgence  issued  in  that  year  by  Pope  Nicholas  V.  in 
behalf  of  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus.  These  two  editions 
are  distinguished  respectively  as  the  31 -line  and  the 
30-line  indulgence. 

On  January  18, 1465,  AdolphlL,  archbishop  of  Mainz, 
appointed  “Johan  Gudenberg,  on  account  of  his  grate- 
ful and  willing  service,  his  servant  and  courtier  for  life, 
promising  to  supply  him  with  clothing  and  each  year 
twenty  ‘ malter  * of  corn,  and  two  ‘ fuder  ’ of  wine.”  It 
has  always  been  inferred  from  this  that  Gutenberg  had 
quitted  Mainz  and  gone  to  Eltville  (Elfeld)  to  reside  at 
the  archbishop’s  court,  and  that,  his  dignity  as  courtier 
preventing  him  from  printing  himself,  he  passed  the 
Catholicon  types  on  to  Henry  Bechtermuncze  at  Elt- 
ville. But  recent  researches  have  shown  that  Guten- 
berg remained  at  Mainz  till  his  death,  in  1468. 

Fust  and  Schoeffer  worked  together  from  1457  to 
1466,  starting  in  August,  1457,  with  an  edition  of  the 
Psalterium.)  printed  in  large  missal  types,  which,  as 
far  as  we  know,  is  the  first  printed  book  which  bears  a 
date,  besides  the  place  where  it  was  printed  and  the  name 
of  the  printers.  It  was  reprinted  with  the  same  types 
in  1459  (the  second  printed  book  with  date,  place,  and 
name  of  printer)  in  1490,  and  in  1502  (the  last  work  of 
Schoeffer,  who  had  manufactured  the  types).  In  1459 
Fust  and  Schoeffer  also  published  Gul.  Durantus, 
Rationale  Divinortcm  Officiorum , with  the  small  type 
(usually  called  Durandus  type)  with  which  they  con- 
tinued to  print  long  afterward.  In  1460  theypublished 
the  Comtitutiones  of  Pope  Clement  V.,  the  text  printed 
in  a type  (Clement  type)  about  a third  larger  than  the 
Durandus.  This  type  was,  however,  in  existence  in 
1459,  as  the  colophon  of  the  Durandus  is  printed  with  it. 

Having  explained  the  early  printing  of  Mainz,  in  so 
far  as  it  bears  upon  the  controversy  as  to  where  and  by 
whom  the  art  of  printing  was  invented,  we  can  follow 
its  spread  to  other  countries.  After  Mainz  it  was  first 
established  in  1460  at  Strasburg. 

Till  the  moment  (say  1477)  printing  spread  to 
almost  all  the  chief  towns  of  Germany,  Italy,  Switzer- 
land, France,  the  Netherlands,  Spain,  England,  not  a 
single  printer  carried  away  with  him  a set  of  types  or  a 
set  of  punches  or  molds  from  the  master  who  had 
taught  him,  but,  in  setting  up  his  printing  office,  each 
man  cast  a set  of  types  for  his  own  use,  always  imitat- 
ing as  closely  as  possible  the  handwriting  of  some  par- 
ticular manuscript  which  he  or  his  patron  desired  to 
publish.  Thus,  the  first  printers  of  Subiaco,  though 
they  were  Germans  and  had  most  probably  learned  the 
art  of  casting  types  and  printing  at  Mainz,  clearly  cut 
their  types  after  the  model  of  some  Italian  MS.  which 
was  free  from  any  Gothic  influence,  but  written  in  a 
pure  Caroline  minuscle  hand,  differing  but  slightly  from 
the  Caroline  minuscles  which  the  same  printers  adopted 
two  years  afterward  at  Rome.  The  first  Paris  printers 
started  in  1470  with  a type  cast  in  the  most  exact  man- 
ner, on  the  model  of  the  Caroline  minuscle  handwriting 
then  in  vogue  at  Paris.  John  de  Westphalia,  who  in- 
troduced printing  into  Belgium,  used  from  the  beginning 
a type  which  he  calls  Venetian. 

Another  most  important  feature  in  the  earliest  books 
is  that  the  printers  imitated,  not  only  the  handwriting, 
with  all  its  contractions,  combined  letters,  etc.,  but  all 
the  other  peculiarities  of  the  MSS.  they  copied.  There 
is  in  the  first  place  the  unevenness  of  the  lines,  which 
very  often  serves  as  a guide  to  the  approximate  date  of  a 
book,  especially  when  we  deal  with  the  works  of  the 
same  printer,  since  each  commenced  with  uneven  lines, 
and  gradually  made  them  less  uneven,  and  finally  even. 
This  unevenness  was  unavoidable  in  manuscripts  as  well 


5967 

as  in  block-books;  but  in  the  earliest  printed  books 
it  is  regarded  as  evidence  of  the  inability  of  the  printers 
to  space  out  their  lines.  If  this  theory  be  correct,  this 
inability  was  perhaps  owing  to  the  types  being  perfor- 
ated and  connected  with  each  other  by  a thread,  or  to 
some  other  cause  which  has  not  yet  been  clearly  ascer- 
tained. 

Now  that  we  have  traced  the  art  of  printing  from  the 
moment  (1454)  that  it  made  its  appearance  in  a perfect 
state  at  Mainz,  and  have  followed  its  spread  to  all  the 
chief  places  of  Europe,  we  must  take  notice  of  the  con- 
troversy which  has  been  carried  on  for  nearly  400 
years  as  to  when,  where,  and  by  whom  the  art  was  in- 
vented. 

We  need  not  say  much  about  the  story  of  Antonio 
Cambruzzi,  who  asserted  that  Pamfilo  Castaldi  invented 
printing  at  Feltre,  in  Italy,  in  1456,  and  that  Fausto 
Comesburgo,  who  lived  in  his  house  in  order  to  learn  the 
Italian  language,  learned  the  art  from  him  and  brought 
it  to  Mainz;  this  story,  however,  has  found  so  much 
credence  that  in  1868  a statue  was  erected  at  Feltre  in 
honor  of  Castaldi.  Nor  need  we  speak  of  Kuttenberg 
in  Bohemia,  where  John  Gutenberg  is  asserted  to  have 
been  born  and  to  have  found  the  art  of  printing.  We 
may  also  pass  over  Johann  Fust,  later  on  called  Faust, 
as  we  know  from  the  Mainz  lawsuit  of  1455  that  he  had 
simply  assisted  Gutenberg  with  loans  of  money.  We 
may  also  pass  over  Johann  Mentelin  of  Strasburg,  only 
remarking  here  that  he  had  already  printed  a Bible  in 
1460,  and  that  he  is  mentioned  in  Strasburg  registers  as 
a chrysographer  or  gold-writer  from  1447  to  1450;  but 
of  his  whereabouts  between  1450  and  1460  there  is  no 
record.  That  he  had  gone,  or  had  been  called,  after 
1450  by  Gutenberg  to  Mainz  has  been  asserted  but  not 
proved,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  he  should  not  be  one 
of  the  two  Johannes  alluded  to  as  the  prothocaragmat- 
ici  of  Mainz  in  the  Justinian  of  1468. 

In  former  years,  when  printing  was  believed  to  have 
been  invented  in  1440,  the  records  of  the  Strasburg  law- 
suit of  1439,  between  Gutenberg  and  some  Strasburg 
artisansabout  certain  industrial  undertakings  (as  the  art 
of  polismng  stones,  the  manufacture  of  looking-glasses) 
were  considered  to  prove  the  invention  of  printing  at 
Strasburg,  not,  however,  by  Mentelin,  as  had  been 
thought  by  some,  but  by  Gutenberg.  The  records  came 
to  light  about  1740,  just  when  Schoepflin,  the  principal 
discoverer,  had  been  commissioned  to  search  for  docu- 
ments of  this  kind.  Doubts  may  be  suggested  as  to 
their  genuineness,  but  they  have  all  perished,  partly  dur- 
ing the  revolution  of  1 793  and  partly  during  the  siege  of 
Strasburg  in  1870.  However,  nobody  would  now  as- 
sert that  printing  was  invented  in  1439  or  at  Strasburg; 
and  those  who  still  believe  that  Gutenberg  was  the  in- 
ventor of  printing  refer  to  them  only  as  showing  that 
he  was  a mechanic  as  early  as  1439,  and  that  he  under- 
stood the  art  of  pressing. 

There  is  no  reason  whatever  to  discredit  Zell’s  state- 
ment in  the  Cologne  Chronicle  of  1499,  that  the  Don • 
atuses  printed  in  Holland  were  the  models,  the  “begin- 
ning” of  the  art  of  printing,  at  Mainz,  nor  that  of 
Hadrianus  Junius  in  his  Batavia , that  printing  was  in- 
vented at  Haarlem  by  Lourens  Janszoon  Coster.  The 
two  statements  were  made  independently  of  each  other. 
That  of  Zell  must  be  regarded  as  a direct  contradiction 
of  the  vague  rumors  and  statements  about  an  invention 
of  printing  at  Mainz  in  Germany  by  Gutenberg,  which 
gradually  crept  into  print  in  and  after  1468  in  Italy  and 
France;  and  which  found  their  way  into  Germany  about 
1476,  after  Mainz  and  Germany  had  given  the  greatest 
publicity  to  the  existence  of  the  art  in  their  midst  for 
more  than  twenty-two  years,  but  had  been  silent  about 
an  invention  and  an  inventor.  Arvd,  though  Zell  ac- 


TYP 


5968 

cords  to  Mainz  the  honor  of  having  improved  the  art 
and  having  made  it  more  artistic,  he  denies  it  the  honor 
of  having  invented  or  begun  it,  and  this  latter  honor 
was  never  claimed  by  that  town  before  1476.  As  the 
case  stands  at  present,  therefore,  we  have  no  choice  but 
to  say  that  tne  invention  of  printing  with  movable 
metal  types  took  place  at  Haarlem  about  the  year  1445 
by  Lourens  Janszoon  Coster. 

Granting  that  all  the  earlier  works  of  typography  pre- 
■served  to  us  are  impressions  of  cast-metal  types,  there 
are  still  differences  of  opinion,  especially  among  prac- 
tical printers,  as  to  the  probable  methods  employed  to 
cast  them.  It  is  considered  unlikely  that  the  inventor 
of  printing  passed  all  at  once  to  the  perfect  typography 
of  the  punch,  the  matrix,  and  the  mold.  Bernard  con- 
sidered that  the  types  of  the  Speculum  were  cast  in 
sand,  as  that  art  was  certainly  known  to  the  silversmiths 
and  trinket-makers  of  the  fifteenth  century ; and  he  ac- 
counts for  the  varieties  observable  in  the  shapes  of  vari- 
ous letters  on  the  ground  that  several  models  would 
probably  be  made  of  each  letter,  and  that  the  types, 
when  cast  by  this  imperfect  mode,  would  require  some 
touching  up  or  finishing  by  hand. 

Another  suggested  mode  is  that  of  casting  in  clay 
molds,  by  a method  very  similar  to  that  used  in  the 
sand  process,  and  resulting  in  similar  peculiarities  and 
variations  in  the  types. 

The  history  and  nomenclature  of  the  earliest  types 
are  practically  a continuation  of  the  history  and  nomen- 
clature of  the  characters  figured  in  the  earliest  block- 
books,  wood-engravings,  and  MSS.  For  instance, 
Gothic  type  was  first  seen  about  the  year  1445 ; but  it 
should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  Gothic  writing,  of 
which  that  type  was  an  imitation,  was  already  known 
and  used  about  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth  century. 
Again,  the  pure  Roman  type,  which  appeared  about 
5464,  is  nothing  but  an  imitation  of  what  in  paleogra- 
phy is  called  the  Caroline  minuscule,  a handwriting 
which  was  already  fully  developed  toward  the  end  of  the 
eighth  century.  Consequently,  details  as  to  the  history 
and  development  of  the  various  types  properly  belong  to 
the  study  of  Paleography,  ( q . v.) 

Though  the  Cologne  Chronicle  of  1499  denies  to 
Mainz  the  honor  of  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing, 
it  was  right  in  asserting  that,  after  it  had  been  brought 
there  from  Holland,  it  became  much  more  masterly 
and  exact,  and  more  and  more  artistic.  During  the 
first  half  century  of  printing  a good  many  printers  dis- 
tinguished themselves  by  the  beauty,  excellence,  and 
literary  value  of  tfteir  productions. 

Very  soon  the  demand  for  books  increased,  and  with 
it  came  a reduction  in  their  prices.  This  caused  a 
decline  in  the  execution  of  printing,  which  begins  to  be 
appreciable  about  1480  in  some  localities,  and  may  be 
said  to  have  become  general  toward  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  At  all  times,  however,  we  find  some 
prmters  raise  their  art  to  a great  height  by  the  beauty 
of  their  types  and  the  literary  excellence  of  their  pro- 
ductions. 

The  Italic  type  is  said  to  be  an  imitation  of  the  hand- 
writing of  Petrarch,  and  was  introduced  by  Aldus 
Manutius  of  Venice  for  the  purpose  of  printing  his  pro- 
jected small  editions  of  the  classics.  The  cutting  of  it 
was  intrusted  to  Francesco  da  Bologna,  an  artist  who 
is  presumed  to  be  identical  with  the  painter  Francesco 
Francia  or  Raibolini.  The  font  is  a “lower  case” 
only,  the  capitals  being  Roman  in  form.  It  contains  a 
large  number  of  tied  letters,  to  imitate  handwriting,  but 
is  quite  free  from  contractions  and  ligatures.  It  was 
first  used  in  the  Virgil  of  1500.  Aldus  produced  six 
different  sizes  between  1501  and  1558.  Originally  it 
was  called  Venetian  or  Aldine,  but  subsequently  Italic 


type,  except  in  Germany  and  Holland,  where  it  is 
called  “cursive.”  In  England  it  was  first  used  by 
Wynkyn  de  Worde  in  Wakefield’s  Oratio  in  1524. 
The  character  was  at  first  intended  and  used  for  the  en- 
tire text  of  classical  works.  When  it  became  more  gen- 
eral, it  was  employed  to  distinguish  portions  of  a book 
not  properly  belonging  to  the  work,  such  as  introduc- 
tions, prefaces,  indexes,  notes,  the  text  itself  being  in  Ro- 
man. Later  it  was  used  in  the  text  for  quotations,  and 
finally  served  the  double  part  of  emphasizing  certain 
words  in  some  works,  and  in  others,  chiefly  translations 
of  the  Bible,  of  marking  words  not  rightly  forming  a 
part  of  the  text. 

Greek  type  ( minuscules ) first  occurs  in  Cicero,  De 
Officiis,  printed  at  Mainz  in  1465  by  Fust  and 
Schoeffer.  The  font  used  is  rude  and  imperfect, 
many  of  the  letters  being  ordinary  Latin.  The 
Dutch  founders  effected  a gradual  reduction  of  the 
Greek  typographical  ligatures.  Early  in  the  nineteenth 
century  a new  fashion  of  Greek,  for  which  Porson  was 
sponsor  and  furnished  the  drawings,  was  introduced, 
and  has  remained  the  prevailing  form  to  this  day. 

The  first  Hebrew  types  are  generally  supposed  to 
have  appeared  in  1475.  But  the  Hebrew  font  made 
use  of  in  Walton’s  Polyglott  in  1657  was  probably  the 
first  important  font  cut  and  cast  in  England,  though 
there  were  as  yet  no  matrices  there  for  Rabbinical  He- 
brew. In  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  Am- 
sterdam was  the  center  of  the  best  Hebrew  printing  in 
Europe. 

The  first  book  printed  in  Arabic  types  is  said  to  be  a 
Diurnale  GroBcorum  Arabum , printed  at  Fano,  in  Italy, 
in  1514. 

The  earliest  specimen  of  music  type  occurs  in  Hig- 
den’s  Polychronicon , printed  by  De  Worde  at  West- 
minster in  1495.  The  square  notes  appear  to  have  been 
formed  of  ordinary  quadrats,  and  the  staff-lines  of  metal 
rules  imperfectly  joined.  In  Caxton’s  edition  of  the 
same  work  in  1482  the  space  had  been  left  to  be  filled 
up  by  hand.  The  plain  chant  in  the  Mainz  psalter  of 
1490,  printed  in  two  colors,  was  probably  cut  in  wood. 
Hans  Froschauer,  of  Augsburg,  printed  music  from 
wooden  blocks  in  1473,  and  the  notes  in  Burtius’ 
Opusculum  Musices , printed  at  Bologna  in  1487,  appear 
to  have  been  produced  in  the  same  manner;  while  at 
Lyons  the  missal  printed  by  Matthias  Hus  in  1485  had 
the  staff  only  printed,  the  notes  being  intended  to  be 
filled  in  by  hand.  About  1500  a musical  press  was  es- 
tablished at  Venice  by  Ottavio  Petrucci,  at  which  were 
produced  a series  of  mass-books  with  lozenge -shaped 
notes,  each  being  cast  complete  with  a staff-line. 

Printing  for  the  blind  was  first  introduced  in  1784  by 
Valentin  Haiiy,  the  founder  of  the  asylum  for  blind 
children  in  Paris.  He  made  use  ofa  large  script  charac- 
ter, from  which  impressions  were  taken  on  a prepared 
paper,  the  impressions  being  so  deeply  sunk  as  to  leave 
their  marks  in  strong  relief  and  legible  to  the  touch. 
Haiiy’s  pupils  not  only  read  in  this  way,  but  executed 
their  own  typography,  and  in  1786  printed  an  account 
of  their  institution  and  labors  as  a specimen  of  their 
press.  The  first  school  for  the  blind  in  England  was 
opened  in  Liverpool  in  1791,  but  printing  in  raised 
characters  was  not  successfully  accomplished  till  1827, 
when  Gall,  of  the  Edinburgh  asylum,  printed  the  Gospel 
of  St.  John  from  angular  types.  Alston,  the  treasurer 
of  the  Glasgow  asylum,  introduced  the  ordinary  Roman 
capitals  in  relief,  and  this  system  was  subsequently  im- 
proved upon  by  the  addition  of  the  lower-case  letters 
by  Doctor  Fry,  the  type  founder,  whose  specimen  gained 
the  prize  of  the  Edinburgh  Society  of  Arts  in  1837. 
Several  rival  systems  have  competed  in  England  for 
I adoption,  ef  which  the  most  important  are  those  of 


TYP 


Lucas,  Fnere,  Moon,  Braffla,  Carton,  and  Alston;  the 
last  named,  as  perfected  by  Doctor  Fry,  seems  likely  to 
become  the  recognized  method  of  printing  for  the  blind 
in  all  European  countries. 

Printing  has  been  defined  to  be  the  act,  art,  or  prac- 
tice of  impressing  letters,  characters,  or  figures  on 
paper,  cloth,  or  other  material,  the  definition  being 
based  on  the  etymology  (Old  Fr.  empreindre , from  Lat. 
imprimere ).  Technically  the  same  definition  might  be 
applied  to  such  arts  as  those  of  calico  and  oilcloth 
printing,  and  even  of  molding,  embossing,  coining, 
and  stamping;  but  in  point  of  fact  these  are  never 
understood  when  the  word  “ printing  ” is  employed. 
There  is  also  printing  without  pressure,  such  as  photo- 
graphic printing.  The  use  of  a pigment  or  ink  must 
be  regarded  as  an  indispensable  element.  The  applica- 
tion of  the  term  is  therefore  confined  to  the  use  of 
pressure  and  a pigment  for  literary  ard  pictorial  pur- 
poses. As  thus  defined,  printing  includes  three  en- 
tirely different  processes — not  inaptly  called  the  poly- 
graphic arts — viz.,  chalcography  or  copperplate  printing 
(compare  Engraving,  Lithography  {q.v. ) or  chem- 
ical stone-printing,  and  typography  or  letterpress  print- 
ing. 

The  difference  between  the  three  methods  lies  essen- 
tially in  the  nature  or  conformation  of  the  surface  that 
is  inked,  and  which  afterward  gives  a reproduction  or 
image  in  reverse  on  the  material  to  be  impressed.  In 
copperplate  printing  the  whole  of  a flat  surface  is  inked, 
and  a portion  of  the  ink  sinks  into  an  incision  or 
trench,  in  which  it  still  remains  after  the  surface  is 
cleansed.  When  pressure  is  brought  to  bear,  this  ink 
is  transferred  to  the  paper,  giving  an  impression  of  a 
line.  In  lithographic  printing  the  flat  surface  is  pro- 
tected except  at  certain  places,  where  it  is  slightly 
coated  with  the  ink,  which  practically  leaves  the  stone 
quite  level,  buc  also  marks  a line  when  pressure  is 
brought  to  bear.  In  typography  the  printing  surface  is 
in  relief.  It  alone  receives  ink,  the  remainder  being 
protected  by  its  lower  level.  Any  kind  of  printing 
done  from  a relief  surface  belongs  to  letterpress  print- 
ing, such  as  a woodcut,  a casting  in  metal,  india-rub- 
ber, celluloid,  xylonite,  etc.  (or  “stereotype”),  or  a 
deposition  by  electricity  (or  “ electrotype  ”).  The  typo- 
graphic method  requires  a surface  that  is  more  difficult 
to  form  than  either  of  the  other  two.  In  lithography 
the  surface  may  be  obtained  by  merely  writing  or  draw- 
ing on  the  stone;  in  copperplate  printing  the  line  may 
be  immediately  incised  into  or  scratched  on  the  plate; 
but  for  letterpress  printing  the  surface  between  the 
lines  in  relief  has  to  be  cut  away.  Hence  the  tedious- 
ness of  wood-engraving,  in  which  all  the  surface  of  the 
block  has  to  be  removed  except  those  parts  that  are  to 
be  printed  from  and  which  form  the  black  lines  in  the 
impression;  and  the  conformation  of  a type  surface  is 
similar. 

Typography,  however,  has  many  compensating  ad- 
vantages. Impressions  are  taken  with  much  greater 
facility.  The  inking  appliance  glides  over  the  relief 
lines  to  be  printed  from,  whereas  it  would  cling  to  the 
entire  surface  of  the  stone  or  the  metal;  hence  much 
greater  pressure  would  be  required  in  these  cases.  The 
unprintable  part  of  the  stone  in  lithography  has  to  be 
damped,  so  as  to  repel  the  ink;  the  same  portion  has  to 
be  inked  and  then  cleaned  off  in  copperplate  printing; 
but  in  letterpress  printing  the  ink  only  that  has  to  be 
transferred  to  the  paper  needs  to  be  applied  to  the  type. 
When  the  design  has  been  drawn  on  the  stone  or  scratched 
into  the  copper,  the  result  does  not  admit  of  any  further 
application  beyond  that  at  first  contemplated.  But  in 
letterpress  printing  the  surface  may  be  of  a composite 
character.  It  may  be  formed  of  single  pieces  repre- 


5969 

senting  the  several  letters,  and  these,  when  once  formed, 
may  be  employed  in  endless  combinations.  Only  by  such 
means  are  cheap  newspapers  and  books  possible.  Before 
the  invention  of  typography  (as  in  the  East  to  the  pres- 
ent day),  the  different  pages  of  a book  were  printed 
from  wooden  blocks,  cut  after  the  manner  of  a wood- 
engraving. Blocks  of  this  kind  are  of  no  use  for  print- 
ing after  their  first  purpose  has  been  fulfilled.  They 
must  necessarily  be  made  very  slowly  and  with  much 
labor.  In  forming  a page  of  a book,  on  the  other 
hand,  by  the  typographic  method  there  need  (excluding 
necessary  wear  and  tear)  only  be  the  cost  of  “ compos- 
ing” the  types  and  of  “distributing”  them  into  their 
proper  receptacles,  from  which  they  may  be  re-taken 
many  times  to  form  other  compositions. 

Exclusive  of  such  printing  surfaces  as  wood-blocks 
and  casts,  the  letters,  marks,  and  signs  with  which  let- 
terpress printing  is  executed  are  called  types , a pro- 
ortioned  quantity  of  each  of  the  letters  of  the  alpha- 
et  in  any  one  body  or  face  forming  a font.  A book- 
work  font  contains  single  letters,  diphthongs,  ligatures 
(such  as  ff,  fl),  accented  letters,  figures,  fractions,  points, 

reference  marks,  dashes  or  metal  rules  (as  ), 

leaders  (as ),  braces  -),  and  signs  (as  &,  £). 

It  also  includes  quadrats — pieces  of  metal  of  various 
widths,  which  do  not  print,  but  are  used  to  compensate 
for  the  shortness  of  occasional  lines,  as  at  the  close  of  a 
paragraph — and  spaces,  which  separate  words  and  letters. 
There  are  thus  about  226  separate  characters  in  every 
ordinary  English  book-work  font. 

According  to  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  used, 
types  are  divided  into  two  classes — book  type,  including 
Roman  and  Itahc,  and  job  type,  including  a multitude 
of  fanciful  forms  of  letters,  chiefly  founded  on  the  shape 
of  the  Roman  and  Italic  letters,  and  intended  to  oe 
more  prominent,  delicate,  elegant,  etc.  It  is  impossible 
to  enumerate  all  the  varieties  of  the  latter  class,  as  ad- 
ditions are  being  constantly  made  and  once  popular 
styles  always  going  out  of  fashion. 

Large  letters,  such  as  are  employed  for  large  bills  and 
posters,  are  made  of  wood,  chiefly  rock  maple,  syca- 
more, pine,  and  lime.  These  are  cut  up,  planed  to  the 
required  size,  and  then  engraved,  generally  by  special 
machinery,  this  being  a business  quite  distinct  from  that 
of  letter-founding.  The  larger  letters  are  designated 
as  two  line,  three  line,  four  line,  etc. — meaning  twice, 
thrice,  or  four  times  the  depth  of  face  of  pica  or  great 
primer,  etc. 

Type  metal  is  an  alloy,  of  which  lead  is  the  principal 
ingredient;  but,  owing  to  its  softness,  antimony  and 
tin  are  added.  A patent  type  metal  (Besley’s)  was  in- 
vented in  1855,  in  which  the  mixture  consisted  of  lead, 
regulus  of  antimony,  tin,  nickel,  copper,  and  bismuth. 
Nearly  all  type  is  now  made  with  some  of  these  metals 
superadded.  Ductility,  hardness,  and  toughness  are 
the  prime  requisites  of  a type  metal. 

The  earliest  printers  made  their  own  types,  and  the 
books  printed  from  them  can  now  be  distinguished  with 
almost  as  much  certainty  as  handwriting  can  be  iden- 
tified. The  modern  printer  has  recourse  to  the  type* 
founder.  ( 

Type-Setting  or  Composing. — We  may  now  describe 
the  manipulation  of  the  types  in  the  printing  office,  and 
for  the  sake  of  conciseness  reference  must  be  made 
only  to  the  operations  connected  with  ordinary  book- 
work.  These  differ  in  details  from  the  methods  in  use 
in  the  other  two  departments  of  the  printing  business 
— news-work  and  job-work. 

The  types,  received  from  the  foundry  in  the  packages 
called  pages,  are  placed  in  shallow  trays  called  cases. 
These  contain  compartments  or  boxes , each  of  which  is 
appropriated  to  some  particular  sort  or  character.  The 


T Y P 


5970 

cases  when  in  use  stand  on  frames  or  sloping  desks. 
The  case  at  the  top  is  the  upper  case , and  that  below 
tile  lowercase . The  former  contains  ninety-eight  equal- 
sized boxes,  appropriated  principally  to  the  capital  and 
small  capital  letters;  the  latter  has  fifty-three  boxes  of 
various  sizes,  appropriated  to  the  lower-case  softs. 
The  difference  in  the  size  of  the  boxes  corresponds  to 
the  difference  of  quantity  of  letters  in  a font,  as  already 
stated — the  lower-case  e,  for  instance,  having  the  largest 
box.  The  localization  of  the  letters,  etc.,  is  a subject 
on  which  opinions  differ,  the  object  being  to  bring  the 
letters  most  frequently  required  nearest  to  the  hand  of 
the  compositor  as  he  stands  at  work.  As  a man  picks 
out  from  the  boxes  seldom  less  than  1,500  letters  per 
hour  and  distributes  or  replaces  on  the  average  about 
5,000  per  hour,  it  is  necessary  that  the  most  economical 
allocation  of  the  boxes  should  be  adopted. 

The  types  when  taken  from  the  cases  are  arranged  in 
lines  or  “ composed  ” in  an  instrument  called  a com- 
posing stick,  made  of  iron,  brass,  or  gun  metal.  The 
slide  in  the  middle  is  movable  so  as  to  accommodate 
varying  lengths  of  lines.  In  the  composing  room  the 
frames  are  arranged  in  rows,  supporting  the  cases. 
The  compositor  fixes  the  “copy,”  or  document  which 
he  is  to  repeat  in  type,  in  a convenient  place  before  his 
eye,  and  on  some  part  of  the  case  that  is  seldom  used. 
In  his  left  hand  he  holds  the  composing  stick,  and  with 
the  thumb  and  first  finger  of  the  right  hand  lifts  the 
letters  from  the  boxes,  and  arranges  them  in  the  com- 
posing stick,  every  letter,  point,  or  sign  being  picked 
out  separately.  In  this  operation  he  is  much  assisted 
by  the  use  of  a setting-rule,  a thm  brass  or  steel  plate 
which,  being  removed  as  successive  lines  are  completed, 
keeps  the  type  in  place.  When  so  many  words  and 
parts  of  words  as  will  nearly  fill  the  line  have  been  com- 
posed, it  is  made  the  exact  length  required  by  inserting 
or  diminishing  the  space  between  the  several  words. 
This  is  called  justifying  the  line  and  is  effected  by 
means  of  the  spaces  already  mentioned.  If  the  work  is 
not  “solid” — that  is,  if  the  lines  are  not  close  together 
— the  strips  of  metal  called  leads  are  used.  They  vary 
in  thickness,  but  always  form  aliquot  parts  of  pica  body. 
A good  compositor  must  possess  intelligence  and  a rea- 
sonable amount  of  general  knowledge : he  must  be  able 
to  read  his  copy  with  readiness,  and  to  understand  its 
meaning,  in  order  to  punctuate  it  properly.  He  should 
be  able  to  spell  correctly,  as  some  copy  is  almost  undeci- 
pherable in  regard  to  separate  letters,  while  other  copy  is 
incorrectly  spelled.  When  the  composing  stick  is  filled, 
the  type  is  lifted  on  to  a galley , a shallow  tray  of  metal, 
two  or  three  sides  of  which  are  flanged,  for  the  purpose 
of  supporting  the  type,  when  the  galley  is  slightly  in- 
clined. Stickful  after  stickful  of  type  is  placed  on  the 
galley  until  it  is  full.  The  matter  is  then  fastened  up, 
a proof  taken  at  the  proof  press,  and  the  work  of  the 
reader  or  corrector  of  the  press — described  below — 
begins.  The  proof,  marked  with  the  necessary  correc- 
tions, is  given  back  to  the  compositor,  in  order  that  he 
may  make  the  required  alterations  in  the  type. 

The  type,  being  duly  corrected,  is  made  up  into  pages 
of  the  required  length  (unless  the  author  has  desired  to 
see  proof  in  slip).  It  is  then  imposed,  that  is,  the  pages 
are  arranged  in  such  a manner  that,  when  printed  and 
the  sheet  folded,  they  will  fall  in  due  numerical  sequence. 
The  impression  from  any  arrangement  of  pages  will  be 
the  reverse  of  that  in  which  they  are  laid  down. 

When  a printed  book  is  opened,  it  will  be  found  that 
at  the  foot  of  certain  pages  there  is  usually  a letter  and 
at  the  foot  of  another  a letter  and  a figure,  as  B,  B 2 ; 
further  on  another  letter  and  another  letter  and  figure. 
On  going  through  the  book  it  will  be  seen  that  the  let- 
ters are  m regular  alphabetical  order,  and  occur  at  regu- 


lar intervals  of  eight,  twelve,  sixteen,  etc.,  pages. 
These  designate  the  several  sheets  of  which  the  book  is 
composed  and  are  called  signatures,  so  that  a sheet  may 
be  designated  B,  and  the  pages  of  which  are  thereby 
sufficiently  indicated. 

The  pages  of  type  are  arranged  in  proper  order  on  a 
flat  table,  covered  with  stone  or  metal,  called  the  impos- 
ing stone , and  are  then  retidy  to  be  made  into  a form , 
that  is,  in  such  a state  that  they  can  be  securely  fastened 
up  and  moved  about.  The  form  is  inclosed  in  an  iron 
frame  or  chase,  subdivided  by  a cross  bar.  The  portions 
of  the  type  are  separated  by  furniture , which  may  be 
of  metal  or  wood  or  both.  It  is  of  the  same  height  as 
the  chase,  but  lower  than  the  type,  and  therefore  does 
not  print,  but  forms  the  margin  of  the  printed  pages. 
At  the  sides  of  the  two  sections  of  the  forms  are  pieces 
of  furniture  of  a tapering  shape,  called  side-sticks,  and 
at  the  top  and  bottom  corresponding  pieces,  called  foot- 
sticks.  Small  wedges,  called  quoins,  are  inserted  and 
driven  forward  by  a mallet  and  a shooting-stick,  so  that 
they  gradually  exert  increasing  pressure  upon  the  type. 
Other  mechanical  means  for  locking  up  are  also  occa- 
sionally adopted.  When  sufficiently  locked  up,  the 
whole  is  quite  as  firm  and  portable,  however  many  thou- 
sands of  pieces  of  metal  it  may  consist  of,  as  if  it  were  a 
single  plate.  In  this  rapid  sketch  we  purposely  omit 
mention  of  several  operations  which,  though  important 
and  indispensable,  are  only  of  interest  to  the  workman. 

For  many  years  endeavors  have  been  made  to  con- 
struct machines  for  type-setting  which  should  obviate 
hand  labor.  Picking  out  the  types  separately  from  their 
boxes  and  arranging  them  singly  in  the  composing 
stick  is  an  irksome  and  monotonous  operation,  and  one 
which  it  might  be  thought  comparatively  easy  to  per- 
form by  automatic  machinery.  But  of  the  many  dif- 
ferent composing  machines  that  have  been  invented 
less  than  half  a dozen  have  stood  the  test  of  practical 
experience.  These  have  been  confined  to  special  classes 
of  work,  and  it  is  open  to  doubt  whether  the  nimble 
fingers  of  a good  compositor,  aided  by  the  brains  which 
no  machinery  can  supply,  do  not  favorably  compare  on 
the  ground  of  economy  with  any  possible  mechanical 
arrangement.  On  the  other  hand,  employers  and  mak- 
ers of  machines  allege  that  owing  to  the  opposition  of 
the  men  machine  type-setting  has  not  had  fair  play. 
However  that  may  be,  it  is  undeniable  that  a compos- 
ing machine  is  still  rare  in  printing  offices,  and  where 
employed  it  is  only  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  ordinary  labor 
of  the  men. 

For  many  years  it  was  a favorite  idea  with  inventors, 
especially  those  who  were  not  practical  printers,  that 
great  economy  might  be  gained  in  composition  by  the 
use  of  word-characters  or  “ logotypes,”  instead  of  single 
letters.  The  constant  repetition  of  many  words  seemed 
to  suggest  that  they  might  be  cast  in  one  piece.  Com- 
binations suitable  for  affixes  and  suffixes  as  ad-,  ac-,  in-, 
-ing,  -ment,  etc.,  it  was  also  suggested,  should  be  used 
instead  of  the  single  component  letters.  The  sugges- 
tion, has,  however,  not  been  carried  out,  at  least  to  any 
considerable  extent.  The  chief  practical  objection  to 
it  is  that  it  involves  the  use  of  cases  with  an  inconven- 
iently large  number  of  boxes.  The  more  the  variety  of 
characters  is  multiplied  the  more  “ travel  ” of  the  com- 
positor’s hand  over  the  cases  is  necessary  for  picking 
them  up,  and  by  so  much  is  the  speed  of  his  work  re- 
tarded. Logotypes,  too,  are  more  liable  to  accident; 
when  one  letter  is  damaged  the  combination  is  rendered 
useless. 

The  correction  of  the  type  is  a subject  that  should  be 
understood  by  all  who  have  to  do  with  printing,  as 
many  mistakes  are  made  on  the  part  of  autnors  which 
a little  technical  knowledge  would  prevent.  In  thfc 


T Y P 


course  of  setting  any  copy  or  MS.  which  may  be  given 
him,  the  compositor  unavoidably  picks  up  some  wrong 
letters,  or  mistakes  the  words  in  the  copy  before  him, 
or  fails  to  follow  the  style  prescribed  for  the  work. 
These  are  called  printer's  errors.  When  the  composi- 
tor has  finished  his  task,  a first  proof  of  the  matter  is 
taken.  The  proof  is  read  through  and  compared  with 
the  copy  by  the  proof-reader,  or  corrector  of  the  press , 
and  an  assistant,  the  copy-holder , or  reading-boy.  The 
proof  is  then  sent  back  to  the  compositor,  and  the  lat- 
ter is  required  to  correct  all  inaccuracies  indicated 
therein — in  fact,  to  attend  to  all  the  directions  given  by 
the  reader — and  this  has  to  be  done  at  his  own  cost  if 
he  is  working  on  piece — that  is,  paid  by  results  accord- 
ing to  work  done — or  by  the  employer  if  he  is  working 
“ on  establishment  wages,”  or  paid  by  time.  Another 
proof,  called  a revise , is  now  taken;  this  is  carefully 
compared  with  the  previous  proof.  If  the  corrections 
have  not  all  been  made,  the  revise  is  marked  accord- 
ingly, and  sent  back  to  the  compositor,  who  is  required 
to  remedy  the  imperfections.  When  the  proof  is 
deemed  accurate,  or  “ clean,”  it  is  sent,  generally  along 
with  the  copy,  to  the  author — being  now  termed  an 
author’s  proof.  Finally,  in  the  printing  office,  the  mat- 
ter is  carefully  re-read  and  compared  with  the  last 
author’s  proof  by  the  press-reader,  who  signs  it,  and  on 
his  responsibility  the  type  is  printed  off. 

The  operation  of  distributing  the  types  is  the  converse 
of  that  of  composing;  it  is  de-composing  the  form  and 
returning  the  several  letters  to  their  proper  boxes  in  the 
case.  The  form  is  first  washed  over  with  an  alkaline 
or  other  detergent,  to  remove  the  ink  from  its  surface, 
and  then  laid  down  on  the  imposing  surface,  unlocked, 
and  damped;  this  assists  the  cohesion  of  the  type,  after 
the  chase,  furniture,  side  sticks,  etc.,  are  removed. 
The  compositor  then  takes  in  his  left  hand,  supported 
by  a setting  rule,  a portion  of  type  in  lines,  and  with 
the  right  hand  takes  a word  or  so  between  the  finger 
and  thumb,  letting  each  letter  drop  separately  into  its 
proper  box.  There  is  hardly  any  operation  which  so 
strikes  a spectator  as  distributing,  for  a competent  dis- 
tributor literally  showers  the  types  into  their  recep- 
tacles. The  types  are  held  upside  down,  that  is,  with 
the  nicks  uppermost;  hence  the  letters  of  each  word 
are  read  from  left  to  right  like  ordinary  matter  when 
printed,  but  the  words  are,  of  course,  dealt  with  in  the 
inverse  order. 

The  method  of  reproducing  and  multiplying  letter- 
press  printing  surfaces  by  taking  casts  of  them,  or 
stereotypes,  has  greatly  conduced  to  the  progress  of 
typography — much  more  so,  indeed,  than  might  be  rea- 
lized by  those  who  are  unacquainted  with  the  practical 
details  of  the  art.  Stereotyping  {drepedS,  fixed  or 
solid;  tvtCoS,  type  or  form)  is  the  method  of  taking 
casts  from  a fixed  or  movable  form;  thus,  printing 
from  stereotypes  is  distinguished  from  typography,  in 
which  impressions  are  taken  from  movable  types.  It 
does  not  supersede  type-founding,  but  supplements  it, 
for  a page  of  reading  matter  requires  first  of  all  to  be 
set  up  letter  by  letter,  and  then  the  casts  or  plates  are 
taken,  each  of  which  may  be  printed  from  with  nearly 
as  much  perfection  as  from  the  original  form.  Hence 
a printing  surface  may  be  reproduced  to  an  almost  in- 
finite extent,  and  the  means  of  production  of  impres- 
sions on  the  press  or  machine  are  increased  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  casts  taken.  It  insures  an 
accurate  copy  of  an  original  text,  whereas  in  reproduc- 
tion by  resetting  the  movable  types  there  is  a liability 
to  deviation.  When  only  a cast  is  worked  from,  any 
accident  may  be  repaired  by  taking  another  cast,  and 
the  cost  is  slight  compared  with  that  of  composing  over 
again.  A smaller  quantity  of  type  may  be  used  in  an 


5971 

office  where  this  process  is  used;  a portion  of  a work 
may  be  set  up,  a cast  taken,  and  the  types  returned  to 
the  cases.  The  plates  are  more  easily  stored  than  mov- 
able forms,  and  are  not  liable  to  the  danger,  as  in  the 
latter,  of  types  falling  out.  Above  all,  the  mold  may 
be  bent  to  any  curve  required,  and  a circular  cast  ob- 
tained, which  may  be  fastened  round  the  cylinder  of  a 
machine  (see  infra  in  regard  to  rotary  printing). 

The  process  of  stereotyping,  divested  of  merely  tech- 
nical details,  is  as  follows:  From  a form  of  matter, 
which  may  be  wholly  or  in  part  composed  of  movable 
types,  a matrix  or  mold  is  taken.  The  original  is  in 
rilievo;  the  mold  consequently  is  in  intaglio.  From 
this  the  stereo  plate  is  cast,  and  it  of  course  is  again  in 
rilievo.  This  in  turn  may  likewise  become  an  original, 
and  casts  may  be  taken  from  a plate,  or  other  casts 
from  the  same  mold.  The  first  books  were  printed 
from  solid  wooden  blocks,  each  of  which  formed  a page. 
Then  came  the  era  of  typography,  in  which  these 
pages  were  composed,  mosaic-like,  of  movable  types. 
Now  has  succeeded  the  period  of  stereotyping,  in  which 
pages  formed  of  single  blocks — but  of  metal,  not  of 
wood — are  used.  The  two  essential  parts  are,  there- 
fore, the  making  of  the  matrix  and  of  the  cast,  which 
is  composed  of  an  alloy  something  like  that  for  type 
metal. 

In  newspaper  establishments  where  stereotyping  is 
adopted  the  pages  are  not  all  made  up  simultaneously: 
some  are  kept  open  till  the  last  for  the  latest  telegrams. 
The  moment  a page  is  completed  and  locked  up  in  its 
chase  it  is  sent  down  to  the  foundry,  and  as  many  casts 
taken  as  there  are  printing  machines  to  be  set  going. 
One  page  follows  another  with  rapidity,  the  first  being 
placed  in  position  on  the  machine,  while  the  later  ones 
are  in  the  foundry.  When  all  the  plates  are  finished 
and  fixed  in  their  places,  six,  eight,  or  ten  machines 
may  be  simultaneously  printing  at  the  rate  of  nearly 
12,000  per  hour  each.  The  enormous  increase  in  the 
circulation  of  the  great  daily  newspapers  would  have 
been  impossible  but  for  the  extraordinary  facilities  for 
rapid  production  provided  by  stereotyping.  This  proc- 
ess is  also  of  special  utility  to  the  newspaper  printer 
in  the  case  of  telegrams  arriving  late. 

Machines  have  been  invented  to  do  away  with  the  use 
of  types  altogether.  The  principle  is  to  punch  the 
characters  successively  on  some  substance  which  will 
become  a mold  from  which  stereo  plates  may  be  cast. 

For  the  reproduction  of  wood  engravings  electrotyp- 
ing has  nearly  superseded  stereotyping,  as  it  produces 
much  better  copies.  For  obtaining  plates  of  type  mat- 
ter it  is  also  better  than  stereotyping,  as  many  thousands 
of  impressions  may  be  taken  without  reducing  the 
sharpness  of  an  electro,  while  ordinary  stereotype 
would  be  almost  worn  out  by  printing  a much  smaller 
number.  This  arises  from  the  superior  hardness  and 
toughness  of  copper,  of  which  the  surface  of  the  electro 
is  formed.  Electrotyping,  however,  is  costlier  and 
slower. 

Formerly  the  only  available  method  of  obtaining 
illustrations  which  could  be  printed  on  the  letter-presf 
in  conjunction  with  type  was  that  of  wood-engraving 
At  the  present  time  a number  of  comparatively  nev 
processes  are  in  operation,  in  which  the  engraving  il 
done  almost  automatically  by  the  adoption  of  chemical 
processes  and  the  well-known  principles  of  photogra- 
phy. Engravings  of  this  kind  are  called  in  the  tradf 
process  plates,  zinc  etchings,  half-tone  engravings,  and 
photo  engravings. 

The  characteristic  of  printing,  as  already  pointed 
out,  is  that  the  pigment — the  ink — with  which  th* 
printing  surface  of  the  type  is  coated  is  transferred  to 
the  paper  or  other  material  by  pressure.  The  mannel 


T Y R 


5972 

in  which  this  pressure  Is  exerted  gives  rise  to  two  classes 
of  machinery — those  in  which  the  platen  and  the  cylin- 
der respectively  are  employed.  After  the  paper  is 
placed  on  the  type,  in  the  one  case  a flat  plate  of  iron 
moves  parallel  to  the  form  and  comes  in  contact  with  it, 
causing  the  impression  on  the  paper,  while  in  the  other 
case  a cylinder  revolves  over  the  surface,  which  travels 
in  gearing  with  the  cylinder. 

Space  does  not  permit  of  any  sketch,  however  slight, 
of  the  origin  and  progress  of  type-printing  machinery. 
In  America  all  kinds  of  apparatus  for  printing  are 
called  “presses;”  in  England,  however,  an  appliance  of 
a more  automatic  character  than  the  hand-press  is  usu- 
ally called  “ a machine.  ” 

Color  Printing. — When  two  colors  or  more  have  to 
be  printed  in  one  composition,  there  must  be  a separate 
type  form  or  separate  engraving,  and  a separate  print- 
ing, for  each.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  print 
several  colors  simultaneously  by  dividing  the  trough  or 
manipulating  the  rollers.  All  these  have  been  more  or 
less  unsuccessful,  with  the  exception  of  a press  invented 
by  Mr.  W.  Consibee,  which  prints  from  type  forms  in 
two  colors.  In  construction  it  is  somewhat  similar  to 
the  ordinary  single-cylinder  machine,  but  is  provided 
with  two  sets  of  inking  apparatus,  including  ductor, 
wavers,  and  inkers,  each  of  which  acts  totally  inde- 
pendent of  the  rest.  The  cylinder  is  placed  in  the 
center  of  the  machine  and  makes  two  continuous  revo- 
lutions, giving  an  impression  for  each  color.  There 
are  two  type-forms,  each  containing  only  the  lines  to 
be  worked  in  one  of  the  colors.  These  are  in  two  beds 
adjoining  one  another,  and,  the  circumference  of  the 
cylinder  being  equal  to  the  length  of  one  bed,  one 
color  is  printed  by  the  first  revolution  and  the  other  by 
the  second.  The  sheet  is  thus  printed  twice  without 
being  released  from  the  grippers,  whereby  perfect  reg- 
ister is  insured.  The  speed  is  slow,  averaging  300  to 
400  complete  impressions  per  hour. 

The  method  by  which  the  beautiful  colored  supple- 
ments issued  occasionally  with  illustrated  newspapers 
are  printed  may  be  referred  to.  A copy  of  the  artist’s 
painting  is  first  of  all  made,  on  a scale  regulated  by  the 
size  of  the  reproduction.  This  being  supplied  to  the 
, engraver,  an  outline  or  key  block  is  made  and  proofs 
pulled.  It  is  now  necessary  to  determine  the  tones  of 
color  to  be  used  — a process  demanding  great  expe- 
rience. The  key  block  will,  if  printed  first,  afford  a 
guide  for  the  registration  of  the  subsequent  printings; 
sometimes,  however,  that  is  reserved  for  a later  stage. 
The  colors  on  which  the  subsequent  printings  are  done 
must  be  of  a transparent  nature.  The  blocks  are 
sometimes  produced  by  the  typographic  etching  proc- 
ess, which  gives  a softness,  delicacy,  and  variety  unat- 
tainable by  the  graver.  The  blending  of  the  colors  is 
the  most  delicate  task  the  printer  has  to  undertake. 
A large  picture  is  often  printed  in  ten  or  more  workings, 
some  of  them  in  their  turn  intensifying  and  bringing 
previous  color  workings  into  stronger  relief,  others 
giving  shape  and  form  to  the  picture.  Almost  to  the 
end  of  the  process,  however,  the  picture  will  want 
vitality;  its  outlines  will  be  h>rd  and  bare,  or  vague  and 
undefined,  according  to  the  sequence  of  the  colors. 
Another  working  may  give  gray  tones  where  wanted, 
and  may  increase  the  depth  and  transparency  in  various 
parts.  A deep  flesh  working  may  have  a marked  effect 
on  the  development;  and,  near  the  close  of  the  series, 
if  the  entire  coloring  is  found  to  be  too  warm,  it  may 
be  corrected  by  over-printing  very  nearly  the  whole 
subject.  Chromo-typography  has  undoubtedly  made 
great  strides  during  the  past  twenty  years,  its  best 
results  being  shown  in  the  colored  prints  for  illustrated 
journals.  For  the  production  of  pictures  for  commer- 


cial and  artistic  purposes  chromo-lithography  Is  gener- 
ally resorted  to  on  account  of  its  relative  economy.  Is 
lithography  for  typographic  purposes  the  line  has  to  be 
cut  and  the  space  on  both  sides  removed  so  as  to  leave 
the  line  alone  to  be  charged  with  the  ink,  or  the  white 
space  has  to  be  etched  away  with  an  acid.  The 
printing  of  isolated  points,  too,  is  easily  effected  from  a 
stone,  whereas  most  minute  labor  is  necessary  to  en- 
grave them. 

TYR.  See  ^Esir. 

TYRANT,  a name  given  in  modern  times  to  an  ar- 
bitrary and  oppressive  ruler,  but  originally  applied,  not 
necessarily  to  one  that  exercised  the  power  badly,  but 
merely  to  one  that  had  obtained  it  illegally,  and,  there- 
fore, equivalent  to  our  word  “ usurper.  ” The  ancient 
Greek  “republics,”  it  must  be  remembered,  were  gen- 
erally aristocratic  and  even  oligarchic  in  their  consti- 
tution. When  the  “governing  families”  among  the 
Athenian  or  Syracusan  nobles,  for  example,  quarreled 
with  each  other,  it  was  natural,  if  they  could  not  other- 
wise agree,  that  the  boldest  and  most  reckless  of  the 
set  should  seek  for  success  by  allying  himself  with  the 
masses  of  the  people,  should  figure  as  their  champion, 
promise  to  redress  their  wrongs,  or  increase  their  com- 
forts, and,  when  a fitting  occasion  presented  itself, 
should,  by  clever,  if  somewhat  violent  stratagem 
(coup  d'etat  it  is  now  called),  deliver  them  from  the 
domination  of  his  order  by  himself  grasping  possession 
of  absolute  power  and  ruling  without  any  other  restraint 
than  the  necessity  of  retaining  his  popularity  imposed; 
even  this  limitation  being  frequently  absent  when  a body- 
guard of  foreign  mercenaries  rendered  it  superfluous. 

If  the  political  adventurer  who  thus  rose  on  the  ruins 
of  the  constitution  happened  to  be  a man  of  sense  and 
wisdom,  and  generosity,  his  “ tyranny  ” might  prove  a 
blessing  to  the  state  torn  by  the  animosities  of  selfish 
oligarchs,  and  be  the  theme  of  praise  in  after  ages,  as  was 
the  case  with  the  “Tyrannies”  of  Pisistratus  (q.v.), 
Gelon  (q.v.),  HieroII.  ( q.v .),  and  many  others  ; but  if 
he  was  insolent,  rapacious,  and  cruel,  then  he  sought  to 
reduce  the  citizens  to  a worse  than  Egyptian  bondage, 
and  his  name  became  infamous  to  all  time.  Such  has 
been  the  fate  of  most  of  the  “ Thirty  Tyrants  ” of 
Athens  (q.v.),  more  particularly  of  the  blood-thirsty 
Critias,  of  Alexander  of  Pherse,  of  Dionysius  the 
Younger,  etc.  It  was  the  method  of  exercising  author- 
ity pursued  by  these  and  similar  usurpers  that  latterly, 
even  in  ancient  times,  gave  the  word  tyrant  that  evil 
significance  it  has  ever  since  uninterruptedly  retained. 

TYRCONNEL,  Richard  Talbot,  Duke  and 
Earl  of,  was  born  early  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
In  his  youth,  according  to  Lord  Macaulay,  he  was  “ one 
of  the  most  noted  sharpers  and  bullies  of  London.” 
Soon  after  the  Restoration  he  endeavored  to  obtain 
the  favor  of  the  royal  family  by  blackmailing  the  repu- 
tation of  Anne  Hyde,  so  as  to  furnish  the  Duke  of  York 
with  a pretext  for  breaking  his  promise  of  marriage  to 
her.  Though  unsuccessful  in  this  he  succeeded  in  gain 
ing  the  favor  of  the  Duke,  and  contrived  to  make  him 
self  welcome  at  the  palace  both  as  a votary  of  its  pleas- 
ures and  as  a counselor  in  affairs  of  state.  Immediately 
on  the  accession  of  James  II.  he  was  made  Earl,  and 
put  in  command  of  the  troops  in  Ireland;  and  in  1687, 
by  fawning,  bullying,  and  bribing,  he  got  possession  of 
the  office  which  had  long  been  the  object  of  his  ambi- 
tion and  was  appointed  Lord-Deputy  of  Ireland.  His 
arrival  in  that  country  spread  terror  and  dismay  through 
the  English  Protestant  population,  who  had  already 
suffered  somewhat  under  his  military  rule.  Events 
uickly  justified  their  terrors.  Nearly  every  office  of 
ignity  in  the  country  was  soon  transferred  to  the  hands 
of  Roman  Catholics;  the  Protestant  party,  so  long 


TYR 


dominant,  complained  bitterly  that  they  had  become  a 
laughing-stock  even  to  their  own  servants,  and  that  to 
appeal  the  law  was  vain,  judgment  in  every  case  being 
given  for  the  native  against  the  Englishman.  But  this 
state  of  matters  did  not  last  long.  The  revolution  of 
1688  had  a sudden  and  sobering  effect  upon  the  rule  of 
the  Lord-Deputy ; and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  he 
would  have  submitted  to  William  III.  but  the  Irish 
people  threatened  that  if  he  dared  to  sell  them  for 
wealth  or  honor  they  would  burn  the  Castle  and  him  in 
it,  and  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of  France. 
On  the  arrival  of  James  in  Ireland  in  1689  he  created 
the  Earl,  Duke  of  Tyrconnel.  After  the  fatal  battle  of 
the  Boyne,  at  which  he  held  high  command,  he  retired 
to  France.  In  1691  he  returned  to  Ireland,  with  a 
view  to  furthering  the  efforts  in  favor  of  James,  which 
were  still  being  made  by  his  adherents.  Notwith- 
standing the  defeat  of  Aughrim  (July  12,  1691,)  and  the 
capitulation  of  Galway,  he  made  preparations  for  the 
defense  of  Limerick,  binding  himself  and  his  country- 
men by  an  oath  not  to  surrender  until  they  received 
permission  from  James,  then  at  Saint  Germain.  He 
at  the  same  time  dispatched  a letter  in  which  he  stated 
his  conviction  that  all  was  lost.  On  August  nth,  be- 
fore an  answer  could  arrive,  he  was  struck  with  apoplexy. 
He  died  on  the  14th  of  the  same  month.  He  has  been 
characterized  by  Macaulay  “ as  the  fiercest  and  most 
uncompromising  of  all  those  who  hated  the  religion 
and  liberties  of  England.  ” 

TYRE,  the  ancient^*,  Greek  TripoS,  the  most  famous 
of  Phoenician  cities,  is  now  represented  by  the  petty 
town  of  Sur,  with  about  5,000  inhabitants,  built  round 
the  harbor  at  the  north  end  of  a peninsula,  which,  till 
the  time  of  Alexander’s  siege,  was  an  island.  The  mole 
which  he  constructed  to  reach  the  island  city  has  been 
widened  by  deposits  of  sand,  so  that  the  ancient  island 
is  now  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a tongue  of 
land  a quarter  of  a mile  broad.  The  greatest  length  of 
the  former  island,  from  north  to  south,  is  about  five- 
eighths  of  a mile  and  its  area  about  142  acres,  a small 
surface  for  so  important  a town.  The  researches  of 
Renan  seem  to  have  completely  refuted  the  once  popu- 
lar idea  that  a great  part  of  the  original  island  has  dis- 
appeared by  natural  convulsions,  though  he  believes 
that  the  remains  of  a line  of  submerged  wall  at  the  south 
end  indicate  that  about  fifteen  acres  more  were  once 
reclaimed  from  the  sea  and  have  been  again  lost.  Con- 
fined to  this  narrow  site — on  which,  moreover,  place 
was  found  for  the  great  temple  of  Melkarth  with  its 
courts  and  for  all  the  necessities  of  a vast  trade,  for 
docks  and  warehouses,  and  for  the  great  purple  factories 
which  in  the  Roman  time  were  the  chief  source  of 
wealth  and  made  the  town  an  unpleasant  place  of  resi- 
dence— Tyre  was  very  closely  built;  Strabo  tells  us 
that  the  many-storied  houses  were  loftier  than  those  of 
Rome.  In  the  Roman  period  the  population  over- 
flowed its  bounds  and  occupied  a strip  of  the  opposite 
mainland,  including  the  ancient  Palsetyrus.  Pliny  gives 
to  the  whole  city,  continental  and  insular,  a compass  of 
nineteen  Roman  miles;  but  this  account  must  be  re- 
ceived with  caution.  The  ancient  history  of  Tyre  has 
been  dealt  with  in  the  article  Phoenicia;  the  topography 
is  still  obscure  owing  to  the  paucity  of  Phoenician 
remains.  The  present  harbor  is  certainly  the  Sidonian 
port,  though  it  is  not  so  large  as  it  once  was ; the  other 
ancient  harbor  (the  Egyptian  port)  has  disappeared. 
The  most  important  ruins  are  those  of  the  cathedral, 
with  its  magnificent  monolith  columns  of  rose-colored 
granite,  now  prostrate.  The  present  building  is  assigned 
by  De  Vogu6  to  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth  century, 
but  the  columns  must  be  older  and  may  have  belonged 
to  the  fourth  century  church  of  Paulinus.  Tyre  was 


5973 

still  an  important  city  and  almost  impregnable  fortress 
under  the  Arab  empire.  From  1124  to  1291  it  was  a 
stronghold  of  the  crusaders,  and  Saladin  himself  be- 
sieged it  in  vain.  After  the  fall  of  Acre  the  Christians 
deserted  the  place,  which  was  then  destroyed  by  the 
Moslems.  The  present  town  has  arisen  since  the  Met&- 
wila  occupied  the  district  in  1766. 

TYRNAU  (Magyar,  Nagy-Szombath ),  a town  in 
Hungary,  on  the  river  Tena,  about  thirty  miles  north- 
east of  Presburg.  It  has  so  many  churches  and  con- 
vents that  it  has  been  nicknamed  “Little  Rome.”  It 
carries  on  manufactures  of  cloth,  linen,  wood,  etc.,  and 
has  a tolerably  lively  general  trade,  especially  in  wine. 
From  1635  to  1774  it  possessed  a university,  which  in 
the  latter  year  was  transferred  to  Pesth.  It  is  likewise 
famous  for  a huge  cask,  which  can  hold  twice  as  much 
as  the  Heidelberg  one.  Population  (1890)  10,824. 

TYROL,  a province  of  Austria,  with  the  title  of 
“county,”  is  conterminous  on  the  northwest  with  the 
Austrian  province  of  Vorarlberg,  on  the  nbrth  with  Ba- 
varia, on  the  east  with  Salzburg  and  Carinthia,  on  the 
southeast  and  southwest  with  Italy,  and  on  the  west 
with  Switzerland.  The  last-named  country  forms  in  the 
lower  Engadine  an  angle  penetrating  deeply  into  Tyrol. 
The  country  is  entirely  mountainous,  being  traversed  b< 
the  main  chain  of  the  Alps.  It  may  be  roughly  divide*1, 
into  the  valley  systems  of  the  Lech  and  the  Inn  to  the 
north  of  the  chain  and  of  the  Etsch  or  Adige  (Vintscn- 
gau)  and  the  upper  Drave  (Puster  valley)  to  the  south 
(see  Alps).  Its  area  is  11,324  square  miles;  its  pop- 
ulation in  1901  was  981,949,  inclusive  of  Vovarl- 
berg,  its  adjoining  Austrian  province.  Of  these 
452,062  spoke  German,  360,975  Italian  or  some 
Romance  dialect,  and  the  remainder  some  form  of 
Slavonic.  The  tenure  of  property  is  for  the  most  part 
of  the  nature  of  absolute  ownership.  In  1880,  100,393 
persons  of  both  sexes  were  returned  as  proprietors. 
10,283  as  tenants.  The  chief  products  are  milk,  butter 
and  cheese.  Of  grain  crops  maize,  which  is  largely 
grown  in  the  Inn  valley  and  Vintschgau,  holds  the  first 
place.  Wheat  is  grown  in  the  lower  valleys,  barley 
and  rye  in  the  higher,  the  latter  in  favorable  spots  to  a 
height  of  over  5,000  feet.  Potatoes  are  found  above 
6,000  feet.  In  the  Etsch  valley,  or  district  about  Meran 
and  Botzen,  red  and  white  wine  of  excellent  quality  is 
produced.  Of  late  years  the  cultivation  of  fruit  has 
much  developed,  especially  in  south  Tyrol.  Silk  is  alsc 
produced.  Game  is  still  plentiful  in  the  remoter  valleys. 
Mining  occupies  about  one-fifth  of  the  population.  At 
Hall,  near  Innsbruck,  are  important  salt  works,  and  at 
Brixlegg,  in  the  same  valley,  copper  and  lead  are 
smelted.  Iron  is  worked  at  Fulpmes,  in  the  Stubai 
valley,  and  at  Prad,  in  the  Vintschgau.  Zinc  is  found 
at  the  head  of  the  Passeir  valley.  In  the  middle  ages 
gold  and  silver  were  found  in  sufficient  quantities  to 
make  it  worth  while  to  extract  them.  About  4,340> 
square  miles  of  the  country  are  covered  with  forest, 
chiefly  pine,  fir,  and  larch,  which,  however,  is  felled  ip 
a recklessly  wasteful  way.  The  capital  of  the  county 
is  Innsbruck,  {q.v.) 

Tyrol  has  more  than  once  been  the  scene  of  sharp 
fighting.  In  1499  the  men  of  Graubiinden  or  the  Ori- 
sons (see  Switzerland)  invaded  the  country  and  de- 
feated the  Tyrolese  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mals.  Id 
1703  Max  Emmanuel,  elector  of  Bavaria,  penetrated 
the  upper  Inn  valley,  but  was  driven  back.  During  the- 
wars  of  the  French  Revolution  French  and  Austrian 
armies  met  more  than  once  within  the  limits  of  the 
province.  By  the  treaty  of  Pressburg,  1805,  the  prow 
mce  was  transferred  to  Bavaria.  On  the  renewal  of 
war  between  Bonaparte  and  Austria  in  1809  th®  people 
rose  and  expelled  the  Bavarians,  and  afterward,  under 


T Y R-TYT 


5974 

the  leadership  of  Andrew  Hofer,  an  innkeeper  of  the 
Passeir  valley,  repeatedly  defeated  the  French,  Bava- 
rian, and  Saxon  forces.  Innsbruck  was  more  than  once 
taken  and  retaken;  and  on  August  12th  Hofer,  after 
defeating  Marshal  Lefebvre,  was  installed  in  the  cap- 
ital as  commandant.  But  the  ill-success  of  the  Aus- 
trian arms  elsewhere  prevented  any  support  from  being 
sent,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Schonbrunn  in  October  the 
Tyrolese  were  again  given  up  to  their  new  rulers. 
Hofer,  being  captured  through  treachery,  was  shot  at 
Mantua,  February  20,  1810.  On  the  fall  of  Bona- 
parte, Tyrol  reverted  to  the  house  of  Hapsburg. 

TYRONE,  an  inland  county  of  Ireland,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Ulster,  is  bounded  north  and  west  by  Donegal, 
northeast  by  Londonderry,  east  by  Lough  Neagh  and 
Armagh,  and  south  by  Monaghan  and  Fermanagh.  Its 
greatest  length  from  nprth  to  south  is  forty-six  miles 
and  from  east  to  west  sixty.  The  total  area  is  806,658 
acres  or  about  1,260  square  miles.  The  surface  is  for  the 
most  part  hilly,  rising  into  mountains  toward  the  north 
and  south,  but  eastward  toward  Lough  Neagh  it  de- 
clines into  a level  plain.  The  Foyle  forms  a small 
portion  of  the  western  boundary  of  the  county,  and  re- 
ceives the  Mourne,  which  flows  northward  by  Omagh 
and  Newtown  Stewart.  The  principal  tributaries  of  the 
Mourne  are  the  Derg,  from  Lough  Derg,  and  the  Owen- 
killew,  flowing  westward  from  Fir  Mountain.  The 
Blackwater,  which  is  navigable  by  boats  to  Moy,  rises 
near  Five- Mile  Town,  and  forms  part  of  the  southeastern 
boundary  of  the  county  with  Monaghan  and  Armagh. 
With  the  exception  of  Lough  Neagh,  bounding  the 
county  on  the  east,  the  lakes  are  small,  also  few  in 
number.  The  Tyrone  coal-field  (six  miles  long  by  one 
to  two  broad)  extends  between  Lough  Neagh  and  Dun- 
gannon, all  the  measures  being  represented.  The  coal- 
field is  much  broken  by  faults  and  has  been  worked 
chiefly  near  the  surface,  and  generally  in  an  unskillful 
manner;  the  principal  pits  are  near  Dungannon  and  at 
Coal  Island.  The  coal  is  bituminous.  There  are  also 
indications  of  copper,  iron,  and  lead. 

The  hilly  portions  of  the  county  are  unsuitable  for 
tillage;  but  in  the  lower  districts  the  soil  is  remarkably 
fertile,  and  agriculture  is  generally  practiced  after  im- 
proved methods,  the  county  in  this  respect  being  in  ad- 
vance of  most  parts  of  Ireland.  The  excellent  pasturage 
of  the  hilly  districts  affords  sustenance  to  a large  number 
of  young  cattle. 

The  manufacture  of  linens  and  coarse  woolens  (includ- 
ing blankets)  is  carried  on.  Brown  earthenware, 
chemicals,  whisky,  soap,  and  candles,  are  also  made. 
There  are  a few  breweries  and  distilleries,  and  several 
flour  and  meal  mills.  But  for  the  lack  of  enterprise  the 
coal  and  iron  might  aid  in  the  development  of  a consid- 
erable manufacturing  industry. 

The  county  comprises  8 baronies,  46  parishes,  and 
2,164  townlands.  Formerly  it  returned  two  members 
to  parliament,  the  borough  of  Dungannon  also  return- 
ing one;  but  in  1885  Dungannon  was  disfranchised  and 
the  county  arranged  in  four  divisions — east,  mid,  north, 
and  south — each  returning  one  member.  From  312,956 
in  1841  the  population  had  decreased  by  1861 10238,500, 
by  1871  to  215,766,  and  by  1901  to  150,468  (74,233 
males  and  76,235  females).  In  1901  there  were  100,793 
Roman  Catholics  (119,937  in  1871),  44,256  Protestant 
Episcopalians  (49,201  in  1871),  38,564  Presbyterians 
(42,156  in  1871),  3,597  Methodists  (3,115  in  1871),  and 
1,509  of  other  denominations  (1,357  in  1871).  The 
population  of  the  principal  towns  was — Strabane  4,196, 

' Omagh  (the  county  town)  4,138,  Dungannon  4,084,  and 
Cookstown,  3,870. 

Anciently  Tyrone  was  included  in  the  portion  of 
Ulster  made  “ sword-land  ” by  the  Scots.  It  became  a 


principality  of  one  of  the  sons  of  Nlall  of  the  Nine 
Hostages,  and  from  his  name — Eogain — was  called  Tir 
Eogain,  gradually  altered  to  Tyrone.  The  earldom  of 
Tyrone  had  been  conferred  on  Con  Bacagh  O’Neill  by 
Henry  VIII.,  but  he  was  driven  into  the  Pale  by  one 
of  his  sons  Shan,  who,  with  the  general  consent  of  the 
people,  was  then  proclaimed  chief.  From  this  time  he 
maintained  a contest  with  English  authority,  but  his 
last  remaining  forces  were  completely  defeated  near  the 
river  Foyle  in  May,  1567.  During  the  insurrection  of 
1641  Charlemont  Fort  and  Dungannon  were  captured 
by  Sir  Phelim  O’Neill,  and  in  1645  the  Parliamentary 
forces  under  General  Munro  were  signally  defeated  by 
Owen  Roe  O’Neill  at  Benburb.  At  the  Revolution 
the  county  was  for  a long  time  in  the  possession  of  the 
forces  of  James  II.  Dungannon  was  the  scene  of  the 
famous  volunteer  convention  in  1782.  There  are  still 
some  ruins  of  the  ancient  castle  of  the  O’Neills,  near 
Benburb,  and  among  other  ruined  old  castles  mention 
may  be  made  of  those  of  Newton  Stewart,  Dungannon, 
Strabane,  and  Ballygawley. 

TYRRHENIAN  SEA  (Anc.  Tyrrhenum  Mare), 
that  part  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  {q.v.)  between 
the  islands  of  Corsica,  Sardinia,  and  Sicily  on  the  west, 
and  the  Italian  peninsula  on  the  east. 

TYRT/EUS,  Greek  elegiac  poet,  lived  at  Sparta 
about  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century  B.C.  Accord- 
ing to  the  legend  current  in  later  times,  he  was  a native 
of  the  Attic  deme  of  Aphidnse,  and  was  invited  to 
Sparta  on  the  suggestion  of  the  Delphic  oracle,  to  as- 
sist the  Spartans  in  the  Second  Messenian  War.  It  is 
difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  determine  the  element  of 
truth  in  this  story. 

We  possess  in  all  about  twelve  fragments  of  Tyr- 
taeus’  poetry,  varying  in  length  from  one  to  forty-four 
lines.  They  are  preserved  by  Strabo,  Lycurgus,  Sto- 
baeus,  and  others.  We  may  divide  them  into  two  vari- 
eties, according  to  the  meter  and  dialect  in  which  they 
are  composed.  The  first  class  consists  of  elegies  in  the 
Ionic  dialect,  written  partly  in  praise  of  the  Spar- 
tan constitution  and  King  Theopompus  (Evvojuia), 
partly  to  stimulate  the  Spartan  soldiers  to  deeds  of 
heroism  in  the  field  (VnOrjuai  — the  title  is,  how- 
ever, later  than  Tyrtaeus).  The  interest  of  the  frag- 
ments preserved  from  the  E vvojxia  is  mainly  histori- 
cal: they  form  our  only  trustworthy  authority  for  the 
events  of  the  First  Messenian  War. 

TYTLER.  The  surname  of  three  Scottish  writers, 
principally  on  historical  subjects. 

1.  Alexander  Fraser  Tytler,  Lord  Woodhouse- 
lee,  Scottish  judge,  was  the  eldest  son  of  William 
Tytler  (see  below),  and  was  born  at  Edinburgh  Oc- 
tober 15,  1747.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1770. 
His  first  work,  a supplement  to  the  Dictionary  of 
Decisions , undertaken  on  the  suggestion  of  Lord  Kames, 
was  published  in  1778,  and  a continuation  appeared  in 
1796.  In  1780  Tytler  was  appointed  conjoint  professor 
of  universal  history  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh, 
becoming  sole  professor  in  1786.  In  1782  he  published 
Outlines  of  his  course  of  lectures,  afterward  extended 
and  republished  under  the  title  of  Elements  of  General 
History.  In  1790  Tytler  was  appointed  judge-advo- 
cate of  Scotland,  and  while  holding  this  office  he 
wrote  a Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Courts -Martial.  In 
1801  he  was  raised  to  the  bench,  taking  his  seat  (1802) 
in  the  court  of  session  as  Lord  Woodhouselee.  He 
died  at  Edinburgh  on  January  5,  1813. 

2.  Patrick  Fraser  Tytler,  the  son  of  Lord 
Woodhouselee  and  grandson  of  William  Tytler,  may 
be  said  to  have  inherited  a taste  for  literary  and  histori- 
cal pursuits.  He  was  born  at  Edinburgh  on  August  30. 
1791,  and  was  educated  chiefly  at  the  High  School  ana 


TYU- 

nniversity,  being  called  to  the  bar  in  1813.  His  earliest 
literary  effort  appears  to  have  been  a chapter  or  two 
contributed  to  Alison’s  Travels  in  France  (1815);  and 
his  first  independent  essays  were  papers  in  Blackwood's 
Magazine.  Inheriting  the  family  talent  for  music,  and 
with  a facility  in  throwing  off  humorous  little  poems 
and  songs,  he  made  several  contributions  to  Thomson’s 
Select  Melodies  of  Scotland,  1 824.  The  History  of  Scot- 
land was  undertaken  at  the  suggestion  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  and  occupied  Tytler  for  nearly  twenty  years,  in 
the  course  of  which  he  removed  to  London  for  conven- 
ience of  research.  The  first  volume  appeared  in  1828, 
and  the  ninth  and  last  in  1843.  He  died  at  Great  Mal- 
vern December  24,  1849. 

3.  William  Tytler,  of  Woodhouselee,  writer  on 
historical  and  antiquarian  subjects,  was  the  son  of  Alex- 
ander Tytler,  writer  in  Edinburgh,  and  was  born  in 
that  city  on  October  12,  17 11.  He  was  educated  at 
the  High  School  and  the  university,  and,  having  adopted 
his  father’s  profession,  was  in  1744  admitted  into  the 
society  of  Writers  to  the  Signet.  While  successfully 
practicing  as  a lawyer,  he  found  time  to  devote  attention 
to  historical  investigation.  In  1759  he  published  an 
Inquiry,  Historical  and  Critical , into  the  Evidence 
against  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  and  an  Examination  of 
the  Histories  of  Doctor  Robertson  and  Mr.  Hume  with 
respect  to  that  Evidence.  This  work,  which  warmly 
defended  the  character  of  the  queen,  met  with  great 
success.  He  died  at  Edinburgh  on  September  12,  1702. 
TYUMEN*  a district  town  of  West  Siberia,  in  the 


- T Z E 5975 

government  of  Tobolsk,  is  situated  at  a point  where 
the  chief  highway  from  Russia  across  the  Urals  touches 
the  first  navigable  river  (the  Tura)  of  Siberia.  A rail- 
way passing  through  Ekaterinburg  and  the  principal 
ironworks  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  middle  Urals  con- 
nects Tyumen  with  Perm,  the  terminus  of  steamboat 
traffic  on  the  Kama  and  Volga.  The  Tura  being  a trib- 
utary of  the  Tobol,  which  joins  the  Irtish,  a tributary 
of  the  Ob,  Tyumen  has  regular  steam  communication 
with  Omsk  and  Semipalatinsk,  and  by  the  Tobol,  the 
Irtish,  and  the  Ob  with  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the  fish- 
eries of  the  lower  Ob.  Woolen  cloth,  linen,  belts,  and 
especially  boots  and  gloves,  are  manufactured  to  a large 
amount  (70,000  pairs  of  boots  and  300,000  pairs  of 
gloves  annually).  Tyumen  carpets,  although  made  in 
the  simplest  way  and  with  the  plainest  tools,  have  a 
wide  renown  in  Russia  and  Siberia,  and  recently  have 
appeared  in  the  markets  of  western  Europe  as  of  Orien- 
tal origin.  All  kinds  of  metal  wares  are  made  in  small 
workshops,  and  the  leather  prepared  at  the  tanneries 
(100  in  number)  is  extensively  sold  all  over  Siberia,  the 
Kirghiz  steppe,  and  Bokhara.  The  trade  of  Tyumen  is 
exceeded  only  by  that  of  Irkutsk  and  of  Tomsk.  In 
addition  to  its  primary  schools  Tyumen  has  a “real” 
school.  The  population,  which  is  of  a fluctuating 
character  in  summer,  was  estimated  in  1898  at  29,- 
588 

TZARSKOYE  SELO.  See  Tsarskoye  Selo, 

TZETZES,  Joannes,  a voluminous  Byzantine  wrstts 
of  the  twelfth  century.  (See  Greece.) 


t 


U holds  the  twenty-first  place  in  our  alphabet  The 
corresponding  place  in  the  Greek  alphabets  was 
occupied  by  Y (with  some  slight  variations  of  form). 
The  form  in  the  Italian  alphabets  was  generally  V- 
These  three  are  only  modifications  of  one  original;  but 
they  are  independent  symbols  with  us,  though  Y does 
not  represent  any  sound  otherwise  unrepresented.  It 
will  be  most  convenient  to  describe  the  three  forms 
once  for  all. 

With  T we  reach  the  end  of  the  original  Phoenician 
alphabet.  The  remaining  symbols — no  fewer  than  six 
with  us,  four  in  the  completed  Latin  alphabet — are 
accretions,  either  modifications  of  old  symbols  for  greater 
exactness  or  old  symbols  themselves  which  had  fallen 
out  of  their  proper  place  and  were  added  again.  The 
first  new  symbol  was  needed  to  represent  the  important 
vowel  sound  u.  We  have  already  seen  that  the  Greeks 
employed  the  Phoenician  symbols  for  the  breaths  which 
they  did  not  want  as  symbols  for  the  vowels  which  they 
did  want.  Thus  we  should  have  expected  that  the  Phoe- 
nician vau  would  have  been  used  for  u.  But  vau  was 
already  employed  for  w , which  was  a living  sound  in 
early  Greek;  the  form  used  was  F (the  so-called  digam- 
ma), the  origin  of  our  F. 

At  Rome  the  single  form  V denoted  both  the  vowel 
u and  also  the  consonantal  w.  F retained  its  place  as 
sixth  in  the  alphabet,  but  with  the  value  of  /,  which 
was  unknown  to  the  Greeks;  a peculiar  form,  E,  in 
which  the  middle  stroke  has  gone  to  the  bottom,  seems 
to  have  been  affected  by  its  neighbor  E ; this  is  found  in 
Etruscan,  Umbrian,  and  Samnite  inscriptions;  it  has, 
however,  the  value  of  w;  while  a curious  symbol  8 ap- 
pears at  the  end  of  the  Etruscan  alphabet,  and  is  also 
used  in  the  Eugubine  tables  with  the  value  of  f;  the 
origin  of  this  is  uncertain.  It  may  be  a rounded  form 
of  the  second  symbol  in  the  diagraph  FB  (*’•*•,  FH) 
by  which  the  sound  F is  indicated  in  a very  old  inscrip- 
tion (see  Rhein.  Mus.,  xlii.  317);  if  this  is  so,  the  Latin 
alphabet  has  the  first  member  of  the  digraph,  the  Etrus- 
can has  the  second.  Next,  the  symbol  Y was  added 
(together  with  Z.)  in  the  first  century  B.c.  to  represent 
more  exactly,  in  borrowed  words,  the  sound  of  Greek 
vpsilon. 

Lastly,  the  form  (J  was  differentiated  from  \J.  It  is 
the  uncial  form,  and  so  belongs  to  the  general  transition 
from  the  pointed  to  the  rounded  character  which  con 
duced  to  greater  convenience  of  writing. 

The  sound  which  U denotes  is  produced  by  “ round- 
ing ” the  lips  to  the  furthest  extent  consistent  with  a 
clear  vowel-sound,  and  by  raising  the  back  of  the 
tongue  higher  than  for  any  other  rounded  sound.  It 
has  two  varieties  (like  all  other  vowels)  according  as 
the  position  of  the  tongue  is  more  or  less  tense,  pr6- 
ducing  thereby  a narrower  or  a wider  aperture  for  the 
voice  to  pass  through;  whence  the  sounds  are  techni- 
cally called  “ narrow  ” and  “ wide  ” respectively.  The 
narrow  sound  is  heard  in  English  only  when  the  vowel 
is  long,  as  in  “ book,”  “ rule,”  but  in  northern  English 
(Scotch)  “ book  ” maybe  heard  short.  The  wide  sound 


is  heard  in  “ full,**  “good.*9  The  digraph  00  is  com. 
monly  used  for  the  u sound,  and  attests  the  fact  that  the 
original  sound  of  5 has  frequently  passed  into  ii,  as  in 
“ good,”  “ food,”  etc.,  written  “ gode,”  “ fode  ” in  Mid- 
dle English;  sometimes,  however,  the  00  has  come  by 
analogy  into  words  where  u is  the  original  sound,  as  in 
“ room,”  M.E.  “ roum,”  O.E.  “rum.”  Original  u has 
commonly  passed  into  the  au  sound,  spelled  in  English  ou 
or  ow,  as  in  “ how,”  “ house,”  “ mouse,”  “ bower,”  for 
O.E.  “ hu,”  “ hus,”  “ mus,”  and  “ bur.” 

UBfiDA,  a town  of  Spain,  head  of  an  administrative 
subdivision  in  the  province  of  Jaen,  about  twenty-two 
miles  to  the  east  of  the  Menjibar  station  on  the  railway 
from  Madrid  to  Cordova.  Under  the  Moorish  rule  it 
was  a place  of  considerable  consequence,  its  population 
being  said  to  have  at  one  time  numbered  70,000.  Some 
portions  of  the  old  walls,  with  towers  and  gates,  still 
remain,  but  none  of  the  public  buildings  are  of  great 
age,  the  oldest  church,  that  of  San  Salvador,  dating 
from  1540-56.  The  population  within  the  municipal 
boundaries  is  18,149. 

UCAYALI,  a great  river  of  South  America,  one  of 
the  chief  head-waters  of  the  Amazon.  It  joins  the 
Amazon  from  the  south,  in  S.  latitude  40  40'  and 
W.  longitude  730  30',  opposite  the  town  of  Nauta 
in  Ecuador;  but  the  whole  course  of  the  river  is  in  Peru. 
It  is  the  largest  river  that  joins  the  Amazon  above  the 
Brazilian  territory,  and  on  account  of  its  length  has  been 
regarded  by  some  as  the  main  stream  of  the  Amazon, 
but  at  its  mouth  it  is  not  above  half  the  width  of  the 
Amazon.  The  Maranon  and  Hullaga  from  the  south, 
with  many  smaller  but  still  large  rivers  from  the  nprth, 
have  united  to  form  the  Amazon.  The  sources  of  the 
Ucayali  are  in  the  Andes,  Cusco  being  situated  on  one 
of  its  feeders,  which  rises  considerably  further  south ; 
while  another  had  its  rise  on  the  western  side  of  the 
Andes,  to  the  northwest  of  Lima,  and  after  flowing 
southward  for  about  150  miles,  makes  its  way  through 
a cross  valley,  and  takes  a northward  course. 

Attention  has  of  late  been  very  strongly  directed  to 
this  river  as  affording  means  of  communication  between 
the  western  parts  of  Peru  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It 
was  partially  explored  by  the  Count  de  Castelnau  and 
others  in  1846,  by  Lieutenant  Herndon,  and  Mr.  Gib- 
bon of  the  United  States  navy  in  1851,  and  more  re- 
cently by  an  expedition  sent  out  by  the  Peruvian  gov- 
ernment. It  has  been  found  to  be  navigable  by  steamers 
from  its  mouth  to  the  towns  not  far  distant  from  Lima. 

UDAIPUR  [Oodeypore],  or  MewAr,  a native 
state  in  Rajputana,  India,  with  an  area  of  I2,753  square 
miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  British  ter- 
ritory of  Ajmere;  on  the  east  by  the  native  states  of 
Bundi,  Gwalior,  Tonk,  and  Partabgarh;  on  the  south 
by  Banswdra,  Dungarpur,  and  Mahi  K&ntha ; and  on 
the  west  by  the  Aravalli  Mountains,  separating  it  from 
Marwar  and  Sirohi.  The  greater  part  of  the  country 
is  level  plain.  A section  of  the  Aravalli  Mountains 
extends  over  the  southwestern  and  southern  portions, 
and  i*  rich  in  mineral?,  bat  the  mines  have  beep,  low? 


* 


UD  A- 

closed.  In  1901  the  population,  exclusive  of  51,076 
Bhils,  was  1,863,126  (males  998,796,  females  864,330) ; 
Hindus  numbered  1,321,521,  Mohammedans  43,322, 
Jains  78,171,  and  Christians  130.  The  only  town  with 
over  10,000  inhabitants  is  Udaipur,  the  capital  (45,214). 

UDAL  (Danish  odel)  is  a kind  of  right  still  existing 
in  Orkney  and  Shetland,  and  supposed  to  be  a relic  of 
the  old  allodial  mode  of  landholding  existing  antece- 
dently to  the  growth  of  feudalism  in  Scotland.  The 
udal  tenant  folds  without  charter  by  uninterrupted 
possession  on  payment  to  the  crown,  the  kirk,  or  a 
grantee  from  the  crown  of  a tribute  called  scat  (Danish 
skat),  or  without  such  payment,  the  latter  right  being 
more  strictly  the  udal  right.  Udal  lands  descend  to  all 
the  children  equally.  They  are  convertible  into  feus  at 
the  option  of  the  udallers. 

UDALL,  Nicholas,  author  of  the  earliest  extant 
regular  English  comedy.  Udall  was  a typical  man  of 
the  Renaissance  in  England,  a schoolmaster  by  profes- 
sion, a classical  scholar,  a translator  of  Terence  and 
Erasmus,  and  a writer  of  pageants  and  interludes.  He 
was  high  in  favor  at  court,  wrote  verses  for  the  city 
pageant  exhibited  at  Anne  Boleyn’s  coronation  in  1533, 
and  was  honored  by  Mary  in  1554.  The  severity  of  nis 
discipline  at  Eton,  where  he  was  headmaster,  has  been 
immortalized  by  the  quaint  lines  of  one  of  his  pupils, 
Thomas  Tusser.  The  exact  history  of  the  production 
of  his  comedy,  Ralph  Royster  Doyster , is  not  known. 
He  was  born  about  1505,  and  died  in  1556. 

UDINE,  a town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Udine, 
in  a wide  plain  near  the  foot  of  the  Carnic  Alps,  on  the 
Roja,  eighty-four  miles  by  rail  northeast  from  Venice 
and  forty-nine  miles  northwest  from  Trieste.  It  is  in- 
closed by  an  imposing  wall  of  considerable  antiquity, 
some  four  or  five  miles  in  circumference,  and  fortified 
with  towers.  On  the  principal  square  stands  the  town- 
hall,  built  in  1457  in  the  Venetian-Gothic  style,  and 
skillfully  restored  since  a fire  in  1876;  opposite  is  a 
clock  tower  resembling  that  of  the  Piazza  di  San  Marco 
at  Venice.  The  archiepiscopal  palace  and  Museo 
Civico,  as  well  as  the  municipal  buildings,  have  some 
valuable  paintings.  The  leading  industry  of  Udine  is 
silk-spinning,  but  it  also  possesses  manufactures  of 
linen,  cotton,  hats,  and  paper,  tanneries,  and  sugar  re- 
fineries, and  has  a considerable  trade.  The  population 
in  1901  was  37,933* 

UEBERWEG,  Friedrich,  best  known  by  his  His- 
tory of  Philosophy , was  born  on  January  22,  1826,  at 
Le.chlingen,  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  where  his  father  was  a 
Lutheran  pastor.  Ueberweg  passed  through  the  gym- 
nasium at  Elberfeld,  and  studied  at  the  universities  of 
Gottingen  and  Berlin.  In  1852  he  qualified  himself  at 
Bonn  as  privat -docent  in  philosophy.  His  System  of 
Logic,  published  in  1857  (English  translation,  1871),  and 
his  essay  On  the  Authenticity  and  the  Order  of  the  Pla- 
tonic Writings , crowned  by  the  Imperial  Academy  of 
Vienna  (published  1861),  contributed  to  draw  attention 
to  him  as  at  once  a scholar  and  a thinker.  In  1862  he 
was  called  to  Konigsberg  as  extraordinary  professor, 
and  in  1867  he  was  advanced  to  the  ordinary  grade. 
He  married  in  1863,  and  on  June  9,  1871,  he  died  pre- 
maturely. 

UFA,'  a government  of  southeastern  Russia,  on  the 
western  slope  of  the  Urals,  has  Vyatka  and  Perm  on  the 
north,  Orenburg  on  the  east  and  south,  Samara  and 
Kazan  on  the  west,  and  comprises  an  area  of  47,112 
square  miles.  Several  craggy  and  densely  wooded 
ridges,  running  from  southwest  to  northeast  parallel  to 
the  main  chain  of  the  southern  Urals,  occupy  its  eastern 
part.  They  are  separated  by  broad  and  long  longitu- 
dinal valleys,  and  rise  to  altitudes  of  from  2,500  to  3,500 
feet  above  the  sea  > their  highest  peaks— Iremel  (5,040 


-UGA  5977 

feet),  Nurgush,  Urenga,  and  Taganai  (3,950  feet) — are 
above  the  limits  of  tree-vegetation,  but  in  no  case  reach 
those  of  perpetual  snow.  The  high  longitudinal  valleys 
of  the  Urals  are  the  seat  of  an  important  mining  indus- 
try. 

The  population  of  Ufa  in  1898  was  2,220,497.  Only 
one-third  of  the  whole  is  Russian,  the  remainder  being 
chiefly  Bashkirs  (50  per  cent. , including  Mescheriaks  and 
Tepters),  Tartars (8.4  per  cent.),  Tcheremisses,  Tchuva- 
shes,  Mordvinians,  and  Votiaks.  In  the  south  the  Bash- 
kirs, Tartars,  and  other  Ural- Altaians  constitute  two- 
thirds  of  the  population.  Among  the  Russians  two  dis- 
tinct elements  must  be  distinguished — some  100,000  peas- 
ants, who  formerly  were  mining  serfs,  and  now  support 
themselves  chiefly  by  work  in  or  for  the  mines,  and  nearly 
620,000  agriculturists,  for  the  most  part  more  recent  im- 
migrants.  Mining  industry  is  advancing,  notwithstand- 
ing many  obstacles;  the  iron-works  of  Zlatoust  espe- 
cially have  a wide  reputation.  Flour-mills,  distilleries, 
and  tanneries  come  next  in  importance.  The  exports 
of  corn,  linseed,  timber,  wooden  wares,  metals,  tallow, 
hides,  and  cattle  are  considerable,  and  trade  is  active, 
especially  at  the  fairs  of  Menzelinsk,  Ufa,  and  Zlatoust 

There  are  six  administrative  districts,  the  chief  towns 
of  which  (with  population  in  1898)  are— Ufa  (49,961), 
Belebei  (4,200),  Birsk  (8,000),  Menzelinsk  (6, 100),  Ster- 
litamak  (8,940),  and  Zlatoust  (18,990).  The  loading 
places  Tchelny  and  Berozovka  on  the  Kama,  and  sev- 
eral iron  and  copper  works  (Satkinsk,  Yurezan,  Katav- 
Ivanovsk,  about  6,000  inhabitants  each)  ought  also  to 
be  mentioned. 

Ufa,  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Ufa  with  the  Byelaya. 

Owing  to  the  fertility  of  the  neighboring  regions,  and 
the  position  of  the  town  at  the  junction  of  two  im- 
portant rivers,  the  Ufa  merchants  carry  on  a brisk  ex- 

{)ort  trade.  The  population  has  rapidly  increased  of 
ate,  reaching  50,000  in  1900. 

UGANDA,  a country  of  eastern  Central  Africa,  to 
the  northwest  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza.  It  ha^  an  area 
of  about  140,000  square  miles,  extending  from  i°  N. 
latitude  to  the  Kitangule  river,  and  from  310  E. 
longitude  to  the  Nile.  The  country  bordering  the  lake 
and  to  the  northwest  is  mountainous,  the  mountains 
being  arranged  in  low  parallel  chains.  The  climate  is 
mild,  and  the  temperature  remarkably  uniform  through- 
out the  year;  the  thermometric  range  is  from  50°  to 
900  Fahr.;  but  the  mean  annual  variation  is  only  200. 
The  annual  rainfall  is  fifty  inches,  the  greatest  amount 
of  rain  occurring  in  March,  April,  May,  and  September, 
October,  and  November,  when  rain  falls  nearly  every 
day,  thunderstorms  being  frequent. 

The  population  of  Uganda  is  about  4,000,000.  The 
men  are  tall  and  well-built, and  have  good  features  and  dark 
chocolate-colored  skin,  with  woolly  hair.  The  women 
in  their  youth  are  good  looking.  The  country  is  divided 
into  three  provinces — Uddu  in  the  south,  Singo  in  the 
west,  and  Changwe  in  the  east,  to  which  must  be  added 
about  400  islands  in  the  lake.  The  government  of  the 
country  is  feudal,  the  king  being  nominally  supreme. 
Succession  to  the  throne  is  hereditary,  but  the  successor 
is  usually  a minor  chosen  by  three  hereditary  chiefs, 
who,  with  the  young  king’s  mother,  carries  on  the  govern- 
ment until  he  is  of  age.  The  reigning  family  in  Uganda 
is  descended  from  the  Wahuma  tribe  ; the  late  king 
Mtesa  professed  to  trace  back  his  descent  to  Kintu  (or 
Ham),  the  founder  of  the  dynasty.  The  country  is 
ruled  by  the  king,  three  hereditary  chiefs,  and  a council 
of  minor  chiefs — two  hereditary  chiefs  and  a certain 
proportion  of  the  others  being  continually  in  residence 
at  Rubaga,  the  capital  of  the  country.  Game  is  very 
plentiful;  elephants,  buffaloes,  zebras,  rhinoceroses. 


5978  UGL‘ 

wild  boars,  twelve  species  of  antelopes,  lions,  leopards, 
jackals,  foxes,  hyenas,  hares,  chimpanzees,  and  several 
species  of  monkeys  inhabit  the  forest.  Snakes  are 
numerous;  hippopotami,  crocodiles,  and  otters  abound 
in  the  lake  and  in  the  Nile,  as  also  many  water-rats. 
The  principal  birds  are  parrots,  guinea-fowl,  owls,  vul- 
tures, adjutants,  goatsuckers,  kites,  eagles,  ducks,  geese, 
storks,  cranes,  herons,  gulls,  scarlet  flamingos,  darters, 
the  sacred  and  glossy  ibis,  and  brilliantly  colored  honey- 
birds.  The  principal  insects  are  mosquitoes,  fleas,  lo- 
custs, white  and  driver  ants,  and  butterflies  of  many 
species.  The  domestic  animals  are  cows,  goats,  and  a 
few  sheep  and  dogs.  The  language  spoken  in  Uganda 
belongs  to  the  great  Bantu  family,  and  is  very  rich  in 
words.  The  Waganda  are  courteous,  cleanly,  given  to 
hospitality,  but  drunken,  and  to  a certain  extent  indo- 
lent. Their  standard. of  morality,  even  judged  by  that 
of  the  surrounding  tribes,  is  not  high.  Human  life  is 
little  respected;  they  are  untruthful  and  indecent.  Un- 
less moved  by  passion,  they  are  not  cruel;  passionate, 
they  are  not  revengeful.  Children  are  well  treated,  as 
are  the  aged  men.  On  account  of  the  extensive  preva- 
lence of  polygamy,  women  occupy  a somewhat  low 
social  grade. 

Uganda  was  first  visited  by  Speke  and  Grant  in  i860, 
and  the  country  has  since  been  visited  by  numerous 
Europeans,  chiefly  missionaries.  The  Church  Mission- 
ary Society  and  the  Roman  Catholics  have  mission  sta- 
tions in  the  country.  In  1886  some  forty  of  their  con- 
verts were  burnt  at  the  stake,  and  in  the  same  year 
Bishop  Hannington  was  murdered  on  the  borders  of  the 
country  by  the  orders  of  King  Mwanga. 

U GLITCH,  a district  town  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment ofYaroslavl,  is  situated  on  the  upper  Volga,  prin- 
cipally on  its  right  bank,  sixty-seven  miles  to  the  west  of 
the  capital  of  the  province.  Its  historical  remains  are 
mostly  associated  with  the  prince  Dmitri.  Uglitch  has 
now  become  a commercial  and  industrial  city  with 
1 1 ,930  inhabitants,  and  has  an  important  trade,  being 
one  of  the  chief  loading  places  on  the  upper  Volga. 
UGOLINO.  See  Gherardesca  and  Pisa. 

UGRIANS.  See  Finland. 

UHLAND,  Johann  Ludwig,  German  poet,  was 
bom  at  Tubingen,  on  April  26,  1787.  He  studied  at 
the  university  of  his  native  place,  taking  jurisprudence 
as  his  special  subject,  but  also  devoting  much  time  to 
literature.  Having  graduated  as  a doctor  of  laws  in 
1810,  he  went  for  some  months  to  Paris  ; and  from  1812 
to  1814  he  worked  at  his  profession  in  Stuttgart,  in  the 
bureau  of  the  minister  of  justice.  He  had  begun  his 
career  as  a poet  in  1807  and  1808  by  contributing  bal- 
lads and  lyrics  to  Seckendorf s Musenalmanach  ; and  in 
1812  and  1813  he  wrote  poems  for  the  Poetischer  Alma- 
nack and  for  the  Deutscher  Dichterwald.  In  1815  he 
collected  his  poems  in  a volume  entitled  Gedichte , which 
almost  immediately  secured  a wide  circle  of  readers, 
and  gives  him  his  place  in  German  literature.  To  every 
new  edition  he  added  some  fresh  poems  ; and  the  sixtieth 
edition,  published  in  1875,  included  a number  of  pieces 
found  among  his  papers.  He  wrote  two  dramatic 
Works — Ernst,  Herzog  von  Schwaben  and  Ludwig,  der 
Baier — the  former  published  in  1817,  the  latter  in  1819. 

In  1829  Uhland  was  made  a professor,  at  Tubingen 
university,  of  German  literature  and  the  German  language, 
but  he  resigned  this  appointment  in  1833,  when  it  was 
found  to  be  incompatible  with  his  political  duties.  In 
1848  he  became  a member  of  the  Frankfort  parliament, 
in  which  he  sat  as  one  of  the  most  respected  members  of 
the  liberal  party.  He  died  on  November  13,  1862. 

UIST,  North  and  South,  two  islands  of  the  Outer 
Hebrides,  are  situated  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  miles 
#est  of  the  Isle  of  Skye,  from  which  they  are  separated 


-ULE 

by  the  Little  Minch.  Unlike  the  other  islands  of  the 
Hebrides,  the  east  coast  of  the  North  and  South  Uist 
are  much  and  deeply  indented,  while  the  west  coasts  are, 
as  a rule,  almost  unbroken;  North  Uist,  between  which 
and  South  Uist  the  island  of  Benbecula  intervenes,  is 
eighteen  miles  long  from  west  to  east,  and  from  three  to 
ten  miles  in  breadth.  The  eastern  half  of  it  is  so  cut  up 
by  lochs  and  water  courses  as  to  have  the  appearance 
of  an  archipelago.  This  region  is  a brown,  peaty,  dreary 
bog,  partly  relieved,  however,  by  a line  of  low  hills 
running  along  the  coast,  at  the  distance  of  about  two 
and  one-half  miles.  In  the  west  part,  which,  as  a rule, 
is  hilly,  there  is  a tract  of  uneven  low  land,  exceedingly 
beautiful  in  certain  seasons,  rendered  fertile  by  the 
drifting  of  shell-sand  from  the  coast,  and  producing  good 
clover  and  grain  crops.  Population  (1889)  3,371.  South 
Uist  is  twenty  miles  long,  and  seven  miles  broad.  Its 
east  coast  is  much  indented  by  lochs.  The  eastern 
district  is  upland;  the  western  is  alluvial  and  productive 
under  proper  treatment:  population  (1889)  3,825,  en- 
gaged in  fishing  and  agriculture. 

UJIJI,  a town  of  eastern  Central  Africa,  of  considera- 
ble importance,  also  known  by  the  name  of  Kavele,  is 
situated  on  the  eastern  shores  of  Lake  Tanganyika.  It 
is  the  chief  town  on  that  lake,  and  is  the  center  of  a 
brisk  trade  in  ivory.  Formerly  it  was  a great  slave- 
market.  The  town  is  of  a straggling  character,  Arab 
houses  of  sun-dried  bricks  being  mingled  with  native 
huts.  The  population,  which  fluctuates  considera- 
bly, is  very  mixed,  being  composed  of  Arabs  and 
the  representatives  of  numerous  Central  African 
tribes.  Ujiji  has  been  visited  by  various  European 
travelers,  who  have  made  it  their  headquarters,  and  it 
was  here  that  Stanley  found  Livingstone,  on  October  28, 
1871. 

UJJAIN,  or  Oojein,  a town  in  the  native  state  of 
Gwalior,  central  India,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Sipra.  In  ancient  times  Ujjain  was  the  great  and 
famous  capital  of  Malwa,  one  of  the  seven  sacred  cities 
of  the  Hindus,  and  the  spot  which  marked  the  first 
meridian  of  Hindu  geographers.  Though  much  decayed, 
it  is  still  a large  and  populous  city,  with  considerable 
commerce.  In  1898  the  population  of  the  town  num- 
bered 35,932. 

UKASE,  or  Ukas  (Russian,  ukasat , to  speak),  a term 
applied  in  Russia  to  all  the  orders  or  edicts,  legislative 
or  administrative,  emanating  from  the  government. 
Ukases  either  proceed  directly  from  the  emperor,  and 
are  then  called  imenny-ukas , or  are  published  as  decis- 
ions of  a directing  senate.  Both  have  the  force  of  laws 
till  they  are  annulled  by  subsequent  decisions.  Many 
ukases  are  issued  in  the  course  of  one  reign ; and  as  an 
immense  chaos  of  ukases  had  accumulated  since  1649 
(the  date  of  the  last  codification  of  laws),  the  Czar  Nich- 
olas ordered  (1827)  that  a collation  of  them  should  be 
made.  The  result  was  a collection  of  laws  in  forty-eight: 
volumes,  which  has  been  supplemented  year  by  year  by 
volumes  of  new  ukases,  and  which,  after  the  elimination 
of  such  ukases  as  are  unimportant  or  of  temporary 
authority,  constitutes  the  present  legal  code  (svod)  of  the 
Russian  Empire.  The  prikases  are  imperial  “ orders  of 
the  day,”  or  military  orders  given  during  a campaign. 

UKRAINE  (“  frontier  ”),  the  name  formerly  given  to 
a district  of  European  Russia,  now  comprising  the 
governments  of  Kharkoff,  Kieff,  Podolia,  and 
Poltava,  (q.v.) 

ULCER.  See  Surgery. 

ULEABORG,  a seaport  of  Russian  Finland,  capital 
of  the  government  of  the  same  name,  stands  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Ulea,  on  the  eastern  shore  and  near 
the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  It  was  founded  in 
1605,  and  the  privileges  of  a court  were  granted  to  it  in 


ULF- 

1715.  In  1822  it  suffered  severely  from  fire.  The 
harbor  has  of  late  years  become  so  shallow,  that  vessels 
are  obliged  to  unload  in  the  roadstead,  four  miles  from 
the  town.  Population  (1898)  11,705,  who  are  engaged 
in  the  dock  yards,  saw  mills,  and  breweries  of  the  town. 
In  1854  an  English  flotilla  burnt  the  government  prop- 
erty in  the  place. 

ULFILAS,  the  apostle  of  Christianity  to  the  Gothic 
race,  and,  through  his  translation  of  the  scriptures  into 
Gothic,  the  father  of  Teutonic  literature,  was  born 
among  the  Goths  of  the  trans-Danubian  provinces  in 
the  year  31 1.  There  is  a tradition  that  his  ancestors 
were  Christian  captives  from  Sadagolthina  in  Cappa- 
docia, who  had  been  carried  off  to  the  lands  beyond  the 
Danube  in  the  Gothic  raid  of  267;  but  the  evidence  on 
which  this  rests  is  inadequate.  For  some  time  before 
341  he  worked  as  a“  lector  ” or  reader  of  the  Scriptures, 
probably  among  his  own  countrymen  in  Constantinople, 
or  among  those  attached  as  foederati  to  the  imperial 
armies  in  Asia  Minor.  From  this  work  he  was  called 
to  return  as  missionary  bishop  to  his  own  country, 
being  ordained  by  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  and“  the  bish- 
ops who  were  with  him  ” in  341. 

The  life  of  Ulfilas  during  the  following  thirty- three 
years  is  marked  only  by  one  recorded  incident,  his  visit 
to  Constantinople  in  360,  to  attend  the  council  con- 
vened by  the  Arian  or  Homoian  party.  He  died  in  381. 

ULLS WATER,  after  Windermere  the  largest  of 
the  English  lakes,  lies  between  the  counties  of  Cumber- 
land and  Westmoreland,  ten  miles  east  of  Keswick.  Its 
length  is  nine  miles,  and  its  breadth  one  mile.  Its  scenery 
has  none  of  the  soft  beauty  of  that  of  Windermere,  but 
is  rugged  and  grand.  One  of  the  chief  features  of  the 
landscape  is  the  lofty  mountain  Helvellyn,  which  rises 
from  the  southwest  extremity  of  the  lake. 

ULM,  an  ancient  and  important  commercial  town  in 
Wiirtemberg,  and  an  imperial  fortress  of  the  first  class, 
is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  in  a fertile 
plain  at  the  foot  of  the  Swabian  Alps,  forty-five  miles 
to  the  southeast  of  Stuttgart  and  sixty-three  miles  to 
the  northwest  of  Munich.  The  town,  quaintly  built 
with  narrow  and  confined  streets,  still  preserves  the 
dignified  and  old-fashioned  appearance  of  an  ancient 
imperial  town,  and  contains  many  mediaeval  buildings, 
both  of  historic  and  of  artistic  interest.  By  far  the  most 
important  and  conspicuous  building  in  Ulm  is  the  mag- 
nificent early  Gothic  cathedral,  next  to  the  cathedral  of 
Cologne  the  largest  church  in  Germany,  and  capable  of 
containing  30,000  people.  Begun  in  1377,  and  carried 
on  at  intervals  till  the  sixteenth  century,  the  building 
was  long  left  unfinished;  but  in  1844  the  work  of  restora- 
tion and  completion  was  undertaken,  and  has  steadily 
progressed  ever  since.  It  contains  some  fine  stained 
glass,  the  largest  organ  in  Germany  (1856),  and  a num- 
ber of  interesting  old  paintings  and  carvings  by  Syrlin, 
Engelberger,  and  other  masters  of  the  Swabian  school. 
The  cathedral  belongs  to  the  Protestant  Church.  Ulm 
is  famous  for  its  vegetables  (especially  asparagus),  bar- 
ley, beer,  pipe-bowls,  and  sweet -cakes  (Ulmer  Ziicker- 
brot).  Bleaching,  brewing,  and  brass-founding  are 
carried  on,  as  well  as  a large  miscellany  of  manufactures, 
including  hats,  metal  goods,  agricultural  implements, 
tobacco  and  cigars,  cement,  paper,  and  chemicals.  The 
population  in  1901  was  42,985. 

ULPIANUS,  Domitius,  a Roman  jurist,  was  of 
Tyrian  ancestry,  but  the  time  and  place  of  his  birth 
are  unknown.  He  made  his  first  appearance  in  public 
life  as  assessor  in  the  auditorium  of  Papinian  and  mem- 
ber of  the  council  of  Septimius  Severus;  under  Cara- 
calla  he  was  master  of  the  requests.  Elagabalus  de- 
prived him  of  his  functions,  and  banished  him  from 
Rome,  but  on  the  accession  of  Alexander  (222)  he  was 


• U L T 5979 

at  once  recalled  and  reinstated,  and  finally  became  the 
emperor’s  chief  adviser  and  praefectus  praetorio.  His 
curtailment  of  the  privileges  granted  to  the  praetorian 
guard  by  Elagabalus  provoked  their  enmity,  and  several 
times  he  only  narrowly  escaped  their  vengeance;  ulti- 
mately, in  228,  he  was  murdered  in  the  palace,  in  the. 
course  of  a riot  between  the  soldiers  and  the  mob. 

Ulpian’s  period  of  literary  activity  extended  from 
about  21 1 to  222  a.D.  His  works  include  Ad  Sabinum , 
a commentary  on  the  jus  civile , in  over  fifty  books;  Ad 
Edictum , a comment»~y  on  the  Edict,  in  eighty-three 
books.  His  writings  .ltogether  have  supplied  to  Jus- 
tinian’s Digest  about  a third  of  its  contents,  and  his 
commentary  on  the  Edict  alone  about  a fifth.  As  an 
author  he  is  characterized  by  doctrinal  exposition  of  a 
high  order,  judiciousness  of  criticism,  and  lucidity  of 
arrangement,  style  and  language. 

ULRIC,  St.,  Bishop  of  Augsburg,  and  venerated 
as  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  German  Church,  was  born 
at  Augsburg,  about  the  year  890.  His  father,  Hupald, 
was  one  of  those  counts  of  Dillingen  who  played  so 
important  a part  in  mediaeval  German  history.  He 
himself  owed  part  at  least  of  the  extraordinary  influence 
which  he  exercised  in  his  time  to  the  distinguished 
rank  of  his  family.  He  was  educated  in  the  celebrated 
Benedictine  monastery  of  St.  Gall  (q.v.),  in  Switzer- 
land; but  his  later  life,  and  the  character  of  his  mind, 
as  well  as  the  tendency  of  his  religious  views,  appear  to 
have  been  influenced  less  by  his  monastic  instructors, 
than  by  the  counsels  of  a remarkable  female  recluse 
named  Wiborada,  whose  cell  was  in  the  vicinity  of  St. 
Gall,  and  with  whom  he  formed  a close  association. 

It  was  by  her  couusel  that,  instead  of  adopting  the 
Benedictine  habit  at  St.  Gall,  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
secular  ministry,  and  returned  to  his  native  diocese  of 
Augsburg,  where  he  received  holy  orders.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  usage  of  his  time  he  made  a pilgrimage  to 
Rome,  and  soon  after  his  return,  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Augsburg,  on  the  death  of  Hiltine  in  the  year 
923.  The  details  of  his  history  as  administrator  of  this 
church,  which  had  suffered  serious  disorganization  * 
through  the  Magyar  invasion  and  other  wars,  would  be 
out  of  place  here;  but  they  are  related  with  much  cir- 
cumstantiality by  his  contemporary  biographer;  and  they 
throw  so  much  light  as  well  on  the  externals  of  the 
religious  life  of  the  time,  as  on  the  moral  and  spiritual 
character  of  the  people,  laity  as  well  as  clergy,  as  to 
merit  the  consideration  of  every  student  of  mediaeval 
history. 

ULRICI,  Hermann,  one  of  the  most  active  philo- 
sophical writers  in  Germany  since  Hegel’s  death,  was 
born  at  Pforten,  Prussia,  on  March  23,  1806.  Educated 
for  the  law,  he  gave  up  his  profession  upon  the  death 
of  his  father,  in  1829,  and  after  four  years  of  further 
study,  devoted  to  literature,  philosophy,  and  science, 
qualified  as  a university  lecturer.  In  1834  he  was  called 
to  a professorship  at  Halle,  where  he  remained  till 
his  death,  on  January  11,  1884.  His  first  works  were 
in  the  domain  of  literary  criticism.  His  treatise  On 
Shakespeare' s Dramatic  Art  (1839)  has  been  translated 
into  English.  His  later  works,  dealing  with  perennial 
problems  of  philosophy,  have  found  a more  extended 
circle  of  readers.  Such  are  Glauben  und  Wissen  (1858), 
Gott  und  die  Natur  (1862),  Gott  und  der  Mensch  (two 
vols.,  1866-73).  From  1847  onward  Ulrici  was  asso- 
ciated with  the  younger  Fichte  in  the  editorship  of  the 
Zeitschrift fur  Philosophie. 

ULSTER.  See  Ireland. 

ULTIMATUM,  in  diplomacy,  the  final  conditions  or 
terms  offered  by  one  government  for  the  settlement  of 
its  disputes  with  another;  the  most  favorable  terms 
which  a negotiator  is  prepared  to  offer,  whose  re- 


5980  ULT- 

jection  will  generally  be  considered  to  put  an  end  to 
negotiation. 

ULTRAMARINE,  a magnificent  blue  pigment, 
which  occurs  in  nature  as  a proximate  component  of 
Lapis  Lazuli,  (q.  v.)  Lapis  lazuli  has  long  been 
known  as  a precious  stone,  and  highly  valued  as  such, 
and  as  early  at  least  as  the  eleventh  century  the  art  of 
extracting  a blue  pigment  from  it  was  practiced. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  this  pig- 
ment began  to  be  imported  into  Europe  as  azurrum 
Ultramar inum . To  extract  it,  the  stone,  after  having 
been  powdered  coarsely,  is  heated  to  redness  and 
thrown  into  cold  water  to  facilitate  its  conversion  into 
a very  fine  powder,  which  is  next  treated  with  dilute 
acetic  acid  to  remove  the  carbonate  of  lime  which  is 
present  in  almost  all  specimens.  The  insoluble  blue 
residue  is  mixed  up  into  a “ dough  ” with  a composition 
of  resin,  pitch,  and  linseed  oil,  and  this  dough  is  then 
kneaded  under  water,  which  is  renewed  as  long  as  it 
runs  off  with  a blue  color.  The  blue  liquor,  when 
allowed  to  stand,  deposits  a fine  precipitate,  which  is 
collected,  washed,  dried,  and  sold  as  ultramarine.  As 
the  yield  amounts  to  only  2 to  3 per  cent,  of  the  min- 
eral used,  it  is  not  surprising  to  learn  that  the  pigment 
used  to  be  weighed  up  with  gold.  It  was  valued 
chiefly  on  account  of  its  brilliancy  of  tone  and  its  inert- 
ness in  opposition  to  sunlight,  oil,  and  slaked  lime  (in 
fresco-painting). 

In  1814  Tassaer  observed  the  spontaneous  formation 
of  a blue  compound,  very  similar  to  ultramarine,  if  not 
identical  with  it,  in  a soda-furnace  at  St.  Gobain,  which 
caused  the  “ Societe  pour  1’ Encouragement  d’lndustrie  ” 
to  offer  a prize  for  the  artificial  production  of  the  pre- 
cious color.  The  problem  was  solved  almost  simulta- 
neously by  Guimet  and  by  Christian  Gmelin,  then  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  Tubingen;  'but  while  Guimet 
kept  his  process  a secret  (it  has  indeed  never  become 
known)  Gmelin  published  his,  and  thus  became  the 
originator  of  an  industry  which  flourishes  to  this  day 
chiefly  in  Germany.  There  are  very  few  ultramarine 
works  in  other  countries,  and  none,  as  far  as  we  know, 
in  Great  Britain.  The  raw  materials  used  in  the  man- 
ufacture are — (1)  iron-free  kaolin,  or  some  other  kind 
of  pure  clay;  (2)  anhydrous  sulphate  of  soda;  (3)  anhy- 
drous carbonate  of  soda;  (4)  sulphur  (in  the  state  of 
powder);  and  (5)  powdered  charcoal  or  relatively  ash- 
free coal,  or  colophony  in  lumps.  The  numerous 
modes  of  manufacture  may  be  viewed  as  modifications 
or  combinations  of  three  processes. 

In  the  Nuremberg  process  the  soda  is  used  as  sulphate, 
or  partly  as  such  and  partly  as  carbonate.  The  follow- 
ing recipe  gives  an  idea  of  the  proportions  in  which  the 
materials  are  used: — kaolin  (calculated  as  anhydrous 
matter)  100  parts;  calcined  sulphate  of  soda  83  to  100 
(or  41  of  sulphate  and  41  of  carbonate);  charcoal  17; 
powdered  sulphur  13.  These  ingredients  are  mixed 
most  intimately ; they  are  then  rammed  tight  into  fire- 
clay crucibles  and  kept  at  a nearly  white  heat  for  seven 
to  ten  hours,  access  of  air  being  prevented  as  far  as 
possible.  The  product  obtained  is  a grayish  or  yellow- 
ish green  mass,  which  is  soaked  in  and  washed  with 
water;  the  porous  residue  is  ground  very  fine  in  mills, 
again  washed,  dried,  and  again  ground  in  the  dry  state 
and  passed  through  sieves.  The  product  at  this  stage 
has  a green  color,  and  is  sometimes  sold  as  “ green  ultra- 
marine,”  although  it  has  not  a high  standing  among 
green  pigments.  For  its  conversion  into  blue  ultra- 
marine  it  is  heated  with  sulphur  in  the  presence  of  air 
to  a relatively  low  temperature. 

In  the  carbonate  of  soda  process  the  soda  is  used 
solely,  or  at  least  principally,  in  the  carbonate  form. 
The  following  is  one  of  many  recipes: —kaolin  (calcu.- 


U M A 

lated  as  anhydrous  matter)  100;  carbonate  of  soda  100; 
charcoal  12;  sulphur  60.  The  mixture  is  heated  in  a 
reverberatory  furnace  to  form  in  the  first  instance  a 
white  mass,  which  is  so  porous  that  it  readily  passes, 
by  oxidation,  into  green  and  partly  even  into  blue  ultra- 
marine. 

Silica  ultramarine  is  soda-ash  ultramarine  in  whose 
preparation  a quantity  of  finely  divided  silica,  equal  to  5 
to  10  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  kaolin,  has  been 
added.  It  is  distinguished  by  a reddish  tinge,  which  is 
the  more  fully  developed  the  greater  the  proportion 
of  added  silica.  It  is  more  highly  proof  against  the 
action  of  alum  solution  than  non-siliceous  ultramarines. 

ULTRAMONTANE  (Latin,  beyond  the  mountains 
— the  Alps  in  relation  to  France),  that  part  in  the 
Church  of  Rome  which  assigns  the  greatest  weight  to 
papal  prerogative.  The  pope,  according  to  th  is  do  ctr ine, 
is  superior  to  general  councils,  and  independent  of  their 
decrees;  he  is  considered  to  be  the  source  of  all  jurisdic- 
tion in  the  church;  and  it  is  through  him,  and  not 
directly  in  virtue  of  their  episcopal  offices  that  the 
bishops  derive  their  powers  of  “jurisdiction”  as  dis- 
tinguished from  “order.”  The  Ultramontane  school 
has  been  the  opponent  of  those  doctrines  and  views 
which  favor  the  right  of  self-government  by  national 
churches. 

ULUGH  BEG,  Mirza  Mohammed  ben  Shah  Rok, 
astronomer,  grandson  of  Timur  {q.v.),  succeeded  his 
father  as  prince  of  Samarkand  in  1447,  after  having  foi 
years  taken  part  in  the  government,  and  was  murdered 
in  1449  by  his  eldest  son.  He  occupied  himself  with 
astronomical  pursuits,  and  erected  an  observatory  al 
Samarkand,  from  which  were  issued  tables  of  the  sun, 
moon,  and  planets,  with  an  interesting  introduction, 
which  throws  much  light  on  the  trigonometry  and  as* 
tronomical  methods  then  in  use  ( Prolegomenes  des  Ta- 
bles Astrono?niques  d’Ouloug  Beg , ed.  by  Sedillot, 
Paris,  1847,  and  translated  by  the  same,  1853).  The 
serious  errors  which  he  found  in  the  Arabian  star  cata- 
logues (which  were  simply  copied  from  Ptolemy,  adding 
the  effect  of  precession  to  the  longitudes)  induced  him  to 
redetermine  the  positions  of  992  fixed’  stars,  to  which  he 
added  twenty-seven  stars  from  Al  Sufi’s  catalogue, 
which  were  too  far  south  to  be  observed  at  Samarkand. 

ULVERSTON,  a market-town  in  the  northwest  of 
Lancashire,  England,  is  picturesquely  situated  near 
Morecambe  Bay,  on  the  borders  of  the  Lake  district, 
9 miles  northeast  of  Barrow-in-Furness,  and  256  north- 
west of  London.  The  town  bears  small  evidence 
of  its  great  antiquity.  The  principal  streets  branch 
from  the  market-place,  and  the  houses  built  of  stone 
are  generally  rough-cast  and  whitened.  A rivulet  flows 
through  the  town.  After  the  destruction  of  Furness 
Abbey,  Ulverston  succeeded  Dalton  as  the  most  im- 
portant town  in  Furness,  but  the  rapid  rise  of  Barrow 
within  recent  years  has  relegated  it  to  quite  a secondary 
place.  Formerly  it  had  a considerable  trade  in  linens, 
checks,  and  ginghams,  but  this  has  greatly  fallen  off. 
It  possesses,  however,  large  iron  and  steel  works 
(North  Lonsdale  Iron  and  Steel  Company),  a large 
chemical  works,  an  extensive  paper  manufactory,  a bolt 
manufactory,  breweries,  tanyards,  and  wooden  hoop 
manufactories.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary 
district  (area  3,120  acres)  in  1871  was  7,607,  and  in 
1901  it  was  12,008. 

ULWAR,  an  alternative  form  of  Alwar,  (q.v.) 

ULYSSES.  See  Odysseus. 

UMAN,  a district  town  of  Russia,  in  the  south  of 
the  government  of  Kieff,  is  now  (1898)  an  industrial  and 
trading  town,  with  28,628  inhabitants,  many  of  whom 
are  Jews,  who  Carry  on  an  active  trade  in  the  export  of 
corn,  spirits,  etc.  It  has  a remarkable  park  (290 


UMB 


acres),  planted  in  1 796  by  the  orders  of  Count  Potocki, 
in  connection  with  which  a gardening  school  is  main- 
lined. 

UMBALLA,  an  alternative  form  of  AmbAlA, 

UMBER.  See  Pigments. 

UMBILICAL  CORD,  or  Navel  String,  the  bond 
of  communication  between  the  foetus  (which  it  enters  at 
the  umbilicus  or  navel)  and  the  placenta,  which  is  at- 
tached to  the  inner  surface  of  the  maternal  womb.  It 
consists  of  the  umbilical  vein  lying  in  the  center,  and 
the  two  umbilical  arteries  winding  from  left  to  right 
around  the  vein.  Contrary  to  the  usual  course,  the 
vein  conveys  arterial  blood  to  the  foetus,  and  the  arte- 
ries return  venous  blood  to  the  placenta.  These  vessels 
are  imbedded  in  a yellow  gelatinous  matter,  known  from 
the  first  describer  as  Wharton’s  gelatine.  Nervous  fila- 
ments have  been  traced  into  the  cord;  but  the  presence 
of  lymphatics  is  doubtful.  The  whole  is  invested  by  a 
membrane  (the  amnion)  and  its  ordinary  length  is  about 
twenty  inches.  As  soon  as  a child  is  born,  and  its  res- 
piration fairly  established,  the  umbilical  cord  is  tied, 
and  divided  near  the  navel,  which  spontaneously  closes, 
the  fragment  of  attached  cord  dying  away. 

UMBILICUS  is  the  anatomical  term  for  the  navel. 

UMBRELLA  now  means  a portable  protector  from 
rain,  while  the  name  parasol  is  given  to  the  generally 
smaller,  lighter,  and  more  fanciful  article  carried  by 
ladies  as  a sun-shade.  But,  primarily,  the  umbrella 
(om brel/a,  Ital.  dim.  from  Lat.  umbra , shade,)  was  a 
sun-shade  alone — its  original  home  having  been  in 
hot,  brilliant  climates.  In  Eastern  countries,  from  the 
earliest  times,  the  umbrella  was  one  of  the  insignia  of 
royalty  and  power.  On  the  sculptured  remains  of 
ancient  Nineveh  and  Egypt  there  are  representations  of 
kings,  and  sometimes  of  lesser  potentates,  going  in  pro- 
cession with  an  umbrella  carried  over  their  heads ; and 
throughout  Asia  the  umbrella  had,  and  still  has,  some- 
thing of  the  same  significance. 

Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  the  umbrella  (6 Hid?, 
6kicc8 eiov , umbraculum  umbella)  was  used  by  ladies, 
while  the  carrying  of  it  by  men  was  regarded  as  a sign 
of  effeminacy.  Probably  in  these  southern  climes  it 
never  went  out  of  use,  and  we  find  from  allusions  by 
Montaigne  that  in  his  day  its  employment  as  a sun- 
shade was  quite  common  in  Italy.  The  umbrella  was 
not  unknown  in  England  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  was  already  used  as  a rain  protector. 

The  umbrella  as  at  first  used,  based  on  its  Eastern 
prototype,  was  a heavy  ungainly  article  which  did  not 
hold  well  together,  and  no  little  ingenuity  has  been  ex- 
ercised to  bring  it  into  the  elegant,  compact,  and  strong 
form  which  is  now  quite  common.  The  early  umbrella 
had  a long  handle,  with  ribs  of  whalebone  or  cane,  very 
rarely  of  metal,  and  stretchers  of  cane.  The  jointing 
of  the  ribs  and  stretchers  to  the  stick  and  to  each  other 
was  very  rough  and  imperfect.  The  covering  material 
consisted  of  oiled  silk  or  cotton,  heavy  in  substance, 
and  liable  to  stick  together  in  the  folds.  Gingham  soon 
came  to  be  substituted  for  the  oiled  cloth,  and  in  1848 
William  Sangster  patented  the  use  of  alpaca  as  an  um- 
brella covering  material.  One  of  the  most  notable  in- 
ventions for  combining  lightness,  strength,  and  elas- 
ticity in  the  ribs  of  umbrellas  was  the  “ Paragon  ” rib 
patented  by  Samuel  Fox  in  1852.  It  is  formed  of  a 
thin  strip  of  steel  rolled  into  a U or  trough  section,  a 
form  which  gives  great  strength  for  the  weight  of  metal. 
The  use  of  such  ribs,  combined  with  the  notched  rings 
and  runners  which  give  a separate  hinge  and  joint  to 
each  rib  and  stretcher,  and  with  the  thin  but  tough  cover- 
ing materials  now  in  use,  has  principally  contributed  to 
the  strength,  lightness  and  elegance  which  ordinary  um- 
brellas now  present.  Umbrella  silk  is  principally  made 

375 


5981 

at  Lyons  and  Crefeld;  but  much  of  it  is  so  loaded  in 
dyeing  that  it  cuts  readily  at  the  folds.  Textures  of 
pure  silk  or  of  silk  and  alpaca  mixed  have  better  wear- 
resisting  properties. 

UMBRIA  (OjtfipiKrj,  'OjufifHXOl,  O5///3/30L, 
Umbri).  The  early  Greeks  applied  the  name  Opppixrf 
to  all  central  and  northern  Italy.  Herodotus  (iv.  49) 
speaks  of  it  somewhat  vaguely,  as  if  it  extended  up  to 
the  Alps.  The  Umbrians  probably  extended  across 
central  Italy  from  sea  to  sea  down  as  far  as  Latium. 
Pliny  (iii.  13,  19)  tells  us  that  the  Umbri  were  con- 
sidered the  most  ancient  nation  of  Italy  (antiquissima 
gens  Italiae),  by  which  he  probably  means,  of  the 
Italian  stock.  The  Greek  writers  included  under  the 
name  of  Umbria  the  district  known  in  later  times  as 
Picenum.  Pseudo-Scylax  makes  Umbria  march  with 
Samnium,  and  describes  Ancona  as  a city  of  Umbria. 
The  Umbrians  seem  to  have  found  the  Siculi  and 
Liburni  in  occupation  of  the  land  into  which  they  ad- 
vanced, the  former  holding  the  parts  lying  toward  the 
interior,  the  latter  people  the  district  along  the  Adri- 
atic. The  Umbrians  were  one  of  the  chief  peoples  of 
that  branch  of  the  Indo-European  family  which  had  en- 
tered Italy  from  the  north  and  driven  out  and  absorbed 
the  older  inhabitants.  They  were  more  closely  con- 
nected with  the  Samnites  and  Oscans  than  with  the 
Latin  stock,  as  is  shown  by  their  language.  Their  pos- 
session of  the  fertile  regions  of  upper  Italy  exposed 
them  to  the  constant  assaults  of  fresh  bodies  of  inva- 
ders, pressing  on  over  the  Alps,  and  perhaps  likewise 
from  the  seaboard.  Their  force  was  extended  over  a 
wide  area,  and  thus  too  weak  to  withstand  the  attacks 
from  various  sides  to  which  they  were  exposed.  Thus 
their  extensive  territory  was  gradually  reduced  by  the 
successive  encroachments  of  other  peoples.  First  came 
the  Etruscans,  who,  according  to  Herodotus  (i.  94), 
were  Lydians,  who  established  themselves  in  the  land 
of  the  Umbrians.  From  which  side  of  Italy  they  made 
their  invasion,  whether  from  the  mouth  of  the  Po  or 
from  the  western  coast  of  what  later  became  Etruria, 
or  whether  from  both,  we  have  no  means  of  determin- 
ing. That  the  Umbrians  did  not  yield  without  a strug- 
gle we  cannot  doubt.  It  was  only  after  300  of  their 
towns  had  been  captured  by  the  Etruscans  that  they 
succumbed.  Nevertheless  they  still  retained  consider- 
able influence  in  upper  Italy,  which,  according  to 
Strabo,  continued  down  to  the  time  of  the  Roman  con- 
quest. 

At  this  time  Umbria  as  a state  consisted  of  the  region 
bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Tiber,  on  the  south  by  the 
Sabines,  on  the  east  by  Picenum  and  the  Adriatic,  while 
on  the  north  it  extended  close  up  to  the  southern  or 
Spinetic  mouth  of  the  Po.  How  much  farther  south 
the  Etruscan  sway  had  once  reached  we  cannot  deter- 
mine, but  that  they  had  once  held  this  region,  as  far  as 
Ravenna  at  least,  is  rendered  probable  by  the  tradition 
that  Ravenna  had  been  founded  by  a colony  of 
Thessalians  who,  not  brooking  the  insulting  treatment 
which  they  received  from  the  Etruscans,  gladly  admitted 
some  Umbrians,  who  thus  became  the  possessors  of  the 
city.  When  the  great  Gaulish  inroad  took  place  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fourth  century  B.C.  Etruscans  and  Um- 
brians alike  suffered  severely.  Some  of  the  Celtic  tribes 
crossed  the  Po  and  formed  permanent  settlements.  The 
Ananes  settled  in  the  Apennines,  the  Boii  between  the 
former  and  the  Adriatic;  next  came  the  Lingones;  and 
finally  the  Senones  occupied  the  seaboard  of  the  Adriatic 
as  far  as  the  Rubicon.  The  early  Greeks  had  included 
under  the  name  of  Umbria  the  district  along  the 
Adriatic,  afterward  known  as  Picenum.  This  consisted 
of  a fertile  region,  extending  from  beyond  Ancona  to 
the  river  Matnno.  Thus*  hi  the  advance  of  the  Gauls 


UMM— UND 


5982 

from  the  north  and  the  Picentes  from  the  south,  the 
Umbrians  were  shut  off  from  the  seaboard,  and  con- 
fined to  the  district  known  as  Umbria  in  historical 
times.  When  Rome  began  the  consolidating  of  Italy, 
Umbria  consisted  of  the  region  bounded  by  the  Ager 
Gallicus  on  the  north,  by  Etruria  (the  Tiber)  on  the 
west,  by  Picenum  on  the  east,  and  by  the  Sabines  on 
the  south.  The  Umbrians  kept  a desperate  hold  of 
this  district,  which  lies  between  the  two  arms  of  the 
Apennines.  Thenceforward  they  play  but  an  insig- 
nificant part  in  Italian  history.  This  is  explained  by 
the  physical  formation  of  their  country.  It  is  an  ex- 
tremely mountainous  region,  with  a few  small  plains 
between,  which  were  noted  for  their  fertility.  Hence 
arose  a number  of  small  but  thriving  communities, 
none  of  which  had  the  capacity  of  developing  into 
a leading  state  such  as  Rome  became  for  the  Latins. 
Their  want  of  seaports  likewise  excluded  them 
from  trade,  the  mouths  of  all  the  rivers  which 
flowed  from  their  country  being  in  the  hands  of  their 
enemies. 

Of  the  Umbrians’  political  and  municipal  organiza- 
tion little  is  known.  In  addition  to  the  city  (tota) 
they  seem  to  have  had  a larger  territorial  division  in 
the  tribus  (trifu,  acc. ) as  we  gather  from  Livy  (xxxi.  2, 
per  Umbriamquam  tribum  Sapiniam  vocant;  f/'.xxxiii. 
37)and  from  the  Eugubine  Tables  (trifor  Tarsinates,  vi. 
b.  54).  From  the  fertility  of  their  land  their  communi- 
ties were  very  prosperous.  The  olive  and  vine  flour- 
ished in  their  valleys ; they  grew  spelt  abundantly ; and 
the  boars  of  Umbria  were  famous.  Ancient  authors 
describe  the  Umbrians  as  leading  effeminate  lives,  and 
as  closely  resembling  their  Etruscan  enemies  in  their 
habits.  The  alphabet  consists  of  nineteen  letters.  The 
Umbrians  counted  their  day  from  noon  to  noon.  But 
whether  they  borrowed  this  likewise  from  the  Etrus- 
cans we  do  not  know  (Pliny,  ii.  77)*  In  their  measur- 
ing of  land  they  employed  the  vorsus , a measure 
common  to  them  and  the  Oscans  (Frontinus,  De 
Limit., p.  30), three  and  one-third  of  which  went  to  the 
Roman  jugerum.  When  the  Romans  undertook  the  con- 
quest of  Italy,  the  most  feeble  resistance  of  all  was 
offered  them  by  the  Umbrians.  In  the  great  strug- 
gle between  the  Samnite  confederacy  and  Rome,  Um- 
bria played  an  insignificant  part.  It  is  probable  that 
all  through  the  Second  Samnite  War  their  sympathies 
were  altogether  on  the  side  of  their  Samnite  kinsmen, 
and  that  some  assistance  was  afforded  by  individual 
communities.  It  is  not  unlikely  therefore  that  it  was 
with  a view  to  keep  the  Umbrians  in  check  that  the 
Romans  planted  a colony  at  Nequinum  on  the  Nar, 
whose  inhabitants  were  known  as  Nartes  Interamnates, 
and  who  are  included  with  the  Etruscans,  Iapydes,  and 
Tadinates  in  the  list  of  persons  who  were  forbidden  to 
be  present  at  the  sacred  rites  of  Iguvium.  At  length, 
in  308  B.C.,  the  Umbrians  made  a vigorous  effort  to  aid 
the  Samnites,  which,  had  it  taken  place  earlier  in  the 
war,  might  have  had  the  most  important  influence  on 
the  issue  of  the  struggle.  As  it  was,  it  came  too  late; 
the  Etruscans  had  already  laid  down  their  arms. 
When  the  battle  of  Sentinum  (295)  finally  crushed  the 
Samnites  and  Etruscans,  Umbria  remained  in  the  hands 
of  the  Romans.  Thenceforward  the  process  of  Latiniz- 
ing went  on  steadily,  for  by  the  first  century  B.C.  we 
find  them  employing  the  Latin  alphabet  in  copies  of 
the  ancient  sacerdotal  ritual  of  Iguvium  (see  Eugu- 
bine Tables).  We  know  that  the  Oscan  language 
only  finally  expired  in  the  first  century  of  our  era,  and 
there  is  no  reason  for  believing  that  the  Umbrian  had 
disappeared  much  earlier.  When  the  Romans  con- 
quered the  Senones,  280  b.c.,  the  Ager  Gallicus  was 
restored  to  Umbria,  and  both  together  formed  under 
the  empire  the  sixth  region  of  Italy* 


UMMERAPOORA,  another  form  of  Amarapura 
(q.  v.). 

UMPIRE  is  a third  arbitrator  appointed  by  two 
arbitrators  in  the  event  of  their  differing  in  opinion; 
and  when  the  reference  or  arbitration  has  devolved 
upon  the  umpire,  his  award  or  umpirage  becomes  final 
and  binding  on  the  parties.  In  certain  cases  the 
umpire  is  appointed  by  the  contesting  parties,  with- 
out the  intervention  of  arbitrators. 

UMROHAH,  a town  of  British  India,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Moradabad,  N.  W.  Provinces,  80  miles  E.N.E. 
of  Delhi.  Population  32,314. 

UNALASKA,  an  island  in  the  North  Pacific,  be- 
longs to  the  Fox  group  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  in 
latitude  550  52'  N.,and  1660  32'  W.  It  is  75  miles 
long,  and  in  some  parts  20  miles  broad,  has  a 
rugged  mountainous  surface,  and  is  thinly  peopled. 
Ships  are  here  supplied  with  all  necessaries  except 
wood. 

UNAO,  a British  district  in  the  Lucknow  division 
of  Oudh,  India,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  lieuten- 
ant-governor of  the  North-Western  Provinces.  The 
area  of  the  district  is  1,768  square  miles,  and  it  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Hardoi,  east  by  Lucknow, 
south  by  Rai  Bareli,  and  west  by  the  Ganges.  Unao 
is  very  flat,  and  has  no  features  of  particular  interest. 
Rich  and  fertile  tracts,  studded  with  groves,  alternate 
with  stretches  of  waste  land  and  plains  of  barren  usar, 
the  whole  being  intersected  with  small  streams,  the 
water  from  which  is  extensively  used  for  irrigation. 
The  Ganges  is  the  only  navigable  river  in  the  district. 
The  temperature  varies  from  about  750  to  1030  in  the 
hot  weather,  and  from  46°  to  790  in  the  cold  season. 
The  average  annual  rainfall  is  about  34  inches. 

In  1899  the  population  was  899,069;  of  these  830,- 
342  were  Hindus,  68,677  Mohammedans,  and  49 
Christians.  U nao,  the  capital  and  administrative  head- 
quarters, nine  miles  northeast  of  Cawnpore,  had  9,509 
inhabitants.  The  cultivated  area  of  Unao  amounted 
in  1885-86  to  598,131  acres,  and  289,356  acres  were 
returned  as  cultivable.  The  principal  crops  are  rice, 
wheat,  and  other  food  grains,  cotton,  sugar-cane,  and 
indigo.  The  cultivation  is  mainly  dependent  on  ir- 
rigation. The  principal  exports  are  grain  of  all  kinds, 
gur,  ghi,  tobacco,  and  a little  indigo  and  saltpeter; 
and  the  chief  imports  are  piece  goods,  salt,  iron,  cot- 
ton, spices,  etc.  The  gross  revenue  of  the  district  in 
1885-86  amounted  to  $915,415,  the  land  yielding  $724,- 
570.  During  the  mutiny  of  1857-58  Unao  was  the 
scene  of  several  severe  engagements  between  General 
Havelock’s  little  army  and  the  rebels. 

UNCIAL  LETTERS  — so  called  as  being  an  inch 
(Lat.  uncia)  long — characters  of  a large  and  round 
form,  used  in  some  ancient  MSS.  The  earliest  form 
of  an  alphabet  is  its  capitals,  and  the  oldest  Greek  and 
Latin  MSS.  are  written  entirely  in  capitals.  Uncial 
letters,  which  began  to  take  the  place  of  capitals  in 
the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  differ  from  them  in 
being  composed  of  rounded  and  not  straight  lines,  and 
exhibiting  a tendency  toward  greater  expedition  in 
style.  Uncial  writing  arose  as  writing  on  papyrus  or 
vellum  became  common,  the  necessity  for  more  rapid 
execution  leading  to  the  practice  of  curving  the  lines. 
It  being  more  easily  learned  than  the  cursive  style, 
was  probably  the  cause  of  its  becoming  the  favorite 
mode  of  writing  books  of  importance  among  the 
monkish  scribes  ; while  legal  instruments,  which  re- 
quired greater  dispatch,  were  executed  by  professional 
scribes  in  a corrupted  form  of  the  Roman  cursive 
hand.  Uncial  writing  prevailed  from  the  sixth  to  the 
eighth,  or  even  to  the  tenth  century. 

UNDERGRADUATE,  a student  of  a university  or 
college  who  has  not  yet  taken  his  first  degree. 


UND-UNI 


UNDINES  (perhaps  from  undo , a wave),  the  name 
given  in  the  fanciful  system  of  the  Paracelsists  to  the 
elementary  spirits  of  the  water.  They  are  of  the  fe- 
male sex.  Among  all  the  different  orders  of  elemen- 
tary spirits,  they  intermarry  most  readily  with  human 
beings,  and  the  Undine  who  gives  birth  to  a child  under 
such  a union,  receives  with  her  babe  a human  soul.  But 
the  man  who  takes  an  Undine  to  wife  must  be  careful 
not  to  go  on  the  water  with  her,  or  at  least  not  to  anger 
her  while  there,  for  in  that  case  she  will  return  to  her 
original  element.  Should  this  happen,  the  Undine  is 
not  supposed  to  consider  her  marriage  dissolved;  she 
will  rather  seek  to  destroy  her  husband  should  he  vent- 
ure on  a second  marriage.  Baron  dela  MotteFouque 
has  made  this  Paracelsist  fancy  the  basis  of  an  exquisite 
tale,  entitled  Undine . 

UNDULATORY  THEORY.  See  Optics  and 
Wave  Theory. 

UNGVAR,  chief  town  of  the  county  Ung,  in  the 
northeast  of  Hungary,  stands  on  the  river  Ung.  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  bishop  of  Munkacs,  and  has  a fine  Greek 
cathedral,  an  episcopal  seminary,  a lyceum,  a gym- 
nasium, and  also  a teachers’  college,  a county  hall,  and 
an  interesting  ancient  castle.  The  town  and  district 
produce  good  wine  in  large  quantity,  and  abound  in 
mineral  springs.  There  is  a good  trade  in  timber  and 
china  clay.  The  population  in  1896  was  15,460. 

UNICORN,  an  animal  with  one  horn.  The  name  is 
applicable  and  has  sometimes  been  applied  to  the  rhi- 
noceros, which  is,  for  example,  the  Sumatran  unicorn 
of  Marco  Polo.  But  the  figure  usually  associated  with 
the  name  is  the  well-known  heraldic  one  of  an  animal 
with  the  form  of  a horse  or  ass,  save  that  a long  straight 
horn  with  spiral  twistings,  like  the  tusk  of  the  narwhal, 
projects  from  its  forehead.  The  belief  in  the  existence 
of  a one-horned  animal  of  this  kind  goes  back  to  Aris- 
totle. Later  descriptions  of  the  Indian  unicorn,  e.g. , 
that  of  iElian  {Nat.  An.,  xvi.  20),  are  plainly  influenced 
to  some  extent  by  accounts  of  the  rhinoceros,  but  the 
authority  of  Aristotle  determined  the  general  form 
ascribed  to  the  animal.  The  twisted  horn,  of  which 
^Elian  already  speaks,  seems  to  have  been  got  by  refer- 
ring to  Aristotle’s  unicorn  actual  specimens  taken  from 
the  narwhal;  see  Yule’s  Marco  Polo , ii.  273.  The  an- 
cient and  mediaeval  lore  of  the  subject  may  be  seen  in 
Bochart  Hierozoicon , iii.  26.  The  familiar  legend  that 
the  unicorn  could  be  taken  only  by  the  aid  of  a virgin 
obtained  currency  through  the  Physiologus.  The  Eng- 
lish Bible,  following  the  Septuagint  (jiovdxepoo'a), 
renders  the  Hebrew  reem  (DfcO)  by  “unicorn.”  But 
two  horns  are  ascribed  to  the  reem.  in  Deut.  xxxiii.  1 7, 
and  the  Hebrew  word  reappears  in  Arabic  as  the 
name  of  the  larger  antelopes,  probably  the  Antilope 
leucoryx , while  in  Assyrian  the  rimu  appears  to  be  the 
wild  ox. 

UNIGENITUS,  BULL,  one  of  the  most  important 
documents  in  the  history  of  Jansenism.  It  was  occa- 
sioned by  the  publication  of  the  Reflexions  Morales  of 
Quesnel,  in  which  all  the  essential  principles  of  Jansenism 
were  revived,  and,  although  cautiously,  yet  systemati- 
cally explained,  so  far  to  form  the  basis  of  the  practical, 
moral,  and  religious  teaching  which  it  is  the  object  of 
the  Reflexions  Morales  to  convey.  The  book  was  at 
first  simply  prohibited  by  a brief  of  Pope  Innocent  XI., 
in  the  year  1 708 ; but,  as  it  found  many  patrons,  and 
especially  the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  Cardinal  de  Noailles, 
it  was  deemed  necessary  to  subject  it  to  a more  detailed 
examination,  the  result  of  which  was  that  101  propo- 
sitions were  extracted  from  it,  and  formally  condemned 
in  1713  by  a bull  commencing  with  the  word  “ Uni- 
genitus.”  The  mode  of  condemning  the  propositions 
was  peculiar,  being  that  which  is  technically  called 


5983 

Dcemnatio  in  globo.  The  whole  body  of  propositions 
were  condemned  as  “ heretical,”  “ false,”  “ rash,”  “ scan- 
dalous,” “ offensive  to  pious  ears,”  etc.,  without,  at  the 
same  time,  any  particular  propositions  being  pointed 
out  as  deriving  any  of  these  specific  forms  of  censure. 
This  circumstance,  with  others,  gave  rise  to  much  con- 
troversy, and  to  a prolonged  opposition  to  the  bulk 
DeNoailles  and  other  bishops  refused  to  accept  it  unless 
with  certain  qualifications;  on  the  contrary,  Louis  XIV. 
insisted  on  unconditional  acceptance;  but,  on  the  death 
of  Louis,  the  Regent,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  having 
given  his  countenance  to  the  opponents  of  the  bull,  the 
resistance  was  persisted  in,  and  eventually  a declaration 
was  put  forth  in  1718  by  certain  bishops,  four  in  number* 
appealing  from  the  Pope  to  a general  council.  This 
appeal  was  condemned  by  the  Pope,  nor  was  it  counte- 
nanced even  by  the  Regent,  but  a more  modified  appeal, 
“ from  the  pope  ill-informed  to  the  pope  better  informed,” 
was  afterward  published  by  De  Noailles,  which  obtained 
many  adherents,  and  by  which  the  opposition  was  kept 
alive  to  the  end  of  the  pontificate  of  Clement  XI.,  in 
1721,  and  even  under  his  successors,  Innocent  XIII. 
and  Benedict  XIII.  It  was  not  till  the  year  1730,  that, 
after  the  formal  registration  on  the  Bull  Unigenitus  by 
the  parliament  of  Paris,  the  party  thus  created  in 
France,  and  known  under  the  name  of  “ Appellants,” 
received  its  final  condemnation  from  the  civil  authority, 
after  which  it  gradually  died  out,  although  some  relics 
of  it  are  traceable,  even  after  all  the  storms  of  ths 
Revolution,  in  the  so-called  “ Petite  Eglise.” 

UNION.  The  crowns  of  England  and  Scotland  were 
united  under  one  sovereign  on  the  accession  of  James 
VI.  of  Scotland  to  the  English  throne  as  James  I.  in 
1603;  but  for  above  a century  longer  each  country  con- 
tinued to  be  ruled  by  its  respective  parliament,  the  in- 
terest of  the  one  often  coming  into  collision  with  that  of 
the  other.  After  various  fruitless  proposals  for  a closer 
connection  of  the  countries,  the  Scotch  were,  in  1702, 
prevailed  upon  to  send  twenty  commissioners  to  Lon- 
don, who,  with  twenty-three  English  commissioners, 
should  deliberate  on  the  terms  of  the  union.  Their 
proceedings,  after  being  broken  off,  were  resumed  in 
1706.  The  Scottish  commissioners  were  at  first  dis- 
posed to  a mere  federal  union,  and  objected  to  the  pro- 
posed assimilation  of  customs,  excise,  and  regulations  of 
trade:  but  a majority  were  at  last  brought  over  to  the 
views  of  the  English  commissioners;  and  the  minority, 
with  one  exception,  yielded.  The  union,  though  popu- 
lar in  England,  was  the  subject  of  great  dissatisfaction 
in  Scotland,  being  regarded  by  the  bulk  of  the  commun- 
ity as  a surrender  of  national  independence  to  a power- 
ful rival.  Addresses  against  it  were  presented  from  all 
quarters,  and  in  some  places  the  people  rose  in  arms, 
forming  regiments  of  horse  and  foot  to  oppose  it.  The 
treaty  was,  however,  after  strenuous  opposition,  rati- 
fied by  the  Scottish  as  well  as  by  the  English  parlia- 
ment, and  ultimately  completed  on  May  1,  1707.  Its 
principal  conditions  were  the  incorporation  of  England 
and  Scotland  into  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain, 
the  succession  of  whose  monarchs  was  to  be  the  same  as 
that  of  England.  There  was  to  be  one  parliament,  in 
which  the  peers  of  Scotland  would  be  represented  by 
sixteen  of  their  number  elected  each  parliament,  and 
forty-five  Scotch  members  were  to  sit  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  All  rights  and  privileges  were  to  be  com- 
mon between  the  subjects  of  both  kingdoms,  unless 
when  otherwise  agreed.  The  Episcopal  Church  was 
confirmed  in  England,  and  the  Presbyterian  in  Scot- 
land. 

The  laws  of  trade,  customs,  and  excise  of  Scotland 
were  to  be  assimilated  to  those  of  England,  and  the 
coinage,  weights  and  measures  of  the  two  countries 


UNI 


5984 

were  to  follow  a uniform  standard.  In  other  matters 
the  laws  of  Scotland  were  to  remain  in  force,  but  might 
be  altered  by  the  parliament  of  Great  Britain.  The 
separate  Privy  Council  of  Scotland,  which  the  Act  of 
Union  left  untouched,  was  abolished  the  following  year. 

Ireland  remained  a distinct  kingdom  till  the  year 
1801,  when  it  was  united  with  Great  Britam,  into  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  By  the 
terms  of  the  union,  the  separate  parliament  of  Ireland 
was  done  away  with,  and  Ireland  was  represented  in  the 
parliament  of  the  United  Kingdom  by  4 lords  spirit- 
ual and  28  lords  temporal  in  the  House  of  Lords 
and  120  members  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
Power  was  reserved  to  the  sovereign  to  create  one  peer 
of  Ireland  for  every  three  extinct  peerages  and  when  the 
peerage  of  Ireland  became  reduced  to  100  to  create  one 
peerage  for  each  one  that  became  extinct,  so  as  to  keep 
the  peerage  of  Ireland  up  to  100,  over  and  above  those 
Irish  peers  who  are  also  peers  of  England  and  Great 
Britain.  The  churches  of  England  and  Ireland  were 
united  into  one  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  The 
subjects  of  Ireland  were  placed  on  the  same  footing  as 
those  of  Great  Britain  in  respect  of  trade  and  navigation, 
»nd  in  all  treaties  with  foreign  powers;  and  the  law 
courts  of  Ireland  were  to  continue,  subject  to  the  regu- 
lations of  parliament ; writs  of  error  and  appeals  being 
decided  by  the  House  of  Lords  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
The  Anglican  church  in  Ireland  was  disestablished  and 
disendowed  in  1868.  Ireland  has  always  opposed  the 
Union,  which  was  obtained  by  bribery  and  fraud,  and 
this  gives  point  to  the  Home  Rule  agitation. 

UNION  COLLEGE,  a seat  of  learning  at  Schen- 
ectady, N.  Y.,  incorporated  in  1795,  chiefly  by  the 
efforts  of  Gen.  Philip  Schuyler,  a distinguished  officer 
of  the  American  Revolution.  It  was  named  Union 
from  its  being  established  by  the  cooperation  of  several 
religious  denominations.  Its  first  president  was  John 
Blair  Smith  of  Philadelphia,  who  was  succeeded  in  1799 
by  Jonathan  Edwards,  the  younger;  but  its  great  pros- 
perity and  usefulness  were  secured  under  the  presidency 
of  Rev.  Eliphalet  Nott,  from  1804  until  his  death  in 
l86^.  By  his  zeal  and  enterprise  it  was  endowed  and 
equipped  with  buildings,  library,  and  natural  history 
cabinets.  In  1873  a school  of  engineering,  a medical 
college,  and  a law  school  were  associated  with  the 
Union  College,  now  known  as  the  Union  University. 

UNION  JACK  (from  the  jacque,  or  surcoat,  charged 
with  a red  cross,  anciently  worn  by  the  English  soldiers), 
the  national  banner  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  formed  out  of  the  combination  of 
the  crosses  of  St.  George,  of  St.  Andrew,  and  of  St. 
Patrick,  these  three  crosses  being  the  national  banners 
of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  respectively.  The 
first  Union  Jack,  which  was  introduced  by  a royal  proc- 
lamation in  1606,  three  years  after  the  union  of  the  Scot- 
jish  with  the  English  crown,  combined  only  the  crosses 
?f  St.  George  and  St.  Andrew.  This  combination  was 
|>y  royal  proclamation  of  date  July  28,  1707,  constituted 
ihe  national  flag  of  Great  Britain.  On  the  union  with 
Ireland,  a new  union  ensign  was  devised,  in  which  the 
cross  of  St.  Patrick  was  introduced,  with  its  four  limbs 
edged  with  white  on  one  side.  This  awkward  specimen 
of  heraldry  forms  the  second  and  now  existing  union 
ensign. 

UNIONTOWN,  the  capital  of  Fayette  county, 
Penn.,  and  one  of  the  many  handsome  cities  met  with  at 
brief  intervals  throughout  the  interior  of  the  State,  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  the  Fayette  county  branch  of  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad  and  on  the  Pennsylvania 
Central,  seventy  miles  southeast  of  Pittsburgh.  It  was 
one  of  the  most  prominent  points  on  the  National  road, 
at  a period  in  the  early  history  of  the  nation  when  that , 


public  improvement  was  the  highway  of  emigration 
from  the  Alleghanies  to  the  Missouri  river,  and  is  to- 
day of  equal  importance  as  a receiving  and  shipping 
point  on  two  of  the  leading  lines  of  railway  in  the  coun- 
try. Besides  being  the  depot  and  distributing  center 
for  an  immense  area  of  agricultural  territory,  Union* 
town  also  handles  very  large  quantities  of  coke  and  non, 
in  the  production  of  which  heavy  outlays  are  made  an- 
nually. The  city  contains  one  savings  and  two  national 
banks,  a court-house,  four  weekly  papers,  ten  churches, 
the  Madison  college,  a high  school,  soldiers’  orphans’ 
school,  several  hotels  and  a large  number  of  stores. 
Manufactures  embrace  coke,  glass,  machinery,  flour, 
carriages,  cigars,  and  iron.  The  population  has  been 
increased  from  3,265  in  1880  to  7,344  in  1900. 

UNITARIANISM.  The  term  Unitarianism  in  its 
widest  sense  includes  certain  lines  of  the  great  religious 
and  theological  movement  or  revolution  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  the  sixteenth  century,  when  this  is  regarded  as 
the  commencement  of  the  process  of  the  humanization 
of  theology  and  ethics  on  the  basis  of  the  autonomy  of 
the  human  mind.  In  another  sense  the  term  stands  for 
a set  of  theological  opinions,  more  or  less  variable,  and 
yet  in  their  general  drift  connected,  some  of  them  as  old 
as  Christianity,  and  one  section  of  which  only  is  indicated 
by  the  term  when  used  as  synonymous  with  Antitrini- 
tarianism.  Poland,  Transylvania,  England,  and  America 
are  the  only  countries  in  which  Unitarian  congregations 
have  existed  in  any  numbers  or  for  any  length  of  time. 
Elsewhere,  either  the  law  of  the  land  has  rendered  their 
existence  impossible,  or  they  have  been  unnecessary  in 
consequence  of  the  substantial  adoption  by  the  existing 
churches  of  their  principles  and  doctrines.  The  former 
was  the  case  in  Italy,  Switzerland,  Germany,  and  Eng- 
land in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  the 
latter  to  a certain  extent  in  England  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  still  more  in  Germany  in  the  eighteenth  and 
nineteenth  centuries,  and  in  Holland  in  the  present  cen- 
tury, as  also  to  a large  extent  in  France  in  the  Reformed 
Church. 

The  Unitarians  in  Poland  under  the  names  of  Arlans, 
Samosatenians,  Pinczowians,  were  formed  into  a separate 
church  in  1565  by  their  exclusion  as  Antitrmitarians 
from  the  synods  of  the  Trinitarian  Protestants.  Very 
early  in  the  progress  of  the  Reformation  in  Poland  in- 
dividuals had  arrived  at  heterodox  opinions  on  baptism 
and  the  Trinity,  very  much  under  the  influence  of  the 
heterodox  Italian  refugees  in  Switzerland,  some  of  whoiti 
visited  Poland.  Gonesius  and  Gregory  Pauli  were  the 
first  to  openly  preach  Antitrinitarian  doctrine.  After 
their  separation  from  the  orthodox,  the  Polish  Uni- 
tarians developed  divergent  views  as  to  the  nature  of 
Christ,  as  to  the  lawfulness  of  paying  divine  worship  to 
Him,  as  to  the  subjects  of  baptism  (infants  or  adults), 
and  as  to  the  relation  of  Christians  to  the  state.  On  the 
first  point  some  were  Arians  and  others  Humanitarians, 
while  those  who  claimed  divine  worship  for  Christ  were 
called  Adorantes  and  those  of  the  opposite  view  Non- 
adorantes.  An  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  party  was 
made  by  the  arrival  of  Fausto  Sozzini  at  Cracow  in 
1597  (see  Socinus).  He  succeeded  in  converting  the 
great  majority  of  the  churches  to  his  views  and  in  silenc- 
ing the  dissentients.  Henceforth  the  Polish  Unitari* 
ans-  adopted  the  Socinian  practice  of  paying  worship  to 
Christ,  the  Socinian  view  of  the  necessity  of  baptism 
and  of  the  Christain’s  duty  toward  the  state.  They  rapidly 
became  a numerous  and  powerful  body  in  Poland,  distin- 
guished by  the  rank  of  their  adherents,  the  ability  and 
learning  of  their  scholars,  the  excellence  of  their  schools, 
and  the  superiority  and  wide  circulation  of  their  theologi- 
cal literature.  Racow,  the  theological  center  of  the 
Sociaians.  with  its  school  and  printing  presses,  obtained 


UNI 


a world-wide  fame.  But  before  the  death  of  Fausto 
Sozzini  (1604)  the  situation  of  the  Unitarians  became 
more  difficult,  and  in  1611  the  Jesuits  obtained  their  first 
open  triumph  over  them.  The  final  blow  to  the  whole 
body  followed  in  1658,  when  all  adherents  of  “ the  Arian 
and  Anabaptist  sect  ” were  commanded  to  quit  the 
kingdom  within  two  years.  A few  renounced  their 
faith,  but  the  large  majority  fled  into  Transylvania, 
Prussia,  Silesia,  Holland,  and  England. 

Next  to  Poland  Transylvania  was  the  most  impor- 
tant seat  of  Unitarianism.  It  is  generally  considered 
that  the  Italian  refugee,  Biandrata,  was  the  founder  of 
Translyvanian  Unitarianism,  but  the  present  repre- 
sentatives of  the  body  claim  for  it  a nobler  and  domestic 
origin.  Biandrata  attended  John  Sigismund  as  a phy- 
sician in  1563,  and  under  his  influence  Unitarianism 
made  rapid  progress.  In  1568  its  professors,  favored 
by  the  king  and  many  magnates,  after  separating  from 
the  orthodox  church,  constituted  themselves  a distinct 
body  under  the  distinguished  man,  Francis  David,  who 
is  now  regarded  as  the  apostle  of  true  Transylvanian 
Unitarianism.  Their  principal  center  was  Klausenburg 
(Kolozsvar),  where  they  had  a large  church,  a college, 
and  a printing-press.  But  the  same  conflict  between  a 
more  radical  and  a more  conservative  tendency  which 
appeared  among  the  Unitarians  of  Poland  greatly  dis- 
turbed the  churches  of  Transylvania,  particularly  with 
regard  to  the  worship  of  Christ.  Gradually  the  Socin- 
ian  view  prevailed,  though  in  1618  an  old  order  to 
worship  Christ  required  reenforcement.  In  the  latter 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  more  logical  view 
of  David  entirely  disappeared.  Under  the  Austrian 
dynasty  the  Unitarians  were  often  exposed  to  great 
trials,  until  Joseph  II.  secured  to  them  their  rights 
and  privileges.  But  of  late  years  the  Transylvanian 
Unitarians  have  been  in  close  relation  with  their 
co-religionists  in  England  and  America,  some  of  the 
ministers  having  been  educated  at  Manchester  New 
College,  and  in  consequence  their  theology  is  becoming 
essentially  modern.  The  number  of  members  was 
32,000  in  1789,  and  in  1847  40,000,  distributed  in  104 
parishes  with  120  pastors.  Their  present  number  is 
535  539  in  iq6  parishes.  Their  chief  centers  are 
Kolozsvar,  Thorda,  and  Keresztur,  where  they  have 
excellent  schools. 

For  two  and  a half  centuries  previous  to  the  rise  of 
organized  Unitarianism  in  England,  opinions  commonly 
called  by  this  name  found  numerous  individual  advocates 
and  some  martyrs.  John  Bidle  (1615-62)  published 
catechisms  of  Unitarian  doctrine,  translated  Socinian 
works,  and  publicly  discussed  and  preached  an  English 
form  of  Socinianism.  But  the  severity  of  the  law 
against  Antitrinitarians,  coupled  with  the  gradual 
growth  of  free  opinion  in  the  Established  Church 
and  among  the  Presbyterian  congregations,  made 
the  formation  of  separate  Unitarian  churches  impos- 
sible, and,  as  was  felt,  less  necessary  for  another  hun- 
dred years.  In  the  year  1791  was  formed  the  Uni- 
tarian Book  Society  for  the  distribution  of  literature, 
and  several  provincial  associations  originated  about 
the  same  time.  In  1806  the  Unitarian  Fund  Society 
Was  established,  with  the  object  of  promoting  Unitarian 
Christianity  by  direct  mission  work.  In  1818  arose 
another  society  for  protecting  the  civil  rights  of  Unita- 
rians. These  various  societies  were  consolidated  in 
1825  under  the  name  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Unita- 
rian Association,  which  has  now  its  headquarters  in  the 
building  formerly  used  as  Lindsey’s  chapel  and  residence 
in  Essex  street,  London.  The  penal  laws  against  Anti- 
trinitarianism,  which  had  long  been  obsolete,  were  re- 
pealed in  1813,  and  in  1844  the  right  of  Unitarians  to 
the  chapels  which  they  held  in  aucceesion  from  their 


5985 

Presbyterian  forefathers  was  legally  secured  to  them  by 
the  Dissenters’  Chapels  Act  without  altering  their  un-. 
dogmatic  trust-deeds.  With  the  rise  of  a more  spiritual 
philosophy  in  Germany,  which  bore  fruit  in  England 
and  America  before  the  close  of  the  second  decade  of 
the  century,  the  theology  of  English  Unitarianism  un- 
derwent a radical  change,  very  much  in  the  first  instance 
under  the  influence  of  Doctor  Channing’s  writings. 

English  Unitarian  theology  was  thereby  brought  into 
close  sympathy  with  modern  scientific  theology  in  Ger- 
many and  elsewhere.  This  great  and  saving  trans- 
formation was  mainly  due  directly  to  James  Martineau, 
J.  J.  Tayler,  and  J.  H.  Thom,  aided  by  the  writings  of 
Channing  and  then  of  Theodore  Parker.  The  number 
of  congregations  in  England  and  Wales  generally 
described  as  Unitarian  is  about  300,  nearly  half  of  which 
date  from  between  1662  and  1750,  and  nearly  all  of 
which  have  undogmatic  trust-deeds.  Their  constitution 
is  purely  congregational.  For  the  education  of  their 
ministers  they  have  Manchester  New  College,  London 
(strictly  undenominational),  the  Unitarian  Home  Mis- 
sionary Board,  Manchester,  and  Carmarthen  College, 
supported  and  managed  by  the  Presbyterian  Board  in 
London,  but  practically  Independent  and  Unitarian. 
The  organs  of  the  body  are  The  Inquirer , The  Chris • 
tian  Life,  The  Unitarian  Herald  (weeklies),  and  The 
Christian  Reformer  (monthly).  In  Scotland  there  are 
seven  Unitarian  congregations  and  two  Universalist, 
the  latter  being,  as  in  America,  Unitarian  in  doctrine. 
In  Ireland  the  number  is  about  forty,  being  nearly  all 
Presbyterian  in  constitution.  They  are  much  stronger 
in  the  north  than  in  the  south  of  Ireland.  In  the  north 
Antitrinitarian  views  began  to  spread  about  1750;  but 
the  first  congregation  at  Dublin  traces  its  Unitarianism 
back  to  Thomas  Emlyn,  who  was  imprisoned  for  his 
Arian  opinions  in  1702  at  the  instigation  of  orthodox 
Dissenters. 

In  the  United  States  Unitarianism  had  no  organized 
existence  previous  to  1815,  and  as  in  England  at  the 
present  time  the  name  has  always  covered  great  differ- 
ences of  opinion  within  a common  outline  of  belief  or 
common  drift  of  religious  thought.  Historical  Ameri- 
can Unitarianism  represents  “ the  liberal  wing  of  the 
Congregational  body.”  Of  the  existing  370  churches 
120  or  more  were  originally  the  parish  churches  founded 
by  the  Puritan  Congregationalists,  which,  like  the  Pres- 
byterian congregations  in  England,  passed  gradually 
from  Calvinism  through  Arminianism  to  Unitarianism, 
of  which  Harvard  College  became  the  spiritual  center. 
In  1812  there  was  but  one  church  in  America  professedly 
Unitarian  (that  of  King’s  Chapel,  Boston),  though  the 
ministers  of  Boston  generally  held  Unitarian  views.  In 
1815  Belsham’s  account  of  the  “ State  of  the  Unitarian 
Churches  in  America”  (in  his  Life  of  Lindsey , London* 
1812)  led  to  a controversy,  the  issue  of  which  was  the 
distinct  avowal  of  Unitarian  principles  on  the  part  of 
the  liberal  clergy  of  New  England.  Dr.  Channingcame 
forward  as  the  prophet  and  champion  of  American  Uni- 
tarianism, though  the  older  he  grew  the  more  emphati- 
cally he  repudiated  sectarianism  in  every  form.  The 
Congregational  body  was  thereby  split  into  two  sec- 
tions, one  of  which  styled  themselves  Unitarian  Con- 
gregation alists.  In  1825  the  American  Unitarian  Asso- 
ciation was  formed,  mainly  for  the  diffusion  of  Unita- 
rian literature  and  the  support  of  poor  congregations. 
At  that  time  the  Unitarian  churches  numbered  about 
122.  Twenty  years  later  they  were  some  280,  while 
now  they  are  about  370.  The  theological  colleges  of 
the  body  are  the  Divinity  School  of  Harvard  University, 
which  is,  like  Manchester  New  College,  undenomina- 
tional, and  the  Theological  School  of  Meadville.  From 
1815  to  about  1836  a Biblical,  semi-rationalistic,  semi- 


U N I 


5986 

supernaturalistic  theology  prevailed,  in  the  heart  of 
which  Channing’s  elevated  ethical  ideas  were  fermenting 
and  slowly  preparing  a new  birth.  From  1836  forces 
such  as  Biblical  criticism,  Carlyle  and  Emerson’s  “ tran- 
scendentalism,” and  Theodore  Parker’s  “absolute  re- 
ligion ” opened  the  era  of  modern  theology,  bringing 
American  Unitarianism  into  living  touch  with  the  philos- 
ophy and  theology  of  Germany.  An  effort  in  1865  to 
bring  the  right  and  left  wings  of  the  body  into  a closer 
confederation  with  a more  pronounced  profession  of 
Christianity  led  to  the  formation  of  a Free  Religious 
Association  on  the  broad  basis  of  the  love  of  truth  and 
goodness.  In  the  Western  States  the  same  controversy 
as  to  the  basis  of  religious  association  has  been  raging 
for  more  than  ten  years.  In  May,  1886,  a resolution 
was  passed  by  the  Western  Unitarian  Conference  by  a 
majority  of  more  than  three-fourths  adopting  a purely 
ethical  and  non-theological  basis.  This  led  to  a split  in 
the  body,  and  the  formation  of  a new  Western  Associa- 
tion on  a distinctly  Christian  platform.  The  left  wing 
of  American  Unitarians  show  greater  sympathy  with 
recent  scientific  speculation  and  less  fear  of  pantheistic 
theories  than  is  the  case  with  English  Unitarians.  The 
organs  of  the  body  are  The  Unitarian  Review  (Boston), 
The  Christian  Register  (Boston),  and  The  Unity 
(Chicago). 

In  1901  there  were  about  72,000  Unitarians  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  550  ministers,  and  450 
houses  of  worship.  The  receipts  for  the  year  were 
$79,221,  and  the  expenditures  were  $103,989,  showing 
a deficiency  of  $24,775,  which  had  to  be  withdrawn 
from  the  general  fund;  the  latter,  after  accounting  for 
the  addition  of  $69,000,  and  for  the  amounts  which  had 
been  withdrawn  from  it,  aggregated  $139,609. 

UNITAS  FRATRUM.  See  Moravian  Breth- 
ren. 

UNITED  BRETHREN  IN  CHRIST,  a body  of 
Protestant  Christians  in  the  United  States  of  America,  . 
which,  in  1901,  included  4,229  organized  churches 
(4,078  in  1877),  243,841  members  (143,881  in  1877), 
1,897  itinerant  ministers,  890  local  preachers,  3,169 
Sunday  schools,  with  28,547  teachers  and  179,729 
scholars.  The  total  value  of  church  property  held  by 
the  denomination  was  $3,345,064;  the  sum  raised  for 
salaries,  church  building  expenses,  colleges,  missions, 
and  the  like  made  a total  of  $842, 700.  The  organiza- 
tion of  the  church  is  Episcopal  (six  bishops,  two  of  them 
missionary),  but  its  polity  combines  features  of  the 
Methodist,  Congregational,  and  Presbyterian  systems. 
The  creed  may  be  described  as  Arminian.  The  mem- 
bers are  prohibited  from  joining  secret  societies,  and 
from  using  alcohol  or  engaging  in  its  manufacture  or 
sale.  In  connection  with  the  denomination  are  a theo- 
logical institution,  ten  colleges,  and  nine  academies,  or 
seminaries,  of  a higher  grade,  with  sixty-two  professors, 
sixty-four  other  teachers,  and  2,486  students.  There 
are  forty-nine  annual  conferences,  forty-six  of  them  in 
the  United  States.  Two  missions  in  the  Sherbro  coun- 
try, in  West  Africa,  have  six  American  missionaries, 
nine  churches,  and  2,631  members;  in  Germany  there 
are  ten  German  missionaries,  with  twenty  churches  and 
615  members. 

The  denomination  originated  in  the  labors  of  P.  W. 
Otterbein  (1726-1813),  a native  of  Germany,  who  came 
as  a missionary  to  Lancaster,  Pa.,  in  1752,  and  settled 
at  Baltimore  in  1774.  He  became  associated  with 
Martin  Boehm,  a Mennonite  preacher,  and  also  coop- 
erated with  the  Methodist  preachers  when  they  came  to 
Pennsylvania.  The  first  annual  conference  was  held  in 
1800. 

UNITED  KINGDOM,  The,  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  is  the  official  title,  adopted  in  1801,  now 


applied  to  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  (see  Great 
Britain).  The  total  area  is  returned  as  77,657,065 
acres,  or  120,979  square  miles — England  and  Wales 
embracing  37,370,041  acres  (whereof  Wales  4,721,633), 
Scotland  19,467,077,  and  Ireland  20,819,947.  The 
population  of  the  counties  according  to  the  census  of 
1901  was  41,605,323,  and  their  parliamentary  representa- 
tion as  determined  by  the  Redistribution  Act  of  1885 
was  661.  In  the  enumeration  of  the  Scottish  members 
of  parliament,  groups  of  burghs  are  included  in  the 
counties  containing  the  burghs  whence  they  are  respect- 
ively named,  while  it  may  be  said  in  passing  that  Kinross 
county  is  united  with  Clackmannan,  Nairn  with  Elgin, 
and  Selkirk  with  Peebles.  The  addition  of  the  nine 
university  representatives  (England,  5;  Scotland,  2; 
Ireland,  2)  brings  the  total  membership  of  the  House 
of  Commons  to  670. 

For  the  Islands  in  the  British  Seas  the  figures  are  as 
follows:  Isle  of  Man — 141,263  acres,  population,  54,758; 
Channel  Islands — 48,322  acres,  population,  95,841. 

UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  The,  ir, 
point  of  numbers  the  third  of  the  Presbyterian  organi- 
zations of  Scotland,  was  formed  1847  bv  the  union  oi 
the  United  Secession  and  Relief  Churches.  The  doc- 
trinal standards  are  those  of  the  other  Presbyterian 
churches  of  Scotland,  and  the  formula  employed  at  the 
ordination  of  ministers  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Estab, 
lished  and  Free  Churches;  but  adherence  to  the  doc* 
trinal  standards  is  professed  in  view  of  the  Declaratory 
Act  of  1879,  according  to  which  signatories  “are  not 
required  to  approve  of  anything  in  the  standards  of  the 
church  which  teaches  or  is  supposed  to  teach  compulsory 
or  persecuting  and  intolerant  principles  in  religion,” 
and  are  allowed  freedom  of  opinion  on  all  points  which, 
in  the  judgment  of  the  church,  do  not  enter  into  the 
substance  of  the  faith.  The  denomination  in  1901  con- 
sisted of  thirty-two  presbyteries  and  91 1 congregations 
(518  in  1847),  with  a total  membership  of  115,901 
(175,066  in  1878;  178,195  in  1883),  thus  representing 
about  fourteen  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  Scotland. 
The  number  of  baptisms  in  1886  was  9,894;  there  were 
887  Sunday  schools,  with  11,994  teachers  and  97,535 
scholars,  besides  788  advanced  Bible  classes,  with  30,535 
scholars.  The  total  income  of  the  church  in  1886  was 
$1,867,720  (average  for  ten  years  from  1877  to  1886, 
$1,878,300);  of  this  total  $1,686,500  was  ordinary  con- 
gregational income,  and  $681,225  missionary  and 
benevolent  income.  The  average  stipend  paid  to  each 
minister  was  $1,295.  There  is  a divinity  hall  in  Edin- 
burgh with  four  professors  and  (session  1887-88)  114 
students.  The  term  of  study  is  three  years.  The 
United  Presbyterian  Church  has  missions  in  Jamaica  (a 
synod  with  four  presbyteries),  Trinidad,  Kaffraria,  Old 
Calabar,  India,  China,  Japan,  and  Spain.  The  mission 
staff  consists  of  sixty  ordained  Europeans,  twenty-two 
ordained  natives,  eight  medical  missionaries,  three 
European  evangelists,  and  nineteen  female  missionaries. 
Under  these  are  502  native  evangelists,  teachers  and 
other  helpers.  In  1886  the  membership  of  the  native 
congregations  was  13,214  (10,215  in  1881).  In  Jamai- 
ca there  is  a theological  institution.  At  the  end  of 
1875  the  denomination  had  620  congregations,  with 
190,242  members,  but  in  June,  1876,  98  of  its 
congregations  in  England,  with  20,207  members,  were 
incorporated  with  the  English  Presbyterian  Church. 

The  general  causes  which  led  to  the  first  great  seces- 
sion from  the  Church  of  Scotland  as  by  law  established 
in  1688  have  already  been  briefly  indicated  under  Pres- 
byterianism; compare  also  Scotland,  Church  of. 
Its  immediate  occasion  rose  out  of  an  Act  of  Assembly 
of  1732,  which  abolished  the  last  remnant  of  popular 
election  by  enacting  that,  in  cases  where  patrons  might 


U N I 


neglect  or  decline  to  exercise  their  right  of  presentation, 
the  minister  was  to  be  chosen,  not  by  the  congregation, 
but  only  by  the  elders  and  Protestant  heritors. 

In  the  following  October  Ebenezer  Erskine  ( q>v .), 
minister  of  Stirling,  who  happened  to  be  moderator  of 
the  synod  of  Perth  and  Stirling,  preached  a synod  ser- 
mon, in  the  course  of  which  he  took  occasion  to  refer 
to  the  Act  in  question  as  in  his  opinion  unscriptural  and 
unconstitutional.  Some  of  his  expressions  were  ob- 
jected to  by  members  of  synod  because  “ tending  to  dis- 
quiet the  peace  of  the  church  and  impugning  several 
Acts  of  Assembly  and  proceedings  of  church  judicato- 
ries,” and  after  long  and  keen  debate  it  was  resolved 
that  he  should  be  censured  for  them.  This  judgment, 
on  appeal,  was  affirmed  by  the  Assembly  in  May,  1733, 
whereupon  Erskine  protested  to  the  effect  that  he  held 
himself  still  at  liberty  to  teach  the  same  truths  and  to 
testify  against  the  same  or  similar  evils  on  every  proper 
occasion.  This  protest,  in  which  he  was  joined  by 
William  Wilson,  Alexander  Moncrief,  and  James  Fisher, 
ministers  at  Perth,  Abernethy,  and  Kinclaven  respect- 
ively, was  regarded  by  the  Assembly  as  contumacious, 
and  the  commission  of  Assembly  was  ordered  to  pro- 
cure its  retractation  or  to  proceed  to  higher  censures. 
In  November,  accordingly,  the  protesting  ministers  were 
severed  from  their  charges,  their  churches  declared  va- 
cant, and  all  ministers  of  the  church  prohibited  from 
employing  them  in  any  ministerial  function.  They  re- 
plied by  protesting  that  they  still  adhered  to  the  princi- 
ples of  the  church,  though  now  obliged  to  “ make  a se- 
cession from  the  prevailing  party  in  ecclesiastical  courts,” 
maintaining  their  continued  right  to  discharge  all  the 
duties  of  the  ministerial  and  pastoral  office  “ according 
to  the  word  of  God,  the  Confession  of  Faith,  and  the 
constitution  of  the  church,”  and  appealing  to  the  “ first 
free,  faithful,  and  reforming  General  Assembly  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland.” 

In  December,  1733,  they  formally  constituted  them- 
selves into  a presbytery,  but  for  some  time  their  meet- 
ings were  devoted  almost  entirely  to  prayer  and  relig- 
ious conference.  In  1734  they  published  their  first 
“testimony,”  with  a statement  of  the  grounds  of  their 
secession,  which  made  prominent  reference  to  the  doc- 
trinal laxity  of  previous  General  Assemblies.  In  1736 
they  proceeded  to  exercise  “judicial  powers  ” as  a church 
court,  published  a “judicial  testimony,”  and  began  to 
organize  churches  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  Hav- 
ing been  joined  by  four  other  ministers,  including  the 
well-known  Ralph  Erskine,  they  appointed  Mr.  Wilson 
professor  of  divinity.  For  these  acts  proceedings  were 
again  instituted  against  them  in  the  Assembly,  with  the 
result  that,  having  disowned  the  authority  of  that  body 
in  an  “act  of  declinature,”  they  were,  in  1740,,  all  de- 
posed and  ordered  to  be  ejected  from  their  churches. 
A violent  controversy  arose  in  1 745  respecting  the  re- 
ligious clause  of  the  oath  taken  by  burgesses  in  Edin- 
burgh, Glasgow,  and  Perth,  and  resulted,  in  April,  1747, 
in  a “breach,”  when  two  bodies  were  formed,  each 
claiming  to  be  the  “ Associate  Synod;”  those  who  con- 
demned the  swearing  of  the  burgess  oath  as  sinful  came 
to  be  popularly  known  as  “ Antiburghers,”  while  the 
other  party,  who  contended  that  abstinence  from  it 
should  not  be  made  a term  of  communion,  were  desig- 
nated “ Burghers.” 

The  Associate  (Antiburgher)  Synod  held  its  first 
meeting  in  Edinburgh  in  the  house  of  Adam  Gib  (q.v,) 
on  April  10,  1747.  It  grew  with  considerable  rapidity, 
and  in  1788  had  ninety-four  settled  charges  in  Great 
Britain  and  nineteen  in  Ireland,  besides  a presbytery 
in  America.  For  purposes  of  organization  it  was  formed 
in  that  year  into  four  provincial  synods,  and  took  the 
name  of  “ The  General  Associate  Synod.  ” The  “ new 


5987 

light  ” controversies  as  to  the  province  of  the  civil  mag- 
istrate in  matters  of  religion  led  to  the  publication  of  a 
revised  testimony  in  the  “ voluntary”  sense  in  1804,  and 
in  consequence  M’Crie,  the  historian  of  Knox,  with 
three  other  brethren,  withdrew  to  form  the  Constitu- 
tional Associate  presbytery.  The  Associate  (Burgher) 
Synod  held  its  first  meeting  at  Stirling  on  June  16, 
1 747.  The  number  of  congregations  under  its  charge 
rapidly  increased,  and  within  thirty  years  there  were 
presbyteries  in  connection  with  it  in  Ireland  and  North 
America,  as  well  as  throughout  Scotland.  In  1782  the 
American  presbyteries  took  the  designation  of  the  Asso- 
ciate Reformed  Church  in  America.  About  the  year  1795 
the  “ voluntary  ” controversy  respecting  the  power  of  the 
civil  magistrate  in  matters  of  religion  arose  within  this 
synod  also,  and  alarge  majority  was  found  tohave  adopted 
“ new  light  ” views.  This  led  in  1799  to  the  secession 
of  the  “ Associate  Presbytery,”  which  in  1805  took  the 
designation  of  the  Associated  Synod  or  Original  Burgh- 
er Synod.  In  1820  the  General  Associate  or  Anti- 
burgher Synod  (to  the  number  of  129  congregations) 
united  with  the  154  congregations  of  the  Associate  or 
Burgher  synod.  The  body  thus  constituted  “ The 
United  Secession  Church,”  had  increased  by  1847  to 
400  congregations,  the  whole  of  which  united  in  that 
year  with  the  Relief  Synod  to  form  the  United  Presby- 
terian Church. 

The  Presbytery  of  Relief  was  constituted  in  1761  by 
three  ministers  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  one  of  whom 
was  Thomas  Gillespie,  (q.v.)  The  number  of  congre- 
gations under  its  charge  increased  with  considerable 
rapidity,  and  a relief  Synod  was  formed  in  1773,  which 
in  1847  had  under  its  jurisdiction  136  congregations;  oi 
these  1 18  united  with  the  United  Secession  Church  in 
that  year.  The  Relief  Church  issued  no  distinctive 
“ testimonies,”  and  a certain  breadth  of  view  was  shown 
in  the  formal  declaration  of  their  terms  of  communion, 
first  made  in  1773,  which  allowed  occasional  communion 
with  those  of  the  Episcopal  and  Independent  persuasion 
who  are  “ visible  saints.  ” A relief  theological  hall  was 
instituted  in  1824. 

UNITED  PROVINCES.  See  Holland. 

* UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA,  The,  a Fed- 
eral Republic,  occupying  the  southern  part  of  the  North 
American  continent  and  some  Pacific  islands;  the  largest 
republic  and  largest  highly  civilized  nation  in  the  world ; 
consisting  of  forty-five  States,  one  Federal  District,  and 
four  organized  and  two  partly  organized  Territories; 
with  various  outlying  and  detached  territorial  possessions. 
The  geographical  range  of  the  United  States  proper,  ex- 
clusive of  the  detached  Territories  and  other  possessions, 
is  from  240  20'  to  490  (at  one  point  490  20'  for  a few 
miles)  north  latitude,  and  from  66°  48'  to  1240  32'  longi- 
tude west  from  Greenwich.  Its  greatest  extension  is 
thus  about  3,100  miles  east  and  west,  and  1,780  miles 
north  and  south.  Its  area  is  55,370  square  miles  of  water 
and  2,970,230  square  miles  of  land,  not  including  Alaska 
and  Hawaii.  The  population  in  1900,  exclusive  of 
Alaska,  Hawaii  and  the  Indian  Territory,  was  75,693,734. 

History. 

Consideration  of  so  vast  and  complex  a subject 
as  that  of  the  United  States  naturally  begins  with 
its  historical  phases.  The  history  of  the  United 
States  is  largely  the  history  of  North  America, 
and  indeed  of  the  entire  western  world.  It  was 
upon  the  shores  of  this  country  that  the  earliest 
landings  of  Europeans  in  America  were  made.  That 
was  in  the  latter  part  of  the  tenth  century.  A Norse  sea 

* Copyright,  1904,  by  The  Saalfield  Publishing  Company. 


UNI 


5988 

rover,  from  Norway  by  way  of  Iceland,  either  in  some 
daring  wanderings  or  driven  out  of  his  way  by  storms, 
reached  the  coast  of  Greenland,  thence  crossed  to 
Labrador,  and  skirted  the  coast  as  far  as  Long  Island 
Sound  and  New  York  Bay.  At  least  one  colony  was 
planted  by  the  Norsemen,  on  the  shores  of  Narragansett 
Bay,  in  the  present  State  of  Rhode  Island,  to  which  the 
name  of  Vinland  was  given.  But  it  was  short-lived,  and 
by  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  very  memory 
of  it  had  perished,  save  in  some  hero-sagas  of  the  north. 

When  Christopher  Columbus,  therefore,  formed  his 
project  of  a western  voyage  of  discovery,  the  existence  of 
unknown  lands  beyond  the  Atlantic  was  unsuspected. 
The  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  was  a period  of 
extraordinary  enterprise  and  restlessness  among  the 
chief  nations  of  Europe.  Men  were  fascinated  especially 
by  maritime  adventure,  learning  for  the  first  time  some- 
thing of  the  true  shape  of  the  earth,  dispelling  the  fables 
that  had  covered  the  distant  seas  with  impenetrable 
darkness  and  encircled  the  tropics  with  a zone  of  fire ; 
and  searching  out  convenient  routes  to  the  Indies,  a 
region  of  romance  and  mystery  which,  in  the  popular 
imagination,  offered  inexhaustible  wealth  of  gold,  jewels, 
silks,  spices,  and  all  else  that  was  rarest,  most  precious, 
and  most  beautiful.  Columbus,  who  was  a Genoese  sea 
captain,  had  been  a careful  student  of  geography,  cor- 
recting the  scanty  knowledge  of  the  time  by  whatever  he 
could  learn  from  the  reports  of  the  most  adventurous 
sailors.  If  any  vague  rumor  of  islands  in  the  West 
reached  him  he  seems  to  have  put  no  faith  in  it.  Satisfied 
that  the  earth  was  round,  but  greatly  underestimating  its 
size,  he  believed  that  he  could  reach  the  Indies  by  sailing 
due  west  from  Europe,  a distance  of  not  more  than  2,400 
miles;  and  the  fantastic  dangers  with  which  scholars 
and  navigators  argued  that  such  a route  into  the  void 
must  be  beset  he  knew  had  no  existence.  His  theory, 
therefore,  embraced  an  error  of  no  great  consequence# 
with  a truth  of  the  first  value  to  civilization.  The  discov- 
ery of  America  was  not  an  accident,  but  something 
reasoned  out.  As  Humboldt  says,  it  was  “ a conquest  of 
reflection.”  Columbus  spent  many  years  vainly  urging 
his  scheme  at  various  European  courts.  He  was  listened  to 
at  last  by  the  Spanish  sovereigns,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
the  queen  espousing  his  cause  with  especial  generosity ; 
and  on  the  3d  of  August,  1492,  he  was  enabled  to  set 
sail  with  three  small  vessels  from  the  port  of  Palos,  in 
Andalusia.  The  voyage  was  long,  and  the  crews,  some 
of  whom  had  been  impressed,  were  in  almost  open  mutiny, 
when  land  was  made  out  on  the  morning  of  October 
12th,  and  the  adventurers  went  ashore  upon  a small 
green  island,  of  which  they  took  possession  in  the  name 
of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  This  island,  called  by 
Columbus  San  Salvador,  was  one  of  the  group  now 
known  as  the  Bahamas,  perhaps  either  the  present  San 
Salvador,  or  the  neighboring  Watling’s  Island ; but  the 
most  careful  investigation  has  failed  to  identify  it  posi- 
tively. Columbus  spent  three  months  among  the  islands, 
visiting  Cuba  and  Hayti,  and  returning  to  Palos  in 
triumph,  persuaded  that  he  had  reached  the  Indies  and 
that  Cuba  was  a part  of  the  Asiatic  continent.  He  made 
four  voyages  to  the  new  world,  discovering  the  South 
American  continent  in  1498,  and  exploring  part  of  Central 


America  in  1502,  but  he  never  became  aware  of  his  mis- 
take. Slandered  by  disappointed  adventurers,  and 
grossly  ill-treated  by  Ferdinand,  he  died  in  poverty  and 
disgrace. 

The  Spaniards  pushed  their  explorations  with  energy. 
They  overran  the  islands  and  the  neighboring  parts  of 
Central  and  South  America.  Balboa  crossed  the  isth- 
mus of  Darien  and  waded  into  the  Pacific,  the  long- 
sought  South  Sea  (1513).  Cortez  conquered  the  rich 
Indian  empire  of  Mexico  ( 1519— 21),  and  Pizarro  over- 
threw the  civilization  of  Peru  (1531-36).  Everywhere 
the  Spaniards  ravaged  the  land  for  gold.  They  built 
towns,  established  vice-regal  governments,  founded  mili- 
tary colonies,  drove  the  Indians  to  work  in  the  mines,  and 
in  less  than  half  a century  raised  upon  lust,  murder,  av- 
arice, slavery,  and  pillage,  a New  Spain,  which  poured 
uncounted  millions  into  the  treasury  of  the  King.  They 
crossed  into  the  countries  now  forming  the  United  States, 
where  Ponce  de  Leon  (1512)  sought  the  fountain  of  per- 
petual youth  in  Florida.  Panfilo  de  Narvaez  wandered 
for  six  years  (1528-34)  between  Florida  and  Mexico. 
Hernando  de  Soto,  setting  out  from  Florida  on  an  errand 
of  rapine  and  slaughter,  discovered  the  Mississippi  (1541) 
and  was  buried  in  its  waters.  Ayllon  went  as  far  north 
as  Maryland,  and  expeditions  from  Mexico  entered  New 
Mexico  and  California.  The  Spaniards  made  the  first 
permanent  settlement  in  the  United  States  at  St.  Augus- 
tine (1565),  and  the  second  at  Santa  Fe  (1582).  For  a cen- 
tury after  the  discovery  they  were  by  far  the  most  redoubt- 
able and  most  enterprising  of  the  adventurers  in  the  New 
World,  and  if  the  United  States  had  yielded  the  gold  of 
which  they  were  in  search  it  seems  likely  that  they  would 
have  possessed  the  whole  country.  Fortunately  the  wealth 
of  California  was  not  revealed  until  the  Spanish  power 
had  recoiled  before  a higher  civilization. 

Other  nations  had  not  been  entirely  indifferent  to  the 
wonderful  things  happening  across  the  ocean,  but  it  was 
long  before  they  realized  their  opportunity.  John  Cabot, 
a Venetian  in  the  service  of  Henry  VII.  of  England,  dis- 
covered the  North  American  continent  (1497)  a year 
before  the  mainland  of  South  America  was  seen  by  Co- 
lumbus. He  coasted  from  Labrador  (probably)  to  Vir- 
ginia, and  his  son,  Sebastian,  the  next  year  cruised 
between  Newfoundland  and  Hatteras.  Upon  these  voya- 
ges the  English  subsequently  founded  their  claims  to  the 
country,  but  at  the  time  no  attempt  was  made  to  occupy 
it.  Equally  barren  was  the  expedition  of  the  Portuguese 
Cortereal  (1500  or  1501),  who  reached  the  mouth  of  the  St. 
Lawrence.  Verrazzano,  an  Italian  in  the  French  service, 
coasting  from  North  Carolina  to  Maine  (1523),  was  the 
first  to  learn  that  America  is  not  a part  of  the  Indies. 
The  French  were  more  alert  than  the  English,  and  more 
moderate  in  their  ambition  than  the  Spaniards.  They 
engaged  in  the  Newfoundland  fisheries  in  the  first  years 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  as  early  as  1534  they  at- 
tempted the  colonization  of  Newfoundland  and  Canada. 
The  three  expeditions  which  they  dispatched  under 
Cartier  between  1534  and  1541  were  not  successful;  but 
in  the  combination  of  missionary  and  trading  enterprise 
these  ventures  exhibited  the  plan  of  action  which  the 
French  afterward  followed  with  great  profit.  Their  pol- 
icy was  to  secure  the  traffic  in  furs  by  establishing  inti- 


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mate  relations  with  the  Indian  tribes,  and  they  secured 
their  ascendency  more  by  the  influence  of  the  priests 
than  by  the  show  of  force.  It  was  not  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventeenth  century,  however,  when  Cham- 
plain came  out  with  a colony  (1605),  and  the  Jesuits 
established  villages  of  Christian  Indians  in  New  England 
and  New  York,  that  the  French  settlements  began  to 
prosper.  Quebec  was  founded  in  1608.  Champlain  dis- 
covered the  lake  which  bears  his  name  in  1609. 

By  this  time  England  also  had  begun  to  compete  in 
earnest  for  the  great  prize.  Henry  VIII.,  Edward,  and 
Mary  were  too  busy  at  home  to  trouble  themselves  with 
American  affairs  ; but  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  the  whole 
nation  stirred  with  a bold  and  adventurous  life.  Frob- 
isher and  Davis,  searching  for  a passage  to  India, 
discovered  the  straits  now  called  by  their  names ; and 
Sir  Francis  Drake,  half  hero,  half  pirate,  circumnavigated 
the  globe  (1577-80),  pillaging  the  Spanish  settlements  of 
Chili  and  Peru,  and  taking  formal  possession  of  Cali- 
fornia. The  first  attempt  by  Englishmen  to  colonize  any 
part  of  North  America  was  made  in  1583  by  Sir  Hum- 
phrey Gilbert  and  his  half  brother,  the  brilliant  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh.  Gilbert  sailed  in«command  of  a fleet, 
and  took  nominal  possession  of  Newfoundland  where 
many  others  were  before  him ; but  the  colonists,  after 
collecting  some  worthless  mineral  supposed  to  be  silver, 
became  disheartened  and  abandoned  the  enterprise. 
Gilbert  perished  at  sea  on  the  way  home.  Raleigh  was 
not  discouraged.  Pie  sent  out  two  ships  under  Philip 
Amidas  and  Arthur  Barlow  to  explore  further.  They 
brought  back  so  fair  a report  of  the  country  about 
Roanoke  Island,  N.  C.,  that  the  next  year  (1585)  Ralph 
Lane  was  dispatched  with  a.  hundred  men  to  plant  a 
colony  there,  and  Raleigh  called  the  new  land  Virginia, 
in  honor  of  the  “ Virgin  Queen.”  Reduced  almost  to 
starvation  by  their  own  folly  and  misconduct,  and  in- 
volved in  hostility  with  the  Indians,  the  settlers  were  glad 
of  the  chance  offered  them  the  next  season  to  go  home 
with  Sir  Francis  Drake.  A second  colony  brought  out 
to  Roanoke  by  Sir  Francis  Grenville  (1586)  and  a third 
led  by  John  White  (1587)  totally  disappeared,  and  no 
trace  of  their  fate  has  ever  been  discovered.  Raleigh 
could  do  no  more. 

The  voyage  of  Bartholomew  Gosnold,  who  discovered 
Cape  Cod  in  1602,  and  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
plant  a colony  on  Cuttyhunk  Island,  in  Buzzard’s  Bay, 
drew  fresh  attention  to  the  New  ,England  coast,  though 
Gosnold  himself  afterwards  gave  his  service  to  Virginia. 
Merchants  of  London  and  the  west  of  England  embarked 
in  American  ventures  as  a joint-stock  enterprise,  and 
James  I.  granted  letters  patent  to  two  companies,  with 
privileges  of  trade  and  settlement  in  all  the  territory  be- 
tween Cape  Fear  and  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  or  from  the 
Spanish  posts  to  the  French.  To  the  Plymouth  Company, 
whose  members  were  chiefly  men  of  Plymouth,  Bristol, 
and  other  ports  of  the  West,  was  assigned  all  the  coast 
north  of  latitude  38°.  To  the  London  Company,  so 
named  because  its  shareholders  were  mostly  men  of 
London,  was  allotted  all  the  coast  south  of  latitude  410. 
Thus  their  grants  overlapped,  the  middle  portion,  from 
Long  Island  to  the  Chesapeake,  being  a common  ground 
which  either  might  occupy.  Before  either  could  avail 


itself  of  this  privilege,  however,  a new  competitor  ap- 
peared, dividing  the  domains  of  New  England  and  Vir- 
ginia by  a barrier  more  substantial  than  a royal  patent. 

In  1609  Captain  Henry  Hudson,  an  Englishman  in  the 
service  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  searching  for 
a passage  to  India,  entered  the  Bay  of  New  York,  dis- 
covered the  river  which  bears  his  name,  and  ascended 
beyond  the  present  site  of  Albany.  The  Dutch  based 
extensive  claims  to  the  coast  upon  his  voyage.  A very 
small  part  of  their  pretensions  was  ever  recognized,  but 
they  promptly  settled  down  to  their  fur  trade  on  the 
Hudson,  and  built  a temporary  fort  on  the  site  of  the 
present  city  of  New  York  in  1613,  and  a permanent  one 
near  Albany  in  1614.  With  their  coming  the  occupation 
of  the  coast  may  be  said  to  have  become  complete,  and 
the  eastern  part  of  America  was  divided  into  five  regions, 
known  then  or  soon  afterwards  as  New  France,  New 
England,  New  Netherland,  Virginia,  and  Florida.  They 
were  separated  from  one  another  by  undefined  and  dis- 
puted limits,  and  on  the  west  they  had  no  boundaries 
at  all. 

Settlement  of  Virginia. 

It  was  the  London  Company  which  made  the  first 
permanent  English  settlement  in  America.  The  part- 
ners sent  out  three  small  vessels  commanded  by  Captain 
Christopher  Newport,  and  carrying  105  emigrants.  They 
arrived  in  Chesapeake  Bay  in  April,  1607,  and  the  build- 
ing of  Jamestown,  on  James  River,  was  begun  the  next 
month.  The  government  of  the  colony  was  lodged  in  a 
council  named  by  the  King,  and  the  councilors  elected  a 
president.  The  choice  of  officers  was  not  fortunate,  and 
the  settlers,  though  there  were  some  good  men  among 
them,  were  mostly  of  the  refuse  material  always  abundant 
in  such  new  ventures.  There  were  only  twenty  mechan- 
ics, with  a mob  of  vagabond  gentlemen,  servants,  soldiers, 
and  idlers.  Quarrelsome,  mutinous,  and  improvident, 
they  were  kept  in  something  like  order  solely  by  the  per- 
sonal influence  of  Captain  John  Smith,  an  adventurer  of 
the  best  type,  who  had  passed  through  some  strange 
experiences  in  the  wars  against  the  Turks,  and  who 
brought  to  this  Virginia  undertaking  a knowledge  of 
men,  a capacity  to  command,  the  daring  of  an  explorer, 
and  the  plain  sense  of  a practical  colonist.  From  the 
first  he  was  the  real  leader  of  the  community,  so  far  as 
they  consented  to  have  any.  He  saved  them  from  starva- 
tion by  getting  corn  from  the  savages ; he  staved  off 
hostilities  with  the  natives  ; and  on  several  occasions, 
when  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  hostile  Indians,  he  escaped 
death  by  his  tact  and  ingenuity. 

The  legend  of  his  rescue  by  Pocahontas,  the  daughter 
of  the  powerful  chief  Powhatan,  and  of  the  romantic  at- 
tachment which  the  young  girl  afterwards  showed  for 
him,  was  long  a favorite  chapter  of  American  history. 
Late  research  has  thrown  much  doubt  upon  the  dramatic 
incidents  of  this  story ; but  it  is  certain  that  Pocahontas 
showed  great  friendship  for  the  whites,  serving  them 
bravely  in  their  greatest  need,  bringing  them  food,  and 
once  averting  a general  massacre  by  hurrying  to  the 
settlement  at  night  and  giving  warning  of  the  intended 
attack.  After  Smith  had  left  the  country,  the  ungrateful 


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colonists  took  her  prisoner  by  treachery,  and  held  her 
for  ransom.  In  her  captivity  she  embraced  Christianity, 
was  baptized  by  the  name  of  Rebecca,  and,  marrying  one 
of  the  emigrants  named  John  Rolfe,  went  with  him  to 
England,  where  she  was  presented  at  court  and  gravely 
recognized  as  a princess.  She  died  in  England,  as  she 
was  on  the  point  of  returning  to  America. 

Even  Smith’s  energy  and  ingenuity  could  not  save  the 
colonists  from  themselves.  More  than  half  of  them  per- 
ished the  first  year ; and  although  three  parties  of  re- 
cruits were  sent  out  in  1608-9,  they  were  of  the  same 
wretched  quality  as  the  original  shipment.  Instead  of 
tilling  the  ground,  they  searched  for  channels  to  the  un- 
known South  Sea,  and  loaded  their  ships  with  useless 
dirt  which  they  supposed  to  contain  gold.  Smith  had 
been  elected  president  in  1608,  but  the  next  year  he  was 
injured  by  an  accidental  explosion  of  gunpowder,  and 
went  to  England  for  surgical  aid.  His  departure,  des- 
tined to  be  final,  nearly  proved  the  ruin  of  the  colony. 
He  left  490  persons  in  the  settlement,  and  in  six  months 
they  were  all  dead  but  sixty,  most  of  them  by  famine. 

The  survivors  built  small  vessels  in  which  they  hoped 
to  reach  the  English  fishermen  off  Newfoundland,  and 
abandoning  Jamestown  in  June,  1610,  they  set  out  upon 
their  melancholy  voyage.  But  in  the  James  River  they 
met  an  English  fleet  coming  to  their  aid.  It  brought  a 
large  party,  of  settlers  and  abundant  supplies,  and  at  the 
head  of  the  expedition  was  Lord  De  la  Warr,  with  a 
commission  as  governor  for  life.  The  deserted  houses  of 
Jamestown  were  now  reoccupied ; hope  was  restored ; 
more  profitable  industries  than  gold-hunting  were  en- 
couraged ; food  was  easily  raised  on  the  fertile  Virginia 
lands ; valuable  crops  of  tobacco  were  shipped  to  Eng- 
land ; and  before  long,  respectable  young  women  began 
to  emigrate  to  a country  where  the  planters  wanted  noth- 
ing, perhaps,  so  much  as  wives.  The  improved  state  of 
things  was  owing  in  no  small  measure  to  the  wiser  pol- 
icy of  the  London  Company,  which  had  been  reorgan- 
ized, and  had  received  a new  patent.  The  proprietors 
now  began  to  put  away  the  delusion  that  Virginia  was 
the  gateway  of  the  gorgeous  East,  and  to  learn  that  it 
offered  wealth  only  as  the  reward  of  industry  and  prudent 
enterprise. 

Lord  De  la  Warr  did  not  remain  long  in  America,  and 
his  wise  and  firm  administration  was  riot  always  imitated 
by  his  successors.  The  Company,  moreover,  was  slow  to 
understand  that  thrifty  and  well-ordered  communities 
were  not  likely  to  be  created  in  Virginia  by  men  who 
were  too  shiftless  or  vicious  to  live  in  England.  Yet,  by 
degrees,  the  better  class  of  emigrants  took  control ; many 
of  the  lazy  gentlemen  learned  to  work ; and  new  settle- 
ments were  established  on  the  James  River.  The  terms 
upon  which  the  Company  granted  lands  favored  the  for- 
mation of  large  plantations,  and  the  English  practice  of 
selling  convicts  into  servitude  in  Virginia  for  a period 
of  years  gave  the  rich  proprietors  a supply  of  labor. 
Prisoners  of  this  class  were  not  always  felons,  many  being 
transported  for  political  offences  during  the  Scottish  and 
civil  wars,  and  on  the  expiration  of  their  service  they  en- 
joyed the  same  rights  as  other  colonists.  African  slaves 
were  first  brought  in  by  a Dutch  vessel  in  1619,  and  this 
was  the  beginning  of  negro  slavery  in  the  United  States, 


though  the  number  of  slaves  for  many  years  was  very 
small.  The  growth  of  a Virginian  aristocracy,  under  all 
the  conditions  of  the  colony,  was  almost  inevitable,  and 
from  an  early  date  the  division  of  classes  was  well 
marked,  and  the  landed  gentry  followed  as  far  as  they 
could  the  social  customs  of  the  Old  Country. 

In  1619  the  Company  made  an  important  innovation 
by  instructing  Governor  Yeardley  to  summon  a represent- 
ative assembly,  the  first  legislature  ever  chosen  in 
America ; and  two  years  later  they  granted  to  the  Vir- 
ginia colony  a written  constitution,  by  which  authority 
was  confided  to  a governor  and  council  appointed  by 
the  Company,  and  an  Assembly,  consisting  of  the  council 
and  a house  of  burgesses,  elected  by  the  people.  Bills 
passed  by  the  Assembly,  however,  required  the  assent 
of  the  governor  and  the  Company.  This  fell  far  short  of 
popular  self-government,  but  it  was  an  advance  upon  the 
ideas  of  colonial  management  current  at  that  time,  and  a 
good  beginning  for  the  development  of  political  liberties. 
It  is  to  the  credit  of  the  London  Company  that  they  so  soon 
perceived  the  truth  which  the  whole  later  history  of  North 
American  colonization  has  demonstrated  — that  there  is 
no  stability  or  principle  of  growth  in  communities  which 
are  not  taught  to  depend  upon  themselves.  The  policy 
of  the  Company,  nevertheless,  was  little  to  the  taste  of 
King  James  I.,  and  after  futile  efforts  to  obtain  from  the 
colonists  a surrender  of  their  privileges,  he  canceled  the 
charter  in  1624.  But  beyond  the  substitution  of  a royal 
governor  for  one  appointed  by  the  Company,  there  was 
no  immediate  change  in  the  administration  of  the 
province.  The  dissolution  of  the  trading  corporation 
which  had  thus  far  maintained  a more  or  less  restrictive 
proprietorship  over  Virginia,  rather  helped  the  colonists 
in  taking  their  interests  into  their  own  hands.  Under 
Charles  I.  they  practically  ruled  themselves,  and  were 
allowed  to  levy  their  own  taxes.  Under  the  Common- 
wealth they  secured  the  right  of  electing  their  governor, 
although  they  were  conspicuous  for  their  fidelity  to  the 
House  of  Stuart.  An  aristocratic  party  obtained  the 
upper  hand  after  the  Restoration,  kept  the  Assembly  in 
power  beyond  the  term  for  which  it  had  been  elected,  im- 
posed severe  taxes,  and  restricted  the  suffrage  to  land- 
owners  ; but  this  was  a reactionary  movement  within  the 
colony  itself,  and  not  the  only  instance  in  our  history  in 
which  popular  government  has  taken  the  freak  o. 
abridging  popular  liberties. 

Three  times  in  the  first  half  century  after  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Virginia  Legislature,  the  prosperity  of  the 
thriving  colony  received  a severe  check.  Powhatan  was 
always  a friend  to  the  whites  from  the  time  of  the  mar- 
riage of  Pocahontas.  After  his  death,  his  brother  anu 
successor,  Opecancanough,  comprehending  better  what 
the  steady  encroachments  of  the  settlers  foreboded, 
planned  a general  massacre,  and  on  the  22d  of  March, 
1622,  the  savages  suddenly  attacked  the  plantations  and 
killed  350  persons.  The  colonists  gathered  in  fortified 
towns,  and  a bloody  war  followed.  In  a few  days  the 
number  of  settlements  in  Virginia  was  reduced  from 
eighty  to  eight.  The  savages  suffered  severely,  as  well 
as  the  English  ; yet  in  1644  they  rose  again,  killing  several 
hundred  of  the  colonists,  and  establishing  a condition  of 
more  or  less  active  hostility,  which  did  not  cease  until 


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they  had  been  gradually  expelled  from  the  fertile  coast 
region. 

An  Indian  war  on  the  border  of  Maryland  (1675) 
brought  on  the  third  crisis  in  the  history  of  the  young  col- 
ony. Intense  dissatisfaction  had  been  excited  among 
the  population  by  the  exactions  and  usurpations  of  the 
aristocratic  party  in  the  local  government  and  the  op- 
pressive policy  of  the  Parliament  at  home.  The  plan  of 
compelling  the  colonies  to  pay  tribute  to  British  trades- 
men, which  was  destined  a century  later  to  cost  the 
crown  so  dear,  had  already  been  established,  and  the 
navigation  laws  of  1660  and  1663  forbade  the  Ameri- 
cans to  buy  or  sell  in  any  country  except  England,  or  to 
ship  their  produce  in  any  except  English  vessels.  The 
laws  bore  severely  upon  a planting  colony  like  Virginia, 
and  were  harshly  enforced.  So  serious  was  the  disaffec- 
tion that  when  a popular  young  planter  named  Bacon 
raised  an  armed  force  to  repel  the  Indian  forays,  the  gov- 
ernor, Sir  William  Berkeley,  distrusting  his  ultimate  in- 
tentions, declared  him  a rebel  and  attempted  to  disperse 
his  followers.  Whatever  may  have  been  Bacon’s  de- 
signs, this  was  enough  to  insure  an  insurrection.  The 
volunteers  first  attacked  and  beat  the  Indians  and  then 
marched  against  Jamestown,  which  they  burned  to  the 
ground  (Sept.,  1676);  but  Bacon  died  of  fever  in  the 
midst  of  his  triumphs,  and  the  rebellion  was  thereafter 
easily  suppressed,  without  having  clearly  shown  its  char- 
acter. After  hanging  twenty-two  of  the  insurgents  Berke- 
ley returned  to  England,  where  his  conduct  was  severely 
condemned.  “ The  old  fool,”  said  Charles  II.,  “ has  taken 
away  more  lives  in  that  naked  country  than  I did  here 
for  the  murder  of  my  father.” 

The  colony,  often  hampered  but  rarely  controlled  by 
the  home  government,  grew  steadily,  and  developed  from 
its  internal  forces  a type  of  civilization  to  which  other 
southern  colonies  afterwards  conformed.  iThe  heads  of 
society  and  leaders  in  politics  were  the  great  landown- 
ers, whose  estates  sometimes  reached  the  dimensions  of 
a principality ; and  the  centres  of  life  were  the  country 
mansions,  where  the  planters  maintained  a lordly  and 
somewhat  barbarous  state,  surrounded  by  hundreds  of 
slaves.  They  shipped  their  tobacco  and  other  crops  di- 
rectly from  their  wharves  on  the  river  to  England  ; they 
received  in  the  same  way  their  fine  clothing,  their  wines, 
their  furniture,  their  carriages,  and  whatever  manufac- 
tured articles  could  not  be  produced  by  the  negro  me- 
chanics on  the  plantation.  The  class  next  below  them  in 
rank  consisted  largely  of  white  bondsmen  who  had  served 
their  time,  or  descendants  of  the  original  adventurers 
cursed  with  hereditary  unsuccessfulness.  Although 
emancipated  servants  were  denied  no  civil  rights,  the  up- 
per walks  of  life  were  closed  to  them,  and  many  of  them 
became  the  progenitors  of  those  “poor  whites”  upon 
whom  the  South  learned  to  look  with  especial  contempt. 
The  towns  of  Virginia  were  few  and  poor ; the  shops  and 
workshops  were  inconsiderable  ; there  was  little  trade  ; 
none  of  the  conditions  favored  a prosperous  middle  class ; 
African  slavery,  putting  a stigma  upon  manual  labor, 
fostered  idleness,  poverty,  and  ignorance  in  the  very  rank 
which  ought  to  constitute  the  chief  strength  of  the  state. 
There  were  hardly  any  schools ; planters’  sons  went  to 
England  for  an  education,  or  studied  at  home  with  pri- 


5991 

vate  tutors.  The  Church  of  England  was  established  by 
law*  and  sustained  from  the  taxes,  and  all  other  denom- 
inations were  prohibited.  The  clergy  were  largely  drawn 
from  the  failures  of  the  profession — jovial,  fox-hunting 
parsons  who  sat  long  over  the  bottle  and  kept  religion 
as  a gentlemanly  exercise,  for  Sunday  exclusively. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  all  drawbacks,  the  Virginia  colonists 
became  distinguished  for  noble  characteristics.  They 
were  hospitable,  generous,  chivalrous,  and  brave.  They 
were  ardent  lovers  of  personal  freedom.  They  were  full 
of  a manly  independence,  which  gave  them  a foremost 
place  among  the  patriots  of  the  revolutionary  period,  and 
they  had  a military  aptitude  of  which  Great  Britain  was 
to  witness  impressive  proofs. 

Settlement  of  Massachusetts. 

The  settlement  of  New  England  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Plymouth  Company,  although  it  was  attempted  even 
earlier  than  the  foundation  of  Virginia,  was  not  accom- 
plished until  some  years  after  Jamestown  had  passed 
through  its  worst  trials.  Captain  John  Smith  made  a suc- 
cessful trading  and  fishing  voyage  to  the  territory  of  the 
Plymouth  Company  in  1614,  drew  a map  of  the  coast, 
and  gave  the  country  the  name  of  New  England ; and 
his  published  reports  did  something  towards  stimulating 
adventure ; but  the  first  permanent  English  colony  within 
the  limits  of  the  Plymouth  grant  was  made  by  accident, 
and  without  the  Company’s  knowledge. 

The  Puritans,  separatists  from  the  English  church,  who 
fled  to  Holland  rather  than  submit  to  what  they  believed 
to  be  popish  forms  of  worship,  dissatisfied  with  their 
hard  life  in  a foreign  country  and  among  people  who 
spoke  another  tongue,  turned  their  attention  toward 
America,  as  a land  where  they  could  worship  in  their 
own  way,  and  listen  to  the  preaching  of  their  own  doc- 
trines with  neighbors  of  their  own  race.  After  sundry 
negotiations  with  the  Dutch  and  other  proprietors,  they 
obtained  a patent  from  the  London  Company  for  a set- 
tlement in  Virginia,  and  then  formed  a joint-stock 
partnership  with  certain  London  merchants  for  trading, 
fishing,  and  planting,  the  merchants  to  furnish  money  for 
the  outfit,  the  labor  of  every  adult  emigrant  to  be  reck- 
oned equivalent  to  one  share  of  £10,  and  the  whole  prop- 
erty to  be  divided  at  the  end  of  seven  years.  Crossing 
from  Delft  Haven  to  England,  the  Pilgrims,  as  they 
were  afterwards  called,  sailed  from  Plymouth,  September 
6,  1620,  in  the  ship  Mayflower,  one  hundred  and  two  men, 
women,  and  children,  under  the  leadership  of  Elder 
William  Brewster.  On  the  nth  of  November  they  cast 
anchor  in  what  is  now  the  harbor  of  Provincetown,  on 
Cape  Cod.  This  was  outside  the  limits  of  the  Virginia 
Company,  and  their  patent  was  consequently  of  no  use 
to  them ; but  on  ship-board,  in  order  to  provide  for  the 
emergency,  they  drew  up  a schedule  of  government, 
“covenanting  and  combining  themselves  together  into  a 
civil  body  politic,”  and  chose  John  Carver  as  governor. 
This  has  been  regarded  as  an  important  precedent  in 
popular  government,  but  to  the  Pilgrims  it  was  only  a 
temporary  device,  and  the  next  ship  from  England 
brought  them  a patent  from  the  Council  of  New  England 
( 1621).  After  exploring  the  sandy  peninsula  and  the  op- 


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5992 


posite  shore  of  the  mainland,  they  chose  a site  for  their 
settlement  and  called  it  New  Plymouth.  The  22d  of 
December  is  observed  as  the  anniversary  of  their  land- 
ing, on  a rock  still  shown  as  one  of  the  most  precious  of 
American  relics.  In  fact,  however,  it  was  on  the  2ist 
of  December  (new  style,  or  nth,  old  style)  that  they  se- 
lected Plymouth  for  their  new  home,  and  it  was  not 
until  the  25th  (old  style)  that  they  actually  debarked. 

They  were  wretchedly  provided  for  a winter  in  the 
wilderness.  Scanty  and  irregular  supplies  of  fish  consti- 
tuted almost  their  only  food ; water  was  their  only  drink ; 
at  one  time  the  stock  of  corn  being  divided  gave  five 
kernels  to  each  person.  About  half  the  company  perished 
during  the  winter,  and  Governor  Carver  died  in  the 
spring.  The  little  band,  however,  was  stout-hearted. 
William  Bradford  was  elected  governor  in  the  place  of 
Carver,  and  to  Miles  Standish,  who  had  been  a soldier  in 
the  Low  Countries,  was  committed  the  military  defence. 
By  tact  and  boldness  all  serious  trouble  with  the  Indians 
was  averted.  A treaty  of  friendship  was  made  with  the 
powerful  Massasoit,  chief  of  the  Wampanoags;  and 
Canonicus,  chief  of  the  Narragansetts,  was  driven  to  ask 
for  peace  by  Bradford’s  defiant  reply  to  a hostile 
message.  Food  became  abundant  in  the  summer ; rein- 
forcements arrived  in  the  autumn;  and  a year  later 
(1622)  a day  of  public  prayer  and  praise  was  appointed 
in  gratitude  for  a good  harvest  — the  first  celebration  of  the 
New  England  festival  of  Thanksgiving. 

Having  left  England  to  get  rid  of  the  established 
church,  the  Pilgrims  had  no  idea  of  tolerating  the  intro- 
duction of  that  hated  institution  into  their  new  home. 
They  banished  a preacher  named  Lyford  for  holding 
worship  according  to  the  forms  of  the  Church  of  England  ; 
and  with  Oldham,  an  exile  in  the  same  cause,  he  settled 
at  Nantasket,  now  Hull.  Thomas  Morton,  a rollicking 
free-liver  at  Mount  Wollaston  (Quincy),  surrounded  him- 
self with  noisy  adventurers,  who  carried  their  disorder  so 
far  as  to  set  up  a May-pole ; whereupon  the  new  Ply- 
mouth people  sent  out  an  expedition,  dispersed  the  settle- 
ment, cut  down  the  pole,  and  shipped  Morton  to  England. 
So  much  religious  zeal  was  little  to  the  taste  of  the  Lon- 
don partners,  who  had  gone  into  the  enterprise  as  a 
matter  of  business.  A quarrel  followed,  and  as  a result 
the  colonists  bought  out  the  other  shareholders,  and 
divided  the  property.  They  were  now  no  longer  a 
trading  company,  even  in  name,  but  a self-governing 
“ body  politic,”  which,  though  it  never  became  numerous, 
maintained  a virtual  independence  until  it  was  absorbed 
into  the  greater  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay. 

Two  months  after  the  Pilgrims  left  England,  the 
Plymouth  Company  obtained  from  King  James  I.  a new 
concession,  afterwards  known  as  “The  Great  Patent,” 
under  which  forty  persons  were  incorporated  as  the 
Council  for  New  England,  with  large  powers  of  govern- 
ment, and  privileges  of  trade  between  lat.  40°  and  lat.  48° 
(1620).  This  is  the  body  from  which  the  Pilgrims 
obtained  their  patent  in  1621.  It  was  eight  years,  how- 
ever, before  the  Council  accomplished  any  important 
new  enterprise.  Then  (1628)  they  allotted  to  John  Endi- 
cott  and  five  associates  the  territory  from  three  miles 
south  of  the  Charles  to  three  miles  north  of  the  Merrimac 
(that  is,  from  Boston  to  New  Hampshire),  and  the  next 


year  a charter  was  obtained  for  the  colony  in  the  name  of 
the  Governor  and  Company  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  in 
New  England.  Endicott  went  out  at  once  as  governor, 
and  settled  at  Salem.  Chartered  only  as  a trading  cor- 
poration, the  chief  purpose  of  the  associates  was  never- 
theless the  same  as  that  of  the  Plymouth  Pilgrims  — to 
establish  Puritan  communities  secure  from  interference 
by  the  established  church  or  the  crown.  With  this  end 
in  view  they  made  haste  to  remove  the  governing  power 
under  the  charter  from  England  to  America,  by  choosing 
officers  from  those  stockholders  who  proposed  to  emigrate, 
a device  which  soon  made  a clear  separation  of  the 
interests  of  the  colonists  from  those  of  the  parent  organi- 
zation. Settlers  now  came  out  in  great  numbers,  drawn 
almost  entirely  from  the  Puritan  party.  Whole  congre- 
gations sometimes  removed,  with  the  minister  at  their 
head.  As  a rule  they  still  professed  fidelity  to  the  Church 
of  England,  whose  abuses  of  ritual  and  government  they 
deplored  ; but  by  degrees  the  divergence  became  as 
marked  in  doctrines  as  in  forms,  and  the  Puritans 
adopted  a severe  Calvinism.  Most  of  the  emigrants  be- 
long to  the  substantial  middle  class  ; many  were  gentle- 
men of  education,  means,  and  social  position.  Never, 
perhaps,  has  the  settlement  of  a new  country  been  under- 
taken by  such  wholesale  transfer  of  a thrifty,  energetic, 
intelligent,  and  well-ordered  population.  In  1630  a party 
of  about  1,000  came  out,  with  John  Winthrop  as  governor, 
and  founded  Boston,  naming  it  after  the  town  of  Boston 
in  Lincolnshire,  to  which  many  of  them  belonged.  In 
this  party  there  were  four  ministers. 

Toleration  was  not  one  of  the  virtues  of  that  age,  and 
the  Puritans  of  Massachusetts  Bay  were  even  more  ex- 
clusive than  the  Pilgrims  of  New  Plymouth.  They  pro- 
ceeded at  once  to  build  their  civil  government  upon  the 
church.  Congregations  were  organized  in  every  settle- 
ment, and  only  those  who  had  been  admitted  to  church 
membership  were  allowed  the  privileges  of  citizenship. 
Membership  was  not  easily  granted.  It  required  a public 
avowal  of  religious  experience  to  which  not  everybody 
would  submit,  and  the  ministers  rejected  candidates 
whose  conduct  they  disapproved  or  whose  opinions  they 
distrusted.  Not  more  than  a fourth  part  of  the  adult 
population  ever  was  admitted  to  church  membership  un- 
der Puritan  rule,  and  the  proportion  of  qualified  voters  to 
the  adult  males  was  usually  much  less  than  a fourth. 
Besides  practically  determining  who  should  vote,  the 
clergy  had  an  extensive  authority  in  all  secular  affairs ; 
while  the  civic  magistrates,  on  the  other  hand,  were  re- 
quired to  enforce  religious  observances  and  punish 
dissent.  This  stern  theocracy,  armed  with  the  scourge, 
the  branding  iron,  and  the  halter,  and  exerting  the 
gloomiest,  though  not  the  severest,  despotism  to  which  an 
English  community  ever  submitted,  has  been  much 
denounced  as  a usurpation.  Technically  it  was  such ; 
but  it  seems  to  have  been  maintained  with  the  cordial 
assent  of  the  great  majority  of  the  population,  who,  in- 
deed, might  have  put  an  end  to  it  at  any  time  had  they 
so  pleased.  When  it  vTas  finally  overthrown,  it  was  not 
by  the  people,  but  by  the  crown.  In  all  the  Puritan 
communities  the  introduction  of  the  Church  of  England 
was  an  object  of  especial  dread,  and  “prelatists”  were 
punished,  or  expelled  as  unfit  to  inhabit  the  colony.  The 


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ferocity  of  the  persecution  of  the  Quakers  is  not  readily 
understood,  even  if  we  remember  that  leaders  of  that  de- 
nomination, in  the  Massachusetts  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  were  sometimes  exasperating  disturbers.  They 
were  imprisoned  in  chains,  seared  with  hot  irons,  whipped 
at  the  cart’s  tail  — both  men  and  women  — 'from  town  to 
town,  ruined  by  fires,  shipped  to  England  or  Barbadoes. 
Four  were  hanged,  including  a woman,  Mary  Dyer.  The 
maltreatment  of  the  Quakers  was  at  last  made  one  of  the 
reasons  for  annulling  the  charter.  Roger  Williams  was 
banished  for  denying  the  authority  of  civil  magistrates  in 
matters  of  religion.  Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson,  who  instituted 
meetings  of  women  to  discuss  theology,  and  taught  that 
all  believers  were  inspired  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  was  ban- 
ished (1637),  and  her  adherents  were  disarmed,  lest  some 
direct  revelation  should  instruct  them  to  rise  in  rebellion. 

A belief  in  witchcraft  was  almost  a natural  consequence 
of  the  Puritan  conception  of  the  spiritual  life.  Execu- 
tions for  witchcraft  took  place  as  early  as  1648.  In  1688 
the  fear  of  witches  became  a terrible  popular  delusion, 
breaking  out  first  in  Boston,  where  an  old  Irish  woman 
was  hanged,  mainly  on  testimony  that  she  spoke  her  own 
language,  and  could  not  say  the  Lord’s  Prayer  in 
English.  The  panic  owed  its  intensity  and  duration 
largely  to  the  sermons  and  writings  of  the  Rev.  Cotton 
Mather,  a mighty  divine  whose  credulity  was  on  a par 
with  his  violence.  The  disorder  reached  its  height  in 
Salem  (1692),  where  a special  court  was  ordered  for  the 
trial  of  witches,  and  scores  of  persons  were  thrown  into 
prison  on  the  word  of  frightened  children  or  the  tattle  of 
ill-natured  gossips.  In  one  year  twenty  persons  were  put 
to  death ; and  when  the  inevitable  reaction  set  in,  eight 
were  under  capital  sentence,  one  hundred  and  fifty  were 
in  jail,  and  many  of  the  suspected  had  fled  the  country. 

Morose,  superstitious,  bigoted,  severe,  the  Puritans 
nevertheless  exhibited  from  the  first  some  of  the  highest 
qualities  of  the  founders  of  a free  state.  They  represent, 
with  the  Virginians,  the  chief  sources  of  the  national  life. 
Nothing  could  be  more  striking  or  more  picturesque  than 
the  contrast  between  the  two  classes  of  pioneers.  But 
they  had  many  things  in  common,  especially  a brave  and 
self-reliant  spirit.  The  Puritans  had  less  sense  of  per- 
sonal freedom  than  their  Southern  brethren,  but  a keener 
desire  for  political  independence.  Their  civil  govern- 
ment being  founded  on  the  churches,  and  the  churches 
having  adopted  the  Congregational  practice,  every  settle- 
ment enjoyed  a large  measure  of  home  rule,  and  the  de- 
velopment of  the  autonomy  of  the  towns,  so  characteristic 
of  the  New  England  system,  was  easy  and  rapid.  The 
jealousy  of  English  interference,  which  sprang  from  spe- 
cial circumstances,  ripened  into  an  ardent  attachment  to 
the  principles  of  political  liberty.  The  Puritans,  more- 
over, were  industrious,  enterprising,  and  full  of  resources. 
In  spite  of  the  navigation  laws,  which  they  evaded  when 
they  could,  they  practiced  trades  and  built  ships.  They 
opened  schools.  They  founded  Harvard  College  as  early 
as  1638,  and  the  next  year  they  set  up  the  first  printing 
press  in  the  English-American  colonies. 

Other  New  England  Colonies. 

Maine  and  New  Hampshire  were  settled  under  a grant 
from  the  Council  for  New  England  (1622)  to  John  Mason 


and  Sir  Ferdinand©  Gorges,  the  latter  of  whom  especially 
was  long  active  in  American  adventures.  The  patentees 
named  their  territory  Laconia.  It  lay  between  the  Mer- 
rimac  and  Kennebec  rivers.  Settlements  were  attempted 
at  once,  Little  Harbor  (Portsmouth)  and  Dover  being 
occupied  as  early  as  1623,  but  for  several  years  only  a 
few  weak  fishing  stations  represented  English  enterprise 
on  this  part  of  the  coast.  Gorges  and  Mason  afterwards 
divided  their  grant,  Gorges  taking  the  eastern  part  and 
giving  it  the  name  of  New  Somerset,  changed  to  Maine 
in  1635,  and  Mason  the  western,  which  became  New 
Hampshire.  Both  were  claimed  by  Massachusetts  as 
lying  within  her  jurisdiction,  and  after  complicated  dis- 
putes, her  authority  was  acknowledged  by  the  New 
Hampshire  towns,  while  she  secured  Maine  by  buying 
out  the  Gorges  heirs.  In  1680  New  Hampshire  was 
made  a separate  royal  province ; Maine  was  not  detached 
from  Massachusetts  until  1820. 

Rhode  Island  was  the  consequence  of  the  persecution 
of  Roger  Williams.  Driven  from  Boston  and  from  Sa- 
lem, and  threatened  with  transportation  to  England,  the 
young  preacher  fled  to  the  wilderness  in  the  depth  of 
winter,  and  found  hospitality  with  Massasoit.  He 
founded  the  town  of  Providence  in  1636,  collecting  there 
the  first  congregation  of  Baptists  in  America.  At  the 
beginning  his  colony  was  a simple  democracy  in  which 
everything  was  decided  by  vote  of  the  whole  people ; but 
a royal  charter  was  obtained  in  1643.  The  rule  of  toler- 
ation in  religion,  adopted  by  Roger  Williams  as  the 
foundation  of  his  community,  is  justly  regarded  as  a chief 
glory  of  Rhode  Island.  But  while  the  magistrates  were 
forbidden  to  molest  any  one  on  account  of  religion,  toler- 
ation did  not  necessarily  imply  equality  of  political  privi- 
leges. A law  of  Rhode  Island,  purporting  to  have  been 
passed  in  1683,  provided  that  only  Protestant  Christians 
should  be  admitted  freemen  and  have  liberty  to  vote  and 
hold  office.  There  is  dispute  as  to  the  source  and  date 
of  this  restriction  ; but  whatever  its  origin,  it  was  several 
times  re-enacted  and  was  long  in  force.  Jews  were  re- 
fused naturalization  under  it  so  late  as  1762,  and  the  ex- 
clusion of  Roman  Catholics,  common  to  nearly  all  the 
colonies,  was  not  repealed  until  1783.  Nevertheless,  in 
recognizing  the  right  of  dissent,  Roger  Williams  was  far 
in  advance  of  his  generation,  and  after  the  principle  had 
been  admitted  the  full  logical  consequences  could  not 
be  long  delayed. 

The  first  settlement  in  Connecticut  was  made  by  the 
Dutch.  One  of  their  captains,  Adrian  Block,  discovered 
the  Connecticut  and  Housatonic  rivers  in  1614,  and  their 
traders  soon  established  a commerce  with  the  Indians 
along  the  shore  of  Long  Island  Sound.  In  1633  the 
Dutch  Fort  Good  Hope  was  built  on  the  Connecticut 
river,  near  the  present  site  of  Hartford.  The  English, 
claiming  all  this  region,  and  never  acquiescing  in  the 
Dutch  occupation,  tried  to  crowd  out  their  thrifty  neigh- 
bors. They  settled  just  above  Fort  Good  Hope,  and 
commanded  the  river  by  building  Fort  Saybrook  at  its 
mouth.  This  latter  enterprise  was  the  result  of  a grant 
to  Lord  Say  and  Sele,  Lord  Brooke,  John  Hampden,  John 
Pym,  and  others  in  England,  of  the  whole  coast  of  Con- 
necticut and  half  that  of  Rhode  Island.  The  settle- 
ment, named  from  the  two  principal  proprietors,  was 


UNI 


5994 

afterwards  incorporated  with  the  colony  of  Connecticut. 
It  was  a Plymouth  party  which  had  established  itself 
near  the  Dutch  fort,  but  it  was  not  until  emigrants  from 
Massachusetts  Bay  poured  in  that  “the  river  towns,”  as 
they  are  called,  were  firmly  planted.  The  movement  was 
a systematic  transfer  of  the  churches  of  Dorchester, 
Watertown,  and  Newtown  (Cambridge),  with  their  min- 
isters at  their  head,  the  largest  party  coming  from  New- 
town, under  Hooker  and  Stone  (1636),  and  founding 
Hartford,  while  the  Dorchester  and  Plymouth  people 
founded  Windsor,  and  those  of  Watertown  settled  at 
Wethersfield.  Bringing  with  them  an  organization  of 
government  both  ecclesiastical  and  civil,  the  towns  be- 
gan as  independent  political  communities,  the  authority 
of  a commission  from  Massachusetts,  under  which  they 
acted  for  a year,  being  little  more  than  nominal.  In  1639 
they  met  in  mass  convention  at  Hartford  and  adopted  a 
constitution,  the  first  example  in  history  of  a written  in- 
strument creating  a government  and  limiting  its  powers 
by  authority  of  the  people  themselves.  The  towns  were 
recognized  as  existing  political  units,  with  self-derived 
powers,  and  the  colony  of  Connecticut,  as  it  was  now 
called,  was  formed  by  a union  in  which  the  towns  re- 
served certain  important  rights,  such  as  the  regulation  of 
the  franchise.  The  Hartford  constitution  was  a remark- 
able foreshadowing  of  the  American  democratic  and 
federative  principles ; but  like  the  Mayflower  compact, 
it  was,  perhaps,  an  arrangement  of  immediate  conven- 
ience rather  than  the  deliberate  adoption  of  a political 
theory,  for  the  colonists  afterwards  begged  the  royal 
sanction  for  their  government,  with  apologies  for  not 
asking  it  sooner,  and  thankfully  accepted  a charter  from 
Charles  II.  (1662).  Their  system  of  rule,  preserved  un- 
der the  charter,  was  modeled  upon  that  of  Massachusetts, 
except  that  they  did  not  require  freemen  to  be  church 
members. 

Theocracy  was  rigidly  maintained,  however,  in  the 
colony  of  New  Haven,  founded  in  1638,  by  the  Rev.  John 
Davenport  and  a party  of  English  Puritans.  They  had 
no  patent  or  other  external  authorization,  and  their 
only  title  to  the  land  was  derived  from  the  Indians.  The 
government  which  they  set  up,  therefore,  in  1639,  a few 
months  after  the  Hartford  confederation,  was  purely 
democratic  in  its  source ; but  by  their  own  votes  the 
settlers  decreed  almost  unanimously  that  the  franchise 
should  be  limited  to  members  of  the  church.  They  even 
surpassed  the  people  of  Massachusetts  in  the  severity  of 
their  Puritanism,  adopting  the  Scriptures  as  the  law  of 
the  land,  applicable  to  all  cases,  and  carrying  magisterial 
meddling  with  private  conduct  to  a length  never  before 
imagined.  They  were  united  with  Connecticut  by  the 
charter  of  1662,  much  against  their  will. 

Other  Colonies. 

The  Dutch  trading  posts  on  the  Hudson  river  grew 
slowly,  the  proprietors  in  Holland  caring  much  more  for 
tiie  immediate  traffic  in  beaver  skins  than  for  the  possible 
advantages  of  colonization.  After  the  incorporation  of 
the  Dutch  West  India  Company  (1621),  however,  more 
attention  Was  paid  to  emigration.  Thirty  families  of 
Walloons  (Belgian  and  Flemish  Protestants)  were  sent 


out  in  1623,  and  a relic  of  their  settlement  is  found  in  the 
name  of  Wallabout  Bay  on  Long  Island;  Albany  was 
begun  ; Manhattan  Island  was  bought  of  the  Indians  for 
a sum  equivalent  to  $24 ; Fort  Amsterdam  was  built 
(1626),  on  the  present  site  of  the  Battery ; and  under  its 
protection  grew  up  the  town  of  New  Amsterdam,  which 
was  made  the  capital  of  the  colony.  The  colony  itself 
was  given  the  name  of  New  Netherland.  Extraordinary 
privileges  were  granted  by  the  Company  to  those  of  its 
members  who  were  willing  to  plant  settlements  at  their 
own  expense ; and  under  this  system  vast  estates  were 
allotted  on  the  Hudson  to  semi-feudal  proprietors, 
known  as  “ patroons.”  A colony  of  Swedes  established 
themselves  on  the  Delaware  at  the  present  site  of  Wil- 
mington, but  they  were  compelled  a few  years  later  to 
submit  to  the  Dutch.  In  spite  of  a severe  Indian  war, 
precipitated  by  the  violence  of  the  colonists  under  the 
governorship  of  William  Kieft  (1643)  New  Netherland 
prospered,  and  fifty  years  after  its  foundation  the  colony 
had  10,000  inhabitants,  while  New  Amsterdam  counted 
about  1,500.  Both  in  the  capital  town  and  in  the  outlying 
settlements  there  were  many  English,  including  sectaries 
of  various  sorts  who  had  fled  from  the  intolerance  of  the 
English  colonies. 

England  had  never  ceased  to  assert  her  claim  to  the 
territory  occupied  by  Dutch  enterprise ; but  there  had 
been  no  threat  of  a resort  to  force,  when,  in  1664,  an  Eng- 
lish fleet  entered  the  Bay  of  New  York  and  demanded 
the  surrender  of  the  colony.  Gov.  Peter  Stuyvesant  had 
no  means  of  resistance,  and  New  Netherland  passed 
peaceably  to  the  possession  of  the  Duke  of  York  (after- 
wards James  II.),  to  whom  it  had  already  been  granted 
by  his  brother,  Charles  II.  The  name  was  now  changed, 
and  the  administration  was  assumed  by  the  Duke’s  ap- 
pointee, Colonel  Nicholls.  In  the  course  of  the  wars 
which  followed  between  England  and  Holland,  the  Dutch 
recovered  the  colony  as  easily  as  they  had  lost  it  (1673), 
but  it  was  finally  restored  to  the  English  by  treaty  the 
next  year.  All  these  changes  were  accomplished  without 
violence  or  popular  disturbance.  The  inhabitants,  drawn 
from  many  nationalities  and  religions,  and  occupied  with 
a thriving  trade,  were  ready  to  acquiesce  in  almost  any 
tolerable  government. 

The  grant  to  the  Duke  of  York  included  what  is  now 
New  Jersey.  This  territory  the  duke  conveyed  to  Lord 
Berkeley  and  Sir  George  Carteret  (1664),  and  it  was 
named  from  the  island  of  Jersey,  in  the  English  Channel, 
of  which  Carteret  had  been  governor.  There  were  al- 
ready some  small  Dutch  settlements  in  the  territory,  and 
under  the  new  rule  a number  of  Quakers  soon  came  out, 
the  rights  of  Lord  Berkeley  havijig  been  purchased  by 
members  of  that  persecuted  sect.  When  the  Jerseys  were 
divided,  in  1676,  the  Quakers  were  mostly  settled  in  West 
Jersey ; and  although  the  share  of  Carteret  was  after- 
wards purchased  by  a partnership,  in  which  William 
Penn,  Robert  Barclay,  and  other  distinguished  Friends 
were  interested,  and  the  prosperity  of  both  colonies  was 
largely  owing  to  Quaker  thrift  and  order,  the  prevailing 
influences  in  East  Jersey  continued  to  be  Puritan. 

George  Calvert,  first  Lord  Baltimore,  a Roman  Catho- 
lic, obtained  from  Charles  I.  a grant  of  territory  north  of 
the  Potomac,  which  he  named  Maryland,  in  honor  of 


UNI 


Queen  Henrietta  Maria.  It  was  the  first  proprietary 
province  in  America,  and  the  lord  proprietor  possessed 
large  powers  ; but  in  the  charter,  drawn  up  by  Lord  Bal- 
timore, it  was  stipulated  that  no  laws  should  be  valid 
without  the  consent  of  the  freemen  of  the  colony,  or  their 
representatives  in  Assembly  — an  admission  of  the  right 
of  the  people  to  a share  in  legislation  not  found  in  any 
previous  instrument.  The  settlers  were  also  exempt 
from  taxation  by  the  crown,  and  the  right  of  originating 
laws  was  soon  conceded  to  them.  Lord  Baltimore’s  prin- 
cipal object  was  to  establish  an  asylum  for  Roman  Cath- 
olics. He  died  before  the  charter  passed  the  great 
seal,  and  it  was  issued  to  his  son  Caecilius,  second  Lord 
Baltimore  (1632),  under  whose  direction  the  first  party  of 
colonists  sailed  the  next  year,  with  Leonard  Calvert, 
brother  of  the  proprietor,  as  governor.  They  comprised 
about  twenty  “gentlemen  adventurers,”  and  over  two 
hundred  laborers  and  servants,  most  of  the  latter  class 
being  Protestants.  Two  English  Jesuit  priests  and  two 
lay  brothers  accompanied  them.  Landing  on  an  island 
in  Chesapeake  Bay,  March  25,  1634,  they  chose  a place 
for  their  settlement  on  a small  tributary  of  the  Potomac, 
and  called  it  St.  Mary’s.  There  was  an  Indian  village  on 
the  spot,  and  the  settlers  established  the  most  cordial  re- 
lations with  the  red  men,  buying  not  only  their  land  but 
their  wigwams,  in  which  they  sheltered  themselves  until 
they  could  build  houses.  They  prospered  from  the  first. 

Open  protection  for  Catholicism  would  have  been  im- 
possible at  that  day.  Lord  Baltimore’s  plan  for  securing 
the  free  exercise  of  his  own  religion  was  to  grant  com- 
plete toleration  and  equality  to  all  denominations  of 
Christians,  and  from  this  policy,  in  which  he  anticipated 
Roger  Williams  by  four  years,  neither  he  nor  his  succes- 
sors ever  departed.  The  act  of  toleration  passed  at  his 
instance  in  1649  was  the  legal  ratification  of  a rule  which 
had  been  very  strictly  enforced  in  the  colony  from  the 
outset.  Lord  Baltimore’s  motives  in  taking  this  wise  and 
liberal  course  have  been  attacked ; but  whatever  alloy  of 
selfishness  may  have  been  mixed  with  them,  the  fact  re- 
mains that  Maryland  became  a refuge  for  oppressed 
churchmen  from  New  England  and  Puritans  from 
Virginia,  as  well  as  for  Catholics  from  home.  Naturally, 
in  such  a gathering  of  exiles,  there  were  many  turbulent 
spirits  who  could  not  be  at  rest  even  in  a sanctuary. 
When  Clayborne,  a Virginia  trader  on  Kent  Island  in 
Chesapeake  Bay,  refused  to  recognize  Calvert’s  authority 
and  raised  an  insurrection,  a number  of  Puritan  refugees 
joined  him,  and  Calvert  was  driven  for  a time  from  the 
province  (1644).  After  the  execution  of  Charles  I.,  Clay- 
borne  was  one  of  the  Parliament  commissioners  ap- 
pointed to  look  after  the  plantations  within  Chesapeake 
Bay.  With  the  aid  of  the  Puritan  settlers,  the  proprie- 
tary authority  was  overthrown  (1655),  and  a new  govern- 
ment excluded  “papists  and  prelatists”  from  the  benefits 
of  the  act  of  toleration.  On  the  Restoration,  the  lord  pro- 
prietor was  reinstated  and  the  act  of  toleration  was  re- 
vived ; but  when  Maryland  was  made  a royal  province 
under  William  and  Mary  (1691)  the  Catholics  were  again 
disfranchised,  and  they  remained  for  three-quarters  of 
a century  under  heavier  exactions  and  more  offensive 
disabilities  in  their  own  colony  than  anywhere  else  in 
America, 


5995 

Quieter  fortunes  befell  another  colony,  founded  like 
Maryland  and  Rhode  Island  upon  the  principle  of  re- 
ligious freedom.  William  Penn  obtained  from  Charles 
II.,  in  1681,  in  satisfaction  of  a debt,  a grant  of  territory 
west  of  the  Delaware,  to  which  was  given  the  name  of 
Pennsylvania ; the  present  state  of  Delaware  was  added 
to  it  the  next  year.  The  domain  was  constituted  a pro- 
prietary province,  Penn  being  the  absolute  owner  and 
lord  of  the  soil,  and  the  charter  was  copied  in  part  from 
that  of  Maryland.  The  chief  object  of  the  founder  was 
to  provide  an  asylum  for  Quakers,  and  most  of  the  early 
emigrants  were  of  that  denomination,  including  some 
from  Germany  and  Holland.  The  first  party  sailed  in 
1681 ; Penn  followed  in  1682;  and  in  two  years  the  popu- 
lation was  about  7,000.  It  is  an  impressive  commentary 
upon  the  Puritan  hatred  of  Quakers  that  the  so-called 
pernicious  sect  established  the  most  orderly  and  peaceful 
of  all  the  colonies.  Soon  after  his  landing  Penn  con- 
cluded a treaty  of  friendship -with  a large  gathering  of 
Indians,  and  near  the  site  of  the  conference  he  founded 
the  same  year  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  Before  his  return 
to  England  (1684)  he  established  a form  of  government, 
with  a representative  assembly.  Freedom  of  conscience 
and  worship  was  strictly  observed,  and  no  religious  test 
was  required  for  the  franchise  except  a belief  in  Chris- 
tianity. For  two  years  (1692-94)  Pennsylvania  was  at- 
tached to  the  royal  province  of  New  York  ; but  at  the 
end  of  that  time  the  rights  of  the  proprietor  were  restored, 
and  they  subsisted  in  the  family  until  the  State  of  Penn- 
sylvania extinguished  them  by  purchase  in  1779.  Penn 
made  a second  visit  to  America,  and  granted  his  colonists 
a new  charter,  enlarging  their  political  privileges. 

Between  Virginia  and  the  Spanish  settlements  in 
Florida  still  remained  a large  territory  which  both 
England  and  Spain  claimed,  but  neither  had  seriously 
attempted  to  occupy.  A few  English  Quakers  and  other 
adventurous  pioneers  had  straggled  into  the  northern 
parts  of  this  tract,  and  Spanish  missionaries  had  been 
busy  among  the  Indians ; but  colonization  practically 
began  under  a grant  made  by  Charles  II.  in  1663  to  Lord 
Clarendon,  General  Monk,  Lord  Ashley  Cooper  (after- 
wards Earl  of  Shaftesbury),  Berkeley  and  Carteret  (pro- 
prietors of  New  Jersey),  Sir  William  Berkeley  (governor 
of  Virginia),  Lord  Craven,  and  Sir  John  Colleton.  The 
province  was  called  Carolina,  and  embraced  the  present 
States  of  North  and  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama, 
and  part  of  Florida.  At  the  request  of  Shaftesbury,  John 
Locke,  the  famous  English  philosopher,  drew  up  for  the 
proprietors  a complicated  scheme  of  government,  provid- 
ing for  a feudal  nobility,  an  established  church,  and  various 
Utopian  institutions  grotesquely  unsuited  to  settlers  in  a 
distant  wilderness ; and  the  attempt  to  force  the  vagaries 
of  a theorist  upon  a somewhat  indocile  people  kept  the 
province  in  a turmoil  for  many  years.  The  first  settle- 
ments were  made  on  the  Chowan  and  Cape  Fear  rivers, 
and  were  known  as  the  Albemarle  and  Clarendon 
colonies  ; the  latter  (1664)  was  the  beginning  of  the  town 
of  Wilmington.  Six  years  later  the  Carteret  colony  was 
established  on  the  Ashley  river,  whence  it  was  soon  re- 
moved to  a better  situation  at  the  junction  of  the  Ashley 
and  the  Cooper ; and  this  became  the  city  of  Charleston. 
Negroes  were  introduced  from  the  West  Indies  in  1671, 


UNI 


5996 

and  South  Carolina  became  almost  at  the  outset  a com- 
munity of  planters  depending  upon  slave  labor.  Both 
the  Carolinas  were  in  frequent  revolt  against  the  pro- 
prietors ; at  last,  in  1729,  Parliament  purchased  the  rights 
of  those  personages,  and  the  province  became  the  two 
crown  colonies  of  North  and  South  Carolina. 

Shortly  after  this  change,  settlements  began  in  what  is 
now  the  State  of  Georgia.  General  Oglethorpe,  an 
English  member  of  Parliament,  formed  the  design  of 
establishing  a colony  in  America,  where  persons  who  had 
been  imprisoned  for  debt,  and  others  of  broken  fortunes, 
might  begin  a new  life.  At  the  same  time  he  hoped  to 
interpose  a barrier  between  the  weak  Carolina  colonies 
and  the  Spanish  power  in  Florida.  Receiving  a patent 
(1732)  for  all  that  neglected  region  south  of  the  Savannah 
river  (Georgia  and  Alabama),  he  sailed  the  same  year 
with  135  persons,  and  founded  Savannah  in  1733.  The 
first  settlers  did  not  all  belong  to  the  unfortunate  classes 
for  whom  he  was  especially  concerned.  They  included 
parties  of  Jews,  Moravians,  Scotch  Highlanders,  and  Ger- 
man Protestants,  with  a great  many  random  adventurers, 
ill  suited  to  a pioneer  enterprise.  The  colony  suffered 
much  both  from  internal  troubles  and  from  Spanish 
hostilities  before  it  was  firmly  established.  It  became  a 
royal  province  in  1752.  Alabama  was  not  detached  until 
after  the  Revolution. 

The  settlers  of  New  England  were  never  tender  in 
their  dealings  with  the  red  men,  and  their  first  Indian 
war  was  the  result  of  a series  of  raids  and  murders  in 
which  the  savagery  was  not  all  on  one  side.  The  Pe- 
quots,  a warlike  confederacy  whose  principal  seat  was 
on  the  river  now  known  as  the  Thames,  in  Connecticut, 
planned  a general  massacre  of  the  whites,  in  which  they 
desired  the  Narragansetts  to  join  them.  But  this  tribe 
was  induced  by  the  persuasion  of  Roger  Williams  to  side 
with  the  colonists,  and  to  furnish  more  than  half  the 
force  which,  in  the  spring  of  1637,  marched  against  the 
Pequot  strongholds.  The  Narragansetts  were  led  by 
their  chief,  Miantonomoh ; there  were  some  Mohegans 
under  Uncas  ; and  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts  sent 
about  100  soldiers  under  Captains  Mason  and  Underhill. 
A fortified  Pequot  village  was  surprised  at  early  dawn 
and  set  on  fire  ; no  quarter  was  given  even  to  women  or 
children ; but  the  Indians  who  did  not  perish  in  the 
flames  were  killed  as  they  tried  to  break  out.  Two  weeks 
later  a second  crushing  defeat  was  inflicted  upon  the 
Pequots ; some  hundreds  were  made  prisoners  and  sold 
into  slavery,  and  the  confederacy  was  permanently 
broken  up. 

It  was  principally  for  the  sake  of  better  protection 
against  the  Indians  that  a confederation  of  “ The  United 
Colonies  of  New  England  ” was  formed  in  1643.  Dele- 
gates from  Massachusetts,  Plymouth,  Connecticut,  and 
New  Haven  met  in  each  colony  by  turns,  to  consult  for 
their  common  interests.  Maine  and  Rhode  Island  were 
excluded  on  account  of  heterodox  opinions.  The  con- 
federation was  important  as  a first  step  towards  union, 
but  its  immediate  results  were  slight,  and  before  the  next 
general  outbreak  of  the  savages  it  had  fallen  to  pieces. 
The  war  with  King  Philip,  chief  of  the  Wampanoags  or 
Pokanokets,  on  the  east  side  of  Narragansett  Bay,  and 
son  of  the  early  friend  of  the  settlers,  Massasoit,  began 


from  trivial  causes.  Driven  from  his  villages  and  fol- 
lowed into  the  swamps  in  the  summer  of  1675,  Philip 
broke  through  the  lines  of  his  assailants,  joined  the  Nip- 
mucks  in  the  interior  of  Massachusetts,  and  roused  the 
whole  country.  Everywhere  the  smaller  tribes  took  up 
arms,  and  they  were  far  more  dangerous  than  in  former 
years,  because  now  they  were  supplied  with  muskets. 
Towns  were  attacked  and  burned.  Remote  settlers  were 
massacred.  Military  detachments  were  decoyed  into 
ambush  and  destroyed.  The  Narragansetts  had  taken 
no  part  in  the  rising,  but  the  colonists  distrusted  them, 
and  dispatched  an  expedition  under  Josiah  Winslow,  gov- 
ernor of  Plymouth,  to  crush  them,  as  a measure  of  pre- 
caution. “ The  Swamp  Fight,”  in  what  is  now  the  town 
of  South  Kingston,  Rhode  Island,  repeated  the  horrors 
of  the  Pequot  affair,  many  of  the  Indians  perishing  in 
their  burning  wigwams  ; but  on  this  occasion  the  whites 
also  suffered  severely,  their  losses  amounting  to  about 
240  men  — a quarter  of  their  whole  number.  The  war  was 
now  waged  with  increased  barbarity.  Warwick  was 
burned.  Providence  was  partly  ruined.  The  whole  of 
the  Plymouth  colony  was  overrun.  Towns  were  deserted. 
Settlers  were  murdered.  Hostilities  lasted  until  Philip 
was  killed  by  a deserter  from  his  tribe  (1676),  and 
Witamo,  the  female  sachem  of  Pocasset,  who  had  lately 
been  his  chief  supporter,  was  drowned  in  trying  to  escape 
from  an  attack  by  Major  Church.  The  "heads  of  Witamo 
and  Philip  were  set  up  on  poles  to  celebrate  the  triumph 
of  the  settlers.  Prisoners  were  hanged,  or  sold  into  the 
West  Indies,  or  retained  as  slaves  in  New  England. 
The  tribes  were  crushed  forever,  and  from  this  time  fast 
dwindled  away.  The  colonists,  on  the  other  hand,  lost 
six  hundred  men  in  battle  besides  the  victims  of  massacre 
in  the  settlements,  and  twelve  or  thirteen  of  their  towns 
were  entirely  destroyed. 

The  Colonies  and  the  Crown. 

The  independent  spirit  of  Massachusetts  showed  itself 
at  a very  early  day;  for  when,  in  answer  to  repeated 
complaints  of  the  rigorous  proceedings  of  the  colonial 
magistrates,  a royal  commission  was  appointed  by  Charles 
I.  to  revise  the  laws  of  the  American  plantations  (1634), 
and  even  the  Council  for  New  England  appealed  to  the 
crown  against  settlers  who  sought  “to  make  themselves 
absolute  masters  of  the  country,”  the  General  Court 
hastened  to  fortify  the  port  of  Boston  and  take  other 
measures  for  military  defence.  A demand  for  the  delivery 
of  the  charter  was  refused.  Charles  I.  was  soon  too  busy 
with  other  affairs  to  pay  much  attention  to  New  England, 
and  the  matter  was  allowed  to  drop,  until  the  restoration 
of  Charles  II.  brought  it  again  into  prominence.  But  in 
the  intervening  quarter  of  a century  all  the  colonies  had 
gained  the  habit  of  self-reliance,  grown  accustomed  to 
democratic  principles  and  learned  to  make  sharp  dis- 
tinctions between  their  own  interests  and  those  of  the 
mother  country.  In  New  England  — in  Massachusetts 
especially  — the  jealousy  of  English  interference  some- 
times amounted  to  positive  enmity.  At  the  Restoration 
the  Massachusetts  General  Court  ordered  a public 
thanksgiving ; but  it  also  took  that  occasion  to  make  a 
declaration  of  rights,  which  left  hardly  any  perceptible 


UNI 


power  either  to  Parliament  or  the  King,  and  yet  probably 
did  not  go  much  beyond  the  uniform  practice  of  the 
colony  since  its  foundation. 

Charles  II.  did  not  propose  at  first  to  revoke  the 
charter,  but  he  required  the  colony  to  administer  justice 
in  his  name,  to  tolerate  the  Church  of  England,  and  to 
admit  others  than  church  members  to  the  franchise.  To 
these  demands  the  General  Court  returned  evasive 
answers.  When  royal  commissioners  were  sent  out  to 
investigate  complaints  and  settle  boundary  disputes,  the 
General  Court  denied  their  authority  (1664).  When  a 
royal  commissioner  of  customs  appeared  at  Boston, 
empowered  to  enforce  the  oppressive  laws  of  trade,  of 
whose  violation  the  English  merchants  were  complaining, 
the  magistrates  tore  down  the  notice  of  his  appointment 
posted  on  the  exchange  and  the  Court  created  a naval 
office  of  its  own  to  supersede  him  (1680).  But  Charles, 
committed  now  to  the  high  prerogative  policy,  was  no 
longer  in  the  mood  to  trifle  with  the  pretensions  of  the 
colonists.  Under  a writ  of  quo'warranto  the  charter  of 
Massachusetts  was  declared  forfeited,  and  the  settlements 
became  a royal  province  (1684).  This  was  virtually  the 
end  of  the  Puritan  theocracy.  Before  any  important 
change  could  be  made  in  the  administration  of  the 
government  the  King  died. 

It  fell  to  James  II.  to  carry  out  the  purpose  of  his  brother 
of  consolidating  the  colonies  under  royal  authority, 
and  checking  the  rapid  development  of  popular  liberties. 
James  was  already  in  possession  of  the  province  of  New 
York,  where  the  rule  of  his  deputies,  although  arbitrary, 
was  not  usually  harsh.  Under  Gov.  Thomas  Dongan 
(1683),  an  Assembly  was  summoned,  which  framed  a 
declaration  of  rights  and  settled  the  important  point  of 
the  illegality  of  taxes  imposed  without  the  consent  of  the 
representatives  of  the  people.  When  James  became 
King,  however,  his  policy  changed.  Sir  Edmund  Andros 
was  sent  to  America  with  a commission  as  captain-gen- 
eral and  governor  of  all  New  England  (1686),  and  in- 
structions to  set  aside  the  existing  charters.  New  York 
and  New  Jersey  were  presently  added  to  his  jurisdiction 
and  included  under  the  name  of  New  England.  His 
appointment  was  resented,  but  resistance  seemed  to  be 
futile.  Plymouth  had  no  charter  and  was  easily  subdued. 
Rhode  Island  yielded  after  a brief  opposition.  New 
Hampshire  was  already  a crown  province.  Maine  was  a 
part  of  Massachusetts.  In  Connecticut  the  popular  spirit 
was  so  menacing  that  Andros  marched  to  Hartford  with 
troops  to  compel  obedience.  He  appeared  at  an  even- 
ing session  of  the  Assembly  and  demanded  the  produc- 
tion of  the  charter.  It  was  laid  upon  thp  table ; but 
suddenly  the  lights  were  extinguished  and  the  precious 
instrument,  spirited  away  by  some  patriotic  hand,  was 
hidden  in  a hollow  oak  (1687).  Its  disappearance  did 
not  prevent  Andros,  however,  from  declaring  the  charter 
government  at  an  end.  In  Massachusetts,  where  affairs 
had  been  administered  under  temporary  devices  since 
the  forfeiting  of  the  charter  in  1684,  the  hostility  to  Andros 
and  the  royal  chief  justice,  Dudley,  was  especially  reso- 
lute. No  measure  of  the  new  rule,  perhaps,  was  more 
angrily  resented  than  the  declaration  of  indulgence, 
which  gave  complete  toleration  to  Episcopalians, 
Quakers,  and  all  other  denominations  ; but  the  colonists 

<w 


5997 

had  much  more  substantial  grounds  of  complaint  in  the 
arbitrary  taxation,  the  interference  with  land  titles,  and 
the  tyrannical  restrictions  upon  personal  freedom. 

On  the  news  of  the  landing  of  William  of  Orange  at 
Torbay,  the  colonists  of  New  England  rose  at  once.  An- 
dros and  Dudley  were  imprisoned.  The  old  governments 
quietly  resumed  their  functions,  as  far  as  possible  with 
the  old  officers.  The  Council  of  Virginia  tardily  pro- 
claimed William  and  Mary,  after  threats  of  a popular  re- 
volt. In  Maryland  a no-popery  insurrection,  under  an 
agitator  named  Coode,  deposed  Lord  Baltimore.  In 
New  York  a more  formidable  rebellion,  ostensibly  “ for 
the  preservation  of  the  Protestant  religion,”  was  led  by  a 
militia  captain  named  Jacob  Leisler  (1689-91),  who,  with 
his  son-in-law  and  secretary,  Milbourne,  was  finally 
hanged  for  treason.  The  new  King  gave  the  colonists 
no  cause  to  distrust  his  Protestant  zeal ; but  his  views  of 
the  royal  prerogative,  so  far  as  it  concerned  America, 
were  not  materially  different  from  those  of  James.  To 
the  colonial  bills  of  rights  and  habeas-corpus  acts  he  re- 
turned decided  negatives,  and  he  continued  the  prohibi- 
tion of  printing.  For  a while,  however,  the  attention  of 
the  Americans  was  diverted  to  foreign  dangers. 

The  Wars  with  France. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
French  had  been  steadily  extending  their  power  through 
the  region  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  the 
Mississippi.  They  were  in  conflict  with  the  English  in 
Maine,  where  so  early  as  1613,  one  of  their  mission  sta- 
tions on  Mount  Desert  Island  was  violently  broken  up  by 
an  expedition  from  Virginia.  They  disputed  the  English 
claims  on  the  East.  They  contended  for  the  possession 
of  Northern  New  York.  In  their  service  the  priest  and 
the  fur-trader  penetrated  the  Northwest.  The  Jesuit 
Marquette  founded  Sault  Sainte  Marie  and  was  the  first 
to  reach  the  upper  waters  of  the  Mississippi  (1675).  La 
Salle,  the  adventurous  explorer,  sent  out  by  the  Governor- 
General  of  Canada,  navigated  the  great  river  to  its  mouth 
( 1682)  and  in  the  name  of  Louis  XIV.  took  possession'of 
the  region  thereafter  styled  Louisiana.  Often  tortured, 
burned,  or  hacked  to  pieces  at  the  stake,  the  missionaries 
nevertheless  obtained  a strong  influence  over  the  sav- 
ages ; and  at  the  end  of  the  century  it  might  have  seemed 
doubtful  whether  France,  with  her  Indian  allies  and  her 
chain  of  colonies  and  outposts  extending  from  New 
Brunswick  through  Canada  and  the  Mississippi  Valley, 
was  not  destined  to  be  the  ruling  power  on  this  conti- 
nent. 

When  war  broke  out  between  France  and  England 
(1689),  in  consequence  of  the  dethroning  of  James  II., 
the  northern  colonies  were  promptly  involved  in  it,  New 
York  and  New  England  fighting  willingly  as  for  their 
own  existence.  In  King  William’s  War,  as  it  is  called, 
the  English  government  paid  little  attention  to  its  Amer- 
ican subjects,  but  left  them  to  defend  themselves  by  their 
own  resources,  at  their  own  cost,  and  in  their  own  way. 
Both  sides  made  use  of  the  Indians  — a practice  not  then 
regarded  with  the  horror  which  it  inspired  in  the  authors 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  — and  the  campaigns 
were  marked  by  terrible  brutalities.  Many  of  the  settle- 


UNI 


599S 

ments  or  Maine  and  New  Hampshire  were  ravaged, 
burned,  or  deserted,  and  for  the  disasters  here  Colonel 
Church  afterwards  took  a bloody  revenge.  The  Cana- 
dian Governor-General,  Frontenac,  sent  out  war  parties 
of  French  and  Indians,  which  surprised  Schenectady, 
N.  Y.,  and  Salmon  Falls,  N.  H.  (1690),  and  captured 
Casco,  Me.  New  York  and  New  England  dispatched  an 
expedition  of  whites  and  Mohawks  to  attack  Montreal, 
but  Frontenac  beat  it  off.  A Massachusetts  fleet,  in  the 
meantime,  under  Sir  William  Phips,  devastated  the 
French  settlements  on  the  coast  of  Acadia  (Nova  Scotia), 
and  then  sailed  for  Quebec,  where  Frontenac,  fresh  from 
his  victory  at  Montreal,  baffled  their  attack.  When  the 
treaty  of  Ryswick  brought  peace  (1697),  French  and 
English  colonies  alike  had  suffered  severely,  and  neither 
had  gained  anything. 

In  Queen  Anne’s  War  (1702-13),  springing  like  the 
previous  contest  from  quarrels  with  which  the  colonists 
had  no  direct  concern,  France  was  not  only  much  stronger 
in  Northern  New  York  and  the  West  than  before,  and 
more  definite  and  earnest  in  her  ambition  of  American 
empire,  but  she  was  now  in  alliance  with  Spain.  Hostil- 
ities began  in  Florida,  where  Governor  Moore,  of  South 
Carolina,  captured  St.  Augustine,  only  to  retreat  on  the 
approach  of  Spanish  vessels  of  war.  Later,  with  a thou- 
sand savages,  he  fell  upon  the  semi-civilized  communities 
of  Christian  Indians  in  Middle  Florida  and  entirely  de- 
stroyed them.  A combined  French  and  Spanish  attack 
upon  Charleston  (1706)  was  defeated,  and  a French 
frigate  captured.  In  the  North  the  worst  excesses  of 
Indian  warfare  were  felt  in  Massachusetts,  where  Deer- 
field and  Haverhill  — the  latter  hardly  recovered  from 
pillage  and  burning  in  King  William’s  War  — were  scenes 
of  dreadful  massacres.  In  1710,  however,  a colonial  expe- 
dition captured  Port  Royal,  in  Acadia.  The  following 
year  the  home  government  tardily  resolved  upon  an  ex- 
pedition against  Canada,  sending  out  a fleet  of  fifteen 
ships  of  war  and  five  of  Marlborough’s  veteran  regiments, 
to  which  New  York,  Massachusetts,  and  Pennsylvania 
added  a large  number  of  men  and  liberal  supplies  of 
money.  But  the  campaign  came  to  nothing.  Losing 
part  of  his  fleet  and  a thousand  men,  by  wreck  in  the  St. 
Lawrence,  the  English  admiral  abandoned  the  enter- 
prise and  sailed  for  home,  and  the  advance  of  the  land 
forces  was  thereupon  cut  short.  In  her  European  cam- 
paigns, England  had  been  more  fortunate  than  in 
America,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  she  acquired  New- 
foundland and  Acadia,  the  latter  known  henceforth  as 
Nova  Scotia. 

Thirty  years  of  general  prosperity  followed,  broken  by 
Indian  troubles  in  the  Carolinas  and  Maine,  by  contro- 
versies between  the  colonists  and  the  home  government, 
and  by  hostilities  between  England  and  Spain,  in  which 
colonial  troops  bore  an  arduous  part.  Then  came  King 
Gqorge’s  War  (1744-48),  the  most  important  incident  of 
which  was  the  capture  of  the  strong  fortress  of  Louisburg 
(1745),  constructed  by  the  French  on  the  Island  of  Cape 
Breton  after  their  expulsion  from  Acadia.  This  exploit 
was  almost  wholly  a colonial  enterprise,  the  principal 
part  of  the  force  being  furnished  by  Massachusetts,  and 
the  commander  being  William  Pepperell,  of  Maine.  The 
exultant  Americans  now  meditated  the  conquest  of 


Canada  and  were  eager  to  raise  a colonial  army,  which 
the  British  minister,  however,  would  not  permit,  lest  the 
provinces  should  grow  too  independent.  The  colonists 
were  only  allowed  to  menace  Montreal  while  a British 
expedition  should  attack  Quebec.  But  the  British  ex- 
pedition never  came ; the  costly  preparations  of  the 
provincials  went  for  nothing ; a French  fleet,  on  the  other 
hand,  alarmed  the  coaets  until  it  was  disabled  by  fever 
and  dispersed  by  storms ; the  frontiers  were  harassed  by 
Canadians  and  Indians ; and  finally  the  peace  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle  (1748)  restored  Louisburg  to  France,  and  gave 
her  also  the  Islands  of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon  off  the 
coast  of  Newfoundland. 

Thus  far  the  colonial  wars  with  France  had  all  sprung 
from  the  contests  of  the  European  powers.  The  decisive 
struggle,  known  as  the  French  and  Indian  War,  began 
with  the  clashing  interests  of  the  settlers  themselves.  At 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  French,  although 
their  colonies  increased  very  slowly  in  population,  were 
steadily  strengthening  their  position  on  the  route  from 
Canada  through  the  Mississippi  Valley.  They  com- 
manded the  lakes  at  Niagara  and  Detroit;  they  had 
founded  New  Orleans  (1718)  and  made  it  the  capital  of 
Louisiana;  and  they  began  to  press  upon  the  English 
frontiers  in  Western  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania,  where 
pioneers  from  the  tide-water  settlements  were  now  cross- 
ing the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  Alleghanies,  and  turning 
their  attention  to  the  rich  valley  of  the  Ohio.  Resolved 
to  hold  this  country,  the  French  built  forts  at  Presque 
Isle,  Le  Boeuf,  and  Venango  (Erie,  Waterford,  and 
Franklin,  Penn.),  roused  the  Indians,  and  seized  English 
traders.  The  governors  of  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania 
received  orders  from  England  to  expel  the  French 
wherever  they  were  found  within  the  limits  of  those 
provinces.  A mission  of  remonstrance  and  inquiry  from 
Lieutenant-Governor  Dinwiddie,  of  Virginia,  to  the 
French  at  Fort  Le  Boeuf  (1753),  first  brought  George 
Washington  into  public  notice.  He  was  in  his  twenty- 
second  year  when  he  undertook  this  dangerous  winter 
journey,  a dignified,  high-minded,  truthful,  well-bred  gen- 
tleman, used  to  a vigorous  out-of-door  life,  knowing  so 
much  of  the  profession  of  arms  as  could  be  learned  by 
militia  service,  and,  for  his  time  and  circumstances,  a very 
respectable  scholar.  He  discharged  his  errand  with  great 
discretion,  bringing  back  clear  evidence  of  the  French 
intentions,  and  recommending  the  immediate  construc- 
tion of  a fort  at  the  junction  of  the  Alleghany  and 
Monongahela  rivers,  the  present  site  of  Pittsburg.  The 
work  was  begun  by  a small  advance  party,  but  the 
French  drove  them  out  and  finished  it  for  themselves, 
calling  it  Fort  Du  Quesne.  An  expedition  of  Virginia, 
New  York,  and  South  Carolina  troops,  was  disconcerted 
by  this  misfortune  ; but  Washington,  succeeding  to  the 
command  of  the  Virginia  regiment  on  the  death  of  his 
superior  officer,  distinguished  himself  alike  in  action  and 
in  a judicious  and  orderly  retreat  to  the  Upper  Potomac. 

There  had  been  no  declaration  of  war  between  France 
and  England,  but  the  British  ministry  advised  the  colo- 
nists to  hold  a convention  of  delegates  from  the  several 
Assemblies  to  provide  for  the  general  defence.  Repre- 
sentatives New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Mary- 


UNI 


land  accordingly  met  at  Albany  in  June,  1754,  and  going 
somewhat  beyond  the  advice  of  the  ministers,  proposed 
on  the  4th  of  July  a scheme  of  confederation  which  may 
be  called  the  germ  of  the  present  Constitution.  Its 
author  was  Benjamin  Franklin,  then  deputy  postmaster- 
general  for  America.  He  was  forty-eight  years  of  age, 
distinguished  for  the  vigor  and  effectiveness  of  his 
writings  on  public  affairs,  the  strength  of  his  attachment 
to  the  popular  cause,  the  sagacity  of  his  political  and 
economical  teachings,  and  his  acquirements  in  natural 
soience.  The  plan  of  confederation,  however,  was  re- 
jected by  the  colonies  because  it  left  too  much  power  to 
the  crown,  and  disapproved  by  the  crown  because  it  gave 
too  much  authority  to  the  people. 

A more  practical  measure  of  the  ministry  was  the  dis- 
patch to  America  of  two  regiments  of  regular  troops,  to 
co-operate  with  which  the  provincial  Assemblies  voted 
seven  or  eight  thousand  men.  The  British  general,  Brad- 
dock,  appointed  commander-in-chief,  undertook  an  expe- 
dition against  Fort  Du  Quesne  with  the  regulars  and  a 
detachment  of  Virginians,  and  the  provincials  were  to 
operate  in  the  North  and  East.  British  regular  officers 
knew  little  of  the  conditions  of  campaigning  in  America. 
Braddock  was  unable  to  move  until  Franklin,  on  his  own 
pecuniary  responsibility,  collected  horses  and  wagons  for 
him  from  the  farmers  of  Pennsylvania  ; and  when  at  last 
on  the  march,  the  General  haughtily  rejected  the  advice 
of  Washington,  who  accompanied  him  as  aide-de-camp, 
that  the  Virginia  rangers  should  scour  the  woods  in  ad- 
vance. The  consequence  was  an  ambuscade,  near  Fort 
Du  Quesne,  July  9, 1755,  in  which  Braddock  was  mortally 
wounded,  and  the  British  lost  more  than  half  their  men 
and  all  their  guns  and  baggage.  Only  the  gallantry  and 
skill  of  Washington  and  the  firmness  of  the  provincials 
saved  the  remnant.  The  expedition  was  abandoned  and 
Washington  found  full  occupation  in  defending  the 
frontier  against  the  Indians,  and  organizing  new  levies. 

The  chief  command,  after  the  death  of  Braddock,  de- 
volved upon  Governor  Shirley,  of  Massachusetts.  He 
made  an  attempt  upon  Fort  Niagara,  but  accomplished 
nothing.  Gen.  William  Johnson,  superintendent  of  the 
Indians  of  New  York,  was  a little  more  fortunate,  for 
being  dispatched  against  Crown  Point  on  Lake  Cham- 
plain, where  the  Canadians  had  established  themselves 
over  twenty  years  before,  he  defeated  the  French  general, 
Dieskau,  in  the  battle  of  Lake  George,  September  5, 1755, 
'and  built  Fort  William  Henry  at  the  head  of  the 
lake.  Still  he  was  not  able  to  reach  Crown  Point,  or 
even  to  prevent  the  French  from  fortifying  Ticonderoga. 

The  one  entire  success  of  the  campaign  was  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  French  neutrals  from  Nova  Scotia.  These 
people,  remnants  and  descendants  of  the  Acadians  of  the 
last  generation,  had  always  remained  French  in  language, 
religion,  and  sympathy.  Simple,  industrious,  and  peace- 
able, their  neutrality  was  mainly  an  affair  of  sentiment, 
and  the  persistent  efforts  of  Canadian  agents  to  rouse 
them  into  active  hostilities  against  their  English 
conquerors  seem  to  have  met  with  no  response.  The 
English,  however,  resolved,  as  a measure  of  precaution, 
to  remove  them  from  their  homes  and  scatter  them  among 
the  provinces.  An  expedition  of  provincials  and  regulars, 
Under  General  John  Winslow  of  Massachusetts,  and  I 


5999 

Colonel  Monckton,  easily  reduced  the  military  posts  on 
the  French  side  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy  (June,  1755),  and 
then,  assembling  the  Acadians  by  stratagem  in  their 
parish  churches,  hurried  them  on  shipboard.  About 

6.000  were  deported  by  this  ruthless  means;  families 
were  separated ; the  houses,  lands,  cattle,  and  crops  of 
the  exiles  were  confiscated ; every  colony  received  some 
of  the  destitute  and  heart-broken  victims. 

War  between  France  and  England  was  declared  in 
May,  1756,  and  the  British  government,  sending  a large 
body  of  troops  to  America,  promised  a vigorous 
campaign.  The  incapacity  of  the  commander-in-chief, 
Lord  Louden,  and  the  arrogant  reluctance  of  th«  regulars 
to  co-operate  with  provincials,  defeated  almost  every 
plan.  In  strong  contrast  with  Louden’s  weakness  was 
the  conduct  of  the  alert  and  dashing  French  commander, 
the  gallant  Marquis  of  Montcalm,  who  spread  panic 
among  the  colonists  and  broke  up  their  campaign  by  a 
sudden  descent  upon  Oswego,  where  he  made  important 
captures,  and  who  later,  while  Louden  was  making  a 
feeble  demonstration  against  Louisburg,  fell  upon  Fort 
William  Henry  and  compelled  its  surrender  (August, 
1757). 

But  the  accession  of  William  Pitt  to  the  chief  seat  in 
the  British  cabinet  now  put  a new  face  upon  affairs. 
That  able  statesman  understood  the  significance  of  the 
trouble  in  America,  as  none  of  his  predecessors  did.  He 
recalled  Louden ; he  sent  out  a powerful  fleet  under 
Admiral  Boscawen ; he  so  inspirited  the  colonists  that 
they  raised  even  more  than  the  20,000  men  asked  of 
them ; and  at  the  beginning  of  1758  Abercrombie,  the 
new  commander-in-chief,  found  himself  at  the  head  of 

50.000  troops.  Louisburg  was  captured  in  July,  with 

5.000  prisoners ; and  although  an  assault  upon  Fort 
Ticonderoga  was  repelled  by  Montcalm,  Fort  Frontenac 
(Kingston,  in  Canada)  was  captured  with  garrison  and 
shipping,  and  Fort  Du  Quesne  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Washington  and  his  Virginians,  and  was  henceforth 
called  Fort  Pitt.  General  Amherst  took  Ticonderoga 
the  next  summer. 

The  decisive  event  of  the  war  was  the  capture  of 
Quebec.  For  the  attempt  upon  this  formidable  and  im- 
portant fortress  Pitt  selected  Brigadier-General  Wolfe,  a 
highly  accomplished  young  officer,  who  had  shown 
marked  ability  as  second  in  command  at  the  taking  of 
Louisburg.  With  a fleet  and  8,000  troops  he  ascended 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  debarked  near  the  city,  where 
Montcalm  with  an  equal  force  was  strongly'posted  await- 
ing him.  Direct  assault  failed  ; bombardment,  owing  to 
the  position  of  the  fortress  on  a high  promontory  was  im- 
possible. But  Wolfe,  after  two  months’  disheartening 
trials,  discovered  a ravine  in  the  steep  bank ; and  by  this 
path,  so  narrow  and  difficult  that  it  had  been  left  virtually 
unguarded,  he  led  a part  of  his  army  at  night  to  the 
heights  of  Abraham,  in  the  rear  of  the  town.  At  daylight 
on  September  13,  1759,  the  English  were  drawn  up  in 
order  of  battle.  The  astonished  Montcalm  hurried  from 
his  camp  and  attacked  with  spirit ; but  the  British  line 
was  not  to  be  broken.  Wolfe  was  killed  at  the  moment 
of  victory ; Montcalm  fell  mortally  wounded  while  vainly 
trying  to  rally  his  defeated  troops.  Five  days  later  Que- 
bec surrendered ; and  although  hostilities  continued 


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for  some  time  longer,  and  Montreal  was  not  given  up  I 
until  September,  1760,  the  fall  of  Quebec  was  virtually 
the  fall  of  the  French  power  in  America. 

The  war  in  the  colonies  had  been  over  for  three  years 
when  the  treaty  of  Paris,  in  1763,  settled  the  terms  of  the 
peace.  France  divested  herself  of  all  her  American  pos- 
sessions. Great  Britain  obtained  everything  east  of  the 
Mississippi  except  New  Orleans ; that  town  and  the  ter- 
ritory west  of  the  Mississippi  were  transferred  to  Spain ; 
and  Florida  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  exchange  for 
Havana,  which  had  been  captured  from  Spain  during  the 
war. 

Prelude  to  the  Revolution. 

During  the  last  years  of  the  struggle  with  France  the 
colonies  had  been  vexed  with  many  Indian  troubles 
among  the  tribes  of  the  South  as  well  as  those  on  the 
French  frontier ; and  the  close  of  the  war,  with  the  sub- 
stitution of  English  for  French  supremacy  in  the  western 
country,  brought  on  a rising,  led  by  the  Ottawa  chief, 
Pontiac,  which  assumed  a most  serious  character.  The 
conspiracy  of  Pontiac  (1763)  involved  an  attack  upon  all 
the  English  border  settlements  from  Virginia  to  the 
lakes.  More  than  100  traders  were  murdered.  More 
than  500  families  were  massacred  or  driven  from  their 
homes.  Detroit  was  besieged  by  Pontiac  for  five  months, 
and  after  the  tribes  were  at  last  compelled  to  sue  for 
peace,  the  indomitable  chief  continued  for  some  years  to 
incite  war  among  those  of  the  farther  West. 

While  the  surrender  of  Canada  relieved  the  colonists 
of  their  only  rival,  and  gave  permanent  security  to  their 
frontiers,  the  rejoicings  with  which  they  celebrated  the 
conquest  were  not  free  from  alloy.  Seventy  years  of  in- 
termittent war  had  cost  them  dear.  They  had  lost  thirty 
thousand  soldiers ; they  had  seen  many  of  their  towns 
laid  in  ruins ; they  had  spent  $16,000,000,  of  which  sum 
the  home  government  repaid  only  $5,000,000.  Their  pop- 
ulation at  this  time  did  not  exceed  2,000,000  of  whom  350,- 
000  were  negro  slaves.  Virginia  stood  first,  with  300,000 
inhabitants;  Massachusetts  second  with  230,000;  Penn- 
sylvania, with  nearly  as  many  as  Massachusetts,  ranked 
third ; New  York  was  below  the  Carolinas,  Maryland,  and 
Connecticut.  The  principal  town  was  Boston,  with 
15,000  inhabitants,  but  Philadelphia  and  New  York  were 
fast  overtaking  it  in  population,  while  Newport,  Norfolk, 
and  Baltimore  were  becoming  its  rivals  in  trade.  The 
New  England  colonies  managed  to  keep  up  a profitable 
contraband  traffic  with  the  West  Indies  ; but  peace  found 
the  Americans,  upon  the  whole,  depressed,  poor,  and 
nearly  exhausted  with  debt. 

It  was  a conjuncture  in  which  a wise  home  government 
would  have  been  careful  to  foster  their  industries  and 
lighten  their  burdens.  Great  Britain  made  it  an  occasion 
for  enforcing  oppressive  laws  with  new  vigor  and  by 
hateful  means.  Ever  since  the  revolution  which  de- 
throned James  II.,  the  commercial  classes  had  been  gain- 
ing influence  in  the  British  Parliament,  and  it  was  their 
policy  to  crush  the  trade  and  manufactures  of  the  col- 
onies and  force  them  to  buy  whatever  England  had  to 
sell.  It  was  the  shopkeeper  rather  than  the  King  against 
whom  America  had  now  to  assert  her  independence. 
The  navigation  acts  forbade  the  colonists  to  ship  their 


I products  in  any  but  English  vessels,  or,  so  far  as  the 
principal  articles  were  concerned,  to  trade  except  with 
English  countries.  To  please  the  London  hatters  they 
were  forbidden  to  export  hats,  or  to  send  them  from  one 
colony  to  another.  To  satisfy  other  British  interests, 
they  were  forbidden  to  manufacture  iron,  even  so  small 
as  a nail ; or  to  send  any  manufacture  of  woolen  out  of 
the  province  in  which  it  was  produced  ; and  an  act  was 
passed  to  destroy  the  most  important  business  of  New 
England,  which  was  the  exchange  of  timber  with  the 
French  West  Indies  for  molasses  to  be  distilled  into  rum. 
Such  laws  inevitably  produced  an  active  smuggling 
trade,  and  to  some  extent  the  royal  officers  seem  to  have 
connived  at  it.  On  the  accession  of  the  Grenville  min- 
istry, in  1763,  it  was  determined  to  make  America  pay  a 
share  of  the  English  war  debt.  Grenville  undertook  to 
enforce  the  obnoxious  trade  laws  ; to  establish  a portion 
of  the  British  army  as  a permanent  garrison  in  America ; 
and  to  raise  money  for  the  support  of  the  troops  by 
Parliamentary  taxation  of  the  colonies.  These  three 
measures  were  the  immediate  causes  of  the  American  rev- 
olution. 

Grenville  might  have  been  warned  by  the  opposition 
to  the  “writs  of  assistance  ” two  years  before.  When  the 
government  granted  these  general  search  warrants,  auth- 
orizing officers  of  the  customs  to  break  into  any  store  or 
private  house  suspected  of  containing  smuggled  goods,  the 
Americans  made  such  vigorous  resistance  to  what  they 
declared  to  be  an  unconstitutional  abridgment  of  their 
liberties  that,  although  the  legality  of  tlie  writs  was  finally 
sustained  by  the  courts,  the  officers  did  not  venture  to 
execute  them.  The  attempt  to  tax  the  people  without 
their  consent  was  certain  to  be  still  more  violently  re- 
sented, for  it  was  the  invasion  of  a principle  which  had 
been  maintained  in  the  leading  colonies  almost  from  the 
beginning.  Nevertheless,  after  the  passing  of  a declara- 
tory act  in  1764,  Grenville  brought  forward  his  scheme  of 
a stamp  act.  It  was  a tax  imposed  upon  every  legal 
paper  and  every  document  used  in  trade.  Agents  were 
appointed  for  the  sale  of  the  stamps.  Violations  of  the 
act  could  be  tried  in  any  royal  or  admiralty  court,  how- 
ever distant,  and  without  a jury.  Troops  were  to  be  sent 
to  America  to  overawe  remonstrance,  and  the  colonists 
were  required  to  find  them  “quarters,  rum,  fuel,  and  other 
necessaries.”  The  introduction  of  Grenville’s  measure 
produced  a general  outcry.  The  colonists  insisted  that 
they  could  not  constitutionally  be  taxed  by-a  Parliament 
in  which  they  were  not  represented.  James  Otis,  who 
had  distinguished  himself  during  the  opposition  to  the 
writs  of  assistance  in  Boston  resigned  the  office  of  advo- 
cate-general in  order  to  defend  the  cause  of  the  people  ; 
Samuel  Adams,  soon  to  be  known  as  the  most  astute  of 
the  popular  leaders  in  Massachusetts ; and  Patrick  Henry, 
the  brilliant  orator  of  Virginia,  were  conspicuous  in  the 
agitation.  Franklin  for  Pennsylvania,  Jackson  for  Mas- 
sachusetts, Ingersoll  for  Connecticut,  were  commissioned 
to  argue  against  the  scheme  in  England.  The  provincial 
assemblies  drew  up  protests.  Colonel  Barrd,  who  had 
served  in  America,  spoke  against  the  bill  in  Parliament. 
Nevertheless,  the  stamp  act  passed  in  March,  1765. 

The  news  was  received  in  America  with  a burst  of  in- 
dignation. Virginia  passed  a declaration  that  the  Gen- 


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6001 


eral  Assembly  had  exclusive  right  to  tax  the  inhabitants, 
and  in  debating  the  resolution  Patrick  Henry  uttered  hk 
most  famous  saying  : “ Caesar,”  he  cried,  “had  his  Brutus 
Charles  his  Cromwell,  and  George  the  Third”  — 
“Treason,  treason!”  exclaimed  some  of  the  members: 
— “George  the  Third  may  profit  by  their  example.  If 
this  be  treason,  make  the  most  of  it.”  Massachusetts  in- 
structed the  courts  to  conduct  their  business  without 
stamps.  The  distributing  agents  were  forced  to  resign 
their  offices.  “ Sons  of  Liberty”  were  organized  to  resist 
the  act.  The  houses  of  officials  and  friends  of  the  crown 
were  mobbed  and  gutted.  On  the  day  appointed  for  the 
act  to  be  put  in  force,  flags  were  hung  at  half  mast,  bells 
were  tolled,  business  was  suspended,  not  a stamp  was  to 
be  seen.  In  the  meantime,  at  the  request  of  Massachu- 
setts, delegates  from  nine  colonies  met  in  Congress  at 
New  York  (October,  1765),  and  drew  up  a petition  to  the 
King,  a memorial  to  Parliament,  and  a declaration  of 
rights.  They  insisted  that  the  colonies  could  not  be 
.taxed  except  by  their  own  Legislatures  ; and  the  several 
Assemblies  at  their  next  sessions  cordially  approved  their 
proceedings.  A committee  of  correspondence,  formed 
by  a popular  movement  in  New  York,  successfully  urged 
an  agreement  among  the  colonies  to  import  no  more 
goods  from  Great  Britain  until  the  stamp  act  was  re- 
pealed. The  “ Daughters  of  Liberty  ” fostered  the 
patriotic  determination  by  spinning  yarn  for  the  domestic 
looms. 

Against  the  resolution  of  the  colonists,  the  dissatisfac- 
tion of  embarrassed  British  merchants,  and  the  eloquent 
denunciation  of  Pitt,  who  declared  that  the  Americans 
would  have  been  slaves  if  they  had  not  resisted,  the 
stamp  act  could  not  be  maintained.  It  was  repealed  by 
the  Rockingham  ministry,  March  18,  1766.  But  scarcely 
had  the  rejoicings  over  this  event  died  away  when  a new 
scheme  of  taxation  was  put  forth  by  Charles  Townshend, 
chancellor  of  the  exchc  uer,  imposing  duties  on  tea, 
paper,  glass,  etc.  (June,  1 67).  The  effect  was  to  unite 
the  colonies  more  firmly  than  ever  in  the  principle  that 
“ taxation  without  representation  is  tyranny.”  The  Gen- 
eral Court  of  Massachusetts  issued  a circular  letter  in- 
viting the  Assemblies  to  consult  for  the  defense  of  their 
rights.  The  non-importation  agreement  was  renewed. 
An  attempt  to  seize  a sloop  belonging  to  John  Hancock, 
a rich  and  popular  merchant  of  Boston,  for  violation 
of  the  revefiue  laws,  led  to  a riot.  The  Assembly 
of  New  York,  having  refused  to  furnish  quarters  for  royal 
troops,  was  dissolved.  A still  more  popular  Assembly, 
elected  in  its  place,  also  refused,  and  was  dissolved.  The 
General  Court  of  Massachusetts  was  commanded  to  re- 
scind the  circular  letter ; it  refused,  and  was  dissolved. 
The  Burgesses  of  Virginia  were  dissolved  for  protesting 
against  the  treatment  of  New  York.  The  Assemblies  of 
Maryland  and  Georgia  were  dissolved  for  approving  the 
course  of  Massachusetts  and  Virginia.  Parliament  ap- 
proved the  action  of  the  royal  governors,  and  recom- 
mended them  to  send  all  treasonable  persons  to  England 
to  be  tried  there  for  their  offenses. 

Two  regiments  were  sent  to  Boston.  The  town  flatly 
refused  to  give  them  quarters,  and  their  commander, 
General  Gage,  was  compelled  to  provide  for  them  from 
his  own  resources,  Their  presence  was  a constant  source 


of  irritation.  A serious  collision  at  last  occurred  between 
a picket  guard  and  a mob,  in  which  five  citizens  were 
killed  and  several  wounded  (March  5,  1770).  In  the  ex- 
cited state  of  the  public  temper,  “ the  Boston  massacre  ” 
was  greatly  magnified.  A committee  of  the  people, 
headed  by  Samuel  Adams,  waited  upon  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor Hutchinson  and  forced  him  to  order  the  removal  of 
all  the  troops  from  the  town.  Captain  Preston  and  the 
soldiers  of  the  guard  were  tried  for  murder.  Defended 
by  John  Adams  and  Josiah  Quincy,  two  of  the  most 
ardent  of  the  popular  leaders,  they  were  all  acquitted  ex- 
cept two  privates,  who  were  found  guilty  of  manslaughter, 
and  branded  in  the  hand. 

Townshend’s  scheme  of  taxation  had  failed  as  com- 
pletely as  Grenville’s  stamp  act.  Its  repeal,  proposed  by 
the  ministry  of  Lord  North,  was  an  obvious  political  and 
economical  necessity.  But  to  satisfy  King  George  III., 
who  insisted  that  “there  should  always  be  one  tax  at 
least,  to  keep  up  the  right  of  taxation ,”  the  duty  on  tea 
was  retained.  The  new  measure,  presented  to  Parlia- 
ment on  the  day  of  the  Boston  massacre,  only  increased 
the  popular  agitation  in  America.  The  people  pledged 
themselves  to  use  no  tea  while  the  tax  remained,  and  to 
let  none  be  landed.  When  news  came  that  three  tea 
ships  were  on  the  way  to  Boston,  a mass  meeting  in  that 
town  resolved,  on  motion  of  Samuel  Adams,  that  the 
ships  should  be  sent  back.  The  governor  insisted  that 
the  cargo  should  be  landed.  On  the  night  of  December 
18,  1773,  a band  of  fifty  or  sixty  men  disguised  as  Indians 
boarded  the  ships  and  threw  the  tea  into  the  harbor. 
Other  ships,  bound  for  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  were 
turned  back  without  discharging.  The  resentment  of 
the  ministry  at  these  proceedings  fell  upon  Boston,  which 
was,  not  unjustly,  regarded  as  the  hotbed  of  insurrection. 
By  the  Boston  port  bill  the  shipping  business  of  that 
commercial  city  was  entirely  interdicted.  The  capital 
was  removed  to  Salem.  The  act  for  quartering  soldiers 
on  the  inhabitants  was  renewed.  Seven  regiments  were 
stationed  in  the  colony,  and  General  Gage,  besides  hold- 
ing the  military  command,  was  appointed  governor.  A 
new  form  of  government  was  devised,  containing  scarcely 
a vestige  of  popular  authority. 

If  English  statesmen  had  paid  proper  attention  to  Amer- 
ican affairs  they  must  have  learned,  from  the  indignation 
with  which  these  measures  were  received  throughout 
the  colonies,  and  the  language  of  the  public  protests, 
that  the  controversy  had  already  passed  beyond  the 
character  of  a quarrel  about  taxes,  and  was  fast  becom- 
ing a demand  for  popular  rights  all  along  the  line.  Com- 
mittees of  correspondence,  formed  at  the  suggestion  of 
Patrick  Henry,  Thomas  Jefferson,  Richard  Henry  Lee, 
and  others,  enabled  the  colonies  to  concert  measures  of 
common  interest,  and  in  the  spring  of  1774  proposals 
were  made  by  several  of  the  Assemblies  for  a general 
Congress.  On  the  5th  of  September  of  that  year  the  first, 
or  “Old”  Continental  Congress  met  in  Philadelphia 
under  the  presidency  of  Peyton  Randolph,  of  Virginia, 
with  representatives  from  all  the  colonies  except  Georgia. 
It  was  a dignified,  sagacious,  and  patriotic  body,  including 
among  its  members  Washington,  Patrick  Henry,  and  R. 
H.  Lee  of  Virginia,  Samuel  and  John  Adams  of  Massa- 
chusetts, John  Jay,  Philip  Livingston,  and  James  Duane 


6002 


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of  New  York,  Roger  Sherman  of  Connecticut,  Edward 
and  John  Rutledge  and  Christopher  Gadsden  of  South 
Carolina,  William  Livingston  of  New  Jersey,  Galloway 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  Chase  of  Maryland.  A far-reaching 
declaration  of  rights,  a protest  against  eleven  specific  acts 
of  Parliament  passed  since  the  accession  of  George  III., 
a petition  to  the  King  and  addresses  to  the  people  of 
Great  Britain,  Canada,  and  the  colonies,  were  framed, 
and  an  “American  Association”  was  established,  whose 
members  pledged  themselves  not  to  trade  with  Great 
Britain,  Ireland,  the  British  West  Indies,  or  any  Ameri- 
can province  which  should  refuse  to  come  into  the  Asso- 
ciation, and  not  to  use  any  British  goods. 

In  Massachusetts  events  moved  fast  towards  revolution. 
General  Gage  called'  a House  of  Representatives,  under 
the  new  scheme  of  government,  to  meet  at  Salem,  but, 
alarmed  at  the  public  temper,  he  countermanded  the 
summons.  Disregarding  this  second  proclamation,  the 
members  came  together,  resolved  themselves  into  a Pro- 
vincial Congress,  removed  to  Concord,  and  organized  by 
choosing  John  Hancock  as  president.  No  Legislature 
ever  met  again  in  Massachusetts  under  royal  authority. 
Almost  unnoticed  the  sovereignty  had  passed  to  the 
people.  Having  assumed  full  legislative  power  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Congress  provided  for  executive  functions 
also,  by  creating  a committee  of  safety  with  John  Plan- 
cock  at  its  head,  and  authorizing  it  to  call  out  the  militia. 
“ Minute  men  ” were  enrolled,  pledged  to  turn  out  at 
call;  arms  and  ammunition  were  collected  — the  royal 
stores  being  sometimes  seized  — and  public  speakers  be- 
gan to  defend  the  right  of  rebelling  against  oppression. 
General  Gage  fortified  himself  in  Boston,  and  called  for 
20,000  more  troops. 

Beginning  the  Revolution. 

On  the  19th  of  April,  1775,  General  Gage  sent  800 
soldiers  to  destroy  some  arms  and  ammunition  which  the 
patriots  had  stored  at  Concord,  sixteen  miles  from  Boston. 
The  expedition  was  to  move  secretly  by  a night  march, 
but  timely  warning  was  given  of  its  departure,  the  minute 
men  were  roused,  and  when  the  troops  reached  Lexing- 
ton, at  dawn  of  the  19th,  they  found  sixty  or  seventy 
Americans  drawn  up  in  arms.  The  little  force  was  easily 
dispersed  after  eight  of  the  company  had  been  killed  and 
several  wounded ; but,  insignificant  as  it  seemed,  the 
“battle  of  Lexington”  had  mighty  consequences.  The 
British  continued  their  march  to  Concord,  where  they 
found  little  to  destroy,  and  were  met,  moreover,  so  reso- 
lutely by  a hastily  collected  body  of  400  minute  men  that 
they  quickly  began  a retreat.  The  whole  country  was 
now  in  arms.  The  Americans  hung  upon  the  line  of 
march,  firing  from  behind  trees  and  fences,  and  doing 
such  execution  that  the  retreat  became  a rout,  and  when 
the  troops  were  at  last  rescued  by  the  arrival  of  reinforce- 
ments, they  had  lost  273  men. 

The  effect  of  the  battles  of  Lexington  and  Concord 
was  electric.  For  the  first  time  a considerable  party  in 
the  colonies  began  to  talk  of  a separation  from  Great 
Britain  ; the  people  of  Mecklenburg  county,  North  Caro- 
lina, even  adopted  a formal  declaration  of  independence 
(May  31,  1775),  but  this  too  hasty  movement  was  not 
generally  sustained.  Almost  everywhere  authority  passed 


from  the  royal  governors  to  popular  assemblies,  con- 
gresses, or  committees  of  safety.  Troops  were  raised  by 
the  several  colonies,  Massachusetts  alone  voting  13,000, 
and  before  the  end  of  April  the  Americans  had  20,000 
men  in  camp  before  Boston.  The  second  Continental 
Congress,  meeting  at  Philadelphia  in  May,  disclaimed 
the  desire  for  independence,  but  made  provision  for  war, 
issued  bills  of  credit,  and  practically  assumed  all  the 
functions  of  government.  On  the  10th  of  May,  a party  of 
Vermont  volunteers,  known  as  Green  Mountain  Boys, 
surprised  and  captured  Fort  Ticonderoga.  To  the  in- 
quiry of  the  astonished  British  commander,  in  whose 
name  they  demanded  his  surrender,  their  leader,  Ethan 
Allen,  replied,  “ In  the  name  of  the  Great  Jehovah  and 
the  Continental  Congress.”  Seth  Warner,  with  another 
Vermont  party,  captured  Crown  Point ; and  by  these  two 
exploits  the  patriots  secured  over  200  cannon  and  a large 
supply  of  powder. 

There  was  neither  discipline  nor  organization  in  the 
camp  before  Boston.  Gen.  Artemus  Ward  of  Massa- 
chusetts, held  the  precedence  among  several  more  or  less 
independent  commanders,  but  he  had  little  real  authority. 
It  was  under  orders  from  the  Massachusetts  committee 
of  safety  that  Colonel  Prescott  marched  secretly  from 
Cambridge  after  dark  on  June  16,  to  fortify  Charlestown 
Heights  overlooking  the  city  and  harbor  of  Boston.  He 
was  instructed  to  throw  up  intrenchments  on  Bunker 
Hill ; he  decided,  after  reaching  the  ground,  that  the 
safer  course  would  be  to  construct  his  defenses  on  Breed’s 
Hill,  an  eminence  a little  nearer  Boston.  The  Americans 
worked  all  night  without  discovery,  and  continued  their 
labors  until  nearly  noon  of  the  17th,  while  the  British  were 
preparing  an  assault.  By  that  time  they  had  completed 
a redoubt  and  a breastwork.  Prescott  was  in  command. 
Dr.  Joseph  Warren,  president  of  the  Massachusetts  Con- 
gress, recently  appointed  a major-general,  served  with 
him  as  a volunteer.  Israel  F ;nam  of  Connecticut,  a 
veteran  of  the  French  and  Ind  n war,  was  likewise  on 
the  field.  The  British  'attacking  party,  3,000  strong, 
crossed  the  Charles  river  and  advanced  up  the  hill  under 
a covering  fire  from  their  ships  and  batteries.  Twice 
the  picked  regulars  recoiled  and  fled  before  the  American 
militia,  who  reserved  their  steady  and  well-aimed  fire 
until  the  enemy  were  close  to  the  works.  Reinforce^ 
for  a third  attempt,  and  gallantly  led  by  Generals  Howe, 
Pigot,  and  Clinton,  the  British  carried  the  intrenchments 
at  last,  only  when  the  powder  of  the  Americans  was  en- 
tirely exhausted.  Prescott  conducted  an  orderly  retread 
across  Charlestown  Neck,  with  the  loss  of  the  brave  and 
ardent  Warren.  The  number  of  killed,  wounded,  and 
prisoners  on  the  American  side  was  449  ; the  total  number 
engaged  at  any  one  time  was  about  1,500.  but  more  than 
that  were  in  action  at  some  part  of  the  day.  The  British 
force  was  probably  between  three  and  four  thousand,  and 
they  lost  1,054.  The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  as  it  has 
always  been  called,  was  a British  victory ; but  it  was  so 
little  satisfactory  to  the  ministry  that  Gage  was  recalled 
and  replaced  by  Howe,  while  the  provincials  derived 
from  it  increased  confidence  in  their  ability  to  meet  reg- 
ular troops. 

The  Congress  at  Philadelphia  in  the  meanwhile  had 
| adopted  the  motley  but  brave  array  before  Boston  as  a 


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Continental  army,  and  appointed  George  Washington 
commander-in-chief.  When  the  General  reached  Cam- 
bridge, two  weeks  after  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  he 
found  about  14,000  men  in  the  ranks,  and  even  this  small 
force  was  largely  composed  of  short-time  volunteers,  who 
had  turned  out  for  an  emergency,  with  no  idea  of  regular 
service.  It  was  necessary  during  the  next  few  months 
not  only  to  create  the  organization  of  an  army,  but  in  a 
great  measure  to  renew  its  material.  But  while  the 
commander-in-chief  was  performing  this  delicate  work 
in  the  face  of  the  enemy,  operations  elsewhere  were  not 
neglected.  General  Richard  Montgomery,  invading 
Canada  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain,  captured  Mon- 
treal on  November  12,  1775,  and  marched  upon  Quebec, 
where  Benedict  Arnold  joined  him  with  a small  force 
which  he  had  led  through  the  Maine  wilderness.  The 
assault,  delivered  in  a blinding  snowstorm  on  the  31st  of 
December,  was  a failure.  Montgomery  was  killed, 
Arnold  was  badly  wounded,  and  the  Americans  lost 
nearly  a third  of  their  expedition.  In  Virginia,  the  royal 
governor,  Dunmore,  driven  out  of  the  capital,  collected 
ships,  burned  Norfolk  (January,  1776),  and  ravaged  the 
coasts.  British  vessels  of  war  attacked  various  seaport 
towns,  but  the  colonists  likewise  fitted  out  cruisers  and 
captured  supply  ships,  with  powder  and  other  stores  of 
which  they  were  in  great  need.  A combined  land  and 
naval  attack  upon  Charleston,  S.  C.,  by  General  Clinton 
and  Admiral  Sir  Peter  Parker,  was  beaten  off  with  heavy 
loss  by  a small  body  of  men  under  Colonel  Moultrie 
(June  28th,  1776). 

Washington  had  no  sooner  brought  his  army  into 
tolerable  condition  than  he  put  in  execution  a bold  plan 
which  would  force  Howe  either  to  evacuate  Boston  or 
give  battle  ; and  for  the  latter  alternative  he  was  amply 
prepared.  On  the  night  of  March  4-5, 1776,  the  Americans 
fortified  Dorchester  Heights  as  silently  as  the  year  before 
they  had  fortified  Breed’s  Hill,  and  in  the  morning  Boston 
was  at  their  mercy.  Howe  decided  to  risk  an  assault ; 
but  a storm  delayed  him  ; his  officers  lost  heart ; and  on 
the  17th  he  embarked  his  whole  army  for  Halifax,  leaving 
valuable  stores  to  the  victors.  Washington  well  knew 
that  the  intention  of  the  British  was  to  seize  New  YorkJ; 
and  while  the  whole  country  was  rejoicing  over  the  re- 
covery of  Boston,  he  hurried  his  troops  to  the  Hudson, 
and  pushed  on  the  fortifications  begun  some  time  before 
in  anticipation  of  this  movement. 

The  Declaration  of  Independence. 

The  conflict  of  arms  was  not  long  in  commending  to 
the  people  the  idea  of  independence.  Instructions  which 
virtually  implied  separation  were  given  to  their  delegates 
in  Congress  by  Massachusetts  in  January,  1776,  by  South 
Carolina  in  March,  by  Georgia  in  April,  and  on  the  12th 
of  April  North  Carolina  explicitly  directed  her  represen- 
tatives to  vote  for  independence.  In  May,  Congress  re- 
solved that  all  authority  under  the  crown  ought  to  be 
suppressed  and  all  the  powers  of  government  exerted 
under  authority  of  the  people.  Massachusetts,  at  an  elec- 
tion May  30th,  voted  unanimously  to  instruct  her  dele- 
gates for  independence. 

On  the  7th  of  June,  Richard  Henry  Lee,  in  obedience 


6003 

to  instructions  from  the  convention  of  Virginia,  moved  in 
Congress,  “that  the  United  Colonies  are,  and  ought  to  be, 
free  and  independent  states.”  The  resolution  was  de- 
bated in  secret,  John  Adams  warmly  supporting  it,  and 
was  then  postponed  to  give  time  for  consultation  with 
the  people.  In  the  meanwhile,  however,  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son, John  Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Roger  Sherman, 
and  Robert  R.  Livingston  were  appointed  a committee  to 
prepare  a formal  declaration.  The  deferred  resolution 
was  called  up  on  the  1st  of  July  and  discussed  in  com- 
mittee of  the  whole,  John  Adams  again  making  an  im- 
passioned speech  for  it.  It  passed  the  committee  by  a 
vote  of  nine  colonies  to  four,  South  Carolina  being 
against  it,  Delaware  and  Pennsylvania  divided,  and  New 
York  awaiting  the  action  of  a popular  convention  which 
had  been  called  but  had  not  yet  assembled.  When  the 
final  vote  was  taken  in  the  House  July  2,  all  opposition 
had  disappeared.  Twelve  colonies  resolved  “that  these 
United  Colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and 
independent  states ; that  they  are  absolved  from  all 
allegiance  to  the  British  crown,  and  that  all  political  con- 
nection between  them  and  the  state  of  Great  Britain  is, 
and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved.”  The  unanimous 
assent  of  the  New  York  convention  was  given  in  due 
course.  The  discussion's  of  the  Congress  were  held  in 
private.  Crowds  waited  anxiously  in  the  streets  until  the 
result  of  the  deliberations  was  announced  by  the  joyful 
pealing  of  the  State-house  bell,  which,  by  a strange  coin- 
cidence, bore  the  following  text  inscribed  upon  the 
metal : “ Proclaim  liberty  throughout  the  land  unto  all 
the  inhabitants  thereof.” 

The  Declaration  of  Independence,  written  by  Jeffer- 
son, was  agreed  to  on  the  evening  of  the  4th  of  July,  and 
this  date  has  consequently  been  taken  as  the  American 
anniversary.  John  Hancock,  president  of  the  Congress, 
was  the  only  member  who  signed  the  document  on  the 
4th,  the  others  waiting  until  it  had  been  engrossed.  But 
the  declaration  was  immediately  published,  and  every- 
where dissension  seemed  to  be  smothered  in  popular  re- 
joicings. (See  Declaration  of  Independence.)  The 
immortal  document  which  is  justly  regarded  as  the  char- 
ter of  American  freedom  had  its  prototype  in  a Declara- 
tion of  Rights,  prepared  by  Thomas  Jefferson  and  adopted 
by  the  Virginia  Legislature  on  June  12,  1776,  as  follows  : 

“ A declaration  of  rights  made  by  the  Representation  of 
the  good  people  of  Virginia,  assembled  in  full  and  free  Con- 
vention, which  rights  do  pertain  to  them  and  their  posterity 
as  the  basis  and  foundation  of  government. 

“I.  That  all  men  are  by  nature  equally  free  and  inde- 
pendent, and  have  certain  inherent  rights,  of  which,  when 
they  enter  into  a state  of  society,  they  cannot  by  any  com- 
pact deprive  or  divest  their  posterity ; namely,  the  enjoy- 
ment of  life  and  liberty,  with  the  means  of  acquiring  and 
possessing  property,  and  pursuing  and  obtaining  happiness 
and  safety. 

“ II.  That  all  power  is  vested  in,  and  consequently  de- 
rived from,  the  people  ; that  magistrates  are  their  trustees 
and  servants,  and  at  all  times  amenable  to  them. 

“ III.  That  government  is,  or  ought  to  be,  instituted  for 
the  common  benefit,  protection,  and  security  of  the  people, 
nation,  or  community  ; of  all  the  various  modes  and  forms 
of  government,  that  is  best  which  is  capable  of  producing 
the  greatest  degree  of  happiness  and  safety,  and  is  most 


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6004 

effectually  secured  against  the  danger  of  maladministration; 
and  that,  when  a government  shall  be  found  inad- 
equate or  contrary  to  these  purposes,  a majority  of  the  com- 
munity hath  an  indubitable,  unalienable,  and  indefeasible 
right  to  reform,  alter,  or  abolish  it,  in  such  manner  as  shall 
be  judged  most  conducive  to  the  public  weal. 

“IV.  That  no  man,  or  set  of  men,  are  entitled  to  exclu- 
sive or  separate  emoluments  or  privileges  from  the  com- 
munity but  in  consideration  of  public  services,  which  not 
being  descendible,  neither  ought  the  offices  of  magistrate, 
legislator,  or  judge  to  be  hereditary. 

“ V.  That  the  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  powers 
should  be  separate  and  distinct ; and  that  the  members 
thereof  may  be  restrained  from  oppression,  by  feeling  and 
participating  the  burthens  of  the  people,  they  should,  at 
fixed  periods,  be  reduced  to  a private  station,  return  into 
that  body  from  which  they  were  originally  taken,  and  the 
vacancies  be  supplied  by  frequent,  certain,  and  regular  elec- 
tions, in  which  all,  or  any  part  of  the  former  members  to  be 
again  eligible  or  ineligible,  as  the  laws  shall  direct. 

“ VI.  That  all  elections  ought  to  be  free,  and  that  all 
men  having  sufficient  evidence  of  permanent  common  in- 
terest with,  and  attachment  to  the  community,  have  the 
right  of  suffrage,  and  cannot  be  taxed,  or  deprived  of  their 
property  for  public  uses,  without  their  own  consent,  or  that 
of  then  representatives  so  elected,  nor  bound  by  any  law  to 
which  they  have  not  in  like  manner  assented,  for  the  pub- 
lic good. 

“ VII.  That  all  power  of  suspending  laws,  or  the  execu- 
tion of  laws,  by  any  authority,  without  consent  of  the  rep- 
resentatives of  the  people,  is  injurious  to  their  rights,  and 
ought  not  to  be  exercised. 

“ VIII.  That  in  all  capital  or  criminal  prosecutions  a 
man  hath  a right  to  demand  the  cause  and  nature  of  his  ac- 
cusation, to  be  confronted  with  the  accusers  and  witnesses, 
to  call  for  evidence  in  his  favor,  and  to  a speedy  trial  by  an 
impartial  jury  of  twelve  men  of  his  vicinage,  without  whose 
unanimous  consent  he  cannot  be  found  guilty  ; nor  can  he 
be  compelled  to  give  evidence  against  himself  ; that  no  man 
be  deprived  of  his  liberty , except  by  the  law  of  the  land  or 
the  judgment  of  his  peers. 

“IX.  That  excessive  bail  ought  not  to  be  required,  nor 
excessive  fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments 
inflicted. 

“ X.  That  general  warrants,  whereby  an  officer  or  mes- 
senger may  be  commanded  to  search  suspected  places  with- 
out evidence  of  a fact  committed,  or  to  seize  any  person  or 
persons  not  named,  or  whose  offence  is  not  particularly  de- 
scribed and  supported  by  evidence,  are  grievous  and  op- 
pressive’ and  ought  not  to  be  granted. 

“ XI.  That  in  controversies  respecting  property,  and  in. 
suits  between  man  and  man,  the  ancient  trial  by  jury  of 
twelve  men  is  preferable  to  any' other,  and  ought  to  be  held 
sacred. 

“ XII.  That  the  freedom  of  the  press  is  one  of  the  great 
bulwarks  of  liberty,  and  can  never  be  restrained  but  by  des- 
potic governments. 

“ XIII.  That  a -well-regulated  militia,  composed  of  the 
body  of  the  people,  trained  to  arms,  is  the  proper,  natural, 
and  safe  defence  of  a free  State  ; that  standing  armies  in 
time  of  peace  should  be  avoided  as  dangerous  to  liberty ; 
and  that  in  all  cases  the  military  should  be  under  strict 
subordination  to,  and  governed  by,  the  civil  power. 

“XIV.  That  the  people  have  a right  to  uniform  govern- 
ment ; and  therefore  that  no  government  separate  from  or 
independent  of  the  government' of  Virginia  ought  to  be 
erected  or  established  within  the  limits  thereof. 

“XV.  That  110  free  government,  or  the  blessing  of  lib- 
erty, can  be  preserved  to  any  people  but  by  a firm  adherence 


to  justice,  moderation,  temperance,  frugality,  and  virtue, 
and  by  a frequent  recurrence  to  fundamental  principles. 

“XVI.  That  religion,  or  the  duty  which  we  owe  to  our 
Creator,  and  the  manner  of  discharging  it,  can  be  directed 
only  by  reason  and  conviction,  not  by  force  or  violence ; and 
therefore  all  men  are  equally  entitled  to  the  free  exercise 
of  religion,  according  to  the  dictates  of  conscience ; and 
that  it  is  the  duty  of  all  to  practise  Christian  forbearance, 
love,  and  charity  towards  each  other.” 

This  Declaration  of  Rights,  indeed,  was  not  only  the 
prototype  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  but  also 
of  a considerable  portion  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States. 

The  Fight  for  Independence. 

The  military  situation  at  the  time  of  the  declaration 
was  discouraging.  The  force  with  which  Washington 
occupied  New  York  did  not  exceed  8,000  men;  and  on 
the  day  of  the  passing  of  the  resolution  of  independence 
the  first  part  of  a large  armament  destined  by  the  ministry 
for  the  subjugation  of  America  landed  on  Staten  Island. 
To  supplement  the  regular  English  troops,  17,000  merce- 
naries had  been  hired  in  the  petty  states  of  Germany,  most 
of  them  from  the  Prince  of  Hesse  Cassel.  General  Sir 
William  Howe  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of 
the  armies,  and  there  was  a large  fleet  under  his  brother. 
Admiral  Lord  Howe.  The  Howes  were  empowered  to 
promise  a redress  of  grievances  and  a pardon  to  all  who 
would  return  to  their  allegiance ; but  the  people  were  in 
no  mood  to  listen  to  any  proposals  short  of  independence. 

The  British  plan  of  campaign  was  to  seize  the  line  of 
the  Hudson  river,  by  an  advance  simultaneously  from 
New  York  and  from  Lake  Champlain.  Without  ships  and 
with  a vastly  inferior  army,  Washington  was  unable  to 
prevent' their  landing  at  Gravesend  Bay,  on  Long  Island ; 
nor  did  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  August  27,  1776,  in 
which  the  Americans  fought  well  and  suffered  severely, 
greatly  retard  their  advance.  Brooklyn  and  New  York 
were  now  at  Howe’s  mercy;  but  the  American  com- 
mander,. crossing  the  East  river  under  cover  of  night  and 
fog,  drew  off  his  men  and  stores,  falling  back  suc- 
cessively to  the  heights  of  Harlem  and  of  Fordham, 
baffling  attempts  to  get  in  his  rear,  fighting  an  indecisive 
battle  at  White  Plains,  October  28,  where  he  deceived  his 
enemy  with  imitation  redoubts  of  corn-stalks,  and  finally 
taking  possession  of  the  passes  of  the  Highlands,  where 
the  Hudson  flows  through  the  gate  of  the  mountains. 
The  British  occupation  of  New  York,  which  lasted  till 
the  end  of  the  war,  gave  a rallying  place  for  the  royalists, 
always  strong  in  that  town,  and  fostered  the  discontent 
and  distrust  among  the  half-hearted.  The  American 
troops  also  rapidly  fell  away  by  desertion  and  discharge. 
Washington,  however,  had  shown  consummate  ability  as 
a strategist,  and  the  highest  kind  of  force,  steadfastness, 
and  courage,  as  a leader.  Howe’s  scheme  for  isolating 
New  England  by  the  seizure  of  the  Hudson  was  defeated. 
Not  only  did  Washington  bar  the  way  at  the  Highlands, 
but  the  expedition  dispatched  from  Canada  under  Carle- 
ton  failed  on  Lake  Champlain.  In  a naval  engagement 
on  the  lake,  Benedict  Arnold,  indeed,  was  beaten  and 
half  his  flotilla  destroyed  (October  11) ; but  the  Ameri- 


UNI 


cans  maintained  themselves  at  Fort  Ticonderoga,  where 
Carleton  did  not  venture  to  attack  them. 

After  capturing  Fort  Washington,  at  the  upper  end  of 
Manhattan  Island,  Howe  sent  a strong  corps  under  Lord 
Cornwallis  across  the  Hudson  into  New  Jersey.  Falling 
back  before  this  threatening  movement,  and  adroitly 
maneuvering  the  remnant  of  his  army  so  as  to  cover 
Philadelphia,  Washington  traversed  the  State  in  hot 
haste,  and  at  Trenton  crossed  the  Delaware  into  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  two  armies  went  into  winter  quarters  on  op- 
posite sides  of  the  river.  On  the  26th  of  December, 
having  suddenly  recrossed  in  the  midst  of  a snowstorm, 
Washington  surprised  a Hessian  detachment  at  Trenton, 
capturing  a thousand  prisoners.  When  the  main  body 
of  the  enemy  under  Cornwallis  came  upon  him,  he 
marched  around  them  in  the  night,  and  routed  their  re- 
serves at  Princeton  (January  3,  1777) ; and  although 
obliged  afterwards  to  fall  back  towards  Morristown,  he 
was  able  by  harassing  operations,  in  the  course  of  the 
winter,  to  expel  the  British  from  nearly  all  their  posts  in 
the  Jerseys,  an4  to  revive  the  depressed  spirits  of  the 
people.  Congress,  which  had  fled  to  Baltimore,  returned 
to  Philadelphia,  and  the  most  active  measures  were  taken 
to  raise  the  strength  and  improve  the  organization  of  the 
American  army. 

The  next  campaign,  however,  in  the  Middle  States  was 
a series  of  disasters.  Howe  gained  possession  of  Phila- 
delphia after  defeating  the  Americans  at  Brandywine 
creek  (September  11,  1777),  Congress  removing  to  York, 
Penn. ; he  repulsed  an  attack  at  Germantown,  October  4 ; 
and  later  he  reduced  Forts  Mercer  and  Mifflin,  on  the 
Delaware,  thus  securing  free  communication  with  the  sea. 
Washington  went  into  quarters  at  Valley  Forge,  on  the 
Schuylkill,  about  twenty  miles  above  Philadelphia,  where 
he  was  well  placed  for  observation ; but  during  “the  dark 
winter,”  as  it  was  afterwards  called,  his  men  suffered  ter- 
ribly for  the  want  of  food  and  clothing,  and  the  patriotism 
of  the  country  sometimes  appeared  to  be  nearly  exhausted. 
It  was  the  most  critical  period  of  the  war. 

Nevertheless,  there  were  substantial  causes  of  encour- 
agement. Franklin,  Silas  Deane,  and  Arthur  Lee,  sent 
to  ask  assistance  from  Louis  XVI.,  were  kindly  though 
unofficially  received  at  the  French  court,  and  through  in- 
direct channels  obtained  large  supplies  from  the  royal 
arsenals,  and  what  was  of  vital  importance,  considerable 
sums  of  money.  They  were  permitted,  also,  to  fit  out 
privateers  and  vessels  of  war  in  French  ports,  with  which 
enterprising  American  seamen  inflicted  great  damage 
upon  British  commerce.  Commissions  were  issued  to 
foreign  officers  willing  to  enter  the  American  army  ; and 
among  those  who  gave  their  abilities  to  the  cause  were 
several  of  distinguished  merit  — the  generous  and  high- 
minded  La  Fayette,  who  became  one  of  Washington’s 
wannest  friends  and  disciples ; the  Polish  patriots  Pu- 
laski and  Kosciusko;  DeKalb,  an  Alsatian  in  the  French 
service,  and  the  Prussian  Baron  Steuben,  whose  work,  in 
drilling  and  organizing  troops  proved  of  the  highest  value. 

Nor  was  the  military  outlook  so  black  as  it  seemed  on 
the  capture  of  Philadelphia.  The  British  government 
had  made  extraordinary  preparations  for  a fresh  attempt 
upon  the  line  of  the  Hudson  river.  While  Sir  Henry 
Clinton  marched  from  New  York  to  force  the  passage  of 


6005 

the  Highlands,  a thoroughly  equipped  army  of  8,000  men 
under  General  Burgoyne  was  to  move  from  Canada  by 
Lake  Champlain.  The  Americans  had  but  few  troops  in 
Northern  New  York,  and  the  invaders  met  with  little  re- 
sistance until  they  reached  Fort  Edward,  on  the  Upper 
Hudson.  There  General  Schuyler  had  collected  about 
4,500  men,  with  whom  he  obstructed  and  delayed  the  ad- 
vance, gathering  reinforcements  as  he  slowly  fell  back  to 
Stillwater,  and  giving  time  for  the  militia  to  gather  along 
the  lengthening  British  line.  Two  flank  expeditions,  un- 
wisely ordered  by  Burgoyne,  ended  in  disaster.  Colonel 
St.  Leger,  who  was  to  have  swept  the  valley  of  the  Mo- 
hawk and  joined  Burgoyne  at  Albany,  was  defeated  at 
Fort  Schuyler  (Rome),  and  returned  in  disorder  to  Can- 
ada. An  English  and  Hessian  force,  detached  for  an 
attack  upon  Bennington,  Vermont,  was  signally  beaten 
by  the  New  Hampshire  militia  under  Stark  (Aug.  16). 
Crippled  by  his  losses,  unable  either  to  go  forward  or  to 
retreat,  Burgoyne  halted  at  Saratoga,  and  fortified  a camp. 
He  attacked  the  Americans  under  Gates  (who  had  super- 
seded Schuyler)  at  Bemis  Heights,  September  19,  without 
decisive  result.  He  was  attacked  in  turn  by  Gates  at 
Saratoga,  October  7,  when  the  Americans  gained  a de- 
cided advantage  of  position.  Burgoyne’s  only  hope  now 
was  in  Clinton.  That  general  did,  indeed,  capture  Forts 
Clinton  and  Montgomery  in  the  Highlands,  October  6, 
but  his  help  came  too  late.  On  the  17th  of  October, 
Burgoyne  surrendered  with  5,800  men  and  27  pieces  of 
artillery.  Clinton  returned  in  haste  to  New  York. 

The  capture  of  an  entire  British  army  of  picked  troops 
by  a miscellaneous  force  of  half-destitute  provincials  and 
militia  was  well  calculated  to  dismay  the  ministry  and 
reanimate  the  patriots  ; but  its  most  important  effect  was 
in  determining  France  to  acknowledge  the  independence 
of  the  United  States  and  make  open  cause  with  them. 
Treaties  of  alliance  and  of  commerce  and  friendship 
were  signed  with  the  American  commissioners  in  Paris, 
February  6,  1778.  England  at  once  declared  war  against 
France,  and  a French  fleet  under  Count  d’Estaing  sailed 
promptly  for  America. 

In  anticipation  of  the  arrival  of  the  French  ships,  the 
British  hastened  to  evacuate  Philadelphia  and  transfer 
themselves  to  New  York.  Washington  pursued,  and 
coming  up  with  them  at  Monmouth  Court  House,  N.  J., 
June  28,  1778,  fought  a severe  battle,  in  which  the  disas- 
ters of  the  early  part  of  the  day  were  repaired  by  his  per- 
sonal exertions.  Under  cover  of  thre  night,  Clinton  (who 
had  superseded  General  Howe)  stole  away  to  the  pro- 
tection of  the  ships,  losing  nearly  2,000  men  on  the  field 
and  in  the  retreat.  The  French  auxiliaries,  however,  did 
much  less  than  was  expected  of  them.  An  attack  upon 
New  York  proved  impracticable,  and  a combined  land 
and  naval  expedition  against  Newport  was  defeated  by  a 
storm;  after  which  d’Estaing  sailed  for  the  West  Indies. 
The  policy  of  arming  the  savages  against  the  insurgent 
patriots,  steadily  urged  by  the  King,  had  its  natural 
result  in  the  terrible  massacre  of  Wyoming  (near  Wilkes- 
barre,  Penn.),  where  a settlement  of  Connecticut  emi- 
grants was  captured  (July  3,  1778),  by  a force  of  Tories 
and  Indians  under  Col.  John  Butler,  and  400  persons  were 
murdered  by  the  red  men  after  the  surrender.  In  North- 
ern New  York,  where  the  Mohawk  chief,  Joseph  Brant, 


6oo6 


UNI 


held  his  tomahawk  always  at  the  British  service ; in  va- 
rious parts  of  the  South  ; and  in  the  West,  where  Indian 
raids  were  instigated  by  the  British  commanders  of  fron- 
tier posts,  the  settlers  were  kept  in  constant  alarm ; and 
sometimes  they  were  moved  to  severe  retaliation.  Sulli- 
van conducted  an  energetic  campaign  against  the  Six 
Nations  and  Tories  of  New  York  (1779),  and  the  daring 
pioneer,  Maj.  George  Rogers  Clark,  surprised  the  British 
at  Kaskaskia,  Detroit,  and  other  places  in  the  West.  But 
the  alliance  between  the  King  and  the  savage  did  its 
bloody  work  until  the  end  of  the  war. 

Ravaging  expeditions  of  the  British  against  exposed 
towns  on  the  coast  were  more  than  countervailed  by  such 
imposing  exploits  as  the  surprise  and  capture  of  Stony 
Point,  below  the  Highlands,  by  General  Wayne  (called 
Mad  Anthony)  July  16,  1779,  or  Major  Henry  Lee’s  de- 
scent upon  Paulus  Hook,  (Jersey  City) ; and  especially 
by  the  successes  of  the  American  armed  ships,  public  and 
private,  in  foreign  waters,  over  five  hundred  British 
merchantmen  having  been  made  prizes.  The  most 
famous  of  the  American  commanders  was  John  Paul 
Jones,  who  sailed  from  France  with  a small  squadron, 
fitted  out  by  the  help  of  Dr.  Franklin,  and  off  Flambor- 
ough  Head,  on  the  coast  of  Yorkshire,  fought  a battle 
(September  23,  1779),  which  has  a conspicuous  place  in 
all  naval  histories.  With  his  flagship,  the  Bon  Homme 
Richard,  so  named  in  compliment  to  the  “ Poor  Richard  ” 
of  Franklin’s  almanac,  he  engaged  a much  finer  and 
heavier  ship,  the  Serapis,  at  close  quarters,  for  three 
hours,  and  received  her  surrender  when  his  own  vessel 
was  on  the  point  of  sinking. 

The  discovery  of  the  treason  of  General  Benedict 
Arnold  came  upon  the  country  at  a time  when  the 
military  fortunes  of  the  Northern  department  were  so 
low  that  Washington  doubted  his  power  to  hold  his 
suffering  and  mutinous  troops  together  for  another  cam- 
paign. Arnold  had  bargained  with  Sir  Henry  Clinton  to 
betray  West  Point  into  the  hands  of  the  British.  The 
post  was  the  key  to  the  Highlands,  and  its  loss  might 
have  been  a fatal  disaster.  To  complete  the  details  of 
the  plot,  Major  Andre,  an  accomplished  young  officer  of 
Clinton’s  staff,  landed  from  the  man-of-war  Vulture,  and 
held  an  interview  with  Arnold  at  Haverstraw,  on  the 
Hudson,  between  the  English  and  American  lines.  Un- 
able to  return  to  the  ship,  Andre  crossed  the  river,  spent 
the  night  within  the  American  lines,  and  the  next  day  at- 
tempted to  reach  New  York  by  land  in  disguise,  a course 
which,  by  the  laws  of  war,  placed  him  in  the  position  of  a 
spy.  He  was  captured  near  Tarrytown,  with  papers  on 
his  person  which  revealed  the  whole  plot,  and  was 
hanged,  by  sentence  of  a court  martial,  October  2. 
Arnold  escaped  to  the  Vulture , and  was  rewarded  for  his 
perfidy  with  ,£6,300  and  a commission  as  brigadier- 
general. 

Washington,  whose  headquarters  were  at  Morristown, 
had ’been  unable,  since  the  summer  of  1778,  to  do  much 
more  than  maintain  a watchful  defensive.  Clinton,  on 
the  other  hand,  disheartened  by  repeated  failures  at  the 
North,  resolved  to  strike  at  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas, 
and  for  this  purpose  withdrew  his  garrisons  from  New- 
port and  the  forts  on  the  Hudson.  Savannah  was  easily 
captured,  December  20^  J^S.  The  whole  State  of  Georgia 


submitted,  and  the  Tories  took  arms.  General  Lincoln, 
who  commanded  the  American  forces  in  the  South,  saved 
Charleston  from  an  attack  by  General  Prevost;  but  he 
was  defeated  in  an  attempt  to  recapture  Savannah  (Oc- 
tober, 1779),  where  the  gallant  Pulaski  was  mortally 
wounded.  Count  d’Estaing,  who  had  returned  to  the 
American  coast,  took  a spirited  part  in  the  siege  and  as- 
sault ; but,  more  cautious  than  his  allies,  he  sailed  away 
while  Lincoln  was  still  belligerent  and  hopeful,  and  thus, 
as  at  Newport,  he  put  an  end  to  the  enterprise.  In  Feb- 
ruary, Clinton  himself  sailed  for  the  South  with  a strong 
force.  He  took  Charleston,  May  12,  plundering  the  city 
and  shipping  the  slaves  to  the  West  Indies.  When  he 
returned  to  the  North  he  left  Cornwallis  in  command, 
and  upon  this  officer  must  rest  the  chief  responsibility  for 
the  barbarous  and  unusual  methods  by  which  the  conflict 
in  the  Carolinas  was  conducted.  Men  were  forcibly  en- 
rolled under  the  British  flag ; even  prisoners  were  driven 
into  the  ranks ; private  property  was  confiscated ; mur- 
ders on  one  side  provoked  executions  on  the  other.  The 
worst,  but  not  the  only,  excesses,  were  committed  by  the 
Tory  irregulars.  To  meet  them  the  patriots  organized 
partisan  bands,  and  the  exploits  of  Sumter,  Marion, 
Pickens,  and  others  soon  rang  through  the  country. 

Against  the  advice  of  Washington,  Congress  commit- 
ted the  Southern  department  to  Gates,  and  this  me- 
diocre and  inflated  general,  who  had  filched  the  laurels  of 
Schuyler  at  Saratoga  and  intrigued  for  the  place  of 
Washington,  put  an  end  to  his  own  career  by  a disgrace- 
ful defeat  at  the  hands  of  Cornwallis,  near  Camden,  S.  C. 
(Aug.  16,  1780),  the  brave  De  Kalb  falling  mortally 
wounded  in  trying  to  stay  the  rout.  Washington  was 
now  allowed  his  choice,  and  he  sent  to  the  South  Na- 
thaniel Greene,  the  ablest  and  most  trusted  of  his 
generals.  In  every  campaign  of  the  war  Greene  had 
displayed  signal  qualities  as  a commander — courage, 
firmness,  judgment,  ingenuity,  and  a true  military  instinct ; 
and  latterly  he  had  served  with  the  greatest  zeal  and 
success  as  quartermaster-general  of  the  army.  He  had 
some  good  subordinates  at  the  South,  especially  Morgan 
and  “Light  Horse  Harry ’’Lee,  and  he  was  joined  after 
a while  by  Wayne  ; but  his  men  were  only  the  phantom 
of  an  army,  nearly  naked,  untrained,  and,  in  large  part, 
of  poor  spirit.  For  several  months  the  campaign  in  the 
Carolinas  was  a series  of  baffling  marches,  adroit  retreats, 
skirmishes,  and  surprises,  in  which  Greene  showed  him- 
self a much  better  strategist  than  Cornwallis,  and  much 
more  fertile  in  resources.  Morgan  gained  a brilliant 
victory  over  Tarleton’s  light  division  at  the  Cowpens,  in 
South  Carolina,  January  17,  1781  ; and  Greene,  having 
been  reinforced,  ventured  to  give  battle  to  Cornwallis  at 
Guilford  Court  House,  N.  C.,  March  15,  when  the  pluck 
of  the  Continentals  held  the  field  after  the  flight  of  the 
North  Carolina  and  Virginia  militia.  The  advantage  of 
the  day  was  with  the  Americans,  but  they  were  too  weak 
to  follow  it  up  ; while  Cornwallis  retreated  to  Wilming- 
ton, persuaded  that  Clinton’s  plan  of  overrunning 
America  from  the  Carolinas  was  a failure. 

It  was  impossible  for  Washington  to  give  Greene 
much  help.  A dangerous  revolt  of  the  unpaid  and  dis- 
satisfied soldiers  of  the  Pennsylvania  line  had  just  been 
put  down,  but  it  resulted  in  the  discharge  of  nearly  all 


UNI 


the  Pennsylvania  troops  and  the  encouragement  of  a 
mutinous  spirit  in  the  rest  of  the  army.  Arnold,  with  a 
marauding  expedition  from  New  York,  was  committing 
havoc  along  the  James  river  from  the  sea  to  Richmond. 
To  this  quarter  Cornwallis  decided  to  transfer  himself. 
With  characteristic  boldness,  Greene  left  Cornwallis  to  be 
cared  for  by  others,  and  hurried  southward  where  the 
British  held  a chain  of  posts  extending  through  Central 
South  Carolina  and  down  the  line  of  the  Savannah  river. 
Fort  after  fort  fell  into  his  hands,  generally  after  hard 
fighting;  and  at  Eutaw  Springs,  September  8,  1781, 
there  was  a severe  battle  in  which  the  losses  and  the 
honors  were  about  equal,  but  the  practical  advantages 
were  with  Greene.  By  the  end  of  the  year  the  British  re^ 
tained  only  Charleston  and  Savannah ; and  thus,  in  a 
single  campaign,  fought  with  a small  and  disaffected 
force  in  the  midst  of  a Tory  population,  Greene  restored 
two  States  to  the  Union,  and  virtually  put  an  end  to  the 
war  in  the  South. 

But  the  blunder  of  Cornwallis  in  turning  his  back  upon 
Greene  had  still  larger  consequences.  After  some  un- 
important demonstrations  against  Lafayette,  who  com- 
manded in  Virginia,  the  British  general,  by  Clinton’s 
orders,  posted  himself  on  the  Yorktown  peninsula 
between  the  James  and  York  rivers,  where  it  was  be- 
lieved that  he  would  be  favorably  situated  for  further 
operations.  But  he  . was  safe  only  while  British  ships 
could  command  Chesapeake  Bay.  A French  fleet  under 
Admiral  De  Grasse  was  on  the  way  from  the  West  Indies 
to  co-operate  with  Washington  in  an  attack  upon  New 
York.  Washington  instantly  saw  his  opportunity.  De 
Grasse  was  diverted  to  the  Chesapeake,  where  he  de- 
feated a British  squadron  which  arrived  a few  days 
later.  Lafayette  disposed  his  troops  across  the  head 
of  the  peninsula;  and  Washington,  joined  by  a 
strong  French  contingent  under  Count  Rochambeau, 
which  had  been  waiting  idly  at  Newport  since  the 
previous  summer,  marched  with  all  haste  towards  York- 
town. Clinton  did  not  discover  his  destination  until  he 
had  reached  the  Delaware  and  was  beyond  molestation . 
and  an  attempt  to  arrest  the  movement  by  sending 
Arnold  to  Connecticut  had  no  effect.  By  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember the  trap  was  closed.  Cornwallis  was  completely 
invested  at  Yorktown.  After  two  of  his  redoubts  had 
been  taken  by  assault,  and  he  had  failed  in  a desperate 
effort  to  cross  the  York  river  and  break  through  the 
lines,  he  surrendered  to  Washington,  October  19,  1781, 
with  7,000  men  and  100  cannon,  while  the  British  ships  in 
the  river  hauled  down  their  flags  to  Admiral  De  Grasse. 
The  allied  armies  at  the  siege  consisted  of  5,500  Conti- 
nentals, 3,500  militia,  and  7,000  French. 

The  war  was  over.  All  America  rang  with  rejoicings  ; 
and  although  George  III.  still  obstinately  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge the  independence  of  the  States,  a resolution 
in  favor  of  peace  passed  the  House  of  Commons  Febru- 
ary 27,  1782 ; Lord  North  resigned  ; and  under  a new 
ministry  headed  by  the  Marquis  of  Rockingham,  a com- 
missioner was  appointed  to  negotiate  a treaty  in  Paris. 
Rockingham  died  shortly  afterwards,  and  it  fell  to  his 
successor,  Lord  Shelburne,  to  complete  the  work.  The 
American  agents  were  Franklin,  John  Adams,  and  John 
Jay,  most  of  the  business  being  in  the  hands  of  Franklin, 


6007 

who  crowned  with  this  illustrious  service  his  long  and 
patriotic  career  at  the  French  capital.  A preliminary 
treaty,  signed  November  30,  1782,  was  ratified  by  Con- 
gress in  March,  and  published  in  Washington’s  camp  on 
April  19,  1783,  the  eighth  anniversary  of  the  battle  of 
Lexington.  The  definitive  treaty  was  signed  at  Paris, 
September  3,  1783;  and  on  the  23d  of  December  Wash- 
ington formally  resigned  his  commission  and  retired  to 
his  home  at  Mount  Vernon. 

The  Constitution. 

Troubles  crowded  thick  and  fast  upon  the  new  States, 
even  before  the  final  treaty  was  concluded,  and  not  the 
least  of  them  came  from  the  dissatisfied  soldiers.  Unpaid, 
and  often  suffering,  the  men  in  Washington’s  camp  near 
Newburg  became  rebellious  under  their  wrongs.  A pro- 
posal that  the  commander-in-chief  should  declare  himself 
king  is  remembered  on  account  of  Washington’s  indig- 
nant reply  to  it.  A more  dangerous  project,  set  forth  in 
an  anonymous  circular,  for  an  organized  demonstration 
against  Congress,  was  defeated  by  Washington’s  tact 
and  patriotism.  The  soldiers  had  ample  cause  of  com- 
plaint ; but  in  truth  Congress  had  no  money.  Nearly 
$170,000,000  had  been  spent  during  the  war;  the  debt  of 
the  United  States  was  $42,000,000 ; that  of  the  separate 
States  was  $20,000,000  more ; and  the  Continental  paper 
currency  had  become  entirely  worthless.  Trade  and 
manufactures  were  crushed.  Poverty  was  almost  univer- 
sal. Nor  was  it  easy  to  find  a remedy  for  the  general 
distress.  A common  danger,  to  say  nothing  of  nobler 
motives,  kept  a semblance  of  union  among  the  States 
during  the  war ; even  so  faint  a form  of  government  as 
the  Articles  of  Confederation,  reported  to  Congress  July 
12, 1776,  was  not  adopted  until  1781,  and  in  the  meantime 
the  States  administered  affairs  more  or  less  effectively  by 
an  irregular  general  consent.  But  with  the  advent  of 
peace  the  disorders  became  intolerable.  Congress  lost 
all  consideration,  and  could  hardly  command  a quorum. 
The  States  entered  into  ruinous  commercial  rivalry  with 
one  another.  Abroad,  the  country  was  regarded  with 
contempt.  At  home  there  was  no  executive  authority  to 
enforce  the  laws.  A rebellion  against  the  collection  of 
taxes,  led  by  one  Daniel  Shays,  in  Massachusetts  (1786), 
strengthened  the  growing  popular  conviction  that  it  was 
necessary  to  substitute  for  the  Confederation  a real 
government. 

A convention,  authorized  by  Congress  to  revise  the  Ar- 
ticles of  Confederation,  met  at  Philadelphia  in  May, 
1787,  with  Washington  as  chairman.  Its  work,  however, 
was  not  a revision  of  the  existing  league,  but  the  con- 
struction of  a new  Constitution.  At  the  very  beginning 
two  parties  declared  themselves  with  differences  which 
have  ever  since  influenced  American  politics.  The  so- 
called  Virginia  plan,  introduced  by  Edmund  Randolph 
and  favored  by  the  large  States  — Massachusetts,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Virginia  — as  well  as  by  the  Carolinas  and 
Georgia,  represented  in  substance  the  national  principle 
which  was  finally  adopted,  with  a central  Federal  Gov- 
ernment complete  in  all  its  departments.  The  New  Jer- 
sey plan,  presented  by  William  Paterson,  and  supported 
by  the  small  States  — Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  and  Dela- 


6oo8 


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ware  — with  a majority  of  the  delegates  from  New  York, 
adhered  jealously  to  the  sovereign  powers  of  the  separate 
States,  and  retained  some  of  the  most  unfortunate  char- 
acteristics of  the  existing  Confederation.  The  instrument 
at  last  agreed  upon  was  a compromise,  in  which  the  three 
great  concessions,  yielded  by  one  party  or  the  other, 
were  the  equal  representation  of  States  in  the  Senate,  the 
reckoning  of  three-fifths  of  the  slaves  in  the  apportion- 
ment of  representation  in  the  House,  and  the  prohibition 
of  Federal  interference  with  the  slave  trade  before  1808. 

The  new  Constitution  required  the  assent  of  nine 
States,  or  two-thirds  ; and  it  was  carried  only  after  a hard 
contest.  Delaware  was  the  first  to. ratify;  Pennsylvania 
and  New  Jersey  quickly  followed ; the  assent  of  Massa- 
chusetts and  Virginia  was  given  after  a close  contest;  the 
vote  of  New  Hampshire,  June  21,  1788,  completed  the 
two-thirds;  New  York,  Rhode  Island,  and  North  Caro- 
lina held  back  until  the  Constitution  had  been  adopted 
without  them.  Under  a law  of  the  Continental  Congress, 
the  Presidential  electors  were  chosen  on  the  first  Wednes- 
day of  January,  1789;  they  cast  their  ballots  on  the  first 
Wednesday  of  February  ; and  the  new  government  was 
to  go  into  operation  on  the  first  Wednesday  (the  4th)  of 
March.  New  Yor^c  was  designated  as  the  temporary 
capital.  As  to  the  Presidency,  there  was  practically  no 
difference  of  opinion  in  the  country,  and  George  Wash- 
ington received  all  the  electoral  votes.  John  Adams  was 
chosen  Vice-President.  The  journey  of  Washington 
from  Mount  Vernon  to  New  York  was  turned  by  spon- 
taneous popular  demonstrations  into  a triumphal  proces- 
sion. The  formal  inauguration  did  not  take  place  until 
the  30th  of  April,  when  the  oath  of  office  was  admin- 
istered to  the  first  American  President  on  the  balcony  of 
the  old  Federal  Hall,  at  the  corner  of  Wall  and  Broad 
streets.  This  building,  on  the  site  of  the  present  custom 
house,  had  been  set  apart  for  the  use  of  Congress ; but 
the  next  year  the  seat  of  government  was  again  at  Phila- 
delphia. 

The  first  Cabinet  consisted  of  only  three  officers  — 
Thomas  Jefferson,  Secretary  of  State  ; Alexander  Hamil- 
ton, Secretary  of  the  Treasury ; and  Gen.  Henry  Knox, 
Secretary  of  War.  In  the  organization  of  the  government 
during  the  trying  experimental  years  of  Washington’s 
administration,  no  man’s  services,  after  those  of  the  saga- 
cious and  high-minded  President,  equaled  Alexander 
Hamilton’s.  This  brilliant  young  statesman,  the  chief 
inspiration  of  the  rising  of  the  Federal  party,  whose 
principles  he  had  signally  defended  in  a series  of  papers 
on  the  Constitution,  published  while  its  ratification  was 
in  debate,  was  eminent  alike  as  a political  thinker,  a 
party  leader,  and  a practical  administrator.  He  brought 
the  chaotic  finances  of  the  country  into  order,  instantly 
reviving  the  prostrate  national  credit ; and  by  causing 
the  Federal  Government  to  assume  the  Revolutionary 
war  debts  of  the  States,  he  strengthened  the  sentiment 
of  union  and  the  respect  for  Federal  authority.  This  im- 
portant measure  was  not  carried  without  bitter  opposition, 
and  its  adoption  was  at  last  secured  by  a pledge  to  Vir- 
ginia that  the  permanent  capital,  after  1800,  should  be 
on  the  Potomac.  The  funding  of  the  debt  led  necessarily 
to  the  passing  of  a Federal  excise  law;  and  Hamilton’s 
‘schemes  were  completed  by  the  establishment  of  a na- 


tional bank,  which  he  justified  on  the  theory,  then  new, 
of  implied  powers  in  the  Constitution.  He  was  thus  not 
merely  promoting  a strong  government,  but  he  was 
fostering  the  idea  of  nationality  at  a time  when  that  sen- 
timent was  still  weak,  and  the  sucpess  or  speedy  failure  of 
the  Constitution  depended  largely  upon  its  interpretation. 
The  leader  of  the  Anti-Federalists,  or  Republicans,  as 
they  soon  began  to  be  called,  was  Thomas  Jefferson,  a 
strict  constructionist,  who  honestly  dreaded  Hamilton’s 
designs,  and  detested  him  personally. 

Washington  was  unanimously  re-elected  for  a second 
term,  beginning  March  4,  1793,  and  John  Adams  again 
became  Vice-President.  France  at  this  moment  was  on 
the  eve  of  the  Reign  of  Terror.  The  King  had  been  sent 
to  the  scaffold.  The  Queen,  who  had  been  the  special 
friend  of  America  during  the  war  of  independence,  was  to 
follow  him  a few  months  later.  But  Jefferson  and  the 
Anti-Federalists  sympathized  with  the  French  revolu- 
tionists too  strongly  to  be  much  affected  by  their  excesses, 
and  the  strict  neutrality  which  Washington  insisted  upon 
preserving  when  France  and  England  declared  war  was 
resented  with  indecent  violence.  The  grotesque  demon- 
strations of  the  French  faction  reached  their  height  when 
“Citizen”  Genet  arrived  in  America  in  April,  1793,  as 
minister  from  the  revolutionary  government.  This  ex- 
travagant person  was  guilty  of  diplomatic  outrages  from 
tlie  moment  of  his  landing ; and  when  his  attempts  to 
embnoil  the  United  States  in  an  offensive  alliance  with 
France  failed,  he  made  a gross  attack  upon  Washington, 
and  otherwise  so  misbehaved  that  the  President  de- 
manded his  recall.  The  rancor  of  faction,  inflamed  by 
this  affair,  was  aggravated  by  the  insolence  of  the  British, 
whose  men-of-war,  cruising  against  the  French,  com- 
mitted great  injuries  upon  American  commerce,  seizing 
our  grain  ships  bound  for  French  ports,  taking  all  French 
property  from  under  the  protection  of  our  flag,  searching 
our  vessels  for  sailors  supposed  to  be  British  subjects,  and 
carrying  off  naturalized  and  even  native  Americans  to 
serve  in  the  British  nayy.  Moreover,  ten  years  after  the 
peace  of  Paris,  England  still  retained  her  hold  upon 
some  of  the  forts  in  the  Northwest.  A treaty  negotiated 
in  London  by  John  Jay  (1794)  procured  a partial  redress 
of  grievances,  and  averted  the  danger  of  war ; but  it  left 
the  claim  of  the  right  of  search  to  be  a cause  of  future 
trouble,  and  the  treaty  was  not  ratified  without  an  angry 
contention. 

Refusing  a third  nomination,  Washington  retired  to 
Mount  Vernon  in  1797,  after  publishing  a memorable 
farewell  address  which  has  been  cherished  as  a political 
legacy.  Still  more  impressive  than  the  wise  counsels  of 
this  document  was  the  example  of  a noble  life,  directed 
by  the  purest  impulses,  the  calmest  judgment,  the  finest 
and  most  unselfish  sentiment  of  justice.  For  eight  years, 
at  the  head  of  his  ragged  Continentals,  he  withstood  the 
armies  of  a great  empire  ; and  he  achieved  the  independ- 
ence of  America,  not  merely  by  the  exercise  of  a rare 
military  talent,  perhaps  amounting  to  genius,  but  by 
teaching  his  uneasy  and  spiritless  countrymen  to  what 
heroic  heights  one  may  carry  the  virtues  of  patience, 
equanimity,  perseverance,  and  unselfishness.  In  his  civil 
administration,  although  he  had  to  deal  with  many  novel 
and  difficult  complications,  he  added  fresh  lustre  to  an 


UNI 


already  glorious  name,  and  strengthened  the  popular  re- 
spect and  affection  with  which,  in  spite  of  occasional 
outbreaks  of  political  scurrility,  he  had  long  been  re- 
garded. Fortunate,  indeed,  was  it  for  America  that  dur- 
ing the  critical  formative  period  of  the  new  government 
:he  guidance  of  affairs  was  committed  to  so  sound  a 
statesman  and  so  pure  a patriot. 


The  New  West. 

By  the  treaty  of  1783  the  Mississippi  river  was  recog- 
nized as  the  western  boundary  of  the  United  States,  but 
most  of  the  region  beyond  the  Alleghany  Mountains  was 
still  an  untrodden  wilderness.  One  of  the  last  acts  of 
Congress  under  the  Confederation  was  the  adoption  of 
an  Ordinance  for  the  Government  of  the  Northwest  Ter- 
ritory, that  district  comprising  the  present  States  of  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  a part  of 
Minnesota..  The  Ordinance  of  1787,  as  it  is  called,  may 
well  be  ranked  with  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
and  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  as  a founda- 
tion stone  of  the  American  Government.  The  first  four 
and  sixth  articles  of  it  have  exerted  a vast  permanent  in- 
fluence upon  the  constitutional  development  of  the  nation. 
They  are  as  follows: 

“Article  I. — No  person,  demeaning  himself  in  a peace- 
able and  orderly  manner,  shall  ever  be  molested  on  account 
of  his  mode  of  worship,  or  religious'sentiments,  in  the  said 
territories. 

“ Article  II. — The  inhabitants  of  the  said  territory  shall 
always  be  entitled  to  the  benefits  of  the  writ  of  habeas  cor- 
pus, and  of  the  trial  by  jury ; of  a proportionate  represen- 
tation of  the  people  in  the  legislature,  and  of  judicial 
proceedings  according  to  the  course  of  common  law.  All 
persons  shall  be  bailable,  unless  for  capital  offences  where 
the  proof  shall  be  evident,  or  the  presumption  great.  All 
fines  shall  be  moderate  ; and  no  cruel  or  unusual  punish- 
ments shall  be  inflicted.  No  man  shall  be  deprived  of  his 
liberty  or  property,  but  by  the  judgment  of  his  peers,  or  the 
law  of  the  land  ; and  should  the  public  exigencies  make  it 
necessary,  for  the  common  preservation,  to  take  any  person’s 
property,  or  to  demand  his  particular  services,  full  compen- 
sation shall  be  made  for  the  same.  And,  in  the  just  preser- 
vation of  rights  and  property,  it  is  understood  and  declared, 
that  no  law  ought  ever  to  be  made  or  have  force  in  the  said 
territory,  that  shall,  in  any  manner  whatever,  interfere 
with  or  affect  private  contracts,  or  engagements,  bona  fide 
and  without  fraud,  previously  formed. 

“Article  III. — Religion,  morality,  and  knowledge  being 
necessary  to  good  government  and  the  happiness  of  man- 
kind, schools  and  the  means  of  education  shall  forever  be 
encouraged.  The  utmost  good  faith  shall  always  be  ob- 
served towards  the  Indians ; their  lands  and  property 
shall  never  be  taken  from  them  without  their  consent ; and 
in  their  property,  rights,  and  liberty  they  never  shall  be 
invaded  or  disturbed,  unless  in  just  and  lawful  wars  author- 
ized by  Congress  ; but  laws  founded  in  justice  and  humanity 
shall,  from  time  to  time,  be  made,  for  preventing  wrongs 
being  done  to  them,  and  for  preserving  peace  and  friend- 
ship with  them. 

“Article  IV. — The  said  territory,  and  the  States  which 
may  be  formed  therein,  shall  forever  remain  a part  of  this 
confederacy  of  the  United  States  of  America,  subject  to  the 
Articles  of  Confederation,  and  to  such  alterations  therein  as 
shall  be  constitutionally  made  ; and  to  all  acts  and  ordi- 
nances of  the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled,  conform- 
able thereto.  The  inhabitants  and  settlers  in  the  said 


6009 

territory  Shall  be  subject  to  pay  a part  of  the  Federal  debts, 
contracted,  or  to  be  contracted,  and  a proportional  part  of 
the  expenses  of  government  to  be  apportioned  on  them  by 
Congress,  according  to  the  same  common  rule  and  measure 
by  which  apportionments  thereof  shall  be  made  on  the  other 
States  ; and  the  taxes  for  paying  their  proportion  shall  be 
laid  and  levied  by  the  authority  and  direction  of  the  legisla- 
tures of  the  district,  or  districts,  or  new  States,  as  in  the 
original  States,  within  the  time  agreed  upon  by  the  United 
States  in  Congress  assembled.  The  legislatures  of  those 
districts  or  new  States  shall  never  interfere  with  the  pri- 
mary disposal  of  the  soil  by  the  United  States  in  Congress  as- 
sembled, nor  with  any  regulations  Congress  may  find 
necessary  for  securing  the  title  in  such  soil  to  the  bona  fide 
purchasers.  No  tax  shall  be  imposed  on  lands  the  property 
of  the  United  States  ; and  in  no  case  shall  non-resident 
proprietors  be  taxed  higher  than  residents.  The  navigable 
waters  leading  into  the  Mississippi  and  Saint  Uawrence,  and 
the  carrying  places  between  the  same,  shall  be  common 
highways,  and  forever  free,  as  well  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
said  territory  as  to  the  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and  those 
of  any  other  States  that  may  be  admitted  into  the  confed- 
eracy, without  any  tax,  impost,  or  duty  therefor. 

“Article  VI.— There  shall  be  neither  slavery  nor  invol- 
untary servitude  in  the  said  territory,  otherwise  than  in  the 
punishment  of  crimes,  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been 
duly  convicted : Provided  always,  that  any  person  escaping 
into  the  same,  from  whom  labor  or  service  is  lawfully 
claimed  in  any  one  of  the  original  States,  such  fugitive  may 
be  lawfully  reclaimed,  and  conveyed  to  the  person  claiming 
his  or  her  labor  or  service  as  aforesaid.” 

There  were  a few  small  towns  in  Illinois  ; Cahokia 
and  Kaskaskia  had  been  founded  by  the  French  under 
La  Salle  nearly  a century  before.  Vincennes,  in  Indiana, 
was  a French  settlement  dating  from  about  1702.  De- 
troit was  begun  by  the  French  in  1701.  The  first  perma- 
nent settlement  in  Ohio  was  Marietta,  planted  in  1788. 
Daniel  Boone,  the  famous  hunter  and  Indian  fighter, 
penetrated  into  Kentucky  as  early  as  1769,  and  founded 
Boonesborough  in  1775.  Nominally  a part  of  Virginia, 
this  remote  country  practically  ruled  itself,  and  at  one 
time  under  Spanish  influence  it  meditated  the  formation 
of  an  independent  sovereignty.  It  was  joined  with  Ten- 
nessee in  1790  to  constitute  the  Territory  South  of  the 
Ohio,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a State  in  1791. 
Tennessee,  originally  a part  of  North  Carolina,  set  up  the 
State  of  Frankland  in  1785,  but  that  vapory  common- 
wealth disappeared  about  1788,  and  Tennessee  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union  in  1796.  Alabama  and  Mississippi, 
separated  from  Georgia  in  1798  and  became  the  Territory 
of  Mississippi.  Vermont,  long  in  dispute  between  New 
York  and  New  Hampshire,  was  admitted  as  a State 
in  1791. 

Upon  the  organization  of  the  Northwest  Territory,  the 
movement  of  emigration  across  the  mountains  was 
greatly  hastened.  But  the  Indians  in  the  valley  of  the 
Ohio  became  very  troublesome,  and  their  hostility  was 
carefully  kept  alive  by  the  British  at  the  frontier  posts. 
General  Harmer,  who  was  sent  against  the  tribes  in  1790, 
was  defeated  near  the  present  site  of  Fort  Wayne,  Ind., 
and  a more  formidable  expedition  under  General  St. 
Clair  the  next  year  met  with  a more  complete  disaster. 
Wayne  at  last  conquered  a peace.  He  devastated  the 
Indian  country,  and  after  a great  victory  on  the  Maumee 
river  (1794)  he  compelled  the  tribes  to  sue  for  terms. 


6oio 


UNI 


The  third  presidential  election  resulted,  after  an  angry 
contest,  in  the  choice  of  the  Federalist  candidate,  John 
Adams,  while,  under  the  constitution  as  it  then  stood,  the 
Vice-Presidency  went  to  his  next  rival,  Thomas  Jefferson. 
President  Adams  began  his  term  March  4, 1797,  retaining 
Washington’s  Cabinet,  which  then  consisted  of  Timothy 
Pickering,  Secretary  of  State  ; Oliver  Wolcott,  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  and  James  McHenry,  Secretary  of  War. 
He  found  our  relations  with  France  in  a critical  condi- 
tion. The  Directory,  resenting  our  treaty  with  England 
and  our  refusal  to  make  common  cause  with  the  demo- 
cratic propaganda,  had  laid  intolerable  exactions  upon 
our  commerce,  and  grossly  affronted  our  government. 
Gouverneur  Morris,  the  American  minister,  had  been  re- 
called at  the  request  of  the  French  republic  because  he 
was  too  conservative.  His  successor,  Monroe,  had  been 
recalled  by  Washington  because  he  was  too  extrava- 
gantly radical.  C.  C.  Pinckney,  sent  to  replace  Monroe, 
was  not  received ; and  when  President  Adams  appointed 
a commission  (1797),  consisting  of  Pinckney,  Elbridge 
Gerry,  and  John  Marshall,  to  negotiate  for  a better  un- 
derstanding, Talleyrand  demanded  of  them  as  a prelimi- 
nary a loan  for  the  government  and  a bribe  for  the 
Directory,  threatening  war  in  case  of  refusal.  The  publi- 
cation of  these  infamous  proposals  created  a profound 
sensation.  Every  preparation  was  made  to  set  an  army 
in  the  field.  Washington  accepted  the  chief  command, 
and  without  any  declaration  of  war  the  ships  of  the  new 
navy  then  in  course  of  organization  were  hurried  to  sea  to 
check  the  depredations  of  the  French  cruisers.  It  was 
under  these  circumstances  that  the  historic  frigates  Con- 
stitution, Constellation , and  United  States  began  their 
famous  careers,  with  Samuel  Nicholson,  Truxton,  and 
Barry  in  command.  All  the  squadrons  made  many  prizes. 

The  Directory  before  long  made  such  offers  of  accom- 
modation that  Mr.  Adams  appointed  a new  commission  ; 
but  when  it  reached  France  the  Consulate  had  been 
established,  and  it  was  with  Bonaparte  as  First  Consul 
that  the  treaty  was  concluded  in  1800. 

Distracted  during  the  French  troubles  by  faction  quar- 
rels between  the  followers  of  Adams  and  Hamilton,  the 
Federal  party  was,  moreover,  discredited  in  the  country 
by  the  passing  of  the  alien  and  sedition  acts,  the  first  of 
which  empowered  the  President,  in  his  discretion, to  ban- 
ish any  alien  judged  dangerous  to  the  peace  and  safety  of 
the  United  States ; while  the  second  imposed  restrictions 
upon  freedom  of  speech  and  the  press  which,  if  the  law 
had  ever  been  strictly  enforced,  would  have  armed  the 
government  with  despotic  power  over  its  political  oppo- 
nents. At  the  elections  of  1800  the  Federalists  were 
overthrown,  not  so  signally,  however,  but  that  Adams 
had  65  electoral  votes  against  73  cast  for  each  of  the  Re- 
publican candidates,  Thomas  Jefferson  and  Aaron  Burr. 
The  choice  going  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  Jeffer- 
son became  President  from  the  4th  of  March,  1801,  with 
Burr  for  Vice-President. 

Jefferson’s  greatest  service  as  President  was  performed 
in  bold  disregard  of  his  own  theory  of  a strict  construc- 
tion of  the  constitution.  That  instrument  certainly  gave 
no  express  authority  to  the  Federal  Government  to  pur- 
chase territory.  France,  however,  by  a secret  treaty  with 
Spain  (1800),  had  recovered  Louisiana,  and  Jefferson 


proposed,  by  way  of  removing  vexatious  disputes  respect- 
ing the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi,  to  buy  New  Orleans. 
Bonaparte  declined  this  offer,  but  agreed  to  sell  the 
whole  province  of  Louisiana,  and  the  American  commis- 
sioners took  the  responsibility  of  exceeding  their  instruc- 
tions by  a prompt  acceptance.  Thus,  for  the  sum  of 
$15,000,000,  one  quarter  of  which  was  to  be  paid  to 
American  citizens  in  satisfaction  of  claims  against 
France,  the  United  States  acquired  the  vast  region  be- 
tween the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  British  America,  the  Mis- 
sissippi river  and  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Jefferson  was  triumphantly  re-elected  in  1804,  receiving 
162  electoral  votes  against  only  14  for  C.  C.  Pinckney, 
but  Burr  was  dropped  and  the  Vice-Presidency  went  to 
Gen.  George  Clinton. 

Brilliant,  vicious,  and  unstable,  Burr  was  almost  every- 
where distrusted.  Of  all  his  political  adversaries  the  one 
whose  opposition  he  most  rancorously  resented  was  Al- 
exander Hamilton.  He  killed  Hamilton  in  a duel  at 
Weehawken,  on  the  Hudson,  opposite  New  York,  July 
11, 1804,  and,  followed  by  general  execration,  he  fled  to 
the  South,  where  we  hear  of  him  a year  later  embarking 
his  desperate  fortunes  in  a conspiracy  whose  exact  pur- 
pose has  never  been  made  clear.  He  seems  to  have 
planned  the  seizure  of  Mexico  by  an  armed  expedition 
from  New  Orleans,  perhaps,  also,  the  forcible  detach- 
ment of  some  of  the  Western  States  from  the  Union. 
Arrested  and  put  on  trial  for  treason,  he  was  acquitted 
on  technical  rulings,  and  after  thirty  wandering  and  un- 
happy years  he  died  in  disgrace. 

The  Corsair  states  on  the  Barbary  coast  had  long 
levied  tribute  upon  the  commercial  powers  trading  in  the 
Mediterranean,  most  nations  choosing  the  ignoble  course 
of  buying  immunity  from  their  piratical  attacks  instead 
of  fighting  them.  In  1801,  however,  the  United  States 
sent  a squadron  to  teach  them  moderation.  Commodore 
Preble,  with  the  Constitution,  imposed  terms  upon  the 
Emperor  of  Morocco,  and  then  bombarded  Tripoli,  where 
Lieut.  Stephen  Decatur,  with  a small  schooner,  had 
previously  boarded  the  frigate  Philadelphia , captured 
after  she  had  run  aground,  and,  driving  off  the  Tripolitan 
crew,  completely  destroyed  her.  These  and  other  ex- 
ploits secured  a few  ye^rs  of  peace. 

With  both  France  and  England,  in  the  meantime,  the 
relations  of  the  United  States  had  become  extremely  un- 
friendly. Each  of  those  powers,  in  making  war  upon  the 
other,  struck  at  the  commerce  which  America  had  ac- 
quired by  neutrality.  British  orders  in  council  declared 
an  arbitrary  blockade  in  the  English  Channel,  and  for- 
bade neutral  vessels  to  enter  a French  port  without  first 
paying  a tax  in  an  English  port.  Napoleon  retaliated  by 
a paper  blockade  of  ail  British  ports,  and  by  his  “ Milan 
decree,”  which  confiscated  every  ship  submitting  to  the 
English  tax  or  the  English  “right  of  search.”  Congress 
attempted  to  meet  these  high-handed  measures  by  an 
embargo,  which  prohibited  all  vessels,  American  or  for- 
eign, from  leaving  the  ports  of  the  United  States ; but 
the  law  was  unpopular  and  ineffective,  and  it  gave  place 
after  a short  trial  (1809)  to  a non-intercourse  act,  for- 
bidding trade  with  France  and  England.  The  old  claim 
of  the  right  of  search  was  enforced  by  the  British  with 
more  violence  than  ever ; the  Department  of  State  had 


UNI 


the  names  of  more  than  6,000  seamen,  alleged  to  be 
American  citizens,  who  had  been  forcibly  taken  from 
American  vessels ; and  the  outrages  culminated  when  a 
British  man-of-war  fired  into  the  U.  S.  frigate  Chesa- 
peake, and  took  off  four  of  her  men.  Peace  could  no 
longer  be  kept  with  honor;  but  the  final  responsibility 
was  left  for  another  administration.  Jefferson  refused  to 
be  a candidate  for  a third  term.  His  party,  now  be- 
ginning to  be  known  as  the  Democratic,  nominated  the 
Secretary  of  State,  James  Madison  (1808),  and  he  was 
elected  over  C.  C.  Pinckney  by  122  out  of  the  176  electoral 
votes.  Clinton  was  again  chosen  Vice-President. 

War  with  England. 

When  Madison  entered  office,  March  4,  1809,  he  had  to 
confront  not  only  an  imminent  foreign  war,  but  a dan- 
gerous confederacy  of  the  Indians,  who,  under  the 
Shawnee  Chief,  Tecumseh,  and  his  brother,  “The 
Prophet,”  were  known  to  be  organizing  hostilities.  Gen- 
eral William  Henry  Harrison,  governor  of  the  Territory 
of  Indiana,  gained  a signal  victory  over  them  at  their 
principal  town  on  the  Tippecanoe  river,  Indiana  (Nov. 
7,  1811);  but  they  were  soon  in  arms  again  as  open  allies 
of  the  British,  and  their  rising,  merged  in  the  war  between 
England  and  the  United  States,  was  not  quelled  until 
Andrew  Jackson  inflicted  a series  of  crushing  defeats 
upon  the  Creeks,  ending  with  a battle  at  the  Horseshoe 
Bend  of  the  Tallapoosa,  Alabama  (March  27,  1814). 

The  President  published  a declaration  of  war  against 
Great  Britain  June  19,1812.  On  land,  as  events  soon  proved, 
the  country  was  little  prepared  for  such  an  emergency. 
General  William  Hull,  being  ordered  to  invade  Canada 
by  way  of  Detroit,  surrendered  to  General  Brock  and 
Tecumseh  not  only  Detroit,  but  the  whole  Territory  of 
Michigan  (Aug.  16).  He  was  afterwards  sentenced  to 
death  for  cowardice,  but  was  pardoned  on  account  of  his 
services  in  the  Revolution.  An  expedition  against 
Queenstown  Heights,  near  Niagara,  was  defeated  by  the 
bad  conduct  of  the  American  militia.  General  Win- 
chester surrendered  to  Proctor  at  Frenchtown  (Mich.), 
and  the  sick  and  wounded  prisoners  were  massacred  by 
Proctor’s  Indians.  Harrison  successfully  withstood  a 
siege  by  Proctor  and  Tecumseh  at  Fort  Meigs,  in  Ohio, 
and  in  various  fights  on  the  border  the  Americans  showed 
gallantry.  But  the  military  operations  upon  the  whole 
accomplished  little.  Dearborn,  the  commander-in-chief, 
was  superseded  by  Wilkinson,  a change  which  failed  to 
restore  the  lost  American  prestige. 

It  was  the  little  half-starved  American  navy  which 
saved  the  national  honor.  The  Anti-Federalist  or  Dem- 
ocratic party  had  always  treated  that  branch  of  the  serv- 
ice in  a niggard,  obstinate,  and  unfriendly  spirit.  The 
Southern  Democratic  members  were  generally  op- 
posed to  a naval  establishment ; and  Jefferson  insisted 
upon  substituting  for  ships  of  war  a swarm  of  harbor 
gunboats  which  proved  costly  failures.  Recent  events 
had  at  last  compelled  Congress  to  refit  the  few  availa- 
ble frigates  and  order  the  construction  of  new  vessels. 
At  once  it  seemed  as  if  every  disaster  on  land  was  to  be 
counterbalanced  by  a victory  on  the  ocean.  The  Essex , 
Captain  Porter,  captured  the  Alert.  The  Constitution , 


601 1 

Capt.  Isaac  Hull,  destroyed  the  frigate  Guerriere  off  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  (Aug.  19);  later,  under  Commodore 
Bainbridge,  took  the  frigate  Java  on  the  coast  of  Brazil ; 
and  under  Stewart  captured  the  sloops  of  war  Cyane  and 
Lewant  in  a night  engagement  off  the  coast  of  Portugal. 
The  United  States , Commodore  Decatur,  captured  the 
Macedonian  (Oct.  25).  The  Hornet,  Capt.  James  Law- 
rence, took  the  Peacock  (Feb.  1813).  The  Enterprise, 
Lieutenant  Burrows,  took  the  Boxer  (Sept.  5).  The  Es- 
sex under  Porter  swept  the  Pacific,  making  numerous 
prizes  before,  by  a glaring  invasion  of  neutrality,  she  was 
destroyed  by  two  British  ships  in  the  harbor  of  Valpa- 
raiso. Of  the  rare  British  victories  which  disturbed 
this  brilliant  record,  the  most  important  was  the  en- 
gagement between  the  Chesapeake  and  Shannon  off 
Boston  (June  1,  1813),  when  the  American  frigate  was 
captured  by  boarding,  and  her  commander,  the  gallant 
Lawrence,  was  mortally  wounded,  exclaiming  as  he  was 
carried  below,  “ Don’t  give  up  the  ship.” 

Nor  was  it  only  on  the  open  sea  that  the  navy  main- 
tained the  honor  of  the  flag.  Oliver  Hazard  Perry,  a 
young  master-commandant,  by  extraordinary  exertions 
built  and  launched  a few  vessels  on  Lake  Erie.  Naming 
his  flag-ship  the  Lawrence,  and  displaying  on  his  flag  the 
famous  injunction  of  the  dying  commander  of  the  Chesa- 
peake, he  gave  battle  to  a British  flotilla  of  about  equal 
strength,  September  10, 1813,  and  in  fifteen  minutes  forced 
it  to  surrender.  This  victory  gave  the  Americans  control 
of  the  lake.  Brock  and  Tecumseh  evacuated  Detroit, 
and  being  followed  by  Harrison  into  Canada  were  de- 
feated at  Moravian  Town,  October  5.  Tecumseh  was 
killed.  Michigan  was  now  restored  to  the  United  States. 
An  invasion  of  Canada  under  General  Brown  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1814  was  marked  by  an  American  victory  at  Chip- 
pewa (July  5)  and  an  indecisive  battle  at  Lundy’s  Lane 
(July  25),  both  near  Niagara  Falls;  the  movement  had  no 
important  consequences. 

Reinforced  by  veteran  regiments  from  Wellington’s 
army,  the  British  General  Prevost  undertook  the  invasion 
of  New  York  by  the  line  of  Lake  Champlain  with  an 
army  of  14,000  men,  while  a squadron  under  Captain 
Downie  co-operated  with  him.  The  Americans  offered 
battle  at  Plattsburg  — less  than  6,000  troops  under  Gen- 
eral Macomb  posted  behind  the  Saranac  river,  and  a 
squadron  under  Commodore  Macdonough,  far  inferior  to 
the  British,  drawn  up  at  the  entrance  to  Plattsburg  Bay. 
The  engagement,  lasting  two  hours,  ended  in  a complete 
American  victory  on  land  and  water  (Sept.  II,  1814),  the 
invaders  retreating  in  disorder  to  Canada. 

During  all  these  operations  on  the  frontier  and  on  the 
sea,  Washington  had  been  left  undefended.  In  August, 
5,000  British  soldiers  and  marines  under  General  Ross 
and  Admiral  Cockburn  were  landed  on  the  Patuxent 
river,  about  40  miles  from  the  capital.  Easily  dispersing 
a militia  force  at  Bladensburg  on  the  24th,  they  entered 
the  Federal  city  the  same  evening,  the  President  and 
other  officers  of  the  government  seeking  safety  in  flight. 
They  burned  the  Capitol,  with  the  library  of  Congress, 
the  President’s  house,  the  Treasury,  and  nearly  all  other 
public  buildings  except  the  Patent  Office  ; and  after  this 
vandal  exploit  they  returned  hastily  to  their  ships,  and 
proceeded  to  an  attack  upon  Baltimore.  Here,  however, 


6012 


UNI 


they  were  stoutly  met.  Ross  was  killed  in  an  unsuccess- 
ful land  engagement  at  North  Point,  and  Admiral  Coch- 
burn  failed  in  a bombardment  of  Fort  McHenry,  after 
which  the  enterprise  was  abandoned  (Sept.  12-13).  The 
operations  against  Baltimore  and  Washington  and  the 
ravaging  excursions  of  Cockburn  on  the  coasts  were  sub- 
ordinate to  a far  more  serious  undertaking  of  the  British; 
namely,  the  reduction  of  New  Orleans  and  the  seizure  of 
the  Mississippi.  General  Jackson,  who  commanded  in 
the  Southwest,  hurried  to  New  Orleans  to  meet  this 
danger ; but  he  was  wretchedly  provided  with  men,  arms, 
and  money,  and  when  the  attacking  force  — 12,000  vet- 
eran soldiers  under  Sir  Edward  Pakenham,  and  a fleet 
numbering  4,000  sailors  and  marines  — arrived  in  the 
Gulf,  the  American  general  could  muster  only  5,000  men, 
mostly  militia.  Capturing  the  American  gunboats  on 
Lake  Borgne,  an  arm  of  the  Gulf  which  lies  east  of  New 
Orleans,  the  British  marched  towards  the  city  over  a strip 
of  land  having  the  Mississippi  on  one  side  and  a morass 
on  the  other.  Jackson  attacked  their  advance  December 

23,  1814,  enforcing  a delay  which  both  sides  employed  in 
constructing  breastworks,  the  British  using  hogsheads  of 
sugar,  the  Americans  bales  of  cotton.  The  attack  in 
lorce  was  made  January  8,  1815.  The  assailants  moved 
forward  in  excellent  order;  but  nothing  could  withstand 
the  American  riflemen.  Before  these  western  sharp- 
shooters, the  red  lines  melted  away.  Pakenham  was 
killed  ; and  after  a loss  of  about  2,000  troops  the  British 
retreated,  and  the  invasion  was  at  an  end.  It  was  a use- 
less battle  for,  two  weeks  before  it  was  fought,  peace  had 
been  signed  at  Ghent. 

From  the  first  the  war  had  been  unpopular  in  New 
England,  which  suffered  severely  in  the  destruction  of 
commerce  and  the  depredations  of  the  British  fleets ; and 
complaints  of  the  failures  and  misconduct  of  the  gov- 
ernment ripened  into  discontent  with  the  supposed  in- 
equalities'of  the  constitution,  and  projects  were  put  forth 
for  its  immediate  amendment.  A convention  of  twenty- 
six  delegates  from  the  New  England  States  met  at  Hart- 
ford, December  15,  1814,  with  closed  doors.  The  most 
extravagant  rumors  of  treasonable  designs,  of  schemes 
for  secession,  nullification,  and  a separate  peace  with 
England,  alarmed  the  administration  and  excited  the 
public  press.  The  convention,  however,  contented  itself 
with  a temperate  report  on  grievances,  the  recommenda- 
tion of  certain  constitutional  amendments,  and  provision 
for  another  assembly  six  months  later  should  the  causes 
of  dissatisfaction  continue.  Peace  put  an  end  to  the 
whole  affair;  but  the  ultimate  purposes  of  the  Hartford 
convention  have  always  remained  a subject  o.f  discussion. 

The  principal  cause  of  the  war  wg.s  the  impressment  of 
seamen.  “ If  this  encroachment  is  not  provided  against,” 
wrote  officially  the  Secretary  of  State,  “the  United  States 
have  appealed  to  arms  in  vain.”  The  obnoxious  orders 
in  council  were  revoked  almost  at  the  beginning  of  hos- 
tilities. Yet  the  American  negotiators,  John  Quincy 
Adams,  James  A.  Bayard,  Henry  Clay,  Jonathan  Russell, 
and  Albert  Gallatin,  were  instructed  by  the  President  to 
abandon  our  essential  claim  if  they  could  not  otherwise 
obtain  peace.  In  the  treaty  signed  at  Ghent,  December 

24,  1814,  the  object  for  which  we  had  been  fighting  was 
not  even  referred  to.  But  peace  now  prevailed  in 


Europe  ; England  was  not  in  need  of  sailors  ; the  right  of 
search  was  allowed  to  drop ; and  it  is  not  likely  to  be 
revived. 

The  scandal  of  the  Barbary  tribute  was  finally  abolished 
during  Mr.  Madison’s  administration.  Peace  was  no 
sooner  concluded  with  England  than  Commodore  “Deca- 
tur sailed  with  a fine  squadron  for  Algiers,  where  the  crew 
of  an  American  vessel  had  been  reduced  to  slavery. 
Capturing  some  Algerine  men-of-war,  he  compelled  the 
dey  to  sign  a treaty  on  board  his  flag-ship,  renouncing 
tribute  from  America  for  all  time,  and  agreeing  to  pay 
an  indemnity,  release  all  his  prisoners,  and  treat  no  more 
prisoners  of  war  as  slaves.  Indemnities  were  also  ex- 
acted from  Tunis  and  Tripoli. 

Mr.  Madison  had  been  re-elected  in  1812,  with  Elbridge 
Gerry  as  Vice-President.  In  1816  the  Democrats,  favored 
by  the  popular  rejoicings  over  the  peace,  were  again  suc- 
cessful and  by  an  increased  electoral  majority,  James 
Monroe,  Madison’s  Secretary  of  State,  became  President 
March  4,  1817,  with  Daniel  D.  Tompkins  as  Vice-Presi- 
dent. 

The  Slavery  Question. 

The  administration  of  Monroe,  marked  by  a decline 
of  party  rivalries  and  a great  advance  in  material  pros- 
perity, was  called  the  “era  of  good  feeling.”  The  finan- 
cial depression  of  the  war  period  was  quickly  relieved  by 
a tariff  passed  in  the  spring  of  1816,  which  recognized 
the  principle  of  protection  to  home  industries,  recom- 
mended by  Hamilton  in  a famous  report  on  manufac- 
tures, and  called  by  him  “The  American  System,”  a title 
which  has  ever  since  clung  to  it.  The  Cotton  States 
which  afterwards  resented  the  protective  tariff  as  a wrong 
to  the  South,  ardently  supported  it  in  1816  because  it 
would  create  a domestic  market  for  their  staple  product. 
The  bill  was  reported  by  Lowndes  of  South  Carolina, 
and  Calhoun  was  one  of  its  leading  advocates.  Mr. 
Monroe  found  on  entering  office  a full  treasury  and  a 
definite  and  successful  financial  policy.  The  relations 
of  the  country  with  Spain  were  disturbed  by  the  open 
sympathy  of  the  United  States  with  the  revolting  South 
American  republics,  for  whose  recognition  Henry  Clay 
made  an  eloquent  plea  in  Congress,  and  by  complaints 
from  the  Florida  border,  where  neither  party  seems  to 
have  dealt  very  scrupulously  with  the  other.  By  the  treaty 
of  1763  Spain  ceded  Florida  to  England.  By  the  treaty 
of  1783  she  recovered  it,  with  disputed  boundaries  on  the 
west,  to  which  the  United  States  gave  a practical  defini- 
tion in  1810  by  occupying  all  that  portion  beyond  the 
Perdido  river,  the  present  limit  of  the  State.  Spanish 
Florida  became  a safe  refuge  for  the  hostile  Indians,  and 
for  large  numbers  of  fugitive  slaves.  When  Gen.  Andrew 
Jackson  was  charged  with  a campaign  against  the'  Sem- 
inoles  ( 1818),  he  seems  to  have  had  reason  for  understand- 
ing that  the  government  would  tacitly  approve  of  his 
seizing  Florida  in  the  course  of  his  military  operations. 
He  invaded  the  province,  hanged  two  British  subjects  on 
charges  of  conspiring  with  the  Indians,  captured  St.  Mark’s 
and  Pensacola,  and  shipped  the  garrison  and  civil  author- 
ities of  the  latter  town  to  Havana.  Diplomatic  protests 
at  Washington  were  answered  with  the  plea  of  necessity ; 


UNI 


6013 


and  Spain  was  practically  forced  to  accept  a long  stand- 
ing proposal  of  the  United  States  for  the  cpssion  of 
Florida  (1819).  The  nominal  consideration  was  a price 
of  $5,000,000  ; but  all  this  was  to  be  paid  American  citi- 
zens in  satisfaction  of  claims  against  Spain.  On  the 
Other  hand,  by  a treaty  to  define  the  disputed  boundary 
between  the  Spanish  possessions  beyond  the  Mississippi 
and  the  Louisiana  purchase,  the  United  States,  which 
had  claimed  all  the  country  as  far  as  the  Rio  Grande,  ac- 
cepted the  line  of  the  Sabine,  thus  conceding  to  Spain 
what  is  now  the  State  of  Texas. 

The  independence  of  the  Spanish  American  states  was 
formally  recognized  in  1822,  and  this  action  led  to  the 
announcement  in  the  President’s  annual  message  the  next 
year  of  the  political  “ doctrine  ” with  which  his  ^ame  is 
inseparately  associated.  England  had  privately  pro- 
posed a convention  on  the  subject  of  the  South  American 
republics,  and  joint  action  against  the  absolutist  designs 
of  the  Holy  Alliance.  Mr.  Monroe  declined  to  entangle 
the  country  in  foreign  complications ; but  in  his  message 
he  made  a remarkable  declaration,  with  respect  to  the 
supposed  designs  of  the  European  states,  “that  we  should 
consider  any  attempt  on  their  part  to  extend  their  system 
to  any  portion  of  this  hemisphere  as  dangerous  to  our 
peace  and  safety  ” ; and,  as  a more  general  statement  of 
policy,  “that  the  American  continents,  by  the  free  and 
independent  condition  which  they  have  assumed  and 
maintain,  are  henceforth  not  to  be  considered  as  subjects 
for  future  colonization  by  any  European  power.” 

It  was  in  the  administration  of  Mr.  Monroe  that  the 
slavery  question  began  to*be  the  supreme  issue  in  Amer- 
ican politics,  and  the  defense  of  the  peculiar  institution 
of  the  South  to  take  the  form  of  a fierce  and  intolerant 
propaganda.  Natural  causes  brought  about  the  extinc- 
tion of  slavery  in  the  Northern  States,  but  the  expecta- 
tion of  our  early  statesmen  that  it  would  gradually 
disappear  at  the  South  had  been  disappointed.  The  as- 
tonishing  impetus  given  to  the  cotton  industry  by  Eli 
Whitney’s  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  created  a new  de- 
mand for  slave  labor,  founded  the  business  of  breeding 
slaves  for  sale,  and  stimulated  domestic  slave  traders  to 
fresh  brutalities.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  century,  the 
admission  of  free  and  slave  States  alternately  had  given 
the  slave  party  a fictitious  strength.  Ohio  (1802)  was 
balanced  by  Louisiana  (1812),  Indiana  (1816)  by  Missis- 
sippi (1817),  Illinois  (1818)  by  Alabama  (1819).  In  all 
these  instances  the  North  accepted  slavery  where  it  was 
already  well  rooted.  But  when  Missouri  applied  for  ad- 
mission as  a State  (1818),  the  question  was  squarely  pre- 
sented whether  the  United  States  should  deliberately 
establish  human  bondage  where  it  had  no  legal  existence 
— a question  affecting  not  only  the  condition  of  Missouri 
but  the  whole  of  the  still  unorganized  Louisiana  purchase, 
and  whatever  other  territory  might  in  future  be  acquired. 
The  attempt  to  prohibit  or  restrict  slavery  in  the  new 
State  was  hotly  resisted  by  the  Southern  party  in  Con- 
gress ; threats  of  disunion  were  heard  in  the  Senate  ; the 
debate  lasted  until  March,  1820,  when  the  famous  com- 
promise was  adopted  admitting  Missouri  as  a slave 
State,  and  prohibiting  slavery  forever  in  all  the  rest  of 
“that  territory  ceded  by  France  to  the  United  States  un- 
der the  name  of  Louisiana,  which  lies  north  of  36°  30'  N. 

7 — J 


lat.”  — that  being  the  southern  boundary  of  Missouri.  To 
force  the  assent  of  Northern  members,  the  friends  of 
slavery  coupled  the  admission  of  Maine  with  that  of 
Missouri.  The  compromise  was  supported  by  sincere 
patriots  like  Henry  Clay,  who  believed  that  concessions 
were  necessary  for  the  peace  if  not  for  the  safety  of  the 
Union ; but  it  was  a great  victory  for  the  slavery  propa- 
gandists whose  claims  from  this  time  became  more  and 
more  arrogant  and  exclusive. 

Monroe  and  Tompkins  were  re-elected  in  1820,  the 
President  receiving  all  the  electoral  votes  but  ten.  The 
weakness  of  the  opposition  was  only  a symptom  of  the 
disintegration  of  parties,  which  by  1824  had  gone  so  far 
that  there  were  four  candidates  in  the  field  — Andrew 
Jackson,  John  Quincy  Adams,  William  H.  Crawford, 
and  Henry  Clay.  The  choice  went  to  the  House  of 
Representatives,  and  Adams  was  selected ; John  C.  Cal- 
houn, of  South  Carolina,  had  been  elected  Vice-Presi- 
dent. Mr.  Adams,  the  son  of  the  second  President,  had 
been  Monroe’s  Secretary  of  State.  Politically  his  admin- 
istration was  a period  of  transition,  marked  not  less  by 
the  final  disappearance  of  the  old  Federalist  party  than 
by  a transformation  of  the  philosophical  Democracy  of 
Jefferson — a transformation  of  which  the  next  adminis- 
tration was  to  give  a signal  example.  The  campaign  of 
1828  was  exceedingly  bitter,  and  Mr.  Adams,  who  was  a 
candidate  for  re-election,  was  defeated  by  Gen.  Andrew 
Jackson,  Mr.  Calhoun  again  becoming  Vice-President. 

Fiscal  Problems. 

Jackson  was  imperious,  daring,  energetic,  contentious, 
and  ignorant ; and  although  his  patriotism  and  sincerity 
are  beyond  question,  his  administration  was  distinguished 
above  that  of  any  of  his  predecessors  for  selfish  intrigues 
and  mean  personal  strifes.  He  introduced  into  national 
politics  the  spoils  system,  which  became  so  fruitful  a 
source  of  corruption ; and  from  his  time  dated  the  spec- 
tacle of  a mob  of  place-hunters  thronging  the  capital  at 
every  change  in  the  chief  magistracy,  to  beg  pay  in  ap- 
pointments for  their  services  to  the  successful  candidate. 
The  tone  of  official  life  was  instantly  lowered  after  his 
inauguration.  A chivalric  but  ill-judged  attempt  to  force 
Mrs.  Eaton,  the  wife  of  his  Secretary  of  War,  into  Wash- 
ington society,  was  converted  by  his  violence  from  a 
tea-table  squabble  into  an  issue  of  state.  Never  had  an 
American  President  so  passionately  asserted  the  claims 
of  self  as  this  champion  of  the  Democratic  masses. 

There  was  prejudice  and  obstinacy,  but  also  sincere 
conviction,  in  the  fighL  against  the  United  States  Bank 
which  convulsed  Jackson’s  terms  in  office.  The  charter 
of  the  bank  being  about  to  expire,  he  opposed  its  re- 
newal on  the  ground  that  the  measure  was  of  doubtful 
constitutionality,  and  he  complained,  moreover,  that  the 
directors  were  using  their  financial  power  to  influence  the 
votes  of  Congress.  The  controversy  became  a chief  issue 
in  Congress  and  the  country.  An  act  renewing  the  char- 
ter passed  by  large  majorities  (1832),  and  Jackson  vetoed 
it.  In  the  elections  of  that  year.  Clay,  the  leader  of  the 
bank  party,  the  representative  of  many  formidable  inter- 
ests, personally  one  of  the  most  attractive  men  ever  known 
in  American  politics,  was  Jackson’s  competitor  and  Jack- 


UNI 


6014 

son  was  re-elected  by  an  impressive  vote.  At  the  next 
session  the  attack  upon  the  bank,  whose  charter  had  still 
four  years  to  run,  was  renewed  with  fresh  heat.  The 
President  .questioned  its  solvency;  and  when  Congress 
refused  to  authorize  the  removal  of  the  govefnment  de- 
posits, he  ordered  the  removal  on  his  own  responsibility, 
dismissing  his  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Duane,  who  de- 
clined to  execute  the  command,  and  appointing  in  his 
place  Roger  B.  Taney,  soon  afterwards  made  Chief  Jus- 
tice. The  Bank  of  the  United  States  was  destroyed,  but 
the  evils  which  Jackson  discovered  or  imagined  in  its 
management  were  intensified  by  the  operations  of  the 
favored  State  banks  selected  as  depositaries  of  the  public 
money,  and  a great  deal  of  commercial  embarrassment 
followed. 

Nevertheless,  the  country  was  generally  prosperous 
under  the  impulse  of  great  public  improvements  and  en- 
larging industries.  The  Erie  canal,  opened  in  1825, 
brought  to  market  the  products  of  a rich  region  and 
created  thriving  towns.  Steam  navigation  was  devel- 
oped on  the  rivers;  ocean  steamships  began  to  make 
voyages  between  England  and  America ; railroads,  in- 
troduced in  1829,  were  rapidly  multiplying  ; settlers  took 
up  public  lands  in  the  West;  immigration  was  increas- 
ing ; manufactures  and  farming  were  alike  profitable, 
under  the  protective  tariff.  But  the  cotton  planters,  who 
had  warmly  favored  the  American  system  at  the  begin- 
ning, looked  upon  it  with  different  eyes  when  it  was 
found  that  free  labor  reaped  the  chief  advantage  under 
it.  When  the  tariff  was  revised  in  1828,  the  South  was 
clamorous  and  threatening  for  a reduction  of  duties. 
When  a more,  distinctively  protective  measure  was 
passed,  in  1832,  a State  convention  in  South  Carolina  re- 
solved that  the  tariff  acts  were  null  and  void,  and  that 
any  attempt  by  the  Federal  Government  to  collect  the 
duties  in  that  State  would  absolve  South  Carolina  from 
all  connection  with  the  Union.  The  Governor  called 
upon  the  Legislature  to  “provide  for  all  possible  contin- 
gencies,” and  preparations  were  made  for  war.  In  meet- 
ing this  revolt  Gen.  Jackson  exhibited  his  strongest  and 
best  qualities.  He  published  a proclamation  denying 
the  right  of  either  nullification  or  secession  ; he  warned 
South  Carolina  that  resistance  would  be  promptly  quelled ; 
he  sent  General  Scott  to  Charleston  with  troops  and  a 
ship  of  war ; he  asked  Congress  for  special  and  enlarged 
powers.  Two  years  before  (1830),  the  constitutional 
question  of  State  rights  had  been  the  subject  of  a mem- 
orable debate  in  the  Senate  between  Mr.  Hayne  of  South 
Carolina,  and  Daniel  Webster.  Now  the  nullifiers  in 
Congress  were  led  by  John  C.  Calhoun,  who  had  quar- 
reled with  Jackson,  resigned  the  Vice-Presidency,  and 
entered  the  Senate  as  the  champion  of  that  doctrine 
which  was  finally  to  drive  the  South  into  a ruinous  rebel- 
lion. General  Jackson  would,  perhaps,  have  been  glad 
to  try  conclusions  with  the  secessionists  at  once.  But  the 
difficulty  was  settled  — or  rather  postponed  — by  a com- 
promise in  which  Henry  Clay  again  appeared  as  the  pacif- 
icator. He  introduced  a new  tariff  bill,  making  a gradual 
reduction  until  1842,  when  the  duties  were  to  be  fixed  at 
20  per  cent.  South  Carolina  yielded ; and  the  “ force  bill,” 
introduced  at  General  Jackson’s  request,  was  allowed  to 
linger  until  it  was  no  longer  needed,  when  it  was  passed. 


Jackson  retired  from  office  with  a reputation  for  vigor, 
honesty,  and  courage  which  has  increased  in  the  lapse  of 
time ; and  his  popularity  counted  for  much  in  the  next 
campaign,  when  Vice-President  Martin  Van  Buren  was 
elevated  to  the  Presidency  (1836),  against  a divided  op* 
position  known  by  that  time  as  the  Whigs.  Mr.  Van  Bu- 
ren’s  administration  was  mainly  a struggle  with  financial 
disasters,  the  country  during  his  first  year  in  office  (1837) 
passing  through  a monetary  crisis  of  extraordinary  sever- 
ity. As  usual  in  such  cases,  the  government  was  charged 
with  blame  which  did  not  belong  to  it.  The  canvass  of 
1840  was  one  of  unprecedented  excitement.  Van  Buren, 
again  the  candidate  of  the  Democrats,  was  signally  de- 
feated, and  the  Whigs  came-  into  power  with  Gen.  Wil- 
liam Henry  Harrison  as  President  and  John  Tyler  as 
Vice-President. 

Gen.  Harrison  died  on  the  4th  of  April,  1841,  just  one 
month  after  his  inauguration.  Tyler  soon  broke  with  the 
party  which  had  elected  him.  He  was  accused  of  bad 
faith  in  vetoing  bills  for  the  creation  of  a new  national 
bank,  to  which  he  was  supposed  to  have  signified  his 
assent  in  advance.  He  cast  his  lot  finally  with  the  Dem- 
ocrats when  he  took  up  their  scheme  for  the  annexation 
of  Texas.  That  country  had  conquered  its  independence 
from  Mexico  largely  by  the  arms  of  American  adventur- 
ers. A treaty  of  annexation  (1844)  negotiated  by  Mr. 
Calhoun,  who  had  become  Tyler’s  Secretary  of  State, 
was  rejected  by  the  Senate.  The  question  was  taken  into 
the  Presidential  canvass.  With  the  South  and  its  North- 
ern Democratic  allies,  the  paramount  consideration  was 
gaining  an  area  for  slavery.  The  Whigs  opposed  the  pro- 
ject, partly  from  hostility  to  slavery  and  partly  from  re- 
luctance to  go  to  war  with  Mexico.  The  Democrats 
nominated  James  K.  Polk  ; the  Whigs,  Henry  Clay.  Polk 
was  elected  by  170  votes  against  105.  A joint  resolution 
annexing  Texas  was  passed  March  1, 1845,  and  Mr.  Tyler 
signed  it,  as  one  of  the  last  acts  of  his  administration. 

Texas,  California,  and  Oregon. 

Mr.  Polk  lost  no  time  in  negotiations  with  Mexico,  but  or- 
dered Gen.  Zachary  Taylor  to  the  frontier,  with  instructions 
to  occupy  a district  between  the  Nueces  and  Rio  Grande 
rivers,  to  which  Mexico  had  never  admitted  that  Texas 
had  any  claim.  Here  the  first  battles  took  place,  Taylor, 
with  2,000  men,  defeating  Arista’s  6,000  at  Palo  Alto  May 
8,  1846,  and  beating  the  same  enemy  again,  with  heavy 
loss  at  Resaca  de  la  Palma  the  next  day.  The  Americans 
then  crossed  the  Rio  Grande,  and  with  a force  raised  by 
volunteers  to  6,000  pushed  into  the  interior  of  Mexico, 
capturing  Monterey  (Sept.  24)  after  a three  days’  battle, 
while  the  port  of  T apipico  was  taken  by  a squadron  under 
Commodore  Conner,  and  the  province  of  California  was 
conquered  by  a handful  of  explorers  and  surveyors  under 
Capt.  John  C.  Fremont,  and  a few  ships  under  Commo- 
dore Stockton.  The  Mexican  War,  which  lasted  only  a 
year,  was  a series  of  uninterrupted  victories  for  our  arms, 
always  gained  against  heavy  odds,  and  seldom  without 
hard  fighting.  The  Mexicans  were  brave,  but  they  had 
few  soldierly  qualities  except  courage,  and  were  miser- 
ably officered.  The  Americans,  on  the  contrary,  had  ex- 
cellent and  well-trained  officers  of  all  grades,  and  a fine 


UNI 


body  of  men  in  the  ranks,  the  volunteers,  according  to 
General  Grant,  being  better  than  the  regulars. 

Weakened  by  the  detachment  of  some  of  his  best 
troops  to  serve  under  Gen.  Winfield  Scott  in  a move- 
ment against  the  Mexican  capital,  Taylor  was  attacked 
at  Buena  Vista  (Feb.  23,  1847),  by  the  Mexican  President 
Santa  Anna.  Although  outnumbered  four  to  one,  the 
Americans  put  their  assailants  to  rout  after  a terrible 
battle  of  ten  hours’  duration.  Scott  and  Commodore 
Conner  arrived  off  Vera  Cruz  in  March.  That  strong 
place,  after  a bombardment  of  four  days,  surrendered 
with  5,000  prisoners  and  500  guns  (March  26),  and  Scott 
at  once  began  his  march  to  Mexico.  He  defeated  Santa 
Anna  at  the  mountain  pass  of  Cerro  Gordo  (Apr.  18), 
rested  three  months  among  the  hills,  to  let  his  men  re- 
cover from  the  effects  of  the  climate,  and  in  August  ap- 
peared before  the  capital.  He  had  only  10,000  men  ; the 
garrison  of  the  city  was  about  30,000;  and  there  were 
several  strong  positions  to  be  won  before  reaching  the 
walls.  On  the  20th  of  August  Scott  carried  the  fortified 
camp  of  Contreras,  the  castle  of  San  Antonio,  and  the 
heights  of  Churubusco.  On  the  8th  of  September  he  won 
possession  of  the  fortified  Molino  del  Rey,  on  the  13th  he 
stormed  the  heights  of  Chapultepec  and  secured  two  of 
the  gates  of  the  city  ; and  the  next  morning  entered  the 
capital.  This  was  practically  the  end  of  the  war.  By 
the  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  March 
2,  1848,  the  United  States  was  not  only  confirmed  in  the 
possession  of  Texas,  with  the  Rio  Grande  as  the  bound- 
ary, but  Mexico  sold  for  $18,750,000  the  provinces  of 
Upper  California  and  Mew  Mexico,  including  Nevada, 
Utah,  Arizona  and  parts  of  Colorado  and  Wyoming.  A 
further  strip  of  territory  south  of  the  Gila  river,  now  em- 
braced in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  was  purchased  five 
years  later., 

The  treaty  of  peace  was  not  yet  signed  when  the  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  the  Sacramento  valley  (Feb.  1848), 
turned  the  attention  of  the  world  upon  California.  The  de- 
posits of  the  precious  metal  proved  to  be  rich  and  widely 
distributed.  The  new  acquisition  of  the  United  States 
became  thronged  with  adventurers  and  gold  hunters. 
They  made  the  long  voyage  around  Cape  Horn,  the  dif- 
ficult transit  of  the  Central  American  isthmus,  or  the  long 
and  dangerous  wagon  journey  across  the  continent.  In 
the  year  1849,  nearly  100,000  immigrants  entered  the  Ter- 
ritory. The  new  community,  thus  suddenly  created,  was 
naturally  a paradise  of  gamblers  and  criminals,  and  order 
was  not  securely  established  until  a vigilance  committee 
in  San  Francisco  (1851-55)  had  assumed  the  administra- 
tion of  justice,  hanged  four  ruffians,  and  banished  others. 

Utah  began  to  receive  settlers  a little  earlier  than  Cal- 
ifornia. The  Mormons,  founded  in  Western  New  York 
in  1830  by  an  impostor  named  Joseph  Smith,  who  pre- 
tended to  a revelation  from  Heaven,  had  been  driven 
away  from  Nauvoo,  Illinois,  and  their  prophet  had  been 
murdered  by  a mob  (1844).  Under  Smith’s  successor, 
Brigham  Young,  they  removed  into  what  was  believed  to 
be  the  desert  (1847),  built  Salt  Lake  City,  on  the  great 
lake  of  Utah,  and  established  an  independent  theocratic 
state,  which  they  called  Deseret.  Here  the  doctrine  of 
polygamy,  attributed  to  Smith’s  revelations,  but  first 
taught  openly  by  Brigham  Young,  was  put  in  general 


6015 

practice,  and  an  autocracy  which  has  ever  since  been  in 
virtual  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  was  founded 
upon  fanaticism  and  sustained  by  crime.  In  1857  the 
Mormons  massacred,  at  a place  called  the  Mountain 
Meadow,  a whole  company  of  120  persons  who  were  on 
their  way  to  California.  Refusing  to  recognize  the  laws 
of  the  United  States  or  the  Territorial  officers  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  they  were  reduced  to  quasi-sub- 
mission by  a display  of  military  force  (1858),  but  they 
have  always  defied  or  evaded  the  statutes  against 
polygamy. 

Mr.  Webster,  while  Secretary  of  State  under  President 
Tyler,  had  negotiated  an  important  treaty  with  Great 
Britain  for  the  settlement  of  the  Northeastern  boundary. 
The  limits  of  the  two  countries  on  the  northwest,  where 
a large  disputed  territory  had  long  been  in  their  joint  oc- 
cupation, were  more  difficult  to  adjust.  The  United 
States  claimed  as  far  north  on  the  Pacific  coast  as  lat. 
540  40',  or  the  southern  extremity  of  what  was  then  Rus- 
sian America.  Great  Britain  claimed  as  far  south  as  lat- 
420,  the  northern  boundary  of  California.  Both  rested 
their  pretensions  upon  discovery  and  exploration.  A 
section  of  the  Democratic  party  in  the  United  States 
raised  the  cry  of  “ Fifty-four  forty,  or  fight,”  but  Polk’s 
treaty  of  1846,  establishing  the  compromise  line  of  490 
and  securing  to  us  Oregon,  Washington,  and  Idaho,  met 
with  general  acquiescence. 

The  Free-Soil  Campaign. 

The  renewal  of  the  anti-slavery  agination  by  the  an- 
nexation of  Texas  and  the  war  with  Mexico,  showed  that 
during  the  quarter  of  a century  since  the  supposed  settle- 
ment by  the  Missouri  compromise,  the  antagonism 
between  freedom  and  bondage  had  been  gathering  danger- 
ous force.  The  demands  of  the  South  had  grown  larger 
and  more  arrogant.  It  was  now  insisted  that  the  preser- 
vation and  extension  of  slavery  should  be  the  key  to  the 
entire  national  policy.  Congress  had  passed  a gag  law 
to  prevent  the  reception  of  anti-slavery  petitions.  The 
mails  were  rifled  to  intercept  anti-slavery  newspapers  and 
documents.  On  the  other  hand,  the  radical  Abolitionists, 
led  by  Garrison,  Lundy,  the  Lovejoys,  Birney,  Tappan, 
and  other  enthusiastic  reformers,  though  few  in  numbers, 
socially  discredited,  mobbed,  and  outraged,  were  spread- 
ing ideas  which  in  time  roused  the  spirit  and  conscience 
of  the  long  tolerant  North.  That  Texas  should  be  a 
slave  State  was  a foregone  conclusion.  When  it  was 
proposed  to  place  money  at  Mr.  Polk’s  command  for  the 
purchase  of  further  territory  from  Mexico,  David  Wil- 
mot,  a Democratic  member  from  Pennsylvania,  moved 
..1  the  House  of  Representatives  (August  8,  1816),  a res- 
olution since  known  as  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  that  in  any 
territory  acquired  from  Mexico  slavery  should  be  forever 
prohibited.  The  resolution  was  not  passed  ; but  it  pres- 
ently marked  a broad  line  of  division  in  politics,  split- 
ting both  parties  and  pointing  the  way  for  the  union  of 
all  shades  of  anti-slavery  sentiment,  on  the  principle  of 
♦freedom  for  the  Territories.  In  the  Presidential  elec- 
tions of  1848  the  Whigs  nominated  Gen.  Zachary  Taylor, 
who  was  acceptable  to  such  moderate  anti-slavery  lead- 
ers as  Webster,  William  Ii.  Seward,  and  Horace  Greeley. 


6oi  6 


UNI 


The  regular  Democratic  nominee  was  Lewis  Cass,  rep- 
resenting the  anti-proviso  majority  of  his  party,  while 
a bolting  faction  organized  with  Abolitionists  and 
others,  under  the  name  of  Free-Soilers,  and  nominated 
Martin  Van  Buren.  Gen.  Taylor  was  elected.  During 
the  session  of  Congress  between  his  election  and  inaug- 
uration, an  address  reported  by  Mr.  Calhoun  and  signed 
by  forty-eight  Southern  Senators  and  Representatives, 
declared  that  Congress  had  no  power  to  exclude  slavery 
from  any  new  territory,  nor  had  the  territorial  legislature 
or  people  any  such  power.  The  whole  of  the  public  do- 
main must  be  given  up  to  bondage.  Here  at  last  the 
irrepressible  conflict  was  clearly  defined. 

The  manifesto  had  much  practical  significance,  because 
California  had  already  framed  a free  State  constitution 
and  was  asking  admission.  Slavery  had  no  existence 
there,  or  in  any  other  part  of  the  Mexican  purchase,  but 
the  South  fought  strenuously  against  admission,  sought 
to  extend  the  Missouri  compromise  line  to  the  Pacific 
(which  would  have  cut  California  in  two),  and  again 
threatened  disunion.  Another  compromise ; — the  last  of 
this  series  of  delusions  — was  brought  forward  by  Mr. 
Clay.  It  admitted  California  as  a free  State,  organized 
the  Territories  of  New  Mexico  and  Utah  without  either 
prohibition  or  permission  of  slavery,  settled  the  boundary 
of  Texas  and  gave  that  State  $10,000,000,  abolished  the 
slave  trdde  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  made  strin- 
gent provisions  for  the  rendition  of  fugitive  slaves.  De- 
feated as  a single  bill,  it  was  adopted  in  the  form  of 
separate  acts  and  became  law  September  9,  1850. 

President  Taylor  died  July  9,  1850,  and  was  succeeded 
by  the  Vice-President,  Millard  Fillmore,  whose  adminis- 
tration is  now  chiefly  remembered  for  the  enforcement  of 
the  odious  fugitive  slave  act.  In  1852  the  Democrats 
elected  Franklin  Pierce,  the  candidate  of  the  extreme 
pro-slavery  and  State  rights  party,  the  Whigs  voting  for 
Gen.  Winfield  Scott  and  the  Free-Soilers  for  John  P. 
Hale.  The  convention  which  nominated  General  Pierce 
passed  a resolution  condemning  all  attempts,  in  Con- 
gress or  out  of  it,  to  revive  the  slavery  controversy  or 
disturb  the  settlement  of  1850.  Yet,  in  less  than  two 
years,  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  Democratic  Senator  from 
Illinois,  introduced  his  bill  to  repeal  the  Missouri  com- 
promise and  organize  the  Territories  of  Kansas  and  Ne- 
braska, both  within  the  limits  which  had  been  solemnly 
and  forever  dedicated  to  freedom,  leaving  them  to  estab- 
lish slavery  or  not,  as  the  inhabitants  pleased.  The 
astonishment  and  anger  of  the  North  were  indescribable. 
But,  after  many  exciting  scenes,  the  iniquitous  measure 
became  a law,  May  30,  1854,  and  the  South  at  once  began 
to  show  how  new  slave  States  could  be  created  by 
“squatter  sovereignty.”  The  pro-slavery  men  poured 
into  Kansas  across  the  Missouri  border,  often  in  armed 
companies,  and  with  no  thought  of  remaining  in  the 
Territory  longer  than  might  be  necessary  to  vote.  The 
North  met  the  crisis  by  the  organization  of  emigrant  aid 
societies  to  send  out  bona-fide  settlers.  The  free  State 
party  was  a large  majority  of  the  population,  but  ^elec- 
tions were  carried  with  the  most  flagrant  fraud  and 
violence  by  Missourians  imported  for  the  purpose,  legis- 
latures assembled  with  hardly  a show  of  legality,  gov- 
ernors who  attempted  to  do  their  duty  were  removed, 


outrage  was  followed  by  retaliation ; for  nearly  five  years 
Kansas  was  virtually  in  a state  of  civil  war,  and  the 
whole  country  was  convulsed  by  the  struggle.  The  free 
settlers,  however,  sustained  themselves  against  both  bor- 
der marauders  and  a hostile  Federal  administration.  Get- 
ting a chance  to  express  themselves  at  the  polls  at  last, 
they  voted  down  a pro-slavery  constitution  by  a large  ma- 
jority, and  Kansas  was  ultimately  admitted  as  a free 
State  (1861). 

The  excitement  over  these  transactions  was  increased 
by  various  demonstrations  of  the  Southern  temper  and 
purposes.  Charles  Sumner,  for  a speech  in  the  debates 
on  Kansas,  was  brutally"  and  dangerously  beaten  in  the 
Senate  chamber  by  Preston  S.  Brooks,  a Representative 
from  South  Carolina,  whose  constituents  enthusiastically 
re-elected  him  when  he  resigned  after  a vote  erf  cehsure. 
The  filibustering  attempts  of  Walker  in  Central  America, 
which  seemed  to  promise  the  acquisition  of  more  slave 
territory,  were  promoted  by  the  South  and  hardly  op- 
posed by  the  Administration.  In  1854,  Mr.  Pierce  sug- 
gested a conference  of  the  American  ministers  to 
England,  France,  and  Spain  on  the  subject  of  getting 
Cuba,  and  the  result  was  the  truculent  report  known  as 
the  Ostend  Manifesto,  in  which  Messrs.  James  Buchanan, 
John  Y.  Mason,  and  Pierre  Soule  recommended  that  if 
Spain  refused  to  sell  the  island  (she  had  already  refused 
with  emphasis)  the  United  States  should  take  it  by 
force. 

The  repeal  of  the  Missouri  compromise  resulted  in  the 
sudden  and  complete  breaking  up  of  the  old  Whig  party. 
For  a brief  period  an  organization  styling  itself  the  Amer- 
ican party,  based  principally  upon  the  proscription  of 
foreigners  and  Roman  Catholics,  and  operating  through 
secret  lodges,  collected  many  of  the  Whig  fragments ; 
but  the  “Know  Nothing”  movement,  as  it  was  popularly 
called,  was  only  an  episode  of  transition,  and  the  anti- 
slavery men  soon  began  to  coalesce  under  bettqr  auspices. 
The  new  Republican  party  held  its  first  national 
convention  at  Philadelphia  June  17,  1856,  and  nominated 
for  the  Presidency  Col.  John  C.  Fremont,  famous  for  his 
adventurous  scientific  explorations  in  the  unknown  far 
West.  The  Democrats  named  James  Buchanan,  whose 
principles  were  entirely  satisfactory  to  the  pro-slavery 
extremists,  and  Ex-President  Fillmore  was  the  candidate 
of  the  expiring  American  party,  which  had  no  real  busi- 
ness in  the  controversy  now  fairly  joined.  Mr.  Buchanan 
was  elected,  with  John  C.  Breckinridge  for  Vice-Presi- 
dent ; but  the  Republicans  polled  an  unexpectedly  heavy 
vote. 

Early  in  Mr.  Buchanan’s  term  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States  decided  in  the  case  of  a slave  named 
Dred  Scott  that  a negro  could  not  be  a citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  therefore  could  not  sue  for  his  free- 
dom in  that  tribunal.  The  opinion  of  the  majority  of  the 
judges,  delivered  by  Chief  Justice  Taney,  went  still  fur- 
ther; it  pronounced  the  Missouri  compromise  unconsti- 
tutional, and  declared  that  Congress  had  no  power  to 
exclude  slavery  from  any  United  States  territory  (March, 
1857).  A forcible  dissenting  opinion  was  delivered  by 
Justice  Curtis.  Instead  of  settling  the  controversy,  this 
judicial  approval  of  the  Southern  claims  only  added  to 
the  excitement.  The  South  began  to  advocate  the  re- 


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opening  of  the  slave  trade ; the  North  began  to  feel  that, 
as  Abraham  Lincoln  said,  “the  Union  could  not  exist 
half  slave,  half  free.”  In  October,  1859,  John  Brown,  a 
stern  and  fanatical  Abolitionist  who  had  fought  for  free- 
dom in  Kansas,  startled  the  country  by  a crazy  plot  to 
bring  about  an  insurrection  of  the  slaves  in  Virginia. 
With  a handful  of  followers  he  seized  the  United  States 
arsenal  at  Harper’s  Ferry ; but  the  slaves  did  not  rjse, 
the  invaders  were  easily  overpowered,  and  Brown  was 
hanged  December  2.  His  enterprise  was  almost  univer- 
sally condemned  at  the  North  ; and  yet  his  death  power- 
fully stimulated  anti-slavery  feeling. 

When  the  Democratic  national  convention  met  in 
i860,  the  Southern  delegates  were  bent  upon  carrying 
matters  with  a high  hand.  They  insisted  upon  an  ex- 
plicit assertion  of  the  duty  of  the  Federal  government  to 
maintain  slavery  “in  the  Territories  and  wherever  else 
its  constitutional  authority  extends.”  The  Douglas  fac- 
tion protested  in  vain  that  they  could  not  carry  the  North 
with  such  a platform.  The  result  was  the  disruption  of 
the  party.  The  Southern  Democrats,  many  of  whose 
leaders  already  counted  upon  secession,  nominated  Vice- 
President  Breckinridge.  The  Northern  wing  nominated 
Douglas,  with  an  evasive  promise  to  “ abide  by  the  de- 
cisions of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  upon 
questions  of  constitutional  law.”  A so-called  Constitu- 
tional Union  party  placed  in  nomination  John  Bell  and 
Edward  Everett.  The  Republican  convention  at  Chi- 
cago was  the  most  memorable  assemblage  of  the  epoch. 
Seward,  Chase,  Cameron,  Bates,  and  other  men  who  had 
been  conspicuous  for  many  years  in  the  fight  for  freedom 
were  set  aside,  and  the  nomination  was  given  to  Abraham 
Lincoln,  of  Illinois,  whose  celebrity,  earned  by  a series 
of  public  debates  with  Douglas  in  a canvass  for  the  Illi- 
nois Senatorship,  was  only  of  yesterday.  The  choice  was 
not  a fortunate  accident ; it  was  a wise  and  deliberate 
selection.  None  of  the  older  leaders  saw  so  clearly  the 
condition  of  the  conflict  at  hand.  After  a stirring  cam- 
paign, Lincoln  was  elected,  with  Hannibal  Hamlin  as 
Vice-President.  He  received  all  the  electoral  votes  of 
the  free  States,  except  three  in  New  Jersey,  and  he  had 
none  from  the  South. 

The  Civil  War. 

Few  persons  at  the  North  had  believed  that  the  slave 
States  would  carry  out  their  threat  of  secession ; but  the 
, election  of  Mr  Lincoln  was  no  sooner  assured  than  the 
South  Carolina  Legislature  (November  10,  i860),  ordered 
the  assembling  of  a convention,  which,  on  December  20, 
declared  the  union  between  South  Carolina  and  the  other 
States  dissolved  tor  the  reason,  among  others,  that  a Pres- 
ident has  been  chosen  “whose  opinions  and  purposes 
were  hostile  to  slavery.”  Mississippi  seceded  January  9, 
1861 ; Florida,  January  10  ; Alabama,  January  11  ; Geor- 
gia, January  19 ; Louisiana,  January  26;  Texas,  Febru- 
ary 1.  Several  of  these  States  entered  upon  the  rebellion 
reluctantly,  and  their  action  was  the  result  rather  of  a 
conspiracy  at  Washington  than  of  their  own  impulse; 
but  once  committed  to  the  cause  their  people  showed  no 
lack  of  enthusiasm  for  it.  Mr.  Buchanan  made  no  effort 
to  maintain  the  national  authority.  On  the  contrary,  his 


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annual  message  in  December  virtually  admitted  the  right 
of  secession  and  encouraged  the  disunionists ; and  three 
of  his  cabinet,  Howell  Cobb  of  Georgia  (Treasury),  John 
B.  Floyd  of  Virginia  (War),  and  Jacob  Thompson  of 
Mississippi  (Interior),  were  among  the  most  active  of 
the  conspirators  hgainst  the  Union,  even  while  they  still 
held  their  offices  under  it.  When  Mr.  Lincoln  was  in- 
augurated, March  4,  1861,  a provisional  government  for 
the  “Confederate  States  of  America”  had  been  estab- 
lished at  Montgomery,  Ala.  (February,  1861),  with  Jef- 
ferson Davis  and  Alexander  H.  Stephens  for  President 
and  Vice-President ; forts,  arsenals,  arms,  and  military 
supplies  had  been  seized  ; and  throughout  the  seceding 
States  the  national  flag  remained  only  on  the  forts  of 
Charleston  harbor,  Pensacola,  and  Key  West.  On  March 
ii  a permanent  constitution  was  adopted  at  Montgomery, 
and  under  it  Messrs.  Davis  and  Stephens  were  after- 
wards elected  President  and  Vice-President  for  six  years. 

In  an  admirable  inaugural  address  Mr.  Lincoln  de- 
clared that  he  had  neither  the  right  nor  the  desire  to  in- 
terfere with  slavery  in  the  States.  He  denied  the  right 
of  secession,  and  he  expressed  his  determination  to  en- 
force the  laws  throughout  the  national  jurisdiction.  For 
the  principal  posts  in  his  Cabinet  he  chose  his  principal 
rivals  at  the  Chicago  convention.  Mr.  Seward  became 
Secretary  of  State,  Mr.  Chase  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
Mr.  Cameron-  Secretary  of  War,  Mr.  Bates  Attorney-Gen- 
eral. The  other  places  were  filled  by  Gideon  Welles 
(Navy),  Caleb  B.  Smith  (Interior),  and  Montgomery 
Blair  (Postmaster-General). 

The  war  began  April  12,  1861.  Apprised  of  the  inten- 
tion of  Mr.  Lincoln  to  reinforce  Fort  Sumter,  in  Charles- 
ton harbor,  the  Confederates  opened  fire  upon  that 
work,  and  after  sustaining  a bombardment  of  thirty-four 
hours,  Major  Anderson  and  the  garrison  of  80  men  were 
forced  to  surrender  (April  14).  The  next  day  the  Presi- 
dent issued  a call  for  75,000  volunteers.  Never  had  the 
country  beheld  such  a patriotic  uprising  as  now  took 
place.  The  troops  hurried  forward ; the  quotas  of  the 
loyal  States  were  filled  at  once,  and  a further  call  for  42,- 
000  volunteers  and  40,000  men  for  the  regular  army  and 
navy  was  answered  with  as  much  enthusiasm  as  the  first. 
On  the  other  hand.  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  Vir- 
ginia cast  in  their  fortunes  with  the  Rebellion,  thus  giving 
the  Confederacy  eleven  of  the  fifteen  slave  States  — all 
it  ever  obtained.  The  Confederate  capital  was  removed 
to  Richmond  in  July. 

The  first  operations  were  encouraging  to  the  Confed- 
erates. They  gained  possession  of  the  navy-yard  at 
Norfolk  and  the  arsenal  at  Plarper’s  Ferry.  A seces- 
sionist mob  made  a murderous  attack  upon  Massachusetts 
troops  passing  through  Baltimore  (April  19),  and  for  a 
short  time  severed  direct  communication  between 
Washington  and  the  North.  In  an  important  engage- 
ment at  Big  Bethel,  near  Fortress  Monroe,  the  Union 
troops  under  General  Butler  were  worsted.  To  compen- 
sate for  these  Federal  misfortunes,  Generals  McClellan 
and  Rosecrans  gained  a series  of  victories  in  West  Vir- 
ginia. In  the  meantime  both  combatants  were  mustering 
their  main  force  in  front  of  Washington.  On  the  21st  of 
July  a Union  army  of  about  18,000  under  General  Mc- 
Dowell attacked  the  Confederates  under  Beauregard  at 


6oi8 


UNI 


the  crossings  of  Bull  Run,  near  Manassas  Junction,  Va. 
The  battle  was  in  McDowell’s  favor  until  late  in  the 
afternoon,  when  the  Confederate  general,  Joseph  E. 
Johnston,  eluding  Patterson,  an  estimable  militia  gen- 
eral who  had  been  ordered  to  keep  him  in  check  at 
Winchester,  arrived  on  the  field  with  fresh  troops.  The 
undisciplined  Federal  volunteers  were  seized  with  sudden 
panic  and  driven  into  the  defenses  of  Washington,  hav- 
ing lost  about  3,000  men  against  a loss  of  2,000  on  the 
other  side.  This  disaster  only  strengthened  the  courage 
and  determination  of  the  North.  Congress  authorized 
the  enlistment  of  500,000  volunteers  and  voted  an  appro- 
priation of  $500,000,000.  General  McClellan  was  called 
from  West  Virginia  to  reorganize  and  command  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac,  and,  on  the  retirement  in  Novem- 
ber of  the  aged  General  Scott,  was  made  general-in-chief. 
Missouri  and  Kentucky  had  proposed  to  remain  neutral 
during  the  struggle  ; but  the  Confederates  treated  this 
absurd  policy  with  scant  ceremony.  In  Missouri  a strong 
secession  party,  with  which  Gov.  Claiborne  F.  Jackson 
was  implicated,  sought  to  carry  the  State  out  of  the  Union 
by  force.  Until  the  end  of  the  year  the  tide  of  battle 
swept  back  and  forth  with  varying  success,  McCulloch 
and  Sterling  Price  leading  Confederate  invasions  from 
Arkansas,  and  Lyon,  Sigel,  Fremont,  Hunter,  and  Hal- 
leck  commanding  the  forces  by  which  Missouri  was 
finally  saved  for  the  Union. 

Immediately  after  the  attack  on  Fort  Sumter,  President 
Lincoln  proclaimed  a blockade  of  all  the  Southern  ports, 
and  to  enforce  this  measure  extraordinary  efforts  were 
made  to  increase  the  navy.  By  the  purchase  and  arma- 
ment of  merchant  vessels  efficient  fleets  were  soon  col- 
lected, and  in  the  course  of  1861-62  a number  of  naval 
and  military  expeditions  were  dispatched  to  close  im- 
portant Southern  harbors.  Port  Royal,  Pamlico  and  Al- 
bemarle Sounds,  Newbern,  F'ernandina,  Jacksonville,  St. 
Augustine,  Darien,  Brunswick,  and  Savannah  were  thus 
sealed,  or  made  dangerous  for  blockade  runners ; and 
England  and  France  were  deprived  of  the  excuse  for 
which  they  were  watching  to  declare  the  blockade  in- 
valid. On  the  first  news  of  the  first  shot  of  the  war,  the 
British  government,  with  headlong  speed,  issued  a proc- 
lamation of  neutrality  conceding  to  the  Confederates  all 
the  rights  of  a belligerent  power;  and  British  subjects 
entered  actively  into  the  business  of  running  arms  and 
other  supplies  through  the  blockade  and  bringing  out 
cotton.  The  governing  classes  in  England  were  largely 
in  sympathy  with  the  South.  The  Emperor  of  the  French 
was  urging  England  to  join  him  in  recognizing  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Confederacy.  Our  foreign  relations 
were  in  this  critical  condition  when  the  indiscretion  of  a 
gallant  naval  officer  gave  Great  Britain  grave  cause  of 
complaint.  Capt.  Charles  Wilkes,  of  the  United  States 
frigate  San  Jacinto,  stopped  the  British  passenger  steamer 
Trent  on  the  high  seas,  and  took  off  Messrs.  Mason  and 
Slidell,  Confederate  commissioners  to  London  and  Paris 
(Nov.  8,  1861).  The  act  was  indefensible,  and  was 
promptly  disavowed  by  the  President,  but  it  was  loudly 
applauded  throughout  the  country,  and  in  yielding  to 
the  demand  of  the  British  government  for  the  release  of 
the  prisoners,  all  Mr.  Seward’s  astuteness  was  called  for 
to  make  the  surrender  palatable  to  the  American  people. 


He  took  the  doubtful  ground  that  Capt.  Wilkes  was  justi- 
fied in  searching  the  Trent  and  seizing  the  envoys  as  con- 
traband, but  that  he  ought  to  have  sent  the  vessel  into 
port  for  adjudication. 

In  January,  1862,  Mr.  Cameron  became  Minister  to 
Russia,  and  was  succeeded  as  Secretary  of  War  by  Ed- 
win M.  Stanton.  Harsh,  often  unjust,  at  times  tyran- 
nical, Mr.  Stanton  was  a man  of  remarkable  force  and  of 
high  patriotism,  and  his  energetic  administration  of  mili- 
tary affairs  was  felt  in  every  branch  of  the  service  through 
the  rest  of  the  war. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  the  number  of  men  undei 
arms,  Federal  and  Confederate,  was  not  far  from  a mih 
lion,  and  the  two  sides  were  well  matched,  both  in  the 
character  and  spirit  of  the  soldiers  and  the  capacity  of 
the  officers.  The  Confederates  held  the  Mississippi 
from  its  mouth  to  the  southern  boundary  of  Kentucky, 
with  a line  of  strong  positions  extending  through  Ken- 
tucky and  Tennessee  to  Virginia,  and  a large  force 
between  the  Potomac  and  the  Rappahannock,  covering 
Richmond  and  threatening  Washington.  The  F'ederals 
confronted  them  with  two  western  armies,  one  under 
Halleck,  with  headquarters  at  St.  Louis,  the  other  under 
Buell,  at  Louisville,  while  fleets  of  gunboats  and  rams 
were  prepared  for  service  on  the  Mississippi.  In  front  of 
Washington,  McClellan  had  formed  the  Army  of  the  Po^ 
tomac  into  a fine  organization  of  nearly  200,000  men, 
The  earliest  important  engagement  of  the  year  was  at 
Mill  Spring,  in  Kentucky,  where  Gen.  George  H.  Thomas, 
with  a part  of  Buell’s  army,  gained  a signal  victory  in 
which  the  Confederate  General  Zollicoffer  was  killed.  A 
little  later  a movement  was  undertaken  by  Brigadier^ 
General  Grant,  then  just  rising  into  notice  as  an  enter- 
prising commander  under  Halleck,  and  Flag  Officei 
Foote  with  a flotilla  of  gunboats,  for  the  reduction  of  the 
Forts  Henry  and  Donelson,  which  barred  the  entrance 
into  western  and  middle  Tennessee  by  the  Tennessee 
and  Cumberland  rivers.  Fort  Henry  was  reduced  by 
the  fleet  February  6 ; Fort  Donelson,  a stronger 
work,  surrendered  to  a land  attack,  with  over  10,000 
prisoners,  February  16.  It  was  here,  in  answer  to 
General  Buckner’s  request  for  terms,  that  Grant  used 
the  phrase,  soon  in  every  one’s  mouth,  “ No  terms  ex- 
cept unconditional  and  immediate  surrender  can  be  ac- 
cepted.” 

These  victories  obliged  the  Confederates  to  abandon 
Nashville,  and  the  strong  fortifications  of  Columbus,  on 
the  Mississippi.  Grant  and  Buell  followed  the  retreating 
enemy  southward.  At  Shiloh,  or  Pittsburg  Landing,  on 
the  Tennessee  river,  Grant  was  attacked,  April  6,  by  a 
superior  force  under  Albert  Sidney  Johnston,  and  in  a 
terrible  battle,  lasting  all  day,  was  severely  handled. 
During  the  night  Buell  arrived  with  fresh  troops,  and  on 
the  7th  the  combined  Union  armies  won  a complete  vic- 
tory. Johnston,  one  of  the  ablest  of  the  Confederate  gen- 
erals, was  killed  on  the  first  day,  and  Beauregard  replaced 
him.  Halleck  took  command  of  the  forces  of  Grant  and 
Buell,  and  cautiously  advanced  as  far  as  Corinth,  Miss., 
where  an  important  strategic  position  was  abandoned  at 
his  approach. 

The  river  fleets  nobly  sustained  the  fame  of  the  Amer- 
ican navy.  Flag  Officer  Foote  co-operated  with  General 


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6019 


Pope  in  the  capture  of  a formidable  stronghold  at  Island 
No.  10,  in  the  Mississippi,  on  the  day  of  the  victory  of 
Shiloh,  April  7 ; and  Capt.  C.  H.  Davis,  destroying  a 
Confederate  flotilla,  forced  the  evacuation  of  Fort  Pil- 
low, June  4,  and  the  surrender  of  Memphis,  June  7.  For 
the  reduction  of  New  Orleans,  a fleet  of  forty-five  ships, 
gunboats,  and  mortar-boats  under  Flag  Officer  David  G. 
Farragut,  was  ordered  to  the  Lower  Mississippi.  Forts 
Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  situated  on  opposite  banks  of  the 
river,  seventy-five  miles  below  New  Orleans,  were  the 
principal  defenses  of  the  city.  After  a bombardment  of 
six  days  from  the  mortar-boats  under  Capt.  David  A. 
Porter,  Farragut,  with  the  rest  of  the  fleet,  himself  lead- 
ing the  way  in  the  flag-ship  Hartford , boldly  passed  the 
forts  under  a furious  cannonade  (April  24,  1862),  cutting 
a barrier  of  chains  and  spars,  and  engaging  a flotilla  of 
sixteen  vessels,  nearly  all  of  which  were  captured  or  de- 
stroyed. New  Orleans,  evacuated  by  its  garrison,  sur- 
rendered to  him  on  the  25th  and  was  occupied  by  an 
army  under  General  Butler,  and  the  forts  surrendered  to 
Captain  Porter. 

Among  the  prizes  obtained  by  the  Confederates,  when 
Norfolk  fell  into  their  hands,  was  the  steam-frigate  Mer- 
riviac.  They  converted  her  into  a powerful  ram  with  a 
slant  roof  of  railroad  iron  covering  her  deck  and  sides, 
against  which  the  heaviest  guns  had  no  effect.  On  the 
8th  of  March,  1862,  she  attacked  the  Federal  fleet  in 
Hampton  Roads,  sinking  the  Cumberland , burning  the 
Congress,  and  retiring  with  impunity  on  the  approach  of 
night.  When  she  came  out  the  next  morning  to  renew 
her  work  she  was  met  by  a nondescript  little  craft  which 
the  sailors  called  “a  cheese-box  on  a raft.”  This  was 
Capt.  John  Ericsson’s  turret  iron-clad  monitor,  just  ar- 
rived on  her  first  voyage,  under  command  of  Lieuten- 
ant Worden.  She  fought  the  ram  for  five  hours,  receiv- 
ing no  damage,  and  at  last  driving  the  Merrimac  back  to 
Norfolk,  whence  she  never  reappeared. 

In  the  summer  the  Confederates  made  extraordinary 
efforts  to  repair  their  disasters  in  the  West.  An  invasion 
of  Kentucky  was  undertaken  simultaneously  by  Kirby 
Smith,  who  occupied  Lexington  and  Frankfort  and  for  a 
while  threatened  Cincinnati,  and  by  Braxton  Bragg,  who, 
after  a victory  at  Munfordsville  (Sept.  17),  advanced 
towards  Louisville.  Buell,  by  forced  marches  from  Nash- 
ville, reached  Louisville  one  day  before  his  adversary, 
and,  after  collecting  reinforcements,  slowly  pushed  the 
Confederates  back.  Bragg  and  Kirby  Smith  united  at 
Frankfort  and,  on  October  8th,  Buell  fought  them  at  Per- 
ryville.  His  campaign  had  been  skillfully  conducted, 
and  the  battle  of  Perryville  put  an  end  to  the  invasion  ; 
but  Bragg  carried  off  an  immense  quantity  of  supplies, 
and  Buell,  a victim  to  the  Government’s  unreasonable  ex- 
pectations, was  superseded  by  Rosecrans.  This  officer, 
already  distinguished  by  victories  over  Price  and  Van. 
Dorn  at  Iuka  and  Corinth,  gained  fresh  laurels  by  the 
defeat  of  Bragg  in  the  two  battles  of  Stone  River,  near 
Murfreesboro,  Tenn.,  December  31,  1862,  and  January 
2,  1863. 

Relieved  of  the  command  of  all  the  armies  except  his 
own,  McClellan  began  his  advance  against  Richmond  in 
March,  1862,  choosing  the  route  by  the  Yorktown  penin- 
sula, between  the  York  and  James  rivers,  and  landing 


over  100,000  men  from  transports  at  Fortress  Monroe. 
The  march  was  slow,  his  forces  being  detained  in  front 
of  Yorktown  a full  month,  and  the  Confederates  under 
Gen.  Joseph  E.  Johnston  had  ample  time  to  strengthen 
their  defenses.  McClellan  gained  the  battle  of  Williams- 
burg, May  5,  and  advanced  within  seven  miles  of  Rich- 
mond. General  Wool  took  possession  of  Norfolk,  where 
the  enemy  blew  up  the  ram  Merrimac  before  retiring. 
The  Federal  gunboats  entered  James  river.  There  was 
panic  in  Richmond,  and  the  Confederate  Congress 
hastily  adjourned.  But  the  golden  opportunity  was  not 
perceived.  Before  quitting  the  Potomac,  McClellan  had 
been  instructed  to  leave  a strong  force  for  the  protection 
of  the  capital.  Deciding  that  the  scattered  and  some- 
what inefficient  commands  designated  for  that  purpose 
were  not  enough,  the  President  detached  McDowell’s 
corps  from  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  held  it  in  front 
of  Washington.  McDowell  might  still  have  co-operated 
with  McClellan  by  a movement  against  Richmond  from 
the  north ; but  the  Confederate  General,  T.  J.  Jackson, 
popularly  known  as  “ Stonewall,”  suddenly  burst  into  the 
Shenandoah  valley,  and  swept  down  towards  the  Poto- 
mac, driving  General  Banks  across  the  river,  checking 
General  Fremont  at  Cross  Keys,  June  8,  defeating  Shields 
at  Port  Republic,  and  filling  the  North  with  alarm  for 
the  safety  of  Washington.  McDowell  was  turned  aside 
and  sent  after  Jackson  ; and  Johnston  seized  his  chance 
to  fall  upon  McClellan’s  left,  which  had  been  pushed 
across  the  Chickahominy.  On  the  31st  of  May,  when  the 
river  and  its  swampy  borders  were  so  filled  by  a heavy  rain 
that  communication  between  the  two  wings  of  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  was  difficult  and  uncertain,  the  Confed- 
erates made  a determined  attack  at  Fair  Oaks  (or  Seven 
Pines),  and  were  beaten  only  after  a hard  battle,  in  which 
the  Union  loss  was  greater  than  theirs.  General  John- 
ston was  badly  wounded,  and  the  chief  command  was 
soon  afterwards  conferred  upon  Robert  E.  Lee,  son  of 
'‘Light  Horse  Harry”  of  the  Revolution,  and  the  one 
great  character  of  the  Confederacy  whose  personal  and 
professional  merits  have  been  unanimously  admired  by 
both  sides.  Reinforced  by  Jackson,  who  had  now  left 
McDowell’s  corps  where  it  could  do  no  harm,  Lee  at- 
tacked the  Union  right  at  Gaines’s  Mill,  June  27,  drove  it 
across  the  Chickahominy  with  heavy  loss,  and  severed 
McClellan’s  communications  with  his  base  of  supplies  at 
White  House,  on  the  Pamunkey,  while  Stuart’s  Confed- 
erate cavalry  rode  entirely  around  the  Federal  lines. 

McClellan’s  position,  astride  a swamp  and  a treacher- 
ous river,  was  untenable.  He  resolved  upon  the  delicate 
maneuver  of  a change  of  base,  from  the  York  river  to 
the  James,  by  a flank  march  to  the  left.  The  movement, 
lasting  from  June  28th  to  July  1,  was  carried  out  with 
skill,  the  troops  marching  all  night  and  fighting  gallantly 
all  day.  Lee  attacked  them  at  Golding’s  Farm,  Savage’s 
Station,  White  Oak  Swamp,  etc.,  and  the  series  of  en- 
gagements known  as  the  Seven  Days’  Battle  closed  at 
Malvern  Hill,  near  the  James,  where  the  Confederates 
were  signally  repulsed.  McClellan  then  fortified  him- 
self at  Harrison’s  Landing,  with  the  gunboats  in  his 
rear.  He  hhd  lost  15,000  men  during  the  change  of  base, 
and  Lee  nearly  as  many. 

Halleck,  in  the  meantime,  had  been  called  to  Wash- 


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ington,  with  the  rank  of  general-in-chief,  and  the  corps 
of  McDowell,  Banks,  and  Fremont  had  been  united  un- 
der the  command  of  Pope.  But  Pope  and  McClellan 
were  so  placed  that  neither  could  help  the  other.  Mc- 
Clellan was  ordered  to  abandon  the  peninsula  and  trans- 
fer his  whole  army  by  water  to  the  Potomac.  As  soon  as , 
the  movement  was  developed,  Lee  hurled  his  army 
against  Pope,  pressing  him  back  from  the  line  of  the 
Rapidan,  while  Pope  stubbornly  contested  the  ground. 
From  the  26th  of  August  to  the  1st  of  September  there 
was  an  almost  continual  battle,  a part  of  it  taking  place 
on  the  old  field  of  Bull  Run.  McClellan’s  troops  were 
pushed  forward,  as  they  tardily  arrived,  and  the  contest 
at  many  points  was  gallantly  maintained  ; but  Pope  was 
outgeneraled  and  outnumbered ; Stonewall  Jackson, 
passing  through  an  undefended  gap  in  the  mountains, 
menaced  his  rear,  and  he  fell  back  in  disorder  to  the  de- 
fenses of  Washington,  where  the  army  passed  again  un- 
der the  command  of  McClellan. 

Lee  now  invaded  Maryland,  crossing  the  Potomac  at 
Leesburg,  while  Jackson  captured  Harper’s  Ferry.  Mc- 
Clellan attacked  and  defeated  Lee  at  South  Mountain, 
September  14,  1862,  and  on  the  17th  encountered  the 
whole  Confederate  force  on  Antietam  creek,  near  Sharps- 
burg.  A severe  battle  lasted  all  day  and  left  both  com- 
batants exhausted.  Practically  it  was  a Union  victory, 
for  it  put  an  end  to  the  invasion  ; but  Lee  retired  unmo- 
lested, and  McClellan  declined  to  move  further  until 
his  army  had  been  thoroughly  refitted. 

The  position  of  President  Lincoln  with  respect  to  slav- 
ery had  become  a cause  of  dissension  in  the  Republican 
party,  by  the  advanced  section  of  which  his  cautious  and 
conservative  policy  was  viewed  with  increasing  impa- 
tience. That  policy  was  tersely  expressed  in  his  answer 
to  a public  letter  from  Horace  Greeley  : “ My  paramount 
object  is  to  save  the  Union,  and  not  either  to  save  or  de- 
stroy slavery.  If  I could  save  the  Union  without  freeing 
any  slave,  I would  do  it  — if  I could  save  it  by  freeing 
all  the  slaves,  I would  do  it  — and  if  I could  save  it  by 
freeing  some  and  leaving  others  alone,  I would  also  do 
that.  What  I do  about  slavery  and  the  colored  race,  I do 
because  I believe  it  helps  to  save  this  Union,  and  what  I 
forbear,  I forbear  because  I do  not  believe  it  would  help 
to  save  the  Union.”  But  when  he  wrote  this,  the  Presi- 
dent had  already  resolved  to  proclaim  emancipation  as  a 
war  measure  on  the  morrow  of  the  next  Union  victory ; 
and  the  battle  of  Antietam  gave  him  the  opportunity. 
The  proclamation,  issued  September  22,  1862,  announced 
that  on  the  1st  of  the  next  January  all  slaves  in  States  or 
designated  parts  of  States  in  rebellion  should  be  “then, 
thenceforward,  and  forever  free,”  and  should  be  so 
treated  by  the  civil,  military,  and  naval  authorities  of  the 
United  States.  The  final  proclamation  in  accordance 
with  this  preliminary  announcement  was  duly  issued  at 
the  appointed  time. 

General  McClellan,  who  had  written  an  extraordinary 
letter  to  the  President  from  Harrison’s  Landing,  after  the 
failure  of  the  Chickahominy  campaign,  warning  him  that 
“a  declaration  of  radical  views,  especially  upon  slavery,” 
would  disintegrate  the  army,  consulted  his  ‘friends  after 
the  appearance  of  the  proclamation  of  freedom,  to  decide 
whether  he  should  not  throw  down  his  sword  and  refuse 


to  serve  an  Abolitionist  government.  He  had  begun  to 
move  against  Lee,  however,  when,  in  November,  he  was 
relieved  from  duty,  and  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  was 
intrusted  to  General  Burnside.  This  gallant  officer,  who 
had  shown  high  qualities  on  smaller  fields,  was  unequal 
to  the  command  of  100,000  men,  and  his  short  campaign 
was  a complete  disaster.  Attacking  Lee  at  Fredericks- 
burg on  the  Rappahannock,  December  13,  1862,  he  re- 
peatedly stormed  the  heights  behind  the  town,  only  to  be 
beaten  back  with  cruel  loss,  and  on  the  night  of  the  15th- 
16th  he  withdrew  across  the  river  after  a vain  sacrifice  of 
12,000  men.  In  January,  he  was  replaced  by  General 
Hooker,  who  was  able  in  the  spring  to  resume  the  ad- 
vance upon  Richmond  with  120,000  men.  He  crossed 
the  Rappahannock  above  and  below  Fredericksburg,  and 
met  Lee  at  Chancellorsville,  about  five  miles  from  the 
scene  of  Burnside’s  failure.  The  battle  was  fought 
through  the  2nd  and  3rd  of  May,  1863.  A sudden  on- 
slaught by  Stonewall  Jackson’s  corps  surprised  and 
routed  the  Union  right,  hurling  the  fragments  in  confu- 
sion upon  the  centre,  and  Lee  then  fell  with  his  main 
force  upon  the  left  grand  division  of  Sedgwick,  separat- 
ing it  from  the  rest  of  the  army,  and  pressing  it  back  to 
the  river.  Again  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  recrossed  the 
Rappahannock  under  cover  of  the  night,  the  losses  by 
this  failure  amounting  to  about  17,000  men. 

Lee  at  once  marched  for  the  North,  crossing  into  Penn- 
sylvania, advancing  as  far  as  Chamfyersburg,  and  men- 
acing Washington,  Baltimore,  and  Philadelphia.  The 
Army  of  the  Potomac  followed  him,  covering  the  capital. 
On  the  28th  day  of  June  Hooker  was  superseded  by  Gen. 
George  G.  Meade ; and  under  this  commander  the  Fed- 
eral forces  met  the  invaders  at  Gettysburg  on  July  1, 
1863.  The  battle,  lasting  three  days,  was  by  far  the 
most  severe  in  which  Americans  had  ever  engaged.  The 
opposing  troops  were  about  equal  in  numbers— 100,000 
on  each  side  — equal  in  spirit,  and  equally  well  handled. 
When  the  Confederates  ipade  their  last  desperate  charge, 
on  the  evening  of  the  3d,  against  Meade’s  firm  lines,  and 
were  beaten  back,  the  Confederacy  received  its  death 
wound,  for  it  never  recovered  from  the  exhaustion  of  this 
campaign.  On  the  4th  Lee  retreated  to  the  Potomac. 
He  had  lost  30,000  men  and  Meade  23,000. 

On  the  very  day  of  Lee’s  retreat  from  Gettysburg,  the 
Confederates  suffered  an  equal  disaster  in  the  West  by 
the  surrender  of  Vicksburg.  Situated  on  high  ground  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  and  difficult  of  approach 
on  the  north  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  country,  that 
stronghold  had  resisted  several  Federal  attacks,  when 
General  Grant  conceived  a bold  plan  for  approaching  it 
from  below.  He  marched  his  army  down  the  west  bank 
of  the  Mississippi  to  Bruinsburg,  where  the  fleet  under 
Commodore  Porter,  having  run  the  formidable  batteries 
of  Vicksburg,  ferried  him  across  the  river.  Then  cutting 
loose  from  his  base,  living  on  the  country  and  fighting  as 
he  moved,  he  hastened  to  intercept  an  army  under  Joseph 
E.  Johnston,  which  was  coming  from  the  east  to  relieve 
Vicksburg.  This  force  was  thoroughly  beaten  at  Jack- 
son,  Miss.,  May  14,  1863,  by  the  corps  of  McPherson  and 
Sherman  ; and  the  Union  army  then  turned  upon  Pember- 
ton, who  with  the  garrison  of  Vicksburg  was  advancing 
from  the  opposite  direction  to  meet  Johnston.  Two  de- 


UN  I 


6021 


feats  drove  him  back  to  his  defenses ; but  Grant  twice 
failed  to  carry  the  city  by  assault,  and  it  was  only  alter 
a siege  of  forty-five  days  that  Pemberton  and  his  27,000 
men  surrendered  July  4.  The  capture  of  Port  Hudson 
by  General  Banks  four  days  later  gave  the  Federal  fleets 
and  armies  permanent  control  of  the  whole  Mississippi, 
and  cut  the  Confederacy  in  two.  Rosecrans  began  an 
advance  from  Murfreesboro  about  the.  end  of  June,  driv- 
ing Bragg  out  of  Middle  Tennessee  and  back  beyond 
Chattanooga.  Reinforced  from  Johnston  and  Lee,  Bragg 
offered  battle" at  Chickamauga,  and  a severe  engagement 
was  fought  September  19th  and  20th,  ending  in  a rout  of 
the  Union  right  wing,  which  only  the  stubborn  resistance 
of  Thomas  on  the  left  prevented  from  becoming  general. 
But  Bragg  did  not  venture  to  press  his  victory  and  Rose- 
crans fell  back  to  the  strong  position  of  Chattanooga. 
There  he  was  superseded  by  Thomas  in  command  of  the 
Army  of  the  Cumberland  in  October,  while  the  general 
charge  of  operations  in  the  West  was  committed  to 
Grant.  Joined  by  Sherman  with  the  Army  of  the  Ten- 
nessee, and  by  Hooker  with  two  corps  from  the  Potomac, 
Grant  assailed  Bragg’s  position  in  front  of  Chattanooga, 
Hooker  carrying  Lookout  Mountain  by  storm,  Novem- 
ber 24,  and  the  main  army  sweeping  over  Missionary 
Ridge  the  next  day.  Knoxville,  where  Burnside  had 
been  withstanding  a trying  siege,  was  now  relieved. 
Bragg  was  deprived  of  his  command. 

Against  these  Union  triumphs  the  Confederacy  had 
little  to  show  during  the  year  except  riotous  opposition  to 
the  draft  in  New  York,  plots  of  disloyal  organizations  at 
the  West,  and  above  all  else,  the  operations  of  the  Ala- 
bama and  other  cruisers,  the  best  of  them  built  in  Eng- 
land and  largely  manned  by  English  sailors,  which 
nearly  ruined  the  foreign  shipping  trade  of  the  United 
States.  The  Alabama , under  Capt.  Raphael  Semmes, 
after  destroying  more  than  60  merchant  vessels,  was  sunk 
off  the  harbor  of  Cherbourg,  June  19,  1864,  by  the  Kear- 
sarge,  • Captain  Winslow.  The  ships  were  equally 
matched,  and  the  result  was  due  to  the  better  gunnery  of 
the  Kearsarge. 

By  the  spring  of  1864  the  Administration,  having 
learned  the  cost  of  divided  councils  and  found  a general 
whom  it  trusted,  was  prepared  to  reorganize  the  military 
forces  under  a single  head.  Grant  was  made  general  of 
all  the  armies  March  2,  1864,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.  He  took  personal  charge  of  the  operations  in 
Virginia,  leaving  Meade  in  immediate  command  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac,  while  the  three  western  armies 
of  the  Ohio  (Schofield),  Tennessee  (McPherson),  and 
Cumberland  (Thomas),  were  united  under  General  Sher- 
man. 

Both  great  organizations,  eastern  and  western,  were 
ordered  to  advance  about  the  1st  of  May.  The  Army  of 
the  Potomac  crossing  the  Rapid  an,  May  4,  near  Chan- 
cellorsville,  found  itself  on  a difficult,  thickly  wooded 
tableland  called  the  Wilderness,  through  which  it  was 
necessary  to  fight  a way  at  great  disadvantage.  Lee  at- 
tacked on  the  5th  and  the  battle  lasted,  with' little  inter- 
mission, until  Grant  was  out  of  the  woods  on  the  9th,  and 
concentrated  at  Spottsylvania  Court  House.  He  had 
lost  20,000  men  in  the  Wilderness ; in  ten  days’  engage- 
ments near  Spottsylvania  he  lost  10,000  more.  On  the 


nth  he  telegraphed  to  Washington  : ‘*1  propose  to  fight 
it  out  on  this  line  if  it  takes  all  summer.”  At  the  end  of 
May  he  had  reached  McClellan’s  old  battle  ground  on 
the  Chickahominy.  There  he  was  repulsed  in  two  terri- 
ble assaults  upon  Lee’s  lines  at  Cold  Harbor,  in  the 
second  of  which  (June  3)  he  lost  10,000  men  in  twenty 
minutes.  But  Lee  also  had  suffered  terribly,  and,  unlike 
Grant,  he  had  nothing  in  reserve,  for  the  Confederacy 
had  drafted  its  last  man. 

Throwing  his  army  across  the  James,  to  approach 
Richmond  from  the  sduth,  Grant  was  obliged  first  to  re- 
duce the  strongly  fortified  town  of  Petersburg.  Attempts 
to  take  it  by  assault  repeatedly  failed  (June  and  July) 
and  at  last  the  P'ederal  commandei  settled  down  to  a 
regular  siege.  Lee  sought  to  shake  his  hold  by  making 
a diversion  in  the  Shenandoah  valley.  Early  swept 
through  that  harassed  region,  entered  Maryland,  made  a 
futile  demonstration  against  Washington  (July),  and 
burned  Chambersburg,  Pennsylvania ; but  General  Sher- 
idan in  a rapid  campaign  practically  broke  up  Early’s 
command,  and  so  stripped  the  valley  that  the  Confeder- 
ates could  never  again  draw  supplies  from  it. 

Sherman  moved  from  Chattanooga  on  the  7th  of  May 
with  100,000  men.  His  first  object  was  the  capture  of 
Atlanta.  Opposed  to  him  were  60,000  Confederates  un- 
der Johnston,  who,  not  venturing  upon  a general  engage- 
ment, skillfully  obstructed  and  delayed  the  advance. 
Impatient  at  this  defensive  policy,  President  Davis  re- 
placed Johnston  by  Hood,  who  gave  battle  and  railed, 
July  20  and  26,  and  by  a masterly  movement  of  Sher- 
man’s was  driven  out  of  Atlanta,  which  the  Union  army 
entered  September  2.  Then,  burning  the  town,  destroy- 
ing the  railroads  and  telegraph  in  his  rear,  cutting  loose 
from  all  connections,  and  detaching  Thomas  to  take  care 
of  Hood,  Sherman  with  65,000  men  began,  November  14, 
his  famous  march  to  the  sea.  He  was  uncertain  at  start- 
ing where  he  should  come  out,  and  for  nearly  a month 
nothing  was  heard  from  him  at  the  North.  Extended 
over  a breadth  of  forty  miles,  and  gathering  vast  quan- 
tities of  supplies  and  cotton,  his  army  traversed  Georgia 
with  little  fighting,  and  appeared  before  Savannah,  where 
Fort  McAllister  was  taken  by  assault  on  December  13, 
the  city  being  evacuated  on  the  20th.  On  the  1st  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1865,  he  started  northward  to  co-operate  with 
Grant.  He  seized  Columbia,  forced  the  evacuation  of 
Charleston,  fought  Johnston  at  Fayetteville,  and  was 
joined  at  Goldsboro  by  Schofield  and  Terry.  There  he 
halted. 

In  the  meantime  Hood  had  invaded  Tennessee,  where 
Thomas  awaited  him  at  Nashville.  Disregarding  the 
urgency  of  the  President  and  the  General-in-Chief, 
Thomas  would  not  strike  until  he  was  thoroughly  pre- 
pared. Then  he  fell  upon  Hood,  December  15,  and 
crushed  him  in  a two  days’  battle. 

The  harbor  of  Charleston  had  been  closed  to  the  Con- 
federates since  the  summer  of  1863,  when  the  batteries 
of  General  Gilmore  and  the  squadron  of  Commodore 
Dahlgren  reduced  Fort  Wagner,  demolished  Sumter,  and 
enabled  the  blockading  ships  to  enter  the  port.  Mobile 
was  closed  on  August  5,  1864,  when  Farragut  forced  his 
way  past  forts  Gaines  and  Morgan  and  demolished  the 
Confederate  flotilla  in  the  bay,  leading  the  fight  lashed 


6022 


UNI 


to  the  rigging  of  the  Hartford.  Wilmington,  the  only 
important  port  remaining  to  the  Confederates  east  of 
Texas,  was  defended  by  Fort  Fisher,  which  fell  before  a 
combined  land  and  naval  attack  by  Terry  and  Porter  on 
January  16,  1865. 

The  situation  of  Lee  was  now  desperate.  In  the  hope 
of  breaking  through  Grant’s  lines  and  uniting  with  John- 
ston, he  made  a fierce  assault  upon  Fort  Steedman  on 
March  25,  but  was  repulsed  with  heavy  loss.  Grant 
pressed  his  advantage,  extending  and  strengthening  his 
left,  where,  on  April  1,  Sheridan  gained  a great  victory  at 
Five  Forks.  This  was  the  decisive  battle.  Lee  evacuated 
Petersburg  and  Richmond  the  next  day,  and  retreated 
toward  Lynchburg,  closely  followed  and  flanked  by 
Grant.  The  Confederates  are  supposed  to  have  had 
50,000  or  60,000  men  when  they  abandoned  their  capital. 
In  six  days  these  were  reduced  one-half  by  capture  and 
other  casualties  of  the  hasty  retreat,  and  many  of  the  re- 
mainder had  lost  or  thrown  away  their  arms. 

On  April  9,  1865,  the  Army  of  Virginia  surrendered  to 
Grant  at  Appomattox  Court  House,  Virginia,  twenty- 
eight  thousand  men  giving  their  parole  and  then  dispers- 
ing quietly  to  their  homes.  Johnston  surrendered  37,000 
men  to  Sherman  on  April  26,  and  one  by  one  the  other 
Confederate  commands  laid  down  their  arms  or  broke 
up,  and  disappeared.  Jefferson  Davis  was  captured  by 
the  Federal  cavalry  at  Irwinsville,  Georgia,  and  long 
confined  at  Fortress  Monroe  on  an  indictment  for  treason, 
but  at  last  he  was  released  on  bail  furnished  by  Horace 
Greeley  and  other  northern  men,  and  the  prosecution  was 
dropped.  The  great  Rebellion,  which  had  cost  600,000 
lives,  was  ended. 

The  New  Union. 

The  tremendous  burdens  of  the  war  were  borne  by  the 
North  with  an  ease  which  has  no  parallel  in  the  history 
of  such  conflicts.  Expenses  were  met  by  an  increase  in 
the  tariff,  by  internal  taxes,  popular  loans,  and  the  issue 
of  Treasury  notes  ; and  although  the  evils  of  inconvertible 
paper  money  were  not  escaped,  industries  were  stimu- 
lated by  the  tariff,  the  creation  of  a national  banking 
system  gave  a safe  and  stable  currency,  and  peace  was 
followed  by  a rapid  extinguishment  of  debt,  a reduction 
of  taxes,  and  an  appreciation  of  the  legal-tender  notes. 
In  the  South,  on  the  contrary,  which  under  the  slave  sys- 
tem could  not  manufacture  what  it  needed,  and  by  the 
blockade  was  cut  off  from  foreign  trade,  the  distress  was 
extreme.  All  the  obligations  of  the  government  became 
worthless,  and  nearly  the  whole  population  was  reduced 
to  poverty. 

Mr.  Lincoln  had  been  re-elected  in  1864  by  an  enor- 
mous majority  over  the  Democratic  candidate,  General 
McClellan ; and  in  his  second  inaugural  address,  March 
4,  1865,  there  was  a memorable  passage  which  disclosed 
at  once  the  depth  and  nobility  of'  his  character,  and  his 
feeling  towards  the  suffering  people  of  the  shattered  Con- 
federacy: “With  malice  towards  none,  with  charity  for 
all,  with  firmness  in  the  right  as  God  gives  us  to  see  the 
right,  let  us  strive  to  finish  the  work  we  are  in,  to  bind  up 
the  nation’s  wounds,  to  care  for  him  who  shall  have  borne 
the  battle,  and  for  his  widow  and  orphans  ; to  do  all 


which  may  achieve  and  cherish  a just  and  a lasting  peace 
among  ourselves  and  with  all  nations.”  But  on  the  14th 
of  April,  five  days  after  Lee’s  surrender,  the  President 
was  assassinated  in  the  theatre  at  Washington  by  an 
actor  named  John  Wilkes  Booth,  who,  shouting  “ Sic 
semper  tyrannis ! The  South  is  avenged  !”  escaped  for  a 
time  in  the  confusion.  On  the  same  night  one  of  his  ac- 
complices named  Payne  made  a desperate  attempt  upon 
the  life  of  Secretary  Seward.  Booth  was  afterwards 
killed  in  resisting  arrest.  Payne  and  three  others  were 
hanged. 

The  death  of  the  President  stirred  the  nation  with  pro- 
found emotion.  No  one  since  Washington  had  taken  so 
firm  a hold  upon  the  popular  trust  and  attachment ; no 
ruler  in  our  history  has  risen  so  steadily  in  the  estimation 
of  mankind.  When  his  great  heart  was  stilled  the  South 
lost  its  best  friend. 

The  Vice-President,  Andrew  Johnson,  of  Tennessee, 
succeeded  to  office  with  a rancorous  feeling  against 
traitors.  But  he  soon  changed  his  tone,  quarreled  vio- 
lently with  the  Republican  majority  in  Congress,  vetoed 
bills  for  the  protection  of  the  colored  people,  and  adopted 
a scheme  of  reconstruction  which  would  have  restored  the 
Confederate  States  to  the  Union  with  the  disloyal  element 
in  full  control  and  the  freedmen  helpless  and  unrepre- 
sented. There  was  little  disposition  among  the  van- 
quished secessionists  at  that  date  to  accept  the  political 
consequences  of  the  war,  and  they  lost  no  time  in  showing, 
by  brutal  vagrancy  laws  and  other  devices,  that  their 
purpose  was  to  reduce  the  ex-slaves  to  a servitude  as 
harsh  in  some  respects  as  the  former  bondage.  Congress 
had  already  proposed  to  the  States  a thirteenth  amend- 
ment, ratifying  the  proclamation  of  emancipation  by  a 
constitutional  prohibition  of  slavery,  and  in  December, 
1865,  it  was  declared  adopted  by  the  necessary  three- 
fourths.  A fourteenth  amendment  was  now  proposed,  to 
secure  the  freedmen  in  the  right  of  citizenship,  to  provide 
that  those  who  are  denied  the  suffrage  shall  not  be 
counted  in  the  basis  of  representation,  to  disqualify  cer- 
tain classes  of  Confederates  from  holding  office  without 
the  consent  of  Congress,  to  affirm  the  validity  of  the 
United  States  debt,  and  to  prohibit  the  payment  of  the 
rebel  debt  or  claims  for  the  emancipation  of  slaves. 
Whenever  this  amendment  should  be  adopted,  Congress 
offered  to  readmit  to  representation  the  rebel  States  ac- 
cepting it.  Tennessee  ratified  the  amendment  at  once, 
and,  having  a loyal  government,  was  restored  to  the 
Union  without  waiting  for  action  elsewhere.  The  other 
ten  States  of  the  Confederacy  rejected  the  amendment 
with  something  like  contempt  and  defiance.  Congress 
thereupon  placed  them  under  military  rule,  to  await  recon- 
struction under  more  stringent  conditions. 

This  animosity  of  the  President  towards  the  two  houses 
of  Congress,  sometimes  strangely  emphasized  by  Mr. 
Johnson’s  personal  foibles,  had  now  become  a deplorable 
scandal.  A tenure  of  office  act  was  passed  (March,  1867) 
to  limit  his  power  of  making  removals.  He  flouted  it  by 
removing  Mr.  Stanton  from  the  office  of  Secretary  of 
War.  For  this  and  other  offenses  he  was  impeached  by 
the  House  of  Representatives  March  5,  1868,  and  tried 
by  the  Senate  under  the  presidency  of  Mr.  Chase,  who 
had  been  appointed  Chief  Justice  in  1864.  The  exciting 


trial  ended  in  May  with  a vote  of  one  less  than  the  two- 
thirds  necessary  to  convict. 

The  purchase  of  Russian  America  (Alaska)  for  $7,- 
200,000  in  1867,  is  the  event  by  which  Mr.  Johnson’s 
administration  is  most  favorably  remembered. 

The  Republicans  in  1868  nominated  General  Grant  for 
the  Presidency,  with  Schuyler  Colfax  for  Vice-President, 
and  he  was  easily  elected  over  Horatio  Seymour,  whom 
the  Democrats,  after  an  effort  to  take  up  Chief  Justice 
Chase,  presented  on  a platform  which  declared  the  re- 
construction acts  unconstitutional,  revolutionary,  and 
void,  and  demanded  the  payment  of  the.national  debt  in 
depreciated  paper.  The  fourteenth  amendment  became 
a part  of  the  constitution  in  July  of  this  year,  and  eight  of 
the  rebel  States,  having  accepted  it,  were  restored  to  rep- 
resentation in  Congress  and  took  part  in  the  election. 
Even  thus  early,  however,  in  the  history  of  reconstruction 
it  became  evident  that  the  rights  of  the  freedmen,  guar- 
anteed by  the  amendments,  could  not  be  maintained 
without  the  active  intervention  of  the  Federal  authority- 
The  new  voters,  maltreated  by  their  natural  leaders,  and 
left  to  their  own  ignorance  or  the  arts  of  adventurers,  ad- 
ministered State  affairs  extravagantly  and  corruptly ; 
and  the  whites  met  them  with  murder,  terrorism,  and  an 
abuse  of  the  forms  of  election  almost  too  brutally  frank 
to  be  called  fraud.  General  Grant’s  administration  was 
much  occupied  with  these  difficulties,  and  it  cannot  be 
said  that  they  were  solved.  Virginia,  Mississippi,  and 
Texas,  the  last  of  the  unreconstructed  States,  were  read- 
mitted in  January,  February,  and  March,  1870.  The  fif- 
teenth constitutional  amendment,  declaring  that  “ the 
right  of  citizens  of  the  United  states  to  vote  shall  not  be 
denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State 
on  account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servi- 
tude,” was  proclaimed  as  adopted  March  30,  1870. 

The  signal  achievement  of  General  Grant’s  adminis- 
tration was  the  settlement  of  the  long-standing  con- 
troversy with  Great  Britain  over  the  aid  furnished  by 
that  power  to  the  Confederacy.  By  the  treaty  of 
Washington  (1871),  the  so-called  Alabama  claims  were 
referred  to  a tribunal  of  arbitration  at  Geneva,  which 
round  Great  Britain  responsible  for  the  depredations  of 
"he  Alabama  and  several  other  cruisers,  and  awarded 
$15,500,000  to  the  United  States  as  damages  (Sept.  14, 
1872).  A dispute  respecting  the  northwest  boundary 
was  referred  to  the  Emperor'of  Germany,  and  decided 
in  favor  of  the  United  States.  The  question  of  the 
compensation  to  be  made  by  this  country  for  fishery 
privileges  on  the  British  North  American  coast  was 
not  so  satisfactorily  adjusted.  A commission  of  arbi- 
trators, meeting  at  Halifax,  awarded  Great  Britain 
(1877)  the  extravagant  sum  of  $5,500,000  for  twelve  years’ 
use  of  the  inshore  fisheries  by  American  vessels ; be- 
sides which  Canadian  fish  and  fish-oil  were,  by  the 
treaty,  to  be  admitted  to  the  United  States  free  of  duty. 
Since  the  expiration  of  this  arrangement,  the  fishery 
difficulties  with  Canada  have  been  renewed  with  many 
circumstances  of  exasperation. 

General  Grant  was  ill-served  by  many  of  his  friends 
and  office-holders,  and  his  somewhat  drastic  methods  in 
dealing  with  the  South  were  disapproved  by  a con- 
siderable party  among  Northern  Republicans.  The 


Liberal  movement  in  1872  was  a protest  at  once  against 
“bayonet  rule  ” and  administrative  abuses.  The  Presi- 
dent’s renomination  by  the  regular  convention  being 
certain,  the  Liberal  Republicans  met  at  Cincinnati  in 
May,  and  named  for  the  presidency  Horace  Greeley, 
the  founder  and  editor  of  the  New  York  Tribune.  In 
July  the  Democratic  national  convention  at  Baltimore 
also  nominated  Mr.  Greeley,  and  the  strange  spectacle 
was  presented  of  the  party  of  slavery  and  secession  sup- 
porting one  of  the  ablest  and  most  ardent  of  their  life- 
long enemies.  Mr.  Greeley  had  strong  qualities  as  a 
candidate ; his  pure  transparent  character,  his  honesty, 
and  his  unselfishness  had  caused  his  name  to  be  affec- 
tionately cherished  in  thousands  of  homes ; and  at  one 
time  his  election  seemed  highly  probable  ; but  in  the  end 
General  Grant’s  triumph  was  signal.  Crushed  by  private 
sorrows  heaped  upon  his  public  disappointments,  and 
cruelly  hurt  by  the  scurrilities  of  an  exceptionally  angry 
campaign,  Mr.  Greeley  died  a few  weeks  after  the 
election.  Over  his  grave  all  parties  united  in  tributes 
to  his  noble  nature,  and  in  appreciation  of  the  great 
and  permanent  usefulness  of  his  busy  life. 

The  Democratic  party  soon  recovered  from  the  defeat 
of  1872  and  three  years  later,  with  the  aid  of  the  “ solid 
South,”  it  held  a majority  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives for  the  first  time  since  the  beginning  of  the  Rebel- 
lion. For  the  Presidential  campaign  of  1876  it  nominated 
the  ablest  of  its  Northern  leaders,  Mr.  Samuel  J.  Tilden. 
The  Republicans,  after  an  animated  demonstration  by 
the  friends  of  Ex-Speaker  Blaine,  named  Rutherford  B. 
Hayes.  The  election  was  claimed  for  Hayes  by  a ma- 
jority of  one  electoral  vote  ; but  the  result  depended  upon 
contested  returns  from  the  States  of  Louisiana,  Florida, 
South  Carolina,  and  Oregon.  Unable  to  agree  upon  a 
joint  rule  for  counting  these  votes,  the  two  houses  of  Con- 
gress referred  the  case  to  an  Electoral  Commission,  com- 
posed of  five  Senators,  five  Representatives,  and  five 
judges  of  the  Supreme  Court ; and  by  this  body  the  elec- 
tion was  awarded  to  Mr.  Hayes.  The  administration  of 
Mr.  Hayes  is  memorable  for  the  removal  of  the  military 
force  which  had  thus  far  sustained  republican  govern- 
ments in  the  reconstructed  States,  the  practical  extinction 
of  the  Republican  party  throughout  the  territory  of  the 
Confederacy,  and  the  practical  elimination  of  the  freed- 
man  as  an  element  in  Southern  politics.  Financial  mat- 
ters occupied  much  of  the  attention  of  Congress ; and  on 
the  1st  of  January,  1879,  the  Treasury  and  the  banks 
resumed  specie  payments,  suspended  since  the  early 
part  of  the  war.  The  act  under  which  this  important  re- 
sult was  accomplished  had  been  framed  by  Senator 
Sherman,  and  it  was  his  fortune  now  to  carry  it  into 
effect  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

In  the  Republican  convention  of  1880  a resolute  effort 
of  the  friends  of  General  Grant  to  nominate  him  for  a 
third  term  was  defeated  by  the  equal  ardor  and  good 
management  of  an  opposition  which  attached  itself 
principally  to  Mr.  Blaine.  The  prize,  however,  went  to 
Gen.  James  A.  Garfield,  and  he  was  elected  by  a majority 
of  59  electoral  votes  over  his  Democratic  competitor, 
General  Hancock.  A man  of  force,  of  broad  mind,  of 
political  experience,  and  of  high  impulses,  General  Gar- 
field promised  to  make  a successful  President ; but  four 


UNI 


6024 

months  after  his  inauguration  he  was  shot  at  Washing- 
ton by  a disappointed  office  seeker  named  Guiteau  ( July 
2,  1881),  and  he  died  after  great  suffering,  September  19. 
Guiteau  was  hanged  June  30, 1882. 

The  Vice-President,  Chester  A.  Arthur,  succeeding  to 
the  vacant  chair,  administered  affairs  with  credit,  and 
was  a prominent  candidate  for  the  nomination  in  1884 ; 
but  Mr.  Blaine’s  popularity  with  the  Republican  masses 
was  no  longer  to  be  overlooked,  and  he  was  named  by 
the  convention,  with  John  A.  Logan  for  Vice-President. 
After  an  exciting  campaign,  determined  at  the  last 
moment  by  a sudden  change  of  votes  in  New  York,  the 
Democratic  candidates,  Grover  Cleveland  of  New  York 
and  Thomas  A.  Hendricks  of  Indiana,  were  elected  by  a 
small  majority.  In  December,  1884,  the  Washington 
Monument  at  Washington  was  completed,  and  a World’s 
Industrial  Cotton  Centennial  Exposition  was  opened  at 
New  Orleans.  In  February,  1885,  the  President-elect,  in 
a letter  to  Congressmen,  urged  the  suspension  of  the 
purchase  and  coinage  of  silver ; advice  which  unfortu- 
nately was  not  acted  upon.  In  March  the  new  adminis- 
tration entered  office.  Mr.  Cleveland  was  strongly 
committed  to  the  principle  of  Civil  Service  Reform,  but 
did  not  in  that  respect  command  the  entire  sympathy  of 
his  party,  which,  having  been  out  of  office  for  twenty-five 
years,  was  naturally  desirous  of  reaping  the  fruits  of  vic- 
tory. Some  friction  consequently  arose  between  him  and 
some  of  the  party  leaders  over  that  subject.  In  the  end 
he  relaxed  slightly  the  rules  he  had  at  first  sought  to 
maintain,  but  on  the  whole  preserved  the  public  service 
from  wholesale  looting  by  spoilsmen.  In  September, 
1885,  occurred  a hideous  massacre  of  Chinamen  at  Rock 
Springs,  Wyoming,  their  only  offense  being  that  they 
went  industriously  to  work  for  honest  wages  in  the  place 
of  strikers.  The  United  States  government  was  after- 
ward constrained  to  pay  China  a handsome  indemnity 
for  the  outrage.  In  March,  1886,  widespread  strikes  oc- 
curred on  the  railroads  of  the  southwest,  compelling  the 
use  of  Federal  troops  to  maintain  the  free  transportation 
of  the  mails.  Anarchists  in  Chicago  committed  whole- 
sale murder  with  dynamite  bombs  at  the  “ Haymarket,” 
in  May,  for  which  a number  of  them  were  afterward  put 
to  death.  The  policy  of  the  Democratic  party  in  favor 
of  a lower  tariff  led  to  the  introduction  of  a new  tariff  bill 
by  Representative  Morrison,  in  February,  1886,  but  it  was 
rejected  by  the  House  in  June.  The  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission  was  established  in  February,  1887. 
In  September,  1887,  the  centenary  of  the  United  States 
Constitution  was  elaborately  celebrated.  In  June,  1888, 
a Commissioner  of  Labor  was  appointed,  under  act  of 
Congress,  from  which  office  the  Secretaryship  of  Com- 
merce and  Labor  has  since  grown. 

Another  effort  to  revise  the  tariff  in  the  direction  of 
reduction  was  made  in  the  summer  of  1888,  under  the 
leadership  of  Congressman  Mills,  of  Texas.  His  tariff 
bill  was  passed  by  the  House  on  July  21,  but  was  beaten 
in  the  Senate,  which  had  a Republican  majority,  in 
January,  1889.  In  August,  1888,  the  President  suggested 
a measure  of  retaliation  against  Canada  in  the  dispute 
over  the  North  Atlantic  fisheries,  which  had  been  in 
progress  for  many  years,  and  a Retaliation  bill  was 
promptly  passed  by  the  House,  but*  was  laid  aside  by 


the  Senate.  In  September  a law  was  enacted  prohibit- 
ing the  entrance  of  Chinese  to  the  United  States,  except- 
ing officials,  teachers,  students,  merchants,  or  travellers 
for  pleasure.  In  the  Presidential  campaign  of  that  year 
Mr.  Cleveland  was  h candidate  for  re-election,  and  in  a 
notable  utterance  he  made  his  platform  one  of  sweeping 
tariff  reform  in  the  direction  of  free  trade.  The  Repub- 
licans nominated  for  President  Benjamin  Harrison  of 
Indiana,  and  for  vice-President  Levi  P.  Morton  of  New 
York.  After  an  unusually  exciting  campaign  the  Repub- 
lican candidates  were  elected  by  a large  majority  of  the 
electoral  votes,  though  they  had  a minority  of  the  popu- 
lar vote.  Four  new  States;  namely,  North  and  South 
Dakota,  Montana,  and  Washington,  were  provided  for 
in  January,  1889,  though  not  actually  admitted  until 
October  and  November  following. 

Benjamin  Harrison  became  President  on  March  4, 
1889,  with  a Republican  majority  in  each  House  of  Con- 
gress. On  April  22  the  new  Territory  of  Oklahoma  was 
opened  for  settlement,  and  on  April  29 -May  1 the  cen- 
tenary of  Washington’s  inauguration  as  first  President  of 
the  United  States  was  widely  celebrated.  A Pan- 
American  Congress  was  opened  at  Washingtori  in 
October.  In  December  the  Farmers’  Alliance  and  other 
bodies  were  organized  into  a new  political  party,  which, 
under  the  name  of  Populists,  a little  later  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  national  affairs.  In  March,  1890,  owing  to 
persistent  poaching  by  British  sealers  in  Alaskan  waters, 
the  President  issued  a proclamation  warning  all  persons 
against  entering  Behring  Sea  for  purposes  of  sealing, 
and  the  seizure  of  poachers  was  begun,  which  presently 
led  to  a controversy  with  Great  Britain  which  had  finally 
to  be  referred  to  international  arbitration.  The  most  im- 
portant pieces  of  National  legislation  of  the  year  1890 
were  the  McKinley  Tariff  bill,  a strong  Protectionist 
measure,  and  a bill  to  protect  trade  against  the  improper 
restraint  of  trusts  or  monopolies.  An  act  was  also 
passed  for  the  regulation  of  the  currency,  providing  for 
the  purchase  of  not  more  than  4,500,000  ounces  of  silver 
per  month  at  not  more  than  one  dollar  for  371%  grains 
and  the  coinage  of  2,000,000  ounces  a month  until  July  1, 
1891,  and  thereafter  as  necessary.  Idaho  and  Wyoming 
were  admitted  as  States  in  July.  In  October,  in  order  to 
remove  objections  to  the  admission  of  Utah  to  Statehood, 
the  Mormon  church  at  a general  conference,  declared 
polygamy  to  be  thenceforth  abolished.  The  fall  of  this 
year  was  marked  with  serious  Indian  disturbances,  owing 
to  the  “ghost  dances”  and  “Messiah  craze”  among  the 
Sioux,  Comanches,  Cheyennes,  and  Arapahoes.  These 
were  suppressed  only  after  serious  fighting,  in  the  course 
of  which  the  famous  Sioux  chief  Sitting  Bull  was  killed. 
The  outbreak  was  not  fully  ended  until  January,  1891. 
(For  a continuation  of  the  History  of  the  United 
States,  from  1890  forward,  see  Vol.  XII,  page  2995.) 


GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  Government  of  the  United  States  consists  of  three 
co-ordinate  -departments,  whose  functions  are  prescribed 
by  the  Constitution.  These  are  the  Exeoutive,  the  Leg- 
islative, and  the  Judicial.  The  Executive  Department 


UNI 


consists  of  the  President,  who  has  a number  of  advisers 
and  assistants  known  collectively  as  his  Cabinet.  The 
Legislative  Department  consists  of  the  Congress  — Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives.  The  Judicial  Depart- 
ment consists  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States, 
and  subordinate  tribunals  known  as  circuit  and  district 
courts.  The  various  subdivisions  of  the  Executive  De- 
partment, each  under  a Cabinet  officer,  are  here  to  be 
described: 

The  Department  of  State. 

Secretary  of  State. — The  Secretary  of  State  is  charged, 
under  the  direction  of  the  President,  with  the  duties 
appertaining  to  correspondence  with  the  public  min- 
isters and  the  consuls  of  the  United  States,  and  with 
the  representatives  of  foreign  powers  accredited  to  the 
United  States ; and  to  negotiations  of  whatever  character 
relating  to  the  foreign  affairs  of  the  United  States.  He 
is  also  the  medium  of  correspondence  between  the  Pres- 
ident and  the  chief  executives  of  the  several  States  of  the 
United  States ; he  has  the  custody  of  the  Great  Seal  of 
the  United  States,  and  countersigns  and  affixes  such  seal 
to  all  executive  proclamations,  to  various  commissions, 
and  to  warrants  for  the  extradition  of  fugitives  from  jus- 
tice. He  is  regarded  as  the  first  in  rank  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Cabinet.  He  is  also  the  custodian  of  the 
treaties  made  with  foreign  States,  and  of  the  laws  of  the 
United  States.  He  grants  and  issues  pass-ports,  and 
exequaturs  to  foreign  consuls  in  the  United  States  are  is- 
sued through  his  bffice.  He  publishes  the  laws  and  reso- 
lutions of  Congress,  amendments  to  the  Constitution,  and 
proclamations  declaring  the  admission  of  new  States  into 
the  Union. 

Assistant  Secretary  of  State. — The  Assistant  Secretary 
of  State  becomes  the  Acting  Secretary  of  State  in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  Secretary.  Under  the  organization  of  the 
Department  the  Assistant  Secretary,  Second  Assistant 
Secretary,  and  Third  Assistant  Secretary  are  charged 
with  the  immediate  supervision  of  all  correspondence 
with  the  diplomatic  and  consular  officers,  and  are  in- 
trusted with  the  preparation  of  the  correspondence  upon 
any  questions  arising  in  the  course  of  the  public  business 
that  may  be  assigned  to  them  by  the  Secretary. 

The  Department  of  the  Treasury. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — The  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury is  charged  by  law  with  the  management  of  the  na- 
tional finances.  He  prepares  plans  for  the  improvement 
of  the  revenue  and  for  the  support  of  the  public  credit ; 
superintends  the  collection  of  the  revenue,  and  prescribes 
the  forms  of  keeping  and  rendering  public  accounts  and 
of  making  returns ; grants  warrants  for  all  moneys  drawn 
from  the  Treasury  in  pursuance  of  appropriations  made 
by  law,  and  for  the  payment  of  moneys  into  the  Treas- 
ury ; and  annually  submits  to  Congress  estimates  of  the 
probable  revenues  and  disbursements  of  the  Government. 
He  also  controls  the  construction  of  public  buildings, 
and  the  coinage  and  printing  of  money. 

Comptroller  of  the  Treasury. — The  act  of  July  31,  1894, 
reorganizing  the  accounting  offices  of  the  Treasury, 
abolished  the  offices  of  Second  Comptroller  of  the  Treas- 


6025 

ury  and  the  Commissioner  of  Customs,  and  provided  that 
hereafter  the  First  Comptroller  shall  be  known  as  the 
Comptroller  of  the  Treasury.  The  Comptroller  is  not 
charged  with  the  duty  of  revising  accounts,  except  upon 
appeal  from  the  settlements  made  by  the  Auditors,  an 
appeal  to  be  taken  within  one  year  by  either  the  claim- 
ant, the  head  of  the  Department  interested,  or  by  the 
Comptroller  himself.  Upon  the  request  of  a disbursing 
officer  or  the  head  of  a Department,  the  Comptroller  is 
required  to  give  his  decision  upon  the  validity  of  a pay- 
ment to  be  made,  which  decision,  when  rendered,  shall 
govern  the  Auditors  and  the  Comptroller  in  the  settle- 
ment of  the  account  involving  the  payment.  He  is  re- 
quired to  approve,  disapprove,  or  modify  all  decisions  of 
the  Auditors  making  an  original  construction  or  modi- 
fying an  existing  construction  of  statutes,  and  to  certify 
his  action  to  the  Auditor.  He  transmits  all  decisions 
made  by  him  forthwith  to  the  Auditor  or  Auditors  whose 
duties  are  affected  thereby.  By  the  regulations  of  the 
Department  the  Comptroller  passes  upon  the  sufficiency 
of  authorities  to  indorse  drafts  and  receive  and  receipt 
for  money  from  the  Government,  upon  the  evidence 
presented  in  applications  for  duplicates  of  lost  or  de- 
stroyed United  States  bonds,  drafts,  checks,  etc.  The 
forms  of  keeping  and  rendering  all  public  accounts 
(except  those  relating  to  the  postal  service),  the  recov- 
ery of  debts  certified  by  the  Auditors  to  be  due  to  the 
United  States,  and  the  preservation,  with  their  vouchers 
and  certificates,  of  accounts  finally  adjusted,  are  under 
the  direction  of  the  Comptroller.  Upon  revision  of 
accounts,  appealed  from  the  several  Auditors  to  the  Comp- 
troller, his  decision  upon  such  revision  is  final  and  con- 
clusive upon  the  executive  branch  of  the  Government. 

Treasurer  of  the  United  States. — The  Treasurer  of  the 
United  States  is  charged  with  the  receipt  and  disburse- 
ment of  all  public  moneys  that  may  be  deposited  in  the 
Treasury  at  Washington  and  the  subtreasuries  at  Boston, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Cincinnati,  Chicago, 
St.  Louis,  New  Orleans,  and  San  Francisco,  and  in  the 
national-bank  United  States  depositories ; is  trustee  for 
bonds  held  to  secure  national-bank  circulation  and  public 
deposits  in  national  banks  ; is  custodian  of  Indian  trust- 
fund  bonds  and  other  public  trusts ; is  fiscal  agent  for 
paying  the  interest  on  the  public  debt,  and  ex  officio 
commissioner  of  the  sinking  fund  of  the  District  of 
Columbia.  % 

Register  of  the  Treasury. — The  Register  of  the  Treas- 
ury signs  and  issues  all  bonds  of  the  United  States,  the 
District  of  Columbia,  the  Pacific  railroads,  the  Cherokee 
Indian  lands,  the  Louisville  and  Portland  Canal  Com- 
pany, and  the  Spanish  indemnity,  and  transmits  to  the 
Treasurer  of  the  United  States  schedules  showing  the 
name  of  every  individual,  corporation,  etc.,  holding  reg- 
istered bonds  and  entitled  to  receive  interest  thereon. 
He  signs  all  transfers  conveying  money  from  the  United 
States  Treasury  to  all  the  United  States  subtreasuries 
and  depositories,  and  all  the  correspondence  of  the  office. 
He  receives,  examines,  and  registers  coupon  bonds  ex- 
changed for  registered  bonds  or  redeemed  and  registered 
bonds  transferred  and  finally  redeemed.  He  receives, 
examines,  arranges,  and  registers  all  redeemed  United 
States  notes,  gold  certificates,  silver  certificates,  Treasury 


6026 


UNI 


notes,  detached  interest  coupons,  interest  checks  on  reg- 
istered bonds,  redeemed  fractional  currency,  and  all 
other  United  States  securities  redeemed  and  destroyed. 
Also,  all  customs,  internal-revenue,  and  postage  stamps 
condemned  for  imperfections  and  destroyed.  He  is 
represented  on  the  committee  having  in  charge  the  de- 
struction by  maceration  of  certain  of  the  United  States 
securities,  etc.,  mentioned  herein.  The  work  is  per- 
formed in  two  divisions,  as  follows  : 

Comptroller  of  the  Currency. — The  Comptroller  of  the 
Currency  has,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  the  supervision  of  the  national  banks.  The 
divisions  of  this  Bureau  are : The  organization  of 
national  banks ; the  preparation  and  issue  of  national- 
bank  circulation  ; the  examination  and  consolidation  of 
the  reports  of  national  banks ; and  the  redemption  and 
destruction  of  notes  issued  by  national  banks. 

Director  of  the  Mint. — The  Director  of  the  Mint  has 
general  supervision  of  all  the  mints  and  assay  offices  of 
the  United  States.  He  prescribes  rules,  to  be  approved 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  for  the  transaction  of 
business  at  the  mints  and  assay  offices.  He  regulates  the 
distribution  of  silver  coin  and  the  charges  to  be  collected 
of  depositors.  He  receives  for  adjustment  the  accounts 
of  the  mints  and  assay  offices,  superintends  their  ex- 
penditures and  annual  settlements,  and  makes  special 
examinations  of  them  when  deemed  necessary.  All  ap- 
pointments, removals,  and  transfers  in  the  mints  and 
assay  offices  are  subject  to  his  approval.  The  purchase 
of  silver  bullion  and  the  allotment  of  its  coinage  are 
made  by  the  Director,  and,  at  his  request,  also  transfers  of 
the  moneys  in  the  mints  and  assay  offices  and  advances 
from  appropriations  for  the  mint  service. 

Tests  of  the  weight  and  fineness  of  coins  struck  at  the 
mints  are  made  in  the  assay  laboratory  under  his  charge. 
The  values  of  the  standard  coins  of  foreign  countries  are 
annually  estimated  for  custom-house  and  other  public 
purposes.  Two  annual  reports  are  prepared  by  the 
Director,  one  for  the  fiscal  year,  and  printed  in  the 
Finance  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
the  other  for  the  calendar  year,  on  the  statistics  of  the 
production  of  the  precious  metals. 

Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue. — The  Commis- 
sioner makes  assessment  of  and  has  general  superin- 
tendence of  the  collection  of  all  internal-revenue 
taxes,  and  of  the  enforcement  of  internal-revenue  laws ; 
employment  of  internal-revenue  dgents ; compensation 
and  duties  of  gaugers,  storekeepers,  and  other  subordinate 
officers ; the  preparation  and  distribution  of  stamps,  in- 
structions, regulations,  forms,  blanks,  hydrometers,  sta- 
tionery, etc  ; and  analyses  of  foods  and  drugs  in  the 
District  of  Columbia,  and  payment  of  bounty  on  sugar. 

Department  of  War. 

Secretary  of  War. — The  Secretary  of  War  is  the  head 
of  the  War  Department,  and  performs  such  duties  as 
are  required  of  him  by  law  or  may  be  enjoined  upon  him 
by  the  President  concerning  the  military  service.  He  is 
charged  by  law  with  the  supervision  of  all  estimates  of  ap- 
propriations for  the  expenses  of  the  Department,  includ- 
ing the  military  establishment ; of  all  purchases  of  army 


supplies  ; of  all  expenditures  for  the  support,  transporta- 
tion, and  maintenance  of  the  Army,  and  of  such  expen- 
ditures of  a civil  nature  as  may  be  placed  by  Congress 
under  his  direction.  He  also  has  supervision  of  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point  and  of 
military  education  in  the  Army,  of  the  Board  of  Ordnance 
and  Fortification,  of  the  various  battlefield  commissions, 
and  of  the  publication  of  the  Official  Records  of  the  War 
of  the  Rebellion.  He  has  charge  of  all  matters  relating 
to  national  defense  and  seacoast  fortifications,  army  ord- 
nance, river  and  harbor  improvements,  the  prevention  of 
obstruction  to  navigation,  and  the  establishment  of  harbor 
lines,  and  all  plans  and  locations  of  bridges  authorized  by 
Congress  to  be  constructed  over  the  navigable  waters  of 
the  United  States  require  his  approval.  He  also  has 
charge  of  the  establishment  or  abandonment  of  military 
posts,  and  of  all  matters  relating  to  leases,  revocable 
licenses,  and  all  other  privileges  upon  lands  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  War  Department. 

Assistant  Secretary  of  War. — To  the  Assistant  Sec- 
retary of  War  is  assigned  the  general  direction  and 
supervision  of  all  matters  relating  to  rivers  and 
harbors ; bridges  over  navigable  waters  of  the  United 
States ; leases,  revocable  licenses,  and  all  other  privileges 
upon  lands  under  the  control  of  the  War  Department ; in- 
spections relating  to  the  military  establishment ; Record 
and  Pension  Office  business ; recruiting  service,  dis- 
charges, commutation  of  rations,  courts-martial,  and  other 
questions  relating  to  enlisted  men,  including  clemency 
cases  and  matters  relating  to  prisoners  at  military  prisons 
and  penitentiaries.  He  also  has  charge  of  all  matters  re- 
lating to  the  militia;  the  supervision  of  miscellaneous 
claims  and  accounts  ; preliminary  examination  of  ques- 
tions relating  to  the  Philippines,  and  final  disposition  of 
all  ordinary  routine  matters  relating  to  said  islands ; 
matters  relating  to  national  cemeteries,  boards  of  survey, 
open-market  purchases,  and  medals  of  honor. 

Chief  Clerk. — Under  the  immediate  direction  of  the 
Secretary  and  the  Assistant  Secretary  of  War,  the  chief 
clerk  has  the  custody  of  the  records  and  files,  and  is 
charged  with  supervision  of  the  receipt,  distribution,  and 
transmission  of  the  official  mail  and  the  correspondence 
of  the  Secretary’s  office  ; of  all  matters  affecting  the  civil 
force  of  the  War  Department,  the  departments  at  large, 
and  the  military  governments ; War  Department  printing 
and  binding,  and  official  advertising  and  job  printing  for 
the  Army  and  the  War  Department ; requisitions  for  and 
routine  business  pertaining  to  militia  supplies  ; War  De- 
partment supplies  ; routine  calls  for  information  from  the 
records  ; expenditures  from  appropriations  for  contingent 
expenses  and  stationery  for  the  War  Department,  and 
matters  of  routine  character  not  requiring  the  personal  ac- 
tion of  the  Secretary  or  the  Assistant  Secretary  of  War. 

Military  Bureaus.  — The  chiefs  of  the  military  bureaus 
of  the  War  Department  are  officers  of  the  Regular  Army 
of  the  United  States  and  a part  of  the  military  establish- 
ment, viz. : 

The  Adjutant-General  promulgates  all  orders  of  a mil- 
itary character  of  the  President,  the  Secretary  of  War, 
and  the  Commanding  General  of  the  Army,  and  conducts 
the  correspondence  between  the  latter  and  the  Army ; re- 
ceives reports  and  returns  pertaining  to  the  Army  ; pre-' 


UNI 


pares  commissions,  appointments,  and  acceptances  of 
resignations  for  issuance  ; and,  under  the  immediate  di- 
rection of  the  Secretary  of  War,  has  charge  of  the  recruit- 
ing service. 

The  Inspector-General,  with  his  assistants,  inspects  all 
military  commands  and  stations,  the  schools  of  applica- 
tion, the  military  department  of  all  colleges  and  schools 
at  which  officers  of  the  Army  are  detailed,  all  depots, 
rendezvous,  armories,  arsenals,  fortifications,  and  public 
works  of  every  kind  under  charge  of  or  carried  on  by 
officers  of  the  Army  ; and  also  the  money  accounts  of  all 
disbursing  officers  of  the  Army. 

The  Quartermaster-General,  aided  by  assistants,  pro- 
vides transportation  for  the  Army  ; also  clothing  and 
equipage,  horses,  mules,  and  wagons,  vessels,  forage, 
stationery,  and  other  miscellaneous  quartermaster  stores 
and  property  for  the  Army,  and  of  clothing  and  equipage 
for  the  militia ; constructs  necessary  buildings,  wharves, 
roads,  and  bridges  at  military  posts,  and  repairs  the  same  ; 
furnishes  water,  heating  and  lighting  apparatus;  pays 
guides,  spies,  and  interpreters,  and  is  in  charge  of  na- 
tional cemeteries. 

The  Commissary-Ceneral  of  Subsistence  has  adminis- 
trative control  of  the  Subsistence  Department;  the 
disbursement  of  its  appropriations  ; the  providing  of  ra- 
tions and  their  issue  to  the  Army ; the  purchase  and 
distribution  of  articles  authorized  to  be  kept  for  sale  to 
officers  and  enlisted  men  ; the  administrative  examina- 
tion of  accounts  of  subsistence  funds  preliminary  to  their 
settlement  by  the  proper  accounting  officers  of  the  Treas- 
ury ; and  the  examination  and  settlement  of  .returns  of 
subsistence  supplies. 

The  Surgeon-General,  under  the  immediate  direction 
’of  the  Secretary  of  War,  is  charged  with  the  administra- 
tive duties  of  the  Medical  Department ; the  designation 
of  the  stations  of  medical  officers,  and  the  issuing  of  all 
orders  and  instructions  relating  to  their  professional  du- 
ties. He  directs  as  to  the  selection,  purchase,  and  dis- 
tribution of  the  medical  supplies  of  the  Army.  The  Army 
Medical  Museum  and  the  official  publications  of  the 
Surgeon-General’s  Office  are  also  under  his  direct  control. 

The  Paymaster-General  is  charged  with  the  payment 
of  the  officers  and  enlisted  men  of  the  Army  and  civil 
employees  of  the  Department ; with  furnishing  funds  to 
his  officers  and  seeing  that  they  duly  account  for  the 
same,  and  with  a preliminary  examination  of  their  ac- 
counts , also  with  the  payment  of  Treasury  certificates 
for  bounty,  back  pay,  etc.,  and  balances  due  deceased  offi- 
cers and  soldiers  of  the  Volunteer  and  Regular  Army. 

The  Chief  of  Engineers  commands  the  Corps  of  Engi- 
neers, which  is  charged  with  all  duties  relating  to  con- 
struction and  repair  of  fortifications,  whether  permanent 
or  temporary ; with  torpedoes  for  coast  defense  ; with  all 
works  of  defense ; with  all  military  roads  and  bridges, 
and  with  such  surveys  as  may  be  required  for  these  ob- 
jects, or  the  movement  of  armies  in  the  field.  It  is  also 
charged  with  the  river  and  harbor  improvements,  with 
military  and  geographical  explorations  and  surveys,  with 
the  survey  of  the  lakes,  and  with  any  other  engineer 
work  especially  assigned  to  the  corps  by  acts  of  Congress 
or  orders  of  the  Secretary  of  War. 

The  Chief  of  Ordnance  commands  the  Ordnance  De- 


6027 

partment,  the  duties  of  which  consist  in  providing,  pre- 
serving, distributing,  and  accounting  for  every  description 
of  artillery,  small  arms,  and  all  the  munitions  of  war 
which  may  be  required  for  the  fortresses  of  the  country, 
the  armies  in  the  field,  and  for  the  whole  body  of  the 
militia  of  the  Union.  In  these  duties  are  comprised  that 
of  determining  the  general  principles  of  construction  and 
of  prescribing  in  detail  the  models  and  forms  of  all  mili- 
tary weapons  employed  in  war.  They  comprise  also  the 
duty  of  prescribing  the  regulations  for  the  proof  and  in- 
spection of  all  these  weapons,  for  maintaining  uniformity 
and  economy  in  their  fabrication,  for  insuring  their  good 
quality,  and  for  their  preservation  and  distribution. 

The  Judge- Advocate- General  is  directed  by  law  to 
“receive,  review,  and  cause  to  be  recorded  the  proceed- 
ings of  all  courts-martial  courts  of  inquiry,  and  military 
commissions.”  He  also  furnishes  the  Secretary  of  War 
information  and  advice  relating  to  lands  under  control  of 
the  War  Department,  and  reports  and  opinions  upon  le- 
gal questions  arising  under  the  laws,  regulations,  and 
customs  pertaining  to  the  Army,  and  upon  questions  aris- 
ing under  the  civil  law;  reports  upon  applications 
for  clemency  in  the  cases  of  military  prisoners ; examines 
and  prepares  legal  papers  relating  to  the  erection  of 
bridges  over  navigable  waters ; drafts  bonds,  and  exam- 
ines those  given  to  the  United  States  by  disbursing  of- 
ficers, colleges,  and  others ; examines,  revises,  and  drafts 
charges  and  specifications  against  officers  and  soldiers , 
and  also  drafts  and  examines  deeds,  contracts,  licenses, 
leases,  and  legal  papers  generally. 

The  Chief  Signal  Officer  is  charged  with  the  supervi- 
sion of  all  military  signal  duties,  and  of  books,  papers, 
and  devices  connected  therewith,  including  telegraph 
and  telephone  apparatus  and  the  necessary  meteorolog- 
ical instruments  for  use  on  target  ranges  and  other  mil- 
itary uses ; the  construction,  repair,  and  operation  of 
military  telegraph  lines,  and  the  duty  of  collecting  and 
transmitting  information  for  the  Army  by  telegraph  or 
otherwise,  and  all  other  duties  usually  pertaining  to  mili- 
tary signaling.  ' 

The  Chief  of  the  Record  and  Pension  Office  is  charged 
by  law  with  the  custody  of  the  military  and  hospital  rec- 
ords of  the  volunteer  armies  and  the  transaction  of  the 
pension  and  other  business  of  the  War  Department  con- 
nected therewith,  including  the  publication  of  the  Official 
Records  of  the  War  of  the  Rebellion.  The  work  of  the 
office  embraces  all  subjects  relating  to  the  service  of  or- 
ganizations, officers,  and  enlisted  men  of  the  volunteer 
armies,  and  includes  the  answer  to  calls  from  the  Com- 
missioner of  Pensions,  the  accounting  officers  of  the 
Treasury,  and  others  for  information  required  in  the  ad- 
judication of  claims  against  the  National  and  State  gov- 
ernments, the  adjustment  of  the  individual  records  of 
officers  and  enlisted  men  under  the  general  and  special 
legislation  of  Congress  relating  thereto,  and  the  general 
correspondence  of  the  Department  relating  to  the  volun- 
teer forces.  The  records  of  the  office  include  those  of 
the  late  Provost- Marshal-General’s  Bureau  and  the 
Bureau  of  Refugees,  Freedmen,  and  Abandoned  Lands; 
also  the  Confederate  archives,  embracing  those  relating 
to  the  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  branches  of  the 
Confederate  Government. 


6o  28 


UN  i 


The  Department  of  Justice. 

Attorney-General. — The  Attorney-General  is  *the  head 
of  the  Department  of  Justice  and  the  chief  law  officer  of 
the  Government.  He  represents  the  United  States  in 
matters  involving  legal  questions ; he  gives  his  advice 
and  opinion,  when  they  are  required  by  the  President  or 
by  the  heads  of  the  other  Executive  Departments,  on 
questions  of  law  arising  in  the  administration  of  their  re- 
spective Departments ; he  exercises  a general  superin- 
tendence and  direction  over  United  States  attorneys  and 
marshals  in  all  judicial  districts  in  the  States  and  Terri- 
tories; and  he  provides  special  counsel  for  the  United 
States  whenever  required  by  any  Department  of  the 
Government. 

He  is  assisted  by  a chief  clerk  and  other  clerks  and 
employees  in  the  executive  management  of  the  business 
of  the  Department. 

A law  clerk,  who  is  also  an  examiner  of  titles,  assists 
the  Attorney-General  in  the  investigation  of  legal  ques- 
tions and  in  the  preparation  of  opinions. 

Solicitor-General. — The  Solicitor-General  assists  the 
Attorney-General  in  the  performance  of  his  general 
duties,  and  by  special  provision  of  law,  in  the  case  of  a 
vacancy  in  the  office  of  Attorney-General  or  in  his  ab- 
sence, exercises  all  these  duties.  Except  when  the  At- 
torney-General otherwise  directs,  the  Attorney-General 
and  Solicitor-General  conduct  and  argue  all  cases  in  the 
Supreme  Court  and  in  the  Court  of  Claims  in  which  the 
United  States  is  interested  ; and,  when  the  Attorney-Gen- 
eral so  directs,  any  such  case  in  any  court  of  the  United 
States  may  be  conducted  and  argued  by  the  Solicitor- 
General  ; and  in  the  same  way  the  Solicitor-General  may 
be  sent  by  the  Attorney-General  to  attend  to  the  interests 
of  the  United  States  in  any  State  court  or  elsewhere. 

Assistant  Attorney s-General. — Four  Assistant  Attor- 
neys-General  assist  the  Attorney-General  and  the  Solicit- 
or-General in  the  performance  of  their  duties.  They 
assist  in  the  argument  of  causes  in  the  Supreme  Court 
and  in  the  preparation  of  legal  opinions ; one  is  charged 
with  the  conduct  of  the  defense  of  the  United  States  in 
the  Court  of  Claims,  and  has  seven  assistant  attorneys  to 
assist  him  ; one  with  the  defense  of  the  Indian  depreda- 
tion claims,  and  another  with  the  defense  of  the  claims 
before  the  Spanish  Treaty  Claims  Commission. 

Under  the  act  of  1870  the  different  law  officers  of  the 
Executive  Departments  exercise  their  functions  under  the 
supervision  and  control  of  the  Attorney-General.  They 
are  the  Assistant  Attorney-General  for  the  Department 
of  the  Interior,  the  Assistant  Attorney-General  for  the 
Post  Office  Department,  the  Solicitor  of  the  Treasury,  the 
Solicitor  of  Internal  Revenue,  Treasury  Department,  and 
the  Solicitor  for  the  Department  of  State. 

The  Post-Office  Department. 

Postmaster-General. — The  Postmaster-General  has  the 
direction  and  management  of  the  Post-Office  Depart- 
ment. He  appoints  all  officers  and  employees  of  the 
Department,  except  the  four  Assistant  Postmasters-Gen- 
eral,  who  are  appointed  by  the  President,  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate  ; appoints  all  postmas- 


ters whose  compensation  does  not  exceed  $1,000  ; mak  ~ 
postal  treaties  with  foreign  Governments,  by  and  wii 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  President,  awards  and  ex< 
cutes  contracts,  and  directs  the  management  of  the  do 
mestic  and  foreign  mail  service. 

First  Assistant  Postmaster-General. — The  First  Assist- 
ant Postmaster-General  has  charge  of  the  following 
divisions,  viz.:  Salary  and  Allowance  Division,  Free  De- 
livery, Division  of  Post-Office  Supplies,  Money-Order 
Division,  Dead-Letter  Office,  and  Correspondence  Di- 
vision. 

Second  Assistant  Postmaster-General. — The  Second  As- 
sistant Postmaster-General  has  charge  of  the  transpor- 
tation of  all  mails.  His  office  embraces  four  divisions 
and  two  offices,  viz.:  » 1 

The  Contract  Division  prepares  all  advertisements 
inviting  proposals  for  star,  steamboat,  and  mail-messen- 
ger service,  receives  the  proposals,  prepares  orders  for 
the  award  of  contracts,  attends  to  the  execution  of  con- 
tracts, prepares  cases  and  orders  for  the  establishment  of 
new  service  or  changes  in  existing  service,  attends  to  all 
correspondence  relating  thereto,  and  prepares  statistics 
and  reports  of  mail  service  required  by  law. 

The  Division  of  Inspection  is  charged  with  the  exami- 
nation of  monthly  and  special  reports  of  postmasters  as 
.to  performance  of  mail  service  by  contractors  and  car- 
riers ; the  preparation  of  cases  and  orders  for  deductions 
for  nonperformance  of  service  and  for  the  imposition  of 
fines  for  delinquencies  of  contractors  and  carriers,  of  auth- 
orization for  payment  of  railway  postal  clerks,  of  cer- 
tifications of  service  to  the  Sixth  Auditor,  and  the 
correspondence  relative  to  nonperformance  of  contract 
requirements  for  carrying  the  mails. 

The  Railway  Adjustment  Division  prepares  cases 
authorizing  the  transportation  of  mails  by  railroads,  ca- 
ble and  electric  roads,  wagons  and  pneumatic  tubes  in 
cities,  and  by  mail  messengers,  the  establishment  of  rail, 
way  postal-car  service,  and  changes  in  existing  service ; 
prepares  orders  and  instructions  for  the  weighing  of 
mails,  receives  the  returns  and  computes  basis  of  pay 
therefrom ; prepares  cases  for  the  adjustment  of  allow- 
ances to  railroads  for  carrying  the  mails  and  for  postal 
cars,  and  attends  to  all  correspondence  relating  to  these 
matters. 

'The  Mail  Equipment  Division  is  charged  with  the 
preparation  of  advertisements  inviting  proposals  for  fur- 
nishing mail  bags,  mail  locks  and  keys,  label  cases,  and 
mailbag  cord  fasteners ; the  receipt  of  proposals  and  the 
preparation  of  contracts  therefor,  the  issuing  of  such  arti- 
cles for  the  use  of  the  service,  the  repairing  of  the  same, 
the  keeping  of  records  and  accounts,  and  the  preparation, 
of  all  correspondence  incident  to  these  duties. 

The  Office  of  Railway  Mail  Service  has  charge  of  the 
railway  mail  service  and  the  railway  post-office  clerks, 
prepares  for  the  Second  Assistant  Postmaster-General 
cases  for  the  appointment,  removal,  promotion,  and  reduc- 
tion of  said  clerks,  conducts  the  correspondence,  and 
issues  the  orders  relative  to  moving  the  mails  on  rail- 
road trains  ; has  charge  of  the  dispatch  and  distribution 
of  mail  matter  in  railway  post-office  cars  and  post- 
offices,  and  conducts  the  weighing  of  mails  when  or- 
dered. 


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The  Office  of  Foreign  Mails  has  charge  of  all  for- 
eign postal  arrangements  (except  those  relating  to  the 
money-order  system),  including  the  preparation  of  postal 
conventions  and  the  regulations  for  their  execution,  as 
well  as  the  consideration  of  questions  arising  under 
them ; and  conducts  the  correspondence  relative  thereto 
both  with  foreign  Governments  and  private  citizens. 
It  also  has  the  supervision  of  the  ocean  mail  steamship 
service  in  all  its  details,  including  the  settlement  of 
the  accounts  with  steamship  companies  for  the  convey- 
ance of  mails  from  the  United  States  to  foreign  countries. 

Third  Assistant  Postmaster  - General. — The  Third 
Assistant  Postmaster-General  has  charge  of  the  postal 
subjects  named  below,  embraced  in  the  following  divi- 
sions of  his  Bureau  : 

System  of  Postal  Finance. — The  financial  system,  in- 
volving the  collection  of  all  moneys  due  the  Depart- 
ment, the  payment,  by  warrant  or  draft,  of  accounts 
chargeable  against  appropriations  for  the  postal  service, 
the  designation  of  depositories  for  postal  funds,  and  the 
supervision  and  instruction  of  all  postmasters  relative  to 
the  disposition  of  the  postal  revenue  from  whatever 
source. 

Postage  Stamp  Stipplies  and  Postmasters'  Accounts. — 
The  supervision  and  collection  of  postal  revenue  through 
the  issue  of  postage  stamps,  stamped  envelopes,  news- 
paper wrappers,  and  postal  cards,  and  the  keeping  of 
postmasters’  accounts  relative  thereto ; also  the  supply- 
ing of  postmasters  with  envelopes  for  their  official  use, 
including  registered-package  and  registered-tag  en- 
velopes. 

Classification  Division. — The  general  control  of  all 
business  relating  to  the  classification  of  domestic  mail 
matter  and  the  rates  of  postage  thereon,  including  the 
determination  of  the  admissibility  of  publications  for 
entry  to  the  second  class  of  mail  matter  arid  their  right 
to  continue  in  that  class,  the  general  supervision  of  those 
therein,  and  the  instruction  of  postmasters  relative  thereto. 

The  Registry  Office. — The  supervision  and  management 
of  the  registered-mail  service  and  the  conduct  of  corre- 
spondence relating  thereto  and  the  preparation  of  record 
forms  used  therein,  the  establishment  and  control  of  all 
through  registry  exchanges,  the  compilation  of  registry 
statistics,  and  the  instruction  of  all  postmasters  in  registry 
matters. 

Redemption  Division. — The  duty  of  receiving,  disposing! 
of,  and  authorizing  credits  for  redeemed,  damaged,  and 
unsalable  supplies  of  stamped  paper  returned  by  post- 
masters. 

Files  and  Records  Division. — The  duty  of  receiving, 
distributing,  and  indexing  all  papers  coming  into  the 
office,  of  dispatching  and  recording  all  papers  sent  from 
the  office,  and  of  keeping  and  attending  to  the  office 
files  and  records. 

The  Bureau  of  the  Third  Assistant  Postmaster-General 
also  has  charge  of  the  Special-Delivery  System,  and  the 
supervision  of  proposals  and  letting  of  contracts  for  fur- 
nishing the  Post-Office  Department  with  postage  stamps, 
stamped  envelopes,  newspaper  wrappers,  and  postal 
cards,  registered-package,  tag,  official,  and  dead-letter 
envelopes,  and  envelopes  for  {he  use  of  each  of  the  sev- 
eral Executive  Departments. 

8— J 


6029 

Fourth  Assistant  Postmaster-General. — The  Fourth  As- 
sistant Postmaster-General  has  the  duty  of  preparing  all 
cases  for  establishment,  discontinuance,  and  change  of 
name  or  site  of  post-offices,  and  for  the  appointment  of 
all  postmasters,  and  attending  to  all  correspondence 
consequent  thereto  ; receiving  and  recording  appoint- 
ments ; sending  out  papers  for  postmasters  and  their 
assistants  to  qualify  ; receiving,  entering,  and  filing  their 
bonds  (and  approval  of  same)  and  oaths,  and  issuing  the 
commissions  for  postmasters  ; the  general  supervision  of 
the  work  of  the  post-office  inspectors,  and  the  considera- 
tion and  adjustment  of  their  accounts  for  salary  and' 
expenses. 

The  Department  of  the  Navy. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  per- 
forms such  duties  as  the  President  of  the  United  States 
who  is  Commander-in-Chief,  may  assign  him,  and  has 
the  general  superintendence  of  construction,  manning, 
armament,  equipment,  and  employment  of  vessels  of  war. 

The  Chief  Clerk  has  general  charge  of  the  records  and 
correspondence  of  the  Secretary’s  office. 

Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy. — The  Assistant  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy  performs  such  duties  in  the  Navy  De- 
partment as  shall  be  prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  or  may  be  required  by  law. 

Bureau  of  Navigation. — The  duties  of  the  Bureau  of 
Navigation  comprise  all  that  relates  to  the  promulgation, 
record,  and  enforcement  of  the  Secretary’s  orders  to  the 
fleets  and  to  the  officers  of  the  Navy,  except  such  orders 
as  pertain  to  the  office  of  the  Secretary ; the  education  of 
officers  and  men,  including  the  Naval  Academy  and  tech- 
nical schools  for  officers  (except  the  War  College  and  Tor- 
pedo School ),  the  apprentice  establishment,  and  schools 
for  the  technical  education  of  enlisted  men,  and  to 
the  supervision  and  control  of  the  Naval  Home,  Phila- 
delphia; the  enlistment  and  discharge  of  all  enlisted 
persons,  including  appointed  petty  officers  for  general 
and  special  service.  It  controls  all  rendezvous  and  re- 
ceiving ships,  and  provides  transportation  for  all  enlisted 
persons  and  appointed  petty  officers;  establishes  the 
complement  of  the  crews  of  ail  vessels  in  commission ; 
keeps  the  records  of  service  of  all  squadrons,  ships,  of- 
ficers, and  men,  and  prepares  the  annual  Naval  Register 
for  publication ; has  under  its  direction  the  preparation, 
revision,  and  enforcement  of  all  tactics,  drill  books,  sig- 
nal codes,  cipher  codes,  and  the  uniform  regulations. 

Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks. — The  duties  of  the  Bureau 
of  Yards  and  Docks  comprise  all  that  relates  to  the  plan- 
ning, construction,  and  maintenance  of  all  docks  (includ- 
ing dry  docks),  wharves,  slips,  piers,  quay  walls,  and 
buildings  of  all  kinds,  for  whatever  purpose  needed, 
within  the  limits  of  the  navy-yards,  but  not  of  hospitals 
and  magazines  outside  *of  those  limits,  nor  of  buildings 
for  which  it  does  not  estimate.  It  repairs  and  furnishes 
all  buildings,  stores,  and  offices  in  the  several  navy- 
yards,  and  is  charged  with  the  purchase,  sale,  and  transfei 
of  all  land  and  buildings  connected  with  the  navy-yards  r 
has  under  its  sole  control  the  general  administration  ot 
the  navy-yards ; provides  and  has  sole  control  of  all 
landings,  derricks,  shears,  crane0  sewers,  dredging,  rail- 
way tracks,  cars  and  wheels,  trucks,  grading,  paving. 


UNI 


6030 

walks,  shade  trees,  inclosure  walls  and  fences,  ditching,  | 
reservoirs,  cisterns,  fire  engines  and  apparatus,  all  watch- 
men, and  all  things  necessary,  including  labor,  for  the 
cleaning  of  the  yards  and  the  protection  of  the  public 
property. 

Bureau  of  Equipment. — The  duties  of  the  Bureau  of 
Equipment  comprise  all  that  relates  to  the  'equipment 
of  all  vessels  with  rigging,  sails,  anchors,  yeomen’s  stores, 
furniture  not  provided  by  other  bureaus,  navigation 
stores  and  supplies  of  all  kinds,  including  nautical  and 
navigating  instruments  and  books,  stationery,  and  blank 
books  for  commanding  and  navigating  officers  ashore 
and  afloat,  binnacles,  flags,  signal  lights,  running  lights, 
and  standing  lights  on  board  vessels,  including  all  elec- 
trical apparatus  for  lighting  purposes  and  search  lights, 
logs,  leads,  lines,  and  glasses,  log  books,  ships’  libraries, 
illuminating  oil  for  all  purposes,  except  that  used  in  the 
engineer  department  of  steamers,  and  fuel  for  steamers, 
the  ropewalks,  and  the  shops  for  making  anchors  and 
cables,  rigging,  sails,  galleys,  and  cooking  utensils,  the 
Naval  Observatory,  Nautical  Almanac,  compass  offices, 
and  pilotage.  It  has  under  its  control  the  Hydrographic 
Office,  the  collection  of  foreign  surveys,  publication  and 
supply  charts,  sailing  directions,  and  nautical  works,  and 
the  dissemination  of  nautical  and  hydrographic  informa- 
tion to  the  Navy  and  mercantile  marine. 

Bureau  of  Ordnance  — The  duties  of  the  Bureau  of  Ord- 
nance comprise  all  that  relates  to  the  manufacture  or 
purchase  of  offensive  and  defensive  arms  and  apparatus' 
(including  torpedoes),  all  ammunition,  war  explosives, 
vessels  for  submarine  torpedo  service,  magazines  on 
shore,  and  of  all  machinery,  apparatus,  equipment,  and 
things  for  use  with  the  above  ; the  recommending  the 
nature  of  the  armament  to  be  carried  by  vessels,  and  the 
material,  kind,  and  qualities  of  ship’s  armor  and  dimen- 
sions of  gun  turrets  ; charged  with  the  carrying  power  of 
vessels,  as  determined  by  the  Bureau  of  Construction  and 
Repair,  and  fixes  the  location  and  command  of  the  arma- 
'ment,  and  distributes  the  thickness  of  armor ; places 
the  armament  on  board  of  vessels,  and  determines  the 
method  of  construction  of  armories  and  ammunition 
rooms,  the  latter  in  conjunction  with  the  Bureau  of  Con- 
struction and  Repair ; purchases  torpedo  boats  intended 
to  be  carried  by  ships,  and  has  charge  of  all  their  details 
of  whatever  nature,  and  prescribes  the  armament  to  be 
given  to  all  torpedo  vessels. 

Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair.  — - The  duties  of 
the  Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair  comprise  all  that 
relates  to  designing,  building,  fitting,  and  repairing  the 
hulls  of  vessels,  spars,  boats,  capstans,  windlasses,  steer- 
ing gear,  ventilating  apparatus,  tanks,  ballast,  casks, 
blocks,  furniture  for  ships’ use  of  the  kind  made  in  the 
navy-yards,  and  lumber,  plates,  and  tools  for  sea  stores  of 
the  kind  used  by  it  in  building  vessels ; also  the  turrets 
and  armor  plating,  after  the  material,  quality,  and  distri- 
bution of  thickness  have  been  determined  by  the  Bureau 
of  Ordnance  ; has  control  of  all  vessels  building  and  under 
repair,  and  is  responsible  that  vessels  in  ordinary  do  not 
go  to  decay  for  want  of  proper  examination  on  the  part 
of  constructors  in  the  yards ; and  has  charge  of  the  dock- 
ing of  vessels. 

Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering.  — The  duties  of  the 


| Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering  comprise  all  that  relates  to 
the  designing,  building,  fitting  out,  repairing,  and  engi- 
neering of  the  steam  machinery  used  for  the  propulsion 
of  naval  vessels,  and  will  also  include  steam  pumps, 
steam  heaters  and  connections,  and  the  steam  machin- 
ery necessary  for  actuating  the  apparatus  by  which 
turrets  are  turned. 

Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery.  — The  duties  of  the 
Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery  comprise  all  that  relates 
to  laboratories,  naval  hospitals,  and  dispensaries,  the  fur- 
nishing of  all  supplies,  medicines,  and  instruments  re- 
quired in  the  Medical  Department  of  the  Navy;  has  sole 
control  of  all  buildings  erected  for  its  purposes,  and 
determines  upon  and  furnishes  all  the  stores,  etc.,  used  in 
the  medical  and  hospital  departments,  materials,  instru- 
ments, means,  and  appliances  of  every  kind  used  for  its 
purposes,  and  controls  their  inspection,  storing,  transpor- 
tation, and  preparation ; designs,  erects,  furnishes,  and 
maintains  all  the  buildings  constructed  for  its  purposes 
outside  the  limits  of  the  navy-yards,  and  for  which  it  may 
have  estimated  ; is  charged  with  the  purchase,  sale,  and 
transfer  of  all  land  and  buildings  in  connection  there- 
with, and  with  the  preservation  of  the  public  property 
under  its  control ; designs  the  various  buildings  erected 
within  navy-yards  for  its  purposes  so  far  only  as  their  in- 
ternal arrangements  are  concerned,  and  after  their  com- 
pletion has  exclusive  control  of  the  same,  and  makes  all 
contracts  for  and  superintends  all  the  work  done  under  it. 

Bureau  of  Supplies  and  Accounts.  — The  duties  of  the 
Bureau  of  Supplies  and  Accounts  comprise  all  that  relates 
to  supplying  the  Navy  with  provisions,  clothing,  small 
stores,  fresh  water,  and  contingent  stores  in  the  Pay- 
master’s Department;  the  reception,  care,  and  custody 
of  all  stores  not  exempt  by  order  from  the  general  store- 
keeper’s system,  and  the  keeping  of  a proper  system  of 
accounts  regarding  the  same  ; the  purchase,  at  shore  sta- 
tions within  the  United  States,  of  stores  and  supplies  and 
their  custody,  transfer,  and  issue,  upon  authorized  req- 
uisitions, except  those  of  the  Bureau  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery,  the  Marine  Corps,  and  those  exempt  by  Regula- 
tion Circular  No.  51. 

Judge- Advocate-General. — It  is  the  duty  of  the  Judge- 
Advocate-General,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  to  revise,  report  upon,  and  have  recorded  the 
proceedings  of  all  courts-martial,  courts  of  inquiry,  and 
boards  for  the  examination  of  officers  for  retirement  and 
promotion  in  the  naval  service ; to  prepare  the  charges 
and  specifications  and  the  necessary  orders  convening, 
general  courts-martial  in  cases  where  such  courts  are  or- 
dered by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  ; to  prepare  general 
orders  promulgating  the  final  action  of  the  reviewing 
authority  in  general  court-martial  cases  ; to  prepare  the 
necessary  orders  convening  courts  of  inquiry,  boards  for 
the  examination  of  officers  for  promotion  and  retirement, 
and  for  the  examination  of  candidates  for  appointment  in 
the  Medical  Corps,  and  to  conduct  all  official  correspond- 
ence relating  to  courts-martial,  courts  of  inquiry,  and 
such  boards  ; to  examine  and  report  upon  claims  of  every 
description  filed  in  the  Department ; to  conduct  the  de- 
partmental correspondence  relating  to  the  business  con- 
nected with  the  increase . of  the  Navy*  including  the 
preparation  of  advertisements  inviting  proposals  for  the 


UNI 


construction  of  new  vessels,  or  for  furnishing  materials 
for  use  in  their  construction  ; of  forms  of  proposals  to  be 
used  by  bidders  in  offering  to  construct  such  vessels  or 
furnish  such  materials,  and  forms  of  contracts  to  be  en- 
tered into  and  bonds  to  be  furnished  by  such  bidders  on 
the  acceptance  of  their  proposals,  and  including  also  the 
departmental  correspondence  relating  to  the  plans,  speci- 
fications, and  materials  of  new  vessels  and  to  proposed 
changes  in  the  same;  to  consider  and  report. upon  all 
matters  which  maybe  referred  to  him  involving  questions 
of  law,  regulations,  and  discipline  and  requiring  the  De- 
partment’s action;  the  meaning  or  construction  of  the 
general  regulations  of  the  Navy,  including  those  relating 
to  rank  or  precedence,  or  to  appointments,  commissions, 
promotions,  and  retirement,  and  to  the  validity  of 
proceedings  in  courts-martial  cases;  to  conduct  the 
correspondence  with  the  Attorney-General  relative  to 
questions  of  statutory  construction  submitted  for  his 
opinion  thereon ; to  the  institution  of  suits,  at  the  instance 
of  the  Navy  Department,  and  to  the  defense  of  suits 
brought  by  private  parties  against  the  officers  or  agents  of 
the  Department ; to  answer  calls  from  the  Department  of 
Justice  and  the  Court  of  Claims  for  information  and  pa- 
pers relating  to  cases  pending  in  that  court  and  affecting 
the  Navy  Department ; to  examine  and  report  upon  the 
afficial  bonds  of  pay  officers,  and  all  questions  presented 
to  the  Department  relating  to  pay  and  traveling  expenses 
of  officers  ; to  attend  to  all  correspondence  relating  to  the 
care  of  naval  prisons  and  prisoners,  and  to  consider  and 
act  upon  applications  for  the  removal  of  the  mark  of  de- 
sertion standing  against  the  names  of  enlisted  men  of  the 
Navy  or  Marine  Corps. 

Marine  Corps  — The  Commandant  of  the  Marine 
Corps  is  responsible  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  for  the 
general  efficiency  and  discipline  of  the  corps ; makes 
such  distribution  of  officers  and  men  for  duty  at  the  sev- 
eral shore  stations  as  shall  appear  to  him  to  be  most  ad- 
vantageous for  the  interests  of  the  service ; furnishes 
guards  for  vessels  of  the  Navy,  according  to  the  author- 
ized scale  of  allowance  ; under  the  direction  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Navy,  issues  orders  for  the  movement  of 
officers  and  troops,  and  such  other  orders  and  instructions 
for  their  guidance  as  may  be  necessary ; and  has  charge 
and  exercises  general  supervision  and  control  of  the  re- 
cruiting service  of  the  corps,  and  of  the  necessary  ex- 
penses thereof,  including  the  establishment  of  recruiting 
offices. 

The  Department  of  the  Interior. 

Secretary  of  the  Interior. — The  Secretary  of  the  Interior 
is  charged  with  the  supervision  of  public  business  relat- 
ing to  patents  for  inventions ; pensions  and  bounty 
lands;  the  public  lands  and  surveys;  the  Indians;  ed- 
ucation ; railroads ; the  Geological  Survey ; the  Hot 
Springs  Reservation,  Arkansas ; Yellowstone  National 
Park,  Wyoming,  and  the  Yosemite,  Sequoia,  and  Gen- 
eral Grant  parks,  California ; forest  reservation  ; distri- 
bution of  appropriations  for  agricultural  and  mechanical 
colleges  in  the  States  and  Territories ; the  custody  and 
distribution  of  certain  public  documents  ; and  supervision 
of  certain  hospitals  and  eleemosynary  institutions  in  the 


6031 

District  of  Columbia.  He  also  exercises  certain  powers 
and  duties  in  relation  to  the  Territories  of  the  United 
States. 

First  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Interior. — To  the  First 
Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Interior  is  assigned  the  direc- 
tion and  supervision  of  matters  relating  to  official  bonds 
and  bonds  for  the  fulfillment  of  contracts ; signing 
requisitions  for  Treasury  warrants  ; business  relating  to 
the  Territories  ; contracts  and  open-market  purchases  of 
Indian  supplies  ; surveys,  allotments,  deeds,  and  leases 
of  Indian  lands ; Indian  annuities  and  trust  funds ; 
depredation  claims  ; business  from  the  office  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Railroads  ; and  the  general  business  of  the 
Secretary  in  the  absence  of  the  latter. 

Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Interior. — To  the  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  is  assigned  the  consideration 
and  decision  of  appeals  from  the  Commissioner  of  Pen- 
sions and  questions  relating  to  violations  of  the  pension 
law  ; appeals  from  the  administrative  action  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Patents  ; countersigning  of  letters  patent; 
business  from  the  office  of  the  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion, Government  Elospital  for  the  Insane,  Freedman’s 
Hospital,  Columbia  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb, 
education  of  the  blind  of  the  District  of  Columbia ; ad- 
mission to  practice  and  disbarment  of  attorneys  before 
the  Department  and  bureaus ; approval  of  requests  and 
vouchers  for  advertising,  and  vouchers  for  transportation 
and  other  expenses  of  inspectors  and  special  agents,  and 
acts  as  Secretary  in  the  absence  of  that  officer  and  of  the 
First  Assistant  Secretary, 

Chief  Clerk. — The  Chief  Clerk  of  the  Department  of 
the  Interior  has  the  general  supervision  of  the  clerks  and 
employees ; of  the  order  of  business,  records,  and  corre- 
spondence of  the- Secretary’s  Office  ; of  all  expenditures 
from  appropriations  for  contingent  expenses,  stationery, 
and  printing  for  the  Department  and  bureaus  ; enforce- 
ment of  the  general  regulations  of  the  Department ; also 
the  superintendence  of  buildings  occupied  by  the  Interior 
Department. 

Patents  — The  Commissioner  of  Patents  is  charged 
with  the  administration  of  the  patent  laws,  and  super- 
vises all  matters  relating  to  the  issue  of  letters  patent  for 
new  and  useful  discoveries,  inventions,  and  improve- 
ments, and  the  registration  of  trade-marks  and  labels. 
He  is  aided  by  an  Assistant  Commissioner,  chief  clerk, 
three  examiners-in-chief,  an  examiner  of  interferences, 
and  thirty-six  principal  examiners. 

Pensions. — The  Commissioner  of  Pensions  supervises 
the  examination  and  adjudication  of  all  claims  arising 
under  laws  passed  by  Congress  granting  bounty  land  or 
pension  on  account  of  service  in  the  Army  or  Navy  dur- 
ing the  Revolutionary  war  and  all  subsequent  wars  in 
which  the  United  States  has  been  engaged.  He  is  aided 
by  two  Deputy  Commissioners  and  the  chief  clerk  of  the 
Bureau,  each  of  whom  has  supervision  over  business 
arising  in  divisions  of  the  Bureau  assigned,  under  order 
of  the  Commissioner,  to  his  immediate  charge. 

General  land  Office.  — The  Commissioner  of  the  Gen- 
eral Land  Office  is  charged  with  the  survey,  management, 
and  sale  of  the  public  domain,  and  the  issuing  of  titles 
therefor,  whether  derived  from  confirmations  of  grants 
made  by  former  governments,  by  sales,  donations,  or 


UNI 


6032 

grants  for  schools,  railroads,  military  bounties,  or  public 
improvements.  He  is  aided  by  an  Assistant  Commis- 
sioner and  chief  clerk. 

Indian  Affairs.  — The  Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs 
has  charge  of  the  several  tribes  of  Indians  in  the  States 
and  Territories.  He  issues  instructions  to  and  receives 
reports  from  agents,  special  agents,  and  school  superin- 
tendents ; superintends  the  purchase,  transportation,  and 
distribution  of  presents  and  annuities ; and  reports  an- 
nually the  relations  of  the  Government  with  each  tribe. 
He  is  aided  by  an  Assistant  Commissioner,  who  under 
the  law  also  performs  the  duties  of  chief  clerk. 

Edtuation.  — The  duties  of  the  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation are  to  collect  such  statistics  and  facts  as  shall  show 
the  condition  and  progress  of  education  in  the  several 
States  and  Territories,  and  to  diffuse  such  information 
respecting  the  organization  and  management  of  schools 
and  school  systems  and  methods  of  teaching  as  shall  aid 
the  people  of  the  United  States  in  the  establishment  and 
maintenance  of  efficient  school  systems,  and  otherwise 
promote  the  cause  of  education  throughout  the  country. 

Railroads.  — The  Commissioner  of  Railroads  is  charged 
with  the  duty  of  prescribing  a system  of  reports  to  be 
rendered  to  him  by  the  railroad  companies  whose  roads 
are  in  whole  or  in  part  west,  north,  or  south  of  the  Missouri 
river,  and  to  which  the  United  States  have  granted  any 
loan  or  credit  or  subsidy  in  bonds  or  lands  ; to  examine 
the  books  and  accounts  of  each  of  said  railroad  compa- 
nies once  in  each  fiscal  year,  and  at  such  other  times  as 
may  be  deemed  by  him  necessary  to  determine  the  cor- 
rectness of  any  report  received  from  them  ; to  assist  the 
Government  directors  of  any  of  said  railway  companies 
in  all  matters  which  come  under  their  cognizance,  when- 
ever they  may  officially  request  such  assistance,  to  see 
that  the  laws  relating  to  said  companies  are  enforced  ; to 
"furnish  such  information  to  the  several  departments  of 
the  Government  in  regard  to  tariffs  for  freight  -and  pas- 
sengers and  in  regard  to  the  accounts  of  said  railroad 
companies  as  may  be  by  them  required,  or,  in  the  absence 
of  any  request  therefor,  as  he  may  deem  expedient  for ’the 
interest  of  the  Government ; and  to  make  an  annual  re- 
port to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  on  the  1st  day  of 
November  on  the  condition  of  each  of  said  railroad 
companies,  their  road,  accounts,  and  affairs,  for  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30  immediately  preceding. 

Geological  Survey.  — The  Director  of  the  Geological 
Survey  has  charge  of  the  classification  of  the  public  lands 
and  examination  of  the  geological  structure,  mineral  re- 
sources, and  products  of  the  national  domain,  and  of 
survey  of  forest  reserves. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. — The  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture exercises  personal  supervision  of  public  business 
relating  to  the  agricultural  industry.  He  appoints  all  the 
officers  and  employees  of  the  Department  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Assistant  Secretary  and  the  Chief  of  the 
Weather  Bureau,  who  are  appointed  by  the  President, 
and  directs  the  management  of  all  the  divisions,  offices, 
and  bureaus  embraced  in  the  Department.  He  exercises 
advisory  supervision  over  the  agricultural  experiment 


stations  deriving  support  from  the  National  Treasury, 
and  has  control  of  the  quarantine  stations  for  imported 
cattle,  and  of  interstate  quarantine  rendered  necessary 
by  contagious  cattle  diseases,  including  the  inspection 
and  transportation  of  cattle  and  the  inspection  of  cattle- 
carrying  vessels. 

He  is  charged  especially  with  carrying  out  the  chief 
purpose  of  the  Department,  which  is  “to  acquire  and 
diffuse  among  the  people  of  the  United  States  useful  in- 
formation on  subjects  connected  with  agriculture  in  the 
most  comprehensive  sense  of  that  word  and  to  procure, 
propagate,  and  distribute  among  the  people  new  and 
valuable  seeds  of  plants.” 

Assistant  Secretary  of  Agriculture. — The  Assistant  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture  performs  such  duties  as  may  be  re- 
quired by  law  or  prescribed  by  the  Secretary,  and  has 
immediate  supervision  of  the  work  of  the  Division  of 
Seeds,  the  Section  of  Seed  and  Plant  Introduction,  the 
Supply  Division,  the  Library,  and  the  Museum  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  He  also  be- 
comes the  Acting  Secretary  of  Agriculture  in  the  absence 
of  the  Secretary. 

Chief  Clerk. — The  Chief  Clerk  has  the  general  super- 
vision of  the  clerks  and  employees  ; of  the  order  of  busi- 
ness, records,  and  correspondence  of  the  Secretary’s 
office ; of  all  expenditures  from  appropriations  for  con- 
tingent expenses,  stationery,  etc.;  of  the  enforcement  of 
the  general  regulations  of  the  Department ; and  of  the 
buildings  occupied  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

The  Weather  Bureau. — The  Chief  of  the  Weather 
Bureau,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture, has  charge  of  the  forecasting  of  weather ; the  issue 
of  storm  warnings;  the  display  of  weather  and  flood 
signals  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture,  commerce,  and  nav- 
igation ; the  gaging  and  reporting  of  rivers ; the  mainte- 
nance and  operation  of  seacoast  telegraph  lines,  and  the 
collection  and  transmission  of  marine  intelligence  for  the 
benefit  of  commerce  and  navigation ; the  reporting  of 
temperature  and  rainfall  conditions  for  the  cotton  inter- 
ests ; the  display  of  frost  and  cold-wave  signals ; the  dis- 
tribution of  meteorological  information  in  the  interests 
of  agriculture  and  commerce,  and  the  taking  of  such  me- 
teorological observations  as  may  be  necessary  to  establish 
and  record  the  climatic  Qonditions  of  the  United  States 
or  as  are  essential  for  the  proper  execution  of  the  forego- 
ing duties. 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. — The  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  makes  investigations  as  to  the  existence  of  dan- 
gerous communicable  diseases  of  live  stock ; superin- 
tend the  measures  for  their  extirpation,  and  makes 
original  investigations  as  to  the  nature  and  prevention 
of  such  diseases.  It  inspects  live  stock  and  their  prod- 
ucts slaughtered  for  food  consumption ; has  charge  of 
the  inspection  of  import  and  export  animals,  of  the  in- 
spection of  vessels  for  the  transportation  of  export  cattle, 
and  of  the  quarantine  stations  for  imported  meat  cattle ; 
generally  supervises  the  interstate  movement  of  cattle 
and  reports  on  the  condition  and  means  of  improving 
the  animal  industries  of  the  country. 

Division  of  Statistics. — The  Statistician  collects  infor- 
mation as  to  crop  production  and  the  numbers  and  status 
of  farm  animals,  through  a corps  of  county  and  township 


U N \ 


correspondents  and  State  agents,  and  obtains  similar  in- 
formation from  foreign  countries  through  special  agents, 
assisted  by  consular,  agricultural,  and  commercial 
authorities.  He  records,  tabulates,  and  co-ordinates  sta- 
tistics of  agricultural  production,  distribution,  and 
consumption,  the  authorized  data  of  Governments,  insti- 
tutes, societies,  boards  of  trade,  and  individual  experts ; 
and  issues  a monthly  crop  report  for  the  information  of 
producers  and  consumers. 

Foreign  Markets. — The  Section  of  Foreign  Markets 
has  for  its  object  the  extension  of  the  agricultural  export 
trade  of  the  United  States.  It  investigates  the  require- 
ments of  foreign  markets,  studies  the  conditions  of  de- 
mand and  supply  as  disclosed  by  the  records  of 
production,  importation,  and  exportation,  inquires  into 
the  obstacles  confronting  trade  extension,  and  dissemi- 
nates through  printed  reports  and  otherwise  the  informa- 
tion collected. 

Chemistry. — The  Division  of  Chemistry  makes  investi- 
gations of  soils,  fertilizers,  and  agricultural  products,  and 
such  analyses  as  pertain  in  general  to  the  interests  of  ag- 
riculture. It  investigates  the  composition  and  adultera- 
tion of  foods  and  the  Composition  of  field  products  in 
relation  to  their  nutritive  value  and  to  the  constituents 
which  they  derive  from  the  soil,  fertilizers,  and  the  air. 
It  co-operates  with  the  chemists  of  the  agricultural  experi- 
ment stations  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  relations  of 
chemistry  to  agricultural  interests.  It  also  co-operates 
with  all  the  other  scientific  divisions  of  the  Department 
in  all  matters  pertaining  to  chemistry  in  their  work,  and, 
through  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  conducts  investiga- 
tions of  a chemical  nature  for  other  Departments  of  the 
Government  at  the  request  of  their  respective  Secretaries. 

Experiment  Stations. — The  Office  of  Experiment  Sta- 
tions represents  the  Department  in  its  relations  to  the 
agricultural  colleges  and  experiment  stations,  which  are 
now  in  operation  in  all  the  States  and  Territories,  and  di- 
rectly manages  the  experiment  stations  in  Alaska.  It 
seeks  to  promote  the  interests  of  agricultural  education 
and  investigation  throughout  the  United  States.  It  col- 
lects and  disseminates  general  information  regarding  the 
colleges  and  stations,  and  publishes  accounts  of  agricul- 
tural investigations  at  home  and  abroad.  It  also  indi- 
cates lines  of  inquiry,  aids  in  the  conduct  of  co-operative 
experiments,  reports  upon  the  expenditures  and  work  of 
the  stations,  and  in  general  furnishes  them  with  such  ad- 
vice and  assistance  as  will  best  promote  the  purposes  for 
which  they  were  established.  It  is  also  charged  with  in- 
vestigations on  the  nutritive  value  and  economy  of  hu- 
man foods  and  on  irrigation,  which  are  largely  conducted 
in  co-operation  with  the  colleges  and  stations. 

Entomology. — The  Entomologist  obtains  and  dissemi- 
nates information  regarding  mjurious  insects;  investi- 
gates insects  sent  him  in  order  to  give  appropriate 
remedies ; conducts  investigations  of  this  character  in 
different  parts- of  the  country,  and  mounts  and  arranges 
specimens  for  illustrative  and  museum  purposes. 

Biological  Survey. — The  Division  of  Biological  Survey 
studies  the  geographic  distribution  of  animals  and  plants, 
and  maps  the  natural  life  zones  of  the  country ; it  also  in- 
vestigates the  economic  relations  of  birds  and  mammals, 
recommends  measures  for  the  preservation  of  beneficial 


6033 

and  the  destruction  of  injurious  species,  and  has  been 
charged  with  carrying  into  effect  the  provisions  of  the 
Federal  law  for  the  importation  and  protection  of  birds, 
contained  in  the  act  of  Congress  of  May  25,  1900. 

• Bureau  of  Forestry. — The  Bureau  of  Forestry  investi- 
gates methods  and  trees  for  planting  in  the  treeless  West, 
gives  practical  assistance  to  tree  planters,  and  to  farm- 
ers, lumbermen,  and  others  in  the  conservative  handling 
of  forest  lands ; studies  commercially  valuable  trees  to 
determine  their  special  uses  in  forestry,  and  investigates 
forest  fires  and  other  forest  problems. 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  .—  The  Bureau  of  Plant  In- 
dustry studies  plant  life  in  all  its  relations  to  agriculture. 
It  includes  vegetable,  pathological  and  physiological 
investigations,  botanical  investigations  and  experiments, 
pomological  investigations,  grass  and  forage  plant  inves- 
tigations, experimental  gardens  and  grounds,  the  Arling- 
ton experimental  farm,  Congressional  seed  distribution, 
seed  and  plant  introduction,  and  tea  culture  experiments, 

Bureau  of  Soils. — The  Bureau  of  Soils  has  for  its  object 
the  investigation  of  soils  in  their  relation  to  crops,  the 
mapping  of  soils,  the  investigation  and  mapping  of  alkali 
lands,  and  investigations  of  the  growth,  curing,  and  fer- 
mentation of  tobacco. 

Public-Road  Inquiries. — The  office  of  Public-Road  In- 
quiries collects  information  concerning  the  systems  of 
road  management  throughout  the  United  States,  con- 
ducts investigations  and  experiments  regarding  the  best 
methods  of  road  making  and  road-making  materials,  and 
prepares  publications  on  this  subject. 

The  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 

Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor. — The  Secretary  ot 
Commerce  and  Labor  is  charged  with  the  work  of  pro- 
moting the  commerce  of  the  United  States,  and  its  min- 
ing, manufacturing,  shipping,  fishery,  transportation  and 
labor  interests.  His  duties  also  comprise  the  investiga- 
tion of  the  organization  and  management  of  corporations 
(excepting  railroads)  engaged  in  interstate  commerce ; 
the  gathering  and  publication  of  information  regarding 
labor  interests  and  labor  controversies  in  this  and  other 
countries ; the  administration  of  the  lighthouse  service 
and  the  aid  and  protection  to  shipping  thereby  ; the  tak- 
ing of  the  census  and  the  collection  and  publication  of 
statistical  information  connected  therewith  ; the  making 
of  coast  and  geodetic  surveys ; the  collecting  of  sta- 
tistics relating  to  domestic  and  foreign  commerce ; the 
inspection  of  steamboats  and  the  enforcement  of  laws 
relating  thereto  for  the  protection  of  life  and  property ; 
the  supervision  of  the  fisheries  as  administered  by  the 
Federal  Government;  the  supervision,  and  control,  of 
the  Alaskan  fur-seal,  salmon  and  other  fisheries  ; the  ju- 
risdiction over  merchant  vessels,  their  registry,  licensing, 
measurement,  entry,  clearance,  transfers,  movements  of 
their  cargoes  and  passengers,  and  laws  relating  thereto, 
and  to  seamen  of  the  United  States ; the  supervision  ot 
the  immigration  of  aliens  and  the  enforcement  of  the  laws 
relating  thereto ; the  custody,  construction,  maintenance 
and  application  of  standards  of  weights  and  measures; 
and  the  gathering  and  supplying  of  information  regard- 


U N 1 


6034 

ing  industries  and  markets  for  the  fostering  of  manu- 
facturing. 

His  office  is  organized  with  a Chief  Clerk,  Bureau  of 
Corporations,  Bureau  of  Labor,  Bureau  of  the  Census, 
Light  House  Board,  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  Bureau 
of  Statistics,  Steamboat  Inspection  Service,  Bureau  of 
Fisheries,  Bureau  of  Navigation,  Bureau  of  Immigration, 
and  Bureau  of  Standards. 

Director  of  the  Census  — The  Director  of  the  Census 
supervises  the  taking  of  the  census  of  the  United  States, 
Alaska,  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  the  subsequent 
arrangement,  compilation,  and  publication  of  the  statis- 
tics collected.  The  census  of  1900  (the  Twelfth  Census) 
was  taken  under  the  act  of  Congress  Approved  March 
3»  1899. 

The  Light-House  Bodrd. — The  Light-House  Board 
lias  charge  of  all  administrative  duties  relating  to  the 
construction  and  maintenance  of  light-houses,  light-ves- 
sels, beacons,  fog  signals,  buoys,  and  their  appendages, 
and  has  charge  of  all  records  and  property  appertain- 
ing to  the  light-house  establishment. 

Commissioner  of  Navigation. — The  Commissioner  of 
Navigation  is  charged  with  general  superintendence  of 
the  commercial  marine,  and  merchant  seamen  of  the 
United  States,  except  so  far  as  supervision  is  lodged 
with  other  officers  of  the  Government.  He  is  specially 
charged  with  the  decision  of  all  questions  relating  to 
the  issue  of  registers,  enrollments,  and  licenses  .of  ves- 
sels and  the  filing  of  those  documents,  with  the  super- 
vision of  laws  relating  to  the  admeasurement,  letters, 
and  numbers  of  vessels,  and  with  the  final  decision  of 
questions  concerning  the  collection  and  refund  of  ton- 
nage taxes.  He  is  empowered  to  change  the  names  of 
vessels,  prepares  annually  a list  of  vessels  of  the  United 
States,  and  reports  annually  to  the  Secretary  the  opera- 
tions of  the  laws  relative  to  navigation. 

Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey. — The  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey  is  charged  with  the  survey  of  the  Atlantic,  Gulf, 
and  Pacific  coasts  of  the  United  States,  including  the 
coasts  of  Alaska  and  other  coasts  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  United  States ; the  survey  of  rivers  to  the  head 
of  tide-water  or  ship  navigation ; deep-sea  soundings, 
temperature  and  current  observations  along  the  said 
coasts  and  throughout  the  Gulf  Stream  and  Japan 
Stream  flowing  off  from  them ; magnetic  observations 
and  gravity  research ; determinations  of  heights  by 
geodetic  leveling,  and  of  geographical  positions  by  lines 
of  transcontinental  triangulation,  which,  with  other  con- 
necting triangulations  and  observations  for  latitude, 
longitude,  and  azimuth,  furnish  points  of  reference  for 
State  surveys  and  connect  the  work  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  with  that  on  the  Pacific. 

Results  of  the  survey  are  published  in  the  form  of 
annual  reports,  which  include  professional  papers  of 
value  ; bulletins  which  give  information  deemed  im- 
portant for  immediate  publication  ; notices  to  mariners, 
issued  monthly ; tide  tables,  issued  annually ; charts 
upon  various  scales,  including  harbor  charts,  general 
charts  of  the  coast,  and  sailing  charts ; chart  catalogues 
and  Coast  Pilots. 

Steam  Vessels. — The  Supervising  Inspector-General 
superintends  the  administration  of  the  steamboat-in- 


spection laws,  presides  at  the  meeting  of  the  Board  of 
Supervising  Inspectors,  receives  all  reports,  and  exam- 
ines all  accounts  of  inspectors. 

The  Board  of  Supervising  Inspectors  meets  in  Wash- 
ington annually,  on  the  third  Wednesday  in  January,  to 
establish  regulations  for  carrying  out  the  provisions  of 
the  steamboat-inspection  laws. 

Marine-Hospital  Service  — The  Supervising  Surgeon- 
General  is  charged  with  the  supervision  of  the  marine 
hospitals  and  other  relief  stations  of  the  service,  and  the 
care  of  sick  and  disabled  seamen  taken  from  the  merchant 
vessels  of  the  United  States  (ocean,  lake,  and  river),  and 
from  the  vessels  of  the  Revenue-Marine  and  Light-House 
services.  This  supervision  includes  the  purveying  of 
medical  and  other  supplies,  the  assignment  of  and  orders  v 
to  ijnedical  officers,  the  examination  of  requisitions, 
vouchers,  and  property  returns,  and  all  matters  pertain- 
ing to  the  service. 

Under  his  direction  all  applicants  for  pilots’  licenses 
are  examined  for  the  detection  of  color-blindness.  Or- 
dinary seamen,  on  request  of  a master  or  agent,  are  ex- 
amined physically  to  determine  their  fitness  before 
shipment,  and  a like  examination  is  made  of  the  candi- 
dates for  admission  to  the  Revenue-Marine  Service  and 
candidates  for  appointment  as  surfmen  in  the  United 
States  Life-Saving  Service. 

He  examines  also  and  passes  upon  the  medical  certifi- 
cates of  claimants  for  pensions  under  the  laws  of  the 
Life-Saving  Service. 

Under  the  act  of  February  15, 1893,  he  is  charged  witk 
the  framing  of  regulations  for  the  prevention  of  the  intro' 
duction  of  contagious  diseases  and  the  prevention  of  their 
spread  ; and  he  is  also  charged  with  the  conduct  of  the 
quarantine  service  of  the  United  States.  He  has  the  di- 
rection of  laboratories  established  to  investigate  the  cause 
of  contagious  diseases,  and  publishes  each  week,  under  the 
title  of  “ Public  Health  Reports,”  sanitary  reports  received 
from  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  (through  the 
State  Department)  from  all  foreign  countries. 

Under  the  law  of  March  28,  1890,  known  as  the  inter- 
state quarantine  law,  he  is  charged  with  preparing  the 
rules  and  regulations,  under  direction  of  the  Secre- 
tary, necessary  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  certain 
contagious  diseases  from  one  State  to  another,  and  he 
has  also  supervision  of  the  medical  inspection  of  alien 
immigrants,  which,  under  the  law  of  March  3,  1891,  is 
conducted  by  the  medical  officers  of  the  Marine- Hospital 
Service. 

Btireau  of  Immigration. — It  is  the  duty  of  the  Com- 
missioner-General of  Immigration  to  prepare  and  revise 
all  regulations  pertaining  to  immigration  and  to  super- 
vise the  expenditures  of  the  appropriations  for  “Ex- 
penses regulating  immigration”  and  the  “Enforcement 
of  the  alien  contract-labor  laws.”  All  inspection  and 
other  officers  in  the  service  after  appointment  will  be  as- 
signed to  duty  by  the  Commissioner-General,  and  their 
official  duties  and  conduct  will  be  supervised  by  him; 
and  all  correspondence  connected  with  ijnmigration  shall 
be  conducted  by  him.  All  appeals  from  the  decisions  of 
the  boards  of  special  inquiry  at  the  several  ports,  touching 
the  right  of  an  alien  to  land  in  the  United  States,  shall 
be  decided  by  him,  subject  to  the  approval  or  disap- 


UNI 


proval  of  the  Secretary.  He  shhll  cause  all  alleged  vio- 
lations of  the  alien  contract-labor  laws  to  be  investigated 
and  submit  such  evidence  as  he  may  be  able  to  obtain  to 
the  proper  United  States  district  attorney  for  prosecution, 
if  deemed  advisable. 

Life-Saving  Service. — It  is  the  dqty  of  the  General  Su- 
perintendent to  supervise  the  organization  and  govern 
ment  of  the  employees  of  the  service ; to  prepare  and 
revise  regulations  therefore  as  may  be  necessary ; to  su- 
pervise the  expenditure  of  all  appropriations  made  for 
the  support  and  maintenance  of  the  Life-SaVing  Service ; 
to  examine  the  accounts  of  disbursements  of  the  district 
superintendents- ; to  examine  the  property  returns  of  the 
keepers  of  the  several  stations,  and  see  that  all  public 
property  thereto  belonging  is  properly  accounted  for ; to 
acquaint  himself,  as  far  as  practicable,  with  all  means 
employed  in  foreign  countries  which  may  seem  to  ad- 
vantageously affect  the  interest  of  the  service,  and  to 
cause  to  be  properly  investigated  all  plans,  devices,  and 
inventions  for  the  improvement  of  life-saving  apparatus 
for  use  at  the  stations  which  may  appear  to  be  meritori- 
ous and  available ; to  exercise  supervision  over  the 
selection  of  sites  for  new  stations  the  establishment  of 
which  may  be  authorized  by  law,  or  for  old  ones  the  re- 
moval of  which  may  be  made  necessary  by  the  encroach- 
ment of  the  sea  or  by  other  causes ; to  prepare  and 
submit  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  estimates  for  the 
support  of  the  service  ; to  collect  and  compile  the  statis- 
tics of  marine  disasters  contemplated  by  the  act  of  June 
20,  1874,  and  to  submit  an  annual  report  of  the  expendi- 
tures of  the  moneys  appropriated  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  Life-Saving  Service,  and  of  the  operations  of  said 
service  during  the  year. 

Bu-reazt  of  Statistics. — The  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Sta- 
tistics collects  and  publishes  the  statistics  of  our  foreign 
commerce,  embracing  tables  showing  the  imports  and 
exports,  respectively,  by  countries  and  customs  districts  ; 
the  transit  trade  inwards  and  outwards  by  countries  and 
by  customs  districts ; imported  commodities  warehoused, 
•withdrawn  from,  and  remaining  in  warehouse ; the  im- 
ports of  merchandise  entered  for  consumption,  showing 
quantity,  value,  rates  of  duty,  and  amounts  of  duty  col- 
lected on  each  article  or  class  of  articles ; the  inward  and 
outward  movement  of  tonnage  in  our  foreign  trade  and 
the  countries  whence  entered  and  for  which  cleared,  dis- 
tinguishing the  nationalities  of  the  foreign  vessels. 

The  publications  of  the  Bureau  are  as  follows  : Annual 
Report  on  Commerce  and  Navigation ; Annual  Statis- 
tical Abstract  of  the  United  States ; Monthly  Reports  on 
Commerce  and  Finance  ; Monthly  Reports  of  Total  Val- 
ues of  Foreign  Commerce  and  Immigration;  Monthly 
Report  of  Exports  of  Breadstuffs,  Provisions,  Petroleum, 
and  Cotton. 

The  divisions  of  the  Bureau  are  as  follows;  Division  of 
Examination  and  Revision ; Division  of  Compilation ; 
Miscellaneous  Division ; Library  and  Files. 

J.  R.  G.  Hassard. 

Revised  by  W.  Fletcher  Johnson. 

.The  Constitution. 

The  respective  powers  of  the  President,  the  Congress, 
and  the  Supreme  and  other  courts,  and  the  general 
organization  of  the  Federal  government,  the  relations  be- 


6035 

tween  it  and  the  States,  and  the  relations  of  the  States 
among  themselves,  are  set  forth  in  the  Constitution,  the 
full  text  of  which  is  herewith  given: 

Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America, 

Adopted  17&7. 

Preamble. 

We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to 
form  a more  perfect  union,  establish  justice,  insure 
domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  common  defense, 
promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings 
of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain 
and  establish  this  Constitution  for  the  United  States 
of  America. 

Article  I. 

Section  I.  1.  Alllegislative  powers  herein  granted 
shall  be  vested  in  a Congress*  of  the  United  States, 
which  shall  consist  of  a senate  and  house  of  represent- 
atives. 

Sec.  II.  1.  The  house  of  representatives  shall  be 
composed  of  members  chosen  every  second  year  by  the 
people  of  the  several  states ; and  the  electors  in  each 
state  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors 
of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  state  legislature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a representative  who  shall 
not  have  attained  to  the^age  of  twenty-five  years,  and 
been  seven  years  a citizen  of  the  United  States,  and 
who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  tha1 
state  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  appor- 
tioned among  the  several  States  which  may  be  included 
v/ithin  this  Union,  according  to  their  respective  num- 
bers,! which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the 
whole  unmber  of  free  persons,  including  those  bound 
to  service  for  a term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indiana 
not  taxed,  three-fifths  of  all  other  persons.!  The 
actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three  years 
after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States,  and  within  every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years, 
in  such  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The  num- 
ber of  representatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for  every 
thirty  thousand,  but  each  State  shall  have  at  least  one 
representative;  and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be 
made,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled 
to  choose  three;  Massachusetts,  eight;  Rhode  Island 
and  Providence  Plantations,  one ; Connecticut,  five ; 
New  York  six;  New  Jersey,  four;  Pennsylvania  eight ; 
Delaware,  one;  Maryland,  six;  Virginia,  ten;  North 
Carolina,  five;  South  Carolina,  five;  and  Georgia, 
three. 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation 
from  any  State,  the  executive  authority  thereof  shall 
issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

5.  The  house  of  representatives  shall  choose  their 
speaker  and  other  officers,  and  shall  have  the  sole 
power  of  impeachment. 

Sec.  III.  1.  The  senate  of  the  United  States  shall 
/be  composed  of  two  senators  from  each  State,  chosen 
by  the  legislature  thereof,  for  six  years ; and  each  sen- 
ator shall  have  one  vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in 
consequence  of  the  first  election,  they  shall  be  divided, 
as  equally  as  may  be,  into  three  classes.  The  seats  ol 
the  senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated  at  the 


* The  body  of  senators  and  representatives  for  each  term 
of  two  years  for  which  representatives  are  chosen  is  called 
One  Congress.  Each  Congress  expires  at  noon  of  the  4th  of 
March  next  succeeding  the  beginning  of  its  second  regular 
session,  when  a new  Congress  begins. 

-|-  The  apportionment  under  the  census  of  18S0  is  one  repre- 
sentative to  every  154,325  persons. 

t This  refers  to  slaves,  and  is  no  longer  in  force  (seo 
Amendment  Xllf), 


U N i 


6036 


expiration  of  the  second  year;  of  the  second  class  at 
the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year;  and  of  the  third 
class,  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one- 
third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year ; and  if  vacan- 
cies happen,  by  resignation  or  otherwise,  during  the 
recess  of  the  legislature  of  any  State,  the  executive 
thereof  may  make  temporary  appointments  until  the 
next  meeting  of  the  legislature,  which  shall  then  fill 
such  vacancies. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a senator  who  shall  not  have 
attained  to  the  age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years 
a citizen  of  the  United  States;  and  who  shall  not, 
when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for  which 
he  shall  be  chosen. 

4.  The  vice-president  of  the  United  States  shall  be 
president  of  the  senate ; but  shall  have  no  vote,  un- 
less they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The  senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and 
also  a president  pro  tempore , in  the  absence  of  the 
vice-president,  or  when  he  shall  exercise  the  office  of 
president  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all 
impeachments.  When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they 
shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation.  When  the  president 
of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  chief  justice  shall 
preside  ; and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the 
concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present. 

7.  Judgment,  in  case  of  impeachment,  shall  not 
extend  further  than  to  removal  from  office,  and  dis- 
qualification to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office  of  honor, 
trust,  or  profit  under  the  United  States  ; but  the  party 
convicted  shall,  nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject  to 
indictment,  trial,  judgment,  and  punishment,  accord- 
ing to  law. 

Sec.  IV.  1.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of 
holding  elections  for  senators  and  representatives, 
shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  legislature 
thereof ; but  the  Congress  may,  at  any  time,  by  law, 
make  or  alter  such  regulations,  except  as  to  the  places 
of  choosing  senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in 
every  year : and  such  meeting  shall  be  on  the  first 
Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall  by  law  ap- 
point a different  day. 

Sec.  V.  1.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the 
elections,  returns,  and  qualifications  of  its  own  mem- 
bers; and  a majority  of  each  shall  constitute  a quorum 
to  do  business  ; but  a smaller  number  may  adjourn 
from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the 
attendance  of  absent  members,  in  such  manner  and 
under  such  penalties  as  each  house  may  provide. 

2.  Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  pro- 
ceedings, punish  its  members  for  disorderly  behavior, 
and,  with  theconcurrenceoftwo-thirds,  expel  a member. 

3.  Each  house  shall  keep  a journal  of  its  proceed- 
ings, and  from  time  to  time  publish  the  same,  except- 
ing such  parts  as  may,  in  their  judgment,  require  se- 
crecy ; and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of  either 
house,  on  any  question,  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one-fifth 
of  those  present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

4.  Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  Congress, 
shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for 
more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other  place  than 
that  in  which  the  two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Sec.  VI.  1.  The  senators  and  representatives 
shall  receive  a compensation*  for  their  services,  to  be 
ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  of  the  treasury  of  the 
United  States.  They  shall  in  all  cases,  except  treason, 
felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from 

♦The  present  compensation  is  $5,000  a year,  with  20  cents 
for  every  mile  of  travel  bv  the  most  usually  traveled  post 
route  to  and  from  the  national  capital. 


arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  session  of  their 
respective  houses,  and  in  going  to  and  returning  from 
the  same;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  house 
they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

2.  No  senator  or  representative  shall,  during  the 
time  for  which  he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any 
civil  office,  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States, 
which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments 
whereof  shall  have  been  increased,  during  such  time ; 
and  no  person  holding  any  office  under  the  United 
States  shall  be  a member  of  either  house  during  his 
continuance  in  office. 

Sec.  VII:  i.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall 
originate  in  the  house  of  representatives  ; but  the  sen- 
ate may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments,  as  on 
other  bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  house  of 
representatives  and  the  senate  shall,  before  it  become 
a law,  be  presented  to  the  president  of  the  United 
States.  If  he  approve,  he  shall  sign  it ; but  if  not,  he 
shall  return  it,  with  his  objections,  to  that  house  in 
which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  ob- 
jections at  large  on  their  journal,  and  proceed  to  re- 
consider it.  If,  after  such  reconsideration,  two-thirds 
of  that  house  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be 
sent,  together  with  the  objections,'  to  the  other  house, 
by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  ap- 
proved by  two-thirds  of  that  house,  it  shall  become  a 
law.  But,  in  all  such  cases,  the  votes  of  both  houses 
shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names 
of  the  persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be 
entered  on  the  journal  of  each  house  respectively. 
If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  president 
within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have 
been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a law  in 
like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Con- 
gress by  their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in 
which  case  it  shall  not  be  a law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote,  to  which  the 
concurrence  of  the  senate  and  house  of  representatives 
may  be  necessary  (except  on  a question  of  adjourn- 
ment) , shall  be  presented  to  the  president  ofithe  U nited 
States ; and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be 
approved  by  him,  or,  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall 
be  repassed  by  two-thirds  of  the  senate  and  house  of 
representatives,  according  to  the  rules  and  limitations 
prescribed  in  the  case  of  a bill. 

Sec.  VIII.  The  Congress  shall  have  power — 

1 . To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  ex- 
cises, to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the  common  de- 
fense and  general  welfare  of  the  United  States;  but 
all  duties,  imposts,  and  excises  shall  be  uniform 
throughout  the  United  States  : 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United 
States : 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and 
among  the  several  States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes  : 

4.  To  establish  a uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and 
uniform  laws  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies  through- 
out the  United  States : 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and 
of  foreign  coin,  and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and 
measures : 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting 
the  securities  and  current  coin  of  the  United  States  : 

7.  To  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads  : 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful 
arts,  by  securing,  for  limited  times,  to  authors  and 
inventors,  the  exclusive  right  to  their  respective  writ- 
ings and  discoveries : 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  supreme 
court ; 


U N I 


10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies 
committed  on  the  high  seas,  and  offenses  against  the 
law  of  nations  : 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and 
reprisal,  and  make  rules  concerning  captures  on  land 
and  water : 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies;  but  no  appropri- 
ation of  money  to  that  use  shall  be  for  a longer  term 
than  two  years  : 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a navy: 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regu- 
lation of  the  land  and  naval  forces  : 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  exe- 
cute the  laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  Insurrections, 
and  repel  invasions: 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disci- 
plining the  militia,  and  for  governing  such  part  of 
them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  officers,  and  the  authority  of  train- 
ing the  militia  according  to  the  discipline  prescribed 
by  Congress : 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation,  in  all  cases 
whatsoever,  over  such  district  (not  exceeding  ten 
miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  particular  States, 
and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of 
government  of  the  United  States;*  and  to  exercise 
like  authority  over  all  places  purchased,  by  the  con- 
sent of  the  legislature  of  the  State  in  which  the  same 
shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals, 
dockyards,  and  other  needful  buildings:  and 

18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and 
proper  for  carrying  into  execution  the  foregoing  pow- 
ers, and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this  constitution 
in  the  government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  de- 
partment or  officer  thereof. 

. Sec.  IX.  1.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such 
persons  as  any  of  the  States  now  existing  shall  think 
proper  to  admit,  shall  notbe  prohibited  by  the  Congress 
prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
eight;  but  a tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  im- 
portation, not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each  person. t 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall 
not  be  suspended,  unless  when,  in  cases  of  rebellion 
or  invasion,  the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder,  or  ex  post  facto  law,  shall 
be  passed. 

4.  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid, 
unless  in  proportion  to  the  census  or  enumeration 
hereinbefore  directed  to  be  taken. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported 
from  any  State. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given,  by  any  regulation 
of  commerce  or  revenue,  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over 
those  of  another ; nor  shall  vessels  bound  to  or  from 
one  State  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in 
another. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury  but 
in  consequence  of  appropriations  made  by  law;  and  a 
regular  statement  and  account  of  the  receipts  and  ex- 
penditures of  all  public  money  shall  be  published 
from  time  to  time. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the 
United  States,  and  no  person  holding  any  office  of 
profit  or  trust  under  them  shall,  without  the  consent 
of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument, 
office,  or  title  of  any  kind  whatsoever,  from  any  king, 
prince,  or  foreign  state. 

Sec.  X.  1.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty, 
alliance,  or  confederation : grant  letters  of  marque 
and  reprisal;  coin  money;  emit  bills  of  credit;  make 

* The  District  of  Columbia. 

$This  has  reference  to  the  foreign  slave  trade. 


6036# 

anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a tender  in  payment 
of  debts ; pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law, 
or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts ; or  grant 
any  title  of  nobility. 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Con- 
gress, lay  any  imposts  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports, 
except  what  maybe  absolutely  necessary  for  executing 
its  inspection  laws  ; and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties 
and  imposts,  laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports, 
shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States, 
and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and 
control  of  the  Congress.  No  State  shall,  without  the 
consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of  tonnage,  keep 
troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any 
agreement  or  compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a 
foreign  power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless  actually  in- 
vaded or  in  such  imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of 
delay. 

Article  II. 

Section  I.  1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested 
in  a President  of  the  United  States  of  America.  He 
shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term  of  four  years,  and, 
together  with  the  Vice-President,  chosen  for  the  same 
term,  be  elected  as  follows: 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the 
legislature  thereof  may  direct,  a number  of  electors 
equal  to  the  whole  number  of  senators  and  represen- 
tatives to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Con- 
gress; but  no  senator,  or  representative,  or  person 
holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United 
States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

[3.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective 
States,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom 
one,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same 
State  with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a list  of 
all  the  persons  voted  for? and  of  the  number  of  votes  for 
each;  which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  trans- 
mit sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  directed  to  the  president  of  the  senate.  The 
president  of  the  senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the 
senate  and  house  of  representatives,  open  all  the  certi- 
ficates, and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  per- 
son having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be  the 
president,  if  such  number  be  a majority  of  the  whole 
number  of  electors  appointed ; and^if  there  be  more 
than  one  who  have  such  majority,  and  have  an  equal 
number  of  votes,  then  the  house  of  representatives 
shall  immediately  choose,  by  ballot,  one  of  them  for 
president;  and  if  no  person  have  a majority,  then,  from 
the  five  highest  on  the  list,  the  said  hous'e,  shall,  in  , 
like  manner,  choose  the  president.  But,  in  choosing 
the  president,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the 
representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a quo- 
rum for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a member  or  mem- 
bers from  two-thirds  of  the  States,  and  a majority  of  all 
the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a choice.  In  every 
case,  after  the  choice  of  the  president,  the  person  hav- 
ing the  greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  electors  shall 
be  the  vice-president.  But,  if  there  should  remain 
two  or  more  who  have  equal  votes,  the  senate  shall 
choose  from  them,  by  ballot,  the  vice-president.]* 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choos- 
ing the  electors,  and  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give 
their  votes  ; which  day  shall  be  the  same  throughout 
the  United  States. t 


* This  clause,  within  brackets,  has  been  superseded  by 
the  1 2th  amendment.  See  p.  6035. 

-J-  The  electors  are  chosen  on  the  Tuesday  next  after  the 
first  Monday  in  November  preceding-  the  expiration  of  a 
presidential  term,  and  vote  for  president  and  vice-president 
on  the  first  Wednesday  of  the  December  following.  The 
votes  are  counted  ana  declared  in  Congress  the  second 
Wednesday  of  the  following  February. 


U N I 


6036/; 

5.  No  person,  except  a natural  born  citizen,  or  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States  at  the  time  of  the  adop- 
tion of  this  constitution,  shall  be  eligible  to  the  office 
of  president,  neither  shall  any  nerson  be  eligible  to 
that  office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of 
thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  a resident 
within  the  United  States. 

6.  In  case  of  the  removal  ©f  the  president  from  office, 
or  of  his  death,  resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge 
the  powers  and  duties  of  the  said  office,  the  same  shall 
devolve  on  the  vice-president;  and  the  Congress  may, 
by  law,  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resig- 
nation, or  inability,  both  of  the  president  and  vice- 
president,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act  as  pres- 
ident; and  such  officer  shall  act  accordingly,  until 
the  disability  be  removed,  or  a president  shall  be 
elected.  * 

7.  The  president  shall,  at  stated  times*  receive  for 
his  services  a compensation,  which  shall  neither  be 
increased  nor  diminished  during  the  period  for  which 
he  shall  have  been  elected ; and  he  shall  not  receive 
within  that  period  any  other  emolument  from  the 
United  States,  or  any  of  them.t 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office, 
he  shall  take  the  following  oath  or  affirmation: — • 

“I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I will  faithfully 
execute  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States, 
and  will,  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect 
and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.” 

Sec.  II.  I.  The  president  shall  be  commander-in- 
chief of  the  army  and  navy  of  the  United  States,  and 
of  the  militia  of  the  several  States,  when  called  into 
the  actual  service  of  the  United  States;  he  may  re- 
quire the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer, 
in  each  of  the  executive  departments,  upon  any  sub- 
ject relating  to  the  duties  of  J^ieir  respective  offices; 
and  he  shall  have  power  to.grant  reprieves  and  par- 
dons for  offenses  against  the  United  States,  except  in 
cases  of  impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two- 
thirds  of  the  senators  present  concur;  and  he  shall 
nominate,  and  by  and  Avith  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  senate  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public 
ministers  and  consuls,  judges  of  the  supreme  court,  and 
all  other  officers  of  the  United  States  whose  appoint- 
ments are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and 
which  shall  be  established  bylaw.  But  the  Congress 
may,  by  law,  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior 
officers  as  they  think  proper  in  the  president  alone, 
in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

3.  The  president  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all 
vacancies  that  may  happen  during  the  recess  of  the 
senate,  by  granting  commissions  which  shall  expire 
at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

Sec.  III.  1.  He  shall,  from  time  to  time,  give  to 
the  Congress  information  of  the  state  of  the  Union, 
and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such  measures 
as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he  may, 
on  extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both  houses,  or 
either  of  them,  and,  in  case  of  disagreement  between 
them  with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  may 
adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think  proper ; 
he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other  public  minis- 
ters ; he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully 

*Afterthe  assassination  of  •Garfield  the  Congress  availed 
itself  of  its  constitutional  powers,  and  settled  the  succes- 
sion on  the  cabinet  officers  in  the  order  of  their  precedence, 
as  follows:  Secretary  of  state, secretary  of  treasury, secretary 
of  war,  secretary  of  navy,  attorney-general,  postmaster- 
general,  secretary  of  interior,  commissioner  of  agriculture. 

-f-The  salary  of  the  president  was  $25,000  a year  until  1872, 
when  it  was  increased  to  $50,000.  That  of  the  vice-presi- 
dent is  $8,000  a year 


executed  ; and  shall  commission  all  the  officers  of  the 
United  States. 

Sec.  IV.  1.  The  president,  vice-president,  and  all 
civil  officers  of  the  U nited  States,  shall  be  removed  from 
office  on  impeachment  for,  and  conviction  of  treason 
bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 
Article  III. 

Section  I.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States 
shall  be  vested  in  one  Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  in- 
ferior courts  as  the  Congress  may,  from  time  to  time, 
ordain  and  establish.  The  j udges  both  of  the  supreme 
and  inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good 
behavior;  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  their 
services  a compensation  which  shall  not  be  diminished 
during  their  continuance  in  office. 

Sec.  II.  1.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to 
all  cases  in  law  an-d  equity,  arising  under  this  consti- 
tution, the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  treaties 
made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority ; 
to  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  min- 
isters, and  consuls ; to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  mar- 
itime jurisdiction ; to  controversies  to  which  the 
United  States  shall  be  a party;  to  controversies  be- 
tween two  or  more  States;  between  a State  and  citi- 
zens of  another  State;*  between  citizens  of  different 
States;  between  citizens  of  the  same  State  claiming 
lands  under  grants  of  different  States ; and  between  a 
State,  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  States,  citi- 
zens, or  subjects. 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public 
ministers,  and  consuls,  and  those  in  which  a State 
shall  be  a party,  the  supreme  court  shall  have  original 
jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases  before  mentioned, 
the  supreme  court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction, 
both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exemptions,  and 
under  such  regulations  as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  im- 
peachment, shall  be  by  jury,  and  such  trial  shall  be 
held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes  shall  have 
been  committed;  but  when  not  committed  within  any 
State,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the 
Congresss  may  by  law  have  directed. 

Sec.  III.  1.  Treason  against  the  United  States 
shall  consist  only  in  levying  war  against  them,  or  in 
adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  com- 
fort. No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason,  unless 
on  the  testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt 
act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the 
punishment  of  treason;  but  no  attainder  of  treason 
shall  work  corruption  of  blood,  or  forfeiture,  except 
during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 

Article  IV. 

Section  I.  i.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given 
in  each  State  to  the  public  acts,  records,  and  judicial 
proceedings  of  every  other  State.  And  the  Congress 
may,  by  general  laws,  prescribe  the  manner  in  which 
such  acts,  records,  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved, 
and  the  effect  thereof. 

Sec.  II.  1.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be 
entitled  to  all  privileges  and  immunities  of  citizens  in 
the  several  States. 

2.  /A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason, 
felony,  or  other  crime,  who  shall  flee  from  justice, 
and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall,  on  demand  of 
the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which  he 
fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to  the  State  hav 
ing  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State, 
under  the  laws  thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall 
in  consequence  of  any  law  or  regulation  therein,  be 


♦See  Amendment,  Art.  XL 


U N I 


discharged  from  such  service  or  labor;  but  shall  be 
delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  ser- 
vice or  labor  may  be  due. 

Sec.  III.  I.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the 
Congress  into  this  Union  ; but  no  new  States  shall  be 
formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  other 
State,  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or 
more  States,  or  parts  of  States,  without  the  consent  of 
the  legislature  of  the  States  concerned,  as  well  as  of 
the  Congress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of, 
and  make  all  needful  rules  and  regulations  respecting 
the  territory  or  other  property  belonging  to  the 
United  States  , and  nothing  in  this  constitution  shall 
be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the 
United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 

Sec.  IV.  i.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee 
to  every  State  in  this  Union  a republican  form  of  gov- 
ernment, and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against  in- 
vasion ; and  on  application  of  the  legislature,  or  of 
the  executive  (when  the  legislature  cannot  be  con- 
vened), against  domestic  violence. 

Article  V. 

I.  The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both 
houses  shall  deem  it  necessary,  shall  propose  amend- 
ments to  this  constitution ; or,  on  the  application  of  the 
legislatures  of  two-thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall 
call  a convention  for  proposing  amendments,  which,  in 
either  case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes, 
as  part  of  this  constitution,  when  ratified  by  the  legis- 
latures of  three-fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  con- 
ventions in  three-fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the 
other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Con- 
gress ; provided,  that  no  amendment  which  may  be 
made  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  eight  shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth 
clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the  first  article ; and 
that  no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of 
its  equal  suffrage  in  the  senate. 

Article  VI. 

1.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered 
into  before  the  adoption  of  this  constitution,  shall  be  as 
valid  against  the  United  States  under  this  constitution 
as  under  the  Confederation. 

2.  This  constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United 
States  which  shall  be  made  in  pursuance  thereof,  and 
all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made  under  the 
authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme 
law  of  the  land;  and  the  judges  in  every  State  shall  be 
bound  thereby,  anything  in  the  constitution  or  laws  of 
any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

3.  The  senators  and  representatives  before  mem- 
tioned,  and  the  members  of  the  several  state  legisla- 
tures, and  all  executive  aud  judicial  officers,  both  of  the 
United  States  and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be  bound 
by  oath  or  affirmation  to  support  this  constitution  ; but 
no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a qualification 
to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the  United  States. 

Article  VII. 

1.  The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  States 
shall  be  sufficient  for  the  establishment  of  this  consti- 
tution between  the  States  so  ratifying  the  same. 
Amendments  to  the  Constitution. 

*Art.  I.  Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting 
an  establishment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free 
exercise  thereof ; or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech, 
or  of  the  press ; or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably 
to  assemble  and  to  petition  the  government  for  a re- 
dress of  grievances. 

*The  first  ten  amendments  were  proposed  in  1789,  and  de- 
clared adopted  in  1791. 


6036^ 

Art.  II.  A well-regulated  militia  being  necessary 
to  the  security  of  a free  state,  the  right  of  the  people 
to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

Art.  III.  No  soldier  shall,  in*  time  of  peace,  be 
quartered  in  any  house  without  the  consent  of  the 
owner;  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a manner  to  be 
prescribed  by  law. 

Art.  IV.  The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in 
their  persons,  houses,  papers,  and  effects  against  un- 
reasonable searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be  vio- 
lated; and  no  warrants  shall  issue  but  upon  probable 
cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particu- 
larly describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the  per- 
sons or  things  to  be  seized. 

Art.  V.  No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a 
capital  or  otherwise  infamous  crime  unless  on  a pre- 
sentment or  indictment  of  a grand  jury,  except  in 
cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the 
militia,  when  in  actual  service,  in  time  of  war  or  pub- 
lic dangers  ; nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the 
same  offense  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or 
limb;  nor  shall  be  compelled,  in  any  criminal  case  to 
be  a witness  against  himself ; nor  be  deprived  of  life, 
liberty  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law ; nor 
shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public  use,  with- 
out just  compensation. 

Art.  VI.  In  all  criminal  prosecutions  the  accused 
shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a speedy  and  public  trial,  by 
an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district  wherein  the 
crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall 
have  been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be 
informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation ; 
to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him;  to 
have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in 
his  favor ; and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for 
his  defense. 

Art.  VII.  In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the 
value  in  controversy  shall  exceed  twenty  dollars,  the 
right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved  ; and  no  fact 
tried  by  a jury  shall  be  otherwise  reexamined  in  any 
court'of  the  United  States  than  according  t9  the  rules 
of  the  common  law. 

Art.  VIII.  Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required, 
nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual 
punishments  inflicted. 

Art.  IX.  The  enumeration  in  the  constitution  of 
certain  rights  shall  not  be  construed  to  deny  or  dis- 
parage others  retained  by  the  people. 

Art.  X.  The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United 
States  by  the  constitution,  nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the 
States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  respectively,  or  to 
the  people. 

*Art.  XI.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States 
shall  not  be  construed  to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or 
equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the 
United  States,  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citi- 
zens or  subjects  of  any  foreign  state. 

tART.  XII.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  re- 
spective States i and  vote  by  ballot  for  president  .and 
vice-president,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an 
inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves:  they  shall 
name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  president, 
and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  vice- 
president,  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all 
persons  voted  for  as  president,  and  of  all  persons 
voted  for  as  vice-president,  and  of  the  number  of  votes 
for  each,  which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and 
transmit,  sealed,  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  directed  to  the  president  of  the  senate; 

* The  eleventh  amendment  was  proposed  in  1794,  and  de- 
clared adopted  in  1798. 

■f  The  twelfth  amendment  was  proposed  i/n  1803,  and  de- 
clared adopted  in  1804. 


U N I 


6036^ 

the  president  of  the  senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of 
the  senate  and  house  of  representatives,  open  all  the 
certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted,  the 
person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for  presi- 
dent shall  be  the  president,  if  such  number  be  a ma- 
jority of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed ; and 
xf  no  person  have  such  a majority,  then  from  the  per- 
sons having  the  highest  numbers,  not  exceeding  three, 
on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  president,  the  house 
of  representatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot, 
the  president.  But,  in  choosing  the  president,  the 
votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation  from 
each  State  having  one  vote;  a quorum  for  this  purpose 
shall  consist  of  a member  or  members  from  two-thirds 
of  the  States,  and  a majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be 
necessary  to  a choice.  And  if  the  house  of  represen- 
tatives shall  not  -choose  a president,  whenever  the 
right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the 
fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then  the  vice- 
president  shall  act  as  president,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
death  or  other  constitutional  disability  of  the  president. 
The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  vice- 
resident, shall  be  the  vice-president,  if  such  number 

e a majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  ap- 
pointed; and  if  no  person  have  a majority,  then  from 
the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list  the  senate  shall 
choose  the  vice-president;  a quorum  for  the  purpose 
shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  sen- 
ators, and  a majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be 
necessary  to  a choice.  But  no  person  constitution- 
ally ineligible  to  the  office  of  president,  shall  be  eligible 
to  that  of  vice-president  of  the  United  States. 

*Art.  XIII.  Sec.  I.  Neither  slavery  nor  invol- 
untary servitude,  except  as  a punishment  for  crime, 
whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted, 
shall  exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  sub- 
ject to  their  jurisdiction. 

Sec.  II.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce 
this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

t Art.  XIV.  Sec.  i.  All  persons  born  or  natur- 
alized in  the  United  States,  and  subject  to  the  juris- 
diction thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and 
of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make 
or  enforce  any  law  which  shall  abridge  the  privileges 
or  immunities  of  the  citizens  of  the  United  States; 
nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty, 
or  property,  without  due  process  of  law,  nor  deny  to 
any  person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protec- 
tion of  the  laws. 

Sec.  II.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned 
among  the  several  States  according  to  their  respective 
numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of  persons  in 
each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But  when 
the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  elec- 
tors for  president  and  vice-president  of  the  United 
States,  representatives  in  Congress,  the  executive  or 
judicial  officers  of  a State,  or  the  members  of  the  leg- 
islature thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabi- 
tants of  such  State,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age  and 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridged, 
except  for  participation  in  rebellion  or  other  crime, 
the  basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be  reduced 
in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such  male  cit- 
izens shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens 
twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

Sec.  III.  No  person  shall  be  a senator  or  repre- 
sentative in  Congress,  or  elector  of  president  or  vice- 
president,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or  military,  under 

♦The  thirteenth  amendment  was  proposed  and  adopted 
in  x86c 

•J  The  fourteenth  amendment  was  proposed  in  1806,  and 
idopteil  in  i8f»& 


the  United  States,  or  under  any  State,  who,  having 
previously  taken  an  oath  as  a member  of  Congress,  or 
as  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a member  of 
any  State  legislature, 'or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  of- 
ficer of  any  State,  to  support  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or 
rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to 
the  enemies  thereof.  But  Congress  may,  by  a vote 
of  two-thirds  of  each  house,  remove  such  disability. 

Sec.  IV.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the 
United  States,  authorized  by  law,  including  debts  in- 
curred for  payment  of  pension  and  bounties  for  ser- 
vices in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall 
not  be  questioned.  But  neither  the  United  States 
nor  any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obliga- 
tion incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against 
the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  eman- 
cipation of  any  slave;  but  all  such  debts,  obligations, 
and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

Sec.  V.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by 
appropriate  legislation,  the  provisions  of  this  article. 

*Art.  XV.  Sec.  i.  The  rights  of  citizens  of  the 
United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged 
by  the  United  States,  or  by  any  State,  on  account  of 
the  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

Sec.  II.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce 
this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

The  Post  Office  Department. 

The  great  product  of  modern  times  in  the  United  • 
States,  in  management,  steady  improvement  and  results 
to  the  public,  is  the  postal  service.  In  whatever  country 
the  traveler  finds  himself  he  will  be  able  very  accurately 
to  measure  its  advancement  by  the  condition  and  effici- 
ency of  this  first  and  most  importantbranch  of  the  pub- 
lic service.  This,  in  this  country,  has  been  of  steady 
and  wonderful  growth,  and  has  for  many  years  been  the 
most  efficient  known.  The  postal  service  is  a vast 
human  machine,  in  which  all  the  working  parts  accu- 
rately fit.  The  railway  postal  service  of  this  country 
is  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  age,  growing  and  extend- 
ing as  the  country  has  grown,  and  illustrating  every- 
where the  marvelous  celerity  and  accuracy  to  which 
human  brains  and  hands  may  be  trained.  The  machine 
of  the  postal  service  is  so  complicated,  apparently, 
that  a lifetime  might  be  spent  in  an  attempt  to  unravel 
its  intricacies ; yet  it  goes  on  from  year  to  year,  un- 
broken, almost  inerrant,  its  details  unknown  except  to 
the  army  of  trained  experts  by  whom  its  feats  are  per- 
formed. There  is  not  space  to  give  a detailed  account 
of  the  workings  of  this  system. 

This  vast  department  had,  in  1901,  76,945  offices, 
and  its  routes  covered  511,808  miles.  It  cost  in  that 
year,  $115,554,920.  That  is  to  say  that  the  vast  compli- 
cation was  kept  in  order,  and  all  its  functions  were 
caused  to  be  perfectly  performed,  at  less  than  the  cost 
to  each  citizen  of  the  coffee  he  drank. 

Public  Lands. 

The  homestead  land  entry  law,  known  as  the  Home- 
stead Bill,  was  passed  by  Congress  in  1854.  It  was 
momentous  in  its  results,  which  were  largely  unfore- 
seen. These  are  shown  by  the  fact  that  there  had 
been  up  to  the  end  of  1901,  9,497,275  acres  of  land 
taken  up,  and  necessarily  occupied  and  improved, 
under  that  law.  Some  of  these  lands  are  now  the 
most  valuable  in  the  republic,  and  a small  area  the 
most  valuable  of  the  world  because  the  sites  of  cities 
whose  growth  and  commercial  importance  are  phenom- 
enal. Of  all  this  growth  many  men  still  engaged  in 
active  pursuits  can  recall  the  very  beginnings  in  this 

♦The  fifteenth  amendment  was  proposed  in  1869,  and 
adopted  in  187a 


UNI 


6037 


now  renowned  attempt  of  Congress  to  dispose  of  a 
then  useless  public  domain. 

The  following  tables,  bearing  partly  upon  the  com- 
merce of  the  country  for  the  year  1901,  and  partly 
showing  some  of  the  facts  of  the  present  not  usually 
given  in  tables,  are  appended  for  the  information  of 
the  inquirer  and  casual  reader. 

Commerce  for  1901. 

Before  referring  to  the  tables  the  reader  is  re- 
minded that  in  the  United  States  any  study  of  a fact, 
or  a tabulated  statement  of  facts,  is  a study  of  growth. 
We  began  to  .trade,  to  import  and  export,  about  one 
hundred  years  ago,  having  then  conquered  our  en- 
vironment to  the  extent  that  we  had  something  to 
sell,  and  something  wherewith  to  buy  what  we  had  not 
of  people  who  had. 

In  the  year  1789  — one  hundred  and  twelve  years  be- 
fore the  date  of  the  following  table  — our  exports 
amounted  in  value  to  $20,194,794.  Our  imports  for  the 
same  year  were  to  the  value  of  $23,000,000.  In  1901  our 
imports  were  to  the  value  of  $823,172,165.  Our  exports 
were  of  the  value  of  $1,460,462,806.  The  following  table 
is  to  June  30,  1901 : 

IMPORTS. 


Articles. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

$4,478,955 

3,304,546 

3,792,536 

1,730,197 

53,508,157 

2,038,239 

5,381.474 

6,472,829 

62,861,399 

9,940,463 

2,270,995 

40,246,935 

6,787.828 

9,472,869 

3,674,384 

32,762,608 

22,932,506 

19,586,703 

11,019,658 

5,010,675 

2.798.109 
48,220,013 
28,835,178 
17,874,789 
24,216,407 

4,832,737 

11,887,012 

7,097,431 

4,002,989 

26,842,138 

30,051,365 

3.563.109 
4,162,149 

90,487,800 

11,017,876 

19,805,551 

16,290,387 

2,480,139 

3,830,311 

3,719,679 

8,219.236 

19.754,205 

14,585,306 

12,529,881 

98,794.412 

Bristles,  lbs 

Chemicals,  drugs,  dyes,  and 
medicines 

1,684,575 

Coal,  bituminous,  tons 

Cocoa,  crude,  and  shells  of,  lbs 

Coffee,  lbs 

Copper 

1,977,238 

45,924,353 

854,871,310 

Cork  wood 

Cotton,  manufactures  of 

Cotton,  unmanufactured,  lbs  . 
Earthen,  stone,  and  china  ware 

46,631,283 

Feathers,  flowers,  etc 

Fibres,  vegetable,  manufac- 
tures of 

Fibres,  vegetable,  unmanufac- 
tured   

Fruits,  including  nuts 

Furs 

Glass  and 'glassware 

Hats,  bonnets,  and  materials 
for 

Hides  and  skins,  lbs 

India  rubber,  crude,  lbs 

Iron  and  steel 

280,909.837 

64,927,176 

Jewelry  and  precious  stones  . . 

Lead, lbs 

Leather,  and  manufactures  of. 

251,183,836 

Oils 

Paper,  and  manufactures  of . . . 

Silk,  manufactures  of 

Silk,  unmanufactured 

Spices 

Spirits,  distilled 

Sugar,  lbs 

Tea, lbs 

3,975,005,840 

89,806,453 

73,091,890 

26,851,853 

Tin,  in  bars,  blocks,  or  pigs,  lbs. 

Tobacco,  lbs 

Tobacco,  manufactures  of 

Toys 

Vegetables 

Wines 

Wood,  and  manufactures  of. . . 

Wool,  manufactures  of 

Wool,  unmanufactured,  lbs.. . . 
All  other  articles 

103,583,505 

Total  imports  of  merchandise. 
Specie,  gold 

$823,172,165 

66,051,187 

36,386.521 

Specie,  silver 

Total  imports 

$926,609,873 

EXPORTS. 

Year  Ending  June,  iqor. 


Articles. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Agricultural  implements 

Animals 

$16,313,434 

52,058,876 

3,472.343 

96,771,743 

82,527,983 

69,459,296 

14,384,453 

2,340,751 

8,425,803 

13,891,693 

313,673,443 

20,272,418 

5,425,960 

4,302,876 

2,058,964 

8,767,687 

4,404,448 

7,361,231 

117,319,320 

27,923,653 

2,780,796 

12,580,950 

18,591,898 

1.018,431 

6,686,929 

64,425,859 

19,035,686 

7,438,901 

6,857,288 

44,225,319 
119  961,503 
12,330,874 
11,038,219 

9.403.722 
10,920,931 

1,063,506 

5,321,309 

3.054.723 
2,005,865 
2,526,077 

437,523 

27,656,475 

5,092,603 

2,598,717 

52,445,585 

62,792,802 

Books,  maps,  and  other  printed 
matter .* 

Breadstuff  s— 

Wheat,  bushels 

Corn,  bushels 

Wheat-flour,  bbls 

Chemicals,  drugs,  dyes,  'arid 
medicines 

132,060,667 

177.817,965 

18,650,979 

Clocks  and  watches 

Coal,  anthracite,  tons 

Coal,  bituminous,  tons 

Cotton,  unmanufactured,  lbs.. 

Cotton,  manufactures  of 

Fertilizers 

1.912,080 

5,763,469 

3,330,890,448 

Fibres,  vegetable,  and  textile 

grasses,  manufactures  of 

Fruits— 

Apples,  green  or  ripe  bbls. . . 
All  other  kinds,  nuts,  etc. . . . 
Furs,  fur  skins 

883,673 

Instruments,  scientific 

Iron  and  steel, manufactures  of 

Leather,  manufactures  of 

Musical  instruments 

Naval  stores 

Oil  cake  meal,  lbs 

Oils,  animal,  gals 

Oils,  mineral,  crude,  gals 

Oils,  mineral,  refined 

1,713,842,177 

2,399,469 

138,448,430 

Oils,  vegetable 

Paper,  and  manufactures  of  . . . 
Paraffine  and  paraffine  wax, lbs 
Provisions — 

Beef  products,  lbs 

Hog  products,  lbs 

Oleomargarine,  lbs 

Other  meat  products 

Dairy  products 

129,184,962 

538,462,660 

1.462,369,849 

166,642,112 

Railroad  cars  & horse  vehicles 

Seeds,  clover,  lbs 

Seeds,  all  other 

11,998,674 

Spirits,  proof  gals 

Starch  

2,958,338 

Sugar  molasses,  syrup,  gals 

Sugar,  refined,  lbs 

Tobacco,  unmanufactured,  lbs. 

Tobacco,  manufactures  of 

Vegetables  

17,587,959 

8,727,639 

315,787,782 

Wood,  and  manufactures  of.. . 
All  other  articles 

Total  Export  of  Dom.  Mdse 

Specie,  Gold 

$1,460,462,806 

53,185,177 

64,285,180 

27,302,185 

Specie,  Silver 

Foreign  Merchandise 

Total  Exports 

$1,605,235,348 

Aside  from  the  enormous  traffic  between  the  States, 
or,  better  stated,  between  sections  of  the  United 
States  and  others,  of  which  habitually  we  take  no  ac- 
count, the  above  tables  of  Imports  and  Exports  serve 
to  give  the  reader  the  best  idea  possible,  to  the  latest 
date  for  which  reliable  statistics  are  obtainable,  of 
the  business  transacted  by  the  country.  Some  of  the 
items  unquestionably  furnish  food  for  thought.  We 
sold  of  meat  products  in  1901,  food  to  the  amount  of 
$187,555,915.  This  product  went  to  the  feeding  of 
the  world  at  large,  and  was  paid  for  in  the  sum  named, 
and  we  may  add  to  it  the  surplus  dairy  product,  usu- 
ally almost  unconsidered  except  as  an  essential  of  do- 
mestic consumption,  to  the  amount  of  more  than  thir- 
teen millions  of  dollars.  Some  of  the  items  of  the 
table  of  Imports  are  cjuite  as  productive  of  reflection. 
The  people  of  the  United  States  seem  to  have  paid  for 


U N I 


6038 

sugar  alone  in  the  year  mentioned  the  enormous  sum 
of  ninety-six  millions  of  dollars,  and  for  molasses  five 
millions  more,  and  these  items  are  of  course  in  addi- 
tion to  our  own  domestic  supply.  Having  three  times 
the  coal  territory  of  all  the  world  besides,  there  are  yet 
imported  more  than  three  million  dollars  worth  of 
soft  coal.  Having  salt  supplies  that  are  not  worked, 
and  a capacity  to  supply  all  mankind  with  that  neces- 
sity, we  yet  imported  and  paid  for  a small  quantity  of 
that,  about  a million  dollars.  We  sold  of  cotton  and 
cotton  manufactures  two  hundred  and  fifty-two  millions 
of  dollars  worth,  but  we  bought  again  of  manufactured 
cotton  goods  about  thirty  millions  of  dollars  worth. 
The  tobacco  growers  and  manufacturers  of  the  world, 
selling  thirty-one  millions  worth  in  a year,  we  yet  buy 
Dack  again  of  our  own  tobacco,  manufactured  into  va- 
rious forms  for  use.  and  perhaps  mixed  to  better  suit 
our  tastes  with  the  product  of  other  countries,  nearly 
twenty-two  millions  of  dollars  worth.  We  sold  of 
fruit  of  all  kinds  about  six  millions  of  dollars,  but 
wanting  variety  we  bought  again  from  other  countries 
more  than  twenty  millions. 

We  bought  fancy  articles  to  the  amount  of  nearly 
seven  millions,  but  we  sold  of  the  same  goods  about 
six  millions.  This  must  illustrate  the  love  of  novelty 
which  pervades  the  entire  human  family.  Of  clocks 
and  watches,  of  which  the  American  product  is  now 
found  all  over  the  world,  we  sold  three  and  one-half 
millions  of  dollars ; but  we  bought  again  from  other 
countries  more  than  two  millions  worth.  We  are  not 
yet  sellers  of  works  of  art  of  any  kind.  We  buy  from 
others  most  that  we  have,  and  pay  for  them  annually 
more  than  two  millions.  The  sum  is  small,  we  are 
either  supplying  our  own  wants  in  art,  or  we  are 
largely  going  without.  But  we  sell  scientific  instru- 
ments, an  undoubtedly  new  manufacture,  to  the  ex- 
tent of  a million  and  a half,  buying  again  of  those  we 
have  not  none,  unless  the  amount  is  so  small  that  it  is 
included  among  general  merchandise.  We  sell  no 
jewelry,  but  we  buy  to  the  amount  of  nearly  a million 
and  a half.  This  small  sum  spent  in  so  costly  a com- 
modity indicates  that  most  of  our  adornments  are 
made  at  home.  But  then  we  must  add  the  consider- 
able sum  we  pay  for  the  item  of  precious  stones — dia- 
monds uncut  or  mounted,  etc. — which  is  nearly  twelve 
and  one-half  millions. 

Evidently  the  people  of  the  United  States  are  given 
to  luxury  in  the  way  of  feminine  apparel.  For  silk 
fabrics  we  paid  in  1901  the  goodly  sum  of  nearly 
twenty-seven  millions  of  dollars,  and  must  add  to  that 
the  sum  of  thirty  millions  more  for  silk  unman- 
ufactured— fifty-seven  millions,  being  in  round  num- 
bers, one  dollar  each  for  every  man,  woman  and  child, 
©f  all  colors  and  conditions,  in  the  republic,  for  silks 
alone.  The  wines  of  our  own  vineyards  are  of  course 
not  counted  in  these  tables.  They  now  amount  to 
many  millions  of  gallons,  none  of  which  we  are  re- 
ported as  exporting  under  that  name.  And  besides 
all  we  make  we  pay  nearly  nine  millions  for  that  which 
we  import. 

But  the  most  surprising  statement  to  the  inspector 
of  statistics  must  be  that  for  woolen  manufactures  we 
pay  annually  the  enormous  sum  of  nearly  seventy-two 
millions.  All  the  enormous  grass-ranges  of  the  west 
do  not  help  us  out  of  the  fact.  So  far  as  our  lack  in 
this  respect  is  to  be  inferred,  we  not  only  use  all  the 
wool  we  can  ourselves  produce,  but  purchase  manu- 
factured woolen  goods  besides  to  the  extent  Stated. 

We  furnish  agricultural  implements  to  the  other 
countries  to  the  extent  of  nearly  thirty-four  millions 
annually,  importing  nothing  of  the  kind  in  return,  and 
carriages  for  use  with  horses  and  railroad  cars  to  the 


value  of  nearly  five  millions,  and  import  neither  at 
them.  We  import  books,  maps,  etc.,  to  the  value 
of  about  four  millions,  but  we  export  printed  matter 
to  the  extent  of  more  than  forty-two  millions.  Our 
leather  manufactures  go  abroad  to  the  value  of  twelve 
and  one-half  millions,  and  we  strangely  import  in  re- 
turn to  the  extent  of  a little  more  than  that  value.  A 
tabulated  statement  of  the  kind  sets  on  foot  specula- 
tions, suggestions  and  inquiries  that  can  only  be 
answered  by  extensive  investigations,  if  at  all,  and 
such  a table  goes  far  to  show  that,  not  individually 
only,  but  sometimes  on  a colossal  scale,  not  the  ne- 
cessities, but  the  caprices  and  fashions  of  mankind, 
may  establish  or  annul  the  industries  in  one  or  an- 
other branch  of  a nation’s  enterprise. 

Tariff—  For  1901,  the  gross  receipts  from  customs  of 
the  tariff  was  $238,585,456. 

Packing  in  the  cities  of  the  United  States.  To  Sep- 
tember of  1901  there  were  packed  for  market  in  the 
cities  named  below  the  number  of  swine  set  opposite 
the  name  of  the  place.  This  business,  very  large  and 
of  great  importance,  is  not  controlled  by  actual  near- 
ness to  the  product,  but  by  circumstances  extraneous, 
chiefly  by  the  aggregation  of  capital  expended  in  fa- 
cilities, and  still  more  by  the  convenience  and  number 
of  lines  of  transportation. 

Chicago,  7,268,515;  Kansas  City,  2,981,288;  Omaha, 
2,241,599 ; St.  Louis,  1,566,550 ; Indianapolis,  1,185,600 ; 
Cincinnati,  617,032;  Milwaukee,  911,256;  St.  Joseph, 
1,723,377 ; Sioux  City,  733,754 ; S«  Paul,  514,385 ; Louis- 
ville, 360,425;  Cleveland,  500,785;  Boston,  1,370,000; 
other  western  cities,  1,731,053;  other  eastern  cities, 
1,046,000. 

Total  packed  and  marketed  (1901),  28,980,000. 

The  total  value  of  farm  animals  in  the  United  States 
at  the  end  of  1900  was  $3,078,050,041. 

There  were  in  number : horses,  18,280,007  5 mules, 
3,366,724 ; cattle,  all  kinds,  67,822,336 ; sheep  and  lambs, 
61,605,811 ; swine,  62,876,108. 

Agricultural  Exports , 1901. — The(  value  of  all  agri- 
cultural exports  in  1901  was  $943,811,020. 

Telegraphs. — Industrial  progress  may  be  now  meas- 
ured by  new  agencies,  such  as  the  mileage  and  business 
of  telegraph  and  telephone  lines.  Of  telegraph  and 
telephone  lines  there  were  in  1880, 233,534  miles  of  wire ; 
1892,  739,105  miles  of  wire  ; 1901,  972,766  miles  of  wire. 

There  were  offices:  1866,  2,520;  1880,  9,077;  1892, 
20,700 ; 1901,  23,238. 

The  receipts  of  these  lines  were  : 1880,  $12,782,895 ; 
1892,  $23,706,405  ; 1901,  $26,354,150. 

The  expenses  of  telegraph  lines  were : 1880,  $6,948,. 
957  ; 1892,  $16,307,857 ; 1901,  $19,668,902. 

The  percentage  of  increase  in  ten  years  is  remark- 
able, to  be  accounted  for  by  an  increase  of  population 
and  the  building  of  communities  and  towns  to  which  it 
was  necessary  to  extend  lines,  not  because  required  by 
law,  but  because  of  demand  and  profit. 

There  was  in  1901  an  average  toll  per  message  of  30.9 
cents,  costing  the  company  25.1  ceilts,  leaving  a profit  of 
5.8  cents  per  average  message. 

Telephone  Service. 

The  following  figures  apply  to  the  Bell  company 
alone,  that  having  a practical  monopoly  of  the  tele- 
phone business.  There  were  in  1901,  627,897  miles  of 
wire  on  poles ; 16,833  miles  of  wire  on  buildings,  and 
705,269  miles  of  wire  under  ground.  Making  a total  of 
1,354,202  miles  of  wire. 

There  were  in  that  year  932,150  subscribers,  or  reg- 


U N I 


ular  users  of  the  lines,  and  there  were  32,837  employes. 

All  companies  have  440,750  miles  of  wire,  with 
$92,000,000  invested  in  telephone  wires  and  fixtures. 

Railroads  in  1901. 

The  total  mileage  of  railroads  in  the  United  States  in 
1901  was  192,161  miles. 

The  value  of  these  was  (stock  and  bonds)  $11,562,- 
939,004. 

Their  gross  earnings  was  $1,501,695,378. 

Their  reported  net  earnings  was  $483,247,526.  From 
freight,  $1,052,835,811.  From  passengers,  $331,402,816. 
They  paid  in  dividends,  $140,343,653.  There  are  no 
comprehensive  figures  upon  railroads  prior  to  1871. 
These  given  were  compiled  for  the  United  States  census 
from  annual  reports  of  the  roads. 

Colleges  and  Institutions  of  Learning. 

Figures  covering  the  Public  School  system  of  the 
country  have  been  already  given  of  as  late  date  as  is 
reliable  from  accessible  authorities.  The  following 
statements  give  briefly  the  status  of  colleges  in  the 
United  States  outside  of  the  common  school  system. 

There  were  in  1901,  480  Universities  and  Colleges, 
with  teachers  to  the  number  of  10,116,  and  there  were 
129,922  students. 

Of  Colleges  for  Women  there  were,  1901,  141,  with 
2,441  teachers,  and  23,365  students. 

Of  Theological  Schools  there  wer*',  1900,  of  all  de- 
nominations, 154,  with  994  teachers  and  8,009  students. 

Of  these  schools  the  Catholics  have  the  largest  num- 
ber, 18.  The  Lutherans  and  Baptists  come  next,  each 
with  17.  The  Methodist  Episcopal  church  has  16.  The 
Presbyterians  are  third  with  14.  There  are  unsectarian 
theological  schools  to  the  number  of  2. 

Medical  Schools. — The  three  principal  schools  of 
medicine  in  the  United  States  are  the  “ Regular,”  the 
Homeopathic  and  the  Eclectic.  The  “ Regular  ” branch 
of  the  profession  has  121  medical  colleges,  with  22,752 
students.  The  Homeopathic  branch  has  22  colleges, 
with  1,909  students,  and  the  Eclectic  branch  has  8 
colleges  and  552  students.  The  scattering,  and  the 
various  beginnings  here  and  there  are  not  included  in 
these  figures,  but  only  such  schools  as  have  furnished 
data  by  the  issuing  of  catalogues  and  reports. 

Law  'Schools . — There  were  in  1900  96  organized 
schools  of  law,  with  1,004  teachers  and  12,516  students. 

Production  of  Precious  Metals. — Tn  1901  there  was 
produced  in  the  United  States  by  mining,  in  coining 
value,  gold,  $2,049,854,219.  Silver,  $812,392,172.  In  this 
connection  the  Commercial  Ratio  of  silver  to  gold 
through  a series  of  years  is  interesting. 


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Proportion  of  Females  to  Males  in  Population. — The 
census  of  1900  gives  to  the  United  States  a total  popula- 
tion of  76,303,387.  Of  these  there  were 

Males,  39,059,242. 

Females,  37,244,145. 

Preponderance  of  Males — 1,815,097. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  speculations  regarding  the 
growing  discrepancy  between  males  and  females  in 
numbers  are  local  and  groundless.  In  a large  immi- 
gration from  foreign  countries  those  who  come  first 
would  very  naturally  be  males  where  they  do  not 
come  together,  and  this  fact  alone  would  account  for 
the  present  discrepancy  in  numbers. 

Indians. — Only  in  very  recent  years  has  the  “ In- 
dian Question  ” assumed  the  form  of  a permanent  set- 
tlement. There  were  in  1892,  144,496  square  miles  of 
land  occupied  by  the  various  tribes  of  Indians  as  res- 
ervations. Upon  these  reservations  were  settled  248,- 
340  Indians.  So  far  as  any  reports  can  be  obtained 
Indian  births  number  per  annum  about  3,508  persons, 
and  3,660  Indians  die.  The  real  character  of  the  In- 
dian remains  largely  unchanged  so  far  as  all  adults 
are  concerned,  but  a strong  effort  is  making  to  educate 
the  youth  of  all  the  tribes,  a fair  proportion  of  them, 
and  the  experiment  is  most  interesting  from  the  view 
point  of  philanthropic  effort.  There  were,  1892,  275 
Indian  schools,  in  which  the  attendance  has  numbered 
16, 167  persons.  These  schools  cost  for  maintenance 
in  1892,  $1,859,119.03. 

Patents. — The  growth  of  the  patent  office  has  been 
in  keeping  with  the  national  progress.  In  1641  the 
General  Court  of  Massachusetts  granted  a patent  for 
ten  years  to  one  Samuel  Winslow  for  a process  of 
making  salt,  and  several  of  the  New  England  States 
did  the  same  thing  in  succeeding  years.  This  was 
the  beginning,  our  national  system  of  patents  begin- 
ning with  the  U.  S.  statute  of  1790.  Beginning  then 
upon  nothing,  and  gradually  and  steadily  increasing 
since,  there  were  in  1900,  47,789  applications  for  pat- 
ents. Of  these  there  were  allowed  26,499.  The 
receipts  for  these  applications  and  issues  were  an  ag- 
gregate of  $1,350,828.53,  and  expenditures  were  $1,260,- 
019.62.  The  curiosities  of  American  patents,  their 
numbers  and  utilities,  the  enormous  capital  invested 
in  them  and  their  results,  their  effect  upon  industry, 
etc.,  would  form  the  subject  of  an  extensive  article 
alone. 

Pensions. — To  June  30,  1901,  there  was  paid  for  that 
year  to  the  date  named,  the  sum  of  $139,582,231.98  for 
military  pensions. 

The  history  of  this  vast  pension  outlay  is  particu- 
larly interesting.  In  1816  the  “total  pension”  for 
privates  was  fixed  at  $8  per  month;  for  second  lieu- 
tenant $15  ; first  lieutenant  $17;  captain  $20;  major 
$25  ; and  lieutenant-colonel  and  all  officers  of  higher 
rank  $30.  Like  rates  were  fixed  for  naval  officers  of 
the  same  relative  rank.  Fractional  ratings  were  given 
for  lesser  degrees  of  disability. 

In  1866  Congress  created  three  grades  above  that  of 
“total  pension.”  What  is  known  as  the  “first  grade 
pension  ” includes  cases  of  permanent  disability  in  a 
degree  requiring  the  regular  aid  and  attendance  of  an- 
other person.  This  grade  entitles  the  beneficiary  to 
$50  per  month.  On  June  16,  1880,  an  act  was  passed 
increasing  the  pension  of  all  who  were  then  on  the  roll 
at  $50  to  $72.  The  “ second  grade  pensions  ” include 
cases  of  permanent  incapacity  for  the  performance  of 
any  manual  labor.  The  pension  for  these  cases  is  $30 
per  month.  The  “ third  grade  pensions  ” are  for  dis- 
ability equivalent  to  the  loss  of  a hand  or  foot,  the 


6040  'CTii  I 

rate  being  $24  per  month  '£am  disability  below  these 
grades  the  rates  range  from  $2  to  $18  per  month  for 
• privates,  non-commissioned  officers  and  lieutenants, 
the  maximum  in  the  cases  of  officers  above  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  being  the  old  “total  of  rank.”  There 
is  also  a class  of  “permanent  specific”  disabil- 
ities, such  as  the  loss  of  both  hands,  both  feet,  or  both 
eyes.  For  these  cases  the  pension  is  fixed  at  $72  per 
month.  For  amputation  at  the  shoulder  or  hip  joint,  or 
so  near  the  joint  that  no  artificial  limb  can  be  used, 

$45  per  month  is  paid  ; for  total  disability  of  an  arm 
or  leg,  loss  of  one  hand  and  one  foot,  or  total  disabil- 
ity of  the  same,  or  amputation  at  or  above  the  knee, 

$36 ; for  the  loss  of  a hand  or  foot,  or  total  disability 
of  the  same,  or  for  total  deafness,  $30  per  month. 

Widows  of  privates  receive  $12  per  month,  and  $2 
additional  for  each  child  of  the  deceased  soldier. 
When  no  widow  survives,  minor  children  receive  their 
pension  jointly.  Dependent  parents  receive  $12  per 
month ; widows  and  dependent  parents  of  commis- 
sioned officers  receive  the  “total  of  rank.” 

We  give  here  the  United  States  pension  lav/  which 
is  in  force  at  present.  It  was  approved  March  4,  1890. 

United  States  Pension  Legislation. — Pensions 
to  the  Totally  Helpless. — This  act  provides  that  all  sol- 
diers, sailors  and  marines  who  have  since  the  1 6th 
day  of  June,  1880,  or  who  may  hereafter  become  so 
totally  and  permanently  helpless  from  injuries  received 
or  disease  contracted  in  the  service  and  line  of  duty  as 
to  require  the  regular  personal  aid  and  attendance  of 
another  person,  or  who,  if  otherwise  entitled,  were  ex- 
cluded from  the  provisions  of  “An  act  to  increase  pen- 
sions of  certain  pensioned  soldiers  and  sailors  who  are 
utterly  helpless  from  injuries  received  or  disease  con- 
tracted while  in  the  United  States  service,”  approved 
June  16,  1880,  shall  be  entitled  to  receive  a pension  at 
the  rate  of  $72  per  month  from  the  date  of  the  passage 
of  this  act  or  of  the  certificate  of  the  examining  sur- 
geon or  board  of  surgeons  showing  such  degree  of 
disability  made  subsequent  to  the ‘passage  of  this  act. 

The  Dependent  Parents  and  Disability  Act. — The 
act  provides  that  in  considering  the  pension  claims  of 
dependent  parents,  the  fact  of  the  soldier’s  death  by 
reason  of  any  wound,  injury,  casualty  or  disease 
which,  under  the  conditions  and  limitations  of  exist- 
ing laws,  would  have  entitled  him  to  an  invalid  pen- 
sion, and  the  fact  that  the  soldier  left  no  widow  or 
minor  children  having  been  shown  as  required  by  law, 
it  shall  be  necessary  only  to  show  by  competent  and 
sufficient  evidence  that  such  parents  or  parent  are 
without  other  means  of  support  than  their  own  manual 
labor  or  the  contributions  of  others  not  legally  bound 
for  their  supports  Provided,  that  all  pensions  allowed 
to  dependent  parents  under  this  act  shall  begin  from 
the  date  of  the  filing  of  the  application  hereunder,  and 
shall  continue  no  longer  than  the  existence  of  the 
dependence. 

Sec.  2.  That  all  persons  who  served  ninety  days  or 
more  in  the  military  or  naval  service  of  the  United 
States  during  the  late  war  of  the  rebellion,  and  who 
have  been  honorably  discharged  therefrom,  and  who 
are  now  or  who  may  hereafter  be  suffering  from  men- 
tal or  physical  disability  of  a permanent  character,  net 
the  result  of  their  own  vicious  habits,  which  incapac- 
itates them  from  the  performance  of  manual  labor  in 
such  a degree  as  to  render  them  unable  to  earn  a sup- 
port, shall,  upon  making  due  proof  of  the  facts  accord- 
ing to  such  rules  and  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of 
the  Interior  may  provide,  be  placed  upon  the  list  of 
invalid  pensioners  of  the  United  States,  and  be  en- 
titled to  receive  a pension  not  exceeding$i2  per  month 
and  not  less  than  $6  per  month,  proportioned  to  the 


degree  of  Inability  to  earn  support;  and  such  pension 
shall  begin  from  the  date  of  filing  of  the  application  in 
the  Pension  Office,  after  the  passage  of  this  act,  upon 
proof  that  the  disability  then  existed,  and  shall  con- 
tinue during  the  existence  of  the  same:  Provided, 
That  persons  who  are  now  receiving  pension  under  ex- 
isting laws,  or  whose  claims  are  pending  in  the  Pen- 
sion Office,  may,  by  application  to  the  Commissioner 
of  Pensions,  in  such  form  as  he  may  prescribe,  show- 
ing themselves  entitled  thereto,  receive  the  benefit  of 
this  act;  and  nothing  herein  contained  shall  be  so  con- 
strued as  to  prevent  any  pensioner  thereunder  from 
prosecuting  his  claim  and  receiving  his  pension  under 
any  other  general  or  special  act : Provided,  however, 
That  no  person  shall  receive  more  than  one  pension 
for  the  same  period : And,  provided  further,  That 
rank  in  the  service  shall  not  be  considered  in  applica- 
tions filed  under  this  act. 

Sec.  3.  That  if  any  officer  or  enlisted  man  who  served 
ninety  days  or  more  in  the  army  or  navy  of  the  United 
States  during-  the  late  war  of  the  rebellion,  and  who  was 
honorably  discharged  has  died,  or  who  shall  hereafter  die, 
leaving  a widow  without  other  means  of  support  than  her 
daily  labor,  or  minor  children  under  the  age  of  sixteen  years, 
such  widow  shall  upon  due  proof  of  her  husband’s  death, 
without  proving  his  death  to  be  the  result  of  his  army  serv- 
ice, be  placed  on  the  pension  roll  from  the  date  of  the  ap- 
plication therefor  under  this  act  at  the  rate  of  $8  per  month 
during  her  widowhood,  and  shall  also  be  paid  $2  per  month 
for  each  chifd  of  such  officer  or  enlisted  man  under  sixteen 
years  of  age,  and  in  case  of  the  death  or  remarriage  of  the 
widow,  leaving  a child  or  children  of  such  officer  or  enlisted 
man  under  the  age  of  sixteen  years  Such  pension  shall  be 
paid  such  child  or  children  until  the  age  of  sixteen.  Pro- 
vided, That  in  case  a minor  child  is  insane,  idiotic  or  other- 
wise permanently  helpless,  the  pension  shall  continue 
during  the  life  of  said  child,  or  during  the  period  of  such 
disability,  and  this  proviso  shall  apply  to  all  pensions  here- 
tofore granted  or  hereafter  to  be  granted  under  this  or  any 
former  statute  and  such  pension  shall  begin  from  the  date 
of  application  therefor  after  the  passage  of  this  act.  And, 
provided,  further,That  said  widow  shall  have  married  said 
soldier  prior  to  the  passage  of  this  act. 

Sec.  4.  That  no  agent,  attorney  or  other  person  engaged 
iu  preparing,  presenting,  or  prosecuting  any  claim  under 
the  provisions  of  this  act,  shall,  directly  or  indirectly,  con- 
tract for,  demand,  receive,  or  retain  for  such  services  in 
preparihg,  presenting  or  prosecuting  such  claim  a sum 
greater  than  ten  dollars,  which  sum  shall  be  payable  only 
upon  the  order  of  the  Commissioner  of  Pensions  by  the  pen- 
sion agent  making  payment  of  the  pension  allowed,  and 
any  person  who  shall  violate  any  of  the  provisions  of  this 
section,  or  who  shall  wrongfully  withhold  from  a pensioner 
or  claimant  the  whole  or  any  part  of  a pension  or  claim  al- 
lowed or  due  such  pensioner  or  claimant  under  this  act, 
shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a misdemeanor,  and  upon  con- 
viction thereof,  shall  for  each  and  every  such  offense  be 
fined  not  exceeding  five  hundred  dollars  or  be  imprisoned 
at  hard  labor  not  exceeding  two  years,  or  both,  in  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  court. 

The  following  list  shows  the  number  of  pensioners 
in  1901  and  the  amount  of  money  paid  by  the  United 
States  Government  for  pensions  in  that  year: 


Year  ending  June  30,  1901. 

Number  of 
pensioners. 

Annual  value 
of  pensions. 

Army J 

Invalids 

293,186 

$50,542,333 

1 

Widows,  etc 

86,513 

13,396,911 

Navy ( 

Invalids  

4,489 

811,674 

\ 

Widows,  etc.... 

2,298 

449,496 

Army,  act/ 

Invalids 

422,481 

46, 382,702 

Tune  27,  1890.  | 

Widows,  etc. . . . 

138,490 

14,328,250 

Navy,  act) 

Invalids  

15,633 

1,657,362 

June  27,  1890.  1 

Widows,  etc 

6,621 

670,944 

War  01  1812. . f 

Survivor  

x 

96 

i 

Widows  

1,527 

220,716 

War  with! 

Survivors 

7,568 

911,124 

Mexico ( 

Widows 

8,109 

792,172 

Total,  including  Spanish- 
American  war,  Indian 
wars,  etc 

997,735 

$131,568,216 

0aR  NaTi0nai2  Domain 

Graphical  Presentation  of  the  Comparative  Land  Surface  Areas  of  the  States  and  Territories  ot  the  United 
States  and  the  Countries  of  Europe,  omitting  Russia  and  Alaska.* 


Names.  Sq.  Miles. 


Explanation. — The  Solid  Lines  Denote  the  U.  S.,  the  Waved  Ones  Europe. 


Texas 262,290 

Austria 240,942 

Germany 208,880 

France 204,092 

Spain 197,670 

Sweden 172,876 

California 155,980 

N.  and  SI  Dakota  . . . 147,045 

Montana 145,310 

Norway 124,445 

New  Mexico 122,460 

United  Kingdom 120,979 

Arizona 112,920 

Italy 110,646 

Nevada 109,740 

Colorado 103,645 

Wyoming 97,575 

Oregon 94,560 

Idaho 84,290 

Utah 82,190 

Kansas 81,700 

Minnesota 79,205 

Nebraska 76,840 

Missouri...  68,735 

Washington  66,880 

Turkey  in  Europe 65,752 

Georgia 58,980 

England  and  Wales..  58,309 

Michigan 57,430 

Illinois 56,000 

Iowa 55,475 

Wisconsin 54,450 

Florida 54,240 

Arkansas 53,045 

Alabama 51,540 

Roumania 50,720 

North  Carolina 48,580 

'New  York 47,620 

Mississippi 46,340 

Louisiana 45,420 

Pennsylvania 44,985 

Tennessee 41,750 

Ohio 40,760 

Virginia 40,125 

Kentucky 40,000 

Bulgaria 37,860 

Portugal 36,038 

Indiana 35,910 

Ireland. 32,583 

Indian  Territory.. . . 31,154 

South  Carolina 31,048 

Maine 29,895 

Scotland 29,785 

West  Virginia 24,645 

Servia 18,630 

Bosnia + 16,417 

Switzerland 15,976 

Denmark 15,360 

Belgium 11,373 

Maryland 9,860 

Vermont 9,135 

New  Hampshire 9,005 

Massachusetts 8,040 

New  Jersey 7,525 

Connecticut 4,845 

Delaware 1,960 

Rhode  Island 1,053 


AAA 

AA 


♦According  to  our  scheme  of  computation 
Alaska,  area  565,862  sq.  m.,  would  be  rep- 
resented by  a line  9%  inches  long;  Russia 
in  Europe,  area  2,041,402  sq.  m.,  by  a line 
35  inches  long;  Russia  in  Asia,  area  6,479,- 
235  sq.  m.,  by  a line  104  inches  long. 

+ Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  combined, 
have  an  area  of  23,262  sq.  m. 


I I I I 


A A rd  rd 


<M  (M  CO 


g $ 

00  cc 


§ I 


O lO  C*  <N 


o 

£ 

73 
C 

a a 
a & 

K £ 


FRANCE  $6,217,626,266 


RUSSIA  $4,614,836,860  

GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND  $3,262,720,525 


i AUSTRIA-HUNGARY  $3,047,979,980 


j ITALY  $2,451,400,000  j 


UNITED  STATES  (See  below.)  | 

SPAIN  $1,146,701,644 

TURKEY  $815,330,410 

INDIA 

1 $539,026,045 

GERMANY 

$495,330,312 

PUBLIC  DEBT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

(1791-1901.) 


Statement  of  outstanding  Principal  of  the  Public  Debt  of 
the  United  States  on  January  1 of  each  Year  from  1791 
to  1842,  inclusive ; on  July  1 of  each  Year  from  1843  to 
1886,  inclusive;  on  December  1 of  each  Year  from  1887 
to  1892,  inclusive,  and  on  November  1, 1893, 1894,  1895, 
and  1901. 


From  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  on  Finances. 


1791... 

,...$  75,463,476  52 

1804... 

....$  86,427,120 

88 

1792... 

77,227,924  66 

1805... 

82,312,150 

50 

1793... 

80,352,634  04 

1806... 

75.723,270 

66 

1794... 

78,427,404  77 

1807... 

69,218,398 

64 

1795... 

80,747,587  39 

1808 ... 

65,196,317 

97 

1796... 

83,762,172  07 

1809... 

57,023,192 

09 

1797... 

82,064,479  33 

1810... 

53.173,217 

52 

1798... 

79,228,529  12 

1811... 

48,005,587 

76 

1799... 

78,408,669  77 

1812... 

45,209,737 

90 

1800... 

82,976,294  35 

1813... 

55,962,827 

57 

1801... 

83,038,050  80 

1814... 

81,487,846 

24 

1802.. 

86,712,632  25 

1815... 

99.833,660 

15 

1803... 

. . . 77,054,686  30 

1816... 

....  127,334,933 

74 

1790  — 

1817.... 

...$  123,491,96516 

1857.... 

...$  28,699,831  85 

1818... 

. . . 103,466,633  83 

1858... 

44,911,881  03 

— 

1819... 

95,529,648  28 

1859.... 

58,496,837  88 

1820... 

91,015,566  15 

1860.  .. 

64,842,287  88 

1821.... 

89,987,427  66 

1861.... 

. . . . 90,580,873  72 

— 

1822.... 

93,546,676  98 

1862.... 

. . . 524,176,412  13 

1800  

1823.... 

90,875,877  28 

1863.... 

...  1,119,772,138  63 

— 

1824.... 

90,269,777  77 

1864... 

...  1,815,784,370  57 

HZ 

1825.... 

83,788,432  71 

1865... 

....  2,680,647,869  74 

— 

1826.... 

81,054,059  99 

1866... 

...  2,773,236,173  69 

— 

1827.... 

73,987,357  20 

1867... 

....  2,678,126,103  87 



1828.... 

67,475,043  87 

1868... 

...  2,611,687,851  19 

' 

1829.... 

58,421,413  67 

1869... 

....  2,588,452,213  94 

— 

1830.... 

48,565,406  50 

1870.... 

...  2,480,672,427  81 

— 

1831.... 

39,123,191  68 

1871.... 

...  2,353,211,332  32 

1815  

1832... 

24,322,235  18 

1872.... 

...  2,253,251,328  78 

' 

1833.... 

7,001,698  83 

1873... 

. ..  2,234,482,993  20 

— 

1834.... 

4,760,082  08 

1874... 

....  2,251,690,468  43 

— 

1835.... 

37,513  05 

1875... 

...  2,232,284,531  95 

7ZZI 

1836.... 

336,957  83 

1876.... 

....  2,180,395,06715 

1825 

1837.... 

3,308,124  07 

1877.... 

...  2,205,301,392  10 

1838... 

10,434,221  14 

1878... 

...  2,256,205,892  53 

^ZZ! 

1839... 

3,573,343  82 

1879.... 

....  2,340,567,232  04 

~ 

1840... 

5,250,875  54 

1880... 

....  2,128,791,054  63 

— 

1841.... 

13,594,480  73 

1881... 

....  2,077,389,253  58 

— 

1842.... 

20,601,226  28 

1882... 

....  1,926,688,678  03 

1835  - 

1843.... 

32,742,922  00 

1883  ... 

....  1,892,547,412  07 

_ 

1844  ... 

23,461,652  50 

1884.... 

...  1,838,904,607  57 

— 

1845... 

15,925,303  01 

1885  ... 

...  1,872,340,557  14 

- 

1846.... 

15,550,202  97 

1886.... 

....  1,783,438,697  78 

Z 

1847.... 

38,826,584  77 

1887.... 

...  1,664,461,536  38 

— 

1848... 

47,044,862  23 

1888  ... 

....  1,680,917,706  23 

1845  — 

1849... 

63,061,858  69 

1889... 

....  1,617,372,419  53 

— 

1850.... 

63,452,773  55 

1890.... 

....  1,549,206,126  48 

ZZ, 

1851... 

68,304,796  02 

1891.... 

....  1,546,961,695  61 

1850  — — 

1852... 

66,199,341  71 

1892... 

....  1,563,612,455  63 

— 7 

1853... 

59,803,117  70 

1893... 

....  1,549,556,353  63 

— 

1854... 

42,242,222  42 

1894... 

....  1,626,154,037  68 

' 

1855... 

35,586,858  56 

1895... 

....  1,717,481,779  90 

~~ 

1856... 

....  31,972,537  90 

1901... 

....  2,151,585,743  89 

1800  - — 


1861 

-1862- 

-1863- 

-1864- 

-1865- 

-1866- 

-1867- 

-1868- 

-1869- 

-1870- 

-1871- 

-1872- 

-1873- 

-1874- 

-1875- 

-1876- 

-1877- 

-1878- 

-1879- 


t 

f 


| 

i 

i 


-1881- 

-1882- 

-1883- 

-1884- 

-1885- 

-1886- 

-1887- 

-1888- 

-1889- 


-1891- 

-1892- 


-1894- 

-1895- 

-1901- 


in 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  United  States  occupy  the  central  part  of  the 
northern  half  of  the  western  continent.  They  are 
bounded  and  washed  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
on  the  west  by  the  Pacific,  on  the  north  by  the  chain  of 
the  great  lakes,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  territory  embraced  in  the  domain  of  the  govern- 
ment extends  through  240  30'  of  latitude,  and  570  of  long- 
itude. The  southernmost  point  of  the  country  is  Key 
Wfest,  Florida,  and  the  northernmost  the  country  abut- 
ting on  the  Georgian  strait  in  Washington.  The  south- 
ernmost and  northernmost  parallels  of  latitude  are  240  32' 
and  490,  respectively,  and  the  easternmost  and  western- 
most meridians  of  longitude  are  the  67th  and  124th.  The 
greatest  breadth  of  the  country  is  about  2,700  miles, 
and  its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south  about  1,600 
miles;  the  entire  area  of  the  country  being  thus,  in 
round  numbers,  about3,025,ooo  square  miles.  Of  course, 
Alaska  has  not  been  considered  in  the  foregoing.  The 
area  of  Alaska,  as  given  in  the  official  reports  of  the 
United  States,  is  about  532,000  square  miles,  thus  giv- 
ing to  the  entire  possessions  of  the  United  States  an 
area  of  3,557,000  square  miles.  Of  this  area  over 
55,000  square  miles  are  occupied  by  water,  consisting 
of  bays,  gulfs,  sounds,  rivers,  lakes  and  ponds. 

The  boundaries  of  the  United  States,  both  north  and 
south,  are  partly  natural  and  partly  artificial.  The  line 
between  Canada  and  the  States  in  the  northeast  is  arti- 
ficial until  it  reaches  the  St.  Lawrence  system,  when 
that  becomes  the  line  of  demarcation  between  the  two 
countries  for  a portion  of  its  extent,  and  beyond  the 
Lake  of  the  Woods  it  again  beconies  an  artificial  line 
extending  along  the  49th  parallel.  The  boundary  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Mexico  is  partly  marked 
by  the  Rio  Grande  and  partly  by  an  artificial  irregular 
line  expending  in  a southeasterly  direction  from  the  south- 
ernmost limit  of  California  across  to  the  Rio  Grande 
at  a point  where  it  leaves  the  Territory  of  New  Mexico. 

The  coast  line  of  the  United  States  may  be  said  to  be 
distinctively  different  on  its  two  sides,  although  its  con- 
tour on  both  is  far  more  regular  than  that  of  Western 
Europe.  On  the  western  coast  there  are  very  few  in- 
dentations, no  bays  or  gulfs  existing  worthy  of  the 
name  between  Puget  Sound  and  San  Francisco.  At 
the  latter  point  there  is  a commodious  harbor,  and 
further  south,  at  San  Diego,  the  sea  encroaches  on  the 
land  to  form  San  Diego  Bay.  These,  with  Puget  Sound 
and  the  estuary  of  the  Columbia  river,  comprise  all  the 
navigable  indentations  on  the  Pacific  coast.  On  the 
northeastern  coast  the  case  is  different;  the  sea  line  be- 
comes so  broken  that  there  are  almost  innumerable  in- 
dentations and  harbors.  None  of  the  bights  have  a great 
depth  of  water,  but  most  of  them  are  sufficiently  large 
and  sheltered  to  afford  good  anchorage  to  shipping — the 
type  of  this  class  of  harbors  being  that  of  Portland.  The 
projection  of  Cape  Cod,  which  stands  out  boldly  at 
right  angles  to  the  mainland  into  the  sea,  forms  a bay 
of  considerable  size,  but  the  harbor  of  Boston,  which 
lies  at  the  lower  end  of  the  bay,  while  commodious,  is 
not  a specially  good  or  accessible  refuge  for  ships.  The 
principal  harbor  in  the  United  States  (commercially)  is 
that  of  New  York,  which  city  owes  its  preeminence  to 
its  advantages  of  situation,  lying  as  it  does  at  a point 
which  is  the  natural  terminus  of  the  traffic  of  the  great 
water'highway  afforded  by  the  St.  Lawrence  river  and 
its  system  of  great  lakes.  It  would,  at  first  glance, 
seem  that  a more  northern  point — one  nearer  the  mouth 
of  the  St.  Lawrence — would  fulfill  these  conditions 
better  than  New  York,  but  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
river  flows  in  a northeasterly  direction,  entering  a 
region  more  or  less  sterile  and  unfertile,  coupled  with  | 


N I , 60411 

the  fact  that  Long  Island  Sound  affordetr  the  best 
harbor  thereabouts,  trade  naturally  sought  the  outlet 
afforded  by  the  city.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  as 
well  to  notice  Long  Island,  the  only  island  of  consider- 
able size  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States. 
This  body  of  land  is  about  120  miles  long,  and  runs 
parallel  to  the  mainland,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  Sound.  Several  smaller  islands  lie  near  it, 
and  are  believed  at  one  time,  in  common  with  Long 
Island,  to  have  formed  a portion  of  the  mainland, 
from  which  they  were  separated  by  a cataclysm.  To 
the  south  of  New  York  lies  Delaware  Bay,  the  ex- 
panded mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  the 
next  indentation  into  the  land  being  the  Chesapeake 
Bay,  into  which  the  waters  of  several  large  rivers  dis- 
charge— the  Susquehanna,  the  Patapsco,  the  Potomac, 
the  Rappahannock,  the  York,  and  the  James.  Phila- 
delphia’s situation  gives  it  the  advantage  of  the  trade 
of  the  Delaware,  while  Baltimore  commands  most  of 
that  of  the  Chesapeake.  Of  late  years,  however,  the 
heavy  shipments  of  cotton  and  the  coaling  of  steamers 
have  been  centered  at  Norfolk,  Va.,  at  the  lower  end 
of  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  instead  of  seeking  its  outlet  at 
Baltimore,  over  200  miles  higher  up.  The  next  inden- 
tations to  be  considered  are  Albemarle  and  Pamlico 
sounds  on  the  Carolina  coast,  both  of  which,  together 
with  Hatteras  inlet,  become  dangerous,  in  certain  seasons, 
to  shipping,  and  are  always  more  or  less  dreaded  by  mari- 
ners. The  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  largest  inlet  into  the 
American  coast,  is  of  great  importance,  both  commer- 
cially and  climatologically.  The  surrounding  country 
is  more  or  less  miasmatic  and  unhealthy.  Particularly 
is  this  true  of  the  southern  portion  of  Florida,  which 
is  at  times  almost  uninhabitable. 

Although  the  coast  line  of  the  United  States  is  com- 
paratively limited  when  the  size  of  the  country  is  con- 
sidered, this  lack  is  fully  compensated  by  the  numerous 
navigable  rivers  and  the  chain  of  great  lakes  on  the 
northern  frontier,  with  whk  h communication  is  now 
open  from  the  ocean,  thus,  as  it  were,  extending  the 
coast  line  for  a distance  of  more  than  3,000  miles. 
As  there  are  but  few  inlets  of  the  sea,  so  there  are 
comparatively  few  capes  and  headlands  encroaching  on 
the  ocean.  On  the  western  coast  there  are  none  worth 
mentioning,  while  on  the  east,  Capes  Cod,  May,  Charles. 
Henry,  and  Hatteras,  and  the  peninsula  of  Florida  are 
the  most  prominent.  Among  the  others  may  be  men 
tioned  Capes  Ann,  Henlopen,  Lookout,  Fear,  Cana 
veral,  Florida,  Sable.  Capes  Roman  and  St.  Bias  ex 
tend  out  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  islands  of  the  United  States  are  numerous,  and 
lie  both  to  the  east  and  west  of  the  mainland.  Most  of 
these  give  evidence  that  they  were  at  one  period  portions 
of  the  mainland  and  have  been  reduced  to  their  insular 
condition  from  various  causes.  Those  north  of  Cape 
Cod  are  mostly  of  granitic  formation  and  are  raised  to  a 
considerable  height  above  the  sea  level.  Of  these, 
Mount  Desert,  off  the  coast  of  Maine,  with  an  area  of 
about  150  square  miles,  is  the  largest.  To  the  south 
of  this  point,  and  particularly  along  the  coast  of  the 
Southern  States  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  character 
of  the  islands  changes,  and  they  become  low  and  sandy. 
These  islands  form  an  almost  continuous  chain  for  several 
hundred  miles,  enclosing  practically  land-locked  sounds. 
The  largest  island  on  the  coast,  as  has  been  said  {supra) 
is  Long  Island,  with  an  area  of  1,450  square  miles. 
Among  the  others  are  Nantucket  and  Martha’s  Vine- 
yard,  which  lie  east  of  Long  Island,  while  in  the  far 
south  we  have  the  Tortugas  and  the  Florida  reefs.  On 
the  western  coast  the  principal  group  which  claims  our 
attention  are  the  Santa  Barbaras,  in  which  group  a.r« 

I found  several  good  harbors. 


U N I 


6042 

We  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  the  surface 
systems  of  the  country.  Extending  across  the  United 
States  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific — the  entire  breadth 
of  the  continent  — three  physical  regions  may  be  noted. 
These  ate:  the  middle  portion  of  the  Cordilleran  (or 
Pacific  system),  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the 
Appalachian  system,  with  the  Atlantic  coast  plain.  We 
will  reverse  the  order  in  which  these  sections  are  enu- 
merated here  and  consider,  first, 

The  Appalachian  System. — This  system,  the  oldest 
geologically,  extends  from  the  shores  of  Nova  Scotia 
to  northern  Alabama  and  Georgia,  and  in  its  course 
takes  a range  almost  parallel  to  the  sea  coast.  It  is 
divided  into  three  distinct  portions  by  depressions,  one 
of  which  occurs  in  the  region  of  the  Hudson  river  and 
Lake  Champlain,  and  the  other  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Mohawk  river.  If  the  height  of  the  ocean  should  aug- 
ment 400  feet,  thfese  three  sections  of  the  system  would 
appear  as  islands,  and  the  country,  thus  rising  above 
the  waste  of  waters,  would  be  thus  roughly  defined:  1. 
The  New  England  States  from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence to  the  Hudson  river  and  Lake  Champlain.  2.  The 
section  of  territory  in  the  Adirondacks  lying  between 
the  Hudson  and  Mohawk  rivers,  approximating  a tri- 
angle in  shape;  and  (3)  the  southern  section  including  the 
Middle  and  Southern  States  from  the  Mohawk  river  to 
northern  Georgia  and  Alabama.  The  physical  peculi- 
arities of  these  three  sections  may  be  properly  here 
briefly  adverted  to.  The  New  England  section  is  rep- 
resented by  the  Green  Mountains,  a range  stretching 
from  the  Hudson  river  to  the  Connecticut  river  and  its 
outlying  cognate  group,  the  White  Mountains,  situated 
fast  of  the  Connecticut  river.  The  Green  Mountains, 
Awhile  nowhere  attaining  a great  altitude,  are  important 
Is  forming  the  watershed  between  the  Atlantic  slope 
and  the  St.  Lawrence  system.  None  of  them  attain 
the  height  of  5,000  feet,  the  peaks  of  the  White  Mount- 
ains surpassing  them  in  this  respect.  The  highest  peak 
in  the  White  Mountain  range  is  Mount  Washington, 
which  reaches  an  altitude  of  6,300  feet. 

The  second  section  of  the  Appalachian  range  con- 
sists of  the  Wilderness  region  of  New  York.  The 
mountains  here  receive  the  name  of  the  Adirondacks, 
running  from  south-southwest  to  north-northeast. 
This  range  has  another  subdivision,  the  Au  Sable  range, 
which  contains  the  highest  peak  of  the  group — Mount 
Marcy,  which  attains  a height  of  5,400  feet.  The 
region  hereabout  contains  a large  number  of  beautiful 
lakes,  and  is  densely  clothed  with  timber  of  various 
kinds.  It  is  considered  one  of  the  most  picturesque 
portions  of  the  world,  and  is  called  the  “ Switzerland 
of  America.”  The  third  division  of  the  Appalachian 
range  is  much  larger  than  the  other  two,  and  comprises 
the  entire  region  along  the  range  from  the  Hudson  and 
Mohawk  rivers  to  Northern  Georgia  and  Alabama.  It 
is  subdivided  into  a large  number  of  ranges  which  run 
parallel  to  each  other.  They  attain  their  point  of 
widest  separation  in  Virginia,  but  their  points  of  great- 
est elevation  are  further  south.  The  highest  peaks  occur 
in  the  Black  Mountains,  one  of  a number  of  transverse 
chains  which  separate  and  help  to  entirely  inclose  the 
valleys  which  are  formed  by  the  parallel  ranges.  The 
Black  Dome,  the  highest  peak  of  the  system,  reaches  a 
height  of  6,707  feet,  while  its  nearest  competitor, 
Mount  Mitchell,  has  an  altitude  of  6,600.  This  section 
\s  traversed  by  a great  valley  which  takes  different 
names  along  its  course.  In  Pennsylvania  it  appears  as 
the  Cumberland,  while  in  Virginia  it  takes  the  name  of 
the  Shenandoah,  and  further  south  it  is  called  the 
Tennessee.  The  eastern  boundary  of  this  great  valley 
is  formed  by  the  following  ranges,  which,  while  really 
the  same,  have  the  following  local  names:  The  High- 


lands of  the  Hudson,  the  ranges  of  Western  New  Hor- 
sey, the  South  Mountains  of  Pennsylvania,  the  Blue 
Ridge  and  Peaks  of  Otter  in  Virginia,  the  Blue  Ridge 
of  North  Carolina,  while  between  the  Blue  Ridge  and 
the  Alleghanies  lie  the  Bald,  Great  Smoky,  and  Unaka 
mountains.  To  the  west  of  the  great  valley  the  range 
takes  the  following  names:  The  Catskills,  the  highest 
peak  of  which  reaches  a height  of  nearly  4,000  feet; 
the  Shawagunk  Mountains,  the  Kittatiny  or  Blue 
Mountains,  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  the  Great  North 
Mountain,  Great  Flat  Top  and  Clinch  mountains, 
Cumberland  Mountains,  and  the  Raccoon  and  Lookout 
mountains,  with  Missionary  Ridge  and  a few  others 
south  of  the  Tennessee  river  in  Northern  Alabama  and 
Georgia. 

To  the  east  of  the  Appalachian  system,  from  the  base 
of  the  system  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  extends  the  Atlantic 
coast  plain.  This  plain  has  a varying  width,  from  8 
miles  to  250.  Its  narrowest  point  is  in  New  York,  and 
its  widest  in  North  Carolina.  The  southern  portion  of 
this  plain  is  divided  into  two  distinct  physical  regions — 
the  tidewater  region  and  the  middle  or  Piedmont  dis- 
trict (as  called  in  Virginia).  The  tidewater  district  is 
low,  rarely  reaching  a height  of  more  than  one  hundred 
feet  above  sea-level,  and  is  of  a sandy  soil,  the  prevail- 
ing forest  trees  being  of  the  pine  family.  Numerous 
large  swamps  appear,  such  as  the  Cypress  swamp  ip 
Delaware,  the  Chickahominy  and  Dismal  in  Virginia, 
the  Alligator  and  Green  swamps  in  the  Carolinas,  and 
the  Okefinokee  and  Everglades  in  Georgia  and  Florida. 
The  Piedmont  region  is  widely  different  in  physical 
characteristics  from  the  region  just  described.  Its 
elevation  ranges  from  150  to  more  than  1,000  feet 
above  the  sea  level,  and  throughout  its  extent  it  abounds 
in  hills  and  valleys.  The  soil  is  fertile,  the  river- 
bottoms,  particularly,  being  nowhere  excelled  in  pro- 
ductiveness. 

The  line  of  division  between  these  two  districts  is 
distinctly  outlined  by  an  accelerated  declivity  indicated 
by  rapids  in  the  different  streams,  as  is  exemplified  in  the 
various  rivers  flowing  eastward  from  the  Delaware 
river  in  the  north  to  the  Chattahoochee  in  the  south. 
Below  this  point  the  country  (particularly  Florida)  is 
nearly  all  included  in  the  tidewater  district. 

The  next  point  to  be  considered  is  that  range  of 
country  known  as  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  or  the 
Central  region  of  the  United  States.  This  tract  of 
country  maybe  roughly  estimated  as  1,250  miles  square, 
which  declines  from  the  watersheds  east  and  west  to 
the  grand  central  drainage  system  of  the  “ Father  of 
Waters,”  and  from  the  headwaters  of  the  river  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

According  to  the  United  States  census  the  whole 
country  is  drained  as  follows:  “Atlantic  and  Gulf, 
2,178,210  square  miles;  Great  Basin,  228,150;  Pacific 
slope,  619,240.  The  drainage  into  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
is  distributed  as  follows : New  England  coast,  61,830 
square  miles  ; Middle  Atlantic  coast,  83,020  ; South  At- 
lantic coast,  132,040 ; Great  Lakes,  175,340 ; Gulf  of 
Mexico,  1,725,980  (the  Mississippi-Missouri  basin  being 
estimated  at  1,240,039).” 

From  this  statement  it  can  be  seen  that  the  drainage 
system  of  the  Mississippi  far  exceeds  that  of  any 
other  system  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  or 
of  North  America.  The  reason  is  obvious,  when 
we  consider  the  conformation  of  the  surface  of  the 
country.  We  quote  the  words  of  an  eminent  authority 
in  the  following  paragraphs,  in  order  that  the  reader 
may  comprehend  the  conditions  attendant  on  the  sys- 
tem of  the  Mississippi: 

“The  all-important  fact  in  the  topography  of  the 
North  American  continent  in  general,  and  of  the 


U N I 


6043 


United  States  in  particular,  is  the  existence  of  a central 
comparatively  low  and  level  region,  declining  gently 
from  a watershed  in  close  proximity  to  the  Great  Lakes 
on* the  north,  toward  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the 
south. 

“ One  may  ascend  the  Mississippi  to  its  junction 
with  the  Ohio,  at  Cairo — a distance  of  1,100  miles 
from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, — and  the  elevation  attained 
will  be  only  about  300  feet,  an  average  ascent  of  about 
four  inches  to  the  mile.  A journey  of  almost  1,000 
miles  farther,  "to  Pittsburgh,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Allegheny  and  Monongahela  rivers,  will  only  give  a 
total  rise  of  700  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  head  of 
the  Mississippi  is  in  a region  entirely  destitute  of  mount- 
ains, comprising  an  almost  level  area,  covered  in  large 
part  by  lakes  and  swamps,  and  only  about  1,500  feet  in 
elevation.  In  ascending  the  Mississippi  to  St.  Louis,  a 
distance  of  1,250  miles,  we  have  reached  an  elevation  of 
about  400  feet,  and  at  St.  Paul,  658  miles  above  the 
mouth  of  the  Missouri,  one  of  a little  less  than  700 
feet.  If  we  follow  up  the  Missouri  to  the  western 
line  of  the  State  of  the  same  name,  where  the  river  flows 
from  the  north,  we  have  the  choice,  if  we  wish  to 
keep  on  directly  west,  of  following  either  of  its  great 
branches  from  that  direction — the  Platte  and  the  Kan- 
sas. Up  either  of  these  we  may  travel  for  fully  500 
miles,  rising  so  gradually  that  the  difference  of  elevation 
from  day  to  day  is  hardly  perceptible,  the  country  pre- 
serving all  the  characteristics  of  a plain,  although 
declining  gently  to  the  east.  ” 

This  valley  may  be  regarded  as  extending  from  the 
great  plains  of  the  Cordilleran  system  to  the  Appa- 
lachians on  the  east.  Its  extent  may  be  roughly  set 
down  as  300,000  square  miles.  Of  this  area  a very 
large  proportion  is  fertile,  and  while  timber  is  not  a 
prominent  feature  of  the  major  part  of  the  territory,  the 
soil  is  capable  of  sustaining  all  kinds  of  vegetation,  and 
it  is  among  the  vast  prairies  of  this  region  that  we  find 
the  greatest  averages  of  productiveness  in  the  Union. 
The  rivers,  which  either  flow  toward  the  Gulf  or  to  a 
confluence  with  the  main  central  trunk,  have  worn  for 
themselves  in  the  soil  deep  depressions  or  troughs,  in 
«ome  cases  contracting  their  width  and  leaving  the 
“ bluffs  ” several  miles  away  frpm  the  present  margins 
of  the  streams,  and  in  others  having  them  still  close  to 
the  edges  of  the  running  waters.  These  “ bluffs  ” are 
characteristic  of  the  Missouri  and  Mississippi,  in  the 
cases  of  which  rivers  they  stand  close  to  the  water’s 
edge  and  appear  as  abrupt  precipices.  The  following 
figures  may  be  given  as  indicative  of  the  general  slope 
of  the  valley:  At  St.  Paul  the  height  of  the  land  above 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  870  feet;  Fort  Snelling,  828  feet; 
Davenport,  Iowa,  485  feet;  St.  Louis,  400  feet;  Colum- 
dus,  Ky.,  375  feet;  Memphis,  Tenn.,  246  feet;  conflu- 
ence of  Arkansas  river,  162  feet;  Natchez,  Miss.,  66 
feet;  Baton  Rouge,  34  feet;  New  Orleans,  2& feet.  This 
rise  in  height  above  the  level  of  the  Gulf  is,  as  far  as 
absolute  level  is  concerned  — i.e,,  if  a straight  line  were 
drawn  from  the  head  of  the  Mississippi  — counteracted 
by  the  curvature  of  the  earth  in  the  long  distance  over 
which  the  stream  flows,  so  that  the  river  really  runs  up 
hill.  Thus,  it  must  be  understood  that,  when  we  speak 
of  the  levels  of  the  two  points,  we  mean  that  a line  drawn 
from  the  surface  of  the  earth  (for  instance)  at  St.  Paul 
to  the  center  thereof,  would  be  870  feet  longer  than  a 
line  drawn  from  the  surface  to  the  center  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river. 

The  Cordilleran  System. — The  Cordilleran  system 
may  be  properly  divided  into  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region,  tne  region  of  the  Great  Basin,  and  the  Basin 
ranges,  the  Columbian  plateau,  sometimes  described  as 

the  Northern  plateau  the  Southern  plateau,  and  the 


Cascade,  Nevada,  and  Pacific  coast  ranges.  These 
divisions  constitute  the  six  regions  included  and  treated 
under  the  above  designated  system.  The  first  named  is 
divided  into  sections  and  ranges,  and  forms  the  eastern 
boundary  line  of  the  system.  These  are  subdivided  into 
ranges  or  sections  extending  north  and  south,  and  they 
in  turn  into  northeastern  and  northwestern  extensions. 
Between  these  a range  of  elevation  extends  to  a consid- 
erable distance,  at  a height  of  from  one  to  several 
thousand  feet,  across  the  summit  of  which  the 
route  of  the  Pacific  railway  system  was  long  since 
Completed  and  improved.  To  the  north  of  this  are  to 
be  found  mountain  ranges,  conspicuous  for  the  wealth  of 
their  mineral  deposits,  also  as  the  source  of  the  Colorado, 
Missouri,  and  Columbia  rivers.  The  division  extending 
in  a northerly  and  southerly  direction  approximates  700 
miles  in  length  by  about  300  miles  in  breadth,  rising 
from  the  foot-hills  to  the  mountain  heights  by  abrupt 
ascents.  In  the  State  of  Colorado,  the  most  celebrated 
and  attractive  system  of  elevated  plateaus  is  embraced 
in  Grand  and  Park  counties  between  36°  and  410. 
They  consist  of  North,  South,  Middle,  and  San  Luis 
Parks,  situated  at  an  elevation  of  from  six  to  ten  thou- 
sand feet  and  drained  by  the  Rio  Grande,  Colorado, 
Platte  and  Arkansas  rivers.  The  Middle  Park  is  also 
drained  by  streams  flowing  into  Grand  river  and  is  cut 
up  by  elevations.  South  Park  is  from  thirty  to  forty 
miles  in  length  and  twenty  miles  wide,  and  North  Park, 
which  is  more  level  than  either  of  the  preceding,  is  forty 
miles  by  twenty,  and  inclosed  in  lofty  ranges,  at  some 
places  12,000  feet  high. 

The  Colorado  and  Park  ranges  of  Colorado  are  sit- 
uated on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  Rio  Grande.  The 
former  extends  from  400  N.  latitude  to  Pike’s  Peak, 
and  contains  the  latter  mountain,  besides  Gray’s  Peak, 
14,341  feet  in  height,  also  Long’s  Peak,  14,271  feet. 
To  the  west  of  the  source  of  the  Arkansas  lies  the 
Saguache  range,  among  the  loftiest  of  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ains, averaging  14,000  feet,  the  highest  points  being 
Harvard  Mountain,  14,375  feet,  and  the  Holy  Cross, 
14,176  feet.  This  range  is  followed  by  the  Continental 
Divide  to  38°  20',  whence  it  pursues  a southwesterly 
direction  for  a distance  of  nearly  one  hundred  miles, 
thence  following  the  San  Juan  range.  The  latter  is 
the  western  border  of  San  Luis  Park,  and  is  charac- 
terized by  a “broken  country,”  culminating  at  Uncom- 
pahgre  Peak,  14,235  feet  high. 

The  Elk  Mountain  '-ange  lies  west  of  the  Saguache. 
It  consists  of  pinnacles  of  volcanic  matter,  the  highest 
of  which  is  Castle  Peak,  14,000  feet.  In  this  range 
rise  the  streams  which  unite  and  form  the  Gunnison 
river. 

The  Park  range  above  referred  to  is  bounded  on  the 
northeast  by  the  range  of  Sangre  de  Cristo,  containing 
the  highest  point  in  the  Rockies — Blanca  Peak,  14,463 
feet.  The  latter  range  is  described  as  a continuation  of 
the  Saguache  range  and  possesses  similar  geological 
features.  The  Garita  hills  are  at  the  northwestern  side 
of  the  San  Luis  valley.  They  are  bounded  by  the  Un- 
compahgre  and  .San  Juan  ranges  on  the  northwest  and 
southwest  respectively,  and  are  irregular  and  broken. 
The  Uintah  range  is  to  the  west  of  North  Park.  It 
unites  with  the  eastern  side  of  the  Wahsatch  range, 
runs  upward  of  dne  hundred  miles  in  an  easterly  direc- 
tion when  it  is  absorbed  by  the  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary 
masses  west  of  the  Park  range.  South  of  it  is  the 
Uintah  valley,  the  extreme  western  boundary  of  the 
plateau  sections  of  Colorado  and  drained  by  the  streams 
which  combine  to  form  the  Green  and  Grand  rivers. 
The  highest  peaks  of  the  Uintah  are  Gilberts,  Wilsons, 
and  TMcewanna,  severally  13,687,  13,235,  and  13,458 
feet. 


6044  ONI 


The  Wahsatch  range  forms  the  western  boundary  of 
the  Rocky  Mountain  division  of  the  Cordilleran  sys- 
tem. It  is  among  the  most  promine*.!  of  the  ranges  of 
that  division,  and  at  one  point  east  of  Salt  Lake  City 
attains  a height  of  more  than  12,000  feet,  its  altitude 
diminishing,  however,  to  the  north,  and  becoming  less 
md  less  perceptible  as  a range  west  of  Bear  river,  a 
Stream  originating  in  Uintah  range,  thence  flowing  first 
in  a northerly  direction,  then  in  a southerly  direction, 
until  it  finally  empties  into  Salt  Lake.  North  Logan  is 
Dne  of  the  lofty  peaks  of  the  range. 

The  division  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  known  as  the 
K Northern  Division  ” is  made  up  of  a number  of  ranges 
extending  generally  from  the  northwest  to  the  south- 
east, and,  excepting  the  Wind  River  range,  not  char- 
acterized by  any  remarkable  peaks.  This  division  has 
not  been  as  fully  explored  as  the  southern  division  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  latter  in  Montana  and  Idaho 
is  less  regularly  developed,  than  in  the  south,  but  parks 
are  nearly  as  numerous,  and  the  water  courses  are 
thickly  lined  with  sycamores  and  other  forest  trees. 
The  soil  of  the  parks  is  in  some  cases  cultiva- 
ble^and  affords  abundant  pasturage.  The  Bitter  Root 
Mountains  occur  between  the  Missouri  and  Columbia 
rivers,  to  the  west  of  which,  also  to  the  northwest,  are 
the  Cceur  de  Alene  and  Lapwai  ranges,  by  which  the 
Rocky  and  Blue  Mountains  are  connected,  while  to  the 
east  of  the  main  range  of  the  former,  collections  of 
mountain  elevations  are  to  be  found.  The  range  of 
Crazy  Mountains,  formed  of  sandstone,  shales,  volcanic 
rocks, etc.,  is  north  of  the  Yellowstone  river,  while  to  the 
northeast,  in  109°-*  10°  W.  longitude,  are  to  be  seen  the 
Judith  Mountains;  in  the  southeast  are  the  Big-Horn, 
and  east  of  these  the  Black  Hills.  The  latter  extend 
over  a distance  120  miles  long,  and  are  from  30  to  50 
miles  wide;  the  highest  peak,  Mount  Harney,  has  an 
elevation  somewhat  less  than  10,000  feet.  Geologically 
they  are  not  dissimilar  from  the  ranges  in  the  northern 
division  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  central  deposits 
consist  of  “ crystalline  rocks.”  Potsdam  stone  supports 
“ beds  of  Carboniferous  age ; ” these  are  succeeded  by 
a sandy  stratum,  sandstone,  limestone,  etc.,  gradually 
increasing  in  thickness  toward  the  north,  and  attaining 
the  greatest  depth  in  the  valley  of  Belle  Fourche.  The 
Jurassic  is  extensively  developed  in  the  Wind  River  range 
and  vicinity,  becoming  thicker  farther  south,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Great  Basin.  The  Cretaceous 
series  is  also  extensively  developed  in  the  Wind  River 
range,  and  are  similar  in  some  of  their  features  to  the 
Jurassic  and  Triassic.  The  topography  of  this  region 
is  described  as  '‘interesting,”  owing  to  the  position  of 
the  groups  of  strata  mentioned,  a special  and  conspicu- 
ous incident  of  the  same  being  the  “ Devil’s  Tower,” 
upward  of  600  feet  in  height. 

A widely  extended  plateau,  containing  ranges  of 
nmoun  tains  running  north  and  south,  is  characteristic  of 
the  “ Great  Basin.”  The  latter  is  a roughly  formed  area 
of  territory  embracing  nearly  250,000  acres  of  land, 
continuing  from  the  northeastern  part  of  California  to 
the  Uintah  range.  It  is  in  the  shape  of  a triangle  with 
its  base  running  east  and  west  and  its  apex  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Colorado  river,  drained  in  part  by  the 
affluents  of  Snake  river,  with  summits  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  occurring  at  intervals  for  a considerable  distance 
in  a southwesterly  direction.  Humboldt  river  has  its 
origin  100  miles  west  of  Salt  Lake,  and  indicates  a 
depression  at  the  northern  boundary  of  the  basin,  increas- 
ing its  elevation  as  it  runs  south  to  a height  of  from 
4,000  to  8,000  feet.  The  basin  at  the  north  is  drained 
by  Humboldt  sink,  and  the  valleys  of  the  basin  also  form 
drainage  channels.  Vegetation  does  not  thrive  in 
the  lower  valleys,  onlv  sage  grass  growing  in  the  more 


f avored  localities.  The  ranges  extend  north  and  soufctt 
many  are  conspicuous  for  some  distance,  whilt 
others  are  insignificant,  the  Humboldt  being  the 
most  prominent.  It  begins  in  the  basin’s  center 
and  traverses  in  a northerly-northeasterly  direction 
to  the  source  of  the  Humboldt  river,  attaining 
its  greatest  elevation  at  Mount  Bonpland,  11,321  feet 
West  of  Humboldt  river  about  160  miles  the  Pah  Ute 
range  occurs,  and  at  the  western  boundary  of  the  Basin 
is  Star  Peak,  the  highest  peak  of  the  West  Humboldt 
range.  In  none  of  the  ranges  does  vegetation  prosper, 
unless  an  exception  is  made  in  favor  of  the  highest 
portions,  in  some  of  the  canons,  where  forest  trees 
are  abundant.  Geologically,  however,  the  Basin  con- 
tains much  of  interest.  The  Alpine  Trias  is  the  most 
conspicuous  formation,  there  seeming  to  be  an  excep- 
tional lack  of  the  Cretaceous,  Tertiary,  and  other  strata 
peculiar  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  divisions.  The  forma- 
tions are  similar,  in  some  particulars,  to  those  of  the 
Appalachian  and  Jura  ranges.  The  ranges  are  mono- 
clinal,  anticlinal,  or  synclinal,  and  sometimes  two  or 
more  of  these  are  combined.  There  is  an  absence  also 
of  the  features  of  Appalachian  erosion,  but  the  Basin 
ranges  differ  from  the  Appalachian  and  the  Jura  in  the 
appearance  of  volcanic  masses,  in  which  respect  the 
ranges  of  the  Basin  are  not  dissimilar  from  other  por- 
tions of  the  Cordilleran  system. 

The  area  of  territory  in  which  is  included  the  Colum- 
bia plateau  is  not  entirely  familiar  to  the  public.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Rocky  Mountains,  on  the 
west  by  the  Cascade  range,  and  is  drained  by  the 
Columbia  and  Snake  rivers  and  their  branches.  The 
Cordilleran  system  is  reduced  in  width  in  propor- 
tion as  the  north  division  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
advances  in  a northwesterly  direction,  and  the  area 
between  the  Cordilleran  and  Rocky  Mountain  sys- 
tems is  occupied  with  ranges  but  indifferently 
known,  if  the  Blue  River  and  Salmon  River  ranges 
are  excepted.  The  Salmon  River  range  runs  from  the 
western  limits  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Snake 
river,  the  Blue  River  range  occupying  the  angle  caused 
by  the  Snake  river,  in  its  flow  in  a northerly  direction 
to  Columbia  river.  After  the  Columbia  is  joined  by  the 
Okanaga  river,  some  sixty-five  or  seventy  miles  south  of 
the  boundary  line  of  the  United  States,  its  course  is 
parallel  with  the  Cascade  range  to  Great  Bend,  whence 
it  proceeds  in  a westerly  direction  through  that  range  to 
the  Pacific.  The  country  between  the  range  and  the 
river  is  mountainous,  and  that  between  the  river  and 
Clarke’s  Fork,  specially  so,  the  range  rising  from  five 
to  seven  thousand  feet.  Volcanic  deposits  characterize 
the  area  of  territory  on  the  confines  of  the  Great  Basin 
between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Cascade  range 
to  the  south  of  Columbia  river.  This  formation  extends 
in  northerly  and  southerly  directions  into  the  North- 
western Territory,  Nevada,  up  Snake  river,  and  south- 
west into  California.  It  is  also  to  be  found  in  Montana, 
and,  as  it  proceeds  further  north,  indicates  the  presence 
of  “ eruptive  accumulations  ” which  culminate  in  Mount 
Rainier.  The  beds  of  this  material  vary  in  dimensions 
and  thickness,  and  are  deposited  promiscuously.  They 
are  frequently  found  to  have  been  cut  into  by  streams, 
and  as  frequently  form  the  crest  of  an  elevation  over 
which  falls  of  water  are  precipitated,  presenting  a 
picture  at  once  picturesque  and  attractive.  Among 
these  are  the  Shoshone  Falls.  Other  characteristics  of 
these  plateaus  are  collections  of  cones  at  intervals, 
though  the  greater  proportion  of  the  volcanic  overflows 
is  widely  distributed  in  the  form  of  lava,  the  volcanic 
rocks  also  covering  an  area  of  many  thousand  miles  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Columbia  river  and  the  Cascade 
rangec  There  are  indication?  that  a large  mnietv  of  tbi% 


UNI 


irea  was  at  one  time  covered  with  water.  Indeed., 
bodies  of  water  are  to  be  seen  there  at  present,  singly 
and  in  groups,  many  of  them  of  large  size,  especially  in 
portions  of  Oregon  and  California.  The  valleys  con- 
tain small  tracts  of  land  susceptible  of  cultivation,  but, 
as  a rule,  the  soil  of  the  plateaus  is  sterile.  Geo- 
logically, the  mountain  ranges  upon  which  volcanic 
masses  have  fallen  are  not  unlike  the  rocks  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada.  Granite  occurs  in  the  Owyhee  Moun- 
tains, supporting  an  extended  range  of  sandstone,  slate, 
etc.,  with  frequent  veins  of  gold  and  silver  occurring  in 
quartz  deposits.  The  general  indications  at  pres- 
ent point  to  a period  at  which  volcanic  eruptions  seem 
to  have  been,  not  only  frequent,  but  exceptionally  active 
in  many  portions  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade 
ranges,  and  extending  throughout  a great  expanse  of 
territory  in  an  easterly  direction.  This  is  supposed  to 
have  prevailed  during  the  Post-Tertiary  times,  at  least, 
such  is  the  conclusion  of  scientists,  who  further  insist 
that  the  eruptions  of  fluid  lava  were  infrequent,  if  oc- 
curring at  all. 

As  already  related,  there  were  in  former  times  nu- 
merous table-lands  in  the  regions  bounded  by  the 
Rocky  Mountains  on  the  east,  and  the  Sierra  Nevada 
on  the  west,  that  contained  numerous  bodies  of  water 
of  very  large  dimensions.  The  water  in  these  lakes  has 
since  disappeared,  either  through  drainage,  absorption, 
evaporation,  or  otherwise,  and  the  formations  at  the 
bottom  of  each,  effected  by  erosive  agencies  at  frequent 
localities,  now  exhibit  their  geological  structures,  which 
have  become  objects  of  special  study  and  interest  to 
scholars  and  scientists.  They  have  also  produced  a 
description  of  scenery  known  under  the  name  of  “ Mau- 
vaises  Terres,”  or  Bad  Lands.  These  occur  in  the 
country  south  and  southwest  of  the  Missouri  river  and 
along  its  affluents,  and  are  described  as  the  most  wonder- 
ful formations  to  be  seen  in  North  America,  from  a geo- 
logical standpoint,  but  from  an  agricultural  point  of 
view  are  of  no  value  whatever.  They  are  represented  as 
large  bodies  of  strata  or  layers  of  rocky  material  hun- 
dreds of  feet  thick,  extending  over  a vast  region  of 
country,  and  possessing  attractions  of  an  unique  and  in- 
teresting character.  The  action  of  the  water,  or  of  un- 
known causes,  has  combined  to  cut  into  or  separate  these 
masses,  thereby  creating  canons,  gorges,  and  other  de- 
velopments of  a striking  and  suggestive  character.  The 
walls  of  many  of  these,  notably  the  Grand  Canon  of  the 
Colorado,  the. Black  Canon  of  the  Gunnison,  Weber 
Canon,  Echo  Canon,  etc.,  rise  perpendicularly  to  a 
height  of  from  one  to  several  thousand  feet,  and  are 
worn  and  sculptured  into  forms  wonderfully  realistic. 
These  features  of  interest  are  rendered  additionally  at- 
tractive by  the  coloring  with  which  the  strata  are  tinted, 
presenting  almost,  every  shade,  and  completing  a com- 
bination of  hues  of  never-ending  fascination  to  the 
student,  the  admirer  of  artistic  development,  and  the 
traveler,  as  also  a field  for  the  study  of  the  glacial 
period  unsurpassed  on  the  continent.  These  phe- 
nomena, if  they  may  be  so  described,  are  part  of  the 
country  to  the  south  and  east  of  the  great  basin,  between 
the  Colorado  river  and  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  extend 
westwardly  to  the  eastern  boundary  line  of  California, 
where  they  disappear.  The  dimensions  of  the  area  em- 
bracing the  most  conspicuous  development  are  varied. 
The  region  in  which  the  Grand  Canon  is  situated  is  180 
miles  long  by  125  miles  wide.  A rampart,  so  to  speak, 
indicates  the  western  boundary  line  similar  to  that 
exhibited  by  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  ranges  in 
Southern  California,  where  the  transition  is  said  to 
be  exceptionally  abrupt.  Four  plateaus  to  the  north 
of  the  Grand  Canon  are  drained  by  the  latter,  while 
% fifth  is  drained  by  the  Marble  Canon,  The  forme* 


6045 

namely,  the  Kanab,  Uinkara,  Kaibab  and  Sheavwits,  ar* 
of  Carboniferous  strata,  while  the  Paria,  or  fifth  plateau, 
is  at  a lower  level  and  covered  with  Triassic  rocks. 

A rampart  also  describes  the  southern  boundary  of 
the  Grand  Canon  district  : indeed  it  is  said  that  the 
western  boundary  line  is  a continuation  of  that  on  th® 
south,  and  preserves  the  same  general  features  for  a dis- 
tance of  forty  or  fifty  miles,  thence  changing  its  course 
to  the  southeast,  traversing  eastern  Arizona  to  what  is 
known  as  the  Mogollon  Mountains,  whence  it  proceeds 
southwest,  where  the  country  descends  from  the  horizon- 
tal platform  into  a lower  country  with  geological  forma- 
tions similar  to  those  which  characterize  the  western 
country  of  the  Sierras.  On  the  western  extension  of  the 
Sheavwits  plateau  and  north  of  the  Colorado,  is  an  ex- 
tensive valley  known  as  the  “ Great  Wash.”  Adjoining 
the  Sheavwits,  yet  separated  from  it  geologically  by 
Hurricane  Ledge,  is  the  Uinkaret  plateau.  The  ram- 
part of  the  former  plateau  is  a break  along  which  the 
region  to  the  east  has  been  raised  several  thousand  feet* 
while  Hurricane  Ledge  marks  a rise  of  from  1,5001.0 
2,000  feet  in  the  land  to  the  east  of  the  latter.  The 
Kanab  is  the  broadest  and  the  Kaibab  the 
loftiest  of  these  plateaus,  being  from  eight  to 
ten  thousand  feet  in  height,  covered  with  parks  and 
forests,  which  grow  luxuriantly.  It  has  a total  length  of 
ninety  miles  and  an  average  width  of  thirty  miles.  Thfe 
Paria  plateau  is  in  an  easterly  direction,  and  beyond  i£ 
lies  the  Kaiparowitz.  At  the  north  are  a series  of 
plateaus,  separated  from  each  other,  the  physical  con- 
formation of  the  country  being  the  product  of  simple 
attrition,  together  with  numerous  instances  of  seismic 
phenomena.  Another  area  of  plateau  land  is  on  the 
southern  side  of  Colorado  river,  with  an  underlying 
stratum  nearly  horizontal,  but  unmarked  by  any  of  the 
features  mentioned  as  occurring  in  the  regions  to  the 
north,  though  they  are  located  at  a greater  elevation 
than  the  latter.  At  a distance  of  about  thirty  miles,  in 
a southerly  direction  from  the  Kaibab  plateau,  is  what 
is  known  as  “Red  Butte,”  and  sixty  miles  south  of 
Colorado  river  are  the  San  Francisco  Mountains,  among 
the  loftiest  in  the  West,  the  highest  being  13,000  feet, 
surrounded  by  masses,  cones,  lava,  etc.  Judged  by 
the  bends  and  meandermgs  of  the  river  the  Grand  Canon 
of  the  Colorado  is  more  than  200  miles  in  length,  with 
an  average  depth  of  2,000  feet  and  an  average  width  of 
five  miles.  The  most  stupendous  portion  of  the  Canon 
is  the  Kaibab  division  on  the  north,  where  it  is  more 
than  a thousand  feet  deeper  than  anywhere  else.  The 
most  remarkable  and  interesting  phenomena  of  the 
topography  in  this  region  is  partially  owing  to  the 
manner  in  which  the  formations  have  been  elevated  or 
lowered  between  long  faults,  also  to  che  amount  of 
attrition  to  which  the  region  has  been  subjected.  The 
plateau  region  to  the  south  of  the  Great  Basin  pre- 
sents some  striking  contrasts  to  that  at  the  north. 
In  the  latter  section  the  corrugated  and  folded  strata 
are  filled  with  volcanic  outflows,  which  have  covered 
the  lower  portion  of  country,  while  in  the  plateau 
region,  to  the  south  of  the  Great  Basin,  the  strata  have 
been  raised  to  a high  elevation,  without  being  hardened 
sufficiently  to  resist  erosion,  and  possessing  a variety  of 
lithological  character  that  gives  complexity  to  result- 
ing forms,  which,  affected  by  eroding  agencies,  have 
created  the  remarkable  conditions  they  now  exhibit. 
The  cones  of  varied  dimensions,  which  are  to  be  seen 
in  this  plateau,  are  the  accretions  of  lava  which  have 
been  poured  out  from  orifices  in  the  mountains  during 
the  activity  of  volcanic  agencies.  Many  of  them  are  of 
huge  dimensions,  but  there  has  been  no  such  phenom- 
ena! overflows  in  the  southern  plateau  as  those  which 
have  characterised  the  northern  volcanic  regions 


U N T 


6046 

The  most  important  and  conspicuous  member  of  the 
Cordiileran  system  is  the  Sierra  Nevada  range — not 
alone  as  a system,  but  also  for  the  richness  and  variety 
of  its  mineral  deposits,  its  temperature,  climate,  soil, 
productions,  geological  formations, forests,  scenery,  and 
the  character  and  number  of  the  inhabitants.  It  is  the 
western  boundary  of  the  Cordiileran  system,  as  also  the 
widest  and  loftiest  portion  of  that  system  east  of  Cali- 
fornia. From  its  western  side  it  is  specially  notable, 
because  it  descends  nearly  to  the  sea  level,  while  on  the 
opposite  side  the  plateau  level  is  the  extreme  of  its 
lepression.  Both  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  ranges 
mite  with  what  are  called  the  Coast  ranges,  at  certain 
oints,  and  are  separated  from  them  at  others  by  low 
ut  wide  valleys,  among  which,  and  probably  the  most 
conspicuous,  is  the  Great  Valley  of  California. 

This  range,  as  already  indicated,  is  composed  of  a 
granite  core,  inclosed  by  rocks  of  the  Mesozoic  period, 
the  development  of  the  latter  increasing  in  the  north, 
also  in  the  section  bordering  upon  the  western  declivity 
of  the  range  and  forming  the  auriferous  belt  of  the 
Sierra.  Another  fact  of  importance  is  the  presence  of 
eruptive  rocks  of  Tertiary  and  Post-Tertiary  period  in 
portions  of  the  Cordiileran  region.  The  volcanic  ma- 
terials are  seen  in  large  masses  at  places  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  Sierra,  on  the  highest  portion  of  the  range, 
and  at  points  where  there  are  no  slates  nor  mining  nor 
washing  for  gold.  The  Sierra  group  diminishes  in  its 
altitude  south  of  the  Mount  Whitney  range,  and  at  this 
point  occurs  the  Kern  River  valley,  containing  several 
volcanic  cones,  which  have  the  appearance  of  recent 
development,  but  are  not  known  to  have  been  in  a 
condition  of  activity  since  the  country  was  settled 
by  the  whites.  Since  1870,  however,  the  adjacent 
country  appears  to  have  been  visited  by  earthquakes, 
and  this  very  point  was  measurably  affected  by 
the  earthquake  of  the  spring  of  1872.  The  region  of 
volcanic  cones  and  lava  flows,  however,  is  midway  in 
Owens  Valley  on  the  east  side  of  the  Sierra,  some  dis- 
tance from  Lone  Pine,  and  where  the  earthquake  pro- 
duced the  most  disastrous  effects.  Volcanic  materials 
also  cover  the  western  part  of  the  range  further  north, 
and  from  390  3c/  north  the  rocks  are  hidden  by  eruptive 
materials  of  a more  modern  date,  through  which  chan- 
nels of  no  inconsiderable  depth  have  been  worn  by 
water,  and  furnish  access  to  the  auriferous  deposits  to 
be  found  in  the  gravel  of  the  buried  river  systems. 
Signs  of  recent  volcanic  activity  are  apparent  at  Lassens 
Peak,  a solitary  volcanic  cone  in  40°  30'  N.  latitude, 
rising  10,537  ^eet  above  the  surrounding  country. 
Hot  springs  are  also  to  be  found  in  the  same 
vicinity,  in  addition  to  mud  lakes  from  which 
spouts  of  hot  water  and  mud  are  thrown  into 
the  air  to  the  height  of  several  feet.  In  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  Lassens  Peak  is  a lake  of  hot  water  of  large 
dimensions,  wherein  mud  volcanoes  are  of  frequent  oc- 
currence. Indeed,  there  are  no  points  along  the  south 
crest  of  the  Sierra  where  such  striking  indications  of 
latent  volcanic  activity  are  to  be  seen  as  those  at 
Lassens  Peak.  The  range  there  is  broken  through  by 
a fault,  and  south  of  it  high  ranges  and  deep  canons 
have  cut  through  the  volcanic  strata  and  are  deeply  im- 
bedded in  the  rocks  underneath;  to  the  north  a depres- 
sion exists  filled  with  volcanic  rocks  that  extend  to  the 
north  and  northeast  for  hundreds  of  miles,  and  become 
part  of  the  plateau  region  in  that  section.  Northwest 
of  Lassens  Peak  is  Mount  Shasta,  14,440  feet  high, 
furnishing  evidences,  near  its  summit,  of  volcanic  ac- 
tivity at  some  remote  period,  nearly  as  pronounced  as 
*hose  seen  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Peak.  As  late  as  1862 
iteam  and  gases  were  to  be  seen  exuding  from  orifices 
a point  fully  421;  feet  below  the  summit 


The  Cascade  range  to  the  north  of  Shasta  is  charac- 
terized by  phenomena  the  same  as  that  existing  between 
Lassens  Peak  and  Shasta.  This  continues  beyond  the 
northern  boundary  line  of  the  United  States.  The 
ridge,  however,  that  is  the  principal  one  of  the  range  is 
not  elevated,  but  volcanic  cones  of  more  than  average 
dimensions  rise  at  intervals.  To  the  north  of  Mount 
Shasta  what  are  apparently  volcanic  peaks  dot  the  land' 
scape,  and  many  of  them  are  conspicuous.  Among 
these  Mount  Pitt  and  Mount  Jefferson  are  prominent. 
Some  of  these  groups  exhibit  conical  forms  while  others 
do  not.  Equidistant  between  Pitt  and  Jefferson  are  a 
number  of  groups,  the  leading  of  which  are  the  “ Three 
Sisters,”  and  throughout  this  portion  of  the  range 
the  presence  of  craters  and  outflows  of  lava  give 
evidence  of  volcanic  action  at  a recent  date.  To  the 
north  of  Mount  Jefferson,  at  a distance  approximating 
100  miles,  the  volcanic  masses  of  the  Cascade  range 
have  been  cut  through  by  the  Columbia  river;  and  at 
the  Dalles,  having  an  elevation  at  the  east  side  of  the 
range,  the  volcanic  plateau  of  the  Columbia  commences. 
Mount  Shasta,  Mount  Helena,  and  Mount  Hood  — 
the  two  former  located  on  the  north  side  of  the  river, 
and  Mount  Hood  on  the  south  side — are  the  most 
clearly  defined  volcanic  cones  of  the  range.  All  of 
these  have  an  elevation  of  more  than  10,000  feet. 
Mount  Rainier  is  seventy- six  miles  from  the  Columbia 
river  to  the  north,  and  next  to  Shasta  is  the  most  cele- 
brated in  the  Cascade  range.  Owing  to  its  location  at 
a distance  from  traveled  roads,  surrounded  by  dense 
forests,  etc.,  it  is  comparatively  inaccessible.  North  of 
the  latter  peak  is  Mount  Baker,  conspicuous  from  all 
directions,  having  an  altitude  of  10,755  ^eet- 

Notwithstanding  the  evidences  of  volcanic  action,  at  a 
a date  not  far  distant,  throughout  the  entire  range,  the 
condition  of  the  eruptive  agencies  at  present  cannot  be 
clearly  described.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  indica- 
tion of  a recent  overflow  of  lava  in  either  the  Cascade 
or  Sierra  Nevada  ranges,  such  at  least  as  would  harden 
into  rock  when  cooled.  The  rocks  of  these  ranges  are 
basaltic,  and,  in  the  strata  beneath,  evidences  of  vegeta- 
tion of  the  Pliocene  and  Miocene  ages  are  visible.  The 
animal  remains  there,  however,  have  not  been  identified. 

There  is  an  absence  of  indications  tending  to  show 
that  lava,  or  ashes,  cinders,  etc.,  have'  been  cast  out  from 
the  volcanic  cones  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  range  at  a 
comparatively  recent  period,  but  in  some  of  the  cones 
of  the  Cascade  range  such  evidence  is  not  wanting, 
particularly  in  respect  to  Mount  Baker,  where  eruptions 
have  occurred  at  intervals  from  1843  t°  1870 — also  at 
Mount  Hood,  with  appearances  of  a somewhat  similar 
description  in  other  cones  of  the  range. 

What  are  known  as  the  “coast  ranges  Of  Califor- 
nia” are  described  as  differing  from  the  Sierra  Nevada 
and  Cascade  ranges,  being  less  elevated  but  more 
broken  through  by  granite  masses,  and  less  infrequently 
covered  with  the  products  of  volcanic  eruptions. 
Their  upheaval  occurred  at  a date  subsequent  to  that 
of  the  Sierra  range,  during  the  Tertiary  period  it  is 
claimed,  and  has  continued  into  the  Post-Pleocene.  To 
the  south  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  considerable  areas  of 
cretaceous  rpck  are  to  be  found,  such  being  particularly 
the  case  to  the  east  of  the  Monte  Diablo  range,  be- 
coming more  and  more  pronounced  further  north, 
where  the  areas  of  Tertiary  diminish  in  extent  and 
volume.  A number  of  features  of  geological  interest  are 
reported  in  connection  with  the  Coast  range,  notably 
the  metamorphosis  which  has  been  going  on  among 
the  rocks,  giving  them  an  appearance  that  would 
indicate  they  belonged  to  an  older  part  of  the  geological 
series,  also  the  existence  of  serpentine  and  serpentonoid 
rocks  in  considerable  grrouDS.  In  these  metamorphosed 


UNI 


rocks,  veins  of  quicksilver  have  been  discovered  and 
profitably  worked  at  various  points  to  the  north  and 
south  of  San  Francisco  Bay.  Chromic  iron  also  occurs, 
and  in  southern  California  gold  has  been  found.  To  the 
south  of  the  bay  bituminous  slate,  several  hundred  feet 
in  thickness,  characterizes  the  range,  and  in  the  vicinity 
of  Santa  Barbara  and  Los  Angeles,  considerable 
amounts  of  bituminous  matter  have  appeared  upon  the 
surface,  which  has  hardened  into  a material  strongly 
resembling  asphalt.  Efforts  to  develop  these  into  pro- 
ducing wells  of  petroleum  have  not  been  attended  with 
sufficiently  pronounced  results  to  justify  operations 
upon  any  very  extensive  scale.  Another  product  which 
has  rewarded  investigation  into  the  resources  of  the 
range  is  an  excellent  quality  of  coal.  This  has  been 
discovered  in  the  range  both  in  California  and  Oregon, 
and  mines  are  at  present  successfully  worked  near 
Seattle,  Washington,  on  Vancouver’s  Island,  and  else- 
where. The  Sierra  and  Coast  ranges  become  united 
in  the  northern  part  of  California,  and  so  continue  into 
southern  Oregon;  but  the  development  of  the  ranges  is 
most  effectively  and  comprehensively  reached  west  of 
the  San  Joaquin. and  Sacramento  rivers.  South  of  the 
valleys  of  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  the  ranges 
become  topographically  united.  In  California  the 
Coast  range  is  400  miles  long,  with  a width  of  from  fifty 
to  sixty  miles,  according  to  the  range  of  coast  line  ; the 
mountains  in  this  area  consisting  of  sub-ranges  plainly 
defined,  as  also  of  inconspicuous  ones.  From  Cape 
Mendocino  to  Poiqt  Conception  these  sub-ranges 
follow  the  direction  of  the  coast,  the  elevation, 
more  especially  near  the  Bay  of  San  F rancisco,  rang- 
ing from  2,900  to  4,100  feet  in  height,  with  Mount 
Helena,  Mount  Hamilton,  Monte  Diablo,  and  Mount 
Bache,  severally,  3,790,  4,440, 3,856  and  4,343  feet  high, 
being  the  more  conspicuous  of  the  peaks.  In  both 
directions,  north  and  south  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  the 
heights  of  the  peaks  increase;  Mount  Bailey  to  the  north 
's  6,357  feet  and  the  peak  of  San  Carlos,  to  the  south, 
approximates  5,000  feet.  Geologically  the  range 
south  of  the  bay  consists  of  rocks  of  the  Pliocene  pe- 
riod. They  are  in  very  extensive  masses  and  many 
hundred  feet  in  thickness.  Those  extending  east  and 
west  on  the  channel  of  Santa  Barbara  are  lofty  and 
abrupt,  the  most  prominent  being  the  Santa  Infez  and 
the  Santa  Monica,  the  latter  consisting  of  stratified  rock 
of  the  Miocene  period,  with  a mass  of  granite  extending 
through  it,  elevating  the  range  to  a lofty  angle  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  eruptive  rock,  where  it  becomes  metamor- 
phosed and  from  which,  in  both  directions,  it  gradually 
recovers  its  normal  condition  and  position.  The  ranges 
are  more  broken  along  the  coast  to  the  south,  and  the 
peaks  attain  to  a lofty  altitude,  San  Bernardino,  San 
Jacinto  and  others  being  prominent. 

Rivers  and  Lakes  of  the  United  States . — Tn  number 
and  magnitude  of  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  the  United 
States  are  unsurpassed  by  any  country  in  the  world. 
The  river  systems  are  distinguished  by  peculiarities  of 
their  own,  of  which  the  following  are  the  most  salient: 
The  slope  of  the  beds  of  most  of  the  streams  are  within 
that  happy  medium  which  insures  a steady  flow  seaward 
and  gives  a constant  and  certain  drainage  and  yet  at  the 
same  time,  while  guarding  against  stagnation,  presents  no 
impediment  to  navigation  up  stream  by  reason  of  too 
swift  a current.  The  second  feature  is  that  the  narrow- 
ness of  the  water  sheds  allows  the  head  waters  of  rivers, 
flowing  in  opposite  directions,  to  lie  close  to  each  other, 
thus,  presenting  but  a small  portage  or  distance  for  land 
carriage  in  order  to  secure  navigation  or  water  carriage 
from  one  distant  point  to  another,  thereby  providing  the 
most  complete  and  extensive  internal  navigation  in  the 
world. 


604; 

The  rivers  of  the  United  States  may  be  divided  into 
four  classes:  Those  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico; 
those  emptying  into  the  Atlantic  ocean;  those  empty- 
ing into  the  Pacific  ocean;  and  the  rivers  of  the  Great 
Basin.  We  will  consider  these  in  the  order  named. 
Beginning  from  the  West,  we  have  the  streams  drain- 
ing the  Texas  slope  of  the  great  plains.  These  are  the 
Rio  Grande,  Neuces,  San  Antonio,  Rio  Colorado, 
Brazos,  Trinity,  and  Sabine.  The  Rio  Grande  is  the 
only  one  among  these  worth  special  mention.  It  has  a 
length  of  1,500  miles,  and,  rising  in  San  Luis  Park, 
flows  first  south  between  the  peaks  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  then,  breaking  through  the  range  near 
El  Paso,  it  flows  southeast,  emptying  into  the  Gulf  near 
Brownsville,  forming  the  boundary  between  this  coun- 
try and  Mexico  for  a portion  of  its  course.  The  other 
rivers  mentioned  rise  generally  in  the  great  Staked 
Plains,  and  among  the  foothills  of  the  Rockies.  They 
are  usually  of  no  magnitude,  being  shallow  and  having 
their  navigation  impeded  by  shallows  and  sand  bars. 
Sometimes,  however,  in  rainy  seasons  they  are  navi- 
gable for  greater  or  less  distances. 

The  next  river  to  claim  our  attention  is  the  mighty 
Mississippi.  Although  the  basin  of  this  stream  is  in- 
ferior in  extent  to  that  drained  by  its  mighty  South 
American  congener,  it  has,  together  with  its  tribu- 
taries, a length  of  navigable  waters  aggregating  over 
25,000  miles.  The  physical  characteristics  of  this  river 
deserve  notice.  The  limit  of  navigation  is  reached 
about  400  miles  from  its  head,  where,  in  the  Height  of 
Land  at  the  falls  of  St.  Anthony,  the  river  is  broken  by 
a succession  of  rapids  and  cascades  with  a maximum 
declivity  of  sixty-five  feet  in  less  than  a mile.  From 
this  point  its  course  is  marked  by  windings  through 
fertile  bottoms,  the  width  of  which  varies  at  different 
points,  and  which  are  bounded  on  both  sides  by  the 
bluffs  created  by  the  erosion  of  the  river.  These  bluffs 
diminish  in  height  and  recede  from  the  stream  as  the) 
approach  the  mouth  of  the  river,  until,  in  the  lower 
portions  of  its  course,  the  intervening  lands  are  subject 
to  overflow,  and  must  be  protected  by  levees.  The 
water  of  the  stream  is  not  much  polluted  with  earthy 
matter  until  the  Missouri  river  is  passed,  when  thestream 
becomes  turbid  and  muddy,  owing  to  the  vast  amount 
of  sediment  swept  from  the  bed  and  banks  of  the  Missouri 
in  its  swift  course  to  its  confluence  with  the  Mississippi. 
The  velocity  of  the  current  of  the  Mississippi  varies 
greatly  with  the  season  of  the  year — in  the  springtime, 
when  the  snow  melts  in  the  vast  territory  drained,  by 
it,  being  a resistless,  swift-flowing  torrent,  and  in  the 
summer  season,  when  the  water  is  low,  being  somewhat 
sluggish.  One  singular  character  of  the  stream  deserves 
especial  mention,  and  that  is  its  tendency  to  often 
change  its  course.  The  boundaries  between  several  of 
the  States  along  its  border  have  been  thus  materially 
changed.  Sometimes  it  will  take  a short  cut  over  a 
bend  instead  of  following  its  old  course  around  it,  and 
thus  in  a, few  days  it  may  shorten  itself  by  a distance  of 
many' miles,  and  render  what  before  was  a part  of  the 
main  shore  an  island.  Often  the  land  thus  torn  away 
contains  a large  amount  of  timber,  and  the  trees 
which  are  sometimes  deposited  in  the  river  by  the  at- 
trition of  the  soil  surrounding  them,  become  the 
“ snags  ” and  “ sawyers,”  which  are  so  dangerous  to  navi- 
gation by  steamers.  The  Mississippi,  however  great 
it  may  be  in  itself,  is  not  of  more  importance  for  any 
other  reason  than  for  the  great  number  of  magnificent 
tributaries  which  go  to  make  up  the  vast  flood  it  sends 
into  the  Gulf.  Many  of  these  streams  are  navigable 
to  their  heads  among  the  mountains  of  the  Cordilleran 
and  Appalachian  systems,  in  which  the  majority  of  them 
rise.  From  the  west  the  affluents  are  in  succession  th# 


U N I 


6048 

Minnesota,  which  rises  in  the  Coteau  des  Prairies;  the 
Iowa  and  the  Des  Moines,  rising  between  the  Mis- 
souri and  the  Mississippi;  and  the  largest  tributary  of 
the  stream,  the  Missouri.  The  Missouri  rises  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  its  headwaters  mingling  with  those 
of  the  Columbia,  and  then  flows  away  over  a course  of 
nearly  3,000  miles.  Of  this  distance  it  is  navigable  for 
over  two-thirds,  or  nearly  to  the  Great  Falls,  which  are 
about  100  miles  below  the  Gate  of  the  Rockies.  It  re- 
ceives in  its  course  the  waters  of  many  tributaries,  among 
them  being  the  Y ellowstone,  the  two  forks  of  the  Platte  or 
Nebraska, and  theKansas  or  Kaw  river,  which  rises  in  the 
alkaline  Great  Plains.  South  of  the  Missouri  river  the 
volume  of  the  Mississippi  is  again  augmented  by  the 
influx  on  the  western  side  of  the  Arkansas  and  the  Red 
rivers.  The  former  river  rises  in  the  South  Park  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  an.d  has  no  commercial  importance, 
being  almost  unnavigable  its  entire  length.  The  Red 
river  rises  in  the  great  Staked  Plains  and  is  navigable 
above  and  below  a point  about  500  miles  from  its  mouth, 
where  it  is  choked  with  a vast  accumulation  of  drift  wood 
called  the  GreatRaft.  On  the  eastern  side  the  Mississippi 
also  receives  some  important  tributaries.  The  principal 
of  these  are  the  Wisconsin,  the  Rock,  the  Illinois,  the 
Ohio,  and  the  Yazoo.  The  Wisconsin  rises  near  the  wa- 
tershed between  the  Mississippi  and  the  St.  Lawrence 
system  and  traverses  a region  of  great  fertility.  The 
Rock  river  rises  also  in  the  great  Lake  region,  while  the 
Illinois,  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Kankakee  and 
Desplaines  rivers,  flows  through  Illinois  and  Indiana, 
thus  passing  through  one  of  the  richest  agricultural  ter- 
ritories in  the  world.  The  Ohio  is,  next  to  the  Missouri, 
the  largest  tributary  of  the  Mississippi.  Commercially 
it  is  the  most  important,  as  annually  millions  of  dollars’ 
worth  of  freight  are  borne  on  its  bosom  from  the  north- 
ern and  eastern  country  to  the  southern  river  country. 
This  stream  together  with  its  tributaries  furnishes  over 
five  thousand  miles  of  navigable  water.  It  is  formed 
by  the  confluence  of  the  Monongehela  and  Alleghany 
rivers,  which  unite  at  Pittsburgh,  and  from  this  point 
to  its  mouth,  a distance  of  nearly  1,000  miles,  is  a naviga- 
ble stream.  It  has  numerous  affluents  besides  the  two 
mentioned,  the  principal  being  the  Muskingum,  the 
Scioto,  and  the  Miami  from  the  State  of  Ohio,  the  Wa- 
bash from  Illinois,  and  the  Kentucky,  Cumberland, 
and  Tennessee  from  Kentucky.  The  Tennessee  is  in 
turn  the  recipient  of  the  Holston  and  Clinch  rivers, 
which  flow  through  the  great  Appalachian  valley  of 
East  Tennessee.  The  rivers  merging  into  the  Ohio 
on  the  south  side  of  that  stream  to  a great  extent  take 
their  rise  either  among  the  Alleghanies  proper  or  their 
foothills,  and  on  account  of  the  slope  of  their  beds,  are 
most  of  them  obstructed  by  rapids  and  falls.  To  obviate 
this  difficulty  numerous  dams  and  locks  have  been  con- 
structed. Those  flowing  into  it  from  the  other  side, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Alleghany  and  the  Wabash, 
are  useful  only  to  supply  water  to  the  canals  which  have 
been  constructed  along  their  course,  they  being  almost 
unnavigable.  By  means  of  these  canals  the  interior  of 
the  Ohio  basin  is  in  communication  with  the  entire 
Mississippi  and  Ohio  valleys.  Several  other  rivers 
may  be  mentioned  as  part  of  the  drainage  system  of  the 
Gulf.  These  are  the  Mobile,  the  product  of  the  union 
of  the  Alabama  and  Tombigbee ; and  the  Appalachicola, 
which  is  formed  by  the  Chattahoochee  and  the  Flint. 
These  complete  the  drainage  of  the  Gulf  system;  it 
being,  of  course  understood  that  numerous  minor 
streams  exist  here,  of  which  no  mention  is  made. 

We  will  now  consider  the  Atlantic  drainage  system. 
The  streams  which  compose  this  system  take  their  rise 
either  in  the  eastern  side  of  the  main  chain  of  the 
Appalachians  or  in  the  footlands  of  the  range.  In  their 


initial  course  they  are  usually  shallow  and  rapid,  but 
when  they  reach  the  lower  lands  of  the  coast  their  char- 
acter changes  and  they  become  broad  and  sluggish,  and 
are  generally  navigable  and  subject  to  influences  of 
tides.  Beginning  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  going  north,  the  most  important  rivers  are 
the  St.  John’s  in  Florida ; the  Altamaha,  formed  by  the 
confluence  of  the  Oconee  and  Ocmuljee ; the  Savannah ; 
the  Santee,  formed  by  the  Congaree  and  Wateree  ; the 
Great  and  Little  Pedee,  Cape  Fear,  Neuse,  and  Roan- 
oke. These  are  generally  of  a sluggish  character,  and 
their  banks  are  heavily  timbered  with  almost  all  kinds 
of  swamp  forest,  while  the  country  they  drain  usually 
has  a heavy  growth  of  yellow  pine  and  other  trees.  I n 
Virginia  we  have  the  James,  rising  in  the  Appalachians, 
and  flowing  past  Richmond  (the  head  of  tide  water  and 
of  navigation)  it  empties  into  the  Chesapeake  Bay. 
North  of  this  is  the  York,  formed  by  the  Mattaponyand 
Pamunky.  Next  comes  the  Rappahannock  and  then 
the  Potomac.  The  most  northern  affluent  of  Chesa- 
peake Bay  is  the  Susquehanna,  which,  rising  in  New 
York,  traverses  a portion  of  that  State  and  then  through 
Pennsylvania  to  its  mouth.  The  Delaware  river  rises 
in  the  Catskills  and,  flowing  through  New  York  and 
washing  Delaware,  finds  its  entrance  into  the  sea 
through  the  bay  of  the  same  name.  Next  comes  the 
beautiful  Hudson,  which  rises  in  the  Adirondacks  and, 
after  a course  whose  natural  beauty  is  unexcelled  any- 
where in  the  world,  empties  into  Long  Island  Sound  at 
New  York  city.  This  stream  is  navigable  to  Troy,  a 
distance  of  150  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  from  this  point 
it  is  connected  by  canal  with  the  St.  Lawrence  system ; 
thus  giving  uninterrupted  water  communication  between 
New  York  city  and  Chicago  and  remote  Canadian  lo- 
calities. East  of  the  Hudson  is  the  Connecticut,  drain- 
ing the  beautiful  valley  of  the  same  name ; next  come 
the  Merrimac,  the  Kennebec  and  the  Penobscot.  We 
now  come  to  the  great  St.  Lawrence  system.  This 
comprises  the  five  great  lakes,  the  most  magnificent 
lacustrine  aggregation  in  the  world,  and  approached  by 
no  similar  natural  features  anywhere  on  earth,  unless  it 
may  possibly  be  that  of  Central  Africa — as  yet  unsur- 
veyed and  undelineated.  The  rivers  of  this  plexus  are 
insignificant,  so  that  any  consideration  of  tile  Laurentian 
system  entails  the  discussion  of  the  great  lakes.  For 
commercial  purposes  these  lakes  are  as  valuable  to  the 
people  of  the  United  States  as  are  the  eastern  and 
western  coasts.  They  afford  navigation  for  the  largest 
vessels,  and  their  shores  are  dotted  writh  large  cities,  be- 
tween which  an  immense  amount  of  traffic  is  carried  on. 
The  length  of  their  coast  line  within  the  United  States  is 
over  3,000  miles,  and  by  means  of  the  different  canals 
which  have  been  constructed,  joining  them,  a vessel  can 
sail  from  Duluth  to  London,  England,  without  trouble. 
This  practically  gives  the  United  States  3,000  miles  ad- 
ditional sea  coast.  In  addition  to  the  five  great  lakes, 
lakes  Champlain,  George,  and  the  lakes  of  central  New 
York,  besides  Winnebago  Lake  in  Wisconsin,  are  tribu- 
taries of  the  St.  Lawrence  system. 

Of  the  river  systems  of  the  Union  there  yet  remains 
to  be  considered  that  of  the  Pacific.  The  Columbia,  a 
mighty  stream,  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of  Lewis 
river  with  Clarke  river  (or  forks,  as  they  are  both 
called).  Its  principal  tributary,  the  Willamette,  flows 
through  the  fertile  valley  of  the  same  name,  lying  be- 
tween the  Coast  and  Cascade  ranges.  The  Sacramento 
river  rises  in  the  Great  Basin,  and,  after  a course  through 
a fertile  country,  empties  into  the  bay  of  San  Francisco. 
On  its  way  it  receives  several  tributaries  from  the 
Sierra  Nevada.  The  San  Joaquin  also  flows  into  the 
bay  of  San  Francisco.  It  rises  in  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
from  which  it  also  receives  several  tributaries.  The 


Cole ’•acta  river  rises  in  the  Wind  River  Mountains, 
where  it  takes  the  name  of  the  Green  river,  and,  after  a 
course  of  300  miles  through  one  of  the  most  remarka- 
ble gorges  or  canons  in  the  world,  empties  into  the  Gulf 
of  Cal  fornia,  150  miles  from  its  point  of  emergence 
trom  ti  e canon.  The  walls  of  the  canon  are  in  some 
places  t',000  feet  in  depth.  Along  its  course  it  receives 
as  tributaries  the  Grand,  Little  Colorado,  and  the  Gila 
rivers,  r'l  of  which  take  their  rise  in  the  Rockies. 
Reside  the  rivers  mentioned  before,  the  Red  River  of 
the  North  flows  for  a portion  of  its  course  through  the 
United  Siates.  It  rises  in  Elbow  Lake,  in  Minnesota, 
and  flow ; northwesterly  into  Lake  Winnipeg.  A 
peculiarity  of  this  stream  is  the  large  number  of  lakes 
that  are  tributary  to  it  and  occur  in  the  first  one  hundred 
miles  of  its  course. 

A remarkable  feature  of  the  two  great  systems  of  the 
Mississippi  and  the  St.  Lawrence  is  the  contiguity  of 
tiieii  head  water,  Lake  St.  Louis,  the  head  of  the 
latter  river  being  but  a short  distance  from  Lake  Itasca, 
trie  source  of  the  former. 

There  is,  in  the  Great  Basin  of  the  Rockies,  a river 
nid  lake  system  peculiar  to  that  region.  .The  rivers 
have  no  outlet  to  the  ocean,  and  find  their  termination 
in  a lake,  or,  as  in  one  or  two  instances,  lose  themselves 
in  the  earth.  Reese  River  and  Humboldt  River  are  the 
principal  rivers  of  this  region,  both  of  them  emptying 
their  waters  into  Humboldt  Lake. 

\mong  the  lakes  the  most  remarkable  is  the  Great 
Salr  Lake,  in  Utah,  the  counterpart  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
This  body  of  water  is  seventy  miles  long  and  thirty  miles 
wide.  Its  waters  are  extremely  salty.  It  receives  the 
waters  of  the  Jordan,  and  several  other  small  rivers  and 
creeks.  The  Jordan  connects  it  with  Lake  Utah,  a 
considerable  body  of  fresh  water,  Bear  Lake  and  Lake 
Sevier  may  also  be  mentioned  as  forming  a portion  of 
this  system 

CLIMATIC  CONDITIONS. 

The  Unit  ed  States  maybe  said  to  include  three  grand 
climatic  div:sions,  distinct  and  well-marked  in  their  char- 
acteristics.  The  larger  of  these  by  far  is  that  which  ex- 
tends from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  foot-hills  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  embraces  three-fifths  of  the  en- 
tire count  1 y.  The  second  division  includes  the  Cor- 
dilleran  mountains  and  their  elevated  plateau;  and  the 
third,  differing  in  many  essentials  from  both  the  others, 
includes  the  narrow  strip  between  the  Sierra  Nevada 
and  Cascade  Mountains  and  the  Pacific  coast. 

In  the  first  or  Eastern  division,  the  lines  of  equal 
mean  temperature  run  approximately  east  and  west, 
and  preserve  a certain  amount  of  regularity.  The 
isothermals  are  deflected  in  passing  over  the  Cordilleran 
range,  and  vary  greatly  with  the  altitude,  extent,  and 
even  with  the  trend  of  the  mountain  ranges.  In  the 
third  or  Pacific  division  the  isotherms  tend  to  parallel- 
ism with  the  direction  of  the  coast,  but  their  character  is 
greatly  modified  by  the  position  of  the  two  parallel 
ranges,  the  Coast  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevadas, 
and  by  the  warm  Japan  current  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  cold  Arctic  current  on  the  other. 

Treating  first  of  the  grand  central  division,  its  fifteen 
degrees  of  latitude  are  included  between  the  annual 
isothermals  of  440  and  68°,  a total  range  of  240;  or  an 
average  of  i.6°  difference  of  temperature  for  each 
degree  of  latitude.  The  transition  from  one  type  of 
climate  to  the  other,  although  rapid,  is  uniform.  The 
difference  of  mean  annual  temperature  between  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  and  that  of 
Europe  is  much  greater  in  the  higher  latitudes  than 
in  the  lower  ones.  New  York,  in  latitude  400  42', 
has  a.  mean  annual  temperature  10. 6°  lower  than 


Naples,  in  latitude  40°  48'.  But  Norfolk,  Va.,  almost 
in  the  same  latitude  as  San  Fernando,  Spain,  has  a 
mean  annual  temperature  only  4.30  lower  than  tiie 
Spanish  city.  About  latitude  300,  the  latitude  of  St 
Augustine,  Fla.,  and  New  Orleans,  in  the  United 
States,  and  in  Africa  of  Southern  Morocco,  the  two 
sides  have  nearly  the  same  mean  temperature,  although, 
owing  to  the  great  differences  in  the  amount  of  precip- 
itation, the  unlikeness  of  climate  is  very  great.  In 
passing  south  from  the  Canada  line  along  the  Atlantic 
seaboard,  there  is  a rapid  increase  of  temperature,  due 
to  the  warm  currents  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  t© 
the  prevalence  of  southwesterly  winds. 

At  the  north,  places  in  the  same  latitude  on  the  At- 
lantic and  Pacific  coasts  have  approximately  the  same 
temperature,  but  the  southern  Atlantic  regions  are 
decidedly  warmer  than  .their  parallels  on  the  western 
coast.  The  vast  body  of  water  contained  in  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  has,  of  course,  a considerable  effect  upon  the 
peninsular  projection  of  Florida,  and  this  State,  which 
extends  south  ' to  250,  has  a higher  mean  temperature 
than  any  other  part  of  the  country.  The  extreme  south 
end  of  Florida  has  a mean  of  over  72°,  and  over  the 
whole  of  the  State  and  along  the  Gulf  into  Texas  the 
annual  mean  exceeds  68°. 

The  range  of  the  isothermals  is  as  follows:  that  of  40° 
passes  through  central  Maine,  northern  New  Hamp- 
shire and  Vermont  into  Canada,  thence  reenters  the 
United  States  at  the  west  end  of  Lake  Superior,  passes 
through  central  Minnesota,  thence  trends  south  in  east- 
ern Dakota,  and  thence  northwesterly  until  it  crosses 
the  boundary  line  in  107°  west  longitude.  Between 
the  isothermals  of  440  and  520  lie  New  England,  New 
York,  all  the  Middle  States,  nearly  all  Michi- 
gan, southern  Wisconsin,  southern  Minnesota, 
nearly  all  Nebraska  and  South  Dakota.  West 
of  the  Appalachians  the  isothermal  of  520  follows 
the  Ohio  river  to  Cincinnati,  passes  in  an  undulatory 
westerly  direction  through  Indiana,  Illinois,  northern 
Missouri  and  northern  Kansas  to  Colorado.  As  it 
nears  the  Rocky  Mountains  it  turns  abruptly  south 
a distance  of  more  than  four  hundred  miles.  The 
isothermal  of  6o°  runs  parallel  with  that  of  64°,  but  is 
deflected  to  the  south  between  the  meridians  of  83° 
and  87°.  The  isothermal  of  64°  leaves  the  Atlantic  on 
the  boundary  of  North  and  South  Carolina,  and  runs 
on  the  line  of  ,34°  latitude,  almost  due  west  of  the  100th 
parallel,  where  it,  like  all  the  other  isothermals,  is 
deflected  southward  by  the  mountains.  Within  this 
central  region,  which  extends  from  Northern  Dakota 
to  New  Orleans,  there  is  a vast  range  of  tem- 
perature. At  Fort  Sully,  in  latitude  440  39'  the 
mean  yearly  extremes  are  — 25.2°  and  108.7°;  at  New 
Orleans,  in  latitude  300,  they  are  23. 2°  and  96. 20  re- 
spectively. The  isothermals  for  the  summer  months  are 
much  more  irregular  than  those  for  the  year.  This  is 
principally  caused  by  the  southerly  winds  from  the  heated 
waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  which  blow  unchecked 
over  the  whole  central  plain  and  divert  the  summer  iso- 
thermals to  the  northwest  in  a surprising  m’anner. 
That  of  720  has  been  known  in  July  and  August  to 
reach  latitude  450  in  northern  Dakota.  Florida,  the  Gulf 
States  and  greater  part  of  Texas  have  a mean  summer 
temperature  of  over  8o°,  while  the  country  from  Tennes- 
see and  Georgia  north  to  the  great  lakes  and  west  into 
Iowa,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska  lies  between  the  summer  iso- 
thermals of  68°  and  76°.  As  the  most  practical  method 
of  furnishing  information  in  regard  to  the  Temperature 
and  rainfall  of  the  United  States,  the  following  care- 
fully prepared  table  is  given.  It  shows  : 

First,  the  mean  average  rainfall  (M.  A.  R.). 

Second,  the  mean  average  temperature  (M.  A.  T.). 


U N I 


6050 


Third,  the  highest  recorded  temperature  (H.  R.T.). 
Fourth,  the  lowest  recorded  temperature  (L.  R.  T.). 


Stations. 

► 

? 

M.A.T. 

H.R.T. 

p 

h 

H 

Alabama,  Montgomery 

52-7 

65.2 

I07 

'5 

Arizona,  Phoenix 

6.9 

69.2 

1 19 

12 

Arkansas,  kittle  Rock 

53-6 

61.5 

I06 

'12 

California,  San  Francisco 

23-7 

55-8 

IOO 

29 

Colorado,  Denver 

14-5 

49-4 

105 

'29 

Connecticut,  New  Haven 

47-9 

49-4 

IOO 

'i4 

Florida,  Jacksonville 

54-1 

69.0 

104 

10 

Georgia,  Atlanta 

5° -4 

61 .2 

IOO 

'8 

Idaho,  Boise  City 

Illinois,  Springfield 

14.4 

50.6 

III 

'28 

38.0 

52-3 

107 

'22 

Indiana,  Indianapolis 

43-o 

52.7 

106 

'25 

Iowa,  Des  Moines 

33-i 

48.5 

109 

3<o 

Kansas,  Dodge  

19.8 

53-i 

108 

'26 

Kentucky,. kouisville  : 

, 45-8 

56.7 

107 

' 20 

kouisiana,  New  Orleans 

60.5 

68.8 

102 

7 

Maine,  Portland.. 

42.3 

45-7 

97 

'17 

Maryland,  Baltimore 

44.0 

55-2 

104 

'7 

Massachusetts,  Boston 

45-0 

48.6 

101 

'13 

Michigan,  Detroit 

32.3 

48.1 

101 

'24 

Minnesota,  St.  Paul 

27,5 

43-3 

104 

'41 

Mississippi,  Vicksburg 

55-7 

65-3 

IOI 

'i 

Missouri,  St.  kouis  

41. 1 

55-6 

107 

'22 

Montana,  Helena. 

13.2 

43-1 

103 

'42 

Nebraska,  Omaha  

31-7 

49.6 

106 

'32 

Nevada,  Winnemucca 

8-5 

48.6 

104 

'28 

New  Hampshire,  Manchester. 
New  Jersey,  Atlantic  City 

43.1 

45-9 

96 

'11 

42.7 

51-9 

99 

'7 

New  Mexico,  Santa  Fe 

14.2 

48- 3 

97 

'13 

New  York,  Albany 

37-9 

48.2 

IOO 

'18 

North  Carolina,  Raleigh 

46.1 

59.1 

103 

'2 

North  Dakota,  Bismarck 

18.4 

39-6 

106 

'44 

Ohio,  Columbus 

38.9 

52.1 

104 

'20 

Oklahoma,  Oklahoma  City  . . . 

3i.  1 

59-4 

104 

'17 

Oregon,  Portland ,.  .. 

46.8 

52-5 

102 

'2 

Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia  . . 
Rhode  Island,  Block  Island. . 

39-8 

53-4 

103 

'6 

44.2 

49.1 

89 

'A 

South  Carolina,  Charleston... 

56.7 

65.8 

104 

7 

South  Dakota,  Yankton 

26.8 

45-8 

107 

'34 

Tennessee,  Nashville 

50.1 

59-3 

104 

'13 

Texas,  San  Antonio, 

29.7 

68.5 

108 

4 

Utah,  Salt  kake  City 

16.2 

51-3 

102 

'20 

Vermont,  Burlington 

32.9 

45-3 

97 

'25 

Virginia,  kynchburg  

42.9 

56.9 

102 

'6 

Washington,  Seattle 

35-9 

5i-5 

95 

12 

Washington,  D,  C 

43-5 

54-7 

104 

'i5 

West  Virginia,  Parkersburg. . 

41.0 

54-4 

102 

'27 

Wisconsin,  Milwaukee. . 

32.1 

45-o 

IOO 

'25 

Wyoming,  Cheyenne 

12.2 

44.4 

IOO 

'38 

' Indicates  temperature  below  zero. 

Thus  it  may  be  said  with  truth  that  near  the  Pacific 
coast  we  have  a difference  of  only  120  in  mean  tempera- 
ture in  a range  of  over  sixteen  degrees  of  latitude.  From 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  coast,  in  latitude  350  , into 
the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  valleys,  the  mean  tem- 
perature is  not  below  6o°,  and  nowhere  much  higher. 
The  causes  of  this  are  the  proximity  of  the  great  area  of 
water  over  which  the  prevailing  winds  blow,  the  modifi- 
cation which  the  temperature  of  this  ocean  undergoes 
near  the  American  coast  by  the  Asiatic  coast  current  and 
the  northern  or  Arctic  coast  current,  and  the  position  of 
the  mountain  ranges  near  the  coast.  Uniformity  of  cli- 
mate along  the  edges  of  the  land  is  still  further  aided  by 
the  peculiar  nature  of  the  currents  along  this  coast.  The 
influence  of  the  warm  Asiatic  current — the  Kuro-Siwo 
— is  distinctly  felt  in  raising  the  temperature  as  far 
south  as  the  northern  part  of  California. 

Peculiar  meteorological  conditions  exist  in  the  United 
States,  producing  in  the  winter  intense  cold  and  in  the 
summer  extreme  heat,  while  occasionally,  especially  in 
the  West,  great  variations  of  temperature  are  noticed 
within  a very  brief  space.  What  are  known  as  “ cold 
waves  ” generally  proceed  from  the  valley  of  the  Sas- 
katchewan and  the  prairies  of  Manitoba.  The  north 
wind  sweeps  over  Wyoming  and  Colorado,  Minnesota 
and  Wisconsin  and  sometimes  reaches  as  far  south  as 


Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  A strong  breeze,  sometimes, 
blowing  with  a velocity  of  thirty  to  forty  miles  an  hour, 
carries  with  it  the  icy  blast  of  the  frozen  North,  and 
causes  a fall  in  temperature  of  twenty,  thirty,  even 
forty  degrees  in  a single  day  or  night.  The  effect  of 
these  cold  waves  has  even  been  felt  in  Florida,  where  a 
few  years  ago  the  orange  groves  suffered  severely.  But 
on  the  exposed  prairies  of  Iowa  and  Nebraska  the  full 
force  of  the  wind  is  experienced,  and  the  loss  of  stock, 
and  sometimes  of  human  life,  is  great.  These  “cold 
waves  ” are  seldom  of  long  duration.  In  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  foothills  there  is  often  a fail  of  40° 
in  one  day,  sometimes  in  a few  hours. 

The  “ hot  wave  ” usually  occurs  in  July  and  often  ex- 
tends over  large  tracts  from  the  seaboard  to  Dakota  or 
Colorado.  This  affliction,  happily,  is  usually  of  brief 
duration,  seldom  lasting  more  than  three  or  four  days, 
although  spells  of  hot  weather  may  follow  each  other 
with  brief  intervals  of  lower  temperature.  In  such 
cases  the  thermometer  may  record  90°  to  even  ioo°  F., 
not  only  in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States,  but  as  far 
north  as  Yankton.  Little  is  known  of  the  cause  of 
these  phenomenal  heated  terms,  but  they  are  most  se- 
vere in  the  inland  districts,  where  there  are  no  mount- 
ains to  induce  precipitation,  and  neither  sea  nor  lake 
breezes  modify  the  torrid  heat. 

The  prevailing  winds  in  the  entire  Atlantic  and  Cen- 
tral region  are  westerly  the  year  round.  In  winter  they 
are  chiefly  northwesterly;  in  summer,  southwesterly. 
Between  the  Alleghanies  and  the  Mississippi,  and  from 
the  lakes,  south  to  the  Cumberland  Mountains,  south- 
westerly and  westerly  winds  prevail  the  year  through. 
In  the  extreme  southwest,  the  summer  winds  are 
mostly  southerly,  those  of  the  winter  mostly  north  and 
northwest.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the  winds  are  mostly 
westerly,  especially  in  summer.  California  has  very 
strong  winds  from  the  northwest  in  summer,  and  from 
the  southwest  in  winter.  San  Francisco  enjoys  an 
evening  sea-breeze,  which  renders  it  one  of  the  most 
desirable  of  residential  cities.  The  Atlantic  seaboard, 
as  far  inland  as  the  Appalachians,  is  equally  favored; 
while  in  the  interior  the  great  lakes  temper  the  summer 
heat,  and  modify  the  winter’s  cold. 

The  rainfall  of  the  United  States  may  be  defined 
as  divided  into  two  sections  by  the  100th  parallel  of 
longitude.  East  of  that  parallel  it  is  generally  ample 
and  sufficiently  well  distributed;  west  of  it  (except  on 
the  Pacific  coast-belt)  the  supply  is  insufficient  and 
irregular.  The  region  of  greatest  precipitation  is  that 
of  the  Atlantic  coast  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  the 
North  and  East  there  is  at  least  thirty-two  and  some- 
times as  much  as  forty-four  inches  of  rain  per  annum. 
Further  south  along  the  coast  the  precipitation  may 
equal  fifty  inches,  and  from  South  Carolina  and  Ten- 
nessee to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  it  ranges  from  forty-eight 
to  fifty-four  inches.  Florida  counts,  as  a rule,  on  a 
precipitation  of  fifty-six  inches  in  its  southern  division. 
Nowhere  in  the  United  States  does  an  amount  of  rain 
fall  to  equal  the  precipitation  of  the  Scotch  islands  or  of 
Ireland.  It  must  be  remembered  that  regions  in  which 
anything  less  than  twenty  inches  of  rain  falls  in  the  year 
can  only  be  utilized  for  pastoral  purposes,  and  that  where 
the  amount  is  much  below  this  they  cannot  be  culti- 
vated at  all  except  by  irrigation.  Where  the  precipita- 
tion averages  above  twenty  inches,  but  does  not  exceed 
twenty-five  inches,  cereal  cultivation  is  possible,  and  in 
certain  years  good  crops  may  be  grown.  But,  unless  the 
average  is  fully  maintained  and  the  precipitation  occurs  at 
the  proper  times,  there  will  be  in  such  districts  total  01 
partial  failure  of  crops,  sometimes  for  several  years  ir 
succession,  for  droughts,  like  heated  terms  and  terms  oi 
extreme  cold,  appear  to  run  in  cycles. 


UNI 


Consultation  of  a carefully  prepared,  rainfall  chart  ! 
will  show  that  the  entire  eastern  division  of  the  United 
States  is  well  supplied  with  rain.  An  isohyetal  of 
twenty-six  inches  may  be  considered  as  forming  the 
dividing  iine  between  a sufficiently  and  an  insufficiently 
watered  area.  This  isohyetal  enters  the  United  States 
from  the  north  to  the  northwest  of  Lake  Superior  and 
runs  southwesterly  to  the  97th  meridian,  which  it  strikes 
in  the  latitude  of  450.  Thence,  from  about  St.  Paul, 
Minn.,  it  runs  south  with  a slight  westwardvinclination 
until  it  enters  Texas  on  the  99th  meridian.  On  this 
line-it  continues  through  four  degrees  of  latitude,  until 
that  of  310  is  reached,  when  the  isohyetal  again 
advances  about  four  degrees  to  the  westward,  and 
thence  runs  southeast  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande.  To  the  .east  of  this  line 
therefore  are  all  the  Atlantic  and  Middle  States  and  all 
those  east  of  the  Mississippi  river.  Included  also  in 
this  moister  region  is  the  greater  part  of  Minnesota,  east- 
ern Nebraska,  eastern  Kansas,  the  Indian  Territory,  in- 
cluding Oklahoma,  and  the  eastern  half  of  Texas.  The 
isohyetal  curve  of  thirty-two  inches,  or  that  marking 
the  line  of  abundant  precipitation,  runs  generally  par- 
allel to  that  of  twenty-six  inches,  and  not  more  than 
three  degrees  of  longitude  to  the  east  of  it.  In  other 
words,  everything  east  of  a line  drawn  from  the  south- 
ern line  of  Lake  Superior  to  the  Gulf  on  the  meridian  of 
940  is  included  in  the  district  whose  average  rainfall 
ranges  between  twenty-six  and  thirty-two  inches  per 
annum,  or  exceeds  that  amount.  Almost  all  of  Minne- 
sota lies  within  these  lines,  but  a small  part  of  eastern 
Wisconsin,  and  of  eastern  Michigan,  receive  less  than 
their  full  share  of  the  precipitation. 

The  heaviest  rainfall  in  the  United  States  occurs  in 
the  country  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  on  the 
southern  Atlantic  coast.  Along  the  Gulf,  between  longi- 
tude 85°  and  920,  the  annual  fall  exceeds  56  inches,  and 
the  isohyetal  of  56  takes  in  parts  of  Georgia,  Arkansas, 
Tennessee,  and  South  Carolina.  Southern  Florida  has 
54  to  56  inches,  and  eastern  North  Carolina  50  inches. 
The  isohyetal  of44  inches  runs  nearly  parallel  to  the  coast, 
and  at  no  great  distance  from  it,  as  far  south  as  latitude 
370,  when  it  trends  to  the  west.  The  greater  part  of 
the  eastern  division  of  the  United  States  thus  has  an- 
average  precipitation  of  from  32  to  44  inches,  while 
small  areas  in  several  States  receive  more.  This  rainfall  is 
distributed  pretty  uniformly  throughout  the  year  along 
the  Atlantic  coast,  in  the  valley  of  the  Ohio  and 
along  the  Mississippi  and  in  the  Hudson  River 
valley.  In  the  sea-coast  region,  from  Massachusetts  to 
Maryland,  the  maximum  fall  occurs  in  May,  August, 
and  December,  while  in  the  Hudson  valley  the  maxima 
occur  in  July  and  October,  and  February  is  the  dryest 
month.  In  the  Ohio  River  valley  the  maximum  fall  is 
in  June,  the  minimum  in  February.  In  the  lower  Mis-- 
sissippi  valley  the  maximum  and  minimum  occur  in 
December  and  October,  respectively.  Along  the  Gulf 
coast  the  principal  fall  is  in  July,  the  secondary  maximum 
in  December,  while  October  and  April  are  the  dryest 
months.  Along  the  upper  Mississippi  the  greatest  pre- 
cipitation occurs  in  summer,  much  to  the  advantage  of  the 
crops,  and  the  winter  is  a season  of  drought.  The  same  is 
true  as  to  the  Hudson  valley,  and  from  that  westward, 
except  that  the  range  is  greatest  in  Minnesota  and 
Wisconsin. 

The  conditions  of  the  rainfall  on  the  Pacific  slope  are 
peculiar  and  varied.  Along  the  coast  of  California,  and 
in  the  interior  of  that  State,  and  on  the  western  slope 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  the  maximum  precipitation  occurs 
in  December,  and  scarcely  any  rain  falls  in  the  summer 
months.  The  mean  annual  fall  at  San  Diego  is  less 
than  ten  inches;  that  at  San  Francisco  twenty-two 


605  I 

I inches.  But  in  the  north,  around  Puget  Sound,  there  is 
an  annual  fall  of  over  seventy  inches.  In  the  north, 
also,  there  is  a great  increase  in  the  amount  of  the 
summer  precipitation,  which,  in  northeast  Washington, 
amounts  to  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  the  three  summer 
months.  In  San  Francisco  the  largest  annual  rainfall 
recorded  in  twenty-five  years  was  thirty-six  inches;  the 
lowest  twelve  inches.  In  the  mountain  country  the 
precipitation  takes  the  form  of  snow,  and  we  know 
very  little  about  its  amount,  though  it  is  believed  to  be 
but  small.  But  the  precipitation  is  decidedly  higher  on 
the  mountain  ranges  than  in  the  valleys. 

Elsewhere,  under  the  appropriate  headings  (see 
Meteorology,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  4183,  and  Tornado,  Vol. 
VIII.,  p.  5870),  we  have  treated  of  the  abnormal  disturb- 
ances of  the  atmosphere,  which  produce  cyclonic  storms. 
With  regard  to  ordinary  storms  of  wind  accompanied  by 
rain,  the  United  States  is  not  particularly  subject  to  these. 
On  the  Atlantic  coast  ocean-born  storms  occur,  and,  espe- 
cially in  the  winter  season,  blow  with  considerable  veloc- 
ity, and  cause  damage  to  shipping.  This  is  characteristic, 
however,  of  all  seaboard  countries,  and  calls  for  no  special 
notice.  Throughout  thecentral  and  eastern  regions  the  or- 
dinary storms  are  of  simple  character  and  practically  of 
uniform  origin  and  development.  They  begin  with  the 
formation  of  areas  of  low  barometer  in  the  extreme 
west,  or  more  often  in  the  southwest,  and  move  east  or 
northeast  with  a velocity  of  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
miles  per  hour.  Their  rate  of  speed  varies  with  the 
season,  being  greatest  in  January  and  February  and 
least  in  August.  If  these  storms  arise  in  the  northwest 
they  move  in  a direction  somewhat  south  of  east;  if  they 
originate  in  the  southwest  they  travel  practically  north- 
east. The  progress  of  these  storms  is  marked  by  heavy 
rainfall,  usually  extending  over  a wide  area.  Often 
there  are  noticed  independent  rain  centers  within  the 
storm  area. 

The  tornadoes  or  cyclones,  for  it  is  difficult  to  dis- 
criminate scientifically  between  the  two  forms,  are.  not 
strictly  confined  to  any  one  season,  but  are  most  fre- 
quent in  summer  and  least  so  in  January  and  December. 
They  most  often  occur  between  four  and  six  o’clock 
P.M.,  and  their  generation  is  coincident  with  a dis- 
turbance of  the  barometric  conditions,  and  with  great 
contrasts  of  temperature  in  subjacent  areas.  Five- 
sixths  of  the  recorded  destructive  tornadoes  moved 
from  southwest  to  northeast,  and  the  whirling 
motion  of  the  storm  vortex  is  invariably  from  right 
to  left.  The  width  of  a tornado  may  be  less  than 
fifty  feet,  and  has  been  known  to  exceed  a mile. 
The  velocity  of  progression  of  the  main  storm  cloud 
may  vary  from  twenty  to  sixty  miles  an  hour,  the 
average  being  thirty  miles.  The  velocity  within  the 
storm  vortex  defies  estimation  or  measurement,  but  has 
been  variously  guessed  at  from  70  to  500  miles  an 
hour.  The  prairie  country,  especially  when  far  removed 
from  bodies  of  water,  is  much  the  most  subject  to 
destructive  tornadoes.  It  has  been  an  article  of  faith 
that  tornadoes  never  strike  near  streams  or  lakes,  but 
the  experience  of  Louisville,  in  the  spring  of  1890,  has 
shattered  this  belief. 

VEGETATION. 

No  country  upon  earth  includes  such  a variety  of  for  • 
est  and  field  production  as  the  United  States.  From 
the  rye  and  barley  of  the  northern  temperate  zone  to  the 
corn  and  cotton  of  the  southern  temperate  regions,  and 
the  oranges,  pine-apples,  and  bananas,  the  palmettos 
and  the  magnolias  of  P'lorida,  the  luxuriant  vegetation 
of  this  favored  country  knows  neither  scope  nor  limit 
Of  timber  trees  the  range  is  from  the  pine-clad  forests  ol 
Maine  to  the  cedars  and  cypresses  of  the  South,  while 


U 'M  1 


6052 

the  Pacific  coast  contributes  the  Sequoia  trig  an  tea  and 
its  magnificent  eucalypti,  and  every  species  of  deciduous 
and  coniferous  tree  abounds.  Except  on  the  topmost 
heights  of  the  Cordilleras  and  on  isolated  peaks  of  the 
northeastern  range,  forest  trees  of  great  value  clothe 
the  summits.  The  great  prairie  country  of  the  central 
region  makes  up  by  the  luxuriance  of  its  cereal  and 
root  products  for  the  comparative  absence  of  forest 
vegetation. 

Beginning  with  the  northern  mountain  system,  we 
find  the  Adirondacks  densely  wooded  to  their  summits. 
The  portion  of  the  United  States  first  settled  by  the 
English  was,  without  exception,  a densely-forested  re- 
gion, mostly  of  hard-wood  trees.  Among  these,  the 
sugar-maple  ( Acer  saccharinnm)  is  of  the  greatest  eco- 
nomical importance  in  New  England,  but  ranges  as  far 
west  as  the  great  lakes,  and  south  to  Alabama.  In 
the  higher  portions  of  the  country,  and  around  the 
lakes,  large  areas  are  occupied  by  the  birds-eye 
maple,  of  great  value  for  making  furniture.  The 
soft  and  red  maple,  of  less  importance  economic- 
ally, have  even  a wider  range.  The  oaks  are  spread 
m countless  variety  of  species  over  the  whole  sea- 
board forest  region,  from  Maine  to  Florida,  and  west 
as  far  as  arboreal  vegetation  extends.  The  white 
oak  {Q.  Alba)  reaches  its  greatest  development  along 
the  western  portion  of  the  Appalachians,  and  in 
the  valley  bf  the  Ohio  and  its  tributaries.  The 
burr  oak  has  almost  as  wide  a range  as  the  white  oak, 
extending  far  to  the  west  and  northwest,  and  forms 
with  the  scarlet  oak  the  principal  growth  of  the  prairie 
“ oak  openings. ” The  red  oak  ( Q.  rubra ) has  a wide 
range  to  the  north.  The  live  oak  ( Q „ virens)  is  an 
evergreen  tree  of  great  value,  widely  distributed  along 
the  Gulf  coast,  and  extending  into  Texas  and  Mexico. 
The  chestnut  oak,  the  bark  of  which  is  of  great  value 
for  tanning,  is  found  from  northern  New  York  to  the 
Alabama  line,  and  abounds  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky. 
Of  ash  there  are  many  species.  The  white  ash  ranges 
east  and  west,  from  Maine  to  Minnesota,  and  south- 
west to  Texas,  and  finds  its  highest  development  in  the 
bottom  lands  of  the  lower  Ohio  valley.  The  range  of 
the  red  ash  is  almost  as  wide  as ' that  of  the  white, 
except  in  the  southwest,  where  the  places  of  both  are 
taken  by  the  green  ash. 

The  chestnut,  including  many  varieties,  extends  from 
Maine  to  Alabama,  and  grows  luxuriantly  on  the  North 
Carolina  mountains.  Birch  flourishes  in  New  England 
and  all  along  the  coast  to  Alabama,  and  is  found  west 
as  far  as  Minnesota.  The  hickory,  the  butternut,  the 
black  walnut  and  the  American  elm  are  widely  dis- 
tributed and  have  considerable  economic  importance. 
South  of  Indiana  is  found  the  pecan  tree,  and  from  New 
Jersey  to  North  Carolina  the  tulip  tree  flourishes. 
Space  would  fail  to  tel)  of  the  magnolias,  acacias, 
laurels  and  the  varieties  of  locusts  which  form  adorn- 
ments to  the  landscape. 

Coniferous  trees  are  widely  spread  over  the  whole 
country,  from  Maine  to  southern  Georgia,  and  of  these 
the  genus  Pinus  is  at  once  the  most  valuable  and  the 
widest  distributed.  The  chief  is  the  white  pine  ( P \ 
slrobus ),  which  attains  its  maximum  development  in 
Maine  and  Michigan,  and  grows  to  a greater  height 
than  any  other  species  of  the  eastern  forest  region. 
The  most  important  pineries  of  the  Eastern  States  are 
in  Maine,  where  this  species  occurs,  scattered  through 
the  deciduous  forests,  and  where  the  most  easily  acces- 
sible trees  of  large  size  have  already  been  pretty  well 
thinned  out;  Michigan  and  Wisconsin  are  the  chief 
pine-producing  States  of  the  western  and  northwestern 
region.  Saginaw  Bay,  on  Lake  Huron,  may  perhaps 
be  designs*  :ed  as  the  headcmarl  ers  of  the  northwestern 


pine  lumbeii  industry.  The  somewhat  less  valuable 
southern  pine  (P.  palustns ),  called  also  hard,  yellow, 
long-leaved,  and  Georgia  pine,  is,  in  contrast  with  the 
white  pine,  decidedly  a southern  species,  ranging  from 
southern  Virginia  south  to  Florida,  and  southwest 
through  the  Gulf  States  to  the  valley  of  the  Red  river 
in  Louisiana  and  that  of  the  Trinity  in  Texas.  It 
occurs  over  extensive  areas,  forming  the  “ pine-barrens  ” 
of  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas.  The  wood  is  hard  and 
tough  and  the  tree  furnishes  immense  quantities  of  tar, 
pitch,  rosin  and  turpentine.  The  yellow  pine  (P.  mitis ) 
has  a range  from  Connecticut  to  Florida  and  through 
the  Gulf  States  to  Texas. 

Another  important  conifer,  next  to  Pinus  palustris 
the  most  characteristic  tree  of  the  southeastern  coast 
timber  belt,  is  -the  cypress  ( Taxodium  distichum ), 
which  ranges  from  Delaware  south  along  the  coast  to 
Florida,  and  southwest  to  Texas,  forming  extensive 
forests  in  the  southern  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  and 
also  extending  up  the  Mississippi  to  Southern  Illinois. 
The  cypress  is  a marked  feature  in  the  swamp  country 
which  extends  along  the  coast  from  Virginia  through 
North  and  South  Carolina,  of  which  the  Great  Dismal 
Swamp,  on  the  borders  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina, 
may  be  taken  as  the  type.  These  swamps  are  locally 
known  through  the  region  where  they  occur  as  “ dis- 
mals” or  “pocosins.”  The  largest  continuous  area  of 
swamp  in  North  Carolina  lies  between  Albemarle  and 
Pamlico  Sounds,  covering  an  area  of  nearly  3,000  square 
miles.  The  prevalent  growth  of  the  best  swamp  lands 
is  the  black  gum  (Nyssa  sylvatica),  tulip  tree  or  poplar, 
cypress,  ash,  and  maple,  the  proportion  of  cypress 
increasing  as  the  soil  becomes  more  peaty.  These  so- 
called  swamps — in  large  part  at  least — differ  essentially 
from  what  is  usually  called  a swamp,  being  considerably 
elevated  above  the  adjacent  streams;  they  are,  in  fact, 
j immense  accumulations  of  decaying  vegetation,  often 
peaty  in  character  with  more  or  less  fine  sand  inter- 
mingled, and  with  a very  considerable  variety  of  forest 
vegetation.  Portions  of  these  swampy  areas  have  been 
successfully  drained  and  brought  under  cultivation; 
other  portions  have  resisted  all  attempts  of  the  kind,  al- 
though there  has  been  a large  amount  of  money  ex- 
pended in  endeavoring  to  reclaim  them.  Besides  the 
pines,  there  are  to  be  mentioned  here  the  spruces,  firs, 
larches,  and  cedars,  which  together  form  a marked  zone 
of  vegetation  decidedly  northern  in  character,  extending 
through  the  northern  part  of  New  England,  through 
Canada  to  the  Upper  Lakes,  and  far-  to  the  north  and 
northwest,  where  it  unites  with  the  forest  belt  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  in  almost  the  extreme  northerly  ex- 
tension of  this  range  within  the  Unitdd  States.  The 
northern  forms  of  coniferous  trees  also  occur  in  the 
highest  portion  of  the  Appalachians  as  far  south  as 
North  Carolina,  and  are  found  along  the  most  elevated 
ridges  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  range,  from  the  extreme 
north  through  to  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  and  along 
the  culminating  portion  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  nearly  to 
the  southern  border  of  California. 

A characteristic  type  of  northern  coniferous  trees 
is  the  balsam -fir,  which  extends  from  Maine  west  to  the 
base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  produces  what  is 
known  as  “ Canada  balsam.”  Spruce  and  hemlock  are 
characteristic  northern  trees.  The  bark  of  the  latter 
furnishes  material  for  tanning.  The  larch,  or  tamarack, 
and  the  white  cedar  are  widely  spread,  and  in  the 
prairie  country  the  cottonwood  and  the  willow  grow 
along  the  water  courses. 

The  flora  of  California  and  the  Cordilleran  region 
differ  considerably  from  that  of  the  Atlantic  and 
Middle  States,  although  including  many  species  in 
common. 


The  forests  found  in  the  western  portions  of  the 
United  States  are  unrivalled  in  all  the  world.  Nowhere 
else  do  they  attain  so  enormous  a size,  or,  space  con- 
sidered, are  so  numerous.  Speaking  from  an  aesthetic 
standpoint,  it  is  impossible  to  describe  the  magnificent 
grandeur  of  the  forest  effects.  Travellers  from  the  four 
corners  of  the  earth  visit  the  stately  aisles  and  are  with- 
out words  to  convey  the  impression  left  upon  them. 
Here,  indeed,  are  found  what  may  be  worthily  termed 
“ God’s  first  temples.”  Looked  upon  from  a utilitarian 
standpoint,  the  effect,  though  different,  is  not  less  im- 
pressive when  the  beholder  considers  the  infinite  re- 
sources for  man’s  need  here  conserved. 

Dense  forests  clothe  the  western  slopes  of  the  Sierra 
Madra  Mountains  throughout  their  entire  length.  In 
Washington  and  Oregon  particularly,  the  fir  and  pine 
trees  are  of  largest  growth  and  seemingly  inexhaustible 
in  number.  To-day  the  lumber  business  of  the  great 
Northwest  is  the  largest  and  most  important  of  the 
region.  Laying  adjacent  to  Puget  Sound,  transporta- 
tion is  comparatively  a simple  matter,  thus  facilitating 
the  business.  There  are  in  this  region  two  varieties  of 
trees  that  are  chiefly  used  for  lumber,  the  Douglas  fir 
{Pseudotsuga  Douglasii ),  and  yellow  pine  {pinus  pou- 
derosa).  The  latter  grows  further  inland,  being  found 
on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  covering  the 
Cascades,  and  occasionally  occurring  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  growing  all  the  way  from  British  Columbia 
to  Arizona. 

No  description  of  the  trees  of  this  region  is  com- 
plete without  mention  of  the  famous  redwood,  the 
largest  of  all  plant  growths.  There  are  two  varieties, 
which  are  found  only  in  California,  generally  not  far 
.distant  from  the  coast.  A vivid  description  of  their 
phenomenal  size  and  beauty  is  given  by  the  famous 
traveller  and  lecturer,  John  L.  Stoddard,  who  says  : 

‘‘Who  has  not  heard  of  the  ‘Big  Trees’  of  California? 
They  are  another  proof  of  the  fact  that  the  western 
portion  .of  our  country  is  a region  marvelously  en- 
dowed by  Nature.  There  are  in  the  area  here  which 
has  been  set  aside  by  Congress  ‘for  public  use,  re- 
sort and  recreation,’  more  than  600  trees,  which  have 
in  respect  to  size  no  rivals  in  the  world.  A stage- 
coach, with  driver,  passengers  and  horses,  can  be 
driven  through  the  upright  hollow  trunk  of  one  of 
these  forest  giants,  which  nevertheless  is  still  suf- 
ficiently alive  to  bear  leaves  on  its  branches  300 
feet  above  the  ground!  Even  more  enormous  than 
those  still  flourishing  here  are  some  prostrate  mon- 
sters, one  of  which  must  have  had  a circumference  of 
120  feet  and  a height  of  400 ! The  largest  tree  now 
standing  here  has  a circumference  of  about  100  feet 
and  its  first  branch  (six  feet  in  diameter)  is  200  feet 
from  the  ground ! It  is  an  extraordinary  fact  that  the 
cones  of  these  trees  are  no  larger  than  walnuts,  and 
their  seeds  are  only  about  a quarter  of  an  inch  in 
length.  One  feels  himself  a pigmy  as  he  stands  be- 
side these  forest  Titans,  not  only  in  comparison  with 
their  prodigious  size,  but  as  he  measures  his  brief  life 
with  the  long  line  of  thirteen  centuries,  of  whose 
slow  march  their  annual  rings  and  weird  colossal 
limbs  give  proof.” 


In  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  comparatively  few  for- 
ests. What  there  are,  are  scattered  here  and  there  in 
small  groves.  As  might  be  expected,  they  flourish 
best  at  the  base  of  the  mountains  where  there  is  the 
greatest  amount  of  moisture.  There  is  no  comparison 
between  the  forests  of  the  Sierra  Madra  and  Cascade 
ranges  and  those  of  the  Rockies,  the  former  far  out- 
shadowing  the  latter-  The  tree  most  commonly  found 
is  the  aspen,  more  popularly  called  the  cottonwood. 
This  tree  is  found  growing  over  a greater  extent  of 
territory  than  any  other  in  North  America.  It  is  at 
home  in  cold  and  bleak  Newfoundland  as  well  as  in 
the  equally  barren  but  torrid  regions  of  Arizona  and 
New  Nexico.  Other  trees  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
are  the  scrub  oak,  white  oak  and  black  oak. 

It  only  remains  to  speak  of  the  vast  central  prairies 
which  extend  over  so  large  a portion  of  the  area  of  the 
United  States,  and  which,  but  for  the  cottonwoods  and 
dwarfed  oaks  along  the  water-courses,  were  originally 
practically  treeless.  Large  areas  in  the  more  southern 
States — Arkansas,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana 
— are  also  prairies,  portions  of  which  are  entirely  des- 
titute of  forests,  while  others  have  small  “clumps”  of 
trees  sparsely  scattered  over  their  surface.  This  is  in  a 
region  of  the  largest  rainfall,  that  of  fifty-six  inches  and 
upward.  The  cause  of  the  absence  of  trees  on  the 
prairies  is  the  physical  character  of  the  soil,  and  especi- 
ally its  exceeding  fineness,  which  is  prejudicial  to  the 
growth  of  anything  but  a superficial  vegetation,  the 
smallness  of  the  particles  of  soil  being  an  insuperable 
barrier  to  the  necessary  access  of  air  to  the  roots  of  a 
deeply  rooted  vegetation.  Wherever  in  the  midst  of 
the  extraordinarily  fine  soil  of  the  prairies  coarse  or 
gravelly  patches  exist,  there  dense  forests  occur. 

Since  the  settlement  of  the  great  States  west  and 
northwest  of  Ohio  a vast  change  has  been  wrought  in 
this  region.  Especially  of  recent  years  the  necessity  of 
supplementing  nature  by  art  and  of  planting  groves  of 
useful  timber  has  been  brought  to  the  mind  of  the 
agriculturist.  The  value  of  timber  as  a shelter  and  as 
inducing  and  regulating  rainfall  is  well  known.  States 
and  counties  have  by  publication  and  legislation,  and  by 
the  grant  of  lands  conditioned  on  the  planting  of  timber, 
encouraged  such  action  and  with  the  most  gratifying 
results.  In  States  like  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Nebraska 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres  have  been  planted  with 
timber,  and  so  far  as  they  are  concerned  the  treeless 
prairie  is  a thing  of  the  past.  In  some  of  these  States  a 
day  is  annually  set  apart  for  the  planting  of  timber,  and 
is  known  as“  Arbor  Day.” 

The  United  States  occupies  a favored  position  among 
the  nations  in  the  variety  and  abundance  of  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  field.  Every  cereal  of  the  temperate  zone, 
the  rice  and  cotton  of  the  tropics,  the  potato  and  the 
yam,  the  sugar  cane  and  the  tobacco  plant  all  flourish 
luxuriantly  in  the  various  divisions  of  the  country.  The 
apple,  pear  and  plum,  and  the  hardier  fruits  of  the 
north,  are  supplemented  by  the  orange  and  the  banana* 
of  Florida,  and  the  olive,  peach,  and  fig  of  California, 
while  the  vine  extends  over  thousands  of  miles  of  terri 
tory.  The  native  and  cultivated  grasses  furnish  sus- 
tenance for  millions  of  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep,  while 
root  crops  are  grown  in  every  part  of  the  country. 

The  northern  tier  of  States,  from  the  Atlantic  inlafid 
to  the  Great  Lakes,  supplies  the  hardier  cereals  in  great 
perfection.  Rye,  oats,  and  barley  thrive  in  New  York 
and  the  Eastern  States;  wheat  constitutes  a most  valu- 
able crop  from  the  Canada  line  south  to  the  Ohio  river. 
But  it  is  on  the  virgin  prairies  of  Minnesota  and  the 
Dakotas  that  the  great  wheat  fields  of  the  world  are  to 


U N I 


b054 

be  found.  Soil  and  climate  combine  to  produce  the 
chief  cereal  in  a quantity  and  of  a quality  unsurpassable 
anywhere.  Modern  improvements  in  agricultural  ma- 
chinery  enable  wheat-farming  to  be  carried  on  upon  a 
gigantic  scale  and  at  a low  cost,  while  the  development 
of  the  railroad  system  and  the  facilities  offered  by  the 
Great  Lakes  afford  ready  access  to  the  markets  of  the 
world. 

In  the  States  to  the  south  of  this  section  “corn  is 
king.”  This  invaluable  food-plant,  indigenous  to  the 
American  continent,  flourishes  with  the  utmost  luxuri- 
ance in  the  fertile  river-bottoms  of  Illinois  and  Indiana, 
and  on  the  spreading  prairies  of  Iowa,  Nebraska,  and 
Kansas.  Missouri,  too,  grows  an  immense  acreage  of 
corn,  and  all  through  the  Mississippi  and  Gulf  States  a 
full  supply  for  home  necessities  is  grown.  South  Caro- 
lina  and  the  Gulf  States  produce  the  best  rice  in  the 
world,  and  side  by  side  with  this  grows  the  cotton,  which 
forms  the  chief  staple  of  the  south.  Virginia,  Tennes- 
see, and  Kentucky  are  the  leading  producers  of  tobacco, 
although  this  is  grown  to  a greater  or  less  extent  in 
many  other  States,  and  even  as  far  north  as  the  valley 
of  the  Connecticut.  Sub-tropical  Florida  has  a fauna 
of  her  own,  and  here  oranges  and  lemons,  bananas,  pine- 
apples, and  other  fruits  of  the  southern  temperate  and 
neo-tropical  zones  flourish.  Owing  to  the  improve- 
ments in  the  means  of  communication  these  products  of 
bountiful  nature  can  be  placed  in  the  markets  of  the 
North  and  West  within  forty-eight  hours,  and  certainly 
there  is  no  country  in  which  the  vegetable  productions 
of  so  vast  a region  can  be  found  grouped  at  any  central 
market. 

California,  in  addition  to  the  wheat  and  barley  which 
rival  those  of  all  countries,  has  developed  of  late  years 
a capacity  as  a fruit-growing  region,  which  has  become 
the  foundation  ofan  enormous  industry.  The  cultivation 
of  the  vine  on  the  Pacific  slope  is  being  carried  on  in- 
telligently and  with  great  vigor,  while  fruit  farms  have 
been  established  by  the  thousand. 

The  United  States  also  possesses  in  the  seas  which 
wash  her  shores,  a food-producing  potentiality  of  almost 
incalculable  value.  The  cod-fisheries  of  the  North;  the 
oyster-beds  of  almost  the  entire  Atlantic  coast,  and  the 
deep  sea  fishing  of  two  oceans  occupy  thousands  of 
vessels  and  furnish  an  unlimited  supply  of  cheap  and 
wholesome  food.  Not  only  has  the  United  States  an 
ample  sufficiency  of  the  best  for  its  people,  but  it  is  en- 
abled to  export  annually  tens  of  millions  of  bushels  of 
the  cereals  to  Europe,  in  addition  to  supplying  foreign 
countries  with  vast  quantities  of  meats,  from  animals 
fed  upon  the  produce  of  her  boundless  prairies. 

MINERALOGY. 

The  wealth  of  a country  is  to  a large  degree  depen- 
dent upon  the  number  and  quality  of  its  mineral  produc- 
tions. The  United  States  in  this  respect  surpasses 
almost  every  other  country  in  the  world;  in  fact,  it  may 
be  stated  that  in  regard  to  precious  rpetals  no  other 
country  is  so  favored  as  this.  Although  at  the  present 
time  the  mineral  resources  of  the  United  States  have 
been  but  partially  developed,  enough  has  been  done  to 
demonstrate  that  no  other  country  in  the  world  has  such 
an  extensive  variety  and  excellent  quality  of  mineral 
wealth. 

The  mineral  productions  of  the  country  may  be  con- 
sidered under  the  three  following  heads:  Precious 
stones  and  metals;  the  ordinary  metals  and  ores,  in- 
cluding coal,  graphite,  rock  oil,  and  salt;  and  building 
stones. 

Precious  stones  are  occasionally  found,  although  the 
specimens  are  of  comparatively  little  value.  Diamonds 
have  been  fouud  itn  some  of  the  States — California, 


North  Carolina,  Georgia — and  a tine  specimen  was 
recently  found  near  Richmond,  Va.  They  are  said 
also  to  occur  sparingly  in  Idaho.  They  are  usually 
found  either  at  the  bottom  of  a river,  or  inclosed  in 
granular  rock  of  laminated  structure.  Agates  and 
cornelians  are  found  in  large  quantities  and  of  compara- 
tively good  quality  along  the  banks  of  the  Upper 
Mississippi  and  in  the  region  of  Lake  Superior.  Beryls 
are  also  found  in  various  portions  of  the  United  States. 
Rubies  and  sapphires  have  been  found  in  New  Jersey, 
and  in  isolated  instances  in  other  portions  of  the 
country. 

The  precious  metals  of  the  United  States  may  be 
classed  as  platinum,  gold  and  silver.  The  first, 
although  it  is  sometimes  found  in  a pure  state,  is  usually 
discovered  in  combination  with  other  rare  metals,  such 
as  gold,  iridium,  osmium,  and  palladium.  It  has  been 
found  in  California  and  North  Carolina,  and  in  small 
quantities  in  Pennsylvania.  The  characteristics  of 
platinum  are  too  well  known  to  require  description 
here.  Its  chief  value  lies  in  its  faculty  of  resistance  to 
the  action  of  chemicals  and  acids.  It  furnishes  a non- 
corrosive  material  for  the  construction  of  chemical  in- 
struments and  vessels. 

Gold  is  found  principally  in  two  regions,  namely,  the 
Appalachian  and  the  Californian.  It  is  found  in  small 
quantities  in  the  territory  around  Lake  Superior  and 
Lake  Michigan,  but  the  product  is  unimportant.  In  the 
Appalachian  region  the  gold  district  extends  from 
Georgia  as  far  north  as  Canada.  The  richest  mines  are 
located  in  North  Carolina;  others  exist  in  the  north  and 
northwestern  parts  of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina, 
the  western  part  of  North  Carolina,  and  the  centra] 
parts  of  Virginia  and  Maryland.  It  is  found  in  limited 
quantities  toward  the  north,  and  occasionally  in  Penn- 
sylvania, Massachusetts,  Virginia,  New  Hampshire,  and 
Maine,  while  further  north  the  deposits  increase  both  in 
extent  and  richness,  in  Canada  considerable  quantities 
being  produced.  In  Tennessee  and  Alabama  small 
deposits  are  known  to  exist.  In  the  California  region 
the  gold  belt  extends  along  the  Mountain  System  from 
the  Peninsula  of  Lower  California,  northward  through- 
out the  entire  extent  of  the  Pacific  Coast  of  the  United 
States.  The  deposits  are  richest  in  California,  in  the 
valleys  lying  between  the  Coast  Mountains  and  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  ranges,  through  which  flow 
the  Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin  rivers  and  their 
tributaries.  There  are  also  rich  mines  ir.  various  parts 
of  Mexico,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Colorado,  Utah,  and 
Idaho,  and  in  portions  of  the  Humboldt  region  in 
Nevada,  also  throughout  Washington  and  Oregon.  It 
is  chiefly  obtained  from  alluvial  washings,  or  from 
quartz.  The  method  of  separation  used  is  generally 
that  of  amalgamation  with  mercury. 

Silver  is  found  as  native  or  metallic  silver  in  the 
Lake  Superior  copper  region,  in  Michigan,  Idaho,  and 
Nevada,  which  last  is  the  richest  silver  producing 
country  in  the  world.  It  is  found  here  principally  in 
combination  with  native  gold  or  in  connection  with 
lead.  Native  gold  almost  always  contains  a small  per- 
centage of  silver,  hence  where  the  production  of  gold  is 
great,  the  amount  of  silver  thus  obtained  in  connection 
with  the  gold  is  not  inconsiderable.  Silver-bearing  lead 
ore  is  also  found  to  a considerable  amount  in  some  sec- 
tions. North  Carolina,  which  at  one  time  produced  a 
large  amount  of  valuable  silver  ore,  seems  at  present  to 
have  been  exhausted. 

The  principal  base  metals  of  the  country  are  iron,  cop- 
per, lead,  zinc,  mercury,  tin,  chromium,  nickel,  cobalt, 
nismuth,  antimony  and  manganese.  Of  these  iron  is 
the  most  widely  distributed,  very  few  of  the  geological 
formations  being  free  from  it.  From  its  universal  use 


u 

it  has  more  commercial  value  than  any  other  metal.  It 
rarely  occurs  in  a native  or  pure  state,  but  is  generally 
found  in  combination  with  some  other  element.  When 
found  pure  it  is  generally  as  meteoric  iron,  or  as  an 
alloy  with  nickel.  The  most  valuable  ores  of  iron  are 
oxides  or  carbonates,  that  is,  iron  in  combination  with 
oxygen  or  carbonic  acid.  On  account  of  the  almost 
universal  distribution  of  the  ores  of  iron,  space  forbids 
more  than  a mere  enumeration  of  the  most  important 
regions.  Immense  deposits  occur  around  Lake  Supe- 
rior. In  Missouri  the  supply  is  so  rich  as  to  literally 
form  two  iron  mountains,  one  of  which  is  600  feet 
high,  and  the  other  228  feet  high.  In  New  York 
abundant  deposits  occur  in  the  southeast,  east  and 
north.  The  region  of  the  Adirondacks  is  especially 
rich.  Extensive  deposits  of  various  iron  ores  occur  in 
all  the  New  England  States,  many  of  the  Middle  and 
Southern  States,  and  very  generally  throughout  the 
Western  States  and  Territories.  In  fact,  few  districts 
of  the  United  States  are  wanting  in  large  and  valuable 
deposits  of  some  form  of  iron  ores.  The  most  valu- 
able, however,  occur  in  Pennsylvania.  Although  these 
deposits  are  not  as  rich  as  some  others,  yet  on  account 
of  their  availability  — their  nearness  to  beds  of  coal  and 
limestone — they  render  that  State  able  to  compete  with 
any  other  country  in  the  world,  both  in  regard  to  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  its  productions. 

The  activity  in  the  development  of  the  southern  iron 
industry,  which  was  so  conspicuous  in  the  latter  half  of 
1885  and  in  1886,  has  been  continued  up  to  the  present 
date.  This  activity  has  been  chiefly  displayed  in  the 
erection  of  blast  furnaces  for  the  manufacture  of  pig 
iron. 

Since  the  beginning  of  1886  there  have  been  built  in 
the  States  south  of  the  Potomac  and  the  Ohio  rivers 
twenty-one  large  and  well  equipped  furnaces,  and  fourteen 
furnaces  were  in  course  of  erection  in  those  States  on 
J uly  1 , 1 888.  F ifteen  of  the  completed  furnaces  have  been 
finished.  Of  the  twenty-one  completed  furnaces  eighteen 
were  built  to  use  coke  and  three  to  use  charcoal  as  fuel; 
of  the  fourteen  building,  ten  will  use  coke  and  four  will 
use  charcoal  as  fuel.  These  thirty-five  new  furnaces, 
built  and  building,  are  situated  in  the  following  States  : 
Alabama,  thirteen  coke  furnaces  built  and  ten  coke  and 
three  charcoal  furnaces  building;  Virginia,  three  coke 
furnaces  built ; Tennesseee,  one  coke  and  three  char- 
coal furnaces  built ; Kentucky,  one  coke  furnace  built ; 
Georgia,  one  charcoal  furnace  building.  Preparations 
are  also  being  made  to  remove  a coke  furnace  from  Mis- 
souri to  Kentucky.  All  of  these  new  furnaces  are  of 
large  capacity,  and  most  of  them  rank  among  the  best 
in  the  country. 

Discarding  all  abandoned  furnaces,  the  total  number 
of  completed  furnaces  in  the  States  south  of  the  Poto- 
mac and  the  Ohio,  not  including  Missouri,  which  were 
in  blast  on  July  1,  1889,  or  in  a condition  to  be  readily 
put  in  blast,  was  109,  and,  as  above  stated,  fourteen 
furnaces  were  in  course  of  erection  in  those  States  on 
that  date.  Of  the  completed  furnaces  fifty-seven  use 
coke  and  fifty- two  use  charcoal  as  fuel.  They  are  situ- 
ated in  the  following  States : Alabama,  twenty-three 
coke  and  ten  charcoal  furnaces  ; Virginia,  twelve  coke 
and  twenty-one  charcoal  furnaces  (and  one  of  the  char- 
coal furnaces  is  being  changed  to  a coke  furnace);  Ten- 
nessee, ten  coke  and  ten  charcoal  furnaces;  West  Vir- 
ginia, six  ;oke  and  three  charcoal  furnaces  ; Kentucky, 
four  coke  and  three  charcoal  furnaces ; Georgia,  two 
coke  and  two  charcoal  furnaces  ; North  Carolina,  two 
charcoal  furnaces;  and  Texas,  one  charcoal  furnace. 
In  the  whole  country  there  were  on  January  1,  1889, 
583  completed  furnaces,  not  counting  those  abandoned. 

Copper  is  found  either  in  a native  state  or  in  combi. 


•II  ‘ 6055 

nation  with  other  substances.  This  country  is  exceed- 
ingly rich  in  its  deposits  of  this  metal.  There  are  three 
principal  regions  of  its  production.  These  are  the  At- 
lantic, the  Interior  and  the  Western  regions.  The  At- 
lantic region  extends  along  the  Atlantic  border  from 
Vermont  to  Tennessee.  The  most  productive  mines 
in  this  region  are  those  located  in  Vermont,  Connecticut, 
New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Tennessee 
The  Interior  region  occupies  the  country  along  the 
Mississippi  Valley  and  around  Lake  Superior.  Rick 
mines  occur  in  various  localities  along  the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi,  but  the  deposits  are  most  abundant  ii 
Wisconsin  and  Missouri.  The  copper  region  of  Lak« 
Superior  covers  an  extensive  range  of  country  round 
Keweenaw  Point.  The  metal  occurs  native  in  veins  in 
trap.  This  region  is  the  richest  in  the  world.  Large 
masses  of  almost  pure  copper  have  been  taken  from 
the  mines,  one  of  winch  weighed  420  tons  and  contained 
more  than  90  per  cent,  of  pure  copper.  The  yield  of 
metal  from  this  region  averages  about  8,000  tons  per 
year.  The  Western  region  comprises  large  tracts  of 
country  along  the  Pacific  coast.  Native  copper  has 
been  found  in  California  and  Arizona. 

Lead  never  occurs  native  except  in  rare  instances, 
when  it  is  regarded  as  a mineralogical  curiosity.  Its 
principal  ores  are  sulphides  and  oxides.  The  most 
abundant  ore  is  galena,  a sulphide.  The  deposits  of 
lead,  like  those  of  copper,  are  exceedingly  rich  and 
numerous,  and  are  distributed  into  three  regions.  In 
the  first  of  these,  the  Atlantic  region,  the  deposits  are 
located  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massa* 
chusetts,  Connecticut,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Vir- 
ginia, and  North  Carolina.  In  the  Interior  region  they 
are  generally  confined  to  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi. 
Here  the  deposits  are  of  the  most  extensive  character. 
They  occur  principally  in  conjunction  with  the  lime- 
stone  formations  in  the  States  of  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  Ill- 
inois, and  Missouri.  Veins  of  this  metal  are  also  found 
in  Tennessee.  The  mines  of  Missouri  are  exceedingly 
productive.  They  have  been  known  for  170  years.  They 
occur  generally  south  of  the  Missouri  river,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  iron  mountains.  The  mines  of 
Iowa,  Wisconsin,  and  Illinois  lie  mostly  in  the  region 
bounded  by  the  Mississippi,  Wisconsin,  and  Rock 
rivers,  and  extend  to  several  counties  of  Iowa.  The 
profuse  abundance  of  the  deposits  in  this  neighborhood 
may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  from  a spot  not  more 
than  fifty  yards  square  over  3,000,000  pounds  of  ore  have 
been  obtained.  Lead  is  also  found  to  a limited  extent 
in  the  Lake  Superior  copper  region.  The  Western 
region,  which  is  composed  of  California,  Nevada,  Ari- 
zona, and  Colorado,  contains  large  and  valuable  deposits 
of  galena.  This  region,  however,  has  been  less  de- 
veloped than  the  Atlantic  and  Interior  regions. 

Zinc  rarely  occurs  native,  and  is  usually  found  either 
as  a sulphide  or  oxide,  sometimes  in  connection  with 
the  carbonates  and  silicates.  Large  and  valuable  de- 
posits exist  along  the  Atlantic  slope  in  the  New  Eng- 
land, Middle,  and  middle  Atlantic  States,  and  in  Ten- 
nessee. Considerable  quantities  are  also  found  in  con- 
nection with  the  lead  deposits  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Mercury  occurs  native,  and  also  in  combination  with 
various  substances.  The  principal  form  of  ore  from 
which  the  mercury  of  commerce  is  obtained  is  cinna- 
bar, which  is  a sulphide.  The  principal  industrial  uses 
for  this  metal  occur  in  connection  with  the  gold  m»V  m g 
operations  in  California,  where  it  is  used  for  tne  separa 
tion  of  gold  from  its  ore,  and  in  the  manufacture  ol 
glass  mirrors.  There  are  extensive  deposits  of  quick, 
silver  in  various  parts  of  California,  and  range  along  the 
coast  from  Lake  Clear  in  the  north,  to  San  Luis  Obispo 
in  the  south.  The  mines  of  New  Almaden,  southeast 


U N I 


6056 

of  San  Francisco,  are  the  most  important.  There  are 
also  deposits  in  Idaho. 

Tin  is  found  principally  in  conjunction  with  sulphur, 
and  as  an  oxide.  The  oxides  are  the  most  important, 
and  are  most  productive  of  the  tin  of  commerce. 
Small  quantities  of  the  ores  of  the  tin  have  been  found 
in  various  parts  of  the  country,  but  not  in  sufficiently 
large  quantities  to  warrant  the  mines  being  developed. 
These  traces  have  been  observed  in  Maine,  New 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Virginia,  California,  and 
Idaho.  The  New  Hampshire  deposits  are  the  most 
extensive  and  important,  and  at  some  future  day,  when 
the  cost  of  production  will  be  considerably  lower,  they 
may  be  of  value. 

Chromium  is  generally  found  as  an  oxide,  and  in 
combination  with  the  oxide  of  iron.  Its  principal  points 
of  deposit  are  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  Maryland. 
It  is  of  great  commercial  value  for  the  purpose  of  manu- 
facturing fine  yellow  and  green  paints. 

Nickel  occurs  native  in  masses  of  iron  of  a meteoric 
character.  The  principal  ore  from  which  it  is  obtained 
is  the  arseniate.  It  is  also  found  in  combination  with 
iron  and  sulphur.  Nickel  is  but  sparingly  found  in  the 
United  States.  The  principal  localities  of  its  deposit 
are  Connecticut  and  Pennsylvania.  The  Pennsylvania 
deposits  are  the  most  extensive,  and  the  yield  of  reduced 
metal  is  now  considerable.  The  principal  use  of  the 
metal  is  for  the  manufacture  of  philosophical  instruments ; 
on  account  of  its  non-liability  to  rust  it  is  preferable 
to  steel  for  this  purpose.  It  is  also  used  in  the  coinage 
of  the  nickel  half-dimes  and  three-cent  pieces  of  our 
fractional  money. 

Cobalt  does  not  occur  native,  and  is  generally  found 
associated  with  nickel.  It  is  not  used  in  the  metallic 
state,  its  principal  use  being  to  impart  a blue  color  to 
glass.  It  is  found  principally  in  Connecticut  and  Mis- 
souri. 

Bismuth  and  antimony  are  also  found  in  small  quan- 
tities in  some  of  the  States,  and  manganese  occurs  in 
Vermont  and  in  many  of  the  other  States.  Coal  is  found 
in  greater  abundance  in  the  United  States  than  in  any 
other  country  in  the  world.  The  coal  areas  of  the 
country,  as  described  by  Professor  Dana,  are  as  follows: 

First,  the  Appalachian  coal-fields,  which  cover  parts  of 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Virginia,  together  with  Eastern 
Kentucky,  Eastern  Tennessee,  and  Alabama.  The  area 
of  this  region  is  estimated  at  60,000  square  miles.  In 
Pennsylvania  both  bituminous  and  anthracite  deposits 
occur,  the  eastern  field  containing  anthracite  and  the 
western  bituminous.  The  second  area  is  the  Illinois 
and  Missouri  field,  which  includes  portions  of  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Kentucky,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Arkan- 
sas. Its  area  is  about  59,000  square  miles.  The  third 
section  comprises  the  Michigan  area,  near  the  center  of 
the  State  of  Michigan.  The  fourth,  or  Texas  area, 
covers  the  northern  and  western  parts  of  the  State  of 
Texas.  The  fifth,  or  Rhode  Island  area,  includes  the 
State  of  Rhode  Island  and  part  of  Massachusetts.  This 
is  the  southern  limit  of  the  large  area  which  lies  to  the 
northeast  of  this  in  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick. 
Besides  the  regions  here  enumerated,  indications  of  coal 
are  abundant  in  western  sections  of  the  Mississippi  val- 
ley, and  throughout  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  total 
area  of  the  productive  coal-fields  of  the  United  States 
*s  estimated  at  125,000  square  miles,  or  nearly  seven 
times  as  great  as  the  coal  area  of  Great  Britain,  Ireland, 
Spain,  France,  and  Belgium  combined. 

Graphite  is  a substance  allied  to  coal,  of  nearly  the 
same  chemical  constituency,  being,  however,  generally 
associated  with  iron.  It  is  extensively  mined  in  Stur- 
hridge.  Mass.,  in  Essex  and  Dutchess  counties,  N,  Y.» 


at  Brandon,  Vt,  and  at  Wake,  N.  C.  There  are  small 
deposits  in  other  States. 

The  principal  use  of  graphite  is  in  the  manufacture  of 
lead  pencils. 

Petroleum,  or  coal-oil,  is  the  name  given  to  the  oil 
which  exudes  from  the  wells  throughout  various  por- 
tions of  the  coal-oil  area  of  the  United  States.  As  its 
name  indicates,  it  was  formerly  thought  to  be  purely 
coal-oil,  but  it  is  now  believed  to  be  a decomposition  of 
vegetable  and  animal  substances,  which  occurs  most 
frequently  in  clayey  shales  or  sandstones.  It  is  some- 
times found  floating  on  the  surface  of  bodies  of  water  or 
rising  from  the  rocks  as  oil  springs,  but  it  is  most  fre- 
quently obtained  by  boring,  when  it  rushes  up  from  the 
depths  of  the  earth,  usually  to  a considerable  height,  in 
a manner  anajogous  to  the  flowing  of  water  from  the 
artesian  wells.  The  discovery  of  the  wells  of  Pennsyl- 
vania was  first  made  in  1859,  while  sinking  a well  for 
salt  in  Venango  county.  The  oil  flowed  from  the  well 
at  the  rate  of  1 ,000  gallons  a day  for  several  weeks. 
Since  that  time  immense  quantities  have  been  obtained 
from  other  portions  of  the  coal  fields  of  that  State. 
Deposits  occur  in  various  portions  of  the  coal  regions, 
including  western  Pennsylvania,  western  Virginia, 
Ohio,  and  Michigan.  Is  also  sparingly  found  in  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee,  California,  and  other  States.  In 
connection  with  the  petroleum  there  is  usually  a large 
flow  of  natural  hydrocarbon  gas. 

Recently  gas  wells  have  been  bored  in  various  por- 
tions of  the  country  and  especially  in  the  vicinity  of 
Pittsburgh,  from  which  gas  is  conducted  in  pipes  to 
mills,  houses,  etc.,  to  be  consumed  as  fuel. 

The  prominence  which  natural  gas  has  recently  at- 
tained as  a fuel  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  in 
the  United  States  naturally  directs  attention  to  its  rela- 
tion to  other  kinds  of  fuel  which  are  used  in  this  great 
American  industry. 

It  may  be  premised  that  no  other  country,  not  even 
Great  Britain,  is  so  richly  endowed  as  this  country  with 
fuel  adapted  to  the  various  processes  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  iron  and  steel,  in  both  their  crude  and  finished 
forms.  We  have  in  some  sections  extensive  forests  for 
the  supply  of  charcoal;  in  others  there  is  an  abundance 
of  bituminous  coal,  much  of  which  makes  excellent 
coke;  in  eastern  Pennsylvania  are  extensive  fields  of 
anthracite  coal;  and  in  western  Pennsylvania  and  neigh- 
boring territory  is  the  natural  gas  region.  As  iron  ore 
is  also  widely  distributed  in  the  United  States,  no  nat- 
ural obstacles  exist  to  prevent  this  country  from  becom- 
ing in  all  respects  the  most  conspicuous  leader  in  the  ' 
world’s  iron  and  steel  industries,  and  this  position  it  is 
rapidly  attaining,  as  the  figures  already  given  abundantly 
show.  In  many  respects  it  has  already  attained  this 
distinction. 

Originally  all  our  iron  and  steel  was  made  with  char- 
coal, which  remained  our  principal  fuel  for  making  iron 
and  steel  for  ‘many  years.  In  the  last  century  bitumi- 
nous coal  was  sparingly  used  in  heating  furnaces ; in  the 
early  part  of  this  century  it  began  to  be  used  in  puddling 
furnaces;  in  1839  we  commenced  to  make  pig  iron  with 
bituminous  coal  in  the  form  of  coke,  and  in  1845  we 
successfully  introduced  the  use  of  raw  coal  in  the  blast 
furnace.  To-day  most  of  our  pig  iron  is  made  with 
coke,  either  alone  or  as  a mixture  with  anthracite  or 
raw  bituminous  coal.  In  the  early  part  of  this  century 
we  began  to  use  anthracite  coal  in  the  heating  furnace, 
and  subsequently  in  the  puddling  furnace.  A few  years 
before  1840  we  successfully  experimented  with  the  use 
of  anthracite  coal  in  the  blast  furnace,  and  in  that  year 
its  use  in  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron  was  fully  estab- 
lished. Anthracite  coal  is  no  longer  used  in  puddling 
furnaces,  except  in  very  rare  instances,  and  its  use  P 


UNI 


beating  furnaces  is  rapidly  yielding  to  the  encroach- 
ments of  bituminous  coal.  Except  where  natural  gas  is 
used,  bituminous  coal  is  generally  used  in  our  puddling 
and  heating  furnaces.  Charcoal  is  still  used  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  “-charcoal  ” blooms,  whether  made  from  ore 
or  pig  iron  and  scrap,  and  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  our  very  small  annual  product  of  cemented  steel,  but  it 
is  not  used  in  the  manufacture  of  any  other  finished  forms 
of  iron  or  steel.  In  the  production  of  gas  for  use  in  Sie- 
men’s  and  other  regenerative  heating  furnaces  our  de- 
pendence was  chiefly  upon  bituminous  coal  and  slightly 
upon  anthracite  coal  until  the  advent  of  natural  gas. 

In  1854  the  United  States  made  more  pig-iron  with 
charcoal  than  with  anthracite  coal.  The  next  year 
charcoal  was  passed  by  anthracite  coal,  and  in  1869  it 
was  passed  by  bituminous  coal.  Anthracite  continued, 
however,  to  be  the  leading  fuel  until  1875,  when  it,  too, 
was  passed  by  bituminous  coal,  which  has  since  con- 
tinued to  be  the  favorite  blast-furnace  fuel. 

The  development  of  natural  gas  in  this  country  as  a 
fuel  in  the  manufacture  of  the  finished  forms  of  iron 
and  steel  dates  from  1874.  (It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
say  that  natural  gas  is  not  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
pig-iron.)  At  the  Siberian  rolling  mill  of  Rogers  & 
Burchfield,  at  Leechburg,  in  Armstrong  county,  Penn., 
natural  gas,  taken  from  a well  1,200  feet  deep,  was  first 
used  as  a fuel  in  connection  with  our  iron  and  steel  in- 
dustries. In  the  fall  of  1874  it  was  announced  that 
during  the  preceding  six  months  the  gas  had  furnished 
all  the  fuel  required  for  puddling,  heating,  and  making 
steam  at  these  works,  not  one  bushel  of  coal  having 
been  used.  Between  1874  and  1881  natural  gas  for  pud- 
dling was  successfully  used  at  the  same  rolling  mill;  at 
the  mills  of  Spang,  Chalfant  & Co.,  and  Graff,  Bennett 
& Co.,  in  Allegheny  county,  Penn.;  and  at  the  rolling 
mill  of  the  Kittanning  Iron  Company,  at  Kittanning, 
Penn.  In  each  instance  the  gas  used  at  these  works 
was  obtained  from  wells  that  were  sunk  for  oil,  but 
were  found  to  produce  only  gas.  In  1883  the  substitu- 
tion of  natural  gas  for  bituminous  coal  in  rolling  mills 
and  steel  works  received  much  attention  at  Pittsburgh, 
owing  to  the  discovery  of  natural  gas  in  large  quantities 
at  the  neighboring  town  of  Murrysville,  in  Westmore- 
land county,  Penn.,  but  as  late  as  September,  1884, 
there  were  in  all  only  six  rolling  mills  and  steel  works 
in  the  United  States  which  were  using  the  new  fuel. 
During  the  next  two  years  the  use  of  natural  gas  in  the 
manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  made  rapid  progress.  In 
August,  1886,  there  were  sixty-eight  rolling  mills  and 
steel  works  which  used  the  new  fuel.  During  the  next 
fifteen  months  still  further  progress  was  made.  In 
November,  1887,  there  were  ninety-six  rolling  mills 
and  steel  works  which  wholly  or  in  part  used  natural 
gas  as  fuel,  and  over  one  hundred  are  now  using  it. 
The  whole  number  of  rolling  mills  and  steel  works  in 
the  United  States  in  November,  1889,  completed  or  in 
course  of  erection,  was  463,  of  which  nearly  one-fourth 
used  natural  gas  as  fuel. 

Salt  generally  occurs  associated  with  gypsum,  or  with 
clays  and  sandstones.  It  also  occurs  in  the  form  of 
pure  rock  salt  in  considerable  quantities  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, Virginia,  Oregon,  Nevada.  Most  of  the  salt  of 
this  country,  however,  is  obtained  by  manufacturing  the 
water  of  certain  saline  or  brine  springs.  The  richest  of 
these  are  found  in  Michigan  and  New  York.  Other 
springs  exist  in  western  Pennsylvania,  Kanawna  val- 
ley, Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  in  various  portions  of  the 
South  and  West,  as  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Texas,  New 
Mexico,  Utah,  and  California.  Some  of  these  wells 
have  sufficient  strength  to  produce  an  average  of  one 
bushel  of  salt  from  forty  gallons  of  water — nearly  ten 
times  the  strength  of  sea  water. 


6057 

The  principal  building  stones  of  the  U nited  States  are 
granite,  gneiss,  mica-schist,  sandstone,  slate,  marble 
and  limestone.  Granite  and  gneiss  are  the  most  val- 
uable for  building  material.  They  are  composed  of 
feld-spar,  mica  and  quartz.  The  difference  is  solely  in 
their  structure;  gneiss  being  a stratified  rock,  while 
granite  has  lost  all  traces  of  stratification,  and  has  be- 
come homogeneous  in  texture.  Mica-schist  contains  the 
same  constituents  as  granite  and  gneiss  in  varying 
quantities.  It  contains  more  mica  and  less  feld-spar 
than  gneiss  or  granite.  These  rocks  occur  in  various 
localities  throughout  many  of  the  Atlantic  States, 
especially  those  of  New  England.  The  best  quarries 
for  granite  are  in  New  Hampshire,  Maine,  Massa- 
chusetts, Connecticut  and  Virginia.  The  Virginia 
granite  is  of  peculiar  excellence,  having  a maximum 
hardness  and  durability.  Sandstone  is  found  in  various 
portions  of  the  Union,  but  varies  in  strength  and  dura- 
bility in  different  localities.  In  some  varieties  it  makes 
a good  building  stone,  but  more  often  it  is  not  very 
durable,  being  friable  and  easily  decomposed  by  the 
weather.  Slate  is  used  principally  for  roofing  purposes. 
Large  quarries  are  found  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
and  in  several  of  the  New  England  States.  Marble 
and  limestone  occur  very  extensively  almost  throughout 
the  entire  region  of  the  United  States.  Their  compo- 
sition is  identical,  marble  being  the  term  applied  to 
limestone  capable  of  receiving  a polish.  The  other 
varieties  of  limestone  can  be  used  either  for  a building 
material  or  calcined  for  lime  for  building  purposes,  or 
for  a fertilizer.  Limestone  is  found  in  very  extensive 
deposits  along  the  entire  Mississippi  Valley. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

We  give  here  extracts  from  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey  for  1900 — the  last  report  published. 
These  extracts  give  some  interesting  figures  relative  to 
mineral  productions,  not  alluded  to  in  the  fore- 
going : 

Precious  Stones. — The  value  of  American  gems  in  the 
rough  stats  amounted  to  $ 200,000 , besides  gold  quartz 
for  specimens  and  gems,  valued  at  $75,000. 

Phosphate  Rock. — South  Carolina  phosphate  rock, 
480,558 long  tons,  valuedat  $1,836,818;  an  increase  of 
50,009  tons,  but  a decrease  of  $36,118  in  value,  due  to 
greater  competition,  reducing  the  price  to  $3. 75  per  ton 
for  land  and  $4  for  river  rock.  Total,  U.  S.,  $5,375,956. 

Marls. — In  New  Jersey  the  production  is  estimated 
at  600,000  tons,  worth  about  $300,000.  While  the 
New  Jersey  marl  is  yielding  slowly  to  commercial 
fertilizers,  the  Virginia  marls,  as  well  as  those  in  North 
and  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Mississippi,  and  Florida, 
are  finding  increased  local  use. 

Borax. — Production,  11,000,000  pounds,  all  from 
California  and  Nevada.  Total  value,  $550,000,  at  5 
cents  per  pound  for  the  average  grade.  The  price  was 
rising  at  the  close,  of  1887. 

Sulphur. — Production  about  3,000  tons  from  Utah, 
worth  $100,000.  Litigation  checked  the  use  of  an  in- 
creased plant.  The  imports  of  Sicilian  sulphur,  with 
small  shipments  from  Japan,  were  96,882  long  tons, 
valued  at  $1,688,360. 

Totals. — A compilation  of  values  shows  an  aggregate 
value  of  $672,090,416  for  the  year.  This  is  the  largest 
total  ever  reached  by  the  mineral  industries  of  any 
country.  It  is  nearly  $73,000,000  more  than  the  pro- 
duct of  the  United  States  in  1886,  and  considerably 
more  than  $100,000,000  in  excess  of  the  year  1885.  Of 
many  items  which  have  contributed  to  this  result,  it  will 
be  noted  that  all  the  metals  increased  in  quantity,  ex- 
cept gold  and  the  minor  metal,  nickel,  and  nearly  all 
increased  in  price. 


6058 


UNI  • 

STATISTIC  AL 


The  United  States  at  the  beginning  of  the  current  fis- 
cal year  comprised  forty-five  States,  six  Territories  and 
one  District,  with  a census  population  of  76,303,387.  In 
the  following  figures  it  is  intended  to  exhibit  the  ma- 
terial progress  for  past  years  and  the  present  status  and 
condition,  financial  and  otherwise,  of  the  government, 
together  with  such  other  information  as  may  be  useful 
and  interesting.  As  a matter  of  prime  interest,  we  be- 
gin with  a statement  of  the  population,  net  revenue,  and 
net  expenditures  of  the  government  from  1838  to  June 
30,  1900,  and  per  capita  of  the  revenues  and  per  capita 
of  expenditures : 


Years. 

Popu- 

lation. 

Net 

Revenue. 

Per  Capita 
on  Reve- 
nue. 

Net 

Expenses. 

Per  Capita 

on  Expen- 

ditures. 

1838 

16,112,000  $ 26.302.562 

$ 1.63 

$ 33,865,059.00 

$ 2.10 

1839 

16,584,000 

31,482,750 

1.90 

26,899,128.00 

1.62 

1840 

17,069,453 

19,480,115 

1.14 

24,317,579.00 

1.42 

1841 

17,591,000 

16,860,160 

.96 

26,565,873.00 

1.51 

1842  .... 

18,132,000 

19,976,197 

1.10 

25,205,761.00 

1.39 

18436  ms 

18,694,000 

8,302,702 

.89 

11,858,075.00 

1.27 

1844 

19,276,000 

29,321,374 

1.62 

22,337,571.00 

1.16 

1845 

19,878,000 

29,970,106 

1.51 

22,937,408.00 

1.15 

1846 

20,500,000 

29,699,968 

1.45 

27,766,925.00 

1.35 

1847.  ... 

21.143,000 

26,495,769 

1.25 

57,281,412.00 

2.71 

1848 

21,805,000 

35,735,779 

1.64 

45,377,225.00 

2.08 

1849 

22,489,000 

31,208,143 

1.39 

45,051,657.00 

2.00 

1850 

23,191,876 

43,603,439 

1.88 

39,543,492.00 

1.71 

1851 

23,995,000 

52,559,304 

2.19 

47,709,017.00 

1.99 

1852 

24,802^000 

49,846,816 

2.01 

44,194,919.00 

1.78 

1853 

25,615,000 

61,587,054 

2.40 

48,184,111.00 

1.88 

1854 

26,433,000 

73,800,341 

2.79 

58,044,862.00 

2.20 

1855 

27,256,000 

65,350,575 

2.40 

59,742,668.00 

2.19 

1856 

28,083,000 

74,056,699 

2.64 

69,571,026.00 

2.48 

1857 

28,916,000 

68,965,313 

2.38 

67,795,708.00 

2.34 

1858 

29,753,000 

46,655,366 

1.57 

74,185,270.00 

2.49 

1859 

30,596,000 

53,486,466 

1.75 

69,070,977.00 

2.26 

1860 

31,443,321 

56,064,608 

1.78 

63,130,598.00 

2.01 

1861 

32,064,000 

41,509,930 

1.29 

66,546,645.00 

2.08 

1862 

32,704,000 

51,987,455 

1.59 

474,761,819.00 

14.52 

1863 

33,365,000 

112,697,291 

3.38 

714,740,725.00 

21.42 

1864 

34,046,000 

264,626,772 

7.77 

865,322,642.00 

25.42 

1865 

34,748.000 

333,714,605 

9.60 

1,297,555,224.00 

37.34 

1866...  . 

35,469,000 

558,032,620 

15.73 

520,809,417.00 

14.68 

1867 

36,211,000 

490,634,010 

13.55 

357,542,675.00 

9.87 

1868 

36,973,000 

405,038,083 

10.97 

377,340,285.00 

10.21 

1869 

37,756.000 

370,943,747 

9.82 

322,865,278.00 

8.55 

1870 

38,558,371 

411,255,478 

10.67 

309,653,561.00 

8.03 

1871 

39,555,000 

383,323,945 

9.69 

292,177,188.00 

7.39 

1872 

40,506,000 

374,106,868 

9.22 

277,517,963.00 

6.84 

1873 

41,677,000 

333,738,205 

8.01 

290,345,245.00 

6.97 

1874 

42,796,000 

304,978,755 

7.13 

302,633,873.00 

7.07 

1875 

43,951,000 

288,000,051 

6.55 

274,623,393.00 

6.25 

1876 

45,137,000 

294,095,865 

6.52 

265,101,085.00 

5.87 

1877 

46,353,000 

281,406,419 

6.07 

241,334,475.00 

5.21 

1878 

47,598,000 

257,763,879 

5.42 

236,964,327.00 

4.98 

1879 

48,866,000 

273,827,184 

5.60 

266,947,884.00 

5.46 

1880 

50,155,783 

333,526,611 

6.65 

267,642,958.00 

5.34 

1881 

51,495,000 

360,782,293 

7.01 

260,712,888.00 

5.06 

1882 

52,802,000 

403,525,250 

7.64 

257,981,440.00 

4.89 

1883 

54,165,000 

398,287,582 

7.35 

265,408,138.00 

4.90 

1884.:... 

55,556,000 

348,519,870 

6.27 

244,126,244.00 

4.39 

1885 

56,975,000 

323,690,706 

5.68 

260,226,935.00 

4.57 

1886 

58,420,000 

336,439,727 

5.76 

242,483,138.00 

4.15 

1887 

59,893,000 

371,403,277 

6.20 

267,932,179.00 

4.47 

1888 

61,394,000 

379,266,075 

6.18 

*267,924,801.00 

4.36 

1889 

62,921,000 

387,050,059 

6.31 

+299,288,978.25 

4.76 

1900 

76,303,387 

567,240,852 

7.00 

1 487,713,792.00 

6.00 

*This  includes  $8,270,842.46  of  “ premiums  on  purchase 
of  bonds.” 

+This  includes  $17,292,362.65  of  “premiums  on  purchase 
of  bonds.” 

MANUFACTURES. 

The  census  of  the  United  States  is  the  only  reliable 
authority  for  a statement  of  the  total  manufactures  of 
the  country,  all  other  sources  of  information  being  liable 
to  exaggeration  from  a local  desire  to  enhance  as  much 
as  possible  the  commercial  and  manufacturing  impor- 


tance of  any  particular  locality.  We  therefore  use  the. 
figures  of  the  last  (twelfth)  census,  that  of  the  year  1900. 
The  total  number  of  manufacturing  establishments  in 
the  Union  at  that  time  was  512,726,  employing  a capital 
of  #9,874,664,087,  giving  employment  to  5,718,817  per- 
sons, who  received  $$2,735,110,612  in  wages,  and  con- 
sumed $7,360,954,597  in  raw  material,  producing  manu- 
factured goods  to  the  value  of  $13,040,013,638.  These 
were  distributed  among  the  different  articles  as  follows  : 


1900. 


Trades. 

Estab- 

Cap- 

ital. 

Hands 

Wages 

Paid. 

Value 

lish- 

Em- 

of Prod- 

ments. 

ploy’d. 

ucts. 

Mil’ns. 

Mil’ns. 

Mil’ns. 

Agricultural  im. 

715 

157.7 

56,628 

30.8 

101.2 

Alcoholic  liqu’s. 

2,835 

457.6 

52,575 

42.3 

340.6 

Beet  sugar 

Bicycles  and  tri- 

31 

20.9 

2,320 

1.3 

7.3 

cycles  

312 

2.0 

19.559 

9.9 

31.9 

Boots  and  shoes 
Carriages  and 

1,600 

101.7 

150,765 

66.9 

261.0 

121.5 

wagons 

7,632 

118.1 

66,851 

33.8 

Cars  and  shop 
construction. . 
Cheese,  butter, 

1,296 

119.5 

180,748 

102.2 

218.2 

and  cond.  milk 

9,351 

36.4 

15,686 

7.0 

131.1 

Chemical  prod.. 

1,740 

238.5 

55,370 

33.1 

202.5 

Clay  products  . . 

6,422 

147.9 

110,818 

44.5 

95.4 

Clothing— men’s 
“ women’s 

5,731 

120.6 

130,952 

55.9 

276.8 

2,701 

48.4 

90,454 

39.1 

159.3 

Coke 

Cordage  and 

241 

36.5 

117,914 

7.8 

35.5 

twine 

105 

29.2 

13,550 

4.7 

37.8 

Cotton 

1,051 

298 

467.2 

307,763 

31,094 

94.0' 

339.1 

Dyeing  and  fin’g 
textiles 

60.6 

14.9 

44.9 

Flouring  and 

grist-mill 

Fruit,  veg.  and 

25,258 

218.7 

42,863 

23.1 

560.7 

82.5 

fish  canning. . 

2,195 

48.4 

55,068 

14.8 

Gas 

877 

567.0 

28,363 

17.7 

75.7 

Glass 

355 

61.4 

55,086 

29.3 

56.5 

Iron  and  steel. . 
Leather,  tanned, 

725 

580.0 

235,705 

134.7 

835.7 

204.0 

cur.  and  fin’d. 

1,306 

173.9 

54,551 

25.7 

Liquors, distill’d 
“ malt  . . . 

967 

32.5 

4,383 

2.6 

96.7 

1,509 

415.2 

46,685 

38.8 

237.2 

“ vinous . 

359 

9.8 

1,507 

1.0 

6.5 

(included  in 

above  alco- 
holic liquors). 

Lumber  and 

timber 

Meat  packing 

33,035 

611.6 

295,790 

115.9 

566.8 

785.5 

and  slaught’g. 
Musical  instru- 

921 

189.1 

78,761 

43.5 

44.5 

ments  

621 

47.7 

25,447 

14.9 

Paper  and  pulp. 

763 

167.5 

52,581 

25.2 

127.2 

Petroleum  refin. 
Printing  and 

67 

95.3 

12,400 

8.5 

123.9 

publishing: 

Newspapers  and 
periodicals.. . . 

15,305 

192.4 

122,183 

77.3 

222.9 

Book , music  and 

42.9 

124.0 

job 

7,007 

100.0 

78,608 

Rubber  boots 

7.0 

41.0 

and ‘shoes 

22 

83.6 

14,874 

Salt 

159 

27.1 

5,180 

2.4 

7.9 

Shipbuilding  . . . 

1,116 

77.3 

48,188 

26.8 

74.5 

Silk  & silk  goods 

483 

81.0 

68,073 

£4.1 

107.2 

Starch 

124 

11.6 

3,061 

1.5 

9.2 

Tobacco  

15,252 

124.0 

150,539 

58.8 

283.0 

Turpentine  and 

9.1 

20.3 

rosin 

1,503 

43 

11.8 

43,753 

Watches  & cases 
Wool  manufac. : 

22.3 

11,187 

6.0 

27.9 

14.6 

120.0 

Woolen  goods.. . 

1,036 

126.1 

71,621 

Worsted  goods. . 
Hosieryand  knit 

185 

130.3 

57,895 

86,196 

22.1 

27.4 

118.7 

95.4 

goods 

921 

81.8 

Carpets  & rugs. 

133 

44.4 

29,098 

12.0 

48.1 

The  following  table  gives  the  names  an'd  capitals  of  the  different  States  and  Territories  of  the  Union,  together  with  a synopsis  of  their  government,  population, 


6059 


Area, 
Sq.  M. 

ggssgg'*-*  S8®3S88S8SS8a"SgS8§E:S"^g3Sg38gS“J8S:SgS“SfeS:S6 

Popula-  j 

tion,  1900. 

1,828,697 
63,592 
122 ,931 
1,311,564 
1,485,053 
539,700 
908,420 

184,735 

278,718 

528,542 

2,216,331 

154,001 

161,772 

4,821,550 

2,516,462 

2,231,853 

392,060 

1,470,495 

2,147,174 

1,381,625 

694,466 

1,188,044 

2,805,346 

2,420,982 

1,751,394 

1,551,270 

3,106,665 

243,329 

1,066,300 

42,335 

411,588 

1,883,669 

195,310 

7,268,894 

1,893,810 

319,146 

4,157,545 

398,331 

413,536 

6,302,115 

953,243 

428,556 

1,340,316 

401,570 

2,020,616 

3,048,710 

276,749 

343,641 

1,854,184 

518,103 

958,800 

2,069.042 

92,531 

Time  of  Election. 

First  Monday  in  August 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

First  Monday  in  September 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 
Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 
Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 
Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. . 
First  Wednesday  in  October 

First  Wednesday  in  November 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 
Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 
Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

First  Monday  in  August 

First  Monday  in  November 

Second  Monday  in  September 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 
Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 
Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 
Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 
Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 
Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

First  Monday  in  June 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

First  Wednesday  in  April 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

First  Monday  in  August  

First  Tuesday  in  September 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November. 

Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November 

Rep. 

in 

Cong. 

Ci 

• ^ |>  <M  rH 

2 

11 

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Rate  allow- 
ed by 
Contract. 

8 

10 

Any  Rate. 

10 

Any  Rate. 
Any  Rate. 

6 

6 

10 

10 

8 

12 

7 

8 

8 

10 

10 

6 

8 

Any  Rate. 

6 

Any  Rate. 

7 

10 

10 

8- 

Any  Rate. 

10 

Any  Rate. 

i 

12 

6 

6 

12 

8 

12 

10 

6 

Any  Kate. 

8 

12 

6 

10 

Any  Rate. 

6 

6 

12 

6 

10 

12 

Legal  Rate 
of  Interest. 
Per  Cent. 

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Term 

Years. 

^ ^ (M  cq  ^ • 

Sal- 

aries. 

$3,000 

3,000 

2,600 

3.000 

6.000 

5.000 

4.000 

2.000 

cceciceooif3tOr-ic<5eoiCiM'<f<aO'^u3eciiciO(MTt<!MOc<iOTj<eo'oo(MTHOoocccocO'j<'^<M^Hif3-^'OiiC(M 

Capitals. 

Montgomery 

GS  tiro 

yjjjj  il 

iiisllll 

Tallahassee 

Atlanta 

Boise  City 

Springfield 

Indianapolis 

Des  Moines  

Tahlequah 

Topeka 

Frankfort 

Baton  Rouge 

Augusta 

Annapolis 

Boston 

Lansing 

St.  Paul 

Jackson 

Jefferson  City 

Helena 

Lincoln  

Carson  City 

Concord  

Trenton 

Santa  Fe 

Albany 

Raleigh 

Bismarck 

Columbus 

Guthrie 

Salem 

Harrisburg 

San  Juan 

jNewporcana  rroviaence 

Columbia 

Pierre 

Nashville 

Austin 

Salt  Lake  City 

Montpelier 

Richmond 

Olympia 

Charleston 

Madison 

Cheyenne 

States  and 
Territories. 

'■1 
: < 

ii 

6e 

m 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California  < 

Colorado  

Connecticut 

Delaware  

Dist.  of  Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Uoiirci  i 

Idaho . . 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Indian  Territory. 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada  

New  Hampshire. . 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico  Ter. . 

New  York 

North  Carolina... 

North  Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma  Ter. . . 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Porto  Rico 

ivnoae  isiana 

South  Carolina. . . 

South  Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas  

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

iVest  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 

* Delegate.  Total  pop.  (1900),  76,303,387.  Total  area  U902),  3,692.125  sq.  miles. 


6o6o 


UNI 

FINANCES. 


The  financial  condition  of  the  country  is  shown  by  the  following  exhibits,  which  are  all  extracted  from  the 
reports  of  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  and  the  comptroller  of  the  currency  for  the  current  year,  as  presented  to 
the  congress  of  the  United  States  in  its  opening  session  by  the  officials  named  : 

Fiscal  Year  /go/.—  The  ordinary  revenues  and  expenditures  of  the  government  from  all  sources  and  for  all 
purposes  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1901,  were  : 


RECEIPTS. 


From  customs $238,585,456 

From  internal  revenue 307,180,664 

From  sales  of  public  lands 2,965,120 

Other  miscellaneous  items 38,954,098 


Total  revenue  year  1901 $587,685,338 


Receipts  from  postal  service $111,631,193 

Loan  and  treasury  notes 218,978,610 


Grand  total $918,295,141 


EXPENDITURES. 

For  civil  and  miscellaneous  items $122,282,003 

For  war  department 144,615,697 

For  navy  department 60,506.978 

For  Indians 10,896,073 

For  pensions 139,323,622 

For  interest  on  public  debt 32,342,979 


Total  ordinary  expenditures $509,967,352 


For  postal  service $115,554,920 

For  redemption  of  public  debt 212,620,768 

For  premiums 14,649,573 

Grand  total $852,792,613 


Excess  of  revenue  over  ordinary  expendi- 
tures  $ 77,717,98 6 


SUMMARY  OF  STATISTICS  — INDUSTRIAL  COMBINATIONS  FOR  1900. 


Num- 
ber of 
plants. 

Capital. 

Salaried 

Officials. 

1 

Wage-Earners. 

Number. 

Salaries. 

Average 

number. 

Total  wages. 

Total 

2,029 

$1,433,804,920 

24,585 

$32,653,628 

399,192 

$194,534,715 

Iron  and  steel  and  their  products 

447 

34i.779.954 

6,075 

7,462,386 

145,609 

81,098,583 

Food  and  allied  products 

273 

246,623,633 

4,002 

4,417,444 

32,958 

12,326,601 

Chemicals  and  allied  products 

248 

175,002,887 

3,oi5 

4,364,704 

27,754 

12,746,006 

Metals  and  metal  products  other  than  iron  and 
steel 

89 

118,519,401 

1,047 

i,57i,4i4 

20,522 

12,356,772 

Liquors  and  beverages 

219 

118,489,158 

.1,151 

2,406,096 

7,624 

4,869,457 

Vehicles  for  land  transportation 

65 

85,965,683 

1,967 

1,940,778 

34,422 

17,571.613 

Tobacco 

4i 

16,191,818 

1,410 

2,064,926 

17,661 

5,278,151 

Textiles 

72 

92,468,606 

1,095 

1,841,913 

37,723 

13.297,357 

.Leather  and  its  finished  products 

100 

62,734,011 

343 

663,570 

9,898 

4,070,641 

Paper  and  printing 

116 

59,271,691 

1,165 

1,831,528 

16,706 

7,478,962 

Clay,  glass,  and  stone  products 

180 

* 46,878,928 

1,001 

1,301,159 

20,294 

10,994,488 

Lumber  and  its  remanufactures 

61 

24,470,281 

615 

756,783 

10,778 

4,389.944 

Miscellaneous  industries 

1 18 

• 45,408,869 

1,699 

2,030,927 

17,243 

8,056,140 

1 

Miscella- 

neous 

expenses. 

Cost  of  Materials  Used. 

Value  of 
products. 

Total. 

Purchased  in 
raw  state. 

4 

Purchased  in 
partially 
manufac- 
tured form. 

Total..... 

Iron  and  steel  and  their  products 

Food  and  allied  products 

Chemicals  and  allied  products 

Metals  and  metal  products  other  than  iron  and 

steel 

Liquors  and  beverages 

Vehicles  for  land  transportation 

Tobacco 

Textiles 

Leather  and  its  finished  products 

Paper  and  printing 

Clay,  glass,  and  stone  products 

Lumber  and  its  remanufactures 

Miscellaneous  industries 

$151,851,077 

$1,085,083,828 

$329,762,351 

$609,313,778 

$1,661,295,364 

18,067,249 

h,893,35o 

7,022,787 

2,847,356 

58,621,319 

3,519,070 

35,119,316 

3,224,606 

1,589,760 

3,665,291 

1,995,220 

1,098,276 

3,197,477 

325,630,784 

240,273,639 

141,031,345 

131,020,638 

i9,n7,973 

56,600,518 

23,809,804 

41,919,311 

35.463,655 

24,554-364 

6,474,816 

11,028,757 

28,158,224 

22,979,550 

50,133,512 

98,081,833 

59,753,2X5 

10,265,538 

45,730 

16,035,638 

26,574,699 

33,284,055 

3,421,721 

276,426 

325.972 

8,584,462 

246,268,385 

167,510,788 

26,562,946 

58,864,473 

5,217,899 

47,39i.  J79 
3,018,207 
9,950,995 
1,446,266 
16,254,364 
1,867,059 

9,513,288 

15,447,929  j 

508,626,482 

282,408,081 

182,391,744 

180,154,703 

93,432,274 

85,985,533 

74,063,029 

71,888.202 

45,684,829 

44,418,417 

23,258,182 

20,378,815 

48.605,073 

UNI  6061 

NUMBER  OF  PRINCIPAL  AGR1CULTURAI.  IMPLEMENTS  MANUFACTURED,  BY  STATES:  1900 


United  States 

California 

Connecticut 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 


States. 


Cultiva- 

tors. 


Harrows. 


Plows. 


Planters 
and  drills. 


Harvesters 
and  com- 
bined har- 
vesters and 
binders. 


504.978 


477.520 


1,074.999 


397.640 


261,957 


249 

11 


1,089 

1,769 


950 

192,060 

15,829 


509 

194,375 

2,650 


6,590 

225 

740 

157 

67,959 

19,758 

283,050 

91,461 

199,354 

29,986 

180 


182,782 


Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Maine 

Massachusetts. 


7,8oo 


7,56o 


13,638 


3- 021 


681 


9,126 

561 

1,030 


4,076 

476 

i,34o 


125,002 

i,997 

17,850 


6,500 

671 

929 


47 


Michigan. . 
Minnesota. 
Mississippi 
Missouri. ... 
Nebraska  . 


28,979 

1,024 

i,75o 

1-2,001 

1,139 


15,486 

22,141 

100,356 

11,883 

3,870 

3,7oo 

6,000 

3,000 

850 

453 

4,820 

3,537 

*50 

834 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina.. . 
Ohio 


103 

13,628 

30,911 

1,600 

101,986 


7,865 

9o>4i7 

1,900 

77,589 


252 

505 

76,068 

2,050 

105,889 


Pennsylvania  . 
South  Carolina 
South  Dakota. 

Tennessee 

Texas 


40,058 

130 


4,ooo 

125 


6,028 


14,278 


75  4oo 

3°o  30,956 

1 3,450 


Vermont 

Virginia 

Wisconsin 

All  other  states* 


40 

6,000 

33,888 


4,050 

41,014 

215 


1,660 
35 1 660 
53,iio 
710 


4,968 

23,468 

i,475 

59,966 

3,582 

180 

50 

‘3,407 

24 


24,809 

36,405 

7 


800 

37,720 

15 


15,000 

101 


STATEa 

Horse 

hayforks. 

Horse 

hayrakes. 

Mowers. 

Scythes. 

Thrashers, 
horsepower 
and  steam- 
power. 

United  States 

5b77o 

216,345 

397,561 

718,453 

4,965 

California 

2,274 

226 

Connecticut .. 

iQ5,3*2 

Georgia 

Illinois .V 

6,000 

109,670 

5.835 

5,809 

245.204 

Indiana 

529 

4 

2,760 

50 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Maine 

424,788 

Massachusetts 

1,125 

1,825 

3,7oo 

22 

Michigan 

940 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

*7 

3-855 

20 

Nebraska 

New  Hampshire 

500 

74,400 

New  Jersey 

100 

648 

20 

725 

New  York 

40,359 

65,898 

26,293 

North  Carolina 

34,700 

400 

41,187 

51 

61,697 

30 

543 

152 

Pennsylvania 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota 

Tennessee . .* 

Texas  

Vermont . 

84,900 

Virginia  

Wisconsin 

7,102 

3,222 

15 

21,000 

6 

2,470 

45 

All  other  states* 

* Includes  establishments  »n  Alabama,  Colorado,  Delaware,  Maryland,  North  Dakota,  Utah.  Washington,  and  West 
, Virginia. 


380 


6062 


U N I 


NATIONAL  DEBTS  — INDEBTEDNESS  AND  FINANCES  OF  NATIONS. 


Countries. 

Year. 

Total. 

Inter- 
est Per 
Cent. 

Per 

Capita. 

Revenue. 

Expendi- 

ture. 

Exports 
from  United 
States  to — 

Imports  into 
Unit’dStates 
from — 

Argentina 

1900 

$ 509,604,444 

4^- 6 

$128.85 

$ 63,339,188 

$ 63,283,632 

$ 11,558,237 

$ 8,114,304 

Australasia 

1900 

1,183,055,000 

3 -5 

263.90 

167,335,000 

161,738,000 

26,725,702 

5,468,196 

Austria-Hungary 

1900 

1,154,791,000 

3 -4 

25.80 

73,659,000 

73,659,000 

7,046,819 

9,079,667 

Austria 

1900 

042,194,000 

3 -5 

24.89 

215,237,000 

215,208,000 

Hungary 

1900 

904^941 '000 

3 -4 

47.75 

209,001,000 

208,509,000 

Belgium 

1899 

504,459,540 

2^-3 

75.63 

85,494,672 

83,883,860 

48,807,011 

12,940,806 

Brazil 

1898 

480,985,000 

4 -5 

33.56 

90,152,000 

70,061,000 

11,578,119 

58,073,457 

British  Colonies 

1899 

265,541,000 

3 -6 

26.43 

79,956,595 

81,071,024 

41.011,125 

22,687,814 

Canada  

1900 

265,494,000 

Uj^-5 

50.59 

51,030,000 

42,975,000 

95,319,970 

39,369.074 

Chile 

1898 

113,240,000 

43^-5 

36.41 

43,206,000 

38,052,000 

3,287,565 

7,112,826 

China 

1899 

287,123,500 

4^-7 

.72 

73,500,000 

73,500,000 

15,259,167 

26,896,926 

Colombia 

1898 

15,809,000 

3 -5 

3.95 

7,031.000 

8,697,000 

2,710,688 

4,307,814 

Costa  Rica 

1899 

13,124,000 

3 -5 

43.75 

3,513.000 

3,180,000 

1,462,355 

2,980,030 

Denmark 

1899 

55,795,724 

3 

24.15 

19,247,008 

20,619,361 

18,487,991 

920,455 

Ecuador 

1897 

7,882,435 

3^-5 

6.21 

3,564,000 

3,620,000 

1,216,008 

1,524,378 

Egypt 

1899 

500,402,729 

3 ay2 

53.61 

56,424,345 

54,437,259 

1,095,673 

8,278,022 

France 

1900 

5.800,691,814 

3 -3^2 

150.61 

691,349,500 

691,291,192 

83,335,097 

73,012,085 

German  Empire 

1900 

557,526,622 

3 -3^2 

9.96 

471,002,000 

489,804,000 

187,347,889 

97,374,700 

German  States 

2,015,958,000 

Greece 

1900 

168,548,444 

4 -5 

69.25 

13,650,533 

13,626,200 

290,709 

1,122,855 

Guatemala 

1899 

20,826,507 

4 -5 

13.23 

2,687,000 

2,643,000 

785,462 

2,402.978 

Honduras 

1899 

89,376,920 

4 -5 

219.60 

1,114,429 

1,119,295 

1,181,453 

988,606 

India  (British) 

1899 

1,031.603,705 

2 

4.67 

328,955,934 

316,103,507 

4,892,323 

45,355,976 

Italy 

1899 

2,583,983,780 

3^-5 

81.11 

317,349,332 

318,276,071 

33,256,620 

27,924,176 

Japan 

1899 

206,799,994 

4 -5 

4.73 

121,433,725 

119,934,893 

29,087,475 

32,748,902 

Mexico 

1900 

168,771,428 

3 -5 

13.36 

29,267,131 

26,035,775 

34,974,961 

28,646,053 

Netherlands 

1899 

466,410,294 

2^-3 

90.74 

58,323,000 

60,922,000 

89,386,676 

15,852,624 

Nicaragua 

1898 

4,901,819 

4 -6 

9.80 

1,459,950 

2,433,250 

1,817,869 

1,520,266 

Norway  . 

1899 

53,211,132 

3 -314 

25.08 

21,457,420 

20,912,308 

Paraguay  

1898 

19,972,000 

3 

30.45 

844,000 

892,000 

4,884 

Peru 

1898 

20.321,784 

4 -6  “ 

4.41 

5,914,000 

6,072,000 

1,662,475 

2,122,543 

Portugal 

1899 

670,221,374 

3 -4  ^ 

143.82 

56,363,000 

59,237,000 

5,886,542 

3,743,216 

Roumania 

1899 

280,136,991 

4 -5 

47.37 

28,001,000 

29,249,000 

41,562 

101,042 

Russia 

1899 

3,167,320,000 

3 -5 

24.56 

891,772,000 

921,068,000 

10,488,419 

7,246.98. 

Servi? . 

1899 

81,972,118 

4 -5 

33.43 

15,144,548 

14,842,825 

Spain 

1899 

1,727,994,620 

4 -5 

95 .53 

170,998,000 

174,752,000 

13,399.680 

5,950,047 

Sweden 

1899 

85,154,320 

3 -3% 

16.71 

39,043.000 

39,043,000 

10,436,467 

4,244,302 

Switzerland 

1899 

15,919,219 

3V2 

5.10 

19,392.000 

18,924,000 

250,477 

17,393.268 

Turkey 

1899 

726,511,195 

3 -5 

29.25 

81,893,462 

81,533,341 

567,062 

7,928,534 

United  Kingdom 

1900 

3,060,926,304 

2^-2% 

74.83 

583,201 ,360 

650,258,113 

533,819,545 

159,582,401 

United  States  . . 

1900 

1,107,711,257 

2 -4 

14  52 

669,595  431 

590,068,371 

Uruguay 

1899 

124,374,189 

3^-5 

148.06 

16,608,000 

16,608,000 

1,816,720 

1,848,077 

Venezuela 

1898 

37,725,814 

4 -5 

14.51 

6,452,000 

8,790,000 

2,452,757 

5,500,019 

Total 

$31,201,759,274 

$24 . 15 

$5,888,392,563 

$5,875,645,277 

$1,332,308,717 

$750,363,442 

RAILWAY  MILEAGE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  BY  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 


Mileage  on  June  30,  1900. 


State  or  Territory. 

Official. 

Unofficial. 

Total 

Mileage. 

Alabama  

4,219.29 

6.55 

4,225.84 

Arizona 

1,511.89 

3,341.61 

1,511.89 

3.359.86 

Arkansas 

18.25 

California 

5,744.04 

7.00 

5,751 .04 

Colorado 

4,587.25 

1,023.62 

346.72 

4,587.25 

1,023.62 

346.72 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

3,272.06 

27.00 

3,299.06 

Georgia 

5,639.22 

12.50 

5,651.72 

Idaho 

1,261.23 

10,997.33 

1,261.23 

11,002.93 

Illinois 

5.60 

Indiana. 

6,469.61 

1.00 

6,470.61 

Indian  Territory 

1,322.75 

1,322.75 

Iowa 

9,180.65 

4.53 

9,185.18 

Kansas 

8,719.36 

3,059.99 

2,824.08 

1,915.24 

1,376.16 

2,118.58 

8,193.18 

8,719.36 

3.059.99 

Kentucky 

’Louisiana 

2,824.08 

Maine 

1,915.24 

1,376.16 

2,118.53 

8,195.18 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

2.00 

Minnesota 

6,942.57 

2,919.90 

6,867.80 

6,942.57 

2,919.90 

Mississippi 

7.24 

6,875.04 

Montana 

3,010.32 

5,684.85 

3,010.32 

5,684.85 

Nebraska 

Mileage  on  June  30,  1900. 


State  ok  Territory. 


Official. 

Unofficial. 

Total 

Mileage. 

Nevada.  .... 

909.35 

909.35 

New  Hampshire 

1,239.20 

1,239.20 

New  Jersey  

2,237.39 

19.30 

2,256.69 

New  Mexico  . 

1,752.52 

1,752.52 

New  York 

8,121.03 

8,121.03 

North  Carolina 

3,808.16 

23.00 

3.831.16 

North  Dakota, 

2,731.22 

2,731.22 

Ohio 

8,774.97 

82.30 

* 8,807.27 

Oklahoma 

827.88 

* 827.88 

Oregon 

1,723.80 

1,723.80 

Pennsylvania 

10,277.37 

53.13 

10,330.50 

Rhode  Island 

211.79 

211.79 

South  Carolina 

2,794.93 

23.00 

2,817.93 

South  Dakota 

2,849.83 

2,849.83 

Tennessee 

3,124.22 

12.73 

3.136.95 

Texas ‘ . 

9,873.39 

13.10 

9,886.49 

Utah  . . . 

1,547.42 

1,547.42 

Verrnon  t 

1,012.11 

1,012.11 

Virginia  

3,729.05 

50.10 

3,779.15 

Washington 

2,890.57 

23.00 

2,913.57 

West  Virginia 

2,198.27 

29.78 

2,228.05 

Wisconsin 

6,496.52 

34.00 

6,530.52 

Wyoming . 

1,228.63 

1,228.63 

Grand  total  in  United 

States,  1900 

192,940.67 

405.11 

193,345.78 

U N i 


6063 


13'Patbmbnt  Showing  the  Amount  of  Gold  and  Silver  Coin  and  Bullion:  Gold,  Silver,  and  Currency  Certificates: 
United  States  Notes,  and  National  and  State  Bank  Notes  in  the  United  States,  and  Distribu- 
tion Thereof  at  the  Close  of  Each  Year  Name u— Continued. 


Date, 

State  Bank 
Circulation. 

Demand  Notes. 

iune  30— 

i860 

$207,102,477.00 

202.005.767.00 

183.792.079.00 

1862 

$ 53,040,000.00 

1863 

238,677,218.00 

3,351,019.75 

1864 

*79>I57, 717-00 

780,999.25 

1865 

142,919,638.00 

472,603.00 

1866 

19,996,163.00 

272,162.00 

1867 

4,484,112.00 

208,432 .00 

1868 

3»I63,77i-oo 

141,723.00 

1869 

2,558,874.00 

123,739.25 

1870 

2.222.793.00 

1.968.058.00 

106,256.00 

1871 

96,505.50 

1872 

1,700,935.00 

88,296.25 

1873 

1,3^9,184.00 

79,967.50 

1874 

1,162,453.00 

76,732.50 

*875 

964,497.00 

70,107.50 

1876 

1,047,335  00 

66,917.50 

1877 

909,272 .00 

63,962 . 50 

1878 

806,106.00 

62,297.50 

1879 

729,469.00 

61,470.00 

1880 

574,046.00 

60,975.00 

1881 

517,908.00 

60,535.00 

1882 

521,564.00 

59,695-00 

1883 

377,231.00 

58,985.00 

1884 

357,220.00 

58,440.00 

1885 

242,618.00- 

57,950.00 

1886 

235,900.00 

57,445.00 

1887 

327,653.00 

57,130.00 

1888 

230,806.00 

56,807.50 

1889. 

201,170.00 

56,442.00 

One  and  Two 
Year  Notes  of 
1863. 


Compound- 
Interest  Notes. 


Fractional 
Paper  Currency. 


Total  Bullion 
and 

Metallic  and 
Paper  Money. 


$ 89,879,475.00 
I53>47I>45°-oo 
42,338,710.00 

3.454.230.00 

1.123.630.00 

555.492.00 

347.772.00 

248.272.00 

198.572.00 

167.522.00 

142.105.00 

127.625.00 

113,375-00 

104.705.00 

95.725.00 

90.485.00 

86.185.00 

82.485 .00 

79.985.00 

74.965.00 

71.765.00 

69.765.00 
68,035  -oo 

66.545.00 

65.605.00 

63.835.00 

62.955.00 


$ 15,000,000.00 
193,756,080  00 

159.012.140.00 

122.394.480.00 
28,161,810.00 

2.871.410.00 

2.152.910.00 

768.500.00 

593.520.00 

479.400.00 

415.210.00 

367, 390.0° 

328.760.00 

296.630.00 

274.920.00 

259.090.00 

242.590.00 

230.250.00 

220.960.00 

213.620.00 

207.660.00 

202.730.00 

197.170.00 

192.880.00 

189.530.00 

185.750.00 


$ 20,192,456.00 
22,894,877.25 

25.005.828.76 
27,070,876.96 

28.307.523.52 
32,626,951.75 

32,114,637.36 

39,878,684.48 

40,582,874.56 

40,855,835.27 

44,799,365.44 

45,881,295.67 

42,129,424.19 

34,446,595-39 

20,403,137.34 

16.547.768.77 

15,842,610.  II 

7.214.954.37 
7,105,953.32 

7.047.247.77 

7,000,690.81 

6,980,061.31 

6,964,175.88 

6.954.087.52 

6.946.964.37 
6,922,643.82 
6,916,690.47 


$ 962,506,387.94 
1,020,959,419.17 
994,538,582.69 
966,759,231.89 
1,019,080,429.84 
1,082,869,361.27 
1,105,305,365.11 

1.234.699.247.37 
1,432,461,454.32 

1,507,776,150.77 

1,670,587,107.81 
1,725,512,335.31 
1,854,978,844.88 
*,834,570,841 . 52 

1.917.112.904.37 
2,085,334,571.67 
2,099,968,718.47 


National  Banks  of  the  United  States  Statistics— 1901. 

Number  of  banks,  3,969;  capital,  $635,511,286;  surplus,  $268,451,548;  total  dividends,  $51,699,779;  total  net  earnings, 

$81,853,797.  . , 

United  States  Currency  Circulation  — 1901. 

Amount  in  circulation,  $2,175,387,277  ; circulation  ^er  capita,  $27.98. 


SOURCES  OF  THE  CURRENCY. 

The  currency  of  the  country  has  two  sources  of  issue, 
the  treasury  and  the  national  banks.  We  present  as  a 
supplementary  account,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing 
table  of  all  classes  of  circulating  medium,  the  following 
special  statement  of  national  banks  and  their  operations, 
both  for  the  present  year  and  for  the  entire  period  of 
their  existence. 

The  report  of  the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency  gives 
full  information  in  relation  to  the  organization,  super- 
vision; and  liquidation  of  national  banks  during  the 
year  ending  October  31,  1891.  In  this  period  193  associa- 
tions were  organized,  with  capital  aggregating  $20,700,- 
000,  thus  exhibiting  a growth  of  the  national  system 
largely  in  excess  of  the  annual  average  for  past  years. 
During  the  same  period  forty-one  associations  went 
into  voluntary  liquidation  and  twenty-five  became  in- 
solvent, leaving  as  a net  gain  for  the  twelve-month  127 
banks  with  a capital  of  $12,553,000. 

The  number  of  banks  in  operation  October  31,1891, 
was  3,694,  having  in  capital  stock  $684,755,865;  bonds 
deposited  to  secure  circulation,  $152,113,850;  bank 
notes  outstanding,  $171,368,948,  including  $35,430,721 
represented  by  lawful  money  deposited  ior  their 
redemption.  Their  gross  circulation,  including  notes 
of  gold  banks  and  those  of  failed  and  liquidated  asso- 
ciations, has  decreased  $7,571,085  during  ,the  year, 
while  that  secured  by  pledge  of  bonds  has  increased 

1 >795j  Io1-  The  domestic  exchange  drawn  by  national 
banks  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1891,  is  stated  at 
$12,782,212,495,  an  increase  over  the  preceding  year  of 
»nore  tfinp  t j per  rent.  The  kfcs t report  of  con- 


dition exhibits  the  liabilities  and  resources  of  the  banks 
on  September  25,  1891.  At  that  date  3,677  associations 
reported  an  aggregate  capital  of  $677,426,870;  surplus, 
$227,576,486;  and  undivided  profits,  $103,284,674.  The 
gross  deposits,  including  amounts  due  to  banks,  are 
stated  at  $2,039,180,188. 12,  and  loans  and  discounts  at 
$1,9 '9,354,239,  an  increase  in  both  items  over  any 
previous  date.  These  banks  held  $174,907,550  in 
United  States  bonds,  of  which  $150,035,600  were  to 
secure  circulating  notes;  also  $183,515,076  in  specie, 
$97,615,608  in  legal-tender  notes,  and  $15,720,000  in 
United  States’certificates  of  deposit. 

Under  the  act  of  February  25,  1863,  establishing  the 
national  bank  system,  national  banking  associations  are 
required  to  deposit  with  the  treasurer,  of  the  Unitec 
States  bonds  to  the  amount  of  one-third  of  their  paid 
in  capital.^  In  1864  this  provision  was  amended  by 
fixing  $30,000  as  the  minimum  amount  to  be  deposited. 
The  act  of  June  20,  1874,  permitted  associations  to 
withdraw  any  bonds  they  might  have  on  deposit  in  ex- 
cess of  $50,000.  The  act  of  July  12,  1882,  specified  that 
banks  of  which  the  capital  does  not  exceed  $150,000 
should  be  required  to  keep  on  deposit  bonds  to  the 
amount  of  one-fourth  their  capital,  and,  by  a special  pro- 
vision of  law,  banks  and  banking  corporations  having 
State  charters  may  be  converted  into  national  banks. 

The  inauguration  of  the  national  banking  system  was 
owing  -to  the  pressing  needs  of  the  government,  arising 
from  the  exigencies  of  war,  and  at  first  the  experiment 
was  viewed  with  grave  apprehension  by  financiers,  to 
whom  the  system  seemed  but  the  embodiment  of  rvil; 
but  the  wisdom  of  the  measure  has  been  amply  justKied 
* by  its  res  vlfs. 


6064 


UNi 


FOREIGN  TRADE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


VALUE  OF  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  OF  MERCHANDISE,  1875-I9OI. 


Year 
Ending 
June  30. 

Exports. 

Total  Exports. 

Imports. 

Total  Exports 
and  Imports. 

Excess  of 
Exports. 

Domestic. 

Foreign. 

1875  

$ 499,284,100 

$14,158,611 

$ 513,442,711 

$533,005,436 

$1,046,448,147 

1876 

525,582,247 

14,802,424 

540,384,671 

460.741,190 

1,001,125,861 

• $ 79,643,481 

1877 

589,670,224 

12,804,996 

602,475,220 

451,323,126 

1,053,798,346 

. 151,152,094 

1878 

680,709,268 

14,156,498 

694,865,766 

437,051,532 

1,131.917,298 

257,814,234 

1879 

698,340,790 

12,098,651 

710,439,441 

445,777,775 

1,156,217,216 

264,661,666 

1880 

823,946,353 

11,692,305 

835,638,658 

667,954,746 

1,503,593,404 

167,683,912 

1881 

883,925,947 

18,451,399 

902,377,346 

642,664.628 

1,545,041,974 

259,712,718 

1882 

733,239,732 

17,302,525 

750,542,257 

724,639  ;574 

1,475,181,831 

25,902,683 

.1883 

804,223,632 

19,615,770 

823,839,402 

723,180,914 

1,547,020,316 

100,658,488 

1884 

724,964,852 

15,548  v757 

740,513,609 

667,697,693 

1,408,211,302 

72,815,916 

’885 

726,682,946 

15,506,809 

742,189,755 

577.527,329 

1,319,717,084 

164,662,426 

1886 

665,964.529 

13.560,301 

679,524,830 

635,436,136 

1,314,960,966 

44.088,694 

1887 

703,022,923 

13,160,288 

, 716,183,211 

692,319,768 

1,408,502,979 

23,863,443 

1888 

683,862,104 

12,092,403 

695,954,507 

723,957,114 

1,419,911,621 

1889 

730,282,609 

12,118,766 

742,401,375 

745,131,652 

1,487,533,027 

1890 

845.293,828 

12,534,856 

857,828,684 

789,310,409 

1,647.139,093 

68,518,275 

1891 

872,270,283 

12,210,527 

884,480,810 

844,916,196 

1,729,397,006 

39,564,614 

1892 

1,015,732,011 

14,546,137 

1,030,278,148 

827,402,462 

1,857,680,610 

' 202,875,686 

1893 

831,030,785 

16,634,409 

847,665,194 

866,400,922 

1,714,066,116 

1894 

869,204,937 

22,935,635 

892,140,572 

654,994,622 

1,547,135,194 

237,145,950 

1895  

793,392,599 

14,145,566 

807,538,165 

731,969,965 

1,539,508,130 

75,568,200 

1896 

863,200,487 

19,406,451 

882,606,938 

779,724,674 

1,662,331,612 

102.882.264 

1897 

1,032,007,603 

18,985,953 

1,050,993,556 

764,730,412 

1,815,723,968 

286,263.144 

1898 

1,210,291,913 

21,190,417 

1,231,482.330 

616,050,654 

1,847.532,984 

615,431,676 

1899 

1,203,981.222 

23,092,080 

1,227,023,302 

697,148,489 

1,924,171,791 

529,874,813 

1900 

1,370,763,571 

23,719,511 

1,394,483,082 

849,941,184 

2,244,424,266 

544,541,898 

1901 

1,460,462,806 

27,302,185 

1,487,764,991 

823,172,165 

2,310,937,156 

664,592,826 

The  imports  and  exports  of  specie  are  not  included  in  the  above  table. 


PUBLIC  DEBT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


OFFICIAL  STATEMENT 
INTEREST-BEARING  DEBT. 


Consols  of  1930,  2 per  cent $445,940,750.00 

Loan  of  1908-1918,  3 per  cent 98,193,100.00 

Funded  loan  of  1907,  4 per  cent 247,273,450.00 

Refunding  certificates,  4 per  cent 32,650.00 

Loan  of  1925,  4 per  cent 148,557,700.00 

Loan  of  1904,  5 per  cent 21,025,450.00 


Aggregate  of  interest-bearing  debt \ . $961,023,100.00 

Debt  on  which  Interest  has  Ceased  since  Maturity. 

Aggregate  debt  on  which  interest  has  ceased 
since  maturity $1,341,310.26 

Debt  Bearing  No  Interest.  * 

United  States  notes $346,681,016.00 

Old  demand  notes 53,847.50 

National  bank  notes: 

Redemption  account - 31,713,019.50 

Fractional  currency 6,876,361.63 


Aggregate  of  debt  bearing  no  interest $385,324,244.63 


Certificates  and  Notes  Issued  on  Deposits  of  Coin 
and  Legal-tender  Notes  and  Purchases  of  Silver 
Bullion. 


•Gold  certificates $312,815,089.00 

Silver  certificates 449,648,000.00 

Treasury  notes  of  1890 41,434,000.00 


Aggregate  of  certificates  and  Treasury 
notes,  offset  by*  cash  in  the  Treasury $803,897,089.00 


OF  NOVEMBER  I,  I9OI. 

Classification  of  Debt  November  1, 1901. 

Interest-bearing  debt $ 961,023,100.00 

Debt  on  which  interest  has  ceased  since 

maturity 1,341,310.26 

Debt  bearing  no  interest 385,324,244.63 


Aggregate  of  interest  and  non-interest 

bearing  debt $1,347,688,654.89 

Certificates  and  Treasury  notes  offset  by 
an  equal  amount  of  cash  in  the  Treasury  803,897,089.00 


Aggregate  of  debt,  including  certificates 
and  Treasury  notes $2,151,585,743.89 

Cash  in  the  Treasury. 

Gold  certificates $312,815,089.00 

Silver  certificates 449,648,000.00 

Treasury  notes  of  1890 41,434.000.00 

$ 803,897,089.00 

National  bank  5 per  cent 

fund $ 13,888.473.14 

Outstanding  checks  and 

drafts 6,111,498.11 

Disbursing  officers’  balances  55,480,074.21 
Post-Office  Department  ac- 
count  3.290,418.22 

Miscellaneous  items 4,721,861.80 

83,495,325.48 

Reserve  fund. . $150,000,000.00 
Available  cash 

balance 175,655,697.01 

365,655,697.01 


Aggregate $1,213,048,111.49 

Cash  balance  in  the  Treasury  November  1, 

1901,  exclusive  of  reserve  and  trust  funds. $ 175,665,697.0 1 


UNI 


RESERVE  FUND. 

Held  for  redemption  of  U.  S.  notes,  acts  of  Jan, 

14,  1875,  and  July  12,  1882 $ 100,000,000.00 


Unavailable  for  the  reduction  of  the  debt: 

Fractional  silver  coin 

Minor  coin 


,i33>43°-°0 

102,396.00 


Total $ 22,235,826.00 

Certificates  held  as  cash 33,697,264.00 

Net  cash  balance  on  hand 40,249,187.00 


Total  cash  in  the  treasury $ 617,224,505.00 

' Purchase  of  Bonds. — During  the  twelve  months 
ended  October  31,  1889,  there  were  purchased  under  the 
circular  of  April  17,  1888,  United  States  bonds  to  the 
amount  of  $99,233,950  Of  these  $32,279,400  were 
obtained  prior  to  March  4,  1889,  and  $66,954,550  after 
that  date. 

Statement  of  Outstanding  Principal  of  the  Public 
Debt  of  the  United  States  on  January  ist  of  each  year 

FROM  1791  TO  1843,  INCLUSIVE,  AND  ON  JULY  IST  OF  EACH  YEAR 
?ROM  1843  TO  1901,  INCLUSIVE. 


Year. 

Amount. 

Year. 

Amount. 

Ian.  1,  1791 

$75,463,476.52 

Jan.  1,  1841 

$5,250,875.54 

1792 

77,227,924.66 

1842 

13,594,480.73 

1793 

80,358,634.04 

x , Xo43 

20, 601,226.28 

1794 

78,427.404.77 

July  1,  1843 

32,742,922.00 

1795 

80,747,587-39 

1844 

23,461,652.50 

1796 

83,762,172  07 

1845 

15,925,303-01 

1797 

82,064,479.33 

1846 

15,550,202.97 

1798 

79,228,529.12 

1847 

38,826,534.77 

1799 

78,408,669.77 

1848 

47,044,862.23 

1800 

82,976,294.35 

1849 

63,061,858.69 

1801 

83,038,050.80 

1850 

63.452,773-55 

1802 

80,712,632.25 

1851 

68,304,796.02 

1803 

77,054,686.30 

1852 

66,199,341.71 

1804 

86,427, 120.88^ 

1853 

59,803,117.70 

1805 

82,312,150.50 

1854 

42,242,222.42 

1806 

75,723,270.66 

1855 

35-586,956.56 

1807 

69,218,398.64 

1856 

31,972-^37.90 

1808 

65,196,317.97 

1857 

28,699,831.85 

1809 

*57,023,192.09 

1858 

44,911,881.03 

1810 

53,173,217-52 

1859 

58,496,837.88 

1811 

48,005,587.76 

i860 

64,842,287.88 

1812 

45,209,737.90 

1861 

90,580,873.72 

1813 

55,962,827.57 

1862 

524,176,412.13 

1814 

81,487,846.24 

1863  • 

1,119,772,138.63 

1815 

99,833,660.15 

1864 

1,815,784,370.57 

1816 

127,334,933-74 

1865 

2,680,647,869.74 

1817 

123,491,965.16 

1866 

2,773,236,173-69 

1818 

103,466,633.83 

1867 

2,678,126,103.87 

1819 

95,529,648.28 

1868 

2,611,687,851.19 

1820 

91,015,566.15 

1869 

2,588,452,213.94 

1821 

89,987,427.66 

1870 

2,480,672,427.81 

1822 

93,546,676.98 

1871 

2,353,211,332.32 

1823 

90,875,877.28 

1872 

2,253,251,328.78 

1824 

90,269,777.77 

1873 

*2,234,482,993.20 

1825 

83,788,432.71 

1874 

*2,251,690,468.43 

1826 

81,054,059.99 

1875 

*2,232,284,531.95 

1827 

73,987,357.20 

1876 

*2,180,395,067.15 

1828 

67,475,043-87 

1877 

*2,205,301,392.10 

1829 

58,421,413.67 

1878 

*2,256,205,892.53 

1830 

48,565,406.50 

1879 

*2,349,567,482.04 

1831 

39,123,191.68 

1880 

*2,120,415,370.63 

1832 

24,322,235.18 

1881 

*2,069,013,569.58 

1833 

7,001,698.83 

1882 

*1,918,312,994,03 

1834 

4,760,082.08 

1883 

*1,884,171,728.07 

1835 

37,733-05 

1884 

*1,830,528,923.57 

1836 

37,5i3.o5 

1885 

11,876,424,275.14 

1837 

336,957.83 

1890 

1,549,206,126.48 

1838 

3,308,124.07 

1895 

1,717,481,779.90 

1839 

IO, 434, 221. 14 

1900 

2,132,373,031.17 

1840 

3,573,343-82 

1901 

2,151,585,743.89 

* In  the  amount  here  stated  as  the  outstanding  principal  of 
the  public  debt  are  included  the  certificates  of  deposit  outstand- 
ing on  June  30th,  issued  under  act  of  June  8,  1872,  for  which  a 
like  amount  in  United  States  notes  was  on  special  deposit  in  the 
Treasury  for  their  redemption,  and  added  to  the  cash  balance  in 
the  Treasury.  These  certificates,  as  a matter  of  accounts,  are 
treated  as  a part  of  the  public  debt,  but  being  offset  by  notes 
held  on  deposit  for  their  redemption  should  properly  be  deducted 
from  the  principal  of  the  public  debt  in  making  comparison  with 
former  years. 

t Exclusive  of  gold,  silver,  and  currency  certificates  held  in 
the  Treasury’s  cash,  and  including  $64,623,512,  bonds  issued  to 

th*  -,everad  Pacific  '-ailroads 


6065 


FOREIGN  COMMERCE. 

The  total  value  of  our  imports  and  exports  of  mer- 
chandise and  specie  during  the  year  1901  was  $2,530.- 
845,221,  an  increase  over  the  year  1889  of  $917,707,588, 
and  was  greater  than  for  any  year  since  1881. 

The  value  of  the  imports  and  exports  of  merchandise 
and  specie  during  the  years  1888,  1889,  and  1901  has 
been  as  follows: 


MERCHANDISE. 


1888. 

1889. 

1901. 

Exports — 

Domestic 

$683,862,104 

$730,282,609 

$1,460,462,806 

Foreign 

12,092,403 

12,118,766 

27,302, 185 

Total 

$695,954,507 

$742,401,375 

$1,487,764,991 

Imports 

723,957,114 

745,131,652 

823,172,165 

Excess  of  exports 
Excess  of  imports 

$ 28,002,607 

$ 2,730,277 

$ 664,592,826 

SPECIE. 


1888. 

1889. 

1901. 

Exports— 

Gold 

$ 18,376,134 

28,037,949 

$ 59,952,285 
36,689,248 

$ 53,185,177 

64,285,180 

Silver 

Total 

$ 46,414,183 

$ 96,641,533 

$ 117,470,357 

Imports — 

Gold 

$ 43,934,317 
15,403,669 

$ 10,284,858 
18,678,215 

$ 66,051,187 

36,386,521 

Silver 

Total 

$ 59,337,986 

$ 28,963,073 
67,678,460 

$ 102.437,708 
15,032,649 

Excess  of  exports 
Excess  of  imports 

12,923,803 

The  exports  of  gold,  exclusive  of  ores,  during  the  last 
fiscal  year  were  $53,185,177,  and  the  imports  were 
$66,051,187. 


DOMESTIC  EXPORTS. 

The  value  of  the  principal  articles  of  domestic  ex- 
ports during  the  three  years  of  1888,  1889,  and  1901,  was 
as  follows : 


Articles. 

1888. 

1889. 

1901. 

Animals 

$ 12,885,090 

$ 18,374,805 

$ 52,058,876 

Breadstuff's 

127.191,687 

123,876,661 

248,759,022 

Coal  

6,295,380 

6,690,479 

22,317,496 

Copper,  and  manu- 

factures of 

3,812,798 

2,348,954 

44,613,728 

Cotton,  and  manu- 

factures of 

236,029,949 

247,987,914 

333,945,861 

Furs  and  fur-skins. . . 

4,777,246 

5,034,435 

4,404,448 

Iron  and  steel,  and 

manufactures  of. . . 

i7,763,P34 

21,156,077 

117,319.320 

leather,  and  manu- 

factures of 

9,583,411 

10,747,706 

27,923,653 

Oil-cake  and  oil-cake 

meal 

6,423,930 

6,927,912 

18,591,898 

Oil,  mineral 

47,042,409 

49,913,677 

64,425,859 

Provisions: 

Meat  products 

82,142,687 

93,403,418 

187,555,915 

Dairy  products 

10,916,018 

10,719,026 

9,403,722 

Sugar 

2,192,290 

1,076,410 

2,963,600 

Tobacco,  and  manu- 

factures of 

25,514,541 

22,609,668 

32,749,078 

Wood,  and  manufact- 

ures of 

23,963,108 

26,910,672 

52,445,585 

Total 

$615,633,578 

£647,777,814 

$1,219,478,061 

Value  of  all  domestic 

exports 

$683,862,104 

$730,282,609 

$1,460,462,806 

Per  cent,  of  enumer- 

ated articles  to  total 

90.2 

88.7 

90.0 

1 


6o66 


U N i 


MANUFACTURING  AND  MECHANICAL  INDUSTRIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AS  RE- 
TURNED BY  THE  CENSUS  OF  1880  TO  1900,  WITH  THE  PER  CENT  OF  INCREASE  FOR 
EACH  DECADE. 


Number  of  establishments 

Capital 

Salaried  officials,  clerks,  etc.,  number 

Salaries 

Wage-earners,  average  number 

Total  wages 

Men,  16  years  and  over 

Wages 

Women,  16  years  and  over. . 

Wages 

Children,  under  16  years  . . . 

Wages 

Miscellaneous  expenses 

Cost  of  materials  used 

Value  of  products,  including  custom 
work  and  repairing. . 


Date  of  Census. 

Per  Cent  of 
Increase. 

1900*. 

1890. 

1880. 

1890  to  | 
1900. 

1880  to 
1890. 

1870  to 
1880. 

512,726 

355,415 

253,852 

44-3 

40.0 

0.7 

$9,874,664,087 

397,730 

$404,837,591 

$6,525,156,486 

+461,009 

+$391,988,208 

$2,790,272,606 

Hi 

51  -3 

1 §13-7 
3-3 

133-9 

3i.7 

5,321,087 

4,251,613 

2,732,595 

25.2 

55-6 

33-0 

$2,330,273,021 

$1,891,228,321 

$947,953,795 

23.2 

99-5 

22.2 

4,120,716 

$2,022,899,275 

3,327,042 

$1,659,234,483 

^2,019,035 

23  9 

21.9 

64.8 

25.0 

1,031,747 

$281,705,586 

803,686 

$215,367,976 

120,885 

$16,625,862 

$631,225,035 

x 531,639 
«) 

181,921 

(t) 

(II) 

28.4 

30-8 

39-5 

54-4 

63.0 

51.2 

64.2 

168,624 

$25,668,160 

$1,028,855,586 

§33-6 

58.7 

$7,360,954,597 

$5, 162,044,076 

$3,396,823,549 

42.6 

52.0 

36.5 

$13,040,013,638 

$9,372,437,283 

$5,369,579,191 

' 39.1 

74-5 

26.9 

* Includes,  for  comparative  purposes,  85  governmental  establishments  in  the  District  of  Columbia  having  products 
valued  at  $9,887,355,  the  statistics  of  such  establishments  for  1890  not  being  separable,  f Includes  proprietors  and  firm 
members,  with  their  salaries  ; number  only  reported  in  1900.  J Not  reported  separately,  g Decrease.  ||  Not  reported. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  ITS  MATERIAL  INDUSTRIES. 
(Prepared  by  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Treasury  Department.) 


Population 

Salaries  paid  in  public  schools 

Newspapers  and  periodicals  published 

Post-offices  in  existence. 

Receipts  of  Post-Office  Department 

Telegraph  messages  sent 

Railways  in  operation,  miles 

Tons  of  freight  carried  one  mile 

Average  freight  rate  per  ton,  mile..  . 

Tonnage  of  vessels  passing  through  the  Sault  Ste. 

Marie  Canal 

Wheat  produced,  bushels 

Corn  produced,  bushels 

Cotton  produced,  pounds 

Cotton  (domestic)  taken  by  mills,  bales 

Coal  produced,  tons 

Petroleum,  gallons  

Pig  iron  produced,  tons 

Steel  produced,  tons 

Imports  of  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel 

Exports  of  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel 

Imports  of  raw  silk  for  manufacturing,  pounds.. . . 
Imports  cf  crude  rubber  for  manufacturing,  pounds 

Exports  of  manufactures 

Exports  of  agricultural  products 

Total  exports 

Total  imports 

Total  money  in  circulation 

Per  capita  money  in  circulation 

Deposits  in  savings  banks 

Number  of  depositors  in  savings  banks 

American  vessels,  domestic  trade,  tons 

American  vessels,  foreign  trade,  tons 

American  vessels,  Great  Takes  only,  tons 


50,155,783 

$55,942,972 

u,3i4 

42,989 

$33,315,479 

29,215,509 

93,262 

+39,302,209,249 

$1.17 

1,734,890 

498,549,868 

1,717,434,593 

2,77b797,i56 

1,795,000 

63,822,830 

836,394,132 

3,835-19! 

1.247,335 

$71,266,699 

$14,716,524 

2,562,236 

16,826,099 

$102,856,015 

$675,961,091 

$835,638,658 

$667,954,746 

$973,382,228 


$819,106,973 

2,335,582 

2,715,224 
1,352,810 
605, 102 


1890. 


62,622,250 

$91,836,484 

16,930 

62,401 

$60,882,097 

63,358,762 

166,703 

79,192,985,125 

$0.93 

8,454,435 

399,262,000 

1,489,970,000 

3,627,366,183 

2,325,000 

140,866,931 

1,466,867,546 

9.202,703 

4,277,071 

$41,679,501 

$25,542,208 

7,347,909 

33,842,374 

$151,102,376 

$629,820,808 

$8^7,828,684 

$789,310,409 

$1,429,251,270 


$1,524,844,506 

4,258,893 

3,477,802 

946,695 

1,063,063 


1900. 


76,303,387 

*$128,662,880 

*21,178 

76,688 

$102,354,579 

79,696,227 

*190,833 

*126,991,703,110 

*$0.73 

22,315.834 

522,229,505 

2,105,102,516 

4,757,062,942 

3,644,000 

*238,877,182 

2,396,975,700 

13,789,242 

10,639,857 

$20,478,728 

$121,913,548 

13,043.714 

49,377,138 

$433,854,756 

$835,858,123 

$1,394,483,082 

$849,941,184 

$2,055,150,998 

$26.94 

$2,449,547,885 

6,107,083 

4,338,145 

826,694 

1,565,587 


Per  Cent 
Increase  or 
Decrease 
1880-1900. 
(+  or  - ) 


d-98 

+240 

+261 

+169 

-+-418 

+770 

+261 

4-223 

-62 

4-3,130 

-+T21 

4-92 

+228 

+325 

• +626 

+1,198 
+728 
+15.376 
-37 
+ 1,008 
+2,135 

+4i3 

+535 

+133 

+256 

+95 

+204 

+54 

+345 

+274 

+59 

-46 

+129 


* Preliminary  data. 


t 1882. 


U N l 


The  following  table  shows  the  value  of  the  principal 
articles  of  imported  merchandise  entered  for  consump- 
tion during  the  years  ending  June  30,  1889,  and  1901: 

FREE  OF  DUTY. 


' 

Articles. 

1889. 

1901. 

Values. 

Values. 

Coffee 

$ 74,723.308.73 

$ 62,861,399 

Chemicals,  drugs,  dyes,  and 
medicines 

26,615,446.11 

53,508,157 

Hides  and  skins, other  than 
fur  skins 

25.137,  S1*^0 

48,220,013 

Silks  unmanufactured,  co- 
coons, eggs,  etc 

19,333,229.00 

30,051,365 

Tea 

12,643,987.91 

11,017,876 

India-rubber  and  gutta- 
percha  

12,387,427.00 

28,835,178 

■ Tin  bars,  blocks  or  pigs, 
grain  or  granulated ...... 

7,026,047.00 

19,805,551 

i Ores  (emery,  gold,  and 

silver) 

6,841,740.00 

5,949,896.57 

1 Fruits,  including  nuts 

19,586,703 

2,183.686 

1 Paper  stock,  crude 

5,927,099.46 

: Wood,  unmanufactured  . . . 

4,437,782.03 

19,754,205 

: Animals 

3,286,660.55 

4.478,955 

[Spices,  unground 

0,988,471.39 

3,563,109 

. Household  effects,  etc.,  of 
immigrants 

2,726,343.45 

2,431,526.00 

; Hair 

1,680,145 

i Eggs 

2,419,004.37 

2, 143,208.00 

’ Cocoa,  or  cocao,  crude, 
leaves  and  shells  of 

6,472,829 

1 Furs  and  fur  skins,  un- 

dressed   

2,077,731.87 

11,019,658 

1 Oils,  fixed  or  expressed, 
and  volatile  or  essential. 

I,74I,305-07 

7,097,43* 

• Fertilizers 

I,629,I37-75 

2,230,235 

Fish 

1,573,983-73 

902,047.00 

Cork  wood,  or  cork  bark, 
unmanufactured 

2,270,995 

All  other  free  articles 

31,631,736.17 

83,641,876 

Total  free  of  duty 

$256,574,630.46 

$418,279,366 

SOUTHERN  AND  COASTWISE  TRADE. 

Trade  with  Central  and  South  A/nerica. — The  total 
estimated  imports  into  Central  and  South  America, 
including  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies,  for  1887,  includ- 
ing movements  of  specie,  were  $522,000,000,  of  which 
only  $80,000,000,  or  about  15  per  cent.,  came  from  the 
United  States.  The  total  estimated  exports,  including 
rpecie,  were  $564,000,000;  whereof  $202,000,000,  or  36 
per  cent.,  were  taken  by  the  United  States.  The  duties 
collected  upon  these  imports  are  estimated  at  $59,134,- 
01 1,  of  which  $42,117,694  were  paid  by  sugar,  $4,035,- 
928  by  tobacco,  and  $659, 194  by  raw  wool. 

The  dutiable  imports  from  those  countries  consist 
mainly  of  sugar  and  molasses,  tobacco,  fruits,  and  wool, 
and  the  free  importations  are  nearly  all  raw  materials 
required  by  manufactures  in  the  United  States. 

The  principal  exports  to  those  countries  from  the 
United  States  are  breadstuffs,  provisions,  lumber,  and 
mineral  oils,  but  an  appreciable  export  trade  is  main- 
tained in  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  cotton  prints, 
leather  goods,  agricultural  implements,  carriages  and 
railway  cars,  though  the  great  bulk  of  manufactured 
articles  are  supplied  by  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
Germany. 

Excluding  specie,  and  estimating  from  the  trade  re- 
turns of  the  fiscal  year  1900,  Mexico  imported  $65,083,- 
451,  whereof  $.35,165,253  were  from  the  United  States; 
Argentina,  $113,485,000,  whereof  $13,438,530  were  from 
the  United  States ; Brazil,  $100,000,000,  whereof 
$4,035,000  entered  the  port  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  from  the 
United  States;  Chile  (gold  pesos),  $128,538,142,  whereof 
$12,098,808  were  from  the  United  States. 


606 7 

Values  of  the  imports  and  exports  of  merchandise  oi 
the  United  States  carried,  respectively,  in  cars  and 
other  land  vehicles,  in  American  vessels,  and  in  foreign 
vessels,  during  each  fiscal  year  irom  1857  to  1889,  *n* 
elusive,  with  the  percentage  carried  in  American  vessels 
(coin  and  bullion  included  from  1857  to  1879,  inclusive, 
as  method  of  transportation  can  not  be  stated). 


[ Year  ending 

June  30. 

Imports  and  Exports. 

Percent,  carried 
in  Amer.  vessels. 

In  cars  and 
other 
land  vehi- 
cles. 

In  American 
vessels. 

I 

1 In  foreign 
vessels. 

1 

Total. 

1857 

$510,331,027 

$213,519,796 

$723,850,823 

70-5 

1858 

447,191,304 

160,066,267 

607,257,57. 

73-7 

1859 

465,741,381 

229,816,211 

695,557,592 

t>6  q 

i860 

507,247,757 

255,040,793 

762,288,550 

66.5 

1861 

381,516,788 

203,478,278 

584,995,066 

65.2 

1862 

217,695,418 

218,015,296 

435,710,714 

50.0 

1863 

241,872,471 

343,056,631 

584,928,502 

41.4 

1864 

184,061,486 

485,793,548 

669,855,034 

27-5 

1865 

167,402,872 

437,010,124 

604,412,996 

27.7 

1866 

325,71 1,861 

| 085,226,691 

1,010,938,552 

32.2 

1867 

297,834,904 

581,330,403 

879,165,307 

33-9 

1868 

297,98i,57  3 

550,546,074 

848,527,647 

35-i 

1869 

289,956,772 

586,492,012 

876,448,784 

33-i 

1870 

352,969,401 

638,927,488 

991,896,889  | 

35-6 

1871 

$22,985,510 

353,664,172 

755,822,576 

1,132,472,258  | 

31.2 

1872 

27,650,770 

345,33b101 

839,346,362 

1,212,328,233  ! 

28.5 

1873 

27,869,978 

346,306,592 

366,723,651 

1,340,899,221 

25.8 

1874 

23,022,540 

35o,45b994 

939,206,106 

1,312,680,640 

26.7 

1875 

20,388,235 

314,257,792 

884,788,517 

1,219,434,544 

25.8 

1876 

18,473,  i54 

311,076,171 

813,354,987 

1,142,904,312 

33-i 

1877 

17,464,810 

316,660,281 

859,920,536 

1,194,045,627 

26.5 

1878 

20,477,364 

313,050,906 

876,991,129 

1,210,519,399 

25-9 

1879 

19,423,685 

272,015,692  1 

911,269,232 

1,202,708, 609 

22.6 

1880 

20,981,393 

258,346,577 

1,224,265,434 

1,503,593,404 

17.18 

1881 

25,452,521 

250,586,470 

1,269,002,983 

1,545,041,974 

1 6.22 

1882 

34,973,317 

227,229,745 

1,212,978,769 

1,475,181,831 

15.40 

1883 

48,092,892 

240,420,500 

1,258,-506,924  ! 

1,547,020,316 

15-54 

1884 

46,714,068 

233,699,035 

1,127,798,199 

1,408,211,302 

16.60 

1885 

45,332,775 

194,865,743 

1,079,518,566  | 

1,319,717,084 

14.76 

1886 

43,700,350 

197,349,503 

1,073,911,113 

1,314,960,966 

15-01 

1887 

48,951,725 

194,356,746 

1,165,194,508 

1,408,502,979 

13.80 

1888 

54,356,827 

190,857,473 

i.i74,597,32i 

1,419,911,621 

13-44 

1889 

66,664,378 

203,805,108 

1,217,063,541 

1,487, 533,027 

13.70 

INTERNAL  REVENUE. 

The  principal  objects  of  taxation  concerned  in  the 
production  of  internal  revenue  are,  as  may  be  seen  be- 
low, liquors,  tobacco  and  oleomargarine.  We  here  give 
the  product  of  these  articles  for  a late  year,  together 
with  the  number  of  distilleries  in  operation  in  the  United 
States  for  the  year  1900. 

Production  of  Tobacco,  Snuff,  Cigars  and  Cigarettes. — 
The  production  of  tobacco,  snuff,  cigars  and  cigarettes 
for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1899,  computed  from 
the  receipts  from  stamps  sold  for  all  such  goods  as  were 
put  bn  the  market  for  consumption,  together  with  those 
removed  in  bond  for  export,  and  including  importa- 
tions, was : 


TOBACCO  AND  SNUFF. 


Tobacco 
Snuff . . . 


Pounds. 

260,683,658 


Total  tobacco  and  snuff  taxed. 

Manufactured  tobacco  exported 

Total  production  of  leaf  tobacco,  1900. . 
Total  production,  1890 


| 344,655,697 

868,163,275 

488,256,646 


Total  increase  over  fiscal  year  1890. . . 379,906,629 

The  value  of  the  total  production  of  tobacco  grown 
in  the  United  States  for  1900  was  $56,993,003. 


6o68 


UNI 


CIGARS  AND  CIGARETTES. 


Number. 

Cigars  (lbs.  of  leaf  tobacco  used) 13,084,037 

Cigarettes 105, 395, 189 


Total  taxed 6,018,901,000 

Cigars  exported 1,699,325 

Cigarettes  exported  (value) $ 2,290,876 

Total  product  for  1900  (value) $ 160,223,152 

Total  product  for  1898  (value) $ 129,693,275 


Increase 30,529,877 


The  increase  of  taxed  cigars  was  22,658,990 ; of  taxed 
cigarettes,  288,789,260 ; of  cigars  exported,  266,700 ; and 
of  cigarettes  exported,  65,909,950. 

STATISTICS  IN  THE  TRADE  OF  OLEOMARGARINE 
DURING  THE  FISCAL  YEAR,  1899-I9OI. 

The  number  of  establishments  in  T900  manufacturing 
Oleomargarine  were  24,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 


$3,023,646,  employing  1,085  wage-earners,  and  showing  a 
total  product  for  the  year  of  the  value  of  $12,499,812. 
This  is  an  increase  in  the  value  of  nearly  $10,000,000 
over  the  year  1890,  and  of  nearly  $6,000,000  over  the  year 
1880.  The  quantity  of  Oleomargarine  produced  in  1900 
amounted  to  107,045,028  pounds,  being  over  double  the 
production  over  the  year  1896.  The  chief  States  of  pro- 
duction are  : Illinois  which  handled  18,638,921  pounds  in 
1899;  Pennsylvania,  11,433,341  pounds  ; Ohio,  8,830,969  ; 
New  Jersey,  5,875,975  pounds;  Indiana,  Missouri,  and 
Rhode  Island,  each  of  which  turned  out  over  3,000,000 
pounds ; and  Massachusetts  and  Michigan,  over  2,000,- 
000  pounds  each.  For  the  year  ending  June  30,  1900, 
the  total  exports  of  Oleo  oil  were  146,739,681  pounds, 
valued  at  $10,503,856,  and  of  Oleomargarine,  4,182,536 
pounds,  valued  at  $409,083.  The  chief  countries  to 
which  the  Oleo  oil  was  exported  are  the  Netherlands, 
Germany,  Sweden  and  Norway,  and  Great  Britain. 
Thesa  countries  all  have  a large  native  production 
of  Oleomargarine,  amounting  to  over  460,000,000 
pounds. 


The  internal  revenue  exhibit  for  the  year  1901  shows  a large  increase,  so  large,  indeed,  that  the  secretary  of 
the  treasury,  in  his  report,  urges  the  abolition  of  the  revenue  from  various  articles  now  on  the  taxable  list.  The 
principal  figures  for  the  year  are  here  given  : 


Receipts  from  the  Several  Subjects  of  Taxation  Under  the  Internal  Revenue  Taws  During  the  Fiscal 

Years  Ending  June  30,  1889  and  1901. 


Objects  of  Taxation. 


Distilled  spirits 

Manufactured  tobacco 

Fermented  liquors 

Miscellaneous 

Banks  and  Bankers 

Adhesive  stamps 

Collections  under  repealed  laws 

Total 


Fiscal  year  ended  June  30 — 

Increase. 

Decrease. 

1889. 

1901. 

$74,312,296 

31,866,860 

23,723,835 

83,893 

6,213 

84,991 

6,078 

$116,027,980 

62.481.907 

75.669.908 
13,448,921 

1,918 

39,241,036 

$41,715,684 

30,615,047 

51,946,073 

1 3,365,028 

39,156,045 

4,295 

$130,084,080 

$306,871,670 

$176,797,877 

We  subjoin  an  analysis  of  the  above  statement,  and  give  the  amount  contributed  to  form  the  total  from  each 
jurisdiction  paying  internal  revenue  into  the  treasury  : 

Receipts  by  States  and  Territories  During  the  East  Fiscal  Year. 


Statement  showing  the  aggregate  collections  of  internal  revenue  by  Stales  and  Territories  during  the  fiscal  year  ending 

June  70,  1901. 


States  and  Territories. 

Aggregate 

Collections. 

Alabama  . 

$ 573^54 

265,999 
4,580,478 
1,240,528 
3,099,988 
804,708 

Arkansas.  

California  and  Nevada 

Colorado  and  Wyoming  

Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island 

Florida  

Georgia  

924.379 

102,182 

Hawaii  

Illinois 

55,407,024 

Indiana 

23,466,882 

Iowa  

1,809,373 

1.009,939 

25,181,305 

2,399,98i 

9,630,133 

7,541,852 

4.300,259 

2,667,966 

17,565,648 

Kansas,  Indian  Ter.,  and  Oklahoma 

Kentucky  

Louisiana  and  Mississippi  

Maryland  Del  D C and  2 Va.  Dists 

Massachusetts  . . 

Michigan  . 

Minnesota  

Missouri 

States  and  Territories. 

Aggregate 

Collections. 

Montana,  Idaho,  and  Utah 

$ 755.673 

3,407,808 
1,201,556 
9,721,622 
120,308 
49,789,698 
7,124.749 
22,429,914 
1,223,013 
26,062,959 
3IO'59° 
2,406,180 
1,681,424 
5,623,008 

1.631,576 

10,809,694 

Nebraska  and  N.  and  S.  Dakota 

New  Hampshire,  Maine,  Vermont 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico  and  Arizona 

New  York  

North  Carolina 

Ohio  

Oregon,  Washington,  and  Alaska 

Pennsylvania  

South  Carolina 

Tennessee  

Virginia  

West  Virginia  

Wisconsin  

Total  

$306,871,669 

UNI 


6069 

Spirituous  Liquors. — Of  prime  importance  in  connection  with  the  internal  revenue  is  the  production  of 
alcoholic  liquors.  We  give  the  figures  for  occasional  years  from  1878  to  1900,  inclusive,  and  also  the  quantity 
and  cost  of  materials  and  quantity  and  value  of  products  for  the  manufacture  of  distilled  liquors  in  1900 : 


Fiscal  years 
ended  June  30. 

Spirits  Warehoused. 

Grape 

Brandy. 

Bourbon 

Whisky. 

Rye 

Whisky. 

Alcohol. 

Rum. 

Gin. 

High 

Wines. 

Pure,  neu- 
tral or 
Cologne 
Spirits. 

Mis- 

cellaneous. 

Total. 

Gallons. 

Gallons. 

Gallons. 

Gallons. 

Gallons. 

Gallons. 

Gallons 

Gallons. 

Gallons. 

Gallons. 

1878. . 

178,544 

6,405,520 

2,834,119 

10,277,725 

1,603,376 

364,963 

19,412,985 

11,108,023 

4,096,342 

56,281,597 

1879. . 

69.340 

8,587,081 

4,001,048 

19,594,283 

2,243,455 

372,776 

18,033,652 

J3, 459, 486 

5,600,840 

71,961,961 

1880. . 

129,086 

15,414,148 

6,34b99i 

21,631,009 

2,439,3oi 

394,668 

15,210,389 

20,657,975 

8,265,789 

90,484,356 

1881 . . 

240,124 

33,632,615 

9,93i,6o9 

22,988,969 

2,118,506 

549,596 

14,363,581 

23,556,608 

10,586,666 

117,968,274 

1882. . 

381,825 

29,575,667 

9,223,777 

15,201,671 

1,704,084 

569,134 

10,962,379 

27,871,293 

10,744,156 

106,234,986 

1883.. 

223,977 

8,662,245 

4,784,654 

10,718,706 

1,801,960 

545,768 

8,701,951 

28,295,253 

10,502,771 

74,237,285 

1884.  .• 

200,732 

8,896,832 

5,089,958 

12,385,229 

1.711,158 

641,724 

6,745,688 

28,538,680 

11,426,470 

75,636,471 

1885.. 

312,197 

12,277,750 

6,328,043 

13,436,916 

2,081,165 

639,461 

3,235,889 

27,104,382 

10,811,757 

75,227,560 

1886. . 

329,679 

19,318,819 

7,842,540 

11,247,877 

L799,952 

656,607 

2,396,248 

26,538,581 

10,543,756 

80,674,059 

1887. . 

673,610 

17,015,034 

7,313,640 

10,337,035 

1,857,223 

747,025 

2,410,923 

27,066,219 

11,084,500 

78,505,209 

1888. . 

864,704 

7,463,609 

5,879,690 

11,075,639 

1,891,246V 

872,990 

1,016,436 

29,475,913 

12,603,883 

71,144,110 

1900. . 

952,358 

19,411,829 

14,296,568 

io,735,77i 

1,614,514 

i,597,o8i 

1,029,495 

24,173,671 

1.3,738,952 

109,245,187 

In  1900,  there  were  967  establishments  throughout  the 
U.  S.  manufacturing  distilled  liquors,  with  a combined 
capital  of  $32,550,000,  and  turning  out  products  of  the 
value  of  $96,798,443  for  the  year.  The  chief  states  en- 
gaged in  the  trade  were  Illinois,  Kentucky,  Indiana, 
Ohio,  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland. 

LIQUORS,  DISTILLED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES : MA- 
TERIALS AND  PRODUCTS,  I9OO. 


Materials : 
Total  cost 


Corn bus. 

Rye “ 

Wheat “ 

Barley “ 

Malt “ 

Fruits 

Wine gns. 

Molasses “ 

Fuel,  and  rent  of 
power  and  heat. 

Mill  supplies 

All  other  materials 

Freight 

Products : 

Total  value 


Quantity. 


16,555,804 
3,952,333 
17,419 
109, 1 15 
3,623,829 


1,339,606 

2,962,691 


Alcohol  and  cologne 

spirits 

Whisky gns. 

Brandy “ 

Gin “ 

Rum “ 

Wine  “ 

All  other  products. 


54,304,925 
45,483,592 
908,051 
1,087,149 
1,546,706 
1 20,630 


Cost  of 
materials 
used. 


$15,147,784 


5,968,198 

2,482,524 

10,340 

57,42i 

1,956,934 

256,551 

57,047 

282,011 

896,631 

74,976 

2,976,182 

128,969 


Value  of 
products. 


$96,798,443 


62,617,892 

28,729,027 

758,231 

1,425.717 

1,033,117 

25,689 

2,208,770 


THE  PRECIOUS.  METALS. 

The  report  of  the  director  of  the  mint  for  the  past 
year  gives  the  following  figures  in  relation  to  the  pre- 
cious metals : 

Deposits. — The  value  of  the  gold  deposited  at  the 
mints  and  assay  offices,  from  their  organization  to  1900, 
was  $2,049,854,219,  of  which  $1,257,864,972  represents 
unrefined. 

Of  the  gold  deposited  $2,000,440,778  was  the  prod- 
uct of  our  own  mines;  $6,583,992.65,  foreign  coin  and 


bullion ; $585,066.87,  light  weight  domestic  coin ; and 
$3,526,597.31,  old  material. 

The  deposits  and  purchases  of  silver  aggregated  57,- 
627,273.69  standard  ounces,  of  the  coining  value  of 
$74,533,ooo.  Included  in  the  above*  are  188,237.24 
standard  ounces,  of  the  coining  value  of  $219,039.68, 
redeposits. 

Of  the  silver  received,  32,895,985.50  standard  ounces, 
of  the  coining  value  of  $38,278,964.79,  was  classified  as 
domestic  product. 

Foreign  silver  bullion  was  deposited  to  the  amount  of 
1,182,110.97  standard  ounces,  of  the  coining  value  of 
$I,375,547-3° ',  and  foreign  silver  coin,  containing  364,- 
750.71  standard  ounces,  of  the  value  of  $424,437.18. 

Uncurrent  subsidiary  coins  of  the  United  States  were 
melted,  containing  431,449.01  standard  ounces,  of  the 
value  of  $502,049.75. 

Trade  dollars  were  melted,  containing  6,714.25  stan- 
dard ounces,  of  the  coining  value  of  $7,812.94,  and  old 
silver  plate,  etc.,  containing  558,026.01  standard  ounces, 
of  the  coining  value  of  $649,339.33. 

Coinage. — The  coinage,  of  the  mints  was  as  follows  : 

Gold $25,543,910.00 

Silver  dollars * 33,793,860.00 

Subsidiary  silver 721,686.40, 

Minor  coins 906,473.21 

Total $60,965,929.61 

Gold  Bars. — In  addition  to  the  coinage,  gold  bdrs 
were  manufactured  of  the  value  of  $22,241,121.42,  and 
silver  bars  of  the  value  of  $6,709,246.13,  a total  of  $28,- 
950,367.55. 

bine  gold  bars  were  exchanged  for  gold  coin,  free  of 
charge,  principally  at  the  assay  office  at  New  York,  of 
the  value  of  $57,567,812.42. 

The  mines  of  the  United  States  yielded,  during  the 
calendar  year  1900,  precious  metals,  as  follows  : 

GOLD. 

Fine  ounces 3,829,897 

Value $79,171,000 

SILVER. 

Fine  ounces 57,647,000 

Commercial  value. . $35,741,000 

Coining  value $74.533, 000 

The  product  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  world  is  esti- 
mated by  the  director  of  the  mint  to  have  been,  for  the 
same  year : 

Gold .■••••■ $305,994,150 

Silv,,r  J Commercial  value 303,556,260 

I Coining  value  342,437,1^0 


6070 


UNI 


AGRICULTURE. 


The  following  summary  shows  the  area,  product,  and  value  of  each  crop  for  the  year  1899 : 


States  and 
Territories. 


Wheat. 


Bushels. 


Acres. 


Value. 


Bushels. 


Acres. 


Value. 


Maine 

New  Hampshire .... 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Rhode  Island 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Georgia  

Florida 

Alabama  

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

West  Virginia 

Kentucky 

Ohio 

Michigan 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

California 

Oregon 

Nevada 

Colorado 

Arizona 

North  Dakota 

South  Dakota 

Idaho 

Montana 

New  Mexico 

Utah  

Washington 


645,040 

1,080,720 

2,322,450 

1,539,980 

288,220 

I,93b5i0 

20,024,865 

10,978,800 

51,869,780 

4,736,580 

19,766,510 

36,748,410 

34,818,860 

17,429,610 

34,032,230 

5,311,050 

35,053,047 

38.789.920 
22,062,580 

109,970,350 

44,144,098 

67-307,390 

16,610,730 

73,974,220 

152,055,390 

44,584,130 

178,967,070 

398,149,140 

53,309,810 

47.256.920 
383,453,190 
208,844,870 
229,937,430 
210,974,740 
• 1,477,093 

359,523 

14,614 

1,275,680 

204,748 

1,284,870 

32,402,540 

111,528 

75,838 

677,305 

250,020 

218,706 


16,856 

25,694 

60,633 

39,131 

8,149 

47,9M 

658,652 

295,258 

1,480,833 

192,025 

658,010 

1,910,085 

2,720,206 

1,772,057 

3,477,684 

569,567 

2,743,360 

2,276,313 

1,343,756 

5,017,690 

2,3U,742 

3,374,574 

724,646 

3,319,257 

3,826,013 

1,501,189 

4,499,249 

10,266,335 

1,497,474 

1,441,580 

9,804,076 

7,423,683 

8,266,018 

7,335,187 

53,930 

16,992 

580 

85,256 

11,654 

62,373 

1,196,381 

4,582 

3,30i 

4b345 

n,5i7 

10,483 


538,73 

I, 180,505 

771.277 
164,138 
994,885 

9,181,791 

4,533,473 

21,896,795 

1,725,452 

7,462,594 

16,233,756 

17,304,407 

9,149,808 

17,155,868 

2,669,509 

17,082,751 

18,873,934 

10,327,723 

34,424,871 

17,572,170 

28,059,508 

7,698,335 

29,423,996 

48,037,895 

17,798,011 

51,752,946 

115,092,567 

15,905,822 

II, 337,105 
97,297,707 
61,246,305 
58,079,738 
51,251,213 

700,894 

155,693 

ii,736 

508,488 

I5b564 

397.278 
7,263,127 

55,88o 

41,626 

419,936 

121,872 

104,263 


1 16,720 
4,035 
34,650 
i,750 


10,412,675 

1,902,590 


20,632,680 

1,870,570 

0,671,800 

8,907,510 


4,342,351 

1,017,319 

1,765,947 

800 


628,775 

37,207 

J’345 

12,266,320 


2,449,970 

11,924,010 

4,326,150 

14,264,500 

50,376,800 


19,795,500 

9,005,170 

95,278,660 

22,769,440 

23,072,768 

38,778,450 

24,924,520 

36,534,407 


14,508,636 

450,812 

5,587,770 

5*7 

41,889,380 

5,340,180 

603,303 

3,413,470 

21,187,527 


6,667 

27I 

1,796 

95 

15 

393 

557,736 

132,571 

1,514,043 

118,740 

634,446 

927,266 

746,984 

174,245 

319,161 

85 

123,897 

6,447 

,2I4 

1,027,947 

379,453 

1,426,112 

447,928 

1,431,027 

3,209,074 

1,925,769 

2,893,293 

1,826,143 

556,614 

6,560,707 

1,689,705 

2,056,219 

3,803,818 

2,538,949 

2,683,405 

873,379 

18,537 

294,949 

24,377. 

4,451,251 

3,984,659 

266,305 

92,132 

37,907 

189,235 

1,088,102 


107,396 

3,428 

29,078 

i,5i5 

245 

6,080 

7,332,597 

1,347,650 

13,712,976 

1,247,055 

6,484,088 

6,161,000 

3,463,726 

958,158 

1,547,773 

601 

502,240 

7,031,477 

1,383,916 

7,882,697 


3,040,314 

8,923,760 

32,855,834 

12,921,925 

22.228.916 
11,937,458 

5,115,346 

50,601,048 

11,457,808 

13,520,012 

19,132,453 

11,877,347. 

20,179,044 

6,358,395 

263,351 

2,809,370 

276,639 

31,733.763 

20.957.917 
2,131,953 

1,077,210 

390,616 

1,575,064 

9,028,209 


States  and 
Territories. 

Rye. 

Oats. 

Bushels. 

Acres. 

Value. 

Bushels. 

Acres. 

Value.^ 

Maine 

9,290 

6ll 

$ 6,126 

3,799,435 

108,661 

8 i,374,573 

New  Hampshire 

46,680 

1,596 

25,189  , 

497,no 

12,589 

184,025 

Vermont 

3b950 

2,264 

18,012  ‘ 

2,742,140 

73,372 

94i,7n 

Massachusetts 

60,294 

4.557 

34,291 

240,990 

6,702 

84.850 

Rhode  Island 

7,710 

591 

4,751 

47,120 

1,530 

16,631 

Connecticut 

203,400 

10,282 

112,262 

316,380 

9,883 

103,459 

New  York 

2,431,670 

177,416 

1,393,313 

40,785,900 

1,329,753 

12,929,092 

New  Jersey ...  

831,410 

68,967 

442,446 

1,601,610 

75,959 

492,34* 

Pennsylvania 

3,944,750 

310,048 

2,070,847 

37,242,810 

1,173,847 

ii,093,397 

U N I 


5071 


Area,  Product,  and  Value  of  Each  Crop  for  the  Year  1899— Continued. 


States  and 

Rye. 

Territories. 

Bushels. 

Acres. 

Value. 

Delaware 

12,389 

1,103 

$ 5,831 

Maryland 

279,550 

21,621 

I4L433 

Virginia 

246,834 

31,534 

124,105 

North  Carolina 

133,730 

28,074 

86,228 

South  Carolina 

19,372 

4,256 

18,551 

Georgia  

54,492 

13,185 

52,937 

Florida 

4,840 

764 

5,514 

Alabama 

11,123 

1,708 

9,075 

Mississippi  

963 

103 

755 

Louisiana 

372 

55 

323 

Texas 

42,770 

3,984 

27,362 

Arkansas 

19,125 

2,883 

11,428 

Tennessee 

107,912 

16,556 

68,381 

West  Virginia 

111,031 

13,758 

58,784 

Kentucky 

155,365 

17,618 

88,315 

Ohio  

257,120 

17,583 

128,072 

Michigan 

2,130,870 

174,096 

Indiana  

564,300 

43,562 

Illinois 

1,104,670 

78,869 

509,688 

Wisconsin 

5,142,606 

362,193 

2,443,946 

Minnesota 

1,866,150 

118,869 

783,852 

Iowa 

1,179,970 

89,172 

480,817 

Missouri 

Kansas 

220,338 

807,260 

21,233 
* 80,964 

103,192 

316,013 

Nebraska 

1,901,820 

178,920 

712,759 

California  

524,451 

62,925 

251,486 

Oregon 

109,234 

10,090 

67,053 

Nevada 

1,929 

129 

1,548 

Colorado 

26,180 

2,148 

13,876 

North  Dakota 

368,240 

27,995 

138,771 

South  Dakota 

454,860 

39,253 

164,860 

8,328 

Idaho  

16,580 

1,304 

Montana  

' 33,120 

2,003 

16,546 

New  Mexico 

1,064 

2,stl 

701 

Utah  

28,630 

13,761 

Washington  *. . 

44,945 

3,077 

23,566 

Wyoming 

15,580 

1,006 

9,574 

Oats. 


Bushels. 


131,960 
1,109,560 
3,269,430 
2,454,768 
2,661,670 
3,115,610 
297,430 
1,882,060 
862,805 
316,070 
24,190,668 
3,909,000 
2,725,330 
1,833,840 
4,009,830 
42,050,910 
36,338,145 
34,565,070 
180,305,630 
84,040,800 
74,°54, !5° 
168,364,170 
20,545,350 
24,469,980 
58,007,140 
4,972,356 
6,725,828 
151,176 
3,080,130 
22,125,331 
19,412,490 
1,956,498 
4,746,231 
342,777 
1,436,225 
5,336,486 
763,370 


5,247 

44,625 

275,394 

270,876 

222,544 

3i8,433 

216,873 

87,066 

28,033 

847,225 

280,115 

235,313 

99,433 

316,590 

i,n5,i49 

1,019,438 

1,017,385 

4,570,034 

2,365,115 

2,201,325 

4,695,391 

916,178 

900,353 

1,924,827 

153,734 

261,406 

4,786 

120,952 

780,517 

691,167 

64,739 

133,938 

15,848 

43,394 

126,841 

26,892 


Value. 


43,337 

340,475 

1,103,616 

991,516 

1,226,575 

1,383.758 

143,028 

797,684 

383,633 

117,312 

5,240,791 

1,263,101 
887,940 
637,176 
1,247,928 
10,236,251 
9,264,385 
7,458,682 
36,990,019 
17,931,685 
1 5,829,804 
33,254,987 
4,669,185 
4,915,896 
ii,333,393 
1,700,397 
2,078,950 
67,160 
1,121,745 

5,852,615 

4,114,456 

702,955 

1,790,938 

154,347 

553,847 

1,765,547 

292,630 


States  and 
Territories. 

Barley. 

Buckwheat. 

Bushels. 

Acres. 

Value. 

Bushels. 

Acres. 

Value. 

Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts  

Rhode  Island 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Georgia  

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi  

252,850 

46,680 

380,940 

14,987 

6,100 

3.400 
2,943,250 

4,790 

197,178 

40 

• 42,560 

53.346 
4,237 
3,106 
2,290 
320 

2.400 
330 

8,809 

1,596 

12,152 

638 

222 

uS 

336 

9,583 

3 

395 

27 

273 

.32 

[$  137,448 
25,189 
187,004 
9,264 

1,402,184 
* 2,301 

89,163 
30 
18,776 
25,007 
2,335 
2,899 

2,048 

318 

1,582 

203 

468.320 
43,360 

196,010 

36,034 

650 

62,962 

3,815,350 

234,275 

3,922,980 

23,980 

115,950 

244.321 
52,572 

26 

30 

76 

25,292 

1,835 

9,910 

2,262 
45 
3,423 
289,862 
• 15,762 
249,840 
1,652 
8,047 
19.251 
5,168 
10 

4 

2 

10 

$ 185,836 

19,334 
90,275 
20,920 
427 
33,346 
2,045,737 
120,479 
1,945,860 
io,773 
58,623 
111,731 
25,482 
42 
23 

30 

50 

6072 


UNI 


Area,  Product,  and  Value  of  Each  Crop  for  the  Year  1899—  Continued. 


States  and 

Barley. 

Territories. 

Bushels. 

Acres. 

Value. 

Louisiana 

no 

16 

$ 61 

Texas 

, 80,366 

4,380 

33,354 

Arkansas  

2,809 

304 

1,278 

Tennessee  ....  * 

21,636 

1,590 

11,273 

West  Virginia 

3,660 

253 

1,832 

Kentucky 

I7;772 

953 

8,157 

Ohio 

1,053,240 

34,058 

402,977 

Michigan 

1,165,288 

44,965 

494,994 

Indiana 

260,550 

9,533 

100,480 

Illinois 

686,580 

21,375 

242,834 

6,9i6,935 

Wisconsin 

18,699,690 

555,747 

Minnesota 

24,314,240 

877,845 

7,220,739 

Iowa 

18,059,060 

627,851 

5,342,363 

Missouri 

28,969 

1,727 

11,232 

Kansas 

1,474,150 

119,158 

383,709 

Nebraska? 

2,034,910 

92,098 

545432 

California 

25T49,335 

1,029,647 

10,645,723 

Oregon 

1,515,150 

6o,375 

606,945 

Nevada 

224,035 

7,043 

126,748 

Colorado 

531,240 

21,949 

246,510 

Arizona 

458,776 

16,270 

223,985 

North  Dakota 

6,752,060 

287,092 

1,996,082 

South  Dakota 

7,031,760 

299,510 

2,003,540 

Idaho 

969,214 

844,140 

32,798 

312,730 

Montana 

22,848 

34b308 

New  Mexico 

24,107 

1, no 

8,644 

12,475 

Utah 

252,140 

121,826 

Washington 

3,641,056 

122,298 

1,268,480 

'Wyoming 

29,690 

1,225 

15,375 

States  and 

Potatoes. 

Territories. 

Bushels. 

Acres. 

Value. 

Maine 

9,813,748 

71,765 

#3,711,999 

New  Hampshire 

2,420,608 

19,422 

1,090,495 

Vermont 

3,547,829 

28,353 

1,333,730 

Massachusetts 

3,346,590 

27,521 

1,800,937 

Rhode  Island 

843,»53 

5-8 1 6 

440,372 

Connecticut 

3,493,534 

27,148 

1,714.638 

New  York 

38,060,471 

395,640 

I5,0I9A35 

New  Jersey 

4,542,8i6 

52,896 

2,192,456 

Pennsylvania 

21,769,472 

227,867 

9,397,054 

Delaware 

414,610 

5,755 

221,411 

Maryland 

i,99L357 

26,472 

1,020,003 

Virginia 

4,409,672 

51,021 

2,494,627 

North  Carolina 

1,636,445 

23,619 

862,509 

South  Carolina 

651,916 

8,068 

435,468 

Georgia 

553,129 

8,477 

326,853 

Florida 

232,212 

3,752 

187,274 

Alabama 

587,7h 

9,505 

' 324,628 

Mississippi 

398,272 

6,370 

245,777 

Louisiana 

549,280 

,9,220 

309,082 

Texas 

1,342,316 

21,810 

725,145 

Arkansas 

1,783,969 

26,486 

855,140 

Tennessee 

1,404,097 

27,103 

817,419 

West  Virginia 

2,245,821 

30,123 

1,133,381 

1,260,100 

5,750,068 

Kentucky 

2,661,774 

37,160 

Ohio 

13,709,238 

167,590 

Michigan 

23,476,444 

6,209,080 

311,963 

6,759.342 

Indiana 

84,245 

2,463,074 

Buckwheat. 

Bushels. 

Acres. 

Value. 

333 

JJ 

$ 310 

„ 421 

53 

334 

8,597 

1,173 

4.690 

, 267,257 

21,410 

134,803 

879 

84 

615 

164,305 

13,071 

87,242 

605,830 

55,669 

300,311 

102,340 

8,684 

5b300 

65,050 

6,220 

36,225 

489,895 

39,713 

288,481 

82,687 

6.700 

43,741 

151,120 

13,824 

84,842 

21,480 

2,715 

12,079 

15,203 

!,923 

9,022 

8,629 

980 

5,109 

7,835 

395 

3,945 

7,oio 

402 

4,425 

226 

27 

151 

10,760 

1,121 

7,439 

2,700 

232 

2,073 

800 

60 

54i 

' 168 

9 

98 

73 

6 

50 

640 

43 

419 

1,865 

96 

L332 

245 

13 

138 

Hay  and  Foragj 

Tons. 

Acres. 

Value. 

r,I36,774 

1,270,254 

$10,641,546 

654,973 

615,042 

6,336,252 

1,336,499 

1,006,495 

10,544,825 

856,505 

610,023 

9,056,854 

76,920 

69,776 

1,081,482 

543T92 

478,555 

6,001,280 

6,389.406 

5,154,965 

55,237,446 

542.7Q6 

444,610 

5,544,970 

4,020,388 

3,269,441 

37*514,779 

128,193 

74,800 

989,848 

507,042 

374,848 

4,709,072 

943,079 

612,962 

7,670,082 

429,824 

220,998 

4,242,561 

213,249 

106,124 

2,304,734 

287,148 

137,312 

3,034,992 

37,187 

21,994 

435,297 

172,908 

85,453 

1,707,638 

164,650 

99,26l 

1.459,879 

248,601 

97T36 

1,353,118 

1,494,305 

' 938,024 

7,294,450 

288,416 

239,426 

1,913,163 

802,720 

645,617 

6,811,577 

644,535 

601,935 

5,517,073 

776,534 

683,139 

6,100,647 

4,102.871 

3,015,261 

29,047,532 

2,926,604 

2,328,498 

21,792,987 

3,470,378 

II 

2,442,414 

20,227,197 

U N I 


6073 


Area,  Product,  and  Value  of  Each  Crop  for  the  Year  1899 — Continued. 


States  and 
Territories. 


Illinois 

Wisconsin. . . . 
Minnesota. . . . 

Iowa 

Missouri 

Kansas 

Nebraska  .... 
California .... 

Oregon 

Nevada 

Colorado  .... 

Arizona 

North  Dakota 
South  Dakota 

Idaho 

Montana 

New  Mexico. 

Utah 

Washington . . 
Wyoming. . . . 
Oklahoma 


Potatoes. 


Bushels. 


12,951,971 

24,641,498 

14,643,327 

17,305,919 

7,786,623 

8,091,745 

7,817,438 

5,242,596 

3,761,367 

361,188 

4,465,748 

33,927 

2,257,350 

2,909,914 

1,035,290 

1,332,062 

72,613 

1,483,570 

3,557,876 

262,338 

559,532 


Acres. 


136,464 

256,931 

146,659 

175,888 

93,915 

85,318 

79,901 

42,098 

30,035 

2,235 

44,075 

626 

21,936 

33,567 

9,313 

9,613 

1,122 

io,433 

25,H9 

2,809 

7,677 


Value. 


$4,702,033 
5,826,552 
3,408,999 
3, 870,746 
2,756,695 
2,485,800 
1,734,666 
2,637,528 
1,210,034 
194,619 
1,717,111 

33,928 

587,498 

680,530 

442,489 

661,163 

49,552 

487,816 

1,312,948 

138,368 

288,117 


Hay  and  Forage. 


Tons. 


4,256,211 

3,667,212. 

4,411,667 

6,851,871 

4,326,896 

7,235d36 

3,517,495 

3,035,982 

1,117,886 

419,812 

1,647,477 

177,831 

1,748,213 

2,383,774 

899,154 

1,059,361 

196,545 

851,864 

827,413 

462,101 

1,146,455 


Acres. 


Value. 


3,343,910 

2,397,982 

3,157,690 

4,644,378 

3,481,506 

4,337,342 

2,823,652 

2,239,601 

73b823 

292,134 

952,214 

92,674 

1,410,534 

2,287,875 

513,656 

875,712 

87,358 

388,043 

497,139 

380,769 

695,313 


#25,569,169 

19,267,709 

14,585,281 

30,042,246 

20,467,501 

18,499,287 

11,230,901 

19,436,398 

6,147,018 

2,066,496 

8,159,279 

1,361,422 

5,182,917 

5,954,229 

4,238,993 

5,974,850 

1,427,317 

3,862,820 

5,831,088 

2,332,028 

2,883,682 


States  and 
Territories. 


Massachusetts . . 
Connecticut. . . . 

New  York 

Pennsylvania. . . 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North  Caroling. 
South  Carolina. 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

West  Virginia. . 

Kentucky 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Missouri 

Oklahoma 

Other  States  and 
ritories 


Tobacco. 

Cotton. 

Pounds. 

Acres. 

Value. 

Bales. 

Acres. 

Value. 

6,406,570 

3,827 

$ 956,399 

16,930,770 

10,120 

3,074,022 

13,958,370 

H,307 

1,172,236 

41,502,620 

27,760 

2,959  304 

24,589,480 

42,911 

1,438,169 

122,884,900 

184,334 

7,210,195 

10,789 

25,724 

$ 346,600 

127,503,400 

203,023 

8,038,691 

459,707 

1,007,020 

15,696,952 

19,895,970 

25,993 

1,297,293 

881,422 

2,074,181 

29,590,152 

1,105,600 

2,304 

159,659 

1,287,992 

3,513,839 

42,534,235 

1,125,600 

2,056 

254,211 

61,856 

221,829 

2,591,796 

3H,950 

1,141 

55,58i 

1,106,840 

3,202,135 

37,004,598 

62,760 

203 

9,22* 

1,313,798 

2,897,920 

47,340,3M 

102,100 

275 

20,488 

709,041 

1,376,254 

23,523,143 

550,120 

M43 

/ 104,694 

2,506,212 

6,960,367 

84,332,713 

531,700 

1,887 

85,395 

709,880 

1,641,855 

24,671,445 

49,157,550 

71,849 

2,748,495 

234,592 

623,137 

8,192,642 

3,087,140 

5,I29 

228,620 

314,288,050 

384,805 

18,541,982 

1,369 

2,396 

52,812 

65,957,100 

' 71,422 

4,864,191 

6,882,470 

8,219 

445,658 

1,447,150 

2,242 

85,411 

45,500,480 

33,830 

2,898,091 

3,041,996 

4,36i 

218,991 

25,576 

45,596 

849,199 

II,880 

39 

L53I 

72,015 

240,678 

2,217,119 

880,109 

770 

109,086 

139 

209 

4,522 

Since  the  erection  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  into  a cabinet  department  of  the  government,  the  means 
of  obtaining  accurate  figures  relative  to  the  agricultural  operations  of  the  country  are  greatly  enhanced,  and  we 
now  have  facts  and  figures  officially  attested  as  to  trustworthiness  for  the  former  (ofttimes  wild)  estimates  of  irre- 
sponsible statisticians. 


6074 


UN  1 


DOMESTIC  ANIMAL 

In  addition  to  the  report  of  the  production  of  farm  crops  the  statistics  of  domestic  animals  owned 
in  the  various  States  and  Territories  are  given  in  the  following  table,  showing  the  estimated  number 
of  animals  on  farms  and  ranches,  total  value  of  each  kind,  and  average  price,  June  i,  1899. 


Horses. 


States  and  Territories. 


Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts  . . 
Rhode  Island, . . 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersev 

Pennsylvania . . . 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North  Carolina. 
South  Carolina. 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

West  Virginia  . . 

Kentucky 

Ohio 

Michigan 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

California 

Oregon 

Nevada  

Colorado 

Arizona 

North  Dakota  . . 
South  Dakota  . . 

Idaho  

Montana 

New  Mexico 

Utah  

Washington 

Wyoming 

Oklahoma 


Number. 


106,299 

54,866 

«5,53I 

75,034 

11,390 

52,576 

628,438 

94,024 

590,981 

29,722 

148,994 

298,522 

159.153 
78,419 

127,407 

42,811 

152,643 

229,311 

194,372 

1,269,432 

253.500 

352,388 

185,188 

451,697 

878,205 

586,559 

75b7i5 

1,350,219 

555,756 

696,469 

1,392,573 

967,037 

979,695 

795,318 

421,293 

287,932 

80,205 

236,546 

125,063 

359,948 

480,768 

170,120 

329,972 

131.153 
115,884 
243,985 
T 35,543 
303,631 


Average 

price.* 


$ 68.12 

70.81 

64.05 
78.11 
86-55 

73.06 
78.77 

80.64 
72.69 
62.57 
66.61 
5446 
57.i8 

63.64 
57-24 
56.60 

54- 41 

50.67 

36.64 

29.50 

42.65 
59.01 
59-96 

55- 11 
60.52 

64.68 
57-36 
55-56 
65-97 
65-47 
61.15 

45.82 

48.06 
50.44 
44-59 

33- 76 
19.03 

34- 96 

17.50 
70.37 
47-29 
28.29 

26.84 

19.85 
33-26 
40.74 
28.10 
38.40 


Value. 


I 7,058,989 
3,840,670 
5,319,597 
5,826,457 
980,948 
3,813,632 
47,977,931 

7,582,274 

40,948,837 

1,767,625 

9,352,694 

15,326,404 

8,795,611 

4,847,903 

7,092,228 

2,290,139 

7,906,121 

10,882,851 

6,624,617 

34,497,083 

10,164,495 

19,681,517 

10,376,550 

24,548,542 

50,159,245 

35,908,557 

40,641,988 

69,698,100 

34,316,475 

42,255,044 

77,720,577 

42,094,814 

43.7S8.334 

36,663,359 

17.844,093 

8,6^1,060 

1,272,336 

7,308,726 

1,701,905 

22,728,511 

20,085,687 

4.123,343 

7,788,672 

2,220,469 

3,396,313 

8,550,434 

3,225,196 

10,615,294 


Mtjles  and  Asses. 

Number. 

Average 

Value. 

price. 

401 

$ 66.19 

$ 20,299 

124 

72.36 

7,637 

356 

71.08 

22,762 

349 

79.18 

22,394 

43 

76.94 

3,045 

302 

8773 

23,5T5 

3,651 

72.76 

237,281 

4,93 1 

73-43 

356,492 

38,635 

79.60 

2,930,249 

4,76o 

74.04 

346,246 

U,58o 

82.21 

1,401,332 

47,886 

65-97 

2,993,996 

136,435 

65.70 

8,746,758 

117,616 

72.16 

8,437,876 

207,840 

70.46 

14,500,672 

1 3,762 

79.60 

1,078.417 

193,889 

70.07 

13,239,468 

216,032 

68.43 

14,345,416 

144,653 

75-99 

10,688,667 

523,690 

53-47 

25,990,366 

177,480 

60.16 

10,211,889 

16,904,252 

262,509 

70.85 

11,470 

67.38 

740,368 

195,924 

64.23 

11,564,763 

17,021 

59.66 

960,192 

3,011 

59-53 

161,668 

67,725 

60.81 

3,833,227 

127,173 

65.89 

7,643,658 

4,9i8 

57-74 

251,998 

8,500 

62.15 

498,055 

57,579 

71.74 

3,737,529 

292,296 

63.60 

16,594,175 

122,491 

55,856 

64.22 

63-79 

6,936,092 

3,288,216 

87,000 

58.12 

4,757,606 

7,75J 

50-06 

360,672 

3,048 

38.81 

1 14,487 

12,297 

53.8i 

377,557 

8,702 

33-40 

i55,7oi 

6,976 

73-72 

489,507 

6,999 

56.55 

364,630 

2,155 

44.06 

81,275 

2,857 

118,749 

21,213 

38.80 

247,660 

3,004 

33-49 

74,405 

2,850 

59-43 

154,666 

1,641 

49-33 

61,646 

57,198 

56.59 

2,952,801 

* Average  price  of  full-grown  animal. 


UNI 


607  s 


Table  Showing  the  Estimated  Number  of  Animals  on  Farms,  Etc. — Continued. 


States  and  Territories 


Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts. . . 
Rhode  Island . . . 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania  . . . 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North  Carolina. . 
South  Carolina. . 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

West  Virginia. . . 

Kentucky 

Ohio 

Michigan 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

California 

Oregon 

Nevada 

Colorado 

Arizona 

North  Dakota . . . 
South  Dakota . . . 

Idaho 

Montana 

New  Mexico. . . . 

Utah 

Washington 

Wyoming 

Oklahoma 


Milch  Cows. 


Number. 


173,592 

115,036 

270,194 

184,562 

23,660 

126434 

[,501,608 

157,407 

943,773 

32,591 

147,284 

281,876 

233,178 

126,684 

276.024 
78,830 

279,263 

299,318 

184,815 

861,023 

312,577 

321,676 

205,601 

364.025 
818,239 
563,905 
574,276 

1,007,664 

998,397 

753,632 

1,423,648 

765,386 

076456 

5^2,544 

307,245 

122447 

13,606 

100,116 

17,965 

125,503 

270,634 

5b929 

45,036 

16,775 

65,905 

107,232 

18.272 

165,852 


Value. 


$ 5,060,048 
3,615,354 
7,740,908 
6,546,954 
937T37 

4.262.545 
48,694,512 

5,840,228 

29,141,561 

993,972 

4,339,777 

6,641,677 

4,426,709 

2,54b723 

4,658,971 

1,048,849 

5,512,940 

6,408,246 

3,607,033 

19,995,327 

6,349,801 

8,137,474 

5,694,302 

10,518,031 

24,725,382 

17,281,805 

18,285,504 

34,279,218 

29,642,522 

21,513,337 

46,349,012 

23,5M,794 

22,191,123 

17,192,120 

io,739,o7o 

4,093,333 

462,681 

3,797,997 

577.693 

4.078.546 
8,400,818 
1,797,122 
1,886,580 

510,048 

2,037,367 

4,076,189 

720.693 
5,045,568 


Oxen  and  Other  Cattle. 


Number. 


165,255 

111,756 

231,746 

101,382 

12,374 

90,624 

1,094,781 

82,577 

953,074 

21,589 

145,362 

543,636 

39L340 

216,214 

623,467 

672,431 

520,471 

574,038 

485,480 

8,567,173 

58i,958 

590,507 

434,i8i 

719,223 

1,235,074 

812,503 

1.110.202 
2,096,346 
i,3i5,7o8 
bn7,693 

3,943,982 

2.213.203 
3,814,622 
2,663,699 
1,137,379 

577,856 

37b586 

1,333,202 

724,670 

53i,93i 

1,276,166 

311,605 

923,351 

975,o»4 

277,785 

287,691 

669,012 

1,543,900 


Value. 


$ 2,525,497 
1,931,276 
2,787,887 

1.583.963 
228,660 

1,681,720 

14,040,662 

1,358,879 

13,921,630 

346,913 

2,513,344 

10,197,170 

3,241,241 

1,792,991 

4,169,527 

5,295,500 

4,280,616 

5,662,675 

4.973.963 
143,233,577 

5,535,826 

7,263,577 

8,364,125 

14,469,710 

21,834,864 

10,883,451 

22,679,020 

47,891,689 

17,206,896 

14,735,621 

96,169,890 

52,142,013 

95,449,678 

65,277,378 

21,916,076 

11,071,564 

7,810,579 

31,734,741 

10,789,773 

11,732,091 

29,447,11.5 

6,592,832 

23,475,436 

17,467,883 

5,115,477 

5,363,849 

18,672,498 

32,737,547 


6cy6 


d N 1 


Table  Showing  the  Estimated  Number  of  Animals  on  Farms,  Etc. — Continued. 


Sheep.* 


States  and  Territories. 


Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts.  . 
Rhode  Island  . . . 

Connecticut 

New  York 

Newr  Jersey 

Pennsylvania  . . . 

! 'elaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North  Carolina. . 
houth  Carolina. . 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas  

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

West  Virginia  . . . 

Kentucky 

Ohio 

Michigan 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

California 

Oregon 

Nevada 

Colorado  

Arizona 

North  Dakota. . . 
South  Dakota . . . 

Idaho 

Montana 

New  Mexico 

Utah 

Washington 

Wyoming 

Oklahoma 


Number. 


252,213 

65,318 

182,167 

33,869 

6,629 

23,021 

984,516 

26,363 

959,483 

6,964 

111,520 

392,125 

208,812 

52,436 

258,894 

102,700 

229,298 

236,470 

169,234 

1,439,940 

168,761 

307,804 

572,739 

716,158 

2,648,250 

1,625,930 

1,010,648 

629,150 

986,212 

359,328 

657,868 

663,703 

179,907 

335,950 

1,724,968 

1,961,355 

568,251 

1,352,823 

668,458 

451,437 

507,338 

1,965,467 

4,215,214 

3,333,743 

2,553,134 

558,022 

3,327,185 

48,535 


Hogs. 


Value. 


#751,777 

216,926 

655,381 

142,076 

26,128 

97,118 

3,981,758 

118,924 

3,314,682 

25,509 

428,283 

1,271,998 

352,498 

86,405 

354,200 

206,828 

384,146 

427,779 

283,294 

3,361,244 

313,809 

789,681 

1,796,985 

2,4ii,554 

8,585,457 

5,227,343 

4,H3,775 

2,716,745 

3,333,387 

1,329,531 

3,010,527 

2,35b497 

666,631 

1,348,140 

5,423,843 

5,643,827 

1,765,946 

4,440,603 

1,552,936 

1,605,730 

i,959,i55 

6,141,010 

14,358,875 

8,272,951 

2,937,622 

1,722,289 

12,708,639 

140,483 


Number. 


79,Ol8 

51,211 

95,090 

78,925 

II,508 

46,447 

676,639 

175,387 

1,107,981 

46,732 

317,902 

946,443 

1,300,469 

618,995 

1,424,298 

464,277 

1,423,329 

1,290,498 

788,425 

2,665,614 

I,7L3,307 

1,976,984 

442,884 

1 >954,537 
3,188,563 
1,165,200 
3,763,389 
5,915,468 
2,014,631 
1,440,806 
9,723,791 
4,524,664 
3,594,859 
4,128,000 
598,336 
281,406 

15,174 

101,198 

18,103 

191,798 

823,120 

114,080 

49,496 

20,426 

65,731 

181,535 

15,471 

584,878 


Value. 


$516,015 

357,573  ' 
620,169 
549,617 
90,614 
326,857 
3,794,332 
926,179 

5,830,295 

234,472 

1,329,143 

2,572,524 

2,516,410 

1,411,516 


2,577,950 

702,827 

2,887,230 

2,963.573 

1,494,284 

7,605,687 

2,981,309 

4>838>7i3 
1,389,808 
5,176,183 
1 1,813,168 
4,588,898 
13,804,893 
23,616,781 
7,580,423 
5,865,590 

43,764,176 

16,533,935 

17,076,904 

18,660,932 

2,476,781 

1,057,037 

75,712 

482,722 

80,587 

930,470 

3,540,072 

480,338 

281,402 

81,644 

293,115 

830,704 

78,145 

2,380,025 


* Lambs  not  included.  * 

In  connection  with  the  foregoing  statements  of  crop  production  and  number  of  domestic  animals  owned  by 
the  agricultural  commuility  it  will  be  found  interesting  to  note  the  rate  of  freight  charges  for  transportation — both 
domestic  and  foreign  which  may  be  learned  at  the  offices  of  the  chief  railway  companies  at  Chicago  and  New  York, 


U N I 


6077 


The  values  of  the  merchandise  imports  from  and  exports  to  the  different  foreign  countries,  colonies,  islands, 
and  ports  during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1901,  are  given  in  the  following  table : 


Countries. 


Austria-Hungary. . . . 
Azores  and  Madeira 

Islands 

Belgium 

Denmark 

France  . . . . 

Germany 

Gibraltar 

Greece 

Greenland,  Iceland, 

etc 

Italy 

Malta,  Gozo,  etc 

Netherlands 

Portugal 

Roumania 

Russia,  Baltic,  etc . . . 
Russia,  Black  Sea . . . 

Servia 

Spain 

Sweden  and  Norway 

Switzerland 

Turkey  in  Europe  . 
Great  Britain  and 

Ireland 

Bermuda 

British  Honduras  . . . 
British  North  Amer- 
ica : 

Nova  Scotia,  New 
Brunswick,  etc. . 
Quebec,  Ontario, 

etc 

British  Columbia. 
Newfoundlandand 

Labrador 

Central  American 
States : 

Costa  Rica 

Guatemala 

Honduras 

Nicaragua 

Salvador  

Mexico 

Miquelon,  Uangley, 

etc 

West  Indies: 

British 

Cuba 

Danish  

Dutch 

French  

Hayti 


Imports. 


$ 10,067,970 

25.395 

14,601,711 

644,993 

75,458,739 

100,415,902 

52,863 

1,124,775 

82.533 

24,618,384 

14,744 

20,598,789 

3,37o,43o 


5,546,280 

1,484,612 

10,699 

5,409,301 

3,487,039 

15,799,400 

3,386,722 

143,388,501 

53b323 

241,509 


5,496,697 

27,599,746 

9,385,720 

420,315 


2,990,550 

3,512,445 

1,262,317 

2,035,636 

1,037,715 

28,851,635 

..  32,814 

12,851,325 

43,423,088 

478,262 

240,019 

13,972 

1,199,240 


Exports. 


Domestic.  Foreign. 


$ 6,963,299  ; $ 259,351 


426,351 

48,552,762 

16,148,968 

76,431,378 

188,350,919 

676,394 

291,506 

525 

34,277,491 

438,474 

83,847,330 

5,289,460 

26,560 

6,301,553 

1,730,071 

369 

15,455,839 

11,838,911 

252,126 

392,908 

624,216,404 

1,285,938 

796,841 


7,110,346 

83,945,432 

6,666,680 

1,948,827 


1,916,200 

1,394,579 

1,029,194 

1,344.373 

725.358 

35,857,837 

218,014 

8,765,230 

24,100,453 

685,287 

644,466 

1,828,633 

3,144,235 


1:083 

836,497 

26,267 

2,283,549 

3,429,508 

2,420 

32 


195,698 

508 

508,988 

4,780 


43,740 

8,864 


24,449 

5,241 

3,234 

50 

6,960,753 

27,069 

16,976 


731,225 

6,990,281 

345,250 

8,478 


30,526 
' 30,235 

85,815 

137.821 
13.364 

617,513 

2,706 

115.822 
1,864,348 

6,863 

3,132 

23,001 

280,432 


Countries. 


West  Indies: 

Santo  Domingo... . 
Argentine  Republic. 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Chile 

Colombia 

Ecuador 

Falkland  Islands. . . . 
Guianas : 

British.  

Dutch 

French  

Paraguay 

Peru 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 

Aden 

British  China 

China 

East  Indies: 

British 

Dutch 

French  and  Portu- 
guese   

Hong- Kong 

Japan 

Korea 

Russian  China 

Russia,  Asiatic 

Turkey  in  Asia 

All  other  Asia 

British  Australasia. . 
French  Oceanica. 
Hawaiian  Islands. . . 
Tonga,  Samoa,  etc.. 
Philippine  Islands. . 

British  Africa 

Canary  Islands, 

French  Africa 

Liberia 

Madagascar 

Portuguese  Africa. . . 

Spanish  Africa 

Egypt 

Tripoli 

All  other  Africa 

Auckland,  Fiji,  and 
Norfolk  Islands. 
German  Oceanica . . . 
Guam 

Total 


Imports. 


3,553,776 

8,065,318 


70,643,347 

8,683,279 

3,230,652 

1,424,840 


4,805,395 

1,272,73-1 

54,oi8 

i,745 
3,616,180 
1,883,994 
6,645.848 
1 .520,629 
81 

18,303,706 

43,882,493 

19,026,481 


1,416,412 

29,229,543 

768 


3-529 

3,897,854 

396,115 

4,767,661 

657,336 


70,744 

4,420,912 

813,440 

32,901 

417,223 

4,867 

547 

1,643 

5,387 

7,212,279 

183,743 

281,431 

1,472,117 

5,38i 

1.044 


$823,172,165 


Exports. 


Domestic.  Foreign 


1,704,008 

11,289,938 

152,285 

11,576,461 

5,282,405 

3,095,165 

2,012,698 

797 

1,689,159 

606,481 

197,701 

12,695 

3,122,180 

1,613,822 

3.224,317 

999,213 

220 

10,287,312 

6,248,408 

2,060,958 

59,367 

7,946,695 

18,656,899 

215,545 

377,252 

1,502,912 

191,249 

305,413 

30,577,345 

398.362 


129,931 

4,014,180 

21,613,995 

253,275 

839,299 

25,476 

28,134 

1,425,536 

13,585 

1,216,445 

1,469 

78,831 

15,982 

46,672 

34,223 


95.677 

247,730 

30 

87,113 

12,321 

46,887 

2,387 


45,245 

4,506 

2,306 


4,754 

23,252 

47,56o 

685 


118,522 


3.396 

3-747 


63,453 

343,741 

6 


2,930 

2,913 

176 

149,342 

12,857 


40,463 

1,645 

4,115 

19 


3 

328' 


468 


$1,460,462,806  $27,302,185 


TELEGRAPHS,  TELEPHONES,  ETC.  WESTERN  UNION  TELEGRAPH  CO. 


The  figures  for  telephonic  operations  for  the  past 
three  years  are  as  follows,  according  to  the  record  of 
the  Bell  Telephone  Company,  which  enjoys  a monopoly 
of  the  business  in  the  United  States  : 


1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

Exchanges 

1,126 

1,239 

i,348 

Branch  offices 

1,008 

1,187 

1,427 

Miles  of  wire  on  poles 

396,503 

509,036 

627,897 

Miles  of  wire  on  buildings. . . 

15,329 

15,087 

16,833 

Miles  of  wire  underground . . 

358,184 

489,250 

705,269 

Miles  of  wire  submarine 

2,973 

3,404 

4,203 

Total  miles  of  wire 

772,989 

1,016,777. 

1,354,202 

Total  circuits 

• 338.293 

42^,620 

508,262 

Total  employees 

19,668 

25,741 

32,837 

Total  stations 

465, 180 

632,946 

800,880 

The  following  table  exhibits  'the  mileage  of  lines 
operated,  number  of  offices,  number  of  messages  sent, 
receipts,  expenses,  and  profits  for  the  year  1901  : 


Miles  of  poles  and  cables 

Miles  of  wire 

Number  of  offices 

Number  of  messages  .... 

Receipts 

Expenses 

Profits 


1901. 


193,589 
972,766 
23,238 
65,657,049 
£26,354, 150 
$19,668,902 
$6,685,248 


These  figures  place  the  United  States  far  ahead  of 
any  other  country  in  the  world  in  regard  to  electrical 
enterprises,  her  mileage  of  telegraph  lines  being  more 
than  double  that  of  any  other  nation. 


331 


0 N I 


RAILROADS. 

The  facilities  for  transportation  have  largely  increased 
in  the  past  few  years,  the  mileage  of  the  railroads  having 
enormously  augmented,  while  steamboats  and  canal 
barges  have  played  an  important  part  in  the  handling  of 
heavy  freight.  The  following  table  gives  the  statistics 
of  railroads  in  the  country  on  June  30,  1900: 


States  and 
Territories. 

Area, 

Sq.  Miles. 

Population, 

1900. 

Miles  of 
Railroad. 

Maine 

33,040 

694,466 

1,915.24 

New  Hampshire 

9,305 

411,588 

1,239.20 

Vermont 

9,565 

343,641 

1,012.11 

2,118.58 

Massachusetts 

8,315 

2,805,346 

Rhode  Island 

1,250 

428,556 

211.79 

Connecticut 

- 4,900 

908,420 

1,023.62 

New  York 

49,170 

7,268,894 

8, 121.03 

New  Jersey  

7,8i5 

1,883,669 

2,256.69 

Pennsylvania 

45,215 

6,302,115 

10,330.50 

Delaware 

2,050 

184,735 

346.72 

Marjdand 

12,210 

1,188,044 

i,376.i6 

Dist.  of  Columbia  . . 

70 

278,718 

31.75 

Ohio 

41,060 

4,157,545 

8,807.27 

Michigan 

58,915 

2,420,982 

8,195.18 

Indiana 

36,350 

2,516,462 

6,470.61 

Illinois.. 

56,650 

4,821,550 

11,002.93 

Wisconsin 

56,040 

2,069,042 

6,530.52 

Virginia 

42,450 

1,854,184 

3,779.i5 

West  Virginia 

24,780 

958,800 

2,228.05 

North  Carolina 

52,250 

1,893,810 

3,831.16 

South  Carolina 

30,570 

1.340,316 

2,817.93 

Georgia 

59,475 

2,216,331 

5,65172 

Florida 

58,680 

528,542 

3,299.06 

Kentucky 

40,400 

2,147,174 

3 059-99 

Tennessee 

42,050 

2,020,616 

3,136.95 

Alabama 

52,250 

1,828,697 

4,225.84 

Mississippi 

46,810 

1.551,270 

2,919.90 

Louisiana 

48,720 

1,381,625 

2,824.08 

Missouri 

69,415 

3,106,^65 

6,875.04 

Arkansas 

53,850 

1,311,564 

3,359-86 

Indian  Territory . . . 

64,690 

392,060 

1,322.75 

Texas 

265,780 

3,048,710 

9,886.49 

Kansas 

82,080 

1,470,495 

8,719.36 

Colorado 

103,925 

539,7oo 

4,587.25 

New  Mexico 

122,580 

i95,3io 

L752.52 

9,185.18 

Iowa 

56,025 

2,231,853 

Minnesota 

83,365 

i,75b394 

6,942.57 

Nebraska 

76,855 

1,066,300 

5,684.85 

North  Dakota  

70,195 

319,  M6 

2,731.22 

South  Dakota 

76,850 

401,570 

2,849.83 

Alaska 

590,884 

63,592 

21.80 

Hawaii 

6,588 

154,001 

100.00 

Oklahoma 

38,710 

398,331 

827.88 

Wyoming 

97,890 

92.531 

1,228.63 

Montana 

146,080 

243.329 

3,010.32 

Washington 

69,180 

518  103 

2,913-57 

Idaho  

84,800 

161,772 

1,261.23 

Oregon 

96,030 

413,536 

1,723.80 

California  .... 

158,360 

1,485,053 

5,751.04 

Nevada 

110,700 

42,335 

969-35 

Arizona 

■ 113,020 

122,931 

1,511-89 

Utah 

84,970 

.276,749 

1,547-42 

IMMIGRATION. 

The  rapid  increase  in  the  population  of  the  United 
States  as  exhibited  in  the  table  of  population  heretofore 
given  has  been  largely  due  to  immigration.  The  total 
number  of  immigrants  in  1901  was  487,918,  of  which  388,- 
931  came  through  the  customs  district  of  New  York, 
17,216  through*  Baltimore,  25,616  through  Boston,  13,236 
through  Philadelphia,  3,655  through  San  Francisco,  and 
39,264  through  other  ports.  The  reported  occupations  of 
the  immigrants  were  : Laborers,  161,938;  farmers,  3,035; 
servants,  42,027;  carpenters,  6,508;  miners,  3,629;  clerks, 
3,108;  tailors,  9,609;  shoemakers,  5,451;  blacksmiths, 
2,613;  bakers,  2,192;  seamstresses  and  dressmakers,  4,232; 
masons,  3,414;  mariners,  4,695;  merchant  dealers  and 
grocers,  0,589.  The  total  number  of  professional  im- 
migrants  was  2,665;  of  miscellaneous,  272,064;  of  no 
occupation  (including  women  and  children),  148,686; 
occupation  not  stated,  3,469. 


NUMBER  RETURNED. 


Ports. 

Convicts,  j 

Lunatics. 

Idiots. 

Liable  to 

becone 

public 

charge. 

Contract 

laborers. 

Total.  || 

Baltimore 

21 

82 

21 

88 

Hoston  ....... 

5 

I 

Galveston 

Key  Wests.. ...... 

3 

3 

New  Orleans 

New  York 

Portland,  Me 

IO 

24 

3 

94, 

6 

124 

8 

2 

533 

6 

128 

8 

Philadelphia. ..... 

4 

San  Francisco. . . . 

Total 

10 

29 

7 

738 

3 

787 

IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS. 

The  extent  of  the  trade  of  the  United  States  in  1901 
may  be  gathered  from  the  returns  of  foreign  commerce, 
the  total  imports  of  the  year  named  amounting  to  $823,- 
172,165,  while  the  total  exports  were  $1,487,764,991, 
The  imports  and  exports  at  the  principal  ports  in  1901 
are  given  in  the  following  table  : 


Customs  Districts. 

Imports. 

Baltimore 

$18,899,473 

Boston  and  Charlestown 

61.452,370 

Brunswick 

28,135 

Charleston 

L477.7I9 

Detroit  

2,867,645 

Galveston 

953,8oi 

Mobile 

3,008,449 

New  Orleans 

20,462,307 

Newport  News 

4,090,451 

New  York 

527,259,946 

Norfolk  and  Portsmouth 

593,930 

Pensacola 

238,334 

Philadelphia 

48,043,443 

Portland,  Me 

633,h4 

Puget  Sound 

6,721,060 

San  F'rancisco  

35,i6i,753 

Savannah  

645,067 

Wilmington,  N.  C 

180,912 

Exports. 


$106,239,081 

143,708,232 

7,952,637 

7,084,215 

17,669,535 

101,857,300 
11,837,105 
152, 776,599 
32,567,912 
529,592,978 
10,308,489 
t3,455,76i 
79,354,025 

12,416,793 

20,678,829 

34,596.792 

46,738,967 

12,013,659 


ARMY  AND  NAVY. 

The  figures  given  below  exhibit  the  cost  of  main- 
tenance of  the  army  and  navy  establishments,  together 
with  Indian  accounts  and  other  miscellaneous  claims 
indirectly  connected  with  the  military  establishment: 

ARMY  PAYMASTERS’  DIVISION. 


Character  of  the  Accounts. 

Number. 

Amount 

allowed. 

Army  paymasters,  for  pay  of  the  army.. 
Soldiers’  Home  accounts 

439 

$12,122,669 

639,471 

217 

National  Home  for  Disabled  Volunteer 
Soldiers 

59 

3,595,231 

Special  army  accounts 

247 

246,129 

Disbursing  officers  of  the  Ordnance  De- 
partment, for  ordnance,  ordnance 
stores,  supplies,  armories,  and  arse- 

204 

546,264 

Disbursing  officers  of  the  Medical  De- 
partment, for  medical  and  hospital 
supplies  and  services 

117 

141,9°° 

Recruiting  officers,  for  regular  recruit- 
ing services . . .. 

9 

49,192 

Miscellaneous  disbursements,  for  con- 
tingent expenses  of  the  army,  adjutant- 
general’s,  and  commanding-general’s 
offices,  artillery  schools,  etc.* 

27 

8,375 

Accounts  under  act  of  February  na,  1887 

15 

63,59J 

Te  legraph  accounts 

97 

2,319 

lotsl.  • < ?*••••*>  •••«••• 

M3* 

UN.i 


6079 


quartermaster’s  division. 


Character  of  the  Accounts. 

Number. 

Amount 

allowed. 

Disbursing  officers  of  the  Quartermas- 
ter’s Department,  for  regular  and  inci- 
dental  expenses . 

1,098 

$14,784,767 

Disbursing  officers  of  the  Subsistence 
Department 

639 

2,195,215 

Disbursing  officers  of  the  Engineer  De- 
partment, for  military  surveys,  forti- 
fications, river  ' and  harbor  improve- 

rnents,  etc ,•  •• 

Disbursing  officers  of  the  Signal  Service 

162 

6,609,662 

72 

1.247,793 

Total ? 

*,97* 

$24,837,437 

NAVY  DIVISION., 


Character  of  the  Accounts. 

Number. 

Amount 

allowed. 

Paymasters  of  the  navy  at  navy-yards, 
and  navy  agents  - - 

259 

17 

26 

888 

3 

2,228 

308 

$15,237,998 

654,258 

L39L837 

91,920 

17,423 

897,178 

Disbursing  officers  of  the  Marine  Corps 
Navy  pension  agents  for  Navy  and 
Marine  Corps , 

Miscellaneous  naval  accounts  

N^avy  financial  agents ...  ••••••••••••«* 

Officers’  and  sailors’  back  pay,  bounty, 
and  prize  money  allowed  . * . . ........ 

Officers’ and  sailors’back  pay,  bounty, 
and  prize  money  disallowed  - ...... 

Total 

3»729 

$18,290,614 

MISCELLANEOUS  CLAIMS  DIVISION. 


Character  of  the  Accounts. 

Number. 

Amount. 

Disbursing  officers  of  the  Ordnance  De- 
partment, for  ordnance,  ordnance 
stores,  supplies,  armories,  and  arse- 
nals 

22 

$1,080,542 

66,235 

Recruiting  officers,  for  regular  recruit- 
ing service 

6 

Disbursing  officers  of  the  Medical  De- 
partment, for  medical  and  hospital 
supplies  and  services. . . 

5 

200,251 

Miscellaneous  disbursements  for  con- 
tingent expenses  of  the  army,  adjutant- 
general’s  and  commanding-general’s 
offices,  artillery  schools,  etc 

3 

2,250 

Arming  militia,  act  February  12,  1887.. 

21 

109,064 

Special  telegraph  accounts 

5 

1,222 

Miscellaneous  claims  ol  Army  Pay  De- 
partment  

147 

122,128 

t Claims  for  quartermasters’  stores  and 
commissary  supplies,  act  July  4,  1864 
Claims  for  lost  property,  act  March  3, 

5i 

32,746 

> 

184.0 

*,755 

233,455 

*5,77° 

. * — 

Claims  for  lost  property,  act  March  3, 
1885 

77 

War  claims  of  States,  act  1861,  etc 

42 

4,229,090 

Claims  for  army  transportation 

658 

462,613 

Oregon  and  Washington  Territory  war 
claims 

21 

4,918 

General  miscellaneous  claims 

3,421 

1,881,284 

Telegraph  accounts 

94 

3,898 

Duplicate  checks  approved 

661 

32,33° 

Total 

6,989 

$8,477,796 

Included  in  the  above  are  claims  ex- 
amined and  disallowed 

2,516 

1,281,034 

INDIAN  DIVISION. 


Character  of  the  Accounts. 

Number. 

Amount 

allowed. 

Indian  agents’  current  and  contingent 
expenses,  annuities,  and  installments. 
Miscellaneous  Indian  claims 

213 

2,633 

$1,731,807 

5,710,969 

Indian  claims  disallowed 

/otaJ - . 

2.852 

$7,442. 776 

REQUISITIONS. 

During  the  fiscal  year  there  were  countersigned  and 
recorded  17,314  requisitions,  amounting  to  $190,- 
824,075.47,  as  shown  by  the'foll owing  table: 


Character. 

Number. 

Amount. 

War  Department  . 

Navy  Department 

Interior  Department,  pension  requisi- 
tions  

6,089 

3,7*2 

3,77° 

3,743 

$46,648,088.  Of 

35,°85,947-66 

101,761,841.29 

7,328,197.62 

Interior  Department,  Indian  requisi- 
tions  

Total 

*7,3*4 

$190,824,075.47 

PERSONNEL  OF  ARMY  AND  NAVY. 

In  addition  to  the  general  financial  account  presented 
heretofore,  we  subjoin  a statement  of  the  personnel  of 
the  naval  and  military  establishments,  together  with  the 
maintenance  of  each.  We  also  give  tabulated  and 
itemized  accounts  of  the  most  important  departments  of 
the  civil  service. 

The  United  States  Navy  is  composed  of  the  follow- 
ing officers  and  men : Admiral,  1 ; vice-admiral,  1 . 
rear  admirals,  6 ; commodores,  10 ; captains,  45 ; com 
manders,  85 ; lieutenant-commanders,  74 ; lieutenants, 
250;  junior  lieutenants,  75  ; ensigns,  181  ; naval  cadets, 
72;  medical  directors,  15;  medical  inspectors,  15;  sur- 
geons, 50;  passed  assistant  surgeons,  58;  assistant  sur- 
geons, 23;  pay  directors,  13;  pay  inspectors,  13;  pay- 
masters, 43 ; assistant  paymasters,  14 ; chief  engineers, 
70;  passed  assistant  engineers,  78;  assistant  engineers, 
68;  chaplains,  24;  professors  of  mathematics,  12;  sec- 
retaries, 2;  naval  constructors,  7;  assistant  naval  con- 
structors, 14;  civil  engineers,  10;  warrant  officers’ 
boatswains,  33;  gunners,  36;  carpenters,  49;  sailmak* 
ers,  29;  mates,  31  ; cadets  on  probation  at  academy, 
232;  full  number  of  men  enlisted,  8,250. 

The  United  States  Army  is  constituted  as  follows: 
Major-generals,  3;  brigadier-generals,  6;  adjutant-gen- 
eral (ranking  as  brigadier),  1;  assistant  adjutant-gen- 
erals (ranking  as  colonel),  4;  assistant  adjutant-generals 
pranking  as  lieutenant-colonel),  6;  assistant  adjutant- 
generals  (ranking  as  major),  6 ; inspector  general,  1 ; 
inspector  general  assistants,  6;  judge  advocate  general, 
1 ; assistant  judge  advocate  general,  1 ; deputy  judge 
advocate  generals,  3;  judge  advocates,  3 ; quartermas- 
ter general,  1 ; quartermaster  general  assistants,  4 ; 
quartermaster  general  deputy,  8 ; quartermasters,  14 ; 
assistant  quartermasters,  29;  military  storekeepers,  4 ; 
commissaries,  26;  surgeons  (including  highest  ranks), 
67;  asssistant  surgeons,  124;  medical  storekeepers,  3; 
paymasters,  40;  engineer  corps,  109;  ordnance  de- 
partment, 54;  signal  service,  15,  chaplains,  31;  cav- 
alry regiments,  10;  artillery  regiments,  5;  infan-try 
regiments,  25.  The  cavalry  and  artillery  regiments  are 
usually  officered  as  follows:  1 colonel,  1 lieutenant 
colonel,  3 majors,  12  captains;  cavalry,  14  first  lieuten- 
ants; artillery,  26  first  lieutenants,  12  second  lieuten- 
ants; entire  strength  of  the  army,  28,764. 

PENSIONS. 

The  amount  appropriated  for  pensions  for  the  current 
year  (1901)  was  about  the  same  as  last  year  ($139,582,- 
231);  that  is  an  increase  of  $12,000,000  over  the  disburse- 
ments of  1891,  or  nearly  $90,000,000  over  those  for  the 
year  1881.  The  amounts  actual  and  estimated  for  pen- 
sions therefore  stand  as  follows  : 

Expended  for  the  year  ended  June  30,  1899 $139,482,696 

Appropriated  and  estimated  for  year  ending 

June  30,  1901 *139.582,231 

Estimated  for  vear  ending  June  30.  1902 140.000,000 


6oSo 


TJ  N l 


REVENUE  MARINE  SERVICE,. 


As  supplementary  to  the  naval  report  we  include  a 
tabulated  statement  of  the  current  annual  cost,  per- 
formance and  constitution  of  the 


REVENUE  MARINE. 


Expenses  for  past  year. 

Number  of  vessels  in  commission 

Number  of  vessels  found  improperly  anchored  (six 

months). 

Number  of  violations  of  seal  fishery  laws 

Number  of  skins  seized 

Number  of  miles  cruised  by  revenue  vessels 

Number  of  vessels  boarded 

Number  found  violating  laws 

Amount  of  penalties  inflicted  on  violators 

Number  of  distressed  vessels  assisted  . 

Value  of  their  cargoes 

Number  of  persons  rescued  from  drowning........ 

Number  assisted  on  distressed  vessels 

Number  of  commissioned  officers  in  the  service.... 

N umber  of  pilots 

Number  of  seamen 


$965,500.00 

37 

1,328 

6 

2,472 

274,287 

22,893 

1,127 

$445,196.70 

122 

$2,500,000.00 

26 


1,021 

220 


CIVIL  SERVICE. 


We  now  give  the  figures  relative  to  the  most  impor- 
/ant  branches  of  the  civil  service : 

Receipts  and  expenditures  on  account  of  the  post- 
office  department  for  the  fiscal  year  1901,  as  shown  by 
warrants. 


Receipts  covered  into  the  Treasury $55,552,081.57 

Receipts  by  postmasters 56,012,789.08 


Total  net  receipts  (1901) $111,631,193.00 

Balance  due  the  United  States  June  30! 3,923,727.00 

Total $115,554,920.00 


Expenditures  by  treasurer  on  warrants $ 57,098,959.53 

Expenditures  by  postmasters $ 58,012,789.08 

Total  expenditures  (1901) 

Balance  due  the  United  States  June  30,  1900 

Total $115,554,920.00 

Note.— Of  the  receipts  covered  into  the  Treasury  the  sum  of 
$3,870,639.12  was  appropriated  by  acts  of  Congress  to  make  good 
deficiencies  in  the  postal  revenues. 

Life-Saving  Service. — The  humane  work  of  the  serv- 
ice during  the  past  fiscal  year  embraces  the  rescue  from 
peril  of  3, 106  lives. 

In  addition  to  this,  property  exceeding  in  value  the 
sum  of  $5,000,000  was  saved  from  destruction.  Among 
the  additions  of  the  year  to  the  facilities  of  the  service 
have  been  three  new  stations,  with  seven  others  still 
under  construction,  making  in  all  232  stations. 

Steamboat- Inspection  Service. — The  cost  of  this  serv- 
ice was  $256,994.36  for  the  fiscal  year,  a slight  de- 
crease from  the  expense  of  the  previous  year.  During 
the  past  fifteen  years  there  has  been  a gain  of  73  per 
cent,  in  the  number  of  domestic  steam-vessels,  and  an 
increase  of  27  per  cent,  in  the  cost  of  ipspection.  The 
loss  of  life  on  steam-vessels  has  been  reduced  54  per 
cent. 

Marine  Hospital  Service. — This  service,  originally  es- 
tablished for  the  care  of  sick  and  disabled  seamen  and 
the  hygiene  of  merchant  vessels,  has  become  addition- 
ally charged  with  important  duties  relative  to  the  public 
health.  During  the  fiscal  year  nearly  50,000  sick  and 
disabled  seamen  were  relieved  at  eighteen  marine  hos- 
pitals and  210  relief  stations. 

For  the  safe  guarding  of  the  public  health,  seven  na- 
tional quarantine  stations  are  in  operation,  besides 
hygienic  laboratories  for  investigation  of  the  causes  and 
treatment  of  epidemic  diseases,  and  a periodical  bulle- 
tin is  published,  circulating  information  relative  to  the 
appearance  and  movement  of  epidemics  There  has 


likewise  been  much  inland  administration  of  a sanita* 
character,  particularly  in  connection  with  the  recen 
epidemic  of  yellow  fever  in  Florida. 

The  expenditures  during  the  fiscal  year  for  the 
marine  hospital  service  were  $540,134.53,  and  $246, 
995  were  expended  for  preventing  the  soread  of  epi 
demic  disease. 


MINERALS. 

The  mineral  products  of  the  United  States  "tor  the 
year  1900,  as  given  by  the  United  States-  geological  re- 
port, amounted  in  value  to  $672,090,416,  which  was 
distributed  among  the  various  minerals,  as  follows,  coal 
leading  the  list: 


Products. 

Quantity. 

Asbestos,  short  tons  

Asphaltum,  short  tons 

Asphaltic  limestone,  short  tons.  . 
Bituminous  sandstone,  short  tons 

Barytes,  short  tons 

Bauxite,  long  tons 

Bismuth  ore,  short  tons 

Bromine,  pounds 

Calcium  borate,  short  tons ....... 

Cement,  nat.  hyd.,  barrels 

Cement,  Portland,  barrels 

Clay  nroducts. . . 

1,100 
11,140 
3,910 
34. 277 
41,466 
23,445 
221 
52U444 
25,350 
9,177,222 
7,991,639 

Coal,  anthracite,  short  tons. ...... 

Coal,  bituminous,  short  tons ...... 

Coal,  cannel,  short  tons 

Cobalt  oxide,  pounds 

Copper  sulphate,  pounds 

Corundum,  short  tons 

Emery,  short  tons 

Feldspar,  long  tons. . 

Fluorspar,  short  tons 

Fullers  earth,  short  tons 

Garnet,  short  tons 

Grahamite,  short  tons 

Graphite,  crystalline,  pounds  .... 

Gypsum,  short  tons 

Iron  ore,  long  tons 

Manganese  ore,  long  tons 

Mica,  scrap,  short  tons 

Mica,  sheet,  pounds  

Monazite,  pounds 

57,464,235 

210,821,727 

29,471 

12,270 

78,218,478 

830 

4,200 

29,447 

21,656 

11,813 

3,285 

3,279 

4,103,052 

484,202 

25,917,393 

218,222 

5,417 

127,241 

908,000 

Natural  gas 

Ochre,  short  tons 

Petroleum,  crude,  barrels 

Phosphate  rock,  long  tons 

Precious  stones 

41,917 

62,538,544 

U527.7II 

Pyrites,  long  tons 

Salt,  barrels 

201,317 

20,738,729 

49,53i 

35,915 

875,000 

250 

42,039 

Silica,  brick,  m 

Flint,  short  tons. 

SSnd,  etc.,  long  tons 

Pumice,  short  tons 

Grindstones,  short  tons 

Whetstones 

Slate,  roofing,  squares 

Manufactures 

990,036 

Pigment,  short  tons 

Soapstone,  short  tons 

Soda,  natural,  short  tons 

Stone  for  building 

6,617 

18,956 

14,100 

Stone,  limestone  tflux),  long  tons 

Sulphur,  long  tons 

Sulphuric  acid,  short  tons 

Talc,  common,  short  tons 

Talc,  fibrous,  short  tons 

Zinc  sulphate,  short  tons 

Zinc  ore,  exported,  short  tons 

Zinc,  white,  short  tons 

Est.  product  unspecified 

6,790,200 

4,630 

85.000 
7,700 

45.000 
527 

42,062 

47,151 

Total 



Value, 


$ 16,500 

218,520 
16,830 
138,892 

161,717 

85,922 

26,500 

140,790 

532,350 

4,308,709 

10,461,910 

78,704,678 

102,972,596 

219,460,521 

88,413 

22,085 

3,903,102 

58,100 

189.000 

136,773 

114,430 

70,565 

92,801 
98,370 
164,122 
1,316,255 
77,752,179 
461,994 
42, 889 
82.508 
50,680 
18,500,000 
461,087 
74,246,582 
5,375,956 

200.000 

684,478 

6,439,006 

916,819 

84,400 

1,312,500 


1,250 

482,462 

84,874 

2,885,153 

502,051 

72,787 

189,560 

195,300 

41,400,000 

3,666,708 


102,09; 

2,045,950 

60,217 

236,250 

22,657 

1,133,663 

3,772,080 


5,122,134 


$672,090,416 


PRECIOUS  METALS. 

The  subjoined  figures  furnished  by  the  commissions 
and  director  of  the  mint  gives  the  Deduction  of  gold 


U N it 


6081 


and  silver  in  the  United  States  from  the  organization  of 
the  mint,  in  1 792,  to  1844,  and  annually  since. 


Years. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Total. 

April  2,  1792 — July 
3U  1834 

$14,000,000 

Insignificant. 

$14,000,000 

July  31,  1834 — De- 
cember 31,  1844. 

7,500,000 

*$250,000 

7, 750,  ooo 

1845.., 

1,008,327 

50,000 

1,058,327 

1846 

1,139.357 

889,085 

50,000 

1,189,357 

1847 • ••• 

50,000 

939,085 

10,000,000 

50,000 

10,050,000 

1*49 <■ 

40,000,000 

50,000 

40,050,000 

1850 

50,000,000 

50,000 

50,050,000 

*851 

55,000,000 

50,000 

55,050,000 

1852 

60,000,000 

50,000 

60.050.000 

65.050.000 

1853 

65,000,000 

50,000 

1854 

60,000,000 

50,000 

60,050,000 

1855 

55,ooo,«io© 

50,000 

' 55,050,000 

1856 

55,ooo,<g>oo 

50,000 

55,050,000 

1857 

55,000,000 

50,000 

55,050,000 

1858 

50,000,000 

500,000 

50,500,000 

1859  

50,000,000 

100,000 

50, 100,000 

i860 

46,000,000 

150,000 

46,150,000 

1861 

43,000,000 

2,000,000 

45,000,000 

1862 

39,200,000 

4,500,000 

43,700,000 

1863 

40,000,000 

8,500,000 

48,500,000 

1864 

46,100,000 

11,000,000 

57,100,000 

1865 

53,225,000 

11,250,000 

64,475,000 

1866 

53,500,000 

10,000,000 

63,500,000 

1867 

51,725,000 

13,500,000 

65,225,000 

1868 

48,000,000 

12,000,000 

60,000,000 

1869. 

49,500,000 

12,000,000 

61,500,000 

1870 

50,000,000 

16,000,000 

66,000,000 

*871 

43,500,000 

23,000,000 

66,500,000 

1872 

36,000,000 

28,750,000 

64,750,000 

1873 

36,000,000 

35, 750,  ooo 

71, 75°, 000 

1874 

33,5oo,oo° 

37,300,000 

70,800,000 

1875-..- 

33,400,000 

31,700,000 

65, 100,000 

1876 

39,900,000 

38,800,000 

78,700,000 

!877 

46,900,000 

39,800,000 

86,700,000 

1878 

51,200,000 

45.200.000 

40.800.000 

96,400,000 

1879 

38,900,000 

79,700,000 

1880 

36,000,000 

39,200,000 

75,200,000 

1881 

34,700,000 

43,000,000 

77,700,000 

1882........ 

32,500,000 

46,800,000 

79,300,000 

1883 ;. 

30,000,000 

46,200,000 

76,200,000 

30.800.000 

31.800.000 

48,800,000 

79.600.000 

83.400.000 

1885 

51,600,000 

i886 

35,000,000 

51,000,000 

86,000,000 

1887 

33,  '0,000 

53>35°>000 

86,350,000 

1900 

79,.  ,000 

35,741,1.;..  j 

114,912,140 

Total 

$1,852,05,  769 

$839,191,140 

$2,691,248,909 

PERIODICAL  LITERATURE. 

Out  of  a total  of  50,000  newspapers  the  United  States 
publishes  over  20,000,  leaving  the  balance  to  be  divided 
among  all  the  nations  of  the  earth.  The  number  of  new 
books  published  in  the  year  1900  was  6,356.  Number 
of  reprints  of  other  countries  made  in  America,  6,358. 
The.  following  exhibit  gives  the  record  of  copyright 
entries  with  the  librarian  of  congress. 


1889. 

1901. 

Books 

15,785 

8,100 

480 

9,002 

3,48o 

2,163 

i,358 

740 

603 

508 

2ii783 

9,086 

589 

9,066 

3,064 

2,988 

1,684 

684 

842 

439 

Periodicals 

Dramatic  Compositions 

Musical  Compositions 

Photographs 

Chromos  and  Engravings 

Maps  and  Charts 

Prints 

Designs 

Drawings,  etc 

Total 

42,139 

51,225 

PATENTS. 

The  total  number  of  applications  at  the  patent  office 
tor  patent  protection  during  the  year  1900  was  47,789, 
and  the  number  of  applications  granted  was  26,490 


EDUCATION. 


The  report  or  .he  State  commissioner  of  common 
schools  for  1900  gives  the  following  figures  : 


States  and 
Territories. 

Pupils  1 

Enrolled. 

Per  cent 

of  Popula- 

tion 

Enrolled. 

Average 

Daily  At- 

tendance. 

Total 

Number 

of 

Teachers. 

N.  Atlantic  Division. 

Maine 

130,918 

18.86 

97,697 

6,455 

New  Hampshire 

fig 

J5-98 

47.733 

2.970 

Massachusetts 

474,891 

16.93 

366!  136 

/4^ 

13,575 

Rhode  Island 

64,537 

15-39 

46,087 

1,913 

Connecticut 

155,228 

17.0a 

111,564 

4,160 

New  York . 

1,209,574 

16.64 

857,488 

34,848 

New  Jersey 

315,055 

17.12 

203,003 

6,689 

Pennsylvania 

1,151,880 

18.28 

854,640 

29,390 

$.  Atlantic  Division. 

Delaware 

33,174 

19-33 

22,693 

840 

Maryland 

229,332 

19.44 

132,685 

5427 

District  of  Columbia. . 

46,519 

16.69 

35463 

1,226 

Virginia 

358.825 

I9-58 

203,136 

8,836 

West  Virginia. 

232,343 

24-23 

151,254 

7479 

North  Carolina 

400,452 

21.15 

206.918 

7,387 

South  Carolina 

281,891 

21.03 

201,295 

5,564 

Georgia 

482,673 

21.78 

298,237 

10,120 

Florida 

108,874 

20.60 

75,003 

2,729 

S.  Central  Division. 

Kentucky 

501,893 

24.41 

308,697 

9,960 

Tennessee.  

485-354 

24.02 

338,566 

9,195 

Alabama  . 

376,423 

20.59 

297,508 

6,578 

Mississippi 

360,177 

23.65 

' 201,593 

8,156 

Louisiana 

196, 169 

14.20 

146,323 

4457 

Texias 

578,418 

18.97 

393,78o 

15,020 

Arkansas 

314,662 

23-99 

195, 4»i 

6,959 

Oklahoma  

99,602 

25.02 

63,718 

2,343 

Indian  Territory  

N.  Central  Division. 

Ohio 

829, 160 

19-95 

616,365 

26,017 

Indiana  

564,807 

22.44 

429,566 

15,617 

Illinois' 

958,911 

19.89 

737,576 

26,313 

Michigan 

498,665 

20.92 

350,000 

15,564 

Wisconsin 

445,142 

21.51 

309,800 

13,063 

Minnesota  

399,207 

22.79 

243,224 

10,586 

554,992 

25.28 

364,409 

28,694 

Missouri  

719,817 

23-17 

460,012 

16,201 

North  Dakota 

77,686 

24-34 

43,56o 

4,083 

South  Dakota  ......  . . 

96,822 

24.11 

68,000 

4,802 

Nebraska 

288,227 

26.97 

181,874 

9,463 

Kansas 

389,583 

26.49 

261,783 

11,513 

Western  Division. 

Montana  . 

39,430 

16.20 

24,  IOo 

1,214 

Wyoming 

14,512 

15-69 

10,160 

570 

Colorado. 

117,555 

21.78 

73,291 

3,597 

New  Mexico. 

36,735 

18.81 

22,433 

/ 966 

Arizona 

16,504 

1342 

10,177 

399 

Utah 

73,042 

26.39 

50,595 

1,466 

Nevada 

6,676 

15-77 

4,698 

324 

Idaho 

36,669 

22.67 

21,962 

1,060 

Washington 

97,916 

20.45 

%I92 

3,321 

Oregon 

89,504 

21.62 

64,411 

3,742 

California, 

269,736 

18.17  ’ 

197,395 

7,605 

United  States 

15,341,220 

20.38  / 

10,513,518 

421,288 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Among  matters  of  general  interest  to  the  reader  may 
be  mentioned  the  following  subjects,  which  are  grouped 
under  this  head  and  in  the  form  and  manner  following 
on  account  of  being  more  easy  of  access  and  of  greater 
utility  in  this  shape  than  if  they  were  arranged  in  the 
body  of  the  article  with  any  attempt  made  at  regular 
sequence. 

presidential  vote. 

The  following  gives  the  presidential  vote  (popular 
vote)  for  every  election  since  and  including  1824 
Prior  to  that  time  the  electors  were  chosen  by  State 
legislatures: 

1824 — J.  Q.  Adams  had  105,321  to  155,872  for  Jackson,  44,28a 
for  Crawford,  and  46,587  for  Clay.  Jackson  over  Adams, 
50,551.  Adams  less  than  combined  vote  of  others.  140,86$ 


6o8  2 


UNI 


Of  the  whole  vote  Adams  had  39.92  pei  cent;  Jackson 
44.27;  Clay  13.23;  Crawford  13.23.  Adams  elected  by 
House  of  Representatives. 

1828 — Jackson  had  647,231  to  509,097  for  J.  Q.  Adams.  Jack- 
son’s majority,  138,134.  Of  the  whole  vote  Jackson  had 
55.97  per  cent.,  Adams  44.03. 

1832 — Jackson  had  687,502  to  530,189  for  Clay,  and  33,108  for 
Floyd  and  Wirt  combined.  Jackson’s  majority,  124,205. 
Of  the  whole  vote  Jackson  had  54.96  per  cent..  Clay  42.39, 
and  the  others  combined  2.65. 

*836 — Van  Buren  had  761,549  to  736,656,  the  combined  vote  for 
Harrison,  White,  Webster,  and  Maguin.  Van  Buren’s 
majority,  24,893.  Of  the  whole  vote  Van  Buren  had  50.83 
per  cent,  and  the  others  combined  49.17. 

1840 — Harrison  had  1,275,017  to  1,128,702  for  Van  Buren,  and 
7,059  for  Birney.  Harrison’s  majority,  139,256.  Of  the 
whole  vote  Harrison  had  52.89  per  cent..  Van  Buren  46.82, 
and  Birney  29. 

•<844-- -Polk  had  1,337,243  to  1,299,068  for  Clay  and  62,300  for 
Birney.  Polk  over  Clay,  38,175.  Polk  less  than  others  com- 
bined, 24,125.  Of  the  whole  vote  Polk  had  49.55  per  cent., 
Clay  48.14,  and  Birney  2.21. 

*848— Taylor  had  1,360,101  to  1,220,544  for  Cass,  and  291,263  for 
Van  Buren.  Taylor  over  Cass,  139,577.  Taylor  less  than 
others  combined,  151,706.  Of  the  whole  vote  Taylor  had 
47.36  percent.,  Cass  42.50,  and  Van  Buren  10.14. 

1852 — Pierce  had  1,601,474  to  1,386,578  for  Scott,  andis6,i49  for 
Hale.  Pierce  over  all,  58,747.  Of  the  whole  vote  Pierce  had 
50.90  per  cent.,  Scott44.ro,  and  Hale  4.97. 

1856 — Buchanan  had  1,838,169  to  1,341,264  for  Fremont,  and  874,- 
534  for  Fillmore.  Buchanan  over  Fremont,  496,905. 
Buchanan  less  than  combined  vote  of  others,  377,629.  Of 
the  whole  vote  Buchanan  had  45.34  per  cent.,  Fremont  33.09, 
and  Fillmore  21.57. 

t86o™ Lincoln  had  1,866,352  to  1,375,157  for  Douglas,  845,763  for 
Breckinridge,  and  589,581  for  Bell.  Lincoln  over  Breckin- 
ridge, 491,195.  Lincoln  less  than  Douglas  and  Breckinridge 
combined,  354,568.  Lincoln  less  than  combined  vote  of  all 
others,  944,149.  Of  the  whole,  vote  Lincoln  had  39.91  per 
cent.,  Douglas  29.40,  Breckinridge  18.08,  and  Bell  12.61. 

*864— Lincoln  had  2,216,067  to  1,808,725  for  McClellan  (eleven 
States  not  voting,  viz:  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Florida, 
Georgia,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina,  Tennessee,  Texas,  and  Virginia).  Lincoln’s 
majority,  408,342.  Of  the  whole  vote  Lincoln  had  55.06  per 
cent.,  and  McClellan  44.94. 

<868— Grant  had  3,015,071  102,709,613  for  Seymour  (three  States 
not  voting,  viz:  Mississippi,  Texas,  and  Virginia).  Grant’s 
majority,  305,458.  Of  the  whole  vote  Grant  had  52.67  per 
cent.,  and  Seymour  47.33. 

<872  — Grant  had  3,597,070  to  2,834,079  for  Greeley,  29,408  for 
O’Conor,  and  5,608  for  Black.  Grant’s  majority,  729,975. 
Of  the  whole  vote  Grant  had  55.63  per  cent,  Greeley  43.83, 
O’Conor  .15,  Black  .09. 

*876— -Hayes  had  4,033,950  to  4,284,885  for  Tilden,  81,740  for 
Cooper,  9,522  for  Smith,  and  2,636  scattering.  Tilden’s 
majority  over  Hayes,  250,935.  Tilden’s  majority  of  the 
entire  vote  cast,  157,037.  Hayes  less  than  the  combined 
vote  of  others,  344,833.  Of  the  whole  vote  cast  Hayes  had 
47.95  per  cent.,  Tilden  50.94,  Cooper  .97,  Smith  .II,  scatter- 
ing .03. 

1880 — Garfield  had  4,449,053  to  4,442,035  for  Hancock,  307,306 
for  Weaver,  and  12,576  scattering.  Garfield  over  Hancock, 
7,018.  Garfield  less  than  the  combined  vote  for  others, 
313,864.  Of  the  popular  vote  Garfield  had  48.26  per  cent., 
Hancock  48.25,  Weaver  3.33,  scattering  .13. 

*884 — Cleveland  had  4,874,986  to  4,851,981  for  Blaine,  150,369  for 
St.  John,  173,370  for  Butler.  Cleveland  had  over  Blaine 
23,006.  Cleveland  had  48.48  per  cent.,  Blaine  48.22,  St. 
John  1.49,  Butler  1.74. 

>:888 — Harrison  had  5,441,902  to  5,538,560  for  Cleveland,  249,937 
for  Fisk,  147,521  for  Streeter,  3,073  for  Cowdrey,  1,591  for 
Curtis,  and  9,845  scattering.  Harrison  had  96,658  less  than 
Cleveland.  Of  the  whole  vote  Harrison  had  47.83  per  cent., 
Cleveland  48.63 per  cent.,  Fisk  2.21  per  cent.,  and  Streeter 
1.30  per  cent. 

Of  the  presidents,  Adams,  Federalist:  Polk,  Buchanan,  and 

Cleveland,  Democrats:  Taylor,  Whig:  Lincoln,  Hayes,  Garfield, 

*;nd  Harrison,  Republicans,  did  not,  when  elected,  receive  a 

majority  of  the  popular  vote. 


UNAPPROPRIATED  PUBLIC  LANDS. 

The  area  of  the  public  lands  of  the  United  States  un- 
appropriated up  to  June  30,  1901,  is  here  shown.  These' 
figures  do  not,  however,  indicate  the  amount  of  land  yet 
available  for  settling  purposes,  as  the  Indian  reser- 
vations and  other  public  lands  in  temporary  occupation, 
as  well  as  school  lands,  are  included  in  the  estimate ; 


Statks  and 
Territories. 

Unappro- 

priated 

Area,  Land  Surface. 

Lands. 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Sq.  Miles. 

Alabama 

359,25o 

32,657,920 

51,028 

Arkansas 

3,493.444 

33,543,680 

52,412 

California 

42,467,512 

99,969,920 

156,203 

Colorado 

39,650,247 

66,348,160 

103,669 

Florida. . .• 

1,596,411 

35,072,640 

35,842,560 

54,801 

Illinois 

56,004 

Indiana.  . 

22,950,400 

35,646,080 

53,293,440 

35,86o 

55,697 

83,271 

Iowa 

Idaho 

43,286,694 

Kansas 

1,196,900 

52,382,720 

81,848 

Louisiana 

442,224 

29,055,360 

45,399 

Michigan 

430,483 

36,819,200 

57,530 

Minnesota 

4,696,203 

51,198,080 

79,997 

Mississippi 

285,804 

29,685,120 

46,383 

Missouri 

337,946 

43,795,840 

68,431 

Montana 

67,963,057 

93,593,6oo 

146,240 

Nebraska 

9,798,088 

49,137,280 

76,777 

Nevada 

61,277.506 

70,336,640 

109,901 

North  Dakota 

*8,725,239 

44,910,080 

70,172 

Ohio . 

26,062,720 

61,277,440 

40,723 

95,746 

Oregon 

34,377,907 

South  Dakota 

11  930,809 

49,206,400 

76,885 

Utah 

42,967,451 

52,541,440 

82,096 

Wisconsin 

313.565 

35,274,880 

55,U7 

Washington 

11,125,883 

42,746,880 

66,792 

Wyoming 

48,358,169 

62,433,280 

97,552 

Alaska 

359,492,760 

368, 103,680 

575,162 

Arizona 

50,286,986 

72,792.320 

113,738 

Indian  Territory.  . 

19,658,880 

30,717 

New  Mexico 

56,541,170 

78,428,800 

122,545 

Oklahoma  

5,733,572 

24,774,400 

38,710 

Total 

917,135,880 

1,809,539,840 

2,827,406 

RELIGIOUS  DENOMINATIONS. 

In  the  following  table  the  various  denominations  and 
their  sects  are  treated  of  according  to  their  precedence 
of  numbers  : [The  discrepancies  between  this  table 
and  the  published  church  reports  are  to  be  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  some  of  the  denominations  are 
treated  of  as  composed  of  more  than  one  body  or  sect :] 


Denominations. 

Churches. 

Ministers. 

Com’ts. 

1 Roman  Catholics* * 

7,424 

7,956 

4,438,019 

2 Regular  Baptistsf 

32,900 

21,420 

2,997,794 

3 Methodist  Episcopal 

21,361 

12,802 

2,154,349 

4 Meth.  Episcopal  South. . . 

11,432 

41,687 

1, 140,097 

5 Presbyterian  (Northern).. 

6,543 

5,789 

722,021 

6 Disciples  of  Christ 

6,437 

3,263 

620,000 

7 Congregationalists 

4,569 

4,284 

475,608 

8 Protestant  Episcopal 

5»°53 

3,9i° 

450,042 

9 African  M.  E... 

3,600 

2,943 

390,00* 

10  African  M.  E.  Zion 

2,200 

2,600 

325,004 

11  Lutheran  Synod’l  Con.... 

*>7°3 

1,162 

320,81^ 

12  Lutheran  Gen.  Council . . 

1,461 

840 

244,788 

13  United  Brethren 

4,45i 

1,49° 

204,517 

14  Reformed  (German) 

1,512 

823 

190,527 

15  Colored  Meth.  Episcopal. 

2,016 

1,729 

165,000 

16  Presbyterian  (Southern).. 

2,280 

I,i53 

156,249 

17  Presbyterian  Cumberland 

2,648 

1,584 

151,929 

18  Methodist  Protestant.... 

1,871 

1,282 

147,503 

19  Evangelical  Association. . 

1,916 

1,159 

141,853 

20  Lutheran  General  Synod. 

L337 

938 

141,631 

* We  estimate  the  number  of  Catholic  communicants  on  the 
basis  of  7,855,294  Catholic  population,  using  the  ratio  which 
Lutheran  statistics  have  established  between  souls  and  coisv 
municants  in  the  Synodical  Conference — viz. : 1.7? 

* Really  three  aswUft 


THE  CABINETS  OF  THE  PRESIDENTS 


FROM  THE  FOUNDING  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 


George  Washington  — First  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State. — Thomas  Jefferson,  of  Va. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — Alexander  Hamilton,  of  N.Y. 
Secretary  of  War  and  Navy. — Henry  Knox,  of  Mass. 
Attorney  General. — Edmund  Randolph,  of  Va. 

These  were  all  noted  for  their  Congressional  service  with 
the  exception  of  the  distinguished  Gen.  Knox. 

Washington’s  second  Cabinet  was  a continuation  of  the 
first. 

John  Adams  — Third  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State. — Timothy  Pickering,  of  Mass. 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — Oliver  Wolcott,  of  Conn. 
Secretary  of  War. — James  McHenry,  of  Md. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — George  Cabot,  of  Mass. 

Attorney- General. — Charles  Tee,  of  Va. 


Thomas  Jefferson  — Fourth  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State. — James  Madison,  of  Va. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — Albert  Gallatin,  of  Tenn. 
Secretary  of  War. — Henry  Dearborn,  of  Mass. 
Secretary  of  the  Navy. — Benjamin  Stoddard,  of  Md. 
Attorney-General. — Devi  Lincoln,  of  Mass. 


Thomas  Jefferson  — Fifth  Cabinet. 

In  this  Cabinet  of  Mr.  Jefferson’s  second  term  three  mem- 
bers were  continued,  and  before  his  term  was  ended  he  had 
further  availed  himself  of  the  services  of  John  Breckinridge, 
.,  and  Caesar  Rodney,  of  Del. 


James  Madison  — Sixth  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State. — Robert  Smith,  of  Md.,  followed  by 
James  Monroe,  of  Va. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — Albert  Gallatin. 

Secretary  of  War. — William  Eustis,  of  Mass.;  John  Arm- 
strong, of  N.  Y. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — PaurHamilton,  of  S.  C.;  William 
Jones,  of  Pa. 

Attorney-General. — C.  A.  Rodnej’,  of  Del.;  William  Pinck- 
ney of  Md. 


James  Madison  — Seventh  Cabinet. 

In  this  Cabinet  Monroe,  Gallatin,  Armstrong,  Jones,  and 
Pinckney  were  continued.  Eater,  George  W.  Campbell,  of 
Tenn.,  succeeded  Gallatin. 


James  Monroe  — Eighth  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State. — J.  Q.  Adams,  of  Mass.  » 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — William  H.  Crawford,  of  Ga. 
Secretary  of  War. — John  C.  Calhoun,  of  S.  C. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — B.  W.  Crowningshield,  of  Mass. 
Attorney-General . — William  Wirt,  of  Va. 


James  Monroe  — Ninth  Cabinet. 

At  the  close  of  this  Administration  this  Cabinet  stood  as 
above,  except  that  Samuel  E.  Southard,  a Senator  from 
N.  J.,  was  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

John  Q.  Adams  — Tenth  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State. — Henry  Clay. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — Richard  Rush. 

Secretary  of  War. — James  Barbour,  of  Va.;  P.  B.  Porter, 
of  N.  Y. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — S.  E.  Southard,  of  N.  J. 
Attorney-General. — William  Wirt,  of  Va. 


Andrew  Jackson —Eleventh  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State. — Martin  Van  Buren,  of  N.  Y,;  Edward 
Eivingstou,  of  Ea. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — S.  D.  Ingham,  of  Pa.  ; Lewis 
McLean,  of  Del. 

Secretary  of  War. — John  H.  Eaton,  of  Tenn.  ; Lewis  Cass, 
of  Mich. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — John  Branch,  of  N.  C.  ; Levi 
Woodbury,  of  N.  H. 

Postmaster-General. — William  T.  Barry,  of  Ky. 

Attorney- General. — J.  M.  Berrien,  of  Ga.  ; R.  B.  Taney, 
of  Md. 

Andrew  Jackson — Twelfth  Cabinet. 

In  this  Cabinet  Livingston,  McLean,  Woodbury,  and 
Barry  were  continued,  and  during  the  term  Mahlon  Dick- 
erson, of  N.  J.,  was  made  Secretary  of  th_  Navy. 


Martin  Van  Buren  — Thirteenth  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State. — John  Forsythe,  of  Ga. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — Levi  Woodbury,  of  N.  H. 
Secretary  of  War . — J.  R.  Poinsett,  of  S.  C. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — Mahlon  Dickerson,  of  N.  J. 
Postmaster-General. — Amos  Kendall,  John  M.  Niles,  of 
Conn. 

Attorney- General. — B.  F.  Butler,  of  N.  Y.  ; Felix  Grundy, 
of  Tenn.  ; H.  D.  Gilpin,  of  Pa. 


W.  H.  Harrison  — Fourteenth  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State.—  Daniel  Webster,  of  Mass. 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — Thomas  Ewing,  of  O. 
Secretary  of  War. — John  Bell,  of  Tenn. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — George  Badger,  of  N.  C. 
Postmaster-General. — Francis  Granger,  of  N.  Y. 
Attorney- General. — John  J.  Crittenden. 


John  Tyler  — Fifteenth  Cabinet. 

At  first  Mr.  Tyler  continued  all  the  Cabinet  as  appointed 
by  Mr.  Harrison.  His  own  reorganization  was  as  follows: 

Secretary  of  State.—  H.  S.  Eegare,  of  S.  C.  ; A.  P.  Upshur, 
of  Va.  ; John  C.  Calhoun,  of  S.  C. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — Walter  Forward,  of  Pa.; 
George  M.  Bibb,  of  Ky. 

Secretary  of  War. — J.  C.  Spencer,  of  N.  Y.  ; William 
Wilkins,  of  Pa. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — David  Henshaw,  of  Mass.; 
Thomas  W.  Gilmer,  of  Va.  ; John  Y.  Mason,  of  Va. 
Postmaster-General. — G.  A.  Wicliffe,  of  Ky. 
Attorney-General. — John  Nelson,  of  Md. 

James  K.  Polk  — Sixteenth  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State. — James  Buchanan,  of  Pa. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury . — R.  J.  Walker,  of  Miss. 
Secretary  of  War.  — W.  E.  Marcy,  of  N.  Y. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy.—  George  Bancroft,  of  Mass.  ; John 
Y.  Mason,  of  Va. 

Postmaster-General. — Cave  Johnson,  of  Tenn. 
Attorney-General. — John  Y.  Mason,  of  Va.  ; Nathan  Clif- 
ford, of  Me. ; Isaac  Toucey,  of  Conn. 

Zachary  Taylor  — Seventeenth  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State.—  John  M.  Clayton,  of  Del. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury.—  William  M.  Meredith,  of  Pa. 
Secretary  of  War. — George  W.  Crawford,  of  Ga. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — William  B.  Preston,  of  Va. 
Secretary  of  the  Interior. — Thomas  Ewing,  of  O. 
Postmaster-General. — Jacob  Collamar,  of  Vt. 
Attorney-General. — Reverdy  Johnson,  of  Md. 


Millard  Fillmore  — Eighteenth  Cabinet. 

The  Cabinet  of  Mr.  Taylor  was  continued  by  Mr.  Fill-  i 
more  until  he  reorganized  it  as  follows: 

Secretary  of  State. — Daniel  Webster,  of  Mass.;  Edward  | 
Everett,  of  Mass. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — Thomas  Corwin,  of  O. 

Secretary  of  IVar.— Charles  M.  Conrad,  of  E a. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — William  A.  Graham,  of  N.  C.  ; 
John  P.  Kennedy,  of  Md. 

Secretary  of  the  Interior . — A.  H.  H.  Stuart,  of  Va. 

Postmaster-General . — Nathan  K.  Hall,  of  N.  Y.  ; S.  D. 
Hubbard,  of  Conn. 

Attorney-General.—  John  J . Crittenden,  of  Ky. 

Franklin  Pierce  — Nineteenth  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State. — William  E-  Marcy,  of  N.  Y. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — James  Guthrie,  of  Ky. 

Secretary  of  U'ar. — Jefferson  Davis,  of  Miss. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — J.  C.  Dobbin,  of  N.  C. 

Secretary  of  the  Interior. — Robert  McClelland,  of  Mich. 

Postmaster-General. — James  Campbell,  of  Pa. 

Attorney-General. — Caleb  Cushing,  of  Mass. 

James  Buchanan  — Twentieth  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State. — Iye wis  Cass,  of  Mich.;  J.  S.  Black, 
of  Pa. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — Howell  Cobb,  of  Ga.  ; B.  F. 
Thomas,  of  Md.  : John  A.  Dix,  of  N.  Y. 

Secretary  of  War. — J.  B.  Floyd,  of  Va.;  Joseph  Holt, 
of  Ky. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — Isaac  Toucey,  of  Conn. 

Secretary  of  the  Interior. — Jacob  Thompson,  of  Miss. 

Postmaster-General. — A.  V.  Brown,  of  Tenn. ; Joseph 
Holt,  of  Ky.  ; Horatio  King,  of  Me. 

Attorney-General.  -- J.  S.  Black,  of  Pa.;  E.  M.  Stanton,  of  O. 

Abraham  Lincoln -Twenty-first  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State. — William  H.  Seward,  of  N.  Y. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — S.  P.  Chase,  of  O.  ; W.  P. 
Fessenden,  of  Me. 

Secretary  of  War. — Simon  Cameron,  of  Pa.  ; E.  M.  Stan- 
ton, of  Pa. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — Gideon  Welles,  of  Conn. 

Secretary  of  the  Inferior. — Caleb  B.  Smith,  of  Ind.  ; John 
P.  Usher,  of  Ind. 

Postmaster-General.—  Montgomery  Blair,  of  Md.  ; William 
Dennison,  of  O. 

Attorney-General. — Edward  Bates,  of  Mo.  ; James  Speed, 
of  Ky. 

Abraham  Lincoln  — Twenty-second  Cabinet. 

This  Cabinet,  at  the  beginning  of  Mr.  Lincoln's 
term,  remained  as  above,  except  that  Hugh  McCulloch,  of 
Ind.,  became  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

Andrew  Johnson  — Twenty-third  Cabinet. 

Mr.  Lincoln's  second  Cabinet  was  continued  by  Mr.  John- 
son until  reorganized  by  the  appointment  of  Gen.  Schofield 
as  Secretary  of  War  ; James  Harlan,  of  la.,  and  after  him 
Orville  H.  Browning,  of  111.,  Secretaries  of  the  Interior; 
Alexander  W.  Randall,  Postmaster-General,  and  Henry 
Stanberry,  of  Kv.,  and  after  him  William  M.  Evarts,  of 
N.  Y.,  Attorneys-General. 

U.  S.  Grant  — Twenty-fourth  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State. — E.  B.  Washburne,  of  111.;  Hamilton 
Fish,  of  N.  Y. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — George  S.  Boutwell,  of  Mass. 

Secretary  of  IVar. — John  A.  Rawlins,  of  111.  ; W.  W. 
Belknap,  of Ta. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — A.  E.  Borie,  of  Pa.  ; George  M. 
Robeson,  of  N.  J. 

Secretary  of  the  Interior.—  ].  D.  Cox,  of  O.  ; Columbus 
Delano,  of  O. 

Postmaster-General. — J.  A.  J.  Creswell,  of  Md. 

Attorney-General. — E.  R.  Hoar,  of  Mass.  ; A.  T.  Acker- 
man, of  Ga.  ; G.  H.  Williams,  of  Ore. 

U.  S.  Grant  — Twenty-fifth  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State.—  Hamilton Fish,  of  N.  Y. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — William  A.  Richardson,  of 
Mass.  ; B.  H.  Bristow,  of  Ky. 

Secretary  of  War.—  W.  W.  Belknap,  of  la.;  Alphonso 
Taft,  of  O.  ; J.  D.  Cameron,  of  Pa. 

Secretary  of  the.  Navy .—  G . M.  Robeson,  of  N.  J. 

Secretary  of  the  Interior.—  Columbus  Delano,  of  O.  ; 
Zachariah  Chandler,  of  Mich. 

Postmastef-Generah—].  A.  T.  Creswell,  of  Md.  ; J.  W. 
Marshall,  of  Va.  ; M.  Jewell,  of  Conn.  ; J.  W.  Tyner,  of  Ind. 

Attorney-General.—  G.  H.  Williams,  of  Ore.;  Edwards 
Pierrepont,  of  N.  Y. ; Alphonso  Taft,  of  O. 


R.  B.  Haye9  — Twenty-sixth  Cabinet 

Secretary  of  State.—  William  M.  Evarts,  of  N.  Y. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — John  Sherman,  of  O. 
Secretary  of  War. — George  W.  McCrary,  of  la. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — Richard  W.  Thompson,  of  Iud. : 
Nathan  Goff,  of  W.  Va. 

Secretary  of  the  Interior. — Carl  Schurz,  of  Mo. 
Postmaster-General.—  D.  M.  Key,  of  Tenn. 
Attorney-General. — Charles  Devens,  of  Mass. 

James  A.  Garfield  — Twenty-seventh  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State. — James  G.  Blaine,  of  Me. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — William  Windom,  of  Minn. 
Secretary  of  War. — Robert  T.  Lincoln,  of  111. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — William  H.  Hunt,  of  Ea. 
Secretary  of  the  Interior. — S.  J.  Kirkwood,  of  la. 
Postmaster-General. — Thomas  E-  James,  of  N.  Y. 
Attorney-General. — Wayne  MacVeagh,  of  Pa. 

Chester  A.  Arthur  — Twenty-eighth  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State. — F.  T.  Frelinghuysen,  of  N.  J. 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — Charles  J.  Folger,  of  N.  Y. ; 
Walter  Q.  Gresham,  of  Ind.  ; Hugh  McCulloch,  of  N.  Y. 
Secretary  of  War. — Robert  T.  Eincoln,  of  111. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — William  E.  Chandler,  of  N.  H. 
Secretary  of  the  Interior. — H.  M.  Teller,  of  Colo. 
Postmaster-General .—  Timothy  O.  Howe,  of  Wis.  ; Walter 
Q.  Gresham,  of  Ind.  ; Frank  Hatton,  of  la. 
Attorney-General. — Benjamin  H.  Brewster,  of  Pa. 

Grover  Cleveland  — Twenty-ninth  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State. — Thomas  F.  Bayard,  of  Del. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — Daniel  Manning,  of  N.  Y.  ; 
Charles  S.  Fairchild,  of  N.  Y. 

Secretary  of  War. — William  C.  Endicott,  of  Mass. 
Secretary  of  the  Navy. — William  C.  Whitney,  of  N.  Y. 
Secretary  of  the  Interior. — Eucius  Q.  C.  Lamar,  of  Miss. 
Postmaster-General. — William  F.  Vilas,  of  Wis. 

Attorney- General. — Augustus  H.  Garland,  of  Ark. 
Secretary  of  Agriculture. — Norman  J.  Coleman,  of  Mo. 

Benjamin  Harrison  — Thirtieth  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State.—  James  G.  Blaine,  of  Me.  ; J.  W.  Fos- 
ter, of  Ind. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — William  Windom,  of  Minn.  ; 
Charles  Foster,  of  O. 

Secretary  of  War.—  Redfield  Proctor,  of  Vt. ; Stephen  B. 
Elkins,  of  W.  Va. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — Benjamin  F.  Tracy,  of  N.  Y. 
Secretary  of  the  Interior. — John  W.  Noble,  of  Mo. 
Postmaster-General. — John  Wanamaker,  of  Pa. 
Attorney-General. — William  H.  H.  Miller,  of  Ind. 
Secretary  of  Agriculture. — Jeremiah  Rusk,  of  Wis. 

Grover  Cleveland -Thirty-first  Cabinet. 

Secretary  of  State. — Walter  Q.  Gresham,  of  111.  ; Richard 
Olney,  of  Mass. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — John  G.  Carlisle,  of  Ky. 
Secretary  of  War.—  Daniel  S.  Earnout,  of  N.  Y. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. — Hilary  A.  Herbert,  of  Ala. 
Secretary  of  the  Interior. — Hoke  Smith,  of  Ga. 
Postmaster-General. — W.  S.  Bissell,  of  N.  Y. ; W.  E-  Wil- 
son, of  W.  Va. 

Attorney-General. — R.  Olney,  of  Mass.  ; J.  Harmon,  of  O. 
Secretary  of  Agriculture. — J.  Sterling  Morton,  of  Neb. 

William  McKinley— Thirty-second  Cabinet. 
Secretary  of  State.—  John  Sherman,  of  O. ; William  R. 
Day,  of  O.  ; John  Hay,  of  O. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — Lyman  J.  Gage,  of  111. 
Secretary  of  War. — R.  A.  Alger,  of  Mich.;  E.  Root,  of  N.Y. 
Secretary  of  the  Navy. — John  D.  Long,  of  Mass. 

Secretary  of  the  Interior. — Cornelius  N.  Bliss,  of  N.  Y.  ; 
Ethan  A.  Hitchcock,  of  Mo. 

Postmaster-General. — James  A.  Gary,  of  Md.  ; Charles 
Emory  Smith,  of  Pa. 

Attorney-General.—  Joseph  McKenna,  of  Cal.  ; John  W. 
Griggs,  of  N.  J.  ; P.  C.  Knox,  of  Pa.  «. 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. — James  Wilson,  of  la. 

Theodore  Roosevelt  — Thirty-third  Cabinet. 
Secretary  of  State. — John  Haj%  of  O.  ; E'ihu  Root,  of  N.  Y. 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury. — Leslie  M.  Shaw,  of  la. 
Secretary  of  War. — E*  Root,  of  N.  Y.  ; W.  H.  Taft,  of  O. 
Secretary  of  the  Navy. — John  D.  Long,  of  Mass.;  Paul 
Morton,  of  111.  ; Charles  J.  Bonaparte,  of  Md. 

Secretary  of  the  Interior. — Ethan  A.  Hitchcock,  of  Mo. 
Postmaster-General. — Henry  C.  Payne,  of  Wis.  ; Robert  J. 
Wynne,  of  Pa.  ; George  B.  Cortelyou,  of  N.  Y. 

Attorney-General. — Philander  C.  Knox,  of  Pa.;  William 
H.  Moody,  of  Mass. 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. — James  Wilson,  of  la. 

Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor. — George  B.  Cortelyou, 
of  N.  Y. ; Victor  H.  Metcalf,  of  Cal. 


U N I 6083 

ELECTORAL  VOTES  FOR  PRESIDENT  AND  VICE-PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1789-1888. 


6 

V 

'o-S 

a 

V 
> 

No.  of  States. 

Total  Elect.  V. 

Political  Party. 

* Presidents. 

* Vice-Presidents. 

• 

Candidates. 

Vote. 

Candidates. 

<5 

C0 

i 

1789 

TIO 

73 

George  Washington 

69 

John  Adams „ . . 

J ohn  Jay  

R.  H.  Harrison 

Tohn  Rutledge 

John  Hancock 

George  Clinton 

Samuel  Huntingdon  . . . . 

John  Milton 

m 

.,•••• 

James  Armstrong 

Beniamin  Lincoln 

Edward  Telfair 

Vacancies 

A 

1792 

l5 

135 

Federalist 

T 

132 

Federalist 

Republican 

Thomas  Jefferson 

. . 

•#••••• 

Vacancies 

. . 

2 

1796 

l6 

138 

Federalist 

John  Adams  ........... 

71 

Republican 

Thomas  Jefferson.  ...... 

/ * 

Federalist 

Thomas  Pinckney  ...... 

Republican 

Aaron  Burr  

Samuel  Adams 

< 

Oliver  Ellsworth,  , 

Georfe  Clinton  . . . . 

Tohn  Tav 

J ames  Iredell 

.. 

♦ 

Georcre  W’ashincrton  .... 

John  Henry  ......... 

Charles  C.  Pinrkney 

1800 

l6 

138 

Republican 

Thomas  Jefferson ....... 

*73 

Republican 

Aaron  Burr 

Federalist 

John  Adams 

Federalist 

Charles  C.  Pinckney 

John  Jay 

1804 

17 

176 

Republican 

Thom  as  Teffersoti 

15 

162 

T A 

Cenrge  Clinton  T . . . , 

Federalist 

Charles  C.  Pinckney. . . . 

2 

R nfns  Finer,  T . T , . 

1S08 

17 

176 

Republican 

James  Madison. 

12 

122 

Georpe  Clinton . . . * T t T . . 

Federalist 

Charles  C.  Pinckney. . . . 

5 

A*j 

Rufus  King . . 

George  Clinton  ........ 

4/ 

6 

John  Langdon 

James  Madison.. 

...... 

James  Monroe 

Vacancy 

* 

1812 

18 

218 

Republican 

Tames  Madison 

11 

128 

Elbridge  Gerry 

Federalist 

DeWitt  Clinton 

7 

89 

Jared  Ingersoll 

V acancy  

1 

* 1 

JH> 

W 


34 

6 

6 

4 

3 

2 

2 


77 

50 

4 

I 

3 


68 

59 

3° 

I5 

u 

7 

5 

3 

2 

2 

2 

g 


*73 

65 

64 

7 

162 

*4 

"3 

47 

9 

3 

3 

1 

131 

86 

I 


•Previous  to  the  election  of  1804  each  elector  voted  for  two  candidates  for  president;  the  one  receiving  the  highest  number  of 
vrotes,  if  a majority,  was  declared  elected  president;  and  the  next  highest  vice-president. 

tThree  States  out  of  thirteen  did  not  vote,  viz. ; New  York,  which  had  not  passed  an  electoral  law;  and  North  Carolina  and 
Rhode  Island,  which  had  not  adopted  the  constitution. 

t There  having  been  a tie  vote,  the  choice  devolved  upon  the  House  of  Representatives  A choice  was  made  on  the  thirty- 
sixth  ballot,  which  was  as  follows : Jefferson — Georgia,  Kentucky,  Maryland,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  North  Carolina,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Tennessee,  Vermont,  and  Virginia — 10  States;  Burr — Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  and  Rhode  Islaod- 
^■4  States;  blank— -Delaware  and  South  Carolina — 2 States 


6084 


UNI 

ELECTORAL  VOTES  FOR  PRESIDENT  AND  VICE-PRESIDENT — Continued. 


6 

0 

3 • 

c 

0 0 

S ** 

> 

No.  of  States. 

Total  Elect.  V 

Political  Party. 

Presidents. 

Vice-Presidents. 

Candidates, 

Vote. 

Candidates, 

Electoral 
Vote,  [ 

(A 

U 

a 

t n 

8 

3 

l8l6 

19 

221 

Republican ......... 

James  Monroe.  „ . 

16 

181 

D.  D.  Tompkips 

1 8*2 

Federalist 

Rufus  King 

AOo 

34 

John  E.  Howard 

0 

James  Ross. . 

c 

John  Marshall 

J 

A 

Robert  G.  Harper 

T 

2 

Vacancies  

A 

i 

1820 

24 

235 

Republican. ........ 

James  Monroe 

24 

T* 

221 

D.  D.  Tompkins 

‘r 

ti8 

Opposition 

John  Q.  Adams . . 

* ol 

J 

Richard  Stockton 

8 

Daniel  Rodney 

A 

Robert  G.  Harper 

T- 

I 

Richard  Rush 

I 

Vacancies*. .......  „ . * . . 

3 

1824 

24 

26l 

Republican 

Andrew  Tackson 

io 

0 

*QQ 

John  C.  Calhoun 

J 

i82 

Coalition 

John  O.  Adams 

8 

yy 

84. 

Nathan  Sanford. 

70 

Republican 

Wm.  H.  Crawford 

3 

41 

Nathaniel  Macon  . _ T tr , . 

J 

24 

Republican  ........ 

Henry  Clay 

3 

37 

Andrew  Jackson  . 

13 

M.  Van  Buren  ...  r 

9 

....  ...  ... 

• • 

Henry  Clay 

2 

Vacancy 

... 

• » 



I 

1828 

24 

26l 

Democratic  

Andrew  Jackson  

IC 

178 

John  C.  Calhoun  . , 

171 

National  Republican 

John  Q.  Adams 

9 

83 

Richard  Rush 

83 

William  Smith 

7 

1832 

24 

288 

Democratic 

Andrew  Tackson  ......... 

I c 

210 

M.  Van  Buren  ...... 

189 

National  Republican 

Henry  Clay 0 . 

7 

4.0 

Tohn  Sergeant , 

4Q 

John  Floyd  

I 

yry 

II 

Henry  Lee 

11 

Anti-Mason 

William  Wirt 

7 

Amos  Ellmaker  

7 

William  Wilkins 

3° 

Vacancies 

2 

2 

I836 

26 

294 

Democratic  . . .... 

Martin  Van  Buren 

1 70 

R.  M.  Johnson!  ... 

147 

Whig .... 

Wm.  H.  Harrison 

gJ 

7 

7-2 

F rancis  Granger 

77 

Whig 

Hugh  L.  White 

2 

/ j 
26 

John  Tyler 

47 

Whig 

Daniel  Webster. . , . , ... 

j 

14 

1 1 

William  Smith 

23 

Whig....  ....... 

W.  P.  Mangum  

I84O 

26 

294 

Whig 

Wm.  H.  Harrison 

IQ 

2t4. 

# 

J ohn  T yler 

234 

Democratic  

Martin  Van  Buren 

1 y 

7 

‘JT 

to 

R.  M.  Johnson 

48 

Liberty 

James  G.  Birney. 

F rancis  Lem  oyne 

% 

L.  W.  Tazewell 1 

11 

James  K.  Polk | 

1 

K844 

26 

275 

Democratic 

James  K.  Polk  . 

1 n 

170 

! 

George  M.  Dallas ! 

170 

Whig 

Henry  Clay . . 

1 1 

IO^ 

T.  Frelinrdiuysen  . . . ...., 

•°5 

Liberty  ...... 

James  G.  Birney, 

• Thomas  Morris 

I848 

290 

Whig 

Za»  hary  Taylor  .... 

I C 

l67 

Millard  Fillmore  . „ . .1 

l6^ 

o'-* 

Democratic  ........ 

Lewis  Cass 

* j 

IC 

127 

William  O.  Butler 

127 

Free  Soil 

Martin  Van  Buren 

J 

» 

Charles  F.  Adams 

* No  choice  having  been  made  by  the  Electoral  College,  the  choice  devolved  upon  the  House  of  Representatives.  A choice 
was  made  on  the  first  ballot,  which  was  as  follows:  Adams — Connecticut,  Illinois,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Maine,  Maryland, 
Massachusetts,  Missouri,  New  Hampshire,  New  York,  Ohio,  Rhode  Island,  and  Vermont — 13  States:  Jackson* -Alabama, 
Indiana,  Mississippi,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  South  Carolina,  and  Tennessee — 7 States;  Crawford — Delaware,  Georgia, 
North  Carolina,  and  Virginia — 4 States. 

t No  candidates  having  received  a majority  of  the  votes  of  the  Electoral  College,  the  Senate  elected  R.  M.  Johnson  vice 
president,  who  received  33  votes:  Francis  Granger  received  10 


U N 1 6085 

ELECTORAL  VOTES  FOR  PRESIDENT  AND  VICE-PRESIDENT — Continued. 


Year  of  Elec- 
tion. 

No.  of  States. 

Total  Elect.  V. 

Political  Party 

Presidents. 

Vice-Presidents. 

Candidates 

Vote. 

Candidates, 

Electoral 

Vote. 

t/5 

V 

a 

w 

| 

w 

1852 

31 

296 

Democratic 

Franklin  Pierce 

27 

4 

2 CA 

William  R.  King 

244 

Whig 

Winfield  Scott 

AO 

William  A.  Graham 

JT 

42 

Free  Democratic. . . . 

John  P.  Hale 

George  W.  Julian. . , . . . . 

1856 

31 

296 

Democratic 

lames  Buchanan  . T * 

IQ 

tja 

J.  C.  Breckinridge 

17^ 

Republican 

John  C.  Fremont  . .... 

*y 

1 1 

i/4 

T 1/1 

William  L.  Dayton....!.. 

1 14 

American 

Millard  Fillmore . 

1 *4 

8 

A.  J.  Donelson 

8 

i860 

33 

303 

Republican 

Abraham  Lincoln  . . 

17 

180 

72 

Hannibal  Hamlin 

180 

Democratic 

J.  C.  Brgckimidp’p 

1 1 

Joseph  Lane 

72 

Conservative  Union. 

John  Bell 

"2 

39 

12 

Edward  Everett 

20 

Ind.  Democratic. . . . 

S.  A.  Dounlas . , . . T T.  . . 

J 

2 

H.  V.  Johnson 

07 

12 

1864 

*36 

3H 

Republican  c G „ « . • • . 

Abraham  Lincoln 

22 

212 

Andrew  Johnson* 

212 

Democratic 

Georne  B.  McClellan  , , 

-2 

21 

G.  H.  Pendleton 

21 

States  not  voting'.  ... 

J 

II 

81 

2J4 

8l 

1868 

*37 

317 

Republican . 

Ulysses  S.  Grant 

26 

Schuyler  Colfax. 

214 

Democratic  ........ 

Horatio  Seymour 

8 

80 

F.  P.  Blair,  Jr 

80 

States  not  voting 

3 

23 

23 

I872 

37 

366 

Republican • . 

Ulysses  S.  Grant. ....... 

286 

Henrv  Wilson 

286 

Democrat  and  Liberal 

Horace  Greeley 

6 

B.  Gratz  Brown 

47 

George  W.  Julian. 

5 

A.  H.  Colquitt 

i 

Thomas  A.  Hendricks  . . 

AO 

John  M.  Palmer 

j 

7 

B.  Gratz  Brown 

18 

2 

T.  E.  Bramlette 

0 

7 

Charles  J.  Jenkins 

W.  S.  Groesbeck. ...... . 

j 

I 

David  Davis 

I 

Willis  B.  Machen 

1 

N.  P.  Banks 

I 

Not  counted 

E7 

14 

1876 

3? 

369 

Republican.  ........ 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes. . . . 

21 

18S 

William  A.  Wheeler 

i8t; 

Democratic  ........ 

Samuel  J.  Tilden  ..... 

17 

IQ 

184 

214 

T.  A.  Hendricks 

184 

l88o 

38 

369 

Republican. 

James  A.  Garfield 

Chester  A.  Arthur 

214 

Democratic  . 

Winfield  S.  Hancock. . . . 

IQ 

r c r 

William  H.  English 

icc 

1884 

38 

401 

Democratic  ........ 

Grover  Cleveland  . , . . 

*y 

20 

2IQ 

T.  A.  Hendricks 

j j 

219 

Republican 

James  G.  Blaine  

18 

182 

John  A.  Logan . 

182 

r888 

38 

401 

Republican. . ....... 

Benjamin  Harrison. , . T r . 

20 

227 

Levi  P.  Morton 

233 

Democratic 

Grover  Cleveland+f 

18 

l68  j 

A.  G.  Thurman 

16S 

'802 

I 

' 444 

Democratic . . 

Grover  Cleveland 

277 

Adlai  E.  Stevenson 

1 

Republican 

Benjamin  Harrison  

144 

Whitelaw  Reid ! 

f 

TAC 

j 

People 

James  B.  Weaver 

22 

James  G.  Field 

22 

*896 

1 

447  i 

Republican 

William  McKinley 

271 

Garret  A.  Hobart  

271 

Democratic.  

William  J.  Bryan 

176 

Arthur  Sewall 

I7d 

1900 

447 

Republican 

William  McKinley 

292 

Theodore  Roosevelt 

A/u 

202 

Democratic 

William  J.  Bryan 

155 

Adlai  E.  Stevenson 

155 

* Eleven  States  did  not  vote,  viz.:  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Florida,  Georgia,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  North  Carolina, 
South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Texas,  and  Virginia. 

+ Three  States  did  vote,  viz.:  Mississippi,  Texas,  and  Virginia. 

jt  A curious  reversal  of  the  vei*dicts  of  popular  opinion  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  Grov?  Cleveland  was  elected 
igain  to  the  Presidency  in  1852,  against  Harrison,  by  about  the  majority  given  against  him  by  the  latter  in  1888 


f>o8e> 


U N 1 


REQUISITES  OF  VOTERS. 

The  requisites  for  suffrage  in  each  of  the  States  of  the  Union  are  as  below.  In  the  Territories  the  matter 

under  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States. 


States. 


Alabama 

Arkansas. . . . 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut. . . 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois. . . . . . . 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana  . . . 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota. . . . 
Mississippi . . . 
Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

N.  Hampshire 

New  Jersey  . . 

New  York 

Nor.  Carolina 
Nortli  Dakota 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania. 

Rhode  Island. 

Sou.  Carolina. 


South  Dakota 
Tennessee. . . . 
Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 


Washington.. . 
West  Virginia. 
Wisconsin. . . . 


Requirement  as  to  Citizenship. 


Citizens  or  declared  intention. . 

Citizens  or  declared  intention.. 

Actual  citizens 

Citizens  or  declared  intention. . 

Actual  citizens 

Actual  county  taxpayers 

Citizens  or  declared  intention., . 

Actual  citizens 

Actual  citizens 

Citizens  or  declared  intention.. 

Actual  citizens 

Citizens  or  declared  intention.. 

Actual  citizens 

Citizens  or  deciared  intention.. 

Actual  citizens 

Actual  citizens 

Citizens 

Citizens  or  declared  intention. . 
Citizens  or  declared  intention. . 

Actual  citizens 

Citizens  or  declared  intention.. 

Citizens 

Citizens  or  declared  intention.. 
Citizens  or  declared  intention.. 
Actual  citizens. 

Actual  citizens 

Actual  citizens 

Actual  citizens. 

Citizens  or  declared  intention 

and  civilized  Indians 

Actual  citizens 

Citizens  or  declared  intention.. 

Actual  citizens 

Actual  citizens 

Actual  citizens 

Citizens  or  declared  intention.. 

Actual  citizens 

Citizens  or  declared  intention.. 

Actual  citizens 

Actual  citizens ................ 

Citizens  or  declared  intention,. 

Actual  citizens 

Citizens  or  declared  intention. . 


Residence  in 


State.  County.  Precinct 


i year 

i year 
6mos. 
i year 
x year 
i year 

i year 

1 year 
6mos. 
6mos. 
bmps. 

2 yrs.. 
i year 

3 mos. 
i year 

i year 

3 mos. 

4 mos. 
6mos. 
r year 

i year 
6 mos. 
6 mos. 
6 mos. 

i year 

i year 

i year 

i year 
i year 
6 mos. 


3 mos.. . 

6 mos.. . 

90  days. 
90  days. 
6 mos.. . 
1 month 
6 mos.. . 


6 mos. 


90  days. 
60  days. 
60  days. 


t year. . 
6 mos.. . 
3 mos... 
6 mos.. . 


10  days. 

1 month 
60  days. 

90  days. 
40  days. 
30  days. 
6 mos.. . 


5 mos.. . 
4 mos. . . 
90  days. 

6 mos.. . 
30  days. 


x year 
1 year 
1 year 


60  days. 


6 mos.  3 mos. 
1 year[6  mos., 
1 year  6 mos. 


1 year 
1 year 


1 year  90  days. 
1 year  60  days. 
1 year  


1 month 

1 month 

30  days. 
10  days. 
6 mos  .*. 


30  days. 
30  days. 


30  days. 
60  days. 
30  days. 
3 mos. . . 
1 day. . . 

6 mos. . . 


10  days 
10  days. 


60  days. 

60  days. 
10  days. 


Town  6 
mos . . 


30  days. 


90  days 
20  days. 


2 mos.. . 

Town  6 
mos... 


30  days, 


6 mos.. 


Town  3 
mos... 


30  days. 


Registration. 


Required  by  law 

Prohib.  as  a bar  to  suf- 
frage   

Required  by  law 

Required  by  constitution 

Required  by  law 

No  registration  required. 
Required  by  constitution 

Leg.  may  regulate;  no 

act 

Required  by  law 

No  law  for  registration. . 
Required  by  law ........ 

Required  in  cities  only. . 
No  registration  required. 

Required  by  law 

Required  by  law 

Required  by  constitution 

Required  by  law.. 


Required  by  law ........ 

Required  by  law 

Required  by  constitution 
Required  by  consti. , cities 

only 

No  registration  required 

Required  by  law 

Required  by  constitution 


Required  by  law . .... 
Required  in  cities  of 

10,000 .... 

Required  in  cities  of  7,000 


Required  by  constitution 

No  registration  required 
No  registration  required 
No  registration  required 

Required  by  constitution 


Required  by  law. ....... 

Required  by  constitution 


No  registration  required 
No  registration  required 
Prohib.  by  constitution. . 

Required  by  law 

Required  by  law 


No  registration  required 
Prohib.  by  constitution... 
Required  by  law 


Excluded  from  Voting. 


Idiots,  Indians,  convicted  of  crime, 
lunatics. 

Idiots,  Indians,  convicted  of  felony 
until  pardoned. 

Idiots,  Indians,  convicts,  Chinese. 

Persons  in  prison. 

Those  unable  to  read  and  convicts. 

Idiots,  insane,  paupers,  criminals. 

Idiots,  insane,  criminals,  bettors 
on  elections,  duelists. 

Idiots,  insane,  criminals,  non-tax- 
payers. 

Convicts  unless  pardoned. 

Fraudulent  voters  and  bribers. 

Idiots,  insane,  criminals. 

Idiots,  insane,  convicts,  rebels. 

Bribery,  robbery,  forgery,  etc. 

Idiots,  insane,  criminals. 

Paupers  and  Indians  not  taxed. 

Lunatics,  convicts  guilty  of  brib- 
ery- 

Paupers,  persons  under  guard- 
ians, non -taxpayers,  unable  to 
read  and  write. 

Duelists. 

Idiots,  insane,  convicts. 

Idiots,  insane,  criminals. 

Inmates  of  asylums,  poor-houses, 
and  prisons;  U.  S.  army. 

Idiots,  convicts,  insane. 

Convicts,  idiots,  U.  S.  army. 

Idiots,  insane,  convicts. 

Paupers. 

Paupers,  idiots,  insane,  convicts. 

Election  bettors  or  bribers,  con* 
victs. 

Convicts. 

Idiots,  insane,  convicts. 

Idiots,  insane. 

Idiots,  insane,  convicts,  U.  S. 
army,  Chinese 

Non-taxpayers  and  political  brib- 


Paupers,  idiots,  insane,  convicts. 

Insane ; inmates  of  asylums,  alms- 
houses, and  prisons;  U.  S. 
army,  duelists. 

Idiots,  convicts,  insane. 

Non-payers  of  poll-tax. 

Lunatics,  idiots,  paupers,  con- 
victs, U.  S.  army. 

Bribers. 

Lunatics,  idiots,  convicts,  duelists, 
U.  S.  army,  non-payers  of  capi- 
tation tax. 

Idiots,  insane,  convicts. 

Lunatics,  paupers,  convicts. 

Insane,  idiots,  convicts,  bribers, 
bettors,  duelists. 


Note. — All  the  forty-four  States  limit  suffrage  to  male  citizens,  but  in  Colorado,  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  New 
York.  New  Jerse\,  Nebraska.  Minnesota,  Kentucky,  Indiana,  Michigan,  Oregon,  Wisconsin,  and  Kansas  women  may  vote  at 

-chool-distri-ct  election v ,md  in  some  of  these  States  at  municipal  ejections. 


Presidents  and  Vice-Presidents  oe  thk  United  States. 


Terms. 

Presidents. 

Vice-Presidents. 

1789-93 

1.  George  Washington, 
Virginia. 

1.  John  Adams,  Mass. 

1793-97 

George  Washington. 

John  Adams.  » 

1797-1801 

2.  John  Adams. 

2.  Thomas  Jefferson,  Va. 

3.  Aaron  Burr,  N.  Y. 

1801-05 

3.  Thomas  Jefferson,  Va. 

1805-09 

Thomas  Jefferson. 

4.  George  Clinton,  N.  Y. 

1809-13 

4.  James  Madison. 

George  Clinton  (died 
1812). 

18x3-17 

James  Madison. 

5.  Elbridge  Gerry,  Mass, 
(died.  1 8 14). 

1817-21 

5.  James  Monroe,  Va. 

6.  Daniel  D.  Tompkins, 
New  York. 

1821-25 

James  Monroe. 

Daniel  D.  Tompkins. 

1825-29 

6.  Tohn  Quincv  Adams, 

7.  Jno.  Caldwell  Calhoun 

Mass. 

South  Carolina. 

1829-33 

7.  Andrew  Jackson, Tenn. 

John  C.  Calhoun  (res. 
1832). 

1833-37 

Andrew  Jackson. 

8.  Martin  Van  Buren, 

New  York. 

1837-41 

8.  Martin  Van  Buren, 

9.  Ricnard  Mentor  John- 

New York. 

son,  Ky. 

1841-45 

9.  William  Henry  Harri- 
son, CL  (died  1841). 
10.  John  Tyler. 

10  John  Tyler,  Va. 

1845-49 

11.  James  Knox  Polk, 

11.  George  Mifflin  Dallas, 

Tenn. 

Pennsylvania. 

1849-53 

12.  Zachary  Taylor,  La. 

(died  1850). 

13.  Millard  Fillmore. 

12.  Millard  Fillmore, N.Y. 

1853-57 

14.  Franklin  Pierce,  N.H. 

13.  William  Rufus  King, 
Ala.  (died  1853). 

1857-61 

15.  James  Buchanan,  Pa. 

14.  John  Cabell  Breck- 

* 

enridge,  Ky. 

1861-65 

16.  Abraham  Lincoln,  111. 

15.  Hannibal  Hamlin,  Me. 

1865-69 

Abraham  Lincoln. 

17.  Andrew  Johnson. 

16.  Andrew  Johnson, 

Tennessee. 

1869-73 

18.  Ulysses  Simpson 

. Grant,  111. 

17.  Schuyler  Colfax,  Ind. 

1873-77 

Ulysses  S.  Grant. 

18.  Henry  Wilson,  Mass. 

1877-81 

19.  Rutherford  Birchard 

19.  William  Almon  Wheel- 

Hayes, Ohio. 

er,  N.  Y. 

1881-85 

20.  James  Abram  Garfield 

20.  Chester  Alan  Arthur, 

Ohio  (died  1881). 

21.  Chester  Alan  Arthur. 

New  York. 

1885-89 

22.  Grover  Cleveland, 

21.  Thomas  Andrew  Hen- 

New York. 

dricks,  Ind.  (d.i885). 

1889- 

23.  Benjamin  Harrison, 

Indiana. 

22.  Levi  P Morton,  N.  Y, 

1899-  124.  Grover  Cleveland. 

23.  Adlai  Stevenson. 

•896-00 

25.  William  McKinley. 

26.  William  McKinley. 

24.  Garret  A.  Hobart. 

1900- 

25.  Theodore  Roosevelt. 

The  following  table  shows  the  order  in  which  the  differ- 
ent States  became  members  of  the  Federal  Union: 


1.  Delaware  ratified  the  Constitution Dec,  7,  1787 

2.  Pennsylvania  ratified  the  Constitution Dec.  12,  1787 

3.  New  Jersey  ratified  the  Constitution.... Dec.  18,  1787 

*•  Georgia  ratified  the  Constitution Tan.  2,  1788 

5.  Connecticut  ratified  the  Constitution Jan.  9,  1788 

6.  Massachusetts  ratified  the  Constitution Feb.  6,  1788 

7.  Maryland  ratified  the  Constitution Apr.  28,  1788 

8.  South  Carolina  ratified  the  Constitution May  23,  1788 

o.  New  Hampshire  ratified  the  Constitution June  21,  1788 

10.  Virginia  rati  ed  the  Constitution June  25,  1788 

11.  New  York  ratified  the  Constitution July  26,  1788 

12.  North  Carolina  ratified  the  Constitution Nov.  21,  1789 

13.  Rhode  Island  ratified  the  Constitution May  29,  1790 

14.  Vermont  admitted  to  the  Union Mar.  4,  1791 

15.  Kentucky  admitted  to  the  Union June  1,  1792 

16.  Tennessee  admitted  to  the  Union June  1,  1796 

17.  Ohio  admitted  to  the  Union  Nov.  29,  1802 

18.  Louisiana  admitted  to  the  Union Apr.  30,  1812 

19.  Indiana  admitted  to  the  Union Dec.  11,  1816 

20.  Mississippi  admitted  to  the  Union Dec.  10,  1817 

21.  Illinois  admitted  to  the  Union Dec.  3,  1818 

22.  Alabama  admitted  to  the  Union Dec.  14,  1819 

23.  Maine  admitted  to  the  Union Mar.  15,  1820 

24.  Missouri  admitted  to  the  Union Aug.  10,  1821 

25.  Arkansas  admitted  to  the  Union June  15,  1836 

26  Michigan  admitted  to  the  Union Jan.  26,  1837 

27.  Florida  admitted  to  the  Union Mar.  3,  1845 

28.  Texas  admitted  to  the  Union Dec.  29,  1845 

29-  Iowa  admitted  to  the  Union Dec.  28,  1846 

Wisconsin  admitted  to  the  Union,  - May  29,  1848 


31.  California  admitted  to  the  Union. .Sept.  r>,  1850 


32.  Minnesota  admitted  to  the  Union May  11,  1858 

33.  Oregon  admitted  to  the  Union Feb.  14,  1859 

34.  Kansas  admitted  to  the  Union Jan.  29,  i86t 

35.  West  Virginia  admitted  to  the  Union June  19,  1863 

36.  Nevada  admitted  to  the  Union Oct.  31,  1864 

37.  Nebraska  admitted  to  the  Union Mar.  1,  1867 

38.  Colorado  admitted  to  the  Union Aug.  1,  1876 

39.  North  Dakota  admitted  the  Union Nov.  3,  1889 

40.  South  Dakota  admitted  to  the  Union Nov.  3,  1889 

41.  Montana  admitted  to  the  Union Nov.  8.  t88o 

42.  Washington  admitted  the  Union Nov.  11,  1889 

43.  Idaho  admitted  to  the  Union. July  3,  1890 

44.  Wyoming  admitted  to  the  Union July  8,  1890 

45.  Utah  admitted  to  the  Union -Jan.  4,  189C 


INCREMENT  OF  WEALTH. 

The  following  table  gives  the  estimated  increase  of 
wealth  in  the  chief  cities  of  the  United  States  in  1901, 
as  represented  by  the  assessed  valuation  of  their  taxable 
property : 


Assessed  Valuation 
of  Taxable  Property. 


Albany,  N.  Y 

Allegheny,  Pa 

Atlanta,  Ga 

Baltimore,  Md 

Boston,  Mass 

Bridgeport,  Ct 

Brooklyn  Boro.,  N.  Y, 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

Cambridge,  Mass 

Camden,  N.  J 

Charleston,  S.  C 

Chicago,  111. 

Cincinnati,  O 

Cleveland,  O 

Columbus,  O 

Dayton,  O 

Denver,  Col . , 

Des  Moines,  la 

Detroit,  Mich 

Duluth,  Minn 

Fall  River,  Mass 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich 

Hartford,  Ct 

Indianapolis,  Ind 

Jersey  City,  N.  J 

Kansas  City,  Mo 

Lawrence,  Mass 

Louisville,  Ky 

Lowell,  Mass 

Lynn,  Mass 

Memphis,  Tenn 

Milwaukee,  Wis 

Minneapolis,  Minn. . . 

Nashville,  Tenn 

Newark,  N.  J 

New  Bedford,  Mass  . . 

New  Haven,  Ct  

New  Orleans,  La 

New  York  City . . 

Omaha,  Neb 

Paterson,  N.  J 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 

Portland,  Ore 

Providence,  R.  I 

Reading,  Pa 

Richmond,  Va 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

San  Francisco,  Cal 

Savannah,  Ga 

Scranton,  Pa 

Seattle,  Wash 

Somerville,  Mass 

Springfield,  Mass 

St.  Joseph,  Mo 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

St.  Paul,  Minn  

Syracuse,  N.  Y 

Toledo,  6 

Trenton,  N.  J 

Troy,  N.  Y 

Washington,  D.  C 

Wilmington,  Del 
Worcester,  Mass. 


$ 69,007,884 

78,531,250 
53U77UI7 

430,779,622 

1,152,309,299 

61.638.185 
748,203,743 
242,349,138 

94,465,930 

28,654,210 

17,509,901 

345,196,419 

216.000. 000 

200.000. 000 
66,847,590 

42.565.200 

62.202.405 
13,871,430 

247,248,500 

24,600,333 

74.554.380 
59,956,729 
69,761,120 

126,740,040 

95.500.000 
79,776,841 
39,841,697 

125.000. 000 
7b496,735 
52,168,015 
42,824,724 

158,174,873 

101,513,531 

38,785,840 

157,320,684 

62,896,040 

114,499,483 

141,349,610 

3,787,970,873 

36.374.186 
48,678,855 

909,103,285 

321,696,550 

44.000. 000 
192,801,860 

43,493,592 

66,720,949 

127,935,545 

415.000. 000 

38.361.000 
22,817,329 
43,080.924 

53.799.200 
74,338,927 

23.588.380 
394,722,704 

98.000. 000 
91,042,166 

51.780.406 
32,221,462 

59.000. 000 
198,488,413 

40.000. 000 
112,043,973 


6o8b 


U N I 


METEOROLOGICAL, 


III  a country  so  vast,  and  of  such  varied  conformation  as  tlie  United  States,  there  must  of  necessity  be  a 
almost  infinite  variety  of  climate.  We  give  here  the  reports  of  the  signal  service  for  the  entire  country,  ex- 
tending over  the  period  indicated  below* 

The  following  exhibit  shows  the  meteorological  and  climatological  conditions  of  the  United  States  at  selected 
stations  for  the  past  fourteen  years. 


States 

Stations. 

Temperature. 

Rain- 

fall. 

Av.  Cloudiness. 

Scale  of  0 to  10. 

Average  of 
Twelve  Years. 

Maximum 

Year, 

1 

s 

3 

s 

*5 

Year. 

1 

Average. 

No.  of  Years. 

Alabama — 

Mobile 

67.4 

101 .0 

1883 

i3-9 

1884 

65.06 

15 

4-7 

Mongomery 

65.6 

106.9 

1881 

S.e 

1880-4 

53-87 

14 

4-9 

Alaska — 

Sitka 

43-9 

79.0 

1881 

4.0 

1882 

hi  .72 

5 

6.9 

Unalaska 

40.6 

78.0 

1881-2 

5° 

1883 

109.34 

4 

8.0 

Arizona — 

Fort  Grant 

59-3 

103.0 

1879 

10. 0 

1883 

16  14 

8 

3-i 

Prescott 

5i-9 

103.0 

1878 

-18.0 

1879 

15.72 

10 

2.4 

Yuma 

72.0 

118.0 

1878 

22.5 

1883 

2.82 

xo 

1.6 

Arkansas — 

Little  Rock 

62.3 

102.0 

1881 

5-5 

1884 

55  02 

7 

4-5 

California — 

San  Francisco  . . 

55-6 

95-2 

1883 

34-o 

1879 

2382 

15 

4.1 

San  Diego 

61.3 

101.0 

1883 

32.0 

’79-’8o 

10.83 

15 

4-3 

Colorado — 

Denver 

49.2 

105.0 

1878 

-29.0 

1875 

15.06 

15 

3-8 

Las  Animas  .... 

49-2 

104'.  0 

1883-4 

-22.7 

1884 

13.46 

4 

4-1 

Connecticut — 

New  London. . . . 

49.9 

93 .° 

1876-8 

-10.0 

1882 

49-38 

16 

4.8 

Delaware — 

Del.  Breakwater. 

KA  .O 

00  0 

1881 

1 .0 

1880 

5-x 

Dist.  Columbia — 

y3 -u 

Washington  .... 

5S-i 

104.3 

00 

00 

-14. 0 

1881 

44-39 

16 

5-2 

Florida — 

Jacksonville  .... 

70.2 

104.0 

1879 

19.0 

1880 

57.06 

15 

4-3 

Key  West 

78.2 

97.0 

1888 

44.0 

1876 

39-n 

16 

4.2 

Georgia — 

Atlanta  . . 

61.7 

97-5 

1881 

-i-3 

1884 

55-66 

8 

5-i 

Savannah 

67  9 

105.0 

1879 

15-0 

1880 

53-4° 

16 

4-7 

Idaho — 

Boise  City . . . . . 

49.4 

106.0 

1877 

-27.0 

1883 

14.04 

8 

4.6 

Illinois — 

Cairo 

58.5 

103.0 

1881 

-16.0 

1884 

45-17 

15 

5-i 

Chicago 

48.8 

99.0 

1874 

-23  0 

1872 

37-io 

15 

5-i 

Springfield  * 

53-° 

101.5 

1879 

-22.3 

1884 

43-99 

7 

4.9 

Indiana — 

Indianapolis 

53-3 

101.0 

1881 

-25.0 

1884 

46.03 

15 

5-3 

Indian  Territory — 

Fort  Gibson  • • • . 

CO . A 

1879 

Fort  Sill  ... 

Ov  * 

60.2. 

109  0 
107.0 

1884 

-9.0 

1879 

31.62 

8 

4.0 

Iowa— 

Des  Moines 

48-5 

103.0 

1881 

"3° -4 

1884 

39-91 

8 

5-2 

Kansas — 

Leavenworth 

53-? 

107 .0 

1874 

-29.0 

1873 

38.16 

i5 

4-7 

Dodge  City. . . . . 

52.2 

108 .0 

1876 

-20.0 

1883 

21 . l8 

12 

3-9 

Kentucky — 

Louisville 

57-4 

104.6 

1881 

-i9-5 

1884 

48.34 

14 

5-2 

Louisiana — 

( 1870 

New  Orleans. . . . 

70.2 

97.0 

1881 

20.0 

1 1879 

63-75 

16 

4.9 

( 1880 

Shreveport 

65.8 

X07.0 

1875 

6.0 

1879 

53-75 

15 

4-7 

Maine — 

Eastport 

41.6 

88.0 

1880 

-21.0 

1884 

50.73 

12 

5-7 

Portland 

47.8 

97.0 

1876 

-17.0 

1872 

40.54 

15 

5-o 

Maryland — 

* 

Baltimore 

56.1 

IOX  .0 

1881 

-6.0 

1881 

43-11 

16 

5-o 

Massachusetts — 

Boston 

48.4 

101.5 

1881 

-13.0 

1882 

47.69 

16 

5-i 

Michigan — 

Alpena  

41.2 

97.0 

1874-6 

-27.0 

1881-2 

37-9° 

14 

5-7 

Detroit 

49-7 

100.0 

1 1878 

-24.0 

1872 

33-85 

16 

5-5 

Marquette 

4° -5 

100.0 

• 1878 

-27.0 

1875 

33  06 

14 

5-7 

Minnesota — 

St.  Paul 

43-9 

100.0 

1 1883 

-39-o 

1879 

28.82 

15 

5-o 

St.  Vincent.. ... . 

33'2 

93 

1 1883 

-47  8 

1884 

18.22 

6 

> 4.6 

Mississippi— 

Vicksburg;  „ . . , . . 

66  2 

lot  .0 

1 1881 

10. 0 

1875 

60,54 

15 

4-6 

Temperature. 

Rain- 

6 

fall. 

• 2 

S 0 

States 

O CTj 

- 

£ 

v ^ 
.s  0 

and  Stations. 

v 0 

2 « 

S 

3 

B 

S 

3 

s 

V 
b 0 

2 

ctf  I 

t 

0 

v 
O "cS 

Ow 

<% 

cS 

CS 

<u 

;s 

rt 

O 

V 

> 

6 

> 

H 

s 

> 

i 

>* 

< 

£ 

< 

Missouri — 

St.  Louis 

Montana — 

55-i 

X06.0 

1881 

21.5 

1884 

38.76 

16 

4.9 

Helena 

42 . 6 

98.0 

1880 

—40  0 

1880 

1885 

14.61 

8.95 

K 

Poplar  River  . . . 
Nebraska — 

36*3 

-63‘  1 

O 

4 

4-5 

4-6 

North  Platte.... 

47-4 

107.0 

1877 

-29.0 

1883 

' 19.03 

12 

4.4 

Omaha 

AO . C 

105 .0 

1874 

— 29  O 

1884 

35- 60 

16 

Nevada — 

32. 

4.0 

Winnemucca.. .. 
New  Hampshire — 

48.0 

104.0 

1877 

-23.0 

1883 

9-74 

6 

3-5 

Mt.  Washington. 
New  Jersey — 

26.5 

74-0 

1881 

-49-0 

1872 

83-53 

15 

6.0 

Atlantic  City 

New  York— 

52.5 

99.0 

1880 

-7.0 

1880 

42.98 

13 

5-2 

Albany 

96.0 

1881 

18 .0 

1875-8 

37 . C2 

13 

5-6 

Rochester  ...... 

5Q  ^ 

AH  C 

-12 .0 

O / *0^ 

36.21 

Ao 
t e 

98 .0 

1881 

1873-5 

6.0 

New  Mexico — 

47  * 0 

fa 

Fort  S tan  ton .... 

-18.2 

CO 

00  00 

00 

H O'  „ 
0. 

18.O4 

2 

Santa  Fe 

North  Carolina— 

46.8 

95-5 

1878 

-13.0 

I4.I4 

12 

3-7 

Charlotte 

60.6 

64.1 

101 .0 

1879 

1879 

—5  0 

1880 

cc . oc 

8 

16 

5-2 

4.9 

Wilmington  .... 
North  Dakota — 

103.0 

9.0 

1884 

00  • yo 

57-87 

Rismarck 

on  n 

105.0 

1876 

““/lO  0 

1884 

’79-’S3 

20.10 

12 

4.8 

Fort  Buford.... 
Ohio — 

Cincinnati  ...... 

38.1 

56-5 

107.0 

103.  c 

1882-3 

1881 

-46.0 

-10. 0 

14.20 

42.36 

8 

16 

4.8 

r *5 

187c 

A0  • 0 

0 * 3 

Cleveland  

49.0 

98.7 

1881 

— 17  O 

1873 

37-48 

16 

5-8 

x / .w 

Oregon — 

Portland - - - 

GQ.O 

1876 

3*0 

1875-9 

CT  AO 

t e 

6.0 

51  -4 

0A  * 4y 

A0 

Roseburg 

Pennsylvania— - 

5i-5 

97.2 

1884 

3-3 

1884 

35-05 

8 

5-* 

Philadelphia  .... 

54-i 

101.5 

1881 

-5° 

’75-’8o 

40.43 

15 

5-o 

Pittshiirp-  ... 

53-i 

102.7 

1881 

-12.0 

1875 

36.84 

5-8 

Rhode  Island— 

Narragansett  Pr. 

91 .0 

86.5 

1884 

-9.0 

1883-4 

1882 

Block  Island 

South  Carolina — 

49-6 

1881 

-4.0 

52.30 

6 

4-7 

Charleston 

66. 9 

104.0 

1879 

13.0 

1880-4 

58.92 

16 

A . C 

South  Dakota — 

4 * 0 

Deadwood 

AT  . O 

102.0 

1881 

-32.0 

1883 

1879 

26 . 30 

A . 3 

Y ankton  ....  ... 

Of*.  . 4 

45-6 

103.0 

’73-’  83 

D • 

— 7 A . O 

j?! 

28.43 

A C 

Tennessee — 

4 * 0 

Knoxville 

58.2 

100.0 

’79-’ 8 1 

-16.0 

1884 

54-39 

16 

5-o 

Memphis 

Texas — 

61.7 

102.0 

1881 

-2.0 

1884 

54-96 

15 

4.8 

Fort  Davis 

59-2 

III.O 

1881 

1 .0 

3 ,81 

18.39 

7 

3- 1 

Fort  F.lliot 

54-6 
7°  *5 

102.0 

1881 

—12  .O 

1883 

1880 

26 . 15 

6 

! 3-4 
4.6 

Galveston 

98-5 

1874 

18.0 

52.22 

i5 

Brownsville  .... 
Utah- 

72.6 

102.0 

1878 

18.0 

i88o~x 

35-36 

11 

4 9 

Salt  Lake  City.. 
Frisco  . . ........ 

50.3 

IOX  .0 

1875 

-27.O 

1883 

17-36 

12 

4-3 

Virginia — 

Lynchburg  .... 
Norfolk 

57-o 

60.1 

101 .8 
102  . C 

1881 

1876 

Os  Jt 

b b 

1880 

1880 

43-44 

Cl  . 27 

15 

16 

4.6 

A .0 

Vermont — 

4 *y 

Rnrlinsyton  . . . . . . 

/ICO 

07.0 

1876 

-24.0 

1882 

Washington — 

40 

7/ 

Olympia 

48.9 

95  0 

1878 

2.0 

1884 

53-77 

Q 

6.4 

7 

Spokane  Falls 
West  Virginia — 

46.2 

101.5 

1882 

-30.5 

1888 

19.16 

5 

4-7 

Morgantown  . . . . 

C3.  I 

97.0 

1874 

-10.0 

1875 

Wisconsin — 

Milwaukee. . . . . . 

45.5 

98.0 

, 100. 5 

1874 

J 1881 

-25.0 

-38.0 

1875 

1875 

33-54 

ji  .40 

,|  16 

5-} 

S-S 

Wyoming — - 
Cheyenne  . - 

43-s 

■ *5 

INDEX  TO  UNITED  STATES  ARTICLE. 


Abolitionists,  6015. 

Adams,  John,  President,  6010. 
Adams,  J.  Q.,  President,  6013. 
Adams,  Samuel,  6000. 
Adirondacks,  6042. 

Admission  of  States,  6087. 
Agricultural  Department,  6029. 
Agriculture,  statistics,  6070. 
Alabama  Claims,  6023. 

Alabama , cruiser,  6021. 

Alaska,  purchased,  6023. 

America,  discovery  of,  5987. 
Animals,  domestic,  6074. 
Antietam,  battle,  6020. 
Anti-Slavery  Agitation,  6015. 
Appalachian  System,  6042. 
Appomattox,  6022. 

Area  of  United  States,  5987. 

Army  of  United  States,  6073. 
Arnold,  Benedict,  treason,  6006. 
Arthur,  C.  A.  President,  6024. 
Attorney-General,  6026. 

Bacon,  Nathaniel,  5991. 

Bad  Lands,  6045. 

Baltimore,  Lord,  5994* 

Barnes,  National,  6063. 

Bank,  United  States,  6013. 
Baptists,  statistics,  6082. 

Barbary  Pirates,  war,  6010. 
Berkeley,  Sir  William,  5991. 

Blue  Ridge,  6042. 

Boston  Massacre,  6001. 
Brandywine,  battle,  6005. 

Brown,  John,  6017. 

Buchanan,  James,  President,  6016. 
Bull  Run,  battle,  6017. 

Bunker  Hill,  6002. 

Burgoyne,  surrender,  6005. 

Burr,  Aaron,  conspiracy,  6010. 

Cabot,  John,  5988. 

California,  annexed,  6015. 
Canada,  conquest,  5999. 
Candidates,  Presidential,  6081. 
Carolinas,  settled,  5995. 

Carver,  John,  5991. 

Catholic  Church,  6082. 

Catskill  Mountains,  6042. 


Cattle,  statistics,  6075, 

Census,  6058. 

Champlain,  lake,  6048. 
Chancellorsville,  battle,  6020. 
Charleston,  siege,  6021. 
Chattanooga,  battle,  6021. 
Chickamauga,  battle,  6021. 

Civil  Service,  6080. 

Civil  War,  begins,  6017. 

Clay,  Henry,  6013. 

Cleveland,  Grover,  President,  6024. 
Climate,  6049,  6088. 

Coal,  60156. 

Coast  Line,  6041. 

Coasting  Trade,  6067. 

College,  statistics,  6039. 
Colonization,  early,  5988. 

Columbus,  Christopher,  5988. 
Commerce  and  Labor  Department, 
6030. 

Concord,  battle,  6002. 

Confederate  States,  6017. 
Confederation,  first,  6007. 

Congress,  Continental,  6001. 
Connecticut,  founded,  5993. 
Constitution  of  U.  S.,  6007,  6031. 
Cordilleran  System,  6043. 
Cornwallis,  Lord,  surrender,  6007. 
Crops,  statistics,  6070. 

Crown,  conflict  with,  5996. 

Declaration  of  Independence,  6003. 
Delaware,  founded,  5995- 
De  La  Warr,  Lord,  5990. 
Department  of  Justice,  6026. 
Douglas-Lincoln  Debate,  6017. 
Drainage,  areas,  6047. 

Dred  Scott  Decision,  6016. 

Dutch  Colonies,  5994. 

Education,  6081. 

Elections,  6059. 

Elective  Franchise,  6086. 

Electoral  Commission  of  1876, 
6023. 

Electoral  Vote,  6083. 

Emancipation  Proclamation,  6020. 
English  Colonies,  early,  5989. 

Erie  Canal,  6014. 


Expenditures,  National,  6060,  6078. 
Exports,  6037. 

Farragut,  6019,  6022. 

Fillmore,  Millard,  President,  6016. 
Finances,  6060. 

Fisheries,  6031. 

Florida,  conquest,  6012. 

Forests,  6051. 

France,  alliance  with,  6005. 

France,  wars  with,  5997. 
Fredericksburg,  battle,  6020. 

Free  Soil  Campaign,  6015. 

Freight,  rates,  6077. 

Fremont,  John  C,  6016. 

French  and  Indian  War,  5998. 
Frontenac,  5998. 

Garfield,  J.  A.,  President,  6023. 
Genet,  French  envoy,  6008. 
Geography  of  U.  S.,  6041,  6049. 
Geology  of  U.  S.,  6055. 

Georgia,  founded,  5996. 

Gettysburg,  battle,  6020. 

Gold  and  Silver,  ratio  between, 
6037. 

Gold  discovered  in  California,  6015. 
Government  of  U.  S.,  6024. 
Governors  of  States,  6059. 

Grain,  statistics,  6077. 

Grant,  U.  S.,  at  Donelson,  6018 ; 
at  Vicksburg,  6020;  Commander 
of  all  the  armies,  6021  ; Presi- 
dent, 6023. 

Great  Basin,  6049. 

Greeley,  Horace,  6023. 

Greene,  Nathanael,  southern  cam- 
paign, 6006. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  6008. 
Harrison,  Benjamin,  President,  6024. 
Harrison,  W.  H.,  President,  6014. 
Hartford  Constitution,  5994. 
Hartford  Convention,  6012. 

Harvard  College,  founded,  5993. 
Hayes,  R.  B.,  President,  6023. 
Henry,  Patrick,  “Treason”  speech, 
6001. 

Hessians,  6004. 


INDEX. — Continued. 


Immigration,  6078. 

Impeachment  of  Andrew  Johnson, 
6022. 

Imports,  6037. 

Independence,  Declaration  of,  6003. 
Independence,  rise  of,  5996. 

Indian  Wars,  5996. 

Interior  Department,  6028. 

Internal  Revenue,  6067. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  President,  6013. 
Jamestown,  settlement,  5989. 
Jefferson,  Thomas,  President,  6010. 
Johnson,  Andrew,  President,  6022. 

Kansas,  war  in,  6016. 

King  George’s  War,  5998. 

King  William’s  War,  5997. 

Know  Nothing  Party,  6016. 

Lafayette,  6005. 

Lake  JChamplain,  battle,  6004. 

Lake  Erie,  battle,  6004. 

Lee,  Robert  E.,  6019;  Surrender, 
6022. 

Lexington,  battle,  6002. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  President,  6017 ; 

assassination,  6022. 

London  Company,  5989. 

Long  Island,  battle,  6004. 

Louisiana  Purchase,  6010. 

Madison,  James,  President,  6011. 
Maine,  settled,  5663. 

Manufactures,  statistics,  6058. 
Maryland,  founded,  5994. 
Massachusetts,  founded,  5991. 
Mayflower,  voyage,  5991. 

McClellan,  General,  6018. 

McKinley  Tariff,  6024. 

Medical  schools,  6039. 

Meteorology,  6088. 

Mexican  War,  6014. 

Mineralogy,  6054. 

Mining  industries,  6039. 

Minute  men,  6002. 

Mississippi  Valley,  6042. 

Missouri  Compromise,  6013. 

Mobile  Bay,  battle,  6022. 

Monitor  and  Merrimac , 6019. 
Monmouth,  battle,  6005. 

Monroe  Doctrine,  6013. 

Monroe,  James,  President,  6012. 
Mormon  troubles,  6015. 

Nashville,  battle,  6021. 

National  Debt,  6064. 

Natural  gas,  6056. 

Navy,  6078. 

Navy  Department,  6027. 
Newfoundland,  5988. 


New  Hampshire,  founded,  5993. 
New  Jersey,  founded,  5994. 

New  Orleans,  battle,  6012. 

“ “ captured,  6019. 

New  York,  founded,  5964. 

North  Carolina,  founded,  5996. 
North  West  Territory,  6009. 
Nullification,  6014. 

Ordinance  of  1787,  6009. 

Oregon,  settled,  6015. 

Ostend  Manifesto,  6016. 

Pacific  Coast  Mountains,  6043. 

Parks  in  U.  S.,  6043. 

Patents,  6039. 

Peace  of  Ghent,  6012. 

Peace  Treaty  of  1783,  6007. 
Pennsylvania,  founded,  5995- 
Penn,  William,  5995. 

Pensions,  6039,  6079. 

Pequot  War,  5996. 

Periodicals,  6081. 

Physical  Geography,  6041. 

Pierce,  Franklin,  President,  6016. 
Pilgrims,  5991. 

Plymouth  Colony,  5991. 

Plymouth  Company,  5989. 
Pocahontas,  5989. 

Polk,  James  K.,  President,  6014. 
Pontiac’s  Conspiracy,.  6000. 
Population,  6058. 

Populist  Party,  6024. 

Post  Office  Department,  6026. 
Precious  metals,  6039. 

Presbyterians,  6082. 

Presidents,  list,  6081,  6083. 

Public  lands,  6036^. 

Puritans,  5991. 

Quaker  Colonists,  5994. 

Quebec,  captured,  5999- 
Queen  Anne’s  War,  5998. 

Railroads,  6039. 

Rainfall,  6088. 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  5989. 
Reconstruction  after  Civil  War, 
6022. 

Religious  Denominations,  6082. 
Representatives  in  Congress,  6059. 
Republican  Party,  organized,  6016. 
Revolutionary  War,  6002. 

Rhode  Island,  founded,  5993. 

Rocky  Mountains,  6043. 

Roman  Catholic  Colonists,  5994- 

Saint  Augustine,  5988. 

Saratoga,  battle,  6005. 

Schools,  6081. 

Secession  of  Southern  States,  6017. 
Sherman,  W.  T.,  march  to  sea,  6021. 


Shiloh,  battle,  6018. 

Sierra  Nevada,  6046. 

Silver,  6061. 

Slavery  Question,  rise,  6013. 

Smith,  John,  5989. 

“ Solid  South,”  6022. 

South  Carolina,  founded,  5996. 
Spanish  settlements,  5988. 

Squatter  Sovereignty,  6016. 

Stamp  Act,  6000. 

State  Department,  6025. 

Stony  Point,  battle,  6006. 

Storms,  6051. 

Stuyvesant,  Peter,  5994. 

Suffrage,  requisites,  6086. 

Sumner,  Charles,  6016, 

Sumter,  Fort,  fired  on,  6017. 
Supreme  Court.  6034. 

Swedish  Colonies,  5994. 

Taxation  without  Representation 
6000. 

Taylor,  Zachary,  President,  6016. 

“ Tea  Party,”  6001. 

Telegraph  lines,  6077. 

Telephone,  statistics,  6038. 
Temperature,  6088. 

Texas,  annexation,  6014. 
Theological  schools,  6039. 
Ticonderoga,  6002. 

Tobacco,  6067. 

Tornadoes,  6051. 

Trade,  statistics,  6037, 

Treasury  Department,  6025. 

Trent,  affair,  6018. 

Trenton,  battle,  6005. 

Tyler,  John,  President,  6014. 

United  States,  defined,  5987. 

Utah,  6015. 

Valley  Forge,  6005. 

Van  Buren,  President,  6014. 
Vegetation,  6051. 

Vice-Presidents,  6083. 

Vicksburg,  captured,  6020. 

Virginia,  Bill  of  Rights,  6003. 

“ settled,  5989. 

War  Department,  6026. 

War  of  1812,  6011. 

Washington,  George,  5998;  Com- 
mander-in-Chief,  6003;  Presi- 
dent, 6008. 

Wayne,  Anthony,  6006. 

Wealth,  increase,  6087. 

Wilderness,  battles,  6021. 

Wilmot  Proviso,  6015. 

Witchcraft,  persecutions,  5993- 
Wyoming,  massacre,  6005. 

Zinc,  6055. 


U N k 


(JNl  \fERSALIST  CHURCH,  a religious  body  m 
ihe  United  States  of  America,  especially  in  the  New 
England  States,  which  has  for  its  distinguishing  tenet 
the  doctrine  of  the  final  salvation  of  all  souls  from  sin 
through  Christ.  The  pioneers  of  Universalism  in  Amer- 
ica were  Dr.  George  De  Benneville,  who  taught  from 
1741  principally  in  Pennsylvania;  Dr.  Charles  Chauncy, 
of  the  First  Church,  Boston  (notably  in  The  Salvation 
of  All  Men,  published  in  1784);  Dr.  Joseph  Hunting- 
ton,  of  Coventry,  Conn,  (whose  Calvinism  Improved 
was  published  after  his  death  in  1796);  John  Murray, 
Elhanan  Winchester,  Caleb  Rich,  and,  very  specially, 
Ilosea  Ballou.  Murray  is,  however,  regarded  as  “the 
father  of  Universalism  in  America.”  In  1750  James 
Relly  had  avowed  himself  a Universalist,  basing  his 
belief  on  a theory  quite  peculiar;  Murray,  who  had 
preached  as  a Methodist  in  England  and  Ireland,  was 
Relly’s  most  distinguished  convert.  In  1770  he  came 
to  America,  and,  under  circumstances  so  strange  that 
most  U niversalists  regard  them  as  providential,  over- 
coming a deep  reluctance,  he  preached  at  Good  Luck, 
New  Jersey,  and  organized  a society,  “ The  Independent 
Christian  Church,”  at  Gloucester,  Mass.  Ilosea  Ballou 
—a  convert  from  the  Calvinist  Baptists — took  up  the 
;ause  in  1790,  and  published  the  work  that  is  regarded 
oy  Universalists  as  epoch-making,  A Treatise  on 
Atonement.  The  number  of  ministers  increased  and 
societies  were  formed.  These  in  due  time  became  the 
constituents  of  larger  organizations,  till  ? “New  Eng- 
land convention”  saw  occasion,  in  1803  to  adopt  a 

* profession  of  faith,”  which  m three  short  articles 
avowed  belief  in  the  Bible  as  making  known  in  a Divine 
revelation  the  nature  of  God,  the  mission  of  Christ,  the 
final  holiness  of  all  souls,  and  the  necessity  of  good 
works.  In  1866  a general  convention,  composed  of 
delegates  from  the  State  conventions,  was  incorporated. 
It  has  jurisdiction  throughout  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  It  has  .a  “ Murray  fund”  of  about  $135,000. 
Under  the  auspices  of  the  Universalist  Church  are  the 
‘woman’s  centenary  association,”  the  “Universalist 
Historical  society,”,  several  organized  charities,  four 
colleges,  three  theological  schools,  and  five  academies — 
the  total  value  of  the  schools,  including  endowments, 
being  hardly  less  than  $3,000,000.  It  publishes  eight 
periodicals.  The  Year  Book  for  1887  gives  the  follow- 
ing summary:  1 general  convention;  22  State  conven- 
tions; 945  parishes,  38,429  families;  696  churches,  35,- 
550  members;  634  Sunday  schools,  51,871  members; 
789  church  edifices;  value  above  indebtedness,  $7,493,- 
927;  673  clergymen  in  fellowship  and  120  licensed  lay 
preachers. 

In  1901  there  were  in  the  United  States  971  Univer- 
salist parishes;  41,474  families;  735  preachers;  764 
churches,  with  48,780  members;  657  Sunday  schools, 
with  53.205  members;  and  816  church  edifices.  The 
total  value  of  church  property  at  the  close  of  the  year 
was  $8,915,796. 

UNIVERSITIES.  The  mediaeval  Latin  term  uni- 
versitas  (from  which  the  English  word  “ university”  is 
derived)  was  originally  employed  to  denote  any  com- 
munity or  corporation  regarded  under  its  collective 
aspect.  When  used  in  its  modern  sense,  as  denoting  a 
body  devoted  to  learning  and  education,  it  required  the 
addition  of  other  words  in  order  to  complete  the 
definition — the  most  frequent  form  of  expression  being 

* universitas  magistrorum  et  scholarium  ” (or  “dis- 
:ipulorum”).  In  the  course  of  time,  probably  toward 
;he  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  term  began 
o be  used  by  itself,  with  the  exclusive  meaning  of  a 
immunity  of  teachers  and  scholars  whose  corporate  ex- 
stence  had  been  recognized  and  sanctioned  by  civil  or 
;cclesiastical  authority  or  by  both.  The  university,  in 


6o8<Q 

its  earliest  stage  of  development,  appears  to  have  been 
simply  a scholastic  guild— a spontaneous  combination 
of  teachers  or  scholars,  and  formed  probably  on  the 
analogy  of  the  trades  guilds,  which,  in  the  course  of 
the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  are  to  be  found 
springing  up  in  most  of  the  great  European  centers. 
And  so  the  university,  composed  as  it  was  to  a great 
extent  of  students  from  foreign  countries,  was  a com’ 
bination  formed  for  the  protection  of  its  members 
from  extortion  of  the  townsmen  and  the  other  annoy- 
ances incident  in  mediaeval  times  to  residence  in  a for 
eign  state. 

In  order,  however,  clearly  to  understand  the  condi- 
tions under  which  the  earliest  universities  came  into  ex- 
istence, it  is  necessary  to  take  account,  not  only  of  their 
organization,  but  also  of  their  studies,  and  to  recognize 
the  main  influences  which,  from  the  sixth  to  the  twelfth 
century,  served  to  modify  both  the  theory  and  the 
practice  of  education.  In  the  former  century  the 
schools  of  the  Roman  empire  had  been  almost  entirely 
swept  away  by  the  barbaric  invasions.  The  latter  cent 
ury  marks  the  period  when  the  institutions  which  sup 
plied  their  place — the  episcopal  schools  attached  to  the 
cathedrals  and  the  monastic  schools — attained  to  theii 
highest  degree  of  influence  and  reputation.  The  ca- 
thedral school  taught  only  what  was  supposed  to  be  nee- 
essary  for  the  education  of  the  priest;  the  monastic 
school  taught  only  what  was  supposed  to  be  in  harmony 
with  the  aims  of  the  monk.  But  between  the  pagan 
system  and  the  Christian  system  by  which  it  had  been 
superseded  there  yet  existed  something  that  was  com- 
mon to  both;  the  latter,  even  in  the  narrow  and  meager 
instruction  which  it  imparted,  could  not  altogether  dis- 
pense with  the  ancient  text-books,  simply  because  there 
were  no  others  in  existence.  Under  the  rule  of  the 
Merovingian  dynasty  even  these  scanty  traditions  of 
learning  declined  throughout  the  Frankish  dominions; 
but  in  England  the  designs  of  Gregory  the  Great,  as 
carried  out  by  Theodoras,  Bede,  and  Alcuin,  resulted 
in  a great  revival  of  education  and  letters.  In  order 
adequately  to  explain  the  remarkable  development  and 
novel  character  which  that  teaching  assumed  in  the 
course  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  take  account  of  the  operation  of  certain  more 
general  causes  to  which  the  origin  of  the  great  majority 
of  the  earlier  universities  may  in  common  unhesitatingly 
be  referred.  These  causes  are — (1)  the  introduction  of 
new  subjects  of  study,  as  embodied  in  a new  or  revived 
literature;  (2)  the  adoption  of  new  methods  of  teaching 
which  were  rendered  necessary  by  the  new  studies;  (3) 
the  growing  tendency  to  organization  which  accom- 
panied the  development  and  consolidation  of  the  Euro-, 
pean  nationalities. 

It  was  at  a considerable  interval  after  the  rise  of  the 
school  at  Salerno,  about  the  year  1113,  that  Irnerius 
commenced  at  Bologna  his  lectures  on  the  civil  law. 
This  instruction,  again,  was  of  a kind  which  the  monastic 
and  cathedral  schools  could  not  supply,  and  it  also  met 
a new  and  pressing  want.  But  the  distinctly  secular 
character  of  this  new  study,  and  its  intimate  connection 
with  the  claims  and  prerogatives  of  the  Western 
emperor,  aroused  at  first  the  susceptibilities  of  the 
Roman  see,  and  for  a time  Bologna  and  its  civilians 
were  regarded  by  the  church  with  distrust  and  even  with 
alarm.  These  sentiments  were  not,  however,  of  long 
duration.  In  the  year  1 15 1 the  appearance  of  the 
Decretum  of  Gratian,  largely  compiled  from  spurious 
documents,  invested  the  studies  of  the  canonist  with 
fresh  importance;  and  numerous  decrees  of  past  and 
almost  forgotten  pontiffs  now  claimed  to  take  their 
stand  side  by  side  with  the  enactments  contained  in  the 
Corpus  Juris  Civilis.  It  -was  necessary,  accordingly 


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6090 

that  the  Decretum  should  be  known  and  studied  beyond 
the  walls  of  the  monastery  or  the  episcopal  palace,  and 
that  its  pages  should  receive  authorative  exposition  at 
some  common  center  of  instruction.  Such  a center  was 
to  be  found  in  Bologna.  The  needs  of  the  secular 
student  and  of  the  ecclesiastical  student  were  thus 
brought  for  a time  into  accord,  and  from  the  days  of 
Irnerius  down  to  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century  we 
have  satisfactory  evidence  that  Bologna  was  generally 
recognized  as  the  chief. school  both  of  the  civil  and 
the  canon  law. 

But,  though  there  was  a flourishing  school  of  study, 
it  is  to  be  observed  that  Bologna  did  not  possess  a uni- 
versity until  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century.  The 
“ universities  ” at  Bologna  were  really  student  guilds, 
modeled,  not  on  the  trade  guilds  which  arose  in  Bolog- 
na in  the  thirteenth'century,  but  on  the  Teutonic  guilds 
which  arose  nearly  a century  earlier  in  northwestern 
Europe,  being  essentially  “ spontaneous  confederations 
of  aliens  on  a foreign  soil.” 

Denifle  considers  that  the  “ universities  ” at  Bologna 
were  at  one  time  certainly  more  than  four  in  number, 
and  we  know  that  the  Italian  students  alone  were 
subdivided  into  two — the  Tuscans  and  the  Lombards. 
In  the  centers  formed  by  secession  from  the  parent 
body,  a like  subdivision  took  place.  At  Vercelli  there 
were  four  “ universitates,”  composed  respectively  of 
Italians  English,  Proven?als,  and  Germans;  at  Padua 
there  were  similar  divisions  into  Italians,  Fr.ench 
Francigence , comprising  both  English  and  Normans), 
Provenfjals  (including  Spaniards  and  Catalans).  When 
accordingly  we  learn  from  Odofred  that  in  the  time  of 
the  eminent  jurist  Azo,  who  lectured  at  Bologna  about 
1200,  the  number  of  the  students  there  amounted  to 
some  ten  thousand,  of  whom  the  majority  were  for- 
eigners, it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  that  the  num- 
ber of  these  confederations  of  students  at  Bologna  was 
yet  greater. 

With  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  these 
various  confederations  became  blended,  for  the  first 
time,  into  one  or  other  of  the  two  great  divisions 
already  referred  to — those  of  the  Ultramontani  and  the 
Citramontani,  Johannes  de  Varanis  being  rector  of  the 
former  and  Pantaleon  de  Venetiis  of  the  latter.  About 
the  year  1200  were  formed  the  two  faculties  of 
medicine  and  philosophy  (or  the  arts),  the  former  being 
somewhat  the  earlier.  In  the  year  1371  the  cardinal 
legate,  Anglicus,  compiled,  as  chief  director  of  ec- 
clesiastical affairs  in  the  city,  an  account  of  the  uni- 
versity, which  he  presented  to  Urban  V.  Of  the 
professors  there  were  twelve  of  civil  law  and  six  of 
canon  law;  three  of  medicine,  three  of  practical  medicine, 
and  one  of  surgery;  two  of  logic,  and  one  each  of  astrol- 
ogy, rhetoric,  and  notarial  practice.  The  professors  of 
theology,  who,  as  members  of  the  religious  orders, 
received  no  state  remuneration,  are  unmentioned. 

Of  the  general  fact  that  the  early  universities  rose  in 
response  to  new  wants  the  commencement  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Paris  supplies  us  with  a further  illustration. 
The  study  of  logic,  which,  prior  to  the  twelfth  century, 
was  founded  exclusively  on  one  or  two  meager  com- 
pends,  received  about  the  year  1100,  on  two  occasions, 
a powerful  stimulus — in  the  first  instance  from  the  mem- 
orable controversy  between  Lanfranc  and  Berengar;  in 
the  second  from  the  no  less  famous  controversy  between 
Anselm  and  Roscellinus.  Dialectic  was  looked  upon 
as  “ the  science  of  sciences;  ” and  when,  somewhere  in 
the  first  decade  of  the  twelfth  century,  William  of 
Champeaux  opened  in  Paris  a school  for*  the  more  ad- 
vanced study  of  dialectic  as  an  art,  his  teaching  was  at- 
tended with  marked  success. 

Abelard  taught  in  the  first  instance  at  the  cathedral 


school  at  Notre  Dame,  and  subsequently  at  the  school 
on  the  MontagneSainte-Genevieve,  of  which  he  was  thfc 
founder,  and  where  he  imparted  to  logic  its  new  devel- 
opment. The  schools  out  of  which  the  university  arose 
were  those  attached  to  the  cathedral  on  the  lie  de  la 
Cite,  and  presided  over  by  the  chancellor — a dignitary 
who  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  later 
chancellor  of  the  university.  But  the  flame  which 
Abelard’s  teaching  had  kindled  was  not  destined  to  ex- 
pire. Among  his  pupils  was  Peter  Lombard,  who  was 
bishop  of  Paris  in  1 159,  and  widely  known  to  posterity 
as  the  compiler  of  the  famous  volume  of  the  Sentences. 

As  the  university  of  Paris  became  the  model,  not  only 
for  the  universities  of  France  north  of  the  Loire,  but 
also  for  the  great  majority  of  those  of  central  Europe  as 
well  as  for  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  some  account  of  its 
early  organization  will  here  be  indispensable.  The 
original  university,  as  already  stated,  took  its  rise  en- 
tirely out  of  the  movement  carried  on  by  teachers  on  tLa 
island,  who  taugjit  by  virtue  of  the  license  conferred  by 
the  chancellor  of  the  cathedral.  In  the  second  decado, 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  it  is  true,  we  find  master 
withdrawing  themselves  from  his  authority  by  repairii^ 
to  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine  and  placing  themselves 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 'abbot  of  the  monastery 
of  Ste.  Genevieve;  and  in  1255  this  dignitary  is  to  be 
found  appointing  a chancellor  whose  duty  it  should  be 
to  confer  “ licentia  docendi”  on  those  candidates  whc 
were  desirous  of  opening  schools  in  that  district.  But 
it  was  around  the  bestowal  of  this  license  by  the  chan- 
cellor of  Notre  Dame,  op  the  lie  de  la  Cite,  that  the 
university  of  Paris  grew  up.  The  previous  stage  of  the 
students’  academic  career,  that  of  bachelordom,  had 
been  one  of  apprenticeship  for  the  mastership;  and  his 
emancipation  from  this  state  was  symbolized  by  placing 
the  magisterial  cap  ( biretta ) upon  his  head,  a ceremony 
which,  in  imitation  of  the  old  Roman  ceremony  of  manu- 
mission, was  perfomed  by  his  former  instructor,  “ under 
whom”  he  was  said  to  incept.  He  then  gave  a formal 
inaugural  lecture,  and,  after  this  proof  of  magisterial 
capacity,  was  welcomed  into  the  society  of  his  profes- 
sional brethren  with  set  speeches,  and  took  his  seat  in 
the  master’s  chair.  This  community  of  teachers  ol 
recognized  fitness  did  not  in  itself  suffice  to  cgnstitute  a 
university,  but  some  time  between  the  years  1150  and, 
1170,  the  period  when  the  Sentences  of  Peter  Lombard 
were  given  to  the  world,  the  university  of  Paris  came 
formally  into  being. 

In  comparing  the  relative  antiquity  of  the  universities 
of  Paris  and  Bologna,  it  is  difficult  to  give  an  unqualified 
decision.  Apart  from  the  broad  differences  in  their 
organization,  the  very  conception  of  learning,  it  will  be 
observed,  was  different  at  Bologna  from  what  it  was  at 
Paris.  In  the  former  it  was  entirely  professional, — 
designed,  that  is  to  say,  to  prepare  the  student  for  a 
definite  and  practical  career  in  after  life;  in  the  latter  it 
was  sought  to  provide  a general  mental  training,  and  to 
attract  the  learner  to  studies  which  were  speculative 
rather  than  practical.  In  the  sequel,  the  less  mercenary 
spirit  in  which  Paris  cultivated  knowledge  added  im- 
mensely to  her  influence  and  reputation.  The  univer- 
sity became  known  as  the  great  school  where  theology 
was  studied  in  its  most  scientific  spirit;  and  the  decisions 
of  its  great  doctors  upon  those  abstruse  questions  which 
absorbed  so  much  of  the  highest  intellectual  activity  of 
the  Middle  Ages  were  regarded  as  almost  final.  The 
popes  themselves,  although  averse  from  theological 
controversies,  deemed  it  expedient  to  cultivate  friendly 
relations  with  a center  of  such  importance  for  the  pur 
pose  of  securing  their  influence  in  a yet  wider  field. 
Down  therefore  to  the  time  of  the  great  schism  (1378). 
they  at  once  conciliated  the  university  of  Paris  and  coo* 


suited  what  they  deemed  to  be  the  interests  of  the 
Roman  see,  by  discouraging  the  creation  of  faculties  of 
theology  elsewhere. 

In  their  earliest  stage,  however,  the  importance  of 
these  new  institutions  was  but  imperfectly  discerned 
alike  by  the  civil  and  the  ecclesiastical  power,  and  the 
first  four  universities  of  Italy,  after  Bologna,  rose  into 
existence,  like  Bologna  itself,  without  a charter  from 
either  pope  or  emperor.  Of  these  the  first  were  those 
of  Reggio  and  Modena-,  both  of  which  are  to  be  found 
mentioned  as  schools  of  civil  law  before  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  century.  Both  of  them  would  seem  to  have 
been  formed  independently  of  Bologna,  but  the  univer- 
sity of  Vicenza  was  probably  the  outcome  of  a migra- 
tion of  the  students  from  the  former  city,  which  took 
place  in  the  year  1204.  In  the  course  of  the  century 
Vicenza  attained  to  considerable  prosperity;  its  students 
were  divided  into  four  nations,  each  with  its  own  rec- 
tor; and  in  1264  it  included  in  its  professoriate  teachers, 
not  only  of  the  civil  law,  but  also  of  medicine,  gram- 
mar, and  dialectic.  The  university  of  Padua  was 
founded  in  1222  as  the  direct  result  of  the  migration  of 
a considerable  number  of  students  from  Bologna.  In 
the  year  1228  the  students  of  Padua  were  compelled  by 
circumstances  to  transfer  their  residence  to  Vercelli, 
and  the  latter  city  guaranteed  them,  besides  other  privi- 
leges, the  right  to  rent  no  less  than  five  hundred  lodg- 
ing houses  at  a fixed  rental  for  a period  of  eight  years. 
At  first  Padua  was  a school  only  of  the  civil  and  canon 
law;  and  dui-ing  the  oppressive  tyranny  of  Ezzelin 
(1237-1260)  the  university  maintained  its  existence  with 
some  difficulty.  But  in  the  latter  part  of  the  century 
it  incorporated  the  faculties  of  grammar,  rhetoric,  and 
medicine,  and  became  known  as  one  of  the  most  flour- 
ishing schools  of  Italy  and  a great  center  of  the 
Dominicans,  at  that  time  among  the  most  active  pro- 
moters of  learning. 

The  university  of  Naples  was  founded  by  the  emperor 
Frederick  II.  in  the  year  1225,  as  a school  of  theology, 
jurisprudence,  the  arts,  and  medicine — his  design  being 
that  his  subjects  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  should  find 
in  the  capital  adequate  instruction  in  every  branch  of 
learning,  and  “ not  be  compelled  in  the  pursuit  of 
knowledge  to  have  recourse  to  foreign  nations  or  to  beg 
in  other  lands.  ” The  university  never  attained  to  much 
eminence,  and  after  the  death  of  Frederick  came  for  a 
time  altogether'to  an  end,  but  was  restored  in  1258  by 
King  Manfred.  In  1266  its  faculty  of  medicine  was 
reconstituted,  and  from  1272-74  Thomas  Aquinas  was 
one  of  its  teachers  of  theology.  The  two  universities 
of  Piacenza  and  Pavia  stand  in  close  connection  with 
each  other.  The  former  is  noted  by  Denifle  as  the 
earliest  in  Italy  which  was  founded  by  virtue  of  a papal 
charter  (February  6,  1248),  although  the  scheme  re- 
mained for  a long  time  inoperative.  At  length,  in  the 
year  1398,  the  university  was  reconstituted  by  Giovanni 
Galeazzo  Visconti,  duke  of  Milan,  who  in  the  same 
year  caused  the  university  of  Pavia  to  be  transferred 
thither. 

With  the  death  of  Galeazzo  in  1402,  this  precarious 
activity  suddenly  came  to  an  end;  and  in  1404  the  uni- 
versity had  ceased  to  exist.  Even  before  I rnerius  taught 
at  Bologna,  Pavia  had  been  widely  known  as  a seat  of 
legal  studies,  and  more  especially  of  the  Lombard  law, 
although  the  evidence  is  wanting  which  would  serve  to 
establish  a direct  connection  between  this  early  school 
and  the  university  which  was  founded  there  in  1361  by 
virtue  of  the  charter  granted  by  the  emperor  Charles 
IV.  It  shared  again  in  the  decline  which  overtook  the 
university  of  Piacenza  after  the  death  of  Giovanni  Ga- 
leazzo, and  during  the  period  from  1404  to  1412  it  alto- 
gether ceased  to  *>xist  But  ;Jfi  October,  14?^  *he  lect- 


ures were  recommenced,  and  the  university  entered  upon 
the  most  brilliant  period  of  its  existence.  Arezzo  ap- 
pears to  have  been  known  as  a center  of  study  so  early 
as  1215,  and  its  earliest  statutes  are  assigned  to  the 
year  1255.  After  the  year  1373  the  school  gradually 
dwindled,  although  it  did  not  become  altogether  extinct 
until  about  the  year  1470.  The  university  of  Rom? 
(which  is  to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  schoo. 
attached  to  the  curia)  owed  its  foundation  (1303)  to 
Boniface  VIII.,  and  was  especially  designed  by  that 
pontiff  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor  foreign  students  so- 
journing in  the  capital. 

The  university  maintained  its  existence  throughout 
the  period  of  the  residence  of  the  Dopes  at  Avignon  (see 
Popedom),  and,  under  the  patronage  of  Leo  X.,  could 
boast,  in  1514,  of  no  less  than  eighty  professors. 
Scarcely  any  of  the  universities  in  Italy  in  the  fourteenth 
century  attracted  a larger  concourse  than  that  of  Peru- 
gia, where  the  study  chiefly  cultivated  was  that  of  the 
civil  law.  The  university  received  its  charter  as  a stu- 
dium  generale  from  Clement  V.  in  the  year  1308,  but 
had  already,  in  1306,  been  formally  recognized  by  the 
civic  authorities,  by  whom  it  was  commended  to  the 
special  care  and  protection  of  the  “ podesta.”  In  com- 
mon with  the  rest  of  the  Italian  universities,  it  suffered 
severely  from  the  great  plague  of  1348-49;  but  in  1355 
it  received  new  privileges  from  the  emperor,  and,  m 
1362  its  first  college,  dedicated  to  Gregory  the  Great, 
was  founded  by  the  bishop  of  Perugia.  The  university 
of  Treviso,  which  received  its  charter  from  Frederick 
the  Fair  in  1318,  w^as  of  little  celebrity  and  but  short 
duration. 

The  circumstances  of  the  rise  of  the  university  of 
Florence  are  unknown,  but  the  earliest  evidence  of 
academic  instruction  belongs  to  the  year  1320.  The 
dispersion  of  the  university  of  Bologna,  in  the  March 
and  April  of  the  following  year,  afforded  a favorable 
opportunity  for  the  creation  of  a studium  generale,  but 
the  necessary  measures  were  taken  somewhat  tardily, 
and  in  the  meantime  the  greater  number  of  the  Bolog- 
nese students  had  betaken  themselves  to  Siena.  The 
charter  of  foundation  for  Florence  w?as  accordingly  not 
granted  until  May  31,  1349,  when  Clement  VI.  decreed 
that  there  should  be  instituted  a studium  generale  in 
theology,  jurisprudence,  medicine,  and  every  other 
recognized  faculty  of  learning,  the  teachers  to  be  pro- 
fessors who  had  obtained  the  degree  of  doctor  or  master 
either  at  Bologna  or  Paris,  or  “ some  other  studium 
generale  of  celebrity.”  On  January  2,  1364,  the  uni- 
versity also  obtained  the  grant  of  imperial  privileges 
from  Charles  IV.  On  February  14,  1388,  it  adopted  a 
body  of  statutes  which  are  still  extant,  and  afford  an 
interesting  study  in  connection  with  the  university  his- 
tory of  the  period.  The  university  now  entered  upon 
that  brilliant  period  in  its  history  which  was  destined  to 
so  summary  an  extinction.  In  the  year  1472,  however, 
under  the  influence  of  Lorenzo  de’  Medici,  it  was  decided 
that  Florence  wras  not  a convenient  seat  for  a university, 
and  its  students  were  removed  to  Pisa.  The  commence- 
ment of  the  university  of  Siena  belongs  to  about  the 
year  1241,  but  its  charter  was  first  granted  by  the 
emperor  Charles  IV.,  at  the  petition  of  the  citizens,  in 
the  year  1357.  It  was  founded  as  a studium  generale 
in  jurisprudence,  the  arts,  and  medicine.  The  imperial 
charter  was  confirmed  by  Gregory  XII.  in  1408,  and 
the  various  bulls  relating  to  the  university  which  he 
subsequently  issued  afford  a good  illustration  of  the  con- 
ditions of  academic  life  in  these  times.  Residence  on 
the  part  of  the  students  appears  to  have  been  sometimen 
dispensed  with.  The  graduates  were  to  be  admitted  to 
the  same  privileges  as  those  of  Bologna  or  Paris;  and  a 
faculty  of  theology  was  added  to  the  curriculum  of 


U N i 


^092 

studies.  The  university  of  Ferrara  owes  its  foundation 
to  the  house  of  Este, — Alberto,  marquis  of  Este,  having 
obtained  from  Boniface  IX.  in  1391  a charter  couched 
in  terms  precisely  similar  to  those  of  the  charter  for 
Pisa.  In  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  uni- 
versity was  adorned  by  the  presence  of  several  distin- 
guished humanists,  but  its  fortunes  were  singularly 
checkered,  and  it  would  appear  for  a certain  period,  to 
have  been  altogether  extinct.  It  was,  however,  re- 
stored, and  became  in  the  latter  part  of  the  century  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  universities  of  Italy.  In 
later  times  Ferrara  has  been  noted  as  a school  of  medi- 
cine. 

Of  the  universities^nodeled  on  that  of  Paris,  Oxford 
would  appear  to  have  been  the  earliest,  and  the  manner 
of  its  development  was  probably  similar.  Certain 
schools,  opened  within  the  precincts  of  the  dissolved 
nunnery  of  St.  Frideswyde  and  of  Oseney  abbey,  are 
supposed  to  have  been  the  nucleus  round  which  the 
university  grew  up.  In  the  year  1133  one  Robert  Pul- 
ler, a theologian  of  considerable  eminence  (but  whether 
an  Englishman  or  a Breton  is  uncertain),  arrived  from 
Paris,  and  delivered  lectures  on  the  Bible.  He  was 
followed  a few  years  later  by  Vacarius,  a native  of 
Lombardy,  who,  as  a student  at  Bologna,  had  inherited 
the  tradition  of  the  teaching  of  Irnerius.  In  one  re- 
Bpect,  indeed,  Oxford  was  more  favored  than  even 
Paris,  for  the  town  authorities  could  not  pretend  to  as- 
sert any  right  of  interference  with  the  university  such 
as  that  to  which  the  French  monarch  and  the  court  fre- 
quently laid  claim.  In  the  year  1257,  when  the  bishop 
of  Lincoln,  as  diocesan,  had  trenched  too  closely  on  the 
liberties  of  the  community,  the  deputies  from  Oxford, 
when  preferring  their  appeal  to  the  king  at  St.  Albans, 
could  venture  to  speak  of  the  university  as  “ schola 
secunda  ecclesiae,”  or  second  only  to  Paris.  Its  num- 
bers about  this  time  were  probably  some  3,000;  but  it 
was  essentially  a fluctuating  body,  and  whenever  plague 
or  tumult  led  to  a temporary  dispersion  a serious  dim- 
inution in  its  numerical  strength  generally  ensued  for 
some  time  after.  Against  such  vicissitudes  the  founda- 
tion of  colleges  proved  the  most  effectual  remedy.  Of 
these  the  three  earliest  were  University  College,  found- 
ed in  1249  by  William  of  Durham;  Balliol  College, 
founded  about  1263  by  John  Balliol,  the  father  of  the 
king  of  Scotland  of  the  same  name;  and  Merton  Col- 
lege, founded  in  1264.  The  last-named  is  especially 
notable  as  associated  with  a new  conception  of  univer- 
sity education,  namely,  that  of  collegiate  discipline  for 
the  secular  clergy,  instead  of  for  any  one  of  the  relig- 
ious orders,  for  whose  sole  benefit  all  similar  founda- 
tions had  hitherto  been  designed.  The  university  of 
Cambridge,  although  it  rose  into  existence  somewhat 
later  than  Oxford,  may  reasonably  be  held  to  have  had 
its  origin  in  the  same  century. 

Turning  to  France,  or  rather  to  the  territory  included 
within  the  boundaries  of  modern  France,  we  find  Mont- 
pellier a recognized  school  of  medical  science  as  early 
as  the  twelfth  century.  William  VIII.,  lord  of  Mont- 
pellier, in  the  year  1181  proclaimed  it  a school  of  free 
resort,  where  any  teacher  of  medical  science,  from 
whatever  country,  might  give  instruction.  Before  the 
end  of  the  century  it  possessed  also  a faculty  of  juris- 
prudence, a branch  of  learning  for  which  it  afterward 
became  famed.  The  university  of  medicine  and  that  of 
law  continued,  however,  to  be  totally  distinct  bodies 
with  different  constitutions.  On  October  26,  1289, 
Montpellier  was  raised  by  Nicholas  IV.  to  the  rank  of 
a “ studium  generale.”  The  university  also  now  in- 
cluded a faculty  of  arts;  and  there  is  satisfactory  evi- 
dence of  the  existence  of  a faculty  of  theology  before  the 
close  of  the  fourteenth  century,  although  not  formally 


recognized  by  the  pope  before  the  year  1421.  The  uni- 
versity of  Toulouse  is  to  be  noted  as  the  first  founded 
in  any  country  by  virtue  of  a papal  charter.  It  took  its 
rise  in  ^he  efforts  of  Rome  for  the  suppression  of  the 
Albigensian  heresy,  and  its  foundation  formed  one  of  the 
articles  of  the  conditions  of  peace  imposed  by  Louis 
IX.  on  Count  Raymond  of  Toulouse.  In  the  year  1233 
it  first  acquired  its  full  privileges  as  a “ studium  gen- 
erale ” by  virtue  of  a charter  given  by  Gregory  IX.  As 
a school  of  arts,  jurisprudence, 'and  medicine,  although 
faculties  of  each  existed,  it  never  attained  to  any  repu- 
tation. The  university  of  Orleans  had  a virtual  exist- 
ence as  a studium  generale  as  early  as  the  first  half  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  but  in  the  year  1305  Clement  V. 
endowed  it  with  new  privileges,  and  gave  its  teachers 
permission  to  form  themselves  into  a corporation. 
The  schools  of  Orleans  had  an  existence,  it  is  said,  as 
early  as  the  sixth  century,  and  subsequently  sup- 
plied the  nucleus  for  the  foundation  of  a university  at 
Blois;  but  of  this  university  no  records  now  exist. 
Orleans,  in  its  organization,  was  modeled  mainly  on 
Paris,  but  its  studies  were  complementary  rather  than 
in  rivalry  to  the  older  university. 

Orleans  subsequently  incorporated  a faculty  of  arts, 
but  its  reputation  from  this  period  was  always  that  of  a 
school  of  legal  studies,  and  in  the  fourteenth  century  its 
reputation  in  this  respect  was  surpassed  by  no  other 
university  in  Europe.  Prior  to  the  thirteenth  century  it 
had  been  famed  for  its  classical  learning;  and  Angers, 
which  received  its  charter  at  the  same  time,  also  once 
enjoyed  a like  reputation,  which,  in  a similar  manner,  it 
exchanged  for  that  of  a school  for  civilians  and  canon- 
ists. The  university  of  Avignon  was  first  recognized 
as  a'  “studium  generale”  by  Boniface  VIII.  in  the  year 
1303,  with  power  to  grant  degrees  in  jurisprudence, 
arts,  and  medicine.  The  university  of  Cahors  enjoyed 
the  advantage  of  being  regarded  with  especial  favor  by 
John  XXII.  The  two  schools  in  France  which,  down 
to  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century,  most  closely  re- 
sembled Paris,  were  Orleans  and  Cahors.  The  univer- 
sity of  Perpignan,  founded,  according  to  Denifle,  in 
1379  by  Clement  VII.,  and  that  of  Orange,  founded  in 
1:365  by  Charles  IV.,  were  universities  only  by  name 
and  constitution,  their  names  rarely  appearing  in  con- 
temporary chronicles,  while  their  very  existence  be- 
comes at  times  a matter  for  reasonable  doubt. 

To  some  of  the  earlier  Spanish  universities — such  as 
Palencia,  founded  about  the  year  1214  by  Alfonso 
VIII.;  Huesca,  founded  in  1354  by  Pedro  IV.;  and 
Lerida,  founded  in  1300  byjames  II. — the  same  descrip- 
tion is  applicable;  and  their  insignificance  is  probably  in- 
dicated by  the  fact  that  they  entirely  failed  to  attract 
foreign  students.  Valladolid,  founded  in  1346  by  Pope 
Clement  VI.,  attained,  however,  to  some  celebrity;  and 
the  foreign  teachers  and  students  frequenting  the  uni- 
versity became  so  numerous  that  in  1373  King  Henry 
II.  caused  an  enactment  to  be  passed  for  securing  to 
them  the  same  privileges  as  those  already  accorded  to 
the  native  element.  But  the  total  number  of  the  students 
in  1403  was  only  116,  and  grammar  and  logic,  along 
with  jurisprudence  (which  was  the  principal  study),  con- 
stituted the  sole  curriculum.  Whatever  reputation,  in- 
deed, was  enjoyed  by  Spain  for  nearly  five  centuries 
after  the  commencement  of  the  university  era,  centered 
mainly  in  Salamanca,  to  which  Seville,  in  the  south, 
stood  in  the  relation  of  a kind  of  subsidiary  school, 
having  been  founded  in  1254  by  Alfonso  the  Wise,  sim- 
ply for  the  study  of  Latin  and  of  the  Semitic  languages, 
especially  Arabic.  Salamanca  was  founded  in  1243  by 
Ferdinand  III.  of  Castile  as  a “studium  generale,”  in 
the  three  faculties  of  jurisprudence,  the  arts,  and  medi- 
cine. Ferdinand  extended  his  special  protection  to  thf 


U N I 


students,  granting  them  numerous  privileges  and  im- 
munities. The  earliest  of  the  numerous  colleges 
founded  at  Salamanca  was  that  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
long  noted  for  its  ancient  library  and  valuable  collection 
of  manuscripts,  which  now  form  part  of  the  royal 
library  of  Madrid.  The  one  university  possessed  by 
Portugal  had  its  seat  in  mediaeval  times  alternately  in 
Lisbon  and  in  Coimbra,  until,  in  the  year  1537,  it  was 
permanently  attached  to  the  latter  city.  Its  formal 
foundation  took  place  in  1309,  when  it  received  from 
King  Diniz  a charter,  the  provisions  of  which  were 
mainly  taken 'from  those  of  the  charter  given  to  Sala- 
manca. In  1 772  the  university  was  entirely  reconsti- 
tuted. Of  the  German  universities,  Prague,  which 
existed  as  a “ studium  ” in  the  thirteenth  century,  was 
tn2  earliest,  and  was  at  first  frequented  mainly  by  stu- 
dents from  Styria  and  Austria,  countries  at  that  time 
ruled  by  the  king  of  Bohemia.  On  January  26,  1347, 
at  the  request  of  Charles  . IV.,  Pope  Clement  VI.  pro- 
mulgated a bull  authorizing  the  foundation  of  a “ studi- 
um general e ” in  all  the  faculties.  In  the  following 
year  Charles  himself  issued  a charter  for  the  foundation. 

The  university  of  Cracow  in  Poland  was  founded  in 
May,  1364,  by  virtue  of  a charter  given  by  King  Casi- 
mir  the  Great,  who  bestowed  on  it  the  same  privileges 
as  those  possessed  by  the  universities  of  Bologna  and 
Padua.  Toward  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  the 
university  is  said  to  have  been  in  high  repute  as  a 
school  of  both  astronomical  and  humanistic  studies. 
The  Avignonese  popes  appear  to  have  regarded  the 
establishment  of  new  faculties  of  theology  with  especial 
jealousy;  and  when,  in  1364,  Duke  Rudolph  IV. 
founded  the  university  of  Vienna,  with  the  design  of 
constituting  it  a “ studium  generale”  in  all  the  faculties, 
Urban  V.  refused  his  assent  to  the  foundation  of  a 
theological  school,  but  after  the  accession  of  Duke 
Albert  III.,  who  may  be  regarded  as  its  real  founder, 
it  acquired  privileges,  and  its  prosperity  became  marked 
and  continuous.  Like  Prague,  Vienna  was  for  a long 
time  distinguished  by  the  comparatively  little  attention 
bestowed  by  its  teachers  on  the  study  of  the  civil  law. 
No  country  in  the  fourteenth  century  was  looked  upon 
with  greater  disfavor  at  Rome  than  Hungary.  It  was 
stigmatized  as  the  land  of  heresy  and  schism.  When, 
accordingly,  in  1367  King  Louis  applied  to  Urban  V. 
for  his  sanction  of  the  scheme  of  founding  a university 
at  Fiixifkirchen,  Urban  would  not  consent  to  the  foun- 
dation of  a faculty  of  theology;  he  even  made  it  a con- 
dition of  his  sanction  for  a “ studium  generale  ” that 
King  Louis  should  first  undertake  to  provide  for  the 
payment  of  the  professors.  We  hear  but  little  concern- 
ing the  university  after  its  foundation,  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  it  survived  for  any  length  of  time  the  close  of 
the  century,  having  been  about  that  period  absorbed  in 
all  probability  in  the  university  of  Ofen.  The  founda- 
tion of  this  university  is  also  involved  in  considerable 
obscurity,  and  its  original  charter  is  lost. 

The  university  of  Heidelberg  received  its  charter 
(October  23,  1385)  from  Urban  VI.  as  a “studium 
generale  ” in  all  the  recognized  faculties  save  that  of  the 
civil  law — the  form  and  substance  of  the  document 
being  almost  identical  with  those  of  the  charter  granted 
to  Vienna.  It  was  granted  at  the  request  of  the  elector 
palatine*  Rupert  I.,  but  the  real  founder,  as  he  was  also 
the  organizer  and  teacher,  of  the  university  was  Mar- 
silius  of  Inghen,  to  whose  ability  and  energy  Heidel- 
berg was  indebted  for  no  little  of  its  early  reputation 
and  success.  No  mediaeval  university  achieved  a more 
rapid  and  permanent  success.  Regarded  with  favor 
alike  by  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  potentates,  its  early 
annals  were  singularly  free  from  crises  like  those  which 
characterize  the  history  of  many  of  the  mediaeval  univer- 

382 


6093 

sities.  The  number  of  those  admitted  to  degrees  from 
the  commencement  of  the  first  session  (October  19,  1386 
to  December  16,  1387)  amounted  to  579.  Owing  to  the 
labors  of  the  Dominicans,  Cologne  had  gained  a reputa- 
tion as  a seat  of  learning  long  before  the  founding  of  its 
university;  and  it  was  through  the  advocacy  of  some 
leading  members  of  the  Mendicant  orders  that,  at  the 
desire  of  the  city  council,  its  charter  as  a “ studium 
generale”  (May  21,  1388)  was  obtained  from  Urban  VI. 
In  common  with  the  other  early  universities  of  Ger- 
many— Prague,  Vienna,  and  Heidelberg — Cologne 
owed  nothing  to  imperial  patronage,  while  it  would 
appear  to  have  been,  from  the  first,  the  object  of  special 
favor  with  Rome.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  number 
of  its  students  was  larger  than  that  at  any  other  German 
university — a fact  attributable  partly  to  the  reputation 
it  had  acquired  as.a  school  of  jurisprudence,  and  partly 
to  the  ardor  with  which  the  philosophic  controversies  of 
the  time  were  debated  in  its  midst.  The  collegiate  sys- 
tem is  to  be  noted  as  a feature  common  to  all  these 
early  German  universities,  and,  in  nearly  all,  the  pro- 
fessors were  partly  remunerated  by  the  appropriation 
of  certain  prebends,  appertaining  to  some  neighboring 
church,  to  their  maintenance. 

In  northern  Germany  and  in  the  Netherlands,  the 
growing  wealth  and  prosperity  of  the  different  states 
especially  favored  the  formation  of  new  centers  of 
learning.  In  the  flourishing  duchy  of  Brabant  the 
university  of  Louvain  (1426)  was  to  a great  extent 
controlled  by  the  municipality;  and  their  patronage, 
although  ultimately  attended  with  detrimental  results, 
long  enabled  Louvain  to  outbid  all  the  other  universities 
of  Europe  in  the  munificence  with  which  she  rewarded 
her  professors.  In  the  course  of  the  next  century  the 
“ Belgian  Athens,”  as  she  is  styled  by  Lipsius,  ranked 
second  only  to  Paris  in  numbers  and  reputation.  In 
its  numerous  separate  foundations  and  general  organi- 
zation— it  possessed  no  less  than  twenty- eight  colleges— 
it  closely  resembled  the  English  universities ; while  its 
active  press  afforded  facilities  to  the  author  and  the  con- 
troversialist of  which  both  Cambridge  and  Oxford  *\ere 
at  that  time  almost  destitute.  It  embraced  all  the 
faculties,  and  no  degrees  in  Europe  stood  so  high  as 
guarantees  of  general  acquirements.  In  1788  the 
faculties  of  jurisprudence,  medicine,  and  philosophy 
were  removed  to  Brussels,  and  in  1797  the  French 
suspended  the  university  altogether.  When  Belgium 
was  formed  into  an  independent  state  in  1831,  the 
university  was  refounded  as  a Roman  Catholic  founda- 
tion. The  circumstances  of  the  foundation  of  the 
university  of  Leipsic  are  especially  noteworthy,  it 
having  been  the  result  of  the  migration  of  almost 
the  , entire  German  element  from  the  university 
of  Prague.  This  element  comprised  (1)  Bavarians, 
(2 ) Saxons,  (3)  Poles  (this  last-named  division 
being  drawn  from  a wide  area,  which  included 
Meissen,  Lusatia,  Silesia,  and  Prussia),  and,  being 
represented  by  three  votes  in  the  assemblies  of  the  uni- 
versity, while  the  Bohemians  possessed  but  one,  had  ac- 
quired a preponderance  in  the  direction  of  affairs  which 
the  latter  could  no  longer  submit  to.  Religious  differ- 
ences, again,  evoked  mainly  by  the  preaching  of  John 
Huss,  further  intensified  the  existing  disagreements; 
and  eventually,  in  the  year  1409,  King  Wenceslaus,  at 
the  prayer  of  his  Bohemian  subjects,  issued  a decree 
which  exactly  reversed  the  previous  distribution  of  votes, 
three  votes  being  assigned  to  the  Bohemian  nation  and 
only  one  to  all  the  rest.  The  Germans  took  deep  um- 
brage, and  seceded  to  Leipsic,  where,  a bull  having 
been  obtained  from  Alexander  V.  (September  9,  1409), 
a new  “ studium  generale  ” was  founded  by  the  land- 
grave of  Thuringia  and  the  margraves  of  Meissen.  Two 


U N I 


6094 

colleges  were  founded,  a greater  and  a smaller,  but  de- 
signed, not  for  poor  students,  but  for  masters  of  arts — 
twelve  being  admitted  on  the  former  and  eight  on  the  lat- 
ter foundation.  The  first  university  of  northern  Ger- 
many was  that  of  Rostock,  founded  by  the  dukes  John 
and  Albert  of  Mecklenburg,  the  scheme  receiving  the 
sanction  of  Martin  V.  in  a bull  dated  February  13, 1419,  , 
as  that  of  a “ studium  generale  ” in  all  the  faculties  ex- 
cepting theology.  The  faculty  of  theology  was  added 
in  the  year  1432.  Two  colleges  were  also  founded, 
with  the  same  design  and  ok  tne  same  scale  as  at 
Leipaie. 

No  little  illustration  is  afforded  by  the  circumstances 
attending  the  foundation  of  ' the  French  Universities  of 
the  struggle  that  was  going  on  between  the  crown  and 
the  Roman  see.  The  earliest  foundation  in  the  fifteenth 
century  was  that  of  Poitiers.  It  was  instituted  by 
Charles  VII.  in  1431,  almost  immediately  after  his 
accession,  with  the  special  design  of  creating  a center  of 
learning  less  favorable  to  English  interests  than  Paris 
had  at  that  time  shown  herself  to  be.  The  foundation 
of  the  university  of  Caen,  in  the  diocese  of  Bayeux,  was 
attended  by  conditions  almost  exactly  the  reverse  of 
those  which  belonged  to  the  foundation  of  that  at 
Poitiers.  It  was  founded  under  English  auspices  during 
the  short  period  of  the  supremacy  of  the  English  arms 
in  N ormandy  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Its  charter  (May, 
1437)  was  given  by  Eugenius  IV.,  and  the  bishop  of 
Bayeux  was  appointed  its  chancellor.  On  October  30, 
1452,  its  charter  was  given  afresh  by  Charles  in  terms 
which  left  the  original  charter  unrecognized;  both  teachers 
and  lehrners  were  made  subject  to  the  civil  authorities  of 
the  city,  while  all  privileges  conferred  in  the  former  charter 
in  cases  of  legal  disputes  were  abolished.  From  this 
time  the  university  of  Caen  was  distinguished  by  its 
loyal  spirit  and  firm  resistance  to  ultramontane  preten- 
sions, and,  although  swept  away  at  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, it  was  afterward  restored,  owing  to  the  sense  of 
the  services  it  had  thus  once  rendered  to  the  national 
cause.  No  especially  notable  circumstances  characterize 
the  foundation  of  the  university  of  Bordeaux  (1441)  or 
that  of  Valence  (1452),  but  that  of  Nantes,  which 
received  its  charter  from  Pius  II.  in  1463,  is  distinguished 
by  the  fact  that  it  did  not  receive  the  ratification  of  the 
king  of  France,  and  the  conditions  under  which  its 
earlier  traditions  were  formed  thus  closely  resemble 
those  of  Poitiers.  The  bull  for  the  foundation  of  the 
university  of  Bourges  was  given  in  1465  by  Paul  II.,  at 
the  request  of  Louis  XI.  and  his  brother.  It  confers  on 
the  community  the  same  privileges  as  those  enjoyed  by 
the  other  universities  of  France.  The  royal  sanction 
was  given  at  the  petition  of  the  citizens ; but,  from 
reasons  which  do  not  appear,  they  deemed  it  necessary 
further  to  petition  that  their  charter  might  also  be 
registered  and  enrolled  by  the  parlement  of  Paris. 

In  Germany,  the  first  of  the  universities  representing 
new  influences  is  that  of  Greifswald.  A wealthy  burgo- 
master, who  had  graduated  as  a master  of  arts  at  Ros- 
tock, was  the  chief  mover;  and,  his  proposal  being  cor- 
dially seconded  by  the  city  council,  the  duke  of  the 
province,  and  certain  abbots  of  neighboring  monasteries, 
the  necessary  bull  was  obtained  fromCalixtus  III.,  (May 
29,  1456.)  The  first  session  was  commenced  in  October 
of  the  same  year.  Three  colleges  were  at  the  same 
time  founded — two  for  masters  of  arts,  as  at  Leipsic  and 
Rostock,  and  a third  for  jurists.  The  chairs  in  the  dif- 
ferent faculties  were  distributed  as  follows:  theology 
three,  jurisprudence  five,  medicine  one,  arts  four — the 
number  of  jurists  showing  that  the  study  of  the  civil  law 
still  obtained  a certain  preponderance.  The  university 
of  Freiburg  was  founded  by  the  a rchduke  Albert,  brother 
I?f  the  emperor  Frederick  rTT. — the  papal  bull  being 

/ 


given  April  20,  1455,  an^  the  imperial  ratification  ir. 
the  following  year.  In  the  same  year,  and  probably  in 
a spirit  of  direct  rivalry,  was  opened  the  university  oi 
Basel.  The  cathedral  school  in  tiiat  ancient  city,  to- 
gether with  others  attached  to  the  monasteries,  afforded 
a sufficient  nucleus  foi  a ** studium,”  and  Pius  II.,  who, 
as  yEneas  Sylvius,  had  been  a resident  in  the  city,  was 
easily  prevailed  upon  to  grant  the  charter  (November 
12, 1459).  In  the  character  of  its  endowments,  and  in  the 
relative  importance  attached  to  the  study  of  the  civil 
law,  Basel  much  resembled  Greifswald,  but  its  success 
throughout  the  fifteenth  century  was  marred  by  the  lan- 
guid character  of  the  support  afforded  it  by  the  civic 
authorities.  Before  he  had  signed  the  bull  for  the  foun- 
dation of  the  university  of  Basel,  Pius  II.,  at  the  request 
of  duke  William  of  Bavaria,  had  issued  another  buli  for 
the  foundation  of  a university  at  Ingolstadt  (April  7, 
1459).  But  if  was  not  until  1472  that  the  work  of  teach- 
ing was  actually  commenced  there. 

The  next  two  universities  took  their  rise  in  the  archi- 
episcopal  seats  of  Treves  and  Mainz.  That  at  Treves 
received  its  charter  as  early  as  1450;  but  the  first 
academical  session  did  not  commence  until  1473.  Here 
the  ecclesiastical  influences  appear  to  have  been  unfa^ 
vorable  to  the  project.  It  was  not  until  1722  that  the 
assembly  of  deputies,  by  a formal  grant,  relieved  the 
university  from  the  difficulties  in  which  it  had  become 
involved.  The  university  of  Mainz,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  almost  entirely  indebted  to  the  archbishop  Diether 
for  its  foundation.  It  wras  at  his  petition  that  Sixtus 
IV.  granted  the  charter,  November  23,  1476;  and  Die- 
ther, being  himself  an  enthusiastic  humanist,  thereupon 
circulated  a letter,  couched  in  elegant  Latinity,  ad- 
dressed to  students  throughout  his  diocese,  inviting  them 
to  repair  to  the  new  center,  and  dilating  on  the  advan- 
tages of  academic  studies  and  of  learning.  The  rise 
of  these  two  universities,  however,  neither  of  which 
attained  to  much  distinction,  represents  little  more  than 
the  incorporation  of  certain  already  existing  institutions 
into  a homogeneous  whole,  the  power  of  conferring 
degrees  being  superadded.  But  the  university  of 
Tubingen,  founded  by  charter  of  Sixtus  IV.  (Novem- 
ber 9,  1476),  represents  an  entirely  new  creation.  Its 
real  founder  was  Mathilda,  the  mother  of  Count  Eber- 
hard  of  Wiirtemberg,  who  appropriated  five  livings  and 
eight  prebends  to  the  endowment.  Of  the  chairs,  three 
were  for  theology,  three  for  the  canon  and  two  for  the 
civil  law,  two  for  medicine,  and  four  for  arts.  The 
general  financial  condition  of  this  university  in  the 
year  1541-42  and  the  sources  whence  its  revenues 
were  derived,  have  been  illustrated  by  Hoffmann  in  a 
short  paper  which  shows  the  fluctuating  character  of 
the  resources  of  a university  in  those  days — liable  to  be 
affected,  as  they  were,  both  by  the  seasons  and  the 
markets. 

Nearly  contemporaneous  with  these  foundations  were 
those  of  Upsala(i477)  and  Copenhagen  (1479),  which, 
although  lying  without  the  political  boundaries  of  Ger- 
many, reflected  her  influence.  The  charter  for  Copen- 
hagen was  given  by  Sixtus  IV.  as  early  as  1475*  The 
students  attracted  to  this  new  center  were  mainly  from 
within  the  radius  of  the  university  of  Cologne,  and  its 
statutes  were  little  more  than  a transcript  of  those  of 
the  latter  foundation. 

The  electorates  of  Wittenberg  and  Brandenburg  were 
now  the  only  two  considerable  German  territories  which 
did  not  possess  a studium  generale,  and  the  university 
founded  at  Wittenberg  by  Maximilian  I.  (July  6,  1502) 
is  notable  as  the  first  established  in  Germany  by  virtue 
of  an  imperial  as  distinguished  from  a papal  decree. 
Wittenberg  is  constituted  a “studium  generale  ” in  all 
the  four  faculties — the  right  to  confer  degrees  in  theob 


,»gv  and  canon  law  navxng  oeen  sanctioned  by  the  papal 
negate  some  months  before,  February  2,  1502.  No 
university  in  Germany  attracted  to  itself  a larger  share  of 
the  attention  of  Europe  at  its  commencement.  And  it 
was  its  distinguishing  merit  that  it  was  the  first  academic 
center  north  of  the  Alps  where  theantiquated  methods  and 
barbarous  Latinity  of  the  scholastic  era  were  overthrown. 
The  last  university  founded  in  Germany  prior  to  the 
Reformation  was  that  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  The 
design,  first  conceived  by  the  elector  John  of  Branden- 
burg, was  carried  into  execution  by  his  son  Joachim,  at 
whose  request  Pope  Julius  II.  issueda  bull  for  the  founda- 
tion, March  15,  1506.  An  imperial  charter,  identical  in 
its  contents  with  the  papal  bull,  followed  on  October 
26th.  The  university  received. an  endowment  of  canon- 
ries  and  livings  similar  to  that  of  Wittenberg,  and  some 
houses  in  the  city  were  assigned  for  its  use  by  the  elector. 

The  first  university  in  Scotland  was  that  of  St.  An- 
drews, founded  in  1411  by  Henry  Wardlaw,  bishop  of 
that  see,  and  modeled  chiefly  on  the  constitution  of  the 
university  of  Paris.  It  acquired  all  its  three  colleges — 
St.  Salvator’s,  St.  Leonard’s,  and  St.  Mary’s — before 
the  Reformation — the  first  having  been  founded  in  1456 
by  Bishop  James  Kennedy;  the  second  in  1512  by  the 
youthful  archbishop,  Alexander  Stuart  (natural  son  of 
James  IV.),  and  John  Hepburn,  the  prior  of  the  mon- 
astery of  St.  Andrews;  and  the  third,  also  in  1512,  by 
the  Beatons,  who  in  the  year  1537  procured  a bull  from 
Pope  Paul  III.  dedicating  the  college  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin  Mary  of  the  Assumption,  and  adding  further 
endowments.  The  most  ancient  of  the  Universities  of 
Scotland,  with  its  three  colleges,  was  thus  reared  in  an 
atmosphere  of  mediaeval  theology,  and  undoubtedly  de- 
signed as  a bulwark  against  heresy  and  schism.  The 
university  of  Glasgow  was  founded  as  a “studium  gen- 
erale  ” in  1453,  and  possessed  two  colleges.  Prior  to 
the  Reformation  it  acquired  but  little  celebrity;  its  dis- 
cipline was  lax,  and  the  number  of  the  students  but 
small,  while  the  instruction  was  not  only  inefficient  but 
irregularly  given;  no  funds  were  provided  for  the  main- 
tenance of  regular  lectures  in  the  higher  faculties;  and 
there  was  no  adequate  executive  power  for  the  main- 
tenance of  discipline.  The  university  of  Aberdeen, 
which  was  founded  in  1494,  at  first  possessed  only  one 
college — namely,  King’s.  Marischal  College,  founded 
in  1593  by  George  Keith,  fifth  Earl  Marischal,  was  con- 
stituted by  its  founder  independent  of  the  university  in 
Old  Aberdeen,  being  itself  both  a college  and  a univer- 
sity, with  the  power  of  conferring  degrees.  Bishop 
Elphinstone,  the  founder  both  of  the  university  and  of 
King’s  College  (1505),  had  been  educated  at  Glasgow, 
and  had  subsequently  both  studied  and  taught  at  Paris 
and  at  Orleans.  But  in  all  the  mediseval  universities  of 
Germany,  England,  and  Scotland,  modeled  as  they 
were  on  a common  type,  the  absence  of  adequate  dis- 
cipline was,  in  a greater  or  less  degree,  a common  de- 
fect. In  connection  with  this  feature  we  may  note  the 
comparatively  small  percentage  of  matriculated  students 
proceeding  to  the  degrees  of  B.A.  and  M.A.  when 
compared  with  later  times. 

The  German  universities  in  these  times  seem  to  have 
admitted  for  the  most  part  their  inferiority  in  learning 
to  older  and  more  favored  centers;  and  their  conscious- 
ness of  the  fact  is  shown  by  the  efforts’ which  they  made 
to  attract  instructors  from  Italy,  and  by  the  frequent 
resort  of  the  more  ambitious  students  to  schools  like 
Paris,  Bologna,  Padua,  and  Pavia.  At  almost  every 
university — Leipsic,  Greifswald,  and  Prague  (after  1409) 
being  the  principal  exceptions — the  so-called  Realists 
and  Nominalists  repiesented  two  great  parties  occupied 
with  an  internecine  struggle.  At  Paris,  owing  to  the 
overwhelming  strength  of  the  theologian*,  the  Nomi- 


nalists were  indeed  under  a kind  of  bun,  but  At  Heidel- 
berg they  had  altogether  expelled  their  antagonists.  It 
was  much  the  same  at  Vienna  and  Erfurt — the  latter, 
from  the  ready  reception  which  it  gave  to  new  specu- 
lation, being  styled  by  its  enemies,  novorum  omnium 
portus.  At  Basel,  under  the  leadership  of  the  eminent 
Johannes  a Lapide,  the  Realists  with  difficulty  main- 
tained their  ground.  Freiburg, ..Tubingen,  and  IngoL 
stadt,  in  the  hope  of  diminishing  controversy,  arrived  at 
a kind  of  compromise,  each  party  having  its  own  pro* 
‘ fessor,  and  representing  a distinct  “ nation.”  At  Mainz 
the  authorities  adopted  a manual  of  logic  which  was 
essentially  an  embodiment  of  Nominalistic  principles. 

In  Italy,  almost  without  exception,  it  was  decided 
that  these  controversies  were  endless,  and  that  their 
effects  were  pernicious.  It  was  resolved,  accordingly, 
to  expel  logic,  and  allow  its  place  to  be  filled  by  rhetoric. 
It  was  by  virtue  of  this  decision,  which  was  of  a tacit 
rather  than  a formal  character,  that  the  expounders  of 
the  new  learning  in  the  fifteenth  century,  men  like 
Emmanuel  Chrysoloras,  Guarino,  Leonardo  Bruni, 
Bessarion,  Argyropulos,  and  Valla,  carried  into  effect 
that  important  revolution  in  academic  studies  which  con- 
stitutes a new  era  in  university  learning,  and  largely 
helped  to  pave  the  way  for  the  Reformation.  The 
professorial  body  also  attained  to  an  almost  unrivaled 
reputation.  It  was  exceptionally  select,  only  those  who 
were  in  receipt  of  salaries  being  permitted,  as  a rule,  to 
lecture;  it  was  also  famed  for  its  ability,  the  institution 
of  concurrent  chairs  proving  an  excellent  stimulus.  These 
chairs  were  of  two  kinds — “ ordinary  ” and  “ extraordi- 
nary,”— the  former  being  the  more  liberally  endowed 
and  fewer  in  number.  The  Reformation  represents  the 
great  boundary  line  in  the  history  of  the  mediaeval  uni- 
versities, and  also,  for  a long  time  after,  the  main  in- 
fluence in  the  history  of  those  new  foundations  which 
subsequently  arose  in  Protestant  countries.  Even  in 
Catholic  countries  its  secondary  effects  were  scarcely 
less  perceptible,  as  they  found  expression  in  connection 
with  the  Counter-Reformation.  In  Germany  the  Thirty 
Years’  War  was  attended  by  consequences  which  were 
felt  long  after  the  seventeenth  century.  In  France  the 
Revolution  of  1,789  resulted  in  the  actual  uprooting  of 
the  university  system. 

The  first  Protestant  university  was  that  of  Marburg: 
founded  by  Philip  the  Magnanimous,  landgrave  oi 
Hesse,  May  30,  1527.  Expressly  designed  as  a bulwark 
of  Lutheranism,  it  was  mainly  built  up  out  of  the  con 
fiscation  of  the  property  of  the  religious  orders  in  the 
Hessian  capital.  The  house  of  the  Dominicans,  who 
had  fled  on  the  first  rumor  of  spoliation,  was  converted 
into  lecture-rooms  for  the  faculty  of  jurisprudence. 
The  church  and  convent  of  the  order  known  as  the 
“Kugelherrn”  was  appropriated  to  the  theological, 
faculty.  The  friary  of  the  Barefooted  Friars  was 
shared  between  the  faculties  of  medicine  and  philos- 
ophy. The  university,  which  was  the  object  of  the 
margrave’s  peculiar  care,  rapidly  rose  to  celebrity ; it 
was  resorted  to  by  students  from  remote  countries,  even 
from  Greece,  and  its  professors  were  of  distinguished 
ability.  The  Lutheran  university  of  Konigsberg  was 
founded  August  17,  1544,  by  Albert  III.,  margrave  of 
Brandenburg,  and  the  first  duke  of  Prussia,  and  his 
wife  Dorothea,  a Danish  princess.  In  this  instance, 
the  religious  character  of  the  foundation  not  having 
been  determined  at  the  commencement,  the  papal  and 
the  imperial  sanction  were  both  applied  for,  although 
not  accorded.  King  Sigismund  of  Poland,  however, 
which  kingdom  exercised  at  that  time  a protectorate 
over  the  Prussian  duchy,  ultimately  gave  the  necessary 
charter  (September  29,  1561),  at  the  same  time  ordain 
in r tha*  all  students  who  graduated  m masters  in  the 


U N I 


6096 


faculty  of  philosophy  should  rank  as  nobles  of  the 
Polish  kingdom.  When  Prussia  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  a kingdom  (1701)  the  university  was  made  a royal 
foundation,  and  the  “collegium  Fridericianum,”  which 
was  then  erected,  received  corresponding  privileges. 
In  1862  the  university  buildings  were  rebuilt,  and  the 
number  of  the  students  is  now  nearly  1,000.  The 
Lutheran  university  of  Jena  had  its  origin  in  a gymna- 
sium founded  by  John  Frederick  the  Magnanimous, 
elector  of  Saxony,  during  his  imprisonment,  for  the 
express  purpose  of  promoting  Evangelical  doctrines 
and  repairing  the  loss  of  Wittenberg,  where  the  Philip- 
pists  had  gained  the  ascendency.  Its  charter,  which  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  refused  to  grant,  and  which  was 
obtained  with  some  difficulty  from  his  brother,  Ferdi- 
nand I.,  eventually  enabled  the  authorities  to  open  the 
university  February  2,  1558. 

For  a long  time  it  was  chiefly  noted  as  a school  of 
medicine,  and,  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centu- 
ries, it  was  in  bad  repute  for  the  lawlessness  of  its  stu- 
dents, among  whom  dueling  prevailed  to  a scandalous 
extent.  The  beauty  of  its  situation  and  the  eminence 
of  its  professoriate  have,  however,  generally  attracted 
a considerable  proportion  of  students  from  other  coun- 
tries. Its  numbers,  in  1885,  were  566.  The  Lutheran 
university  of  Helmstadt,  founded  by  Duke  Julius  (of 
thehouseof  Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel),  and  designated 
after  him  in  its  official  records  as  “Academia  Julia,” 
received  its  charter  May  8,  1575,  front  the  emperor 
Maximilian  II.  No  university  in  the  sixteenth  century 
commenced  under  more  favorable  auspices.  It  was  mu- 
nificently endowed  by  the  founder  and  by  his  son;  and 
distinguished  by  its  comparatively  temperate  main- 
tenance of  the  Lutheran  tenets,  it  attracted  a consider- 
able concourse  of  students,  especially  from  the  upper 
classes,  not  a few  being  of  princely  rank.  Throughout 
its  history,  until  suppressed  in  1809,  Helmstadt  en- 
joyed the  special  and  powerful  patronage  of  the  dukes 
of  Saxony.  The  “Gymnasium  ^Egidianum”  of  Nurem- 
berg, founded  in  1526,  and  removed  in  1575  to  Altdorf, 
represents  the  origin  of  the  university  of  Altdorf.  A 
charter  was  granted,  in  1578,  by  the  emperor  Rudolph 
II.,  and  the  university  was  formally  opened  in  1580. 
It  was  at  first,  however,  empowered  only  to  grant 
degrees  in  arts;  but,  in  1623,  the  emperor  Ferdinand 
II.  added  the  permission  to  create  doctors  of  law  and 
medicine,  and  also  to  confer  crowns  on  poets ; and,  in 
1697,  its  faculties  were  completed  by  the  permission 
given  by  the  emperor  Leopold  I.  to  create  doctors  of 
theology. 

The  conversion  of  Marburg  into  a school  of  Calvin- 
istic  doctrine  gave  occasion  to  the  foundation  of  the 
universities  of  Giessen  and  of  Rinteln.  Of  these  the 
former,  founded  by  the  margrave  of  Darmstadt,  Louis 
V.,  as  akind  of  refuge  for  the  Lutheran  professors  from 
Marburg, received  its  charter  from  the  emperor  Rudolph 
II.,  May  19,  1607.  When,  however,  the  margraves  of 
Darmstadt  acquired  possession  of  Marburg,  in  1625, 
the  university  was  transferred  thither;  in  1650  it  was 
moved  back  again  to  Giessen.  The  number  of  matric- 
ulated students  at  the  commencement  of  the  century 
was  about  250;  in  1887  it  was  484.  The  university  of 
Rinteln  was  founded  Jjily  17,  1621,  by  the  emperor 
Ferdinand  II.  Almost  immediately  after  its  founda- 
tion it  became  the  prey  of  contending  parties  in  the 
Thirty  Years’  War,  and  its’early  development  was 
thus  materially  hindered.  It  n^y^r, however, attained  to 
much  distinction,  and  in  1819  it  was  suppressed.  The 
university  of  Strasburg  was  founded  in  1621  on  the 
basis  of  an  already  existing  academy,  to  which  the  cele- 
brated John  Sturm  stood,  during  the  latter  part  of  his 
life,  in  the  relation  of  rector  perpetuus , and  of  which  we 


are  told  that  in  1578  it  included  more  than  a thousand 
scholars,  among  whom  were  200  of  the  nobility,  twenty- 
four  counts  and  barons,  and  three  princes.  It  also  at- 
tracted students  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  especially 
from  Portugal,  Poland,  Denmark,  France,  and  England. 
The  method  of  Sturm’s  teaching  became  the  basis  of 
that  of  the  Jesuits,  and,  through  'them,  of  the  public 
school  instruction  in  England.  In  1621  Ferdinand  II. 
conferred  on  this  academy  full  privileges  as  a university. 
It  1681  Strasburg  became  French,  and  remained  so 
until  1870.  The  university  of  Dorpat  (now  Russian) 
was  founded  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1632  and  recon- 
stituted by  the  emperor  Alexander  I.  in  1802.  A special 
interest  attaches  to  this  university  from  the  fact  that  it 
has  for  a long  time  been  the  scene  of  the  contending 
influences  of  Teutonism  and  Slavonianism. 

The  study  of  the  Slavonic  languages  has  here  received 
considerable  stimulus,  and  by  a decree  in  May,  1887, 
the  use  of  the  Russian  language  havingbeen  made  obli- 
gatory in  all  places  of  instruction  through  the  Baltic 
provinces,  Russian  has  now  taken  the  place  of  German 
as  the  language  of  the  lecture-room.  Dorpat  possesses 
a fine  library  of  over  80,000  volumes,  and  is  also  noted 
for  its  admirable  botanical  collection.  The  general  in- 
fluence of  the  university  has  been  rapidly  extending  dur- 
ing the  last  few  years  far  beyond  the  Baltic  provinces. 
The  number  of  students,  which  in  1879  was  1,106,  in 
1886  was  1,751.  A like  contest  between  contending 
nationalities  has  recently  met  with  a final  solution  at 
Prague,  where  a Czech  university  has  been  established 
on  an  independent  basis,  the  German  university  having 
commenced  its  separate  career  in  the  winter  session  of 
1882-83.  The  German  foundation  retains  its  endow- 
ments, but  the  state  subvention  is  divided  between  the 
two. 

The  repudiation  on  the  part  of  the  Protestant  univer- 
sities of  both  papal  and  episcopal  authority  evoked  a 
counter-demonstration  among  those  centers  which  still 
adhered  to  Catholicism.  It  was  on  the  tide  of  this  re- 
action, aided  by  their  own  skill  and  sagacity,  that  the 
Jesuits  were  borne  to  that  commanding  position  which 
made  them  for  a time  the  arbiters  of  education  in  Eu- 
rope. The  earliest  university  whos«  charter  represented 
this  reaction  was  that  of  Bamberg,  founded  by  the 
prince-bishop  Melchior  Otto,  after  whom  it  was  named 
“Academia  Ottoniana.”  It  was  opened  September  1, 
1648,  and  received  both  from  the  emperor  Frederick 
III.  and  Pope  Innocent  X.  all  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
privileges  ofa  mediaeval  foundation.  Atfirst,  however, 
it  comprised  only  the  faculties  of  arts  and  of  theology; 
to  these  were  added  in  1729  that  of  jurisprudence,  and 
in  1764  that  of  medicine.  In  this  latter  faculty  Dr. 
Ignatius  Dollinger  (the  father  of  the  historian)  was  for 
a long  time  a distinguished  professor.  The  university 
of  Innsbruck  was  founded  in  1672  by  the  emperor  Leo- 
pold I. , from  whom  it  received  its  name  of  ‘ * Academia 
Leopoldina.  ” In  the  following  century,  under  the  pat- 
ronage of  the  empress  Maria  Theresa,  itmade  consider- 
able progress,  and  received  from  her  its  ancient  library 
and  bookshelves  in  1745.  In  1886  the  number  of  pro- 
fessors was  74,  and  of  students  869.  The  found- 
ation of  the  university  of  Breslau  was  contemplated 
as  early  as  the  year  1505,  but  Pope  Julius  II.,  in  the  as- 
sumed interests  of  Cracow,  withheld  his  assent.  Nearly 
two  centuries  later,  in  1702,  the  Jesuits  prevailed  upon 
the  emperior  Leopold  I.  to  found  a university  without 
soliciting  the  papal  sanction.  When  Frederick  the 
Great  conquered  Silesia  in  1 741,  he  took  both  the  uni- 
versity and  the  Jesuits  in  Breslau  under  his  protection, 
and  when  in  1774  the  order  was  suppressedby  Clement 
XIV.  he  established  them  as  priests  in  the  Royal 
Scholastic  Institute,  at  the  same  time  giving  new  stat- 


NU  N I 


utes  to  the  university.  In  1811  the  university  was  con- 
siderably augmented  by  the  incorporation  of  that  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  At  the  present  time  it  possesses 
both  a Catholic  and  a Lutheran  faculty.  Its  faculty  is 
in  high  repute.  The  total  number  of  students  in  1887 
was  1,347.  In  no  country  was  the  influence  of  the 
Jesuits  on  the  universities  more  marked  than  in  France. 

Their  schools  arose  at  Toulouse  and  Bordeaux,  at 
Auch,  Agen,  Rhodez,  Perigueux,  Limoges,  Le  Puy, 
Aubenas,  Beziers,  Tournon,  in  the  colleges  of  Flanders 
and  Lorraine,  Douai  and  Pont-a-Mousson — places  be- 
yond the  jurisdiction  of  the  parlement  of  Paris  or  even 
of  the  crown  of  France.  The  university  was  rescued 
from  the  fate  which  seemed  to  threaten  it  only  by  the 
excellent  statues  given  by  Richer  in  1598,  and  by  the 
discerning  protection  extended  to  it  by  Henry  IV. 

The  “ college  of  Edinburgh  ” was  founded  by  charter 
of  James  VI.,  dated  April  14,  1582.  Its  first  course  of 
instruction  was  commenced  in  the  Kirk  of  Field,  under 
the  direction  of  Robert  Rollock,  who  had  been  educated 
at  St.  Andrews  under  Andrew  Melville,  the  eminent 
Covenanter.  In  1585  both  Rollock  and  N airne  .sub- 
scribed the  National  Covenant.,  and  a like  subscription 
was  from  that  time  required  from  all  who  were  admitted 
to  degrees  in  the  college.  , 

In  the  year  1693  foundation  of  the  university  of 
Halle  opened  up  a career  to  two  very  eminent  men, 
whose  influence,  widely  different  as  was  its  character, 
may  be  compared  for  its  effects  with  that  of  Luther  and 
Melanchthon,  and  served  to  modify  the  whole  current 
of  German  philosophy  and  German  theology,  Christian 
Thomasius  and  A.  H.  Francke.  Thomasius  and  Francke 
had  both  been  driven  from  Leipsic  owing  to  the  disfa- 
vor with  which  their  liberal  and  progressive  tendencies 
were  there  regarded  by  the  academic  authorities,  and  on 
many  points  the  two  teachers  were  in  agreement.  It 
was  the  aim  of  ThQmasius,  as  far  as  possible,  to  secu- 
larize education,  and  to  introduce  among  his  country- 
men French  habits  and  French  modes  of  thought; 
Francke,  who  became  the  leader  of  the  Pietists,  was 
shocked  at  the  worldly  tone  and  disregard  for  sawed 
things  which  characterized  his  brother  professor.  Both, 
however,  commanded  a considerable  following  among 
the  students.  Thomasius  was  professor  in  the  faculty  of 
jurisprudence,  Francke  in  that  of  theology.  And  it  was 
a common  prediction  in  those  days  with  respect  to  a 
student  who  proposed  to  pursue  his  academic  career  at 
Halle,  that  he  would  infallibly  become  either  an 
atheist  or  a Pietist.  But  the  services  rendered  by 
Thomasius  to  learning  were  .genuine  and  lasting. 
He  was  the  first  to  set  the  example,  soon 
after  followed  by  all  the  universities  of  Germany,  of 
lecturing  in  the  vernacular  instead  of  in  the  customary 
Latin;  and  the  discourse  in  which  he  first  departed  from 
the  traditional  method  was  devoted  to  the  consideration 
of  how  far  the  German  nation  might  with  advantage 
imitate  the  French  in  matters  of  social  life  and  inter- 
course. On  the  influence  of  Francke,  as  the  founder  of 
that  Pietistic  school  with  which  the  reputation  of  Halle 
afterward  became  especially  identified,  it  is  unnecessary 
here  to  dilate.  J.  C.  Wolf,  who  followed  Thomasius 
as  an  assertorof  the  new  culture,  was  driven  from  Plalle 
by  the  accusations  of  the  Pietists,  who  declared  that  his 
teaching  was  fraught  with  atheistical  principles.  In 
1740,  however,  he  was  recalled  by  Frederick  II.,  and 
reinstated  in  high  office  with  every  mark  of  considera- 
tion and  respect.  Throughout  the  whole  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  Halle  was  the  leader  of  academic  thought 
and  culture  in  Protestant  Germany,  although  sharing 
that  leadership,  after  the  middle  of  the  century,  with 
Gottingen.  The  university  of  Gottingen  (named  after 
its  founder  “ Georgia  Augusta  ”1  was  endowed  with  the 


609; 

amplest  privileges  as  a university  by  Geswrge  II.  of 
England,  elector  of  Hanover,  December  7,  1736,  and 
yvas  formally  opened  September  17,  173 7.  The  king 
himself  assumed  the  office  of  “ rector  magnificentis 
simus,”  and  the  liberality  of  the  royal  endowment* 
(doubling  those  of  Halle),  and  the  not  less  liberal  char 
acter  of  the  spirit  that  pervaded  its  organization,  soot 
raised  it  to  a foremost  place  among  the  schools  of  Ger 
many.  Halle  had  just  expelled  Wolf ; and  Gottingen 
modeled  on  the  same  lines  as  Halle,  but  rejecting  it§ 
Pietism  and  disclaiming  its  intolerance,  appealed  with 
remarkable  success  to  the  most  enlightened  feeling  of 
the  time.  It  included  all  the  faculties,  and  two  of  its 
first  professors — Mosheim,  the  eminent  theologian* 
from  Helmstadt,  and  Bohmer,  the  no  less  distinguished 
jurist,  from  Halle — together  with  Gesner,  the  man  oi? 
letters,  at  once  established  its  reputation. 

Not  least  among  its  attractions  was  also  its  splendid 
library,  located  in  an  ancient  monastery,  and  now  con- 
taining over  200,000  volumes  and  5,000  MSS.  Ii* 
addition  to  its  general  influence  as  a distinguished  seat 
of  learning,  Gottingen  may  claim  to  have  been  mainly 
instrumental  in  diffusing  a more  adequate  conception  oil 
the  importance  of  the  study  of  history.  The  labors  06' 
the  professors  at  Gottingen,  especially  Putter,  Gatterer, 
Schlozer,  and  Spittler,  combined  with  those  of  Moscow 
at  Leipsic,  did  much  toward  promoting  both  a more 
catholic  treatment  and  a wider  scope.  Not  less  bene- 
ficial was  the  example  set  at  Gottingen  of  securing  the 
appointment  of  its  professors  by  a less  prejudiced  and 
partial  body  than  a university  board  is  only  too  likely 
to  become.  The  system  of  patronage  adopted  at  Got- 
tingen was,  in  fact,  identical  with  that  which  had  al- 
ready been  instituted  in  the  universities  of  the  Nether- 
lands by  Douza.  The  university  of  Erlangen,  a Lu- 
theran center,  was  founded  by  Frederick,  margrave  of 
Baireuth.  Its  charter  was  granted  by  the  emperor 
Charles  VII.,  February  21,  1743,  and  the  university 
was  formally  constituted  November  4th.  From  its  spe- 
cial guardian,  Alexander,  the  last  margrave  of  Ansbach, 
it  was  styled  “Academia  AlexandrinaT”  In  1791,  Ans 
bach  and  Baireuth  having  passed  into  the  possession  of 
Prussia,  Erlangen  became  subject  to  the  Prussian  Gov 
ernment.  The  number  of  the  students,  which  at  the 
commencement  of  the  century  was  under  500,  war  88»; 
in  1887. 

The  political  storms  which  marked  the  close  of  the 
last  and  the  commencement  of  the  present  century  gave 
the  death-blow  to  not  a few  of  the  ancient  universities of 
Germany.  Mainz  and  Cologne  ceased  to  exist  in  1798; 
Bamberg,  Dillingen,  and  Duisberg  in  1804;  Rinteln  ami 
Helmstadt  in  1809;  Salzburg  in  1810;  Erfurt  in  1816, 
Altdorf  was  united  to  Erlangen  in  1807,  Frankfort-on 
the-Oder  to  Breslau  in  1809,  and  Wittenberg  to  Halle 
in  1815.  The  university  of  Ingolstadt  was  first  moved 
in  1802  to  Landshut,  and  thence  in  1826  to  Munich, 
where  it  was  united  to  the  academy  of  sciences  which 
was  founded  in  the  Bavarian  capital  in  1759.  What 
ever  loss  may  have  attended  their  suppression  has  beer 
far  more  than  compensated  by  the  activity  and  influence 
of  the  three  great  German  universities  which  have  riser' 
in  the  present  century.  Munich  has  become  a distin 
guished  center  of  study  in  all  the  faculties;  and  its  num- 
bers, allowing  for  the  two  great  wars,  have  been  con 
'tinuously  on  the  increase.  The  number  of  its  professors 
in  1887  was  over  ninety,  and  that  of  its  students  at  the 
commencement  of  the  session  1886-87  3,209.  The  uni 
versityof  Berlin,  known  as  the  Royal  Friedrich  Wilhelm 
university,  was  founded  in  1809,  immediately  after  the 
peace  of  Tilsit,  when  Prussia  had  been  reduced  to  the 
level  of  a third-rate  power.  Under  the  guiding  influence 
of  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt,  however,  the  principles 


u *\  i 


6098 

which  were  adopted  in  connection  with  the  new  seat  of 
learning  not  only  raised  it  to  a foremost  place  among 
the  universities  of  Europe,  but  also  largely  conduced  to 
die  regeneration  of  Germany.  Its  subsequent  growth 
was  astonishing.  In  1813  Berlin  had  only  thirty-six 
teachers  altogether;  in  i860  there  were  173  in  all — 
ninety-seven  professors,  sixty-six  privatdocenten,  and 
seven  lecturers.  In  1886  there  were  296  teachers  and 
5,357  students;  and  among  the  former  a large  propor- 
tion of  the  names  are  already  of  world-wide  reputation, 
while  its  classical  school  stands  unrivaled  in  Europe. 
The  university  of  Bonn,  founded  in  1818,  and  known  as 
the  Rhenish  Friedrich  Wilhelm  university,  has  eighty- 
eight  professors  and  1,125  students.  Equally  distin- 
guished as  a school  of  philosophy  and  a school  of  theology, 
it  is  notable  for  the  manner  in  which  it  combines  the  op- 
posed schools  of  theological  doctrine — thkt  of  the  Evan- 
gelical (or  Lutheran)  Church  and  that  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church  here  standing  side  by  side,  and  both  adorned  by 
eminent  names.  This  combination  (which  also  exists  at 
Tiibingen  and  at  Breslau)  has  been  attended  with 
complete  success  and  (according  to  Doctor  Dollinger) 
with  unmistakable  advantages.  When  tried,  however, 
a generation  before,  at  Erfurt  and  at  Heidelberg,  its 
failure  was  not  less  conspicuous,  and  Erfurt  was  ruined 
by  the  experiment. 

Doctor  Conrad,  professor  of  political  science  at  Halle, 
has  recently  made  the  statistics  relating  to  the  German 
universities  the  subject  of  a careful  investigation  and 
■analysis,  which  offer  some  interesting  results.  The  total 
cost  of  the  universities  of  the  German  empire  is  shown 
to  be  much  smaller  than  the  total  revenues  of  the  Eng- 
lish universities  and  colleges,  although  the  number  both 
of  professors  and  students  is  much  larger,  and  although 
42  per  cent,  of  the  total  expenditure  is  upon  establish- 
ments, such  as  hospitals,  museums  and  so  forth.  But 
in  Germany  72  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  the  universities  is 
defrayed  by  the  state,  the  students  paying,  in  the  shape 
of  fees,  only  9.3  per  cent.  To  a great  extent,  however, 
the  German  universities  are  to  be  looked  upon  as  pro- 
fessional schools,  giving  an  education  which  directly  fits 
a man  to  earn  his  bread  as  a clergyman,  a lawyer,  a 
judge,  a physician,  a schoolmaster,  a chemist,  an  engi- 
neer, or  an  agriculturist.  Notwithstanding  the  rapid 
growth  in  the  numbers  of  the  students,  the  growth  of  the 
professoriate  has  fully  kept  pace  with  it. 

The  universities  of  the  United  Provinces,  like  those 
of  Protestant  Germany,  were  founded  by  the  state  as 
schools  for  the  maintenance  of  the  principles  of  the 
Reformation.  The  earliest,  that  of  Leyden,  founded  in 
1575,  commemorated  the  gallant  and  successful  resist- 
ance of  the  citizens  to  the  Spanish  fleet  under  Requesens. 
Throughout  the  seventeenth  century  Leyden  was  dis- 
tinguished by  its  learning,  the  ability  of  its  professors,  and 
the  shelter  it  afforded  to  the  more  liberal  thought  asso- 
ciated at  that  period  with  Arminianism.  Much  of  its  early 
success  was  owing  to  the  wise  provisions  and  the  influ- 
ence of  the  celebrated  Janus  Douza.  The  university  of 
Franeker  was  founded  in  1585  on  a somewhat  less 
liberal  basis  than  Leyden.  Its  four  faculties  were  those 
of  theology,  jurisprudence,  medicine,  and  “the  three 
languages  and  the  liberal  arts.  ” 

With  like  organization  were  founded — in  1600  the 
.university  of  Harderwijk,  in  1614  that  of  Groningen, 
%nd  in  1634  that  of  Utrecht.  The  restoration  of  the, 
House  of  Orange,  and  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of 
]he  Netherlands  (March  23,  1815),  was  followed  by  im- 
portant changes  in  connection  with  the  whole  kingdom. 
The  universities  of  Franeker  and  Harderwijk  were 
suppressed,  while  their  place  was  taken  by  the  newly- 
"ounded  centers  at  Ghent  (1816)  and  Li£ge  (1816). 
^fter  the  redivision  of  the  kingdom  in  1831,  Ghent  and 


Liege  were  constituted  state  universities,  and  each 
received  a subsidy  from  the  government  (see  Belgium). 
The  university  of  Brussels,  founded  in  1834,  is  an  inde- 
pendent institution,  supported  by  the  liberal  party* 
while  the  reconstituted  university  at  Louvain  represents 
the  party  of  Roman  Catholicism,  and  is  almost  ex 
clusively  a theological  school  for  the  education  of  the 
Catholic  clergy.  In  Holland,  the  foundation  of  the 
university  of  Amsterdam  (1877)  has  more  than  repaired 
the  loss  of  Franeker  and  Harderwijk,  and  the  progress 
of  this  new  center  during  the  ten  years  of  its  existence 
has  been  remarkably  rapid,  so  that  it  bids  fair  to  rival, 
if  not  to  outstrip,  both  Utrecht  and  Leyden.  The 
higher  education  of  women  has  made  some  progress  in 
the  Netherlands;  and  in  1882-83  there  were  eighteen 
women  studying  at  Amsterdam,  eleven  at  Groningen, 
four  at  Leyden,  and  seven  at  Utrecht.  In  Sweden  the 
university  of  Lund,  founded  in  1668  and  modeled  on  the 
same  plan  as  its  predecessor  at  Upsala,  has  adhered  to 
its  antiquated  constitution  with  remarkable  tenacity. 
The  university  of  Christiania  in  Norway,  founded  in 
1811,  and  the  Swedish  universities  are  strongly  Luther- 
an in  character;  and  all  alike  are  closely  associated  with 
the  ecclesiastical  institutions  of  the  Scandinavian  king- 
doms. The  same  observation  applies  to  Copenhagen, 
The  university  of  Kiel  (f665),  on  the  other  hand,  has 
come  much  more  under  Teutonic  influences,  and  is  now 
a distinguished  center  of  scientific  teaching. 

In  France  the  fortunes  of  academic  learning  were 
even  less  happy  than  in  Germany.  The  university  of 
Paris  was  distracted  throughout  the  seventeenth  cent- 
ury by  theological  dissensions.  Its  studies,  discipline,' 
and  numbers  alike  suffered.  Toward  the  close  of  the 
century  a certain  revival  took  place,  and  a succession 
of  illustrious  names  appear  on  the  roll  of  its  teachers. 
But  this  improvement  was  soon  interrupted  by  the  con- 
troversies excited  by  the  promulgation  of  the  bull  Uni- 
genitus  in  1713,  condemning  the  tenets  of  Quesnel, 
when  Rollin  Himself,  although  a man  of  singularly 
pacific  disposition,  deemed  it  his  duty  to  head  the  op- 
position to  Clement  XI.  and  the  French  episcopate. 
At  last,  in  1762,  the  par  foment  of  Paris  issued  a decree 
(August  6th)  placing  the  colleges  of  the  Jesuits  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  university,  and  this  was  immediately  fol- 
lowed by  another  for  the  expulsion  of  the  order  from 
Paris.  Concurrently  with  this  measure  the  prospects  of 
the  university  assumed  a more  favorable  character,  the 
curriculum  of  its  studies  was  extended,  and  both  his- 
tory and  natural  science  began  to  be  cultivated  with  a 
certain  success.  These  better  prospects  were,  how- 
ever. soon  obscured  by  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution; 
and  on  September  15,  1793,  the  universities  and  col- 
leges throughout  France,  together  with  the  faculties  of 
theology,  medicine,  jurisprudence,  and  arts,  were  abol- 
ished by  a decree  of  the  Convention. 

In  Switzerland  all  the  higher  education  is  supported 
mainly  by  the  German  and  Protestant  cantons.  The 
four  universities  of  Basel,  Bern,  Zurich,  and  Geneva 
have  an  aggregate  of  some  1,400  or  1,500  students,  and 
all  possess  faculties  of  philosophy,  jurisprudence,  the-' 
ology,  and  medicine.  -Basel  is,  however,  the  chief  cen- 
ter for  theology,  as  is  Bern  for  jurisprudence  and  Zurich 
for  philosophy. 

Switzerland  almost  takes  the  lead  in  connection  with 
female  education  on  the  Continent,  and  in  1882-83  there 
were  fifty-two  women  at  the  university  of  Geneva, 
thirty-six  at  Bern,  and  twenty-four  at  Zurich.  In 
Spain  the  universities  at  present  existing  are  those  of 
Barcelona,  Granada,  Madrid  (transferred  in  1837  from 
Alcala),  Oviedo,  Salamanca,  Santiago,  Seville,  Valencia, 
Valladolid,  and  Zaragoza.  They  are  all,  with  the  ex 
ception  perhaps  of  Madrid,  in  a lamentably  depressed 


U N I 


condition,  and  mainly  under  the  influence  of  French 
ideas  and  modeled  on  French  examples.  But  in  Portugal, 
Coimbra,  which  narrowly  escaped  suppression  in  the 
sixteenth  century  as  a suspected  center  of  political  dis- 
affection, is  now  a flourishing  school.  Its  instruction 
is  given  gratis;  but  it  is  one  of  the  most  aristocratic 
schools  in  Europe.  There  are  five  faculties,  viz., 
theology,  jurisprudence,  medicine,  mathematics,  and 
philosophy.  Of  these,  that  of  law  is  by  far  the  most 
flourishing,  the  number  of  students  in  this  faculty  nearly 
equalling  the  aggregate  of  all  the  rest.  There  is  a 
valuable  library,  largely  composed  of  collections 
formerly  belonging  to  suppressed  convents.  In  Italy 
the  universities  are  numerically  much  in  excess  of  the  re- 
quirements of  the  population,  there  being  no  less  than 
sixteen  state  universities  and  four  free  universities. 
Education  for  the  church  is  almost  entirely  given  at 
the  numerous  “seminaries,”  where  it  is  of  an  almost 
entirely  elementary  character.  In  1875  a laudable 
effort  was  made  by  Bonghi,  the  minister  of  education, 
to  introduce  reforms  and  to  assimilate  the  universities 
in  their  organization, and  methods  to  the  German  type. 

In  Austria  the  universities,  being  modeled  on  the 
same  system  as  that  of  Prussia,  present  no  especially 
noteworthy  features.  Vienna  is  chiefly  distinguished 
for  its  school  of  medicine,  which  enjoyed  in  the  last 
century  a reputation  almost  unrivaled  in  Europe.  The 
number  of  the  matriculated  students  in  1887  was  4,893, 
and  that  of  the  professors  138.  The  university  of 
Olmiitz,  founded  in  1581,  was  formerly  in  possession  of 
what  is  now  the  imperial  library,  and  contained  also  a 
valuable  collection  of  Slavonic  works  which  were  car- 
ried off  by  the  Swedes  and  ultimately  dispersed.  It' 
was  suppressed  in  1853,  and  is  now  represented  only  by 
a theological  faculty.  The  university  of  Graz,  the 
capital  of  Styria,  was  founded  in  1 586,  and  is  now  one 
of  the  most  flourishing  centers,  containing  some  1,200 
students.  The  university  of  Salzburg,  founded  in  1623, 
was  suppressed  in  1810;  that  of  Lemberg,  founded  in 
1784  by  the  emperor  Joseph  II.,  was  removed  in  1805 
to  Cracow  and  united  to  that  university.  In  4816  it 
was  opened  on  an  independent  basis.  In  the  bombard- 
ment of  the  town  in  1848  the  university  buildings  were 
burnt  down,  and  the  site  was  changed  to  what  was 
formerly  a Jesuit  convent.  The  fine  library  and  natural 
history  museum  were  at  the  same  time  almost  entirely 
destroyed.  The  university  at  the  present  time  numbers 
over  r,ooo  students.  The  most  recent  foundation  is 
that  of  Czernowitz,  founded  in  1875,  and  numbering 
about  300  students.  The  universities  of  the  Hungarian 
kingdom  are  three  iv  number — Budapest,  originally 
founded  at  Tyrnau  in  '635,  now  possessing  four  facul- 
ties, theology,  jurisprudence,  medicine,  and  philosophy 
(number  of  professors  in  1885  180,  students  3,117); 
Kolozsvar  (Klausenburg),  now  the  chief  Magyar  cen- 
ter, founded  in  1872,  and  also  comprising  four  faculties, 
hut  where  mathematics  and  natural  science  supply  the 
place  of  theology  (number  of  professors  in  1877  64, 
students  391);  Zagrab  (Agram),  the  Slovack  university, 
in  Croatia,  founded  in  1869,  but  not  opened  until  1874, 
with  three  faculties,  viz.,  jurisprudence,  theology,  and 
philosophy.  The  chief  center  of  Protestant  education 
is  the  college  at  Debreczin,  founded  in  1531,  which  in 
past  times  was  not  infrequently  subsidized  from  Eng- 
land. It  now  numbers  over  2,000  students,  and  pos- 
' sesses  a fine  library. 

Russia  possesses,  besides  Dorpat,  seven  other  uni- 
versities. (1)  Helsingfors,  in  Finland,  was  originally 
established  by  Queen  Christina  in  Abo  (1640),  and  re- 
moved in  1826  to  Helsingfors,  where  the  original  char- 
ter, signed  by  the  celebrated  Oxenstierna,  is  still  pre- 
served. It  has  four  faculties,  thirty-debt  professors, 


6099 

and  700  students.  (2)  Moscow  is  really  the  oldest  Rus- 
sian university,  having  been  founded  in  1755;  it  includes 
the  faculties  of  history,  physics,  jurisprudence,  and  medi- 
cine; the  professors  are  sixty-nine  in  number,  the  stu- 
dents about  1,660.  (3)  The  university  of  St.  Vladimir 

at  Ivieff,  originally  founded  at  Vilna  in  1803,  was  re- 
moved thence  to  Kieff  in  1833;  the  students  number 
about  900,  and  the  library  contains  107,000  volumes. 
(4)  Kazan  (1804)  includes  the  same  faculties  as  Moscow; 
the  students  are  about  450  in  number,  and  it  has  a 
library  containg  80,000  volumes.  (5)  Kharkoff  (1804) 
numbers  600  students,  and  its  library  55,000  volumes. 
(6)  St.  Petersburg  (1819)  includes  the  four  faculties  of 
history,  physics,  jurisprudence,  and  Oriental  languages, 
and  numbers  1,500  students.  (7)  Odessa,  founded  in 
1865,  represents  the  university  of  New  Russia.  Gener- 
ally speaking,  the  universities  of  Russia  are  not  fre- 
quented by  the  aristocratic  classes ; - they  are  largely  sub- 
sidized by  thq  government,  and  the  annual  fees  payable 
by  students  are  less  than  $35  a head.  The  university 
of  Athens  (founded  May  22,  1837)  is  modeled  on  the 
university  systems  of  northern  Germany,  on  a plan 
originally  devised  by  Professor  Brandis.  It  includes 
four  faculties,  viz.,  theology,  jurisprudence,  medicine, 
and  philosophy.  The  prolessors  (ordinary  and  extraor- 
dinary) are  upward  of  sixty  in  number,  the  students 
about  1,500.  There  is  also  a school  of  pharmacy, 
chemistry,  and  anatomy,  and  a library  of  130,000  vol- 
umes, with  800  manuscripts. 

The  history  of  the  two  English  universities  during 
the  sixteenth  and  following  centuries  has  presented,  for 
the  most  part,  features  which  contrast  strongly  with 
those  of  the  Continental  seats  of  learning.  Both  suf- 
fered severely  from  confiscation  of  their  lands  and  reve- 
nues during  the  period  of  the  Reformation,  but  other- 
wise have  generally  enjoyed  a remarkable  immunity 
from  the  worst  consequences  of  civil  and  political  strife 
and  actual  warfare.  Both  long  remained  centers  chiefly 
of  theological  teaching,  but  their  intimate  connection  at 
once  with  the  state  and  with  the  Church  of  England,  as 
“by  law  established,”  and  the  modifications  introduced 
into  their  constitutions,  prevented  their  becoming  arenas 
of  fierce  polemical  contentions  like  those  which  dis- 
tracted the  Protestant  universities  of  Germany.  The 
. influence  of  the  Renaissance,  and  the  teaching  of  Eras- 
mus, who  resided  for  some  time  at  both  universities, 
exercised  a notable  effect  alike  at  Oxford  and  at  Cam- 
bridge. The  labors  of  Erasmus  at  Cambridge,  as  the 
author  of  a new  Latin  version  of  the  New  Testament, 
with  the  design  of  placing  in.  the  hands  of  students  a 
text  free  from  the  errors  of  the  Vulgate,  were  productive 
of  important  effects,  and  the  university  became  a center 
of  Reformation  doctrine  some  years  before  the  writings 
of  Luther  became  known  in  England.  The  foundation 
of  Christ’s  College  (1505)  and  St.  John’s  College  (15 1 1), 
through  the  influence  of  Fisher  with  the  countess  of 
Richmond,  also  materially  aided  the  general  progress  of 
learning  at  Cambridge.  The  royal  injunctions  of  1535, 
embodying  the  views  and  designs  of  Thomas  Cromwell, 
mark  the  downfall  of  the  old  scholastic  methods  of  study 
at  both  universities;  and  the  foundation  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  in  1546  (partly  by  an  amalgamation 
of  two  older  societies),  represents  the  earliest  conception 
of  such  an  institution  in  England  in  complete  inde- 
pendence of  Roman  Catholic  traditions.  Trinity  (1554) 
and  St.  John’s  (1555)  at  Oxford,  on  the  other  hand, 
founded  during  the  reactionary  reign  of  Mary,  serve 
rather  as  examples  of  a transitional  period. 

In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  Cambridge  became  the 
center  of  another  great  movement—  that  of  the  earlier 
Puritanism,  St.  John’s  and  Queens’  being  the  strong- 
holds of  the  party  led  by  Cartwright.  Walter  Travers, 


6 1 oo 


u n i 


and  others.  But  the  movement  continued  to  gather 
strength;  and  Emmanuel  College,  founded  in  1584, 
owed  much  of  its  early  prosperity  to  the  fact  that  it  was 
a known  school  of  Puritan  doctrine.  Most  of  the  Pur- 
itans objected  to  the  discipline  enforced  by  the  univer- 
sity and  ordinary  college  statutes — especially  the  wear- 
ing of  the  cap  and  the  surplice  and  the  conferring  of 
degrees  in  divinity.  The  Anglican  party,  headed  by 
such  men  as  Whitgift  and  Bancroft,  resorted  in  defense 
to  a repressive  policy,  of  which  subscription  to  the  Acts 
of  Supremacy  and  Uniformity,  and  the  Elizabethan 
statutes  of  1570  were  the  most  notable  results.  Oxford, 
although  the  Puritans  were  there  headed  by  Leicester, 
the  chancellor,  devised  at  the  same  time  a similar 
scheme,  the  rigid  discipline  of  which  was  further  de- 
veloped in  the  Laudian  or  Caroline  statutes  of  1636.  It 
was  under  these  respective  codes — the  Elizabethan  stat- 
utes of  1570  and  the  Laudian  statutes  of  1636 — that  the 
two  universities  were  governed  until  the  introduction  of 
the  new  codes  of  1858. 

During  the  seventeenth  century  Cambridge  became 
the  center  of  another  movement,  a reflex  of  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Cartesian  philosophy,  which  attracted  for  a 
time  considerable  attention.  Its  leaders,  known  as  the 
Cambridge  Platonists,  were  men  of  high  character  and 
great  learning,  although  too  much  under  the  influence 
of  an  ill-restrained  enthusiasm  and  purely  speculative 
doctrines.  The  spread  of  the  Baconian  philosophy, 
and  the  example  of  a succession  of  eminent  scientific 
thinkers,  began  to  render  the  exact  sciences  more  and 
more  an  obje'ct  of  study,  and  the  institution  of  the  tripos 
examinations  in  the  course  of  the  first  half  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  established  the  reputation  of  Cambridge 
as  a school  of  mathematical  science.  At  Oxford,  where 
no  similar  development  took  place,  and  where  the 
statutable  requirements  with  respect  to  study  and  exer- 
cises were  suffered  to  fall  into  neglect,  the  degeneracy 
of  the  whole  community  as  a school  of  academic  culture 
is  attested  by  evidence  too  emphatic  to  be  gainsaid. 
The  moral  tone  at  both  universities  was  at  this  time 
singularly  low;  and  the  rise  of  Methodism,  as  associated 
with  the  names  of  the  two  Wesleys  and  Whitefield  at 
Oxford  and  that  of  Berridge  at  Cambridge,  operated 
with  greater  effect  upon  the  nation  at  large  than  on 
either  of  the  two  centers  where  it  had  its  origin.  With 
the  advance  of  the  present  century,  however,  a percept- 
ible change  took  place.  The  labors  of  Simeon  at  Cam- 
bridge, in  connection  with  the  Evangelical  party,  and 
the  far  more  celebrated  movement  known  as  T ractarian- 
ism,  at  Oxford,  exercised  considerable  influence  in 
developing  a more  thoughtful  spirit  at  either  university. 
At  both  centers,  also,  the  range  of  studies  was  extended: 
written  examinations  took  the  place  of  the  often  merely 
.formal  viva  voce  ceremonies;  at  Cambridge  classics  were 
raised  in  1824  to  the  dignity  of  a new  tripos.  The 
number  of  the  students  at  both  universities  was  largely 
augmented.  Further  schemes  of  improvement  were 
ut  forward  and  discussed,  and  in  1850  it  was  decided 
y the  government  to  appoint  commissioners  to  inquire 
what  additional  reforms  might  advantageously  be  intro- 
duced. In  1869  a statute  was  enacted  at  Cambridge 
admitting  students  as  members  of  the  university  without 
making  it  imperative  that  they  should  be  entered  at  any 
hall  or  college,  but  simply  be  resident  either  with  their 
parents  or  in  duly  licensed  lodgings.  The  entire  aboli- 
tion of  tests  followed  next.  After  several  rejections  in 
parliament  it  was  eventually  carried  as  a government 
measure,  and  passed  the  House  of  Lords  in  1871. 

In  1877  the  reports  of  two  new  commissions  were  fol- 
lowed by  further  changes,  the  chief  features  of  which 
were  the  diversion  of  a certain  proportion  of  the  rev- 
enues of  the  colleges  to  the  uses  of  the  university. 


especially  with  a view  to  the  encouragement  of  studies 
in  natural  science;  the  enforcement  of  general  and  uni- 
form regulations  with  respect  to  the  salaries,  selection, 
and  duties  of  professors,  lecturers  and  examiners;  the 
abolition  (with  a few  exceptions)  of  all  clerical  restric- 
tions on  headships  or  fellowships;  and  the  limitation  ot 
fellowships  to  a uniform  amount.  That  these  suc- 
cessive and  fundamental  changes  have,  on  the  whole, 
been  in  unison  with  the  national  wishes  and  re- 
quirements may  fairly  be  inferred  from  the  remark- 
able increase  in  numbers  during  the  last  quarter  of  a 
century,  and  especially  at  Cambridge,  where  the  num- 
ber of  undergraduates,  which  in  1862  was  1,526,  was  in 
1887  no  less  than  2,979.  In  the  academic  year  1862-63 
the  number  of  matriculations  was  448,  and  in  1886-87 
1,009. 

So  long  ago  as  the  year  1640  an  endeavor  had  been 
made  to  bring  about  the  foundation  of  a northern  uni- 
versity for  the  benefit  of  the  counties  remote  from 
Oxford  and  Cambridge.  Manchester  and  York  both 
petitioned  to  be  made  the  seat  of  the  new  center. 
Cromwell,  however,  rejected  both  petitions,  and  decided 
in  favor  of  Durham.  Here  he  founded  the  university 
of  Durham  (1657),  endowing  it  with  the  sequestered 
revenues  of  the  dean  and  chapter  of  the  cathedral,  and 
entitling  the  society  “ The  Mentor  or  Provost,  Fellows, 
and  Scholars  of  the  College  of  Durham,  of  the  founda- 
tion of  Oliver,  etc.”  This  scheme  was  canceled  at  the 
Restoration,  and  not  revived  until  the  present  century; 
July  4,  1832,  a bill  for  the  foundation  of  a university  at 
Durham  received  the  royal  assent,  the  dean  and  chap- 
ter being  thereby  empowered  to  appropriate  an  estate 
at  South  Shields  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance 
of  a university  for  the  advancement  of  learning.  A 
college,  modeled  on  the  plan  of  those  at  the  older  uni- 
versities, and  designated  University  College,  Durham, 
was  founded  in  1837,  Bishop  Hatfield’s  Hall  in  1846, 
and  Bishop  Cosin’s  Hall  (which  no  longer  exists)  in 
1851.  The  university  includes  all  the  faculties,  and  in 
1865  there  was  added  to  the  faculty  of  arts  a school  of 
physical  science,  including  pure  and  applied  mathe- 
matics, chemistry,  geology,  mining,  engineering,  etc. 
In  1871  the  corporation  of  the  university,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  some  of  the  leading  landed  proprietors  in  the 
' adjacent  counties,  gave  further  extension  to  this  design 
by  the  foundation  of  a college  of  physical  science  at 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  designed  to  teach  scientific  prin- 
ciples in  their  application  to  engineering,  mining,  man- 
ufactures, and  agriculture.  Students  who  had  passed 
the  required  examinations  were  made  admissible  as 
associates  in  physical  science  of  the  university.  There 
is  also  a medical  college  which  stands  in  similar  relations 
to  Durham,  of  which  university  Codrington  College, 
Barbados,  and  Fourah  Bay  College,  Sierra  Leone,  are 
likewise  affiliated  colleges. 

The  university  of  London  had  its  origin  in  a move- 
ment initiateddn  the  year  1825  by  Thomas  Campbell, 
the  poet,  in  conjunction  with  Henry  (afterward  Lord) 
Brougham,  Mr.  (afterward  Sir)  Isaac  Lyon  Goldsmid, 
Joseph  Hume,  and  some  influential  Dissenters,  most  of 
them  connected  with  the  congregation  of  Doctor  Cox 
of  Hackney.  The  first  council,  appointed  December, 
1825,  comprised  names  representative  of  nearly  all  the 
religious  denominations,  including  (besides  those  above 
mentioned)  Zachary  Macaulay, George  Grote,  James  Mill, 
William  Tooke,  Lord  Dudley  and  Ward,  Dr.  Olinthus 
Gregory,  Lord  Lansdowne,  Lord  John  Russell,  and  the 
1 duke  of  Norfolk.  On  February  11,  1826,  the  deed  of 
settlement  was  drawn  up;  and  in  the  course  of  the  year 
seven  acres,  constituting  the  site  of  University  College, 
were  purchased,  the  foundation  stone  of  the  new  build- 
ings being  laid  by  the  duke  of  Sussex  April  30,  1827. 


U N T 


6ioi 


The  course  of  instruction  was  designed  to  include  “ lan- 
guages', mathematics,  physics,  the  mental  and  the  moral 
sciences,  together  with  the  laws  of  England,  history, 
and  political  economy,  and  the  various  branches  of 
knowledge  which  are  the  objects  of  medical  education.” 
In  October,  1828,  the  college  was  opened  as  the  univer- 
sity of  London.  But  in  the  meantime  a certain  section 
of  the  supporters  of  the  movement,  while  satisfied  as  to 
the  essential  soundness  of  the  primary  design  as  a de- 
velopment of  national  education,  entertained  considera- 
ble scruples  as  to  the  propriety  of  altogether  disassociat- 
ing such  an  institution  from  the  national  church.  This 
feeling  found  expression  in  the  foundation  and  incorpo- 
ration of  King’s  College  (August  14,  1829),  opened 
October  8,  1831,  and  designed  to  combine  with  the 
original  plan  instruction  in  “the  doctrines  and  duties 
of  Christianity,  as  the  same  are  inculcated  by  the  United 
Church  of  England  and  Ireland.”  This  new  phase  of 
the  movement  was  so  far  successful  that  in  1836  it  was 
deemed  expedient  to  disassociate  the  university  of  Lon- 
don from  University  College  as  a “ teaching  body,”  and 
to  limit  its  action  simply  to  the  institution  of  examinations 
and  the  conferring  of  degrees — the  college  itself  receiv- 
ing a new  charter,  and  being  thenceforth  designated  as 
University  College,  London,  while  the  rival  institution 
was  also  incorporated  with  the  university,  and  was  thence- 
forth known  as  King’s  College,  London.  The  charters 
of  the  University  of  London  and  of  University  College, 
London,  were  signed  on  the  same  day,  November  28, 
1836.  In  1869  both  the  colleges  gave  their  adhesion  to 
the  movement  for  the  higher  education  of  women  which 
had  been  initiated  elsewhere,  and  in  1880  ladies  were  for 
the  first  time  admitted  to  degrees.  The  wisdom  of  the 
movement  has  been  fully  justified  by  the  high  grade  of 
scholarship  which  the  female  graduates  have  maintained. 

The  Victoria  University  was  founded  March  12,  1851, 
for  the  purpose  of  affording  to  students  who  were  un- 
able, on  the  ground  of  expense,  to  resort  to  Oxford  or 
Cambridge  an  education  of  an  equally  high  class  with 
that  given  at  those  centers.  The  institution  was,  from 
the  first,  unsectarian  in  character.  In  July,  1877,  a 
memorial  was  presented  to  the  privy  council  praying  for 
the  grant  of  a charter  to  the  college,  conferring  on  it  the 
rank  of  a university,  to  be  called  the  “ university  of 
Manchester.”  The  localization  implied  in  this  title  hav- 
ing met  with  opposition  from  the  Yorkshire  College  at 
Leeds,  it  was  resolved  that  the  university  should  be 
called  the  “ Victoria  University?”  Under  this  name  the 
foundation  received  its  charter  April  20,  1880.  “The 
characteristic  features  of  the  Victoria  University,  as  com- 
pared with  other  British  universities,  are  these: — (a)  it 
does  not,  like  London,  confer  its  degrees  on  candidates 
who  have  passed  certain  examinations  only,  but  it  also 
requires  attendance  on  prescribed  courses  of  academic 
study  in  a college  of  the  university ; (6)  the  constitution 
of  the  university  contemplates  its  (ultimately)  becoming 
a federation  of  aolleges  ; but  these  colleges  will  not  be 
situated,  like  those  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  in  one 
town,  but  wherever  a college  of  adequate  efficiency  and 
stability  shall  have  arisen.  University  College,  Liver- 
pool, and  the  Yorkshire  College,  Leeds,  having  fulfilled 
these  requirements,  have  become  affiliated  with  the  uni- 
versity. Like  the  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  Amer- 
ica, the  Victoria  University  has  instituted  certain  fellow- 
ships (styled  the  Berkeley  fellowships)  for  the  encour- 
agement of  research. 

In  Scotland  the  chief  change  to  be  noted  in  connec- 
tion with  Jthe  university  of  St.  Andrews  is  the  appropri- 
ation, in  1579,  of  the  two  colleges  of  St.  Salvador  and 
St.  Leonard  to  the  faculty  of  philosophy,  and  that  of 
St.  Mary  to  theology.  In  1747  an  Act  of  Parliament 
was  obtained  for  the  union  of  the  two  former  colleges 


into  one.  Glasgow,  in  the  year  1577,  received  a new 
charter,  and  its  history  from  that  date  down  to  the 
Restoration  was  one  of  almost  continuous  progress. 
The  restoration  of  Episcopacy,  however,  involved  th< 
alienation  of  a considerable  portion  of  its  revenues,  and 
the  consequent  suspension  of  several  of  its  chairs.  In 
1864  the  old  university  buildings  were  soM,  and,  a gov 
ernment  grant  having  been  obtained,  together  with  pri- 
vate subscriptions,  the  present  new  buildings  wen, 
erected  from  the  joint  fund.  The  faculties  now  recog. 
nized  at  Glasgow  are  those  of  arts,  theology,  jurispnn 
dence,  and  medicine.  At  Aberdeen  an  amalgamation, 
similar  to  that  at  St.  Andrews,  took  place,  by  virtue  of 
the  Universities  Act  of  1858,  of  the  two  universities  ol 
King’s  College  and  Marischal  College.  In  conjunction 
with  Glasgow,  this  university  returns  a member  to  par- 
liament. The  great  landmark  in  the  history  of  the 
Scottish,  as  in  that  of  the  English  universities,  is  repre* 
sented  by  the  remodeling  of  the  several  constitutions  of 
these  bodies  in  the  year  1858.  The  commissioners  of 
1858-62  left  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  the  posses- 
sion of  constitutional  autonomy,  with  its  studies  and 
degrees  regulated  by  ordinances.  The  students  also 
received  the  rectorial  franchise,  but  were  not,  as  at  Glas- 
gow and  Aberdeen,  divided  into  nations.  In  arts  the 
B.A.  degeee  was  abolished,  the  M.A.  representing  the 
only  degree  in  this  faculty,  as  at  the  other  Scottish  uni- 
versities. The  course  of  study  was  divided  into  three 
departments: — (1)  classics;  (2)  mathematics,  including 
natural  philosophy;  (-3)  mental  science  and  English 
literature. 

In  the  twenty  years  beginning  with  1863,  1,400  M.A. 
degrees  were  conferred,  as  against  250  in  the  twenty 
years  preceding.  In  the  faculty  of  medicine,  the  orig- 
inal single  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine  gave  place  to 
three  classes — bachelor  of  medicine  (M.B. ),  master 
in  surgery  (C.M.)  and  doctor  of  medicine  (M.D.)  In 
1866  it  was  further  laid  down  that  theses  should  no 
longer  be  demanded  from  candidates  for  the  lower  de- 
grees of  M.B.  and  C.M.,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
the  degree  of  M.D.  should  not  be  conferred  on  per- 
sons not  showing  any  evidence  of  medical  study  after 
leaving  the  university,  but  that  a thesis  should  be  inva- 
riably required.  Since  the  enactment  of  these  ordinances 
the  number  of  the  medical  students  has  increased  from 
about  500  to  over  1,700.  In  the  faculty  of  law  the  title 
of  the  degree  was  to  be  LL.  B.,  and  it  was  to  be  con- 
ferred only  on  those  who  had  already  graduated  as  M.A. 
But  the  minor  degree,  that  of  “ bachelor  of  law  ” (B.L.), 
might  be  conferred  if  the  candidate  had  attended  one 
course  of  lectures  in  the  faculty  of  arts,  and  passed  a 
preliminary  examination  in  (1)  Latin,  (2)  Greek,  French 
or  German,  and  (3)  any  two  of  the  three  subjects 
— logic,  moral  philosophy,  and  mathematics.  The 
chair  of  public  law  was  reconstituted,  and  the  chair  of 
universal  civil  history  was  converted  into  a profess- 
orship of  history  and  constitutional  law.  Chairs 
of  Sanskrit,  engineering,  geology,  commercial  and 
political  economy,  education,  fine  art,  and  the  Celtic 
languages  have  also  been  founded.  By  the  Represen- 
I tation  of  tjie  People  (Scotland)  Act,  1868,  the  universi- 
ties of  Edinburgh  and  St.  Andrews  were  empowered  to 
■ return  jointly  a member  to  the  House  of  Commons.  A 
| parliamentary  return  for  the  ten  years  ending  March  30 
i 1883,  showed  that  the  sums  voted  annually  by  parlia- 
! ment  or  chargeable  on  the  consolidated  fund  to  the  foui 
universities  had  amounted  during  that  period  to  $329,- 
! 105  for  Aberdeen,  $425,000  for  Edinburgh,  $330,000 
for  Glasgow,  and  $190,555  for  St.  Andrews.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  sums  Edinburgh  had  received  $400,000 
and  Glasgow  $100,000  in  the  form  of  special  grants  in 
, aid. 


6 1 02 


U N 1 


The  following  table  contains  the  name,  location,  and  religious  denomination  of  American  universities,  on 
January- 1,  1902,  together  with  the  number  of  instructors  and  students  : 


College  Name. 

Location. 

Relig- 

ious 

Denomi- 

nation. 

No.  of  In- 
structors. 

No.  of 

Students. 

College  Name. 

Location. 

Reli- 

gious 

Denomi- 

nation. 

| No.  of  In- 
1 structors 

w 

"0  h 
o’-c 

<r> 

Allegheny 

Meadville,  Pa 

Me.  Epis. 

18 

32° 

Oberlin 

Oberlin,  O. 

Non-Sec. 

84 

1,357 

Amherst". 

Amherst,  Mass..’ 

Non-Sec. 

36 

410 

Ohio  State  Univ. . 

Columbus,  O 

Non-See. 

130 

1,465 

Antioch 

Y'ellow  Springs,  0 

Non-Sec. 

12 

118 

Ohio  University. . 

Athens,  Ohio 

Non-Sec. 

26 

405 

Bates  

23 

330 

Ohio  Wesleyan  U. 

Delaware,  O 

Me.  Epis. 

115 

1,358 

Baylor  Univ 

Waco,  Tex 

Baptist  . 

47 

936 

Oregon  Agri.  Col. 

Corvallis,  Ore 

Nchi-Sec. 

28 

502 

Berea 

Berea,  Ky . ...  — 

Non-Sec. 

33 

825 

Ottawa  Univ 

Ottawa,  Kan 

Baptist  . 

23 

603 

Bethany  

Lindsborg,  Kan . . 

Luth’ran 

30 

700 

Pennsylvania 

Gettysburg,  Pa... 

Luth’ran 

16 

276 

Boston  University 

Boston,  Mass 

Me.  Epis. 

144 

1,350 

Princeton  Univ.. . 

Princeton,  N.  J. . . 

Non-Sec. 

102 

1,340 

40 

360 

Radcliffe. 

Cambridge,  Mass. 

Non-Sec. 

112 

435 

Brown  University 

Providence,  R.  I . 

Non-Sec . 

75 

899 

Randolph-Macon . 

Lynchburg,  Va... 

Metho  ’st 

23 

27o 

Bryn  Mawr 

Bryn  Mawr.  Pa. . . 

Non-Sec . 

44 

417 

Roanoke 

Salem,  Va. . . .' 

Luth’ran 

10 

195 

Canisius 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

R.  Cath. 

32 

285 

Rollins 

Winter  Park,  Fla. 

Non-Sec. 

21 

179 

Case  Sc.  App’l  Sci. 

Cleveland,  0 

Non-Sec. 

24 

350 

Rutgers 

N.  Brunswick, N.  J 

Non-Sec. 

29 

222 

Cath’lic  U niv . Am . 

Washington,  D.  C. 

R.  Cath. 

27 

150 

Seton  Hall 

South  O range ,N.  J 

R.  Cath. 

22 

150 

Central  Univ 

Danville,  Ky 

Presb 

112 

1,280 

Shaw  University  . 

Raleigh,  N.  C 

Baptist. . 

28 

578 

Non-Sec. 

7 

58 

Simpson  .... 

Indianola,  Iowa  .. 

Me.  Epis. 

32 

629 

Me.  Epis. 

21 

550 

Smith 

N’hampton  Mass.. 

Non-Sec. 

83 

1,043 

Colby . 

Waterville,  Me... 

Baptist. . 

14 

180 

S’thwes’11  Bap.  U. 

Jackson,  Tenn. . . 

Baptist. . 

23 

376 

Coll.  City  of  N.  Y. 

Manh’n  Boro,N.Y. 

Non-Sec. 

80 

2,126 

Stan’d  Leland,  Jr. 

Palo  Alto,  Cal  .... 

Non-Sec. 

115 

1,378 

Columbia  Univ. . . 

Manh’n  Boro,N.Y. 

Non-Sec. 

384 

4,036 

State  Col.  of  Ky.. 

Lexington,  Ky 

Non-Sec. 

38 

620 

Columbian  Univ. 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Baptist. . 

164 

1,415 

State  Univ.  of  la.. 

Iowa  City,  Iowa. . 

Non-Sec. 

130 

1,542 

Cornell 

Mt.  Vernon,  Iowa 

Me.  Epis. 

35 

716 

Stevens  In.  Tech.. 

Hoboken,  N.  J 

Non-Sec. 

22 

270 

Coni  ell  Univ 

Ithaca,  N.  Y 

Non-Sec. 

366 

2,980 

St.  Francis  Xavier 

Manh’n  Boro,  N.  Y 

R.  Cath. 

31 

710 

Cumberland  Univ 

Lebanon,  Tenn. . . 

C’b  Pres. 

23 

237 

St.  John’s 

Annapolis,  Md 

Non-Sec. 

13 

155 

Dartmouth 

Hanover,  N.  H. 

Non-Sec. 

68 

768 

St.  Lawrence  U. . . 

Canton,  N.  Y 

Univ’list 

16 

150 

Davidson 

Davidson,  N.  C. . . 

Presb 

13 

175 

St.  Louis  Univ 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

R.  Cath. 

34 

435 

Denison  Univ 

Granville,  0 

Baptist. . 

34 

484 

St.  Olaf 

Northfield,  Minn. 

Luth’ran 

17 

306 

Univ. Park,  Col. . . 

Me".  Epis. 

ru 

878 

S wa,  r th  m 0 r o 

Swarthmore,  Pa. . 

Friends  . 

28 

206 

De  Pauw  Univ  — 

Greencastle,  Ind. 

Me.  Epis. 

28 

635 

Syracuse  Univ 

Syracuse,  N.  Y — 

Me.  Epis. 

152 

1,800 

Carlisle,  Pa 

Me.  Epis. 

29 

490 

Talladega 

Talladega,  Ala. . . . 

Cong 

25 

586 

Drake  University. 

Des  Moines,  Iowa. 

Christi’n 

90 

1,764 

Trinity 

Hartford,  Conn.. . 

Prot.  Ep. 

25 

141 

Drew  Theol.  Sem . 

Madison,  N.  J 

Me.  Epis. 

7 

185 

Trinity 

Durham,  N.  C 

M.  Ep.  S. 

22 

167 

Drury  

Springfield,  Mo. . . 

Non-Sec. 

21 

350 

Tufts  . 

Tufts  Coll.,  Mass. 

Univ’list 

125 

900 

Emory 

Oxford,  Ga 

M.  Ep.  S. 

. 14 

279 

Tulane  Univer. . . . 

New  Orleans,  La.. 

Non-See. 

80 

1,145 

Eureka 

Eureka,  111 

Disciples 

16 

225 

Tuskegee  Inst. . . . 

Tuskegee,  Ala 

Non -Sec. 

88 

1,253 

Findlay 

Findlay,  0 

C.  of  G’d 

15 

285 

Union 

Schenectady , N.  Y 

Non-Sec. 

20 

192 

Fisk  University. . 

Nashville,  Tenn. . 

Cong  .. . . 

30 

502 

Union  Theol.  Sem. 

Manh’n  Boro,N.  Y 

Presb  . . . 

18 

125 

Fort  Worth  Univ. 

Fort  Worth,  Tex. . 

Me.  Epis. 

51 

869 

U.  of  Alabama .... 

Tuscaloosa,  Ala.. . 

Non-Sec. 

46 

413 

Franklin 

Franklin,  Ind 

Baptist. . 

11 

178 

U.  of  California 

Berkeley,  Cal 

Non-Sec. 

230 

2,932 

Franklin  & Mars’l 

Lancaster,  Pa 

R.inU.S 

26 

403 

U.  of  Chicago  .... 

Chicago,  111 

Non-Sec. 

296 

•3,520 

Furman  Univ 

Greenville,  S.  C.. 

Baptist. . 

13 

243 

U.  of  Cincinnati. . 

Cincinnati,  O 

Non -Sec. 

150 

1,287 

Gen.  Theol.  Sem. 

Manh’n  Boro,N.Y. 

Prot.  Ep. 

14 

144 

U.  of  Colorado 

Boulder,  Col 

Non-Sec. 

92 

900 

Georgetown  Univ 

Washington,  D.C. 

R.  Cath. 

108 

725 

U.  of  Georgia 

Athens,  Ga 

Non-Sec. 

131 

1,994 

Hamilton 

Clinton,  N.  Y 

Non-Sec . 

20 

183 

TT.  of  Illinois 

Urbana,  111 

Non-Sec. 

334 

3,000 

Hampden-Sidney. 

Hamp.-Sidney,  Va 

Non-Sec. 

9 

109 

U.  of  Kansas 

Lawrence,  Kan . . . 

Non-Sec. 

80 

1,150 

Hanover 

Hanover,  Ind. . . . 

Presb  . . . 

13 

175 

U.  of  Kentucky. . . 

Lexington,  Ky.. . . 

Christi’n 

61 

1,108 

Harvard  Univ. . . . 

Cambridge,  Mass. 

Non-Sec. 

483 

5,124 

U.  of  Michigan 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

Non-See. 

233 

3,800 

Haverford 

Haverford,  Pa. . . . 

Friends  . 

19 

125 

U.  of  Minnesota. . 

Minneap’lis,  Minn 

Non-Sec. 

250 

3,550 

Heidelberg  Univ. 

Tiffin,  0 

R.inU.S 

22 

374 

U.  of  Mississippi  . 

Near  Oxford,  Miss 

Non-Sec.. 

21 

260 

Hiram 

Hiram,  0 

Disciples 

25 

450 

U.  of  Missouri. . . . 

Columbia,  Mo 

Non-Sec. 

109 

1,021 

Hiwassee 

Hiwassee,  Tenn.. 

Non-Sec. 

6 

135 

U.  of  Nashville. . . 

Nashville,  Tenn. . 

Non-Sec. 

67 

1,370 

Hobart 

Geneva,  N.  Y 

Prot.  Ep. 

15 

94 

U.  of  Nebraska  . . . 

Lincoln,  Neb 

Non-Sec. 

220 

2,256 

Howard  Univ 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Non-Sec. 

55 

910 

U.  of  N.  Carolina. 

Chapel  Hill,  N.  C. 

Non-Sec. 

45 

546 

Ill  .Wesleyan  Univ 

Bloomington,  111. 

Me.  Epis. 

34 

1,421 

U.  of  Notre  Dame. 

Notre  Dame,  Ind. 

R.  Cath. 

65 

800 

Indiana  Univ 

Bloomington,  Ind 

Non-Sec. 

70 

1,137 

U.  of  Penns’lvania 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Non-Sec. 

268 

2,475 

Iowa 

Grinnell,  Iowa... 

Cong  .... 

30 

442 

U.  of  S.  Dakota. . . 

Vermilion,  S.  Dak 

Non-Sec. 

28 

425 

Iowa  State  Col 

Ames,  Iowa 

Non-Sec. 

69 

1,160 

U.  of  the  South. . . 

Sewanee,  Tenn  . . . 

Prot.  Ep. 

62 

518 

Johns  Hopkins  U. 

Baltimore,  Md. . . 

Non-Sec. 

143 

651 

U.  of  Tennessee  . . 

Knoxville,  Tenn. . 

Non-Sec. 

85 

721 

Kenyon  

Gambier,  0. 

Prot.  Ep. 

25 

215 

TT.  of  Texas 

Austin,  Texas 

Non-Sec. 

97 

1,121 

Knox 

Galesburg,  111.  .. 

Non-Sec. 

26 

665 

U.  of  Utah 

Salt  Lake  City,  U. 

Non-Sec. 

28 

648 

Lafayette 

Easton,  Pa 

Presb .... 

29 

426 

U.  of  Vermont. . . . 

Burlington,  Vt.. . . 

Non-Sec. 

62 

560 

Lake  Forest  Univ. 

Lake  Forest,  111.. . 

Presb 

55 

373 

U.  of  Virginia 

Charlot’sville,  Va. 

Non-Sec. 

55 

600 

Lane  Theol . Sem . . 

Cincinnati,  0 

Presb 

6 

20 

U.  of  Washington 

Seattle,  Wash 

Non-Sec. 

53 

614 

Lawrence  Univ. . . 

Appleton,  Wis 

Int’den’l 

26 

451 

U.  of  Wisconsin  . . 

Madison,  Wis 

Non-Sec. 

171 

2,619 

Lehigh  Univ 

S.  Bethlehem,  Pa. 

Non-Sec . 

44 

542 

TT.  of  Wooster. 

Wooster,  O 

Presb  . . . 

26 

800 

Lincoln  

Lincoln,  111 

C’b.  Pres 

14 

174 

U.  S.  Military  A. . 

West  Point,  N.  Y. 

Non-Sec. 

71 

464 

Manhattan 

Manh’n  Boro,N.Y. 

R.  Cath. 

38 

561 

U.  S.  Naval  Acad. 

Annapolis,  Md 

Non-Sec. 

69 

333 

Marietta 

Marietta,  0 

Non-Se'c. 

21 

300 

Vanderbilt  Univ.. 

Nashville,  Tenn . . 

M.  Ep.  S. 

100 

754 

Mass.  Institution 

Vassar 

Poughke’psie.N.Y 

Non-Sec. 

72 

798 

Technology 

Boston,  Mass 

Non-Sec. 

139 

1,430 

Walden  Univ 

Nashville,  Tenn. . 

Me.  Epis. 

32 

578 

McKendree . . 

Lebanon,  111 

Me.  Epis. 

15 

206 

Wash.  & Jefferson 

Washington,  Pa.. 

Presb  . . . 

23 

360 

Mercer  Univ 

Macon,  Ga 

Baptist. . 

15 

260 

Wash.  &,  Lee  Univ 

Lexington,  Va. . . . 

Non-Sec. 

22 

222 

Miami  Univ 

Oxford,  0 

Non-Sec. 

15 

144 

Washington  Univ 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

Non-Sec. 

190 

2,086 

Middlebury . . 

Middlebury,  Vt. . . 

Non-Sec. 

11 

116 

Wellesley 

Wellesley,  Mass.. . 

Non-Sec. 

80 

821 

Monmouth  

Monmouth,  111 

U.  Pres. . 

18 

303 

Wesleyan  Univ. . . 

Middleto’n,  Conn. 

Me.  Epis. 

36 

350 

Mount  Holyoke.. 

S.  Hadley,  Mass. . 

Non-Sec. 

46 

612 

West.  Reserve  U . . 

Cleveland,  O 

Non-Sec. 

175 

800 

Mount  St.  Mary’s. 

Emmitsburg,  Md. 

R.  Cath. 

35 

215 

West.  U.  of  Penn.. 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 

Non-Sec» 

115 

869 

Mount  Union. 

Alliance,  0 

Me.  Epis. 

23 

532 

West  Virginia  U. . 

Morgan t’n,  W.  Va. 

Non-Sec. 

57 

885 

Neh. Wesleyan  U.. 

Univer.  PL, Neb. . 

Me.  Epis. 

41 

600 

William  & Mary. . 

Williamsburg,  V a. 

Non-Sec. 

16 

184 

New  York  Univ  . . 

New  York  City. . . 

Non-Sec. 

186 

1,824 

Wittenberg  . 

Springfield,  0 

Luth’ran 

20 

456 

Northwestern  U. . 

Evanston,  111 

|Me.  Epis. 

244 

2,629 

Yale  University 

New  Haven,  Conn 

Non-Sec. 

280 

2.6S0 

U N I 


On  January  i,  1901,  according  to  the  educational 
report,  there  were  tour  hundred  and  eighty  colleges 
and  universities  in  operation  in  the  United  States,  with 
a total  of  4,834  departments,  103,251  students, 
and  libraries  containing  an  aggregate  of  4,431,463 
volumes. 

Trinity  College,  Dublin,  was  founded  in  1591,  under 
the  auspices  of  Sir  John  Perrot,  the  Irish  viceroy. 
The  first  departure  in  Ireland  from  the  exclusive  system 
of  education  formerly  represented  by  the  foundation  at 
Dublin,  dates  from  the  creation  of  the  Queen’s  Univer- 
sity, incorporated  by  royal  charter  September  3,  1850. 
By  this  charter  the  general  legislation  of  the  university, 
together  with  its  government  and  administration,  was 
vested  in  the  university  senate.  In  1864  the  charter  of 
1850  was  superseded  by  a supplementary  charter,  and 
the  university  reconstituted;  and  finally,  in  1880,  by 
virtue  of  the  Act  of  Parliament  known  as  the  University 
Education  (Ireland)  Act,  1879,  the  Queen’s  University 
gave  place  to  the  Royal  University  of  Ireland,  which 
was  practically  a reconstitution  of  the  former  founda- 
tion, the  dissolution  of  the  Queen’s  University  being 
decreed  so  soon  as  the  newly  constituted  body  should 
be  in  a position  to  confer  degrees.  The  university  con- 
fers degrees  in  arts  (B.A.,  M.A.,  D.Litt.),  science, 
engineering,  music,  medicine,  surgery,  obstetrics,  and 
law.  The  Queen’s  Colleges  at  Belfast,  Cork,  and  Gal- 
way were  founded  in  December,  1845,  under  an  Act  of 
Parliament.  Their  professors  were  at  the  same  time 
constituted  professors  in  the  university,  and  conducted 
the  examinations. 

There  is  at  present  no  university  of  Wales.  The 
oldest  college,  that  of  St.  David’s  at  Lampeter,  possesses 
the  right  of  conferring  degrees.  It  was  founded  in 
1822  for  the  purpose  of  educating  clergymen  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Established  Church  of  England  and  Wales, 
mainly  for  the  supply  of  the  Welsh  dioceses.  The  num- 
ber of  the  professors  in  1887  was  8,  and  the  number  of 
the  students  120.  The  next  college  in  order  of  founda- 
tion is  Aberystwith.  It  was  founded  October  9,  1872, 
but  possesses  no  charter,  and  is  mainly  supported  by  the 
Dissenting  bodies.  The  staff  of  professors  numbers  13, 
and  the  students  number  150.  The  University  College 
of  South  Wales  and  Monmouthshire  at  Cardiff  was 
founded  in  1883.  The  number  of  professors  in  1887  was 
9,  lecturers  4,  demonstrators  2;  number  of  students  140. 
The  University  College  of  North  Wales  at  Bangor  received 
its  charter  June  4,  1885,  its  object  being  to  “provide 
instruction  in  all  the  branches  of  a liberal  education  ex- 
cept theology.”  Its  staff  consists  of  a principal,  8 pro- 
fessors or  lecturers,  and  2 demonstrators;  the  number 
of  the  students  is  127.  There  is  also  a hall  of  residence 
for  women  students.  At  each  of  these  three  last-named 
colleges  students  proceeding  to  degrees  have  to  go 
through  either  a London,  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  or  Dub- 
lin course  of  study,  but  at  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and 
Dublin  a certain  proportion  of  the  term  of  residence 
ordinarily  required  is  remitted  in  their  favor. 

In  India,  the  three  older  universities  all  date  from 
1857 — that  of  Calcutta  having  been  incorporated  Janu- 
ary 24th,  Bombay  July  1 8th,  Madras  September  5th, 
in  that  year.  At  these  three  universities  the  instruction 
is  mainly  in  English.  The  Punjab  university  was  in- 
corporated in  1883 — the  Punjab  University  College, 
prior  to  that  date,  having  conferred  titles  only  and  not 
degrees.  The  main  object  of  this  university  is  the  en- 
couragement of  the  study  of  the  Oriental  languages  and 
literature,  and  the  rendering  accessible  to  native  students 
the  results  of  European  scientific  teaching  through  the 
medium  of  their  own  vernacular.  The  Oriental  faculty 
is  here  the  oldest,  and  the  degree  of  B.O.L.  (bachelor  of 
Oriental  literature)  is  given  as  the  result  of  its  examina- 


6103 

tions.  At  the  Oriental  College  the  instruction  is  given 
wholly  in  the  native  languages.  In  Australia,  the  uni- 
versity of  Sydney  was  incorporated  by  an  Act  of  the 
colonial  legislature,  which  received  the  royal  assent 
December  9,  1851,  and  on  February  27,  1850,  a royal 
charter  was  granted  conferring  on  graduates  of  the 
university  the  same  rank,  style,  and  precedence  as  are 
enjoyed  by  graduates  of  universities  within  the  Uniteq 
Kingdom.  Sydney  is  also  one  of  the  institutions  asso 
ciated  with  the  university  of  London,  from  which  cer- 
tificates of  having  received  a due  course  of  instruction 
may  be  received  with  a view  to  admission  to  degrees. 
There  are  four  faculties,  viz.,  arts,  law,  medicine,  .and 
science.  The  design  of  the  university  is  to  supply  the 
means  of  a liberal  education  to  all  orders  and  denomina- 
tions, without  any  distinction  whatever.  An  Act  for 
the  purpose  of  facilitating  the  erection  of  colleges  in 
connection  with  different  religious  bodies  was,  however, 
passed  by  the  legislature,  during  the  session  of  1884, 
and  since  that  time  colleges  representing  the  Episcopal- 
ian, Presbyterian,  and  Roman  Catholic  Churches  have 
been  founded.  In  1885  the  total  number  of  students 
attending  lectures  in  the  university  was  206.  The  uni- 
versity of  Melbourne*  in  the  colony  of  Victoria,  was  in- 
corporated and  endowed  by  royal  Act,  January  22, 
1853.  This  Act  was  amended  June  7,  1881.  Here 
also  no  religious  tests  are  imposed  on  admission  to  any 
degree  or  election  to  any  office.  The  council  is  empow- 
ered, after  due  examination,  to  confer  degrees  in  all  the 
faculties  (excepting  divinity)  which  can  be  conferred  in 
any  university  within  the  British  dominions. 

The  university  of  Adelaide  in  South  Australia 
(founded  mainly  by  the  exertions  and  munificence  of 
Sir  Walter  Watson  Hughes)  was  incorporated  by  an  Act 
of  the  colonial  legislature  in  1874,  in  which  year  it  was 
further  endowed  by  Sir  Thomas  Elder.  The  faculties 
in  the  ‘ university  are  those  of  arts,  medicine,  law, 
science,  and  music.  The  number  of  matriculations 
since  the  foundation  amounted  in  1886  to  284,  the  num- 
ber of  undergradutes  in  that  year  being  90.  The  uni- 
versity of  New  Zealand,  founded  in  1870,  and  reconsti- 
tuted in  1874  and  1875,  is  empowered  by  royal 
charter  to  grant  the  several  degrees  of  bachelor  and  mas- 
ter of  arts,  and  bachelor  and  doctor  in  law,  medicine, 
and  music.  Women  are  admitted  to  degrees.  To  this 
the  Auckland  University  College,  Nelson  College,  Can- 
terbury College,  and  the  university  of  Otago  stand  in 
the  relation  of  affiliated  institutions.  This  last-named 
institution  was  founded  in  1869  by  an  order  of  the  pro- 
vincial council,  with  the  power  of  conferring  degrees  in 
arts,  medicine,  and  law,  and  received  as  an  endowment 
100,000  acres  of  pastoral  land.  It  was  opened  in  1871 
with  a staff  of  three  professors,  all  in  the  faculty  of  arts. 
In  1872  the  provincial  council  further  subsidized  it  by  a 
grant  of  a second  100,000  acres  of  land,  and  the  uni- 
versity was  now  enabled  to  make  considerable  additions 
to  the  staff  of  professors  and  lecturers,  to  establish  a 
lectureship  in  law,  and  to  lay  the  foundations  of  a medi- 
cal school. 

In  Canada  the  M’Gill  College  and  University  at 
Montreal  was  founded  by  royal  charter  in  1821 
(amended  in  1852)  on  the  foundation  of  the  Hon. 
James  M’Gill,  who  died  at  Montreal  December  19, 
1813.  I*  includes  the  faculties  of  arts,  applied  sciences, 
medicine,  and  law.  In  1885  the  total  number  of 
students,  including  women,  was  526.  The  university  of 
Toronto  was  originally  established  by  royal  charter  in 
1827,  under  the  title  of  King’s  College,  with  certain 
religious  restrictions  resembling  those  at  that  time  in 
force  at  the  English  universities,  but  in  1834  these 
restrictions  were  abolished,  and  in  1S49  ^ie  designation 
of  the  university  was  changed  intoflrit  of  the  University 


6104 


UNL-UNY 


of  Toronto.  In  1873  further  amendments  were  made 
in  the  constitution  of  the  university.  The  chancellor 
was  made  elective  for  a period  of  three  years  by  con- 
vocation, which  was  at  the  same  time  reorganized  so  as 
to  include  all  graduates  in  law,  medicine,  and  surgery, 
all  masters  of  arts,  and  bachelors  of  arts  of  three  years’ 
standing,  all  doctors  of  science,  and  bachelors  of  science 
of  three  years’  standing.  The  powers  of  the  senate 
were  also  extended  to  all  branches  of  literature,  science, 
and  the  arts,  to  granting  certificates  of  proficiency  to 
women,  and  to  affiliating  colleges.  The  work  of  in- 
struction is  performed  by  University  College,  which  is 
maintained  out  of  the  endowment  of  the  provincial  uni- 
versity, and  governed  by  a council  composed  of  the 
residents  and  the  professors.  Its  several  chairs  include 
classical  literature,  logic  and  rhetoric,  mathematics  and 
natural  philosophy,  chemistry  and  experimental  phi- 
losophy, history  and  English  literature,  mineralogy  and 
geology,  metaphysics  and  ethics,  meteorology  and 
natural  history,  and  lectureships  on  Oriental  literature, 
German,  and  French.  Other  universities  and  colleges 
with  power  to  confer  degrees  are  the  Victoria  University 
at  Cobourg  (1836),  supported  by  the  Methodist  Church 
of  Canada;  Queen’s  University,  Kingston  (1841),  re- 
presenting the  Presbyterian  body;  and  the  university  of 
Trinity  College,  Toronto,  founded  in  1851  on  the  sup- 
pression of  the  faculty  of  divinity  in  King’s  College. 
Lennoxville  is  a center  for  university  instruction  in  con- 
formity with  Church  of  England  principles. 

In  Africa,  an  Act  for  the  incorporation  of  the  uni- 
versity of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  received  the  royal 
assent  June  26,  1873,  the  council  being  empowered  to 
grant  degrees  in  arts,  law,  and  medicine. 

With  one  or  two  possible  exceptions  there  are  no 
countries  in  the  world  where  the  means  for  obtaining  an 
academic  education  are  more  readily  accessible  than  in 
the  United  States,  no  country  where  the  opportunities 
offered  are  more  generally  availed  of,  and  no  country  in 
which  an  education  is  more  universally  enjoyed.  At 
the  earliest  date  in  the  history  of  the  republic  a school 
system  was  adopted  in  nearly  every  county  precinct  of 
each  of  the  States,  and  as  the  States  have  grown  in 
wealth  and  population  the  system  has  been  improved 
upon  and  extended.  Colleges  come  in  the  natural  order 
of  events,  and  during  comparatively  recent  years,  or  to 
be  more  exact,  since  the  commencement  of  the  last  half 
of  the  present  century,  university  education  here  has 
steadily  received  great  extension,  and  a higher  education 
has  been  widely  diffused.  According  to  an  address  de- 
livered by  the  president  of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  1886,  the  colleges  in  the 
United  States  may  be  ranged  under  four  different 
classes:  Those  which  proceed  from  the  original  his- 
toric colleges,  those  established  in  the  name  of  the 
State,  those  avowedly  ecclesiastical,  and  those  founded 
by  private  benefactions.  To  the  first  class  belong  Har- 
vard and  Yale  colleges,  the  University  of  Virginia  repre- 
sents the  second  class,  religious  institutions  the  third 
class,  and  the  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University  the 
fourth  class. 

Within  the  past  fifty  years  considerable  modifications 
have  taken  place  in  the  course  of  study,  nearly  all  the 
colleges  having  adopted  the  system  of  “ parallel 
courses,”  and  the  principle  of  selection  between  these. 
In  America  female  education  has  also  received  an  ex- 
tension to  which  it  has  attained  in  no  other  country. 
Since  the  civil  war  a great  advance  has  been  made  in 
the  direction  and  management  of  universities  and 
colleges  in  the  United  States.  Special  attention  has 
been  given  to  physical  training  and  athletic  exercises 
and  at  some  of  them  excellent  gymnasia,  constructed 
on  German  models,  have  been  erected. 


UNLEAVENED  BREAD,  use  of,  in  the  Eucharist^ 
has  long  been  the  subject  of  controversy  between  the 
Latin  Church  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Greek  and  other 
Oriental  churches  on  the  other;  with  the  latter  of  whom 
the  Reformed  churches  in  later  times  have  conformed  in 
their  practice  of  celebrating  the  Lord’s  Supper.  The 
early  history  of  the  usage  is  very  obscure;  but  the 
Western  Church  has  certainly,  from  a very  remote 
date,  employed  Azyms  or  unleavened  bread,  in  the  con- 
secration and  distribution  of  the  Eucharist;  nor  was 
this  usage  made  a subject  of  controversy  with  the  Latins, 
by  Photius,  on  occasion  of  the  dispute  between  the 
churches  which  arose  during  his  patriarchate.  In  the 
latter  controversy,  however,  under  Michael  Cerularius, 
the  question  of  azyms  became  very  prominent,  and  the 
diversity  of  practice  still  continues  a subject  of  con- 
troversy between  the  Greeks  and  Latins.  The  principal 
argument  alleged  by  the  advocates  of  the  use  of 
leavened  bread,  is  founded  on  the  assumption  that  the 
Last  Supper  of  our  Lord  took  place  on  the  eve  of  the 
Passover,  that  is,  on  the  thirteenth  day  of  the  month 
Nisan,  on  which  day  common  bread,  and  not  the  azyms, 
must  have  been  used;  and  on  this  and  some  other 
grounds,  some  writers  even  among  the  Roman  Catholics 
themselves,  and  especially  the  learned  Jesuit  Sirmond, 
have  maintained  that  the  Last  Supper  was  actually 
celebrated  in  leavened  bread. 

On  the  other  hand,  however,  it  is  contended  that  the 
Last  Supper,  being  held  in  the  evening  of  that  day,  was, 
in  the  strictest  sense,  our  Lord’s  celebration  of  the 
Passover,  and  therefore  (Exodus  xii.  8-20),  that  the 
bread  can  have  been  no  other  than  azym  or  unleavened. 
It  must  be  added  that  all  Roman  Catholic  writers  and 
the  more  learned  among  the  Greeks  are  agreed  that  the 
Eucharist  may  be  validly  consecrated  whether  the  bread 
be  leavened  or  unleavened. 

UNTERWALDEN  is  one  of  the  Forest  cantons  of 
Switzerland,  ranking  as  sixth  in  the  Confederation.  It 
is  composed  of  two  valleys  through  which  run  tw'^ 
streams  both  called  the  Aa,  and  which  are  called  OU 
wald  and  Nidwald  from  their  positions' with  regard  tv 
the  great  forest  of  the  Kern  wald  in  which  they  are  sit- 
uated. The  total  area  of  Obwald  is  183.3  square  miles, 
154.2  of  which  are  classed  as  productive  (forest  37.6), 
while  of  the  remainder  3.8  are  covered  by  glaciers  and 
4.3  by  lakes.  The  area  of  Nidwald  is  112.1  square 
miles,  84.1  being  productive  (forests  27.7);  of  the  rest 
the  cantonal  bit  of  the  Lake  of -Lucerne  covers  12.8. 
The  highest  point  in  the  canton  is  the  Titlis  (10,627 
feet)  in  Obwald.  The  census  of  1880  returned  the  pop- 
ulation of  Obwald  as  15,356,  an  increase  of  941  on 
1870,  and  that  of  Nidwald  as  11,992,  an  increase  of 
291.  In  both  the  women  have  a small  majority  over 
the  men.  The  native  tongue  of  practically  the  whole 
population  is  German  (15,254  in  Obwald,  11,869  in 
Nidwald),  and  they  are  nearly  all  Roman  Catholics 
(15,078  in  Obwald,  11,901  in  Nidwald).  The  capital  of 
Obwald  is  Sarnen  (4,039  inhabitants),  Kerns  (2,500) 
being  the  only  other  place  which  is  more  than  a village; 
that  of  Nidwald  is  Stanz  (2,210).  The  population  is 
purely  agricultural  and  pastoral.  In  Obwald  the  for- 
ests are  remarkable,  in  Nidwald  the  fiery  energy  of  the 
inhabitants.  In  educational  matters  the  standard  is  not 
very  high,  but  is  being  gradually  raised.  There  are  no 
railways,  but  one  is  being  made  from  Lucerne  through 
Obwald  over  the  Briinig  Pass  to  Meyringen  in  Bern. 
Historically  Obwald  was  part  of  the  Aargau,  and  Nid- 
wald of  the  Ziirichgau. 

UNYORO,  a kingdom  of  Central  Africa,  bounded 
on  the  north  and  east  by  the  Nile,  on  the  west  by  the 
Albert  Nyanza,  and  on  the  southeast  by  the  kingdom  of 
Uganda.  Its  are-a  is  about  1,600  square  miles  The 


U P A — U R A 


country  is  very  fertile,  well-watered,  ana  tinckly- 
wooded ; for  the  most  part  it  is  hilly  in  character, 
especially  on  the  borders  of  the  Albert  Lake  and  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Massindiand  Kiroto,  where  the  mount- 
ains have  an  altitude  of  from  5,000  to  6,000  feet.  The 
population  is  about  1,500,000.  The  land  is  cultivated 
to  a considerable  extent — bananas,  sweet  potatoes,  and 
dhurra  being  grown  in  large  quantities.  Coffee  and  to- 
bacco are  cultivated  to  a small  extent.  The  Wanyoro 
huts  are  dome-shaped,  small,  and  extremely  filthy  and 
full  of  vermin,  although  the  people  themselves  are 
cleanly.  Polygamy  is  universal,  even  the  poorest  man 
possessing  two  or  three  wives.  The  Wanyoro  are 
moderately  skillful  workmen,  and  their  iron-work,  pot- 
tery, and  wood-wook  are  both  neat  and  tasteful.  The 
only  article  they  export  is  salt,  which  is  obtained  in 
considerable  quantities  at  Kibiro  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
Albert. 

UPANISHADS.  See  Brahmanism. 

UPAS,  a Javanese  word  meaning  poison,  and  spe- 
cially applied  by  the  Malays  and  people  of  western  Java 
to  the  poison  derived  from  the  gum  of  the  anchar  tree 
{Antiaris  toxicaria),  one  ol  the  Artocarpece , which  was 
commonly  used  in  Celebes  to  envenom  the  bamboo 
darts  of  the  natives.  The  name  of  the  upas  tree  has 
become  famous  from  the  mendacious  account  (profess- 
edly by  one  Foersch,  who  was  a surgeon  at  Samarang 
in  1773),  and  popularized  by  Erasmus  Darwin  in  “ Loves 
of  the  Plants,”  [Botanic  Garden , pt.  ii.)  The  tree  was 
said  to  destroy  all  animal  life  within  a radius  of  fifteen 
miles  or  more.  The  poison  was  fetched  by  condemned 
malefactors,  of  whom  scarcely  two  out  of  twenty  re- 
turned. All  this  is  pure  fable,  and  in  good  part  not 
even  traditional  fable,  but  mere  invention. 

UPHOLSTERY.  That  branch. of  trade  which're- 
lates  to  the  furnishing  of  a house  with  curtains  and  other 
kind  of  hangings.  It  is  also  applied  more  generally, 
and  is  made  to  include  bedding,  carpeting,  and  the 
covering  of  chairs,  couches,  etc. 

UPOLU,  one  of  the  richest  and  most  beautiful  of 
the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  belongs  to  the  Samoan  group, 
lying  about  sixty  miles  west  of  Tutuila.  It  is  340  miles 
in  circumference,  and  has  16,600  inhabitants.  The 
island  has  been  a mission  station  for  many  years. 
Many  of  the  inhabitants  are  Christians.  The  chief 
harbor  is  Apia,  a civilized-looking  place,  with  many 
edifices  on  the  European  model.  Many  of  the  natives 
are  turning  their  attention  to  the  cultivation  of  cotton, 
and  the  cotton  seed  grows  wherever  it  is  cast  on  the 
ground ; the  only  trouble  experienced  in  raising  cotton 
being  the  clearing  and  keeping  down  of  the  weeds. 
Coffee  is  also  cultivated.  The  principal  article  of 
export,  however,  is  the  cocoanut  oil  Upolu  affords  a 
plentiful  supply  of  fruits  and  vegetables;  with  Savaii, 
Upolu  has  since  1899  been  a German  dependency. 

UPPER  SIND  FRONTIER,  a district  of  British 
India,  forming  the  northernmost  portion  of  the  province 
of  Sind,  in  the  Bombay  presidency.  It  comprises  an 
area  of  2,139  square  miles,  and  lies  between  270  56'  and 
28°  27'  N.  latitude,  and  between  68°  and  69°  44 ' E. 
longitude.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  west  by  the 
Derajat  districts  of  the  Punjab  and  the  territory  of 
Khelat,  on  the  south  by  Shikarpur  district,  and  on  the 
east  by  the  Indus.  Thedistrict  contains  several  thriving 
timber  plantations.  The  wild  animals  comprise  an  oc- 
casional tiger  and  hyenas;  wild  hogs  and  jackals  abound; 
foxes  are  occasionally  met  with;  and  antelopes,  hog-deer, 
and  a species  of  sambhar  deer  are  found  in  the  dense 
jungle  tracts  adjoining  the  Indus.  The  climate  is  re- 
markable for  its  dryness  and  for  its  extraordinary  varia- 
tions of  temperature.  The  average  annual  rainfall  at 
Jacobabad  is  less  than  five  inches.  There  are  numerous 


6FO5 

roads  of  all  descriptions,  and  the  Frontier  Military 
railway,  from  Sukkur  via  Jacobabad  to  Sibi,  crosses 
the  district. 

The  census  of  1901  returned  the  population  as  134,181 
(males  75,166,  females  59,015) — Plindus  numbering 
9,894,  Mohammedans  109,183,  and  Christians  230. 
The  chief  town  is  Jacobabad,  with  a population  of 
7,365.  In  1885-86  the  cultivated  area  was  estimated 
at  361,415  acres,  of  which  137,149  were  cropped,  and 
of  these  again  8,163  were  cropped  more  than  once.  The 
principal  crops  are  wheat,  joar,  bajra,  rice,  barley, 
mustard-seed,  and  a little  cotton  and  gram.  Salt, 
lacquered  work,  leathern  jars,  embroidered  shoes, 
woolen  carpets,  and  saddle-bags  are  the  principal  man- 
ufactures. The  internal  trade  is  principally  in  grain, 
the  greater  part  of  which  is  sent  to  the  Punjab,  and  the 
transit  trade  from  Central  Asia  into  Sind  crosses  the 
district,  bringing  wool  and  woolen  goods,  fruits,  carpets, 
and  horses. 

UPS  ALA,  a city  of  Sweden,  the  seat  of  its  oldest 
university  and  residence  of  the  archbishop  of  Sweden, 
is  situated  on  the  small  river  Fyris,  forty-two  mile* 
north  of  Stockholm.  The  population  which  in  1840 
was  only  5,100,  had  at  the  end  of  1900  increased  to 
more  than  22,850  (with  students,  scholars,  and  others, 
23,000).  The  industries  of  the  place  are  still  unim- 
portant, but  its  trade  by  sea  (navigation  being  open  for 
six  or  seven  months  of  the  year)  and  by  rail  is  some- 
what  livelier.  Upsala  owes  its  fame  to  its  university, 
which  was  founded  in  1477.  The  professors  numbered- 
fifty-eight  in  1900,  with  sixty-one  “docents”  and  assist- 
ant teachers,  and  there  were  1,384  students.  The  last- 
named  are  divided  into  thirteen  “nations,”  almost  every 
one  of  which  possesses  a house  of  its  own,  with  a hall, 
reading-rooms,  and  library.  The  new  university  house, 
above  the  cathedral,  on  the  site  of  the  former  arch- 
bishop’s castle,  is  in  the  Renaissance  style,  and  was 
built  in  1879-87.  The  library,  which  has  a right  to  a 
copy  of  every  book  printed  in  Sweden,  in  1890  con- 
tained 250,000  volumes  and  11,000  MSS.,  among 
which  is  the  famous  Codex  Argenteus  of  Ulfilas’  trans- 
lation of  the  Gospels. 

The  medical  faculty  possesses  a hospital  and  anatom- 
ical, chemical,  and  pathologico-physiological  institu- 
tions ; and  about  a mile  from  the  town  there  is  a mag- 
nificent lunatic  asylum.  The  astronomical  and  meteor- 
ological institutions,  as  well  as  those  of  chemistry  and 
physics,  have  also  special  buildings,  all  of  recent  date. 
The  Royal  Society  of  Sciences,  established  in  1710  by 
Eric  Benzelius,  the  younger,  occupies  a house  of  its 
own,  and  has  a valuable  library.  Of  the  buildings  the 
cathedral,  founded  in  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  cent- 
ury and  completed  in  1435,  is  the  most  remarkable.  The 
material  is  brick,  but  the  proportions  are  uncommonly 
noble  and  harmonious ; the  length  is  390  feet,  and  the 
height  inside  88.  It  has  suffered  considerably  from 
repeated  fires,  but  since  1886  an  extensive  restoration 
has  been  going  on.  The  castle,  on  the  summit  of  a 
long  ridge  above  the  town,  was  founded  in  1548  by 
Gustavus  I.,  but  not  finished  till  a century  later,  when 
it  was  often  used  as  a royal  residence.  It  was  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1702,  and  for  more  than  forty  years  remained 
a ruin.  At  present  only  a small  part  of  it  is  habitable, 
and  that  part  is  chiefly  used  by  the  provincial  govern- 
ment, and  as  a residence  of  the  governor.  Apart  from 
the  cathedral  and  a few  insignificant  houses, ' there  are 
no  remains  from  the  mediaeval  period,  the  city  formerly 
having  consisted  almost  entirely  of  wooden  houses. 

URAL-ALTAIC  LANGUAGES.  The  Ural-Altaic, 
Finno-Tartar,  or  “ Turanian”  languages  constitute  one 
of  the  primary  linguistic  families  (see  Philology)  0/ 
the  eastern  hemisphere,  occupying  a vast  domain,  which 


6io6 


U R A 


extends  with  few  interruptions  from  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula, Hungary,  and  Lapland  eastward  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  and  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  southward  to  China 
proper,  Tibet,  and  the  Mediterranean.  It  thus  com- 
prises an  area  of  not  less  than  10,000,000  square  miles 
and  a total  population  of  over  40,000,000. 

In  its  morphology  Ural-Altaic  belongs  to  the  agglu- 
tinating order  of  speech,  differing  from  other  languages 
of  this  order  chiefly  in  the  exclusive  use  of  suffixes  at- 
tached to  the  unmodified  root.  These  suffixes  differ 
also  from  the  case  and  verbal  endings  of  true  inflecting 
languages.  Hence  it  is  that  the  roots,  which  in  Aryan 
are  generally  obscured,  blurred,  often  even  changed  past 
the  possibility  of  identification,  in  Ural-Altaic  are  always 
in  evidence,  unaffected  by  the  addition  of  any  number 
of  formative  particles,  and  controlling  the  whole  forma- 
tion of  the  word. 

As  there  are  thus  only  two  classes  of  words-— the  roots, 
which  always  remain  roots,  and  the  suffixes,  which' 
always  remain  suffixes,  it  follows  that  there  can  be  no 
true  composition  or-  word  building,  but  only  derivation. 
But,  while  these  salient  features  are  common,  or  nearly 
common,  to  all,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  various 
groups  otherwise  pres'ent  any  very  close  uniformity  of 
structure  or  vocabulary.  Excluding  the  doubtful  mem- 
bers, the  relationship  between  the  several  branches  is  far 
less  intimate  than  between  the  various  divisions  of  the 
Semitic,  and  even  of  the  Aryan  family,  so  that,  great  as 
is,  for  instance,  the  gap  between  English  and  Sanskrit, 
that  between  Lapp  and  Manchu  is  still  greater. 

After  the  labors  of  Castren,  Csink,  Gabelentz, 
Schmidt,  Bohtlingk,  Zenker,  Almqvist,  Radloff,  Mun- 
kacsi-Berat,  and  especially  Winkler,  their  genetic  affinity 
can  no  longer  be  seriously  doubted.  But  the  order  of 
their  genetic  descent  from  a presumed  common  organic 
Ural-Altaic  language  is  a question  presenting  even 
greater  difficulties  than  the  analogous  Aryan  problem. 
The  reason  is,  not  only  because  these  groups  are  spread 
over  a far  wider  range,  but  because  the  dispersion  from 
a common  center  took  place  at  a time  when  the  organic 
speech  was  still  in  a very  low  state  of  development. 
Hence  the  various  groups,  starting  with  little  more  than 
a common  first  germ,  sufficient,  however,  to  give  a uni- 
form direction  to  their  subsequent  evolution,  have 
largely  diverged  from  each  other  during  their  independ- 
ent development  since  the  remotest  prehistoric  times. 
As  regards  the  mutual  relations  of  all  the  groups,  little 
more  can  now  be  said  than  that  they  fall  naturally  into 
two  main  divisions — Mongolo-Turkic  and  Finno-Ugro- 
Samoyedo-Tungusic — according  to  the  several  methods 
of  employing  the  auxiliary  elements.  Certainly  Turkic 
lies  much  closer  to  Mongolic  than  it  does  to  Samoyedic 
and  Tungusic,  while  Finno-Ugric  seems  to  occupy  an  in- 
termediate position  between  Turkic  and  Samoyedic, 
agreeing  chiefly  in  its  roots  with  the  former,  and  its  suf- 
fixes with  the  latter. 

This  progressive  vocalic  harmony  has  been  compared 
to  a sort  of  progressive  umlaut , in  which  the  suffixed 
vowels  are  brought  by  assimilation  into  harmony  with 
those  of  the  root.  All  vowels  are  broadly  divided  into 
two  categories,  the  gutteral  or  hard  and  the  palatal  or 
weak,  the  principle  requiring  that,  if  the  root  vowel  be 
hard,  the  suffixed  must  also  be  hard,  and  vice  versa. 
But  in  some  of  the  groups  there  is  an  intermediate  class 
of  “ neutral  ” vowels,  which  do  not  require  to  be  har- 
monized, being  indifferent  to  either  category. 

Regarding  the  Japanese  and  Corean  languages,  it 
may  be  remarked  that  Winkler  agrees  with  Boiler  in 
unhesitatingly  including  the  former,  while  doubtfully 
excluding  the  latter  from  this  connection.  On  the 
other  band,  W.  G.  Aston  (Journ.  Roy.  Asiat.  So:., 
August , 1879)  considers  that  both  are  as  nearly  related 


to  one  another  as  English  and  Sanskrit.  The  prob- 
ability therefore  is  that  Japanese  and  Corean  are  aber- 
rant branches  of  the  Ural-Altaic  family,  and  uiat  they 
separated  at  long  intervals  from  the  parent  stock 
and  at  such  remote  periods  that  their  affinities  can  no 
longer  be  clearly  traced. 

URAL  MOUNTAINS.  The  girdle  . of  mountains 
which  extends  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  southward  nearly 
to  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  is  now  regarded  as  separating 
Europe  from  Asia,  was  anciently  the  subject  of  various 
myths.  Notwithstanding  numerous  scientific  expedi- 
tions by  which  the  exploration  of  various  parts  of  the 
range  began  to  be  undertaken  from  the  earlier  portion 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  notwithstanding  partial 
accurate  surveys  and  levelings  and  numerous  geological 
researches  made  within  the  last  thirty  years,  the  real 
structure  of  the  Urals,  both  orographical  and  geological, 
remains  still  imperfectly  known.  Even  on  maps 
otherwise  good  they  are  still  very  often  represented  as 
an  unbroken  chain,  at  least  1,200  miles  in  length,  run- 
ning north  and  south  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the 
sources  of  the  river  Ural.  The  composite  nature  of  the 
Urals  is  best  seen  at  the  northern  and  southern  extrem- 
ities of  the  system,  where  the  upheavals  assume  the 
character  of  distinct  chains  of  mountains.  The  Pai-hoi 
Mountains,  beginning  at  the  head  of  Kara  Bay,  run 
northwest,  and  are  continued  in  the  island  of  Vaigatch 
and  the  southern  island  of  Nova  Zembla  ; and  the 
Northern  Urals  join  the  Pai-hoi  chain  at  the  head  of 
Kara  Bay,  running  northeast  and  southwest  as  far  south 
as  64°  N.  latitude.  In  their  middle  portion  the  architect- 
ure of  the  Urals  is  complicated  by  the  plateaus  of  mid- 
dle Russia.  The  southern  parts  do  not  consist,  as 
Humboldt  supposed,  of  ramifications  from  main  merid- 
ional chain,  but  of  a series  of  parallel  ranges  running 
distinctly  from  northeast  to  southwest,  as  is  plainly 
seen  in  the  excellent  maps  recently  published  by  the 
Russian  Geological  Committee. 

The  importance  of  the  Urals  as  a climatic  and  geo- 
botanical  boundary  can  no  longer  be  regarded  as  very 
great.  Most  European  species  of  plants  freely  cross 
the  Urals  into  Siberia,  and  several  Siberian  species 
travel  across  them  into  northern  Russia.  But,  being  a 
zone  of  hilly  tracts  extending  from  north  to  south  in  a 
meridional  direction,  the  Ural  Mountains  necessarily 
exercise  a powerful  influence  in  driving  a colder  north- 
ern climate,  as  well  as  a northern  flora  and  fauna, 
farther  toward  the  south  along  their  axis. 

In  the  distribution  of  the  races  of  mankind  the  Urals 
have  also  played  an  important  part.  To  the  present 
day  the  Northern  Urals  are  the  abodes  of  Finnish  stems 
(Samoyedes,  Zyrians,  Voguls,  and  Permians),  while  the 
steppes  on  the  slopes  of  the  Southern  Urals  have  con- 
tinued to  be  inhabited  by  the  Turkish  stems  of  the 
Bashkirs.  The  Middle  Urals  were  also  in  the  ninth 
century  the  abode  of  the  Ugrians,  and  their  land, 
Biarmia  (now  Perm),  was  well  known  to  the  Byzantine 
historians  for  its  mineral  wealth — there  being  at  that 
time  a lively  intercourse  between  the  Ugrians  and  the 
Greeks.  At  present  the  Urals,  especially  the  Middle 
and  the  Southern,  are  being  more  and  more  colonized 
by  Great  Russian  immigrants,  while  the  Finnish  stems 
are  rapidly  melting  away. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  the  Urals  was  known  to  the 
Greeks  in  the  ninth  century,  and  afterward  to  the  Nov- 
gorodians,  who  penetrated  there  in  the  eleventh  century 
for  trade  with  the  Ugrians.  In  1558  the  whole  of  the 
present  government  of  Perm  was  given  by  the  rulers  of 
Moscow  to  the  brothers  Strogonoflf,  vdio  began  to  estab- 
lish salt-works,  and  mines  for  iron  and  copper.  Peter 
T gave  a new  impulse  to  the  mining  industry  by 
founding  sever*,;  works,  and  from  1745,  when  gold 


U R A 


was  first  discovered,  the  Russian  colonization  of  the 
Urals  took  anew  departure.  Until  1861  all  work  at 
the  mines  was  done  by  serfs  belonging  either  to  private 
persons  (the  Strogonofifs,  Demidoffs,  and  others)  or  to  the 
crown.  In  1890  only  a few  works,  maintained  for 
supplying  the  army,  belonged  to  the  crown. 

Gold  is  found" both  in  veins  and  in  alluvial  or  diluvial 
deposits,  and  is  extracted  from  both ; but  the  former 
yields  only  a moderate  quantity  annually  (2,180  to  2,780 
pounds  in  1882-84).  The  gold  from  the  Ural  mines 
constitutes  nearly  one-fifth  of  the  total  amount  obtained 
throughout  the  Russian  empire.  Platinum  is  found 
either  in  connection  with  gold  dust  or  separately,  the 
platinum  mines  of  the  Urals  being  the  only  ones  worked 
in  Russia.  Osmium,  iridium,  and  nickel  are  found  at 
several  places,  but  their  industrial  importance  is  small. 
Silver  is  also  met  with  at  several  places,  but  only  2,383 
pounds  were  extracted  during  the  years  1875  to  1884. 
The  copper  mines,  chiefly  in  Perm,  but  partly  also  in 
Ufa,  are  very  important,  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  total 
amount  of  the  metal  mined  in  Russia  being  obtained 
from  eight  works  in  the  Urals. 

Iron  is  widely  diffused  and  is  extracted  in  the  govern- 
ments of  Perm,  Ufa,  and  Orenburg,  the  chief  works 
being  in  Perm.  Of  the  198  blast  furnaces  in  the  Rus- 
sian empire  103  are  in  the  Urals,  and  they  supply  nearly 
two-thirds  of  all  the  pig-iron  produced  in  Russia.  One- 
half  of  the  iron  and  one-sixth  of  the  steel  obtained  both 
from  home  and  foreign  pig-iron  in  the  empire  are  pre- 
pared in  the  Urals;  and,  while  the  St.  Petersburg  and 
Polish  steel  works,  which  prepare  steel  (chiefly  for 
rails)  from  imported  iron,  show  great  fluctuations  in 
their  production,  the  Ural  works  have  a steady  increase. 

Owing  to  the  immense  extent  of  forest,  the  coal 
mining  industry  is  but  of  recent  origin  in  the  Urals. 
Only  six  pits  were  at  work  in  Perm  in  1884;  and  of 
recent  years  from  3,000,000  to  4,000,000  hundred- 
weights have  been  annually  extracted  (about  5 per  cent, 
of  the  coal  raised  in  the  Russian  empire).  Finally,  salt 
was  raised  in  Perm,  Orenburg,  and  Uralsk  to  the  amount 
of  9,422,000  hundredweights  in  1884.  The  precious 
)amethyst,  topaz,  emerald,  tourmaline,  etc.)  and  orna- 
mental (malachite,  carsovite,  etc.)  stones  of  the  Urals 
Are  familiar  in  all  European  museums,  and  are  found  in 
most  beautiful  varieties.  The  crown  works  at  Ekaterin- 
burg supply  admirable  works  of  art,  while  a numerous 
population  at  Ekaterinburg  and  in  the  neighboring 
villages  support  themselves  by  s'earching  for  precious 
and  ornamental  stones  and  preparing  them  for  export. 
Of  the  330,750  workmen  engaged  in  1884  in  mining 
and  metallurgical  industries  throughout  the  Russian 
empire  183,914  were  employed  in  the  Urals,  as  well  as 
nearly  one-half  of  the  motive  power  (steam-engines  and 
water-wheels)  used  at  the  mining  and  metallurgical 
works  of  Russia,  Poland,  and  Finland.  The  exports 
from  the  Urals  are  made  chiefly  by  means  of  the  rivers, 
which  are  navigable  in  their  upper  parts  only  during  the 
spring.  There  is  not  as  yet  any  railway  connecting  the 
Urals  with  Russia.  The  line  of  Siberian  railway  which 
now  connects  the  iron-works  of  the  eastern  slope  with 
the  Kama  at  Perm  has  certainly  increased  the  exports; 
but  they  are  still  so  small  in  comparison  with  the  expense 
of  the  line  that  the  railway  is  worked  at  a loss,  the 
deficiency  being  made  good  from  the  imperial  budget, 
and  the  whole  mining  and  metallurgical  industry  of  the 
Urals  is  still  maintained  by  means  of  high  protective 
duties  imposed  on  foreign  metals  and  metallic  wares. 

URALSK,  a province  of  southeastern  Russia,  lying 
to  the  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  with  an  area  of  141,- 
174  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  by  Astrakhan  on  the 
west,  Samara  and  Orenburg  on  the  north,  Turgai  and 
the  Sea  of  Aral  on  the  east,  and  the  Transcaspian 


6.107 

region  on  the  south.  It  is  geographically  situated 
mostly  within  the  boundaries  of  Asia,  i.e.,  to  the  east 
of  the  Ural  river,  and  both  its  physical  features  and  its 
inhabitants  are,  to  a very  large  extent,  Asiatic  Ad- 
ministratively, it  belongs  to  the  “ Kirghiz  provinces,” 
or  governor-generalship  of  the  steppes.  Red  sand- 
stones (Permian?)  and  chalk  are  met  with  only  in  the 
north,  the  remainder  of  the  province  being  covered  with 
Post-Pliocene  Caspian  deposits,  which  conceal  the  un- 
derlying rocks. 

Uralsk  is  watered  by  the  Ural,  which  rises  in  Oren- 
burg at  a height  of  2,100  feet  above  sea-level,  but  soot? 
descends  to  the  lowlands,  where  it  flows  south,  west, 
and  south,  entering  the  Caspian  after  a course  of  800 
miles.  Its  chief  tributaries,  the  Sakmara,  the  Or,  and 
the  Ilek,  are  in  the  north ; along  its  lower  course  the 
Great  and  Little  Uzens  and  many  small  streams  on  the 
left  bank  fail  to  join  the  main  river,  being  lost  in  lakes 
before  reaching  it.  The  Emba,  which  has  its  course  in 
the  north  of  the-  Ust-Urt  plateau,  reaches  the  Caspian 
by  a series  of  shallow  lagoons,  which  were  navigable  in 
the  eighteenth  century.  The  climate  is  influenced  by 
the  Central  Asian  steppes.  A cold  and  dry  winter  is 
succeeded  by  a hot  and  still  drier  summer,  during 
which  the  grass,  and  sometimes  all  the  crops,  are  de- 
stroyed by  the  burning  heat.  The  character  of  the 
vegetation  can  be  easily  inferred  from  the  above.  The 
prairies  and  forest  tracts  of  the  north  soon  disappear, 
their  place  being  taken  by  the  vegetation  of  the  south 
Russian  steppes.  This  has,  however,  to  struggle  with 
the  much  poorer  vegetation,  Central  Asian  in  character, 
of  the  sandy  regions  to  the  west  of  the  lower  Ural,  and 
the  salinifevous  vegetation  of  the  clayey  deserts  of  the 
Emba.  The  Ust-Urt  has  herbaceous  steppes,  where 
the  want  of  irrigation  and  rain  destroys  all  vegetation 
by  the  end  of  summer.  Wide  belts  of  rushes  grow  along 
the  banks  of  the  rivers  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian. 

The  population  of  the  province,  644,001  in  1898,  is 
made  up  of  three  different  elements — Ural  Cossacks, 
who  constitute  about  one-fifth,  and  numbered  nearly 
90,000  in  1879,  some  15,000  Russian  peasants  and 
Kirghiz.  Of  these  405,000  are  still  ‘nomads.  The 
Kirghiz  are  almost  entirely  dependent  on  cattle-breed- 
ing, and  before  the  outbreak  of  the  murrain  of  1879 
were  reckoned  to  have  429,500  horses,  221,800  head  of 
cattle,  1,411,000  sheep,  and  175,000  camels.  The  rich 
fisheries  in  the  Ural  and  the  Caspian  are  the  property  of 
the  community  as  a whole  (the  voisko),  and  are  subdivided 
according  to  the  needs  and  working  powers  of  the  sepa- 
rate villages.  They  give  employment  to  about  7,00a 
Cossacks  and  2,000  hired  laborers.  There  are  also  fish- 
eries in  the  Emba.  Walrus-hunting  is  also  engaged  in. 
Agriculture  was  first  introduced  between  1830  and  1840; 
but  now  more  that  300,000  hundredweights  of  wheat  are 
exported  annually.  Nearly  130,000  hundredweights  of 
salt  are  obtained  from  the  lakes  every  year.  The  man- 
ufactures of  the  province,  which  possesses  a few  steam 
flour-mills  and  a number  of  tanneries  and  tallow-melting 
works,  are  unimportant.  Trade  by  barter  is  extensively 
carried  on  with  the  Kirghiz.  Fish,  corn,  cattlej  hides,  tal- 
low, and  the  like  are  exported,  while  manufactured  wares 
are  imported  to  the  value  of  about  $7,500,000  per  annum. 

Uralsk  is  divided  into  four  districts,  the  chief  towns 
of  which  are — Uralsk  (36,597  inhabitants  in  1898),  Kal- 
mykoff  (1,510),  Gurieff  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ural  (4,380), 
and  Temirsk,  a small  port,  now  the  administrative  cem 
ter  of  the  district  of  Embinsk.  Several  villages  have 
populations  of  from  2,000  to  5,000  each. 

Uralsk,  capital  of  the  above  province,  is  situated  otf 
the  upper  Ural,  at  its  confluence  with  the  Tchagan, 
1,095  miles  southeast  from  Moscow.  The  town  is  well- 
built,  with  regular  streets;  among  its  prominent  build* 


6io8 


U R A — U R B 


ings  are  the  theater,  the  club,  and  two  gymnasiums; 
and  it  is  beautified  by  numerous  gardens.  The  scientific 
society  issues  publications  of  great  value.  There  is  a 
very  brisk  trade  in  fish,  cattle,  hides,  tallow,  grain 
(exported),  and  in  manufactured  goods  (imported). 
The  population  in  1898  was  36,597. 

URANIUM,  the  name  of  a rather  rare  metallic  ele- 
ment, already  briefly  referred  to  under  Chemistry.  The 
credit  of  its  discovery  as  an  element  must  be  assigned 
to  Klaproth,  who  in  1789  isolated  from  pitch-blende  a 
yellow  oxide  which,  while  obviously  metallic,  was 
foreign  to  all  the  known  metals.  Berzelius  about  1823 
found  that  the  yellow  oxide,  when  treated  with  excess 
of  sulphuric  acid,  united  with  it  into  a sulphate,  not 
unlike  the  ferric  salt  Fe2  O3.3  S03  in  its  character. 

The  only  practically  available  raw  material  for  the 
extraction  of  uranium  is  pitch-blende  (Germ,  and  Fr. 
Uranpecherz),  which  occurs  associated  with  lead  and 
silver  ores,  chiefly  in  Joachimsthal  and  at  Przibram  in 
Bohemia,  at  Schneeberg  in  Saxony,  and  in  Redruth  in 
Cornwall,  forming  greenish  or  brownish  black  masses 
clustering  together  like  grapes. 

In  the  chemical  treatment  of  the  ore,  it  is  expedient 
to  begin  by  removing  at  least  part  of  the  arsenic  and 
sulphur  of  the  admixtures  by  roasting,  and  then  to  wash 
away  the  light  oxides  with  water  or  dissolve  them  away 
with  hydrochloric  acid.  In  one  of  the  many  processes 
proposed  the  purified  ore  is  disintegrated  with  hot  nitric 
acid,  to  produce  nitrates,  which  are  then  converted  into 
sulphates  by  evaporation  of  oil  of  vitriol.  The  sulphates 
are  treated  with  water,  which  dissolves  the  uranium  and 
other  soluble  salts,  while  silica,  sulphate  of  lead,  etc., 
remain;  these  are  removed  by  filtration.  From  the 
solution  the  arsenic,  copper,  etc.,  are  precipitated  by 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  as  sulphides  which  are  filtered 
off.  The  filtrate  contains  the  uranium  as  uranous  and 
the  iron  as  ferrous  salt.  These  are  oxidized  by  means 
of  chlorine  or  some  other  oxidizing  agent,  and  precipi- 
tated conjointly  by  excess  of  ammonia.  The  precipitate, 
after  having  been  collected  and  washed,  is  digested  with 
a warm  concentrated  solution  of  carbonate  of  ammonia, 
which  dissolves  the  uranium  as  a yellow  solution  of 
uranate  of  ammonia,  while  the  hydrated  oxide  of  iron, 
the  alumina,  etc.,  remain.  These  are  filtered  off  hot, 
and  the  filtrate  is  allowed  to  cool,  when  crystals  of  the 
uranate  separate  out.  This  uranate  when  ignited  in  a 
platinum  crucible  leaves  a green  oxide  of  the  composi- 
tion U308,  i.e. , artificial  pitch-blende,  which  serves  as 
a starting-point  for  the  preparation  of  uranium  com- 
pounds. The  green  oxide,  as  a rule,  requires  to  be 
further  purified. 

Metallic  uranium,  as  shown  by  Peligot,  can  be  ob- 
tained by  the  reduction  of  a mixture  of  dry  chloride  of 
otassium  and  dry  uranous  UC14,  with  sodium  at  a red 
eat  (for  details  see  handbooks  of  chemistry).  The 
oxide  (Berzelius’  metal)  is  prepared  by  heating  the 
green  oxide  in  hydrogen.  It  dissolves  in  hot  oil  of 
vitriol;  the  mass,  when  treated  with  water,  dissolves; 
from  the  solution  green  crystals  are  obtainable.  Uran- 
ous salts  pass  into  uranic  (uranyl)  compounds  under  the 
same  circumstances  under  which  ferrous  salts  become 
ferric,  only  they  do  so  far  more  readily.  This  salt  is 
used  in  photography,  also  in  analysis  as  a characteristic 
precipitant  for  phosphoric  acid.  If  a solution  of  a 
uranyl  salt  is  mixed  with  one  of  ammonia,  or  potash,  or 
soda,  the  uranium  is  precipitated  in  the  form  of  a 
uranate,  of  the  respective  alkali.  Uranate  of  soda, 
forming  yellow  crystals,  is  made  industrially,  being  used 
for  the  production  of  yellow  uranium  glass  in  porcelain 
painting.  The  Joachimsthal  works  in  1875  produced 
seventy  hundredweights  of  this  “ oxide,”  representing  a 
value  of  $42,500. 


URANUS  {i.e..  Heaven)  is  in  Greek  mythology  the 
husband  of  Gaea  (Earth)  and  father  of  Cronus  (Saturn) 
and  other  deities.  See  Mythology  and  Saturn. 

URBAN,  St.  , first  pope  of  that  name,  was  bishop  of 
Rome  from  222  to  230.  He  had  been  preceded  £>y 
Calixtus  and  was  followed  by  Pontianus.  He  is  men- 
tioned by  Eusebius  (77.  £.,  vi.  23),  and  is  named  in  an 
inscription  in  the  coemeterium  Callisti,  but  of  his  life 
nothing  is  known.  The  Roman  Breviary  speaks  of  his 
numerous  converts,  among  whom  were  Valerianus, 
husband  of  St.  Cecilia,  and  his  brother  Tiburtius,  and 
states  that  he  suffered  martyrdom,  and  was  buried  in 
the  coemeterium  Praetextati. 

URBAN  II.  (Eudes  or  Odo),  pope  from  1088  to  1099, 
was  born  of  knightly  rank,  at  Lagery  (near  Chatillon- 
sur-Marne),  and  was  educated  for  the  church.  He  had 
already  become  archdeacon  of  Rheims  when,  under  the 
influence  of  St.  Bruno,  his  teacher,  he  resigned  his  pre- 
ferment and  entered  the  cloister  at  Cluny,  where  he 
rose  to  be  prior.  In  1078  Gregory  VII.  summoned 
him  to  Italy,  and  made  him  cardinal-bishop  of  Ostia. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  and  energetic  sup- 
porters of  Hildebrandism,  especially  as  legate  in  Ger- 
many in  1084,  and  was  among  the  few  whom  Gregory 
nominated  as  possible  successors.  Desiderius  of  Monte 
Casino  (Victor  III.)  was  chosen  in  the  first  instance  to 
the  difficult  post,  but  at  the  next  vacancy  Odo  was 
elected  by  acclamation  (March,  1088)  at  a small  meet- 
ing of  cardinals  and  other  prelates  held  in  Terracina. 
The  most  prominent  feature  in  his  pontificate,  a feature 
indeed  which  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  Latin 
Christianity,  is  his  connection  with  the  first  crusade 
(see  Crusades)  which  united  Christendom  under  the 
headship  of  the  pope  into  one  vast  warlike  confederacy 
(comp.  Popedom).  Urban  II.  died  July  29,  1099, 
fourteen  days  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  but  before  the 
tidings  of  that  great  event  had  reached  Italy;  his  suc- 
cessor was  Paschal  II. 

URBAN  III.  (Uberto  Crivelli),  pope  from  1185  to 
1187,  was  by  birth  a Milanese,  and  was  made  cardinal 
and  archbishop  of  Milan  by  Lucius  III.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded (November  25,  1185).  He  vigorously  took  up 
his  predecessor’s  quarrels  with  the  emperor  Frederick I., 
including  the  standing  dispute  about  the  succession  to 
the  territories  of  the  countess  Matilda.  While  Henry 
in  the  south  cooperated  with  the  rebel  senate  of  Rome, 
Frederick  in  the  north  blocked  the  passes  of  the  Alps 
and  cut  off  all  communication  between  the  pope,  then 
living  in  Verona,  and  his  German  adherents.  Urban 
now  resolved  on  excommunicating  Frederick,  but  the 
Veronese  protested  against  such  a proceeding  being  re- 
sorted to  within  their  walls;  he  accordingly  withdrew  to 
Ferrara,  but  died  (October  19th)  before  he  could  give  ef- 
fect to  his  intention.  His  successor  was  Gregory  VIII. 

URBAN  IV.  (Jacques  Pantaleon),  pope  from  1261  to 
1264,  was  the  son  of  a cobbler  in  Troyes,  studied  the- 
ology and  common  law  in  Paris,  became  bishop  of  Ver- 
dun, was  employed  in  various  missions  by  Innocent  IV., 
and  was  made  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  by  Alexander  IV. 
As  pope  he  endeavored,  but  without  success,  to  stir  up 
a new  crusade  on  behalf  of  his  former  diocese  of  Jeru- 
salem. In  domestic  matters  the  chief  problems  of  his 
pontificate  arose  out  of  the  competing  claims  for  the 
crown  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  Before  the  arrival  of  Charles 
of  Anjou,  the  candidate  whom  he  favored,  Urban  died 
at  Perugia,  October  2,  1264.  His  successor  was  Clement 
IV.  The  festival  of  Corpus  Christi  was  instituted  by 
Urban  IV.  in  1264. 

URBAN  V.  (Guillaume  de  Grimoald),  pope  from 
1362  to  1370,  was  a native  of  Grisac,  in  Languedoc. 
He  became  a Benedictine  and  a doctor  in  canon  law, 
teaching  at  Montpellier  and  Avignon.  He  held  the 


URB- 

office  of  abbot  of  St.  Victor,  in  Marseilles;  and  at  Avig- 
non, on  his  way  back  from  Naples,  whither  he  had  been 
sent  as  papal  legate,  he  was  elected  pope  (October  28, 
1362,)  in  succession  to  Innocent  VI.  As  pope,  he  was 
a severe  disciplinarian,  discountenanced  the  pomp  and 
luxury  of  the  cardinals,  introduced  considerable  reforms 
in  the  administration  of  justice,  and  liberally  patronized 
learning.  The  great  feature  of  U rban  V.’s  reign  was  the 
effort  to  restore  the  papacy  to  Italy,  and  to  suppress  its 
powerful  rivals  for  the  temporal  sovereignty  there. 
Continued  troubles  in  Italy  caused  him  to  set  out  for 
Rome,  which  he  reached  October  16,  1367;  but,  though 
he  was  greeted  by  the  clergy  and  people  with  joy,  and 
had  the  satisfaction  of  being  attended  by  the  emperor 
Tin  St.  Peter’s,  and  of  placing  the  crown  upon  the  head 
of  the  empress,  it  soon  became  clear  that,  by  changing 
the  seat  of  his  government,  he  had  not  increased  its 
power.  Unable  any  longer  to  resist  the  urgency  of  the 
French  cardinals,  he  took  ship  again  at  Corneto  Sep- 
tember 5,  1370,  and,  arriving  at  Avignon  on  the  24th  of 
the  same  month,  died  December  19th.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Gregory  XI. 

URBAN  VI.  (Bartolommeo  Prignani),  pope  from 
1378  to  1389,  was  a native  of  Naples,  born  in  1318.  A 
devout  monk  and  learned  casuist,  he  became  archbishop 
of  Bari  in  1377,  and,  on  the  death  of  Gregory  XI.,  the 
Roman  populace  clamourously  demanding  an  Italian 
pope,  was  unanimously  chosen  (April  8,  1378)  by  the 
French  cardinals  under  this  pressure  to  be  his  successor. 
The  arrogant  and  imperious  temper  of  the  new  pope, 
intoxicated  by  his  unexpected  fortune,  showed  itself  in 
Ways  so  intolerable  that  five  months  afterward  the  ma- 
jority of  the  cardinals  met  at  Fondi,  and,  repudiating 
their  previous  action,  proceeded  to  elect  Robert  of  Gen- 
eva (September  20th),  who  assumed  the  title  of  Clement 
VII.  Thus  began  the  great  schism  which  divided 
Christendom  for  nearly  forty  years  (see  Popedom). 
The  measures  of  Urban  were  not  without  vigor,  but  at 
the  same  time  were  characterized  by  such  a want  of  pru- 
dence and  self-control  as  has  given  rise  to  the  not  im- 

{>robable  assertion  that  he  actually  was,  at  times  at 
east,  a lunatic.  Clement  VII.  was,  of  course,  excom 
municated,  and  designated  the  Antichrist;  twenty -six 
new  cardinals  were  created  in  a single  day,  and,  by  an 
arbitrary  alienation  of  the  estates  and  property  of  the 
church,  funds  were  raised  for  open  war.  The  castle  of 
St.  Angelo  was  besieged  and  taken,  and  the  antipope 
put  to  flight,  while  Charles  of  Durazzo  was  invested  in 
the  sovereignty  of  Naples,  forfeited  by  Queen  Joanna. 
In  1384,  however,  Charles  began  to  resist  the  papal 
pretensions,  and  Urban  was  shut  up  in  Nocera,  from 
the  walls  of  which  he  daily  fulminated  his  anathemas 
against  his  besiegers ; he  afterward  succeeded  in  mak- 
ing his  escape  to  Genoa,  and,  on  the  death  of  Charles, 
set  himself  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  apparently  with 
the  intention  of  seizing.  Naples  for  his  nephew  if  not  for 
himself.  To  raise  funds  he  proclaimed  a jubilee, 
though  only  thirty-three  years  had  elapsed  since  that 
celebrated  under  Clement  VI.,  but  before  the  celebra- 
tion he  died  at  Rome  of  injuries  caused  by  a fall  from 
his  mule,  on  October  15,  1389.  His  successor  was 
Boniface  IX. 

URBAN  VII.  (Giovanni  Battista  Castagna)  pope 
for  twelve  days  in  September,  1590,  was  of  Genoese 
origin,  and  was  born  in  Rome  in  1521.  He  was  chosen 
successor  of  Sixtus  V.  on  September  15,  1590,  but  died 
(September  27th)  before  consecration.  Pie  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Gregory  XIV. 

URBAN  VIII.  (Maflfeo  Barberini),  pope  from  1623 
to  1644,  belonged  to  a Florentine  family  which  had 
been  greatly  enriched  by  commerce,  and  was  born  in 
1568.  Through  the  influence  of  an  unde,  who  had  be- 

388 


URE  6109 

come  apostolic  protonotary,  he,  while  still  a young  man, 
received  various  promotions  from  Sixtus  V.  and  Greg- 
ory XIV.  By  Clement  VIII.  he  was  himself  made 
protonotary  and  nuncio  to  the  French  court;  Paul  V. 
also  employed  him  in  a similar  capacity,  afterward  rais- 
ing him  to  the  cardinalate,  and  giving  him  the  legation 
of  Bologna.  On  August  6,  1623,  he  was  chosen  sue 
cessor  to  Gregory  XV.  The  period  of  his  pontificate, 
covering  as  it  did  twenty-one  years  of  the  Thirty 
Years’  War,  was  an  eventful  one,  and  the  ultimate  re- 
sult of  that  great  struggle  was  largely  determined  by 
Urban’s  policy,  which  was  aimed  less  at  the  restoration 
of  Catholicism  in  Europe  than  at  such  an  adjustment  of 
the  balance  of  parties  as  might  best  favor  his  own  inde- 
pendence and  strength  as  a temporal  power  in  Italy  (see 
Popedom).  It  was  during  the  pontificate  of  Urban 
that  Galileo  was  summoned  to  Rome  to  make  his  great 
recantation  in  1633;  on  the  other  hand,  the  Poussin? 
and  Claude  Lorraine  were  patronized  by  him,  and  i-t 
was  he  who  brought  Athanasius  Kircher  to  Rome,  and 
who  employed  Bernini  to  build  the  Palazzo  Barberini. 
the  college  of  the  Propaganda,  the  Fontana  del  Tritone, 
and  other  prominent  structures  in  the  city.  Urban 
VIII.  was  a clever  writer  of  Latin  verse,  and  a collec- 
tion of  Scriptural  paraphrases  as  well  as  original  hymns 
of  his  composition  has  been  frequently  reprinted.  His 
death  (July  29,  1644),  is  said  to  have  been  hastened  by 
chagrin  at  the  result  of  a war  he  had  undertaken 
against  the  duke  of  Parma.  He  was  succeeded  by  In- 
nocent X. 

URBANA,  the  county  seat  of  Champaign  county, 
Ohio,  lies  ninety-five  miles  nearly  due  north  of  Cincin- 
nati, in  the  midst  of  a rich  agricultural  region.  It  has 
railroad  communication  by  means  of  three  lines,  the 
New  York,  Lake  Erie  and  Western,  the  Pittsburg, 
Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis,  and  the  Indiana,  Blooming- 
ton and  Western.  It  has  some  manufactures,  partic* 
ularly  of  agricultural  tools,  machines,  and  railway 
rolling  stock,  and  is  the  site  of  a Swedenborgian  or 
New  Church  college.  The  population  in  1900  was 
6,808.  Urbana  was  laid  out  in  1805,  when  the  county 
was  organized. 

URBINO,  a mediaeval  walled  city  of  Italy,  oa  the 
site  of  the  Roman  Urbinum  Hortense , in  the  Marshes 
of  Ancona,  stands  in  a commanding  position  on  a spur 
of  the  Tuscan  Apennines,  near  the  valley  of  the 
Metaurus,  about  twenty  miles  from  the  Adriatic.  It 
grew  up,  chiefly  in'  the-  fourteenth  century,  around  the 
stronghold  of  the  Montefeltro  family.  Federigo  da 
Montefeltro,  lord  of  Urbino  from  1444  to  1482,  was  one 
of  the  most  successful  condottieri  chiefs  of  his  time,  and 
much  strengthened  his  position  by  his  own  marriage 
with  Battista,  and  secondly  by  marrying  his  daughter  to 
Giovanni  della  Rovere,  the  favorite  nephew  of  Pope 
Sixtus  IV.,  who  in  return  c. inferred  upon  Federigo  the 
title  of  duke. 

Throughout  the  whole  of  the  sixteenth  century  the 
state  of  Urbino  was  one  of  the  chief  centers  for  the  pro- 
duction of  majolica  (see  Pottery),  especially  the  towns 
of  Gubb‘o  and  Castel  Durante.  Most  of  the  finest 
pieces  of  Urbino  ware  were  made  especially  for  the 
dukes,  who  covered  their  sideboards  with  the  rich 
storied  piatti  di  pompa , of  which  fine  specimens  have 
recently  sold  for  from  $10,000  to  $15,000. 

The  modern  city  of  Urbino,  with  a population  of 
6,000  in  1900,  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  still 
possesses  a small  university,  but  is  not  a thriving  place. 

URE,  Andrew,  M.D.,  a distinguished  chemist,  was 
born  at  Glasgow  in  1778,  educated  at  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity, subsequently  prosecuted  his  medical  studies  al 
Edinburgh,  am  returned  to  Glasgow,  where  he  received 
the  degree  of  A/.  D tn  180I.  In  r8o2  he  became  P» o 


6iiOi 


U R E — U R If 


lessor  of  Chemistry  and  Natural  Philosophy  in  the 
Andersonian  Institution,  took  an  active  part  in  the 
establishment  (1809)  of  an  observatory  at  Glasgow,  and 
was  appointed  its  first  astronomer.  In  1813  he  made 
his  appearance  in  the  literary  world  as  the  author  of  a 
Systematic  Table  of  the  Materia  Medic  a,  which  was 
followed  in  1818  by  New  Experimental  Researches  on 
some  of  the  leading  Doctrines  of  Caloric , a memoir 
which,  read  before  the  Royal  Society,  and  printed  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions,  brought  Doctor  Ure  prom- 
inently into  notice  as  a natural  philosopher.  Several 
papers  on  chemical  subjects,  the  fruits  of  his  accurate 
and  extensive  researches,  followed.  In  1821  appeared 
his  Dictionary  of  Chemistry,  in  1822  a paper  on  the 
Ultimate  Analyses  of  Animal  and  Vegetable  Sub- 
stances, one  of  the  earliest  contributions  to  organic 
analysis,  and  a translation  of  Berthollet  on  Dyeing;  and 
in  1829  a System  of  Geology,  in  which  the  hypoth- 
esis of  a general  flood  was  maintained.  In  1830  Ure 
removed  to  London,  and  in  1S34  was  appointed  analyt- 
ical chemist  to  the  Board  of  Customs. 

The  products  of  his  pen  from  this  time  assume  more 
of  the  technological  character,  as  The  Philosophy  of 
Manufactures  (1835),  The  Cotton  Manufacture  of 
Great  Britain , and  The  Dictionary  of  Arts , Manu- 
factures and  Mines  (1839).  A seventh  edition  of  this 
last  work  was  edited  by  Robert  Hunt  in  three  volumes 
$1875),  and  a supplementary  volume  was  added  in  1878. 
Ure  was  chosen  a Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1822, 
s.s  well  as  of  the  Geological,  Astronomical,  and  other 
societies.  He  died  in  London,  January  2,  1857. 

UREA  is  known  chiefly  as  a component  of  urine. 
Referring  to  the  article  Nutrition  for  its  physiologi- 
cal relations,  we  consider  it  here  only  as  a chemical  sub- 
stance. Urea  was  discovered  by  H.  M.  Rouelle  in 
*773»  Fourcroy  and  Vauquelin  in  1799  published  the 
first  exact  investigation  on  it.  In  1828  Wohler  showed 
that  it  can  be  obtained  by  the  union  in  aqueous  solutions 
of  cyanic  acid  with  ammonia,  and  thus  for  the  first 
time  effected  what  was  then  considered  an  impossibility, 
namely,  the  artificial  preparation  of  an  organic  com- 
pound from  mineral  matter.  For  the  extraction  of 
area  from  urine  the  latter  is  concentrated  by  evapora- 
tion (more  or  less,  according  to  its  original  strength), 
and  then,  after  cooling,  mixed  with  a large  excess  of 
pure  nitric  acid  of  1.4  specific  gravity.  To  convert  it 
into  urea,  it  is  treated  with  water  and  carbonate  of 
baryta,  which  acts  upon  the  HN03  as  if  it  were  pres- 
ent as  such,  the  urea  being  liberated.  The  mixed 
solution  of  urea  and  the  nitrate  is  evaporated  to  a small 
volume  and  allowed  to  stand,  when  the  bulk  of  the 
barytic  nitrate  crystallizes  out.  The  rest  is  removed  by 
evaporating  the  mother  liquor  to  dryness  over  a water- 
bath  and  extracting  the  urea  with  strong  alcohol.  To 
obtain  fine  crystals,  the  filtered  alcoholic  solution  is 
evaporated  to  dryness,  the  residual  urea  dissolved  in  a 
very  little  hot  water,  and  the  solution  allowed  to  cool 
slowly,  when  part  of  the  urea  crystallizes  out  in  long 
colorless  columns,  not  unlike  those  of  nitrate  of  potash. 

URGA,  a city  of  Mongolia  and  the  administrative 
center  of  the  Northern  and  Eastern  Khalkha  tribes,  is 
situated  in  48°  20'  N,  latitude  and  107°  30-  E.  longi- 
tude, on  the  Tola  river.  The  Chinese  and  Mongolian 
towns  which  make  up  Ilurae,  as  the  Mongols  call 
Urga,  stand  on  the  high  road  from  Peking  to  Kiachta 
(Kiakhta),  about  700  miles  from  the  Chinese  capital  and 
165  from  Kiachta,  and  are  separated  from  each  other 
by  an  interval  of  two  or  three  miles.  The  Chinese 
town  is  the  great  trading  quarter,  and  there  the  wealth 
of  the  district  is  collected.  The  houses  in  this  part  are 
more  substantially  built  than  in  the.  Mongol  town,  and 
$tr«!*ets  have  a well-to-do  appearance.  The  popula- 


tion is  estimated  at  about  5,000,  and  the  taw  whic<> 
prohibits  Chinamen  from  bringing  their  wives  and  fam 
ilies  into  the  place  tends  to  check  increase.  The  popu« 
ulation  of  the  Mongol  quarter  is  reckoned  at  about 
10,000,  though  on  the  occasions  of  the  religious  festi- 
vals the  numbers  are  much  larger.  Although  trade  is 
not  altogether  excluded,  the  raison  d'etre  of  the  town 
is  that  it  is  the  residence  of  the  metropolitan  of  the 
Khalkha  tribes,  who  ranks  third  in  degree  of  venera- 
tion among  the  dignitaries  of  the  Lafnaist  Church.  Until 
quite  lately  bricks  of  tea  formed  the  only  circulating 
medium  for  the  retail  trade  at  Urga,  but  Chinese  brass 
coins  are  now  beginning  to  pass  current  in  the  markets. 

U RI,  one  of  the  Forest  Cantons  of  Switzerland,  ranks 
as  fourth  in  the  Confederation.  It  comprises  the  upper 
basin  of  the  Reuss  from  its  source  to  the  Lake  of  Lu- 
cerne, the  southern  arm  of  w-hich  is  also  wdthin  the  can- 
ton. Its  total  area  is  415.4  square  miles  ; of  these  184.4 
are  classed  as  productive,  40.3  are  covered  with  forests, 
44.3  consist  of  glaciers,  and  7.7  of  the  lake.  The 
highest  point  in  the  canton  is  the  Galenstock  (1 1,802  feet). 
The  population  in  1901  amounted  to  19,700  (men  hav- 
ing a majority  of  3,000  over  women),  showing  an  in- 
crease of  7>649’.39-4  Per  cent.,  since  1870,  owing  to  the 
St.  Gotthard  railway.  German  is  the  native  tongue  of 
18,024  persons,  Italian  of  5,313.  The  canton  has 
always  been  very  strongly  Roman  Catholic  (18,149  in 
1900).  It  was  included  up  to  1814  in  the  diocese  of  Con- 
stance (except  the  valley  of  Urseren,  -which  was  in  that 
of  Chur),  and  since  then  has  formed  part  of  no  diocese, 
but  is  provisionally  administered  by  the  bishop  of  Chur. 
In  Uri  the  limits  of  the  ecclesiastical  parishes  are  the 
same  as  those  of  the  civil  communes.  The  capital  is 
Altdorf  (2,901  inhabitants).  Goschenen  (2,990)  and 
Wasen  (2,744)  have  increased  since  the  opening  of  the 
St.  Gotthard  railway  (1880),  which  runs  through  the 
greater  part  of  the  canton.  The  inhabitants  are  occu- 
pied in  agricultural  and  pastoral  pursuits,  and  are  very 
saving  and  industrious.  The  main  valley  is  fertile,  but 
the  side  glens  are  very  wild.  Education  is  still  very 
backward  and  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  priests  ;*but 
an  improvement  was  made  in  1885.  The  main  charac- 
teristics of  the  people  are  extreme  conservatism  and  a 
pahsionate  attachment  to  their  religion. 

URIC  ACID,  as  explained  fully  in  the  article  Nutri- 
tion, is  one  of  the  penultimate  products  of  the  tissue 
w aste  in  the  human  body.  While  the  bulk  of  the  nitro- 
gen of  the  albuminoids  passes  off  through  the  bladder 
as  Urea  (q.v.),  a small  portion  of  it  stops  at  the  uric 
acid  stage.  Human  urine  contains  only  a fraction  of  a 
per  cent  of  the  acid,  chiefly  as  soda  salt ; abundance  of 
uric  acid  is  met  with  in  the  excrement  of  serpents  and 
birds,  with  whom  it  is  the  principal  nitrogenous  product 
of  tissue  waste.  For  the  preparation  of  uric  acid 
(C5H4N403),  Guano  {q.v.)  is  boiled  repeatedly  with  a 
solution  of  borax  in  120  parts  pf  water.  The  filtered 
solution  is  acidified  with  hydrochloric  acid,  when  impure 
uric  acid  separates  out  as  a brown  precipitate,  which  is 
washed  with  cold  w^ater.  For  its  purification  it  is  dis- 
solved in  hot  dilute  caustic  potash  or  soda  lye,  the  solu 
tion  filtered,  and  the  filtrate  saturated  with  carbonic 
acid.  An  almost  insoluble  acid  urate  of  alkali  separates 
out,  which  is  collected  on  a filter,  washed,  and  decom- 
posed by  adding  it  in  instalments  to  hot  dilute  hydro 
chloric  acid.  Uric  acid  separates  out  as  a white  preciD 
itate,  which  is  filtered  off,  washed,  and  dried,  to  b(- 
repurified  by  a repetition  of  the  alkali  process  or  other 
wise.  Pure  uric  acid  forms  a snow-white  micro -crystal 
line  powder,  devoid  of  smell  or  taste,  soluble  in  i,*04 
parts  of  boiling  and  in  14,000  parts  of  cold  water,  but 
insoluble  in  alcohol  and  in  ether.  When  heated  it  suf- 
fers complete  decomposition 


6i  I i 


U R 1 - 

URIM  AND  THUMMIM  (Heb.),  a mysterious 
contrivance  in  or  on  the  High-Priest’s  breast  plate, 
either  consisting  of  the  four  rows  of  precious  stones 
upon  which  the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes  were 
engraved,  or  of  tv/o  images  personifying,  most  proba- 
bly, “ Truth”  and  “ Revelation.  ” Luther’s  translation, 

“ Light  and  Truth,  ” has  no  more  foundation  than  that 
of  the  LXX.  and  the  Vulgate,  which  is  “Utterance 
and  Truth.”  To  this  translation,  the  fact  of  the 
picture  of  “ Truth  ” (Aletheia)  in  sapphire  or  other 
precious  stones  being  suspended  from  the  _ Egyptian 
high  priest’s  breast,  had  prohably  given  rise.  The 
etymology  of  the  two  words,  which,  derived  from  the 
Arabic  roots,  would  indicate  “ Brilliant  Amulet,” 

“ Perfect  Light,”  etc.,  is  in  reality  no  more  satisfactory 
than  the  manner  in  which  the  contrivance  was  used  for 
oracular  purposes,  or  of  the  time  when,  in  reality,  it 
ceased  to  act.  It  is  never  mentioned  after  Solomon’s 
time.  Joseph  Smith,  the  founder  of  Mormonism,  pre- 
tended that  he  read  the  plates  of  the  so-called  Book 
of  Mormon  by  means  of  a Urim  and  Thummim. 

URINARY  SEDIMENTS  is  a general  term  which 
includes  all  those  substances  which  occur  in  the  non- 
dissolved  state  in  the  urine.  Most  of  these  sediments 
are  not  formed  till  after  the  urine  has  been  discharged 
and  has  cooled;  some,  however,  are  formed  in  the  uri- 
nary organs,  and  under  favoring  conditions  may  give 
rise  to  urinary  concretions.  Hence  it  is  a point  of  im- 
portance to  ascertain  whether  a sediment  occurring  in  a 
specimen  of  fresh  urine  has  been  formed  before  or  after 
its  discharge.  The  chemical  and  microscopical  charac- 
ters of  these  sediments  has  a double  bearing  on  the  de- 
tection of  disease:  (i)  “ From  the  investigation  of  these 
sediments  ” says  Professor  Vogel,  “we  can  draw  sure 
conclusions  regarding  special  changes  that  are  going  on 
in  the  general  nutrition  of  the  body.  1'hey  show  us 
that  an  excessive  quantity  of  certain  substances  (as,  for 
example,  uric,  hippuric,  or  oxalic  acid)  is  being  dis- 
charged with  the  urine,  and  has  therefore  been  pro- 
duced in  the  body;  and  we  thus  often  obtain  at  a glance 
information  of  great  importance,  which  could  otherwise 
only  be  procured  by  a tedious  process;  and  (2)  they 
point  out  to  us  certain  local  diseases  of  the  urinary  sys- 
tem. Thus,  from  a sediment  containing  pus,  we  infer 
that  suppuration  is  going  on  in  some  part  of  the  system: 
and  the  presence  of  cylindrical  casts  or  tubes  in  the  sed- 
iment informs  us  of  certain  morbid  changes  in  the  struct- 
ure of  the  kidneys;  and  if  the  ordinary  symptoms  re- 
veal the  presence  of  stone  in  the  bladder  we  can  ascer- 
tain its  probable  nature  from  the  character  of  the  sedi- 
ment or  gravel.  ” 

The  mode  of  formation  of  morbid  sediment  is  well 
illustrated  by  the  sketch  of  the  changes  which  healthy 
urine  undergoes  after  long  exposure  to  the  air.  In  the 
course  of  two  or  three  days  the  acidity  of  the  urine  is 
found  to  have  increased,  and  this  condition  of  acid 
fermentation  will  frequently  continue  for  some  weeks, 
giving  rise  to  the  disposition  of  (i)  free  uric  acid:  (2) 
acid  urates  (chiefly  urate  of  soda);  and  (3)  oxalate  of 
lime.  In  a few  weeks,  or  often  much  sooner,  the  urea 
becomes  alkaline  or  alkaline  fermentation  is  established, 
in  consequence  of  the  urea  being  converted  into  carbon- 
ate of  ammonia.  The  urine  now  becomes  paler,  while 
the  red  or  yellow  crystals  of  uric  acid  are  replaced  by 
white  amorphous  granules  and  colorless  refracting  pris- 
matic crystals.  In  other  words,  the  former  precipitate 
is  replaced  by  (1)  phosphate  of  ammonia  and  magnesia 
(commonly  known  as  triple  phosphate);  (2)  phosphate 
of  lime;  and  (3)  urate  of  ammonia.  In  certain  forms  of 
diseases  these  changes  take  place  much  more  rapidly, 
and  the  second  change — the  alkaline  fermentation — may 
occur  without  a preexisting  acid  fermentation,  and 


URQ 

even  within  the  bladder.  In  addition  to  the  above 
named  substances,  which  arise  from  the  decomposition 
of  healthy  urine,  others  occur  in  various  morbid  condi- 
tions of  the  system;  and  we  may  divide  the  urinary 
sediments  generally  into  the  two  great  groups  of  (1)  the 
unorganized  and  (2)  the  organized  deposits.  The  or- 
ganized sediments  include  uric  acid,  the  urates  (chiefly 
urate  of  soda)  hippuric  acid,  oxalate  of  lime,  earthy 
phosphates  (viz.,  phosphate  of  lime,  and  triple  phos- 
phate), cystine,  xanthine  hypoxanthine  (formerly  known 
as  guanine),  and  tyrosine;  while  the  organized  sedi- 
ments include  mucus  and  epithelial  scales,  blood  cor- 
puscles, pus  corpuscles,  cancerous  and  tubercular  mat- 
ter, fibrinous  casts  of  tubes  of  the  kidney,  spermatozoa, 
fungi  and  infusoria. 

Of  the  organized  sediments,  uric  acid,  the  urates  (ex- 
cepting urate  of  ammonia),  hippuric  acid,  and  cystine  oc- 
cur only  in  acid  urine;  and  urate  of  ammonia,  triple  phos- 
phate, and  phosphate  of  lime,  in  alkaline  or  neutral  urine. 

Oxalate  of  lime  and  the  organized  sediments  occur 
both  in  acid  and  alkaline  urine;  but  alkaline  urine  is  the 
more  natural  habitat  for  fungi  and  infusoria.  It  is 
comparatively  seldom  that  a sediment  consists  of  a 
single  ingredient. 

URINE.  See  Urea  and  Uric  Acid;  also  Nutri- 
tion. 

URMIA,  or  Urumiah,  a town  of  Persia,  in  the 
province  of  Azerbijan  (Adarbaijan),  lies  1 12  miles  south- 
west of  Tabriz  and  10  from  the  west  side  of  Lake 
Urmia,  in  the  midst  of  an  extremely  fertile,  highly  cul- 
tivated, and  densely  peopled  plain.  Within  the  in- 
closures, consisting  of  a wall  and  deep  ditch  that  can  be 
flooded,  there  is  a mixed  Mohammedan  and  Christian 
population  of  from  25,000  to  35,000,  while  the  sur- 
rounding district  is  studded  with  over  300  populous 
villages.  The  chief  industries  are  weaving,  dyeing,  and 
especially  tillage,  abundant  crops  of  rice,  melons,  cot- 
ton, and  excellent  tobacco  being  raised  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. Urmia  has  for  many  years  been  the  center  of  an 
American  mission,  which  has  had  considerable  success, 
especially  among  the  so-called  “Chaldean”  or  Nes- 
torean  Christians.  According  to  an  old  tradition, 
Urmia  was  the  birthplace  of  Zoroaster. 

URQUHART,  or  Urchard,  Sir  Thomas,  one  of 
the  most  original  and  raciest  translators  from  any  for- 
eign language  into  English,  was  the  son  of  Sir  Thomas 
Urquhart  of  Cromarty,  the  representative  of  a very  an- 
cient family,  and  of  Christian,  daughter  of  the  fourth 
Lord  Elphinstone.  His  birth-year  is  uncertain,  but  it 
is  guessed  at  1605,  and  his  birthplace  was  the  old  man- 
sion-house of  Cromarty.  In  1645  he  produced  a tract 
called  Trissotetrass,  a treatise  on  logarithms,  adjusted  to 
a kind  of  memoria  technica,  like  that  of  the  scholastic 
logic.  He  published  in  rapid  succession  during  1652 
and  1653  a series  of  tracts  with  quaint  titles  and  quainter 
contents.  Pantochronochanon  (sic)  is  an  almost  un- 
believable genealogy  of  the  house  of  Urquhart  up  to 
Adam,  with  the  names  extemporized  for  the  earlier 
ages  in  a kind  of  gibberish,  which  seems  to  be  after  the 
pattern  of  the  giants  and  heathens  in  the  Amadis \ 
Ecskubalauron,  supposed  to  be  a treatise  on  the  virtues 
of  a jewel  found  in  the  streets  of  Worcester,  is  in  real- 
ity a rather  elaborate  treatise  on  the  virtues  of  the  Scot- 
tish character,  as  shown  in  the  Admirable  Crichton  and 
others.  Finally,  Logopandecteision  handles  the  subject 
of  a universal  language.  The  Translation  of  Rabelais , 
which  Urquhart  produced  in  1653,  is  a very  different 
work  from  the  literary  point  of  view.  Next  to  nothing 
is  known  of  Urquhart  after  its  date;  it  is  said  that  he 
sought  a refuge,  like  other  Cavaliers,  on  the  Continent, 
and  died  (1660)  of  a fit  of  laughing,  brought  on  by  joy 
at  hearing  of  the  Restoration. 


6l  12. 


URS-URU 


URSINUS,  Zacharias,  German  theologian,  and 
one  of  the  authors  of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  was  a 
native  of  Breslau,  and  became  a disciple  of  Melanchthon 
at  Wittenberg.  He  afterward  studied  divinity  at  Ge- 
neva under  Calvin  and  Hebrew  at  Paris  under  Mercier. 
In  1561  he  was  appointed  professor  in  the  Collegium 
Sapientise  at  Heidelberg,  where  in  1563,  at  the  instance 
of  the  elector-palatine,  Frederick  III.,  he  drew  up  the 
Catechism  in  cooperation  with  Kaspar  Olevian.  The 
death  of  the  elector  in  1577  led  to  the  removal  of  Ursi- 
uus,  who,  from  15  78  till  his  death  in  1583,  occupied  a pro- 
fessorial chair  at  Neustadt-an-der-Haardt. 

URSON  ( Erythizon  Dorsatum ),  a quadruped 
nearly  allied  to  the  Porcupine,  and  often  called  the 
Canadian  Porcupine.  The  genus  Erythizon  differs 
from  Hystrix  (Porcupine)  in  the  flatter  head,  the 
shorter  and  not  convex  muzzle,  the  longer  tail,  and  in 
having  the  quills  short  and  half  hidden  in  the  hair. 
The  Urson  is  about  the  size  of  a small  hare.  It  is 
found  as  far  south  as  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  and  as 
far  north  as  latitude  67°.  Its  quills  are  dyed  by  the 
Indian  women,  and  worked  into  ornamental  articles  of 
Various  kinds. 

URSULA,  St.,  and  her  companions,  virgins,  and  mar- 
tyrs, are  commemorated  by  the  Roman  Church  on 
October  21st.  The  Breviary  gives  no  legend;  but  in 
current  works,  such  as  Butler’s  Lives  of  the  Saints , it  is 
to  the  effect  that  “ these  holy  martyrs  seem  * * * to 
have  met  a glorious  death  in  defense  of  their  virginity 
from  the  army  of  the  Huns.  * * * They  came  orig- 

inally from  Britain,  and  Ursula,  was  the  conductor  and 
encourager  of  the  holy  troop.  ” The  scene  of  the  martyr- 
dom is  placed  near  the  lower  Rhine. 

The  date  has  been  assigned  by  different  writers  to 
238,  c.  283,  and  c.  451.  The  story,  however,  is  un- 
known both  to  Jerome  and  to  Gregory  of  Tours — and 
this  though  the  latter  gives  a somewhat  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  the  Cologne  church  dedicated  to  that  Theban 
\egion  with  which  the  tradition  of  the  martyred  virgins 
was  very  early  associated. 

The  full  legend  first  makes  its  appearance  in  a festival 
discourse  (sermo)  for  October  21st,  written,  as  internal 
evidence  seems  to  show,  between  731  and  839.  This 
sermo  does  not  mention  St.  Ursula,  but  makes  Pinnosa 
or  Vinnosa  the  leader  of  these  spiritual  “amazons,” 
who,  to  avoid  Maximian’s  persecution,  left  their  island 
home  of  Britain,  following  their  bridegroom  Christ  to- 
ward that  East  whence  their  faith  had  come  a hundred 
years  before.  The  author  of  the  sermo  pointedly  rejects 
the  two  theories  that  connected  the  holy  virgins  with 
the  Theban  band  and  brought  them  as  pilgrims  from 
the  East  to  the  West;  but  he  adds  that  even  in  his  days 
there  still  existed  an  inscription  in  the  church,  showing 
how  it  had  been  restored  from  its  foundations  by  a 
certain  “ Clematius,  vir  consularis,  ex  partibus  Orientis.  ” 
Two  or  three  centuries  later  the  Passio  XI.  AIM.  SS. 
Virginum , based  apparently  on  the  revelations  made  to 
Helentrude,  a nun  of  Heerse  near  Paderborn,  gives  a 
wonderful  increase  of  detail.  According  to  her  account, 
the  son  of  a powerful  pagan  king  demands  in  marriage 
Ursula,  the  beautiful  daughter  of  Deonotus,  a king  “ in 
partibus  Britanniae.  ” U rsula  is  warned  by  a dream  to 
demand  a respite  of  three  years,  during  which  time  her 
companions  are  to  be  11,000  virgins  collected  from  both 
kingdoms.  After  vigorous  exercise  in  all  kinds  of 
manly  sports  to  the  admiration  of  the  populace,  they  are 
carried  off  by  a sudden  breeze  in  eleven  triremes  to 
Thiel  in  Guelderland  on  the  Waal.  Thence  they  sail 
up  the  Rhine  by  way  of  Cologne  to  Basel,  at  which  place 
they  make  fast -their  vessels  and  proceed  on  foot  to 
Rome.  Returning,  they  reenter  their  ships  at  Basel,  but 
%re  slaughtered  by  the  Huns  when  they  reach  Cologne. 


The  legend  of  Si.  Ursula  is  perhaps  the  most  curious 
instance  of  the  development  of  an  ecclesiastical  myth. 
We  know,  however,  too  little  about  its  earlier  stages  to 
justify  any  serious  attempt  at  estimating  what  amount 
of  historic  truth  underlies  it,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether 
many  of  the  efforts  in  this  direction  do  not  make  a 
larger  demand  on  human  credulity  than  the  legend 
itself.  Even  in  the  earliest  form  known  to  us  this 
legend  is  probably  the  complex  growth  of  centuries, 
and  any  claim  to  the  discovery  of  the  first  germ  can 
hardly  approve  itself  to  the  historic  sense.  These  re- 
marks apply  especially  to  that  venerable  rationalization 
which  evolves  the  whole  legend  from  a misreading  of 
Undecimilla  into  undecim  millia.  A more  modern 
theory  makes  St.  Ursula  the  Christianized  representa- 
tive of  the  old  Teutonic  goddess  Freya,  who,  in 
Thuringia,  under  the  name  of  Horsel,  welcomed  the 
souls  of  dead  maidens.  Not  a few  singular  coincidences 
seem  to  point  in  the  same  direction,  especially  the  two 
virgins,  “Martha  and  Saula,”  whom  Usuard  states  to 
have  suffered  “ cum  aliis  pluribus  ” on  October  20th, 
whence  they  were  probably  transferred  to  October  21st. 

URSU LINES,  a religious  order  founded  at  Brescia 
by  Angela  de  Merici  in  1537,  primarily  for  the  educa- 
tion of  girls.  It  was  approved  in  1544  by  Paul  III., 
and  in  1572  Gregory  XIII.,  at  the  instance  of  Charles 
Borromeo,  made  inclosure  obligatory  and  declared  it  a 
religious  order  under  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine.  In  the 
following.century  it  was  powerfully  encouraged  and  sup- 
ported by  St.  Francis  de  Sales;  and  toward  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  period  of  its  greatest 
prosperity,  the  order  embraced  some  twenty  congrega- 
tions, with  350  convents  and  from  15,000  to  20,000  nuns. 
It  still  has  some  importance  and  possesses  about  thirty- 
six  convents  in  Germany  and  Austria  alone. 

URTICACEAE,  an  order  of  exogenous  plants,  con- 
sisting of  trees,  shrubs  and  herbs,  natives  of  almost  all 
parts  of  the  world.  According  to  many  botanists,  the 
order  includes  about  600  known  species,  but  by  others 
it  is  recorded  as  containing  only  half  that  number. 
The  common  nettle  may  be  regarded  as  a type  of  the 
entire  order.  The  fiber  of  the  bark  of  some  species 
is  valuable.  Some  of  the  species  are  covered  with 
stinging  hairs,  as  for  example,  the  common  stinging 
nettle.  ' 

URUGUAY.  The  republic  of  Uruguay,  officially 
known  as  the  Oriental  Republic  of  the  Uruguay, 
and  long  locally  called  the  Banda  Oriental  (meaning 
the  land  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  large  river  from 
which  the  country  takes  its  modern  name),  is  the  small- 
est independent  state  in  South  America.  It  runs  con- 
terminous with  the  southern  border  of  the  empire  of 
Brazil  and  lies  between  30°  and  350  S.  latitude  and  530 
25'  and  57°  42'  W.  longitude;  its  area  is  73,185  square 
miles.  The  country  is  in  some  sense  a peninsula,  having 
a seaboard  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean  of  120  miles,  a shore 
line  to  the  south  on  the  river  Plate  of  235  miles,  and 
another  of  270  miles  along  the  Uruguay  on  the  west. 
The  boundaries  separating  it  from  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 
a province  of  Brazil,  are  Lake  Mirim,  the  rivers  Chuy, 
Yaguaron,  and  Cuareim,  and  a cuchilla  or  low  range  of 
hills  called  Santa  Ana.  The  extent  of  the  northern 
frontier  from  the  Cuareim  to  the  bar  of  the  Chuy  on  the 
coast  of  the  Atlantic  is  450  miles.  The  hilly  districts 
in  the  north  and  east  contain  minerals  of  many  kinds, 
including  gold,  lead,  copper,  agate,  amethyst,  alabaster, 
and  marble.  The  limestone,  granite,  and  marble  quar- 
ries have  some  commercial  value;  but  so  far  little  prog- 
ress has  been  made  in  the  working  of  metallic  veins. 

The  seat  of  government  is  the  city  of  Montevideo 
(<?.v.)  at  the  entrance  of  the  river  Plate.  The  harbor 
and  roadstead  of  that  port  form  the  only  good  natural 


URU 


refuge  ior  shipping  for  hundreds  of  miles  south  of  Rio 
de  Janeiro. 

Uruguay  has  a healthy  climate.  Endemic  diseases 
ire  unknown  and  epidemics  are  rare.  In  the  interior, 
away  from  the  sea  and  the  shores  of  the  great  rivers, 
the  temperature  frequently  rises  in  summer  as  high  as 
86°  Fahr.  and  in  winter  falls  as  low  as  35-6°  Fahr.  In 
the  districts  bordering  on  the  coast  the  thermometer 
seldom  falls  below  370;  and  only  for  a few  moments  and 
at  long  intervals  has  it  been  known  to  rise  as  high  as 
105°.  The  annual  rainfall  is  stated  to  be  more  than 
twice  that  of  Paris. 

The  pastoral  wealth  of  Uruguay  as  of  the  neighbor- 
ing Argentine  Republic  is  due  to  the  fertilizing  constitu- 
ents of  “ pampa  mud,”  geologically  associated  with  gi- 
gantic antediluvian  animals,  whose  fossil  remains  are 
found  abundantly  in  those  regions.  The  country  is  rich 
in  hard  woods,  suitable  for  cabinet  work  and  certain 
building  purposes.  The  principal  trees  are  the  alder, 
aloe,  palm,  poplar,  acacia,  willow,  and  eucalyptus  (re- 
cently introduced).  The  “montes,”  by  which  are 
understood  plantations  as  well  as  native  thickets,  pro- 
duce, among  other  woods,  the  algarrobo,  a poor  imita- 
tion of  oak;  the  guayabo,  a substitute  for  boxwood; 
the  quebracho,  of  which  the  red  kind  is  compared  to 
sandalwood;  and  the  urunday,  black  and  white,  not  un- 
like rosewood.  Indigenous  palms  grow  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Sierra  Jose  Ignacio,  also  to  some  extent  in  the  de- 
partments of  Minas,  Maldonado,  and  Paysandu.  The 
myrtle,  rosemary,  mimosa,  and  the  scarlet -flowered 
ceibo  are  among  the  plants  commonly  seen.  The  val- 
leys within  the  hill  ranges  are  fragrant  with  aromatic 
shrubs.  In  the  plains  below,  the  swards  are  gay  with 
the  scarlet  and  white  verbena  and  other  wild  flowers 
of  brilliant  hues.  The  country  abounds  in  medicinal 
plants.  The  sarsaparilla  even  colors  the  water  of  the 
Rio  Negro  and  gives  to  it  its  name — the  “black  river.” 

Among  the  wild  animals  the  tiger  or  ounce — called  in 
the  Guarani  language  the  “ja-gua”  or  “ big  dog  ” — and 
the  puma  are  found  on  the  frontier  of  Brazil  and  on  the 
wooded  islets  and  banks  of  the  larger  rivers.  The 
tapir,  fox,  deer,  wildcat,  wild  dog,  carpincho  or  water 
hog,  and  a few  small  rodents  nearly  complete  the  list 
of  quadrupeds.  A little  armadillo,  the  mulita,  must  be 
mentioned  as  the  living  representative  of  the  antedi- 
luvian giants,  the  mylodon,  mastodon,  megatherium, 
etc  The  ostrich — Rhea  americana — roams  everywhere 
in  tne  plains;  and  there  are  a few  specimens  of  the  vul- 
ture tribe,  a natiw  crow  (lean,  tall,  and  ruffed),  par- 
tridges, and  quans  Parakeets  are  plentiful  in  the 
“montes,”  and  the  lagoons  swarm  with  waterfowl  of  all 
descriptions.  The  most  esteemed  is  the  “ pato  real,”  a 
large  duck.  Of  the  bird*5  of  bright  plumage  the  hum- 
ming bird  and  the  cardinal— the  scarlet,  the  yellow,  and 
the  white — are  the  most  attractive.  The  fish  of  the  la- 
goons and  streams  are  coarse,  and  some  of  them  primi- 
tive in  type,  but  twc  or  three  kinds,  found  generally  in 
the  large  rivers,  are  much  prized.  The  varieties  of  fish 
on  the  sea  coast  are  many  and  excellent;  130  species 
are  known.  More  than  2,000  species  of  insects  have 
been  classified.  The  scorpion  i.  rarely  seen;  but  large 
and  venomous  spiders  are  common.  The  principal 
reptiles  are  a lizard,  a tortoise,  the  “ vivora  de  la  cruz,” 
a dangerous  viper,  so  called  from  marks  like  a cross  on 
its  head,  and  the  rattlesnake,  this  last  in  Maldonado 
and  the  stony  lands  of  Las  Minas. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
population  of  Montevideo  and  tlv  surrounding  territory 
was  estimated  by  Azara  at  30,000,  one-half  of  these 
being  given  to  the  city  of  Montevideo.  This  total 
seems  not  to  have  included  what  remained  of  the  indig- 
enous inhabitants  in  the  north  and  west,  though  tjie 


6l  13 

Indian  population  of  the  J esuit  missions  before  these 
were  destroyed,  about  the  year  1767,  was  known  to  be 
very  numerous.  But  the  aborigines  have  now  com- 
pletely disappeared.  Recent  estimates  (1900)  place 
the  population  of  the  department  of  Montevideo  at 
268,334;  and  of  the  republic  of  Uruguay  at  930,680. 

The  country  is  divided  into  eighteen  departments,  of 
which  that  of  Montevideo  is  the  smallest,  although  it 
contains  one-fourth  of  the  total  population.  Adjoining 
this  is  Canelones;  and  in  a northerly  direction  are  those 
of  Florida,  Durazno,  Tacuarembo,  and  Rivera,  the  last- 
named  bordering  on  Brazil.  To  the  eastward  on  the 
Atlantic  are  Maldonado  and  Rocha,  and  north  and  west 
of  these  Minas,  Treinta  y Tres,  and  Cerro  Largo.  To 
the  west,  along  the  Plate  and  Uruguay,  are  San  Jos6, 
Colonia,  Soriano,  Rio  Negro,  and  Paysandu;  and  far 
ther  north  toward  the  Brazilian  frontier  are  Salto  and 
Artigas.  The  principal  inland  town  is  San  Jos6.  The 
chief  ports,  besides  Montevideo,  are  Salto,  Paysandu, 
Fray  Bentos,  Mercedes,  Colonia,  and  Maldonado. 

, More  than  two  centuries  ago  the  Banda  Oriental  was 
looked  upon  by  the  Spanish  colonies  on  the  opposite 
banks  of  the  Plate  and  Uruguay  as  a station  for  the 
breeding  of  live  stock  and  the  cutting  of  timber  and  fire- 
wood. And  at  this  day,  in  spite  of  the  thriving  foreign 
trade  of  Montevideo,  it  still  partakes  largely  of  this 
character.  The  country  being  in  general  pastoral,  sheep 
and  cattle  grazing  is  the  main  occupation  of  the  people; 
the  sheep  flourish  best  in  thr  southern  and  western  de- 
partments, while  the  principal  cattle  districts  are  toward 
the  north  and  east.  Ninety-six  per  cent,  of  the  exports 
of  the  country  consists  of  live  stock  and  their  produce- 
wool,  hides,  horns,  hair,  sheepskins,  tallow,  grease, 
bones,  bone-ash,  and  jerked  beef.  More  than  half  the 
fixed  property  and  commercial  capital  is  in  the  hands  of 
foreigners.  At  Fray  Bentos,  in  the  department  of  Rio 
Negro,  is  the  Liebig  factory  of  extract*  of  meat;  at  Colo- 
nia there  is  a branch  of  the  River  Plate  Frozen  Meat 
Company.  But,  apart  from  these,  and  some  breweries, 
flour-mills,  tanneries,  establishments  in  Montevideo  foi 
the  making  of  boots  and  shoes  and  clothing,  and  a few 
local  industries,  unnaturally  fostered  by  high  import 
duties,  there  are  no  manufactures  to  speak  of.  Agri- 
culture is  still  in  a promising  infancy.  Latterly  it  has 
made  great  strides;  yet  the  export  of  agricultural  prod- 
uce appears  to  be  relatively  insignificant.  At  intervals 
during  the  last  twenty  years  agricultural  settlements 
(colonies)  have  been  established  with  great  success  in 
different  departments,  but  principally  in  Colonia.  where 
the  settlers  are  mostly  Italians  and  Swiss.  These  pros- 
perous colonies  have  already  in  Colonia  outgrown  the 
space  originally  allotted;  but  owing  to  the  irregular  and 
illegal  appropriation  of  the  public  lands  there  is  no  more 
land  to  bestow  on  settlers,  native  or  foreign,  except  at 
the  exorbitant  rates  demanded  by  private  owners  and 
speculators. 

At  Cunapiru  in  Tacuaremb6  gold  was  accidentally 
discovered  in  1842.  The  mines  have  been  worked  at 
intervals  since  1867,  but,  partly  owing  to  difficulties  of 
communication,  with  indifferent  success.  But  gold- 
mining seems  to  have  lately  assumed  a more  hopeful 
aspect,  owing  to  the  employment  of  improved  and  eco- 
nomical machinery  introduced  by  a French  company. 
The  metals  of  Uruguay  are  found  in  two  quite  distinct 
systems  of  hills.  The  Cunapiru  mines  are  in  the  Santa 
Ana  range,  the  auriferous  quartz  being  found  in  thin 
layers  embedded  in  rocks  of  red  porphyry.  The  for- 
mation of  the  system  in  general  resembles  that  of  the 
gold-producing  regions  in  Brazil,  California,  and  Aus- 
tralia. The  Pan  de  Azucar  (Sugar-Loaf  Mountain), 
near  the  south  coast  of  Maldonado,  forms  the  extremity 
of  a second  system,  which  has  its  origin  as  far  north  as 


6ii4  URU- 

Pernambuco  in  Brazil;  as  developed  in  Uruguay  it  is 
Huronian,  limestone  and  slate  being  superposed  on  the 
gneiss  aud  granite.  The  metals  of  this  system  are 
principally  silver,  lead,  copper,  and  an  argentiferous 
lead,  which  in  earlier  times  the  Spaniards  mistook  for 
silver.  Two  copper  mines  at  the  foot  of  the  Pan  de 
Azucar  are  now  in  active  operation. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
value  of  the  exports  and  imports  has  increased  twenty- 
fold,  and  with  some  relapses  has  more  than  doubled  in 
the  last  twenty  years. 

Telegraph  lines,  with  a total  length  of  66 1 miles,  ex- 
ist in  most  of  the  departments.  Submarine  cables 
communicate  with  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  ports  of  Bra- 
zil, and  thence  with  Europe.  The  railways  are  com- 
prehended in  three  main  systems,  the  central,  north- 
western, and  eastern  ; their  combined  length  barely 
reaches  300  miles.  There  are  no  public  roads  in  the 
country ; but  communication  in  the  more  inhabited 
parts  is  easily  effected  over  the  nearly  level  grassy 
plains. 

The  system  of  national  education  is  gratuitous  and  com- 
pulsory. The  number  of  school  children  is  over  30,000, 
about  5.4  per  cent.  of  the  total  population.  The  teach- 
ing at  the  national  schools  is  irrespective  of  religious 
creed  or  denomination.  In  higher  education  much  has 
yet  to  be  accomplished.  There  is  a school  of  arts  and 
trades  in  the  capital.  The  university  of  Montevideo, 
founded  in  1838,  numbers  about  1,300  students.  The 
state  religion  is  Roman  Catholic;  but  all  sects  enjoy 
complete  toleration,  unless  a decided  non-toleration  of 
the  Jesuits  be  regarded  as  an  exception  to  the  rule. 

The  legislative  power  of  the  state  rests  with  the  gen- 
eral assembly,  consisting  of  two  chambers,  one  of 
senators  (eighteen)  and  one  of  representatives  (fifty- 
one).  The  deputies  of  the  lower  house  are  elected  an- 
nually and  directly  by  the  people,  one  deputy  for  every 
3,000  of  the  population,  or  any  fraction  not  less  than 
2,000.  One  senator  is  named  for  each  department. 
The  executive  power  is  exercised  by  the  president  of  the 
republic,  who  is  elected  by  the  general  assembly.  The 
judicial  power  is  vested  in  a superior  court,  composed  of 
two  courts  of  appeal,  which  temporarily  supply  the 
place  of  a supreme  court  of  justice,  not  yet  created. 

The  permanent  army  on  a peace  footing  consists  of 
3,260  men.  The  national  guard  numbers  about  20,- 
000.  On  an  emergency  the  government  could  put  in 
the  field  30,000  men.  The  regular  troops  are  well 
armed,  and  accoutered  after  the  European  fashion. 
The  navy  consists  of  a few  small  steamers  and  gunboats. 

The  history  of  Uruguay  dates  from  1512,  when  Juan 
Diaz  de  Solis  entered  the  Parana-guazu  or  “sealike” 
estuary  of  the  Plate  and  landed  about  seventy  miles  east 
of  the  present  city  of  Montevideo.  Uruguay  at  that 
time  was  inhabited  by  Indians,  of  whom  the  dominant 
tribe  was  called  Charruas,  a people  described  as  physic- 
ally strong  and  well-formed,  and  endowed  with  a 
natural  nobility  of  character. 

Solis,  on  his  second  visit,  1515-16,  was  slain  by  the 
Charruas  in  Colonia.  Eleven  years  later  Ramon,  the 
lieutenant  of  Sebastian  Cabot,  was  defeated  by  the  same 
tribe.  In  1603  they  destroyed  in  a pitched  battle  a 
veteran  force  of  Spaniards  under  Saavedra.  During  the 
next  fifty  years  three  unsuccessful  attempts  were  made 
by  the  Spaniards  to  subdue  this  courageous  people. 
The  real  conquest  of  Uruguay  was  commenced  under 
Philip  III.  by  the  Jesuit  missions.  It  was  gradually 
consummated  by  the  military  and  commercial  settle- 
ments of  the  Portuguese,  and  subsequently  by  the  Span- 
iards, who  established  themselves  formally  in  Monte- 
video under  general  Zavala  in  1729,  and  finally  demol- 
ished the  rival  Portuguese  settlement  in  Colonia  in  1777. 


USH 

From  1750  Montevideo  enjoyed  a provincial  govern* 
ment  independent  of  that  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  Amer- 
ican rebellion,  the  French  Revolution,  and  the  British 
invasions  of  Montevideo  and  Buenos  Ayres  (1806-7)  un- 
der Generals  Auchmuty  and  Whitelock  all  contributed 
to  the  final  extinction  of  the  Spanish  power  on  the  river 
Plate.  During  the  war  of  -independence  Montevidec- 
was  taken  in  1814  by  the  Buenos- Ayrean  general  Alvear. 
A long  struggle  for  dominion  in  Uruguay  between  Brazil 
and  the  revolutionary  government  of  Buenos  Ayres  was 
concluded  in  1828,  through  the  mediation  of  Great 
Britain,  Uruguay  being  declared  a free  and  independ- 
ent state.  The  republic  was  formally  constituted  in 
1830.  Subsequently  Juan  Mantfel  Rosas,  dictator  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  interfered  in  the  intestine  quarrels  of 
Uruguay  ; and  Montevideo  was  besieged  by  his  forces, 
allied  with  the  native  partisans  of  General  Oribe,  for 
nine  years  (1842-51).  From  the  era  of  its  independence 
to  about  1870  the  history  of  Uruguay  is  a long  record 
of  foreign  invasions  and  intrigues,  financial  ruin,  and 
political  folly  and  crime. 

URUMIAH.  See  Urmia. 

URUS,  a large  animal  of  the  ox  kind,  now  extinct, 
but  formerly  inhabiting  the  forests  of  central  Europe. 
From  Caesar’s  description,  we  gather  that  it  was  com- 
mon in  the  great  Hercynian  forest.  He  describes  it  as 
being  scarcely  less  in  size  than  an  elephant,  but  other- 
wise resembling  the  ox,  having  great  speed,  fierceness, 
and  strength.  Its  horns  were  very  large,  spreading, 
and  extremely  sharp.  From  some  of  its  characteristic? 
it  is  believed  that  this  ox  has  a descendant  of  the  same 
species  still  in  existence  in  Scotland. 

USBEGS.  See  Bokhara,  Khiva,  Mongols, 
Turkestan,  and  Turks. 

USE  AND  OCCUPATION  is  a technical  name 
given  in  English  law  to  the  beneficial  acknowledg- 
ment of  premises  by  a tenant  who  occupies  the  real 
property  of  another.  In  all  cases  where  a person  has 
had  the  use  and  occupation  of  premises  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  owner,  an  action  lies  for  the  value  thereon, 
which  value  is  equivalent  to  rent  under  an  ordinary 
lease. 

USEDOM,  an  island  belonging  to  Prussia,  which 
lies  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Oder.  It  is  of  very  irreg- 
ular shape,  thirty-four  miles  in  extreme  length  and  fif- 
teen miles  broad;  area,  148  square  miles.  It  contains 
two  towns,  both  small. 

USPIANT  (Fr.  Ouessant ),  the  most  westerly  of  the 
islands  off  the  coast  of  France,  twenty-six  miles  west- 
northwest  from  Brest,  belongs  administratively  to  the 
department  of  Finistere.  It  is  about  four  and  a half 
miles  in  length,  and  almost  entirely  granitic,  with  steep 
and  rugged  coasts,  accessible  only  at  a few  points. 
The  island  affords  pasturage  to  a few  sheep  and  horses, 
and  contains  some  small  villages,  the  chief  being  St. 
Michael.  The  inhabitants  are  principally  pilots  and 
fishermen.  The  total  population  in  1900  was  3,000. 

USHAS  (from  the  Sanscrit  ush,  to  shine),  “the 
dawn,”  is  one  of  the  familiar  deities  of  the  Vedic religion 
of  India  and  among  these  is  invoked  specially  by  the 
poets  of  the  Rigveda  hymns. 

USHER,  James,  prelate  and  scholar,  was  born  in 
the  parish  of  St.  Nicholas,  Dublin,  January  4,  1580. 
He  took  his  degree  of  TAD.  in  1612,  and,  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  published  his  first  printed  work,  though  not 
his  first  literary  composition — Gravissimce  Qiupstionis 
de  Christiana  rum  Ecclesiarum , in  Occidentis  prceser- 
tim  partibus , ab  Apostolicis  temporibus  ad  nostrum 
usque  cetatem , continua  successione  et  statu , Historica 
Explicatio.  In  1615  he  took  part  in  an  attempt  of  the 
Irish  clergy  to  impose  a Calvinistic  confession,  em- 
bodying the  Lajnbeth  Articles  of  1595,  upon  the  Irisfc 


UTAH 


State  Capital  {§)  County  Seats  0 
Military  Reservation  Boundaries 

Forest  Reserve  11  

Flaces  of  10,000  and  over SALT  LAKE 

*'  “ 3,000  to  io.ooo Pa "k  City 

" '*  1,000  to  3,000  St. George 

••  ••  BOO  to  1,000  Midway 


Terrain 


' b / „ it.ui 


fCjjpfess  Hills 


McDowell  Mt, 


Valley 


iBe^kwith 
] yplateau 


^Fillmore 

doit  °-Meadi 


NAVAJO 

INDIAN  RESERVATION , 


XT  S H - 

Church,  and  was  delated  to  King  James  in  conse- 
quence. But  he  made  a trip  to  England,  and  so  gained 
the  confidence  of  the  king  that  he  was  made  bishop  of 
Meath.  In  1622 he  published  a controversial  Discourse 
of  the  Religion  anciently  Professed  by  the  Irish  and 
British , designed  to  show  that  they  were  in  agreement 
with  the  Church  of  England  and  opposed  to  the  Church 
of  Rome  on  the  points  in  debate  between  those  churches. 
In  1623  he  was  made  a privy  councilor  for  Ireland,  and 
in  the  same  year  was  summoned  to  England  by  the  king 
that  he  might . more  readily  carry  on  a work  he  had 
already  begun  upon  the  antiquity  of  the  British 
churches.  While  he  was  detained  on  this  business,  the 
archbishop  of  Armagh  died  in  January,  1624,  and  the 
king  at  once  nominated  Usher  to  the  vacant  primacy; 
but  severe  illness  and  other  causes  impeded  his  return 
to  Ireland  until  August,  1626. 

For  many  years  Archbishop  Usher  was  actively  em- 
ployed both  in  the  government  of  his  diocese  and  in  the 
publication  of  several  learned  works,  among  which  may 
tie  specified  Emmanuel  (a  treatise  upon  the  Incarna- 
tion), published  in  1638,  and  Britannicarum  Ecclesi - 
arum  Antiquitates , in  1639.  In  1640  he  paid  another 
visit  to  England  on  one  of  his  usual  scholarly  errands, 
meaning  to  return  when  it  was  accomplished.  But  the 
rebellion  of  1641  broke  out  while  he  was  still  at  Oxford, 
and  he  never  saw  his  native  country  again.  He  quitted 
Oxford  in  1645  and  went  into  Wales,  where  he  re- 
mained till  1646,  when  he  returned  to  London,  and  was 
in  1647  elected  preacher  to  the  society  of  Lincoln’s  Inn, 
an  office  he  continued  to  hold  till  a little  before  his 
death.  During  his  residence  in  Wales  a hyper-Calvin- 
istic  work'  entitled  A Body  of  Divinity ; or  the  Sum 
and  Substance  of  the  Christian  Religion , was  published 
under  his  name  by  Downham;  though  he  repudiated 
the  authorship  in  a letter  to  the  editor.  In  1650-54  he 
published  the  work  which  at  the  time  and  for  more 
than  a century  afterward  was  accounted  his  most  im- 
portant production,  the  A nnqles  Veteris  et  Novi  Testa - 
menti , in  which  he  propounded  a scheme  of  Biblical 
chronology  which  held  its  ground  until  disproved  by 
very  recent  advances  in  scholarship. 

In  1655  Usher  published  his  last  work,  De  Grceca 
LXX.  Interpretum  Versione  Syntagma.  He  died  on 
March  20,  1656,  in  Lady  Peterborough’s  house  at 
Reigate  in  Surrey.  His  body  was  buried  in  Westminster 
abbey,  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Erasmus. 

USHER  OF  THE  BLACK  ROD,  one  ot  the  officers 
tf  the  order  of  the  Garter.  The  rod  from  which  this 
title  is  derived  is  of  ebony  mounted  with  gold,  three 
and  one-half  feet  in  length,  having  at  the  top  a lion 
holding  in  his  paws  a shield.  It  is  the  vocation  of  this 
officer  to  desire  the  attendance  of  the  Commons  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  whenever  the  royal  assent  is  to  be 
given  to  bills  by  the  sovereign  or  his  representative. 
.He  also  executes  orders  for  commitment  for  breacti  of 
privilege  and  contempt  and  assists  at  the  introduction  of 
peers  and  other  ceremonies  in  the  House  of  Lords. 

USHER  OF  THE  GREEN  ROD,  one  of  the  offi- 
cers  of  the  order  of  the  Thistle,  whose  duties  consist  in 
attendance  on  the  sovereigns  and  knights  'when  assem- 
bling in  chapter  and  at  other  solemnities  of  the  order. 
The  rod  from  which  the  title  is  taken  is  of  green  enamel 
three  feet  in  length,  ornamented  with  gold  and  having 
on  top  a unicorn  of  silver. 

USKUP,  Uskub,  or  Skoplie,  a town  of  European 
Turkey,  capital  of  the  sanjak  of  the  same  name  and  of 
the  vilayet  of  Kossova,  on  the  upper  Vardar  river, 
about  160  miles  northwest  of  Saloniki.  Uskup  has 
some  flourishing  industries,  such  as  leather  and  metal- 
work, weaving  and  dyeing,  and  is  the  center  of  a rich 
agricultural  district  growing  large  Quantities  of  fruits 


6**3 

and  cereals.  It  is  the  residence  of  the  provincial  gov- 
ernor. the  seat  of  a Greek  archbishop,  and  one  of  the 
chief  stations  on  the  main  line  of  railway  which  runs 
from  Saloniki  up  the  Vardar  valley  to  Bosnia.  Popu- 
lation, 28,000. 

USNEA,  a genus  of  lichens,  having  a much  branched 
thallus  with  an  elastic  thread  in  the  center.  They  grow 
on  trees  and  are  generally  pendulous.  They  contain 
the  vegetable  principle  called  Usnine  and  they  are  some- 
times used  in  dyeing. 

USURY.  Until  quite  recent  times  the  term  “ usury” 
covered  a number  of  essentially  different  social  phenom- 
ena. At  the  present  day,  “ usury,”  if  used  in  the  old 
sense  of  the  term,  would  embrace  a multitude  of  modes 
of  receiving  interest  upon  capital  to  which  not  the 
slightest  moral  taint  is  attached.  The  change  in  the 
moral  attitude  toward  usury  is  perhaps  best  expressed 
by  saying  that  in  ancient  times  so  much  of  the  lending 
at  interest  was  associated  with  cruelty  and  hardship  that 
all  lending  was  branded  as  immoral  (or  all  interest  was 
usury  in  the  moral  sense),  while  at  present  so  little 
lending  takes  place,  comparatively,  except  on  commer- 
cial principles,  that  all  lending  is  regarded  as  free  from 
an  immoral  taint.  This  change  in  the  attitude  of  com- 
mon-sense morality  in  respect  to  “ anything  that  is  lent 
upon  usury  ” is  one  of  the  most  peculiar  and  instructive 
features  in  the  economic  progress  of  society. 

In  Athens  about  the  time  of  Solon’s  legislation  (594 
B.c.)  usury  had  given  all  the  power  of  the  state  to  a 
small  plutocracy.  Solon  canceled  all  the  debts  made 
on  the  security  of  the  land  or  the  person  of  the  debtor, 
at  the  same  time  enacted  that  henceforth  no  loans  could 
be  made  on  the  bodily  security  of  the  debtor,  and  the 
creditor  was  confined  to  a share  of  the  property.  Solon 
left  the  rate  of  interest  to  be  determined  by  free  con- 
tract, and  sometimes  the  rate  was  exceedingly  high,  but 
none  of  the  evils  so  generally  prevalent  in  antiquity 
were  experienced. 

When  we  turn  to  Rome,  we  find  exactly  the  same 
difficulties  arising,  but  they  were  never  successfully 
met.  In  the  course  of  two  or  three  centuries  the  small 
free  farmers  were  utterly  destroyed. 

The  opinion  of  Aristotle  bn  the  barrenness  of  money 
became  proverbial,  and  was  quoted  with  approval 
throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  This  condemnation  by 
the  moralists  was  enforced  by  the  fathers  of  the  church 
on  the  conversion  of  the  empire  to  Christianity.  They 
held  usury  up  to  detestation,  and  practically  made  no 
distinction  between  interest  on  equitable  moderate 
terms  and  what  we  now  term  usurious  exactions.  The 
consequence  of  the  condemnation  of  usury  by  the  church 
was  to  throw  all  the  dealing  in  money  in  England  in 
the  early  Middle  Ages  into  the  hands  of  the  Jews 
Ultimately  in  1290  the  Jews  were  expelled  in  a body 
from  the  kingdom  under  circumstances  of  great  bar- 
barity, and  were  not  allowed  to  return  until  the  time  ot 
Cromwell.  Before  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews,  however, 
in  spite  of  canonical  opposition,  Christians  had  begun 
to  take  interest  openly;  and  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing examples  of  the  adaptation  of  the  dogmas  of  the 
Church  of  Rome  to  social  and  economic  environment 
is  found  in  the  growth  of  the  recognized  exceptions  to 
usury. 

For  information  upon  the  modern  legislation  affect- 
ing the  subject,  see  Interest  and  Pledge. 

UTAH,  a Territory  of  the  United  States,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Idaho  and  Wyoming,  on  the  east  by  Col 
orado,  on  the  south  by  Arizona,  and  on  the  west  by  Ne- 
vada. The  eastern  boundary  coincides  with  io9°and  the 
western  with  1140  W.  longitude.  The  southern  bound 
ary  is  the  thirty-seventh  parallel  of  latitude;  the  notih- 
ern  is  on  the  forty-second  parallel  between  the  mend/ 


— (J  T A 


6i  16 


UTA 


ans  of  1 140  and  1 1 1°,  while  east  of  the  latter  meridian 
it  follows  the  forty-first  parallel.  The  area  of  Utah  is 
84,0 7°  square  miles. 

The  surface  is  greatly  diversified,  containing  high 
mountains,  broad  arid  valleys,  and  desert  plateaus.  Near 
the  middle  of  the  northern  boundary  the  Wahsatch 
Mountains  enter  the  Territory,  and  they  extend  south- 
ward along  its  middle  line,  finally  degenerating  into 
plateaus  whose  elevation  diminishes  southward.  This 
is  the  principal  mountain  range  of  the  Territory,  and  its 
position  marks  the  highest  land,  from  which,  as  a water- 
shed, the  streams  flow  off  eastward  and  westward,  the 
former  to  the  Colorado  of  the  West,  the  latter  to  sink 
in  the  Great  Basin,  Eastward  froi?.  the  Wahsatch, 
along  the  northern  boundary  of  Utah,  stretches  a 
broad,  massive  range,  known  as  the  Uintah.  These 
mountains  are  exceptional  in  that  their  trend  is  east  and 
west,  i.e.9  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  other  uplifts  of 
the  Rocky  Mountain  system.  South  of  this  range  and 
east  of  the  Wahsatch  is  a region  of  plateaus,  horizontal 
or  but  slightly  inclined,  and  receding  step  by  step  from 
the  high  mountains.  In  this  region  all  the  streams  flow 
in  canons  carved  in  the  nearly  horizontal  sandstones  and 
limestones,  to  depths  ranging  from  a few  hundreds 
to  several  thousands  of  feet.  West  of  the  Wahsatch 
stretches  the  Great  Basin,  a region  having  no  outlet  to 
the  sea.  Its  surface  presents  an  alternation  of  broad 
desert  valleys  and  narrow  abrupt  mountain  ranges, 
rising  sharply  from  the  valleys.  The  mean  elevation  of 
the  Territory  is  6,ioo  feet.  The  lowest  portion  is  near 
the  southern  border,  where  it  is  less  than  3,000  feet 
above  the  sea;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  many  mountain 
summits  exceed  13,000  feet  in  height.  Of  the  principal 
peaks  may  be  mentioned  Mount  Nebo  (11,680  feet)  in 
the  Wahsatch  Range,  and  Gilberts  Peak  (13,987), 
La  Motte  (12,892),  and  Burro  (12,834)  in  the  Uintah 
Range.  The  principal  stream  of  eastern  Utah  is 
the  Colorado  of  the  West.  This  is  formed  by  the 
junction  of  Green  river,  which  rises  in  the  Wind  River 
Mountains  of  Wyoming,  and  the  Grand,  whose  sources 
are  in  the  snow-fields  upon  Long’s  Peak  in  Colorado. 
The  Green  and  the  Colorado  receive  numerous  branches 
from  the  Uintah  and  Wahsatch  Ranges,  among  them 
the  Uintah,  Price,  Fremont,  San  Rafael,  and  Virgin. 
With  the  exception  of  the  first-named,  all  these  streams 
haye  their  courses  far  below  the  general  surface,  in  the 
characteristic  canons  of  this  strange  region.  In  western 
Utah  the  climate  is  very  arid,  and,  consequently,  there 
are  few  living  streams.  The  Great  Basin,  of  which  this 
region  forms  a part,  consists  of  a large  number  of  basins, 
differing  greatly  in  magnitude.  In  each  of  these  the 
waters  from  the  surrounding  mountains  sink  or  collect 
in  a lake,  which,  having  no  outlet,  rises  or  falls  wfth  the 
excess  of  supply  or  evaporation.  The  largest  of  these 
basins  is  that  of  Great  Salt  Lake,  which  stretches  along 
the  western  base  of  the  Wahsatch  Range.  The  lowest 
part  of  this  valley  is  occupied  by  the  lake,  into  which 
drain  the  rivers  from  the  western  slope  of  the  mount- 
ains, the  chief  being  the  Bear,  Weber,  and  jDgden, 
while  the  Provo,  Spanish  Fork,  and  American  Fork 
contribute  to  it  through  Utah  Lake  and  the  river  Jordan. 
In  former  geologic  times  Great  Salt  Lake  had  an  extent 
vastly  greater  than  at  present,  as  is  evidenced  by  the 
well-marked  shore  lines  upon  the  mountains  around  and 
within  its  basin.  These  shore  lines  have  an  altitude 
nearly  1,000  feet  higher  than  the  present  level  of  the 
lake.  This  higher  stage,  which  has  ^been  named  Lake 
Bonneville,  was  reduced  to  its  present  stage  primarily 
by  the  formation  of  an  outlet  at  the  northern  end  of 
Cache  valley,  by  which  its  waters  flowed  off  through 
Snake  and  Columbia  rivers  to  the  Pacific,  and  secondar- 
\ by  the  excess  of  evaporation  over  supply.  Since 


the  settlement  of  the  country,  tne  suriace  ot  the  take 
rose,  so  that  from  an  area  of  1,700  square  miles  in  1849 
it  had  expanded  in  1870  to  about  2,360.  But  in  more 
recent  years  it  has  been  slowly  receding.  Together 
with  these  general  movements,  slight  oscillations  with 
the  changes  of  season  are  constantly  going  on.  As 
Great  Salt  Lake  has  no  outlet  save  evaporation,  its 
water  contains  a large  amount  of  saline  matter  in  solu- 
tion. The  proportion  varies  inversely  with  the  varying 
height  of  the  water  in  the  lake,  ranging  from  14.8  to 
22.4  per  cent,  by  weight.  The  only  other  bodies  of 
water  of  considerable  magnitude  are  Bear  and  Utah 
Lakes,  both  fresh  and  both  tributary  to  Great  Salt 
Lake.  Besides  the  tributaries  to  Great  Salt  Lake,  the 
only  other  stream  of  importance  west  of  the  Wahsatch 
is  the  Sevier,  which,  rising  in  the  plateaus  south  of  the 
Wahsatch,  passes  by  a circuitous  route  into  the  deserts 
to  the  west,  where  it  sinks.  Formerly  it  flowed  into 
Sevier  Lake,  whence  its  waters  were  evaporated,  but 
the  extensive  use  of  the  river  for  irrigation  has  caused 
the  lake  to  disappear. 

The  animal  and  vegetable  life  presents  variety  corre- 
sponding with  that  of  the  topography.  Upon  the  mount- 
ains and  high  plateaus  are  forests  of  Coniferce , with 
groves  of  aspen  skirting  them  at  their  lower  limit. 
Here  are  found  bears  of  different  species,  themuledeer, 
and  occasionally  the  elk  (wapiti)  and  the  antelope. 
Upon  the  lower  plateaus  and  in  the  desert  valleys  of  the- 
Great  Basin  life  is  not  abundant.  Pinon  pine  and  cedar, 
Artemisia , cacti,  and  yucca  characterize  the  vegetation; 
while  of  animals  there  are  few  except  the  coyote, 
prairie  dog,  rattlesnake,  and  scorpion. 

The  settled  portion  of  Utah  lies  mainly,  along  the 
western  base  of  the  Wahsatch  and  in  the  valleys  of  that 
range,  particularly  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Territory. 
There  are  also  considerable  settlements  near  the  south- 
ern boundary,  in  the  valleys  of  the  Virgin  river.  The 
population  numbered  143,963  in  1880,  showing  an  in- 
crease of  65.8  per  cent,  since  1870.  The  population 
by  the  United  States  census  of  1900  was  276,749.  In 
1850  the  total  was  only  11,380;  in  i860  it  had  risen  to 
40,273,  and  in  1890  to  207,905.  Probably  four-fifths 
of  the  population  are  adherents  of  the  u Church  of  Jesus 
Christ  of  Latter  Day  Saints  ” or  Mormons,  as  they  are 
popularly  designated  (see  Mormonism).  This  propor- 
tion is  steadily  diminishing  as  the  mining  industries,  the 
manufactures,  and  transportation  increase,  thus  bring- 
ing in  a constantly-increasing  “ Gentile  ” element.  Of 
the  aggregate  population  males  are  decidedly  in  excess 
of  females — in  1880  there  were  100  of  the  former  to  93 
of  the  latter,  showing  that  polygamy  was  not  generally 
practiced.  The  proportion  of  foreign-born  inhabitants 
is  exceptionally  large — in  1880  there  were  44  foreign- 
born  to  100  natives,  i. e. , nearly  one-third  of  the  popu- 
lation were  immigrants.  Of  this  foreign  element  there 
came  from  England,  19,654;  Denmark,  7,791 ; Sweden. 
3,750;  Scotland,  3,201  ; Wales,  2,390;  Ireland,  1,321  ; 
Norway,  1,214;  Switzerland,  1,040;  Germany,  885. 
Thus  England  supplies  nearly  one-half  and  Denmark 
nearly  one-fifth,  while  Germany  and  Ireland,  which 
furnish  the  great  bulk  of  the  immigrants  to  the  United 
States  at  large,  are  but  feebly  represented  among  the 
Mormons. 

The  principal  cities  are — Salt  Lake  City,  the  capital 
of  the  Territory;  Ogden,  in  the  Salt  Lake  valley,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Ogden  and  Weber  rivers;  Provo,  in 
the  valley  of  Utah  Lake;  and  Logan,  in  Cache  valley. 
There  are  numerous  other  smaller  places,  making  a 
large  aggregate  of  city  and  village  population.  This  is 
a result  of  the  policy  of  the  Mormon  Church,  which 
has  favored  the  grouping,  of  the  fanning  population  in 
village 


'0  T 1 


Utah  is  divided  into  twenty-seven  counties, enumerated, 
with  their  population  in  1900,  in  the  subjoined  table: 


County. 

Pop. 

County. 

Pop. 

1 County.  | Pop. 

Beaver. 

3-613 

10,009 

18,139 

7,996 

4,657 

3400 

i,i49 

3,546 

10,082 

Kane 

1,811 

5,678 

2,045 

b954 

1,946 

77,725 

1,023 

16,313 

5,004 

Sevier.  .... 
Summit  ... 
Tooele 

8,451 

9,439 

7,361 

6,458 

32,456 

4,736 

4,612 

25,239 

1,907 

Boxelder  . . . 
Cache 

Millard  .... 
Morgan  .... 
Piute 

Davis 

Uinta 

Emery 

Rich  

Utah  

Garfield .... 
Grand 

Salt  Lake  . . 
San  Juan . . . 
Sanpete  .... 
Carbon  

Wasatch  . . . 
Washington 
Weber 

Iron 

Juab 

jWayne 

As  everywhere  throughout  the  western  United  States, 
with  the  altitude  above  the  sea  there  is  a gradation  of 
climate  with  respect  to  aridity.  Upon  the  higher 
mountains  there  is  sufficient  rainfall  for  the  needs  of 
vegetation.  But  upon  the  low  country  the  precipita- 
tion, is  slight,  so  that  irrigation  is  almost  universally 
practiced  by  the  agriculturist.  The  annual  rainfall  at 
Salt  Lake  City,  which  is  very  favorably  situated,  being 
southeast  of  Great  Salt  Lake  and  at  the  immediate 
base  of  the  Wahsatch  Mountains,  is  about  thirty 
inches.  In  all  other  habitable  parts  of  the  Territory  it 
is  less,  being  not  greater  than  ten  inches  in  the  south- 
ern and  western  portions.  Temperature,  also,  has  a 
wide  range  in  different  parts  of  the  Territory.  The 
mean  annual  temperature  at  Salt  Lake  City,  which 
may  serve  as  an  average  of  the  habitable  parts  of  Utah, 
is  about  450.  The  range  of  temperature  between  sum- 
mer and  winter  and  between  day  and  night  is  very 
great,  and  the  changes  of  temperature  are  often  start- 
ling in  their  magnitude  and  abruptness. 

The  principal  industries  of  Utah  are  agriculture  and 
mining.  At  Salt  Lake  City  and  Ogden  some  manufact- 
uring is  done,  and  in  the  remote  parts  of  the  Territory 
cattle  and  sheep  raising  is  carried  on  to  a limited 
extent.  Agriculture  is  confined  mainly  to  the  Mor- 
mons, while  mining  enterprise  is  carried  on  almost 
exclusively  by  Gentiles.  The  principal  mineral  prod- 
ucts are  silver  and  lead,  which  are  found  associated  in 
the  same  ores.  The  mines  are  situated  almost  entirely 
in  the  Wahsatch  Range,  east  and  southeast  of  Salt 
Lake  City. 

Utah  is  well  supplied  with  railroads.  The  Union 
and  Central  Pacific  Railroads  cross  it  near  the  northern 
boundary,  the  junction  of  these  two  lines  being  at 
Ogden.  From  this  place  a branch  of  the  Union  Pacific 
runs  northward  to  Montana  and  another  southward  to 
Salt  Lake  City  and  thence  to  the  southern  part  of  the 
Territory.  The  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  Western  con- 
nects Salt  Lake  City  with  Pueblo,  in  Colorado.  In  ad- 
dition to  these,  there  are  numerous  short  branches  in 
the  mountains,  making  a total  length  of  1,184  miles  in 
operation  at  the  close  of  1901. 

The  executive  is  administered  by  a governor  and  a 
secretary,  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  United 
States,  and  by  a treasurer,  nominated  by  the  governor. 
There  is  a legislature,  the  members  of  which  are  chosen 
by  the  people.  The  judiciary  consists  of  a chief  justice 
and  two  associate  justices,  together  with  a United  States 
district  attorney  and  a marshal,  all  appointed  by  the 
president  of  the  United  States. 

For  many  years  congress  has  been  trying  to  frame 
/egislation  which  would  destroy  polygamy  in  Utah,  but 
until  recently  the  action  of  the  courts  was  frustrated 
and  the  laws  nullified  by  the  power  of  the  Mormon 
Church.  All  elective  offices  were  filled  by  Mormons. 
Juries  were  necessarily  made  up  mainly  of  Mormons, 
whose  obligations  to  the  church  were  superior  to  any 
Gentile  oath.  The  Edmunds  Bill,  passed  in  1882,  was 
the  first  efficient  piece  of  legislation.  This  measure  de- 


6117 

dared  all  elective  offices  vacant,  and  constituted  a coin 
mission  to  oversee  elections  and  appoint  the  judges  and 
other  officers  of  election.  1 1 disfranchised  all  polygamists 
It  annulled  the  action  of  the  Territorial  legislature  in  ex 
tending  the  ballot  to  women.  It  disqualified  from  serv- 
ice on  juries  all  who  accepted  the  dogmas  of  the  Mor- 
mon Church  regarding  polygamy.  Under  the  operation 
of  this  Act  the  leading  polygamists  have  either  been  sent 
to  jail  or  have  gone  into  hiding.  A bill  of  a still  more 
drastic  nature  was  passed  by  congress  in  1887.  It  an- 
nulled all  Acts  of  the  Territorial  legislature  designed  in 
the  remotest  degree  for  the  protection  of  polygamy.  It 
provided  that  in  trials  for  polygamy  the  wife  may  be  a 
competent  witness,  that  every  marriage  ceremony 
shall  be  made  a matter  of  public  record,  and  that  all 
illegitimate  children  shall  be  disinherited.  It  annulled 
all  Acts  of  the  legislature  incorporating  and  continuing 
the  charters  of  the  Mormon  Church  and  of  the  Perpet- 
ual Emigration  Fund  Co.,  and  confiscated  their  prop- 
erty, with  the  exception  of  the  church  buildings  and 
parsonages,  devoting  it  to  the  support  of  common 
schools  in  the  Territory. 

The  area  of  Utah  was  acquired  by  the  United  States 
from  Mexico  in  1848,  under  the  provisions  of  the  treaty 
of  Guadelupe  Hidalgo.  It  was  organized  as  a Territory 
in  1850,  and  at  that  time  it  comprised  all  the  country  lying 
between  the  eastern  boundary  of  California  and  the 
western  border  of  the  Great  Plains.  The  subsequent 
creation  of  Nevada,  Colorado,  and  Wyoming  reduced 
it  to  its  present  limits.  In  1847  the  Mormons*  under 
the  leadership  of  Brigham  Young,  had  commenced  to 
make  settlements  in  Salt  Lake  valley,  and  they  rapidly 
extended  themselves  over  the  fertile  valleys  of  the  Terri- 
tory. Prior  to  the  advent  of  railroads  very  few  Gen 
tiles  settled  in  Utah.  In  1895  Utah  adopted  a consti- 
tution prohibiting  polygamy.  On  January  4,  1896,  it 
became  a State  of  the  Union.  For  further  details  of 
the  history  of  the  Territory,  see  Mormons. 

UTICA  (’ Irvx? 7),  an  ancient  Phoenician  colony  in 
Africa  near  .the  mouth  of  the  Bagradas  (Majerda),  about 
twenty  miles  northwest  of  Carthage.  The  site,  which  is 
still  covered  with  ruins,  including  those  of  a vast  am- 
phitheater, lies  on  a hill  which  is  now  eight  or  ten  miles 
from  the  coast,  but  in  ancient  times  a bay  ran  close  up 
to  the  city,  and  the  remains  of  quays  can  sjill  be  traced. 
Founded  iioi  B.C.,  Utica  was  nearly  three  centuries 
older  than  Carthage.  The  two  cities  were  generally  allies; 
but  Utica,  jealous  of  its  neighbor,  sometimes  acted  in- 
dependently, and  in  the  Third  Punic  War  it  made  a 
separate  peace  with  Rome,  and  reaped  the  fruits  of  the 
destruction  of  the  greater  Punic  city,  becoming  the  em- 
porium of  Roman  trade  and  the  capital  of  the  province, 
till  Carthage  was  rebuilt  by  Caesar  in  44  B.c.  It  was 
here  that  the  younger  Cato  killed  himself.  Utica  re- 
ceived the  Roman  civitas  from  Augustus,  was  made  a 
colony  by  Hadrian,  and  received  the  jus  Italicum  from 
Septimius  Severus.  The  city  was  finally  destroyed  b^ 
the  Arabs. 

UTICA,  a city  of  Oneida  county,  N.  Y.,  about 
180  miles  north-northwest  from  New  York  city,  is 
situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Mohawk,  about 
400  feet  above  sea-level.  The  site  of  the  city  has 
a gentle  slope  toward  the  river.  The  surrounding 
country  is  thickly  settled,  the  principal  industries  being 
the  manufacture  of  cotton,  woolen,  and  iron  goods,  the 
production  of  butter  and  cheese,  and  the  raising  of  hops. 
Utica  is  the  chief  market  for  cheese  in  the  United  States. 
The  city  is  touched  by  five  railroads,  the  New  York 
Central  and  Hudson  River;  New  York,  Ontario  and 
Western;  Rome,  Watertown  and  Ogdensburg ; Dela- 
ware, Lackawanna  and  Western;  and  New  York, 
West  Shore  and  Buffalo ; and  by  the  Erie  canal.  Th« 


6u8 


U T 1 - - U Z 


city  is  irregularly  built.  Of  the  manufacturing  indus- 
tries, which  are  varied,  the  most  important  is  that  of 
clothing,  and  next  to  it  is  that  of  boots  and  shoes. 
One  of  the  State  lunatic  asylums  is  in  Utica.  The  pop- 
ulation of  the  city  in  1880  was  33,914,  an  increase  in 
ten  years  of  less  than  12  per  cent.,  and  in  1900  it  was 

56,383. 

UTILITARIANISM.  See  Ethics. 

UTRAQUISTS,  a name  first  given  to  all  those 
members  of  the  Western  church  in  the  fourteenth  cent- 
ury, principally  followers  of  John  Huss,  who  contended 
for  the  administration  of  the  Eucharist  to  the  laity 
under  both  kinds,  but  in  later  times  restricted  to  one 
particular  section  of  the  Hussites,  although  all  the 
members  of  that  sect  held  the  same  doctrine.  The 
name  may  be  said  to  date  from  1415,  when  the  followers 
of  John  Huss  in  Prague  and  elsewhere  in  Bohemia 
adopted  “ the  communion  of  the  cup  ” as  their  rallying 
cry,  and  as  the  distinguishing  badge  of  their  association. 

UTRECHT,  a province  of  Plolland,  bounded  north 
by  North  Holland  and  theZuyder  Zee,  east  by  Guelder- 
land,  south  by  Guelderland  and  South  Holland,  and 
west  by  South  Holland,  has  an  area  of  534  square  miles 
and  a population  (1901)  of  254,867.  In  the  west  the 
province  is  flat  and  in  many  places  below  sea-level ; to- 
ward the  east,  where  the  Veluwe  begins,  it  is  more  un- 
dulating, and  at  Zeist  reaches  a height  of  164  feet.  The 
more  productive  region  is  in  the  west ; toward  the  east 
the  soil  becomes  sandy  and  heath-clad.  Nearly  half 
(46.5  per  cent.)  of  the  total  area  is  under  grass;  the 
chief  agricultural  products  are  grain  (buckwheat)  and 
tobacco;  bee-keeping  is  extensively  carried  on  in  the 
east,  and  there  is  a bee  market  at  Veenendaal.  The 
province  is  traversed  by  railways  to  Amsterdam,  Rotter- 
dam, Leyden,  and  The  Hague,  Bois-le-duc,  Arnheim, 
Zutphen,  and  Zwolle,  all  converging  in  Utrecht;  it  is 
also  amply  provided  with  navigable  water-ways. 

Utrecht,  capital  of  the  above  province,  twenty- 
two  miles  by  rail  south-southeast  from  Amsterdam, 
thirty-eight  northeast  from  Rotterdam,  and  thirty-five 
nearly  west  from  Arnheim,  is  situated  at  the  'point  where 
the  Kromme  Rijn  bifurcates  into  the  Vecht  and  the 
Oude  Rijn.  Utrecht  has  excellent  schools  and  several 
literary  and  scientific  societies,  besides  barracks,  a large 
military  hospital,  and  a veterinary  school.  The  most 
important  industrial  establishments  are  cigar-factories, 
manufactories  of  chemicals  and  earthenware,  and  brass- 
foundries.  There  is  an  active  trade  in  the  produce  of 
the  manufactures,  and  also  in  corn,  cattle,  butter,  and 
cheese.  To  the  east  of  the  town  is  the  Maliebaan  or 
Mail,  a triple  avenue  of  trees  about  half  a mile  in  length 


The  population  of  Utrecht  m 1876  was  66,106,  and  in 

1901  it  was  104,194. 

UTRERA,  a town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Seville,  eighteen  miles  to  the  south-southeast  of  that 
city,  on  the  railway  to  Jerez  and  Cadiz,  at  the  junction 
for  Moron  and  Osuna,  lies  about  eight  miles  from  the 
left  bank  of  the  Guadalquivir,  in  a pleasant  valley  be- 
tween two  gentle  undulations  of  the  foot-hills  of  the 
southern  sierra.  The  place  enjoys  considerable  pros- 
perity, due  mainly  to  the  fertility  of  the  surrounding 
district,  which  produces  large  quantities  of  grain,  and 
also  fruit  of  various  sorts,  oil,  and  wine.  An  im- 
portant fair  is  held  at  Utrera  in  September.  The  pop- 
ulation within  the  municipal  limits  in  1877  was  15,093. 

UTTERING  CO  UNTERFEIT  COIN  is  an  offense 
punishable  by  the  laws  of  all  nations  with  more  or  less 
severity,  and  the  punishment  is  usually  increased  if, 
besides  uttering,  the  person  is  found  with  other  counter- 
feit coin  in  his  possession.  It  has  become  of  late  years 
an  international  offense  to  forge  the  money  or  coin  of 
any  country,  and  most  nations  surrender  criminals  for 
such  offenses  to  be  tried  in  tile  country  against  w hom 
the  forgery  w'as  uttered. 

UXBRIDGE,  an  ancient  borough  and  market  town 
of  Middlesex,  England,  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the 
Colne  and  Frayswater,  on  the  Grand  Junction  canal, 
and  on  a branch  of  the  Great  Western  railway,  fifteen 
and  a half  miles  w'est  of  London.  On  the  banks  of  the 
Colne  are  several  flour-mills.  The  town  possesses 
several  breweries  and  an  iron-foundry.  By  the  Grand 
Junction  Canal,  near  which  there  are  several  saw' -mills, 
a considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  timber,  slates,  and 
coal.  The  towm  is  governed  by  a local  board  of  eighteen 
members.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  dis- 
trict (area  496  acres)  was  7,497  in  1871  and  7,669  in 
1881. 

UZ.  The  “ land  of  Uz  ” (py  pitf)  is  best  known 
as  the  scene  of  the  story  of  Job.  Job  seems  to  be  rep- 
resented as  living  in  the  country  east  of  Palestine  and 
not  far  from  Edom,  to  which  his  friend  Eliphaz  the 
Tern  an  ite  belonged.  In  Lam.  iv.  21  the  Edomites  ap- 
pear as  in  possession  of  the  land  of  Uz,  w'hile  in  Gen. 
xxxvi.  28  Uz  is  one  of  the  pre-Edomite  inhabitants  of 
Seir.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Gen.  x.  23  and  xxii.  21, 
Uz  (or  Huz)  is  Arampean.  Finally  in  Jfer.  xxv.  20, 
“ the  kings  of  the  land  of  Uz  ” appear  in  a clause,  absent 
from  the  LXX.,  which  seems  to  be  a gloss  on  the 
preceding  clause,  and  so  to  refer  to  Arabs.  Mediaeval 
tradition  places  the  home  of  Job  in  the  Hauran  (see 
Wetzstein  in  Delitzsch,  Job),  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
all  the  Biblical  references  can  apply  to  on*  district 


Vis  our  twenty-second  letter;  it  represents  the  voiced 
labio-dental  to  which  F corresponds  as  the  voice- 
less sound.  It  has  been  shown  under  U that  these  two 
symbols  were  originally  one,  and  that  their  differentia- 
tion took  place  for  convenience  of  writing  only.  But 
it  was  afterward  put  to  a good  use,  although  not  quite 
the  natural  one.  It  would  have  been  better,  while 
retaining  u for  the  vowel,  to  have  used  v for  the  cor- 
responding labial  consonant,  which,  is  actually  denoted 
by  w.  The  difference  of  it  and  w is  simply  that  of 
vowel  and  consonant:  for  u there  is  a sufficient  opening 
of  the  lips  to  allow  the  voice  to  pass  through  without 
friction;  but  for  w the  aperture  is  so  much  closed,  by 
bringing  together  either  the  inner  edges  of  the  lips  (as 
in  England)  or  the  outer  edges  (as  in  some  parts  of 
Germany),  that  there  is  an  audible  amount  of  friction 
as  the  voice  passes.  The  organs  employed  are  the  lips 
only  in  each  case,  whereas  for  v the  upper  teeth  and  the 
lower  lip  are  the  factors  of  the  sound. 

The  symbol  v does  not  occur  in  the  oldest  of  our 
texts;  it  is  represented  by  f,  as  in  “lieofon,”  “ ofer,” 
“ hlaford  ” (lord).  The  f generally  is  voiced  when 
medial,  but  voiceless  when  initial.  This  absence  of  two 
symbols  for  the  corresponding  pairs  of  fricative  conso- 
nants has  been  noted  already  in  the  use  of  <j  (or  p)  for 
both  th  and  dh  (see  under  T);  s also  did  duty,  as  it 
often  does  still,  for  both  s and  z.  In  Middle  English  u 
appears  commonly  for  v.  The  introduction  of  v into 
English  writing  is  due  to  French  scribes;  as  a matter  of 
fact  almost  all  the  words  which  begin  with  v are  of 
French  origin. 

It  is  tolerably  certain  that  in  Latin  v represented  the 
labial  and  not  the  labio-dental  consonant.  The  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  this  view  are  singly  not  very  important, 
but  they  are  fairly  numerous. 

In  the  Roman  system  of  numerals  V stands  for  five. 
The  reason  is  uncertain.  The  old  view  that  it  repre- 
sents half  ten  (X),  as  D (500)  represents  half  a thou- 
sand (M,  originally  a>),  has  no  very  high  degree  of 
probability.  It  is  perhaps  as  likely  that  I.,  II.,  III., 
IIII.,  denoted  the  uplifted  fingers  used  in  counting,  and 
that  V denoted  the  whole  hand  with  the  thumb  on  one 
side  and  the  four  fingers  together  on  the  other. 

VAAL  RIVER,  the  Dutch  name  of  one  of  the  most 
important  branches  of  the  Orange  river,  South  Africa. 
It  rises  in  the  northwest  Natal  country,  and  for  about 
500  miles  forms  a boundary  between  the  Orange  River 
Free  State  and  the  Transvaal  Republic,  and  then  joins 
the  main  branch  of  the  Orange  river. 

VACATION,  in  legal  language,  means  a holiday 
usually  enjoyed  by  lawyers  in  consequence  of  courts 
being  closed,  and  some  steps  in  court  proceedings  not 
being  competent  during  the  summer  or  autumn  of  each 
year.  There  are  short  vacations  during  other  periods 
of  the  year,  but  the  Long  Vacation  is  generally  taken 
during  the  hot  term  from  August  to  October. 

VACCINATION  (from  Lat.  vacra,  a cow),  the 
name  given  in  France  to  the  Jennerian  practice  of  cow- 
poxing,  shortly  after  the  practice  began  in  England 


(i799)-  To  replace  smallpox  inoculation  by  cowpox 
inoculation  under  certain  specified  circumstances  was 
Jenner’s  tentative  project.  The  history  of  the  intro- 
duction of  cowpoxing,  given  in  the  article  Jenner,  is 
here  supplemented  from  the  point  of  view  of  historical 
criticism. 

Jenner’s  originality  in  starting  vaccination  in  practice 
is  for  the  most  part  misunderstood.  When  he  pub- 
lished his  Inquiry  in  June,  1798,  he  had  twice  suc- 
ceeded in  raising  vaccine  vesicles  by  experiment.  A 
third  experiment,  in  the  summer  of  1798,  failed  from 
the  outset;  and  his  fourth  and  last  experiment,  in  No- 
vember-December,  1798,  led  to  nothing  but  extensive 
phagedenic  ulceration  in  two  cases  out  of  six  vaccinated. 

In  this  posture  of  affairs  Woodville,  of  the  inoculation 
hospital,  London,  succeeded  in  January,  1799,  in  start- 
ing a succession  of  arm-to-arm  vaccinations  from  a Lon- 
don cow,  which  were  exceptionally  free  from  the  ulcer- 
ative termination.  From  that  source  Jenner  himself 
was  supplied  with  lymph  in  February,  while  more  than 
two  hundred  practitioners  both  at  home  and  abroad 
were  supplied  some  three  weeks  later. 

The  so-called  calf  lymph  is  as  remote  from  the  cow 
as  ordinary  humanized  lymph;  it  differs  from  the  latter 
merely  in  the  circumstance  that  the  calf  (on  its  shaven 
belly)  becomes  the  vaccinifer,  instead  of  the  child,  and 
that  the  cycle  of  the  disease  is  very  much  abbreviated  01 
contracted  in  the  calf:. the  vesicles  are  distended  with 
lymph  about  the  fourth  or  fifth  day,  instead  of  the 
seventh  or  eighth,  and  are  almost  unattended  by  areolar 
redness  and  constitutional  disturbance,  the  animal  be- 
ing able  to  support  fifty  to  a hundred  or  more  vesicles 
without  the  smallest  inconvenience.  On  the  child’s  arm 
the  vesicles  after  calf- lymph  are  slower  in  development 
than  in  the  calf,  and  are  attended  by  areola,  etc. 

The  other  anomalous  source  of  “ vaccine  ” is  human 
smallpox.  Jenner  having  succeeded  in  passing  off  his 
doctrine  that  cowpox  is  smallpox  of  the  cow,  it  occurred 
to  some  persons  about  forty  years  after  to  prove  thf 
doctrine  by  experiment,  the  proof  being  to  variolate  the 
cow  on  the  udder.  This  was  accomplished  in  1838^ 
after  much  trouble,  by  Thiele  in  Kazan  (Russia),  who  in. 
oculated  several  thousands  of  persons  with  the  variolous 
matter  “ passed  through  the  system  of  the  cow.”  With- 
in a few  months  of  that  experiment,  the  same  thing  was 
attempted  by  Ceely  of  Aylesbury,  who  succeeded,  after 
many  failures,  in  raising  a large  variolous  pock,  not  on 
the  udder  of  the  cow,  but  on  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  vulva.  But  the  real  practical  application  of  this 
idea  was  reserved  for  Badcock,  a dispensing  chemist  at 
Brighton. 

At  Boston,  the  same  kind  of  lymph  was  raised  and  put 
in  use  in  1852.  But  at  Attleborough,  Mass.,  the  same 
experiment  had  in  1836  led  to  disaster.  Smallpox  was 
inoculated  on  a cow’s  udder,  and  the  product  used  tc 
vaccinate  about  fifty  persons.  The  result  was  an  epi. 
demic  of  smallpox,  a panic,  and  the  suspension  of  busi- 
ness. 

The  risks  of  vaccination  may  be  divided  into  the  risks 


6120 


VAC 


inherent  in  the  cowpox  infection  and  the  risks  con- 
tingent to  the  puncture  of  the  skin.  Of  the  latter 
nothing  special  requires  to  be  said ; the  former  will 
be  discussed  under  the  five  heads  of  (i)  erysipelas,  (2) 
jaundice,  (3)  skin  eruptions,  (4)  vaccinal  ulcers,  and 
(5)  so-called  vaccinal  syphilis. 

(1)  A slight  degree  of  erysipelas  was  recognized  by 
Jenner  himself, -and  even  postulated  by  him,  as  part  of 
the  natural  history  of  cowpox  in  man ; and  it  is  so  rec- 
ognized by  the  more  unbiased  writers  of  recent  date. 
The  usual  time  for  it  corresponds  to  the  appearance 
of  the  areola  (eighth  or  ninth  day),  that  efflorescence 
round  the  pock  being  normally  a slight  erysipelas.  It 
may  start,  however,  from  the  puncture  or  scratch  in  the 
skin,  after  a day  or  two’s  interval ; but  that  form  of  it  (the 
“ early  erysipelas”  of  German  writers)  is  much  rarer 
than  the  erysipelas  of  the  areola,  or  “late  erysipelas.” 

(2)  It  is  only  within  the  last  few  years  that  jaun- 
dice has  been  recognized  as  a post-vaccinal  effect;  and 
at  present  there  is  only  one  accepted  instance  of  it  on 
the  large  scale.  This  was  the  epidemic  among  re- 
vaccinated adults  in  a large  shipyard  at  Bremen  from 
October,  1883,  to  April,  1884.  Circumstantial  evidence 
(agreement  and  difference)  clearly  traced  the  epidemic 
to  the  vaccination. 

(3)  The  eruptions  that  follow  vaccination  are  proper 
to  cowpox  infection.  The  eruption  is  a kind  of  ex- 
anthem, or  “secondary”  of  the  local  infection,  and  does 
not  ordinarily  appear  before  the  second  week.  One  of 
its  commonest  forms  is  a patchy  rose-rash, or  macular 
roseola,  not  easily  distinguishable  from  the  macular 
roseola  of  syphilis.  Another  form  is  lichen  or  dry 
papules,  apt  to  scale;  it  may  also  occur  as  a vesicular 
eruption,  and  in  the  form  of  pemphigoid  bullae  or  blebs. 

(4)  Ulceration  of  the  vaccine  vesicle,  or  of  the  site  of 
it,  is  one  of  the  commoner  forms  of  “bad  arm.”  It  is 
a return  to  the  native  or  untamed  characteristics  of  cow- 
pox  on  the  cow’s  teats, or  on  the  milker’s  hands  or  face, 
or  in  the  child’s  arm  after  experimental  inoculation  with 
primary  lymph.  It  crops  out  not  infrequently  in  every- 
day practice,  and  is  probably  dependent  for  the  most 
part  on  the  lateness  at  which  the  lymph  was  taken  for 
vaccination,  or  on  retardation  of  the  process  in  the 
vaccinifer,  or  on  emptying  the  latter’s  vesicles  too 
much ; however,  it  may  result  from  picking  the  scab  or 
otherwise  dislodging  it.  Healing  is  frequently  an  affair 
of  weeks,  and  may  be  aided  by  mercurial  treatment. 

(5)  It  has  been  proved  by  many  experiments,  unde- 
signed or  otherwise,  in  Paris  (1831  and  1839),  Vienna 
(1854),  and  elsewhere,  that  an  infant  with  congenital 
syphilis  develops  correct  vaccinal  vesicles,  provided 
its  skin  be  clear  of  eruption  and  the  lymph  has  been 
taken  at  the  usual  time;  also  that  the  lymph  taken 
from  the  correct  vesicles  of  a syphilitic  child  produces 
correct  vesicles  in  its  turn,  but  does  not  produce 
syphilis  in  the  vaccinated  child.  The  congenital  taint 
is,  in  fact,  irrelevant  to  the  course  of  cowpox  infec- 
don.  So  far  as  experiment  and  casual  experience  can 
prove  anything,  that  has  been  proved. 

In  the  polemical  writings  of  anti-vaccinists,  such  dis- 
eases as  scrofula,  tubercle,  whooping-cough,  diarrhea, 
and  other  common  causes  of  infantine  mortality  are 
alleged  to  have  increased  owing  to  vaccination.  There 
is  little  or  no  reason,  in  theory  or  in  experience,  to 
suspect  that  tuberculous  or  scrofulous  infection  is  ever 
communicated  by  vaccine  lymph. 

The  value  of  cowpox  as  a protection  against  small- 
pox may  now  be  judged  of  apart  from  the  fanciful  doc- 
trine of  variole  vaccine  by  which  it  was  originally  rec- 
ommended. It  has  been  put  to  a test  extending  over 
eighty  years  ; and  in  some  circumstances  it  has  been 
possible  to  apply  the  logical  methods  of  agreement  and 


difference  with  a good  deal  of  cogency.  The  upsetting 
fallacy  of  all  vaccination  logic  is  that  of  post  hoc  ergo 
propter  hoc;  and  the  only  way  to  escape  it  is  to  hold 
intelligent  views  of  the  history,  the  natural  history, 
and  the  epidemiology  of  smallpox.  The  epidemic  of 
1871-72  was  one  of  the  worst  in  the  whole  history  of 
European  smallpox ; and  it  may  be  that  it  was  one  of 
the  last  flickers  of  a slowly  expiring  flame.  The  uni- 
versal practice  of  cowpoxing,  however,  is  based  upon 
the  assumption  that  this  contagious  skin  disease  im- 
ported from  the  tropics  is  a thing  that  Europe  must 
reckon  with  for  an  indefinite  time.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  teaching  of  epidemiology  is  that  a foreign  pestil- 
ence never  stays  unless  it  finds  quarters  suited  to  its 
existence,  and  that  it  may  even  take  its  departure 
capriciously,  as  in  the  case  of  the  plague,  after  it  has,, 
had  a certain  career,  or  on  being  displaced  by  some 
congener  such  as  typhus.  Vaccination  is  considered 
to  have  turned  smallpox  in  great  part  aside  from  the 
early  years  of  life  and  thrown  it  more  than  ever  upon 
the  later  ages,  while  measles  and  other  maladies 
proper  to  childhood  have  at  the  same  time  increased. 

Thus  far  as  regards  the  utility  of  vaccination  to  the 
state;  we  have  now  to  consider  its  utility  to  the  indi- 
vidual. Do  the  vaccinated  escape  in  an  epidemic  ? or, 
if  they  do  not  escape  an  attack  of  smallpox,  do  they 
escape  death  from  it  ? In  answer  to  the  first  question, 
apart  from  the  familiar  negative  experience  of  everyone, 
we  have  the  statistics  of  smallpox  hospitals,  which  re- 
late to  the  poorer  class  and  probably  do  full  justice  to 
the  fact  of  non-vaccination,  inasmuch  as  the  unvac- 
cinated residue  is  mostly  to  be  found  in  those  slums  and 
tenements  of  the  poor  where  smallpox  (now  as  always) 
is  apt  to  linger.  At  the  Eastern  Metropolitan  Hospital 
(Homerton)  from  its  opening  early  in  1871  to  the  end 
of  1878  there  were  6,533  admissions  for  smallpox,  of 
which  4,283  had  vaccination  marks,  793  had  no  marks 
although  vaccinated,  and  1,477  were  un vaccinated,  giv- 
ing a proportion  of  0.29  un  vaccinated.  In  the  epi- 
demic hospitals  of  Liverpool,  Glasgow,  and  Dublin 
the  proportion  was  0.25  during  the  same  period.  In 
the  army  and  navy,  where  vaccination  and  revaccina- 
tion are  absolutely  without  exception,  the  proportion 
is  accordingly  o.  It  would  thus  appear  that  the  rather 
excessive  proportion  of  cases  among  the  small  residue 
of  unvaccinated  in  the  civil  population  must  have 
other  associated  circumstances  besides  non-vaccina- 
tion; and  these  are  not  far  to  seek. 

The  next  question  is  the  death-rate  among  the  vac- 
cinated and  unvaccinated  respectively.  The  total 
death-rate  from  smallpox  in  modern  times  is  almost  the 
same  as  it  was  in  the  eighteenth  century ; large  aggre- 
gates collected  by  Jurin  and  others  in  pre- vaccination 
times  show  a mortality  of  18.8  per  cent,  and  corre- 
sponding aggregates  in  English  and  American  hospi- 
tals,mostly  since  1870,  show  a mortality  of  i8-5percent. 

The  returns  from  special  smallpox  hospitals  make 
out  a very  small  death-rate  (6  per  cent)  among  the 
vaccinated  and  a very  large  death-rate  (40  to  60  per 
cent)  among  the  unvaccinated.  The  result  is  doubt- 
ful qua  vaccination,  for  the  reason  that  in  pre-vaccina- 
tion  times  the  death-rate  (18.8  per  cent)  was  almost 
the  same  as  it  is  now  in  the  vaccinated  and  unvac- 
cinated together  (18.5). 

The  practice  of  re  vaccination  was  first  recommended 
in  England  by  G.  Gregory,  and  in  Germany  for  the 
army  by  Heim  (1829).  It  has  been  more  or  less  the 
law  in  Prussia  since  1835:  “revaccination  of  school 
pupils  at  the  age  of  twelve  is  an  integral  part  of  the 
vaccination  law.  ” N otwithstanding  the  fact  that  Prus- 
sia was  the  best  revaccinated  country  in  Europe,  its 
mortality  from  smallpox  in  the  epidemic  of  1871  was 


v A C — V A G 


6121 


higher  (69,839)  than  in  any  other  northern  state.  The 
efficacy  of  revaccination  is  sometimes  sought  to  be 
proved  by  the  immunity  of  nurses  in  smallpox  hospitals. 
The  experiment  of  not  revaccinating  the  nurses  was 
tried  at  the  smallpox  hospital  of  the  South  Dublin  Union 
in  1871-72;  twenty-nine  out  of  the  thirty-six  attend- 
ants had  not  been  revaccinated,  and  these  all  escaped 
smallpox  as  well  as  the  other  seven.  But  nurses  are 
not  rarely  chosen  from  among  those  who  have  had  small- 
pox, and  cases  of  smallpox  in  revaccinated  nurses  are 
not  unknown.  The  evidence  as  to  revaccination  on 
a large  scale  comes  from  the  army.  According  to  a 
competent  statistician  (A.  Vogt),  the  death-rate  from 
smallpox  in  the  German  army,  in  which  all  recruits  are 
revaccinated,  was  60  per  cent,  more  than  among  the 
_ivil  population  of  the  same  age ; it  was  ten  times 
greater  among  the  infantry  than  among  the  cavalry, 
and  sixty  times  more  among  the  Hessians  than  among  the 
W iirtembergers.  The  Bavarian  contingent,  which  was  re- 
vaccinated without  exception,  had  five  times  the  death- 
rate  from  smallpox  in  the  epidemic  of  1870-71  that  the 
Bavarian  civil  population  of  the  same  ages  had,  although 
revaccination  is  not  obligatory  among  the  latter. 

The  susceptibility  to  cowpox  infection  diminishes 
with  age ; among  the  pupils  of  twelve  years  in  Prussian 
schools  it  fails  in  about  one-fourth  of  the  attempts,  and 
at  later  periods  of  life  the  proportion  of  failures  is  still 
greater. 

It  is  often  alleged  that  the  unvaccinated  are  so  much 
inflammable  material  in  the  midst  of  the  community, 
and  that  smallpox  begins  among  them  and  gathers  force 
so  that  it  sweeps  even  the  vaccinated  before  it.  Inquiry 
into  the  facts  has  shown  that  at  Cologue  in  1870  the 
first  unvaccinated  person  attacked  by  smallpox  was  the 
174th  in  order  of  time,  at  Bonn  the  same  year  the  42d, 
and  at  Liegnitz  in  1871  the  225th. 

Vaccination  was  made  compulsory  in  Bavaria  in  1807, 
and  subsequently  in  the  following  countries: — Denmark 
(1810),  Sweden  (1814),  Wiirtemberg,  Hesse,  and  other 
German  states  (1818),  Prussia  (1835),  Roumania 
(1874),  Hungary  (1876),  and  Servia  (1881).  It  is  com- 
pulsory by  cantonal  law  in  ten  out  of  the  twenty-two 
Swiss  cantons;  an  attempt  to  pass  a federal  compulsory 
law  was  defeated  by  a plebiscite  in  1881. 

In  only  a few  States  or  cities  of  the  United  States 
is  there  a vaccination  statute;  in  Lower  Canada  there  is 
no  compulsion.  Vaccination  was  compulsory  in  Great 
Britain  in  18^3,  and  has  been  compulsory  in  South 
Australia  since  1872,  in  Victoria  since  1874,  and  in 
Western' Australia  since  1878.  In  Tasmania  a com- 
pulsory Act  was  passed  in  1882.  In  New  South  Wales 
there  is  no  compulsion,  but  free  facilities  for  vaccina- 
tion. Compulsion  was  adopted  at  Calcutta  in  1880  and 
since  then  at  eighty  other  towns  of  Bengal,  at  Madras 
in  1884,  and  at  Bombay  and  elsewhere  in  the  presidency 
a few  years  earlier. 

In  the  following  countries  there  is  no  compulsory 
law,  but  governmental  facilities  and  compulsion  on  vari- 
ous classes  more  or  less  directly  under  Governmental  con- 
trol, such  as  soldiers,  state  employes,  apprentices, 
school  pupils,  etc.: — France.  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal, 
Belgium,  Norway,  Austria,  Turkey. 

Revaccination  was  made  compulsory  in  Denmark  in 
1871  and  in  Roumania  in  1874;  in  Holland  it  was 
enacted  for  all  school  pupils  in  1872.  The  various  laws 
and  administrative  orders  which  had  been  for  many 
years  in  force  as  to  vaccination  and  revaccination  in  the 
several  German  states  were  consolidated  in  an  imperial 
statute  of  1874. 

t VACCINIACEZE,  a natural  order  of  exogeneous 
juants  differing  from  the  Ericeae  chiefly  in  having  an 
inferior  ovary  and  succulent  fruit.  About  200  species 


are  known,  natives  of  temperate  climates  in  all  parts  of 
the  world.  Whortleberries  and  cranberries  are  the 
most  familiar  examples  of  the  order. 

VACH  (literally  speech),  is  another  name  of  Saras! 
wati,  the  female  energy  of  the  Hindu  god  Brahma. 

VACHASPATI  (literally  lord  of  speech),  is  in 
Hindu  mythology  one  of  the  usual  names  of  Vrihaspati, 
the  instructor  of  the  gods. 

VACUUM  literally  means  empty  space,  or  space 
wholly  devoid  of  matter.  In  ordinary  language  a 
vacuum  is  said  to  be  produced,  more  or  less  perfect, 
when  ordinary  ponderous  matter  such  as  air  is  more  or 
less  completely  removed  from  the  interior  of  a glass 
vessel.  Until  the  commencement  of  the  present  cent- 
ury the  most  perfect  vacuum  that  could  be  obtained  was 
that  called  the  Torricellian  vacuum,  that  is  the  space 
above  the  mercury  in  a carefully-filled  barometer  tube. 
Such  a barometer,  however,  is  almost  useless  for  experi- 
mental purposes,  and  besides  it  contains  mercurial 
vapor.  An  air  pump  removes  all  but  about  j^0  Part 
the  atmosphere  in  the  receiver,  but  if  carbonic  acid  be 
employed  and  pumped  out  several  times,  so  as  to  get 
rid  as  far  as  possible  of  the  last  trace  of  air,  the  remain, 
ing  air  will  be  taken  up  by  means  of  moistened  caustic 
potash  previously  placed  in  the  receiver.  Concentrated 
sulphuric  acid  should  also  be  present  to  desiccate  the 
potash  when  it  has  done  its  work.  Further  improve- 
ments have  been  made;  the  exhaustion  being  carried  so 
far  that  the  attenuated  matter  remaining  was  unable  to 
conduct  the  discharge  of  an  induction  coil. 

VACZ  (Germ.  Waitzen ),  a market  town  in  Hun- 
gary, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  twenty  miles 
north  of  Buda-Pesth.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
are  engaged  in  agriculture  and  cattle  breeding;  but  ex- 
portation of  grapes  from  the  neighboring  hilly  district 
is  also  largely  carried  on.  Vacz  is  a station  on  the  Aus- 
trian-Hungaiian  railway  system.  The  population, 
mostly  Magyars  by  nationality,  was  13,199  in  1880,  and 
in  1901  was  estimated  to  number  nearly  20,000. 

VAGA,  Perino  del,  a painter  of  the  Roman  school, 
whose  true  name  was  Perino  (or  Piero)  Buonac- 
CORSi.  He  was  born  in  Florence  on  June  28,  1500. 
Perino  was  first  apprenticed  to  a druggist,  but  soon 
passed  into  the  hands  of  a mediocre  painter,  Andrea 
da  Ceri,  and,  when  eleven  years  of  age,  of  Ridolfo 
Ghirlandajo.  Perino  rapidly  surpassed  his  fellow-pupils, 
applying  himself  especially  to  the  study  of  Michelangelo’s 
great  cartoon.  Another  mediocre  painter,  Vaga  from 
Toscanella,  undertook  to  settle  the  boy  in  Rome,  but 
first  set  him  to  work  in  Toscanella.  Perino,  when 
he  at  last  reached  Rome,  was  utterly  poor,  and  with 
no  clear  prospect  beyond  journey-work  for  trading 
decorators.  He,  however,  studied  with  great  severity 
and  spirit  from  Michelangelo  and  the  antique,  and  was 
eventually  intrusted  with  some  of  the  subordinate  work 
undertaken  by  Raphael  in  the  Vatican. 

After  Raphael’s  death  in  1520,  a troublous  period 
ensued  for  Perino,  with  a plague  which  ravaged  Rome 
in  1523,  and  again  with  the  sack  of  that  city  in  1527. 
Then  he  accepted  an  invitation  to  Genoa,  where  he 
was  employed  in  decorating  the  Doria  palace,  and 
rapidly  founded  a quasi-Roman  school  of  art  in  the 
Ligurian  city.  He  ornamented  the  palace  in  a style 
similar  to  that  of  Giulio  Romano  in  the  Mantuan  Pa- 
lazzo del  Te,  and  frescoed  historical  and  mythological 
subjects  in  the  apartments,  fanciful  and  graceful  ara- 
besque work,  sculptural  and  architectural  details — in 
short,  whatever  came  to  hand.  Among  the  principal 
works  are  the  War  between  the  Gods  and  Giants , 
Horatius  Cocles  Defending  the  Bridge , and  the  Forti- 
tude of  Mutius  Sccevola.  The  most  important  w ork  of 
all,  the  Shipwreck  of  AZueas,  is  no  longer  extant.  From 


6122 


VAG—VAL 


Genoa  Perino  twice  visited  Pisa,  and  began  some  paint- 
ing in  the  cathedral.  Finally  he  returned  to  Rome, 
where  Paul  III.  allowed  him  a regular  salary  till  the 
painter’s  death.  He  retouched  many  of  the  works  of 
Raphael,  and  labored  hard  on  his  own  account,  under- 
taking all  sorts  of  jobs,  important  or  trivial.  Working 
for  any  price,  he  made  large  gains,  but  fell  into  me- 
chanical negligence.  Perino  was  engaged  in  the  gen- 
eral decoration  of  the  Sala  Reale,  begun  by  Paul  III., 
when  his  health,  undermined  by  constant  work  and 
as  constant  irregularities,  gave  way,  and  he  fell  down 
dead  on  October  19,  1547.  He  is  buried  in  the  Pan- 
theon. 

VAGRANTS  (or  tramps)  are  those  wandering  spec- 
imens of  humanity  which  of  late  years  have  been  quite 
a problem  in  American  social  life.  In  this  country  they 
are  commonly  called  tramps,  and  as  they  are  in  some 
regards  the  involuntary  product  of  extraneous  circum- 
stances, their  history  is  to  a degree  interesting.  In 
1873  the  United  Slates  was  financially  shaken  from 
center  to  circumference,  and  the  shrinkage  of  trade  and 
commerce  was  unprecedented.  Labor  was  not  long  in 
responding  to  the  depressing  influences  surrounding 
and  militating  against  it,  and  scores  of  workshops  and 
factories  were  closed.  The  employes  of  these  factories 
at  once  began  to  move  about  the  country,  at  first  osten- 
sibly in  search  of  work,  but  by  degrees  becoming 
accustomed  to  a migrating  and  predatory  existence.  In 
less  than  two  years  the  number  of  these  nomads  reached 
an  estimated  figure  of  2,000,000.  The  moral  influence 
of  this  pernicious  system  was  not  long  in  making  itself 
apparent  among  the  idle,  the  vicious,  and  the  indolent. 
These  classes  of  society  had  constantly  before  them  the 
example  of  large  bodies  of  individuals  living  in  an  almost 
state  of  warfare  with  organized  social  life,  owning  no 
restraint  but  their  own  inclinations,  and  paying  no 
regard  to  the  finer  distinctions  of  the  rights  of  property; 
what  they  needed,  they  took,  and  this  not  always  ac- 
companied by  the  previous  formality  of  asking  for  the 
article  so  taken.  The  contagion  spread,  and  when  the 
necessity  which  had  created  vagrancy  had  been  removed 
before  the  advancing  tide  of  returning  prosperity,  the 
evil  which  it  had  produced  did  not  disappear.  Many 
men  who  had  first  started  out  to  look  for  work  had  be- 
come so  accustomed  to  this  mode  of  life  that  they 

{referred  to  retain  it  rather  than  to  return  to  their 
egitimate  pursuits.  These  were  joined  by  the  vicious 
elements  referred  to  above,  and  from  a migration  of 
workmen  in  search  of  occupation  the  tramps  became  a 
body  of  criminals  at  large — a constant  menace  to  the 
peace  and  well-being  of  the  community.  For  ten  or 
fifteen  years  these  outlaws  roamed  over  the  country,  and 
many  deeds  of  violence  and  bloodshed  were  attributed 
to  them — sometimes  unjustly — but  latterly  their  num- 
bers seemed  to  decrease,  and  now  (1890)  the  evil  may 
be  spoken  of  as  largely  abated,  the  only  specimens  re- 
maining being  those  who  hail  from  the  large  cities,  and 
would  form  an  integer  of  the  criminal  population  at  any 
event  and  under  any  circumstances.  These  generally 
spend  their  winters  in  the  cities,  and  in  spring-time 
start  out  upon  their  travels,  wandering  over  the  country 
till  winter  again  compels  them  to  seek  the  shelter  of 
the  slums  and  dens  of  the  lower  quarters  of  our  larger 
cities.  They  generally  manage  to  secrete  themselves 
about  railway  trains  when  they  contemplate  an  excur- 
sion of  any  length,  and  by  thus  “ stealing  a ride”  procure 
transportation  from  one  end  of  the  country  to  another. 
At  other  times  they  may  be  seen  trudging  along  the- 
country  roads,  soliciting  food  at  farm  houses,  sleeping 
in  barns,  or  in  some  way  giving  evidence  of  their  calling 
in  life.  The:y  are  usually  reprobated  and  discounte- 
nanc'd bv  the  f.vir.'ng  community,  and  but  for  the 


mistaken  kindness  of  the  country  folk  in  responding  tc 
their  solicitations  for  alms,  the  evil  would  soon  be  s 
thing  of  the  past. 

VAIR,  Guillaume  du,  one  of  the  fathers  of  French 
prose,  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
ornaments  of  the  great  school  of  French  lawyers  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  was  born  at  Paris- 
on  March  7,  1556.  His  reputation  is  that  of  a lawyer, 
a statesman,  and  a man  of  letters.  He  was,  for  a con- 
siderable time,  a member  (councilor)  of  the  parlement 
of  Paris,  and  it  was  in  this  capacity  that  he  pronounced 
his  most  famous  politico-legal  discourse,  an  argument 
nominally  for  the  Salic  Law,  but  in  reality  directed 
against  the  alienation  of  the  crown  of  France  to  the 
Spanish  infanta,  which  was  advocated  by  the  extreme 
Leaguers.  It  was  also  during  his  tenure  of ,the  same 
post  that  he  published  (in  1595)  a Traite  de  V Eloquence 
Franfciise , which  both  advocates  and  exhibits  a great 
improvement  on  the  ordinary  prose  style  of  the  day. 
In  1599  he  became  first  president  of  the  parlement  of 
Provence  (Aix),  and  in  order  not  to  give  up  this  position 
he  refused  the  see  of  Marseilles.  In  1616  he,  received 
the  highest  promotion  open  to  a French  lawyer  and 
became  keeper  of  the  seals.  His  death  took  place  at 
Tonneins  (Lot  et-Garonne)  on  August  3,  1621. 

VA1SHNAVAS,  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  three 
great  divisions  of  the  Hindu  sects.  The  word,  derived 
from  Vishnu,  designates  worshipers  of  this  deity  and 
comprises  a great  variety  of  sects,  but  this  sect  itself 
differs  according  to  the  different  periods  of  the  mediaeval 
history  of  India,  old  divisions  becoming  extinct  and  new 
ones  taking  their  places.  The  common  link  of  all  the 
sects  comprised  in  the  name  of  Vaishnavas  is  their 
belief  in  the  supremacy  of  Vishnu  over  all  the  other 
gods  of  the  Trimurti.  Their  difference  is  in  the  char- 
acter which  they  assign  to  this  supremacy,  and  to  the 
god  Vishnu  himself  in  the  religious  and  other  practices 
founded  in  the  nature  of  their  belief  and  in  their  sectarian 
marks.  • 

VALAIS  (Germ.,  Wallis),  one  of  the  Swiss  cantons, 
ranking  as  twentieth  in  the  Confederation.  Its  name 
has  been  explained  to  mean  the  “Welsh  land,”  as  the 
Teutons  called  all  non-Teutonic  lands;  but  it  is  far  more 
probably  derived  from  “ vallis,”  for  Valais  is  simply  the 
“ Vallis  Poenina,”  or  valley  of  the  Rhone,  from  its  source 
to  the  gorge  of  St.  Maurice,  together  with  some  villages 
south  of  the  Simplon  Pass,  and  Monthey,  Val  d’llliez, 
and  Bouveret  beyond  St.  Maurice,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  river.  The  total  area  of  the  canton  is  2,026.3 
square  miles.  Of  this  930.4  square  miles  are  classed  as 
productive,  forests  covering  243.2  and  vineyards  9;  of 
the  remainder  375. 1 square  miles  consist  of  snow  and 
ice.  The  highest  point  of  the  canton  is  Monte  Rosa 
(15,217  feet),  and  within  its  borders  rises  the  Dorn 
(14,942  feet),  the  loftiest  peak  entirely  in  Swiss  terri- 
tory. The  population  in  1900  was  114,438,  French 
being  the  native  tongue  of  67,214  and  German 
of  31,962.  The  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  are  stand 
Roman  Catholics.  The  only  town  of  any  size  is  the 
capital,  Sion  or  Sitten.  The  population  are  mainly 
engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits.  Much  wine  (e.  g., 
Muscat  and  Vin  du  Glacier)  and  a vast  quantity  of 
grapes  are  exported.  Education  is  compulsory  and  free, 
but  very  backward.  A railway  runs  from  Brieg  to 
Bouveret.  The  mineral  waters  of  Leukerbad  and  Saxon 
are  well  known,  and  in  summer  the  canton  is  a favorite 
haunt  of  tourists. 

VALCEN/ER,  Ludvig  Kaspar,  an  eminent  philol- 
ogist, was  born  in  Holland  in  1715*  studied  at  Franeker, 
and  in  1741  became  the  professor  of  Greek  there,  but 
subsequently  he  was  called  to  Leyden,  where  he  died 
Merch  1 785-  He  was  one  of  the  most  emineo* 


V A L 


scholars  of  his  day,  and  his  works  are  still  authority  on 
the  subjects  whereon  they  treat. 

VALDEPENAS,  a town  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Ciudad  Real,  on  the  railway  line  from  Madrid  to  Cor- 
dova, is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a district  thickly  clothed 
with  vineyards  at  the  foot  of  the  northern  slope  of  the 
Sierra  Morena.  It  is  a straggling  place  and  its  only 
industry  is  that  of  wine-making  (see  Wine).  The 
population  within  the  municipal  boundaries  in  1898 
was  15,876. 

VALDES,  Juan  DE,  Spanish  religious  writer,  born 
about  1500  at  Cuenca  in  Castile,  was  the  younger  of 
twin  sons  of  Fernando  de  Valdes,  hereditary  regidor  of 
Cuenca.  We  first  meet  him  as  the  anonymous  author 
of  a politico-religious  Dialogo  de  Mercurio  y Caron , 
apparently  written  in  1528  and  published  then  or  soon 
after.  H is  place  of  residence  seems  to  have  been  often 
changed,  from  first  one  to  another  of  the  Italian  cities. 
The  first  fruit  of  his  cultured  leisure  at  Naples,  whither 
he  went  in  1530,  was  a philological  treatise,  Dialogo  de 
la  Lengua  (written  1533).  Valdes  died  at  Naples  in 
May,  1541. 

VALDO.  See  Waldo. 

VALENCE,  a town  of  France,  sixty-five  miles  south 
of  Lyons  on  the  railway  to  Marseilles.  The  chief  indus- 
tries are  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  silk,  oil-pressing, 
distilling,  metal-founding,  and  the  manufacture  of 
macaroni.  A considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  the 
product  of  this  industry  and  in  wine  and  agricultural 
produce.  The  population  in  1901  was  24,453  (com- 
mune 26,761). 

VALENCIA,  a province  of  Spain,  one  of  the  three 
into  which  the  former  “kingdom ” of  Valencia  is  now 
divided,  has  an  area  of  4,352  square  miles,  and  a popu- 
lation (1898)  of  775,995.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Teruel  and  Castellon  de  la  Plana,  on  the  east  by  the 
Mediterranean,  on  the  south  by  Alicante,  and  on  the 
west  by  Albacete  and  Cuenca.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Guadalaviar  or  Turia  and  the  Jucar.  In  the 
low-lying  portions  of  Valencia  rice  is  the  favorite  crop  ; 
elsewhere  wheat,  maize,  and  all  kinds  of  fruit  are 
abundantly  grown  ; the  mulberry  is  cultivated  for  silk  ; 
and  wine  and  oil  are  produced.  The  tablelands  produce 
according  to  their  elevation  and  exposure  figs,  almonds, 
obves,  and  vines.  The  fishing  industry  on  the  coast  is 
considerable.  The  manufactures  include  those  of  silk, 
glass,  pottery,  and  leather;  there  are  also  iron  foundries, 
distilleries,  and  soap  manufactories.  There  are  six 
“cities  ” — Valencia  [q.v.),  Gandia  (7,604 inhabitants  in 
1877),  Jativa  (14,534),  Requena  (13,527),  Sagunto 
(6,287),  and  Alcira  (16,146). 

Valencia,  capital  of  the  above  province,  is  situated 
304  miles  by  rail  east-southeast  from  Madrid.  The 
streets  are  for  the  most  part  narrow,  crooked,  and  some- 
what gloomy,  but  in  the  more  modern  quarters  there 
are  some  broad  and  handsome  thoroughfares.  The 
rincipal  manufacture  is  silk,  and  the  town  is  also  cele- 
ra ted  for  its  colored  tiles  or  “azulejos.”  Linen  and 
woolen  fabrics,  hats,  leather,  paper,  cigars,  glass,  and 
pottery  are  also  manufactured,  and  there  are  foundries 
and  printing-works.  Corn,  rice,  silk,  saffron,  oranges, 
raisins,  almonds,  figs,  and  other  fruits  are  extensively 
exported,  and  iron,  hardware,  timber,  and  colonial  prod- 
uce are  imported.  The  population  of  Valencia  in  1898 
was  about  204,768  (estimated). 

VALENCIA,  a town  in  the  United  States  of  Venez- 
uela, capital  of  the  state  of  Carabobo,  situated  amid 
savannas  and  tropical  plantations,  1,800  feet  above  sea- 
level,  in  the  valley  between  the  two  chains  of  the  Mari- 
time Andes.  The  town  is  well  built,  with  straight 
streets  cutting  one  another  at  right  angles.  There  are 
several  manufactories,  among  them  a weaving  factory 


6123 

and  one  for  the  making  of  machinery  and  agricultural 
implements.  The  climate  is  said  to  be  healthy.  The 
population  in  1883  was  36,145. 

VALENCIENNES,  a town  of  France,  is  157  miles 
north-northeast  of  Paris  on  the  railway  to  Brussels.  It 
is  the  center  of  a rich  coal-field,  which  has  called  into 
existence  numerous  foundries,  forges,  rolling-mills,  wire- 
works,  and  machine-shops.  There  is  also  an  extensive 
beetroot  cultivation,  with  attendant  sugar-works  and 
distilleries.  Cambrics  and  lawns  are  manufactured  and 
calico-printing  is  carried  on,  though  little  of  the  famous 
lace  is  now  made.  The  population  in  1901  was  31,007 
(commune  37,575). 

V A LENS,  emperor  of  the  East  from  364  to  378, 
owed  his  elevation  in  the  thirty-sixth  year  of  his  age  to 
his  brother  Valentinian,  who  chose  him  to  be  his  asso- 
ciate in  the  empire,  of  which  a formal  division  into  East 
and  West  was  now  once  for  all  definitely  arranged,  (see 
Valentinian  I.)  In  the  year  366  Valens  at  one  stroke 
reduced  the  taxes  of  the  empire  by  one-fourth,  a very 
popular  measure,  though  one  of  questionable  policy  in 
the  face  of  the  threatening  attitude  of  the  Goths  on  the 
lower  Danube.  Before  venturing  on  a campaign 
against  them,  Valens  received  baptism  from  Eudoxus, 
the  bishop  of  Constantinople  and  the  leader  of  the 
Arian  party.  After  some  small  successes  over  the 
Goths,  won  by  his  generals,  Valens  concluded  a peace 
with  them,  which  lasted  six  years,  on  a general  under- 
standing that  the  Danube  was  to  be  the  boundary  be® 
tween  Goths  and  Romans. 

In  the  years  371  to  377  Valens  was  in  Asia  Minor, 
most  of  the  time  at  the  Syrian  Antioch.  It  seems  that 
Valens  crossed  the  Euphrates  in  373,  and  in  Mesopo* 
tamia  his  troops  drove  back  the  king  of  Persia  to  the 
farther  bank  of  the  Tigris.  But  the  Roman  success 
was  by  no  means  decisive,  and  no  definite  understand- 
ing as  to  boundaries  was  come  to  with  Persia.  Between 
374  and  377  we  read  of  grievous  complaints  of  injustice 
and  extortion  perpetrated  under  legal  forms,  the  result 
probably  of  the  recent  panic,  and  pointing  to  an  in- 
creasing weakness  and  timidity  at  headquarters.  Al- 
though preparations  were  made  for  following  up  the  war 
with  Persia  and  securing  the  frontier,  a truce  was 
patched  up,  rather  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  empire, 
Armenia  and  the  adjacent  country  being  half  conquered 
and  annexed  by  Sapor.  The  armies  of  Rome,  in  fact, 
were  wanted  in  another  quarter.  The  Huns,  of  whom 
we  now  hear  for  the  first  time,  were  beginning  in  376 
to  press  the  Goths  from  the  north,  and  the  latter  asked 
leave  of  the  emperor  to  cross  the  Danube  into  Roman 
territory.  This  they  were  allowed  to  do,  on  the  condi- 
tion that  they  came  unarmed,  and  their  children  were 
transported  to  Asia  as  hostages.  The  conditions,  how® 
ever,  were  not  strictly  enforced,  and  the  whole  affair 
was  treacherously  mismanaged  by  the  imperial  generals, 
who,  for  their  own  profit,  forced  the  new  settlers  to  buy 
food  at  famine  prices.  Accordingly  the  enraged  Goths, 
under  their  chief  Frithigern,  streamed  across  the  Balk- 
ans into  Thrace  and  the  country  round  Adrianople, 
plundering,  burning,  and  slaughtering  as  they  went. 
They  were  driven  back  for  a time,  but  returned  in  the 
spring  of  378  in  greater  force,  with  Huns  and  Alans  to 
fight  with  them  against  the  empire;  and  again,  after  one 
or  two  repulses,  they 'penetrated  to  the  neighborhood 
of  Adrianople.  Valens,  who  had  now  returned  to 
Constantinople,  left  the  capital  in  May,  378,  with  a 
strong  and  well- officered  army.  Without  awaiting  the 
arrival  of  his  nephew  Gratian,  emperor  of  the  West,  who 
had  just  won  a great  victory  over  one  of  the  barbarous 
tribes  of  Germany  in  Alsace,  Valens  attacked  the  enemy 

• at  once,  although  his  troops  had  to  go  into  action 

• heated  and  fatigued  by  a long  march  on  a sultry  August 


V A I 


6124 

day.  The  battle  was  decided  mainly  by  the  cavalry  of 
the  Alans  and  Sarmatians,  the  Roman  infantry  being 
outnumbered,  outmaneuvered,  and  finally  so  hemmed  in 
that  the  men  could  scarcely  draw  their  swords.  The 
slaughter  went  on  for  hours,  till  the  imperial  army  was 
destroyed.  Valens  either  perished  on  the  field  or,  as 
some  said,  in  a cottage  fired  by  the  enemy.  From  the 
battle  of  Adrianople  the  Goths  permanently  established 
themselves  south  of  the  Danube. 

VALENTINE,  Basil,  celebrated  German  alchemist, 
of  whom  so  little  is  known  that  it  has  been  disputed 
whether  he  flourished  in  the  twelfth  or  fifteenth  centuries. 
He  was  a diligent  seeker  for  the  philosopher’s  stone, 
and  wrote  a large  number  of  works,  chiefly  on  the 
process  of  transmutation. 

VALENTINE,  or  Valentinus,  the  name  of  a con- 
siderable number  of  saints,  three  of  whom  may  be  par- 
ticularized. 1.  Valentinus,  presbyter  and  martyr, 
according  to  the  authorized  Roman  legend  was  arrested 
and  thrown  into  chains  at  the  instance  of  the  emperor 
Claudius,  and  after  long  imprisonment  was  beaten  with 
clubs  and  finally  beheaded  (February  14th).  2.  Valen- 

tinus of  Interamna,  bishop  and  martyr.  3.  Valen- 
tinus, who  is  spoken  of  as  the  apostle  of  Rhaetia,  and 
venerated  in  Passau  as  its  first  bishop,  flourished  during 
the  first  half  of  the  fifth  century. 

VALENTINE’S  DAY,  a festival  celebrated  on  Feb- 
ruary 14th,  and  established  in  England,  Scotland,  and 
France  about  the  fifteenth  century,  was  very  popular 
among  the  upper  classes  and  at  many  European  courts. 
On  St.  Valentine’s  eve  spinsters  and  bachelors  were  ac- 
customed to  meet  in  a social  way,  write  upon  bits  of  paper 
the  names  of  a number  of  spinsters  and  bachelors  of 
their  acquaintance,  throw  them  into  a basket,  and  then 
draw  them  out  one  at  a time,  care  being  exercised  that 
.each  should  draw  one  of  the  opposite  sex,  the  person 
thus  drawn  being  the  drawer’s  valentine.  The  festival 
was  introduced  into  America  at  an  early  day,  but  its 
observance  has  since  undergone  material  change,  and  is 
annually  becoming  less  and  less  general,  at  present  being 
limited  to  friends  exchanging  anonymous  communica- 
tions with  each  other,  the  same  being  made  in  verse  or 
verses  referring  to  a variety  of  topics,  the  subject  being 
also  illustrated  by  cuts  of  an  amusing  or  sentimental 
character. 

VALENTINIAN  L,  emperor  of  the  West  from 
364  to  375.  With  a fine  robust  frame,  he  possessed 
great  courage  and  great  military  capacity.  He  was 
chosen  emperor  in  his  forty-third  year  by  the  officers  of 
the  army  at  Nicaea  in  Bithynia  early  in  364,  and  shortly 
afterward  named  his  brother  Valens  ( q.v .)  colleague 
with  him  in  the  empire.  As  emperor  of  the  West, 
Valentinian  took  Italy,  Illyricum,  Spain,  the  Gauls, 
Britain,  and  Africa,  leaving  to  Valens  the  eastern  half 
of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  Greece,  Egypt,  Syria,  and 
Asia  Minor  as  far  as  Persia.  During  the  short  reign 
of  Valentinian  there  were  wars  in  Africa,  in  Germany, 
and  in  Britain,  and  Rome  came  into  collision  with  bar- 
barian peoples  of  whom  we  now  hear  for  the  first  time, 
— Burgundians,  Saxons,  Alemanni.  The  emperor’s 
chief  work  was  guarding  the  frontiers  and  establishing 
military  positions.  His  general  administration  seems 
to  have  been  thoroughly  honest  and  able,  in  some  re- 
spects beneficent.  If  he  was  hard  and  exacting  in  the 
matter  of  taxes,  he  spent  them  in  the  defense  and  im- 
provement of  his  dominions,  not  in  idle  show  or  luxury. 
Though  himself  a plain  and  almost  illiterate  soldier,  he 
was  a founder  of  schools,  and  he  also  provided  medical 
attendance  for  the  poor  of  Rome,  by  appointing  a phy- 
sician for  each  of  the  fourteen  districts  of  the  city.  He 
was  a Christian,  an  orthodox  Catholic,  and  in  his  life 
perfectly  pure;  but  he  permitted  absolute  religious  free- 


dom to  all  his  subjects.  The  emperor  in  April,  375, 
entered  Illyricum  with  a powerful  army,  and  gave  au- 
dience to  an  embassy  from  the  Quadi  at  Bregetio  on 
the  Danube,  somewhere  near  Pressburg.  Their  defense 
threw  him  into  a paroxysm  of  rage,  in  which  he  sud- 
denly fell  down,  apparently  in  a fit  of  apoplexy,  and 
died  in  a few  hours. 

VALENTINIAN  II.,  an  infant  of  four  years  of  age, 
and  his  half-brother  Gratian,  a lad  of  about  seventeen, 
became  the  emperors  of  the  West  on  the  death  of  their 
father,  Valentinian  I.,  in  375.  They  made  Milan  their 
home;  and  the  empire  was  nominally  divided  between 
them,  Gratian  taking  the  trans-Alpine  provinces,  while 
Italy,  Illyricum  in  part,  and  Africa  were  to  be  under  the 
rule  of  Valentinian  II.,  or  rather  of  his  mother,  Justina. 
In  387  Maximus,  who  had  commanded  a Roman  army 
in  Britain,  and  had  in  383  (the  year  of  Gratian’s  death) 
made  himself  master  of  the  northern  provinces,  crossed 
the  Alps  into  the  valley  of  the  Po  and  threatened  Milan. 
The  emperor  and  his  mother  fled  to  Thessalonica,  to 
Theodosius,  the  emperor  of  the  Ea6t  and  husband  of 
Galla,  Valentinian’s  sister.  At  their  entreaty  he 
marched  into  Italy  with  an  army,  decisively  defeated 
Maximus,  and  set  Valentinian  once  more  on  the  throne 
(388).  He  also  converted  the  lad  to  orthodox  Catholi- 
cism. Four  years  later  Valentinian  was  dead. 

VALENTINIAN  III.,  emperor  of  the  West  from 
425  to  455,  the  son  of  Constantius  and  Placidia, 
daughter  of  the  great  Theodosius,  was  declared  Caesar 
at  Thessalonica  under  the  auspices  of  Theodosius  II., 
and  again  the  following  year  at  Rome,  in  the  seventh 
year  of  his  age.  His  reign  of  thirty  years  was  a period 
of  great  and  terrible  events.  In  454  Aetius,  between 
whose  son  and  a daughter  of  the  emperor  a marriage 
had  been  arranged,  was  treacherously  murdered  by 
Valentinian.  Next  y#ar,  however,  the  crime  was 
avenged  by  the  assassination  of  the  emperor  as  he  was 
looking  on  at  some  games  in  the  Campus  Martius.  He 
was  a contemptible  creature,  cowardly,  self-indulgent, 
without  spirit,  and  without  ability.  With  Valentinian 
III.  the  family  of  Theodosius  became  extinct. 

VALENTINUS  was  the  most  important  .Chris- 
tian theologian  before  Origen.  Clement  and  Origen 
both  were  his  pupils.  His  success  as  a teacher  was  bril- 
liant. Tertullian  tells  us  that  among  all  the  Christian 
“collegia,”  that  of  Valentinus  was  the  most  crowded, 
and  the  numerous  branches  into  which  his  scholars  soon 
divided  are  evidence  of  the  wealth  of  his  influence.  And 
his  disciples,  although  they  have  partly  deteriorated  his 
teachings  by  undisciplined  fancies  and  inappropriate 
mythologizing,  have,  every  one  of  them,  something 
particular  and  valuable  to  say.  Their  influence  did  not 
cease  until,  in  the  catechetical  school  of  Alexandria,  the 
church  found  teachers  of  her  own  who  were  at  once 
scientific  theologians  and  defenders  of  the  church  of 
orthodoxy. 

Of  Valentinus  himself  almost  nothing  is  known. 
That  he  was  an  Egyptian  by  birth,  and  received  his 
education  in  Alexandria,  is  probable  but  not  certain. 
He  came  to  Rome  under  Hyginus  about  138,  flour- 
ished under  Pius  (140-155),  and  was  still  there  in 
the  time  of  Anicetus  [c.  155-166).  This  we  learn  from 
Irenseus  (iii.  4,  3),  who  lets  us  see  that  his  main  activity 
was  in  Rome.  He  further  tells  us  that  Polycarp,  dur- 
ing his  sojourn  in  that  city,  was  the  means  of  convert- 
ing some  Valentinians.  Tertullian  supplements  ( De 
Pr&scr.,  30)  Irenaeus  with  the  information  that  Valen- 
tinus originally  attached  himself  in  Rome  to  the  main 
body  of  the  church,  but  “ ob  inquietam  semper  curiosi- 
tatem  qua  fratres  quoque  vitiabat,”  after  having  been 
twice  temporarily  suspended  from  communion,  he  was 
ultimately  cut  off.  It  seems  very  doubtful  wheihei 


V AL 


there  is  any  good  foundation  for  Tertullian’s  further 
allegation  (Adv.  Valent. , 4),  that  Valentinus  was  ambi- 
tious of  obtaining  the  episcopate  of  Rome,  and  that  his 
failure  in  this  caused  nim  to  break  with  the  church. 
Hippolytus  will  have  it  (see  Epiphanus  and  Philaster) 
that  Valentinus  afterward  went  to  Cyprus  as  a declared 
heretic.  We  are  not  in  a position  to  control  this  state- 
ment; but  the  words  of  Irenseus  would  almost  lead  to 
the  conclusion  that  he  died  at  Rome.  At  any  rate, 
there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  he  was  alive  much 
later  than  160. 

Valentinus  was  the  author  of  several  epistles,  three 
fragments  of  which  have  been  preserved  by  Clement; 
one  of  these  was  addressed  to  a certain  Agathopus. 
He  also  composed  homilies  (one  entitled  On  Friends ), 
of  which  we  possess  four  fragments.  An  expression  of 
Tertullian’s  ( Adv . Valent. , 2)  seems  to  imply  that 
Valentinus  was  also  the  author  of  a treatise  entitled 
Sophia.  Perhaps  this  is  the  source  from  which  Ire- 
nseus’ systematic  account  of  the  Valentinian  doctrine 
(i.  11,  1)  was  indirectly  taken.  Tertullian  speaks  of 
Psalms  of  Valentinus  ( De  Car.,  xvii.  20);  the  author  of 
the  Muratorian  Fragment  seems  also  to  refer  to  these; 
and  in  the  Philosophumena  of  Hippolytus  (vi.  37)  a 
considerable  fragment  from  them  is  given. 

VALENTINUS,  pope  for  thirty  or  forty  days  in  827, 
in  succession  to  Eugenius  II.  (824-827),  was  a Roman 
by  birth,  and,  according  to  the  Liber  Pontijicalis , was 
first  made  a deacon  by  Paschal  I.  (817-824).  Nothing 
further  is  known  of  his  history.  His  successor  was 
Gregory  IV.  (827-844). 

VALENZA,  a city  of  Northern  Italy,  on  an  elevated 
plain,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Po,  eight  miles  north  of 
Alessandria.  It  carries  on  a trade  in  wine,  and  manu- 
factures silk,  flax,  and  hemp  fabrics.  Population  about 
10,000. 

VALERIAN,  a genus  of  herbaceousperennial  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Valerianae eee.  The  genus  com- 
prises about  150  species.  In  medicine  the  root  of 
V . officinalis  is  intended  when  valerian  is  mentioned. 
The  plant  grows  throughout  Europe  from  Spain  to  the 
Crimea,  and  from  Iceland  through  northern  Europe  and 
Asia  to  the  coasts  of  Manchuria.  Several  varieties  of 
the  plant  are  known,  those  growing  in  hilly  situations 
being  considered  the  most  valuable  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses. Valerian  is  cultivated  in  England  (in  several 
villages  near  Chesterfield  in  Derbyshire),  but  to  a much 
greater  extent  in  Prussian  Saxony  (in  the  neighborhood 
ot  Colleda,  north  of  Weimar),  in  Holland,  and  in  the 
United  States  (Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  and  New 
York).  . 

Valerian  is  employed  in  medicine  as  a stimulant  and 
antispasmodic  in  various  forms  of  hysteria,  and  in 
chorea  and  hooping-cough;  it  is  also  stated  to  possess 
anthelmintic  properties.  The  red  valerian  of  cottage 
gardens  is  Centranthns  ruber,  also  belonging  to  the 
Valeriana cece\  but  Greek  valerian  is  Polemonium 
coeruleum,  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Polemoniaceee. 
Cats  are  nearly  as  fond  of  the  smell  of  this  plant  as  of 
the  true  valerian,  and  will  frequently  roll  on  the  plant 
and  injure  it. 

VALERI  ANUS,  Publius  Licinius,  Roman  emperor 
from  253  .to  260,  was  a man  of  ancient  family  and  is 
first  mentioned  in  the  year  238  as  princeps  senatus. 
The  soldiers  in  Rhaetia,  proclaimed  Valerian  emperor; 
and  marching  slowly  toward  Rome  he  found  both  his 
rivals  dead.  Taking  his  son  Gallienus  as  colleague,  and 
leaving  the  wars  in  Europe  to  his  direction,  under  which 
matters  went  from  bad  to  worse  and  the  whole  West 
fell  into  disorder,  Valerian  chose  for  his  own  part  the 
war  in  the  East,  where  Antioch  had  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  a Persian  vassal  and  Armenia  was  occupied  bv 

384 


6125 

Shapur,  while  in  258  the  Goths  ravaged  Asia  Minor. 
Valerian  recovered  Antioch,  fought  in  Mesopotamia 
with  mixed  success,  and  finally  was  taken  captive.  His 
ultimate  fate  is  unknown. 

VALERIUS,  Publius,  surnamed  Publicola,  the 
colleague  of  Brutus  in  the  consulship  in  the  first  year  oi 
the  Roman  republic.  According  to  the  legend  repre- 
sented by  Livy  and  Plutarch  (see  Rome),  he  was  a 
member  of  one  of  the  noblest  Roman  families,  being 
son  of  Volusus,  a descendant  of  a Sabine  of  that  name 
who  had  settled  in  Rome  along  with  King  Tatius.  He 
was  one  of  those  who  witnessed  the  death  of  Lucretia, 
and  joined  in  the  oath  to  avenge  her  wrongs.  He  took 
a prominent  part  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins,  and 
though  not  originally  chosen  as  the  colleague  of  Brutus 
he  soon  afterward  took  the  place  of  Tarquinius  Col- 
latinus.  For  his  services  the  surname  of  Publicola  or 
Poplicola  was  conferred  on  himself  and  on  his  de- 
scendants forever.  He  was  thrice  reelected  to  the  con- 
sulship, and  during  his  fourth  term  of  office  he  received 
the  honor  of  a triumph  for  his  victory  over  the  Sabines. 
He  died  in  the  following  year  (503B.C.),  and  was  buried 
at  the  public  expense,  the  matrons  mourning  him  for 
ten  months. 

VALERIUS  FLACCUS.  See  Flaccus. 

VALERIUS  MAXIMUS,  Latin  writer,  author  of  a 
collection  of  historical  anecdotes,  published  his  work  in 
the  reign  of  Tiberius.  The  family  of  Valerius  was  poor 
and  undistinguished,  for  the  great  Valerii  Maximi,  who 
are  conspicuous  in  the  annals  of  the  early  Roman 
republic,  cannot  be  traced  lower  than  the  Punic  Wars. 
Valerius  himself  professes  to  have  owed  everything  to 
Sextus  Pompeius,  who  was  descended  from  a paternal 
uncle  of  the  great  Pompey.  Although  Valerius  does 
not  state  that  his  profession  was  that  of  a teacher  ol 
rhetoric,  the  fact  is  betrayed  by  every  page  of  his 
writings.  In  his  prooemium  he  plainly  intimates  that 
he  is  putting  forth  a kind  of  commonplace  book  of 
historical  anecdotes  for  use  in  the  schools  of  rhetoric, 
where  the  pupils  were  severely  trained  in  the  art  of 
embellishing  speeches  by  references  to  history.  The 
title  for  the  work  in  the  MSS.  is  “Books  of  Memorable 
Deeds  and  Utterances.”  Most  of  the  tales  are  from 
Roman  history,  but  each  section  has  an  appendix  con- 
sisting of  extracts  from  the  annals  of  other  peoples, 
principally  the  Greeks.  The  exposition  exhibits  strongly 
the  two  currents  of  feeling  which  are  intermingled  by 
aimost  every  Roman  writer  or  the  empire — the  feeling 
that  the  Romans  of  the  writer’s  own  day  are  degenerate 
creatures  when  confronted  with  their  own  republican 
predecessors,  and  the  feeling  that,  however  degenerate;, 
the  latter-day  Romans  still  tower  above  the  other  peoples 
of  the  world,  and  in  particular  may  take  much  comfort 
to  themselves  from  their  moral  superiority  to  the 
Greeks. 

VALETTA,  or  Valletta.  See  Malta.  The 
population  was  24,854  in  1881,  and  was  estimated  at 
35,700  in  1901. 

V ALETTE,  John  Parisot  De  La,  a Grand  Master 
of  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  celebrated  for  his  defense 
against  the  Turks.  He  was  born  in  1494,  and  died  in 
1568.  There  is  another  La  Valette,  a father  of  the 
Jesuit  Society,  who  engaged  as  trader  in  the  products 
of  the  large  estates  held  by  the  Jesuits  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands.  Having  caused  a suit  in  the  F rench  Courts 
against  the  French  province  of  the  Society,  he  was  the 
principal  factor  which  caused  the  expulsion  of  the 
Society  of  Jesuits  from  France,  and  its  eventual  sup- 
pression by  Clement  XIV.  (See  Jesuits.) 

VALGUARNERA,  a town  of  Sicily,  in  the  province 
of  Caltanisetta,  forty-eight  miles  northeast  of  Girgenti 
Population  about  lo.ooa 


6126 


V A L 


VALGUS  is  a term  employed  in  surgery  to  designate 
A variety  of  Club-foot. 

VALLA,  Lorenzo,  one  of  the  most  salient  personali- 
ties of  the  earlier  Italian  Renaissance,  was  born  at 
Rome,  of  parents  derived  from  Piacenza,  possibly  in  the 
year  1406-07,  or  perhaps  somewhat  earlier.  Like  all 
the  scholars  of  that  time,  Valla  wandered  from  univer- 
sity to  university,  accepting  short  engagements  and  air- 
ing his  talents  as  a lecturer  in  many  cities.  It  appears 
that  he  professed  the  New  Learning  in  Milan  and  Genoa 
as  well  as  Pavia.  Somewhere,  and  at  some  uncertain 
date  during  this  period,  he  came  into  relations  with 
Adphonso  of  Aragon,  who  conquered  the  kingdom  of 
Naples.  Valla  did  not,  however,  follow  this  prince’s 
fortunes  in  the  early  days  of  their  acquaintance.  We 
find  him  once  more  in  Rome  in  1443  during  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Eugenius  IV.  At  this  period  of  his  career 
Valla  won  the  highest  reputation  by  his  dialogue  De 
Voluptate  and  his  treatise  on  the  Elegances  of  the  Latin 
Language.  But  there  was  a third  essay  composed  by 
Valla  during  the  pontificate  of  Eugenius  which  dis- 
played the  same  originality  and  a like  critical  acumen. 
This  bore  the  title  of  a Treatise  on  the  Donation  of 
Constantine;  and  in  it  ‘Valla  proved  that  the  claims 
founded  by  the  Roman  see  upon  that  supposed  grant  re- 
posed on  forged  documents  and  legendary  fables.  It 
was  not  published  until  1440,  when  Valla  had  been 
already  three  years  resident  at  Alphonso’s  court  in 
Naples. 

All  the  biographical  notices  of  Valla  are  loaded  with 
long  accounts  of  his  literary  quarrels.  Valla  won  a re- 
rettable  celebrity  by  the  number  and  the  virulence  of 
is  enmities.  Bartolomeo,  Fazio,  Georgios  Trapezun- 
tios  and  Poggio  felt  the  stabbing  sharpness  of  his  pen. 
It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  these  antagonists 
gave  back  quite  as  good  as  they  got.  It  is  almost  im- 
possible to  form  a just  estimate  of  Valla’s  private  life 
and  character  through  the  dust-clouds  of  abuse  and  dirt 
which  these  controversies  stirred  up  around  his  memory. 
He  died  at  Naples  in  the  year  1457. 

VALLADOLID,  a province  of  Spain,  one  of  the  eight 
into  wdiich  Old  Castile  is  now  divided,  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Leon  and  Palencia,  on  the  east  by  Burgos, 
on  the  south  by  Segovia,  Avila,  and  Salamanca,  and  on 
the  west  by  Zamora.  The  area  is  3,043  square  miles 
and  the  population  in  1898  was  276,366.  For  the 
excellence  and  abundance  of  its  grain  crops  Valladolid 
shares  with  La  Mancha  the  title  of  granary  of  the  penin- 
sula. Besides  the  ordinary  cereals  and  pulses,  the  prov- 
ince produces  hemp,  flax,  various  fruits,  red  and  white 
wine,  oil,  and  madder.  The  Montes  de  Torozos  are 
well  clad  with  oak  and  other  timber.  The  pastures  are 
extensive  and  large  numbers  of  horses,  mules,  and  sheep, 
as  well  as  some  cattle,  are  reared,  while  honey,  wax,  and 
silk  are  also  produced.  The  woolen  fabrics  of  Valla- 
dolid were  once  highly  esteemed,  but  this  industry  has 
now  greatly  declined.  Some  trade  is  carried  on. 

Valladolid,  capital  of  the  above  province,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Pisuerga,  at  its  confluence  with  the 
Esgueva,  which  traverses  the  town  by  two  channels,  is 
situated  (about  2,250  feet  above  sea-level)  i5omiIes  by 
rail  to  the  northwest  of  Madrid.  The  principal  indus- 
tries are  the  manufacture  of  linen,  silk,  and  woolen  fab- 
rics, pottery,  gold  and  silver  work,  leather,  and  paper. 
There  is  a considerable  trade  in  the  abundant  agricult- 
ural produce  of  the  vicinity.  The  population  in  1898 
was  68,746. 

VALLADOLID,  a city  of  the  state  of  Michoacan 
de  Ocampo,  in  Mexico.  See  Morelia. 

VALLADOLID,  a town  in  the  state  of  Yucatan, 
Mexico  lying  toward  the  center  of  the  northern 
plateau,  on  the  river  Bolina,  about  ninety  miles  south- 


east of  Merida,  with  which  it  is  about  to  be  connected 
by  a railway.  Valladolid,  which  with  the  suburban  dis- 
trict has  a population  (1895)  of  18,470,  mostly  Indians 
and  half-castes,  is  situated  in  the  healthiest  and  best 
cultivated  part  of  Yucatan,  and  is  accordingly  much 
frequented  by  invalids. 

VALLARY  CROWN,  a crown  bestowed  by  the 
ancient  Romans  as  an  honorary  reward  on  the  soldier  who 
first  surmounted  the  out-works,  and  broke  into  the 
enemy’s  camp.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a circle  of  gold 
with  palisades  attached. 

VALLE,  Pietro  dei.la,  to  whom  we  owe  one  of 
the  best  books  of  Eastern  travel,  came  of  a noble 
Roman  family  which  had  produced  two  cardinals,  and 
was  born  on  April  11,  1586,  in  the  family  palace  built 
by  Cardinal  Andrea.  His  early  life  was  divided  be- 
tween the  pursuits  of  literature  and  arms.  On  Septem- 
ber 25,  1615,  he  sailed  for  Alexandria  with  a suite  of 
nine  persons,  for  he  traveled  always  as  a nobleman  of 
distinction,  and  with  every  advantage  due  to  his  rank. 
From  Alexandria  he  went  on  to  Cairo,  and  after  an 
excursion  to  Mount  Sinai,  left  Cairo  for  the  Holy  Land 
on  March  8,  1616,  in  time  to  assist  at  the  Easter  cele- 
brations at  Jerusalem.  For  the  next  ten  years  he  wan- 
dered all  over  the  East,  and  then  turned  his  face  home- 
ward. Touching  at  Cyprus  and  doing  quarantine  at 
Malta,  he  reached  Rome  on  March  28,  1626,  and  he 
was  received  with  much  honor,  not  only  by  literary 
circles,  but  by  Pope  Urban  VIII.,  who  appointed  him 
a gentleman  of  his  bedchamber.  The  rest  of  his  life 
was  uneventful.  He  married  as  second  wife  a Georgian 
orphan  of  noble  family,  Mariuccia  (Tinatin  de  Ziba), 
whom  his  first  wife  had  adopted  as  a child,  and  who 
had  accompanied  him  in  all  his  journeys.  By  her  he 
had  fourteen  sons.  He  died  at  Rome  on  April  21, 
1652.  He  wrote  several  works,  of  which  the  principal 
is  his  Travels . 

VALLEJO,  a picturesque  city  of  Solano  county, 
California,  is  situated  on  the  snore  of  San  Pablo 
Bay,  near  the  western  end  of  the  Straits  of  Carquinez. 
It  has  an  excellent  harbor,  and  railroad  communication 
by  a branch  of  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad.  The  city 
contains  large  flour-mills;  the  population  in  1900  was 
7,965.  Vallejo,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  Mexican 
general  M.  G.  Vallejo,  who  took  the  country  from  the 
Indians  in  1835,  was  in  1854  the  capital  of  the  State  of 
California. 

VALLEYFIELD,  a pleasant  and  prosperous  village 
in  the  county  of  Beauharnois,  province  of  Quebec, 
Canada,  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  Lake  St.  Francis  near 
the  source  of  Beauharnois  canal,  and  twelve  miles  from 
Beauharnois,  the  county  seat.  It  is  an  attractive  sum- 
mer resort,  and  the  trading  point  for  a highly  cultivated 
agricultural  region,  as  also  the  location  of  a number  of 
extensive  manufacturing  plants,  and  of  a valuable  water 
power.  It  has  two  banks,  one  weekly  paper,  one 
foundry,  one  grist  mill,  in  addition  to  a paper  and 
woolen  mill,  three  sash,  door,  and  blind  factories,  three 
churches,  three  hotels,  good  school  accommodations 
and  a number  of  stores.  Electric  lights  are  also  em- 
ployed, and  the  population  in  1901  was  estimated  at 
11,055- 

VALLISNERIA,  a genus  of  small,  stemless,  aquatic 
plants,  with  grass-like  leaves,  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Hydrocharidece , and  found  in  the  warm  parts  of 
both  hemispheres.  They  generally  grow  in  running 
waters. 

VALLOMBROSA,  a celebrated  abbey  of  Tuscany, 
situated  among  the  Apennines,  in  a valley  surrounded 
with  forests  of  fir,  beech,  and  chestnut  trees.  Here  an 
order  of  monks,  according  to  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict, 
was  founded  about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century. 


V AL 


Who  were  called  Vallombrosians.  They  were  the  first 
to  admit  lay  brethren.  They  existed  until  1863,  when 
(he  monastery  was  suppressed,  and  the  buildings  made 
use  of  for  a royal  academy  of  forestry. 

VALLOMBROSA,  Order  of.  See  Monachism. 

VALLS,  a town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Tarra- 
gona, eleven  miles  to  the  north  of  that  town,  on  a height 
near  the  Francoli.  The  usual  Catalonian  industries  of 
wool  and  cotton  spinning  and  weaving,  as  well  as  dye- 
ing, distilling,  paper-making,  and  tanning  are  carried 
on  with  considerable  activity.  The  population  within 
the  municipal  boundaries  in  1897  was  15,250. 

VALMY,  a French  village  in  the  department  of 
Marne,  twenty  miles  northeast  from  Chalons.  Keller- 
mann  here  defeated  the  Prussians  under  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick,  and  in  reward  for  his  services  Napoleon  I. 
created  him  Due  de  Valmy. 

VALOIS,  HOUSE  OF,  a branch  of  the  Capetian 
dynasty  which  possessed  the  throne  of  France  from  1327 
to  1589,  originated  in  the  person  of  Charles,  second  son 
of  King  Philippe  III.,  becoming  extinct  with  Henry  III. 
in  1589.  (See  France  ante.) 

VALONIA,  an  article  very  extensively  used  by 
tanners  on  account  of  the  quantity  of  tannic  acid  which 
it  contains.  It  is  the  acorn  cup  of  a species  of  oak,  in- 
digenous to  Asiatic  Turkey.  It  is  largely  exported 
from  Smyrna  and  the  Greek  Isles  to  foreign  countries, 
as  much  as  35,000  tons  being  shipped  in  one  year. 

VALPARAISO,  a city  of  Chili,  the  chief  town  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name,  and  one  of  the  principal 
commercial  ports  on  the  west  coast  of  South  America, 
is  situated  on  a fine  bay  of  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  in 
330  o'  2"  S.  latitude  and  71°  4C  15"  W.  longitude,  70 
miles  northwest  of  Santiago,  with  which  there  is  com- 
munication by  a circuitous  railway  of  1 1 5 miles.  The 
city  lies  at  the  south  part  of  the  bay,  which  is  two  and  one- 
half  miles  wide,  semicircular  in  form,  and  well  sheltered, 
except  toward  the  north.  There  is  good  anchorage  in 
the  roadstead.  There  are  two  floating  docks,  capable 
of  accommodating  vessels  of  from  1,400  to  3,000  tons. 
The  city  is  situated  at  the  base  of  a range  of  barren 
hills,  varying  from  1,000  to  1,400  feet  in  height,  which 
have  a narrow  strip  of  low  land  between  them  and  the 
sea;  on  this  and  on  sites  formed  by  cutting  away  the 
cliffs  most  of  the  houses  are  built.  Further  space  is 
afforded  by  the  deep  dells  or  watercourses  between  the 
hills.  These  open  toward  the  sea,  and  are  on  both 
sides  covered  with  houses.  Much  of  the  foreshore  has 
been  raised  by  earthquakes.  The  erection  of  an  exten- 
sive embankment  was  begun  in  1885.  The  older  por- 
tion (Puerto)  of  the  city,  in  which  are  the  principal 
public  and  commercial  buildings,  is  separated  from  the 
newer  portion,  called  the  Almendral,  by  a projecting 
point.  The  city  is  defended  by  a chain  of  forts,  begun 
in  1866.  The  commercial  enterprise  of  the  city  is 
largely  dependent  on  the  foreign  merchants,  especially 
Englishmen,  Americans,  and  Germans.  It  is  the  com- 
mercial capital  of  Chili,  and  the  principal  residence 
of  the  foreign  consuls.  The  principal  industrial  estab- 
lishments are  the  government  railway  shops,  a large 
foundry  and  machine  shops,  coach-building  and  wheel- 
wright works,  and  a very  large  sugar  refinery,  the  raw 
material  for  which  is  obtained  from  Peru.  The  popu- 
lation (97,737  in  1875)  was  I35»674  in  1900,  of  whom 
about  a tenth  were  foreigners. 

VALPARAISO,  the  capital  of  Porter  county,  Indiana, 
and  a progressive  and  thriving  city,  located  on  the  main 
line  of  die  Pittsburgh,  Ft.  Wayne  and  Chicago  railroad, 
forty- two  miles  from  Chicago.  The  Grand  Trunk  and 
New  York,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  roads  also  include  Val- 
paraiso among  their  important  shipping  points,  and  have 
completed  permanent  improvements  there  for  the  trans- 


612? 

action  of  business  and  the  convenience  of  patrons  and 
the  public.  Of  late  years  the  city  has  grown  rapidly  in 
extent  and  population,  and  the  industrial  and  commer- 
cial enterprises  that  have  become  established  add  ma- 
terially to  its  prominence  and  advantages.  It  contains 
one  State  and  two  national  banks,  one  daily  and  three 
weekly  papers,  seven  churches,  a court  house,  a high 
school  and  graded  schools,  also  the  Normal  school  of 
Northern  Indiana,  and  St.  Paul’s  academy,  an  institu- 
tion conducted  under  the  direction  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic church,  an  opera  house,  several  large  hotels,  many 
stores,  brass  and  iron  works,  electric  light  works,  manu- 
factories of  tiles,  gate-hinges,  agricultural  implements, 
cigars,  paints  and  varnishes,  and  lumber  and  lumber 
products.  The  population  of  the  city  in  1900  was 
stated  at  6,280. 

VALS,  or  Vals-les-Bains,  a village  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Ardeche,  with  a population  of  2,186 
in  1886,  is  noted  chiefly  for  its  alkaline  waters,  which 
are  similar  to  those  of  Vichy. 

VALTELLINA,  or  Valtelline,  the  upper  valley  of 
the  Adda,  in  the  extreme  north  of  Italy  (province  of 
Sondrio),  derives  its  name  from  Teglio,  the  former 
capital,  not  far  from  Tirano  (Val  di  Teglio,  Val  Teglina; 
Germ.,  Veltlin),  and  has  a length,  from  Bormio  to  the 
Lake  of  Como,  of  about  sixty-eight  miles.  The  chief 
town  is  Sondrio  (6,014  inhabitants  in  1901),  other  im- 
portant places  being  Tirano  (4,119)  and  Morbegno 
(4,240).  Near  Bormio  (Germ.,  Worms)  there  are  some 
frequented  mineral  springs  (sulphur  and  lime),  known 
in  Pliny’s  time,  and  efficacious  in  diseases  of  the  skin. 
There  are  several  other  baths  in  the  side  valleys,  such 
as  Santa  Caterina  (chalybeate),  Masino,  and  Le  Prese 
(sulphur).  The  valley,  particularly  in  its  lower  portion, 
is  extremely  fertile;  and  of  late  years  vigorous  measures 
have  been  taken  to  prevent  the  damage  caused  by  the 
frequent  inundations  of  the  Adda.  Chestnuts,  vines, 
mulberry  trees,  and  fig  trees  abound;  and  there  are 
many  picturesquely  situated  churches,  castles  and  vil- 
lages. The  chief  articles  exported  are  wine  and  honey. 
The  wine  is  largely  consumed  in  north  Italy  and  Swit- 
zerland, the  best  varieties  being  Grumello,  Sassella,  and 
Montagna.  About  20,000  pounds  weight  of  honey  is 
annually  sent  abroad.  Politically  the  whole  valley  be- 
longs to  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  except  the  side  valley  of 
Poschiavo  (Puschlav),  which  belongs  to  the  Swiss  canton 
of  the  Grisons  (Graubiinden). 

VALUE.  As  regards  the  question  of  definition, 
Mills  starts  with  the  distinction  somewhat  loosely  drawn 
by  Adam  Smith  between  value' in  use  and  value  in  ex- 
change, and  proceeds  to  say  that  by  value  we  should  al- 
ways understand  exchange  value.  This  language  seems 
familiar  and  definite,  but  on  analysis  it  is  clear  that  ex- 
change implies  two  terms  at  least.  If  we  say  that  a 
thing  can  be  exchanged,  we  imply  that  it  can  be  ex- 
changed for  something  else,  and  when  we  speak  of  the 
exchange  value  of  a thing  we  must  directly  or  indirectly 
refer  to  the  value  of  some  other  thing  or  things.  In 
practice  in  modern  societies  this  other  thing  is  standard 
money;  an  Englishman  who  talks  of  the  Exchange  value 
of  anything  means  the  number  of  pounds  sterling  (or 
parts  thereof)  which  it  will  fetch  in  the  market  or  be 
appraised  at  by  a fair  arbitrator.  On  this  view,  then, 
the  value  of  a thing  is  its  price;  but  a very  little  expe- 
rience in  the  theory  or  history  of  economics  will  show 
that  it  is  often  desirable,  anti  sometimes  necessary,  to 
contrast  value  with  price.  Mills  says  that  any  change 
in  the  value  of  one  thing  compared  with  things  in  gen- 
eral may  be  due  either  to  causes  affecting  the  one  thing 
or  the  large  group  of  all  other  things,  and  that  in  order 
to  investigate  the  former  it  is  convenient*  to  assume  that 
all  commodities  but  the  one  in  question  remain  invar! 


V A 1. 


6128 

able  in  their  relative  values.  On  this  assumption  any- 
one of  them  may  be  taken  as  representing  all  the  rest, 
and  thus  the  money  value  of  the  thing  will  represent  its 
general  purchasing  power. 

By  this  method  of  abstraction  the  treatment  of  the 
theory  of  value  becomes  essentially  an  examination  of 
the  causes  which  determine  the  values  of  particular 
commodities  relatively  to  a standard  which  is  assumed 
to  be  fixed.  Now  in  order  that  anything  may  possess 
Value  in  this  sense,  that  it  may  exchange  for  any  portion 
Of  standard  money  or  its  representatives,  it  is  evident 
on  the  first  analysis  that  two  conditions  must  be  satis- 
fied. First,  the  thing  must  have  some  utility  ; and  sec- 
ondly, there  must  be  some  difficulty  in  its  attainment. 
Suppose  that  on  a desert  island  A possesses  all  the 
food,  so  many  measures — (say)  pecks — of  corn,  and  B 
all  the  drinking  water,  so  many  measures — (say)  pints. 
Then  A,  taking  into  account  present  and  future  needs, 
might  ascribe  to  the  possession  of  each  portion  of  his 
stock  so  much  utility.  In  the  same  way  B might  make 
an  estimate  of  the  utility  of  successive  measures  of  the 
drinking  water.  The  utility  of  the  last  portion  of  corn 
retained  by  A (or  of  water  by  B)  is  th z final  utility  of 
the  stock  retained,  and  similarly  the  utility  of  the  last 
measure  obtained  in  exchange  may  be  called  the  final 
Utility  of  the  stock  purchased. 

However  useful  this  theory  of  final  utility  may  be  in 
throwing  light  on  the  fundamental  nature  of  value,  and 
on  the  advantages  of  exchange,  it  is  obviously  too  ab- 
stract to  be  applied  to  the  explanation  of  the  relative 
values  of  the  endless  series  of  commodities  and  services 
which  constitute  a nation’s  stock  of  valuables  at  any 
time.  For  this  purpose  we  must  resort  to  the  law  of 
supply  and  demand.  Mill  argues,  after  the  brief  con- 
sideration allotted  to  the  element  of  utility,  that  the 
other  preliminary  condition  necessary  for  value — diffi- 
culty of  attainment — is  not  always  the  same  kind  of 
difficulty,  and  he  arrives  at  three  distinct  laws  of  value, 
according  to  three  forms  or  degrees  of  this  difficulty. 
(1)  In  the  first  place  the  difficulty  may  consist  in  an 
absolute  limitation  of  the  supply,  and  in  this  case  the 
corresponding  law  is  said  to  be  the  law  of  supply  and 
demand.  (2)  When  the  difficulty  of  attainment  con- 
sists not  in  the  absolute  limitation  but  simply  in  the 
fact  that  the  article  requires  labor  and  capital  to  pro- 
duce it,  the  normal  or  natural  value  is  said  to  &e  deter- 
mined by  the  cost  of  production.  (3)  In  the  last  case 
taken  by  Mill  it  is  supposed  that  an  article  can  be  in- 
creased in  quantity,  but  only  at  an  increasing  cost,  and 
in  this  case  the  corresponding  law  of  value  is  the  cost 
of  production  of  that  portion  which  is  obtained  under 
the  most  unfavorable  circumstances. 

It  may  be  useful  at  this  point  to  consider  the  princi- 
ples by  which  monopoly  values  are  regulated.  The  sim- 
plest case  is  when  one  individual  possesses  the  whole 
stock  and  the  cost  of  production  is  so  small  that  it  may 
be  neglected.  He  will  have  to  work  out  a problem  in 
mathematics,  and  must  so  adjust  his  price  that  the  quan- 
tity sold  multiplied  by  the  price  per  unit  will  be  a max- 
imum. The  same  kind  of  difficulty  is  found  in  the  case 
in  which  the  expenses  of  production,  although  consider- 
able, are  practically  fixed  or  only  increased  slightly  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  furnished.  The  minimum 
price  will  be  given  by  the  expenses  of  production,  while 
the  actual  price  will  tend  to  be  such  as  to  yield  the 
maximum  profit.  As  a rule,  however,  in  modern  com- 
mercial countries  monopolies  are  an  exception.  If  the 
producer  of  any  article  is  obtaining  more  than  the  usual 
rate  of  profit,  he  at  once  provokes  competition,  and  thus 
even  the  dread  of  this  possible  competition  may  keep 
down  prices.  This  is  often  expressed  by  saying  that 
the  potential  supply  affects  prices  almost  as  much  as  the 


actual  supply.  It  Will  be  observed,  however,  that  cost 
of  production  only  determines  values  by  operating 
through  the  actual  or  potential  supply,  and  thus  thaf 
the  law  of  demand  and  supply  is  fundamental.  Once  a 
thing  is  made,  the  actual  cost  of  production  has  no  influ- 
ence on  its  value,  except  as  indicating  the  conditions  of 
future  possible  supply. 

If  all  commodities  were  produced  directly  by  the  ex- 
penditure of  labor,  and  in  such  a way  that  capital  need 
not  be  considered,  then  the  only  element  to  consider 
in  value  would  be  the  quantity  of  labor.  And  in  a soci- 
ety of  a more  developed  character,  in  which  wages  are 
paid,  if  we  consider  that  the  rate  of  wages  is  uniform, 
and  that  profits  may  be  disregarded  in  comparison  with 
wages,  the  quantity  of  labor  is  the  most  important  con- 
sideration. But  as  we  approach  more  nearly  to  the 
actual  constitution  of  modern  industrial  societies,  we 
find  serious  differences  in  the  rates  of  wages  in  different 
employments,  the  use  of  fixed  capital  becomes  of  greater 
importance,  and  in  some  cases  the  lapse  of  time  neces- 
sary for  the  completion  of  the  commodity  is  considera- 
ble. Thus  interest  and  profits,  as  well  as  the  differential 
rates  of  wages,  have  to  be  taken  into  account  just  as 
much  as  the  quantity  of  labor,  and  it  is  generally  con- 
venient to  consider  also  the  established  differences  in 
various  returns  to  capital  under  different  conditions, 
(risk,  irregularity,  etc.)  Indirectly,  of  course,  since  all 
capital  in  the  ordinary  sense  is  the  result  of  labor,  the 
quantity  of  labor  is  always  of  primary  importance;  but, 
in  considering  the  proximate  causes  of  relative  values, 
it  is  best  to  consider  capital  and  labor  as  independent 
factors.  Two  important  practical  conclusions  of  a gen- 
eral character  may  be  stated:  (1)  Relative  values  are 
liable  to  constant  disturbances,  and  accordingly,  since 
relative  prices  tend  to  be  adjusted  to  relative  values, 
relative  prices  must  be  constantly  changing.  (2)  It  is 
extremely  difficult  to  measure  changes  in  the  value  of 
the  monetary  standard,  or  movements  in  the  general 
level  of  prices,  or  variations  in  the  purchasing  power 
of  money  incomes. 

These  difficulties  are  further  increased  by  the  impor- 
tance of  the  group  of  commodities  which  can  only  be 
increased  at  an  increasing  cost,  and  which  are  placed 
by  Mill  under  a third  law  of  value.  The  most  impor- 
tant examples  of  this  law  are  agricultural  and  mining 
produce.  In  order  to  make  the  principles  on  which 
this  law  depends  clear  and  intelligible,  it  is  necessary  to 
proceed  at  first  by  the  abstract  method  so  well  described 
by  Cairnes  ( Logical  Method  of  Pol.  Peon.,  2d  ed., 
London,  1885).  Assume  then  that  there  is  an  isolated 
country  and  that  its  agricultural  produce  consists  of 
corn.  Then  at  any  given  stage  of  the  growth  of 
wealth  and  population  the  amount  of  corn  may  be  in- 
creased (the  art  of  agriculture  remaining  stationary) 
either  by  taking  into  cultivation  inferior  lands  or  else 
by  cultivating  with  greater  care  and  expense  the  lands 
already  in  cultivation.  But  in  either  case  what  is 
known  as  the  law  of  diminishing  return  would  come 
into  play,  and  the  additional  supply  could  only  be  ob- 
tained at  an  additional  cost.  It  may  be  assumed  that 
at  any  stage  of  development  the  cultivation  would  be 
carried  to  such  a point  as  to  give  just  the  ordinary  re- 
turn to  capital  on  the  last  “ dose  ” of  capital  expended. 
Further  it  cannot  be  carried,  for  no  farmer  will  work  at 
a continuous  loss;  and  competition  will  insure  that  it  is 
carried  so  far,  for,  if  this  last  application  of  capital 
yields  ordinary  profit,  the  former  “ doses  ” must  yield 
more,  that  is  to  say,  rent  as  well  as  profit.  It  thus  be- 
comes manifest  that,  under  the  conditions  supposed, 
the  extent  to  which  “ the  margin  of  cultivation  ” will 
extend  depends  upon  the  price  of  the  produce,  and  in 
the  normal  case — the  price  must  be  equal  to  the  ex* 


VAM  - - VAN 


penses  of  production  of  that  part  which  is  produced 
under  the  most  unfavorable  circumstances.  This  then 
is  the  third  law  of  value,  from  which  the  economic 
theory  of  rent  is  an  immediate  deduction.  For,  if  the 
last  dose  obtains  just  a sufficient  return,  the  former 
doses  must  yield  more,  and  the  sum  of  these  extra 
profits  is  rent.  It  thus  appears,  also,  that  rent  depends 
upon  price  and  not  price  upon  rent. 

The  pure  theory  of  rent  is  arrived  at  by  making  cer- 
tain hypotheses  and  abstractions,  and  accordingly  it 
must  not  be  applied  to  particular  practical  cases  without 
further  consideration.  The  theory  certainly  indicates 
the  effect  of  very  important  causes,  but  requires  in  prac- 
tice a certain  amount  of  qualification,  (i)  The  essence 
of  the  theory  is  that  the  return  to  each  dose  of  capital 
applied  can  be  separated,  and  that  the  application  of 
capital  will  cease  when  the  last  dose  yields  only  ordi- 
nary profits.  (2)  Again,  the  pure  theory  takes  no  ac- 
count of  the  size  of  the  portions  into  which  the  land  is 
divided,  nor  of  the  kind  of  crops  which  are  grown.  But, 
when  most  of  the  land  of  a country  is  rented,  both  of 
these  factors  have  to  be  considered,  and  it  may  be  more 
convenient  to  the  landowner  to  let  the  land  with  certain 
restrictions,  which  again  indirectly  operate  on  the  price. 
(3)  It  has  been  well  observed  by  Passy  that  the  prin- 
cipal effect  of  various  land  laws  is  to  increase  or  dimin- 
ish the  amount  of  the  gross  produce,  which  in  Ricardian 
phraseology  would  mean  to  extend  or  contract  the  mar- 
gin of  cultivation.  It  thus  appears  that  it  is  not  always 
true  to  say  that  the  payment  of  rent  makes  no  real  differ- 
ence to  the  general  public,  and  that  it  is  simply  a neces- 
sary method  of  equalizing  farmers*  profits. 

The  hypothetical  history  implied  in  Ricardo’s  theory 
as  to  the  effects  of  the  progress  of  society  upon  the 
value  of  agricultural  produce  also  requires  some  criti- 
cism, such  as  that  given  by  the  historian  of  agriculture 
and  prices,  Thorold  Rogers.  The  theory  assumes  that 
in  the  first  place  population  increases,  and  thus  there  is 
a greater  demand  for  food,  and  that  therefore  the  mar- 
gin of  cultivation  extends  and  the  price  rises;  and  rent 
rises  also.  But,  as  Rogers  observes,  history  shows  that 
agricultural  improvements  of  all  kinds  have,  first  of  all, 
increased  the  amount  of  food,  and  thus  allowed  of  an 
increase  in  population. 

The  value  of  mining  produce  is  determined  generally 
in  the  same  way  as  that  of  agricultural  produce ; but 
similar  qualifications  must  be  introduced.  The  peculiar 
durability  of  the  precious  metals,  however,  makes  them 
in  this  respect  differ  widely  from  most  mining  produce. 
The  older  economists  argued  that  the  precious  metals 
had  their  value  determined  by  their  cost  of  production 
under  the  most  unfavorable  circumstances,  and  then 
argued  that  in  consequence  the  value  of  money  tended 
to  be  governed  by  the  cost  of  production  of  bullion. 
If,  however,  it  is  remembered  that  the  annual  produc- 
tion does  not  probably  amount  to  2 per  cent,  of  the 
quantity  in  the  hands  of  man,  that  cost  of  production  can 
only  operate  through  actual  or  potential  supply,  and 
that  in  the  case  of  money  the  increase  must  be  real  to 
affect  prices,  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  value  of 
bullion  is  determined  by  the  general  level  of  prices  (or 
the  value  of  money),  and  not  that  the  value  of  money 
depends  upon  the  value  of  the  bullion. 

There  is  one  other  part  of  the  general  theory  of  value 
which  requires  some  notice.  Some  articles  can  only  be 
produced  in  conjunction  with  others  (e.g.t  hides  and 
beef,  wool  and  mutton),  and  some  modification  of  the 
theory  is  needed  to  suit  this  case.  The  law  deduced 
is  that  the  sum  of  the  values  must  be  equal  to  the 
joint  expenses  of  production,  and  the  relative  values 
inter  se  are  determined  by  demand  and  supply.  Thus 
the  Australian  sheep-farmers  will  extend  their  sheep- 


6129 

farms  so  long  as  for  wool  and  mutton  together  they 
obtain  a fair  profit,  but  the  amount  contributed  by  eacl» 
pprtion  will  be  determined  by  the  relative  demand.  It 
is  interesting  to  observe  that  in  the  progress  of  society 
the  value  of  the  meat  has  risen  as  compared  with  that 
of  the  hides  and  the  wool.  The  same  principle  deter- 
mines the  kind  of  produce  which  will  be  raised  from 
land,  though  the  application  is  rather  more  difficult 
owing  to  rotation  of  crops,  etc. 

VAM  BRACED,  in  heraldry,  a term  applied  to  the 
arm  clothed  in  armor,  a gauntlet  holding  the  sword 
below  the  hilt,  pointing  downward  in  bent  sinister,  hilt 
of  silver,  pommel  of  gold. 

VAMPIRE,  a term,  apparently  of  Servian  origin 
( wampir ),  originally  applied  in  eastern  Europe  to 
blood-sucking  ghosts,  but  in  modern  usage  transferred 
to  one  or  more  species  of  blood-sucking  bats  inhabiting 
South  America. 

Two  species  of  blood-sucking  bats  (the  only  species 
known) — Desmodus  rnfus  and  Diphylla  ecaudata  — 
representing  two  genera  (see  Mammalia),  inhabit  the 
tropical  and  part  of  the  subtropical  regions  of  the  New 
World,  and  are  restricted  to  South  and  Central 
America.  They  appear  to  be  confined  chiefly  to  the 
forest-clad  parts,  and  their  attacks  on  men  and  other 
warm-blooded  animals  were  noticed  by  some  of  the 
earliest  writers.  * 

Although  these  bats  were  known  thus  early  to  Euro- 
peans, the  species  to  which  they  belonged  were  not 
determined  until  about  fifty  years  ago,  several  of  the 
large  frugivorous  species  having  been  wrongly  set  down 
as  blood-suckers,  and  named  accordingly.  It  fell  to 
the  lot  of  Charles  Darwin  to  determine  one  of  the 
blood-sucking  species  at  least,  and  the  following  is  his 
account  of  the  circumstances  under  which  the  discovery 
of  the  sanguivorous  habits  of  Desmodus  rufus  was 
made : “ The  vampire  bat  is  often  the  cause  of  much 
trouble  by  biting  the  horses  on  their  withers.  The 
injury  is  generally  not  so  much  owing  to  the  loss  ol 
blood  as  to  the  inflammation  which  the  pressure  of  the 
saddle  afterward  produces.  The  whole  circumstance 
has  lately  been  doubted  in  England ; I was  therefore 
fortunate  in  being  present  when  one  was  actually 
caught  on  a horse’s  back.  We  were  bivouacking  late 
one  evening  near  Coquimbo,  in  Chili,  when  my  servant, 
noticing  that  one  of  the  horses  was  very  restive,  went 
to  see  what  was  the  matter,  and,  fancying  he  could 
detect  something,  suddenly  put  his  hand  on  the  beast’s 
withers,  and  secured  the  vampire.” 

VAN,  a species  of  carriage  for  merchandise,  some- 
times covered,  for  carrying  household  furniture;  in 
other  cases  open  and  of  a lighter  nature  and  used  for 
local  delivery.  Whether  large  or  small,  or  of  two  or 
four  wheels,  the  van  is  set  on  springs,  and  might  be 
called  a spring  wagon  or  cart.  The  term  se,ems  to  be 
an  abbreviation  of  caravan,  which  was  the  word  formerly 
used  for  such  vehicles. 

VAN,  a city  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  capital  of  a vilayet,  is 
situated  two  miles  to  the  east  of  the  lake  to  which  it 
gives  its  name,  in  38°  30'  N.  latitude  and  430  18'  E. 
longitude.  The  population,  estimated  at  from  30,000 
to  35,000,  are  Turks,  except  about  2,000  Armenians 
and  a few  hundred  Mohammedan  and  Nestorian  Kurds. 
Besides  trade  and  agriculture,  the  inhabitants  are  en- 
gaged in  a few  industries,  such  as  the  making  of  coarse 
cotton  chintzes,  a highly  prized  goat-hair  waterproof 
moire  antique,  a thick  woolen  cloth  called  skaya/c,  and 
an  excellent  soap,  prepared  from  the  saline  efflorescences 
of  Lakes  Van  and  Erchek,#which  consist  in  about  equal 
proportions  of  the  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  soda. 

The  vilayet  of  Van,  one  of  the  finest  but  also  one  of 
the  least  developed  regions  o*  Asiatic  Turkey,  lies  or 


VAN 


6130 

the  Persian  frontier  between  Erzerum  (north)  and 
Bagdad  (south).  It  has  an  area  of  15,517  square  miles, 
with  a population  (1898)  of  430,000. 

Lake  Van. — Lake  Van,  called  Arsissa  Palus  by  the 
ancients,  and  also  Thospitis , from  its  Armenian  name 
Tosp,  is  80  miles  long  and  30  broad,  with  a total  area 
of  1,500  square  miles.  Although  of  smaller  extent  than 
Lake  Urmia,  it  contains  a much  larger  volume  of  water 
owing  to  its  much  greater  depth,  which  is  at  least  eighty 
feet  near  Van  and  still  more  along  the  south  side.  The 
lake  stands  about  5,400  feet  above  sea-level  on  the 
south  Armenian  plateau,  which  is  encircled  by  the  lofty 
ranges  that  bifurcate  west  and  south  from  Ararat  and 
culminate  in  the  Sipan-Dagh  (12,000  feet)  on  the  north 
side  of  the  lake. 

VANADIUM,  a rare  element  discovered  in  1830  by 
Sefstrom,  when  analyzing  a kind  of  iron  obtained  from 
the  ores  of  Taberg  in  Sweden.  Berzelius,  in  the  course 
of  an  extensive  investigation  on  vanadium,  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  it  is  analogous  to  chromium,  forming 
like  it  an  acid  trioxide,  VanO;J  in  which  “ Van  ” signifies 
I34.41  parts  of  a radical  analogous  to  the  0=52  parts  of 
chromium  in  chromic  acid,  Cr03.  He  succeeded  in 
isolating  this  radical,  and,  as  it  exhibited  semi-metallic 
properties,  he  had  no  doubt  that  it  was  the  element 
Vanadium  itself.  His  results  were  universally  adopted 
as  correct  until  Rosco*e  (in  1867)  found  that  Berzelius’s 
vanadium  is  an  oxide  containing  02=32  parts  of  oxygen 
per  Van,  whence  it  followed  that  the  presumed  trioxide, 
Van03,  is  really  a pentoxide,  V205,  where  V2==2X5i.2 
= 2 atoms  of  the  real  element.  Our  present  knowledge 
of  vanadium  is  based  chiefly  upon  his  investigations. 

Traces  of  vanadium  are  found  in  certain  iron  ores  and 
In  many  other  minerals. 

Rare  and  expensive  as  vanadium  is,  it  has  found  a 
practical  application  in  the  production  of  aniline  black. 
The  black  is  produced  from  aniline  by  the  action  of 
chloric  acid,  aided  by  the  presence  of  some  oxygen 
carrier.  Sulphide  of  copper  is  usually  employed ; but 
as  Lightfoot  found,  a mere  trace  of  vanadic  acid  (or 
vanadate  of  ammonia)  acts  more  energetically  than  any 
other  available  agent.  According  to  Witz  1 part  of 
vanadic  acid  suffices  for  67,000  parts  of  aniline  salt. 

VANBRUGH,  Sir  John,  dramatist  and  architect, 
was  the  son  of  a wealthy  sugar-baker  in  Cheshire, 
England,  and  grandson  of  a Protestant  refugee  of 
Ghent.  From  a passage  in  one  of  his  letters  to  Tonson 
It  might  be  supposed  that  he  was  born  in  the  Bastille, 
though  in  what  year  is  uncertain,  probably  in  1666. 
His  first  step  toward  becoming  a power  in  society  was, 
of  course,  to  enter  the  army.  Perhaps,  however,  had 
he  begun  life  in  any  other  way  his  advance  would  have 
be^n  just  as  rapid.  During  the  martial  period  of  his 
life,  Vanbrugh  wrote  the  first  sketches  of  th z Relapse 
and  the  Provoked  Wife.  These  he  showed  to  Sir 
Thomas  Skipworth,  one  of  the  shareholders  of  Drury 
Lane,  and  with  fortunate  results. 

In  1695  he  was  offered — whether  through  the  court 
interest  which  he  had  secured  or  whether  because  he 
really  had  acquired  a knowledge  of  architecture  in 
France  is  not  known — the  post  of  secretary  to  the 
commission  for  endowing  Greenwich  Hospital.  He 
accepted  the  'post,  and  by  way  of  fulfilling  his  functions 
as  an  architect  turned  his  attention  to  the  amours  of 
“Lord  Foppington.”  His  Relapse , or  Virtue  in  Dan- 
ger, a sequel  to  Colley  Cibber’s  Love's  Lost  Shift,  was 
produced  at  Drury  Lane  in  1697.  The  success  was  so 
triumphant  that  Montague,  afterward  Lord  Halifax, 
asked  at  once  for  the  Provoked  Wife  for  the  theater  in 
Lincoln’s  Inn  Fields,  and — Skipworth  waiving,  for  the 
advantage  of  Vanbrugh,  his  own  claim  upon  the  play — 
t w-r  * produced  at  that  theater  in  the  following  year. 


And  now,  having  succeeded  as  a man  of  fashion,  as 
an  architectural  commissioner,  and  as  a comic  dramatist 
of  the  school  of  Wycherley,  Vanbrugh  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  morals.  Though  ALsop — produced  at  Drury 
Lane  in  the  same  year  as  the  Provoked  Wife — was  an 
adaptation  of  Boursault’s  dramatic  sermon  on  the  same 
subject,  it  was  an  improvement  on  the  French  play. 
The  play  ran  during  a week  only.  Vanbrugh,  accept- 
ing the  failure  with  his  usual  good-temper,  seems  then 
to  have  turned  his  attention  completely  to  architecture; 
for  the  adaptation  in  1700  of  the  Pilgrim  of  Beaumont 
and  Fletcher,  and  the  production  in  1702  of  A False 
Friend , could  hardly  have  engaged  his  serious  efforts  at 
all,  so  perfunctory  are  they  and  so  inferior  to  all  that 
he  had  done  before. 

Castle  Howard  in  Yorkshire,  which  he  had  built  for 
the  earl  of  Carlisle,  was  a great  success  so  far  as  pleas- 
ing his  patron  went,  who  as  a reward  gave  him  yet  an- 
other opening  in  life  by  presenting  him — the  most  igno- 
rant man  perhaps  in  England  of  heraldry,  judging  from 
the  fun  he  made  of  the  appointment — with  the  tabard 
of  Clarencieux  king-at-arms.  But,  if  the  dangerous 
moment  in  every  man’s  life  is  when  he  has  just  scored  a 
brilliant  success,  it  is  especially  so  with  genial  glowing 
natures  like  Vanbrugh’s.  It  seems  to  have  been  the 
success  of  Castle  Howard  that  caused  him  to  entertain 
the  rash  project  of  building  a theater,  from  his  own 
design,  for  the  acting  of  his  own  plays. 

When  at  length  the  time  came  to  test  the  acoustics  of 
the  pile,  it  was  found  to  be  sadly  defective.  What 
changes  were  made  to  rectify  the  errors  of  structure 
does  not  appear.  The  theater  was  opened  to  the  pub- 
lic with  an  Italian  opera,  which  was  followed  by  three 
nf  Moliere’s  comedies,  and  these  by  the  Confederacy , 
Vanbrugh’s  masterpiece  on  the  whole,  though  perhaps 
its  finest  scenes  are  not  equal  to  the  finest  scenes  in  the 
Relapse. 

Vanbrugh  at  last  withdrew  from  the  disastrous  specu- 
lation ; Congreve  had  already  withdrawn.  But  a man 
to  whom  fortune  had  been  so  kind  as  she  had  been  to 
Vanbrugh  could  hardly  be  depressed  by  any  of  her 
passing  frowns.  Queen  Anne  at  once  sent  him  abroad 
on  an  important  state  errand,  and  afterward  he  was 
commissioned  to  build  Blenheim.  Blenheim,  however, 
was  a source  of  great  sorrow  to  the  kindly  dramatist. 
Though  Parliament  had  voted  for  the  building  of  it,  no 
provision  had  been  made  for  the  supplies.  The  queen 
while  she  lived  paid  them,  and  then  Vanbrugh  was  left 
to  the  meanness  of  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and  after- 
ward to  the  insolence  of  the  “wicked  woman,”  who  did 
her  best  to  embitter  his  life.  Besides  Castle  Howard 
and  Blenheim,  he  built  many  other  country  mansions, 
such  as  Grimsthorpe  and  Duncomb  Hall  in  Yorkshire, 
Eastbury  in  Dorsetshire,  Seaton-Delaval  in  Northum- 
berland, King’s  Weston  near  Bristol,  Oulton  Hall  in 
Cheshire,  etc. 

About  the  end  of  1710  Vanbrugh  married  Henrietta 
Maria,  daughter  of  Colonel  Yarborough  of  Haslington, 
and  four  years  afterward,  at  the  accession  of  George  I., 
he  was  knighted.  He  afterward  wrote  again  for  the 
stage,  and  the  unfinished  fragment  left  at  his  death, 
which  took  place  March  26, 1 726,  at  his  house  in  Scot- 
land Yard,  London,  shows  that  his  powers  remained  to 
the  last  as  fine  as  ever. 

VAN  BUREN,  Martin,  eighth  president  of  the 
United  States,  was  the  son  of  a small  farmer,  and  was 
born  December  5,  1782,  at  Kinderhook,  Columbia 
county,  N.  Y.,  twenty  miles  east  of  Albany.  He  was 
educated  at  the  village  school,  and,  entering  on  the 
study  of  law  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1803.  Possessing  in  addition  to  his  other  abilities  a 
peculiar  power  of  winning  personal  trust  and  influence 


VAN 


fiis  rise  both  in  his  profession  and  political  reputation 
was  rapid.  In  1808  he  was  chosen  surrogate  of  Colum- 
bia county,  and  in  1812  a member  of  the  State  legisla- 
ture. From  1815  to  1819  he  was  attorney-general 
of  the  State,  and  during  this  period  dame  to  be  recog- 
nized as  the  ruling  spirit  of  the  new  Democratic  school 
known  as  the  Albany  regency.  In  1821  he  was  chosen 
to  the  United  States  senate  and  the  same  year  was 
elected  a member  of  the  convention  for  revising  the 
State  constitution,  in  which,  though  advocating  an  ex- 
tension of  the  franchise,  he  opposed  universal  suffrage. 
In  1828  he  was  appointed  governor  of  New  YorkState. 
From  March,  1829,  to  April,  1831,  he  was  secretary  of 
state  in  the  administration  of  President  Jackson,  of 
whom  he  was  the  chief  political  adviser.  During  the 
recess  he  was  appointed  minister  to  England;  but,  on 
the  ground  that  he  had  previously  shown  a too  submis- 
sive attitude  toward  that  country,  and  also  a tendency  to 
be  influenced  in  his  foreign  predilections  by  home  poli- 
tics, the  senate  refused  to  ratify  the  appointment.  In 
the  following  year  he  was,  however,  chosen  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  and  in  1837  he  succeeded 
Jackson  as  president.  He  entered  upon  office  at  the 
time  of  a severe  commercial  crisis  (see  United  States), 
and,  although  the  methods  he  adopted  to  deal  with  it 
were  in  themselves  admirable,  the  financial  strain  which 
existed  during  his  term  of  office  weakened  for  a time 
the  influence  of  his  party.  Besides  the  establishment 
of  the  independent  treasury  system,  Van  Buren’s  name 
is  associated  with  the  preemption  law  giving  settlers  on 
public  lands  the  preference  in  their  purchase.  On  the 
expiry  of  his  term  of  office  he  was  again,  in  1840,  nomi- 
nated for  the  presidency,  but  lost  by  a large  majority. 
In  1844  a majority  of  the  delegates  to  the  Democratic 
convention  were  pledged  to  support  him,  but  on  account 
of  his  opposition  to  the  annexation  of  Texas  they 
allowed  a motion  to  be  introduced  making  a two-thircls 
vote  necessary  for  nomination.  This  he  failed  to  obtain 
and  his  name  was  withdrawn.  In  1848  he  was  nomi- 
nated by  the  anti-slavery  section  of  his  party,  but  the 
split  caused  the  defeat  of  both  Democratic  candidates. 
The  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  chiefly  in  retire- 
ment on  his  estate  at  Kinderhook.  In  1853-55  went 
on  a European  tour.  He  died  at  Kinderhook  July  24, 
1862.  His  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  and  Course  of 
Political  Parties  in  the  United  States  was  published  by 
his  sons  in  1867. 

VANCOUVER,  George,  English  navigator,  was 
born  about  1758.  He  entered  the  navy  at  the  age  of 
thirteen,  and  accompanied  Cook  in  his  second  (1772-74) 
and  third  (1776-79)  voyages  of  discovery.  After  serv- 
ing for  several  years  on  the  Jamaica  station,  Vancouver 
was  appointed  to  command  an  expedition  to  the  north- 
west coast  of  America,  the  object  being  to  take  over 
from  the  Spaniards  their  territory  in  that  region,  and  to 
explore  the  coast  from  300  N.  latitude  round  to  Cook’s 
Inlet  (or  river  as  it  was  then  called),  with  a view  to  the 
discovery  of  an  eastward  passage  to  the  great  lakes  in 
the  British  dominions.  The  special  point  which  he  had 
to  ascertain  was  whether  the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca 
really  was  a strait,  Vancouver,  accompanied  by  Lieu- 
tenant Broughton,  left  Falmouth  on  April  1,  1791,  and, 
after  spending  some  weeks  at  the  Cape,  made  for  the 
coast  of  Australia,  where  a very  careful  survey  of  the 
southwest  coast  was  made,  especially  of  King  George’s 
Sound,  the  value  of  which  as  a harbor  Vancouver  pointed 
out.  For  the  next  three  years  he  was  engaged  in 
exploring  the  various  lands  of  the  Pacific,  and  it  was 
not  until  October,  1794,  that  he  started  homeward, 
entering  the  mouth  of  the  Shannon  on  September  13, 
1795*  He  immediately  set  about  the  preparation 
of  the  narrative  of  his  voyage,  but  died  at  Petersham 


6131 

in  Surrey,  May  10,  1798,  before  he  had  quite  completed 
his  task. 

VANCOUVER  ISLAND,  which  is  included  in  the 
territory  of  British  Columbia,  lies  in  a northwest  and 
southeast  direction  parallel  with  the  coast.  From  the 
State  of  Washington  on  the  south  it  is  separated  by  Juan 
de  Fuca  Strait,  which  leads  into  the  Gulf  of  Georgia  and 
folmstone’s  Strait  on  the  east  of  the  island,  Queen 
Charlotte  Sound  entering  this  last  from  the  northwest. 
These  channels  vary  from  5 to  . o miles  in  width.  The 
island  extends  from  48'  20'  to  510  N.  latitude  and  from 
1230  to  1200  30'  W.  longitude.  Its  length  is  about 
250  miles  and  its  breadth  varies  from  10  to  70.  The  area 
is  estimated  at  from  12,000  to  16,000  square  miles. 

The  island  is  essentially  a mountain  range  composed 
of  metamorphic  and  trappean  rocks,  fringed  by  a belt 
of  Carboniferous  limestones  and  other  sedimentary  de- 
posits. So  far  as  is  known  at  present  the  chief  mineral 
resource  is  coal,  which  is  worked  in  large  quantities  at 
Nanaimo  on  the  east  coast,  and  in  quality  is  reputed  the 
best  on  the  whole  Pacific  coast.  While  limited  areas 
in  the  southeast  of  the  island  and  in  the  inland  valleys 
are  well  adapted  to  agriculture  (about  300,000  acres  in 
all),  and  while  farming  is  carried  on  to  some  extent,  the 
country  is  too  mountainous  ever  to  develop  agriculture 
on  any  large  scale.  The  mountains  are,  however%  cov- 
ered with  forests,  mainly  the  Douglas  pine,  yielding 
splendid  supplies  of  timber.  These  forests,  with  its  coal 
and  its  fisheries,  may  be  regarded  as  the  chief  resources 
of  the  island..  Cereals  of  all  kinds,  all  fruits  of  the  tem- 
perate zone,  pulse,  and  vegtables  flourish  on  the  patches 
suited  to  agriculture,  while  cattle  and  sheep  can  be 
easily  reared  in  small  numbers.  The  population  of 
the  island  in  1881  was  9,991,  of  whom  5,925  lived 
in  the  city  of  Victoria.  In  1901  the  population  was 
estimated  at  27,123  (21,123  whites  and  Chinese,  and 
6,000  Indians). 

The  capital  of  the  island  is  Victoria,  {q.v. ) Three 
and  a half  miles  to  the  west  of  Victoria  is  the  town  of 
Esquimault  at  the  head  of  Parry  Bay.  There  has  been 
a British  Admiralty  station  here  for  many  years,  the 
harbor  having  an  average  depth  of  from  six  to  eight 
fathoms.  There  are  government  offices,  two  churches, 
a public  school,  and  various  other  buildings. 

Vancouver  Island  was  discovered  by  Juan  de  Fuca 
in  1592.  In  1778  Captain  Cook  roughly  surveyed  the 
coast,  this  work  being  extended  by  Captain  Vancouver, 
who  surveyed  the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca  and  the  Gulf  of 
Georgia.  The  first  settlement  on  the  island  was  made 
by  the  Hudson’s  Bay  Company  on  the  site  of  Victoria 
in  1843.  Six  years  later  Vancouver  Island  was  consti- 
tuted a colony.  Its  union  with  British  Columbia  was 
effected  in  1866. 

VANCOUVER,  a city  of  British  Columbia,  located 
on  Burrand  Inlet,  in  the  district  of  New  Westminster, 
in  the  immediate  center  of  an  extensive  area  of  agri- 
cultural, mining,  and  lumber  territory,  and  contiguous 
to  salmon  fishing  grounds  of  great  value.  It  is  ninety 
miles  distant  from  Victoria,  the  capital  of  Vancouver 
Island,  with  which  tri-weekly  communication  is  main- 
tained by  steamer,  and  nine  miles  from  New  West- 
minster, where  connection  is  made  with  the  Canadian 
Pacific  railway  system  for  points  in  the  United  States, 
Manitoba,  Canada  and  elsewhere  in  every  direction. 
The  city  contains  five  banks,  two  daily  and  three 
weekly  papers,  religious  organizations  representing 
nearly  every  denomination,  and  many  churches,  schools, 
acadamies,  hotels,  places  of  public  resort,  and  other 
features  of  municipal  progress,  including  electric  light 
and  street  railway  systems.  In  the  way  of  manufactures 
there  are  five  saw  mills,  three  sash,  door  and  blind 
factories,  foundries  and  machine  shops,  a baking  powde> 


VAN 


6132 

factory,  fish  cannery,  etc.  In  1891  the  population  was 
13,709 ; in  1901  it  was  26,133. 

VANDA,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  order  Orchidece. 
They  comprise  one  of  the  most  beautiful  genus  of  the 
Indian  orchids,  and  are  highly  prized  by  florists.  They 
usually  bring  high  prices.  They  are  found  in  the  Khasia 
Mountains,  growing  in  great  profusion  upon  the  oak, 
banyan  and  other  trees. 

VANDALS.  The  Vandals,  one  of  the  leading  Teu- 
tonic nations  that  overthrew  the  Roman  empire,  were 
of  the  Low  German  stock  and  closely  allied  to  the 
Goths.  We  first  hear  of  them  in  the  time  of  Pliny 
and  Tacitus  as  occupying  a district  nearly  correspond- 
ing to  Brandenburg  and  Pomerania.  Thence,  in  the 
second  century,  they  pressed  southward  to  the  confines 
of  Bohemia,  where  they  gave  their  name  to  the  mount- 
ains now  called  the  Riesengebirge.  After  a century  of 
hostile  and  desultory  operations  against  the  Roman 
empire,  having  been  signally  defeated  by  Aurelian 
(271),  they  made  peace  with  Rome,  one  of  the  condi- 
tions being  that  they  should  supply  2,000  fcederati  to 
the  imperial  army.  Sixty  years  later  they  sustained  a 
great  defeat  from  the  Goths  under  their  king  Geberich, 
after  which  they  humbly  sought  and  obtained  permis- 
sion from  Constantine  to  settle  as  Roman  subjects 
withyn  the  province  of  Pannonia.  Here  they  remained 
seventy  years,  and  during  this  period  they  probably 
made  some  advances  in  civilization  and  became  Chris- 
tians of  the  Arian  type.  In  406,  when  'the  empire 
under  Honorius  was  falling  into  ruin,  they  crossed  the 
Rhine  and  entered  Gaul.  Stilicho,  the  chief  adviser  of 
Honorius,  who  was  a man  of  Vandal  extraction,  was 
accused  by  his  enemies  of  having  invited  them  into  the 
empire,  but  this  is  probably  a groundless  calumny.  In 
Gaul  they  fought  a great  battle  with  the  Franks,  in 
which  they  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  2,000  men, 
and  their  king  Godigisclus  was  slain.  In  409  his  son 
Gunderic  led  them  across  the  Pyrenees.  They  appear 
to  have  settled  in  Spain  in  two  detachments.  One, 
the  Asdingian  Vandals,  occupied  Galicia,  the  other,  the 
Silingian,  Andalusia.  Twenty  years  of  bloody  and 
purposeless  warfare  with  the  armies  of  the  empire  and 
witb  their  fellow-barbarians,  the  Goths  and  the  Suevi, 
followed.  The  Silingian  Vandals  were  well-nigh  ex- 
terminated, but  their  Asdingian  brethren  (with  whom 
were  now  associated  the  remains  of  a T uranian  people, 
the  Alans,  who  had  been  utterly  defeated  by  the 
Goths)  marched  across  Spain  and  took  possession  of 
Andalusia. 

In  42S  or  429  the  whole  nation  set  sail  for  Africa, 
upon  an  invitation  received  by  their  king  from  Bonifa- 
cius,  count  of  Africa,  who  had  fallen  into  disgrace  with 
the  court  of  Ravenna.  Gunderic  was  now  dead,  and 
supreme  power  was  in  the  hands  of  his  bastard  brother, 
who  is  generally  known  in  history  as  Genseric,  though 
the  more  correct  form  of  his  name  is  Gaiseric.  This 
man,  short  of  stature  and  with  limping  gait,  but  with  a 
great  natural  capacity  for  war  and  dominion,  reckless 
of  human  life  and  unrestrained  by  conscience  or  pity, 
was  for  fifty  years  the  hero  of  the  Vandal  race,  and  the 
terror  of  Constantinople  and  Rome.  Genseric’s  cele- 
brated expedition  against  Rome  (455),  undertaken  in 
response  to  the  call  of  Eudoxia,  widow  of  Valentinian, 
was  only  the  greatest  of  his  marauding  exploits.  He 
took  the  city  without  difficulty,  and  for  fourteen  days, 
in  a calm  and  business-like  manner,  emptied  it  of  all  its 
movable  wealth. 

There  does  not  seem  to  be  in  the  story  of  the  capture 
of  Rome  by  the  Vandals  any  justification  for  the  charge 
of  willful  and  objectless  destruction  of  public  buildings 
which  is  implied  in  the  word  “vandalism.”  It  is 
probable  that  this  charge  grew  out  of  the  fierce  per- 


secution which  was  carried  on  by  Genseric  and  his  sou 
against  the  Catholic  Christians,  and  which  is  the  darkest 
stain  on  their  characters. 

On  the  death  of  Huneric,  who  succeeded  Genseric  in 
484,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  cousin  Gunthamund, 
Genseric  having  established  seniority  among  his  own 
descendants  as  the  law  of  succession  to  his  throne. 
Gunthamund  (484-496)  and  his  brother  Thrasamund 
(496-5^3),  though  Arians,  abated  some  of  the  rigor  of 
the  persecution,  and  maintained  the  external  credit  ol 
the  monarchy.  On  the  death  of  Thrasamund,  Hilderie 
(523-531),  the  son  of  Huneric  and  Eudocia,  at  length 
succeeded  to  the  throne.  Hilderie,  elderly,  Catholic, 
and  timid,  was  very  unpopular  with  his  subjects,  and 
after  a reign  of  eight  years  he  was  thrust  into  prison  by 
fiis  warlike  cousin  Gelimer  (531-534). 

The  wrongs  of  Hilderie,  a Catholic,  and  with  the 
blood  of  Theodosius  in  his  veins,  afforded  to  Justinian 
a long-coveted  pretext  for  overthrowing  the  Vandal  do- 
minion, the  latent  weakness  of  which  was  probably 
known  to  the  statesmen  of  Constantinople.  A great  ex- 
pedition under  the  command  of  Belisarius  (in  whose 
train  was  the  historian  Procopius)  sailed  from  the  Bos- 
phorus in  June,  533,  and  after  touching  at  Catana  in 
Sicily,  finally  reached  Africa  in  the  beginning  of  Septem- 
ber. In  two  campaigns  the  Vandals  were  completely 
overthrown  and  Gelimer  was  taken  to  Constantinople 
to  grace  a triumph.  The  Vandals  who  were  carried 
captive  to  Constantinople  were  enlisted  in  five  squadrons 
of  cavalry  and  sent  to  serve  against  the  Parthians  under 
the  title  “ Justiniani  Vandali.”  Four  hundred  escaped 
to  Africa  and  took  part  in  a mutiny  of  the  imperial 
troops  which  was  with  difficulty  quelled  by  Belisarius 
(536).  After  this  the  Vandals  disappear  from  history. 

VAN  DER  HELST.  See  Helst. 

VANDEVELDE,  Adrian,  animal  and  landscape 
painter,  a brother  of  William  Vandevelde,  the  marine 
painter,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1639.  He  was 
trained  in  the  studio  of  Jan  Wynants,  the  landscape 
painter.  His  favorite  subjects  are  scenes  of  open  past- 
ure land,  with  sheep,  cattle,  and  goats,  which  he  exe- 
cuted with  admirable  dexterity,  with  much  precision  of 
touch  and  truth  of  draughtsmanship,  and  ■with  clear 
silvery  coloring.  He  died  at  Amsterdam  in  January, 
1672. 

VANDEVELDE,  William,  the  younger,  marine 
painter,  a son  of  William  Vandevelde,  the  elder,  also 
a painter  of  sea-pieces,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  in 
1633.  He  was  instructed  by  his  father.  In  1674  he 
was  engaged  by  Charles  II.  at  a salary  of  $500  to  aid 
his  father  in  “ taking  and  making  draughts  of  sea- 
fights,”  his  part  of  the  work  being  to  reproduce  in 
color  the  drawings  of  the  elder  Vandevelde.  He  was 
also  patronized  by  the  duke  of  York  and  by  various 
members  of  the  nobility.  He  died  in  London  on  April 
6,  1707. 

VAN  DIEMEN’S  LAND.  See  Tasmania. 

VAN  DYCK,  Sir  Anthony,  painter,  was  born  in 
Antwerp  on  March  22,  1599.  Of  the  boy’s  early  edu- 
cation nothing  is  known.  He  was  little  over  ten  when 
he  was  apprenticed  to  Henry  Van  Balen,  the  painter 
of  many  delicate  little  pictures,  also  an  occasional 
collaborator  of  Rubens,  and  the  master  of  Snyders. 

In  1620  we  know  that  Van  Dyck  was  working  with 
Rubens,  for  on  March  20th,  in  making  arrangements 
with  the  Antwerp  Jesuits  for  the  decoration  of  their 
church,  the  great  master  is  allowed  to  avail  himself  of 
his  pupil’s  assistance,  and  obtains  for  him  the  promise 
of  a picture.  This  proof  of  Van  Dyck’s  personal  repu- 
tation is  fully  confirmed  ( July  17th)  by  a correspon- 
dent of  the  earl  of  Arundel,  who  speaks  of  Van  Dyck 
as  a young  man  of  one  and  twenty  wfio§e  ^yprks  are 


VAN 


Scarcely  lfcsfe  esteemed  than  those  of  his  master,  and 
adds  that,  his  relations  being  people  of  considerable 
wealth,  he  could  hardly-  be  expected  to  leave  his  home. 
Van  Dyck  was,  however,  thus  persuaded,  for  on 
November  28th  Sir  Toby  Mathew  mentions  the  artist’s 
departure  to  Sir  Dudley  Carleton,  adding  that  he  is 
in  receipt  of  an  annual  pension  of  ^"ioo  from  the  king. 
There  is  evidence  of  Van  Dyck’s  presence  in  London 
till  the  end  of  February,  1621.  Among  his  numerous 
paintings  still  preserved  in  English  houses  one  only  is 
admitted  as  belonging  to  the  period  of  this  first  visit,  a 
full-length  portrait  of  James  L in  the  royal  collection. 
That  he  was  at  the  time  a portrait  painter  of  the  rarest 
merit  may  easily  be  seen  from  his  own  likenesses  of 
himself  when  still  quite  young  and  beardless,  in  the 
National  Gallery  (London),  in  the  Pinakothek  at 
Munich,  and  in  the  private  collections  of  the  duke  of 
Grafton  and  Sir  Richard  Wallace.  In  this  last  admir- 
able specimen  the  young  painter  has  represented  him- 
self in  the  character  of  Paris.  Early  paintings  by  Van 
Dyck  are  certainly  not  scarce  in  British  galleries  ; and 
at  Dulwich  there  is  his  admirable  Samson  and  Delilah , 
wrongly  ascribed  to  Rubens. 

No  master  from  beyond  the  Alps  ever  attained  a 
higher  position  than  Van  Dyck  among  the  most  cele- 
brated representatives  of  Italian  art.  Study,  as  a mat- 
ter of  course,  had  been  one  of  his  principal  objects  in 
going  to  that  country.  No  doubt  can  be  entertained  as 
to  the  great  influence  exerted  by  the  works  of  Titian 
and  Paul  Veronese  in  the  development  of  his  genius; 
still  the  individuality  of  the  painter  remains  a striking 
feature  of  what  may  be  termed  his  Italian  works,  espe- 
cially portraits.  As  in  later  years  Van  Dyck  gives  us 
a striking  picture  of  the  higher  classes  in  England,  so 
at  this  stage  he  makes  us  acquainted  with  Italian  beauty 
and  style;  and  at  no  other  period  is  his  talent  more  ad- 
vantageously shown  than  in  some  of  the  glorious  por- 
traits he  painted  at  Rome,  at  Florence,  and  above  all 
at  Genoa.  At  Rome  he  resided  with  Cardinal  Guido 
Bentivoglio,  who  had  been  papal  nuncio  in  Flanders 
from  1607  to  1617.  For  this  patron  were  painted  sev- 
eral works  of  very  great  importance,  the  most  renowned 
being  the  prelate’s  own  portrait,  now  in  the  Pitti  Palace 
at  Florence.  Another  work  was  a Crucifixion,  repre- 
senting Christ  dying  on  the  cross  with  uplifted  eyes. 
Besides  these  he  painted  religious  subjects  and  portraits, 
several  of  which  are  reckoned  among  his  finest  exam- 
ples, such  as  the  portrait  of  Francis  Duquesnoy,  the 
famous  sculptor,  belonging  to  the  king  of  the  Belgians, 
and  those  of  Sir  Robert  Shirley  and  his  wife,  in  Persian 
attire,  now  at  Petworth. 

In  the  company  of  Lady  Arundel,  who  tried  to  per- 
suade him  to  return  to  England,  he  traveled  to  Turin, 
and  perhaps  produced  some  of  the  paintings  now  in  the 
royal  gallery  there,  such  as  the  spirited  portrait  of 
Thomas  of  Savoy  on  his  splendid  black  charger.  But  he 
was  eager  to  reach  Genoa,  where  Rubens  had  worked 
with  great  success  some  twenty  years  before,  and  where 
his  Antwerp  friends,  Luke  and  Cornelis  de  Wael,  for 
many  years  resident  in  Italy,  now  were.  Van  Dyck 
remained  their  guest  for  several  months,  and  their  por- 
traits, now  in  the  Pinacoteca  Capitolina  at  Rome  (en- 
graved by  W.  Hollar  from  the  monochrome  at  Cassel), 
may  be  supposed  to  have  been  one  of  his  first  Genoese 
productions.  Genoa  can  still  boast  of  a good  number  of 
his  most  attractive  productions. 

Van  Dyck  is  said  to  have  sailed  from  Genoa  to 
Palermo,  and  there  to  have  painted  several  persons 
of  rank,  including  the  viceroy,  Emmanuel  Philibert  of 
Savoy. 

Embarking  for  Marseilles,  Van  Dyck  is  said  to  have 
-topped  at  Aix  with  Peiresc,  the  famous  scholar  and 


6133 

friend  of  Rubens,  and  thence  to  have  gone  to  Paris, 
where  most  probably  he  painted  the  beautiful  portrait  of 
Langlois  the  print-seller  (belonging  to  Mr.  W.  Garnett), 
a work  still  influenced  by  Italian  reminiscences,  and  had 
the  opportunity  of  meeting  Callot,  Simon  Vouet,  and 
Dupuy,  the  king’s  librarian — all  of  whose  portraits 
were  engraved  from  his  drawings  in  Antwerp.  There  is 
no  recorded  proof  of  Van  Dyck’s  return  to  Antwerp 
before  March  6,  1628. 

Great  as  may  have  been  tne  strength  of  Italian  rem- 
iniscence, from  the  moment  Van  Dyck  again  trod 
Flemish  soil  the  influence  of  Rubens  became  predomi- 
nant, and  we  can  scarcely  doubt  that  a competition 
speedily  arose  between  master  and  pupil.  Among  the 
earliest  works  after  his  return  to  Antwerp  we  find  the 
Crucifixion,  given  to  the  Dominican  nuns,  in  accordance 
with  the  wish  expressed  by  the  painter’s  dying  father, 
and  now  in  the  Antwerp  museum.  To  Van  Dyck’s  sec- 
ond— more  justly  speaking  third — manner  belong  some 
of  his  best  religious  works.  The  Crucifixion  in  the 
cathedral  at  Mechlin  is  termed  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds 
one  of  the  finest  pictures  in  the  world.  Other  Crucifix- 
ions are  in  St.  Michael’s  at  Ghent  (sketches  in  Lord 
Brownlow’s  collection  and  the  Brussels  museum)  and  in 
the  church  at  Termonde.  Still  finer  are  the  two  works 
painted  for  the  Antwerp  Jesuits  and  now  at  Vienna — 
the  Blessed  Herman  Joseph  Kneeling  before  the  Virgin 
and  St.  Rosalia  Crowned  by  the  Infant  Saviour.  To 
this  period  likewise  belong  the  celebrated  Elevation  of 
the  Cross  at  Courtrai  and  the  St.  A ugustine  in  Ecstasy , 
in  the  church  of  the  Jesuits  at  Antwerp. 

Rapidly  rising  to  honor  and  wealth,  Van  Dyck  shared 
with  Rubens  the  official  title  of  court  painter,  and  his 
numerous  portraits  of  the  Infanta  in  her  monastic  garb 
(Paris,  Vienna,  Turin,  Parma,  etc.)  bear  testimony  to 
the  great  favor  in  which  he  stood  with  her.  When 
Mary  de’  Medici,  after  her  flight  from  France,  took  up 
her  residence  in  Brussels  (1631),  she  honored  Van 
Dyck,  as  well  as  Rubens,  with  repeated  visits,  and 
several  times  called  upon  him  to  paint  her  likeness,  as 
well  as  those  of  Gaston  of  Orleans  and  his  wife  Mar- 
garet of  Lorraine,  and  several  of  the  personages  of  their 
court.  When,  toward  the  end  of  March,  Van  Dyck 
sailed  for  England,  he  took  all  these  portraits  with  him, 
as  we  learn  from  an  account  of  August  8,  1632  (Car- 
penter’s Pictorial  Notices'). 

In  undertaking  this  new  journey  to  London,  Van 
Dyck  was  assured  of  success,  for  Gerbier’s  letters  show 
that  the  king  had  personally  desired  his  presence.  Van 
Dyck  rapidly  achieved  popularity  among  the  higher 
classes,  and,  as  Walpole  says,  his  works  are  so  frequent 
in  England  that  to  most  Englishmen  it  is  difficult  to 
avoid  thinking  of  him  as  their  countryman. 

During  the  first  year  of  his  presence  in  England  he 
painted  the  king  and  queen  a dozen  times.  The  first  of 
these  noble  portraits  is  the  admirable  full  length  of 
Charles  I. , with  the  queen  and  their  two  eldest  children, 
at  Windsor  Castle.  The  style  he  adopted  in  England 
is  generally  termed  his  third  manner  ; we  might  better 
say  his  fourth,  as  he  already  had  a very  particular  style 
before  he  set  out  on  his  Italian  journey. 

Nearly  the  whole  of  1634  and  1635  were  spent  by  Van 
Dyck  in  the  Netherlands.  The  most  important  of  Van 
Dyck’s  works,  at  any  rate  as  a portrait  painter,  belong 
to  this  period.  Among  the  religious  paintings  of  undis- 
puted excellence  belonging  to  the  same  period  are  the 
Adoration  of  the  Shepherds  in  the  church  at  Termonde, 
and  the  Deposition,  where  the  body  of  Christ  rests  upon 
the  lap  of  the  Virgin,  in  the  Antwerp  museum. 

After  being  chosen  honorary  president  of  the  Ant- 
werp guild  of  St.  Luke,  Van  Dyck  returned  to  London 
before  the  end  of  1635.  In  spite  of  the  vast  number  of 


VAN 


6i34 

his  later  portraits,  some  of  them  deserve  to  be  ranked 
among  the  most  celebrated  of  his  productions. 

He  now  married  Lady  Mary  Ruthven,  daughter  of 
Sir  Patrick  Ruthven  and  grand-daughter  of  the  earl  of 
Gowrie.  There  are  several  portraits  of  her  by  her 
husband,  the  most  important  being  in  the  Munich  gal- 
lery, in  which  she  is  represented  in  white  satin,  playing 
on  the  violoncello. 

Van  Dyck  found  few  occasions  in  England  to  paint 
anything  but  portraits.  He  seems  to  have  been  decid- 
edly underrated  by  the  king  and  queen  as  an  imagina- 
tive painter.  At  the  very  time  of  his  employment  on 
the  beautiful  portraits  of  Henrietta  Maria,  destined  to 
serve  as  models  for  Bernini’s  bust,  Gerbier  was  secretly 
negotiating  with  Jordaens,  by  order  of  Charles,  for  the 
decoration  of  the  queen’s  apartments  at  Greenwich 

(1639)- 

When  the  news  of  Rubens’  death  reached  London 
(June,  1640),  Van  Dyck  contemplated  a return  to  his 
native  country,  and  a letter  from  Ferdinand  of  Austria 
to  Philip  IV.  speaks  of  his  intended  journey  to  Antwerp 
on  St.  Luke’s  Day  (October  18th).  Rubens  had  left 
unfinished  a series  of  paintings  commanded  by  the  king 
of  Spain,  and,  from  correspondence  published  by 
Professor  Justi,  we  learn  that  Van  Dyck  had  been 
thought  of  to  give  them  the  finishing  touch.  But  he 
absolutely  refused  to  finish  them.  It  was  then  agreed 
that  he  should  paint  an  independent  canvas  destined  to 
complete  the  series.  Van  Dyck  was  delighted  with  this 
order,  and  Ferdinand  tells  his  brother  that  he  returned 
to  London  in  great  haste  “ to  make  preparations  for  his 
change  of  residence;  possibly,”  adds  the  letter,  “he 
may  still  change  his  mind,  for  he  is  stark  mad.” 
Whether  Van  Dyck  found  it  possible  to  work  during 
his  short  stay  in  the  Netherlands  is  a matter  of  doubt. 
In  the  museum  at  The  Hague  are  six  medallion  portraits 
of  Constantine  Huygens  and  his  children,  dated  1640. 
They  have  till  lately  been  ascribed  to  Van  Dyck,  but 
are  now  said  to  be  by  Adrian  Hannemann,  a Dutchman, 
and  one  of  his  ablest  assistants.  In  any  case  they  are  of 
small  importance.  Most  authors  suppose  that  Van 
Dyck’s  principal  object  in  traveling  to  the  Continent  was 
to  be  intrusted  with  the  decoration  of  one  of  the 
galleries  of  the  Louvre.  There  may  be  some  truth  in 
this,  for  Mariette  speaks  of  a letter  he  saw,  written  by 
Claude  Vignon,  the  French  painter,  in  January,  1641, 
asking  Langlois  for  an  introduction  to  Van  Dyck,  who 
was  then  in  Paris.  Unfortunately  the  great  painter  was 
thwarted  in  his  aspirations.  His  health  was  beginning  to 
fail.  After  his  return  to  London  he  was  frequently  obliged 
to  interrupt  his  work;  and  a letter  written  (August  13th) 
from  Richmond  by  Lady  Anne  Roxburgh  to  Baron  W. 
van  Brederode  at  The  Hague  states  that  the  portraits 
of  the  Princess  Mary  had  been  greatly  delayed  through 
Van  Dyck’s  illness,  and  that  the  prince’s  (William  II. 
of  Orange)  would  be  ready  in  eight  days.  “As  Van 
Dyck  intends  leaving  England  in  the  course  of  ten  or 
twelve  days  at  latest,”  she  adds,  “ he  will  take  the  paint- 
ings himself  to  the  princess  of  Orange.”  These  portraits, 
now  in  the  museum  at  Amsterdam,  are  the  last  Van 
Dyck  painted  in  England.  They  are  considered  to  be 
inferior;  and  the  last  edition  of  the  catalogue  terms 
them  copies.  But  of  works  dated  1639  the  portrait  of 
Lady  Pembroke,  in  the  gallery  at  Darmstadt,  is  a really 
fine  specimen;  and  to  the  same  year  belongs  a full- 
length  portrait  of  Arthur  Goodwin  at  Chatsworth.  The 
twin  portrait  of  Thomas  Carew  and  Thomas  Killigrew, 
in  the  royal  collection,  dated  1638,  is  certainly  most 
delicate,  but  very  weak  in  tone  and  slight  in  handling. 
Van  Dyck  sailed  in  September,  and  probably  spent 
some  time  with  his  Antwerp  friends.  In  October  he 
reached  Paris,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  some  impor- 


tant work,  when,  on  November  16th,  he  was  compelled 
to  resign  his  commissions  on  account  of  the  state  of  his 
health.  Scarcely  three  weeks  later  (December  9,  1641 ) 
he  died  at  his  residence  at  Blackfriars.  Van  Dyck  was 
buried  in  old  St.  Paul’s,  where  a Latin  inscription  was 
placed  on  his  tomb  by  Charles  I. 

VANE,  Sir  Henry,  the  younger,  was  the  son  of 
Sir  Henry  Vane  and  Frances  Darcy.  His  father,  of 
an  ancient  family  in  Durham,  was  secretary  of  state  and 
comptroller  of  the  household  under  Charles  I.  Henry 
was  born  in  1612  at  Hadlow  in  Kent;  and  after  an  edu- 
cation at  Westminster,  where  he  was  noted  for  his  high 
and  reckless  spirits,  and  at  Magdalen,  Oxford,  where 
he  neither  matriculated  nor  took  his  degree,  he  was  sent 
to  France  and  Geneva.  Here  he  no  doubt  acquired  the 
strongly  Puritan  views  for  which  he  had  been  prepared 
by  a remarkable  change  of  mind  when  quite  a boy.  In 
1635  he  emigrated  to  Massachusetts,  where  he  was 
elected  governor  in  1636,  though  only  twenty-four  years 
of  age.  After  two  years  of  office,  during  which  he 
showed  striking  administrative  ability,  he  was  defeated 
by  Winthrop,  the  former  governor,  chiefly  on  account 
of  the  protection  he  had  given  to  Mrs.  Hutchinson  in 
the  religious  controversies  which  she  raised. 

Vane  returned  to  England  in  August,  1637.  Being 
elected  to  the  Short  Parliament  for  Kingston-upon-Hull, 
he  speedily  became  a leader  of  the  Independents  and  a 
marked  man.  In  order  to  secure  him  for  the  court  he 
was  made  joint-treasurer  of  the  navy  with  Sir  W. 
Russel,  and  was  knighted.  In  November,  1640,  he  was 
again  elected  for  Hull  to  the  Long  Parliament.  He 
carried  up  the  impeachment  of  Laud  from  the  Com- 
mons, was  a strong  supporter,  when  on  the  committee 
of  religion,  of  the  “ Root  and  Branch  ” -bill,  and  in 
June,  1641,  put  forward  a scheme  of  church  government 
by  which  commissioners,  half  lay  and  half  cleric,  were 
to  assume  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  in  each  diocese.  He 
was,  in  fact,  foremost  in  all  the  doings  of  the  Long 
Parliament.  When  war  broke  out  he  surrendered  his 
office  of  treasurer  of  the  navy,  but  was  replaced  in  it  by 
the  Parliament.  In  1643  he  was  the  leading  man 
among  the  commissioners  sent  to  treat  for  a league 
with  the  Scots.  Vane  succeeded  in  getting  the 
bond  termed  tl  e Solemn  League  and  Covenant, 
and  further  in  substituting  the  expression  “ according  to 
the  word  of  God  and  the  example  of  the  best  Reformed 
churches”  for  the  latter  phrase  alone.  In  the  West- 
minister Assembly,  too,  he  joined  Cromwell  in  insisting 
upon  full  religious  liberty,  and  in  opposing  the  view 
that  the  taking  of  the  Covenant  should  be  necessary  for 
ordination.  In  1646  Vane  was  one  of  the  English  com- 
missioners for  the  preservation  of  peace  with  Scotland, 
and  in  1648  was  appointed  with  others  to  negotiate  with 
Charles  at  the  Isle  of  Wight.  He  was  chairman  of  the 
committee  appointed  to  consider  the  mode  of  election  of 
future  parliaments,  and  his.  proposals  were  brought  for- 
ward in  January,  1650.  He  acknowledged  the  Com- 
monwealth only  so  far  as  he  found  it  “ consonant  to  the 
principles  which  have  given  rise  to  the  law  and  the  mon- 
archy itself  in  England,”  and  he  recognized  in  a parlia- 
ment, conforming  in  other  respects  to  the  ancient  laws, 
the  supreme  authority  of  the  state,  whether  there  were 
a king  at  the  head  of  it  or  not.  His  most  useful  quali- 
ties were  exhibited,  however,  when  in  March,  1653,  he 
became  the  head  of  the  commission  for  managing  the 
army  and  navy.  It  was  by  his  exertions  in  organization 
that  Blake  was  fitted  out  with  the  fleet  with  which 
Van  Tromp  was  defeated  and  the  supremacy  of  England 
at  sea  assured.  It  was  at  this  time  that  Milton’s  sonnet 
was  addressed  to  him.  On  April  20th  Cromwell  forci- 
bly dissolved  the  Long  Parliament,  when  Vane  espe- 
cially received  from  the  Protector  studied  insult.  He 


VAN 


was,  however,  almost  at  once  invited  to  rejoin  the  gov- 
ernment. “ He  answered  the  invitation  by  a letter 
extracted  from  the  Apocalypse  wherein  the  reign  of 
the  saints  is  mentioned,  which  faith  he  believes  will 
now  begin.”  In  his  retirement  at  Raby  he  now 
wrote  the  Retired  Man’s  Meditations.  In  1656 
he  proposed  in  A Healing  Question  a new  form 
of  government,  insisting  as  before  upon  a Puritan 
parliament  supreme  over  the  army.  This  he  sent  to 
Cromwell,  and  so  alarmed  was  the  Protector  at  the  inter- 
est it  excited  that  Vane  was  summoned  on  August  12th 
to  the  council  in  consequence.  Refusing  to  give  se- 
curity not  to  disturb  the  public  peace,  he  was  on  Sep- 
tember 9th  sent  prisoner  to  Carisbrooke  Castle,  and 
there  remained  until  December  31st.  After  the  death 
of  Cromwell  he  stood  for  Kingston  and  Bristol  succes- 
sively, and  was  elected,  but  the  court  managers  gave 
the  certificate  of  election  to  the  defeated  candidates; 
finally,  however,  he  was  chosen  for  Whitchurch  and 
took  his  seat  on  January  27,  1659,  at  the  head  of  the 
small  body  of  forty  republicans.  Upon  Richard’s  ab- 
dication he  joined  the  army  leaders  in  reviving  the  Rump; 
and,  when  the  breach  occurred  between  it  and  the  army, 
he  adhered  to  the  latter,  accepting  a commission  from 
them.  He  was  one  of  the  committee  of  safety  and 
also  of  the  council  of  state  appointed  in  May;  he  was, 
too,  chairman  of  the  army  and  navy  commission,  and 
soon  afterward  of  another  special  commission  for  the 
navy.  In  September  he  was  made  president  of  the 
council.  He  had,  moreover,  in  May,  been  appointed, 
with  Lambert  and  others,  to  treat  with  the  Dutch  am- 
bassador for  freeing  the  commerce  of  the  Baltic.  When 
Monk  arrived  in  London,  Vane  was  ordered  to  his  seat 
in  Lincolnshire,  having  been  discharged  from  the  par- 
liament for  espousing  the  cause  of  the  army. 

At  the  Restoration  Vane  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower 
by  the  king’s  order.  After  several  conferences  between 
the  Houses  of  Parliament  it  was  agreed  that  he  should 
be  excepted  from  the  indemnity  bill,  but  that  a petition 
should  be  sent  to  Charles  asking  that  his  life  might  be 
spared.  The  petition  was  granted.  During  the  con- 
ferences he  had  been  moved  from  prison  to  prison,  and 
was  finally  placed  in  a castle  in  the  Scilly  Isles.  In  his 
captivity  he  wrote  the  People' s Case  Slated , with  many 
other  political  and  religious  works  of  the  highest  elo- 
quence and  beauty.  On  March  7,  1662,  the  Conven- 
tion Parliament  being  no  longer  in  existence,  he  was 
taken  to  London,  and  on  June  2d  put  upon  his  trial, 
which  was  conducted  with  a shameless  absence  of 
equity.  Charles  was  determined  that  he  should  die, 
and,  in  spite  of  his  answer  to  the  petition  mentioned 
above,  wrote  himself  to  Clarendon  declaring  that  Vane 
was  “ too  dangerous  a man  to  let  live,  if  we  can  hon- 
estly put  him  out  of  the  way.”  He  was  therefore  sen- 
tenced on  June  nth  to  death.  On  the  14th  he  was 
taken  out  to  execution,  and  died  with  the  serenity  and 
courage  which  had  marked  his  life. 

VANGS,  ropes  on  either  side  of  the  gaff,  for  steady- 
ing and  acting  as  braces  to  a fore-and-aft -sail. 

VANILLA,  a flavoring  agent  largely  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  chocolate,  in  confectionery,  and  in  per- 
fumery. It  consists  of  the  fermented  and  dried  pods 
of  several  species  of  orchids  belonging  to  the  genus 
Vanilla.  The  great  bulk  of  the  commercial  article  is 
the  produce  of  V.  planifolia , Andrews,  a native  of 
eastern  Mexico,  but  now  largely  cultivated  in  several 
tropical  countries,  especially  in  Reunion,  the  Seychelles, 
and  Java.  The  best  varieties  of  vanilla  pods  are  of  a 
dark  chocolate  brown  or  nearly  black  color,  and  are 
covered  with  a crystalline  efflorescence  technically 
known  as  givre , the  presence  of  which  is  taken  as  a 
criterion  of  quality.  The  peculiar  fragrance  of  vanilla 


613s 

is  due  to  vanillin,  C8H8Os,  which  forms  this  efflores- 
cence. 

The  method  of  cultivation  and  preparation  of  vanilla 
for  the  market  varies  somewhat  in  different  countries. 
In  Mexico  a clearing  is  made  in  the  forest,  where  a few 
young  trees,  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  apart,  are  left  to  serve 
as  a support  for  the  climbing  stems  of  the  vanilla  plant. 
Close  to  each  tree  two  cuttings,  three  to  five  feet  in 
length,  are  inserted  in  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  about  a 
foot,  the  upper  part  being  tied  to  the  tree.  The  cut- 
tings become  rooted  in  about  a month,  but  do  not  bear 
fruit  until  the  third  year.  They  continue  to  bear  for 
about  thirty  years.  In  Reunion,  Mauritius,  and  the 
Seychelles  the  young  plants  are  supported  by  a rude 
trellis  made  between  the  trunks  of  trees.  Although  the 
plants  are  probably  fertilized  by  insects  in  their  native 
country,  in  Reunion  and  elsewhere  fertilization  has  to 
be  promoted  by  hand.  Only  the  finest  flowers  of  each 
spike  are  fertilized,  or  the  plants  would  die  of  exhaus- 
tion. The  pods  are  cut  off  separately  as  they  ripen, 
since,  if  over-ripe,  they  are  apt  to  split  in  drying,  and 
if  unripe  the  product  will  be  of  inferior  color  and  fra- 
grance. The  pods  take  a month  to  arrive  at  full  size 
and  six  months  longer  to  ripen.  The  exact  time  for  col- 
lecting is  judged  by  the  crackling  of  the  pod  when 
pinched  between  the  fingers.  The  aroma  of  the  vanilla 
is  developed  by  fermentation,  and  is  said  not  to  pre- 
exist in  the  ripe  fruit. 

VANINI,  Lucilio,  Italian  philosopher,  was  born  at 
Taurisano,  near  Naples,  in  1585.  He  studied  philoso- 
phy and  theology  at  Rome,  and  after  his  return  to 
Naples  applied  himself  to  the  physical  studies  which  had 
come  into  vogue  with  the  Renaissance.  From  Naples 
Vanini  proceeded  to  Padua,  where  he  came  under  the 
influence  of  Pomponatius,  whom  he  styles  his  divine  mas- 
ter. At  Padua,  where  he  appears  to  have  remained  for 
several  years,  Vanini  added  law  to  his  other  acquire- 
ments. He  was  also  ordained  priest;  but  on  leaving 
Padua  he  led  a roving  life  in  France,  Switzerland,  and 
the  Low  Countries.  He  was  obliged  to  flee  from  Lyons 
to  England  in  1614,  but  was  imprisoned  in  London  for 
some  reason  for  forty-nine  days.  Being  set  at  liberty, 
he  returned  to  Italy  and  made  an  attempt  to  teach  in 
Genoa,  but  the  same  complaints  being  made  against 
him  drove  him  once  more  to  France.  Here  he  made  a 
valiant  effort  to  clear  himself  of  suspicion  by  publishing 
a book  against  atheists — Amphitheatrum  Adterncs 
ProvidentiiE  Divino-Magicum , necnon  Astrologo-Cath- 
olicum,  adversns  Veter es  Philosophos , Atheos , Epicu - 
reos,  Penpateticos,  et  Stoicos  (1615).  The  title  of  his  only 
other  work  (De  Ad/nirandis  Natures  Regime  Deeeque 
Mortalium  A ream's)  correctly  indicates  its  general 
tenor.  It  was  published  at  Paris  in  1616,  and  was  soon 
afterward  reexamined  by  the  Sorbonne  and  condemned 
to  the  flames.  This  was  the  occasion  of  Vanini’s  leav- 
ing Paris,  where  he  had  been  staying  as  chaplain  to 
Marshall  de  Bassompierre,  to  whom  the  book  is  dedi- 
cated. He  began  to  teach  in  T oulouse,  but  soon  roused 
the  clergy  and  magistrates  against  him.  He  was  ar- 
rested in  November,  1618,  and  after  a prolonged  trial 
was  condemned  as  an  atheist,  to  have  his  tongue  cut 
out  and  to  be  strangled  at  the  stake,  his  body  to  be  af- 
terward burned  to  ashes.  This  savage  sentence  was  ex- 
ecuted on  February  9,  1619. 

VANLOO,  Charles*  Andrew,  subject  painter, 
a younger  brother  of  John  Baptist  Vanloo  (see  below), 
was  born  at  Nice  February  15,  1705.  He  received 
some  instruction  from  his  brother,  and  like  him  studied 
in  Rome  under  Luti.  Leaving  Italy  in  1723,  he  worked 
in  Paris,  where  he  gained  the  first  prize  for  historical 
painting.  After  again  visiting  Italy  in  1727,  he  was 
employed  by  the  king  of  Sardinia,  for  whom  he  painted 


VAN— VAR 


6136 

a series  of  subjects  illustrative  of  Tasso.  In  1734  he 
settled  in  Paris,  and  in  1735  became  a member  of  the 
French  Academy ; and  he  was  decorated  with  the  order 
of  St.  Michael  and  appointed  principal  painter  to  the 
king.  His  Marriage  of  the  Virgin  is  preserved  in 
the  Louvre.  He  died  at  Paris  July  15,  1765. 

VANLOO,  John  Baptist,  subject  and  portrait 
painter,  was  born  at  Aix  in  Provence  January  14,  1684. 
He  was  instructed  in  art  by  his  father.  Having  at  an 
early  age  executed  several  pictures  for  the  decoration  of 
the  church  and  public  buildings  at  Aix,  he  was  em- 
ployed on  similar  work  at  Toulon,  which  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  during  the  siege  of  170 7.  He  was  patronized 
by  the  prince  of  Carignan,  who  sent  him  to  Rome, 
where  he  studied  under  Benedetto  Luti.  FI  ere  he  was 
much  employed  on  church  pictures,  and  in  particular 
executed  a greatly  praised  Scourging  of  Christ  for  St. 
Maria  in  Monticelli.  At  Turin  he  painted  the  duke  of 
Savoy  and  several  members  of  his  court.  Then,  re- 
moving to  Paris,  where  he  was  elected  a member  of  the 
French  Academy,  he  executed  various  altar-pieces  and 
restored  the  works  of  Primaticcio  at  Fontainebleau.  In 
1737  he  came  to  England,  where  he  attracted  attention 
by  his  portraits.  He  did  not,  however,  practice  long 
in  England,  for,  his  health  failing,  he  retired  to  Paris  in 
1742,  and  afterward  to  Aix,  where  he  died  December 
I9>  *745- 

VANNES  (Breton,  Gwened),  a town  of  France,  is 
situated  on  a little  stream,  ten  miles  from  the  Gulf  of 
Morbihan  and  eighty-four  northwest  of  Nantes  on  the 
railway  to  Brest.  In  1882  thirty-five  vessels  (3,480 
tons)  entered  and  seventy-four  (7,225  tons)  left  the  port 
of  Vannes,  which  is  accessible  to  vessels  of  150  tons; 
those  of  800  tons  can  come  to  within  two  miles.  The 
population  in  1901  was  20,127  (commune  22,036). 

VANNUCCI.  See  Perugino. 

VAN  VEEN,  Otho,  an  eminent  painter,  was  a na- 
tive of  Leyden  and  was  born  somewhere  about  1556  or 
1557.  His  chief  works  are  religious  pictures  in  churches, 
and  many  specimens  may  be  found  in  Leyden,  Antwerp, 
Bruges  and  other  cities.  He  died  at  Brussels  at  the  age 
of  78. 

VAN  WERT,  the  capital  of  a county  of  the  same 
name  in  the  western  portion  of  Ohio,  is  located  on  the 
Pittsburgh,  Ft.  Wayne  and  Chicago,  and  Toledo,  St. 
Louis  and  Kansas  City  roads,  at  their  junction  with  the 
Cincinnati,  Van  Wert  and  Michigan  road.  The  town  oc- 
cupies an  elevated  plain,  and  possesses  many  facilities  for 
the  promotion  of  its  future  growth  and  prosperity,  par- 
ticularly in  respect  to  the  number  and  importance  of  the 
manufacturing  industries,  completed  and  in  progress  of 
development.  V an  Wert  county  is  exceptionally  fertile, 
well  watered,  and  at  intervals  covered  with  dense  forests 
of  hardwood  timber;  its  agricultural  resources  are  spe-. 
dally  abundant,  and  the  town  of  Van  Wert,  being  the 
shipping  point  for  the  productions  of  the  surrounding 
country,  is  made  the  base  of  operations  for  commercial 
and  other  transactions  steadily  increasing  in  volume  and 
value.  The  town  contains  two  national  banks,  one 
daily  and  three  weekly  papers,  from  eight  to  ten  churches, 
a union  school,  a court  house  completed  at  the  cost  of 
$125,000,  hotels,  halls,  stores,  etc.,  in  number  and 
equipment  fudly  up  to  the  requirements  of  the  service, 
also  four  saw-mills,  two  flour  mills,  electric  light  works, 
foundries  and  machine  shops!  manufactories  of  staves, 
spokes,  stirrups,  patent  fence,  oil-well  supplies,  carriages 
and  road  carjs,  cigars,  tiles,  etc.  The  population  in 
1900  was  6,422. 

VAPOR.  See  Evaporation. 

VAR,  a department  of  France,  formed  in  1790  of  part 
of  Provence,  but  reduced  in  i860  by  the  formation  of 
the  de^art*nent  of  Alpes-Maritimes,  so  that  the  Var  no 


longer  flows  through  the  department  to  which  it  gives, 
its  name.  Situated  between  420  58'  and  430  55'  N. 
latitude  and  50  39'  and  6°  57'  E.  longitude,  it  is 
bounded  by  the  Mediterranean  on  the  south,  by  AlpeS' 
Maritimes  on  the  east,  by  Basses-Alpes  on  the  north, 
and  by  Bouches-du- Rhone  on  the  west.  In  the  north- 
west it  touches  the  department  of  Vaucluse.  The  river 
Verdon  on  the  north  and  the  Siagne  on  the  northeast 
are  natural  boundaries.  The  surface  of  the  department 
is  one  of  the  most  broken  in  France;  the  highest  point 
is  in  the  northeast,  where  a peak  of  the  Alps  rises  to 
5,620  feet  and  is  surrounded  by  others  ranging  from 
4,500  to  5,000  feet.  The  climate  is  remarkably  fine 
and  mild  on  the  coast,  where  there  is  complete  shelter 
from  the  north  wind,  but  is  more  severe  in  the  mount- 
ains. 

Of  the  total  area  of  1,489,488  acres  379,021  are 
arable,  529,660  under  wood,  185,333  under  vineyards, 
14,857  are  meadows  and  orchards,  49,606  pasture,  and 
142,466  uncultivated.  Mulberries,  strawberries,  pears, 
peaches,  plums,  figs,  almonds,  oranges,  pomegranates, 
lemons,  jujubes,  guavas,  and  Japanese  medlars  are 
grown;  and  the  laurel,  palm  tree,  date  tree,  eucalyptus, 
cactus,  and  sugar  cane  flourish.  An  export  trade  is 
carried  on  in  flowers,  and  also  in  truffles,  capers,  and 
onions.  The  forests  are  planted  with  white  and  ever- 
green oaks,  cork  trees,  maritime  pines,  and  chestnuts. 
In  the  dense  and  almost  virgin  forest  of  St.  Baume 
are  beeches,  maples,  limes,  oaks,  elms,  yews,  and  pines, 
and  the  flora  of  the  district  is  botanically  most  inter- 
esting. Var  possesses  mines  of  iron,  lead,  aluminium, 
and  coal.  In  1901  the  total  population  of  the  depart- 
ment numbered  325,490. 

VARANGIANS,  a Norman  people  of  the  Baltic 
coast,  who  greatly  damaged  by  their  piracies  the  com- 
merce of  the  Republic  of  Novgorod.  They  conquered 
repeatedly  the  Slavic  and  Finnish  people  of  Northern 
and  Central  Russia.  Gradually,  however,  they  became 
absorbed  into  the  Russian  race,  and  since  the  ninth 
century  the  name  of  Russian  and  Varangians  has  been 
considered  synonymous. 

VARANID^E,  a family  of  Saurian  reptiles.  Some 
of  them  are  aquatic. and  some  of  them  inhabit  dry  and 
sandy  places.  Some  attain  a very  large  size.  They 
feed  on  animal  food  of  any  kind,  and  have  been  seen  to 
attack  a young  deer  when  swimming  across  a river. 
The  species  are  no*  numerous,  and  chiefly  belong  to  the 
old  world. 

VARASD  (Germ.  Warasdin ),  a royal  free  city  of 
Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Varasd,  in  Croatia,  lies 
about  forty  miles  north-northeast  of  Zagrab  (Agram), 
on  the  river  Drave.  It  has  tobacco  and  liqueur  factories, 
and  enjoys  a brisk  trade  in  wood  and  fruits,  especially 
plums.  The  inhabitants  numbered  13,701  in  1899. 

VARAZZE,  a little  town  of  Northern  Italy,  on  the 
Gulf,  and  eighteen  miles  southwest  of  the  city  of 
Genoa.  There  is  some  trade  in  wood,  and  extensive 
construction  of  fishing  boats  is  carried  on  here.  The 
population  .the  town  is  5,000. 

VARENIUS,  Bernhardus,  or  Bernhard  Varen, 
geographer,  was  born  in  1622  at  Hitzacker  on  the  Elbe, 
in  the  Liineburg  district  of  Hanover.  Varenius 
studied  at  the  gymnasium  of  Hanover  and  at  Konigs- 
berg  and  Leyden  universities,  where  he  devoted  him- 
self to  medicine,  taking  his  degree  in  1649.  He  then 
settled  at  Amsterdam,  intending  to  practice  medicine. 
But  the  recent  discoveries  of  Tasman,  Schouten,  and 
other  Dutch  navigators,  and  his  friendship  for  Blauw 
and  other  geographers,  roused  in  Varenius  an  interest 
in  geography,  and  it  was  in  this  study  that  the  princi- 
pal achievements  of  his  life  were  gained.  He  died  'n 
1670. 


VAR 


VARESE,  a town  in  northern  Italy  in  the  province 
of  Como,  and  thirteen  miles  west  of  the  town  of  that 
name.  It  carries  on  manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  paper, 
and  hats.  The  population  is  about  13,000. 

VARIABLE,  Complex.  The  solution  of  a quad- 
ratic equation  involves  the  extraction  of  the  square  root 
of  a quantity  which  may  be  negative.  Analysis  was, 
therefore,  at  a very  early  stage  compelled  to  contem- 
plate the  possibility  that  symbols  of  magnitude  may 
represent  combinations  of  dissimilar  constituents;  but 
it  is  only  within  the  nineteenth  century,  mainly  owing 
to  the  initiative  of  Cauchy  and  of  Gauss,  that  the  whole 
domain  of  analysis  has  been  explored  from  this  point  of 
view. 

As  long  as  a variable  is  conceived  to  admit  of  real 
values  only,  the  distances  from  a fixed  point,  measured 
along  a right  line,  are  sufficient  to  represent  it.  These 
may  be  taken  positively  or  negatively,  and  in  both 
directions,  through  all  magnitudes,  from  a vanishing 
amount  to  values  large  beyond  conception,  i.  e. , infinite. 

Complex  numbers  form  a system  complete  in  them- 
ielves,  and  any  process  of  calculation  on  complex  num- 
bers always  reproduces  a complex  number.  Thus,  as 
any  such  quantity  is  represented  by  a point  approached 
From  a given  point,  the  result  of  calculation  also  has  a 
point  or  points  to  represent  it. 

In  dealing  with  real  numbers  any  definite  range  of 
values  is  represented  by  the  points  of  a finite  right  line; 
but  to  realize  a definite  range  of  complex  numbers  we 
must  have  recourse  in  general  to  a “ region  ” of  two  di- 
mensions of  the  plane  bounded  by  some  curve.  A 
region  of  two  dimensions  is  called  connected  when  we  can 
pass  from  any  point  within  it  to  any  other  point  within 
It  without  crossing  the  boundary  curve.  A quantity  is 
Said  to  be  unrestrictedly  variable  in  a region  when  it 
can  assume  all  numerical  values  in  this  region.  It  is 
said  to  be  continuously  variable  when  all  values  which 
it  assumes  always  belong  to  a finite  connected  region. 
Thus  a variable  is  said  to  be  unrestrictedly  continuous 
for  a certain  value  when  it  can  take  all  the  values  which 
belong  to  a finite  region,  however  small,  which  includes 
this  value.  The  variable  is  restrictedly  continuous  for 
this  value  when  the  values  it  takes  near  this  one  form  a 
region  on  whose  boundary  the  value  itself  occurs,  or  it 
may  be  a region  of  one  dimension.  It  is  discontinuous 
for  this  value  when  the  point  is  isolated,  and  does  not 
belong  to  any  region.  When  we  know  two  definite 
values  of  a real  variable,  we  know  all  the  intermediate 
values  which  it  must  assume  in  passing  from  one  to  the 
other;  but  in  the  case  of  the  complex  variable  there  is 
^n  essential  difference;  it  can  pass  continuously  from 
one  given  value  to  another  by  infinitely  numerous  series 
of  continuously  consecutive  values. 

VARIATION  AND  SELECTION.  It  is  not  pro- 
posed  in  the  present  article  to  trace  the  successive  steps 
by  which  the  general  doctrine  of  the  origin  of  species 
by  descent  with  modification  has  come  to  gain  accept- 
ance among  naturalists  (see  Evolution).  The  present 
problem  is  concerned  solely  with  the  determinant 
factors  of  evolution,  with  searching  out  the  mechanism 
of  the  evolutionary  process,  and  of  discerning  if  possible 
such  order  as  may  lie  under  the  apparent  flux  of  change. 

Theories  of  Variation . — If  we  pass  over  the  specula- 
tions of  the  earliest  evolutionists — De  Maillet,  Mau- 
pertuis,  Robinet,  Bonnet,  etc. — as  too  vague  for  rapid 
summary,  and  note  that  Linnaeus  was  not  quite  a con- 
sistent creationist,  since  he  admitted  that  many  species 
may  be  simply  fertile  hybrids,  the  history  of  definite 
speculation  as  to  the  factors  of  variation  may  be  fairly 
said  to  begin  with  Buffon,  whose  distinct  though  covert 
suggestion  of  the  doctrine  of  descent  with  modification 
was  supported  by  emphatic  insistence  upon  the  impor- 


6137 

tance  of  external  conditions.  He  endeavored  to  show 
how  “ natures,  instincts,  and  most  inward  qualities  ” are 
modified  through  bodily  habits,  how  new  functions 
seem  to  arise  in  response  to  new  conditions,  and  how 
changes  in  climate,  food,  and  other  conditions  of  life 
bring  about  direct  modifications  in  organisms  exposed 
to  them.  Kant,  on  the  other  hand,  viewed  the  evolu- 
tion of  species  as  related  essentially  to  the  mechanical 
laws  of  the  organism  itself,  although  in  his  latest  writ- 
ings he  allowed  for  the  influence  of  geographical  distri- 
bution, food,  etc.,  noted  the  importance  of  selection  in 
artificial  breeding,  and  even  hinted  at  the  notion  of 
struggle  for  existence,  which  was  soon  afterward  more 
clearly  emphasized  by  Herder. 

Erasmus  Darwin  (. Zoonomia , 1794)  believed  that  the 
organism  has  the  faculty  of  improving  by  its  own  in- 
herent activity,  that  it  has  the  power  of  attaining  new 
parts  attended  with  new  propensities.  Yet  the  strongest 
and  most  active  animals  are  those  which  propagate  and 
hand  on  improvements.  Transformations,  too,  may  be 
produced  in  part  by  the  exertions  of  the  organism  in 
consequence  of  its  desires  for  food,  security,  and  repro- 
duction. Changed  conditions,  such  as  climate,  have  an 
indirect  influence  in  changing  desires,  and  thus  actions, 
and  so  finally  structure;  and  they  may  also  operate 
directly.  Treviranus  (1802-1831)  assumed  an  indefinite 
variability  of  the  organism,  with  considerable  power  of 
adaptation  to  surroundings,  and  even  anticipated  much 
recent  speculation  in  his  suggestion  of  a possible  factor 
of  modification  in  the  union  of  sexual  elements.  The 
well-known  theory  of  Lamarck  (1801-1809)  laid  special 
emphasis  on  function  and  environment;  for,  though 
the  sense  of  need  in  association  with  suitable  environ- 
ment calls  out  a succession  of  efforts,  and  so  originates 
incipient  structural  modifications,  it  is  to  increased 
functioning  that  the  increase  of  these  modifications 
must  be  ascribed,  while  similarly  disuse  explains 
degeneration.  Changed  conditions  produce  new 
wants  nutritive  and  reproductive;  hence  changes 
in  climate,  or  the  like,  change  the  organism  by 
changing  its  habits.  Rapid  increase  is  checked  by 
other  organisms : the  strongest  and  best-armed 
for  attack  devour  the  weaker,  and  the  less 
perfect  genera  are  kept  down  by  the  more  perfect. 
The  less  definite  view  of  Goethe  included,  besides 
recognition  of  the  conservative  or  centripetal  force  of 
heredity,  that  of  a progressive  or  centrifugal  tendency 
to  adaptation  to  environment.  Oken  (1809)  similarly 
regarded  all  progress  from  his  primeval  “ Urschleim  ” 
as  having  been  in  terms  of  its  interaction  with  the  ex- 
ternal conditions  of  life.  In  1813  Wells  made  his  now 
well-known  suggestion  of  the  importance  of  natural 
selection  in  determining  the  varieties  of  the  human 
species;  and  in  1831  Patrick  Matthew  published  his 
much  more  developed,  yet  equally  disregarded,  state- 
ment of  the  same  doctrine  in  its  more  general  applica- 
tions. In  1828-30  Geoffroy  St-Hilaire,  afterward  ably 
succeeded  by  his  son  Isidore,  denied  indefinite  variation, 
regarding  function  as  of  secondary  importance,  and 
laying  special  stress  On  the  direct  influence  of  the 
environment;  for  instance,  it  was  not  so  much  the 
effort  to  fly  as  the  (supposed)  diminished  proportion  of 
carbonic  acid  in  the  atmosphere  which  determined  the 
evolution  of  birds  from  saurians.  The  veteran  geo- 
grapher Von  Buch  naturally  inclined  to  emphasize  the 
influence  of  geographical  isolation  (locality,  climate, 
soil,  food,  etc.),  and  laid  stress  on  the  restriction  of  the 
area  of  possible  sexual  union  as  bearing  upon  the 
origin  of  varieties.  The  embryologist  Von  Baer  (1834) 
dwelt  especially  upon  the  organismal  nature  of  varia- 
tion, on  the  unfolding,  as  it  were,  of  new  structures; 
and  Schleiden  (1838)  and  other  naturalists  more  or  lesa 


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6138 

distinctly  advanced  similar  opinions.  In  1844  appeared 
the  Vestiges  of  Creation , which  in  its  later  editions 
(1853)  formulated  an  hypothesis  of  progress  (1)  by 
rhythmic  impulse  through  grades  of  organization,  (2)  by 
another  impulse  tending  to  modify  organic  structures  in 
accordance  with  external  circumstances.  In  1852 
Naudin  argued  for  the  formation  of  new  species  in 
nature  in  a similar  way  to  that  of  varieties  Under  cul- 
tivation, further  attaching  great  importance  to  an 
assumed  “ principle  of  finality,”  apparently  a kind  of 
organismal  fate.  Herbert  Spencer,  whose  weighty 
arguments  for  evolution  date  from  1852,  laid  special 
stress  upon  the  modifying  influences  of  environment, 
this  involving  changes  of  function,  and  so  ultimately  of 
structure.  Finally,  in  1853  Victor  Carus  argued  for  a 
progressive  adaptation  to  changing  external  conditions. 
An  undefined  hypothesis  of  internal  modifiability 
appears  also  to  have  floated  before  the  mind  of  Owen. 
\vre  now  reach  the  greatest  name  in  the  catalogue  — 
Charles  Darwin. 

After  mentioning  that  his  first  light  upon  the  origin 
of  species  was  derived  from  his  early  distributional 
studies,  Darwin  points  out  that  “ a naturalist,  reflecting 
on  the  mutual  affinities  of  organic  beings,  on  their 
embryological  relations,  their  geographical  distribution, 
geological  succession,  and  such  other  facts,  might  come 
to  the  conclusion  that  species  had  not  been  independ- 
ently created,  but  had  descended  like  varieties  from 
other  species.  Nevertheless,  such  a conclusion,  even 
if  well  founded,  would  be  unsatisfactory  until  it  could 
be  shown  how  the  innumerable  species  inhabiting  this 
world  have  been  modified  so  as  to  acquire  that  perfec- 
tion of  structure  and  co-adaptation  which  justly  excites 
our  admiration.” 

A comparison  between  individuals  of  the  same  variety 
of  cultivated  plants  or  animals  shows  a greater  degree 
of  variation  than  between  individuals  of  any  one  species 
or  variety  in  nature.  This  higher  variability  of  domestic 
productions  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  less  uniform  con- 
ditions of  their  upbringing,  perhaps  in  part  also  to  excess 
of  food.  Exposure  to  new  conditions  must  be  continued 
for  generations  to  set  up  any  great  variation;  but  this, 
once  set  up,  continues  indefinitely.  Changed  conditions 
may  directly  influence  the  whole  organization  or  certain 
parts  alone,  or  act  indirectly  through  the  reproductive 
system.  The  effect  on  offspring  may  be  definite  ; e.g. , 
size  may  depend  upon  the  amount  of  food,  color  upon 
quality  of  food,  thickness  of  skin  and  hair  upon  climate, 
etc.  But  indefinite  variability  is  a much  commoner 
result  of  changed  conditions,  and  has  probably  played 
a much  more  important  part  in  the  formation  of  our 
domestic  races.  The  reproductive  system  is  peculiarly 
sensitive  to  very  slight  external  changes.  Many  plants 
and  animals  will  not  reproduce  in  domestication,  even 
though  individually  vigorous;  others,  though  weak 
and  sickly,  breed  freely.  Hence  we  need  not  be  sur- 
prised at  the  reproductive  system  acting  irregularly  and 
producing  variations. 

Changed  habits  and  use  and  disuse  produce  an  in- 
herited effect;  witness  the  lighter  wing  and  heavier  leg- 
bones  of  the  domestic  duck,  the  enlarged  udders  of  milch- 
cows,  or  the  drooping  (unpricked)  ears  of  domestic 
mammals.  Variations  are  often  definitely  correlated; 
short-beaked  pigeons  have  small  feet;  hairless  dogs 
have  imperfect  teeth;  and  blue-eyed  white  tom-cats  are 
deaf.  Hence  selection  of  any  one  character  will  prob- 
ably modify  others  indirectly. 

How,  then,  have  domestic  races  been  produced? 
By  external  conditions  or  habits  alone?  One  of  their 
most  remarkable  features  is  in  exhibiting  adaptation, 
not  to  their  own  good,  but  to  man’s  use  or  fancy.  We 
know  that  all  the  breeds  were  not  produced  as  perfect 


as  we  now  see  them,  and  the  key  is  man’s  power  of 
accumulative  selection;  nature  gives  successive  varia- 
tions; man  adds  them  up,  making  for  himself  useful 
breeds.  Skillful  breeders  speak  of  the  organization  as 
plastic  and  under  control,  and  have  effected  extensive 
modifications  within  our  own  generation.  Unconscious 
selection,  which  results  from  every  one  trying  to  possess 
and  breed  the  best  individuals,  is  even  more  important. 
This  accumulated  change  explains  why  we  so  often  can- 
not recognize  the  wild  parent  stocks  of  our  cultivated 
plants,  while  its  absence  in  countries  inhabited  by  un- 
civilized man  explains  why  these  never  yield  plants 
worth  immediate  culture. 

Individual  differences  arise  even  in  the  offspring  of 
the  same  parents,  and  tend  to  be  inherited;  hence  they 
afford  material  for  natural  selection  to  act  on  and  accu- 
mulate, precisely  as  they  would  for  human  selection. 
In  determining  whether  a form  should  be  ranked  as 
species  or  variety,  the  opinion  of  naturalists  of  sound 
judgment  and  wide  experience  is  the  only  guide,  yet 
this  lacks  unanimity  (see  Species). 

The  term  “ struggle  for  existence  ” is  used  in  a wide 
sense,  including  dependence  of  one  being  upon  another, 
and  embracing  (which  is  more  important),  not  only  the 
life  of  the  individual,  but  success  in  leaving  progeny. 
From  the  high  (geometrical)  rate  of  increase  of  all  or- 
ganic beings  (slow  breeders  only  requiring  a few  more 
years  to  people  a whole  district)  struggle  inevitably  fol- 
lows, either  one  individual  with  another  of  the  same 
species,  or  with  the  individuals  of  a distinct  spe- 
cies, or  with  the  physical  conditions  of  life.  It  is 
the  doctrine  of  Maltlius  applied  with  manifold  force  to 
the  entire  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  for  in  this 
case  there  can  be  no  artificial  increase  of  food  and  no 
prudential  restraints  from  marriage.  The  checks  to  in- 
crease are  most  obscure.  Eggs  or  young  animals  gen- 
erally suffer  most,  and  plants,  mostly  as  seedlings,  both 
from  germinating  on  ground  already  occupied  and  from 
animals.  The  amount  of  food,  of  course,  gives  the  ex- 
treme limit  of  numbers,  very  frequently,  however,  the 
attacks  of  enemies,  as  of  game  by  vermin.  Climate  plays 
an  important  part,  and  periodical  seasons  of  extreme 
cold  have  destroyed  as  many  as  four-fifths  of  the  birds 
of  an  observed  area.  Epidemics,  too,  may  occur.  In 
many  a species  a large  stock  of  individuals  is  often  es- 
sential to  its  preservation.  Complex  and  unexpected 
checks  and  relations  exist  between  organic  beings  which 
have  to  struggle  together;  witness  the  profound  altera- 
tion of  the  flora  and  fauna  of  a heath  when  planted  with 
Scotch  fir,  these  again  being  wholly  dependent  upon  the 
exclusion  of  cattle.  But  in  several  parts  of  the  world 
insects  determine  the  existence  of  cattle.  Again,  red 
clover  depends  for  fertilization  upon  the  humble-bees, 
these  upon  immunity  from  the  attacks  of  field-mice,  and 
these  indirectly  Upon  the  numbers  of  cats;  hence  no 
bees,  no  clover,  and  the  more  cats,  the  more  clover! 
The  struggle  will  almost  invariably  be  most  severe  be- 
tween the  individuals  of  the  same  Species,  for  they  fre- 
quent the  same  districts,  require  the  same  food,  and  are 
exposed  to  the  same  dangers.  In  the  case  of  varieties  of 
the  same  species  the  struggle  will  generally  be  almost 
equally  severe,  and  we  sometimes  see  the  Contest  soon 
decided  (as  in  the  case  of  varieties  of  wheat  or  sweet 
pea,  of  the  mountain-sheep  or  medicinal  leech).  Simi- 
larly, the  struggle  between  species  of  the  same  genus 
Will  generally  be  more  severe  than  between  the  species 
of  distinct  genera,^.,  the  replacement  of  the  black  rat 
by  the  brown  of  of  the  large  cockroach  by  the  .small. 
The  structure  of  every  being  is  related  to  that  of  all  the 
others  with  which  it  competes,  from  which  it  escapes, 
or  on  which  it  preys;  witness  alike  the  teeth  and  talon? 
of  the  tiger,  or  the  legs  atid  claws  of  the  parasite  cling* 


VAR 


tng  to  his  hair.  The  albumen  of  a seedling  favors  its 
struggle  with  plants  already  growing  around  it. 

How  will  this  struggle  for  existence  act  in  regard  to 
variation?  Can  the  principle  of  selection,  so  potent  in 
the  hands  of  man,  apply  under  nature?  Most  efficiently; 
for,  when  we  bear  in  mind  the  constant  occurrence  of 
variation,  with  the  strength  of  the  hereditary  tendency, 
also  how  infinitely  close  and  complex  are  the  mutual  re- 
lations of  organic  beings  to  each  other  and  to  their 
physical  conditions  of  life,  and  consequently  what  infi- 
nitely varied  diversities  of  structure  might  be  of  use  to 
each  being  under  changing  conditions  of  life,  can  it  be 
thought  improbable,  seeing  that  variations  useful  to 
man  have  undoubtedly  occurred,  that  other  variations, 
useful  in  some  way  to  each  being  in  the  great  and  com- 
plex battle  of  life,  should  occur  in  the  course  of  many 
generations?  And,  if  such  do  occur,  can  we  doubt  (re- 
membering that  many  more  individuals  are  born  than 
can  possibly  survive)  that  individualshaving  any  advan- 
tage, however  slight,  over  others  would  have  the  best 
chance  of  surviving  and  procreating  their  kind?  On  the 
other  hand,  we  may  feel  sure  that  any  variation  in  the 
least  degree  injurious  would  be  inevitably  destroyed. 
This  preservation  of  favorable  and  this  destruction  of 
injurious  variations  are  called  natural  selection,  or,  less 
metaphorically,  the  survival  of  the  fittest. 

The  divergence  of  character  brought  about  by  arti- 
ficial selection  in  domestic  breeds  is  efficiently  paralleled 
in  nature,  since  the  more  diversified  the  offspring  of 
each  species,  the  more  they  will  seize  on  diverse  places 
in  the  economy  of  nature,  and  so  increase  in  numbers. 
The  greatest  amount  of  life  can  be  supported  by  great 
diversification  of  structure.  This  divergence  of  charac- 
ter, with  extinction  of  intermediate  forms,  explains  the 
difficulties  of  taxonomy,  which  are  then  discussed  in 
detail  with  the  aid  of  a diagram.  This,  of  course,  takes 
the  form  of  a genealogical  tree,  and  suggests  that  of 
“ the  great  tree  of  life,  which  fills  with  its  dead  and 
broken  branches  the  crust  of  the  earth  and  covers  the 
surface  with  its  ever-branching  and  beautiful  ramifica- 
tions.” 

The  preceding  summary  of  the  classical  statement  of 
the  doctrine  of  natural  selection  should  be  supplemented 
by  reference  not  only  to  the  original  work,  to  the  cor- 
roborative labors  of  its  author,  and  to  the  able  inde- 
pendent treatise  ( Natural  Selection)  of  Wallace,  but  to 
the  enormous  mass  of  exposition,  argument,  and  illus- 
tration accumulated  by  subsequent  writers,  commencing 
with  Hooker  and  Asa  Gray,  Huxley  and  Haeckel,  but 
soon  becoming  too  numerous  even  for  mention. 

Laws  of  Variation. — Even  those  who  attach  most 
importance  to  the  doctrine  of  natural  selection  as  af- 
fording a rationale  of  the  process  of  organic  evolution 
will  not  seriously  dispute  that,  even  were  this  explana- 
tion completely  extended  to  all  the  details  of  plant  and 
animal  life,  another  and  deeper  explanation  would  still 
be  necessary.  That  is,  the  theory  of  natural  selection, 
being  from  the  external  standpoint  only' — that  of  the 
adaptation  of  the  organism  to  survive  the  pressures  of 
the  environment — would  all  the  more  urgently  stand 
in  need  of  a complementary  internal  explanation,  which 
should  elucidate  the  physiological  process  of  change 
through  which  the  Organism  has  actually  been  enabled 
to  adapt  itself.  As  a recent  writer  tersely  expresses  it, 
“ The  survival  of  variations  is  a matter  secondary  to 
their  origin,  and  it  is  becoming  realized  more  and  more 
that  this  is  the  point  to  be  explained.”  How,  in  short, 
do  we  get  the  variations  without  which  natural  selection 
would  have  nothing  on  which  to  operate?  Here  we  can 
no  longer  remain  satisfied  with  the  merely  general  con- 
ception of  variation  as  essentially  indefinite,  with  which 
*ve  have  become  familiar  as  the  postulate  of  the  theory 


6139 

of  natural  selection,  but  must  add  to  it  a retrospect  of  the 
theories  of  earlier  authors  such  as  has  been  already  out- 
lined— (a)  a summary  and  discussion  of  the  extensive 
labors  of  Darwin  upon  the  problems  of  variation  from 
which  this  conception  of  indefiniteness  was  generalized, 
followed  by  (£)an  account  of  subsequent  progress.  Un- 
fortunately the  voluminousness  of  this  literature  makes 
such  a task  practically  impossible;  instead  of  the  enor- 
mous  wealth  of  concrete  details  accumulated  with  respect 
to  the  Variation  of  Animals  and  Plants  under 
Domestication , a reference  to  the  volumes  under  that 
title  must  almost  suffice.  Some  acquaintance  with  this 
work  is,  of  course,  necessary  adequately  to  appreciate 
the  force  of  its  autnor’s  general  conclusions;  these  may, 
however,  be  briefly  outlined  from  the  chapter  of  the 
Origin  of  Species  (chap,  v.)  devoted  to  the  laws  of  va- 
riation, and  from  those  (xxii.-xxvi.)  of  the  larger  work 
which  contain  an  ample  yet  similar  discussion. 

“ Our  ignorance  of  the  laws  of  variation  is  profound. 
Not  in  one  case  out  of  a hundred  can  we  pretend  to  as- 
sign any  reason  why  this  or  that  part  has  varied.” 
Changed  conditions  generally  induce  mere  fluctuating 
variability  in  individuals,  yet  sometimes  direct  and  defi- 
nite effects  upon  the  mass.  The  facts  and  considerations 
for  and  against  the  belief  that  the  conditions  of  existence 
act  in  a potent  manner  in  causing  definite  modifications 
of  structure  are  confronted  in  detail.  In  some  few 
instances  a marked  effect  has  been  rapidly  produced, 
e.g.,  on  European  men  in  the  United  States,  European 
dogs  in  India,  horses  in  the  Falkland  Islands,  oysters  in 
the  Mediterranean,  etc.  But,  even  granting  the  utmost 
weight  to  conditions,  we  can  rarely  see  the  precise  rela- 
tion between  cause  and  effect.  Moreover,  many  animals 
and  plants  of  wide  range  and  great  diversity  of  ex- 
perience yet  remain  uniform  in  character.  Again,  the 
degree  to  which  domesticated  birds,  etc.,  have  varied, 
does  not  stand  in  any  close  relation  to  the  amount  of 
change  to  which  they  have  been  subjected.  In  fact,  we 
may  have  similar  modifications  under  different  condi- 
tions, different  modifications  under  similar  change  of 
conditions,  or  no  modifications  at  all. 

Increased  use  adds  to  the  size  of  muscles,  together 
with  the  blood-vessels,  nerves,  bony  crests  of  origin, 
and  even  the  whole  bones;  it  also  increases  glands  and 
strengthens  sense-organs.  Increased  and  intermittent 
pressure  thickens  the  epidermis;  change  of  food  modifies 
the  coats  of  the  stomach  and  alters  the  length  of  the  in- 
testine. Disuse  weakens  and  diminishes  all  parts  of 
the  organization — lungs  and  chest,  wings  and  their  as- 
sociated bones,  etc.  Although  in  domesticated  animals 
this  never  goes  so  far  that  a mere  rudiment  is  left,  it 
seems  often  to  have  occurred  in  nature,  the  effects  of 
disuse  being  aided  by  economy  of  growth  with  inter- 
crossing. Changed  habits  may  lead  to  use  or  disuse  of 
organs,  and  consequently  to  their  modification;  yet  the 
effects  of  habit,  use,  and  disuse  have  often  been  largely 
combined  with  the  natural  selection  of  innate  variations 
and  sometimes  overmastered  by  it. 

Correlated  variation  means  that  the  whole  organiza- 
tion is  so  tied  together  during  its  growth  and  develop- 
ment that,  when  slight  variations  in  any  part  occur,  and 
are  accumulated  through  natural  selection,  other  parts 
become  modified,  apparently  irrespective  of  advantage 
in  the  change.  Variations  of  structure  in  the  young 
often  affect  those  of  the  mature  animal;  the  influence 
of  hard  parts,  mechanical  pressure,  the  relative  position 
of  parts,  and  the  size  of  the  whole  body  all  have  im- 
portant influences.  Homologous  tissues  may  exhibit 
associated  variations,  e.g.,  hoofs,  hair,  and  teeth.  In 
most  cases  the  correlation  is,  however,  quite  obscure, 
and  may  seem  to  be  of  no  utility  to  the  species,  as  with 
various  monstrosities  and  diseases. 


VAR 


6140 

Homologous  and  multiple  parts  are  peculiarly  varia- 
ble, and  often  tend  to  cohere.  Rudimentary  and  lowly 
organized  structures  are  variable. 

Mechanical  pressure  and  relative  position  of  parts 
seem  to  be  of  some  importance  in  determining  varia- 
tions ; but  such  changes  are  often  due  to  reversion  to 
long-lost  characteristics,  which  may  frequently  occur. 
A part  extraordinarily  developed  in  any  species  tends  to 
be  highly  variable.  Specific  characteristics  are  more 
variable  than  generic  characteristics.  Distinct  species 
present  analogous  variations;  but  this  may  arise  either 
from  analogous  constitution  or  from  reversion.  Second- 
dary  sexual  characteristics  are  highly  variable. 

The  preceding  outline  of  Darwin’s  main  positions 
(which  are  in  harmony  with  his  essential  doctrine 
of  indefinite  variability)  prepares  us  for  the  discus- 
sion of  more  recent  research  and  opinion.  But  for 
our  present  concrete  knowledge  of  the  influence  of  en- 
vironment, use  and  disuse,  including  all  such  researches 
as  those  of  Semper,  or  the  peculiarly  brilliant  and  lumi- 
nous investigations  of  Poulton,  the  recent  valuable  sum- 
mary of  Arthur  Thomson  may  conveniently  be  referred 
to.  The  corresponding  theoretic  argument  for  the  defi- 
nite causation  of  most  variations  by  these  agencies  has 
been  recently  restated  by  Spencer,  along  with  his 
proposed  limitation  of  natural  selection.  This  should 
be  taken  along  with  the  testimony  of  the  American 
Neo -Lamarckian  school,  among  which  the  learned  and 
suggestive,  though  too  undigested,  essays  of  Cope  are 
especially  prominent.  The  views  of  Nageli,  Mivart, 
and  other  advocates  of  internal  variation  here  present 
themselves  anew,  along  with  the  criticisms  and  replies 
to  them,  as  also  Weismann’s  doctrine  of  variability  as 
being  ultimately  germinal.  But  space  precludes  the 
survey  of  this  voluminous  and  unfinished  controversy, 
which,  moreover,  would  not  at  present  yield  any  general 
result,  since  neither  the  various  inductive  and  deductive 
arguments,  nor  the  organismal,  functional,  etc.,  and  en- 
vironmental explanations  which  these  variously  favor, 
have  been  as  yet  exhaustively  stated,  still  less  properly 
confronted,  and  least  of  all  reconciled,  by  any  author. 

VARIATIONS,  Calculus  of.  It  has  been  ob- 
served (see  Maxima  and  Minima),  that  the  origin  of 
the  calculus  of  variations  may  be  traced  to  John  Ber 
noulli’s  celebrated  problem,  published  in  1696  in  the 
Acta  Eruditorum  of  Leipsic.  This  problem  introduced 
considerations  entirely  different  from  those  hitherto 
involved  in  the  discussion  of  curves,  for  in  its  treat- 
ment it  is  necessary  to  conceive  a curve  as  changing  its 
form  in  a continuous  manner,  that  is,  as  undergoing 
what  is  styled  deformation. 

The  principles  and  method  of  the  calculus  of  varia- 
tions are  largely  employed  in  all  branches  of  mathemat- 
ics, both  pure  and  applied.  Want  of  space  prevents 
our  entering  into  any  account  of  such  application. 
The  reader  will  find  the  history  of  this  calculus  fully 
detailed  in  Todhunter’s  treatise.  The  most  important 
recent  work  in  English  is  Mr.  Carll’s  Calculus  of 
Variations , New  York  and  London,  1885. 

VARIATION,  in  music,  a transformation  of  a 
melody  by  melodic,  harmonic,  contrapuntal  and 
rhythmic  changes.  The  subject  chosen  is  called  the 
theme;  it  is  first  simply  harmonized  with  or  without 
an  introduction,  and  then  repeated  with  a variety  of 
different  variations,  and  the  variations  collectively  with 
the  theme  constitute  the  piece.  Occasionally  the  varia- 
tions are  combined  by  an  intermediate  passage;  but 
generally  each  has  its  separate  close,  and  the  whole 
terminates  with  an  extended  and  richly  developed  varia- 
tion, or  a coda. 

VARICOCELE  is  the  term  used  in  surgery  to  des- 
ignate a varicose  state  qf  the  veins  w>  the  spermatic 


cord.  It  is  caused  by  the  same  conditions  which  give 
rise  to  varicose  veins;  namely,  weakness  of  structure, 
combined  with  obstruction  through  corpulence  or  con- 
stipation to  the  return  of  the  venous  blood.  For  the 
description  of  its  symptoms  and  treatment  refer  to  any 
standard  work  on  surgery. 

VARICOSE  VEINS.  When  a vein  becomes  dilat- 
ed at  a certain  part  of  its  course,  for  no  apparent  physi- 
ological object,  such  as  relieving  the  venous  circulation 
elsewhere,  it  is  said  to  be  varicose.  As  the  disease  ia 
a very  common  one  we  will  enter  somewhat  in  detail 
into  the  palliative  treatment  which  any  one  may  adopt 
for  himself.  The  venous  circulation  of  the  limb  should 
be  as  much  as  possible  facilitated  by  the  disuse  of 
garters;  by  keeping  the  limb  in  a horizontal  position 
for  a month  or  six  weeks;  by  prohibiting  walking,  and 
allowing  only  carriage  exercise,  with  the  leg  elevated  to 
a horizontal  position.  The  limb  should  also  be  care- 
fully bandaged  from  the  toes  to  above  the  knee,  the 
bandage  being  replaced  daily,  and  the  limb  then  rubbed 
well  with  the  hand  or  flesh  brush  for  ten  minutes,  from 
below  upward,  so  as  to  stimulate  circulation.  Elastic 
stockings  may  be  tried  during  the  day,  or  ordinary  band- 
ages with  a pad  of  lint  placed  on  each  varicose  cluster 
before  the  bandage  is  applied.  In  cases  where  only  one 
or  two  trunks  are  affected,  the  disease  may  be  prevented 
from  extending  by  the  application  of  pieces  of  wash- 
leather  spread  with  soap  plaster  firmly  over  them.  At 
the  same  time  the  general  health  must  be  attended  to. 
Among  the  means  of  effecting  a radical  cure,  by  causing 
coagulation  of  the  blood  in  the  dilated  veins,  when  they 
shrink  and  contract  permanently,  are  caustic  potash 
applied  over  the  course  of  the  vessel;  subcutaneous  in- 
cision of  its  walls;  and  compression  of  the  vessel  be- 
tween a steel  pin  and  a twisted  suture.  We  believe 
that  the  cases  are  rare  where  the  pain  of  the  varix  is  so 
great  as  to  disqualify  a patient  from  his  ordinary  work, 
and  these  are  the  only  ones  in  which  these  operations 
should  be  recommended. 

Sometimes  varicose  veins  result  in  obstinate  ulcers, 
called  varicose  ulcers,  and  a broken  varix  may  cause 
hemorrhage,  which,  if  not  properly  stopped  in  time,  may 
cause  death.  When  such  an  accident  occurs  the  patient 
should  be  placed  in  a horizontal  position,  and  the  leg 
raised,  in  which  case  the  bleeding  will  probably  cease. 
If  it  continues,  it  must  be  stopped  by  a bandage  pressed 
around  the  mouth  of  the  wound. 

VARIETY,  in  Natural  History,  a term  employed  to 
designate  groups  subordinate  to  Species,  (q.v.)  Varie- 
ties are  regarded  as  less  permanent  than  species ; and 
those  who  regard  species  as  perfectly  distinct  in  their 
origin,  look  upon  varieties  as  modifications  of  them  due 
to  particular  causes.  Of  course  those  who  adopt  Dar- 
win’s view  of  species  do  not  deem  the  distinction  be- 
tween species  and  varieties  so  important,  but  rather 
consider  varieties  as  species  in  process  of  formation. 
However  this  may  be,  all  naturalists  acknowledge  a 
difficulty  in  deciding  what  are  varieties  and  what  are 
species;  and  some  reckon  as  varieties  what  others  regard 
as  distinct  species. 

VARINAS,  atown  of  Venezuela,  on  the  San  Domingo, 
ninety  miles  southeast  of  the  nearest  shore  of  Lake 
Maracaybo.  It  stands  at  the  entrance  to  a valley  cov- 
ered with  tobacco-plantations.  Varinas  carries  on  a 
trade  in  tropical  productions  and  in  cattle.  Population 
stated  at  5,000. 

VARLEY,  Cornelius,  water-color  painter,  a 
younger  brother  of  John  Varley  (see  below),  was  born 
at  Hackney,  London,  on  November  21,  1781.  About 
1800  he  joined  his  brother  in  a tour  through  Wales, 
and  began  the  study  of  art.  From  1803  till  1859  he 
was  an  occasional  exhibitor  in  the  Royal  Academy,  and 


VAR 


he  also  contributed  regularly  to  the  displays  of  the 
Water  Color  Society,  of  which,  in  1803,  was  one  °f 
the  founders,  and  of  which  he  continued  a member  till 
1821.  His  works,  which  are  not  numerous,  consist 
mainly  of  carefully  finished  classical  subjects,  with 
architecture  and  figures.  He  published  a series  of  etch- 
ings of  “ Boats  and  other  Craft  on  the  River  Thames,” 
and  during  his  life  as  an  artist  he  continued  deeply  in- 
terested in  scientific  pursuits.  For  his  improvements  in 
the  camera  lucida,  the  camera  obscura,  and  the  micro- 
scope he  received  the  Isis  gold  medal  of  the  Society  of 
Arts;  and  at  the  International  Exhibition  of  1851  he 
gained  a medal  for  his  invention  of  the  graphic  tele- 
scope. He  died  at  Hampstead  on  October  2,  1873. 

VARLEY,  John,  water-color  painter,  was  born  at 
Hackney,  London,  on  August  17,  1778.  His  father,  a 
man  of  scientific  attainments,  and  tutor  in  the  family  of 
Lord  Stanhope,  discouraged  his  leanings  toward  art, 
and  placed  him  under  a silversmith.  But  on  his  parent’s 
death  Varley  escaped  from  this  uncongenial  employ- 
ment, and,  after  working  with  a portrait  painter,  en- 
gaged himself  at  the  age  of  sixteen  to  an  architectural 
draughtsman,  who  took  him  on  a provincial  tour  to 
sketch  the  principal  buildings  in  the  towns  they  visited. 
In  1798  he  exhibited  his  first  work,  A View  of  Peter- 
borough Cathedral , in  the  Royal  Academy.  In  1804  he 
became  a foundation  member  of  the  Water-Color  So- 
ciety, and  contributed  over  forty  works  to  its  first  ex- 
hibition. He  had  married  in  the  previous  year;  and,  in 
order  to  provide  for  the  wants  of  an  increasing  family, 
he  was  obliged  to  produce  for  the  dealers  much  work 
' of  a slight  and  commonplace  character.  He  also  taught 
drawing,  and  some  of  his  pupils,  such  as  John  Linnell 
and  William  Hunt,  afterward  became  celebrated. 
Varley  died  at  London,  on  November  17,  1842. 

VARNA,  a fortified  town  and  seaport  of  Bulgaria,  in 
430  i2;  N.  latitude  and  270  56'  E.  longitude,  about 
midway  between  the  Danube  delta  and  the  Bosphorus, 
lies  on  the  north  side  of  the  Bay  of  Varna,  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  Pravadi  valley,  five  miles  wide  and  skirted  by 
hills  on  both  sides.  Among  the  industrial  establish- 
ments are  soap  factories,  breweries,  distilleries,  and 
tanneries.  More  than  3,740,000  gallons  of  wine  are 
made  annually  within  the  department  of  Varna.  The 
population  in  1900  was  33,443. 

VARNHAGEN  VON  ENSE,  Karl  August,  Ger- 
man biographer,  was  born  at  Dusseldorf  February  21, 
1785.  He  went  to  Berlin  to  study  medicine,  but  de- 
voted his  attention  chiefly  to  philosophy  and  literature, 
which  he  afterward  studied  more  thoroughly  at  Ham- 
burg, Halle,  and  Tubingen.  He  began  his  literary  ca- 
reer in  1804  as  joint-editor  with  A.  von  Chamisso  of  a 
Musenalmanach.  In  1809  he  joined  the  Austrian 
army,  and  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Wagram. 
Soon  afterward  he  accompanied  his  superior  officer, 
Prince  Bentheim,  to  Paris,  where  he  carried  on  his 
studies.  In  1812  he  joined  the  Prussian  civil  service  at 
Berlin,  but  in  the  following  year  resumed  his  military 
career,  this  time  as  a captain  in  the  Russian  army.  He 
accompanied  Tettenborn  to  Hamburg  and  Paris,  and 
his  experiences  were  recorded  in  his  Geschichte  der 
Hamburger  Ereignisse  (1813)  ar*d  his  Geschichte  der 
Kriegsziige  Tettenborn1 s (1814). 

In  1814  he  married  Rahel  Antonie  Friederike,  orig- 
inally called  Levin,  afterward  Robert.  She  was  born 
in  1771  at  Berlin,  where  she  died  in  1833.  Although 
?he  never  wrote  anything  for  publication,  she  was  a 
woman  of  remarkable  intellectual  qualities,  and  exer- 
cised a powerful  influence  on  many  men  of  high  ability. 
Her  husband,  who  was  devotedly  attached  to  her, 
found  in  her  sympathy  and  encouragement  one  of  the 
chief  rources  of  his  inspiration  as  a writer.  After  her 

385 


6141 

death  he  published  a selection  from  her  papers,  and 
afterward  much  of  her  correspondence  was  printed. 
Varnhagen  von  Ense  never  fully  recovered  from  the 
shock  caused  by  her  death.  He  himself  died  suddenly 
in  Berlin  October  10,  1858. 

VARNISH.  A varnish  is  a fluid  preparation  which, 
when  spread  out  in  thin  layers,  dries  either  by  evapora- 
tion or  by  chemical  action  into  a hard,  transparent,  and 
glossy  film.  Varnishes  are  used  to  communicate  lustel 
and  brilliance  to  many  different  kinds  of  dressed  surfaces 
— metal-work,  wood,  paint,  paper,  leather,  etc. — and 
to  protect  such  surfaces  from  the  influence  cf  air  and 
damp. 

According  to  the  solvents  employed,  the  ordinary 
kinds  of  varnish  are  divided  into  three  classes, — (1) 
spirit,  (2)  turpentine,  and  (3)  oil  varnishes.  Spirit 
varnishes  dry  with  great  rapidity  owing  to  the  volatiliza- 
tion of  the  solvent  spirit,  leaving  a coating  of  pure  resin 
of  great  hardness  and  brilliance,  and  are  used  principally 
for  cabinet-work  and  turnery,  stationery,  gilding,  and 
metal-work.  Colored  spirit  varnishes  and  lacquers  are 
largely  employed  for  metal-work,  for  imitation  gilding 
and  bronzing,  for  toys,  etc.  Turpentine  is  the  solvent 
principally  used  for  making  dammar  varnish,  the  solu- 
tion being  effected  by  powdering  the  resin  and  boiling 
it  with  a proportion  of  spirit  of  turpentine,  after  which 
more  turpentine  is  added  in  the  cold  state  to  bring  the 
preparation  to  a proper  consistency.  The  basis  or  sol- 
vent of  oil  or  fatty  varnishes  consists  principally  of  lin- 
seed oil;  but  the  other  drying  oils — poppy  and  walnut( 
etc. — may  also  be  used. 

VARRO,  Marcus  Terentius,  Roman  polymath 
and  man  of  letters,  lived  from  1 16  to  27  B.c.  When 
he  was  born  the  Gracchan  agitation  had  only  just  been 
laid  to  rest,  and  the  year  of  his  death  saw  the  final  and 
formal  establishment  of  the  empire.  Nothing  is  known 
of  Varro’s  ancestors  but  that  they  were  natives  of  the 
Sabine  country,  where  Varro  himself  was  born  in  the 
town  of  Reate.  Here  he  imbibed  in  his  earlier  years  a 
good  measure  of  the  hardy  simplicity  and  strong  seri- 
ousness which  the  later  Romans  attributed  to  the  men 
of  the  early  republic — characteristics  which  were  sup- 
posed to  linger  in  the  Sabine  land  after  they  had  fled 
from  the  rest  of  Italy.  The  political  career  of  Varro 
seems  to  have  been  late  and  slow;  but  he  arrived  at  the 
praetorship,  after  having  been  tribune  of  the  people,  quaes- 
tor, and  curule  aedile.  In  politics  and  war  he  followed 
Pompey’s  lead;  but  it  is  probable  that  he  was  discontented 
with  the  course  on  which  his  leader  entered  when  the 
first  triumvirate  was  formed,  and  he  may  thus  have  lost 
his  chance  of  rising  to  the  consulate.  He  actually  ridi- 
culed the  coalition  in  a work  entitled  the  Three-Headed 
Monster  {Tpiuapavor  in  the  Greek  of  Appian). 
Under  Pompey,  Varro  saw  much  active  service:  he  was 
attached  to  Pompey  as  pro-quaestor,  probably  during 
the  war  against  Sertorius  in  Spain.  We  next  find  him, 
as  legate,  in  command  of  a fleet  which  kept  the  seas 
between  Delos  and  Sicily,  while  Pompey  was  suppress- 
ing the  pirates,  and  he  even  won  the  “ naval  crown,”  a 
coveted  reward  of  personal  prowess.  A little  later  he 
was  legate  during  the  last  Mithradatic  war.  In  the 
conflict  between  Caesar  and  the  Pompeian  party  Varro 
was  more  than  once  actively  engaged.  In  his  Civil 
War  (u.  17-20)  Caesar  tells  how  Varro,  when  legate  in 
Spain  along  with  Afranius  and  Petreius,  lost  his  two 
legions  without  striking  a blow,  because  the  whole 
region  where  he  was  quartered  joined  the  enemy. 
Caesar  curiously  intimates  that,  though  Varro  did  his 
best  for  Pompey  from  a sense  of  duty,  his  heart  was 
really  with  the  other  leader.  Nevertheless  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Epirus  before  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  and 
awaited  the  result  at  Dyrrachiutp  ip  the  company  of 


VAR— VAS 


6142 

Cicero  and  Cato.  Like  Cicero,  Varro  received  harsh 
treatment  from  Mark  Antony  after  the  Pompeian  de- 
feat. Some  of  his  property  was  actually  plundered,  but 
restored  at  the  bidding  of  Caesar,  to  whom  Varro  in 
gratitude  immediately  dedicated  one  of  his  most  im- 
portant writings.  The  formation  of  the  second  trium- 
virate again  plunged  Varro  into  danger.  Antony  took 
possession  anew  of  the  property  he  had  been  compelled 
to  surrender,  and  inserted  Varro’s  name  on  the  list  of 
the  proscribed.  His  friends,  however,  afforded  him 
protection.  He  was  able  to  make  peace  with  the 
triumvirs,  but  sacrificed  his  property  and  much  of  his 
beloved  library.  He  was  permitted  to  spend  in  quiet 
study  and  in  writing  the  last  fifteen  years  of  his  life. 
He  is  said  to  have  died  (27  B.C.)  almost  pen  in  hand.* 

VARRO, Publius  Terentius,  with  the  cognomen 
Atacinus,  a Roman  poet  whose  life  extended  from  82 
to  about  37  B.C.  The  name  Atacinus,  given  to  distin- 
guish him  from  the  more  famous  Varro  of  Reate,  is 
drawn  from  Atax,  the  name  of  a small  district  or  river 
in  Narbonensian  Gaul,  near  to  which  he  was  born.  He 
was  perhaps  the  first  Roman  born  beyond  the  Alps 
who  reached  to*eminence  in  literature.  He  seems  to 
have  taken  at  first  Ennius  and  Lucilius  as  his  models, 
and  wrote  an  epic,  entitled  Bellum  Sequanicum , eulo- 
gizing the  exploits  of  Caesar  in  Gaul  and  Britain,  and 
also  Satires , of  which  Horace  speaks  slightingly. 
Jerome  has  preserved  a statement  that  Varro  began  to 
study  Greek  literature  with  great  avidity  in  his  thirty- 
fifth  year.  The  last  ten  years  of  his  life  were  given  up 
to  the  imitation  of  Greek  poets  of  the  Alexandrian 
school.  His  chief  poem  of  the  later  period  was  the 
Argonautica , modeled,  somewhat  closely  it  would 
seem,  on  the  epic  of  Apollonius  Rhodius.  Later  he 
published  erotic  poems,  probably  in  the  elegiac  meter. 
The  other  titles  which  have  been  preserved  are  the 
Cosmographia,  or  Chorograpkia,  a poem  on  geography, 
imitated  from  the  Greek  of  Alexander,  an  Ephesian, 
and  the  Ephemeris , a poem  on  weather-signs,  in 
hexameters,  after  Aratus. 

VASA,  Gustavus.  See  Gustavus  I. 
VAsARHELY.  See  Hodmezo-VAsArhely  and 
Maros-VAsArhely. 

VASARI,  Giorgio,  a painter  and  architect,  whose 
main  distinction  rests  on  his  valuable  history  of  Italian 
art,  was  born  at  Arezzo  in  15 13.  At  the  age  of  sixteen 
he  went  to  Florence,  where  he  studied  under  Michel- 
angelo and  Andrea  del  Sarto,  aided  by  the  patronage 
of  the  Medici  princes.  In  1529  he  visited  Rome  and 
studied  the  works  of  Raphael  and  others  of  his  school. 
The  paintings  of  Vasari  were  much  admired  by  the 
rapidly  degenerating  taste  of  the  sixteenth  century; 
but  they  possess  the  smallest  amount  of  merit,  being 
in  the  main  feeble  parodies  of  the  powerful  works  of 
Michelangelo.  Vasari  was  largely  employed  in 
Florence,  Rome,  Naples,  Arezzo,  and  other  places. 
Many  of  his  pictures  still  exist,  the  most  important 
being  the  wall  and  ceiling  paintings  in  the  great  hall 
of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio  in  Florence,  and  his  fresco  on 
the  cupola  of  the  cathedral,  which,  however,  were  not 
completed  at  the  time  of  his  death.  As  an  architect  he 
was  perhaps  more  successful;  the  loggia  of  the  Uffizi 
by  the  Arno,  and  the  long  passage  connecting  it  with 
the  Pitti  Palace,  are  his  chief  works.  Vasari  enjoyed  a 
very  high  repute  during  his  lifetime  and  amassed  a con- 
siderable fortune.  He  died  at  Florence  on  June  27, 1574. 
VASCO  DA  GAMA.  See  Gama,  Vasco  de. 

VASCULAR  SYSTEM.  The  term  vascular  system 
designates  all  the  arrangements  in  the  body  con- 
nected with  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  The  present 
article  is  devoted  to  a consideration  of  the  mechanism 
by  which  the  circulation  is  carried  on  in  the  Mammalia 


and  in  man,  a branch  of  physiology  which  has  been 
more  successfully  investigated  than  any  other  depart- 
ment of  the  science. 

The  blood  is  contained  during  life  in  a continuous 
system  of  more  or  less  elastic  and  contractile  vessels. 
These  are  (1)  the  arteries , terminating  in  (2)  the  capil- 
laries , from  which  originate  (3)  the  veins,  while  a 
special  contractile  organ  (4)  the  heart , is  placed  at  the 
commencement  of  the  arteries  and  the  termination  of 
the  veins  see  fig.  1).  The  heart  may  be  regarded  as  a 
double  organ,  each  half  consisting  of  an  auricle  and  a 
ventricle,  the  right  half  containing  blood  which  has 
been  returned  from  the  body  to  be  sent  to  the  lungs, 
and  the  left  half  containing  blood  which  has  been  re- 
turned from  the  lungs  to  be  distributed  to  the  body. 
Thus  the  course  of  the  cir- 
culation may  be  traced  (1) 
from  right  auricle  to  right 
ventricle,  through  the  right 
auriculo- ventricular  open- 
ing, guarded  by  the  tricuspid 
valve;  (2)  from  right  ven- 
tricle by  the  pulmonary  ar- 
tery, through  the  capillaries 
of  the  lungs,  to  the  pulmo- 
nary veins,  which  open  into 
the  left  auricle ; (3)  from 
left  auricle  to  left  ventricle, 
through  the  left  auriculo- 
ventricular  opening, guarded 
by  the  mitral  valve ; (4)  from  } 
the  left  ventricle  through  the  ^ 
greater  arteries,  the  medium-  V 
sized  arteries,  and  the  arter- 
ioles into  the  capillaries  of 
the  tissues  and  organs;  and 
(5)  thence  by  the  veins, 
opening  into  larger  and 
larger  trunks  so  as  ulti- 
mately to  constitute  the  Fig.  1.— General 
superior  and  inferior  venae 
cavae,  which  open  into  the 
right  auricle,  the  point  from 
which  we  started.  Remem- 
bering that  the  walls  of  these 
tubes  are  all  more  or  less 
elastic,  imagine  them  to  be 
distended  with  blood;  there 
would  then  be  a condition 
of  permanent  tension,  which 
would  be  varied  if  pressure 
were  applied  to  any  part  of 
the  system.  Such  a varia- 
tion of  pressure  would  pro- 
duce a movement  of  the  fluid 
in  the  direction  of  less  pres- 
sure, and,  as  the  fluid  can- 
not escape,  there  would  be 
a circulation,  which  would 
be  carried  in  the  same  direc- 


course  of 
circulation  and  some  of 
principal  vessels.  H ',  right 
ventricle;  H,  left  ventricle; 
A,  A,  A,  aorta;  k,  part  of 
left  auricle;  P,  pulmonary 
artery,  going  to  lungs ; P \ 
pulmonary  veins;  v,  as- 
cending or  lower  vena  cava ; 
e,  trachea  or  wind-pipe; 
j>,  p>,  bronchial  tubes ; a ', a, 
right  and  left  carotid  arter- 
ies ; v,  v' , veins  from  root  of 
neck  (internal  jugular  and 
subclavian),  joining  to  form 
descending  or  upper  vena 
cava;  i,  hepatic  artery;  /, 
hepatic  vein;  I,  superior 
mesenteric  artery,  going  to 
mesentery  and  bowels;  L, 
portal  vein,  going  to  liver; 
k>,  renal  artery;  k,  renal 
vein ; V,  inferior  vena  cava, 
splitting  into  the  two  iliac 
veins,  v,  v.  (After  Allen 
Thomsoil.) 


tion  by  mechanical  arrangements  of  valves.  In  the 
living  body  the  contractions  of  the  heart  force  blood 
into  the  arterial  system  and  increase  the  pressure  in  that 
part  of  the  circulation ; the  arteries  empty  part  of  their 
contents  into  the  capillaries,  which  carry  the  blood  to 
the  veins,  so  as  to  tend  to  an  equalization  of  pressure 
between  the  venous  and  arterial  systems.  If  the  pres- 
sure in  both  systems  became  equal,  there  would  be  no 
circulation;  but,  as  the  veins  pour  a portion  of  the 
blood  back  again  into  the  heart,  this  organ  011  being 
refilled  again  contracts,  forcing  more  blood  into  the 
arterial  system  and  again  raising  the  pressure  there; 


V A S 


thus  the  possibility  during  life  of  an  equalization  of 
arterial  and  venous  pressure  is  prevented. 

The  Action  of  the  Heart. — The  substance  of  the  heart 
is  composed  of  a special  variety  of  muscular  tissue,  along 
with  connective  tissue,  blood-vessels,  lymphatics,  nerves, 
and  ganglia. 

The  valves  of  the  heart  are  as  follows:  (i)  The 
tricuspid  guards  the  right  auriculo-ventricular  opening, 
and  consists  of  three  flaps,  formed  of  fibrous  tissue  (con- 
taining many  elastic  fibers)  covered  with  endocardium. 
(2)  The  bicuspid  or  mitral  valve,  at  the  left  auriculo- 
ventricular  orifice,  consists  of  two  pointed  segments  or 

cusps,  having  the 
same  structure  as 
those  of  the  tri- 
cuspid  valve. 
The  au  r i cu  1 o- 
ven  tricular 
valves  contain 
striated  muscu- 
lar fibers,  radiat- 
ing from  the  au- 
ricles into  the 
segments  of  the 
valve.  These 
probably  shorten 
the  valves  toward 
their  base  and 
make  a larger 
opening  for  the 
passage  of  the 
blood  into  the 
v e n t r i c les.  A 
concentric  layer 
of  fibers,  found 
near  the  base  of 
the  segments,  has 
a sphincter-like 
action,  approxi- 
mating the  base 
of  the  valves 
(P  al  adino). 
Some  of  the 
larger  chordae 
tendineae  contain 
striated  muscle 
(Oehl),  while  a 
delicate  muscular 
network  exists  in 
the  valvulae  The- 
besii  and  in  the 
Eustachian  valve 
(Landois).  The 
aortic  and  pul- 
monary openings 
are  guarded  by 
the  sigmoid  or 
semilunar  valves, 
each  of  which  consists  of  three  semicircular  flaps,  each 
flap  being  attached  by  its  convex  border  to  the  wall 
of  the  artery,  while  its  free  border  projects  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  vessel.  The  segments  consist  of  fibrous 
tissue  covered  with  endocardium.  At  the  middle  of  the 
free  border  there  is  a fibro -cartilaginous  thickening 
called  the  nodulus  or  corpus  Arantii.  From  this 
modulus  numerous  tendinous  fibers  radiate  to  the  at- 
tached border  of  the  valve,  but  along  the  margin  of 
the  valve  the  membrane  is  chin  and  destitute  of  such 
fibers.  These  thin  parts  are  called  the  lunulce.  Op- 
posite each  semilunar  flap  there  is  a bulging  of  the  wall 
of  the  vessel,  the  sinuses  of  Valsalva.  In  the  aorta 
these  are  situated  one  anteriorly  and  two  posteriorly 


Fig.  2. — View  of  partial  dissection  of  fibers 
in  anterior  wall  of  ventricles  in  a sheep’s 
heart,  showing  different  degrees  of  obli- 
quity of  fibers.  At  the  base  and  apex  the 
superficial  fibers  are  displayed  in  the  in- 
tervening space ; more  and  more  of  the 
fibers  have  been  removed  from  above 
downward,  reaching  to  a greater  depth 
on  the  left  than  on  the  right  side,  a 1,  a 1, 
superficial  fibers  of  right  ventricle;  b 1, 
b\,  superficial  fibers  of  left  ventricle ; 2, 
superficial  fibers  removed  so  as  to  expose 
those  underneath,  which  have  the  same 
direction  as  the  superficial  ones  over  the 
left  ventricle, ]put  a different  direction  from 
those  over  the  right  ventricle ; at  3 some  of 
these  have  been  removed,  but  the  direc- 
tion is  only  slightly  different;  4,  trans- 
verse or  annular  fibers  occupying  middle 
of  thickness  of  ventricular  walls;  6,  7, 
internal  fibers  passing  downward  toward 
apex  to  emerge  at  the  whorl;  c,  c,  an- 
terior coronary  or  interventricular  groove, 
over  which  the  superficial  fibers  cross ; in 
the  remaining  part  of  the  groove  some  of 
the  deep  fibers  turn  backward  into  the 
septum;  d,  pulmonary  artery:  e,  aorta. 
(Allen  Thomson,  Quain’s  Anatomy.) 


6143 

(right  and  left).  From  the  anterior  arises  the  right 
coronary  artery,  and  from  the  left  posterior  the  left 
coronary  artery — these  vessels  being  for  the  supply  of 
blood  to  the  substance  of  the  heart  (Quain). 

According  to  Laennec,  the  size  of  the  heart  is  about 
equal  to  the  closed  fist  of  the  individual.  Its  mean 
weight  is  about  9 to  10  ounces.  John  Reid’s  tables 
give  the  average  weight  in  the  adult  male  as  1 1 ounces 
and  in  the  female  as  9 ounces.  The  proportion  of  the 
weight  of  the  heart  to  that  of  the  body  is  from  1 to  150 
to  1 to  170  (Quain).  W.  Muller  gives  the  ratio  of  heart 
weight  to  body  weight  in  the  child,  and  until  the  body 
weighs  88  pounds,  as  .176  ounce  to  2.2  pounds;  when 
the  body  weight  is  from  no  to  200  pounds  the  ratio  is 
.141  ounce  to  2.2  pounds;  and  when  the  weight  of  the 
body  reaches  220  pounds  the  ratio  is  as  . 123  ounce  to 
2.2  pounds.  The  volume  of  the  heart,  according  to 
Beneke,  is  as  follows: — new-born  infant,  1.34  cubic 
inches;  fifteen  years  of  age,  9.15  109.76;  at  twenty 
years,  15.25  ; up  to  the  fiftieth  year,  17.08  cubic  inches; 
after  that  there  is  a slight  diminution. 

The  movements  of  the  heart  consist  of  a series  of  con- 
tractions which  succeed  each  other  with  a certain 
rhythm.  The  period  of  contraction  is  called  the  systole , 
and  that  of  relaxation  the  diastole.  The  two  auricles 
contract  and  relax  synchronously,  and  these  movements 
are  followed  by  a simultaneous  contraction  and  relaxa- 
tion of  the  ventricles.  Thus  there  is  a systole  and  dia- 
stole of  the  auricles  and  a systole  and  diastole  of  the 
ventricles.  But  in  each  half  of  the  heart  the  contrac- 
tions and  relaxations  of  the  auricle  and  the  contractions 
and  relaxations  of  the  ventricle  are  successive.  Finally, 
there  is  a very  short  period  in  which  the  heart  is  entirely 
in  diastole.  The  whole  series  of  movements,  from  the 
commencement  of  one  auricular  systole  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  one  immediately  following,  is  known 
as  the  cardiac  cycle  or  period  of  revolution  of  the  heart. 

The  heart  is  directly  nourished  by  the  blood  flowing 
through  its  cavities  in  some  of  the  lower  Vertebrates, 
as  the  frog;  but  in  the  hearts  of  larger  animals,  in 
which  nutritional  changes  must  be  actively  carried  on, 
there  is  a special  arrangement  of  vessels  or  cardiac  cir- 
culation. The  coronary  arteries  originate  at  the  aortic 
orifice  in  the  region  of  the  sinus  of  Valsarva,  rather 
above  the  upper  border  of  the  semilunar  valves,  so 
that  when  the  ventricle  contracts,  the  mouths  of  these 
arteries  are  not  covered  by  the  segments  of  the  valves. 
The  branches  of  the  coronary  arteries,  after  dividing 
and  again  dividing,  penetrate  the  muscular  substance 
and  end  in  a rich  plexus  of  capillaries,  which  carry 
arterial  blood  to  the  structure  of  the  heart.  From 
these  the  radicles  of  the  cardiac  veins  originate,  and 
these  veins  carry  the  blood,  now  rendered  venous,  into 
the  right  auricle  by  the  larger  anterior  cardiac  veins 
and  by  numerous  small  veins  constituting  the  foramina 
of  Thebesius  or  the  vence  minimce  cordis.  The  coro- 
nary vein  is  dilated  before  entering  the  auricle,  forming 
the  coronary  sinus,  and  at  the  junction  of  the  vein  with 
the  dilated  portion  there  is  a valve  consisting  of  one  or 
two  segments.  Other  veins  enter  the  coronary  sinus, 
each  having  a valve.  These  valves  serve  two  purposes: 
(1)  they  interrupt  the  flow  of  blood  during  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  right  auricle,  preventing  regurgitation  and 
venous  congestion  of  the  wall  of  the  heart,  and  (2),  as 
the  valves  open  toward  the  right  auricle,  they  prevent 
the  backward  flow  of  blood  during  contraction  of  the 
ventricles  and  favor  its  onward  flow,  and  thus  the 
stream  of  blood  is  accelerated,  as  in  the  veins  of  a con- 
tracting muscle.  The  blood  is  sent  through  the  cardiac 
circulation  by  the  systole  of  the  ventricle,  and  not,  as 
was  advocated  by  Briicke,  during  its  diastole.  Heart 
disease  in  advanced  life,  when  the  coronary  arteries  are 


V A S 


6144 

often  thickened  and  their  caliber  much  diminished  by 
sclerosis,  may  be  shown  by  attacks  of  palpitation, 
weakness  of  the  heart,  altered  rhythm,  breathlessness, 
congestions,  pulmonary  oedema,  haemorrhage,  and 
faintings — all  due  to  interference  with  the  normal  nutri- 
tion of  the  heart. 

The  blood-vessels  consist  of  the  arteries,  the  capillaries, 
and  the  veins.  The  arterial  walls  are  both  muscular  and 
elastic,  the  muscular  coat  predominating  in  the  smaller, 
while  the  elastic  coat  is  strong  in  the  greater  arteries.  The 
chief  function  of  the  elasticity  of  the  greater  vessels  is  to 
transmute  the  unequal  movement  of  the  blood  in  the 
large  arteries,  caused  by  the  intermittent  action  of  the 
ventricle,  into  a uniform  flow  in  the  capillaries.  Thus, 
when  the  ventricle  contracts,  it  propels  a certain 
amount  of  blood  into  the  elastic  aorta,  which  expands 
in  all  directions.  On  the  commencement  of  the  dias- 
tole of  the  ventricle  the  vis  a tergo  is  removed;  the 
aorta  owing  to  its  elasticity  recoils,  so  as  to  close,  on 
the  one  hand,  the  semilunar  valves,  and,  on  the  other, 
to  force  part  of  its  contents  into  the  vessels  farther 
onward.  These,  in  turn,  as  they  already  contain  a 
quantity  of  blood,  expand,  recover  by  an  elastic  recoil, 
and  transmit  the  movements  with  diminished  intensity. 
Thus  the  blood  is  driven  along  the  vessels  by  the  action 
(1)  of  the  ventricular  systole,  and  (2)  of  the  elastic  re- 
coil of  the  walls  of  the  vessels  occurring  during  the  inter- 
vals between  the  ventricular  systole.  By  these  actions 
a series  of  movements,  consisting  of  expansions  and  con- 
tractions, gradually  diminishing  in  amplitude,  pass  along 
the  arterial  system  from  the  greater  to  the  smaller  ves- 
sels, the  latter  becoming,  as  already  pointed  out,  less 
and  less  elastic.  These  expansions  and  relaxations  of 
the  arterial  wall,  passing  along  like  a wave,  constitute 
the  pulse.  The  pulse,  therefore,  represents  merely  the 
transmission  of  an  undulating  movement  of  the  blood, 
not  its  progression  in  the  vessels.  The  undulations  of 
the  pulse  travel  at  the  rate  of  354K  inches  per  second, 
about  thirty  times  faster  than  the  movement  of  the 
blood,  which  in  the  carotid  artery  of  the  horse  has  been 
estimated  to  travel  11.8  inches  per  second. 

The  normal  pulse-rate  in  man  is  about  72  per  minute, 
in  woman  about  80  per  minute;  but  in  some  individuals 
a state  of  health  is  consistent  with  a pulse-rate  as  rapid 
as  100  or  as  slow  as  50  beats  per  minute.  The  pulse- 
rate  is  influenced  by  the  undermentioned  factors.  (1) 
Age : a newly-born  child,  130  to  140  beats  per  minute; 
I year,  120  to  130;  2 years,  105;  3 years,  100;  4 years, 
97;  5 years,  94  to  90;  10  years,  about  90;  10  to  15 
years,  78;  15  to  50  years,  70;  60  years,  74;  80  years, 
79;  80  to  90  years,  over  80.  (2)  Length  of  body: 

Czarnecki,  Volkmann,  and  Rameaux  have  shown  that 
as  the  height  increases  the  pulse  slows.  (3)  Bodily 
dates:  active  muscular  exercise,  increased  blood-press- 
ure, active  digestion,  pain,  nerVous  excitement,  ex- 
treme debility  quicken  the  pulse.  (4)  Temperature : 
increase  of  temperature  quickens  the  pulse.  (5)  Post- 
ure: the  pulse  is  more  frequent  when  one  stands  than 
when  one  sits,  and  still  slower  when  one  lies  down. 
(6)  Sensory  impressions : music  is  said  by  Dogiel  to 
quicken  the  pulse.  (7)  Pressure  : increased  barometric 
pressure  slows  the  pulse.  (8)  Diurnal  rhythm  : 3 to  6 
A.M.,  61  beats;  8 to  11.30  A.M.,  74;  toward  2 p.m.,  a 
decrease;  toward  3 (at  dinner-time)  another  rise,  which 
goes  on  until  6 to  8 P.M. , when  it  may  be  70;  toward 
midnight,  54;  a rise  again  toward  2 a.m.,  when  it 
soon  falls  again,  and  afterward  rises,  as  before,  toward 
3 a.m.  (Landois  and  Stirling). 

A pulse  is  said  to  be  strong  or  weak  according  to  the 
weight  it  is  able  to  raise.  The  strength  is  usually  esti- 
mated by  pressing  the  finger  on  the  artery  until  the 
oulse-beat  beyond  the  point  of  pressure  disappears. 


The  circulation  in  the  capillaries  may  be  readily 
studied  by  placing  under  the  microscope  any  transparent 
membrane  containing  vessels,  such  as  the  web  of  a frog’s 
foot,  the  mesentery,  lung,  qr  tongue  of  a frog,  the  tail 
of  a fish  or  a tadpole,  the  wing  of  a bat,  the  third  eye- 
lid of  the  pigeon  or  fowl,  the  liver  of  a frog  or  a newt, 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  inner  surface  of  the 
human  lip,  or  the  conjunctiva  of  the  eyeballs  and  eye- 
lids. 

The  most  important  vital  property  of  capillaries  is 
contractility,  by  which  their  caliber  may  be  modified. 
The  protoplasm  forming  their  walls  contracts  when 
stimulated.  Some  investigators  have  supposed  the 
nuclei  to  be  active  agents  in  contraction;  but  more 
probably  the  cell  substance  is  the  seat  of  change. 
Oxygen  causes  the  nuclei  to  swell,  while  carbonic  acid 
has  the  opposite  effect.  Elasticity  is  also  a characteristic 
of  the  capillary  walls.  The  arrangement  of  the  capil- 
laries in  an  organ  or  tissue  is  adapted  to  its  functional 
activity.  Where  there  is  great  functional  activity  there 
is  a rich  plexus  of  capillaries,  and  in  the  converse  case 
the  converse  is  also  true.  The  movement  in  the  capil- 
laries is  due  to  the  force  of  the  heart,  as  modified  by 
the  vessels  ( vis  a tergo).  Some  have  supposed  that  it  is 
supplemented  by  an  attractive  influence  exerted  by  the 
tissues  ( vis  a fronte)\  and  the  statement  is  supported 
by  the  observation  that,  when  there  is  an  increased 
demand  for  blood  owing  to  active  nutritional  changes, 
there  is  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  blood  flowing  to 
the  part,  such  as  occurs,  for  example,  in  the  mammary 
gland  during  lactation,  and  in  the  growth  of  the  stag’s 
horn.  Such  an  attractive  influence  on  the  part  of  the 
tissues  is  quite  conceivable  as  a force  assisting  in  the 
inward  flow  of  blood,  acting  along  with  capillarity; 
but  its  amount  is  infinitesimally  small  in  comparison 
with  the  force  exerted  by  the  heart.  The  force  of  the 
heart  is  sufficient  to  drive  the  blood  through  the 
capillaries  into  the  veins. 

The  walls  of  the  veins  are  thinner,  less  elastic,  and 
more  distensible  than  the  walls  of  the  arteries.  They 
contain  both  elastic  and  contractile  tissue,  though  to  a 
smaller  extent  than  the  arteries.  The  circulation  in  the 
veins  depends  (1)  on  inequality  of  blood-pressure,  the 
pressure  being  much  less  in  the  veins  than  in  the  arteries; 
(2)  on  muscular  action  compressing  the  veins;  (3)  on 
the  movements  of  respiration,  and  (4)  on  the  suction-like 
action  of  the  right  auricle,  and  in  the  case  of  the  lungs 
that  of  the  left  auricle,  drawing  the  blood  toward  the 
heart.  There  is  normally  no  pulse  in  veins;  but  some- 
times a pulse  may  be  observed  in  the  veins  of  the  neck, 
isochronous  with  the  auricular  systole,  when  there  is  an 
obstruction  to  the  passage  of  the  blood  from  the  right 
auricle  into  the  right  ventricle.  Pulse-tracings,  taken  in 
these  circumstances,  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the 
cardiac  impulse.  It  has  been  pointed  out  by  Friedreich 
that  a pulse  in  the  jugular  vein  does  not  necessarily  mean 
insufficiency  of  the  tricuspid  valve,  but  a weakened  con- 
dition of  the  valve  in  the  jugular  vein  itself,  as  the  pulse 
will  not  be  propagated  into  the  jugular,  even  in  cases  of 
insufficiency  of  the  tricuspid  valve,  if  the  jugular  valve 
be  perfect.  If  there  is  great  obstruction  at  the  mitral 
orifice,  a venous  pulse  may  also  be  observed,  which  is 
associated  with  engorgement  of  the  right  auricle.  Some- 
times a pulse  in  the  veins  occurs  when  there  is  such 
rigidity  from  atheroma  in  the  walls  of  the  great  vessels 
as  to  destroy  the  elastic  influence  of  these  parts.  Lastly, 
a pulse  may  occur  when  the  blood-pressure  rises  and 
falls  suddenly.  Toward  the  close  of  life,  when  the 
heart  is  feeble  and  effusion  may  be  taking  place  into  the 
pericardium,  a venous  pulse  may  be  observed. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  by  Volkmann, 
Vierodt,  Eudwig  and  Dogiel,  Hering,and  Chauveau  and 


V 

Lortet,  to  measure  the  velocity  of  the  circulation,  and 
special  instruments  have  been  invented  for  that  purpose. 
The  following  general  conclusions  may  be  drawn,  (i) 
The  velocity  of  the  blood  is  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  total 
caliber  of  the  vessels;  rapid  in  the  aorta,  it  diminishes 
as  we  recede  from  it.  (2)  Each  systole  is  followed  by 
an  increase  in  the  velocity  of  the  blood  in  the  larger 
vessels.  (3)  In  the  smaller  arteries,  capillaries,  and 
smaller  veins  the  velocity  is  uniform  and  constant.  (4) 
The  velocity  increases  in  the  venous  system  as  we  ap- 
proach the  heart.  (5)  In  the  large  arteries  the  move- 
ments of  inspiration  retard  the  velocity,  while  those  of 
expiration  increase  it.  (6)  In  the  large  veins  the  move- 
ment of  respiration,  and  also  the  suction  action  ot  the 
auricle  during  diastole,  cause  a rhythmic  increase  and 
diminution  of  the  velocity.  The  velocity  of  the  blood 
does  not  depend  on  the  mean  blood- pressure,  and  as  was 
pointed  out  by  Ludwig  and  Dogiel,  the  velocity  in  any 
section  of  a vessel  depends  on  (1)  the  vis  a tergo  (i.e., 
action  of  the  heart)  and  (2)  the  amount  of  resistance  at 
the  periphery. 

The  blood  is  distributed  throughout  the  body  in  vary- 
ing proportions,  according  to  the  requirement  of  any  set 
of  organs  at  a particular  time.  When  any  tissue  or  organ 
is  active,  there  is  a determination  of  blood  toward  it, 
the  amount  being  increased  from  30  to  50  per  cent.: 
thus,  during  digestion  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
stomach  and  intestinal  organs  is  richly  supplied  with 
blood.  Increased  muscular  velocity  is  always  accom- 
panied by  increased  vascularity;  but,  while  this  is  the 
rule,  there  are  organs,  such  as  the  heart,  the  muscles  of 
respiration,  and  nervous  centers  like  those  in  the  medulla 
oblongata,  in  which  there  is  a condition  of  continuous 
activity,  and  in  which  there  is  a uniform  vascularity. 
Seeing  that  the  activity  of  certain  organs  varies  at  dif- 
ferent times,  it  follows  that,  while  some  organs  are  con- 
gested, others  are  at  rest.  In  the  child  there  appears 
to  be  a different  distribution  of  blood  from  what  ob- 
tains in  the  adult.  The  heart  of  a child  is  relatively 
small  up  to  puberty,  while  the  vessels  are  relatively 
large;  after  puberty  the  reverse  is  the  case.  Arterial 
pressure  is  less  in  the  child  than  in  the  adult,  while  the 
pressure  in  the  pulmonary  circulation  is  larger  in  the 
child  than  in  the  adult  (Beneke).  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  estimate  the  distribution  of  blood  after  death. 
Ranke  states  that  one-fourth  of  the  total  blood  is  in  the 
muscles,  one-fourth  in  the  liver,  one-fourth  in  the  heart 
and  vessels,  and  the  remaining  fourth  in  the  rest  of  the 
organs. 

VASE  (Lat.  vas , Ger.  fass ),  a term  applied,  in  its 
widest  signification,  to  all  vessels  adapted  either  for 
ornament  or  for  use.  It  is  generally  used  in  this  sense 
with  reference  to  ancient  art : in  connection  with  mod- 
ern art,  it  is  restricted  to  vessels  of  an  ornamental  kind. 
Few  remains  of  antiquity  have  excited  more  interest 
than  vases,  particularly  those  of  Greece,  and  of  the 
Greek  colonies  and  conquests.  The  names  given  by 
classical  writers  to  vessels  adapted  for  different  pur- 
poses, have  not  always  been  easily  identified  with  the 
ancient  vases  which  have  been  preserved  to  us ; but  ac- 
cording to  the  nomenclature  of  M.  Gerhard,  which  has 
generally  been  adopted,  the  following  are  the  principal 
varieties  classified  according  to  their  uses:  1.  Vases 
for  holding  wine,  oil,  or  water,  known  under  the  names 
of  amphora  and  diota  Stamnos.  2.  Vases  for  carrying 
water,  hydria,  cal  pis.  3.  Vases  for  mixing  wine  and 
water,  crater,  kelebe,  oxybaphon.  4.  Vases  for  pour- 
ing, oinochoe,  olpe,  prochoiis.  5*  Drinking  cups  or 
goblets,  cantharus,  kyathus,  karchesion,  holchion, 
kyphos,  kylix,  lepaste,  phiale,  keras  rhyton.  6.  Vases 
for  ointment  or  perfumes,  lekythos,  alabastron,  askos, 
bomylois,  aryballos,  kotylicos. 


\ S 6145 

The  materials  of  which  vases  are  formed  include 
metal,  stone,  glass,  and  earthenware. 

Vases  of  a precious  metal  were  in  use  among  the 
ancient  Egyptians.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Greek 
colonists  of  Asia  Minor,  they  were  very  early  em- 
ployed for  sacrificial  purposes,  and  those  of  silver 
were  frequently  chased,  an  art  in  which  considerable 
progress  had  been  attained  at  a remote  period.  In 
the  later  period  of  the  Roman  Republic,  chased  silver 
vases  were  more  than  ever  in  request ; but  under  the 
Empire,  chasing  fell  into  disuse.  Bronze,  iron  and  lead 
were  all  used  as  material  for  vases.  Leaden  vases  were 
chiefly  used  for  unguents  or  perfumes.  The  gold  and 
silver  vases  of  the  first  few  centuries  of  the  Christian 
era  were,  for  the  most  part,  imitations  of  pagan  art.  In 
the  twelfth  century  a style  was  introduced  called 
damascene  work,  with  patterns  of  gold  and  silver  wire 
imbedded  in  the  iron  or  bronze.  Many  of  the  vases  of 
this  kind  were  made  by  Benvenuto  Cellini. 

Among  the  mineral  materials  which,  plain  and  en- 
riched, have  been  used  both  in  ancient  and  modern 
times  for  vases,  are  marble,  lapis  lazuli,  jasper ; semi- 
transparent stones,  such  as  opal,  girosol  agate,  chalce- 
dony, sardonyx,  carnelian ; as  also  transparent  gems 
and  rock  crystal. 

Glass  has  at  all  times  been  a favorite  material  for 
vases.  Small  toilet-phials  of  opaque  glass  were  in  use 
in  Egypt  as  far  back  as  1450  B.c.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century  the  Venetian  glass-makers  intro- 
duced a class  of  vases  enriched  with  white  and  colored 
filigree  work,  having  the  appearance  of  being  incrusted 
in  the  glass.  They  were  much  sought  after  all  over 
Europe  ; and  great  care  was  taken  to  prevent  the  secret 
of  their  manufacture  from  being  discovered.  Beauti- 
fully enameled  vases  were  also  issued  from  the  Venetian 
manufactories  as  well  as  others  of  grotesque  forms, 
representing  imaginary  animals  and  pierced  with  holes 
or  constructed  in  the  form  of  a siphon,  which  are  said 
to  have  been  employed  by  alchemists,  and  in  pharmacy 
and  distillation. 

The  most  prevalent  material  for  vases  of  all  kinds, 
including  those  intended  to  hold  the  ashes  of  the  dead, 
has  generally  been  baked  clay.  Multitudes  of  Greek 
sepulchral  vases,  have,  after  a lapse  of  more  than  fifteen 
centuries,  been  brought  to  light,  at  a time  when  learned 
men  can  appreciate  them,  and  gather  from  them  valuable 
information  in  history  and  archaeology. 

VASELINE  is  a substance  obtained  from  petroleum 
or  paraffin,  which  is  now  of  commercial  importance. 
Yellowish,  translucent  and  crystalline  in  appearance,  it  is 
nearly  of  the  consistency  of  soft  soap,  and  is  almost  per- 
fectly tasteless  and  inodorous.  It  is  soluble  in  ether, 
and  resists  the  action  of  most  chemicals.  Largely  used  as 
a salve  or  liniment  it  is  also  made  the  base  of  various  oint- 
ments and  pomades;  and  it  may  be  employed  inwardly 
as  a remedy  in  colds,  coughs,  and  hoarseness.  It  is  an 
excellent  lubricant;  is  serviceable  for  protecting  polished 
steel  or  iron  from  rust;  and  has  the  advantage  over  an- 
imal and  vegetable  fats,  that  it  does  not  become  rancid. 

VASILKOFF,  a district  town  of  Russia,  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Kieff,  is  situated  twenty-two  miles  by  rail  tc 
the  southwest  of  that  city.  Its  16,600  inhabitants  sup- 
port themselves  chiefly  by  agriculture  and  the  transport 
of  merchandise;  there  is  also  some  manufacture  of 
tobacco  and  soap. 

VASTO,  a fortified  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  o i 
Chieti,  stands  high  on  an  olive-clad  slope,  about  a mile 
from  the  Adriatic  and  13 1 miles  southeast  from  Ancona. 
There  are  manufactures  of  earthenware,  woolen  cloth, 
and  silk;  but  the  inhabitants  are  chiefly  employed  in  the 
culture  of  the  olive  and  in  fishing,  ^he  population  i» 
1901  was  10,761  (commune  13,883). 


6146  V / 

VATICAN  COUNCIL.  The  Vatican  Council  is 
the  first  and  only  plenary  council  of  the  Latin  Church 
held  since  the  close  of  the  Council  of  Trent  in  1563. 
But  it  bears  very  slight  resemblance  to  that  assembly  in 
the  circumstances  of  its  origin,  objects,  and  proceedings. 
The  Council  of  Trent  was  all  but  forced  upon  the  Papacy 
by  the  demands  of  the  principal  Catholic  states  of 
Europe,  and  by  the  religious  and  political  necessities  of 
the  time.  The  Vatican  Council,  contrariwise,  originated 
with  the  Papacy  alone,  and  was  neither  demanded  nor 
desired  by  Roman- Catholic  Christendom.  Its  object 
was  confined  to  securing  the  triumph  of  the  hyper- 
Ultramontane  school  within  the  Roman  obedience  by 
establishing  papal  autocracy  as  divine  and  infallible;  and 
It  made  no  attempt  whatever  beyond  a sterile  discus- 
sion, not  published  in  its  Acts,  to  deal  with  any  of  the 
abuses  and  scandals  which  had  either  survived  the  Tri- 
dentine  reforms  or  had  sprung  up  since. 

The  first  directly  public  intimation  of  the  approach- 
ing council  was  made  in  June,  1867,  through  a circular 
letter  of  Cardinal  Caterini  to  the  500  bishops  present  in 
Rome  at  the  eighteenth  centenary  festival  of  the  martyr- 
dom of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  inviting  their  reply  to  a 
Schedule  of  inquiries.  In  September,  1868,  an  invita- 
tion to  attend  was  dispatched  to  the  Oriental  bishops 
not  in  communion  with  Rome,  and  also  to  “ Protestants 
And  non-Catholics.  ” But,  as  it  was  intended  that  no 
Oriental  prelate  should  be  admitted  to  a seat  in  the 
council  till  he  had  first  made  profession  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  system  in  its  entirety,  and  as  Protestants  were 
■Jnerely  to  be  referred  to  “ experienced  men  ” to  convince 
them  of  their  errors,  the  insincere  invitation  met  with 
ao  acceptance  whatever.  The  bull  of  convocation  was 
promulgated  on  June  29, 1869,  appointing  December  8, 
J869,  as  the  day  of  meeting.  A few  days  before  this 
latter  date,  November  27th,  Pius  IX.  issued  the  brief 
Multiplices  inter , prescribing  the  mode  of  conciliar  pro- 
cedure andeffectually  fettering  the  council  from  the  out- 
set, so  that  it  had  never  even  the  shadow  of  freedom 
which  ostensibly  was  allowed  to  the  Tridentine  synod. 
All  the  officers  of  the  council  were  named  directly  by 
the  pope,  and  in  no  case  elected  by  the  council  itself, 
which  was  thus  deprived  of  several  conciliar  rights  held 
reviously  to  be  inherent  and  indefeasible,  and  which 
ad  been  exercised  even  at  Trent. 

The  assemblage  of  the  council  was  looked  on  with 
little  favor  by  a large  part  of  the  Roman  Catholic  world, 
and  in  particular  two  German  documents  attested  the 
alarm  it  aroused.  In  April,  1869,  Prince  Hohenlohe, 
Bavarian  foreign  minister,  sent  a circular  letter  to  the 
European  courts,  warning  them  of  the  political  dangers 
likely  to  ensue;  and  most  of  the  German  bishops,  as- 
sembled at  Fulda  in  September  of  that  year,  sent  an 
address  to  the  pope,  anxiously  deprecating  the  definition 
of  papal  infallibility  which  had  been  recommended  in  the 
Civiltd  Cattolica  of  February  6,  1869,  to  be  made  by 
the  summary  process  of  acclamation. 

The  council  assembled  punctually  on  the  appointed 
day,  December  8, 1869,  and  owing  to  the  modern  facili- 
ties of  intercommunication  it  was  by  far  the  largest 
gathering  of  the  kind  in  history,  no  fewer  than  749 
bishops,  cardinals,  abbots,  and  generals  of  orders  being 
present — a number  afterward  increased  to  764 — and  in- 
cluding nearly  three-fourths  of  the  whole  Roman 
Catholic  episcopate.  Of  these  it  has  been  estimated 
that  the  minority  opposed  to  the  infallibility  dogma 
amounted  to  at  least  160,  while  in  the  majority  were 
reckoned  fifty-three  bishops  in  parti  bus,  who,  as  having 
no  real  dioceses,  and  being  thus  unable  to  attest  the 
historical  belief  of  their  flocks,  had  properly  no  right  of 
suffrage  upon  dogmatic  questions  in  a council,  such 
attestation  beiiw  the  one  function  dischargeable  by 


T 

bishops  assembled  iti  synod  when  considering  articles  o! 

belief. 

To  these  are  to  be  added  about  125  bishops  of  sees 
too  modern  to  have  any  ancient  tradition  to  attest;  such 
as  those  in  North  and  South  America,  Australasia,  and 
Oceania,  who  were  thus  for  conciliar  purposes  on  the 
same  footing  of  incompetence  to  speak  for  any  one  save 
themselves.  And,  besides  these  two  large  groups,  there 
was  a third,  consisting  of  about  ninety  missionary  bish- 
ops entirely  under  the  control  of  the  Propaganda,  and 
thus  not  free  agents,  while  their  sees  were  in  most  cases 
of  very  recent  origin,  so  that  they  also  could  allege  only 
their  personal  opinion,  having  no  ancient  records  to  at- 
test. By  far  the  larger  number  in  these  groups  were  on 
the  side  of  the  court  majority.  The  Italian  bishops, 
numbering  about  170,  and  the  Spanish,  40  in  number, 
were  also  infallibilists  almost  to  a man,  but  included 
scarcely  one  theologian  in  their  ranks.  And  no  fewer 
than  300  of  this  majority  were  the  personal  guests  of 
Pius  IX.,  lodged,  boarded,  and  maintained  at  his  cost, 
and  thus  openly  retained  to  do  his  bidding.  The  minor- 
ity consisted  chiefly  of  the  German  and  Austrian  bishops, 
a considerable  section  of  Hungarian,  French,  and 
North  American  prelates,  and  many  of  those  Orientals 
of  the  Latin  Church  who  occupied  dioceses  other  than 
mere  titular  and  paper  ones.  But  this  minority,  though 
composed  mainly  of  natives  of  the  most  highly  educated 
and  intellectual  countries,  and  containing  almost  every 
bishop  of  note  for  ability  and  theological  learning,  was 
by  no  means  so  compact  and  united  as  were  the  bishops 
of  the  majority;  and  there  was  not  even  full  agreement 
among  its  members  as  to  the  grounds  for  opposing  the 
new  dogma,  many  going  no  further  than  its  inoppor- 
tuneness, but  not  entertaining  deeper  objections  to  it. 
Thus,  even  apart  from  its  numerical  inferiority,  the  op- 
position was  at  a disadvantage  in  face  of  the  curialists, 
and  lost  not  a few  members  to  them  during  the  prog- 
ress of  the  council.  Not  only  were  the  efforts  to  ob- 
tain freedom  from  the  fetters  of  the  brief  Multiplices 
inter  vain,  but  no  member  of  the  opposition  could  secure 
a place  on  any  of  the  commissions  or  sub-committees, 
which  consisted  exclusively  of  infallibilists. 

The  matter  of  most  importance  in  the  first  congrega- 
tion, which  was  held  on  December  10,  1869,  was  the 
publication  of  a bull,  decreeing  that,  if  the  pope  should 
die  during  the  council,  it  should  at  once  be  prorogued 
and  take  no  part  in  the  election  of  a pontiff,  which  was 
to  be  restricted  to  the  college  of  cardinals.  The  session 
which  followed  was  little  more  than  formal;  but  two 
steps  toward  bringing  about  the  intended  result  were 
taken  before  the  next  time  of  assembling.  The  “ theo- 
logians M were  forbidden  to  attend  any  meetings  of  the 
bishops,  or  even  to  meet  among  themselves  to  discuss 
any  conciliar  matters,  being  restricted  each  to  private 
conference  with  the  particular  bishop  to  whose  person 
he  was  attached  ; and  various  petitions  for  the  definition 
of  the  new  dogma  were  drawn  up  and  signed,  one  being 
the  result  of  a letter  to  the  bishops  of  the  council,  issued 
by  Archbishop  Manning  and  the  conductors  of  the 
Civiltd  Cattolica , and  signed  by  some  hundreds, 
another  from  the  Italian  prelates,  a third  from  those  of 
the  Franciscan  order,  and  a fourth  from  the  Uniat 
Armenians,  besides  several  of  less  note.  The  second 
session  (January  6,  1870)  was  also  formal  only,  so  far 
as  the  direct  transaction  of  business  was  concerned  ; but 
by  the  adoption  of  a measure  causing  all  the  members 
present  to  recite  the  creed  of  Pius  IV.,  containing  a 
clause  professing  obedience  to  the  pope  (this  clause  be- 
ing omitted  by  the  pope  himself),  and  then  to  renew 
the  episcopal  oath  of  feudal  submission  to  the  Papacy, 
powerful  pressure  was  brought  to  bear  upon  the  weaker 
of  the  opposition,  who  were  thus  reminded  how  fat 


VAT- 

they  had  pledged  themselves  already,  and  how  unrea- 
sonable it  therefore  was  to  haggle  about  taking  but  one 
step  in  advance  on  the  self-same  road.  By  the  pope’s 
direct  command  the  cardinal-presidents  of  the  congrega- 
tions issued,  on  February  20,  1870,  rules  to  check  long 
debates,  which  drew  yet  tighter  than  before  the  cords 
that  deprived  the  council  of  all  freedom.  Speakers 
were  confined  to  touching  upon  such  clauses  only  of  any 
amendment  as  they  had  given  previous  notice  of  mean- 
ing to  discuss,  and  were  not  allowed  to  take  part  other- 
wise in  a debate,  while  the  closure  could  be  applied  by 
the  presidents  at  the  demand  of  any  ten  members.  This 
latter  drastic  measure  drew  out  a protest  from  more 
than  one  hundred  bishops,  who  urged  that  it  was  de- 
structive of  conciliar  liberty  (already  much  hampered  by 
the  noisy  attempts  of  the  infallibilists  to  stifle  free  discus- 
sion), and  that  the  steps  being  taken  disregarded  the 
note  of  moral  unanimity  which  should  mark  the  decis- 
ions of  a general  council,  thereby  exposing  the  council 
itself  to  hostile  criticism  and  even  rejection.  They 
pointed  out  several  other  serious  faults  in  the  new  rules, 
but  could  obtain  no  modification  of  them.  The  consti- 
tution on  the  faith  (usually  cited  now  as  Dei  Filius), 
however, — a long  and  far  from  clearly  worded  docu- 
ment,— directed  chiefly  against  modern  rationalism,  and 
enforced  by  eighteen  canons  of  anathema,  was  com- 
pleted; it  passed  the  congregation  without  difficulty, 
was  signed  by  all  the  667  members  present,  and  was 
published  in  the  third  session,  April  24,  1870,  with  papal 
confirmation,  or  rather  in  the  unprecedented  form  of  a 
proclamation  by  the  pope  singly,  “ the  sacred  council 
approving,” — an  innovation  which  was  intended  to 
mark  it  as  solely  his  act,  and  to  settle  in  this  summary 
manner  the  long-standing  controversy  as  to  the  relative 
superiority  of  popes  and  councils. 

The  real  struggle  was  yet  to  come,  namely,  over  the 
constitution  on  the  church,  into  which  the  new  dogma 
was  to  be  introduced.  This  constitution  (now  usually 
cited  as  Pastor  FEternus)  asserted  the  following  propo- 
sitions: (1)  that  a proper  primacy  of  jurisdiction  over 
the  whole  church  was  conferred  upon  St.  Peter  directly 
and  singly,  and  not  mediately  through  any  delegation  to 
him,  as  chief  minister  in  the  church,  of  a primacy  held 
by  the  church  corporately;  (2)  that  this  Petrine  primacy 
vests  by  divine  institution  and  right  in  the  line  of 
Roman  pontiffs;  (3)  that  the  pope’s  jurisdiction  is  im- 
mediate in  all  churches — i. e. , he  is  the  universal  ordi- 
nary, the  actual  bishop  of  every  see  (all  other  bishops 
being  merely  his  curates  and  deputies),  and  is  not  a re- 
mote or  merely  appellate  authority — so  that  in  questions 
not  of  faith  and  morals  alone,  but  of  discipline  and 
government  also,  all  the  faithful,  of  whatever  rite  or 
dignity,  both  pastors  and  laity,  are  bound,  individually 
and  collectively,  to  submit  themselves  thereto;  (4)  that 
it  is  unlawful  to  appeal  from  the  judgments  of  the 
Roman  pontiffs  to  an  oecumenical  council,  as  though  to 
a higher  authority;  and  (5)  that  the  Roman  pontiff, 
when  he  speaks  ex  cathedra , and  defines  a doctrine  of 
faith  or  morals  to  be  held  by  the  universal  church,  is 
infallible,  and  such  definitions  are  accordingly  irreform- 
able  of  themselves,  and  not  from  the  consent  of  the 
church.  This  document  was  voted  upon  in  the  congre- 
gation of  July  13,  1870,  consisting  of  671  members. 
Of  these  451  voted  in  the  affirmative;  88  voted  against 
it;  62  Voted  placet  juxta  modum , meaning  that  they 
would  accept  it  if  it  were  seriously  modified;  and  70  did 
not  vote  at  all.  By  the  canonical  theory  of  councils 
such  a division  of  opinion  as  this  voided  the  decision  of 
the  majority,  and  made  it  null.  For,  while  a bare  ma- 
jority in  a council  suffices  to  pass  a mere  disciplinary 
canon,  being  a variable  matter,  contrariwise,  to  enact  a 
dogmatic  decree  requires  practical  unanimity,  since 


• V A U 6147 

nothing  can  be  imposed  as  of  faith  for  which  the  two 
attesting  notes  of  universal  prevalence  and  historical 
continuity  cannot  be  adduced.  And  as  the  dissent  of 
any  appreciable  number  of  members  denotes  that  they 
do  not  know  it  as  the  local  tradition  of  their  several 
dioceses,  it  thereby  destroys  the  claim  to  these  notes. 

Immediately  after  this  preliminary  voting  nearly  all 
the  bishops  of  the  minority  abruptly  quitted  Rome, 
after  previously  lodging  a protest  against  the  proceed- 
ings. Their  flight  was  prompted  by  fears  for  their  per- 
sonal safety.  They  were  given  to  understand  that  each 
of  them  would  have  two  papers  tendered  to  him  for 
his  signature  in  the  ensuing  session,  one  being  a profes- 
sion of  adhesion  to  the  infallibility  dogma,  the  other  a 
resignation  of  his  diocese  in  case  he  refused  such  ad- 
hesion. And  they  had  good  reason  to  think  that  the 
pope,  who  had  declared  that  he  meant  to  be  proclaimed 
infallible  “ without  limitation  ” (senza  rondizione),  and 
had  shown  open  enmity  to  more  than  one  of  their  number 
would  employ  direct  coercion  in  the  event  of  continued 
resistance,  bringing  his  temporal  power  as  sovereign 
of  Rome  to  bear  on  the  rebels  within  his  territory.  Ac- 
cordingly, when  the  public  session  was  held  on  July  i8s 
1870,  while  535  bishops  voted  for  the  constitution  Pastor 
FEternus , only  two,  those  of  Ajaccio  and  of  Little  Rock, 
remained  to  utter  their  “non-placet.”  The  pope  there- 
upon confirmed  the  decree,  and  the  proceedings  virtually 
ended.  It  was  formally  prorogued  by  Pius  IX.  October 
20th,  and  is  thus  technically  still  in  existence,  but  the 
prorogation  is  a virtual  dissolution. 

VATTEL,  Emer  de,  an  eminent  jurist,  was  the  son 
of  a Protestant  minister,  and  was  born  at  Couvet,  in  the 
rincipality  of  Neuchatel,  on  August  25, 1714.  During 
is  early  years  his  favorite  pursuit  was  philosophy;  and, 
having  carefully  examined  the  works  of  Leibnitz  and 
Wolf,  he  published  in  1741  a defense  of  Leibnitz’s  sys- 
tem against  Crousaz.  In  1746  he  obtained  from  the 
elector,  Augustus  III.,  the  title  of  councillor  of  em- 
bassy, accompanied  with  a pension,  and  was  sent  to 
Bern  in  the  capacity  of  the  elector’s  minister.  His 
diplomatic  functions  did  not  occupy  his  whole  time  and 
much  of  his  leisure  was  devoted  to  literature  and  juris- 
prudence. Among  other  works  he  published  Loisirs, 
Philosophiques  (1747)  and  Melanges  de  Litterature,  de 
Morale,  et  de  Politique  (1757).  But  his  reputation 
chiefly  rests  on  his  Droit  des  Gens , ou  Principes  de  la 
Loi  Naturelle  appliques  a la  Conduite  et  aux  A jfaires 
des  Nations  et  des  Souverains  (Neuchatel,  1758).  He 
died  oq  December  20,  1767.  His  last  work  was  entitled 
Questions  de  Droit  Nature l,  ou  Observations  sur  le 
Traite  dit  Droit  de  la  Nature,  par  Wolf  (Bern,  1762). 

VAUBAN,  Sebastien  Le  Prestre  De,  marshal  of 
France,  was  born  in  the  neighborhood  of  Saulieu  in  Bur- 
gundy (now  in  the  department  of  Cote-d’Or)  May  15, 
1633.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  joined  the  Spanish 
troops  under  the  prince  of  Conde,  but  after  about  a year’s 
campaigning  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  F rench.  In  1653 
he  first  earned  repute  as  an  engineer  by  the  share  he  had 
in  the  capture  of  Sainte-Menehould,  and  after  further 
distinction  at  -Stenay  and  Clermont  he  was  given  a lieu- 
tenancy and  received  in  1655  his  commission  as  an  “in- 
genieur  du  roi.  ” Between  that  year  and  the  peace  of 
1659  he  took  part  m numerous  successful  sieges.  The 
originality  and  success  of  his  methods  were  now  fully 
recognized,  and  in  1*669  he  drew  up,  at  the  instance  of 
Louvoisi,  his  first  exposition  of  the  theory  of  fortifica- 
tion ( Memoire  pour  Servir  d'  Instruction  dans  la  Con - 
duite  des  Sieges ),  which  was  afterward  published  at 
Leyden  (1740).  In  1673  Vauban  accompanied  Louis 
XIV.  on  his  Dutch  campaign.  In  the  following  year 
his  principal  achievement  was  the  capture  of  Maestricht, 
and  in  1677  he  had  the  chief  credit  for  the  fall  of  VaP 


V A U 


6148 

enciennes  and  Cambrai.  In  the  short  war  of  1683-84 
he  gained  further  distinction  by  the  fall  of  Luxembourg, 
and  during  the  campaign  of  1691-92  the  names  of  Mons 
and  Namur  were  added  to  the  long  list  of  his  successes. 
In  1686  Vauban  had  the  courage  to  make  a representa- 
tion to  the  king  in  favor  of  the  republication  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes;  and  about  1697  he  wrote  his  almost 
equally  bold  Projet  Pune  Dixme  Royale , which,  how- 
ever, was  not  published  until  1707  (see  Political 
Economy).  In  1693  he  was  made  a grand  cross  of  the 
order  of  St.  Louis,  and  in  1703  marshal  of  France.  He 
died  at  Paris  on  March  30,  1707. 

VAUCLUSE,  a department  of  France,  lies  between 
43°  39'  and  44°  2 6‘  N.  latitude  and  40  38'  and  50  45' 
E.  longitude,  is  bounded  by  Drome  on  the  north, 
Basses- Alpes  on  the  east,  Bouches-du-Rhone  on  the 
south,  and  Card  and  Ardeche  on  the  west.  The  west- 
ern third  of  Vaucluse  belongs  to  the  Rhone  valley,  and 
consists  of  the  rich  and  fertile  plains  of  Orange,  Car- 
pentras,  and  Cavaillon.  To  the  east,  with  a general 
west- southwest  direction  and  parallel  to  one  another, 
are  the  steep  barren  ranges  of  Ventoux,  Vaucluse,  and 
Luberon,  consisting  of  limestones  and  ^sandstones. 
The  climate  is  that  of  the  Mediterranean  region.  The 
valley  of  the  Rhone  suffers  from  the  mistral;  but  the 
other  valleys  are  sheltered  by  the  mountains,  and  pro- 
duce the  oleander,  pomegranate,  olive,  jujube,  fig,  and 
other  southern  trees  and  shrubs. 

Of  the  total  area  of  881,610  acres,  679,737  are  cul- 
tivated— cereals  occupying  232,250  acres,  market  and 
other  gardens  41,085,  meadows,  pastures,  and  orchards 
89,950,  industrial  vegetable  products  18,993,  summer 
fallows  58,489,  vines  24,699,  and  woods  and  forests 
197,049.  The  culture  of  madder  and  the  mulberry  is 
diminishing,  while  the  Chinese  grass-cloth  plant,  beet- 
root, sorghum,  and  millet  are  grown  in  increasing 
quantities.  The  truffle  markets  of  Carpentras  and  Apt 
are  important.  Lignite  and  coal,  iron,  and  sulphur  are 
mined ; rich  deposits  of  plaster,  stone,  clay,  and  ocher 
are  worked;  and  there  is  a large  variety  of  mineral 
springs.  The  chief  industrial  establishments  are  manu- 
factories of  madder  dye,  silk-mills,  silk-spinning  fac- 
tories, oil-mills,  flour-mills,  paper-mills,  wool-spinning 
factories,  confectionery  establishments,  manufactories  of 
pottery,  earthenware,  bricks,  mosaics,  tinned  provisions, 
chemicals,  candles,  soap,  and  hats,  breweries,  puddling 
works,  iron  and  copper  foundries,  cabinet  workshops, 
blast  furnaces,  saw-mills,  edge-tool  workshops,  and 
nrfrsery  gardens.  Coarse  cloth,  carpets,  blankets,  and 
ready-made  clothes  are  also  produced.  The  depart- 
ment had  235,457  inhabitants  in  1901. 

VAUD  (Germ.  Waadt),  a canton  of  Switzerland, 
takes  its  name  either  from  the  German  Wald  (a  wood), 
or,  more  probably,  from  Walsch , the  term  applied  by 
Teutonic  to  non-Teutonic  tribes.  It  is  of  very  irregu- 
lar shape,  as  it  owes  its  existence  solely  to  historical 
causes.  It  stretches  on  the  southeast  as  far  as  St. 
Maurice  and  takes  in  Chateau  d’Oex,  while  to  the  north- 
west the  Jura  and  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel  are  its  bound- 
aries. The  district  of  Avenches  (entirely  surrounded 
by  the  canton  of  Freiburg)  and  a long  narrow  tongue 
running  up  to  Payerne  are  also  within  its  boundaries. 
The  total  area  is  1,244.3  square  miles.  Of  this  total 
1,053.6  square  miles  are  classed  as  productive,  forests 
occupying  282  and  vines  24.8  square  miles.  The  pop- 
ulation in  1900  amounted  to  281,379  (an  increase  of 
33,724  since  1888). 

Agriculture  is  the  main  occupation  of  the  people;  the 
land  is  much  subdivided  and  very  highly  cultivated. 
The  vineyards  employ  20,000  persons.  There  is  not 
much  industry,  except  that  of  the  watchmakers  in  the 
Jura;  and  the  commerce  is  comparatively  unimportant. 


VAUDEVILLE,  originally  a popular  song  wren 
words  relating  to  some  story  of  the  day;  whence  it  has 
come  to  signify  a play  in  which  dialogue  is  interspersed 
with  songs  of  this  description,  incidentally  introduced 
but  forming  an  important  part  of  the  drama.  The  Ger- 
man Lidertafel  is  a somewhat  similar  composition. 
VAUDOI£>.  See  Waldenses. 

VAUGHAN,  Henry,  called  “the  Silurist,”  poet 
and  mystic,  was  born  into  an  ancient  Welsh  family 
settled  at  Skethiog-on-Usk,  in  the  parish  of  Llansaint- 
fraed,  Brecknockshire,  in  1621.  From  1632  to  1638  he 
and  his  twin  brother  Thomas  were  privately  educated 
by  the  rector  of  Llangattock,  and  then  they  proceeded 
to  Jesus  College,  Oxford.  At  what  time*  Henry  left 
the  university  is  not  known;  but  it  was  evidently  after  he 
had  studied  for  some  time  in  London  and  had  been  intro- 
duced into  the  society  of  men  of  letters  that  he  printed 
his  first  volume,  Poems,  with  the  Tenth  Satire  of 
Juvenal  Englished  (1646).  Of  this  publication  he  was 
afterward,  very  needlessly,  ashamed.  Vaughan  pres- 
ently became  a physician  and  returned  to  ms  native 
country,  first  for  a while  practicing  in  the  town  of  Bre- 
con, and  then  settling  down  for  the  remainder  of  his  life 
in  Skethiog.  From  this  place  he  sent  forth  his  collection 
of  sacred  poems,  Silex  Scintillans,  in  1650,  of  which 
a second  part  appeared  in  1655,  and  the  secular  poems 
of  his  Olor  Iscanus , prepared  for  the  press  in  1647, 
and  published  without  his  consent  by  his  brother 
Thomas  in  1651.  A mystical  treatise  in  prose.  The 
RIount  of  Olives , followed  in  1652,  and  then  two  prose 
translations,  Flores  Solitudinis , 1654,  and  Hermetical 
Physick , 1655.  In  1678  an  Oxford  friend  collected  the 
miscellaneous  verses  of  Vaughan’s  middle  life  in  a 
volume  entitled  Thalia  Rediviva.  Henry  Vaughan 
died  at  Skethiog  on  April  23,  1693. 

VAUGHAN,  Thomas,  “the  Rosicrucian,”  was  the 
twin  brother  of  Henry  Vaughan  (see  above).  When 
Thomas  left  Oxford  he  went  into  the  church  and  be- 
came rector  of  his  native  parish  Llansaintfraed  until  his 
ejectment,  when  he  settled  at  Oxford  as  an  alchemist. 
Under  the  pseudonym  of  Eugenius  Philalethes,  Thomas 
Vaughan  produced  eleven  volumes  defending  and 
describing  the  tenets  of  the  Rosicrucians.  The  titles  of 
these — among  which  are  The  Man-Mouse , 1650;  The 
Second  Wash,  1651;  The  Fame  and  Confession  of  the 
Fraternity  of  the  Rosy  Cross,  1652;  Aula  Lucis,  1652; 
and  Euphrates , 1653 — are  not  more  extraordinary  than 
their  style.  He  died  at  Albury  on  February  27,  1665, 
poisoned  by  the  fumes  of  a caldron. 

VAULT,  an  arched  roof,  usually  constructed  of 
stone  or  brick  work.  The  simplest  kind  of  vault  is  the 
plain  wagon  or  tunnel  vault,  being  a simple  segmental 
or  semicircular  arch,  thrown  across  a longitudinal  apart- 
ment, and  extending  from  one  end  to  the  other. 
Ordinary  bridges  show  an  example  of  this  style  of  vault 
ing.  Such  vaults  were  commonly  used  by  the  Romans, 
who  also  built  vaults  with  groins,  i.  e.,  vaults  or  arches 
which  intersected  one  another.  The  tunnel  arch,  of  a 
pointed  form,  was  of  very  ancient  introduction,  having 
been  used  by  the  Assyrians  for  vaulting  their  large 
drains. 

The  Egyptians  are  also  said  to  have  been  acquainted 
with  vaulting;  but  the  earliest  remains  of  ancient  vaults 
of  any  magnitude  are  Roman  works. 

The  Roman  vaults,  where  groined,  are  usually  con. 
structed  with  carefully  cut  stone,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
angle  from  chipping.  The  mediaeval  architects  had  not 
the  costly  materials  or  skill  of  the  Romans  at  command, 
so  they  formed  the  groins  only  of  dressed  stone,  and 
the  filling  in  of  the  vault  with  commoner  material. 
This  led  to  the  groin  becoming  a prominent  feature  ir 
mediaeval  architecture,  being  generally  ornamented  wit! 


V A U - 

moldings  and  carved  vvork.  Domical  or  hemispherical 
vaulting  was  also  much  used  by  the  Romans.  The 
Pantheon,  in  Rome,  is  the  finest  example  remaining, 
being  a circular  building  with  a dome  142  feet  in 
diameter.  Roman  domes  and  vaults  are  frequently 
ornamented  with  sunk  panels.  During  the  Renaissance 
period,  vaulting  in  a great  measure  gave  place  to 
wooden  roofs;  but  when  employed,  the  domical  or  plain 
groined  vaults  of  -Roman  architecture  are  chiefly 
used.  In  modern  works  vaults  and  arches  are  grad- 
ually becoming  superseded  by  the  use  of  iron  con- 
struction, both  for  roofs  and  for  supporting  floors, 
bridges,  etc. 

VAUQUELIN,  Louis  Nicolas,  French  analytical 
chemist,  was  born  at  Saint- Andre-d’Hebertot  in  Nor- 
mandy, on  May  16,  1763.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  or 
fourteen  Vauquelin  went  to  Rouen  as  laboratory  boy 
with  an  apothecary.  He  did  not  remain  long  there; 
but  his  interest  in  chemistry  was  fairly  aroused,  and  he 
began  to  make  experiments  and  take  notes.  After 
getting  and  losing  two  situations  he  became  ill,  was 
sent  to  the  public  hospital,  and  when  convalescent  found 
himself  once  more  without  money  or  friends.  A t length, 
however,  he  met  a humane  apothecary,  Cheradame, 
who  took  him  in  and  treated  him  with  kindness. 
Vauquelin  at  once  resumed  his  studies,  and  devoted 
every  spare  minute  to  learning.  Cheradame  introduced 
him  to  Fourcroy,  who  had  himself  worked  his  way  up 
from  poverty,  and  from  this  time  Vauquelin’s  fortune 
was  made.  Henceforward  he  devoted  his  attention  to 
chemical  analysis  without  intermission  or  variety  until 
his  death,  which  occurred  at  his  birthplace  on  November 
14,  1829.  At  first  his  work  appeared  as  that  of  his 
friend  and  patron,  then  in  their  joint  names;  but  in 
1790  he  commenced  to  publish  on  his  own  authority, 
and  wrote  perhaps  more  papers  than  any  other  chemist 
has  ever  done.  Either  together  or  successively 
Vauquelin  held  the  offices  of  inspector  of  mines, 
professor  at  the  School  of  Mines  and  at  the  Polytechnic 
School,  assayer  of  gold  and  silver  goods,  professor  of 
chemistry  in  the  College  of  France,  member  of  the 
Council  of  Industry  and  Commerce,  commissioner  on 
the  pharmacy  laws,  examiner  to  the  Polytechnic  School, 
and,  finally,  was  successor  to  Fourcroy  himself;  at  this 
last  step  all  the  other  candidates  retired  in  his  favor. 

VAUQUELIN,  Jean,  a French  poet,  was  born  in 
1 535,  °f  a noble  family,  at  the  chateau  of  La  Fresnaye, 
near  Falaise.  He  died  at  Caen  in  1607.  His  CEuvers 
Poetiques  contain  many  sportive  songs  and  other  light 
pieces,  which  are  yet  read  with  pleasure.  He  was  the 
first  writer  of  idyls  in  French  verse. 

VAUVENARGUES,  Luc  de  Clapiers,  Marquis 
de,  a moralist  and  miscellaneous  writer  of  considerable 
originality  and  power,  was  born  at  Aix  in  Provence  on 
August  6,  1715.  He  entered  the  army  early  and  served 
for  more  than  ten  years,  taking  part  in  the  Italian  cam- 
paign of  1736,  and  in  the  disastrous  expedition  to 
Bohemia  six  years  later  in  support  of  Frederick  the 
Great’s  designs  on  Silesia,  in  which  the  French  were 
abandoned  by  their  ally.  He  published  in  1746  an 
Introduction  a la  Connaissance  de  I Esprit  Humain, 
with  certain  Reflexions  and  Maximes  appended.  He 
died  6f  lung  disease  at  Paris  on  May  28,  1747. 
VECELLIO.  See  Titian. 

VEDANTA.  The  Vedanta  is  the  first  and  most 
impressive  structure  of  Indian  philosophy,  the  creed  of 
intellectual  Hindus,  and  the  basis  of  the  popular  Hindu 
religions.  Its  earliest  germs  lie  in  the  Mantra  portion 
of  the  Veda.  The  unreality  of  the  internal  and  exter- 
nal orders  of  things,  and  the  sole  reality  of  a supreme 
spirit,  or  impersonal  self,  are  set  forth  in  the  Upani- 
ehads  or  later  portions  of  the  Veda.  The  teaching  of  I 


- V E D 6149 

these  Upanishads  explicated  and  systematized,  with  lit 
or  no  addition,  constitutes  the  Vedanta. 

The  term  “vedanta,”  end  of  the  Veda,  is  a synonym 
of  “upanishad.”  Upanishad  is  said  by  the  Indian 
scholiasts  to  denote,  in  the  first  place,  the  knowledge  of 
the  impersonal  self,  the  science  of  absolute  being,  para - 
matmajnana  brakmavidya;  in  the  second  place,  any 
treatise  imparting  that  knowledge.  The  doctrines  of  the 
Upanishads  constitute  the  jnanakanda , or  gnostic  por- 
tion of  the  Veda,  as  distinguished  from  the  karviakanda , 
or  ritual  portion,  comprised  in  the  Samhitas  and  Brah- 
manas.  They  constitute,  also,  the  paravidya,  or  supe- 
rior science,  dealing  with  cessation  from  volition  and 
action,  and  leading  to  extrication  from  metempsychosis, 
as  distinguished  from  the  aparavidya , or  inferior 
science,  of  the  Samhitas,  Brahmanas,  and  Vedangas, 
which  deals  with  action,  and  prolongs  metempsychosis, 
leading  only  to  higher  embodiments  in  this  world  or  in 
the  paradises  of  the  deities.  The  Vedanta  philosophy  is 
also  called  AupanishadI,  Mimansa,  Brahmi  Mimansa, 
Sarirakl  Mimansa.  The  Sutras,  or  mnemonic  formu- 
las, in  which  the  system  is  developed,  are  the  Vedan- 
tasutra,  Brahmasutra  and  Sarirakasutra.  They  are 
ascribed  to  Yryasa  or  Badarayana.  The  system  is  fur- 
ther styled  the  Utt-aramimansa,  as  an  investigation  of 
the  later  portion  of  the  Veda,  as  distinguished  from  the 
Purvamimansa  of  Jaimini,  which  is  an  investigation  of 
the  earlier  portion  of  the  Veda.  The  purport  of  the 
Purvamimansa  is  dharmajijnasa , inquiry  into  sacred 
prescription;  the  purport  of  the  U ttaramlmansa-,  or 
Vedanta,  is  brahmajijnasd , inquiry  into  the  real  nature 
of  the  soul. 

There  is,  according  to  the  Vedanta,  but  one  sub- 
stance or  reality,  ingenerable,  immutable,  incorruptible, 
eternal,  and  this  is  the  supreme  spirit,  the  impersonal  self, 
the  spiritual  absolute,  atman , paramdtman , brahman. 

Indian  philosophy,  and  in  particular  its  earliest  form, 
the  philosophy  of  the  Upanishads,  or  Vedanta,  is  gov- 
erned throughout  by  two  needs.  First,  there  is  the 
need  to  give  consistency  and  coherence  to  existing 
imagery,  physical  and  hyperphysical,  to  work  out  a 
conception  of  the  totality  of  things.  Secondly,  there 
is  the  need  to  put  a stop  to  the  miseries  of  metempsy- 
chosis. The  idea  of  transmigration,  foreign  to  the 
Indo- Aryans  of  the  Vedic  hymns,  appears  to  have  been 
taken  up  by  their  successors  from  the  lower  races 
with  which  they  intermingled,  while  retaining  their  su- 
premacy among  them.  The  Indo- Aryans  of  the  Vedic 
hymns  found  life  pleasurable  and  exciting.  They  prayed 
to  the  gods  for  their  Hundred  years  of  it,  and  for  an 
after-life  with  the  whole  body.  This  view  of  life  was 
replaced  by  one  of  horror  and  aversion,  pervading 
everything  Indian  with  its  gloom — the  expectation  of 
care,  bereavement,  sickness,  pain,  and  death,  in  body 
after  body,  and  through  aeon  after  aeon. 

VEDAS.  See  Brahmanism  and  Sanskrit  Lit- 
erature. 

VEDDAHS,  or  Weddahs,  that  is,  “ Hunters,”  a 
primitive  people  of  Ceylon,  probably  representing  the 
Yakkos  of  Sanskrit  writers,  who  appear  to  have  been 
the  true  aborigines  and  the  sole  inhabitants  of  the 
island  prior  to  the  Hindu  conquest.  They  constitute 
three  distinct  social  groups — the  coast  people , who  are 
settled  and  partly  civilized,  freely  intermingling  with 
their  Singhalese  neighbors  ; the  wild  or  rock  people,  who 
keep  entirely  aloof,  living  exclusively  on  the  produce  of 
the  chase ; and  the  village  people , semi-nomad  agricult- 
urists, intermediate  in  every  respect  between  the  other 
two.  The  Veddahs  are  thus  in  a state  of  transition 
from  the  lowest  to  a relatively  high  degree  of  culture; 
and  their  physical  appearance  gives  evidence  of  their 
intermediate  position  between  the  aboriginal  and  the 


V E G 


61 50 

intruding  races  of  Ceylon.  The  true  Veddahs  of  Bin- 
tenne  are  almost  a dwarfish  race,  averaging  about  five 
feet  (men,  five  feet  two  inches;  women,  four  feet  ten 
inches),  with  correspondingly  low  cranial  capacity, 
narrow  high  skull  like  the  Papuan,  mesognathous  jaw, 
slightly  prominent  cheekbones,  straight,  but  shaggy 
rather  than  lank,  black  hair,  and  features  altogether 
more  Hindu  than  Negroid,  although  of  somewhat 
darker  complexion  than  the  ordinary  olive-brcwn  Sing- 
halese. They  wander  about  in  small  family  groups, 
which  have  not  reached  the  tribal  state,  being  absolutely 
destitute  of  any  political  or  communal  organization 
whatsoever.  Their  dwellings  are  the  caves  of  the  rocks 
or  the  forest  trees  ; they  clothe  themselves  with  foliage; 
and  they  devour  uncooked  vermin,  reptiles,  and  whatever 
other  quarry  they  are  able  to  capture  with  their  rude 
weapons.  It  is  stated  that  they  can  neither  count,  mark 
the  succession  of  time,  nor  distinguish  colors ; but  what  is 
more  certain  is  that  they  never  laugh,  in  this  respect 
differing  from  nearly  all  other  races.  They  also  appear 
to  be  the  only  savage  people  who  speak  an  Aryan  lan- 
guage, for  their  present  speech  at  least  seems  to  be  a de- 
graded form  of  Singhalese,  consisting  mainly  of  Sanskrit 
intermingled  with  Dravidian  elements. 

VEGA  CARPIO,  Lope  Felix  de,  Spanish  drama- 
tist and  poet,  was  born  on  November  25,  1562,  at 
Madrid,  in  a house  in  the  Platerias  or  jewelers’  quar- 
ter adjoining  the  Puerta  de  Guadalajara.  Lope  began 
his  studies  in  the  imperial  college,  the  principal  estab- 
lishment of  the  Jesuits  in  Madrid,  where  he  was  in- 
structed in  grammar  and  rhetoric.  His  precocity  was 
extraordinary  and  his  memory  astounding.  On  leaving 
college — where  he  had  been  guilty  of  an  escapade  of 
some  sort  along  with  one  of  his  companions — he  was 
placed  by  his  parents,  who  were  far  from  wealthy, 
in  the  service  of  Don  Geronimo  Manrique,  bishop 
of  Avila.  In  the  service  of  Don  Geronimo,  Lope 
appears  to  have  begun  the  composition  of  his  earlier 
dramas.  But  • after  awhile  he  quitted  the  bishop’s 
service  to  enter  the  university  of  Alcala,  where  for  four 
years  he  devoted  himself  to  what  was  then  honored 
with  the  name  of  philosophy,  crammed  his  brain  with 
names  and  citations  from  ancient  writers,  and  acquired 
the  habit  of  disputing  in  accordance  with  the  formulae 
of  the  schools.  It  was  then  that  he  accumulated  the 
materials  for  the  pedantic  dissertations  with  which  the 
prefaces  to  his  various  works  are  encumbered,  in  which 
he  so  complacently  displays  everything  that  he  has  re- 
membered of  his  university  days.  Leaving  Alcala  with 
the  degree  of  bachelor  in  arts,  Lope  became  secretary 
to  the  duke  of  Alva.  Widowed  twice,  Lope,  like  many 
other  men  of  letters  of  the  period,  sought  a refuge  in 
the  church.  After  a period  of  initiation,  and  after 
having  been  for  some  time  affiliated  to  a tertiary  order, 
he  took  priest’s  orders.  At  this  juncture,  that  is  to  say, 
about  1614,  he  was  in  the  very  zenith  of  his  glory.  A 
veritable  dictator  and  pope  in  the  Spanish  world  of 
letters,  he  wielded  over  all  the  authors  of  his  nation  a 
sort  of  magisterial  power  similar  to  that  which  was  ex- 
ercised in  France  at  a later  period  by  Voltaire.  Lope’s 
fame,  too,  had  traveled  abroad:  foreigners  of  distinc- 
tion passing  through  Madrid  made  a point  of  visiting 
him;  papal  legates  brought  him  the  compliments  of 
their  master;  in  1627  Urban  VIII.,  a Barberini,  sent 
him  the  diploma  of  doctor  of  theology  in  the  Collegium 
Sapientise  and  the  cross  of  the  order  of  St.  John  of 
Jerusalem  (whence  the  poet’s  titles  of  Doctor  and  Frey). 
His  last  years  were  years  of  severe  penance  ; Montal- 
ban  tells  us  that  every  Friday  the  poet  scourged  himself 
so  severely  that  the  walls  of  his  room  were  sprinkled 
with  his  blood.  His  death,  on  August  27,  1635,  was 
followed  by  national  mourning. 


I VEGA,  Garcilaso  de  la.  See  Garcilaso. 

VEGETABLE  KINGDOM.  There  is  one  peculial 
factor  which  enters  into  the  problem  of  the  classification 
of  plants  and  materially  adds  to  its  complexity.  It  is 
the  polymorphism  of  the  individual:  that  is,  the  life- 
history  is  usually  complex,  the  individual  assuming 
different  forms  in  various  stages  of  its  life-history. 
Thus,  in  the  great  majority  of  plants  there  is  a well- 
marked  alternation  of  generations— an  alternation,  that 
isj  of  a sexual  form,  the  gametophyte , with  an  asexual 
form,  the  sporophyte.  And  not  only  so,  but  in  many 
cases  one  or  other  of  these  generations  presents  a num- 
ber of  different  forms.  Hence  the  true  affinities  of  any 
individual  cannot  be  regarded  as  satisfactorily  ascertained 
unless  its  life-history  is  fully  known;  and,  since  in  most 
cases  the  various  forms  are  perfectly  separate,  and  often 
quite  dissimilar,  there  is  difficulty  in  obtaining  all  the 
information  necessary  for  determining  the  true  system- 
atic position  of  a plant — a difficulty  which  has  not  yet 
been  overcome  in  very  many  cases. 

Comparatively  little  light  is  thrown  on  the  affinities 
of  existing  plants  by  the  information  which  has  been 
accumulated  with  regard  to  the  extinct  fossil  forms.  In 
no  case  can  the  genealogy  of  an  existing  plant  be  traced 
as  in  the  case  of  the  horse  among  animals  (see  Animal 
Kingdom). 

The  vegetable  kingdom  is  usually  divided  into  the 
four  following  sub-kingdoms: — I.  Thallophyta;  II. 
Bryophyta;  III.  Pteridophyta;  IV.  Phanero- 

GAMIA  (SPERMAPHYTA). 

All  of  these,  except  some  Thallophyta , present  a more 
or  less  clearly  marked  alternation  of  generations.  In 
all  cases  the  more  conspicuous  form  is  considered  to  be 
“the  plant.”  Thus,  in  the  Thallophyta  generally  the 
plant  is  the  gametophyte,  the  sporophyte  being  compar- 
atively inconspicuous  and  in  many  cases  merely  an 
appendage  on  the  gametophyte;  in  the  Bryophyta  like- 
wise the  gametophyte  is  the  plant,  the  sporophyte  being 
an  appendage  on  the  gametophyte.  In  the  Pteridophyta 
and  in  the  Phanerogamia  the  plant  is  the  sporophyte, 
the  gametophyte  being  comparatively  inconspicuous. 
In  the  Pteridophyta  the  gametophyte  is  still  an  inde- 
pendent organism;  but  in  ascending  from  the  lower  to 
the  higher  forms  it  becomes  more  and  more  reduced. 
In  the  Phanerogamia  the  gametophyte  is  still  further 
reduced  and  becomes  a mere  appendage  on  the  sporo- 
phyte. 

Sub-Kingdom  I.  THALLOPHYTA. 

This  sub-kingdom  includes  the  most  lowly  organized 
of  plants.  They  are  characterized  by  the  total  absence, 
or  the  imperfection,  of  that  differentiation  of  the  body 
into  root,  stem,  and  leaf  which  is  so  marked  a feature  in 
the  higher  plants,  and  by  the  simplicity  of  their  internal 
structure,  especially  by  the  absence  of  woody  vascular 
tissue.  In  those  Thallophyta  which  present  an  alterna- 
tion of  generations  the  gametophyte  is  generally  the 
more  conspicuous,  constituting  the  plant.  The  game- 
tophyte is  commonly  capable  of  producing  spores,  not 
only  sexually,  but  also  asexually. 

The  sub-kingdom  is  naturally  divided  into  two  mam 
classes,  the  Alg^  or  Sea- Weeds  and  the  Fungi,  to 
which  may  be  added,  as  a subsidiary  group,  theLiCHENS. 
It  is  becoming  usual  to  regard  the  Algce  and  Fungi  as 
distinct  sub-kingdoms;  but  it  is  preferable,  as  they  have 
so  much  in  common,  to  continue  to  regard  them  as  classes 
of  the  sub-kingdom  Thallophyta. 

Class  I.  Alg^e. — There  is  so  much  variety  in  the 
form  and  structure  of  the  Algce  that  no  more  precise 
definition  of  them  can  be  given  than  that  they  are  Thal- 
lophytes  which  contain  chlorophyl.  Though  they  char- 
acteristically live  in  water,  this  is  by  no  means  univer* 


VE  G 


sally  the  case,  for  the  natural  habitat  of  many  of  them  is 
damp  soil.  All  Alga  contain  chlorophyl,  but  many  of 
them  contain  other  coloring-matters  in  addition — a feat- 
ure which  forms  a convenient  basis  for  classification. 
On  this  basis  the  Alga  are  classified  into  the  four  fol- 
lowing sub-classes: 

I.  Cyanophyceae,  containing  a bluish  coloring-mat- 
ter, phycocyanin , and  having  a blue-green 
color. 

If.  Chlorophyceae,  green  Alga„  containing  no 
coloring-jnatter,  except  chlorophyl  and  its  de- 
rivatives. 

III.  Phaeophyceae,  containing  a yellow  or  brown 

coloring-matter,  phycophain , and  having  a 
brown  color. 

IV.  Rhodophyceae,  con  taming  a red  coloring-matter, 

phvcoery th rin , and  having  a red  or  purple 
color. 

These  four  sub-classes  are  by  no  means  co-extensive. 
The  Cyanophycea  include  only  very  simple  forms;  the 
Chlorophycea  and  the  Phaophycea  include  a series  of 
forms  from  the  simplest  to  the  most  complex;  the  Rho- 
dophycea  include  only  forms  which,  though  their  vege- 
tative structure  is  frequently  very  simple,  are  com- 
paratively highly  developed  as  regards  their  reproduc- 
tive organs. 

The  Cyanophycea  are  divided  into  a number  of  or- 
ders: 

Order  i.  Chroococcacecs.  Order  4.  Rivulariacece . 

“ 2.  Nostocaceez.  “ 5.  Scytonemece. 

“ 3.  Oscillariacece . “ 6.  Sirosifihonece  ( Stigon - 

eme/z) . 

The  Chlorophycea  may  be  classified  as  follows: — 

Order  1.  Protococcoidea . — Unicellular  plants ; the 
body  frequently  spherical  and  unattached,  but  present- 
ing in  some  forms  a distinction  of  base  and  apex,  and 
then  it  is  attached  by  the  base.  Reproduction  by  vege- 
tative division,  or  by  zoospores,  or  by  a sexual  process, 
the  sexual  cells  being  similar  planogametes.  This  order 
may  be  divided  into  two  families — the  Protococcacea  and 
the  Palmellacea , the  distinction  being  that  in  the  latter 
the  cell-walls  are  swollen  and  mucilaginous,  so  that  the 
cells  are  held  together,  whereas  in  the  former  the  cells 
are  free.  Vegetative  multiplication  by  division  is  uni- 
versal in  the  Palmellacea , but  is  commonly  wanting  in 
the  Protococcacea. 

Order  2.  Volvocinea. — Unicellular  or  multicellular 
plants  ;•  body  free-swimming  by  means  of  cilia,  either 
spherical  or  a flat  plate. 

a.  Isogamous forms:  Pandorina,  Stephanosphara 

(spherical),  Gonium  (flattened). 

b.  Oogamous  forms:  Volvox,  Eudorina , Chlamy - 

domonas  (unicellular). 

Order 3.  Hydrodictyea . — Multicellular  plants;  body 
unattached,  a net  ( Hydrodictyon ) or  a flat  plate  ( Pedias - 
trum),  formed  by  the  combination  of  originally  separate 
cells  (a  ccenobium).  The  sexual  process  is  isogamous. 

Order 4.  Siphonea. — Unseptate multinucleate plants; 
body  vesicular  and  unbranched,  or  filamentous  and 
branched,  assuming  most  various  forms,  presenting  dis- 
tinction of  base  and  apex,  attached  by  base;  sometimes 
( Caulerpa ) presenting  differentiation  into  root,  stem, 
and  leaf.  The  sexual  process  is  isogamous  or  oogamous. 

a.  Isogamous  forms:  Codiea,  Dasycladea , Cauler- 

pea,  Botrydiea. 

b.  Oogamous  forms:  Vaucheriacea. 

Order  3.  Confervoidea. — Septate  multicellular  plants 
(body  unicellular  in  some  Desmids) ; cells  uni-  or  multi- 
nucleate ; body  filamentous,  branched  or  unbranched, 
spinetimes  presenting  distinction  of  root  apd  shoot,  and 


6151 

then  attached  by  the  root,  or  a flat  plate  or  nollow  tube 
of  cells.  The  sexual  process  is  isogamous  or  oogamous. 
a.  Isogamous  forms — 

a.  Gametes  not  free-swimming  or  ciliated? 

Conjugata  (including  Desmidiea , Meso~> 

carpea , Zygnemea ). 

0,  Gametes  free-swimming  and  ciliated. 

Body  filamentous,  unbranched : Ulothri *> 
cacea. 

Body  filamentous,  branched:  Cladopho* 

rea , Chaiophorea. 

Body  a flat  or  tubular  layer  of  cells : Ul- 

vacea. 

b*  Oogamous  forms:  body  filamentous — 

a.  Sexual  organs  undifferentiated:  Spharo 

plea. 

$1.  Sexual  organs  differentiated. 

CEdogoniea ; body  unbranched  (except 
Bulbochate ) ; oogonium  without  tri- 
chogyne;  sporophyte,  a single  cell 
(oospore). 

Coleochatea ; body  branched ; oogonium 
with  trichogyne ; sporophyte  multicel- 
lular. 

Order  6.  Characea . — Multicellular  plants ; body  pre- 
senting differentiation  into  leaf,  stem,  and  root.  There 
is  no  asexual  production  of  spores ; the  sexual  process 
is  oogamous  the  sexual  organs  being  highly  differ- 
entiated. 

In  the  Phaophycea  the  form  of  the  body  is  very 
various;  it  may  consist  of  a single  cell;  when  mul- 
ticellular it  may  be  filamentous  and  branched,  or  a 
flattened  expansion,  or  cylindrical  or  vesicular,  hollow  or 
solid.  It  presents  also  various  degrees  of  morphological 
differentiation  : in  some  forms  it  is  quite  undifferen- 
tiated; in  others  it  presents  a differentiation  of  base 
and  apex,  and  is  then  attached  by  the  base  ; in  others  it 
presents  indications  of  differentiation  into  root,  stem, 
and  leaf.  Vegetative  multiplication  is  common  only  in 
the  lowest  forms  ; in  the  higher  it  occurs  in  some  cases, 
and  is  effected  by  the  abstriction  of  modified  members 
of  the  parent,  termed  gemma.  The  existence  of  a 
sexual  process  has  been  ascertained  in  several  forms  ; 
but  in  many  others  further  investigation  is  required  to 
determine  its  presence  or  absence.  In  those  forms  in 
which  it  occurs  it  may  be  either  isogamous  or  ooga- 
mous ; the  isogamous  process  may  take  place  between 
free-swimming  gametes,  or  between  gametes  which  are 
not  free-swimming  or  ciliated.  The  life-history  of  the 
plants  of  this  group  is  imperfectly  known  ; but  it  has 
been  ascertained  that  in  some  there  is,  and  in  otherf 
there  is  not,  an  alternation  of  generations. 

The  Phaophycea  may  be  classified  as  follows  : 

Order  /.  Diatomacea. — Unicellular  plants,  eithei 
free,  or  connected  into  filaments  or  masses  by  mucilage. 
Reproduction,  vegetative  by  division  or  by  means  of 
asexually-produced  spores  (< auxospores ) ; or  sexual  isog* 
amous  by  the  fusion  of  n on-ciliated  gametes.  The 
cell-wall  is  impregnated  with  silica. 

Order  2.  Syngeneticea. — Body  unicellular,  the  cells 
being  held  together  by  mucilage.  Reproduction  by 
division  and  by  asexually-produced  spores.  The  order 
includes  the  two  forms,  Chromophyton  and  Hydrurus. 
The  former  is  distinguished  by  being  unattached  and  by 
the  motility  of  its  spores,  which  have  a single  long 
cilium.  Hydrurus  grows  attached,  and  the  spores  are 
not  motile. 

Order  3.  Phaosporea. — Multicellular  plants;  the 
body  is  filamentous  and  branched  or  flattened,  always 
presenting  differentiation  of  base  and  apex,  and  in 
some  cases  more  or  less  well-marked  differentiation  into 
root,  stem,  and  leaf,  usually  attached  by  the  base, 


V E G 


6152 

Reproduction,  vegetative  by  gemmae  or  by  means  of 
asexually-produced  zoospores,  or  by  sexual  process 
which  is  essentially  isogamous,  the  gametes  being 
ciliated,  but  in  the  higher  forms  tending  to  become 
oogamous.  The  principal  families  of  the  Phceosporece 
are  Ectocarpece , Sphacelariece , Mesoglceacece,  Desmar- 
estiece , Scytosiphonece , Cutleriacece , and  Laminariece. 

Order  4.  Dictyotacece. — Body  multicellular,  thalloid, 
flattened,  ribbon-like,  as  in  Dictyota , Phy  copter  is,  Die - 
tyopteris , or  broader  and  fan-shaped,  as  in  Taonia , 
Padina , Zonaria  usually  attached  by  the  base,  but  by 
root -hairs  developed  on  the  under  surface  in  Zonaria. 
Asexual  reproduction  by  spores,  formed  four  ( tetraspores ) 
in  each  unilocular  sporangium ; spores  not  motile. 
Though  a sexual  process  has  not  been  observed,  there 
are  apparently  male  and  female  organs — antheridia  and 
oogonia.  The  supposed  male  cells  are  set  free  and  are 
not  motile;  the  supposed  female  cells  are  not  set  free. 
The  sporangia  and  the  sexual  organs  are  borne  on  dis- 
tinct individuals,  and  in  some  genera  (e.g.,  Dictyota , 
Taonia ) the  male  and  female  organs  are  borne  on  dis- 
tinct individuals. 

Order  5.  Fucacece. — Body  multicellular  ; generally 
differentiated  into  root  and  shoot;  shoot  usually  thal- 
loid, cylindrical,  or  flattened,  but  differentiated  into 
stem  and  leaves  in  Sargassum.  No  asexual  production 
of  spores.  Sexual  organs  antheridia  or  oogonia.  Male 
cells  numerous,  set  free,  ciliated ; female  cells  (oospheres) 
either  one  ( Pycnophycus , Himanthalia,  Cystoseira , 
Sargassum),  two  ( Pelvetia ),  four  ( Ozothallia ),  or  eight 
( Fucus ) in  an  oogonium,  set  free,  not  motile. 

The  sub-class  Rhodophycece  includes  the  single  order 
Floridece. 

Order  Floridece. — Multicellular  plants ; body  flattened 
or  filamentous ; when  filamentous,  either  monosiphon- 
ous  or  polysiphon ous,  with  or  without  a cortex  : thal- 
loid, or  with  indications  of  differentiation  into  stem  and 
leaf.  Asexual  reproduction,  by  means  of  unciliated 
naked  spores,  which  are  usually  tetraspores  (wanting  in 
Lemanea ),  produced  in  unilocular  sporangia.  Sexual 
reproduction  by  means  of  male  and  female  organs, 
termed  antheridia  and  procarpia;  the  procarpium  is 
generally  multicellular,  but  sometimes  unicellular  ( Ban - 
giacece , Nemaliece),  is  always  closed,  and  generally  con- 
sists of  two  parts,  the  carpogonium  or  sporogenous 
portion  and  the  trichogyne  or  receptive  portion.  The 
male  cells  are  non-motile  and  have  a cell-wall  ( sperma - 
tia) ; there  is  no  differentiated  female  cell  in  the  procar- 
pium. After  fertilization  the  carpogenous  cell  (or  cells) 
divides  to  form  the  mother-cells  of  spores,  and  each 
mother-cell  gives  rise  to  a single  naked  spore  ( carpospore ), 
which  is  not  ciliated  and  is  usually  non-motile ; in  the 
Bangiacece  the  carpospores  exhibit  amoeboid  movements 
for  a time.  The  group  of  sporogenous  cells  formed 
from  the  fertilized  carpogenous  cell  (or  cells)  is  termed 
a cystocarp;  in  many  cases  these  cells  become  sur- 
rounded by  an  investment  developed  from  the  adjacent 
vegetative  tissue.  The  structure  of  the  cystocarp  is 
very  simple  in  the  Bangiacece , consisting  only  of  eight 
spore  mother-cells.  The  principal  orders  of  the  Floridece 
are  Bangiacece , Lemaneacece , Nemaliece , Ceramiacece, 
Corallinece , Rhodomelacece , Crypton em  iacece,  Rhody- 
meniacece , Wrangeliacece , Squamariacece,  Sphcerococca- 
cece. 

With  regard  to  the  life  history  of  the  Floridece , it  is 
generally  considered  to  present  a well  marked  alterna- 
tion of  generations,  the  plant  being  the  gametophyte, 
the  fructification  being  the  sporophyte. 

Class  II.  Fungi. — In  view  of  the  description  of 
these  plants  given  in  the  article  Fungus  [q.v.),  it  is 
unnecessary  to  define  them  here  further  than  as  Thallo- 
phytes  which  are  devoid  of  chjoropkyl. 


The  classification  followed  here  differs  in  detail  from 
that  given  in  the  previous  article.  It  is  as  follows: — 
Sub-Class  I.  Myxomycetes. 

“ II.  Schizomycetes. 

“ III.  Phycomycetes. 

a.  Zygomycetes.  b.  Oomycetes. 

Order  1.  Chyiridiacece.  Order  1.  Ancylistece. 

<k  2.  Mucorini.  “ 2.  Peronosporece . 

“ 3.  Ento?nophthorece.  “ 3.  Saprolegniece. 

“ 4.  Ustilaginece. 

Sub-Class  IV.  Ascomycetes. 

Order  1.  Gymnoascece.  Order  2.  Pyrenomycetes. 

Order  3.  Discomycetes. 

Sub-Class  V.  /Ecidiomycetes. 

Order  1.  Uredinece. 

Sub-Class  VI.  Basidiomycetes. 

Order  1.  Tremellini.  Order  2.  Hymenomycetes . 

Order  3.  Gasteromycetes. 

Subsidiary  Group,  Lichenes.— As  pointed  out  in 
the  article  Fungus,  a Lichen  is  a compound  organism 
consisting  of  a Fungus  and  an  Alga  living  symbioti- 
cally.  In  that  article  only  those  Lichens  are  con- 
sidered in  which  the  Fungus  belongs  to  the  Ascomy- 
cetes ; but  Lichens  are  now  known  in  which  the 
Fungus  belongs  to  the  Basidiomycetes. 

The  Lichens  may  be  classified  as  follows  : — 

Ascolichenes  (Ascomycetous  Lichens). 

1.  Discolichenes  (Uiscomycetous  Lichens). 

2.  Pyrenolichenes  (Pyrenomycetous  Lichens). 

Basidiolichenes  (Basidiomycetous  Lichens). 

1.  Hymenolichenes  (Hymenomycetous  Lichens). 

2.  Gasterolichenes  (Gasteromycetous  Lichens). 

Sub-Kingdom  II.  BRYOPHYTA  ( Muscinece ). 

The  Bryophyta  may  be  characterized  as  plants  which 
present  a definite  alternation  of  generations,  the  plant 
being  the  gametophyte  and  the  fructification  or  sporo- 
gonium  the  sporophyte.  The  sporophyte  is  not  inde- 
pendent, but  remains  permanently  attached  to  the 
gametophyte.  The  shoot  of  the  gametophyte  is  some- 
times thalloid ; but  more  frequently  it  is  differentiated 
into  stem  and  leaf.  The  shoot  of  the  sporophyte  is  not 
differentiated  into  stem  and  leaf,  though  there  is  in 
some  cases  an  indication  of  such  differentiation.  The 
gametophyte  commonly  reproduces  its  like  by  means  of 
gemmae  ; the  female  organ  is  an  archegonium.  The 
Bryophyta  are  divided  into  two  classes — the  Hepatic^: 
or  Liverworts  , and  the  Musci  or  Mosses.  (For 
details  see  Muscinece.) 

Mutual  Affinities  of  Mosses  and  Liverworts. 

a.  Gametophyte  (plant). — The  higher  Liverworts 
(foliose  Junger-manniece ) resemble  the  Mosses  in  that 
the  shoot  is  differentiated  into  stem  and  leaf;  but  there 
is  this  general  difference,  that  the  shoot  of  these  Liver- 
worts has  dorsi-ventral  symmetry,  whereas  that  of  the 
Mosses  has  radial  symmetry.  The  connecting  form  is 
afforded  by  Haplom itrium , which  alone  among  the 
foliose  Liverworts  has  radial  symmetry. 

b.  Sporophyte  (sporogonium). — The  main  differences 
between  the  sporogonium  of  the  Liverworts  and  that  ot 
the  Mosses  are  these:  the  structure  of  the  sporogonium 
is  simpler  in  the  Liverworts  than  it  is  in  the  Mosses; 
in  the  former  it  usually  has  no  columella  and  pro- 
duces elaters,  whereas  in  the  latter  a columella  is 
always  present,  and  there  are  no  elaters.  In  the 
Liverworts  the  sporogonium  remains  inclosed  in  the 
enlarged  venter  of  the  archegonium  (calyptra)  until  the 
spores  are  ripe,  but  in  most  Mosses  the  developing 
sporogonium  bursts  the  calyptra  at  an  early  stage.  A 
connecting  form  is  afforded  by  the  sporogonium  of 
Anthoceros  (Liverwort),  which  has  a columella  and 
^ears  stomata  like  the  sporogonia  the  Mosses*  and  in 


V E G 


which  the  elaters  are  rudimentary.  Sphagnum  and 
A rchidium  among  Mosses  resemble  the  Liverworts  in 
that  the  sporogonium  is  inclosed  in  the  calyptra  until 
near  maturity. 

Sub-Kingdom  III.  PTERIDOPHYTA. 

( Vascular  Cryptogams). 

In  these  plants  the  gametophyte  is  a filamentous  or 
tuberous,  or  more  commonly  a membranous,  flattened 
prothalliinn , exhibiting  no  differentiation  into  stem  and 
leaf.  The  sexual  organs  are  antheridia  and  archegonia 
as  in  the  Muscinece.  The  sporophyte  becomes  quite 
independent  of  the  gametophyte,  constituting  the  plant. 
The  shoot  is  always  differentiated  into  stem  and  leaf, 
and  the  tissues  are  highly  differentiated. 

The  sub-kingdom  is  divided  into  three  classes — 
Filicinae,  Equisetin^e,  Lycopodinae. 

Each  of  these  classes  includes  two  series  of  forms — 
the  homosporous , in  which  all  the  spores  are  alike,  and 
the  heterosporous,  in  which  the  spores  are  of  two  kinds, 
namely,  large  spores  ( macrospores ) and  small  spores 
( microspores ). 

Class  i.  Filicinae. — The  Filicince  are  character- 
ized by  having  relatively  large  and  few  leaves.  The 
spore-bearing  or  fertile  leaves  (sporophylls)  are  generally 
similar  to  the  foliage  leaves,  and  are  not  aggregated  on 
special  shoots,  so  as  to  form  flowers.  The  embryo 
sporophyte  has  no  suspensor;  but  it  has  generally  (ex- 
cept in  Salvinia ) a primary  root. 

Series  A.  Homosporous  Filicinae. — This  series 
consists  of  the  sub-class  Filices , which  includes  the 
Ferns.  It  seems  to  be  certain  that  all  existing  Ferns 
are  homosporous,  and  apparently  all  the  known  fossil 
forms  are  homosporous  also,  though  it  is  not  impossi- 
ble that  there  may  have  been  heterosporous  Filices. 
The  orders  of  existing  Ferns  are  arranged  in  two  cate- 
gories, according  to  the  mode  of  development  of  the 
sporangia. 

Leptosporangiate  Filices:  the  sporangium  is  devel- 
oped from  a single  epidermal  cell:  — 

Order  i.  Hymenophyllacece.  Order  4.  Gleichenicece. 

“ 2.  Cyatheacece.  “ 5.  Schizceacece. 

“ 3.  Polypodiacece.  “6.  Osmundacece. 

Eusporangiate  Filices:  the  sporangium  is  devoloped 
from  a group  of  epidermal  cells:  — 

Order  1.  Ophioglossacece.  Order  2.  Marattiacece. 

Series  B.  Heterosporous  Filicinae. — As  far  as  is 
known  at  present,  this  series  contains  the  sub-class 

Hydropteridece  or  Rhizocarpce.  In  addition  to  the 
various  peculiarities  connected  with  their  heterospory, 
its  members  are  characterized  by  the  development  of 
an  investment  round  the  clusters  of  sporangia  (son),  the 
whole  forming  a sporocarp.  They  are  all  Leptosporan- 
giale. 

The  Hydropteridece  are  arranged  in  two  orders,  ac- 
cording to  the  structure  of  the  sporocarp. 

Order  1.  Salviniacece  : wall  of  sporocarp  formed  as  a 
superficial  outgrowth  of  the  sporophyll;  each  sporocarp 
contains  a single  sorus  either  of  macrosporangia  or  of 
microsporangia  ( Salvinia , Azolla ). 

Order  2.  Marsileacece:  the  wall  of  the  sporocarp  is 
formed  by  aportion  of  the  sporophyll;  each  sporocarp  con- 
tains several  sori;  and  each  sorus  includes  both  macros- 
porangia and  microsporangia  ( Marsilea  Pilularia ). 

It  is  possible  that  Isoetes  represents  the  heterosporous 
eusporangiate  Filices  (see  infra). 

Class  2.  Equisetinae. — These  plants  are  charac- 
terized by  their  rudimentary  foliage  leaves  arranged  in 
whorls  at  the  nodes,  and  by  their  highly  modified  sporo- 
phylls, which  are  aggregated  together  at  the  ends  of 
shoots,  so  as  to  form  cone-like  flowers.  The  embryo 
suorophyte  has  no  suspensor,  but  a primary  root. 


61  S3 

Series  A.  Homosporous  Equisetinae.— All  the  ex- 
isting forms  belong  to  this  series  and  constitute  the  order 
Equisetacece;  they  all  belong  to  the  genus  Equisetum. 
The  gametophyte  is  a green  flattened  prothallium,  like 
that  most  commonly  found  in  the  Filices;  but  it  is  much 
branched,  and  generally  dioecious. 

Series  B.  Heterosporous  Equisetinae. — There 
are  no  existing  heterosporous'  Equisetince ; it  is  prob- 
able that  some  fossil  plants,  such  as  Annularia  and 
Asterophyllites , represent  the  extinct  heterosporous 
forms. 

Class  3.  Lycopodinae. — The  Lycopodince  are  gen- 
erally characterized  by  their  small  and  numerous  foliage 
leaves,  which  are  not  arranged  in  whorls,  though  they 
are  almost  entirely  wanting  in  Psilotmn.  The  sporo- 
phylls are  not  highly  modified,  but  they  are  frequently 
aggregated  at  the  ends  of  shoots,  so  as  to  form  cone- 
like flowers.  So  far  as  the  embryology  of  this  class  is 
known  at  present,  the  embryo  sporophyte  has  a sus' 
pensor,  but  no  primary  root. 

Series  A.  Homosporous  Lycopodinae. 

Order  1.  Lycopodiacece:  the  sporangia  are  borne  on 
sporophylls  (Lycopodium,  Phylloglossum). 

Order  2.  Psilotacece:  the  sporangia  are  borne  on  the 
stem  (Psilotum,  Tmesipteris). 

Series  B.  Heterosporous  Lycopodinae. 

Order  1.  Selaginellacece  (Selaginella). 

The  existing  heterosporous  Lycopodince  are  usually 
considered  to  consist  of  a family,  termed  the  Ligulatce, 
which  includes  the  two  genera  Selaginella  and  Isoetes. 
This  arrangement  is  not  accepted  here,  for  the  reason 
that  Selaginella  and  Isoetes  have  nothing  in  common 
beyond  the  ligule,  and  the  fact  that  they  are  both  hetero- 
sporous vascular  cryptogams. 

Sub-Kingdom  IV.  PH ANEROGAMIA. 

These  plants  are  commonly  known  as  “ flowering 
lants;”  but  they  are  more  correctly  designated  “ seed- 
earing  plants,”  or  Spermaphyta,  for  the  production  of 
a seed  is  the  one  feature  which  distinguishes  the  mem- 
bers of  this  sub-kingdom  from  those  of  the  other  sub- 
kingdoms. 

There  is  a definite  alternation  of  generations  in  the 
life-history  of  these  plants,  but  it  is  obscured  by  the 
extreme  reduction  which  the  gametophyte  has  undergone 
(see  Reproduction).  The  sporophyte  is  the  plant;  a 
suspensor  is  formed  in  its  embryogeny;  and  it  is  hetero- 
sporous. The  sporophylls  are  aggregated  on  special 
shoots,  frequently  with  other  floral  leaves  (bracteoles, 
perianth  leaves),  to  form  flowers.  The  two  kinds  of 
sporangia  are  in  all  cases  borne  on  distinct  sporophylls. 
In  the  microsporangium  there  are  numerous  fertile 
sporogenous  cells,  each  of  which  produces  four  micro- 
spores; in  the  macrosporangium  there  are  generally 
but  few  sporogenous  cells,  of  which  only  one  is  usually 
fertile,  and  this  one  produces  a single  macrospore  with- 
out division.  The  microspores  are  set  free  from  the 
sporangium  producing  them,  whereas  the  macrospore  is 
not.  It  is  this  last  peculiarity  which  determines  the 
formation  of  the  seed. 

The  Phanerogamia  are  divided  into  two  two  classes 
— the  Gymnospermae  and  the  Angiospermae. 

Class  I.  Gymnospermae. — The  carpels  are  some- 
times absent,  and,  when  present,  they  do  not  form  an 
ovary;  hence  the  ovules  are  naked.  There  is  no 
stigma,  consequently  the  pollen-grain  comes  into  direct 
contact  with  the  ovule.  The  whole  of  the  female  pro- 
thallium is  formed  in  the  embryo  sac  before  fertiliza- 
tion. The  female  organ  is,  in  most  cases,  a fully  devel- 
oped archegonium.  The  embryo  is  developed  from  a 
portion  only  of  the  fertilized  female  cell  or  oospore 
(mer oblast ic  embiyogeny );  frequently  several  embryos 


V E G 


6t  54 

are  developed  from  one  oospore  {polyembryony ).  The 
flowers  are  dioecious  or  diclinous. 

This  class  consists  of  the  following  orders: 

Order  /.  Cycadacea::  characterized,  generally,  by  the 
unbranched  stem  and  by  the  large  branched  leaves. 
The  order  includes  nine  genera — Cycas,  Dioon , Cerato- 
zamia,  Zamia,  Macrozamia , Encephalartos , Stangeria, 
Bowenia , Microcycas.  The  genus  Cycas  is  peculiar  in 
that  the  carpels  are  not  borne  on  special  shoots,  so  as 
to  form  flowers,  but  on  the  main  shoot,  in  the  same 
way  as  the  foliage  leaves.  The  stamens  of  Cycas , as 
also  both  the  stamens  and  carpels  in  the  other  genera, 
are  highly  modified  sporophylls,  which  are  borne  on 
special  shoots  forming  cone-like  flowers. 

Order  2.  Coniferce:  characterized  by  the  much- 
branched  stem  and  by  the  very  numerous,  small,  un- 
branched leaves.  The  staminal  flowers  are  generally 
cone-like.  This  order  includes  the  Pines,  Firs,  Larches, 
Yews,  Cypresses,  etc.,  arranged  in  the  following 
families: 

Series  A.  Pinoideae : the  carpellary  flowers  are 
cones: 

Fam.  i.  Abietinece.  Fam.  3.  Cupressinece. 

“ 2.  Araucariece.  “ 4.  Taxodinece. 

Series  B.  Taxoideae:  the  carpellary  flowers  are 
not  cones: 

Fam.  1.  Taxinete  Fam.  2.  Podocarpece. 

Order  3.  Gnetacece:  habit  various ; the  flowers  are 
not  cones,  and  have  a perianth.  This  order  includes 
the  three  genera,  Ephedra , Gnetum,  and  Welwitschia. 
In  Gnetum  and  Welwitschia  the  female  organ  (arche- 
gonium)  is  reduced  to  a single  cell,  the  oosphere. 

Class  II.  Angiospermze. — The  carpel  or  carpels 
form  an  ovary,  in  which  the  ovules  are  inclosed.  A 
portion  of  the  carpel  forms  a stigma,  which  receives  the 
pollen-grains.  The  pollen-graihs  germinate  on  the 
stigma,  and  therefore  do  not  come  into  direct  relation 
with  the  ovules.  A part  only  of  the  female  prothallium 
{primary  endosperm)  is  formed  before  fertilization,  the 
remainder  {secondary  endosperm)  after  fertilization. 
The  female  organ  is  a reduced  arcliegonium,  consisting 
merely  of  the  female  cell  (oosphere).  The  general 
occurrence  of  both  macrosporophylls  and  microsporo- 
phylls  in  the  same  flower  is  a characteristic  feature  of 
this  group,  as  is  also  the  whorled  arrangement  of  the 
floral  leaves. 

The  Angiospermce  are  divided  into  two  sub-classes — 
the  Monocotyledons  and  the  Dicotyledons , according  to 
the  number  of  the  primary  leaves  or  cotyledons  of  the 
embryo;  hence,  in  the  former  sub-class  the  first  leaves 
are  alternate,  in  the  latter  opposite.  In  the  Monocotyle- 
dons, with  few  exceptions,  the  growing-point  of  the 
embryonic  stem  is  lateral;  in  the  Dicotyledons  it  is 
always  terminal.  There  are  other  distinguishing  feat- 
ures, such  as  the  parallel  venation  of  the  leaves  of  Mon- 
ocotyledons and  the  reticulate  venation  in  Dicotyle- 
dons; but  they  are  not  sufficiently  constant  to  be  of 
much  taxonimic  value. 

The  Monocotyledons  may  be  conveniently  arranged 
in  the  following  series: — 

Series  1.  Nudiflorce:  usually  diclinous  or  dioecious; 
perianth  wanting  or  rudimentary.  This  series  includes 
the  Spadiciflorce  (Aroids,  Palms,  Naiadece)  and  the 
Ghimiflorce  (Grasses,  Sedges). 

Series  2.  Petaloidece:  usually  monoclinous;  perianth 
present,  and  usually  well-developed  and  colored.  This 
series  includes  the  Lilies,  Orchids,  Irises,  etc. 

The  Dicotyledons  are  usually  classified  as  fol- 
lows:— 

Series  1.  Monochlamydeoe:  usually  diclinous  or 
dioecious;  perianth  absent  or  simple. 

Series  2.  Polypetalce:  usually  monoclinous;  perianth 


usually  consists  of  calyx  and  colored  corolla,  the  petals 
being  free. 

Series  3.  Gamopetalce:  usually  monoclinous;  perianth 
usually  consists  of  calyx  and  colored  corolla,  the  petals 
being  coherent. 

VEGETABLE  MARROW.  A species  of  Squash, 
much  used  in  England. 

VEGETARIANISM,  the  doctrine  that  vegetable 
substances  are  the  solids  intended  by  nature  for  the 
sustenance  of  man,  and  that  it  is  wrong — against  nature 
and  against  good  morals — for  men  to  make  use  of  an 
animal  diet.  There  have  never  been  wanting  among 
speculative  persons  some  who  maintained  that  fruit  and 
vegetables  are  the  proper  food  for  men;  and  illustrious 
names,  such  as  those  of  Pythagoras,  Plato,  Plutarch,  in 
ancient  times;  of  Rousseau,  Shelley,  Swedenborg,  in 
modern,  can  be  counted  among  the  upholders  of  this 
doctrine.  A society  for  promoting  the  practice  of 
vegetarianism  was  established  at  Manchester  in  1847, 
and  three  years  later  a similar  society  was  established  in 
the  United  States. 

There  is,  first,  a physiological  argument  used  in  be- 
half of  Vegetarianism.  It  is  said  that  the  formation  of 
the  teeth  and  of  the  intestines  in  a man  prove  that  man 
was  not  intended  to  be  a carnivorous,  but  a fruit  and 
vegetable  eating  animal.  Then,  it  is  maintained  that  a 
vegetable  diet  is  the  most  favorable  to  man  in  all  respects, 
physical,  intellectual,  and  moral;  that  with  it  his  life  is 
longer,  his  enjoyment  of  life  greater,  his  brain  more 
vigorous,  and  his  power  of  manual  labor  not  less  than 
with  an  animal  diet;  and  that,  while  the  use  of  animal 
food  begets  ferocious  dispositions,  a carelessness  about 
life,  a callousness  to  the  sufferings  of  man  or  animal,  a 
vegetable  diet  develops  the  gentler  affections,  and  pro- 
duces a broad  and  genial  sense  of  brotherhood.  It  is 
affirmed  that  animal  food  produces  febrile  and  inflam- 
matory tendencies;  that,  like  alcohol,  it  is  a stimulant 
(some  vegetarians  call  it  a stimulating  poison);  and  that 
a mixed  diet  is  open  to  all  the  objections  whicl>  lie 
against  moderate  drinking.  It  is  also  alleged  that  animal 
food,  as  exposed  for  sale,  is  often  tainted  with  some 
disease  or  unwholesome  condition,  and  that  it  thus  be- 
comes a frequent  cause  of  disease  in  man.  Moreover, 
it  is  submitted  that  vegetables  contain  all  the  principles 
necessary  for  the  sustenance  of  man;  that,  therefore, 
the  use  of  flesh  is  unnecessary;  and  that  this  being  so, 
it  is  selfish,  cruel,  and  tyrannical— calculated,  too, 
to  increase  selfishness,  cruelty,  and  tyranny  in  man — to 
cut  short  the  existence  of  inferior  animals. 

The  opinion  of  physiologists  is  not  favorable  to  vege- 
tarianism. The  structure  of  man’s  organs  is  held  to 
prove  that  nature  intended  him  for  an  omnivorous 
animal,  his  stomach  and  intestines  being  fitted  for  deriv- 
ing nourishment  from  every  kind  of  food,  and  he  being 
able,  by  means  of  cooking,  to  modify  his  food  so  as  to 
prepare  it  for  mastication  and  digestion.  There  is  also 
almost  a concurrence  of  medical  experience  against 
vegetarianism,  and  in  favor  of  the  opinion  that  man,  as 
regards  all  his  powers  and  faculties,  thrives  best,  and 
that — if  a difference  can  be  made  out — he  also  lives 
longest  upon  a mixed  diet. 

Upon  the  alleged  beneficent  moral  influence  of  vege- 
table food,  it  may  be  observed  that  there  is  no  proof 
whatever  of  this  reality;  morever,  that  since  the  major- 
ity of  mankind  live  either  mostly  or  entirely  on  vege- 
tables, vegetables  must  bear  a large  share  of  the 
responsibility  which  may  fall  upon  diet  for  the  evil 
tendencies  of  man;  and  that,  in  fact,  the  most  cruel 
and  the  most  debased  of  human  races  live  entirely  upon 
vegetables.  To  the  charge  of  cruelty  brought  against 
the  practice  of  killing  animals  for  food,  it  has  been 
answered,  that  the  plan  of  nature  contemplates  such 


V E G - 

cruelty,  if  cruelty  it  be,  and  makes  it  impossible  to 
avoid  it;  that  the  microscope  has  shown  us  that  even  in 
taking  a draught  of  water  we  may  deprive  a multitude 
of  beings  of  life;  and  that  on  the  other  hand,  the 
system  of  rearing  cattle  for  the  butcher,  since  the 
cattle  would  otherwise  not  be  reared  at  all,  really  adds 
very  largely  to  the  sum  of  happy  animal  existence.  It 
is  not  disputed  that  there  is  a liability  to  disease  from 
the  use  of  unwholesome  meat;  but,  then,  vegetables  as 
well  as  animals  are  subject  to  diseases,  and  the  reason- 
ing which  would  drive  us  from  the  use  of  animal  food, 
because  it  may  be  diseased,  would  really  cut  us  off 
from  food  altogether. 

VEGETIUS,  Flavius  Renatus,  the  compiler  of  a 
treatise  on  the  art  of  war,  dedicated  to  Valentinian  II. 
(375-392).  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life  save  that  in 
MSS.  he  is  called  vir  illustris  and  also  comes.  The 
book,  which  is  a poor  compilation,  has  to  be  used  with 
great  caution.  It  has  been  often  translated;  an  English 
version  through  the  French  was  published  by  Caxton  in 
1489. 

VEGLIA  (Slavonic,  Krk),  an  island  in  the  Gulf  of 
Quarnero,  Adriatic  Sea,  belonging  to  the  Austrian  dis- 
trict of  I stria,  is  separated  from  the  mainland  by  the 
narrow  channel  of  Morlaccaor  Maltempo  and  from  the 
island  of  Cherso  on  the  southwest  by  that  of  Mezzo. 
It  is  twenty-four  miles  long  and  about  fourteen  miles, 
across  at  its  widest  part.  In  1900  the  island  contained 
18,089  inhabitants;  the  capital  is  Veglia,  a town  on  the 
southwest  side,  with  1,580  inhabitants  and  a good 
harbor. 

VEHMIC  COURTS.  See  Fehmic  Courts. 

VEIL  See  Etruria. 

VEIL.  This  familiar  article  of  dress  is  one  of  the 
most  ancient  in  use;  its  origin  is  lost  in  remoteness;  but 
we  find  an  allusion  to  the  wearing  of  veils  by  the  Chinese 
in  Oyid,  and  Juvenal  speaks  of  woman  as  being  so  deli- 
cate as  to  be  overheated  by  a silken  veil.  Although 
generally  considered  portions  of  female  dress,  we  read 
in  the  works  of  Ambrose  (374  A. D.)  of  silken  garments 
and  veils  interwoven  with  gold,  with  which  the  body  of 
the  rich  man  is  encompassed.  Its  use  is  now  so  ex- 
tended that  it  may  be  found  in  every  part  of  the  civilized 
world,  but  almost  exclusively  confined  to  woman. 

VEINS,  in  anatomy,  if  we  except  the  pulmonary, 
the  portal,  and  the  umbilical  veins,  are  the  vessels  which 
carry  back  venous  blood  from  the  capillaries,  and,  enlarg- 
ing as  they  proceed,  finally  pour  it  through  the  ascend- 
ing and  descending  vense  cavae  into  the  right  auricle  of 
the  heart.  Their  coats  are  similar  to  those  of  the  arte- 
ries, but  much  thinner,  and  even  transparent.  They  are, 
however,  of  considerable  strength.  The  internal  coat 
consists  of  an  epithelial  layer,  supported  on  several 
laminae  of  longitudinal  elastic  fibers.  The  middle  or 
contractile  coat  consists  of  numerous  alternating  layers 
of  muscular  and  elastic  fibers;  the  muscular  fibers  be- 
ing disposed  circularly  round  the  vessel.  The  muscular 
fibers  are  wanting  in  some  parts  of  the  venous  system, 
and  specially  developed  in  others  (as,  for  example,  the 
splenic  and  portal  veins,  where,  perhaps  from  the  phys- 
ical character  of  the  tissues  which  they  pervade,  there 
may  be  more  than  the  ordinary  resistance  to  the  pas- 
sage of  the  blood).  In  the  venae  cavae,  and  pulmonary 
veins  near  the  heart,  striped  muscular  fibers  may  be  de- 
tected, continuous  with  those  in  the  auricles.  The  ex- 
ternal or  areolar  fibrous  coat  consists  of  connective  or 
areolar  tissue  and  of  longitudinal  elastic  fibers;  within 
some  of  the  larger  veins,  as  the  inferior  vena  cava, 
through  its  whole  length,  the  external  iliacs,  the  azygos, 
etc.,  there  is  also  a longitudinal  network  of  unstriped 
muscular  fibers. 

The  existence  of  calves  in  the  veins  is  a well  known 


- V E L 6155 

fact.  These  valves  are  most  numerous  in  the  veins  of 
the  extremities,  especially  the  lower  ones,  these  vessels 
having  to  act  against  the  force  of  gravity  more  than 
most  others.  They  are  absent  in  the  venae  cavae,  the 
hepatic,  portal,  renal,  pulmonary,  and  some  other  large 
veins,  and  in  very  small  veins  generally.  The  veins  ace 
nourished  by  nutrient  vessels,  or  vasa  vasorum,  like  the 
arteries;  but  except  in  a few  instances  (including  the 
inferior  vena  cava),  nerves  are  not  distributed  to.  them. 

The  chief  diseases  of  the  venous  system  are  inflam- 
mation of  the  veins;  phlebolites;  phlegmasia  alba  dolens, 
or  milk-leg;  thrombus,  and  varicose  veins.  We  shall 
merely  refer  to  two  conditions  of  the  venous  system 
which  must  be  regarded  as  the  results  of  natural  rather 
than  morbid  action ; they  are  hypertrophy  and  atrophy. 
Hypertrophy  is  a natural  and  healthy  change  which  will 
be  readily  understood  by  one  or  two  illustrations. 
When  the  uterus  enlarges  during  pregnancy,  the  quan- 
tity of  blood  increases  in  at  least  a corresponding  ratio, 
and  so  also  do  the  venous  canals  by  which  it  is  removed; 
wnde,  shortly  after  delivery,  they  return  to  their  natural 
size;  the  hypertrophy  being  accompanied  with  a propor- 
tionate dilation.  This  form  of  hypertrophy,  with  dila- 
tation, often  exerts  a compensative  action,  one  vein  or 
set  of  veins  taking  additional  work  (and  consequently 
requiring  an  increase  of  caliber),  to  make  up  for  the 
partial  and  entire  occlusion  of  another.  When,  for 
example,  the  ascending  vena  cava  is  diminished  in  size, 
or  even  entirely  and  permanently  closed,  it  is  well 
known  that  the  lower  portion  of  the  vessel  dilates  in 
common  with  the  branches  entering  into  it,  and  that 
the  superficial  abdominal  veins  or  azygos,  or  both, 
become  enlarged,  and  thus  cany  to  the  heart  the  blood 
which  ought  to  have  reached  the  heart  by  the  usual 
course.  If  the  obstruction  is  only  temporary,  the  en- 
larged veins  return  to  their  original  state,  except  that 
additional  transverse  fibers  are  found  in  the  middle  coat. 
Atrophy  of  the  veins  accompanies  the  corresponding 
changes  of  other  tissues,  when  a part  is  permanently 
diseased.  Amputation  above  the  knee  soon  reduces 
the  femoral  vein  to  less  than  one-third  of  its  previous 
size. 

VEIT,  Philipp,  a distinguished  German  painter, 
was  born  at  Berlin,  Germany,  February  13,  1793.  His 
first  famous  work  was  the  Seven  Years  of  Plenty , 
executed  as  a companion  piece  to  Overbeck’s  Seven 
Years  of  Dearth,  and  forming  part  of  a series  of  frescoes 
illustrative  of  the  history  of  Joseph,  painted  at  the  Villa 
Bartholdy  in  Rome.  These  procured  him  so  great  a 
reputation  that  he  was  called  to  the  directorship  of  the 
Stadelsche  Art  Institute,  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
In  1843  he  resigned  his  post  as  director,  and  removed 
to  Sachsenhausen,  in  Hesse-Cassel.  In  1868  he  painted 
-several  frescoes  for  Mayence  Cathedral.  He  died  in 
December,  1877. 

VELAZQUEZ,  Diego  de  Silva,  the  head  of  the 
Spanish  school  of  painting  and  one  of  the  mightiest 
painters  the  world  has  known,  was  born  in  Seville  early 
in  June,  1599,  the  year  in  which  Van  Dyck  also  first 
saw  the  light  at  Antwerp.  His  European  fame  is  of 
comparatively  recent  origin,  dating  from  the  first  quar- 
ter of  the  nineteenth  century.  Till  then  his  pictures 
had  lain  immured  in  the  palaces  and  museum  of  Mad- 
rid; and  from  want  of  popular  appreciation  they  had  to 
a large  extent  escaped  the  rapacity  of  the  French  mar- 
shals during  the  Peninsular  War. 

Velazquez  was  the  son  of  Rodriguez  de  Silva,  a law- 
yer in  Seville,  descended  from  a noble  Portuguese 
family,  and  was  baptized  on  June  6,  1599-  Following 
a common  Spanish  usage,  he  is  known  by  his  mother’s 
name  Velazquez.  There  has  been  considerable  diversity 
of  opinion  as  to  his  full  name,  but  he  was  known  to  his 


contemporaries  as  Diego  de  Silva  Velazquez,  and  signed 
his  name  thus.  He  was  educated,  says  Palomino,  by 
his  parents  in  the  fear  of  God,  and  was  intended  for  a 
learned  profession,  for  which  he  received  a good  train- 
ing in  languages  and  philosophy.  But  the  bent  of  the 
boy  was  toward  art,  and  he  was  placed  under  the  elder 
Herrera,  a vigorous  painter  who  disregarded  the  Italian 
influence  of  the  early  Seville  school.  Velazquez  re- 
mained but  one  year,  long  enough,  however,  to  in- 
fluence his  life.  It  was  from  Herrera  that  he  learned  to 
use  long  brushes,  or,  as  Mr.  J.  E.  Hodgson,  R.A., 
suggests,  brushes  with  lortg  bristles,  by  means  of  which 
his  colors  seem  to  be  floated  on  the  canvas  by  a light 
fluent  touch,  the  envy  and  despair  of  his  successors. 
From  Herrera’s  studio  Velazquez  betook  himself  to  a 
very  different  master,  the  learned  and  pedantic  Pacheco, 
the  author  of  a heavy  book  on  painting,  and,  as  we  see 
by  his  works  at  Madrid,  a dull,  commonplace  painter. 
In  this  school  he  remained  for  five  years. 

Here,  also — and  this  may  explain  much — he  fell  :n 
love  with  his  master’s  daughter,  Juana,  whom  he  married 
in  1618  with  the  hearty  approval  of  Pacheco,  who 
praises  his  hand  and  heart,  claiming  at  the  same  time  all 
the  credit  of  having  been  his  master.  He  must,  how- 
ever, have  found  Velazquez  a wayward  pupil;  for,  in- 
stead of  looking  to  Raphael,  according  to  orders,  the 
young  painter  set  himself  to  copy  the  commonest  things 
about  him — earthenware  jars  of  the  country  people, 
birds,  fish,  fruit,  and  flowers  of  the  market-place.  To 
aint  well  and  thoroughly  what  he  saw,  to  model  with 
is  brush,  and  to  color  under  the  influence  of  light  and 
shade  were  for  him  the  vital  purpose,  the  first  lesson, 
in  his  art.  It  was  with  deliberate  purpose  that  Velazquez 
painted  these  bodegones  (tavern-pieces),  as  they  were 
called ; for  we  are  told  that  he  said  he  would  rather  be 
the  first  painter  of  common  things  than  the  second  in 
higher  art.  Carrying  out  this  idea  still  farther,  Velazquez 
felt  that  to  master  the  subtlety  of  the  human  face  he 
must  make'  this  a special  study,  and  he  accordingly 
engaged  a peasant  lad  to  be  his  servant  and  model, 
making  innumerable  studies  in  charcoal  and  chalk,  and 
catching  his  every  expression.  We  see  this  model  in  the 
laughing  Peasant  Boy  of  the  Belvedere  Gallery  at  Vienna. 
In  such  work  as  this,  and  in  his  studies  by  the  wayside, 
Velazquez  laid  the  foundation  of  his  subsequent  mastery 
of  expression,  of  penetration  into  character,  and  of 
rendering  the  life  of  his  sitter  to  the  quick.  For  sacred 
subjects  we  may  turn  to  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi  at 
Madrid,  dated  1619,  and  the  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds 
in  the  London  National  Gallery,  in  both  of  which  we 
have  excellent  examples  of  his  realism.  The  peasants 
offering  their  gifts  of  poultry  are  the  hard-featured 
women  of  the  market-place  of  Seville,  pre-Raphaelite 
in  their  uncompromising  truthfulness.  Thus,  also,  in 
the  St.  John  in  the  Desert , we  find  his  peasant  boy 
transformed  into  the  saint. 

But  Velazquez  was  now  eager  to  see  more  of  the 
world.  Madrid,  with  its  fine  Titians,  held  out  strong 
inducements.  Accordingly  in  1622,  fortified  with  let- 
ters of  introduction  to  Fonseca,  who  held  a good 
position  at  court,  he  spent  some  months  there,  accom- 
panied only  by  his  servant.  Two  years  later  (1624)  he  re- 
ceived from  the  king  three  hundred  ducats  to  pay  the 
cost  of  the  removal  of  his  family  to  Madrid,  which 
became  his  home  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  It  was 
during  this  period  that  he  painted  the  hunting-scenes 
of  which  examples  are  to  be  found  in  the  collections  of 
Sir  Richard  Wallace,  Lord  Clarendon,  and  others,  and 
which  served  him  in  the  production  of  the  great  Boar 
Hunt  of  the  London  National  Gallery,  painted,  how- 
ever, in  the  later  years  of  his  life — a magnificent  work 
la  spit’  cf  some  restorations. 


In  1628  Rubens  visited  Madrid  on  a diplomatic  mis- 
sion for  nine  months,  and  Velazquez  was  appointed  by 
the  king  to  be  his  guide  among  the  art  treasures  of 
Spain.  In  i627>  the  king  had  given  for  competition 
among  the  painters  of  Spain  the  subject  of  the  Expul- 
sion of  the  Moors.  Valazquez  bore  off  the  palm;  but 
his  picture  was  destroyed  in  a fire  at  the  palace  in  1 734. 
The  triumph  of  Velazquez  was  rewarded  by  his  being 
appointed  gentleman-usher.  As  an  extra  payment  he 
received  (though  it  was  not  paid  for  five  years)  one  hun- 
dred ducats  for  the  picture  of  Bacchus,  painted  in  1629 
(No.  485  of  the  Madrid  gallery).  The  spirit  and  aim  of 
this  work  are  better  understood  from  its  Spanish  name, 
Los  Borrachos  or  Los  Bebedores  (the  Topers),  who  are 
paying  mock  homage  to  a half-naked  ivy-crowned  young 
man  seated  on  a wine  barrel. 

In  1629  Philip  gave  Velazquez  permission  to  carry 
out  his  desire  of  visiting  Italy,  without  loss  of  salary, 
making  him  besides  a present  of  400  ducats,  to  which 
Olivares  added  200.  He  sailed  from  Barcelona  in 
August  in  the  company  of  the  marquis  De  Spinola,  the 
conqueror  of  Breda,  then  on  his  way  to  take  command 
of  the  Spanish  troops  at  Milan.  It  was  during  this 
voyage  that  Velazquez  must  have  heard  the  details  of 
the  surrender  of  Breda  from  the  lips  of  the  victor,  and 
he  must  have  sketched  his  fine  head,  known  to  us  also 
by  the  portrait  by  Van  Dyck.  But  the  great  picture 
was  not  painted  till  many  years  later,  for  Spinola  had 
fallen  into  disfavor  at  court.  In  Venice  Velazquez  made 
copies  of  the  Crucifixion  and  the  Last  Supper  of  Tin- 
toretto, which  he  sent  to  the  king,  and  in  Rome  he 
copied  Michelangelo  and  Raphael,  lodging  in  the  Villa 
Medici  till  fever  compelled  him  to  remove  into  the  city. 
Here  he  painted  the  Forge  of  Vulcan  (No.  1,059  of  the 
Madrid  gallery),  in  which  Apollo  narrates  to  the  aston- 
ished Vulcan,  a village  blacksmith,  the  news  of  the  in- 
fidelity of  Venus,  while  four  Cyclops  listen  to  the 
scandal.  At  Rome  he  also  painted  the  two  beautiful 
landscapes  of  the  Gardens  of  the  Medici , now  in  the 
Madrid  museum,  full  of  sparkle  and  charm.  Landscape 
as  a form  of  art  never  had  attraction  for  the  Spaniards; 
but  Velazquez  here,  and  in  the  silvery  landscapes 
painted  some  years  later  at  Aranjuez,  shows  how  great 
a master  he  was  in  this  branch  of  art.  After  a visit  to 
Naples  in  1631,  where  he  worked  with  his  countryman 
Ribera,  and  painted  a charming  portrait  of  the  infanta 
Maria,  sister  of  Philip,  he  returned  early  in  the  year  to 
Madrid. 

He  then  painted  the  first  of  many  portraits  of  the 
young  prince  Don  Baltasar  Carlos,  the  heir  to  the 
throne,  dignified  and  lordly  even  in  his  childhood, 
caracolling  in  the  dress  of  a field-marshal  on  his 
prancing  steed.  In  these  portraits  Velazquez  has  well 
repaid  the  debt  of  gratitude  which  he  owed  to  his  first 
patron,  whom  he  stood  by  in  his  fall,  thus  exposing 
himself  to  the  risk — and  it  was  not  a light  one — of 
incurring  the  anger  of  the  jealous  Philip.  The  king, 
however,  showed  no  sign  of  malice  toward  his  favored 
painter.  Faithful  in  few  things,  Philip  kept  true  to 
Velazquez,  whom  he  visited  daily  in  his  studio  in  the 
palace,  and  to  whom  he  stood  in  many  attitudes  and 
costumes,  as  a huntsman  with  his  dogs,  as  a warrior  in 
command  of  his  troops,  and  even  on  his  knees  at 
prayer,  wearing  ever  the  same  dull,  uninterested  look. 
His  pale  face  and  lack-luster  eye,  his  fair  flowing  hair 
and  mustaches  curled  up  to  his  eyes,  and  his  heavy 
projecting  Austrian  lip  are  known  in  many  a portrait 
and  nowhere  more  supremely  than  in  the  wonderful 
canvas  of  the  London  National  Gallery  (No.  745), 
where  he  seems  to  live  and  breathe. 

The  greatest  of  the  religious  paintings  by  Velazquez 
belongs  also  to  this  middle  period,  the  Christ  on  the 


VEL 


Cross  (Madrid  gallery,  No.  1,055).  Palomino  says  it 
was  painted  in  1638  for  the  convent  of  San  Placido.  It 
is  a work  of  tremendous,  power  and  of  great  originality, 
the  moment  chosen  being  that  immediately  after  death. 

Velazquez’s  son-in-law  Mazo  had  succeeded  him  as 
usher  in  1634,  and  he  himself  had  received  steady  pro- 
motion in  the  royal  household,  receiving  a pension  of 
500  ducats  in  1640,  increased  to  700  in  1648,  for  por- 
traits painted  and  to  be  painted,  and  being  appointed 
inspector  of  works  in  the  palace  in  1647.  Philip  now 
intrusted  him  with  the  carrying  out  of  a design  on 
which  he  had  long  set  his  heart,  the  founding  of  an 
academy  of  art  in  Spain.  Rich  in  pictures,  Spain  was 
weak  in  statuary,  and  Velazquez  was  commissioned  to 
proceed  to  Italy  to  make  purchases.  At  Modena  he 
was  received  with  much  favor  by  the  duke,  and  doubt- 
less here  he  painted  the  two  splendid  portraits  which 
now  adorn  the  Dresden  gallery,  for  these  pictures  came 
from  the  Modena  sale  of  1746.  They  presage  the  ad- 
vent of  the  painter’s  third  and  latest  manner,  a noble 
example  of  which  is  the  great  portrait  of  Innocent  X. 
in  the  Doria  palace  at  Rome,  to  which  city  Velazquez 
now  proceeded.  There  he  was  received  with  marked 
favor  by  the  pope,  who  presented  him  with  a medal 
and  gold  chain.  Philip  was  now  wearying  for  his  re- 
turn ; accordingly,  after  a visit  to  Naples,  where  he  saw 
his  old  friend  Riberia,  he  returned  to  Spain  by  Barce- 
lona in  1651,  taking  with  him  many  pictures  and  300 
pieces  of  statuary,  which  he  afterward  arranged  and 
catalogued  for  the  king.  Undraped  sculpture  was, 
however,  abhorrent  to  the  Spanish  Church,  and  after 
Philip’s  death  these  works  gradually  disappeared. 

Isabella  of  Bourbon  had  died  in  1644,  and  the  king 
had  married  Maria  Anna  of  Austria,  whom  Velazquez 
now  painted  in  many  attitudes.  He  was  specially. chosen 
by  the  king  to  fill  the  high  office  of  “ aposentador 
major,”  which  imposed  on  him  Jhe  duty  of  looking  after 
the  quarters  occupied  by  the  court  whether  at  home  or 
in  their  journeys — a responsible  function,  which  was  no 
sinecure  and  interfered  with  the  exercise  of  his  art. 
Yet  far  from  indicating  any  decline,  his  works  of  this 
period  are  among  the  highest  examples  of  his  style. 
Las  Meninas  was  the  picture  of  which  Luca  Giordano 
said  that  it  was  the  “theology  of  painting,”  another 
way  of  expressing  the  opinion  of  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence, 
that  this  work  is  the  philosophy  of  art,  so  true  is  it  in 
rendering  the  desired  effect.  The  result  is  there,  one 
knows  not  by  what  means,  as  if  by  a first  intention 
without  labor,  absolutely  right.  The  story  is  told  that 
the  king  painted  the  red  cross  of  Santiago  on  the  breast 
of  the  painter,  *as  it  appears  to-day  on  the  canvas.  Ve- 
lazquez did  not,  however,  receive  the  honor  till  1659, 
three  years  after  the  execution  of  this  work.  Even  the 
powerful  king  of  Spain  could  not  make  his  favorite  a 
belted  knight  without  a commission  to  inquire  into  the 
purity  of  his  lineage  on  both  sides  of  the  house.  For- 
tunately the  pedigree  could  bear  scrutiny,  as  for  genera- 
tions the  family  was  found  free  from  all  taint  of  heresy, 
from  all  trace  of  Jewish  or  Moorish  blood,  and  from 
contamination  by  trade  or  commerce.  The  difficulty 
connected  with  the  fact  that  he  was  a painter  was  got 
over  by  his  being  painter  to  the  king  and  by  the  decla- 
ration that  he  did  not  sell  his  pictures.  But  for  this 
royal  appointment,  which  enabled  him  to  escape  the 
censorship  of  the  Inquisition,  we  should  never  have  had 
his  splendid  Venus  and  Cupid,  painted  in  his  latest 
manner  and  worthy  of  comparison  with  Titian.  There 
were  in  truth  but  two  patrons  of  art  in  Spain— the 
church  and  the  art -loving  king  and  court.  Murillo  was 
the  artist  favored  by  the  church,  while  Velazquez  was 
patronized  by  the  crown. 

In  1660  a treaty  of  peace  between  France  and  Spain 

386 


6157 

was  to  be  consummated  by  the  marriage  of  the  infanta 
Maria  Theresa  with  Louis  XIV.,  and  the  ceremony  was 
to  take  place  in  the  Island  of  Pheasants,  a small  swampy 
island  in  the  Bidassoa.  Velazquez  was  charged  with 
the  decoration  of  the  Spanish  pavilion  and  with  the 
whole  scenic  display.  In  the  midst  of  the  grandees  ot 
the  first  two  courts  in  Christendom  V elazquez  attracted 
much  attention  by  the  nobility  of  his  bearing  and  the 
splendor  of  his  costume.  On  June  26th  he  returned  to 
Madrid,  and  on  July  31st  he  was  stricken  with  fever. 
Feeling  his  end  approaching,  he  signed  his  will,  appoint- 
ing as  his  sole  executors  his  wife  and  his  firm  friend 
Fuensalida,  keeper  of  the  royal  records.  He  died  on 
August  6,  1660. 

VELEIA,  a town  of  Liguria,  near  the  frontier  of 
Gallia  Cisalpina,  on  the  Apennine  slope,  about  twenty 
miles  to  the  south  of  Placentia.  Interesting  antiquities 
from  Veleia,  including  the  “ tabula  alimentaria  ” of 
Trajan,  are  deposited  in  the  museum  at  Parma.  None 
of  the  coins  hitherto  discovered  on  the  site  are  later 
than  the  time  of  Probus  (276-282). 

VELEZ-MALAGA,  a town  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Malaga,  and  fifteen  miles  east-northeast  from  that 
town,  is  finely  situated  in  a fertile  valley  at  the  foot  of 
steep  mountains  (Sierra  Tejada),  within  a mile  of  the 
mouth  of  the  small  river  Velez.  The  vegetation  of  the 
neighborhood  is  most  luxuriant,  including  the  aloe, 
palm,  sugar-cane,  prickly  pear,  orange,  vine,  olive,  and 
sweet  potato.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  employed 
in  the  various  industries  connected  with  the  cultivation 
and  export  of  the  products  of  these.  There  is  also  a 
tunny  fishery.  The  population  within  the  municipal 
boundaries  in  1897  was  25,332. 

VELIZH,  or  Weliz,  a district-town  of  Russia,  in 
the  government  of  Vitebsk,  on  the  Dwina,  fifty-three 
miles  northeast  of  the  city  of  Vitebsk.  It  has  an 
active  trade  in  grain  and  linseed,  grown  in  the  neighbor- 
ing provinces,  and  sent  by  river  to  Riga  in  exchange 
for  fish,  salt,  tobacco,  and  groceries.  The  population 
(18,370  in  1895)  has  doubled  since  about  i860. 

VELLEIUS.  See  Paterculus. 

VELLETRI,  a town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Rome,  and  twenty-six  miles  by  rail  to  the  southeast  of 
that  city,  is  picturesquely  situated  on  a spur  of  Monte 
Artemisio  on  the  southern  edge  of  the  Alban  Hills  and 
overlooking  the  Pontine  marshes.  The  neighborhood 
produces  a celebrated  wine,  a chief  source  of  wealth  to 
the  town.  The  population  in  1901  numbered  15,532. 

VELLORE,  a town  and  military  cantonment  of  India, 
in  North  Arcot  district  of  the  Madras  presidency,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  Palar  in  120  55'  17"  N.  latitude 
and  790  io'  17"  E.  longitude.  After  the  fall  of  Serin- 
gapatam  (1799)  Vellore  was  selected  as  the  residence  of 
the  sons  of  Tippoo  Sahib,  and  to  their  intrigues  has 
been  attributed  the  revolt  of  the  sepoys  at  Vellore  in 
1806.  Beside  the  fortress,  the  town  contains  a hand- 
some Vishnuvite  temple  with  some  good  carving.  In 
1901  the  population  was  39,491. 

VELVET  is  a silken  textile  fabrichaving  a short  dense 
piled  surface.  It  is  the  type  of  the  numerous  forms  of 
piled  fabric  now  made.  In  all  probability  the  art  of  velvet- 
weaving originated  in  the  far  East;  and  it  is  not  till  about 
the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  that  we  find  any 
mention  of  the  textile.  Fustian,  however,  which  differs 
from  velvet  only  in  material,  is  spoken  of  in  English 
ecclesiastical  inventories  as  early  as  the  beginning  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  The  peculiar  properties  of 
velvet,  the  splendid  yet  softened  depth  of  dye-color  it 
exhibited,  at  once  marked  it  out  as  a fit  material  for 
ecclesiastical  vestments,  royal  and  state  robes,  and 
sumptuous  hangings;  and  the  most  magnificent  textures 
of  mediaeval  times  were  Italian  velvets.  These  were  ;f* 


V E N 


<5158 

many  ways  most  effectively  treated  for  ornamentation, 
such  as  by  varying  the  color  of  the  pile,  by  producing  pile 
of  different  lengths  (pile  upon  pile,  or  double  pile),  and 
by  brocading  with  plain  silk,  with  uncut  pile,  or  with  a 
ground  of  gold  tissue,  etc.  The  earliest  sources  of  Eu- 
ropean artistic  velvets  were  Lucca,  Genoa,  Florence, 
and  Venice,  and  to  the  present  day  Genoa  continues  to 
send  out  rich  velvet  textures.  Somewhat  later  the  art 
was  taken  up  by  Flemish  weavers,  and  in  the  sixteenth 
century  Bruges  attained  a reputation  for  velvets  not  in- 
ferior to  that  of  the  great  Italian  cities.  The  principal 
seats  of  the  modern  manufacture  are  Crefeld  and  Lyons; 
but,  at  the  former  center  especially,  a large  proportion 
of  an  inferior  texture,  having  a silken  pile  on  a cotton 
foundation  and  known  as  velveteen , is  now  made. 
VENANTIUS.  See  P'ortunatus. 

VENDACE  is  the  name  of  a British  freshwater  fish 
of  the  genus  Coregonus , of  which  two  other  species  are 
indigenous  in  the  fresh  waters  of  the  British  Islands, 
viz.,  the  gwyniad  and  the  pollan.  The  vendace(C. 
vandesius ) is  restricted  to  some  lochs  in  Dumfriesshire, 
Scotland;  it  is,  however,  very  similar  to  a species  ( C . 
albula ) which  inhabits  some  of  the  large  and  deep  lakes 
of  northern  Europe.  It  is  considered  a great  delicacy, 
and  on  favorable  days  when  the  shoals  rise  to  the  sur- 
face, near  the  edges  of  the  loch,  great  numbers  may  be 
taken.  It  spawns  in  November.  In  length  it  scarcely 
exceeds  eight  inches. 

VENDlLE,  a maritime  department  of  France,  formed 
in  1790  out  of  Bas-Poitou,  and  taking  its  name  from  an 
unimportant  tributary  of  the  Sevre  Niortaise,  lies  be- 
tween 46°  1 6'  and  470  5'  N.  latitude  and  o°  32'  and  20 
10'  W.  longitude,  and  is  bounded  by  Loire-Inferi- 
eure  and  Maine-et-Loire  on  the  north,  by  Deux-Sevres 
on  the  east,  by  Charente-Inferieure  on  the  south,  and 
by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  west  for  ninety-three 
miles.  The  islands  of  Yeu  (or  Dieu)  and  Noirmoutier 
are  included.  The  plain  of  Vendee  is  bare  and  treeless, 
but  fertile,  though  poor  in  springs;  geologically  it  is 
composed  of  lias  and  oolite.  The  marshes,  raised  above 
the  sea-level  within  historic  times  (four  centuries  ago), 
consist  of  two  portions,  the  Breton  marsh  in  the  north 
and  the  Poitevin  marsh  in  the  south.  The  region  in- 
cludes salt  marshes  and  cultivated  areas  artificially 
drained.  Its  area  is  constantly  being  increased  by  the 
alluvium  of  the  rivers  and  the  secular  elevation  of  the 
coast.  Population  (1901),  439,637. 

Out  of  the  total  area  of  1,656,531  acres  arable  land 
occupies  1,023,275  acres,  grass  290,503,  vines  37,467, 
wood  65,853,  and  moor,  pasture,  and  uncultivated  land 
136,432.  Apples,  pears,  peaches,  plums,  cherries,  and 
walnutsare  the  principal  fruits  grown.  Iron,  salt,  coal, 
antimony,  lead,  “the  Vendee  diamond”  (a  kind  of 
quartz),  china  clay,  and  slate  are  obtained ; and  granite, 
gneiss,  slate  schist,  limestone,  cement,  millstones,  and 
clay  are  objects  of  industry.  The  celebrated  beds  of  sea- 
shells  near  St.  Michel-en-l’Herm — 2,300  feet  long,  985 
broad,  and  from  30  to  50  feet  in  depth — show  to  what 
an  extent  the  coast  has  risen.  The  wool  spinning  and 
weaving  industry  occupies  12,570  spindles  and  520  hand- 
looms;  cotton,  3,100  spindles  and  5 looms;  linen,  388 
spindles  and  478  looms  (80  being  power  looms).  There 
are  potteries,  paper-mills,  tan-yards,  dye-works,  a glass- 
works, manufactories  of  hats,  boots  and  shoes,  and 
lampblack,  flour-mills,  distilleries,  tile -works,  and  ship- 
building-yards,  and  sardines  and  tinned  foods  are  pre- 
pared— in  all  575  industrial  establishments.  The  sar- 
dine fishery  occupies  800  boats  and  2,000  men,  and 
there  are  extensive  oyster-beds  near  Sables-d’Olonne. 
Grain,  cattle,  mules,  fish,  salt,  wine,  honey,  wood,  glass, 
and  manure  are  exported ; wine,  wood,  building  ma- 
terial, and  coal  are  among  the  imports. 


VENDETTA  (vengeance),  the  term  used  to  denote 
the  practice,  as  it  prevails  in  Corsica,  of  individuals 
taking  private  vengeance  upon  those  who  haVe  shed  the 
blood  of  their  relations.  In  Corsica,  when  a murder 
has  been  committed,  the  murderer  is  pursued  not  only 
by  the  officers  of  justice,  whose  duty  it  is  to  punish 
offenses  against  society,  but  also  by  the  relatives  of  the 
slain,  upon  whom  the  received  views  of  social  duty  im- 
pose the  obligation  of  personally  revenging  his  death. 
In  such  a case  the  relatives  of  the  murdered  man  take 
up  their  arms  and  hasten  to  pursue,  and,  if  they  can 
find  him,  to  slay  the  murderer.  If  he  succeed  in  eluding 
their  pursuit  the  murder  may  be  revenged  upon  his 
relatives,  and  the  vengeance  maybe  taken  whenever  the 
opportunity  occurs;  the  relatives  of  a murderer,  whose 
crime  is  unavenged,  have  to  live  in  a state  of  incessant 
precaution.  When  they  go  to  the  fields,  they  take  their 
arms  with  them,  and  set  a watch;  at  home,  they  have 
their  doors  well  fastened  and  their  windows  barricaded; 
and,  since  the  avenger  is  never  far  distant,  they  live  in 
fact  in  a state  of  siege. 

The  origin  of  vendetta  has  often  been  referred  to  the 
lawlessness  which  prevailed  in  many  parts  of  Corsica 
during  the  period  of  the  Genoese  domination,  and  to 
the  venality  which  vitiated  the  Genoese  administration 
of  justice.  And,  no  doubt,  the  insecurity  and  the  mal- 
administration of  justice  which  existed  in  Corsica  for 
ages,  helped  to  consolidate  this  barbarous  custom, 
which,  thus  consolidated,  has  been  perpetuated  by  the 
isolated  position  of  the  country,  and  the  absence  of 
civilizing  influences.  But  the  explanation  of  its  origin 
must  be  sought  in  more  general  causes,  for  it  is  not 
exclusively  a Corsican  custom.  On  the  contrary,  it 
may  be  safely  affirmed  that  a system  of  private  ven- 
geance • almost  precisely  similar,  has  existed  among 
every  people  during  certain  stages  of  its  progress — 
never  entirely  passing  away  until  government  became 
strong  enough  to  insure  redress  of  injuries,  and  to 
restrain  the  passions  of  individuals. 

VENDOME,  a town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  an  ar- 
rondissement  in  the  department  of  Loir-et-Cher,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  river  Loir,  109  miles  southwest  of  Paris  by 
the  railway  to  Tours,  at  the  junction  of  the  line  from 
Blois  to  Le  Mans.  The  population  in  1881  was  7,913 
(commune  9,420),  the  corresponding  figures  for  1901 
being  9,843  and  9,325. 

VENEERING  is  the  art  of  attaching  thin  sheets  or 
leaves  of  wood,  ivory,  etc.,  to  the  surface  of  wood  or 
other  material  of  a less  costly  or  less  ornamental  de- 
scription. It  is  thus  in  connection  with  wood,  ivory, 
etc.,  equivalent  to  plating  in  the  working  of  metals. 
The  art  is  largely  practiced  in  cabinet-work.  Veneers 
are  either  cut  or  sawn  from  solid  blocks  or  planks.  The 
ordinary  veneer  saw  is  a circular  instrument  of  large 
diameter,  made  up  of  segments  of  thin  steel  bolted  on  a 
strong  circular  iron  frame,  which  gives  the  requisite 
stiffness  and  rigidity  to  the  saw  edge.  The  teeth  of  the 
saw  are  minute  and  finely  set,  so  as  to  waste  as  little  as 
possible  of  the  valuable  material  as  sawdust.  With 
such  a saw  from  eight  to  sixteen  leaves  per  inch  may  be 
cut  out  of  a block  of  wood  and  as  many  as  thirty  leaves 
of  ivory,  one  third  of  the  solid  being  reduced  to  saw- 
dust. Veneers  are  also  made  from  certain  straight- 
grained and  pliant  woods  with  cutting  tools,  either  by 
the  process  of  planing  or  of  turning.  F or  these  methods 
of  veneer-making,  the  wood  to  be  operated  on  is  first 
reduced  to  blocks  of  a size  equal  to  the  cutting  edges  by 
which  they  are  to  be  made  into  veneer,  and  are  then 
steamed  in  a closed  chamber  to  soften  the  fiber.  In  the 
plane  veneer-cutting  machines  the  block  of  wood  may 
be  stationary  and  the  cutter  movable,  or  vice  versa , 
and  the  cutting  edge  is  applied  obliquely  to  the 


V E N 


block.  Immediately  in  front  of  the  cutter  pressure 
is  applied  to  the  block  to  keep  the  shaving  from  split- 
ting up.  With  the  planing  machine  from  ioo  to  150 
veneer  leaves  can  be  cut  from  each  inch  of  thickness. 
Bv  the  lathe-turning  method  continuous  strips  of  veneer 
are  obtained  from  circular  blocks  the  width  of  the  cut- 
ter, and  it  is  possible  to  reduce  the  block  till  a core  of 
about  only  nine  inches  remains.  In  the  cutting,  as  op- 
posed to  the  sawing,  of  veneers  there  is  no  waste  what- 
ever of  the  solid  material;  but  cut  veneers  are  not  so 
serviceable,  and  the  most  valuable  veneer  woods,  being 
hard,  cross-fibred,  and  brittle,  cannot  be  treated  other- 
wise than  by  sawing.  In  veneering,  the  surfaces  to  be 
united,  after  roughening,  so  as  to  give  grip,  are  coated 
with  thin  glue  applied  very  hot,  and  then  tightly  pressed 
together  in  a veneering  press,  with  heated  cauls  or  plates 
of  zinc  applied  to  their  surfaces,  these  cauls  being  con- 
toured to  the  necessary  outline  when  bent  veneers  are 
being  planted.  Should  the  veneer  show  any  blistering 
after  removal  from  the  press,  heat,  damp,  and  local  pres-, 
sure  are  applied  till  veneer  and  wood  are  solidly  cemented 
together.  The  surface  is  afterward  smoothed,  polished, 
and  finished  as  in  dealing  with  solid  cabinet  woods. 

# VENEREAL  DISEASES.  Three  distinct  affec- 
tions are  included  under  this  term — gonorrhoea,  chan- 
croid, and  syphilis.  At  one  time  these  were  regarded 
as  different  forms  of  the  same  disease;  and,  though 
gonorrhoea  is  now  generally  held  to  be  quite  distinct 
from  the  other  two,  there  are  not  wanting  eminent 
authorities,  including  Mr.  Jonathan  Hutchinson,  who 
are  inclined  to  look  upon  chancroid  and  syphilis  as 
essentially  one  and  the  same  disease.  The  present 
writer  believes  that  gonorrhoea,  chancroid,  and  syphilis 
are  three  distinct  diseases,  due  to  separate  causes, 
which  have  nothing  in  common  except  their  habitat. 
The  cause  in  each  case  is  a specific  virus,  probably  a 
micro-organism.  In  the  case  of  gonorrhoea  the  virus 
attacks  mucous  membranes,  especially  that  of  the 
urethra;  in  chancroid  mucous  membranes  and  the  skin 
are  affected;  in  syphilis  the  whole  system  comes  under 
the  influence  of  the  poison.  Gonorrhoea  and  chan- 
croid correspond  to  the  process  of  septic  intoxication. 
The  organisms  on  implantation  set  up  a local  dis- 
turbance, and  the  products  of  this  fermentative  process 
pass  into  the  system  and  give  rise  to  constitutional 
effects;  but  the  organisms  themselves  do  not  pass  into 
the  system  generally.  In  syphilis,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  is  a true  infective  process:  the  organisms  pass  into 
the  general  circulation  and  live  and  multiply  wherever 
they  find  a suitable  nidus.  The  joint  affection  com- 
monly called  “ gonorrheal  rheumatism,”  which  some- 
times follows  gonorrhoea,  is  in  all  probability  an  in- 
fective condition.  If  this  is  true,  then  in  these  rare 
cases  gonorrhoea  is  infective.  The  chancroid  poison 
may  pass  into  the  lymphatics  and  cause  inflammation 
of  the  lymphatic  glands  in  the  groin,  giving  rise  to 
chancroidal  bubo.  These  clinical  facts  are  undoubtedly 
opposed  to  any  generalization  such  as  that  laid  down 
above,  and  it  is  right  to  note  them,  but  the  general 
comparison  between  gonorrhoea  and  chancroid  as  non- 
infective  and  syphilis  as  distinctly  infective  in  its  char- 
acter holds  good  in  the  great  majority  of  cases.  A fur- 
ther study  of  these  quasi-infective  varieties  of  gon- 
orrhoea and  chancroid  must  undoubtedly  throw  light 
upon  the  physiological  classification  of  pathogenic 
organisms.  These  three  affections  are  generally 
acquired  as  the  result  of  impure  sexual  intercourse; 
but  there  are  other  methods  of  contagion,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, when  the  accoucheur  is  poisoned  while  deliver- 
ing a syphilitic  woman,  the  surgeon  when  operating  on 
a syphilitic  patient.  An  individual  may  be  attacked  by 
any  one  or  any  two  of  the  three,  or  bv  all  of  them  at 


6159 

once,  as  the  result  of  one  and  the  same  connection; 
but  they  do  not  show  themselves  at  the  same  time;  in 
other  words,  they  have  different  stages  of  incubation. 
In  gonorrhoea  the  disease  appears  very  rapidly,  so  also 
in  chancroid,  the  first  symptoms  commencing  as  a rule 
three  or  four  days  after  inoculation.  It  is  very  different, 
however,  with  syphilis.  Here  the  period  of  incubation 
is  one  rather  of  weeks,  the  average  length  being  twenty- 
eight  days,  though  it  may  vary  from  one  week  to  eight. 
The  length  of  the  period  of  incubation,  therefore,  is  the 
great  primary  diagnostic  in  the  case  of  syphilis. 

Syphilis  is  an  infective  fe«er,  and  its  life  history  may 
be  best  considered  by  comparing  it  with  vaccinia.  A 
child  is  vaccinated  on  the  arm  with  vaccine  lymph.  For 
the  first  two  or  three  days  nothing  is  observed;  but  on 
the  fourth  day  redness  appears,  and  by  the  eighth  day  a 
characteristic  vaccine  vesicle  is  formed,  which  bursts 
and  frees  a discharge,  which  dries  and  forms  a scab.  If 
on  the  eighth  day  the  clear  lymph  in  the  vesicle  is  intro- 
duced at  another  point  in  the  child’s  skin,  no  character- 
istic local  effect  follows.  The  system  is  protected  by 
the  previous  inoculation ; this  protection  will  last  for 
some  years,  and  in  certain  cases  for  the  rest  of  the 
patient’s  life.  We  have  here,  then,  exposure  to  a poi- 
son, its  introduction  locally,  a period  of  incubation,  a 
characteristic  local  appearance  at  the  seat  of  inoculation, 
a change  in  the  constitution  of  the  individual,  and  pro- 
tection from  another  attack  for  a variable  period.  So 
with  syphilis.  The  syphilitic  poison  is  introduced  at  the 
seat  of  an  accidental  abrasion  either  on  the  genital  organs 
or  on  any  part  of  the  surface  of  the  body.  The  poison 
lies  quiescent  for  a variable  period.  The  average  period 
is  four  weeks.  A characteristic  cartilaginous  hardness 
appears  at  the  seat  of  inoculation.  If  this  is  irritated  in 
any  way,  an  ulceration  takes  place;  but  ulceration  is  an 
accident,  not  an  essential.  From  the  primary  seat  the 
system  generally  is  infected.  The  virus  is  multiplied 
locally  and,  passing  along  the  lymphatic  vessels,  attacks 
the  nearest  chain  of  lymphatic  glands.  If  the  original 
sore  is  in  the  genital  organs,  the  glands  in  the  groin  are 
first  attacked ; if  in  the  hand,  the  gland  above  the  inner 
condyle  of  the  humerus;  if  on  the  lip,  the  gland  in  front 
of  the  angle  of  the  jaw.  The  affected  glands  are  indu- 
rated and  painless;  they  may  become  inflamed,  just  as 
the  primary  lesion  may  ulcerate;  but  the  inflammation 
is  an  accident,  not  an  essential.  From  the  primary 
glands  the  mischief  will  affect  the  whole  glandular  sys- 
tem. The  body  generally  is  so  altered  that  various  skin 
eruptions,  often  symmetrical,  break  out.  Any  irritation 
of  the  mucous  membrane  is  followed  by  superficial  ulcer- 
ations, and  in  the  later  stages  of  the  disease  skin  erup- 
tions, pustular  and  tubercular  in  type,  appear,  and  in 
weakly  people  in  severe  cases,  or  in  cases  that  have  not 
been  properly  treated  by  the  surgeon,  syphilitic  deposits 
termed  giwimata  are  formed.  These,  if  irritated,  break 
down  and  give  rise  to  deep-seated  ulcerations.  Gum- 
mata  may  attack  the  different  organs  in  the  body;  the 
muscles,  liver,  and  brain  are  the  favorite  sites.  Their 
presence  interferes  with  the  functions  of  the  organs,  and, 
if  the  organ  affected  is  one  functionally  important  in  the 
economy,  may  cause  death.  The  individual  is  as  a 
general  rule  protected  against  a second  attack,  although 
there  have  been  rare  cases  recorded  in  which  individuals 
have  been  attacked  a second  time. 

Syphilis  is  treated  by  many  surgeons  by  giving  care- 
ful attention  to  the  general  health,  to  diet  and  regimen 
and  tonics,  by  placing  the  patient  in  the  most  favorable 
hygienic  circumstances,  in  the  belief  that  it  runs  a 
natural  course  and  has  a tendency  to  natural  cure. 
Special  symptoms  are  treated  as  they  arise.  Other 
surgeons  administer  small  doses  of  mercury,  in  the 
form  of  grav  powder,  iodide  of  mercury,  or  corrosive 


6i6o 


YEN 


sublimate.  If  the  physiological  effects  of  mercury  are 
observed — tenderness  of  the  gums  and  a metallic  taste 
In  the  mouth — this  treatment  is  desisted  from  and 
iodide  of  potassium  is  administered,  mercury  being 
given  again  when  its  physiological  symptoms  have  dis- 
appeared. Oleate  of  mercury  or  mercurial  ointment, 
or  mercury  with  lanoline,  is  applied  to  the  primary 
lesion  and  rubbed  in  over  the  enlarged  glands.  This  is 
continued  for  six  months  or  a year;  In  the  latei>  stages 
of  the  complaint  iodide  of  potassium  is  the  main  remedy 
used.  There  are  therefore  two  distinct  methods  of 
treating  syphilis,  the  non-mercurial  and  the  mercurial. 
Both  methods  have  been  extensively  tried  by  the  present 
writer,  and  he  believes  that  the  mercurial  is  infinitely 
preferable  to  the  non-mercurial  method.  Recent  in- 
vestigations point  to  the  value  of  corrosive  sublimate  as 
a germicide,  and  in  all  probability  the  good  results 
which  follow  saturation  of  the  system  with  mercury  are 
to  be  explained  in  this  way.  It  is  said  by  the  non- 
mercurialists  that  the- administration  of  mercury  masks 
the  symptoms.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
symptoms  often  appear  after  the  mercury  is  stopped, 
but  in  a modified  form,  and  there  is  no  evidence  that 
the  mercurial  treatment  prolongs  the  disease.  Syphilis 
has  a tendency  to  natural  cure,  like  all  the  continued 
fevers,  and  along  with  the  administration  of  mercury 
careful  hygienic  treatment  must  receive  particular 
attention,  and  often  in  weakly  unhealthy  people  a long 
sea  voyage  is  of  great  value.  Any  means  which  causes 
a free  action  of  the  skin,  as,  for  instance,  by  periodic 
visits  to  thermal  baths,  is  of  great  assistance  in  elimin- 
ating the  poison. 

Syphilis  as  commonly  met  with  nowadays  is  not  of  so 
severe  a type  as  it  formerly  was.  One  reason  often 
given  for  this  is  that  mercury  was  formerly  always 
pushed  until  its  full  physiological  effects  were  observed, 
and  that  the  lowering  of  the  patient’s  constitution  by 
this  severe  treatment  aggravated  the  primary  complaint. 
There  may  be  some  truth  in  this  explanation;  but  the 
principal  reason  in  all  probability  is  that  the  syphilitic 
organism  does  not  now  find  so  suitable  a nidus  or  soil 
for  its  growth  and  development  as  it  once  did.  Syphilis 
in  the  United  States  at  the  present  moment  is  in  the 
stage  of  an  epidemic  in  its  decline.  This  may  be  looked 
on  as  a startling  statement;  but  it  is  true  of  syphilis  as 
of  all  infective  diseases.  A time  must  come  when  the 
soil  is  practically  worn  out,  when  it  becomes  so  poor 
that  the  organism  grows  only  in  a stunted  form,  pro- 
ducing a mild  disease,  till  in  time  it  ceases  to  grow  al- 
together. It  is  not  asserted  that  it  will  necessarily  die 
out,  because  after  lying  fallow  for  a time  the  soil  may 
recover  its  power  and  the  disease  be  revived  in  a more 
virulent  form,  analogous  to  the  luxuriant  crop  which 
follows  after  a period  of  fallow.  Syphilis  can  be  con- 
veyed by  the  discharge  from  any  syphilitic  lesion  oc- 
curring within  two  years  after  the  commencement  of  the 
complaint.  It  cannot  be  conveyed  by  the  normal  secre- 
tions of  the  syphilitic  person  except  in  the  case  of  the 
semen,  which,  impregnating  the  ovum  in  the  female, 
causes  the  foetus  to  be  syphilitic.  Syphilization  of  the 
foetus  is  followed  by  syphilization  of  the  mother.  The 
blood  of  a syphilitic  person  is  infectious  for  two  years 
after  the  commencement  of  the  attack.  Pure  vaccine 
lymph  cannot  convey  syphilis;  if,  however,  it  is  mixed 
with  blood  it  may  convey  it.  No  person  who  has  had 
syphilis  should  marry  until  he  has  been  entirely  free 
from  the  complaint  for  two,  or  better  still  for  three, 
years.  If  a person  marries  before  this  time  pregnancy 
greatly  increases  the  risk  to  the  mother.  If  there  is 
any  suspicion  of  syphilis  the  mother  should  take  mercury 
during  the  period  of  pregnancy.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  how  time  has  a modifying  influence  in  a case  of 


repeated  pregnancies  occurring  in  a syphilitic  woman. 
At  first  there  may  be  miscarriage  in  the  early  stage  of 
pregnancy;  after  a time  abortions  in  the  later  stage; 
there  may  then  be  a stillborn  child;  then  one  born  alive 
but  syphilitic;  then  a child  born  apparently  healthy  but 
soon  becoming  syphilitic;  and  ultimately  a healthy 
child  is  born  and  remains  healthy,  showing  no  evidence 
of  syphilitic  disease.  The  disease  has  worn  itself  out. 
The  relation  of  apparently  healthy  people  born  of 
syphilitic  parents  to  syphilis  acquired  during  the  course 
of  their  life  may  explain  those  remarkable  cases  of  escape 
from  syphilitic  infection  which  constantly  come  under 
the  observation  of  the  surgeon. 

VENEZUELA,  a federal  republic  in  Sohth  America, 
lying  between  about  57°  and  730  30'  W.  longitude  and 
i°  40'  and  120  26’  N.  latitude.  The  republic  claims 
that  the  area  of  its  territory  is  632,807  square  miles; 
but  the  boundaries  are  not  yet  definitely  fixed,  and  its 
area  is  consequently  uncertain.  In  the  southwest  it 
claims  large  tracts  extending  to  the  south  of  the  equator, 
which  are  also  claimed  by  Colombia  and  Ecuador;  and 
in  the  east  it  claims  from  British  Guiana  the  upper  val- 
ley of  the  Essequibo,  together  with  all  the  territory 
on  the  left  bank  of  that  river  below  the  influx  of  the 
Rupununi.  Of  the  total  area  claimed  only  about  439,- 
000  square  miles  are  actually  under  Venezuelan  admin- 
istration. 

The  climate  and  vegetation  are  such  as  might  be  ex- 
pected from  the  tropical  situation  of  the  country.  But 
Venezuela,  .as  well  as  the  rest  of  tropical  South  America 
east  of  the  Andes,  is  directly  exposed  to  the  trade- 
winds.  The  temperature  is  thereby  considerably  mod- 
erated, and  no  such  extremes  of  heat  are  to  be  met  with 
as  are  experienced  in  the  corresponding  latitudes  of 
northern  Africa.  The  more  populous  parts  of  V ene- 
zuela  are,  however,  hotter  than  the  maritime  districts 
of  Guiana,  being  less  directly  exposed  to  the  Atlantic 
breezes.  At  La  Guaira  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
year  is  85°  Fahr.;  at  Caracas,  only  ten  miles  distant 
but  3,000  feet  higher,  it  is  71. 2° Fahr.;  and  the  greatest 
extremes  that  have  been  observed  at  the  latter  station 
since  1868  are  83.4°  and  48°  Fahr.  At  both  stations 
the  hottest  periods  are  the  middle  of  April  and  the  end 
of  August,  when  the  sun  is  in  the  zenith.  Everywhere 
there  is  a well-marked  distinction  between  a dry  and  a 
ramy  season,  the  latter  occurring  in  the  English  summer 
months,  when  the  sun  is  in  the  northern  hemisphere  and 
the  force  of  the  trade-wind  on  the  north  coast  of  South 
America  is  considerably  slackened.  At  La  Guaira  the 
rainy  season  proper  lasts  only  three  months  (May  to 
August);  but  this  season  lasts  longer  in  the  mountains 
and  in  the  llanos. 

The  fauna  includes  among  the  mammals  the  rodents 
and  carnivores  common  to  the  rest  of  tropical  South 
America.  The  manatee  is  met  with  nearly  everywhere  on 
the  coast.  In  all  the  rivers  are  to  be  found  caymans, 
electric  eels,  rays,  and  caribs,  the  last  ( Pygocentrus 
piraya , P.  nigricans , P.  niger , Miill.)  consisting  of 
several  species  of  savage  and  voracious  fishes  armed 
with  two  rows  of  very  sharp  teeth.  Among  the  venom- 
ous serpents  are  the  striped  rattlesnake  ( Crotahis 
durissus ),  Lachesis  mutus , an  ally  of  the  rattlesnakes, 
and  a rather  rare  species  of  Cophias.  Among  the  non- 
venomous  sorts  the  commonest  are  the  boa  constrictor, 
the  anaconda  ( Eunectes  murinus),  and  the  Coluber 
variabilis.  Among  birds  is  a singular  form  known  from 
its  note  as  thebell-bird (C hasmorhynchus  carunculatus). 
Coral  banks  abound  on  the  coast;  like  the  waters  which 
surround  the  roots  of  the  mangroves,  these  teem  with 
marine  life,  and  are  peculiarly  rich  in  beautifully  colored 
crustaceans.  Swarms  of  locusts  sometimes  commit 
great  ravages  among  the  fields  and  plantations. 


V E N 


The  lower  slopes  of  all  the  mountains  are  clad  with 
the  richest  tropical  vegetation.  Amid  an  endless 
variety  of  dicotyledonous  foliage  trees,  interlaced  by 
numerous  twiners  and  climbers  and  adorned  with 
epiphytic  orchids,  TillandsicBy  aroids,  and  Loran - 
tkacece,  grow  numerous  palms  and  tree-ferns,  up  to 
the  height  of  about  3,500  feet.  From  among  the 
forest  trees  may  be  singled  out  for  mention  the  silk- 
cotton  tree  ( Bombax  Ceiba),  the  mango  {Mangi/era 
indica),  the  Saman  ( Inga  saman ) — remarkable,  like 
the  last-mentioned,  less  for  its  height  than  for  the 
extent  and  density  of  the  shade  which  it  casts — the 
cow-tree  ( Brosimum  Galactodendron ),  and  the  Attalea 
speciosa — this  last  being  one  of  the  finest  ornaments 
of  the  palm  tribe,  a tree  whose  stem,  40  feet  in 
height,  carries  erect  on  its  crown  leaves  which  also 
grow  to  a height  of  40  feet,  with  a breadth  of  8 feet. 
The  mouths  of  the  Orinoco  and  many  parts  of  the 
coast  are  rendered  unhealthy  by  mangrove  swamps, 
which  are  no  doubt  partly  to  blame  for  the  yearly  re- 
currence of  yellow  fever  in  many  of  the  coast  towns. 
From  these  swamps,  however,  La  Guaira  is  free,  and 
there  the  yellow  fever  is  not  a regular  visitant. 

The  two  chief  crops  grown  for  food  are  manioc  and 
maize,  the  latter  being  generally  ground  coarse  and 
baked  into  a kind  of  cakes  called  arepaSy  which  are 
eaten  hot  like  the  Mexican  tortillas.  Among  other 
vegetable  products  which  take  an  important  place  in 
the  Venezuelan  dietary  are  all  kinds  of  tropical  fruits, 
including  several  kinds  of  melons  and  pumpkins,  the 
sugar-cane  (the  sugar  in  a little  refined  condition,  known 
as  papelon , being  a favorite  article  of  food),  the  taro, 
sweet  potatoes,  various  beans  (including  two  species  of 
Phaseolus,  which  grow  only  high  up  in  the  mountains, 
but  are  highly  prized  everywhere),  and  a species  of 
hemlock  ( Conium  moschatum),  which  is  eaten  like 
celery.  Of  plantation  products  grown  for  export  by 
far  the  most  important  are  coffee  and  cocoa,  next  after 
which  come  tobacco  and  cotton. 

The  principal  minerals  of  Venezuela  are  gold,  copper, 
phosphates,  and  coal.  The  rich  auriferous  deposits  on 
the  banks  of  the  Yuruari  lie  100  miles  southwest  of  the 
principal  mouth  of  the  Orinoco.  At  Aroa  in  the  north- 
west, about  seventy-five  miles  west  of  Puerto  Cabello, 
are  rich  deposits  of  copper  ore.  Phosphates  are  ob- 
tained from  the  islands  of  Orchilla  and  Aves,  which  lie 
to  the  east  of  the  Leeward  Islands  of  the  Dutch.  A 
large  deposit  of  bituminous  coal,  said  to  be  of  very  good 
quality,  exists  about  six  miles  south  of  Barcelona,  and 
a concession  for  a railway  from  this  port  to  the  coal-bed 
has  been  obtained  from  the  government.  Another  ex- 
tensive deposit  of  bituminous  coal  has  been  found  on 
the  banks  of  the  Utare,  a small  stream  which  empties 
itself  into  the  sea  about  forty  miles  east  of  La  Guaira. 
Good  petroleum  is  refined  from  deposits  worked  near 
Belijoque  in  the  State  of  Los  Andes.  Both  gold  and 
copper  ore  are  important  exports,  gold  ranking  in  this 
respect  next  after  coffee. 

Manufacturing  industries  are  in  general  undeveloped. 
Artisans  from  Europe  and  North  America  are  now 
settled  in  all  the  chief  towns,  and  cotton  weaving 
factories  have  been  established.  The  manufacturing 
industries  most  extensively  pursued  are  the  making  of 
shoes  and  hats.  The  latter  industry  is  chiefly  in  the 
hands  of  Germans.  A material  called  jipijapa  is  very 
largely  used  for  the  making  of  a kind  of  hats  in  imita- 
tion of  Panama  straw  hats. 

The  principal  exports,  besides  the  plantation  products 
and  minerah  already  mentioned,  are  hides  and  skins, 
coir,  andammafs;  those  of  minor  importance  are  starch, 
indigo,  sugar,  tonqua  beans,  cinchona,  caoutchouc,  divi- 
divi,  cocoa-nuts.  copaiba  balsam,  plants,  and  timber. 


6i6n 

The  principal  imports  are  manufactured  articles,  drugs, 
and  wine,  the  last  from  Spain.  Petroleum  is  imported 
from  the  United  States,  though  it  is  expected  that  the 
native  supplies  will  soon  meet  the  home  demand. 
Foreign  commerce  is  chiefly  carried  on  with  the  United 
States,  Germany,  France,  and  England. 

Population , Area,  etc. — The  republic  is  divided  into 
eight  states,  eight  federal  territories,  the  federal  dis- 
trict, and  two  national  colonies,  the  names  of  which, 
with  their  area  in  square  miles  and  their  population 
according  to  an  official  estimate  for  January  1,  1891, 
are  given  below : 


States  — 

Area. 

Popula- 

tion. 

2,984 

33,969 

9,296 

I4.7IQ 

198,021 

484,509 

246,760 

Carabobo  

Miranda 

Dara 

I, os  Andes 

336,146 

246,676 

224,566 

50,289 

TOO  ^07 

Zamora 

25,212 

36,212 

88,701 

32,243 

Falcon  and  Zulia 

Bolivar 

Bermudez 

Territories  — 
Alto  Orinoco 
Amazonas 
Yuruari 

Caura 

Goajira 

I40.QT0 

350,562 

Colon 

Armistico 

Delta 

Federal  District 

45 

89.133 

593,943 

2,323,527 

Caracas,  the  capital,  had  in  1895  a pop.  of  72,429 ; 
Valencia,  38,654 ; Maracaibo,  34,284 ; and  Barquisimeto, 
3M76. 


The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  religion  of  the  state,  but 
liberty  of  worship  is  guaranteed  by  law.  So  far  a§ 
legislative  enactment  goes,  elementary  education  is  now 
well  provided  for.  There  are  two  universities  (Caracas 
and  Merida),  nineteen  federal  colleges,  and  various 
other  public  and  private  institutions  for  higher  educa- 
tion.  The  standing  army  consists  of  about  2,800  menf 
but  every  male  subject  between  eighteen  and  forty-five 
has  to  be  enrolled  in  the  national  militia.  The  mone= 
tary  system  of  Venezuela  is  that  of  the  Latin  convention^ 
the  franc  being  represented  by  the  bolivar . The 
French  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures  is  like= 
wise  the  legal  system;  but  the  old  weights,  the  libra=s 
1. 014  pounds  avoir.,  the  quintal=ioi.4  pounds  avoir.s 
and  the  arroba=25-35  pounds,  are  also  in  use. 

The  constitution  is  modeled  to  some  extent  on  that 
of  the  United  States.  At  the  head  of  the  executive  is 
a president,  who  is -assisted  by  eight  ministers  and  a 
federal  council.  The  legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a 
congress  of  two  houses — a senate  (twenty-four  mem- 
bers) and  a chamber  of  deputies  (fifty-two  members). 
The  members  of  the  chamber  of  deputies  (one  for  every 
35,000  inhabitants,  and  one  more  for  an  excess  of 
15,000),  are  elected  every  four  years  directly  by  the 
electors  of  the  states  and  the  federal  district,  those  of  the 
senate  by  the  legislative  bodies  of  the  different  states 
(three  for  each).  The  congress  elects  the  members  of 
the  federal  council,  in  which  there  is  one  senator  and 
one  deputy  for  each  of  the  political  divisions  of  the 
republic,  and  one  deputy  for  the  federal  district.  The 
federal  council  elects  the  president.  The  federal 
council  and  the  president  remain  in  office  for  two  years, 

The  coast  of  Venezuela  was  the  first  part  of  the 
American  mainland  sighted  by  Columbus,  who,  during 
his  third  voyage  in  1498,  entered  the  Gulf  of  Paria  uno 
sailed  along  the  coast  of  the  delta  of  the  Orinoco,  h 


5i62 


YEN 


the  following  year  a much  greater  extent  of  coast  was 
traced  out  by  Alonzo  de  Ojeda,  who  was  accompanied 
by  the  more  celebrated  Amerigo  Vespucci.  In  1550 
the  territory  was  erected  into  the  captain-generalcy 
of  Caracas,  and  it  remained  under  Spanish  rule  till  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

In  1810  Venezuela  rose  against  the  Spanish  yoke, 
and  on  July  14th  in  the  following  year  the  independence 
of  the  territory  was  proclaimed.  A war  ensued  which 
lasted  for  upwards  of  ten  years,  and  the  principal 
events  of  which  are  described  under  Bolivar  ( q . v.), 
a native  of  Caracas  and  the  leading  spirit  of  the  revolt. 
It  was  not  till  March  30,  1845,  that  theindependence 
of  the  republic  was  recognized  by  Spain  in  the  treaty  of 
M adrid.  At  the  date  of  the  battle  of  Carabobo  (1821), 
by  which  the  power  of  Spain  in  this  part  of  the  world 
was  broken,  Venezuela  formed  part  of  the  federal  state 
of  Colombia,  which  embraced  also  the  present  Colom- 
bia and  Ecuador  j but  a meeting  of  Venezuelan  nota- 
bles on  November  26,  1829,  declared  for  the  separation 
of  their  country  from  the  confederacy.  Venezuela 
passed  through  the  first  years  of  its  independent  ex- 
istence with  more  quietness  than  the  other  members 
of  the  confederacy.  In  1846  there  began  a series  of 
civil  wars  and  revolutions,  which  continued,  with  but 
short  periods  of  rest,  down  to  the  close  of  1870.  The 
chief  rival  parties  in  these  internal  dissensions  were 
the  Unionists  and  the  Federalists  ; the  former  aimed 
at  securing  a strong  central  government,  while  the 
latter,  who  were  ultimately  victorious,  desired  to  ob- 
tain a large  measure  of  independence  for  separate 
states.  It  was  during  these  troubles  that  the  emanci- 
pation of  the  slaves  took  place,  under  a law  of  March 
24,  1854.  On  March  28,  1864,  a federal  constitution 
was  drawn  up  for  the  republic.  Three  years  later, 
however,  the  civil  war  broke  out  again,  and  matters 
continued  in  an  unsettled  state,  till  in  December,  1870, 
Don  Guzman  Blanco,  who  had  taken  the  leading  part 
on  the  side  of  the  Federalists,  was  declared  provisional 
president.  From  that  date  Blanco  acted  as  dictator 
till  February  20,  1873,  when  he  was  elected  constitu- 
tional president  for  four  years,  and  the  confederacy 
has  since  continued  progressive. 

In  December,  1895,  the  long  dispute  on  boundaries 
with  British  Guiana  enlisted  the  sympathy  of  the 
United  States,  when  President  Cleveland  demanded 
peremptorily  that  Great  Britain  should  submit  the 
question  to  international  arbitration.  The  United 
States  Congress  also  provided  a commission  to  report 
on  the  merits  of  the  controversy,  its  members  being 
Justices  D.  J.  Brewer  and  R.  H.  Alvey,  and  Messrs. 
F.  R.  Coudert,  D.  C.  Gilman,  and  A.  D.  White. 

VENICE.  Although  the  numerous  marshy  islands 
of  the  lagoons  extending  along  the  northwestern  shores 
of  the  Adriatic  between  Altinum  and  Adria  are  known 
to  have  been  largely  used  from  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  century  by  the  inhabitants  of  Venetia — one  of  the 
twenty-nine  provinces  into  which  Italy  was  divided  by 
Constantine — as  temporary  retreats  from  successive  bar- 
barian invasions,  the  first  permanent  settlement  on  the 
site  of  the  present  city  of  Venice — the  Rivo  Alto  (Ri- 
alto) and  its  numerous  adjacent  islets — cannot  with  cer- 
tainty be  traced  farther  back  than  to  the  beginning  of 
the  ninth  century.  The  physical  conditions  with  which 
the  earliest  inhabitants  had  to  deal  were  such  as  might 
seem  singularly  unpropitious  to  the  growth  of  a large 
and  prosperous  city.  Their  untillable  and  salt-incrusted 
soil  possessed  no  kind  of  mineral  wealth;  the  thickets 
which  here  and  there  diversified  the  surface  of  the  bar- 
ren marshes  produced  no  serviceable  timber;  and  even 
drinkable  water  was  hardly  obtainable;  yet  it  was  here 
that  the  Venetians  bv  their  inventiveness,  their  energy, 


their  industry,  and  their  genius  for  comme  :e  succeeded 
in  establishing  themselves  on  a firm  soil  at  id  maintain- 
ing their  independence,  in  making  their  neighbors  their 
tributaries,  in  sending  their  fleets  to  distant  shores,  in 
controlling  the  destiny  of  empires,  and  consolidating  a 
naval  power  that  is  unique  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

The  year  810  was  one  of  the  most  important  in  the 
annals  of  Venice;  it  was  then  that  the  people  finally 
abandoned  the  mainland  in  order  to  make  the  Rivo 
Alto  with  its  surrounding  islets  the  permanent  seat  of 
their  government.  The  same  year  witnessed  the  begin- 
nings of  the  basilica  of  St.  Mark.  From  81 1 to  1026 
there  was  a succession  of  eighteen  doges,  of  whom  no 
fewer  than  fifteen  were  selected  out  of  three  leading 
families,  political  power  thus  plainly  tending  to  become 
hereditary.  Toward  the  end  of  the  tenth  century  the 
doge  Pietro  Orseolo  by  a vigorous  effort  cleared  the  sea 
of  pirates,  who  dwelt  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Adri- 
atic and  seriously  harassed  the  Venetian  commerce,  and 
pursued  them  into  the  recesses  of  Quarnero  and  the 
islands  of  Istria.  Having  thus  given  full  security  to 
trade,  he  constituted  himself  protector  of  the  sea  from 
Trieste  to  Albania,  receiving  in  consequence  the  title  ol 
duke  of  Dalmatia. 

Under  Sebastiano  Ziani,  the  constitution  underwent 
a modification.  The  citizens,  already  divided  into  quar- 
ters ( sestieri ),  nominated  twelve  electors,  who  in  their 
turn  made  choice  of  forty  picked  citizens  in  each  of  the 
divisions  of  the  city.  The  480  thus  chosen  constituted 
the  great  council,  a body  possessing  at  once  deliberative 
and  executive  functions. 

The  fourteenth  century  is  remarkable  for  a series  of 
conspiracies.  The  conspiracy  of  Marino  Bocconio  in 
1300,  that  of  Bajamonte  Tiepolo  ten  years  later,  a 
third  in  1328,  and  finally  that  associated  with  the  name 
of  Marino  Faliero  (1355),  without  actually  imperiling 
the  existence  of  the  state,  compelled  the  great  counci 
to  take  measures  against  the  recurrence  of  such  move- 
ments, and  resulted  in  the  creation  of  the  “ council  o! 
the  ten,”  that  powerful  and  mysterious  body  the  signifi- 
cance of  which  still  continues  to  exercise  the  ingenuity 
of  the  modern  historian.  Of  these  four  conspiracies  the 
first  three  were  certainly  aimed  at  the  restoration  of 
popular  rights  ; the  fourth,  on  the  other  hand,  arose 
out  of  an  ambitious  attempt  to  seize  personal  power. 

The  large  extension  of  its  territory  on  the  mainland 
in  the  fourteenth  century  marks  an  important  stage  in 
the  history  of  Venice.  From  being  essentially  a naval 
power,  the  republic  now  began  to  be  an  important  con- 
tinental one;  and  thenceforward  down  to  the  seven- 
teenth century  it  threw  its  sword  into  the  balance  on 
every  occasion  on  which  Italy  was  made  the  battle- 
ground of  Europe. 

Meanwhile  a new  danger  was  arising  to  Venice  out 
of  the  Turkish  advance  in  Europe.  Mohammed  II. 
became  master  of  Constantinople  in  1453.  Except  for 
one  united  effort  toward  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  cent- 
ury by  Spain,  Venice,  and  the  pope,  which  resulted  in 
the  victory  of  Lepanto  (1571),  the  banner  of  St.  Mark 
was  almost  invariably  unsupported  in  its  contest  with 
the  crescent.  At  Negropont  (1470),  Smyrna,  and  Scu- 
tari (1474)  Erizzo,  Mocenigo,  and  Loredano  valiantly 
maintained  the  honor  of  their  flag;  but  after  a struggle 
of  several  years  the  Venetian  possessions  in  the  archi- 
pelago were  lost  and  the  proud  city  was  compelled  to 
cede  Scutari  (1479),  Negropont,  and  Modone.  Nor 
was  this  all ; the  geographical  discoveries  of  the  Portu- 
guese and  the  Spaniards  were  about  to  inflict  an 
irreparable  blow  on  the  maritime  supremacy  of  Venice. 
Although  the  bold  feats  of  Columbus  and  Vasco  da 
Gama  deeply  stirred  her  enthusiasm,  yet  times  had 
changed. 


YEN 


Having  entered  into  treaty  relations  with  Florence, 
Milan,  and  the  Vatican,  she  found  herself  continually 
involved  in  ceaseless  struggles,  which  demanded  the 
presence  of  her  mercenaries  now  in  the  plains  of  Lom- 
bardy, now  in  the  Romagna,  sometimes  even  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples.  At  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  cent- 
ury, after  a forty  years’  dispute  over  the  fragments  of 
the  Lombard  kingdom,  which  had  fallen  into  the  hands 
of  the  condottieri,  the  Italians  saw  the  Alps  twice 
crossed  by  the  French  and  their  country  turned  into  a 
European  battle  field.  The  efforts  of  the  Venetians  to 
extend  their  possessions  on  terra  Jirma  along  the  Italian 
shore  of  the  Adriatic  and  inward  toward  Bergamo  pro- 
voked the  Italian  captains  who  had  founded  hereditary 
dynasties  to  unite  with  the  pope  and  the  king  of  France 
in  opposing  their  further  progress.  Thus  arose  the 
League  of  Cambrai,  which  brought  the  republic  to  the 
verge  of  extinction.  The  battle  of  Ravenna  in  1512  and 
that  of  Marignano  in  1515  changed  the  whole  aspect  of 
affairs;  new  combinations  were  formed;  and  the  treaty 
ofNoyon  restored  to  the  republic  all  the  continental 
territory  she  had  lost. 

Nevertheless,  the  commonwealth  was  not  allowed  to 
rest,  but  was  compelled  henceforth  to  live  constantly  on 
the  defensive,  on  the  one  hand  against  the  Turks,  who 
were  a standing  menace,  and  on  the  other,  watching 
every  movement  and  enterprise  of  the  Italian  princes, 
who  would  not  suffer  her  to  remain  neutral  in  their  in- 
cessant conflicts.  The  result  of  the  battle  of  Lepanto, 
October  7,  1571,  was  apparently  the  complete  destruction 
of  Turkey’s  naval  forces.  But  the  mutual  jealousies  of 
the  allied  powers  served  to  counteract  the  effects  of  the 
victory,  and  the  peace  which  followed,  instead  of  being 
advantageous  to  the  victors,  turned  out  much  to  their 
prejudice- 

Every  day  new  differences  and  mutual  recriminations 
arose  among  the  allies,  and  at  length  the  idea  of  a 
peace  with  the  Turks  began  to  be  broached  in  the  coun- 
cils of  the  republic.  Such  a proposal,  however  un- 
looked for,  was  suggested  by  considerations  of  the  most 
practical  kind,  and  by  a just  appreciation  of  the  re- 
sources of  the  Ottoman  empire;  and  the  resulting  nego- 
tiations, which  were  secretly  conducted,  led  to  a treaty 
being  signed  on  March  15,  1573.  By  that  treaty 
twenty  years  of  peace  were  guaranteed  to  the  republic; 
but  it  reversed  the  position  of  parties,  and  the  van- 
quished of  Lepanto  now  figured  as  victors.  Nor  was 
this  all:  it  was  not  forgotten  that  Venice  was , tributary 
to  the  sultan;  her  dues  were  doubled  and  a war  indem- 
nity of  300,000  ducats  was  stipulated  for.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  commercial  privileges  hitherto  enjoyed  by  the 
republic  were  confirmed,  and  the  freedom  of  the  seas 
was  guaranteed. 

In  literature  and  art  Venice  was  the  link  between 
Italy  and  Greece.  Its  Eastern  colonists  learned  the 
Greek  tongue;  and  the  fall  of  the  Greek  empire 
brought  to  them  its  banished  men  of  science  and 
letters,  who  taught  in  their  university  and  introduced 
to  the  Venetians  the  works  of  the  ancients. 
Guarino  of  Verona  opened  to  them  Xenophon, 
Strabo,  Lucian,  Orpheus,  Arrian,  Dio,  Proco- 
pius, Diodorus  of  Sicily,  and  Plato.  At  the  same  time 
they  made  Oriential  architecture  their  own,  impress- 
ing on  it  the  stamp  of  their  special  needs  and  national 
genius.  The  Arabs  gave  them  the  manufacture  of 
gunpowder  and  glass,  and  taught  them  decorative  art  ; 
and  from  Persia  they  learned  to  weave  costly  tissues ; 
while  their  plastic  arts  retained  a reflection  of  the  sunny 
lands  which,  for  geographical  reasons,  were  the  source 
of  their  riches  a/nd  the  chief  object  of  their  preoccupa- 
tion. Nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that  the  city  welcomed 
the  first  the  art  of  printing,  and  stamped  it  with 


6163 

its  own  individuality.  Venice,  more  than  any  othek 
town,  has  the  credit  of  having  rescued  from  oblivion, 
by  editions  and  translations,  the  masterpieces  of  Greek 
literature.  The  literary  talent  of  Venice  did  not  shine 
in  works  of  imagination  ; but  on  the  utilitarian  side 
it  was  really  great  and  original.  In  Venice  history 
was  written  to  order,  and  so  is  open  to  suspicion.  In 
poetry,  if  we  may  cite  Pietro,  Bembo,  Molza,  Berni, 
Lodovico  Dolce,  Doni,  Nicolo  Franco,  Rucellai, 
Sperone  Speroni,  and  L.  Aretino,  whom  his  contempo- 
raries called  II  Divino , as  all  Venetians  or  refugees 
claiming  the  greater  freedom  of  thought  which  Venice 
then  afforded,  we  must  yet  admit  the  lack  of  a name  of 
world-wide  significance,  a Dante  or  a Moliere.  But 
the  library  of  St.  Mark’s  shows  the  respect  of  the  re- 
public for  letters;  the  building  that  housed  the  MS. 
collections  bequeathed  by  Petrarch  and  Cardinal  Bessa- 
rion  is,  perhaps,  the  most  perfect  model  of  sixteenth 
century  architecture  ; and  the  librarian  of  the  Marciana 
was,  in  virtue  of  his  office,  so  high  a personage  that  he 
had  a title  to  be  voted  on  by  the  senate  and  the  great 
council  for  the  ducal  crown. 

The  doge  Pasquale  Cicogna,  elected  in  1585,  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1595  by  Marino  Grimani,  whose  rule  was 
marked  by  grave  dissensions  between  the  senate  and  the 
Vatican.  The  house  of  Este  came  to  an  end  in  1597, 
Pope  Clement  VIII.  declaring  Caesar  d’Este,  the  neph- 
ew of  Alphonso  II.,  duke  of  Ferrara,  incapable  of 
succeeding  him.  But  Venice  supported  his  claims  and 
was  ready  to  enforce  them  by  war,  when  he  ceded  Fer- 
rara to  the  pope,  contenting  himself  with  the  dukedom 
of  Modena  and  Reggio.  This  solution  brought  the 
Vatican  into  a permanent  rivalry  with  Venice — a grave 
matter,  since  at  the  beginning  of  the  century  Caesar 
Borgia  had  seized  the  Romagna  in  the  name  of  Alexan- 
der VI.,  and  Julius  II.  had  occupied  Bologna,  so  that 
the  Estates  of  the  Church  bordered  on  those  of  the 
republic.  There  were  other  causes  of  dissension  also; 
Venice  had  never  been  on  cordial  terms  with  the 
Papacy;  the  recognition  of  Henry  of  Navarre  had 
given  umbrage  at  Rome;  and,  though  peace  was  made 
for  a time,  the  quarrel  recommenced,  and  in  1606  Paul 
V.  launched  an  interdict  at  the  republic.  The  Venetian 
clergy  made  no  contribution  to  public  burdens;  the 
tithes  required  in  time  of  war  could  be  raised  only  by  a 
special  papal  brief,  and  this  privilege  the  senate  claimed 
the  right  to  suppress.  To  this  Sixtus  V.  had  con- 
sented; but  his  successor  was  less  complaisant.  In 
face  of  the  new  pretensions  of  the  Vatican  the  Venetians 
multiplied  restrictive  measures  against  the  clergy,  and 
the  conflict  grew  hotter  on  both  sides,  till  Paul  V.  laid 
the  republic  under  the  interdict — a step  that  still  struck 
terror  into  nations.  The  hostile  Spaniards  were  not 
without  their  share  in  this  measure.  But  the  supple 
Venetians  made  no  appeal  to  temporal  arms  : they  left 
the  negotiation  of  the  difficulty  to  theologians,  and 
Paolo  Sarpi  made  peace  between  Rome  and  the  senate. 

Peace  was  unbroken  from  1631  to  1645.  But  in  the 
latter  year  the  Turks  suddenly  fell  on  the  island  of 
Crete.  Surprised  by  the  suddenness  of  the  attack,  the 
senate  appealed  to  Europe  for  aid,  and  the  Vatican, 
Florence,  Naples,  and  the  knights  of  Malta  came  to 
their  succor;  but  after  an  alliance  of  thirty-seven  days 
all  the  helpers  regained  their  ships  and  left  the  Venetians 
to  confront  the  enemy  alone.  The  struggle  was  valiantly 
maintained  and  cost  Venice,  between  1645  and  1669, 
no  less  than  4,392,000  ducats.  The  siege  of  Candia 
alone  lasted  twenty-two  years,  and  for  three  success- 
ive years  the  combats  were  continual.  At  length,  on 
.September  6,  1669,  the  Turks  were  masters  of  the 
island. 

The  first  thirteen  years  of  the  eighteenth  century 


V E N 


6164 

when  almost  all  Europe  was  involved  in  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  were  a time  of  repose  for  Venice, 
which  remained  neutral  ; but  hardly  was  the  peace  of 
Utrecht  concluded  when  the  Turks  resumed  the  offensive 
against  the  republic,  which  now  had  no  allies.  One 
after  the  other  the  islands  and  colonies  ceded  by  the 
peace  of  Carlowitz  were  retaken ; the  Morea  again 
became  Turkish  ; Dalmatia  was  saved  only  by  the  inter- 
position of  Austria,  which  had  need  of  the  friendship  of 
Venice  to  checkmate  the  projects  of  Philip  of  Spain 
against  the  Italian  duchies.  But  soon  the  emperor 
found  it  necessary,  in  view  of  the  struggle  with  Spain, 
to  come  to  terms  with  the  sultan ; and  his  allies,  the 
Venetians,  were  included  in  the  peace  of  Passarowitz 
signed  between  Austria  and  Turkey  July  21,  1718. 
From  this  moment  Venice  ceased  to  have  any  influence 
on  European  politics : she  had  no  more  wars,  if  she  still 
had  enemies,  signed  no  more  treaties,  and,  in  a word, 
had  abdicated  her  place  in  Europe. 

The  government  meanwhile  went  on  in  the  old  form. 
The  successive  doges  were  still  tied  by  the  restrictive 
laws  which  made  them  crowned  prisoners;  but  rivalries 
sprang  up  between  the  great  powers  of  the  state:  the 
senate  attacked  the  institution  of  the  savii,  the  ministers 
delegated  to  each  branch  of  the  administration,  and  in 
{urn  the  magistrates  known  as  the  quarantie  proposed 
to  reform  the  senate,  while,  lastly,  the  council  of  ten 
was  threatened  by  the  great  council.  In  the  midst  of 
these  reforms,  which  were  calculated  to  make  a great 
change  in  the  institutions  of  Venice,  the  French  Revo- 
lution broke  out.  Ludovico  Manin  had  just  become 
doge  (1788),  but  was  a mere  cipher  in  the  councils  of 
the  state.  Soon  the  Venetians  were  called  on  to  recog- 
nize the  French  republic;  they  refused,  but  did  not  join 
the  coalition  against  it.  When  Bonaparte  was  at  the 
gates  of  Mantua,  they  at  length  decided  to  treat  with 
him;  but  it  was  too  late.  Mantua  capitulated  February 
2,  1797;  the  Venetian  envoys  presented  themselves 
before  Bonaparte  March  25th;  and  on  April  18th  the 
Austrians  signed  the  peace  of  Leoben,  which  left  Venice 
without  an  ally  at  the  feet  of  the  victorious  invaders  of 
Italy.  On  May  8th  the  great  council  decided  to  offer 
no  resistance  to  the  French;  the  doge  abdicated  on  the 
1 2th;  and  Napoleon  entered  the  city  on  the  16th,  and 
proclaimed  the  end  of  the  republic.  On  October  1 7th 
following,  Bonaparte,  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio, 
abandoned  the  territory  of  Venice  to  Austria.  Venice 
was  buffeted  to  and  fro  between  France  and  Austria  from 
1798  to  1814,  when  the  new  coalition  assigned  her  to 
Austria.  Till  1866  Venice  remained  Austrian,  save  for 
a few  hours  in  the  insurrections  of  1848-49;  but  her 
people  never  acknowledged  the  rights  of  those  who  had 
bought  and  sold  them  like  a flock  of  sheep.  The  war 
between  Austria  and  the  allied  Prussians  and  Italians  in 
1866  gave  Venice  her  freedom,  and  the  unity  of  Italy 
was  at  length  accomplished  under  the  scepter  of  the 
house  of  Savoy  (see  Italy). 

The  early  bridges  of  Venice  were  wooden  structures; 
even  that  over  the  Rialto  was  of  no  more  durable  ma- 
terial till  the  present  bridge  was  built  in  1591.  Many 
were  mere  planks  nailed  on  boats.  One  of  the  earliest 
built  in  stone  was  that  by  the  southeast  angle  of  the  du- 
cal palace,  called  the  Ponte  della  Paglia,  which  was 
founded  in  1360.  Its  name  (“the  bridge  of  straw”)  ap- 
pears to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  it  was  built  with  money 
from  the  tax  on  straw,  large  quantities  of  which  were 
used  to  thatch  the  early  houses  of  Venice.  Till  about 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Rialto  was  the 
only  bridge  across  the  Grand  canal. 

Owing  to  its  isolated  position  on  the  verge  of  Italy, 
and  its  constant  intercourse  with  the  eastern  shores  and 
islands  of  the  Mediterranean.  Venetian  architecture  was 


an  independent  development,  though  with  many  Orien- 
tal characteristics,  having  a character  of  its  own  quite 
unlike  the  styles  employed  in  other  Western  countries. 
It  was  a very  complex  growth,  in  which  the  most  di- 
verse  styles  were  absorbed  and  blended  together  in  a 
very  beautiful  way. 

In  spite  of  its  position  on  a number  of  small  sandy 
islands  in  the  lagoons,  Venice  was  built  upon  firm  and 
solid  foundations,  so  that  very  few  houses  have  suffered 
seriously  from  settlement.  At  a depth  of  ten  to  six- 
teen feet  there  is  a firm  bed  of  very  stiff  clay,  and  be- 
low this  a bed  of  sand  and  gravel,  and  then  a thin  layer 
of  peat.  Here  the  builders  dug  down  to  the  bed  of 
stiff  clay,  and  over  the  whole  area  of  the  footings  of 
the  tower  drove  in  piles  of  white  poplar,  ten  to  eleven 
inches  in  diameter,  nearly  touching  one  another.  On 
the  top  of  these  a level  platform  was  formed  by  two 
layers  of  oak  trees  ( Quercus  robur),  each  roughly 
squared,  the  upper  layer  being  laid  crosswise  upon  the 
lower  one.  The  oak  and  poplar  both  grew  along  the 
shores  close  to  V enice ; in  later  times,  when  the  V enetian 
territory  was  extended,  the  red  larch  {Finns  Larix)  of 
Cadore  and  the  Euganean  Hills  was  largely  used,  as,  for 
example,  in  the  foundations  of  the  ducal  palace.  Another 
way  of  forming  foundations,  which  was  used  in  rather 
later  times,  was  to  omit  the  piles  altogether  and  build 
footings  with  a wider  spread.  The  use  of  trachyte  for 
foundations  was  soon  superseded  by  that  of  Istrian 
limestone,  a very  beautiful  cream-colored  stone,  ex- 
tremely fine  and  close  in  texture  and  capable  of  receiv- 
ing a very  high  polish.  Though  not  crystalline  in  grain, 
and,  technically  speaking,  not  a true  marble,  this  Istrian 
stone  has  for  most  architectural  purposes  all  the 
beauty  of  the  finest  white  marble,  and  receives  from 
age  a beautiful  golden-russet  patina,  very  much  like 
that  assumed  by  Pentelic  marble.  From  the  eleventh 
century  onward  it  was  used  very  largely  for  plinths, 
angle-quoins,  string-courses,  window  tracery,  and  other 
decorative  purposes.  Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  the 
main  walling  of  V enetian  buildings  was  always  of  fine 
brick;  usually  a rich  red  in  color,  made  and  fired  in  the 
kilns  of  Murano.  Before  1405  the  mortar  used  in 
Venice  was  made  of  the  white  lime  from  the  Istrian 
limestone.  But  after  that  year,  when  the  Venetians 
conquered  Padua,  they  were  able  to  get  supplies  of  a 
strong  hydraulic  dark  lime  from  Albettone,  which 
formed  a very  durable  cement  or  mortar,  able  to  resist 
salt  water  and  the  destructive  sea  air.  One  of  the 
chief  glories  of  Venice  depends  on  its  extensive  use  of 
the  most  beautiful  and  costly  marbles  and  porphyries, 
which  give  a wealth  of  magnificent  color  such  as  is  to 
be  seen  in  no  other  city  in  the  world.  In  early  times 
none  of  these  seem  to  have  been  obtained  direct  from 
the  quarries,  but  from  older  buildings,  either  of  Roman 
or  early  Byzantine  date.  Thus  Venice  became  a mag- 
nificent storehouse  in  which  were  heaped  the  rich  treas- 
ures accumulated  throughout  many  previous  centuries 
by  various  peoples.  The  principal  varieties  used  in  the 
palaces  of  Venice  are — the  red  porphyry  of  Egypt  and 
the  green  porphyry  of  Mount  Taygetus,  red  and  gray 
Egyptian  granites,  the  beautiful  lapis  Atracius  (verde 
antico),  Oriental  alabaster  from  Numidia  and  Arabia, 
the  Phrygian  pavonazzetto  with  its  purple  mottlings, 
cipollino  from  Carystus,  and  in  great  quantities,  the  ala- 
baster-like Proconnesian  marble  with  bluish  and  amber- 
colored  striations.  Till  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  cent- 
ury the  white  marbles  used  in  Venice  were  from  Greek 
quarries — Parian  of  Pentelic — being  all  (like  the  colored 
marbles)  stolen  from  older  buildings,  while  in  later  times 
the  native  marble  of  Carrara  was  imported. 

The  fa9ades  of  the  chief  palaces  of  Venice  down  to 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  centurv  were  wholly  covered 


VEN 


with  these  magnificently  colored  marbles.  But  that 
was  not  all ; a still  greater  splendor  of  effect  was  given 
by  the  lavish  use  of  gold  and  color,  especially  the  costly 
ultramarine  blue.  Very  frequently  the  whole  of  the 
sculpture,  whether  on  capitals,  archivolts,  or  frieze-like 
bands,  was  thickly  covered  with  gold  leaf,  the  flat 
grounds  being  colored  a deep  ultramarine  so  as  to  throw 
the  reliefs  into  brilliant  prominence.  The  less  magnifi- 
cent palaces  were  decorated  in  a simpler  way.  With 
the  early  years  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  the  later 
development  of  the  Renaissance  totally  different  meth- 
ods of  architectural  decoration  superseded  the  use  of 
precious  marbles  and  delicate  repeated  ornament  in 
color.  The  Pseudo-Classic  buildings  of  Sansovino, 
Palladio,  and  their  schools  were  treated  simply  as  a 
ground  on  which  to  paint  large  frescoes  with  figure  sub- 
jects, not  designed  with  any  sense  of  the  true  principles 
of  architectural  decoration.  These  frescoes,  which  cov- 
ered the  otherwise  unornamental  fagades  of  many  of 
the  sixteenth  century  palaces,  were  often  the  work  of 
the  greatest  painters,  from  Giorgione  to  Tintoretto;  the 
colossal  groups  dwarfed  the  building  they  were  painted 
on,  and  were  far  inferior  in  decorative  effect  to  the 
simpler  patterns  of  earlier  times.  These,  too,  have 
mostly  perished : on  the  fondaco  of  the  Germans,  once 
covered  with  frescoes  painted  jointly  by  Titian  and  Gior- 
gione, only  traces  of  two  figures  now  remain. 

Painting. — For  an  accouut  of  Venetian  painting  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  separate  articles  on  the  vari- 
ous painters,  and  to  Schools  of  Painting. 

Sculpture. — Till  the  fourteenth  century  Venice  con- 
tinued to  adhere  to  the  old  Byzantine  style  of  sculpture. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  fourteenth  century  Florentine 
influence  rapidly  gained  ground,  and  many  sculptors 
from  Florence  came  to  work  on  the  richly  carved  capi- 
tals of  the  ducal  palace  and  other  places,  and  especially 
produced  a large  number  of  very  beautiful  tombs,  with 
recumbent  effigies.  One  very  graceful  type,  the  gen- 
eral motive  of  which  was  first  used  by  Arnolfo  del 
Cambio  (see  ORViETo),was  frequently  repeated;  at  the 
head  and  foot  of  the  effigy  an  angel  is  represented 
drawing  a curtain  so  as  to  expose  the  figure  of  the  dead 
man.  The  sarcophagus,  on  which  the  effigy  lies,  has 
reliefs  of  the  Virgin  and  the  Angel  of  the  Annunciation, 
with  the  Crucifixion  or  some  other  sacred  subject  be- 
tween. In  later  times  these  subjects  were  usually  re- 
placed by  allegorical  figures  of  the  virtues,  and  the  sim- 
ple curtain,  drawn  by  angels,  gradually  became  a large 
tent-like  canopy,  of  rather  clumsy  and  tasteless  form. 
In  most  churches  the  sculptured  decoration,  apart  from 
that  on  the  tombs,  was  concentrated  on  the  west  fagade, 
the  tympanum  of  the  central  doorway  being  often  filled 
with  a very  fine  relief,  such  as  that  from  the  church  of 
the  guild  Della  Misericordia,  now  in  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum.  In  domestic  architecture  sculpture 
was  but  little  used  after  the  Byzantine  period,  the 
splendor  of  the  fagades  depending  mostly  on  their  rich- 
colored  marbles  and  on  molded  tracery  and  string- 
courses. 

Though  not  the  work  of  a Venetian,  Venice  possesses 
what  is  perhaps  the  most  magnificent  equestrian  statue 
in  the  world,  the  colossal  bronze  portrait  of  the  Vene- 
tian commander-in-chief,  Bartolomeo  Colleoni,  which 
stands  in  the  square  at  the  west  end  of  SS.  Giovanni 
e Paolo.  It  was  modeled  by  the  Florentine  Verroc- 
chio (y.zc),  and  was  cast,  after  his  death,  by  Alessandro 
Leopardi,  who  also  designed  the  pedestal;  the  whole 
was  completed  in  1495. 

Minor  Arts. — During  the  early  part  of  the  mediaeval 
period  the  Venetians  had  no  great  skill  in  metal- work. 
Some  of  the  bronze  doors  in  the  west  fagadeof  St.  Mark’s 
are  importations  from  Byzantium.  That  on  the  right, 


6l6S 

which  has  rude  figures  of  saints  inlaid  in  silver,  was 
brought  to  Venice  in  1204;  another  with  a Latin  in- 
scription appears  to  be  native  work  of  about  the  year 
1 1 12;  both  are  very  rude  in  design  and  execution. 
The  open  bronze  grills  of  the  west  atrium  doorways, 
wmch  are  signed  as  the  work  of  a Venetian  goldsmith, 
Bertuccius,  in  1300,  show  no  increase  of  technical  skill. 
Nor  was  the  silver-work  any  better:  the  large  silver 
rood  in  St.  Mark’s  is  a very  coarse  piece  of  work.  In 
the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  Venetian  skill  in 
bronze-work  had  greatly  increased.  Leopardi,  who  cast 
Verrocchio’s  statute  of  Colleoni,  was  a bronze-worker 
of  great  eminence;  and  in  the  following  century  the 
bronze  doors  and  the  font  cover  in  St.  Mark’s,  by 
Jacopo  Sansovino,  are  models  of  technical  excellence, 
though  showing  some  decadence  of  taste  in  their  design. 
The  great  bronze  lion  on  the  west  fagade  of  St.  Mark’s, 
cast  by  Gaetano  Ferrari  in  the  first  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  is  a really  fine  work.  A great  deal  of 
beautiful  metal-work,  especially  in  copper  and  bronze, 
such  as  large  salvers,  ewers,  and  the  like,  was  made 
during  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  partly  by 
Moslem  workmen  and  partly  by  native  Venetians  who 
adopted  Oriental  designs. 

Moslem  influence  was  especially  strong  in  the  case  of 
woven  stuffs,  for  which  Venice  became  very  celebrated 
in  the  fifteenth  century.  Its  damasks  and  other  silk 
stuffs,  with  patterns  of  extraordinary  beauty,  surpassed 
in  variety  and  splendor  those  of  the' other  chief  centers 
of  silk  weaving,  such  as  Florence  and  Genoa.  In 
addition  to  the  native  stuffs,  an  immense  quantity  of 
costly  Oriental  carpets,  wall-hangings,  and  other  textiles 
was  imported  into  Venice,  partly  for  its  own  use,  and 
partly  for  export  throughout  western  Europe.  Thus, 
in  wealth  of  gorgeous  stuffs  and  embroideries  Venice 
surpassed  all  other  cities,  and  on  occasions  of  festivals 
or  pageants  the  balconies,  the  bridges,  the  boats,  and 
even  the  fagades  of  the  houses  were  hung  with  rich 
Eastern  carpets  or  patterned  textiles  in  gold  and  colored 
silk.  The  glass  manufactory  of  Murano  ( q.v .),  a small 
island  about  one  and  one-half  miles  to  the  north  ol 
Venice,  was  a great  source  of  revenue  to  the  republic; 
the  glass- workers  enjoyed  special  privileges,  and  great 
pains  were  taken  to  preserve  the  secrets  of  the  craft. 
Glass  drinking  cups  and  ornamental  vessels,  some  deco- 
rated with  enamel  painting,  and  “ silvered  ” mirrors  wer< 
produced  in  great  quantities  from  the  fourteenth  centurj 
downward,  and  exported  to  other  European  countries, 
where  they  were  sold  for  high  prices.  Much  beautiful 
glass-work  is  still  produced  in  Murano,  but  the  work- 
men have  lost  all  power  of  original  design,  and  do  little 
but  copy  the  forms  invented  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries.  Like  many  other  arts  in  Venice,  that  of  glass- 
making appears  to  have  been  imported  from  Moslem 
countries,  and  the  influence  of  Oriental  design  can  be 
traced  in  much  of  the  Venetian  glass.  The  art  of 
making  stained  glass  windows  was  not  practiced  by  the 
Venetians;  almost  the  only  fine  glass  in  Venice  is  that 
in  a south  transept  window  in  the  Dominican  church, 
which,  though  designed  by  able  Venetian  painters,  is 
obviously  the  work  of  foreigners. 

The  modern  city  stands  on  1 1 7 islands  separated  by 
150  canals  {rio)  and  united  by  380  bridges;  all  the 
main  traffic  passes  along  the  canals.  The  usual  range 
of  tide-level  is  about  twenty  inches;  but  under  excep- 
tional circumstances  there  is  a difference  of  nearly  six 
feet  between  lowest  and  highest  water.  The  name 
“ gondola”  given  to  the  passenger  boats  does  not  occur 
earlier  than  the  fourteenth  century.  As  shown  in  Car- 
paccio’s and  Gentile  Bellini’s  pictures  ( c . 1500),  the 
gondola  of  that  date  was  quite  unlike  the  present  boat 
with  its  heavy  black  cabin  and  absence  of  any  coloring; 


6i66 


V E N 


the  older  form  had  an  awning  of  rich  stuffs  or  gold  em- 
broideries, supported  on  a light  arched  framework  open 
at  both  ends.  The  peculiar  method  of  rowing  with  one 
oar  at  the  stern  is  the  same  now  as  it  was  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  probably  much  earlier.  Since  1880 
“ omnibus”  steamers  have  been  introduced  on  the 
Grand  canal,  which  has  also  been  disfigured  in  the 
nineteenth  century  by  the  addition  of  two  hideous  iron 
bridges,  over  one  of  which  passes  the  railway  that  con- 
nects Venice  with  the  mainland.  Before  the  Venetian 
republic  was  suppressed  by  Napoleon  I.  the  population 
amounted  to  nearly  200,000;  in  1830  it  had  sunk  to 
about  100,000;  but  since  then  it  has  increased,  and  in  1901 
amounted  to  151,841  (commune  165,637).  The  city 
has  grown  rapidly  in  prosperity  since  its  restoration  to 
'.he  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  it  is  now  second  only  to 
Trieste  among  the  seaports  of  the  Adriatic.  The  cli- 
mate is  mild  but  somewhat  rainy,  owing  to  the  water- 
surrounded  site.  The  principal  manufactures  of  the 
city  remain  what  they  were  in  the  Middle  Ages,  namely, 
gold  and  silver  work,  glass,  and  velvet  and  silk,  to 
which  must  now  be  added  cotton,  in  all  of  which,  as 
well  as  in  grain,  oils,  wine  and  spirits,  fruits,  drugs, 
fish,  and  hides  and  leather  an  active  trade  is  carried  on. 

VENLO,  a frontier  town  of  Holland,  in  the  province 
of  Limburg,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Meuse  (here 
crossed  by  a bridge),  is  an  important  railway  junction; 
Cologne  lies  sixty  miles  to  the  southeast  and  Maestricht 
forty-three  miles  to  the  southwest.  The  population, 
which  is  somewhat  closely  packed,  was  8,494  in  1876, 
and  12,550  in  1900. 

VENOSA  (anc.,  Venusia),  a town  in  Southern 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Basilicata,  100  miles  east- 
northeast  of  Naples.  The  unfailing  interest  of  Venosa 
arises  from  its  being  the  birthplace  of  Horace  ( q.v .) 
In  one  of  the  streets  is  a column  surmounted  by  the 
bust  of  the  poet;  and  many  of  the  localities  of  the 
vicinity  can  be  identified  with  the  places  he  has 
immortalized.  Population,  about  7,000. 

VENTILATION  is  the  process  of  changing  the  air 
of  rooms  and  other  closed  places  so  that  a certain 
standard  of  purity  may  be  preserved  notwithstanding 
the  vitiation  which  the  air  undergoes  from  the  breath  of 
inhabitants,  the  products  of  combustion  of  illuminating 
agents,  and  other  causes.  In  estimating  the  amount  of 
air  to  be  supplied,  account  must  be  taken  of  the  stand- 
ard of  purity  which  is  aimed  at  and  of  the  rate  at  which 
vitiation  occurs. 

Of  the  various  impurities  that  are  found  in  the  air  of 
inhabited  rooms  carbonic  acid  forms  the  most  ready 
index  of  the  ventilation.  The  open  air  of  London  and 
other  large  inland  towns  contains  about  four  parts  by 
volume  of  this  gas  in  10,000  of  air.  In  the  country  and 
in  towns  near  the  sea  two  or  three  and  one-half  parts  in 
10,000  is  a more  usual  proportion.  Authorities  on  ven- 
tilation usually  take  four  parts  in  10,000  as  the  standard 
for  pure  air,  and  use  the  excess  over  that  quantity  in 
estimating  the  adequacy  of  the  air  supply.  But  they 
differ  as  to  the  proportion  to  which  the  carbonic  acid 
may  be  allowed  to  rise  in  good  ventilation.  It  is  gen- 
erally admitted  that  the  air  in  which  people  dwell  and 
sleep  should  not  under  any  circumstances  be  allowed  to 
contain  more  than  ten  parts  in  10,000.  De  Chaumont, 
judging  by  the  rough  and  unsatisfactory  test  afforded  by 
the  sense  of  smell,  concluded  that  the  air  of  a room 
ceased  to  be  good  when  it  contained  eight  volumes  of 
carbonic  acid  in  10,000  of  air,  and  recommends  that  six 
parts  in  10,000  be  taken  as  the  maximum  permissible  in 
good  ventilation.  Parkes,  in  his  Manual  of  Hygiene , 
quotes  observations  which  point  to  an  equally  exacting 
standard  as  desirable.  The  rate  at  which  an  adult 
respires  carbonic  acid  varies  widely  with  his  condition  of 


repose,  being  least  in  sleep,  greater  in  waking  fes\,  and 
very  much  greater  in  violent  exercise.  As  a basis  on 
which  to  calculate  the  air  necessary  for  proper  ventila- 
tion we  may  take  the  production  of  carbonic  acid  by  an 
adult  as  0.6  cubic  feet  per  hour.  Hence  he  will  pro- 
duce per  hour,  in  6,000  cubic  feet  of  air,  a pollution 
amounting  to  one  part  of  carbonic  acid  in  10,000  of  air. 
If  the  excess  of  carbonic  acid  were  to  be  kept  down  to 
this  figure  ( 1 in  10,000),  it  would  be  necessary  to  sup- 
ply 6,000  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  per  hour;  if  the  permis- 
sible excess  be  two  parts  in  10,000,  half  this  supply  of 
fresh  air  will  suffice;  and  so  on. 

To  preserve  the  lowest  standard  of  purity  tolerated 
by  sanitarians,  ventilation  must  go  on  at  the  rate  per 
person  of  1,000  cubic  feet  per  hour,  and  3,000  cubic  feet 
per  hour  are  required  to  preserve  the  higher  standard 
on  which  some  authorities  insist.  Parkes  advises  a sup- 
ply of  2,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  hour  for  persons  in 
health  and  3,000  or  4,000  cubic  feet  for  sick  persons. 
The  English  Barracks  Improvement  Commissioners  re- 
quire that  the  supply  be  not  less  than  1,200  cubic  feet 
per  man  per  hour.  Gas  lights  add  to  the  vitiation  of 
the  air  of  rooms  at  a rate  which  may  be  roughly  esti- 
mated by  treating  one  cubic  foot  of  gas  burnt  per  hour 
as  nearly  equivalent  to  one  adult  person,  so  far  as  the 
production  of  carbonic  acid  is  concerned.  Thus  an  or- 
dinary burner,  giving  a light  of  about  twenty  candles 
and  burning  four  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour,  uses  the  air 
of  three  or  four  men. 

The  purity  of  the  air  of  a room  depends,  of  course,  to 
some  extent,  on  the  proportion  of  its  cubic  capacity  to 
the  number  of  inmates.  The  influence  of  capacity  is, 
however,  often  overrated.  Even  when  the  allowance  of 
space  is  very  liberal,  if  no  fresh  air  be  supplied,  the  at- 
mosphere of  a room  quickly  falls  below  the  standard  of 
purity  specified  above;  on  the  other  hand,  the  space  per 
inmate  may  be  almost  indefinitely  reduced  if  sufficient 
means  are  provided  for  systematic  ventilation.  Large 
rooms,  are  good,  chiefly  because  of  their  action  as  reser. 
voirs  of  air  in  those  cases  (too  common  in  practice) 
where  no  sufficient  provision  is  made  for  continuous  ven- 
tilation, and  where  the  air  is  changed  mainly  by  inter- 
mittent ventilation,  such  as  occurs  when  doors  or  win- 
dows are  opened.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  too,  that 
no  room  is  hermetically  sealed.  In  the  absence  of  proper 
inlets  and  outlets  casual  ventilation  goes  on  through 
every  chink  and  cranny,  and  even  by  diffusion  through 
the  plaster  of  the  walls.  The  ventilation  given  in  this 
way  is  generally  most  inadequate;  but  a large  room  has 
at  least  the  advantage  over  a small  one  that  it  offers 
more  chances  for  the  casual  entrance  of  fresh  air,  as  well 
as  a larger  wall-surface  through  which  diffusion  may  oc- 
cur. It  has  also  the  advantage  that  a greater  volume  of 
air  may  more  easily  be  passed  through  it  than  through 
a small  room  in  a given  time,  without  causing  disagree- 
able draughts. 

The  atmosphere  of  rooms  is  changed  partly  by 
diffusion,  but  chiefly  by  actual  currents  of  air.  The  ex- 
periments of  Pettenkofer  have  shown  that  air  passes  to 
a very  sensible  extent  through  the  substance  of  brick 
walls.  In  houses  built  of  stone  the  movement  of  air 
through  the  walls  must  be  insignificant;  but,  as  regards 
individual  rooms,  what  is  chiefly  important  in  this  con- 
nection is  the  percolation  through  dry  plaster,  causing 
an  exchange  of  atmosphere  to  occur  between  the  inside 
of  the  room  and  the  space  within  the  lining  of  the  wall, 
which  is  generally  in  communication  with  other  parts  of 
the  building  and  with  the  external  air.  In  order  that 
the  atmosphere  of  a room  should  be  changed  by  means 
of  air  currents,  three  things  are  necessary — (i)  an  inlet 
or  inlets  for  the  air,  (2)  an  outlet  or  outlets,  and  (3)  a 
motive  force  to  produce  and  maintain  the  current; 


YEN 


One  might  think  it  needless  to  enumerate  such  obvious 
requirements  were  it  not  that,  in  providing  appliances 
which  are  intended  to  act  as  ventilators,  one  or  other  of 
the  three  essentials  is  not  infrequently  overlooked.  In 
systems  which  are  distinguished  by  the  general  name  of 
mechanical  or  artificial  ventilation  special  provision  is 
made  for  driving  the  air,  by  fans,  or  by  furnaces,  or  by 
other  contrivances  to  be  described  more  fully  below. 
In  what  is  called  natural  ventilation  no  special  appli- 
ance is  used  to  give  motive  force,  but  the  forces  are 
made  use  of  which  are  supplied  by  (i)  the  wind,  (2) 
the  elevated  temperature  of  the  room’s  atmosphere, 
and  (3)  the  draught  of  fires  used  for  heating. 

The  chief  agent  in  domestic  ventilation  is  the  chimney; 
when  a bright  fire  is  burning  in  an  open  grate,  it  rarely 
happens  that  any  other  outlet  for  foul  air  from  a room 
need  be  provided.  The  column  of  hot  air  and  burnt 
gases  in  the  chimney  is  less  heavy,  because  of  its  high 
temperature,  than  an  equal  column  of  ai;  outside;  the 
pressure  at  the  base  is  therefore  IdSs  than  the  pressure 
at  the  same  level  outside.  This  supplies  a motive  force 
compelling  air  to  enter  at  the  bottom  through  the  grate 
and  through  the  opening  over  the  grate,  and  causing  a 
current  to  ascend.  The  motive  force  which  the  chimney 
supplies  has  not  only  to  do  work  on  the  column  of  air 
within  the  chimney,  in  setting  it  in  motion  and  in  over- 
coming frictional  resistance  to  its  flow;  it  has  also  to 
set  the  air  entering  the  room  in  motion  and  to  overcome 
frictional  resistance  at  the  inlets.  In  many  cases  the 
latter  part  of  the  chimney’s  work  is  the  more  considera- 
ble of  the  two.  The  discharge  of  air  by  an  ordinary 
open  fire  and  chimney  varies  widely,  depending  on  the 
rate  of  combustion,  the  height  and  section  and  form  of 
the  chimney,  and  the  freedom  with  which  air  is  entering 
the  room.  About  10,000  cubic  feet  per  hour  is  probably 
a fair  average,  about  enough  to  keep  the  air  fresh  for 
half-a-dozen  persons.  Even  when  no  fire  is  burning  the 
chimney  plays  an  important  part  in  ventilation:  the  air 
within  an  inhabited  room  being  generally  warmer  than 
the  air  outside,  it  is  only  necessary  that  an  up-current 
should  be  started  in  order  that  the  chimney  should  main- 
tain it,  and  it  will  usually  be  found  that  a current  is,  in 
fact,  passing  up. 

When  a room  is  occupied  for  any  considerable  length 
of  time  by  more  than  about  half-a'-dozen  persons,  the 
chimney  outlet  should  be  supplemented  by  others,  which 
usually  take  the  form  of  gratings  in  the  ceiling  or  cor- 
nices in  communication  with  flues  leading  to  the  open 
air. 

With  regard  to  inlets,  a first  care  must  be  to  avoid 
such  currents  of  cold  air  as  will  give  the  disagreeable 
and  dangerous  sensation  of  draught.  At  ordinary  tem- 
peratures a current  of  outer  air  to  which  the  body  is 
exposed  will  be  felt  as  a draught  if  its  velocity  exceeds 
two,  or  at  most  three,  feet  per  second.  The  current 
entering  a room  may,  however,  be  allowed  to  move 
with  a speed  much  greater  than  this  without  causing 
discomfort,  provided  its  direction  keeps  it  from  striking 
directly  on  the  persons  of  the  inmates.  To  secure  this, 
it  should  enter,  not  horizontally  nor  through  gratings 
on  the  floor,  but  vertically  through  openings  high 
enough  to  carry  the  entering  stream  into  the  upper 
atmosphere  of  the  room,  where  it  will  mix  as  complete- 
ly as  possible  with  warm  air  before  its  presence  can  be 
felt. 

In  the  natural  ventilation  of  churches,  halls  and  other 
large  rooms  we  often  find  air  admitted  by  gratings  in 
the  floor  or  near  it — an  offensive  plan,  since  it  fouls  the 
air,  besides  causing  objectionable  draughts,  unless  the 
temperature  is  very  carefully  regulated.  The  inlets 
should  consist  of  upright  flues  rising  to  a height  of  about 
six  feet  above  the  floor,  from  which  the  air  proceeds  in 


6167 

vertical  streams.  If  the  air  is  to  be  warmed  before  it 
enters,  the  supply  may  be  drawn  from  a chamber 
warmed  by  hot-water  or  steam  pipes  or  by  a stove,  and 
the  temperature  of  the  room  may  be  regulated  by  allow* 
ing  part  of  the  air  to  come  from  a hot  chamber  and 
part  from  outside,  the  two  currents  mixing  in  the  shaft 
from  which  the  inlets  to  the  room  draw  their  supply. 
If  a basement  or  story  below  the  room  to  be  ventilated 
is  available,  a good  plan  is  to  carry  the  inlet  tubes  ver- 
tically down  through  it  and  warm  the  air  in  them,  so 
that  the  height  of  the  warm  column  assists  the  flow. 
Outlets  usually  consist  of  gratings  or  plain  openings  at 
or  near  the  ceiling,  preferably  at  a considerable  distance 
from  points  vertically  above  the  inlet  tubes.  One  of 
the  chief  difficulties  in  natural  ventilation  is  to  guard 
them  against  down-draught  through  the  action  of  the 
wind.  Numberless  forms  of  cowl  have  been  devised 
with  this  object,  and  often  with  the  further  intention  of 
turning  the  wind  to  useful  account  by  making  it  assist 
the  up-current  of  foul  air. 

The  two  things  that  supply  motive  force  in  automatic 
ventilation — the  difference  of  temperature  between  inner 
and  outer  air  and  the  wind — are  so  variable  that  even 
the  best  arrangements  of  inlets  and  outlets  give  a some- 
what uncertain  Jesuit.  To  secure  a strictly  uniform 
delivery  of  air,  unaffected  by  changes  of  season  or  of 
weather,  the  influence  of  these  irregular  motive  forces 
must  be  as  far  as  possible  minimized,  and  recourse  must 
be  had  to  an  artificial  method  of  driving  the  air. 

This  finds  application  on  the  largest  scale  in  the  ven 
tilation  of  collieries,  by  methods  which  are  fully  de- 
scribed under  Coal  and  Mining.  Motive  force  is  sup- 
plied to  the  up-cast  shaft  either  by  a furnace  at  the  base, 
which  heats  the  rising  column  of  air,  or  (in  more  mod- 
ern practice)  by  a centrifugal  fan,  such  as  Guibal’s, 
exhausting  air  from  the  top.  The  long  galleries  and 
workings  through  which  the  air  has  to  be  driven  oppose 
so  much  resistance  that  the  pressure  required  to  move  a 
sufficient  volume  of  air  is  immensely  greater  than  is  ever 
necessary  or  desirable  in  the  artificial  ventilation  of 
buildings. 

A broad  distinction  may  be  drawn  between  what  are 
sometimes  called  vacuum  and  plenum  methods  of  arti  • 
ficial  ventilation.  In  the  former,  as  in  colliery  ventila 
tion,  the  motive  force  is  applied  at  the  outlets:  air  is 
drawn  from  the  rooms,  and  the  pressure  of  their  atmos- 
phere is  less  than  the  pressure  outside.  In  the  latter 
the  motive  force  is  applied  at  the  inlets:  air  is  pushed  in, 
and  the  pressure  within  the  room  is  greater  than  out- 
side. The  plenum  method  has  distinct  advantages;  it 
makes  the  air  escape  instead  of  coming  in  as  a cold 
draught  at  every  crevice  and  casual  opening  to  the 
outer  air;  it  avoids  drawing  foul  and  moldy  air  from 
sewers  and  basement;  and  with  it,  more  easily  than  with 
the  other,  one  may  guard  against  the  disturbing  influ- 
ence of  wind.  In  the  plenum  method  the  air  is  driven 
by  pumps  or  by  fans;  in  the  vacuum  method  pumps  are 
rarely  if  ever  used;  suction  is  produced  by  fans  or  by 
heating  the  column  of  air  in  a long  vertical  shaft 
through  which  the  discharge  takes  place.  Water  jets 
and  steam  jets  have  also  been  employed  to  impel  the  air. 

Extraction  by  a hot-air  shaft  is  a common  mode  of 
ventilating  hospitals  and  other  public  buildings.  Heat 
is  applied  by  a furnace  or  stove  at  the  bottom  of  the 
shaft,  or  by  coils  of  hot  water  or  steam  pipes,  which 
should  not  extend  up  the  shaft  farther  than  neces- 
sary. In  the  lecture  theater  of  the  Paris  art  con- 
servatory, ventilated  by  Morin,  where  this  means  of  ex- 
traction is  employed,  fresh  air  enters  through  the  ceil- 
ing and  foul  air  is  drawn  off  through  the  floor  from 
under  the  seats;  this  reversal  of  the  natural  direction  of 
the  current  is  of  course  only  possible  when  a sufficient 


6i68 


YEN 


external  motive  force  is  applied.  The  English  House 
of  Commons  furnishes  another  example:  there  the  air, 
after  being  wavmed  and  moistened,  or  cooled  by  water 
spray,  as  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  may  require,  is 
admitted  through  large  gratings  in  the  floor,  which  are 
covered  by  porous  matting  to  prevent  draughts;  outlets 
from  the  top  of  the  house  lead  by  flues  to  the  Victoria 
tower,  where  a furnace  maintains  the  current  in  an  up- 
cast shaft.  In  theaters  and  other  buildings  lighted  by 
clusters  of  gas  jets  or  sun-lights  at  the  ceiling  the  lights 
may  be  turned  to  account  as  effective  ventilating  agents 
by  letting  the  foul  air  escape  through  shafts  placed  over 
them,  which  they  heat  at  the  base.  What  is  known  as 
the  Ruttan  or  Smeed  system  of  ventilation,  successfully 
applied  in  many  schools,  employs  a hot-air  shaft  to  fur- 
nish motive  power.  In  warm  weather  a stove  at  the 
base  of  the  shaft  is  used  to  heat  the  column;  in  cold 
weather  the  exhaust  air  from  the  rooms  is  so  much 
warmer  than  the  atmosphere  outside  that  the  up-cast 
shaft  acts  without  additional  heating.  This  is  in  fact  an 
example  in  which  the  classification  of  systems  into 
natural  and  artificial  breaks  down.  The  supply  of 
fresh  air  is  warmed  as  it  enters  by  passing  through 
chambers  containing  tubular  metal  stoves ; the  outlets 
are  at  or  near  the  floor  level.  A curious  feature  in  the 
arrangements  is  that  the  foul  air,  in  passing  to  the  up- 
cast shaft,  is  drawn  through  the  privies,  where  it  desic- 
cates all  discharges. 

Extraction  by  fans  presents  no  features  requiring 
special  remark.  A favorite  fan  for  the  purpose  is  the 
Blackman  propeller,  the  nearly  flat  form  of  which  al- 
lows it  to  be  readily  placed  in  walls  and  partitions.  One 
of  these  fans,  four  feet  in  diameter,  when  driven  at  a 
speed  of  about  330  revolutions  per  minute,  is  said  to 
discharge  15,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  with  an 
expenditure  of  one  horse-power. 

The  plenum  method,  with  fans  to  drive  the  air,  is 
exemplified  on  a large  scale  in  the  ventilation  of  St. 
George’s  Hall,  Liverpool,  where  there  are  four  large 
fans  in  the  basement,  driven  by  a ten-horse-power 
steam-engine.  The  building  is  heated  by  passing  the 
air  through  chambers  containing  coils  of  hot-water  and 
steam  pipes;  after  the  air  is  warmed  it  is  moistened  by 
injecting  steam,  and  provision  is  made  for  washing  it  by 
water-spray  before  it  reaches  the  fans. 

When  fans  are  used,  either  with  suction  or  with 
pressure,  the  amount  of  the  current  is  not  strictly  inde- 
pendent of  those  variable  motive  forces  which  are  the 
sole  agents  in  natural  ventilation;  the  case  is  analogous 
to  that  of  an  electric  circuit  in  which  several  sources  of 
electromotive  force  are  at  work,  assisting  or  opposing 
one  another.  The  fan  may  be  the  main  agent  in  circu- 
lating the  air;  but  differences  of  temperature,  and  at 
times  the  action  of  the  wind,  may  make  large  variations 
in  the  resultant  effect.  The  case  is  different  when 
pumps  are  used.  A certain  quantity  of  air  is  delivered 
at  each  stroke,  and  the  only  effect  of  these  irregular 
forces  is  to  make  the  power  required  to  drive  the  pump 
sometimes  greater  and  sometimes  less.  Provided  there 
are  no  casual  inlets  and  outlets,  the  amount  of  air  sup- 
plied is  known  with  certainty. 

The  advantage  of  ample  and  systematic  ventilation  is 
not  to  be  measured  only  by  the  low  proportion  of  car- 
bonic acid  it  secures.  Carbonic  acid  is  not  the  only 
test  of  vitiation;  it  is  not  even  the  most  dangerous  im- 
purity. Another  criterion  of  the  foulness  of  close  air  is 
the  amount  of  oxidizable  organic  matter  it  contains; 
still  another — and  a most  valuable  one — is  the  number 
of  micro-organisms,  especially  of  bacteria.  The  micro- 
organisms may  be  determined  by  Hesse’s  method  of 
slowly  passing  a given  volume  of  the  air  to  be  examined 
through  a tube  coated  inside  with  beef  jelly;  the  germs 


are  deposited  on  the  nutrient  jelly  and  each  becomes  in 
a few  days  the  center  of  a very  visible  colony.  In  out- 
side air  the  number  of  micro-organisms,  as  tested  in 
this  way,  varies  greatly:  it  is  often  less  than  1 per  litre 
(61  cubic  inches);  in  well- ventilated  rooms  it  ranges 
from  1 to  20;  in  close  school-rooms  as  many  as  600  per 
litre  have  been  found.  The  elaborate  researches  of 
Carnelley,  Haldane,  and  Anderson  on  the  air  of  dwell- 
ings and  schools  illustrate  well  the  value  of  this  test. 
One  of  the  uses  to  which  they  have  put  it  has  been  to 
compare  schools  known  to  be  well  ventilated  (by  me- 
chanical means)  with  schools  ventilated  at  hap-hazar<f 
or  not  ventilated  at  all.  A large  number  of  trials  were 
made  in  each  case;  in  the  mechanically  ventilated  school- 
rooms the  average  number  of  micro-organisms  was  13 
per  litre,  and  in  the  others  152. 

VENTNOR,  a watering-place  in  the  southeast  of  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  England,  is  finely  situated  in  the  Under- 
cliff district,  at  the  foot  of  St.  Boniface  Down,  twelve 
miles  south-southwest  of  Ryde  and  ten  south-south- 
east of  Newport,  with  both  of  which  there  is  communi- 
cation by  coach  as  well  as  by  rail.  The  town  is  finely 
and  picturesquely  built  on  a succession  of  terraces 
sloping  toward  the  sea,  and  from  its  sheltered  situation, 
equable  temperature,  and  comparatively  dry  atmosphere 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  resorts  in  England  for 
consumptive  invalids.  About  fifty  years  ago  it  was 
only  a small  fishing  hamlet ; now  it  extends  along  the 
shore  for  a distance  of  about  two  miles,  including  Bon- 
church  to  the  east.  An  esplanade  was  constructed  in 
1848,  and  a pier  (645  feet  in  length)  in  1872,  which  was 
greatly  improved  in  1887.  The  church  of  St.  Boniface 
at  Bonchurch  is  perhaps  the  oldest  in  the  island.  The 
population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  215  acres) 
was  5,904  in  1901 ; but  there  is  a considerable  popula- 
tion outside  the  district. 

VENTRILOQUISM,  the  art  of  producing  tones 
and  words  without  any  apparent  motion  of  the  lips,  and 
so  that  the  hearer  is  induced  to  refer  the  sound  to  some 
other  place.  It  does  not  depend  upon  any  peculiar 
structure  of  the  organs  of  voice,  but  upon  practice  and 
dexterity.  The  name  is  founded  upon  the  mistaken  sup- 
position that  the  voice  proceeds  from  the  belly.  The 
art  of  the  ventriloquist  consists  mainly  in  taking  a deep 
inhalation  of  breath  and  allowing  it  to  escape  slowly; 
the  sounds  of  the  voice  being  modified  and  muffled  by 
means  of  the  muscles  of  the  upper  part  of  the  throat 
and  of  the  palate.  The  ventriloquist  avails  himself  at  the 
same  time  of  means  such  as  are  employed  by  sleight  of 
hand  performers  to  mislead  the  attention.  Ventrilo- 
quism is  a very  ancient  art,  and  is  mentioned  by  Isaiah 
(xxix.  4).  The  Greeks  ascribed  it  to  the  operation  of 
demons  and  called  ventriloquists  Engastrimanteis  (belly- 
seers)  and  also  Euryklytes,  from  Eurykles,  a professor 
of  the  art  at  Athens.  In  modern  times  Professor  Wy- 
man and  Zera  Simon  are  the  representative  ventrilo 
quists  of  America;  a Frenchman  by  the  name  of  Alex 
andre  obtained  a great  reputation  for  his  mimetic 
representations,  combined  with  ventriloquism  and 
sleight  of  hand;  and  in  England  Love  was  one  of  the 
most  popular  ventriloquists. 

VENUE  (from  Lat.  vicenetum ) denotes  in  English 
law  the  place  from  which  a jury  must  be  brought  for  the 
trial  of  a case.  The  word  occurs  early  in  constitutional 
documents,  for  it  was  for  a long  time  one  of  the  essen- 
tials of  trial  by  jury  that  the  jury  should  belong  to 
the  neighborhood  in  which  the  cause  of  action  arose  or 
the  alleged  crime  was  committed  (see  Jury).  In  civil 
matters  venue  became  after  a time  divided  into  local 
and  transitory,  the  former  where  the  cause  of  action 
could  only  have  arisen  in  a particular  county,  such  as 
trespass  to  land,  the  latter  where  it  might  have  ariseu 


v E N — V E R 


in  any  county,  sucli  as  debt.  In  the  latter  case  the 
plaintiff  might  lay  the  venue  where  he  pleased,  subject 
to  the  power  of  the  court  or  a judge  to  change  it.  In 
criminal  practice  venue  is  still  of  importance,  though 
not  as  much  so  as  formerly  since  the  large  powers  of 
amendment  of  indictments  given  by  recent  legislation. 

In  the  United  States  venue  may  generally  be  changed 
by  the  courts  ; but  in  some  States  it  is  provided  by 
their  constitutions  that  provision  for  change  of  venue  is 
to  be  made  by  the  legislature.  In  other  States  the 
passing  of  local  or  special  laws  for  change  of  venue  is 
forbidden. 

VENUS.  See  Aphrodite. 

VERA,  Augusto,  the  chief  representative  of  Hegel- 
ianism in  Italian  philosophy,  was  born  at  Amelia  in  the 
province  of  Perugia  on  May  4,  1817.  He  completed 
his  education  in  Paris,  and,  after  teaching  classics  for 
some  years  in  Switzerland,  was  appointed  professor  of 
philosophy  in  connection  with  the  University  of  France. 
Attaching  himself  to  Hegel’s  system  with  the  enthusi- 
asm of  a disciple,  Vera  (who  wrote  fluently  both  in 
French  and  English  as  well  as  in  Italian)  became  widely 
influential  in  spreading  a knowledge  of  the  Hegelian 
doctrine.  Without  any  marked  originality,  his  writings 
are  distinguished  by  the  lucidity  of  their  exposition, 
and  by  their  genuine  philosophic  spirit.  His  English 
works  are  an  Inquiry  into  Speculative  and  Experi- 
mental Science  (1856),  more  recently  an  Introduction 
to  Speculative  Logic  and  Philosophy,  and  a translation 
of  Bretschn^ider’s  History  of  Religion  and  of  the 
Christian  Church.  Vera  also  translated  a number  of 
Hegel’s  works  into  French,  with  introductions  and 
commentaries,  including  the  Logic , the  Philosophy  of 
Nature , the  Philosophy  of  Spirit , and  the  Philosophy 
of  Religion.  In  i860  Vera  returned  to  Italy,  where  he 
was  made  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  royal  academy 
of  Milan.  In  the  following  year  he  was  transferred  to 
Naples  as  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  university 
there.  He  held  this  post  till  his  death,  which  took 
place  at  Naples  in  the  autumn  of  1885. 

VERA  CRUZ,  a fortified  town  and  seaport  of  Mex- 
ico, formerly  capital  of  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz,  is  situ- 
ated in  190  iT  50"  N.  latitude  and  96°  20'  W.  longi- 
tude, at  the  southwest  corner  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  town,  which  in  1896  had  a population  of  24,085,  is 
distant  263  miles  by  rail  from  Mexico  and  60  from 
Jalapa,  the  summer  residence  of  the  upper  classes.  It 
has  few  buildings  of  interest,  except  a superb  cathedral 
decorated  in  the  Moorish  style.  Most  of  the  streets, 
which  are  laid  out  at  right  angles,  are  paved  with  cobble 
stones,  and  have  a kennel  or  open  gutter  in  the  middle. 
A characteristic  feature  of  the  place  are  the  turkey-buz- 
zards, who  do  the  scavengering  and  are  consequently 
protected  by  law.  Vera  Cruz  is  the  largest  seaport 
in  the  republic.  In  1886  over  one-half  of  the  exports 
of  Mexico  ($15,000,000  altogether)  were  shipped  from 
this  place.  In  the  same  year  487  vessels  of  295,000 
tons  cleared  V era  Cruz.  In  1887  the  exports  from  V era 
Cruz  amounted  to  $5,200,000  and  the  imports  to  $11,- 
000,000. 

The  state  of  Vera  Cruz  has  a seaboard  of  450  miles 
on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  with  a mean  breadth  of  55  miles. 
Its  area  is  24,700  square  miles,  and  its  total  population 
was  960,570  in  1900,  nearly  all  native  Mexicans. 

VERATRUM.  The  Greek  physicians  were  ac- 
quainted with  a poisonous  herb  which  they  called  white 
hellebore,  and  which  has  been  supposed  to  represent  the 
existing  Veratrum.  Be  this  as  it  may,  in  modern  times 
the  name  has  been  applied  to  a-  genus  of  herbaceous 
lants  closely  allied  in  their  structure  to  Colchicum , 
ut  differing  greatly  in  general  appearance.  Veratrum 
in  a tall-growing  herb,  having  a fibrous  root-stock,  an 


6169 

erect  stem,  with  numerous  broad,  plicated  leaves,  placed 
alternately,  and  terminal  much-branched  clusters  of 
greenish  or  purplish  polygamous  flowers.  The  genus  is 
included  in  the  order  Melanthacece , otherwise  called 
Colchicacece , and  comprises  a small  number  of  species, 
natives  of  the  temperate  regions  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere,  generally  growing  in  pastures  or  woods.  Some, 
and  presumably  all,  contain  a violently  poisonous  alka- 
loid called  veratrin;  but,  given  in  small  doses  and  under 
careful  supervision,  some  of  the  preparations  yielded  by 
Veratrum  are  valuable  medicinal  agents,  their  effect 
being  to  lower  the  pulse  and  the  heat  of  the  body. 

VERBENA.  The  vervain  genus  gives  its  name  to 
the  natural  order  ( Verbenacece)  of  which  it  is  a member. 
The  species  are  herbaceous  or  somewhat  shrubby,  erect 
or  procumbent,  with  opposite  or  whorled  leaves,  gen- 
erally deeply  cut.  The  sessile  flowers  originate  in  the 
axils  of  bracts,  and  are  aggregated  into  close  spikes. 
The  fruit  consists  of  four  hard  nuts  within  the  persist- 
ent calyx.  There  are  about  eighty  species  known, 
mostly  natives  of  tropical  and  subtropical  America.  V. 
officinalis , according  to  Bentham,  is  also  widely  dis- 
persed in  the  temperate  and  warmer  regions  of  the 
eastern  hemisphere.  V.  bonariensis  occurs  in  Africa 
and  in  Asia,  while  V.  supinti  is  indigenous  only  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  Canarian  regions.  The  plant  is  now 
but  lightly  esteemed,  and  its  medicinal  virtues,  if  it  have 
any,  are  entirely  ignored.  The  garden  verbenas,  once 
so  popular  for  “bedding  out,”  are  derivatives  from 
various  South  American  species,  such  as  V.  teucrioides , 
a native  of  southern  Brazil,  and  V.  chamcedrifolia  from 
Uruguay.  The  range  of  colors  extends  from  pure  white 
to  rose-colored  carmine,  violet,  and  purple. 

VERCELLI,  a town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  No- 
vara. The  cathedral  is  a large  building  dating  from  the 
sixteenth  century;  its  library  contains  a number  of  rare 
ancient  MSS.,  especially  the  Codex  Vercellensis,  one  of 
the  most  important  MSS.  of  the  old  Latin  version  of 
the  Gospels,  written  in  the  fourth  century  by  Eusebius, 
bishop  of  Vercelli.  The  leading  industry  is  silk-spin- 
ning; and  there  is  an  active  trade  in  the  products  of  the 
surrounding  district  (silk,  hemp,  flax,  and  rice).  The 
population  is  20,165  (commune,  21,169). 

VERD  ISLANDS,  Cape.  See  Cape  Verd 
Islands. 

VERDICT  in  law,  is  the  finding  of  a jury  as  to 
the  issue  of  fact  raised  between  the  parties.  The  usual 
verdict  in  criminal  cases  is  “guilty”  or  “not  guilty,”  in 
civil  cases  it  is  a verdict  for  the  plaintiff  or  the  defendant 
according  to  the  fact.  These  are  called  general  ver- 
dicts. In  some  civil  cases,  the  jury  when  doubtful,  or 
when  the  court  directing  them  is  doubtful  how  the  law 
ought  to  be  applied  to  the  facts,  found  a special  verdict, 
i.e.,  specific  facts,  leaving  the  court  to  draw  the  proper 
conclusion.  A verdict  by  a jury  is  usually  conclusive 
in  all  criminal  cases,  and  no  new  trial  can  be  had,  except 
where  obvious  error  has  been  committed  in  course  of 
trial,  or  for  any  cause  which,  operating  at  the  previous 
trial,  would  have  caused  a different  verdict  to  the  one 
rendered;  but  in  civil  cases  the  party  defeated  may, 
within  a certain  number  of  days  allowed  by  the  practice 
of  the  court,  move  to  set  the  verdict  aside,  and  apply  for 
a new  trial  on  various  grounds,  as,  for  example,  that  the 
judge  misdirected  or  misled  the  jury,  that  the  verdict 
was  against  the  weight  of  evidence,  or  was  perverse, 
that  the  damages  were  too  great  or  too  small,  etc. 

VERDIGRIS  is  an  incrustation  of  copper  properly 
known  as  diacetate  of  copper,  and  is  practically  caused 
by  the  oxidization  of  the  metal.  It  is  largely  used  in 
chemistry  and  is  prepared  commercially  by  applying  fer 
mented  grape  skins  to  copper  plates.  As  it  is  an  active 
irritant  poison  and  often  ferments  upott  domestic  copW 


V E R 


6170 

vessels,  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the 
latter  clean. 

VERDUN,  a town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  an  arron- 
dissement  in  the  department  of  Meuse,  an  episcopal 
see,  and  a first-class  fortress,  is  situated  on  the  Meuse, 
174  miles  east-northeast  of  Paris  by  the  railway  to  Metz, 
at  the  junction  of  the  line  from  Lerouville  to  Sedan  by 
the  Meuse.  The  enciente  is  pierced  by  four  gates;  that 
to  the  northeast  consists  of  two  crenellated  towers,  and 
is  an  interesting  specimen  of  the  military  architecture  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  On  the  left  bank  of  the  river  is 
the  citadel,  on  the  site  of  the  old  abbey  of  St.  Vannes 
(tenth  century),  the  remaining  buildings  of  which  are 
used  as  barracks.  On  all  sides  the  approaches  to  the 
place  are  guarded  by  an  important  line  of  defensive 
works,  including  five  redoubts  and  six  forts.  From  afar 
can  be  seen  the  square  towers  of  the  cathedral,  the  ex- 
terior of  which  still  recalls  the  original  building  of  the 
eleventh  century.  The  town  is  famous  for  its  confec- 
tionery, sugar  plums,  and  liqueurs.  The  population  in 
1901  was  19,282  (commune  19,755). 

In  843  the  famous  treaty  was  signed  here  by  the 
sons  of  Louis  the  Pious  (see  France  and  Germany). 
In  the  tenth  century  Verdun  was  definitely  conquered 
by  Germany  and  put  under  the  temporal  authority  of  its 
bishops.  In  the  eleventh  century  the  burghers  of  the 
now  free  and  imperial  town  began  a struggle  with  their 
bishops,  which  ended  in  their  obtaining  certain  rights  in 
the  twelfth  century.  In  1553  Henry  II.  of  Franee  took 
possession  of  Verdun,  which  finally  became  French  Dy 
the  treaty  of  Westphalia.  In  1792,  after  some  hours 
of  bombardment,  the  citizens  opened  their  gates  to  the 
Prussians — a weakness  which  the  Revolutionary  Govern- 
ment punished  by  the  execution  of  some  young  girls 
who  had  offered  flowers  to  the  king  of  Prussia.  In 
1870  the  Prussians,  unable  to  seize  the  town  by  a coup 
de  main , invested  and  bombarded  it  three  different 
times,  till  it  capitulated  in  the  beginning  of  November. 
VERGILIUS.  See  Virgil. 

VERGNIAUD,  Pierre  Victurnien,  French  orator 
and  Revolutionist,  was  born  on  May  31,  1753,  at  Limo- 
ges. He  was  the  son  of  a merchant  of  that  town,  who 
lost  the  greater  part  of  his  means  by  speculation.  The 
boy  was  early  sent  to  the  college  of  the  Jesuits  at  Limo- 
ges, and  soon  achieved  distinction.  Vergniaud  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1782.  The  influence  of  Duputy  gained 
for  him  the  beginnings  of  a practice;  but  Vergniaud, 
though  capable  of  extraordinary  efforts,  too  often  relapsed 
into  reverie,  and  was  indisposed  for  study  and  sustained 
exertion,  even  in  a cause  which  he  approved.  In  1789 
Vergniaud  was  elected  a member  of  the  general  council 
of  the  department  of  the  Gironde.  Being  deeply  stirred 
by  the  best  ideas  of  the  Revolutionary  epoch,  he  found 
a more  congenial  sphere  for  the  display  of  his  great 
powers  in  his  new  position.  About  this  period  he  was 
charged  with  the  defense  of  a member  of  the  national 
guard  of  Bnves,  which  was  accused  of  provoking  dis- 
orders in  the  department  of  La  Correze.  Abandoning 
all  reserve,  Vergniaud  delivered  one  of  the  great  orations 
of  his  life,  depicting  the  misfortunes  of  the  peasantry  in 
language  of  such  combined  dignity,  pathos,  and  power 
that  his  fame  as  an  orator  spread  far  and  wide. 

By  the  self-denying  ordinance  of  the  constituent  as- 
sembly France  was  deprived  of  the  whole  talent  and  ex- 
perience of  its  members  in  that  new  body — the  legisla- 
tive assembly — for  which  they  were  declared  ineligible ; 
and  the  election  of  new  men  was  proceeded  with. 
Vergniaud  was  chosen  a representative  of  the  Gironde 
in  August,  1791,  and  he  forthwith  proceeded  to  Paris. 
The  legislative  assembly  met  on  October  1st.  For  a 
time,  according  to  his  habit,  he  refrained  from  speaking; 
but  on  October  2Sth  ascended  the  tribune,  and  he 


had  not  spoken  long  before  the  whole  assembly  felt 
that  a new  power  had  arisen  which  might  control  even 
the  destinies  of  France.  This  judgment  was  reechoed 
outside,  and  he  was  almost  immediately  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  assembly  for  the  usual  brief  term.  Between 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  and  his  election  to  the 
legislative  assembly  the  political  views  of  Vergniaud  had 
undergone  a decided  change.  At  first  he  had  lauded  a 
constitutional  monarchy;  but  the  flight  of  Louis  filled 
him  with  distrust  of  the  sovereign,  and  his  views  in 
favor  of  a republic  were  rapidly  developed.  One  great 
blot  on  his  reputation  is  that  step  by  step  he  was  led  on 
to  palliate  violence  and  crime,  to  the  excesses  of  which 
his  eyes  were  only  opened  by  the  massacres  of  Septem- 
ber and  which  ultimately  overwhelmed  the  party  of 
Girondists  which  he  led. 

In  the  project  of  an  address  to  the  French  people 
which  he  presented  to  the  assembly  on  December  27, 
1791,  he  shook  the  heart  of  France,  and,  especially  by 
his  call  to  arms  on  January  18th,  shaped  the  policy  which 
culminated  in  the  declaration  of  war  against  the  king  of 
Bohemia  and  Hungary  on  April  20th.  This  policy  in 
foreign  affairs,  which  he  pursued  through  the  winter 
and  spring  of  1791-92,  he  combined  with  another — that 
of  fanning  the  suspicions  of  the  people  against  the  mon-. 
archy,  which  he  identified  with  the  counter-revolution, 
and  of  forcing  on  a change  of  ministry.  On  July  3d 
he  electrified  France  by  his  bold  denunciation  of  the 
king,  not  only  as  a hypocrite  and  a despot,  but  as  a 
base  traitor  to  the  constitution.  His  speeches  breathe 
the  very  spirit  of  the  storm,  and  they  were  perhaps  the 
greatest  single  factor  in  the  development  of  the  events 
of  the  time.  On  August  10th  the  Tuileries  was 
stormed,  and  the  royal  family  took  refuge  in  the  assem- 
bly. Vergniaud  presided.  To  the  request  of  the  king 
for  protection  he  replied  in  dignified  and  respectful 
language. 

The  massacres  of  September  again  unchained  his  elo- 
quence. He  denounced  the  massacres-^their  inception, 
their  horror,  and  the  future  to  which  they  pointed — in 
language  so  vivid  and  powerful  that  it  raised  for  a time 
the  spirits  of  the  Girondists,  while  on  the  other  hand  it 
aroused  the  fatal  opposition  of  Robespierre  and  of  his 
followers  within  and  without  the  convention. 

The  question  whether  Louis  XVI.  was  to  be  judged, 
and  if  so  by  whom,  were  the  subject  of  protracted  de- 
bate in  the  convention.  They  were  of  absorbing  inter- 
est to  Paris,  to  France,  and  to  Europe;  and  upon  them 
the  Girondist  leader  at  last,  on  December  31,  1792, 
broke  silence,  delivering  one  of  his  greatest  orations, 
probably  one  of  the  greatest  combinations  of  sound 
reasoning,  sagacity,  and  eloquence  which  has  ever  been 
displayed  in  the  annals  of  French  politics.  He  pro- 
nounced in  favor  of  an  appeal  to  the  people.  He  pict- 
ured the  consequences  of  that  temper  of  vengeance 
which  animated  the  Parisian  mob,  and  was  fatally  con- 
trolling the  policy  of  the  convention,  and  the  prostra- 
tion which  would  ensue  to  France  after  even  a success- 
ful struggle  with  a European  coalition,  which  would 
spring  up  after  the  murder  of  the  king.  The  great  effort 
failed;  and  four  days  afterward  something  happened 
which  still  further  endangered  Vergniaud  and  his  whole 
party.  This  was  the  discovery  of  a note  signed  by  him 
along  with  Gaudet  and  Gensonne  and  presented  to  the 
king  two  or  three  weeks  before  August  10th.  It  con- 
tained nothing  but  sound  and  patriotic  suggestions;  but 
it  was  greedily  seized  upon  by  the  enemies  of  the  Gi- 
rone  as  evidence  of  treason.  On  January  16,  1793,  the 
vote  began  to  be  taken  in  the  convention  upon  the  pun- 
ishment of  the  king.  Vergniaud  voted  early,  and  voted 
for  death.  The  action  of  the  great  Girondist  was  and 
will  ahv'-.v*  inscrutable*,  but  it  Was  followed  bva 


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similar  verdict  from  nearly  the  whole  party  which  he  led. 
On  the  17th  Vergniaud  presided  at  the  convention  and 
it  fell  to  him  to  announce  the  result  of  the  voting. 

When  the  institution  of  a revolutionary  tribunal  was 
proposed  by  the  Robespierrists,  V ergniaud  vehemently 
opposed  the  project,  denouncing  the  tribunal  as  a more 
awful  inquisition  than  that  of  Venice,  and  avowing  that 
his  party  would  all  die  rather  than  consent  to  it.  Their 
death  by  stratagem  had  already  been  planned,  and  on 
March  10th  they  had  to  go  into  hiding.  On  the  13th 
Vergniaud  boldly  exposed  the  conspiracy  in  the  conven- 
tion. The  antagonism  caused  by  such  an  attitude  had 
reached  a significant  point  when,  on  April  10th,  Robes- 
pierre himself  laid  his  accusation  before  the  conven- 
tion. He  fastened  especially  upon  Vergniaud’s  letter 
to  the  king  and  his  support  of  the  appeal  to  the  people 
as  a proof  that  he  was  a moderate  in  its  then  despised 
sense.  Vergniaud  made  a brilliant  extemporaneous 
reply,  and  the  attack  for  the  moment  failed.  But  now, 
night  after  night,  Vergniaud  and  his  colleagues  found 
themselves  obliged  to  change  their  abode  to  avoid  as- 
sassination, a price  being  even  put  upon  their  heads. 
Still  with  unfaltering  courage  they  continued  their  resist- 
ance to  the  dominant  faction,  till  on  June  2,  1793, 
things  came  to  a head.  The  convention  was  surrounded 
with  an  armed  mob,  who  clamored  for  the  “ twenty- 
two.”  In  the  midst  of  this  it  was  forced  to  continue  its 
deliberations.  The  decree  of  accusation  was  voted,  and 
the  Girondists  were  proscribed. 

Vergniaud  was  offered  a safe  retreat.  He  accepted 
it  only  for  a day,  and  then  returned  to  his  own  dwell- 
ing. He  was  kept  under  surveillance  there  for  nearly  a 
month,  and  in  the  early  days  of  July  was  imprisoned  in 
La  Force.  On  one  of  the  walls  of  the  Carmelite  con- 
vent, to  which  for  a short  time  the  prisoners  were 
removed,  Vergniaud  wrote  in  letters  of  blood — “ Potius 
mori  quam  foedari.  ” Early  in  October  the  convention 
brought  forward  its  indictment  of  the  twenty-two 
Girondists.  They  were  sent  for  trial  to  the  revolu- 
tionary tribunal,  before  which  they  appeared  on  October 
27th.  The  procedure  was  a travesty  of  justice.  Con- 
scious of  innocence,  but  certain  of  death,  Vergniaud 
reserved  silence,  and  his  example  was  largely  followed 
y his  companions.  By  the  end  of  the  fourth  day  of  the 
trial  it  became  evident  that  the  demeanor  of  the  prison- 
ers was  touching  the  hearts  of  the  people  and  making 
them  relent.  Then  suddenly  came  the  order  from  the 
alarmed  committee  of  safety  to  bring  the  proceedings  to 
an  end.  Gensonne  demanded  to  be  heard  in  defense  of 
the  prisoners.  This  was  refused;  a verdict  of  guilty 
followed,  andasentence  of  death.  Valaze  stabbed  him- 
self to  the  heart  and  fell  dead  among  his  comrades. 
They  were  conducted  to  the  conciergerie,  which  they 
entered  singing  the  Marseillaise.  Early  on  the  follow- 
ing morning,  October  31,  1793,  they  were  conveyed  to 
the  scaffold,  again  singing  on  the  way  the  national 
chant,  and  keeping  up  the  strain  till  one  by  one  they 
were  guillotined.  Vergniaud  was  executed  last. 

VERKHNE-URALSK,  a district-town  of  Orenburg, 
Russia,  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Ural  Mountains  and 
on  the  upper  Ural  river,  380  miles  northeast  of  Oren- 
burg, is  an  important  center  of  trade  with  the  Bashkirs 
and  Kirghiz  in  honey,  wax,  wool,  hides,  horses,  and 
sheep.  The  population  (10,354)  has  doubled  within  the 
last  twenty-five  years. 

yERMIFUGES,  or  Vermicides,  are  remedies 
which  possess  the  power  of  destroying  intestinal  worms 
or  of  expelling  them  from  the  digestive  canal.  These 
remedies  are  common  in  every  drug  store  and  need  no 
description  here. 

VERMIGLI,  Pietro  Martire,  commonly  known 
as  Peter  Martyr,  a Reforming  theologian  of  the 


6171 

sixteenth  century,  was  born  at  Florence  on  September 
8,  1500.  In  1516  he  entered  the  house  of  the  Augus- 
tinian  canons  regular  at  Fiesole,  and  from  1519  onward 
studied  at  Padua.  In  his  twenty-sixth  year  he  was  sent 
out  as  a preacher,  in  which  capacity  he  visited  various 
Italian  cities.  At  Lucca,  whither  he  had  gone  to  be  prior 
of  San  Frediano,  the  “evangelical”  tone  of  his  preach- 
ing attracted  the  attention  of  the  Inquisition,  and  he 
was  compelled  to  quit  Italy  (1542).  After  short  halts  at 
Zurich  and  Basel  he  settled  in  Strasburg  as  professor 
of  Old  Testament  exegesis,  and  in  1547  he  removed  to 
England,  mainly  at  Cranmer’s  instance.  During  the 
next  six  years  he  taught  exegesis  as  a professor  in  Ox- 
ford, conducted  public  disputations,  and  was  generally 
active  in  the  theological  discussion  of  the  time.  The 
accession  of  Queen  Mary  in  1553  obliged  him  to  leave 
England,  and  he  resumed  his  former  duties  at  Stras- 
burg. From  1555  till  his  death  in  the  autumn  of  1562 
he  taught  at  Zurich. 

VERMILION  is  a brilliant  scarlet  pigment  composed 
of  the  sulphide  of  mercury,  HgS.  To  a small  extent 
it  is  obtained  direct  from  pure  and  bright-colored  por- 
tions of  the  native  ore  Cinnabar  ( q.v .);  but  it  is 
chiefly  an  artificial  preparation.  The  process  of  manu- 
facture, as  conducted  principally  in  Holland,  consists 
in  making  an  intimate  mixture  of  mercury  with  about 
one-sixth  of  its  weight  of  sulphur,  and  these  under  the 
influence  of  a gentle  heat  combine  to  form  the  black 
sulphide  of  mercury  called  sethiop’s  mineral.  In  suc- 
cessive portions  pieces  of  this  compound  are  thrown 
into  tall  earthen  pots  the  lower  parts  of  which  are  kept 
at  a red  heat,  and  the  mass  sublimes,  depositing  a coat- 
ing of  artificial  cinnabar  on  the  iron  covers  and  over 
the  upper  part  of  the  pots  themselves.  At  the  end  of 
the  subliming  process,  the  pots  are  broken,  the  deposit 
of  cinnabar  is  scraped  off,  ground  in  a mill,  levigated, 
and  when  dry  it  is  ready  for  use  as  vermilion.  The 
pigment  is  also  prepared  by  the  wet  method  (see  Mer- 
cury), and  it  is  said  that  Chinese  vermilion  owes  its 
superiority  to  being  made  in  this  way.  For  antimony 
vermilion,  see  Pigments. 

VERMONT,  one  of  the  New  England  States  of  the 
American  Union,  lies  between  420  44'  and  450  o'  43" 
N.  latitude  and  710  38'  and  730  25'  W.  longitude.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Canadian  province  of 
Quebec,  on  the  east  by  New  Hampshire,  from  which  it 
is  separated  by  the  Connecticut  river,  on  the  south  by 
Massachusetts,  and  on  the  west  by  New  York,  from 
which  it  is  separated  for  more  than  100  miles  by  Lake 
Champlain.  The  Canadian  boundary  is  90  miles  long ; 
but  from  this  the  width  of  Vermont  continually  grows 
less  toward  the  southern  border,  where  it  is  41  miles. 
The  length  is  158  miles.  The  boundary  between  Ver- 
mont and  New  York  passes  through  the  western  side 
of  Lake  Champlain,  so  that  three-fourths  of  the  lake 
and  most  of  its  islands  belong  to  the  former.  The 
area  of  the  State  is  10,212  square  miles. 

The  Green  Mountains,  following  a southwesterly 
trend,  divide  it  into  nearly  equal  portions.  Near  Canada 
there  are  two  ranges,  the  western  being  the  larger; 
but  near  the  forty-fourth  parallel  they  unite  and  con- 
tinue through  western  New  England  as  a single  range. 
The  highest  mountain  is  Mansfield  (4,430  feet),  and 
there  are  five  others  over  4,000  feet  and  twelve  over 
3,500  feet.  Except  upon  the  loftiest  summits,  the 
whole  range  is  densely  covered  with  forests  of  spruce 
(Abies  nigra),  mingled  with  which  are  other  evergreen 
and  deciduous  trees.  Many  of  the  streams  flowing 
west  unite  to  form  five  rivers  which  enter  Lake  Cham- 
plain. Eleven  smaller  rivers  flow  into  the  Connecticut^ 
which  drains  about  one-third  of  the  area  pf  Vermont 


V E R 


6172 

Three  streams  run  north  and  enter  Lake  Memphrema- 
gog,  about  one-fifth  of  which  is  within  the  State,  and 
two  flow  south  to  join  the  Hudson  river.  Most  of  the 
larger  streams  pass  through  wide,  fertile  valleys.  Small 
lakes  and  ponds  are  abundant. 

The  rocks  of  Vermont  are  largely  metamorphic. 
Their  age  has  long  been  disputed  among  geologists;  it 
appears  now,  however,  to  be  clearly  established  that 
most  of  them  are  Paleozoic,  although  there  are  a few 
small  areas  which  may  prove  to  be  Archsean. 
The  entire  surface  of  Vermont  shows  the  effects  of 
glaciation.  Some  of  the  Silurian  ledges  are  striated 
and  polished  most  beautifully.  Drift,  bowlders,  sands, 
clays  occur  everywhere;  every  stream  is  bordered  by 
terraces;  remains  of  mammoth,  mastodon,  beluga,  are 
found  in  the  drift  deposits,  as  well  as  Mya,  Saxicava , 
Mytilus , and  other  marine  Mollusca.  Sea-beaches 
over  2,000  feet  and  terraces  over  1,000  feet  above  the 
present  sea-level  testify  to  movements  of  the  surface. 
From  the  early  Cambrian  to  the  late  Quaternary  epoch 
Lake  Champlain  was  an  arm  of  the  sea,  and  for  a por- 
tion of  this  time  it  was  connected  with  the  ocean  at 
each  end,  so  that  a current  flowed  from  what  is  now 
New  York  Bay  to  St.  Lawrence  Gulf,  converting  New 
England  into  an  island. 

Ores  of  copper,  silver,  lead,  gold,  manganese,  and 
iron  occur;  but,  although  numerous  attempts  at  mining 
have  been  made,  very  few  have  continued  or  ever  been 
profitable.  A large  amount  of  copper  is  obtained  at 
the  Ely  mines,  where  the  ore  is  chalco-pyrite;  and  gold 
has  been  found  in  paying  quantity  in  river  gravel,  and 
also  in  veins,  and  is  still  sought  in  one  or  two  places. 
The  chief  mineral  wealth  of  the  State  is  in  its  quarries. 
No  other  State  in  the  Union  produces  so  great  a variety 
or  quantity  of  marble.  The  annual  production  is  nearly 
2,000,000  cubic  feet,  and  is  increasing.  Roofing  and 
other  slate  is  obtained  in  very  large  quantities  and  of 
fine  quality.  Most  excellent  granite  is  quarried  in  in- 
creasing amount,  and  there  are  large  beds  of  soap-stone, 
which  are  worked. 

The  climate  of  Vermont,  like  that  of  New  England 
generally,  is  subject  to  extremes  and  to  sudden  changes. 
In  summer  the  temperature  varies  from  65°  to  750 
Fahr.,  sometimes  rising  to  90°;  in  winter  it  ranges 
from  180  to  500,  sometimes  falling  to  -io°  or  rarely 
-20°.  At  Burlington  the  mean  annual  temperature  is 
450.  The  climate  is  milder  in  the  Champlain  valley 
than  east  of  the  Green  Mountains.  During  the  winter 
there  is  often  much  snow,  which  in  the  colder  parts  of 
the  State  covers  the  ground  for  three  months.  The 
average  annual  rainfall  is  thirty-three  inches.  The  air 
is  clear  and  pure.  Notwithstanding  the  changeable 
climate,  the  death-rate  is  low  and  the  people  robust. 

Most  of  the  large  mammals  formerly  common — the 
panther,  wolf,  lynx,  beaver,  otter,  moose — have  either 
disappeared  or  are  very  rare;  others,  as  the  black  bear, 
red  deer,  mink,  and  marten  are  found  only  in  certain  lo- 
calities. More  common  are  the  red  fox,  raccoon, 
skunk,  porcupine,  woodchuck,  rabbit,  squirrel,  and 
other  smaller  species.  Birds  have  changed  less;  but 
the  wild  turkey,  golden  eagle,  raven,  etc.,  have  become 
very  rare,  and  the  white-headed  eagle,  large  hawks, 
owls,  herons,  bitterns,  and  the  like  are  far  from  common. 
The  lakes  are  visited  at  certain  seasons  by  great  num- 
oers  of  ducks,  geese,  and  other  water-fowl. 

The  flora  is  of  great  beauty  and  of  unusual  botanical 
interest.  Saxifraga  Aizoon,  Poa  lax  a,  Arenaria  groen- 
landica , and  other  alpine  plants  are  found  on  the  higher 
mountains.  Lathyrus  maritimus , Hudsonia  tomentosa , 
and  other  maritime  species  recall  the  time  when  Lake 
Champlain  was  salt  A number  of  western  species  find 
their  eastern  limit  in  the  Champlain  valley,  and  a 


greater  number  of  Canadian  plants  have  ended  theii 
southward  migrations  in  northern  Vermont.  Over 
1,300  species  of  phanerogams  and  higher  cryptogams 
grow  wild  in  the  State.  Ferns  grow  luxuriantly  in 
many  mountain  forests  and  ravines,  where  fifty  species 
may  be  collected.  The  once  prevalent  forests  are 
now  chiefly  confined  to  the  mountains.  There  are 
nearly  one  hundreci  species  of  trees  and  large  shrubs; 
the  forests  and  groves  consist  chiefly  of  eleven  species  of 
oak,  six  of  maple,  seventeen  of  willow,  six  of  birch, 
eight  of  poplar,  three  of  elm,  seventeen  of  conifers,  be- 
sides beech,  ash,  walnut,  butternut,  etc.  The  sugar 
maple  is  a common  and  conspicuous  tree. 

The  population  (U.  S.  census)  in  1900  was  343,641. 
The  first  census  taken,  in  1791,  gave  85,425.  The  dif- 
ferent enumerations  from  1800  to  1880,  inclusive,  have 
been  as  follows:  154,465;  217,895;  235,966;  280,652; 
291,948;  314,120;  315,098;  330,551;  332,422.  The 

very  slight  gain  in  the  .decades  succeeding  1850  is  ac- 
counted for  by  the  large  emigration  from  Vermont  to 
the  western  portions  of  the  country.  Of  the  total 
population  in  1900,  298,894  were  natives  and  44,747  for- 
eign born.  Of  the  latter  class  British  America  fur- 
nished the  largest  contingent,  24,620;  Ireland,  11,657; 
other  parts  of  Great  Britain,  3,773.  The  number  of 
colored  was  870  ; the  excess  of  males  over  females, 
6,635.  The  largest  towns  are  Rutland,  11,499  (in  1886 
two  new  towns  were  formed  from  it);  Burlington, 
18,640;  St.  Albans,  6,239;  Bennington,  5,656 ; Brattle- 
boro,  6,266;  St.  Johnsbury,  5,666.  Montpelier,  the 
capital,  has  5,297. 

Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  State. 
The  33,104  farms  make  up  a total  0^4,724,440  acres, 
of  which  2,126,624  are  improved  land.  The  western 
portion  of  the  State  contains  the  finest  tracts  of  arable 
land ; the  climate  as  well  as  the  soil  of  the  Champlain 
valley  is  especially  adapted  to  fruit-raising,  the  surface 
of  the  lake  being  but  ninety  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
average  size  of  farms  in  Vermont  is  142  acres;  the  total 
estimated  value  of  the  farms  in  1900  was  $108,451,427, 
and  of  the  total  products  in  1900,  $33,570,892.  Sub- 
joined are  the  figures  relating  to  the  leading  crops: 
Wheat  produced  34,650  bushels;  oats,  2,742,140  bushels; 
corn,  2,322,450  bushels;  barley,  380,940  bushels;  rye,  31,- 
950  bushels;  buckwheat,  196,010  bushels;  potatoes,  3,547,- 
829  bushels;  hay  and  forage,  1,336,499  tons.  The  wool 
clip  was  1,334,253  pounds;  and  there  were  270,194  cows, 
producing  18,834,706  pounds  of  butter  and  406,659  pounds 
of  cheese.  The  value  of  orchard  products  amounted  to 
$450,429.  Maple  sugar  produced  4,779,870  pounds,  be- 
ing but  one-third  that  of  1890. 

Returns  for  June  1, 1900,  prepared  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  show  the  number  and  value 
of  farm  animals  as  follows:  Horses,  85,531,  value,  $5,319,- 
597;  milch  cows,  270,194,  value,  $7,740,908;  other  neat 
cattle,  231,746,  value,  $2,787,887;  sheep  and  lambs,  296,- 
576,  value,  $871,402;  hogs,  95,090,  value,  $620,169. 

Lake  Champlain  abounds  in  fish  of  various  kinds. 
Great  pains  have  been  taken  of  late  years  to  stock  the 
numerous  ponds  and  streams  of  the  State  with  salmon, 
trout,  carp,  and  bass.  Both  fish  and  game  are  protected 
by  stringent  laws,  and  to  some  extent  by  special  police 


supervision.  „ 

The  State  rates  as  nineteenth  in  value  ($6,131,808)  of 
lumber  products,  while  Burlington  ranks  third  in  im- 
portance among  the  lumber  markets  of  the  United 
States.  Eighteen  marble  quarries  produced  a value  of 
$1,340,050;  there  are  also  granite  and  slate  quarries — 
sixty-one  quarries  in  all,  with  a total  production  of 
$1,752, 333- 

Railroad  construction  was  begun  in  1846,  and  by 
December,  1849,  two  lines  were  completed  from  the 


V E R 


Connecticut  river  to  Burlington.  In  1853  the  working 
mileage  had  risen  to  493  miles,  and  it  is  now  1,030  miles, 
mainly  of  trunk  fines. 

The  report  of  the  Inspector  of  Finance  shows  that  in 
1900  there  where  22  savings  banks  and  19  trust  com- 
panies in  operation  in  the  State.  Their  united  deposits 
were  $38,000,000.  The  number  of  depositors  was  118,- 
354,  of  whom  103,799  were  residents  of  the  State.  The 
average  credit  to  each  depositor  was  $323.52. 

The  receipts  of  the  State  Treasury  for  the  two  years 
ending  June  30,  1901,  were  (including  balance  brought 
forward)  $1,630,702;  disbursements,  $1,513,541;  balance 
on  hand,  $117,161.  The  manufactures  of  the  State  in 
1900  were  4,071  in  number,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 
$48,547,964  ; the  value  of  the  products  was  $57,646,715. 

The  Congregationalists  have  197  churches,  186  minis- 
ters, 20,271  members,  22,035  pupils  in  Sunday  schools 
and  13,748  families  belonging  to  the  congregations. 
The  Baptists  have  105  churches,  111  ministers,  8,623 
members,  8,922  pupils  in  Sunday  schools.  The  Meth- 
odists have  192  churches,  16 1 ministers,  16,067  mem- 
bers, 18,830  children  in  Sunday  schools.  The  Episco- 
palians report  36  ministers  in  charge  of  52  parishes, 
with  3,926  communicants;  number  of  families  1,789. 
The  Free  Baptists  and  Christians  together  have  60 
churches  and  4,000  members;  the  Adventists  35 
churches,  with  1,750  members.  The  Roman  Catholics 
have  39  priests  in  charge  of  79  churches  and  number 
about  25,000. 

Lands  were  set  apart  for  the  support  of  schools  by 
the  proprietors  of  townships  as  early  as  1761.  Legisla- 
tive provisions  for  education  dates  from  1782.  The  or- 
iginal educational  system  of  the  State  contemplated 
primary  schools  in  every  township,  a grammar  or  high 
school  in  each  county,  and  one  university.  There  are 
2,483  public  schools  of  all  grades,  with  65,608  pupils, 
besides  6,225  in  private  schools.  The  number  of  per- 
sons above  ten  years  unable  to  read  is  12,993,  or  4-9 
per  cent.,  the  population  between  five  and  twenty  being 
99,463.  The  total  revenue  for  school  purposes  is  $712,- 
988.  This  revenue  is  derived  partly  from  funds  held  by 
the  State,  but  chiefly  from  town  and  district  taxes. 
Facilities  for  advanced  instruction  are  offered  by  thirty- 
nine  public  high  schools  and  twenty-five  incorporated 
academies.  The  State  has  three  normal  schools, 
founded  in  1866.  Since  1874  State  supervision  is  exer- 
cised through  a superintendent  elected  by  the  general 
assembly.  The  State  University  at  Burlington,  char- 
tered in  1791,  was  inaugurated  in  1800;  it  provides  in- 
struction in  arts,  engineering,  chemistry,  agriculture  and 
medicine,  with  a teaching  staff  of  fifteen  in  the  acade- 
mic and  twenty-six  in  the  medical  faculty;  there  are  189 
students  in  medicine,  148  in  arts  and  sciences,  and  in  all 
departments  487.  The  library  contains  35,300  volumes. 
Middlebury  College  (Congregational),  chartered  in 
1800,  has  a teaching  staff  of  nine  with  sixty-three  stu- 
dents, and  a library  of  16,000  volumes.  Norwich  Uni- 
versity (Episcopalian),  at  Northfield,  is  organized  as  a 
military  school;  there  are  ten  instructors  and  fifty-six 
students.  The  State  library  contains  18,600  volumes, 
the  free  public  library  of  Burlington  18,000  volumes, 
that  of  St.  Johnsbury  12,000,  and  that  of  Lunenburg 
(free  but  not  public)  14,000.  Altogether  there  are 
ninety  public  libraries  in  Vermont  in  1891* 

The  governor  and  chief  executive  officers  are  elected 
by  direct  vote  of  the  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  old 
and  upward  who  have  resided  within  the  State  for  one 
whole  year  preceding  the  election.  The  general  assem- 
bly, or  legislative  body,  is  composed  of  a senate  of 
thirty  members  apportioned  among  the  fourteen  counties 
according  to  population,  and  a house  of  representatives 
consisting  of  one  member  from  each  organized  township 

887 


6i?j 

(244).  The  sessions  of  the  legislature  have  been  bien- 
nial since  1870.  The  State  election  occurs  in  Septembei 
in  the  even  years.  The  judiciary  is  elective  throughout, 
the  chief  justice  and  six  assistant  justices  of  the  supreme 
court  being  chosen  by  the  senate  and  house  in  joint 
assembly.  The  term  of  service  is  usually  a long  one,  by 
virtue  of  repeated  reelections.  The  assistant  judges  of 
county  courts  are  chosen  by  the  freemen  of  the  counties, 
and  justices  of  the  peace  by  the  several  towns.  The 
county  courts  hold  two  terms  annually,  a justice  of  the 
supreme  court  presiding.  A general  session  of  the 
supreme  court  is  held  at  the  capital  in  October  or  No- 
vember. Probate  courts  are  held  in  each  county,  six  of 
the  counties  being  divided  each  into  two  probate  dis- 
tricts. The  State  is  represented  in  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment  by  two  senators  and  two  representatives,  and  has 
four  votes  in  the  electoral  college.  Since  1852  the 
policy  of  the  State  in  regard  to  intoxicating  liquors  has 
been  that  of  prohibition. 

Vermont  first  became  known  to  Europeans  in  1609, 
when  Champlain  explored  the  lake  since  known  by  his 
name.  During  the  next  century  the  lake  and  its  bor- 
ders were  a thoroughfare  for  various  military  expedi- 
tions in  the  Indian  and  colonial  wars,  and  several  points 
along  the  lake  were  occupied,  mainly  as  military  posts, 
by  both  French  and  English;  but  the  first  permanent 
settlement  was  made  in  1724  at  Fort  Dummer  in  the 
limits  of  Brattleboro.  In  1760  there  were  not  more 
than  300  inhabitants  scattered  along  the  Connecticut 
river  within  fifty  miles  of  the  southern  border.  Both 
New  Hampshire  and  New  York  claimed  jurisdiction 
over  the  territory  under  royal  grants.  By  1763  New 
Hampshire  had  chartered  138  townships  west  of  the 
Connecticut,  and  between  1765  and  1776  New  York  had 
issued  grants  of  land,  covering  in  all  2,418,700  acres, 
often  embracing  the  same  territory  as  the  New  Hamp- 
shire charters.  The  claims  of  New  York  were  always 
stoutly,  and  sometimes  forcibly,  resisted  by  the  great 
majority  of  the  settlers.  In  1776  the  Vermonters  sought 
admission  to  the  Provincial  Congress,  but  through  the 
influence  of  New  Y ork  were  refused.  In  J anuary,  1 777, 
they  proclaimed  their  independence,  framed  a State  con- 
stitution, and  again  applied  for  a place  in  the  confed- 
eracy. Congress  hesitated  as  before.  In  1780  British 
generals  made  overtures  to  the  little  republic,  but  with 
no  result  beyond  a diplomatic  intercourse  continued 
until  1783,  so  managed  by  the  envoys  of  Vermont  as  to 
gain  time  and  save  the  State  from  invasion.  In  1782 
they  knocked  at  the  doors  of  Cofigress  again  without 
avail.  By  July,  1789,  New  York  was  willing  to  waive 
its  pretensions,  and  Vermont  was  admitted  as  the  four- 
teenth State  in  March,  1791.  In  May,  1775,  the 
“ Green  Mountain  boys  ” under  Ethan  Allan  and  Seth 
Warner  had  captured  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point. 
The  battle  of  Bennington  in  August,  1777,  was  won  by 
the  combined  forces  of  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire. 
During  the  whole  struggle  the  State,  though  unrecog- 
nized, contributed  its  full  share  of  men  and  means.  In 
the  war  of  1812-14  Vermont  is  credited  with  5,236 
soldiers  in  regular  service,  exclusive  of  2,500  volunteers 
who  were  under  arms  at  Plattsburgh  in  September, 
1814.  In  the  Civil  War  of  1861-65  the  State  furnished 
more  than  its  due  quota  of  troops,  33,288  men  from  a 
total  population  (i860)  of  315,098.  The  present  organ- 
ized force  consists  of  but  one  regiment,  with  one  bat- 
tery, 565  men.  The  unorganized  militia  numbered 
64,162  men. 

VERNET,  the  name  of  three  eminent  French  paint- 
ers. 

I.  Claude  Joseph  Vernet,  who  was  born  at  Avig- 
non on  August  14,  1714,  when  only  fourteen  years  of 
age  aided  his  father,  a skillful  decorative  painter,  in  tbf 


V EK 


6174 

most  important  parts  of  his  work.  For  twenty  years 
Vernet  lived  in  Rome,  producing  views  of  seaports, 
storms,  calms,  moonlights,  etc.,  when  he  was  recalled 
( 1 753)  to  Paris?  and  executed,  by  royal  command,  the 
remarkable  series  of  the  seaports  of  France  (Louvre)  by 
which  he  is  best  known.  On  his  return  he  became  a 
member  of  the  academy,  but  he  had  previously  contrib- 
uted to  the  exhibitions  of  1746  and  following  years,  and 
he  continued  to  exhibit,  with  rare  exceptions,  down  to 
the  date  of  his  death,  which  took  place  in  his  lodgings 
in  the  Louvre  on  December  3,  1789. 

II.  Antoine  Charles  Horace  Vernet,  com- 
monly called  Carle,  the  youngest  child  of  the  above- 
named,  was  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1758,  where  his  father 
was  painting  the  view  from  the  chateau  of  La  Trom- 
pette  (Louvre).  He  showed,  at  the  age  of  five,  an 
extraordinary  passion  for  drawing  horses,  but  went 
through  the  regular  academical  course  as  a pupil  of 
Lepicie.  After  carrying  off  the  great  prize  (1782)  he 
lost  all  ambition  and  interest  in  his  profession,  so  that 
his  father  had  to  recall  him  to  France  to  prevent  his 
entering  a monastery.  In  Paris  Carle  Vernet  became 
himself  again  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  exhibition 
of  1791  by  his  Triu?nph  of  Paulus  AEmilius.  But  the 
Revolution  drew  on  and  Carle  Vernet’s  career  for 
awhile  seemed  to  end  in  the  anguish  of  his  sister’s  death 
on  the  scaffold.  When  he  again  began  to  produce,  it 
was  as  the  man  of  another  era:  his  drawings  of  the 
Italian  campaign  brought  him  fresh  laurels ; his  vast 
canvas,  the  Battle  of  Marengo , obtained  great  success ; 
and  for  his  Morning  of  Austerlitz  Napoleon  bestowed 
on  him  the  Legion  of  Honor.  From  Louis  XVIII.  -he 
received  the  order  of  St.  Michael.  In  1827  he  accom- 
panied his  son  Horace  (see  below)  to  Rome,  and  died  in 
Paris  on  his  return,  November  17,1835. 

III.  £mile  Jean  Horace  Vernet,  born  in  Paris, 
June  30,  1789,  was  one  of  the  most  characteristic,  if 
not  one  of  the  ablest,  of  the  military  painters  of  France. 
He  was  just  twenty  when  he  exhibited  the  Taking  of  an 
Entrenched  Camp — a work  which  showed  no  depth  of 
observation,  but  was  distinguished  by  a good  deal  of 
character.  His  picture  of  his  own  studio  (the  rendez- 
vous of  the  Liberals  under  the  restoration),  in  which  he 
represented  himself  painting  tranquilly,  while  boxing, 
fencing,  drum  and  horn  playing,  etc.,  were  going  on,  in 
the  midst  of  a medley  of  visitors,  horses,  dogs,  and 
models,  is  one  of  his  best  works,  and  together  with  his 
Defense  of  the  Barrier  at  Clichy  (Louvre),  won  for  him 
an  immense  popularity.  Enjoying  equal  favor  with  the 
court  and  with  the  opposition,  he  was  most  improperly 
appointed  director  of  the  school  of  France  at  Rome, 
from  1828  to  1835,  and  thither  he  carried  the  atmos- 
phere of  racket  in  which  he  habitually  lived.  After  his 
return  the  whole  of  the  Constantine  room  at  Versailles 
was  decorated  by  him  in  the  short  space  of  three  years. 
This  vast  work  shows  Vernet  at  his  best  and  at  his 
worst ; as  a picture  it  begins  and  ends  nowhere,  and  the 
composition  is  all  to  pieces;  but  it  has  good  qualities  of 
faithful  and  exact  representation.  He  died  at  Paris  on 
January  17,  1863. 

VERNIER,  Pierre,  inventor  of  the  instrument 
which  bears  his  name,  was  born  at  Ornans  (near  Besan- 
5on)  in  Burgundy  about  1580.  He  was  for  a consider- 
able time  commandant  of  the  castle  in  his  native  town. 
In  1631  he  published  at  Brussels  a treatise  entitled 
Construction,  usage , et  proprietes  du  quadrant  nojweau 
de  mathematiques , in  which  the  instrument  associated 
with  his  name  is  described  (see  Navigation  and  Sur- 
veying). He  died  at  Ornans  in  1637. 

VERNON,  Edward,  English  admiral,  was  born  in 
Westminster,  on  November  12,  1684.  His  father, 
James  Vernon,  secretary  of  state  from  1697  to  1700,  is 


best  remembered  by  three  volumes  of  his  letters  to  the 
duke  of  Shrewsbury,  which  were  published  in  1841. 
He  entered  the  navy  in  1701,  and  from  that  time  until 
1707  took  part  in  many  expeditions  in  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  West  Indies.  He  served  with  Sir  George 
Rooke  at  the  taking  of  Gibraltar  in  July,  1704;  and, 
on  his  return  to  England,  Queen  Anne  acknowledged 
his  gallantry  with  the  present  of  two  hundred  guineas. 
He  next  went  to  the  West  Indies  as  rear-admiral  to 
Sir  Charles  Wager.  In  1715,  and  again  in  1726,  Vernon 
assisted  in  the  naval  operations  in  the  Baltic,  supporting 
Sir  John  Norris  in  the  first  enterprise,  and  on  the  latter 
serving  under  his  old  chief,  Sir  Charles  Wager.  During 
the  long  supremacy  of  Walpole  little  opportunity  arose 
for  distinction  in  warfare,  and  Vernon’s  energies  found 
relief  in  politics.  At  this  period  the  English  people 
regarded  the  Spaniards  as  their  legitimate  enemies,  and, 
with  the  sailor  as  with  the  soldier,  the  motto  was  “No 
peace  with  Spain.”  Vernon  pledged  himself  in  1739  to 
capture  Porto  Bello  with  a squadron  of  but  six  ships, 
and  the  minister  whom  he  had  assailed  with  his  invectives 
sent  him,  as  vice-admiral  of  the  blue  and  commander  of 
the  fleet  in  the  West  Indies,  to  the  enterprise  with  the 
force  which  he  had  himself  called  sufficient.  Vernon 
weighed  anchor  from  Spithead  on  July  23,  1739,  and 
arrived  off  Porto  Bello  on  November  20th.  Next  day 
the  combat  began  with  a bombardment  of  an  outlying 
fort  which  protected  the  mouth  of  the  harbor,  and,  on 
November  22d,  the  castle  and  town  surrendered  with  a 
loss  on  the  English  side  of  only  seven  men.  The  joy  of 
the  nation  knew  no  bounds. 

In  February,  1741,  in  a by-election  at  Portsmouth, 
Vernon  was  sent  to  parliament.  At  the  general  elec- 
tion in  the  following  May  he  was  returned  for  Ipswich, 
Rochester,  and  Penryn,  and  all  but  succeeded  in  win- 
ning Westminster.  A larger  squadron  was  placed 
under  Vernon’s  command  at  the  close  of  1740,  and  with 
this  force  he  resolved  upon  attacking  Cartagena.  After 
a fierce  struggle  the  castle,  which  stood  at  the  harbor’s 
entrance,  was  gained,  but  in  the  attack  upon  the  city  the 
troops  and  sailors  failed  to  act  in  concert,  and,  with  the 
numbers  of  his  forces  thinned  by  combat  and  by  disease, 
the  British  admiral  retired  to  Jamaica.  A similar  enter- 
prise in  July,  1741,  against  Santiago  in  Cuba,  met  with 
a similar  reverse,  and  Verne:*  attributed  the  defeat  to  the 
divided  command  of  the  British  forces.  He  landed  at 
Bristol,  January  6,  1743,  and  on  January  24th  received 
the  freedom  of  the  city  of  London.  When  the  country 
dreaded  the  march  of  Prince  Charles  to  London,  the 
fleet  in  the  Downs  was  placed  under  the  command  of 
Vernon;  but  his  jealous  disposition  brooked  no  interfer- 
ence from  the  Admiralty,  and  on  January  1,  1746,  he 
struck  his  flag  and  handed  over  the  command  to 
another.  His  next  act  was  to  describe  his  grievances  in 
a couple  of  angry  pamphlets,  revealing  the  communica- 
tions of  his  official  chiefs,  and  for  this  indiscretion  he  was 
struck  off  the  list  of  flag  officers  (April  11,  1746).  He 
continued  to  represent  the  borough  of  Ipswich  until  his 
death,  but  with  this  proceeding  his  public  services  practi- 
cally ceased.  He  died  suddenly  at  Nacton  in  Suffolk, 
October  30,  1757,  and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  the 
village. 

VERONA,  an  important  city  of  northern  Italy,  in 
the  province  of  Venetia,  situated  in  a loop  made  by  the 
winding  of  the  Adige  (ancient  A thesis).  It  lies  at  the 
junction  of  the  Adige  valley  railway  and  that  from  Man- 
tua with  the  Milan,  Vicenza,  and  Venice  line,  twenty- 
five  miles  north  of  Mantua  and  thirty  south-southwest 
of  Vicenza. 

The  cathedral,  consecrated  in  1187  by  Pope  Urban 
III.,  stands  at  the  fiorthern  extremity  of  the  ancient 
city,  by  the  bank  of  the  Adige;  it  is  inferior  in  size  an<J 


VER 


importance  to  S.  Zeno,  but  has  a fine  twelfth-century 
west  front  of  equal  interest,  richly  decorated  with  Lom- 
bardic  sculpture. 

The  strongly  fortified  castle  built  by  the  Della  Scala 
lords  in  the  fourteenth  century  stands  on  the  line  of  the 
Roman  wall,  close  by  the  river.  In  the  latter  part  of 
the  city,  on  a steep  elevation,  stands  the  castle  of  St. 
Peter,,  originally  founded  by  Theodoric,  mostly  rebuilt 
by  Gian  Galeazzo  Visconti  in  1393,  and  dismantled  by 
the  French  in  1801.  This  and  the  other  fortifications 
of  Verona  were  rebuilt  or  repaired  by  the  Austrians, 
but  are  no  longer  kept  up  as  military  defenses.  Verona, 
which  is  the  chief  military  center  of  the  Italian  province 
of  Venetia,  is  now  being  surrounded  with  a circle  of 
forts  far  outside  the  obsolete  city  walls. 

The  early  palaces  of  Verona,  before  its  conquest  by 
Venice,  were  of  very  noble  and  simple  design,  mostly 
built  of  fine  red  brick,  with  an  inner  court,  surrounded 
on  the  ground  floor  by  open  arches  like  a cloister,  as, 
for  example,  the  Palazzo  della  Ragione,  an  assize  court, 
begun  in  the  twelfth  century. 

The  episcopal  palace  contains  the  ancient  and  valu- 
able chapter  library,  of  about  12,000  volumes,  and  over 
500  MSS.,  among  them  the  palimpsest  of  the  Institu - 
tiones  of  Gaius  which  Niebuhr  discovered.  The  Piazza 
delle  Erbe  (fruit  market)  ancf  the  Piazza  dei  Signori, 
both  in  the  oldest  part  of  the  city,  are  very  picturesque 
and  beautiful,  being  surrounded  by  many  fine  mediaeval 
buildings.  In  the  former  of  these  a copy  of  the  lion  of 
Venice  has  recently  been  erected. 

Verona  had  a population  of  67,080  in  1871,  which  by 
1901  had  increased  to  74,261.  In  spite  of  its  pleasant 
and  healthy  site,  Verona  is  in  winter  liable  to  be  cold 
and  rainy  like  other  places  which  lie  along  the  southern 
spurs  of  the  Alps.  The  Adige,  a rapid  but  shallow 
river,  shrinks  to  an  insignificant  stream  during  the  sum- 
mer. Verona  possesses  some  silk,  linen,  and  woolen 
manufactures,  and  carries  on  a considerable  trade  in 
these  goods  and  in  grain,  hides,  flax;,  hemp,  marble, 
drugs,  etc.  Among  the  public  institutions  of  the  place 
may  be  mentioned  the  public  library  (1802),  the  agricul- 
tural academy  (1768),  the.  botanical  garden,  various 
good  schools  and  colleges  (including  a theological  semi- 
nary, a lyceum,  and  gymnasia),  and  numerous  hospitals 
and  charitable  organizations. 

The  most  conspicuous  of  the  existing  Roman  re- 
mains is  the  great  amphitheater,  a building  of  the 
second  or  third  century,  which  in  general  form  closely 
resembled  the  Colosseum  in  Rome.  Almost  the  whole 
of  its  external  arcades,  with  three  tiers  of  arches, 
have  now  disappeared ; it  was  partly  thrown  down  by 
an  earthquake  in  118a,  and  subsequently  used  as  a 
stone-quarry  to  supply  Duilding  materials.  Many  of  its 
blocks  are  still  visible  in  the  walls  of  various  mediaeval 
buildings.  The  interior,  with  seats  for  about  20,000 
people,  has  been  frequently  restored,  till  none  of  the 
old  seats  remain. 

In  many  respects  the  resemblance  between  Verona 
and  Florence  is  very  striking : in  both  cases  we  have  a 
strongly  fortified  city  built  in  a fertile  valley,  on  the 
banks  of  a winding  river,  with  suburbs  on  higher 
ground,  rising  close  above  the  main  city.  In  architect- 
ural magnificence  and  in  wealth  of  sculpture  and  paint- 
ing Verona  almost  rivaled  the  Tuscan  city,  and,  like  it, 
gave  birth  to  a very  large  number  of  artists  who  distin- 
guished themselves  in  all  branches  of  the  fine  arts. 

Nothing  is  certainly  known  of  the  history  of  Verona 
until  it  became  a Roman  colony  with  the  title  of 
Augusta,  together  with  the  rest  of  Venetia  (Tac.,  Hist, 
iii.  8,  and  Strabo,  p.  213).  The  emperor  Constantine, 
while  advancing  toward  Rome  from  Gaul,  besieged  and 
took  Veroha  (3*2) ; it  was  here,  too,  that  Odoacer  was 


6175 

defeated  (489)  by  Theodoric  the  Goth,  who  built  a 
palace  at  Verona  and  frequently  resided  there.  Verona 
was  the  birthplace  of  Catullus. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  Verona  gradually  grew  in  size 
and  importance.  In  early  times  it  was  one  of  the  chief 
residences  of  the  Lombard  kings,  and  though,  like 
other  cities  of  northern  Italy,  it  suffered  much  during 
the  Guelf  and  Ghibelline  struggles,  it  rose  to  a foremost 
position  both  from  the  political  and  the  artistic  point 
of  view  under  its  rulers  of  the  Scaliger  and  Della  Scala 
families.  In  1404-5  Verona,  together  with  Padua,  was 
finally  conquered  by  Venice,  and  remained  subject  to 
the  Venetians  till  the  overthrow  of  the  republic  by 
Napoleon  in  1797,  who  in  the  same  year,  after  the  treaty 
of  Campo  Formio,  ceded  it  to  the  Austrians  with  the 
rest  of  Venetia ; and  since  that  time  its  political  history 
has  been  linked  to  that  of  Venice. 

VERONESE,  Paolo,  the  name  ordinarily  given  to 
Paolo  Caliari,  or  Cagliari,  the  latest  of  the  great 
cycle  of  painters  of  the  Venetian  school,  was  born  in 
Verona  in  1528  according  to  the  best  authorities  (Zan- 
etti  and  others),  or  in  1532  according  to  Ridolfi.  His 
father,  Gabriele  Caliari,  a sculptor,  began  to  train  Paolo 
to  his  own  profession.  The  boy,  however,  showed  more 
propensity  to  painting,  and  was  therefore  transferred  to 
his  uncle,  the  painter,  Antonio  Badile.  He  did  some 
work  in  Verona,  but  found  there  little  outlet  for  his 
abilities.  Cardinal  Ercole  Gonzaga  took  him,  when 
'barely  past  twenty  years  of  age,  to  Mantua,  along 
with  other  artists,  to  execute  in  the  cathedral  a pic- 
ture of  the  Temptation  of  St.  Anthony  ; here  Caliari 
was  considered  to  excel  his  competitors.  Returning  to 
Verona,  he  found  himself  exposed  to  some  envy  and  ill- 
will.  Finally  Paolo  went  on  to  Venice.  In  this  city 
his  first  pictures  were  executed  in  1555  in  the  sacristy 
and  church  of  St.  Sebastian,  an  uncle  of  his  being  prior 
of  the  monastery.  The  subjects  on  the  vaulting  are 
taken  from  the  history  of  Esther  ; and  these  excited  so 
much  admiration  that  thenceforward  Caliari,  aged  about 
twenty-eight,  ranked  almost  on  a par  with  Tintoretto, 
aged  about  forty-five,  or  with  Titian  in  his  eightieth 
year,  and  his  life  became  a series  of  triumphs.  Besides 
the  Esther  subjects,  these  buildings  contain  his  pictures 
of  the  Baptism  of  Christ,  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Mar- 
cus and  St.  Marcellinus,  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Sebas- 
tian, etc.  He  visited  Rome  in  1563,  in  the  suite  of 
Girolamo  Grimani,  the  Venetian  ambassador,  and 
acquired  enhanced  elevation  of  style  by  studying  the 
works  of  Raphael  and  Michelangelo,  and  especially  the 
antique.  Returning  to  Venice,  he  was  overwhelmed 
with  commissions,  almost  transcending  the  resources 
even  of  his  own  marvelous  assiduity,  fertility,  and 
promptitude,  qualities  in  which  no  painter  perhaps  has 
ever  surpassed  him.  He  was  compelled  to  decline  an 
invitation  from  Philip  II.  to  go  to  Spain  and  assist  in 
decorating  the  Escorial.  One  of  his  pictures  of  this 
period  is  the  famous  Venice,  Queen  the  Sea , in  the 
ducal  palace.  He  died  in  Venice  on  the  20th  (or  per- 
haps 19th)  of  April,  1588. 

Of  all  Veronese’s  paintings  the  one  which  has  ob- 
tained the  greatest  world-wide  celebrity  is  the  vast 
Marriage  at  Cana,  now  in  the  Louvre.  It  contains 
about  a hundred  and  twenty  figures  or  heads,  those  in 
the  foreground  being  larger  than  life.  Several  of  them 
are  portraits.  Among  the  personages  specified  (some  of 
them  probably  without  sufficient  reason)  are  the  Mar- 
quis del  Vasto,  Queen  Eleanor  of  Trance,  Francis  I., 
Queen  Mary  of  England,  Sultan  Soleyman  I.,  Vittoria 
Colonna,  Charles  V.,  Tintoretto,  Titian,  the  elder  Bas- 
sano,  Benedetto  Caliari,  and  Paolo  Veronese  himself 
(the  figure  playing  the  viol).  It  IC-  impossible  to  look  at 
this  picture  without  astonishment  • it  enlarges  one’s 


VER 


6176 

conception  of  what  pictorial  art  means  and  can  do. 
The  only  point  of  view  from  which  it  fails  is  that  of  the 
New  Testament  narrative  ; for  there  is  no  more  relation 
between  the  Galilean  wedding  and  Veronese’s  court- 
banquet  than  between  a true  portrait  of  Lazarus  and  a 
true  portrait  of  Dives. 

VERONICA,  St.  According  to  the  Bollandists 
Veronica  or  Berenice  was  a pious  woman  of  Jerusalem 
who,  moved  with  pity  as  Jesus  bore  His  cross  to 
Golgotha,  gave  Him  her  kerchief  that  He  might  wipe 
the  drops  of  agony  from  His  brow.  The  Lord  accepted 
the  offering  and  after  using  it  handed  it  back  to  her, 
bearing  the  image  of  His  face  miraculously  impressed 
upon  it.  According  to  various  forms  of  the  legend, 
Veronica  is  identified  with  the  niece  of  Herod  the 
Great,  with  the  woman  whom  Christ  healed  of  an  issue 
of  blood  (Mark  v.  25  seq.;  Matt.  ix.  20  seq.),  and  with 
a woman  who  afterward,  along  with  fifty  others,  young 
men  and  maidens,  suffered  martyrdom  at  Antioch. 
Current  tradition  in  the  Roman  Church  has  it  that 
Veronica  was  able  to  heal  Tiberius  of  a grievous  sick- 
ness with  her  napkin,  and  that  the  emperor,  thus  con- 
vinced of  the  divinity  of  Christ,  forthwith  sent  Pilate 
into  exile.  This  napkin  ( sudarium ) was  in  the  time  of 
Pope  John  VII.  (705)  in  the  church  of  S.  Maria  Mag- 
giore  in  Rome,  but  is  now  in  St.  Peter’s,  though  posses- 
sion of  it  is  indeed  claimed  also  by  Milan  and  Jaen 
(Spain).  The  Bollandist  form  of  the  story  cannot  be 
traced  further  back  than  to  about  the  second  quarter  of 
the  fifteenth  century ; but  in  a MS.  of  the  eighth  century, 
now  in  the  Vatican,  Veronica  is  said  to  have  painted  or 
caused  to  be  painted,  the  portrait  of  Christ  after  she  had 
been  healed  by  Him. 

VERRES,  whose  name  has  been  branded  with  ever- 
lasting infamy  by  the  speeches  of  Cicero,  was  born  112 
b.  c.  and  was  the  bad  son  of  a bad  father. 

Verres  held  his  first  important  appointment  about  82 
B.  C.  as  qusester  of  the  consul  Carbo  in  Cisalpine  Gaul. 
About  80  B.  c.  he  was  in  Asia  on  the  staff  of  Dolabella, 
governor  of  Cilicia,  where  he  again  acted  as  qusester. 
The  governor  and  his  subordinate  plundered  in  concert, 
till  in  78  B.  C.  Dolabella  had  to  stand  his  trial  at  Rome, 
and  was  convicted,  mainly  on  the  evidence  of  Verres, 
who  thus  secured  a pardon  for  himself.  In  74  B.  C.  he 
had  what  was  termed  the  city  prsetorship,  which  gave 
him  all  the  powers  of  an  English  lord  chancellor,  with 
but  inadequate  checks  on  their  abuse.  After  his  year 
of  praetorship  Verres  went  as  governor  to  Sicily,  the 
richest  and  most  attractive  of  the  Roman  provinces, 
with  its  treasures  of  Greek  art,  its  Greek  civilization, 
and  returned  to  Rome  in  70  B.  c.,  with  plunder  which 
he  boasted  would  enable  him  to  live  in  ease  and  luxury, 
even  if  he  had  to  surrender  two-thirds  of  it  to  bribe  a 
Roman  jury.  The  prosecution  which  he  anticipated 
was  commenced  the  same  year  by  the  provincials  of 
Sicily,  and  was  at  their  request  undertaken  by  Cicero. 
Verres  intrusted  his  defense  to  the  most  eminent  of 
Roman  advocates,  Hortensius,  and  he  had  the  sympathy 
and  support  of  several  of  the  leading  Roman  nobles. 
The  trial,  one  of  the  most  memorable  in  antiquity,  be- 
gan early  in  the  August  of  70  B.  c.,  after  an  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  by  the  counsel  for  Verres  to  get  it  adjourned 
to  the  following  year.  Cicero  opened  the  case  with  a 
comparatively  brief  speech  ( Actio  Prima  in  Verrem), 
following  it  up  with  the  examination  of  witnesses  and 
documentary  evidence,  and  convincing  Hortensius  that 
his  client’s  cause  was  hopeless.  Before  the  expiration 
of  the  nine  days  allowed  for  the  prosecution,  Verres  was 
on  his  way  to  Marseilles  ; there  he  lived  in  exile  to  the 
year  43  B.  C.,  with  abundant  means  of  enjoying  life  in  his 
own  way. 

VERROCCHIO,  Andrea  del,  one  of  the  most  dis- 


tinguished Florentine  artists  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
equally  famed  as  a goldsmith,  sculptor,  and  painter,  was 
born  at  Florence  in  1435.  He  was  the  son  of  Michele  di 
Francesco  de’  Cioni,  and  took  his  name  from  his  master, 
the  goldsmith  Giuliano  Verrocchi.  Except  through  his 
works,  little  is  known  of  his  life.  As  a painter  he 
occupies  an  important  position  from  the  fact  that  Leo- 
nardo da  Vinci  and  Lorenzo  di  Credi  worked  for  many 
years  in  his  bottega  as  pupils  and  assistants.  Only  one 
existing  painting  can  be  attributed  with  absolute  cer- 
tainty to  Verrocchio’s  hand,  the  celebrated  Baptism  of 
Christ , originally  painted  for  the  monks  of  Vallombrosa, 
and  now  in  the  academy  of  Florence. 

In  examining  Verrocchio’s  work  as  a sculptor  we  are 
on  surer  ground.  One  of  his  earliest  works  was  the 
beautiful  marble  medallion  of  the  Madonna,  over  the 
tomb  of  Leonardo  Bruni  of  Arezzo  in  the  church  of 
Santa  Croce  at  Florence,  executed  some  years  after 
Bruni’s  death  (1443).  In  1472  Verrocchio  completed  the 
fine  tomb  of  Giovanni  and  Piero  de’  Medici,  between  the 
sacristy  and  the  lady  chapel  of  San  Lorenzo  at  Florence. 
This  consists  of  a great  porphyry  sarcophagus  enriched 
with  magnificent  acanthus  foliage  in  bronze.  In  1474 
Verrocchio  began  the  monument  to  Cardinal  Forteguerra 
at  the  west  end  of  Pistoia  cathedral. 

Verrocchio  died  in  Veifice  in  1488,  and  was  buried  in 
the  church  of  St.  Ambrogio  in  Florence. 

VERSAILLES,  a town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  the 
department  of  Seine-et-Oise  and  an  episcopal  see,  lies 
eleven  miles  west-southwest  of  Paris,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  railways  on  both  banks  of  the  Seine  and 
by  a tramway.  The  town  owes  its  existence  to  the 
palace  (460  feet  above  the  sea)  built  by  Louis  XIV. 
The  fresh  healthy  air  and  the  nearness  of  the  town  to 
Paris  have  attracted  many  residents,  and  the  interest 
attaching  to  the  place  draws  crowds  of  visitors.  The 
population  in  1901  was  54,081  (commune  59,852),  includ- 
ing about  10,000  military. 

The  three  avenues  of  St.  Cloud,  Paris,  and  Sceaux 
converge  in  the  Place  d’Armes.  Between  them  stand 
the  former  stables  of  the  palace,  now  occupied  by  the 
artillery  and  engineers.  To  the  south  lies  the  quarter 
of  Satory,  the  oldest  part  of  Versailles,  with  the  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Louis,  and  to  the  north  the  new  quarter,  with 
the  church  of  Notre  Dame.  To  the  west  a gilded  iron 
gate  and  a stone  balustrade  shut  off  the  great  court  of 
the  palace  from  the  Place  d’Armes.  At  the  highest 
point  of  the  court  there  is  an  equestrian  statute  in  bronze 
of  Louis  XIV.,  and  to  the  right  and  left  of  this  stretch 
the  long  wings  of  the  palace,  while  behind  it  stand  the 
central  buildings  one  behind  the  other  as  far  as  the 
Marble  Court.  Here  all  the  lines  of  construction  meet, 
and  here  were  the  rooms  of  Louis  XIV.  To  the  north 
the  Chapel  Court  and  to  the  south  the  Princes  Court, 
with  vaulted  passages  leading  to  the  gardens,  separate 
the  side  from  the  central  buildings.  On  the  latter  is 
the  inscription  “A  toutes  les  gloires  de  la  France,”  which 
Louis  Philippe  justified  by  forming  a collection  of  five 
thousand  works  of  art  (valued  at  $5,000,000),  com- 
memorating the  great  events  and  persons  of  French 
history.  The  palace  chapel  (1696-1710),  the  roof  of 
which  can  be  seen  from  afar  rising  above  the  rest  of  the 
building,  was  the  last  work  of  Mansard.  Opposite  the 
altar  is  the  king’s  gallery,  which  communicates  with  the 
rooms  on  the  first  floor  of  the  palace.  The  ground  floor 
of  the  north  wing  on  the  garden  side  contains  eleven 
halls  of  historical  pictures  from  Clovis  to  Louis  XIV., 
and  on  the  side  of  the  interior  courts  a gallery  of  tombs, 
statutes,  busts  of  kings  and  celebrities  of  France  for 
the  same  period.  The  Halls  of  the  Crusades  open  off 
this  gallery,  and  are  decorated  with  the  arms  of  crusad- 
ers, kings,  princes,  lords,  and  knights,  and  with  those 


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of  the  grand-masters  and  knights  of  the  military  relig- 
ious orders.  On  the  first  floor  of  the  north  wing  on  the 
garden  side  are  ten  halls  of  pictures  commemorating 
historical  events  from  1795  to  1855;  on  the  court  side  is 
the  gallery  of  sculpture  which  contains  the  J oan  of  Arc 
of  the  Princess  Marie  of  Orleans;  and  there  are  seven 
halls  chiefly  devoted  to  French  campaigns  and  generals 
in  Africa,  Italy,  the  Crimea,  and  Mexico,  with  seme 
famous  war  pictures  by  Horace  Vernet.  The  second 
story  has  a portrait  gallery.  In  the  north  wing  is  also 
the  theater  built  under  Louis  XV.  by  Gabriel,  which 
was  first  used  on  May  16,  1770,  on  the  marriage  of  the 
dauphin  (afterward  Louis  XVI.)  and  Marie  Antoinette. 
Here  on  October  2,  1789,  the  celebrated  banquet  was 
given  to  the  Gardes  du  Corps,  the  toasts  at  which  pro- 
voked the  riots  that  drove  the  royal  family  from  Ver- 
sailles; and  here  the  national  assembly  met  from  March 
10,  1871,  till  the  proclamation  of  the  constitution  in 
1875,  and  the  senate  from  March  8,  1876,  till  the  return 
of  the  two  chambers  to  Paris  in  1879.  The  central 
buildings  of  the  palace  project  into  the  garden.  On  the 
ground  floor  are  the  halls  of  celebrated  warriors  (once 
the  anteroom  of  Madame  de  Pompadour),  marshals, 
constables,  and  admirals.  The  Great  Dauphin  (son  of 
Louis  XIV.),  the  duke  and  duchess  of  Berri,  the  dau- 
phin (son  of  Louis  XV.),  Madame  de  Montespan, 
Madame  de  Pompadour,  and  the  daughters  of  Louis 
XV.  all  lived  in  this  part  of  the  palace.  The  gallery 
of  Louis  XIII.,  decorated  with  historical  pictures  of  his 
and  Louis  XIV.’s  time,  leads  to  the  halls  surrounding 
the  Marble  Court.  One  of  these  contains  many  plans 
of  battles,  and  at  its  door  Louis  XV.  was  wounded  by 
Damiens  in  1757.  The  famous  state  rooms  are  on  the 
first  floor.  On  the  garden  side,  facing  the  north,  are  a 
series  of  seven  halls.  To  the  front  of  the  palace,  facing 
the  west,  are  the  Galleries  of  War  and  Peace,  with  alle- 
gorical pictures,  and  the  Glass  Gallery,  built  by  Man- 
sard in  1678  (240  feet  long,  34  wide,  and  43  high),  hav- 
ing 34  arches,  17  of  which  are  filled  with  windows 
looking  on  the  gardens  and  17  with  large  mirrors.  The 
gallery  is  overloaded  with  ornament,  and  the  pictures 
by  Lebrun,  the  trophies  and  figures  of  children  by 
Coysevox,  and  the  inscriptions  attributed  to  Boileau 
and  Racine  all  glorify  Louis  XIV.  This  gallery  was 
used  by  him  as  a throne  room  on  state  occasions. 
Here  the  king  of  Prussia  was  proclaimed  emperor  of 
Germany  on  January  16,  1871.  Connected  with  the 
Gallery  of  Peace  is  the  queen’s  room,  occupied  success- 
ively by  Marie  Therese,  Marie  Leczinska,  and  Marie 
Antoinette,  where  the  duchess  of  Angouleme  was  born, 
the  duchess  of  Burgundy  died,  and  Marie  Antoinette 
was  almost  assassinated  on  October  6,  1789.  The 
Coronation  Hall  is  so  called  from  David’s  picture  of 
Napoleon's  coronation,  which  is  regarded  as  the  artist’s 
masterpiece.  This  hall  opens  on  the  marble,  or  queen’s, 
staircase.  Behind  the  Glass  Gallery  on  the  side  of  the 
court  are  the  rooms  of  Louis  XIV.  TheCEil  de  Boeuf, 
named  from  its  oval  window,  was  the  anteroom  where 
the  courtiers  waited  till  the  king  rose. 

It  leads  to  the  bedroom  in  which  Louis  XIV.  died,  after 
using  it  from  1701,  and  which  Louis  XV.  occupied  from 
1722  to  1738.  To  the  north  of  the  Marble  Court  are 
the  “ petits  appartements  ” of  Louis  XV.  and  to  the  south 
those  of  Marie  Antoinette.  Among  the  former  is  the 
Porcelain  Gallery.  On  the  second  floor  of  the  buildings 
surrounding  the  Stags  Court  Madame  du  Barry  lived, 
and  Louis  XVI.  afterward  worked  at  lockmaking. 
Marie  Therese  and  Marie  Leczinska  had  previously 
used  the  “ petits  appartements”  of  Marie  Antoinette,  one 
of  the  rooms  of  which  is  ornamented  with  woodwork  of 
her  time.  In  this  part  of  the  palace  Madame  de  Main- 
tenon  and  the  duke  of  Burgundy  had  rooms,  those  of 


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the  latter  being  afterward  occupied  by  Cardinal  de 
Fleury  and  the  duke  of  Penthievre.  In  the  south  wing 
of  the  palace,  on  the  ground  floor,  are  the  Imperial 
Galleries  and  the  rooms  occupied  by  the  president  of 
congress  when  the  two  legislative  bodies  meet  together 
at  Versailles.  A sculpture  gallery  contains  busts  of 
celebrated  scholars,  artists,  generals,  and  public  men 
from  the  time  of  Louis  XV I.  onward.  In  thesouthwing 
is  also  the  room  where  the  chamber  of  deputies  met  from 
1876  till  1879  and  where  the  congress  has  since  sat  to  re- 
vise the  constitution  of  1875  and  to  elect  the  president  of 
the  republic.  The  first  floor  is  almost  entirely  occupied  by 
the  Battle  Gallery  (394  feet  long  and  43  wide).  It  is 
lighted  from  above,  and  the  walls  are  hung  with  pictures 
of  French  victories.  In  the  window  openings  are  the 
names  of  soldiers  killed  while  fighting  for  France,  with 
the  names  of  the  battles  in  which  they  fell,  and  there 
are  more  than  eighty  busts  of  princes,  admirals,  con- 
stables, marshals,  and  celebrated  warriors  who  met  a 
similar  death.  Another  room  is  given  up  to  the  events 
of  1830  and  the  accession  of  Louis  Philippe,  and  a gal- 
lery contains  the  statues  and  busts  of  kings  and  celeb- 
rities from  Philip  VI.  to  Louis  XVI.  In  the  rooms  of 
the  second  story  are  portraits  (mostly  modern),  sea- 
pieces,  pictures  of  royal  residences,  and  some  historical 
pictures  of  the  time  of  Louis  Philippe. 

The  gardens  of  Versailles  were  planned  by  Le  Notre. 
The  best  view  is.  obtained  from  a balcony  of  the  Glass 
Gallery.  The  ground  falls  away  on  every  side  from  a 
terrace  adorned  with  ornamental  basins,  statues,  and 
bronze  groups.  Westward  from  the  palace  extends  a 
broad  avenue,  planted  with  large  trees,  and  having  along 
its  center  the  grass  of  the  “ Tapis  Vert;”  it  is  continued 
by  the  Grand  canal,  200  feet  wide  and  one  mile  long 
On  the  south  two  splendid  staircases  of  103  steps,  sixty- 
six  feet  wide,  lead  past  the  Orangery  to  the  Swiss  Lake, 
1,312  feet  long  and  460  wide,  beyond  which  is  the  wood 
of  Satory.  On  the  north  an  avenue,  with  twenty-twc 
groups  of  three  children,  each  group  holding  a marble 
basin,  from  which  a jet  of  water  rises,  slopes  gently 
down  to  the  basin  of  Neptune,  remarkable  for  its  fine 
sculptures  and  abundant  water.  The  Orangery  (built  ic 
1685  by  Mansard)  is  the  finest  piece  of  architecture  af 
Versailles;  the  central  gallery  is  508  feet  long  and  forty- 
two  wide,  and  each  of  the  side  galleries  is  375  feet  long. 
There  are  twelve  hundred  orange-trees,  one  of  which  is 
said  to  be  465  years  old,  and  three  hundred  other  kinds 
of  trees.  The  alleys  of  the  parks  are  ornamented  with 
statues,  vases  and  regularly-cut  yews,  and  bordered  by 
hedges  surrounding  the  shrubberies.  Beyond  the 
Tapis  Vert  is  the  large  basin  of  Apollo,  who  is  repre- 
sented in  his  chariot  drawn  by  four  horses;  there  are 
three  jets  of  water,  one  sixty  and  the  others  fifty  feet  in 
height.  The  Grand  canal  is  still  used  for  nautical  dis- 
plays; under  Louis  XIV.  it  was  covered  with  Venetian 
gondolas  and  other  boats,  and  the  evening  entertain- 
ments usually  ended  with  a display  of  fireworks. 
Among  the  chief  attractions  of  Versailles  are  the  foun- 
tains and  waterworks  made  by  Louis  XIV.  in  imitation 
of  those  he  had  seen  at  Fouquet’s  chateau  of  Vaux. 
Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  Water  at  Versailles,  the 
works  at  Marly-le-Roi  ( q.v .)  were  constructed  in 
order  to  bring  water  from  the  Seine;  but  part  of  the 
supply  thus  obtained  was  diverted  to  the  newly-erected 
chateau  of  Marly.  Vast  sums  of  money  were  spent 
and  many  lives  lost  in  an  attempt  to  bring  water  from 
the  Eure,  but  the  work  was  stopped  by  the  war  of 
1688.  At  last  the  waters  of  the  plateau  between 
Versailles  and  Rambouillet  were  collected  and  led  by 
channels  (total  length  ninety-eight  miles)  to  the  gardens, 
the  soil  of  which  covers  innumerable  pipes,  vaults,  and 
aqueducts.  The  total  volume  of  water  annually  brought 


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6178 

to  Versailles  is  about  175,000,000  cubic  feet,  of  which 
two -fifths  supply  the  town  and  the  rest  the  park. 

Beyond  the  present  park,  but  within  that  of 
Louis  XIV.,  are  the  two  Trianons.  The  Grand  Tri- 
anon was  originally  erected  as  a retreat  for  Louis  XIV. 
in  1670,  but  in  1687  Mansard  built  a new  palace  on 
its  site.  Louis  XV.,  after  establishing  a botanic  garden, 
made  Gabriel  build  in  1766  the  small  pavilion  of  the 
Petit  Trianon,  where  the  machinery  is  still  shown  by 
which  his  supper-table  came  up  through  the  floor.  It 
was  a favorite  residence  of  Marie  Antoinette,  who  had 
a garden  laid  out  in  the  English  style,  and  lived  an 
imaginary  peasant-life.  The  Grand  Trianon  is  a one- 
storied building  with  two  wings,  and  has  been  occupied 
by  Monsieur  (Louis  XIV. ’s  brother),  by  the  Great 
Dauphin,  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  the  duchess  of 
Orleans,  Napoleon  I.,  and  Louis  Philippe  and  his 
court.  The  duke  and  duchess  of  Orleans  lived  in  the 
Petit  Trianon.  The  gardens  of  the  Grand  Trianon  are 
in  the  same  style  as  those  of  Versailles,  and  there  is  a 
museum  with  a curious  collection  of  state  carriages,  old 
harness,  etc. 

Apart  from  the  palace,  there  are  no  buildings  of 
interest  in  Versailles,  the  church  of  Notre  Dame,  built 
by  Mansard,  the  cathedral  of  St.  Louis,  built  by  his 
grandson,  the  Protestant  church,  and  the  English 
chapel  being  in  no  way  remarkable.  The  celebrated 
tennis-court  is  now  used  as  a museum.  The  large  and 
sumptuous  palace  of  the  prefecture  was  built  during  the 
second  empire,  and  was  a residence  of  the  president  of 
die  republic  from  1871  to  1879.  The  library  consists 
>f  60,000  volumes;  and  the  military  hospital  formerly 
accommodated  2,000  people  in  the  service  of  the  palace. 
There  is  a statue  of  General  Hoche  and  one  of  Abbe 
tie  1’fipee  in  the  town.  A school  of  horticulture  was 
founded  in  1874,  attached  to  an  excellent  garden,  near 
the  Swiss  Lake.  Versailles  is  the  seat  of  a school  of 
artillery  and  of  a school  for  non-commissioned  officers 
of  the  artillery  and  engineers. 

Louis  XIII.  often  hunted  in  the  woods  of  Versailles, 
and  built  a small  pavilion  at  the  corner  of  what  is  now 
the  Rue  de  La  Pompe  and  the  avenue  of  St.  Cloud. 
In  1627  he  intrusted  Lemercier  with  the  plan  of  a 
chateau,  and  in  1632  bought  the  land  from  Francois  de 
Gondi,  first  archbishop  of  Paris,  for  $13,000.  In  1661 
Levau  made  some  additions,  and  in  1682  Louis  XIV. 
took  up  his  residence  at  Versailles,  and  gave  Mansard 
orders  to  erect  the  great  palace  in  which  the  original 
buildings  disappeared.  Fabulous  sums  were  spent  on 
the  palace,  gardens,  and  works  of  art,  the  accounts  for 
which  were  destroyed  by  the  king*  Till  his  time  the 
town  was  represented  by  a few  houses  to  the  south  of 
the  present  Place  d’Armes;  but  land  was  given  to  the 
lords  of  the  court  and  new  houses  sprang  up,  chiefly  in 
the  north  quarter.  Under  Louis  XV.  the  parish  of  St. 
Louis  was  formed  to  the  south  for  the  increasing  popu- 
lation, and  new  streets  were  built  to  the  north  on  the 
meadows  of  Clagny,  where  in  1674  Mansard  had  built 
at  Louis  XI  V.’s  orders  a chateau  for  Madame  de  Monte- 
span,  which  was  now  pulled  down.  Under  Louis  XVI. 
the  town  extended  to  the  east  and  received  a municipal- 
ity; in  1802  it  gave  its  name  to  a bishopric.  In  1783 
the  peace  by  which  England  recognized  the  independ- 
ence of  the  United  States  was  signed  at  Versailles. 
The  states-general  met  here  on  May  5,  1789,  and  on 
June  20th  took  the  solemn  oath  by  which  they  bound 
themselves  never  to  separate  till  they  had  given  F ranee 
a constitution,  and  which  led  to  the  riots  of  October  5th 
and  6th.  Napoleon,  Louis  XVIII.,  and  Charles  X. 
merely  . kept  up  Versailles,  but  Louis  Philippe  restored 
its  ancient  splendor  at  the  cost  of  $5,000,000.  In  1870 
and  1871  the  town  was  the  headquarters  of  the  German 


army  besieging  Paris.  After  the  peace  Versailles  was 
the  seat  of  the  French  national  assembly  while  the  com- 
mune was  triumphant  in  Paris,  and  of  the  two  chambers 
till  1879,  being  declared  the  official  capital  of  France. 
V ersailles  was  the  birthplace  of  Hoche,  Abb£  de  TEp€e, 
Philip  V.  of  Spain,  Louis  XV.,  Louis  XVI.,  Louis 
XVIII.,  Charles  X.,  Count  de  Maurepas,  Prince  de 
Polignac,  Marshal  Berthier  (Prince  of  Wagram), 
Houdon  the  sculptor,  Ducis  the  poet,  Callet  the  math- 
ematician, and  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps. 

VERSECZ,  a royal  free  towm  in  the  county  of 
Temes,  Hungary,  forty  miles  south  of  Temesvar,  It  is 
partly  fortified  and  is  the  seat  of  a Greek  bishop. 
Among  its  principal  institutions  are  a high  college  for 
girls,  a gymnasium,  and  a real  school.  Versecz  is  one 
of  the  principal  wine-producing  centers  in  the  kingdom, 
its  yearly  export  amounting  to  an  average  of  5,500,000 
gallons.  There  is  also  a good  trade  in  rice  and  silk. 
The  population  numbers  22,329. 

VERTEBRATA,  the  name  of  a great  branch  or 
phylum  of  the  Animal  Kingdom  which  comprises  those 
animals  having  bony  “vertebrae,”  or  pieces  of  bone 
jointed  so  as  to  form  a spinal  column.  The  first  recog- 
nition of  the  group  is  due  to  Lamarck  (1797),  who 
united  the  four  highest  classes  of  Linnaeus’  system  as 
“animaux  a vertebres,”  while  distinguishing  the  rest  of 
the  animal  world  as  “animaux  sans  vertebres.”  The 
same  union  of  the  four  Linnsean  classes  had  been  previ- 
ously made  by  Batsch  in  1788,  who,  however,  proposed 
for  the  great  division  thus  constituted  the  name 
“ Knochenthiere.”  The  significance  of  Lamarck’s  classi- 
fication was  materially  altered,  and  the  foundation  laid 
of  our  present  attempts  to  represent  by  our  classifica- 
tions the  pedigree  of  the  animal  kingdom,  when  Cuvier 
propounded  his  doctrine  of  “ types,”  and  recognized  the 
Vertebrata  as  one  of  four  great  types  or  plans  of  struct- 
ure to  be  distinguished  in  the  animal  world. 

The  Vertebrata  of  Lamarck  and  Cuvier  included 
beasts,  birds,  reptiles,  and  fishes,  and  until  recently  the 
group  was  considered  as  one  of  the  most  sharply  limited 
in  the  animal  kingdom.  The  progress  of  anatomical 
studies  very  soon  rendered  it  clear  that  all  Vertebrata 
did  not  possess  bony  vertebrae;  for,  besides  the  com- 
moner sharks  and  skates,  with  their  purely  cartilaginous 
skeletons,  naturalists  became  acquainted  with  the  struct- 
ure of  fishes,  such  as  the  sturgeons  and  the  lampreys, 
which  possess  no  vertebrae  at  all,  but  merely  a continu- 
ous elastic  rod  (the  notochord)  in  the  place  of  the 
jointed  spinal  column.  The  muscles  and  their  skeletal 
septa  were  seen  in  these  fishes  to  be  arranged  in  a series 
of  segments  attached  to  the  sides  of  this  continuous  rod; 
and  hence  the  structural  character  of  bony  vertebrae,  as 
distinguishing  the  Vertebrata , gave  place  to  the  character 
of  segmental  arrangement  of  the  muscles  of  the  body- 
wall,  such  muscles  being  supported  by  a skeletal  axis 
which  might  be  itself  unsegmented  (notochord),  or  re- 
placed by  segmental  cartilaginous  or  bony  vertebrae. 
The  studies  of  embryologists  furnished  a sound 
foundation  for  this  conception  by  demonstrating  that  in 
the  embryos  of  Vertebrata  with  true  vertebrae  these 
structures  are  preceded  by  an  unsegmented  continuous  no- 
tochord. The  inquiry  into  the  structural  characteristics 
of  Vertebrata  led  further  to  the  recognition  of  several  ad- 
ditional points  of  structure,  the  combination  of  which  was 
present  only  in  the  group  which  had  been  recognized  by 
Lamarck  on  superficial  grounds.  It  was  found  that  all 
Vertebrata  possess  laterally-placed  passages  leading 
from  the  pharynx  to  the  exterior,  serving  in  the  aquatic 
forms  as  the  exits  for  water  taken  in  by  the  mouth,  and 
provided  with  vascular  branchial  processes,  while  in 
the  embryos  of  the  higher  air-breathing  classes  they 
appear  only  as  temporary  structures.  It  was  further 


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established  that  the  great  mass  of  nervous  tissue  lying 
dorsally  above  the  spinal  column,  and  known  as  the 
cerebro-spinal  nerve-center  or  brain  and  spinal  cord,  is 
in  all  cases  a tube,  and  originates  as  part  of  the  dorsal 
surface  of  the  embryo,  which  becomes  depressed  in  the 
form  of  a long  groove  and  finally  closed  in  by  the 
adhesion  of  its  opposite  edges,  thus  forming  a tube  or 
canal.  The  three  structures — notochord,  gill-slits,  and 
tubular  dorsal  nerve-cord— were  more  than  twenty 
years  ago  recognized  as  characterizing,  together  with 
the  metameric  segmentation  of  the  musculature  of  the 
body-wall,  all  Vertebratci  at  some  one  or  other  period 
of  their  existence. 

The  establishment  by  Darwin  of  the  doctrine  of  or- 
ganic evolution  in  1859  led  naturalists  consciously  to 
make  the  attempt  to  determine  the  genetic  affinities  and 
the  probable  ancestry  of  the  various  groups  of  animals, 
and  enabled  them  to  recognize  in  the  classifications  by 
“type,”  and  other  such  conceptions  of  earlier  systema- 
tists,  the  unconscious  striving  after  genealogical  rep- 
resentation of  the  relationships  of  organic  beings.  The 
question  naturally  arose  in  regard  to  the  Vertebrata, 
as  in  regard  to  other  great  divisions  of  the  animal  king- 
dom, What  were  the  characteristics  of  the  earliest  forms, 
the  ancestors  of  those  now  living?  Then  came  the 
further  questions  as  to  whether  any  surviving  Verte - 
brata  closely  resemble  the  ancestral  form,  and  whether 
any  animals  are  still  in  existence  which  retain  the  general 
characteristics  of  those  primeval  forms  which  were  the 
common  ancestors  at  once  of  Vertebrates  and  of  other 
large  and  equally  well-marked  phyla  or  branches  of  the 
animal  kingdom,  such  as  the  Molluscs,  the  Annulates, 
etc.  This  fascinating  subject  of  inquiry  received 
its  most  important  impulse  from  the  embryological  in- 
vestigations of  the  Russian  naturalist  Kowalewsky, 
and  has  been  for  nearly  a quarter  of  a century  the 
fertile  source  of  speculation  and  its  indispensable  ac- 
companiments, new  observation  and  research.  Kow- 
alewsky published  in  1866  an  account  of  the 
embryology  of  the  lowest  and  simplest  of  then  rec- 
ognized Vertebrates,  the  lancelet  ( Amphioxus  lanceo- 
latus ),  in  which  he  attempted  to  trace,  cell  for  cell  from 
the  fertilized  egg-cell,  the  origin  of  the  characteristic 
Vertebrate  organs  of  this  animal.  This  work  alone 
would  not  have  acquired  historic  importance,  although 
it  is  the  starting-point  of  what  may  be  called  strict 
cellular  embryology,  as  compared  with  the  less  severely 
histological  works  of  previous  students.  But  it  was 
accompanied  by  an  account  of  the  development  of 
Ascidia  mamillata,  one  of  the  so-called  Tunicate 
Molluscs,  in  which  it  was  demonstrated  by  Kowalewsky, 
not  only  that  this  supposed  Mollusc  possesses  when 
first  hatched  from  its  egg- envelope  a notochord, 
pharyngeal  gill-slits,  and  a tubular  dorsal  nerve- 
cord  and  brain,  but  that  these  three  characteristic- 
ally Vertebrate  features  of  organization  originate  from 
the  same  cell-layers  of  the  embryo,  and  in  essentially 
the  same  way  as  in  Amphioxus , while  the  cell-layers 
themselves  originate  from  the  egg-cell  in  the  two 
animals  by  precisely  similar  movements  of  cell  divis- 
ion and  invagination.  Kowalewsky’s  discoveries  estab- 
lished once  for  all  that  the  Ascidian  tadpole  is  identical 
in  three  very  special  and  distinct  features  of  structure  with 
the  frog’s  tadpole.  No  classification  which  pretended  to 
set  forth  the  genetic  affinities  of  animals  could  henceforth 
separate  the  Ascidian  from  the  Vertebrata , and  with  it 
the  Ascidian  brought  the  whole  series  of  Tunicata. 

The  admission  of  Tunicata  as  a group  of  Vertebrata 
was  proposed  as  long  ago  as  1877,  but  it  required  the 
intermediate  proposition  by  Balfour  of  a group  Chor- 
data, to  comprise  the  two  divisions  Tunicata  and 
Vertebrata , in  order  to  render  the  final  admission  of 


6179 

Tunicata  to  their  proper  association  With  the  Verte- 
brata of  Cuvier  palatable  to  systematists. 

The  admission  of  Tunicata  to  association  with 
Cuvier’s  Vertebrata  has  been  followed  by  a further  in- 
novation. The  remarkable  marine  worm  Balanoglcssus 
— originally  described  by  Della  Chiaje  at  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century — was  shown  in  1866  by  Kowalewsky 
to  possess  a series  of  pharyngeal  gill-slits  similar  to 
those  of  Tunicata  and  Amphioxus . Later  researches 
by  Bateson  have  demonstrated  that  Balanoglossus  de- 
velops in  embryonic  life  a short  notochord*,  while  its 
nerve-cord  is,  in  part  at  least,  tubular,  and  similar  in 
position  and  relations  to  the  median  epidermal  tract  by 
the  infolding  of  which  the  nerve-tube  of  Tunicata  and 
the  other  Vertebrata  is  formed.  Hence  it  seems  im- 
possible to  exclude  Balanoglossus  from  a place  in  the 
phylum  Vertebrata. 

The  Cuvierian  Vertebrata , Amphioxus,  Tunicata 
and  Balanoglossus  being  thus  indisputably  connected 
by  a remarkable  combination  of  structural  points,  which 
admit  of  no  explanation  consistent  with  the  principles 
of  evolutional  morphology  except  that  of  the  genetic 
relationship  of  the  forms  thus  enumerated,  we  are  at 
once  confronted  by  those  questions  as  to  the  ancestral 
history  of  Vertebrata  which  have  been  already  mentioned 
above  as  stimulated  by  Kowalewsky’s  discoveries.  Un- 
doubtedly Amphioxus  is  lower  and  simpler  in  structure 
than  any  Fish,  Tunicata  as  low  as  or  lower  than 
Amphioxus , and  Balanoglossus,  in  some  respects,  more 
archaic  than  either  Amphioxus  or  the  Ascidian  tadpole. 
The  first  tendency  arising  from  the  discovery  of  the 
affinities  of  the  simpler  forms  with  the  Cuvierian  Verte- 
brata was  to  see  in  them  the  representatives  of  the  an- 
cestors of  all  Vertebrata.  Amphioxus  has  been  pointed 
to  by  authorities  in  morphology  as  the  living 
presentation  of  our  common  Vertebrate  ances- 
tor; a similar  position  corresponding  to  an  ear- 
lier stage  of  development  has  been  admitted  by 
no  less  an  authority  than  Darwin  for  the  Ascid- 
ian. It  appears,  nevertheless,  that  all  such  sim- 
ple solutions  of  the  problem  of  Vertebrate  ancestry 
are  without  warrant.  They  arise  from  a very  common 
tendency  of  the  mind,  against  which  the  naturalist  has 
to  guard  himself—  a tendency  which  finds  expression  in 
the  very  widespread  notion  that  the  existing  anthropoid 
apes,  and  more  especially  the  gorilla,  must  be  looked  upon 
as  the  ancestors  of  mankind,  if  once  the  doctrine  of  the 
descent  of  man  from  ape-like  forefathers  is  admitted. 
A little  reflection  suffices  to  show  that  any  given  living 
form,  such  as  the  gorilla,  cannot  possibly  be  the  ances- 
tral form  from  which  man  was  derived,  since  ex  hypoth - 
esi  that  ancestral  form  underwent  modification  and  de- 
velopment, and  in  so  doing  ceased  to  exist,  The  same 
considerations  apply  to  the  question  of  the  ancestry  of 
Vertebrata. 

The  general  result  of  the  considerations  which  have 
been  urged  with  regard  to  degeneration  is  this,  that  it  is 
prima  facie  as  legitimate  an  hypothesis,  that  any  exist- 
ing animal  has  developed  by  progressive  simplification 
from  more  elaborate  ancestors,  as  it  is  that  such  an  ani- 
mal  has  developed  by  a continuous  and  unbroken  prog- 
ress in  elaboration  from  simpler  ancestors;  and  we  are 
specially  called  upon  to  apply  the  hypothesis  of  degener- 
ation where  the  animal  under  consideration  is  likely 
from  its  mode  of  life  to  have  undergone  that  process. 
Such  modes  of  life,  tending  to  degeneration,  are  parasit- 
ism, sessile  or  adherent  habit,  burrowing  in  the  sea- 
bottom,  and  diffuse  feeding.  The  animal  which  pursues*, 
living  prey,  and  contends  with  other  organisms  for  the 
dominion  of  the  regions  of  earth  and  water  that  are 
flooded  with  light  and  richly  supplied  with  oxygen  gas, 
is  the  animal  which  represents  the  outcome  of  a longer 


6i8o 


V E R 


or  shorter  period  of  progressive  elaboration.  It  is 
worth  while  noting  in  parenthesis  that  in  all  cases  the 
“ whirligig  of  time  ” has  probably  brought  its  revenges, 
and  that  the  ancestry  of  a form  evolved  through  a long 
period  of  progressive  elaboration  was  at  an  antecedent 
period  subject  to  simplification  and  degeneration,  while 
in  the  past  records  of  the  present  exemplars  of  the  lat- 
ter process  there  must  certainly  have  been  long  stretches 
of  continuous  elaboration. 

Applying  these  considerations  to  the  construction  of 
the  genealogical  tree  of  Vertebrata , we  find  that  the 
task  is  by  no  means  simplified.  We  cannot  with  the 
earliest  evolutionists  adopt  a scale  or  ladder-like  series, 
placing  the  simplest  form  on  the  lowest  step;  nor  can 
we  be  satisfied  with  a tree-like  arrangement,  in  which 
the  forms  at  the  ends  of  the  branches  are  always  more 
elaborate  than  those  nearer  the  trunk. 

The  structural  features  of  those  animals  which  must 
be  admitted  to  the  Vertebrate  phylum  in  consequence 
of  possessing  notochord,  pharyngeal  gill-slits,  and  dorsal 
nerve-plate,  tubular  or  unrolled,  are  such  as  enable  us 
very  readily  to  group  them  in  four  great  divisions, 
which  appear  to  be  equally  distinct  from  one  another. 
As  to  what  may  be  the  genetic  relations  to  one  another 
of  these  four  groups  we  will  inquire  subsequently ; for 
the  present  we  term  these  groups  “ branches.”  They 
are  as  follows  : Phylum  V ertebrata.  Branch  a — 
Craniata  (Cuvierian  Vertebrata).  Branch  b — Cepha- 
lochorda  ( Amphioxus ).  Branch  c — Urochorda  (Tuni- 
cata ).  Branch  d — Hemichorda  ( Balanoglossus ). 

The  Craniata  are  Vertebrata  in  which  the  tubular 
cerebro-spinal  nerve-mass  is  swollen  anteriorly  to  form 
a brain,  consisting  primarily  of  three  successive  vesicles, 
in  connection  with  the  anterior  of  which  the  special 
nerves  of  the  olfactory  organs  and  of  the  eyes  originate. 
The  notochord,  while  extending  posteriorly  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  body,  does  not  reach  quite  so  far  forward 
anteriorly  as  the  termination  of  the  nerve-tube.  A 
cartilaginous  cranium  or  brain-case  develops  round  the 
anterior  extremity  of  the  nerve-cord,  and  rises  up  later- 
ally so  as  to  inclose  and  protect  the  brain  (hence 
Craniata).  Cartilage  is  developed  in  other  parts  of  the 
body  as  a skeletal  substance,  though  it  may  be  subse- 
quently replaced  in  the  cranium,  as  elsewhere,  by  bone. 
The  longitudinal  muscles  of  the  body-wall  are  divided 
by  transverse  fibrous  septa  into  a series  of  segments, 
varying  in  the  adult  from  io  to  106  or  more  in  number. 
Cartilaginous  neural  arches,  corresponding  in  number 
and  position  to  the  fibrous  septa,  and  resting  on  the 
notochord,  are  developed  so  as  to  protect  the  nerve- 
cord.  Cartilaginous  bars  also  pass  outward,  with  a 
direction  at  first  horizontal  and  then  ventral,  from  the 
sides  of  the  notochord  into  the  intermuscular  fibrous 
septa.  Very  generally,  but  not  always,  a tubular  car- 
tilaginous sheath  forms  round  the  notochord;  this  sheath 
with  rare  exceptions  becomes  segmented  to  form  a 
series  of  vertebral  bodies,  which  lie  in  the  planes  of  the 
fibrous  intersegmental  septa,  and,  increasing  in  thick- 
ness by  encroaching  upon  the  substance  of  the  noto- 
chord, finally  obliterate  it  almost  entirely. 

All  Craniata,  except  some  Fishes,  possess  a muscu- 
lar process  on  the  floor  of  the  oral  cavity  which  may 
carry  teeth,  or  act  as  a licking  organ,  or  assist  in  suc- 
tion. This  is  the  tongue. 

All  Craniata,  with  degradational  exceptions,  possess 
an  outgrowth,  single  or  paired,  of  the  post -pharyngeal 
region  of  the  alimentary  canal,  which  is  filled  with 
gas.  In  many  Fishes  this  becomes  shut  off  from  the 
gut;  in  others  it  remains  in  communication  with  the  gut 
by  an  open  duct.  In  Fishes  it  functions  as  a hydrostatic 
apparatus.  In  terrestrial  Craniata  it  is  subservient  to 
the  eas-vexchang-e  Nof  the  blood  and  becomes  the  lungs. 


All  Craniata  have  a large  and  compact  liver;  and  a 
pancreas  is  also  uniformly  present,  except  in  Cyclostoma , 
some  bony  fishes,  and  the  lower  Amphibia. 

All  Craniata  have  a thick-walled  muscular  heart, 
which  appears  first  as  an  “ atrium,”  receiving  the  great 
veins,  attached  to  a “ ventricle,”  by  which  the  blood 
received  from  the  atrium  is  propelled  through  a number 
of  arteries,  right  and  left,  corresponding  in  number  to 
the  pharyngeal  gill-slits  between  which  they  pass. 

All  Craniata  have  a lymphatic  system  or  series  of 
channels  by  which  the  exudation  from  the  capillary 
blood-vessels  is  returned  to  the  vascular  system.  It 
includes  in  its  space-system  the  coelom  and  a variety  of 
irregular  and  canalicular  spaces  in  the  connective 
tissues. 

The  group  of  Craniate  Vertebrata  thus  anatomically 
described,  while  retaining  the  essential  unity  indicated, 
presents  an  immense  variety  of  modifications.  The 
chief  modifications  are  distinctly  traceable  to  and  ac- 
counted for  by  mechanical  and  physiological  adaptation 
to  a terrestrial  and  air-breathing  life,  as  opposed  to  the 
earlier  aquatic  and  branchial  condition.  The  existing 
forms  of  Craniata  have  been  arrested  at  several  points, 
in  the  progress  toward  the  most  extreme  adaptation  to 
terrestrial  conditions,  which  is  presented  by  those  forms 
that  can  not  only  breathe  air  and  live  on  dry  ground,  but 
fly  habitually  in  the  air.  The  organs  most  obviously 
affected  by  this  progressive  adaptation  are  the  skin,  the 
skeleton,  especially  of  the  limbs,  the  pharyngeal  gills, 
and  the  air-bladder.  This  fact  will  appear  most  clearly 
in  the  subjoined  classification  of  Craniata;  for  space 
does  not  permit  us  to  pursue  further  the  history  of  these 
modifications. 

Cephalochorda  are  Vertebrata  in  which  there  is  no 
anterior  dilatation  of  the  nerve-tube  to  form  a brain  and 
no  specialized  skeletal  brain-case.  The  notochord  ex- 
tends from  one  extremity  of  the  elongate  body  to  the 
other  as  a tapering  unconstricted  rod,  passing  anteriorly 
some  distance  in  front  of  the  nerve-cord.  The  longi- 
tudinal muscles  of  the  body-wall  are  divided  by  trans- 
verse fibrous  septa  into  a series  of  segments  (sixty-two 
in  Amphioxus  lanceolatus),  the  more  anterior  of  which 
are  in  front  of  the  mouth  and  not  in  any  way  fused  to 
form  a head  or  cranial  structure.  Dense  connective 
tissue  (differing  but  little  from  cartilage)  forms  an  un- 
segmented sheath  to  the  notochord  and  an  unbroken 
neural  canal  above  it,  in  which  the  nerve-cord  lies.  The 
same  tissue  forms  a series  of  metamerically  repeated  fin 
rays,  which  support  the  base  of  a median  fin  extending 
along  the  entire  dorsal  surface.  The  fin  is  continued 
ventrically  from  the  caudal  extremity  as  far  forward  af 
the  anus,  but  without  fin  rays.  Two  lateral  up-growths 
of  the  body- wall  (the  epipleura)  extend  one  on  either 
side  from  the  head  as  far  back  as  the  anus. 

The  gill-slits  in  Amphioxus  are  very  numerous  (loo 
or  more),  and  have  no  numerical  relation  to  the  meta- 
meres  of  the  muscular  body-wall,  though  the  first  few 
which  appear  in  the  embryo  correspond  at  the  time  to 
successive  myomeres — a relation  which  they  subse- 
quently lose.  The  sides  of  the  gill-slits  are  supported 
by  chitinous  bars,  and  each  slit  is  divided  into  two  equal 
portions  by  a longitudinal  tongue  or  bar,  which  grows 
out  from  the  dorsal  margin  of  the  slit  soon  after  its  first 
formation.  The  number  of  gill-slits  increases  continu- 
ally throughout  the  life  of  Amphioxus  by  the  formation 
of  new  ones  at  the  posterior  border  of  the  pharynx,  while 
the  myomeres  do  not  increase  in  number  after  early 
embryonic  life. 

There  is  no  representative  of  the  Craniates’  swim- 
bladder  in  Amphioxus.  A single  wide  diverticulum  of 
the  alimentary  canal  represents  the  liver  of  Craniata ; 
the  pancreas  is  unrepresented. 


V ER 

The  vascular  system  is  singularly  incomplete:  large 
trunks  exist,  but  few  branches  and  no  heart,  while  the 
blood  itself  is  colorless,  and  communicates  (as  in  Cra- 
niata by  the  lymphatic  “hearts”)  with  the  ccelomic 
fluid  at  various  points.  A contractile  ventral  trunk  runs 
along  the  lower  face  of  the  slit  pharynx,  and  sends  ves- 
sels right  and  left  up  the  successive  bars;  these  vessels 
unite  above,  as  in  Craniata , to  form  a double  “ dorsal 
aorta,”  which  posteriorly  becomes  a single  vessel.  A 
portal  system  of  veins  can  be  traced  in  connection  with 
the  hepatic  caecum. 

No  system  of  lymphatic  vessels,  nor  lymphatic 
“ glands,”  nor  a spleen  exist;  but  the  coelom,  and 
certain  other  spaces  in  the  connective  tissue,  contain 
coagulable  lymph,  and  correspond  to  the  lymph  spaces 
of  Craniata. 

In  many  respects  Amphioxus , the  only  representa- 
tive of  Cephalochorda , bears  evidence  of  being  derived 
from  a more  highly  organized  ancestry.  Its  mode  of  life 
(burrowing  in  the  sand  in  shallow  water,  while  its  gen- 
eral build  is  that  of  a swimming  animal)  and  the  nature 
of  its  food  (diatoms,  etc. , carried  into  the  pharynx  by 
ciliary  currents)  in  themselves  suggest  such  a history. 
The  vascular  system  is  elaborate  in  plan  yet  incomplete 
in  detail,  suggesting  an  atrophy  of  its  finer  branches, 
which  is  consistent  with  the  small  size  of  Amphioxus 
and  the  general  principle  that  a complex  vascular  sys- 
tem can  only  be  developed  in  an  animal  which  has  at- 
tained to  a certain  bulk.  The  absence  of  well-developed 
viense  organs  and  of  “ cephalization  ” in  an  animal  which 
has  attained  to  such  elaboration  of  structure  as  is  shown 
by  the  pharynx  and  atrial  chamber,  and  which  has  such 
^well-developed  muscles  to  the  body-wall,  is  an  incon- 
sistency best  explicable  by  degeneration;  so,  too,  the 
existence  of  the  elaborate  series  of  fin  rays,  which  are 
out  of  proportion  to  the  mechanical  requirements  of  so 
small  a form. 

Degenerate  though  Amphioxtis  must  be,  the  ancestor 
from  which  it  started  on  its  retrogressive  course  was 
probably  a long  way  behind  any  living  Craniate.  There 
vs  no  reason  to  suppose  that  this  ancestor  had  a cranium, 
or  that  the  muscular  segments  and  segmental  nerves  in 
its  cephalic  region  were  fused  and  welded.  Amphioxus 
has  probably  lost,  as  compared  with  that  ancestor, 
ILteral  eyes  and  otocysts,  nephridia,  and,  above  all,  size. 

Urochorda  are  Vertebrata  which,  with  the  exception 
of  the  group  Larvalia  ( Appen d icularia , Fritillaria , 
Oikopleura ),  have  receded  very  far  indeed  from  the 
characteristic  Vertebrate  structure,  showing  neither 
notochord  nor  nerve-cord,  and  gill-slits  only  of  the  most 
highly  modified  and  aberrant  form;  some,  however 
(certain  Ascidians),  pass  though  a larval  condition  in 
which  these  structures  are  present  in  the  normal  form. 
It  is  necessary  for  the  purposes  of  the  present  article  to 
confine  our  attention  to  Lai'valia  and  to  the  larval 
forms  which  retain  ancestral  characteristics.  (For  a des- 
cription of  the  whole  group,  see  the  article  T unicat  A.) 

Urochorda  are  so  extremely  aberrant,  and  show  so 
little  more  than  a transient  developmental  indication  of 
the  essential  Vertebrate  organs,  that  we  cannot  hope  to 
get  much  positive  information  from  them  on  the  subiect 
of  Vertebrate  ancestry.  Only  the  minute  Appendicu- 
larice  [Larvalia)  retain  the  Vertebrate  structure  through 
life,  and  they  are  obviously,  on  account  of  their  minute 
size,  extremely  degenerate. 

Hemichorda  comprise  the  single  genus  Balanoglossus 
— formerly  classified  by  Gegenbaur  as  L nteropneusta, 
an  independent  phylum  of  the  animal  kingdom.  They 
are  Vertebrata  of  worm-like  form,  elongate  and  some- 
what flattened  from  above  downward.  In  front  of  the 
mouth  is  a long  cylindrical  proboscis,  and  behind  it  a 
collar,  the  free  margin  of  which  is  turned  backward. 


-VES  61 8 1 

and  corresponds  to  the  opercular  epipleural  folds  ot 
Cephalochorda  and  Craniata.  This  agreement  is  sup- 
ported by  the  existence  of  a pair  of  collar  pores  opening 
into  the  coelom  of  the  collar,  as  the  “ brown  funnels”  of 
Amphioxus  open  into  the  epipleural  coelom  of  that 
animal. 

A general  network  of  nerve-fibers  (and  cells?)  exists 
beneath  the  epidermis  all  over  the  body.  The  blood- 
system  is  peculiar,  consisting  of  an  anterior  heart  and  a 
dorsal  and  ventral  vessel;  these  are  united  by  a plexus 
of  subcutaneous  vessels.  Not  the  least  remarkable  fact 
about  Hemichorda  is  the  nature  of  their  larvae.  No 
other  Vetebrata  present  larval  forms  which  indicate  the 
nature  of  the  early  ancestral  history  in  what  we  mav 
call  prae-chordal  times;  however  interesting  the  Ascid- 
ian  larva,  or  the  young  Amphioxus  and  the  embryo  dog> 
fish,  they  do  not  take  us  out  of  the  Vertebrate  area. 

VERTIGO,  in  medicine,  is  where  the  patient  experi- 
ences a sensation  of  being  about  to  fall  or  of  turning 
around,  or  as  if  the  earth  were  turning  round  with  him. 
It  usually  comes  on  without  any  premonition  and  as- 
sociated with  it  are  such  symptoms  as  flashing  of  light 
before  the  eyes,  buzzing  in  the  ears,  headache,  etc.  It  is 
usually  caused  by  a too  copious  rush  of  blood  to  the 
brain,  and  should  be  treated  accordingly.  (See  Apo 
plexy). 

VERTUE,  George,  engraver  and  antiquary,  was 
born  in  London  in  1684.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  he 
was  apprenticed  to  a heraldic  engraver.  Vertue  them 
studied  drawing  at  home,  and  afterward  worked  fos: 
seven  years  as  an  engraver  under  Michael  Vandergucht, 
He  was  patronized  by  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller,  and  was  one 
of  the  first  members  of  the  Academy  of  Painting  which 
that  artist  instituted  in  1711.  His  plate  of  Archbishop 
Tillotson,  after  Kneller,  commissioned  by  Lord  SomerSj, 
established  his  reputation  as  an  engraver.  In  portrait-® 
ure  alone  he  executed  over  five  hundred  plates.  In  1 717 
he  was  appointed  engraver  to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries, 
and  his  burin  was  employed  upon  many  interesting 
statues,  tombs,  portraits,  and  other  subjects  of  an  anti- 
quarian nature.  He  died  on  July  24,  1756,  and  was 
buried  in  the  cloisters  of  Westminster  Abbey. 

VERUS,  M.  Aurelius.  See  Aurelius. 

VERVIERS,  a town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province  o 
Liege,  is  situated  on  the  Vesdre,  nineteen  miles  south 
west  from  Aix-la-Chapelle.  It  is  divided  into  an  uppej 
and  a lower  town,  but  has  no  striking  architectural 
features.  The  staple  commodity  is  cloth,  which  f 
manufactured  here  and  in  the  immediate  environs  to  th: 
value  of  $16,000,000  annually.  Other  manufactures  are 
soap,  chemicals,  confectionery,  and  machinery;  dyeing, 
tanning,  and  iron  and  copper  founding  are  also  carriec 
on.  The  town  is  a modern  one;  its  manufacturing 
prosperity,  the  beginning  of  which  dates  from  the 
eighteenth  century,  is  partly  attributed  to  the  waters  ol 
the  Vesdre,  which  are  said  to  be  peculiarly  well  adapted 
to  the  purposes  of  the  dyer.  The  pop.  (1901)  was  52,203. 

VES  ALIUS,  Andreas.  See  anatomy. 

VESICAL  DISEASES.  The  urinary  bladder  is  the 
temporary  reservoir  of  the  renal  secretion,  and  as  such 
contains  the  urine  for  longer  or  shorter  periods.  In 
recent  years  diseases  of  the  bladder  have  come  more 
than  formerly  within  the  scope  of  operative  surgery, 
owing  especially  to  great  advances  in  the  methods  ot 
examining  the  inner  wall  of  the  bladder  both  by  sight 
and  touch — by  sight  in  virtue  ot  the  endoscope,  an  in- 
strument which  when  introduced  into  the  bladder  en- 
ables a visual  examination  of  the  interior  to  be  made; 
and  by  touch,  as  surgeons  do  not  now  hesitate  to  make 
incisions  into  the  bladder,  either  from  the  perinaum  01 
suprapubically,  for  purely  diagnostic  purposes.  Farther 


6l$2 


VE  S 


more  careful  and  improved  chemical  and  microscopical 
examination  of  the  urine  enables  the  surgeon  to  judge 
better  than  formerly  what  the  condition  of  the  bladder 
is.  Diseases  of  the  bladder  may  be  conveniently  divided 
into  two  groups — (i)  those  which  involve  recognizable 
organic  structural  change,  and  (2)  those  which  do  not 
necessarily  involve  obvious  organic  structural  change. 
The  more  important  diseases  of  the  first  class  are  in- 
flammation or  cystitis,  calculi,  and  neoplastic  growths; 
but  there  are  also  others  of  less  importance,  such  as 
hypertrophy,  dilatation,  and  tuberculosis.  The  diseases 
of  the  second  group  in  which  no  organic  structural 
change  can  be  recognized  in  the  bladder-wall  are  nu- 
merous. In  many  cases,  however,  they  can  scarcely  be 
considered  as  diseases  of  the  bladder  pure  and  simple, 
but  rather  as  concomitants  or  results  of  other  diseases. 
Moreover,  in  many  cases  they  give  rise  sooner  or  later 
to  diseases  which  are  accompanied  by  structural 
changes.  Thus  “irritable  bladder,”  although  at  first  it 
may  be  independent  of  any  such  change,  soon  gives  rise 
to  inflammation  of  the  bladder-wall,  or  cystitis;  and 
many  surgeons  describe  it  from  the  beginning  as  simple 
cystitis,  while  cystitis  as  described  in  this  article  they 
call  catarrhal  cystitis.  In  this  division,  however,  we 
may  describe  paralysis,  atony,  incontinence  of  urine, 
stammering  micturition,  and  retention  of  urine. 

Inflammation  of  the  bladder  maybe  acute  or  chronic. 
It  is  due  in  most  cases  to  the  presence  of  irritating 
matters  in  the  urine,  produced  by  decomposition  of  the 
urine  itself  or  by  morbid  admixture.  The  inflammation 
may  result  also  from  traumatic  injury,  from  cold,  or  in 
cases  of  gonorrhoea  from  extension  of  the  inflamma- 
tion along  the  urethra  iinto  the  bladder  (through  con- 
tinuity of  tissue).  Although  frequently  ushered  in  by 
rigors,  the  chief  symptoms  of  acute  inflammation  are 
local;  there  is  pain  over  the  region  of  the  bladder  and 
frequent  micturition.  The  desire  to  pass  water  is  often 
uncontrollable,  even  before  more  than  one  or  two 
ounces  of  urine  have  been  secreted.  The  urine  is 
much  changed  in  its  character,  being  cloudy  from  the 
resence  of  epithelial  scales,  pus,  mucus  cells,  and  often 
lood.  Chronic  inflammation  is  notin  itself  dangerous; 
but  the  patient,  so  long  as  it  remains,  is  liable  to  an 
attack  of  acute  cystitis,  which,  superadded  to  the  pre- 
existing condition  of  the  bladder,  may  be  very  serious. 
The  treatment  in  both  varieties  of  the  disease  consists 
in  giving  rest  to  the  inflamed  part  and  in  alleviating  the 
pain.  Hot  sitz-baths  may  be  used  two  or  three  times 
daily  for  ten  minutes  or  a quarter  of  an  hour  at  a time; 
and,  if  the  pain  be  very  severe,  hot  fomentations  with 
tincture  of  opium  should  be  applied  to  the  perinaeum  or 
hypogastrium,  or  a hot  douche  may  be  used  per  rectum. 
Diluent  drinks  are  given,  and  tincture  of  hyoscyamus 
may  be  prescribed,  as  it  has  a very  soothing  influence. 
It  may  be  necessary  to  give  morphia,  but  generally  the 
pain  can  be  allayed  without  its  use.  In  chronic  cystitis 
the  treatment  depends  very  much  on  the  cause,  which 
must  if  possible  be  removed.  Thus,  if  the  cystitis  is 
due  to  a calculus  in  the  bladder,  the  treatment  is  to 
remove  the  calculus.  Very  often,  however,  special 
remedies  are  employed  to  relieve  the  inflammatory  con- 
dition, and  one  of  the  best  is  washing  out  the  bladder. 
Internal  remedies  have  to  be  administered,  one  of  the 
most  valuable  being  benzoate  of  soda.  The  benzoate 
in  its  passage  through  the  blood  is  changed  into 
hippuric  acid,  and  thus  tends  to  render  the  urine  less 
alkaline.  Attention  to  the  diet  of  the  patient  is  of 
great  importance  in  both  acute  and  chronic  cystitis;  it 
should  be  very  light,  easily  digested,  and  nutritious. 
Diluents  are  often  of  much  value,  lessening  the  irrita- 
bility of  the  bladder.  All  wines  and  stimulants  should 
be  avoided. 


^Important  information,  as  we  have  already 
said,  is  derived  both  by  the  surgeon  and  physician  from  a 
careful  examination  of  the  urine,  whether  this  be  done 
chemically  or  microscopically.  Not  infrequently  on  such 
examination  crystals,  varying  in  their  chemical  and  phys' 
ical  characteristics,  are  found,  and  if  these  be  in  large 
amount,  distinct  urinary  deposits  are  got  from  the  urine 
after  it  has  been  kept  in  a vessel  for  a time.  The  cause 
producing  these  crystals  or  their  presence  alone  may 
give  rise  to  disease,  as,  for  instance,  oxaluria,  a con- 
dition in  which,  in  addition  to  other  symptoms,  we  find 
oxalate  of  lime  crystals  present  in  the  urine. 

Calculus  of  the  bladder  constitutes  a most  formidable 
and  important  disease,  and  its  treatment,  either  medical 
or  surgical,  has  probably  attracted  more  attention  than 
that  of  almost  any  other  disease.  Urinary  calculi  occur 
in  all  parts  of  the  world  and  affect  both  sexes.  They 
are  much  more  common,  however,  in  some  regions  than 
in  others.  Thus  in  India  they  are  very  common,  while 
in  Great  Britain  very  few  cases  occur  among  people 
who  live  on  the  western  side  of  the  island.  Calculi  are 
much  rarer  in  females  than  in  males,  and  this  may  per- 
haps be  explained  by  the  shortness  and  more  vertical 
position  of  the  urethra,  so  that  the  contents  of  the  blad- 
der can  be  more  easily  evacuated,  and  by  the  fact  that 
the  habits  of  the  female  with  regard  to  diet  are  more 
regular  than  those  of  the  male.  The  cause  of  the  forma- 
tion of  a calculus  may  be  ( a ) a tendency  in  the  kidneys 
to  precipitate  salts,  or  ( b ) some  abnormal  state  of  the 
urine  in  the  bladder,  or  ( c ) the  presence  of  a foreign 
body  in  the  bladder.  Probably  the  last  is  the  most 
common  cause.  Calculi  vary  much  in  their  physical  char- 
acteristics and  chemical  constitution.  Most  frequently 
only  a single  stone  is  present ; but  very  large  numbers 
have  been  removed  from  one  bladder.  The  shape  of 
the  stone  depends  on  whether  it  be  movable  or  fixed, 
and  whether  there  be  only  one  or  more  in  the  bladder. 
A single  stone  is  usually  spherical  or  ovoid,  but  may  be 
smooth  or  tuberculated  or  spinous,  this  last  point  being 
determined  chiefly  by  the  composition  of  the  stone; 
when  there  are  a number  of  stones  present  they  are 
usually  faceted  or  many-sided.  Some  stones  are  hard ; 
others  are  soft.  In  size  and  weight  they  vary  very  much  : 
we  find  them  as  small  as  a pea  and  as  large  as  a child’s 
head.  The  largest  stone  found  in  the  bladder  of  a 
human  being  is  in  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons’ 
museum  of  England  ; and  in  the  Edinburgh  university 
surgical  museum  there  is  a stone  of  very  large  size. 

Seven  different  kinds  of  calculi  are  described,  but  only 
three  are  very  common.  Vesical  calculi  are  classified 
according  to  their  composition,  and  five  different  forms 
are  very  generally  recognized;  but  layers  of  different 
salts  may  be  found  in  the  same  calculus. 

When  a stone  is  present  in  the  bladder,  whatever  its 
nature,  it  acts  similarly  to  any  other  foreign  body,  and 
usually  gives  rise  to  a series  of  definite  symptoms.  The 
patient  complains  of  pain  in  the  end  of  the  penis  at  the 
completion  of  micturition.  Rough  or  jolting  move- 
ments give  rise  to  pain  in  the  region  of  the  bladder. 
Occasionally  there  is  a sudden  stoppage  of  the  flow  of 
urine,  which  is  overcome  by  a change  in  position.  He 
suffers  from  frequency  of  micturition,  just  as  in  any 
other  irritable  condition  of  the  bladder.  If,  in  addition 
to  these  symptoms,  the  patient  states  that  at  varying 
intervals  he  has  passed  “ gravel,”  the  surgeon  is  almost 
certain  that  a calculus  is  present;  but  even  with  all  these 
symptoms  there  is  only  one  certain  diagnostic  sign  of 
the  presence  of  a stone,  and  that  is  to  feel  it.  This  is 
done  by  “sounding”  the  bladder  with  a sound — an  in- 
strument resembling  a bougie,  but  made  of  steel  and 
with  a shorter  curve.  It  can  be  easily  turned  from  side 
tp  side  within  the  bjaddey,  the  whole  of  which  mu$t  he 


YES 


systematically  examined,  and  not  only  enables  the  sur- 
geon to  ascertain  the  presence  of  a stone,  but,  when 
judiciously  used,  assists  him  in  determining  the  size, 
mo  bility,  situation,  number,  and  hardness  of  the  calculi. 

The  treatment  of  calculi  by  other  means  than  operat- 
ive surgery  has  been  found  to  be  of  very  little  value. 

Urinary  calculi  are  removed  by  one  of  three  meth- 
ods— (i.)  lithotomy  or  cutting  for  stone,  (ii.)  lithotrity 
or  crushing  the  stone,  and  (iii. ) litholapaxy,  a modifica- 
tion of  lithotrity,  and  the  method  now  most  commonly 
adopted.  In  about  nine  cases  out  of  every  ten  the 
stone  may  be  crushed;  but  occasionally  there  are  some 
circumstances  which  render  the  operation  of  lithotomy 
preferable  to  lithotrity.  Thus,  where  the  urethra  is  con- 
stricted, as  in  organic  stricture  or  enlarged  prostate,  or 
where  the  stone  is  very  large  or  extremely  hard,  it  is 
right  to  cut  for  the  stone  instead  of  making  any  attempt 
to  crush  it.  Again,  in  children  lithotomy  is  safer  than 
lithotrity. 

When  there  is  long-continued  obstruction  to  the 
flow  of  urine,  as  in  stricture  of  the  urethra,  enlarged 
prostate,  etc.,  the  bladder- wall  becomes  much  thickened, 
the  muscular  fibers  increasing  both  in  size  and  number; 
the  interstitial  fibrous  tissue  is  also  increased.  The 
wall  on  its  inner  surface  becomes  rugose,  and  the  condi- 
tion is  technically  known  as  hypertrophy . 

Paralysis  of  the  bladder  is  a want  of  contractile  power 
in  the  muscular  fibers  of  the  bladder- wall.  It  may  result 
from  injuries  whereby  the  spinal  cord  is  lacerated  or 
pressed  upon  at  or  below  the  micturitory  center  situated 
in  the  lumbar  region.  Paralysis  is  also  produced  in 
certain  nervous  diseases,  as  in  locomotor  ataxia,  and  in 
various  cerebral  lesions,  as  in  apoplexy. 

Atony  of  the  bladder  differs  from  paralysis  in  being 
only  a paresis  or  partial  paralysis.  It  is  due  to  a want 
of  tone  in  the  muscular  fibers,  and  is  most  frequently 
the  result  of  habitual  overdistension  of  the  bladder,  such 
as  may  occur  in  cases  of  enlargement  of  the  prostate. 

In  both  paralysis  and  atony  the  indication  is  to  care- 
fully prevent  over-distension  of  the  bladder  by  the  urine 
being  retained  too  long,  and  at  the  same  time  to  treat 
by  appropriate  means  the  cause  which  has  produced  or 
is  keeping  up  the  condition. 

Incontinence  of  urine  may  occur  in  the  adult  or  in 
the  child,  but  is  due  to  widely  different  causes  in  the 
two  cases.  In  the  child  it  may  be  simply  a bad  habit, 
the  child  not  having  been  properly  trained;  but  more 
frequently  there  seems  to  be  a want  of  control  in  the 
micturitory  center,  so  that  the  child  passes  its  water 
unwittingly,  especially  during  the  night.  In  adults  it  is 
not  so  much  a condition  of  incontinence  in  the  sense  of 
water  being  passed  against  the  will,  but  is  rather  due  to 
a difficulty  in  retaining  the  urine  in  consequence  gene- 
rally of  an  over-full  bladder — the  water  which  passes 
being  the  overflow  from  a too  full  reservoir.  Occasion- 
ally the  presence  of  a calculus  may  produce  the  condi- 
tion. The  treatment  differs  in  the  case  of  the  child  and 
t)f  the  adult.  In  the  child  an  attempt  must  be  made  to 
improve  the  tone  of  the  micturitory  center  by  the  use  of 
belladonna  or  strychnia  internally  and  of  a blister  or 
faradism  externally  over  the  lumbar  region,  and  every 
effort  should  be  made  to  train  the  child  to  pass  its  water 
at  stated  times  and  regular  intervals.  In  the  adult  the 
cause  which  produces  the  over-distension  must  be 
removed  if  possible;  but  as  a rule  the  patient  has  to  be 
provided  with  a catheter,  which  he  can  pass  into  his 
bladder  and  thus  thoroughly  empty  it  before  it  has 
filled  to  overflowing.  A soft  flexible  catheter  should  be 
given  in  preference  to  a rigid  or  semi-rigid  one.  The 
best  form  is  the  red-rubber  catheter. 

Retention  of  itrine  cannot  be  called  a disease  of  the 
bladder,  but  may  be  the  cause  of,  or  result  from,  blad* 


6183 

der  disease.  It  may  occur  in  paralysis  of  the  bladder, 
or  in  conditions  where  the  patient  is  suffering  from  an 
illness  which  blunts  the  nervous  sensibility,  e.g.,  typhoid 
fever.  It  is,  however,  much  more  commonly  due  to 
obstruction  in  some  part  of  the  urinary  passage  anterior 
to  the  bladder,  as  in  stricture  of  the  urethra  or  enlarge- 
ment of  the  prostate.  The  patient  can  usually  tell 
when  he  last  passed  any  urine ; but,  even  when  no  such 
information  can  be  obtained,  there  are  signs  which  lead 
the  surgeon  to  a correct  diagnosis.  Thus,  the  bladder 
if  much  distended  can  be  felt  as  a rounded  swelling 
above  the  pubes,  and  it  may  even  have  passed  to  the 
level  of  the  umbilicus.  Percussion  of  the  hypogastrium 
gives  a dull  note.  When  retention  of  urine  occurs  and 
the  bladder  is  over-distended,  it  is  necessary  to  evacuate 
its  contents  as  soon  as  possible.  If  there  is  no  obstruc- 
tion to  the  flow  of  urine,  the  retention  being  due  merely 
to  atony  or  paralysis  of  the  bladder,  a flexible  soft 
catheter  is  passed  into  the  bladder  and  the  water  drawn 
off.  But,  when  there  is  an  obstruction  which  cannot 
be  overcome,  aspiration  of  the  bladder  has  to  be 
resorted  to. 

VESOUL,  a town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Haute-Saone,  is  situated  147  miles  southeast  of 
Paris  on  the  river  Durgeon,  which  here  receives  two 
tributaries.  The  isolated  conical  hill  of  La  Motte 
(1,483  feet),  which  shelters  the  town  on  the  north, 
affords  fine  views  of  the  Jura  and  the  Vosges  Mountains. 
The  chief  features  of  Vesoul  are  the  palace  of  justice, 
the  church  of  St.  George  with  a fine  altar,  a library  of 
20,000  volumes,  and  an  archaeological  museum.  The 
population  in  1901  was  10,733. 

VESPASIAN.  Titus  Flavius  Vespasianus,  the 
tenth  of  the  twelve  Caesars,  was  Roman  emperor  from 
70  to  79  in  succession  to  Vitellius.  He  was  born  in  the 
year  9,  in  the  Sabine  country  near  Reate.  After  having 
served  with  the  army  in  Thrace  and  been  a quaestor  in 
Crete  and  Cyrene,  Vespasian  rose  to  be  aedile  and 
praetor,  having  meanwhile  taken  to  wife  the  daughter 
of  a Roman  knight,  Flavia  Domitilla,  by  whom  he  had 
two  sons,  Titus  and  Domitian,  both  of  whom  succeeded 
him.  Having  already  served  in  Germany,  in  the  years 
43  and  44,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  he  had  the  com- 
mand of  a legion  in  Britain  under  Aulus  Plautius,  and 
saw  much  hard  fighting,  reducing  to  subjection  the  Isle 
of  Wight  and  penetrating  very  possibly  into  Devon- 
shire and  the  neighborhood  of  Exeter.  In  51  he  was 
for  a brief  space  consul;  soon  afterward  he  went  as  gov- 
ernor to  Africa,  where,  according  to  Tacitus,  his  rule 
was  “infamous  and  odious,”  according  to  Suetonius, 
“ upright  and  highly  honorable.”  Pie  went  with  Nero’s 
suite  to  Greece,  and  in  67  was  appointed  to  conduct  the 
war  in  Judaea,  which  was  threatening  general  commo- 
tion throughout  the  East,  owing  to  a widely  spread 
notion  in  those  parts  that  from  Judaea  were  to  come  the 
future  rulers  of  the  world. 

All  eyes  in  the  East  were  now  upon  him  ; Mucianus 
and  the  Syrian  legions  were  eager  to  back  him  up ; and 
on  July  1,  69,  while  he  was  at  Caesarea,  he  was  pro- 
claimed emperor,  first  by  the  army  in  Egypt,  and  then 
by  his  troops  in  Judaea.  The  legions  of  the  East  at 
once  swore  to  him  the  customary  oath  of  allegiance. 
Nevertheless  Vitellius  had  on  his  side  the  veteran 
legions  of  Gaul  and  Germany,  Rome’s  best  troops. 
But  the  feeling  in  Vespasian’s  favor  quickly  gathered 
strength,  and  the  armies  of  Moesia,  Pannonia,  and 
Illyricum  soon  declared  for  him,  and  made  him  in  fact 
master  of  half  of  the  Roman  world.  They  entered 
Italy  on  the  northeast  under  the  leadership  of  Antonius 
Primus,  defeated  the  army  of  Vitellius  at  Bedriacum, 
sacked  Cremona,  and  advanced  on  Rome,  which  they 
entered  after  furious  fighting  and  a frightful  confusion, 


VE  S 


6184 

in  which  the  Capitol  was  destroyed  by  fire.  Leaving 
the  war  in  Judaea  to  his  son  Titus,  he  arrived  at  Rome 
in  70,  where  he  restored  the  Capitol,  rebuilt  a great 
yart  of  the  city,  enforced  discipline  in  the  army,  which, 
under  Vitellius,  had  become  utterly  demoralized,  and 
with'the  cooperation  of  the  senate  put  the  government 
and  the  finances  on  a sound  footing.  By  his  own 
example  of  simplicity  of  life,  he  put  to  shame  the  luxury 
and  extravagance  of  the  Roman  nobles  and  initiated  in 
many  respects  a marked  improvement  in  the  general 
tone  of  society.  As  censor  he  raised  the  character  of 
the  senate,  removing  unfit  and  unworthy  members,  and 
promoting  good  and  able  men,  among  them  the  excel- 
lent Julius  Agricola.  In  70,  a formidable  rising  in 
Gaul,  headed  by  Claudius  Civilis,  was  suppressed  ; the 
Jewish  War  was  brought  to  a close  by  Titus’  capture 
of  Jerusalem,  and  in  the  following  year,  after  the  joint 
triumph  of  Vespasian  and  Titus,  memorable  as  the  first 
occasion  on  which  a father  and  a son  were  thus  asso- 
ciated together,  the  temple  of  Janus  was  closed,  and  the 
Roman  world  had  rest  for  the  remaining  nine  years  of 
Vespasian’s  reign.  The  peace  of  Vespasian  passed  into 
a proverbial  phrase.  In  78  Agricola  went  to  Britain, 
and  both  extended  and  consolidated  the  Roman  domiu- 
ion  in  that  province,  pushing  his  arms  into  North 
Wales  and  the  Isle  of  Anglesey.  In  the  following 
year  Vespasian  died,  in  his  seventieth  year. 

VESPERS  {ojfficium  vespertinum)  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  liturgy  is  that  part  of  the  daily  office  which 
follows  none  ( nona ) and  precedes  compline  ( comple - 
torium ).  In  it  the  Pater  Noster,  Ave  Maria,  Deus  in 
Adjutorium,  etc.,  are  followed  by  five  psalms  and  five 
antiphons,  after  which  come  the  “ little  chapter,”  the 
hymn  and  the  verse,  which  vary  according  to  the  sea- 
son, the  Magnificat  and  its  antiphon,  and  the  appropriate 
collect.  In  its  general  features  the  use  of  this  office  can 
be  traced  back  to  a very  early  date  both  in  the  Eastern 
and  in  the  Western  Church. 

VESPUCCI,  Amerigo,  navigator,  was  born  at  Flor- 
ence on  March  9,  1451.  His  father,  Nastugio  Ves- 
pucci, was  a notary,  and  his  uncle,  to  whom  he  owed 
his  education,  was  a scholarly  Dominican  and  a friend 
of  Savonarola.  As  a student  Amerigo  showed  a pref- 
erence for  natural  philosophy,  astronomy,  and  geogra- 
phy. He  was  placed  as  a clerk  in  the  great  commercial 
house  of  the  Medici,  then  the  ruling  family  in  Florence. 
About  1490  he  was  sent  by  Lorenzo  de’  Medici  to 
Spain,  and  in  January,  1492,  he  was  at  Cadiz,  along 
with  an  associate,  Donato  Nicolini,  probably  as  an 
agent  of  the  Medici.  Shortly  after  this  he  seems  to  have 
entered  the  service  of  a Florentine  merchant,  Juonato 
Berardi,  established  at  Seville,  who  had  fitted  out  the 
second  expedition  of  Columbus  in  1493.  Berardi  had 
also  undertaken  to  fit  out  twelve  ships  for  the  king  of 
Spain,  and  on  his  death  in  December,  1495,  Vespucci 
was  commissioned  to  complete  the  contract.  There  is 
no  proof  that  Vespucci  accompanied  Columbus  on 
either  his  first  or  his  second  voyage,  though  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  two  Italians  were  known  to  each 
other.  As  Ferdinand  had  recalled  the  monopoly  con- 
ceded to  Columbus,  the  new  passion  for  exploring  be- 
came widespread  and  adventurers  of  all  kinds  were  con- 
stantly leaving  Spain  for  the  West. 

On  the  authority  of  Vespucci  himself,  he  sailed,  pos- 
sibly as  astronomer,  with  one  of  these  adventurous  ex- 
peditions from  Cadiz,  on  May  10,  1497.  After  touching 
at  the  Canaries,  the  four  vessels  are  stated  to  have 
reached  after  twenty-seven  days  “ a coast  which  we 
thought  to  be  that  of  a continent;”  from  Vespucci’s  ac- 
count this  may  have  been  Campeachy  Bay.  Thence 
they  doubled  Cape  Sable  and  may  even  have  reached 
Cape  Hatteras.  Finally,  after  sailing  about  a hundred 


leagues  to  an  archipelago,  the  chief  island  of  which  was 
called  Iti,  they  made  for  Spain  and  reached  Cadiz  on 
October  15,  1498.  Still  following  Vespucci’s  own  state- 
ment, he  on  May  16,  1499,  started  on  a second  voyage 
in  a fleet  of  three  ships  under  Alonzo  de  Ojeda.  They 
reached  the  coast  of  Brazil  about  Cape  St.  Roque,  sailed 
north  to  the  mouth  of  the  Amazons,  round  to  the  Gulf 
of  Maracaibo,  and  on  to  San  Domingo.  The  expedi- 
tion returned  to  Cadiz  on  September  8,  1500.  Entering 
the  service  of  Dom  Manuel  of  Portugal,  Vespucci  took 
part  in  a new  expedition  to  the  “ Land  of  Parrots  ” 
(Brazil),  which  left  Lisbon  on  May  10,  1501.  Cape  St. 
Roque  was  reached  on  August  16th;  Rio  Janeiro  Bay 
was  discovered  and  named  on  New  Year’s  day  1502;  and 
in  April  the  expedition  appears  to  have  got  as  far  as 
South  Georgia.  It  reached  Lisbon  again  on  September 
7,  1502.  Next  year,  on  June  10th,  Vespucci  started 
from  Lisbon  on  his  fourth  expedition,  with  six  ships  un- 
der Coelho,  the  object  being  to  reach  Malacca  by  sailing 
west.  At  the  island  of  Fernando  Noronha  Vespucci’s 
ship  separated  from  the  others  and  sailed  to  Bahia  and 
then  to  Cape  Frio,  where  he  built  a fort.  He  returned 
to  Lisbon  on  June  18,  1504.  In  1505  he  went  back  to 
Spain  and  reentered  the  service  of  Ferdinand,  settling 
in  Seville.  According  to  one  account,  Vespucci  made 
two  other  voyages  to  the  isthmus  of  Panama.  In  1508 
he  was  appointed  piloto  mayor.  He  died  at  Seville  on 
February  22,  1512. 

If  his  own  account  is  trustworthy,  Vespucci  reached 
the  mainland  of  America  eighteen  days  before  Cabot. 
Y et  he  was  attached  to  the  expedition  only  in  a subor- 
dinate capacity,  and,  had  it  not  been  that  his  name  has 
become  attached  to  the  New  World,  it  is  probable  he 
would  scarcely  have  been  heard  of.  It  seems  to  be 
credible,  however,  that  in  a letter  written  soon  after  his 
return  from  his  third  voyage  he  referred  to  the  newly 
discovered  lands  as  the  “New  World.”  Vespucci’s 
claim  to  have  touched  the  American  mainland  before 
Cabot  has  been  hotly  disputed,  and  the  controversial 
literature  on  the  subject  is  voluminous.  The  facts,  as 
accepted  by  those  who  admit  his  claims,  or  at  least  his 
good  faith,  are  these.  After  his  fourth  voyage,  that  is 
after  1504,  he  wrote  a diary  called  Le  Quattre  Giornale. 
No  fragment  of  the  original  exists,  and  it  is  only  known 
by  allusion.  He  also  wrote  several  letters  to  his 
former  schoolfellow  Soderini,  the  gonfalier  or  chief 
magistrate  of  Florence.  One  of  these  only  remains, 
and  that  not  in  the  original,  but  in  a Latin  translation 
printed  at  the  monastery  of  St.  Die  in  the  Vosges  on 
April  25,  1507.  The  statement  is  that  a French  trans- 
lation of  Vespucci’s  original  had  been  given  to  King 
Rene,  who  was  patronizing  the  college  at  St.  Die. 
Waldseemiiller  (Hylacomylus)  made  use  of  this  letter  in 
his  Cosmographies  Introductio  published  at  St.  Die  in 
1507.  Here  it  is  that  we  have  the  first  suggestion  of  a 
name  for  the  New  World  in  the  words — “A  fourth 
part  of  the  world,  which,  since  Amerigo  .cound  it,  we 
may  call  Amerige  or  America  and  again,  “ now  a 
fourth  part  has  been  found  by  Amerigo  V espucci,  and  I 
do  not  see  why  we  should  be  prevented  from  calling  it 
Amerige  or  America .”  Since  Humboldt  discussed  the 
subject  in  his  Examen  Critique  de  P Historic  de  la 
Geographie  du  Nouveau  Continent , vol.  iv.  (1837), 
the  general  weight  of  opinion  has  been  that  Vespucci 
did  not  make  the  1497  voyage,  and  that  he  had  no 
share  in  the  first  discovery  of  the  American  continent, 
but  that  there  is  not  sufficient  evidence  to  convict  him 
of  deliberate  falsification.  Varnhagen,  however,  in  his 
Amerigo  Vespucci  (Lima,  1845)  and  many  other  writers 
on  the  subject  maintain  Vespucci’s  right  to  be  regarded 
as  a member  of  the  expedition. 

VESTA  (Greek  FE6ria),  the  goddess  of  fire  and  the 


V E S 


domestic  hearth.  The  cults  of  the  Greek  Hestia  and 
the  Latin  Vesta,  both  of  which  involved  the  guardian- 
ship of  an  ever-burning  sacred  fire,  are  most  probably 
derived  from  a very  early  custom,  common  to  a great 
variety  of  races,  and  practiced  during  many  different 
ages.  Among  people  in  a primitive  state  of  develop- 
ment the  production  of  fire  is  a slow  and  very  laborious 
process ; thus  it  became  the  custom  for  each  village  to 
maintain  a constant  fire  for  the  general  use  of  the  com- 
munity, in  order  to  avoid  the  troublesome  necessity  of 
obtaining  a spark  by  friction  in  case  of  the  accidental 
extinction  at  one  time  of  all  the  village  fires.  This  fire, 
the  central  hearth  or  Fs6ria  of  the  village  ( focus  pub - 
liens)*  became  a sacred  symbol  of  home  and  family  life, 
and  by  degrees  grew  into  a religious  cult  of  great  sanc- 
tity and  importance.  To  watch  this  fire  would  naturally 
be  the  duty  of  women,  and  especially  of  those  who  were 
not  burdened  with  the  cares  of  maternity,  and  hence 
may  have  arisen  the  Roman  order  of  virgin  priestesses, 
whose  chief  duty  it  was  to  tend  the  sacred  fire.  A sur- 
vival of  the  prehistoric  method  of  getting  a spark  ap- 
pears to  have  existed  in  the  rule  which  enacted  that,  if 
ever  the  sacred  fire  of  Vesta  did  go  out,  the  negligent 
vestal  was  to  be  punished  by  scourging,  and  the  fire  re- 
kindled either  by  friction  of  dry  sticks  or,  in  later  times, 
by  the  sun’s  rays  brought  to  a focus  by  a concave 
mirror.  In  the  prytaneum,  which  existed  in  every 
Greek  state,  a different  form  of  cult  was  developed, 
though  the  essential  point,  the  sacred  fire,  was  kept  up, 
just  as  in  the  Latin  worship  of  Vesta;  and  in  both  cases 
the  fire  was  extinguished  annually  at  the  beginning  of 
the  new  year,  and  solemnly  rekindled  by  one  of  the  prim- 
itive and  hence  sacred  methods.  In  Rome  this  was 
done  on  March  ist,  the  Latin  New  Year’s  Day.  Both 
among  Greek  and  early  Latin  races,  at  the  founding  of 
a new  colony,  fire  was  solemnly  sent  from  the  prytane- 
um or  Vesta  temple  of  the  mother  colony  to  kindle  a 
similar  sacred  fire  in  the  new  settlement. 

The  intimate  connection  between  the  Greek  prytane- 
um fire  sacred  to  Hestia  and  that  of  Vesta  in  Rome  has 
been  ably  worked  out  by  Mr.  J.  G.  Frazer,  in  his  paper 
on  this  subject.  The  most  generally  received  Latin  le- 
gend attributes  the  founding  of  the  Roman  temple  of 
Vesta  to  Numa,  who  transferred  the  center  of  the  cult 
from  Alba  together  with  the  four  vestal  virgins,  its 
priestesses  (Plut.,  Numa,  io).  One  of  the  later  kings, 
either  Tarquin  I.  or  Servius  Tullius,  is  said  to  have  in- 
creased the  number  to  six  (Dion.  Hal.,  iii.  67,  and  Plut., 
Nwnciy  10),  and  it  is  not  till  the  last  years  of  the  pagan 
period  that  we  hear  of  a seventh  vestal  having  been 
added  (see  Ambrose  Epis .,  ed.  Pareus,  p.  477;  also 
Plut.,  Rom.  and  Cam). 

The  election  ( captio ) of  the  vestal  during  the  early  per- 
iod of  Rome  was  in  the  hands  of  the  king,  and  in  those  of 
the  pontifex  maximusunder  the  republic  and  empire,  the 
candidate  was  to  be  more  than  six  and  less  than  ten  years 
of  age;  she  was  to  be  patrima  andmalrima,  i.e.,  having 
both  parents  alive;  free  from  physical  or  mental  defects; 
daughter  of  a free-born  resident  in  Italy.  The  selected 
child  had  her  hair  cut  off,  and  was  solemnly  admitted  hy 
the  pontifex  maximus,  who  held  her  by  the  hand,  and 
addressing  her  by  the  name  amata , pronounced  an  an- 
cient formula  of  initiation,  which  is  given  by  A.  Gell- 
ius  in  his  interesting  chapter  on  the  subject.  In  early 
times  there  were  certain  rules  by  which  girls  could  be 
excused  from  serving  as  vestals,  but  the  honor  soon  be- 
came so  eagerly  sought  that  these  provisions  were  prac- 
tically useless.  Vows  were  taken  by  the  vestal  for  a 
limited  period  of  thirty  years,  after  which  she  was  free 
to  return  to  private  life  and  even  to  marry — a thing  very 
rarely  donet 

Strict  observance  of  the  vow  of  chastity  was  one  of 


6185 

the  chief  obligations  of  the  vestals,  and  its  breach  was 
horribly  punished  by  burial  alive.  Cases  of  unchastity 
and  its  punishment  were  rare;  and,  as  the  evidence 
against  the  vestal  was  usually  that  of  slaves,  given 
under  torture,  it  is  probable  that  in  many  instances  an 
innocent  vestal  suffered  this  cruel  death.  The  case  de- 
scribed by  the  younger  Pliny  is  one  of  special  pathos, 
as  the  vestal  appears  to  have  been  condemned  without 
any  sufficient  evidence,  simply  at  the  wish  of  the  em- 
peror Domitian.  A fanciful  reason  for  this  fearful  pun 
ishment  is  given  by  Ovid. 

The  privileges  of  the  vestals  and  their  influential 
position  were  very  remarkable.  The  were  exempt  from 
any  patria  potestas , except  that  of  the  pontifex  maxi- 
mus, their  religious  father;  they  could  dispose  by  will 
of  their  property,  and  were  in  most  respects  not  sub- 
ject to  the  Roman  laws. 

VESTMENTS,  in  ecclesiastical  law,  are  the  gar- 
ments worn  during  the  church  service  by  the  officiating 
clergy.  In  England  and  Scotland  before  the  Reforma- 
tion the  vestments  in  use  were  similar  to  those  still 
worn  by  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy — probably  modifi- 
cations of  the  dress  of  Roman  citizens  in  their  origin 
(see  Costume)— and  were  either  sacrificial,  as  the 
chasuble,  or  non-sacrificial,  as  the  surplice.  After  the 
Reformation  the  question  of  vestments  became  of  com- 
paratively small  importance  in  the  Church  of  Scotland; 
but  in  the  Church  of  England  it  has  in  recent  years 
been  the  cause  of  much  controversy  and  litigation. 

VESTRY.  The  governing  body  of  a Parish. 

VESUVIUS,  the  most  celebrated  volcano  in  the 
world,  rises  from  the  eastern  margin  of  the  Bay  of  Na- 
ples in  Italy,  in  the  midst  of  a region  which  has  been 
densely  populated  by  a civilized  community  for  more 
than  twenty  centuries.  Hence  it  has  served  as  a type 
for  the  general  popular  conception  of  a volcano,  and  its 
history  has  supplied  a large  part  of  the  information  on 
which  geological  theories  of  volcanic  action  have  been 
based.  The  height  of  the  mountain  varies  from  time 
to  time  within  limits  of  several  hundred  feet,  according 
to  the  effects  of  successive  eruptions,  but  averages 
somewhere  about  4,000  feet  above  the  sea.  V esuvius 
consists  of  two  distinct  portions.  On  the  northern  side 
a lofty  semicircular  cliff,  reaching  a height  of  3,747 
feet,  half  encircles  the  present  active  cone,  and  descends 
in  long  slopes  toward  the  plains  below.  This  precipice, 
known  as  Monte  Somma,  forms  the  wall  of  an  ancient 
prehistoric  crater  of  vastly  greater  size  than  that  of  the 
present  volcano.  The  continuation  of  the  same  wall 
round  its  southern  half  has  been  in  great  measure  oblit- 
erated by  the  operations  of  the  modern  vent,  which  has 
built  a younger  cone  upon  it,  and  is  gradually  filling  up 
the  hollow  of  the  prehistoric  crater.  At  the  time  of  its 
greatest  dimensions  the  volcano  was  perhaps  twice  as 
high  as  it  is  now.  By  a colossal  eruption,  of  which  no 
historical  record  remains,  the  upper  half  of  the  cone  was 
blown  away.  It  was  round  this  truncated  cone  that  the 
early  Greek  settlers  founded  their  little  colonies. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  and  for  many 
previous  centuries,  no  eruption  had  been  known  to 
take  place  from  the  mountain,  and  the  volcanic  nature 
of  the  locality  was  perhaps  not  even  suspected  by  the 
inhabitants  who  planted  their  vineyards  along  its  fertile 
slopes,  and  built  their  numerous  villages  and  towns 
around  its  base.  The  sagacious  and  observant  geog- 
rapher Strabo,  however,  detected  the  probable  vol- 
canic origin  of  the  cone  and  drew  attention  to  its 
cindery  and  evidently  fire-eaten  rocks. 

After  centuries  of  quiescence  the  volcanic  energy 
began  again  to  manifest  itself  in  a succession  of  earth- 
quakes, which  spread  alarm  far  and  wide  through 
Campania.  For  some  sixteen  years  after  63  these 


6i86 


VES-VET 


convulsions  continued,  doing  much  damage  to  the 
surrounding  towns.  At  Pompeii,  for  example,  among 
other  devastation,  the  temple  of  Isis  was  shaken  into 
ruins,  and,  as  an  inscription  records,  it  was  rebuilt 
from  the  foundations  by  the  munificence  of  a private 
citizen.  This  preliminary  earthquake  phase  of  volcanic 
excitement  was  succeeded  by  a catastrophe  which 
stands  out  prominently  as  one  of  the  great  calamities 
of  human  history.  On  August  24,  79,  the  earthquakes, 
which  had  been  growing  more  violent,  culminated  in  a 
tremendous  explosion  of  Vesuvius.  A contemporary 
account  of  this  event  has  been  preserved  in  two  letters 
of  the  younger  Pliny  to  the  historian  Tacitus. 

This  eruption  was  attended  with  great  destruction  of 
life  and  property.  Three  towns  are  known  to  have 
been  destroyed — Herculaneum  at  the  western  base  of 
the  volcano,  Pompeii  on  the  southeast  side,  and  Stabiae, 
still  farther  south  on  the  site  of  the  modern  Castella- 
mare.  The  exhumation  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii 
in  modern  times  has  -thrown  much  light  upon  the  life  of 
Roman  citizens  in  the  first  century.  There  is  no  evi- 
dence that  any  lava  was  emitted  during  this  eruption. 
But  the  abundant  steam  given  off  by  the  volcano  seems 
to  have  condensed  into  copious  rain,  which,  mixing 
with  the  light  volcanic  dust,  gave  rise  to  torrents  of 
pasty  mud,  that  flowed  down  the  slopes  and  over- 
whelmed houses  and  villages.  Herculaneum  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  destroyed  by  these  “ water  lavas,  ” 
and  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that  similar  materials 
filled  the  cellars  and  lower  parts  of  Pompeii. 

For  nearly  fifteen  hundred  years  after  the  catastrophe 
of  79  Vesuvius  remained  in  a condition  of  feeble  activity. 
Occasional  eruptions  are  mentioned,  but  none  that  was 
of  importance,  and  their  details  are  given  with  great 
vagueness  by  the  authors  who  allude  to  them.  By  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  mountain  had  re- 
sumed much  the  same  general  aspect  as  it  presented 
before  the  eruption  described  by  Pliny.  Its  crater- 
wails,  some  five  miles  in  circumference,  were  hung  with 
trees  and  brushwood,  and  at  their  base  stretched  a wide 

Kassy  plain,  on  which  cattle  grazed  and  where  the  wild 
>ar  lurked  in  the  thickets.  The  central  tract  was  a 
lower  plain,  covered  with  loose  ashes  and  marked  by  a 
few  pools  of  hot  and  saline  water.  At  length,  after  a 
series  of  earthquakes  lasting  for  six  months  and  grad- 
ually increasing  in  violence,  the  volcano  burst  into  re- 
newed paroxysmal  activity  on  December  16,  1631. 
Vast  clouds  of  dust  and  stones,  blown  out  of  the  crater 
and  funnel  of  the  volcano,  were  hurled  into  the  air  and 
carried  for  hundreds  of  miles,  the  finer  particles  falling 
to  the  earth  even  in  the  Adriatic  and  at  Constantinople. 
The  clouds  of  steam  condensed  into  copious  torrents, 
which,  mingling  with  the  fine  ashes,  produced  muddy 
streams  that  swept  far  and  wide  over  the  plains,  reach- 
ing even  to  the  foot  of  the  Apennines.  Issuing  from 
the  flanks  of  the  mountain,  several  streams  of  lava 
flowed  down  toward  the  west  and  south,  and  reached 
the  sea  at  twelve  or  thirteen  different  points.  Though 
the  inhabitants  had  been  warned  by  the  earlier  convul- 
sions of  the  mountain,  so  swiftly  did  destruction  come 
upon  them  that  18,000  are  said  to  have  lost  their  lives. 

Since  this  great  convulsion,  which  emptied  the  crater, 
Vesuvius  has  never  again  relapsed  into  a condition  of 
total  quiescence.  At  intervals,  varying  from  a few 
weeks  or  months  to  a few  years,  it  has  broken  out  into 
eruption,  sometimes  emitting  only  steam,  dust,  and 
scoriae,  but  frequently  also  streams  of  lava.  The  years 
1766-67,  1779,  r794>  and  1822  were  marked  by  special 
activity,  and  the  phenomena  observed  on  each  of  these 
occasions  have  been  fully  described. 

The  modern  cone  of  the  mountain  has  been  built  up 
by  successive  discharges  of  lava  and  fragmentary  mate- 


rials round  a vent  of  eruption,  which  lies  a little  south  o t 
the  center  of  the  prehistoric  crater.  The  southern 
segment  of  the  ancient  cone,  answering  to  the  semicir- 
cular wall  of  Somma  on  the  north  side,  has  been  almost 
concealed,  but  is  still  traceable  among  the  younger  ac- 
cumulations. The  numerous  deep  ravines  that  indented 
the  sides  of  the  prehistoric  volcano,  and  which  still  form 
so  marked  a feature  on  the  outer  slopes  of  Somma,  have 
on  the  south  side  served  as  channels  to  guide  the  cur- 
rents of  lava  from  the  younger  cone.  On  one  of  the 
ridges  between  these  radiating  valleys  an  observatory 
for  watching  the  progress  of  the  volcano  was  established 
many  years  ago  by  the  Neapolitan  Government,  and  is  ' 
still  supported  as  a national  institution.  A continuous 
record  of  each  phase  in  the  volcanic  changes  has  been 
taken,  and  some  progress  has  been  made  in  the  study  of 
the  phenomena  of  Vesuvius,  and  in  prognosticating  the 
occurrence  and  probable  intensity  of  eruptions.  A 
wire-rope  railway  (opened  in  the  year  1880)  carries 
visitors  from  the  foot  of  the  cone  up  to  within  150  yards 
of  the  mouth  of  the  crater. 

VESZPRfiM,  the  chief  town  of  a county  of  the  same 
name  in  Hungary,  lies  between  Lake  Balaton  and  the 
forest  of  Bakony,  about  sixty-five  miles  southwest  of 
Buda-Pesth.  Veszprem  is  the  seat  of  a Roman  Catholic 
bishop,  whose  cathedral  and  palace,  with  the  county 
hall  and  the  gymnasium,  form  the  chief  features  of  the 
town.  Its  four  annual  fairs  are  much  frequented  from 
all  parts  of  the  trans-Danubian  district,  and  the  trade 
in  grain,  wine,  and  home  industries  generally  is  con- 
siderable. The  place  suffered  much  during  the  con- 
tentions between  the  Turks  and  the  Hungarians  and 
Austrians  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 
The  population  numbers  14,800. 

VETERINARY  SCIENCE.  This  science  com- 
prises a knowledge  of  the  conformation  and  struct- 
ure of  all  the  domesticated  animals,  especially  the 
horse;  their  physiology  and  special  racial  and  indi- 
vidual characteristics;  their  humane  management  and 
utilization;  their  protection  from,  and  medical  and 
surgical  treatment  in,  the  diseases  and  injuries  to 
which  they  are  exposed;  their  amelioration  and  im- 
provement; their  relations  to  the  human  family  with 
regard  to  communicable  disorders;  and  the  supply  of 
food  and  other  products,  more  particularly  those  de- 
rived from  them  for  the  use  of  mankind. 

There  is  evidence  that  the  Egyptians  practiced  veter- 
inary medicine  and  surgery  in  very  remote  times;  but  it 
is  not  until  we  turn  to  the  Greeks  that  we  obtain  any 
very  definite  information  with  regard  to  the  state  of 
veterinary  as  well  as  human  medicine  in  antiquity.  The 
writings  of  Hippocrates  (460-356  B.C.)  afford  evidence 
of  excellent  investigations  in  comparative  pathology. 
Aristotle,  too,  wrote  on  physiology  and  comparative 
anatomy,  and  on  the  maladies  of  animals,  while  many 
other  Greek  writers  on  veterinary  medicine  are  cited  or 
copied  from  by  Varro,  Columella,  and  Galen. 

Until  after  the  conquest  of  Greece  the  Romans  do 
not  appear  to  have  known  much  of  veterinary  medicine. 
Varro  (116-28  B.C.)  may  be  considered  the  first  Roman 
writer  who  deals  with  animal  medicine  in  a scientific 
spirit,  in  his  De  Re  Rustica , in  three  books,  which  is 
largely  derived  from  Greek  writers.  Celsus  is  sup- 
posed to  have  written  on  animal  medicine.  From  the 
third  century  onward  veterinary  science  had  a literature 
of  its  own  and  regular  practitioners,  especially  in  the 
service  of  the  Roman  armies.  Perhaps  the  most  re- 
nowned veterinarian  of  the  Roman  empire  was  Apsyrtus 
of  Bithynia,  who  in  322  accompanied  the  expedition  ol 
Constantine  against  the  Sarmatians  in  his  professional 
capacity,  and  seems  to  have  enjoyed  a high  and  well- 
deserved  reputation  in  his  time 


VET 


it  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  here  on  the  progress  of  the 
veterinary  art  'uring  the  Middle  Ages.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  mediaeval  period  the  subject  was  much 
cultivated  in  the  cavalry  schools  of  Italy;  and  Spain 
also  had  an  organized  system  of  good  practitioners  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  who  have  left  many  books  still  extant. 
Germany  was  far  behind,  and  literature  on  the  subject 
did  not  exist  until  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
In  the  following  century  the  influence  of  the  Italian 
[writers  was  becoming  manifest,  and  the  works  of  hug- 
ger and  Fayser  mark  the  commencement  of  a new  era. 
In  Great  Britain  animal  medicine  was  pernaps  in  a more 
advanced  condition  than  in  Germany,  if  we  accept  the 
evidence  of  "the  Ancient  Laws  and  Institutes  of  IVales 
(London,  1841);  yet  it  was  largely  made  up  of  the 
grossest  superstitions.  Among  the  Celts  the  healer  of 
horse  diseases  and  the  shoer  were  held  in  high  esteem, 
as  among  the  more  civilized  nations  of  Europe,  and  the 
court  farrier  enjoyed  special  privileges.  The  earliest 
known  works  in  English  appeared  anonymously 
toward  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
namely,  Propertees  and  Medcynes  for  a horse  and 
Mascal  of  Oxen,  Horses , Sheepes , Hogges,  Dogges. 
English  books  of  the  seventeenth  century  exhibit  a 
strong  tendency  toward  the  • improvement  of  veteri- 
nary medicine  and  surgery,  especially  as  regards  the 
horse.  This  is  even  more  notable  in  the  writings 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  Veterinary  anatomy  was 
greatly  advanced  by  the  Anatomy  of  an  Horse  (1683) 
of  Snape,  farrier  to  Charles  II.,  illustrated  with  cop- 
per plates,  and  by  the  still  more  complete  and  original 
work  of  Stubbs,  the  Anatomy  of  the  Horse  (17 66), 
which  decidedly  marked  a new  era  in  this  line  of  study. 
Of  foreign  works  it  may  suffice  mention  that  of  Solleyseh 
Veritable  Parfait  Mareschal  (1664),  which  passed 
through  many  editions. 

The  most  important  era  in  the  history  of  modern 
veterinary  Science  commenced  with  the  institution  of 
veterinary  schools.  Fiance  was  the  first  to  take  the 
great  initiative  step  in  this  direction.  Buffon  had  rec- 
ommended the  formation  of  veterinary  schools,  but 
his  recommendations  were  not  attended  to.  Bourgelai, 
an  advocate  at  Lyons  and  a talented  hippologist, 
through  his  influence  with  Bertin,  prime  minister  under 
Louis  XV. , was  the  first  to  induce  the  government  to 
establish  a veterinary  school  and  school  of  equitation 
at  Lyons,  in  1761.  This  school  he  himself  directed  for 
only  a few  years,  during  which  the  great  benefits  that 
had  resulted  from  it  justified  an  extension  of  its  teach- 
ing to  other  parts  of  France.  Bourgelat,  therefore, 
founded  (1766)  at  Alfort,  near  Paris,  a second  veterinary 
school,  which  soon  became,  and  has  remained  to  this 
day,  one  of  the  finest  and  most  advanced  veterinary 
schools  in  the  world.  Twenty  years  later  the  Alfort 
school  added  to  its  teaching  staff  several  distinguished 
professors  whose  names  still  adorn  the  annals  of  science, 
such  as  Daubenton,  who  taught  rural  economy;  Vic 
d’Azyr,  who  lectured  on  comparative  anatomy;  Four- 
croy,  who  undertook  instruction  in  chemistry;  and  Gil- 
bert, one  of  its  most  brilliant  pupils,  who  had  veterinary 
medicine  and  surgery  for  his  department. 

Soon  after  the  Alfort  school  was  commenced  a na- 
tional school  for  Austria  was  established  at  Vienna  by 
order  of  Maria  Theresa;  and  this,  remodeled  and  reor- 
ganized by  Joseph  II.,  is  now  the  largest  in  the  coun- 
try. Prussia  quickly  followed  suit;  and  c*oon  govern- 
ment veterinary  schools  were  founded  in  almost  every 
other  European  country,  except  Great  Britain,  mostly 
on  a munificent  scale.  Probably  all,  but  especially 
those  of  France  and  Germany,  were  established  as  much 
with  a view  to  training  veterinary  surgeons  for  the  army 
as  for  the  requirements  of  civil  life. 


6187 

In  1790  St.  Bel  (whose  real  name  was  Vial,  St.  Bel 
being  a village  near  Lyons,  where  was  his  paternal 
estate),  after  studying  at  the  Lyons  school  and  teaching 
both  at  Alfort  and  Lyons,  went  to  England  and  pub- 
lished proposals  for  founding  a school  in  which  to  in- 
struct pupils  in  veterinary  medicine  and  surgery.  The 
Agricultural  Society  of  Odiham,  which  had  been  medi- 
tating sending  two  young  men  to  the  Alfort  school, 
elected  him  an  honorary  member,  and  delegated  a com- 
mittee to  consult  with  him  respecting  his  scheme.  Some 
time  afterward  this  committee  detached  themselves 
from  the  Odiham  Society  and  formed  an  institution 
styled  the  Veterinary  College  of  London,  of  which  St. 
Bel  was  appointed  professor. 

This  veterinary  school  has  been  the  parent  of  other 
schools  in  Great  Britain,  one  of  which,  the  first  in 
Scotland,  was  founded  by  Professor  Dick,  a student  of 
Coleman’s  and  a man  of  great  perseverance  and  ability. 

In  1844  the  Royal  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons 
(to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  Royal  Veterinary 
College)  obtained  its  charter  of  incorporation.  The 
functions  of  this  body  were,  until  a recent  date,  limited 
almost  entirely  to  examining  students  taught  in  the 
veterinary  schools,  and  bestowing  diplomas  of  member- 
ship on  those  who  successfully  passed  the  examinations 
conducted  by  the  boards  which  sat  in  London  and 
Edinburgh. 

The  graduates  of  the  Royal  College  of  Veterinary 
Surgeons  who  have  been  registered  since  its  foundation 
in  1844  probably  number  4,000.  In  the  British  army 
there  is  a smaller  mortality  among  the  animals  employed, 
and  less  loss  from  contagious  diseases  than  in  any  other 
in  Europe ; this  result,  as  well  as  the  high  efficiency  of 
the  horses,  is  largely  due  to  the  zeal,  intelligence,  and 
natural  aptitude  of  the  veterinary  officers  for  their 
special  duties.  In  no  other  army  are  they  so  severely 
tested,  physically  and  professionally — more  than  one- 
half  of  their  service  being  foreign;  and  in  India  their 
skill  has  to  be  exercised  on  elephants,  camels,  bullocks, 
cattle,  and  sheep,  in  addition  to  horses.  During  war 
the  strain  on  army  veterinary  surgeons  is  very  heavy ; 
and,  wdiile  surgeons  are  protected  in  the  field  by  the 
Geneva  Red  Cross,  being  considered  as  non-belligerentSt 
veterinary  officers  are  regarded  as  combatants,  and  there, 
fore  run  the  risk  of  capture,  imprisonment,  or  death  at 
the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

In  the  United  States  veterinary  science  has  been  an 
exotic  of  very  slow  growth.  There  are  veterinary 
schools  in  New  York,  Minneapolis,  and  elsewhere,  but 
these,  like  those  in  Great  Britain,  are  private  institu- 
tions. To  the  Cornell,  Pennsylvania,  and  Harvard  uni- 
versities veterinary  schools  or  chairs  have  been  attached 
with  competent  teachers. 

The  veterinary  literature  of  this  period  affords  strik- 
ing evidence  of  the  progress  made  by  the  science : excel- 
lent text -books,  manuals,  and  treatises  on  every  subject 
belonging  to  it  are  very  numerous,  and  are  published  in 
every  language,  while  there  is  an  abundance  of  periodi- 
cal literature.  The  education — general  and  technical — * 
of  practitioners  of  veterinary  medicine  has,  of  course, 
been  improving  to  a corresponding  extent.  The  matric- 
ulation test  for  admission  to  the  best  veterinary  schools 
and  the  fixed  period  for  instruction  in  them  vary  but 
little  from  those  of  the  medical  schools.  In  Germany 
the  veterinary  schools  at  Berlin  and  Hanover  have  been 
raised  to  the  position  of  universities. 

One  of  the  chief  objects  of  the  science  is  the  treat- 
ment of  disease  in  animals.  Veterinary  medicine  has 
been  far  less  exposed  to  the  vagaries  of  theoretical  doc- 
trines and  systems  than  human  medicine.  The  ex- 
planation may  perhaps  be  that  the  successful  practice 
of  this  branch  of  medicine  more  clearly  than  in  any 


6i88 


VET 


other  depends  upon  the  careful  observation  of  facts  and 
the  rational  deductions  to  be  made  therefrom.  No 
special  doctrines  seem,  in  later  times  at  least,  to  have 
been  adopted,  and  the  dominating  sentiment  in  regard 
to  disease  and  its  treatment  has  been  a medical  eclec- 
ticism, based  on  practical  experience  and  anatomico- 
pathological  investigation,  rarely  indeed  on  philosoph- 
ical or  abstract  theories.  In  this  way  veterinary  science 
has  become  preeminently  a science  of  observation.  At 
times  indeed  it  has  to  some  extent  been  influenced  by 
the  doctrines  which  have  controlled  the  practice  of 
human  medicine— such  as  those  of  Broussais,  Hahne- 
mann, Brown,  Rasori,  Rademacher,  and  others — yet 
this  has  not  been  for  long : experience  of  them  when 
tested  upon  dumb  unimaginative  animals  soon  exposed 
their  fallacies  and  compelled  their  discontinuance. 

Of  more  moment  than  the  cure  of  disease  is  its  pre- 
vention, and  this  is  now  considered  the  most  important 
object  in  connection  with  veterinary  science.  More 
especially  is  this  the  case  with  those  serious  disorders 
which  depend  for  their  existence  and  extension  upon 
the  presence  of  an  infecting  agent,  and  whose  ravages 
for  so  many  centuries  are  written  largely  in  the  history 
of  civilization.  Every  advance  made  in  medicine  affects 
the  progress  <jf  veterinary  science,  and  the  recent  re- 
markable discoveries,  some  of  which  have  been  initiated 
by  members  of  the  veterinary  profession,  or  developed 
by  them,  must  in  the  end  create  as  great  a revolution 
in  veterinary  practice  as  in  the  medicine  of  man.  In 
“ preventive  medicine  ” the  benefits  to  be  derived  from 
the  application  of  the  germ  theory  will  be  immense ; the 
sanitary  police  measures  based  on  this  knowledge  are 
easily  framed,  and,  if  carried  rigorously  into  operation, 
must  eventually  lead  to  the  extinction  of  these  disas- 
trous disorders.  The  medicine  of  the  lower  animals 
differs  from  that  of  man  in  no  particular  so  much, 
perhaps,  as  in  the  application  it  makes  of  utilitarian 
•principles.  The  life  of  man  is  sacred ; but  in  the  case 
of  animals,  when  there  are  doubts  as  to  complete  resto- 
ration to  health  and  soundness,  monetary  considerations 
generally  decide  against  the  adoption  of  remedial  meas- 
ures. This  feature  in  the  medicine  of  the  domesticated 
animals  brings  very  prominently  before  us  the  value  of 
the  old  adage  that  “ prevention  is  better  than  cure.  ” 

For  more  than  forty  years  most  destructive  plagues  of 
animals  have  prevailed  almost  continuously  in  the  Brit- 
ish islands  without  any  attempt,  worthy  of  the  name, 
having  been  made  to  check  or  extirpate  them  until  with- 
in a very  recent  period.  Two  exotic  bovine  diseases 
alone  (contagious  pleuro-pneumonia  or  lung  plague  and 
foot-and-mouth  disease)  are  estimated  to  have  caused 
the  death,  during  the  first  thirty  years  of  their  preva- 
lence in  the  United  Kingdom,  of  5, 549,780 cattle,  while 
the  invasion  of  cattle  plague  in  1865-66  was  calculated 
to  have  caused  a money  loss  of  from  $25,000,000  to 
$40,000,000.  The  depredations  made  in  South  Africa 
and  Australia  by  the  lung  plague  alone  are  appalling; 
and  in  India  the  loss  brought  about  by  contagious  dis- 
eases among  animals  has  been  stated  at  not  less  than 
$30,000,000  annually.  The  damage  done  by  tubercu- 
losis— a contagious  disease  of  cattle,  transmissible  to 
several  kinds  of  animals,  and  possibly  also  to  man,  by 
means  of  the  flesh  and  milk  of  diseased  beasts — cannot 
be  even  guessed  at;  but  it  must  be  enormous,  when  we 
learn  how  widely  the  malady  is  diffused.  But  that  ter- 
rible pest  of  all  ages,  the  cattle  plague,  has  in  its  two  re- 
cent invasions  of  England  been  promptly  suppressed 
with  comparatively  trifling  loss.  The  foot-and-mouth 
disease,  which  proved  such  a heavy  infliction  to  British 
agriculture  from  its  introduction  in  1838,  has  been 
completely  extirpated.  Glanders,  which  annually 
^axised  the  destruction  of  laj^p  number#  of  cavalry 


horses,  is  now  unknown  in  the  army,  and  is  rapidly 
disappearing  from  civilian  stables.  Rabies  would  soon 
be  included  in  the  category  of  extinct  diseases  if  the  in- 
dications of  veterinary,  science  were  followed;  and  so 
with  the  other  contagious  maladies  of  animals.  As  for 
such  diseases  as  depend  for  their  development  upon 
germs  derived  from  the  soil  or  herbage  upon  which  ani- 
mals live,  and  which  cannot  be  directly  controlled  by 
veterinary  sanitary  measures,  the  system  of  protective 
inoculation  with  cultivated  virus  introduced  by  Pasteur 
will  probably  bring  about  their  extinction,  or  at  any 
rate  greatly  mitigate  their  effects. 

Every  horseman  should  known  something  of  the  in- 
juries, lamenesses,  and  diseases  to  which  the  horse  is 
liable.  Unfortunately  not  very  much  can  be  done  in 
this  direction  by  book  instruction ; indeed,  there  is 
generally  too  much  doctoring  and  too  little  nursing  of 
sick  animals.  Even  in  slight  and  favorable  cases  of 
illness  recovery  is  often  retarded  by  too  zealous  and  in- 
judicious medication ; the  object  to  be  always  kept  in 
view  in  the  treatment  of  animal  patients  is  to  place 
them  in  those  conditions  which  allow  nature  to  operate 
most  freely  in  restoring  health.  This  can  best  be  ren- 
dered in  the  form  of  nursing,  which  sick  animals  greatly 
appreciate. 

When  a sick  horse  has  lost  his  appetite,  he  should  be 
tempted  to  eat  by  offering  him  such  food  as  will  be  en- 
ticing to  him.  It  should  be  given  frequently  and  in 
small  quantities,  but  should  not  be  forced  on  him  ; 
food  will  often  be  taken  if  offered  from  the  hand,  when 
it  will  not  be  eaten  out  of  the  manger.  Whether  the 
animal  be  fed  from  a bucket  or  from  a manger,  any 
food  that  is  left  should  be  thrown  away,  and  the  recep- 
tacle well  cleaned  out  after  each  meal.  As  a rule, 
during  sickness  a horse  requires  laxative  food,  in  order 
to  allay  fever  or  inflammatory  symptoms,  while  sup- 
porting the  strength.  For  a bran  and  linseed  mash, 
boil  slowly  for  two  or  three  hours  one  pound  of  lin- 
seed, so  as  to  have  about  a couple  of  quarts  of  thick 
fluid,  to  which  two  pounds  of  bran  and  one  ounce  of 
salt  may  be  added.  The  whole  should  be  stirred  up, 
covered  over,  and  allowed  to  steam  over  a gentle  fire. 
The  thicker  the  mash  the  more  readily  will  the  horse 
eat  it.  Linseed  tea  is  made  by  boiling  one  pound  of 
linseed  in  a couple  of  gallons  of  water  until  the  grains 
are  quite  soft.  It  may  be  economically  made  by  using 
less  water  to  cook  the  linseed,  and  afterward  making  up 
the  quantity  of  water  to  about  a gallon  and  a half.  As 
a rule,  a sick  horse  should  have  as  much  water  as  he 
likes  to  drink,  though  it  may  be  necessary  in  certain 
cases  to  restrict  the  quantity,  and  to  have  the  chill  taken 
off;  but  it  should  never  be  warmer  than  75°  to  8o°. 

As  little  grooming  as  possible  should  be  allowed 
when  a horse  is  very  weak ; it  should  be  limited  to 
sponging  about  the  mouth,  nostrils,  eyes,  and  forehead 
with  clean  water,  to  which  a little  vinegar  may  be  add- 
ed. Rub  the  legs  and  ears  with  the  hand,  take  off  the 
clothing,  and  shake  or  change  it  once  a day,  and  if 
agreeable  rub  over  the  body  with  a soft  cloth.  Exercise 
is  of  course  not  required  during  sickness  or  injury,  and 
the  period  at  which  it  is  allowed  will  depend  upon  cir- 
cumstances. Care  must  be  taken  that  it  is  not  ordered 
too  early,  or  carried  too  far  at  first. 

Much  care  is  required  in  administering  medicines 
in  the  form  of  ball  or  bolus;  and  practice,  as  well  as 
courage  and  tact,  is  needed  in  order  to  give  it  without 
danger  to  the  administrator  or  the  animal.  The  ball 
should  be  held  between  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand, 
the  tips  of  the  first  and  fourth  being  brought  together 
below  the  second  and  third,  which  are  placed  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  ball;  the  right  hand  is  thus  made  as 
small  as  possible,  so  as  to  admit  of  readv  insertion  into 


VET 


ihe  mouth.  The  left  hand  grasps  the  horse’s  tongue, 
gently  pulls  it  out,  and  places  it  on  that  part  of  the 
right  side  of  the  lower  jaw  which  is  bare  of  teeth.  With 
the  right  hand  the  ball  is  placed  at  the  root  of  the 
tongue.  The  moment  the  right  hand  is  withdrawn  the 
tongue  should  be  released.  This  causes  the  ball  to  be 
carried  still  further  back.  The  operator  then  closes  the 
mouth  and  watches  the  left  side  of  the  neck,  to  note  the 
passage  of  the  ball  down  the  gullet.  Many  horses  keep 
a ball  in  the  mouth  a considerable  time  before  they  will 
allow  it  to  go  down.  A mouthful  of  water  or  a hand- 
ful of  food  will  generally  make  them  swallow  it 
readily.  If  this  does  not  succeed,  the  nostrils  should 
be  grasped  by  the  hand  and  held  a few  moments. 

To  administer  a drink  or  drench  requires  as  much 
care  as  giving  a ball,  in  order  to  avoid  choking  the 
horse,  though  it  is  unattended  with  risk  to  the  adminis- 
trator. An  ordinary  glass  or  stone  bottle  may  be  used, 
provided  there  are  no  sharp  points  around  the  mouth ; 
but  either  the  usual  drenching  horn  or  a tin  vessel  with 
a narrow  mouth  or  spout  is  safer.  It  is  necessary  to 
raise  the  horse’s  head,  so  that  the  nose  may  be  a little 
higher  than  the  horizontal  line.  If  the  horse  is  restless, 
his  head  must  be  elevated  by  a loop  of  cord  inserted 
into  the  mouth  over  the  upper  jaw,  the  prong  of  a stable 
fork  being  passed  through  it,  and  the  handle  held  steady 
by  an  assistant.  The  drink  must  be  given  by  a person 
standing  on  the  right  side  (the  assistant  being  in  front 
or  on  the  left  side  of  the  horse),  the  side  of  the  mouth 
being  pulled  out  a little,  to  form  a sack  or  funnel,  into 
which  the  medicine  is  poured,  a little  at  a time,  allow- 
ing an  interval  now  and  again  for  the  horse  to  swallow. 
If  any  of  the  fluid  gets  into  the  windpipe  (which  it  is 
liable  to  do  if  the  head  is  held  too  high),  it  will  cause 
coughing,  whereupon  the  head  should  be  instantly  low- 
ered. Neither  the  tongue  nor  the  nostrils  should  be 
interfered  with.  Powders  may  be  given  in  a little  mash 
or  gruel,  well  stirred  up. 

If  a wide  surface  is  to  be  fomented  (as  the  chest,  ab- 
domen, or  loins),  a blanket  or  other  large  woolen  cloth 
should  be  dipped  in  water  as  hot  as  the  hand  can  com- 
fortably bear  it,  moderately  wrung  out,  and  applied 
to  the  part,  the  heat  and  moisture  being  retained  by 
covering  it  with  a waterproof  sheet  or  dry  rug.  When 
it  has  lost  some  of  its  heat,  it  should  be  removed,  dipped 
in  warm  water,  and  again  applied.  In  cases  of  acute 
inflammation,  it  may  be  necessary  to  have  the  water  a 
little  hotter ; and,  to  avoid  the  inconvenience  of  remov- 
ing the  blanket,  or  the  danger  of  chill  when  it  is  re- 
moved, it  may  be  secured  round  the  body  by  skewers  or 
twine,  the  hot  water  being  poured  on  the  outside  of  the 
top  part  of  the  blanket  by  any  convenient  vessel.  To 
foment  the  feet,  they  should  be  placed  in  a bucket  or 
tub  (the  latter  with  the  bottom  resting  wholly  on  the 
ground)  containing  warm  water;  a quantity  of  moss 
litter  put  in  the  tub  or  bucket  prevents  splashing  and 
retains  the  heat  longer. 

Enemata  or  clysters  are  given  in  fevers,  inflammation, 
constipation,  etc.,  to  empty  the  posterior  part  of  the 
bowels.  They  are  administered  by  a large  syringe 
capable  of  containing  a quart  or  more  of  water,  with  a 
nozzle  about  twelve  inches  in  length,  with  an  ox’s  blad- 
der tied  to  a pipe,  or  a large  funnel,  with  a long  nozzle 
at  a right  angle;  but  the  syringe  is  best.  Water  alone 
is  usually  applied  for  enemata;  it  should  be  about 
the  temperature  of  the  body,  not  less,  but  perhaps  a 
degree  or  two  more.  To  administer  an  enema,  one  of 
the  horse’s  fore-feet  should  be  held  up,  while  the  opera- 
tor pushes  the  end  of  the  nozzle,  smeared  with  a little 
lard  or  oil,  very  gently  and  steadily  for  a few  inches  into 
the  intestine,  and  then  presses  out  the  water.  The 
amount  injected  will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  animal ; 


6189 

two  or  three  quarts  would  suffice  for  an  ordinary- sized 
horse. 

The  epizootic  diseases  affecting  the  horse  are  not  uu 
merous,  and  may  generally  be  considered  as  specific,  or 
infectious  and  contagious,  in  their  nature,  circumstances 
of  a favorable  kind  leading  to  their  extension  by  propa- 
gation of  the  agent  upon  which  their  existence  depends. 
This  agent,  in  some  of  the  maladies,  has  been  proved 
to  be  a micro-organism,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  it  is  so  for  all  of  them. 

Glanders  is  one  of  the  most  serious  diseases  affecting 
horses,  not  only  because  it  is  incurable,  but  because  it  is 
very  contagious.  It  is  known  in  nearly  every  part  of  the 
world,  except  in  Australasia.  The  virulent  principle  of 
glanders  establishes  itself  most  easily  among  horses 
kept  in  foul,  badly-ventilated  stables,  or  among  such 
as  are  overworked,  badly  fed,  or  debilitated  in  any  way. 
Glanders,  however,  has  this  in  common  with  other  con- 
tagious diseases,  that  it  is  never  spontaneously  devel- 
oped, in  the  absence  of  the  virulent  agent.  Carnivo- 
rous animals — as  lions,  tigers,  dogs,  and  cats — have 
become  infected  through  eating  the  flesh  of  glandered 
horses;  and  goats,  sheep,  swine,  and  rabbits  have  oeen 
successfully  inoculated  with  the  virus.  Men  who  at- 
tend on  diseased  horses  are  liable  to  be  infected,  espe- 
cially if  they  have  any  sores  on  the  exposed  parts  of 
their  bodies  (see  Glanders).  Though  infection  through 
wounds  is  the  readiest  way  of  receiving  the  disease,  the 
germ  or  bacillus  may  also  obtain  access  through  the 
lungs,  stomach,  and  thin  mucous  membranes,  such  as 
that  of  the  eyes,  nose,  and  lips.  Glanders  is  presented 
in  two  forms — one  affecting  the  mucous  membranes  of 
the  body,  more  particularly  those  of  the  air-passages 
(glanders  proper),  and  the  other  attacking  the  skin  and 
the  superficial  lymphatic  vessels  (farcy).  Both  forms 
are  due  to  the  same  virus,  and  both  may  be  acute  or 
chronic.  The  acute  form  is  the  more  contagious  and 
virulent,  and  either  destroys  life  quickly  or  becomes 
chronic. 

Under  influenza  several  diseases  are  sometimes  in- 
cluded, and  in  different  invasions  it  may  (and  doubtless 
does)  assume  varying  forms.  It  may  be  said  to  be  a 
specific  fever  of  a low  or  asthenic  type,  associated  with 
inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  air- 
passages,  and  also  sometimes  with  that  of  other  organs. 
At  various  times  it  has  prevailed  extensively  over  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  world,  more  especially  during  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries.  Perhaps  one  of 
the  most  wide-spread  outbreaks  recorded  was  that  of 
1872,  on  the  American  continent.  It  usually  radiates 
from  the  district  in  which  it  first  appears.  The  symp- 
toms have  been  enumerated  as  follows  : — sudden  attack, 
marked  by  extreme  debility  and  stupor,  with  increased 
body-temperature,  quick  weak  pulse,  rigors,  and  cold 
extremities.  The  head  is  pendent,  the  eyelids  swollen 
and  half  closed,  eyes  lusterless,  and  tears  often  flowing 
down  the  face.  There  is  great  disinclination  to  move  ; 
the  body  sways  on  the  animal  attempting  to  walk  ; and 
the  limb-joints  crack.  The  appetite  is  lost  and  the 
mouth  is  hot  and  dry ; the  bowels  are  constipated  and 
the  urine  scanty  and  high-colored ; there  is  nearly 
always  a deep,  painful,  and  harassing  cough ; on 
auscultation  of  the  chest  crepitation  or  narsh  blowing 
sounds  are  audible  ; and  the  membrane  lining  the  eye- 
lids and  nose  assumes  either  a bright  pink  color  or  a 
dull  leaden  hue.  A white,  yellowish,  or  greenish- 
colored  discharge  flows  from  the  nostrils.  In  a few 
days  the  fever  and  other  symptoms  subside,  and  con- 
valescence rapidly  sets  in.  In  unfavorable  cases  the 
fever  increases,  as  well  as  the  prostration,  the  breathing 
' becomes  labored,  the  cough  more  painful  and  deep, 
the  auscultation  and  percussion  Indicate  that  th*  luatfni 


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6190 

are  seriously  involved,  with  perhaps  the  pleura  or  the 
heart.  Clots  sometimes  form  in  the  latter  organ,  and 
quickly  bring  about  a fatal  termination.  When  the 
lungs  do  not  suffer,  the  bowels  may,  and  with  this  com- 
plication there  are,  in  addition  to  the  stupor  and  torpor, 
tension  and  tenderness  of  the  abdominal  walls  when 
pressed  upon,  manifestations  of  colic,  great  thirst,  a 
coated  tongue,  yellowness  of  the  membranes  of  nose 
and  eyes,  high-colored  urine,  constipation,  and  dry 
faeces  covered  with  mucus.  Sometimes  rheumatic 
swelling  and  tenderness  take  place  in  the  muscles  and 
joints  of  the  limbs,  which  may  persist  for  a long  time, 
often  shifting  from  leg  to  leg,  and  involving  the  sheaths 
of  tendons.  At  other  times  acute  inflammation  of  the 
eyes  supervenes,  or  even  paralysis. 

In  this  disease  good  nursing  is  the  chief  factor  in  the 
treatment.  Comfortable,  clean,  and  airy  stables  or 
loose-boxes  should  be  provided,  and  the  warmth  of  the 
body  and  limbs  maintained.  Cold  and  damp,  foul  air 
and  uncleanliness,  are  as  inimical  to  health  and  as  an- 
tagonistic to  recovery  as  in  the  case  of  mankind.  In 
influenza  it  has  been  generally  found  that  the  less  medi- 
cine the  sick  animal  receives  the  more  likely  it  is  to  re- 
cover. 

Strangles  is  a specific  contagious  and  infectious  fever 
peculiar  to  ungulates,  and  is  more  especially  incidental 
to  young  animals.  It  is  particularly  characterized  by 
the  formation  of  abscesses  in  the  lymphatic  glands, 
chiefly  those  between  the  branches  of  the  lower  jaw 
(submaxillary).  Various  causes  are  ascribed  for  its 
production,  such  as  change  of  young  horses  fVom  field  to 
stable,  from  grass  to  dry  feeding,  from  idleness  to  hard 
work,  irritation  of  teething,  and  change  of  locality  and 
climate.  It  is  asserted  that  repeated  attacks  will  occur 
in  the  same  horse  under  the  influence  of  the  last-named 
cause.  But  the  chief,  if  not- the  sole,  cause  is  infection 
—the  malady,  in  some  of  its  features,  closely  resembling 
the  “ mumps  ” of  the  human  species.  Languor  and 
feverishness,  diminution  of  appetite,  cough,  redness  of 
the  nasal  membrane,  with  discharge  from  the  eyes  and 
nose,  and  thirst  are  among  the  earliest  symptoms.  Then 
there  is  difficulty  in  swallowing,  coincident  with  the  de- 
velopment of  swelling  between  the  branches  of  the  lower 
jaw,  which  often  causes  the  water  in  drinking  to  be  re- 
turned through  the  nose  and  the  masticated  food  to  be 
dropped  from  the  mouth.  The  swelling  is  hot  and  ten- 
der, diffused,  and  uniformly  rounded  and  smooth;  at 
first  it  is  hard,  with  soft,  doughy  margins;  but  later  it 
becomes  soft  in  the  center,  where  an  abscess  is  forming, 
and  soon  “ points  ” and  bursts,  giving  exit  to  a quantity 
of  pus.  Relief  is  now  experienced  by  the  animal;  the 
symptoms  subside;  and  recovery  takes  place.  In  some 
cases  the  swelling  is  so  great  or  occurs  so  close  to  the 
larynx  that  the  breathing  is  interfered  with,  and  even 
rendered  so  difficult  that  suffocation  is  threatened.  In 
other  cases  the  disease  assumes  an  irregular  form,  and 
the  swelling,  instead  of  softening  in  the  center,  remains 
hard  for  an  indefinite  time,  or  it  may  subside  and  ab- 
scesses form  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  sometimes  in 
vital  organs,  as  the  brains,  lungs,  liver,  kidneys,  etc., 
or  in  the  bronchial  or  mesenteric  glands,  where  they 
generally  produce  serious  consequences.  Not  infre- 
quently a pustular  eruption  accompanies  the  other  symp- 
toms. The  malady  may  terminate  in  ten  days  or  be 
protracted  for  months,  often  terminating  fatally,  espe- 
cially when  the  animal  is  not  well  nursed  and  is  kept  in 
an  unhealthy  stable. 

Good  nursing  is  the  chief  part  of  the  treatment.  The 
strength  should  be  maintained  by  soft  nutritious  food, 
and  the  body  kept  warm  and  comfortable;  the  stable 
or  loose-box  must  have  plenty  of  fresh  air  and  be  kept 
(dean.  The  swelling-  mav  be  fomented  with  warm 


water  <md  poulticed.  The  poultice  may  be  a little  bag 
containing  bran  and  linseed  meal  mixed  with  hot  water, 
and  applied  warm  to  the  tumefaction,  being  retained 
there  by  a square  piece  of  calico,  with  holes  for  the  ears 
and  eyes,  tied  down  the  middle  of  the  face  and  behind 
the  ears. 

The  diseases  of  the  bovine  species  are  not  so  numer- 
ous as  those  of  the  horse,  and  some  of  the  more  serious 
have  been  already  alluded  to  (see  Murrain).  We  will 
notice  a few  which  have  not  been  included  among  these. 

Tuberculosis  is  a most  formidable  and  widespread 
disorder  of  cattle;  it  is  assuming  greater  proportions 
every  year  in  those  countries  in  which  it  is  prevalent,  in 
consequence  of  no  steps  being  taken  to  check  or  sup- 
press it.  It  is  infectious  and  contagious,  can  be  conveyed 
to  other  species  of  animals  by  ingestion  of  the  flesh  and 
milk,  as  well  as  of  the  tuberculous  material,  and  by  in- 
oculation of  these,  or  inhalation  of  dried  discharges  from 
the  lungs;  it  can  also  be  transmitted  from  the  affected 
animal  to  the  foetus  in  utero.  Its  infectious  properties 
and  ready  communicability  to  other  species  render  it  a 
serious  danger  to  mankind,  through  consumption  as 
food  of  the  flesh  and  milk  of  tuberculous  cows.  The 
disease  owes  its  origin  to  a bacillus.  The  structures 
chiefly  involved  are  the  lymphatic  glands  and  tissues — 
the  characteristic  tubercles  or  “ grapes  ” varying  in  size 
from  that  of  a millet  seed  to  immense  masses  weighing 
many  pounds;  they  are  found  in  all  of  parts  of  the  body, 
but  generally  in  the  chest  and  on  its  lining  membrane, 
as  well  as  in  the  abdominal  cavity.  The  symptoms  re- 
semble somewhat  the  contagious  pleuro-pneumonia  of 
cattle  in  its  chronic  form  (see  Murrain),  though  tuber- 
cles, sometimes  in  large  numbers,  are  often  found  after 
death  in  the  bodies  of  cattle  which  exhibited  no  sign  of 
illness  during  life,  and  which  when  killed  were  in  excellent 
condition.  When  the  lungs  are  involved,  there  is  a pe- 
culiar phthisical  cough,  low  fever,  wasting  and  debility, 
and  often  enlarged  throat  glands,  less  frequently  en- 
larged joints.  If  the  animal  is  not  killed,  it  perishes  in 
a state  of  marasmus,  from  the  difficulty  experienced  in 
breathing,  or  the  profuse  fetid  diarrhoea  which  ensues. 
Medical  treatment  is  of  little  if  any  avail.  Preventive 
measures  are  of  the  utmost  importance.  Animals  free 
from  the  tuberculous  taint  should  alone  be  bred  from, 
and  those  discovered  to  be  affected  should  be  at  once 
completely  segregated,  and  if  convenient  destroyed. 
The  milk  of  tuberculous  cows  should  not  be  given  to 
any  animal  as  food,  not  at  least  unless  well  boiled. 
Neither  should  the  flesh  be  eaten  unless  well  cooked 
throughout. 

Milk  or  parturient  fever  is  a specific  malady  which 
appears  after  parturition,  due  to  the  absorption  of  sep- 
tic matter  from  the  interior  of  the  uterus  or  vagina, 
producing  what  is  known  as  “ blood-poisoning  ” or  sep- 
ticsemia.  The  symptoms  may  be  briefly  summarized 
as  follows: — high  fever,  restlessness,  intense  injection 
of  the  visible  mucous  membranes,  tympanitis,  fetid 
breath,  stupor,  swollen  limbs,  sanguinolent  and  perhaps 
purulent  discharges  from  the  vagina,  foul-smelling 
diarrhoea,  coma,  and  death.  In  the  early  stage  treat- 
ment is  generally  successful.  The  uterine  cavity  should 
be  thoroughly  cleaned  out  by  injections  of  warm  water, 
and  any  adherent  portions  of  placenta  removed  by  hand. 
Then  a weak  solution  of  Condy’s  fluid  (permanganate  of 
potash)  must  be  injected.  Cleanliness  is  all-important. 
Diffusible  stimulants  in  large  quantity  should  be  given, 
with  doses  of  solution  of  sulphate  of  quinine,  perchlor- 
ide  of  iron,  oil  of  turpentine,  or  carbolic  acid. 

There  is  now  strong  evidence  that  one  form  of  abor- 
tion in  cows  is  due  to  infaction.  Whenever  a case  of 
abortion  occurs  in  a shed,  either  the  cow  should  be  at 
once  removed  from  the  others,  if  they  are  pregnant,  and 


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cleaning  and  disinfection  immediately  resorted  to;  or, 
better  still,  the  pregnant  cows  should  be  quickly  moved 
out  of  the  shed,  and  every  care  taken  to  keep  them 
away  from  the  sick  cow  and  the  discharges  from  it  — 
these  and  the  aborted  foetus  being  burned  or  otherwise 
Completely  destroyed. 

Cowpox  is  a contagious  disease  of  much  less  frequent 
occurrence  now  than  formerly,  probably  owing  to  im- 
proved hygienic  management.  In  many  localities  the 
disease  appears  in  all  heifers  which  have  recently 
calved  on  certain  farms.  There  is  usually  a slight  pre- 
monitory fever,  which  is  generally  overlooked  ; this  is 
succeeded  by  some  diminution  in  the  quantity  of  the 
milk,  with  some  increased  coagulability,  and  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  eruption  or  “ pox  ” on  the  udder  and 
teats.  In  well-observed  cases  the  udder  is  hot  and  ten- 
der on  manipulation  for  a day  or  two  previous  to  the 
development  of  small  pale-red  nodules  about  the  size  of 
peas ; these  increase  in  dimensions  to  from  three- 
fourths  to  one  inch  in  diameter  by  the  eighth  or  tenth 
day,  when  their  contents  have  become  fluid  and  they 
present  a depressed  center.  This  fluid,  at  first  clear 
and  limpid,  becomes  yellowish  white  as  it  changes  to 
us,  and  soon  dries  up,  leaving  a hard,  button-shaped 
lack  crust,  which  gradually  becomes  detached.  On  the 
teats,  owing  to  the  handling  of  the  milker  or  to  the 
cow  lying  on  the  hard  ground  or  on  straw,  the  vesicles 
are  early  ruptured  and  sores  are  formed,  which  often 
prove  troublesome  and  may  cause  inflammation  of  the 
udder. 

Actinomycosis,  though  affecting  man,  horses,  pigs, 
and  other  creatures,  is  far  more  common  in  the  bovine 
species.  The  fungus  ( Actinomyces ) may  be  found  in  char- 
acteristic nodules  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  but  it 
usually  invades  the  bones  of  the  jaws,  upper  and  lower, 
or  the  soft  parts  in  the  neighborhood  of  these,  as  the 
tongue,  cheeks,  face,  throat,  and  glands  in  its  vicinity. 
About  the  head  the  disease  appears  to  commence  with 
slight  sores  on  the  gums  or  mucous  membrane  of  the 
mouth  or  with  ulcers  alongside  decaying  teeth,  and 
these  extend  slowly  into  the  tissues.  If  the  jaw  is 
affected,  a large  rounded  tumor  grows  from  it,  the 
dense  outer  bone  becoming  absorbed  before  the  in- 
creasing soft  growth  within.  Soon  the  whole  be- 
comes ulcerated  and  purulent  discharges  take  place,  in 
which  are  found  the  minute,  hard,  yellow  granules 
which  contain  the  fungus.  When  the  tongue  is  affected, 
it  becomes  enlarged  and  rigid  ; hence  the  designation 
of  “ wouden  ” tongue  given  to  it  by  the  Germans. 

The  contagious  diseases  of  the  sheep  are  compara- 
tively few,  and  two  of  the  more  serious  have  been  de- 
scribed under  Murrain. 

The  formidable  disorder  of  sheep-pox  is  confined 
chiefly . to  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  is  extremely 
contagious  and  fatal,  and  in  these  and  some  other  char- 
acteristics resembles  human  smallpox.  From  three  to 
twelve  days  after  being  exposed  to  infection  the  sheep 
appears  dull  and  listless,  and  eats  little  if  anything;  the 
temperature  rises ; there  are  frequent  tremblings;  tears 
flow  from  the  eyes;  and  there  is  a nasal  discharge. 
Red  patches  appear  inside  the  limbs  and  under  the 
abdomen ; and  on  them,  as  well  as  on  other  parts  where 
the  skin  is  thin,  dark  red  spots  show  themselves,  which 
soon  become  papules,  with  a deep  hard  base.  These 
are  generally  conical,  and  the  apex  quickly  becomes 
white  from,  the  formation  of  pus.  This  eruption  is 
characteristic  and  unmistakable ; and  the  vesicles  or 
pustules  may  remain  isolated  (discrete  pox)  or  coalesce 
into  large  patches  (confluent  pox).  The  latter  form  of 
the  disease  is  serious.  In  bad  cases  the  eruption  may 
develop  on  the  eyes  and  in  the  respiratory  and  digestive 
passages.  The  course  of  the  disease  lasts  about  three 


6191 

weeks  or  a month,  and  the  eruption  passes  through  the 
same  stages  as  that  of  cowpox.  The  mortality  may 
extend  from  10  per  cent,  in  mild  outbreaks  to  90  or  95 
per  cent,  in  very  virulent  ones.  Diseased  animals 
should  be  sheltered,  and  fed  on  nourishing  food,  espe- 
cially gruels  of  oatmeal,  flour,  or  linseed;  acidulated 
water  may  be  allowed.  If  there  is  sloughing  of  the  skin 
or  extensive  sores,  oxide  of  zinc  ointment  should  be 
applied.  But  treatment  should  not  be  adopted  unless 
there  is  general  infection  over  a wide  extent  of  country. 
All  diseased  animals  should  be  destroyed,  as  well  as 
those  which  have  been  in  contact  with  them,  and 
thorough  disinfection  resorted  to. 

The  pig  may  become  affected  with  foot-and-mouth 
disease  (see  Murrain),  and  it  also  has  its  own  partic- 
ular variola.  But  the  disease  special  to  it,  and  which 
causes  enormous  losses,  is  swine  plague.  This  scourge, 
known  in  America  as  hog  cholera,  is  a specific  conta- 
gious fever,  or  fevers,  for  it  is  extremely  probable  that 
two  diseases  are  included  under  this  designation.  It  is 
generally  very  rapid  in  its  course,  death  ensuing  in  a 
very  few  days  ; and  when  the  animal  survives  recovery 
is  protracted.  After  a period  of  three  or  four  days  to  a 
fortnight  from  exposure  to  infection,  the  animal  exhibits 
signs  of  illness  by  dullness,  weakness,  shiverings,  bury- 
ing itself  under  the  litter,  disinclination  to  move,  stag- 
gering gait,  great  thirst,  hot  dry  snout,  sunken  eyes, 
loss  of  appetite,  and  greatly  increased  pulse,  respiration, 
and  temperature.  Red  and  brown  patches  appear  on 
the  skin  ; there  is  a hacking  cough  ; nausea  is  followed 
by  vomiting;  pressure  on  the  abdomen  causes  extreme 
pain;  diarrhea  ensues  ; the  hind  limbs  become  paralyzed; 
stupor  sets  in;  and  the  animal  perishes.  Treatment 
should  not  be  attempted  when  there  is  danger  of  the 
infection  extending  to  other  pigs.  If  treatment  be  used, 
nursing  ought  to  be  the  chief  element;  sloppy  food,  in 
which  small  doses  of  carbolic  acid  and  oil  of  turpentine 
have  been  mixed,  should  be  given,  and  these  should  be 
followed  by  tonics  when  convalescence  sets  in.  To 
suppress  the  disease,  kill  all  affected  pigs,  and  if  neces- 
sary those  which  have  been  in  contact  with  them  ; burn 
or  bury  deeply  the  carcasses  and  litter;  and  disinfect 
everything  likely  to  have  been  contaminated  by  the  virus. 

The  contagious  diseases  of  the  dog  are  likewise  very 
few,  but  the  one  which  attracts  most  attention  is  common 
and  generally  serious.  This  is  what  is  popularly  known 
as  distemper.  It  is  peculiar  to  the  canine  species,  for 
there  is  no  evidence  that  it  can  be  conveyed  to  other 
animals,  though  the  different  families  of'  Carnivora  ap- 
pear each  to  be  liable  to  a similar  disease.  Distempe” 
is  a specific  fever  which  most  frequently  attacks  young 
dogs,  its  effects  being  primarily  developed  in  the  res- 
piratory passages,  though  the  brain,  spinal  cord,  and 
abdominal  organs  may  subsequently  be  involved. 
Highly  bred  and  pet  dogs  suffer  more  severely  than  the 
commoner  and  hardier  kinds.  It  is  a most  infectious 
disease,  and  there  is  much  evidence  to  prove  that  it 
owes  its  existence  and  prevalence  solely  to  its  virulence. 
One  attack  confers  immunity  from  another.  The  symp- 
toms are  rigors,  sneezing,  dullness,  loss  of  appetite,  de- 
sire for  warmth,  and  increased  temperature,  respiration, 
and  pulse.  The  eyes  are  red,  and  the  nose,  at  first  dry 
and  harsh,  becomes  smeared  with  the  discharge  which 
soon  begins  to  flow  from  the  nostrils.  Suppuration 
also  begins  at  the  eyes;  vision  is  more  or  less  impaired 
by  the  mucus  and  pus,  and  often  the 'cornea  becomes 
ulcerated,  and  even  perforated.  There  is  a cough, 
which  in  some  cases  is  so  violent  as  to  induce  vomiting. 
Debility  rapidly  ensues,  and  emaciation  is  soon  appar- 
ent; diarrhoea  in  the  majority  of  cases  sets  in;  the  body 
emits  an  unpleasant  odor;  ulceration  of  the  mouth  is 
noticed;  the  nostrils  become  obstructed  hv  the  discharge 


VET 


8 19* 


from  them;  convulsions  generally  come  on;  signs  of  bron- 
chitis, pneumonia,  jaundice,  or  other  complications  mani- 
fest themselves;  and  in  some  instances  there  is  a pustu- 
lar or  vesicular  eruption  on  the  skin.  In  fatal  cases  the 
animal  dies  in  a state  of  marasmus.  Many  which  re- 
cover are  affected  with  chorea  for  along  time  afterward. 
Here,  again,  good  nursing  is  all-important.  Comfort 
and  cleanliness,  with  plenty  of  fresh  air,  must  be  in- 
sured. Debility  being  the  most  serious  feature  of  the 
disease,  the  strength  should  be  maintained  or  restored 
until  the  fever  has  run  its  course.  Light  broth,  beef 
tea,  or  bread  and  milk,  or  these  alternately,  may  be 
allowed  as  diet.  Preparations  of  quinine,  given  from 
the  commencement  of  the  attack  in  a little  wine,  such 
as  sherry,  have  proved  very  beneficial.  Often  a mild 
laxative  is  required.  Complications  should  be  treated 
as  they  arise.  The  disease  being  extremely  infectious, 
precautions  should  be  adopted  with  regard  to  other 
dogs- 

The  formidable  affliction  known  as  Rabies  ( q.v .)  has 
been  treated  of  under  that  name. 

VETO.  By  this  expression  (Lat.  vetot  “I  forbid”) 
is  understood  in  public  law  the  constitutional  right  of 
the  competent  authority,  or  in  republics  of  the  whole 
people  in  their  primary  assembly,  to  protest  against  a 
legislative  or  administrative  act,  and  to  prevent  wholly, 
or  for  the  time  being,  the  validation  or  execution  of  the 
same. 

It  is  generally  stated  that  this  right  was  called  into 
existence  in  the  Roman  republic  by  the  tribunicia 
potestas , because  by  this  authority  decisions  of  the 
senate,  and  of  the  consuls  and  other  magistrates,  could 
be  declared  inoperative.  Such  a statement  must,  how- 
ever, be  qualified  by  reference  to  the  facts  that  interdico , 
interdicimus  were  the  expressions  used,  and,  in  general, 
that  in  ancient  Rome  every  holder  of  a magistracy  could 
check  a negotiation  set  on  foot  by  a colleague,  his  equal 
in  rank,  by  his  opposition  and  intervention.  This  was  a 
consequence  of  the  position  that  each  of  the  colleagues 
possessed  the  whole  power  of  the  magistracy,  and  this 
right  of  intervention  must  have  come  into  existence 
with  the  introduction  of  colleagued  authorities,  i.  e. , 
with  the  commencement  of  the  republic.  In  the  Roman 
magistracy  a twofold  power  must  be  distinguished — the 
positive  management  of  the  affairs  of  the  state  intrusted 
to  each  individual  and  the  power  of  restraining  the  acts 
of  magistrates  of  equal  or  inferior  rank  by  his  protest. 
As  the  tribuni  plebis  possessed  this  latter  negative  com- 
petence to  a great  extent,  it  is  customary  to  attribute 
to  them  the  origin  of  the  veto. 

In  the  former  kingdom  of  Poland  the  precedent  first 
set  in  1652  was  established  by  law  as  a constant  right, 
that  in  the  imperial  diet  a single  deputy  by  his  protest 
“Nie  pozwalam,”  i.e.,  “ I do  not  permit  it,”  could  in- 
validate the  decision  sanctioned  by  the  other  members. 
The  king  of  France  received  the  right  of  a suspensory 
veto  at  the  commencement  of  the  French  Revolution, 
from  the  national  assembly  sitting  at  Versailles  in  1789, 
with  regard  to  the  decrees  of  the  latter,  which  was  only 
to  be  valid  for  the  time  being  against  the  decisions  come 
to,  and  during  the  following  national  assembly,  but 
during  the  period  of  the  third  session  it  was  to  lose  its 
power  if  the  assembly  persisted  in  its  resolution.  Sim- 
ilarly the  Spanish  constitution  of  1812  prescribed  that 
the  king  might  twice  refuse  his  sanction  to  bills  laid 
twice  before  him  by  two  sessions  of  the  cortes,  but  if 
the  third  session  repeated  the  same  he  could  no  longer 
exercise  the  power  of  veto.  The  same  is  the  case  in  the 
Norwegian  constitution  of  1814. 

In  the  present  French  republic  the  president  has  no 
veto,  except  against  decisions  of  the  general  councilors 
teomeils  rtntrals  du  departements ),  just  as  the  prefect 


possesses  the  same  power  against  decisions  of  the  com 
munal  councilors.  The  king  or  queen  of  England  has 
the  right  to  withhold  sanction  from  a bill  passed  by 
both  houses  of  parliament.  This  royal  prerogative  has 
not  been  exercised  since  1692  and  may  now  be  con- 
sidered obsolete.  The  governor  of  an  English  colony 
has  the  power  of  veto  against  a bill  passed  by  the  leg- 
islative body  of  a colony,  e.g.,  Canada.  In  this  case 
the  bill  is  finally  lost,  just  as  a bill  would  be  which  had 
been  rejected  by  the  colonial  council,  or  as  a bill  passed 
by  the  English  houses  of  parliament  would  be  if  the 
crown  were  to  exert  the  prerogative  of  refusing  the 
royal  assent. 

The  constitution  of  the  United  States  contains  in 
art.  i.,  sect.  7,  $ 2,  the  following  order: 

“ Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of 
Representatives  and  the  Senate  shall,  before  it  becomes 
a law,  be  presented  to  the  president  of  the  United 
States;  if  he  approve,  he  shall  sign  it;  if  not,  he  shall 
return  it  with  his  objections  to  that  house  in  which  it  shall 
have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at  large 
on  their  journal  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If,  after 
such  reconsideration,  two-thirds  of  that  house  shall  agree 
to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objec- 
tions, to  the  other  house,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be 
reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by  two-thirds  of  that 
house,  it  shall  become  a law.  Every  order,  resolution, 
or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on 
a question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the 
president  of  the  United  States,  and,  before  the  same 
shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him,  or,  being 
disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two-thirds  of 
the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  according  to 
the  rules  and  limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a 
bill.” 

In  most  States  of  the  Union  the  governors,  in  the 
same  manner  or  to  a modified  extent,  possess  the  right 
of  protesting  against  the  laws  and  decisions  of  the  legis- 
lature. Here,  therefore,  we  have  again  a suspensory 
veto  which  is  frequently  exercised.  According  to  the 
official  report  for  1886,  the  president  of  the  United 
States  exercised  his  right  of  veto  in  that  year  115  times 
against  bills,  resolutions,  and  orders  of  the  most  differ- 
ent kinds.  Between  1840  and  1850  the  Whigs  agitated 
for  the  total  abolition  of  the  power  of  veto.  Of  late  an 
agitation  has  begun  in  the  opposite  direction. 

According  to  the  constitution  of  the  German  empire 
of  1871,  the  imperial  legislation  is  executed  by  the 
federal  council  and  imperial  diet ; the  emperor  is  not 
mentioned.  In  the  federal  council  the  simple  majority 
of  votes  decides.  But  in  the  case  of  bills  concerning 
the  army,  the  navy,  and  certain  specially  noted  taxes,  as 
well  as  in  the  case  of  decisions  concerning  the  altera- 
tion of  orders  for  the  administration,  and  arrangements 
for  the  execution  of  the  laws  of  customs  and  taxes,  the 

Proposal  of  the  federal  council  is  only  accepted  if  the 
russian  votes  are  on  the  side  of  the  majority  in  favor 
of  the  same  (art.  7,  sect.  3).  Prussia  presides  in  the 
federal  council.  The  state  of  things  is  therefore  in  fact 
as  follows : it  is  not  the  German  emperor,  but  the  same 
monarch  as  king  of  Prussia,  who  has  the  right  of  veto 
against  bills  and  decisions  of  the  federal  council,  and 
therefore  can  prevent  the  passing  of  an  imperial  law. 
The  superior  power  of  the  presidential  vote  obtains,  it 
is  true,  its  due  influence  only  in  one  legislative  body, 
but  in  reality  it  has  the  same  effect  as  the  veto  of  the 
head  of  the  empire. 

The  Swiss  federal  constitution  grants  the  president  of 
the  Confederation  no  superior  position  at  all;  neither  he 
nor  the  federal  council  possesses  the  power  of  veto 
against  laws  or  decisions  of  the  federal  assembly.  But 


VI  A — VIC 


m some  cantons,  viz.,  St.  Gall  (1831),  Basel  (1832),  and 
Lucerne  (1841),  the  veto  was  introduced  as  a right  of 
the  people.  An  attempt  to  introduce  the  veto  in  Zurich 
in  1847  failed.  Thurgau  and  Schaff hausen  accepted  it 
later.  Meanwhile  another  arrangement  has  quite  driven 
it  out  of  the  field.  For  of  late  years  the  so-called 
“ referendum  ” — properly  speaking,  direct  legislation  by 
the  people — has  been  introduced  into  most  of  the  Swiss 
cantons.  Formerly  in  all  cantons — with  the  exception 
of  the  small  mountainous  districts  of  Uri,  Schwyz, 
Unterwalden,  Zug,  Glarus,  and  Appenzell — it  was  not 
a pure  democracy,  but  a representative  constitution  that 
prevailed:  the  great  councilors  or  cantonal  councilors 
periodically  chosen  by  the  people  were  the  possessors  of 
the  sovereign  power,  and  after  deliberating  twice  passed 
the  bills  definitively.  Now  they  have  only  to  discuss 
the  bills,  which  are  printed  and  sent  to  all  voters  with 
an  explanatory  message;  then  the  people  on  a certain 
day  vote  for  the  acceptance  or  rejection  of  the  law  by 
writing  “ yes”  or  “ no  ” on  a printed  voting-paper,  which 
is  placed  in  an  urn  under  official  control.  In  some 
cantons  important  financial  resolutions  involving  large 
state  expenses  are  also  submitted  to  the  decision  of  the 
people.  In  the  revised  federal  constitution  of  1874, 
under  certain  suppositions  which  have  no  further  inter- 
est for  us  at  present,  a facultative  referendum  (i.e.,  the 
possibility  of  demanding  a plebiscite  under  exceptional 
circumstances)  has  been  introduced  for  federal  laws. 
Since  that  period  it  has  often  been  employed  and  has 
operated  like  a veto.  It  is  evident  that  by  the  compul- 
sory referendum  in  the  cantons  the  mere  veto  is  ren- 
dered superfluous. 

VIAREGGIO,  a coast  town  of  Italy,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Lucca,  thirteen  miles  by  rail  north-northwest 
from  Pisa,  has  a population  of  10,190  (commune 
12,735).  The  principal  industry  is  fishing,  and  the 
place  is  also  a favorite  sea-bathing  resort. 

VIATICUM.  This  word,  which  in  classical  Latin- 
ity  means  “ provision  for  a journey  ” (Gr.  ra  £<po8ia), 
is  often  used  by  early  Christian  writers  to  denote  the 
sacrament  of  the  Eucharist,  and  sometimes  even  is  ap- 
plied to  baptism.  Ultimately  it  came  to  be  employed 
in  a restricted  sense  to  denote  the  last  communion  given 
to  the  dying.  The  thirteenth  canon  of  the  council  of 
Nice  is  to  the  effect  that  “ none,  even  of  the  lapsed, 
shall  be  deprived  of  the  last  and  most  necessary  viaticum 
(£(po8iov),”  and  that  the  bishop,  on  examination,  is  to 
give  the  oblation  to  all  who  desire  to  partake  of  the 
Eucharist  on  the  point  of  death.  The  same  principle 
still  rules  the  canon  law,  it  being  of  course  understood 
that  penitential  discipline,  which  in  ordinary  circum- 
stances would  have  been  due  for  their  offense,  is  to  be 
undergone  by  lapsed  persons  who  have  thus  received 
the  viaticum,  in  the  event  of  recovery.  In  extreme 
•cases  it  is  lawful  to  administer  the  viaticum  to  persons 
not  fasting. 

VIATKA.  See  Vyatka. 

VIAU,  or  Viaud,  Theophile  de,  more  commonly 
called  both  in  his  own  time  and  since  simply  Theophile, 
a poet  of  unfortunate  life  and  of  great  but  misused 
powers,  was  born  at  Clairac  near  Agen  in  1590.  He 
went  to  the  capital  in  his  twentieth  year  and  ingratiated 
himself  with  at  least  one  patron,  the  ill-fated  duke  of 
Montmorency,  who  was  always  constant  to  him.  He 
also  became  acquainted  with  most  of  the  literary  men  of 
the  time,  and  in  1617  composed  and  produced  with 
success  the  tragedy  of  Pyrame  et  Thisbe.  Only  two 
years  after  the  success  of  Pyrame  he  was  accused  of 
blasphemous  and  indecent  writings,  and  was  exiled  to 
England.  Returning  in  1621  and  joining  the  Roman 
Church  (he  had  been  a Huguenot),  he  served  in  two 
campaigns.  But  he  was,  rightly  or  wrongly,  associated 


6i9j 

with  the  publication  of  the  Parnasse  Satirique , a col- 
lection of  poems  of  the  same  character  as  those  which 
had  formerly  got  him  into  trouble,  and  in  1623  was  tried, 
condemned  in  his  absence  to  death,  arrested,  and  im- 
prisoned in  the  conciergerie.  At  length  the  sentence  of 
death  which  hung  over  him  was  reduced  to  banishment, 
and  the  influence  of  Montmorency  enabled  him  to  hide 
himself  in  Paris  till  his  death  on  September  25,  1626. 

VIBORG,  or  Wiborg  (Finnish,  Viipuri),  capital  of 
a province  or  lan  of  the  same  name  in  Finland,  is  situ- 
ated at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Viborg  in  the  Gulf  of 
Finland,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saima  canal  and  on  the 
railway  which  connects  St.  Petersburg  with  Helsingfors, 
The  population  (of  province  [1898],  394.412)  con- 
sists of  three  elements — Finnish,  Swedish,  and  Russian 
(see  Finland).  There  is  a strong  Russian  garrison. 
Several  industrial  establishments,  including  a foundry 
for  the  construction  of  steam-engines,  an  iron-works,  and 
several  candle-works,  match  factories,  and  saw-mills, 
have  risen  of  late  at  Viborg  and  in  its  neighborhood; 
but  the  place  owes  its  chief  importance  to  its  export 
trade,  in  which  timber  is  the  chief  item.  The  coasting 
trade  is  also  considerable. 

VICAR,  in  ecclesiastical  law,  is,  in  the  words  of 
Blackstone,  “ a curate,  deputy,  or  vicegerent  of  the  ap- 
propriator,  and  therefore  called  vicarius  or  vicar.” 
When  a benefice  had  become  appropriated  before  the 
dissolution  of  the  religious  houses  to  a spiritual  cor- 
poration, usually  with  the  authority  of  a license  from 
the  Chancery,  the  vicar  was  the  person  appointed  by 
the  appropriators  for  the  cure  of  souls  in  the  parish. 
He  was  at  first  generally  a member  of  the  corporation. 
After  the  dissolution  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  these 
appropriated  benefices  became — as  indeed  they  had 
been  in  the  church  in  general  up  to  the  Lateran  council 
of  1179 — vested  in  lay  impropriators,  but  the  legal 
position  of  the  vicar  remained  the  same.  He  was  not 
a parson  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word  (in  fact  parson 
and  vicar  are  often  distinguished  in  old  statutes),  and 
his  stipend  was  at  the  discretion  of  the  impropriator. 
Where  he  had  the  enjoyment  of  tithes,  they  were  in 
most  cases,  apart  from  prescription,  the  small  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  great  tithes,  that  is,  such  as  the 
impropriator  found  it  most  difficult  to  collect.  There 
was,  however,  no  consistent  rule  in  the  matter:  what 
were  rectorial  tithes  in  some  parishes  might  be  vicarial 
in  others. 

VICAR  (Latin,  vicarius,  from  vicemt  i.e.,  gerens , act- 
ing in  the  place  of  another),  the  title  given  to  the  sub' 
stitute,  either  temporary  or  permanent,  employed  to 
act  in  the  place  of  certain  ecclesiastical  officials,  whether 
individuals  or  corporations;  as  of  a pope,  a bishop,  a 
chapter,  a parish  priest,  etc.  Vicars  take  different 
names  from  these  various  considerations.  Vicars  of  the 
pope  are  called  “ vicar-apostolic,”  and  they  are  generally 
invested  with  episcopal  authority  in  some  place  where 
there  is  no  canonical  bishop.  Vicars  of  a bishop  are 
either  “ vicars-general,”  who  have  the  full  authority  of 
a bishop  all  over  his  diocese,  or  “ vicars-forane  ” (Lat. 
foraneoits,  from  fories , abroad),  whose  authority  is  con- 
fined to  a particular  district,  and  generally  otherwise 
limited.  A vicar  capitular  is  a person  elected  by  the 
chapter  of  a diocese,  during  the  vacancy  of  the  see, 
to  hold  the  place  of  the  bishop,  and  to  exercise  all  the 
authority  necessary  for  the  government  of  the  diocese. 
Parochial  vicars  are  either  perpetual,  as  in  parishes,  01 
temporary,  whose  appointment  may  be  recalled  at 
pleasure,  or  after  a fixed  time.  The  name,  in  this 
sense,  is  sometimes  given,  especially  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  to  the  assistant  priest,  or,  as  he  is 
called  in  England,  the  curate  in  a parish. 

VICE-CONSUL,  a subordinate  officer  to  whom  fane* 


V I c 


6194 

tions  are  delegated  in  some  particular  part  of  a district 
already  under  the  supervision  of  a consul.  The  vice 
consul  is  appointed  by  the  president  and  confirmed  by 
the  Senate.  A consul  is  not  at  liberty  to  dismiss  a vice- 
consul  acting  within  his  district  without  the  sanction  of 
the  home  government;  but  if  of  the  opinion  that  suffi- 
cient grounds  for  the  dismissal  exist,  his  duty  is  to  give 
the  information  to  the  secretary  of  state  suspending 
the  vice-consul  in  the  meantime,  if  the  circumstances  be 
urgent;  and  in  all  cases  awaiting  the  decision  of  the 
home  government  before  taking  ulterior  steps. 

VICENTE,  Gil,  Portuguese  dramatist,  with  an 
honorable  position  also  in  the  history  of  Spanish  liter- 
ature, was  born,  most  probably  in  Lisbon,  about  the 
year  1470.  He  was  of  good  family,  and,  after  studying 
law  at  the  then  university  of  Lisbon,  became  attached 
to  the  royal  court,  in  what  capacity  is  unknown.  In 
June,  1502,  he  produced  and  took  the  leading  part  in 
the  performance  of  his  first  piece,  a kind  of  dramatic 
pastoral,  after  the  manner  of  Juan  de  la  Encina,  on 
occasion  of  the  birth  of  an  heir  to  the  throne  (John 
III).  So  successful  was  this  appearance  that  he  soon 
became  the  recognized  provider  of  such  entertainments 
at  court,  during  the  reign  both  of  Emmanuel  and  of 
John.  The  time  and  place  of  his  death  are  alike  un- 
certain ; most  probably  it  occurred  at  Evora  not  much 
later  than  1 536. 

VICENZA,  a town  of  Italy,  capital  of  the  province 
of  Vicenza,  lies  at  the  northern  base  of  the  Monti 
Berici,  on  both  sides  of  the  Bacchiglione,  immediately 
below  its  confluence  with  the  Retrone,  and  forty-two 
miles  by  rail  to  the  west  of  Venice.  The  most  im- 

Cortant  manufacture  is  that  of  silk,  which  employs  a 
irge  proportion  of  the  inhabitants.  Great  numbers  of 
mulberry  trees  are  grown  in  the  neighborhood.  Woolen 
and  linen  cloth,  leather,  earthenware,  paper,  and  articles 
In  gold  and  silver  are  also  made  in  Vicenza,  and  a con- 
iiderable  trade  in  these  articles,  as  well  as  in  grain  and 
vine,  is  carried  on.  The  population  of  the  town  in 
1901  was  44,261,  or,  including  the  suburbs,  47,694. 

VICEROY  (Lat.  vice,  in  place  of,  and  Fr.  Roi^ 
ring).  The  title  popularly  given  to  any  officer  who  is 
delegated  by  a sovereign  to  exercise  regal  authority  in  his 
name  in  a dependency,  as  the  lord  lieutenant  of  Ire- 
land,— who,  however,  is  never  officially  so  styled.  It 
was  the  proper  official  designation  of  the  governors  of 
Naples,  Spain,  and  Peru,  under  the  old  Spanish  monarchy. 

VICH,  a town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Barcelona, 
■thirty-eight  miles  by  rail  to  the  north  of  that  town,  lies 
n a small  side  valley  of  the  Ter,  about  1,500  feet  above 
sea-level.  The  industries  include  tanning  and  the  weav- 
ing of  linen  and  woolen  fabrics;  and  sausages  are  a 
specialty  of  the  place.  There  are  mines  of  copper  and 
coal  in  the  neighborhood.  The  population  within  the 
municipal  boundaries  in  1897  was  14,478. 

VICHY,  a town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Allier,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Allier,  227 
miles  by  rail  south-southeast  from  Paris  and  6 south 
of  St.  Lxermains-de  Fosses,  where  the  railway  lines  to 
Lyons  and  Nimes  separate.  The  population  in  1881 
was  8,322,  and  in  1901,  13,072. 

Vichy  owes  its  importance  to  its  mineral  waters, 
which  were  celebrated  in  the  time  of  the  Romans. 
Within  the  town  or  in  its  immediate  vicinity  there  are 
twenty-one  springs,  twelve  of  which  are  state  property 
(four  of  these  obtained  by  boring).  The  waters  of 
those  which  are  outside  the  town  are  brought  in  by 
means  of  aqueducts.  The  most  celebrated  and  fre- 
quented are  the  Grand  Grille,  L’Hopital,  the  C£lestins, 
and  Lardy  The  most  copious  of  all,  the  Puits  Carr6, 
is  reserved  for  the  baths.  All  these,  whether  cold  or 
hot  (maxi^vm  temperature,  1130  Fahr.),  are  largely 


charged  with  bicarbonate  of  soda  (see  Mineral  Wa- 
ters) ; some  also  are  chalybeate  and  tonic.  The  waters, 
which  are  limpid,  have  an  alkaline  taste  and  emit  a 
slight  odor  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  They  are  recom- 
mended in  cases  of  stomachic  and  liver  complaint,  also 
for  diabetes,  gravel,  and  gout. 

VICKSBURG,  the  county  seat  of  Warren  county, 
Miss.,  the  largest  and  most  important  city  in  the  State, 
stands  on  the  bluffs,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi, 
about  one  mile  below  the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo,  and  four 
hundred  miles  above  N e w Orleans.  The  city  is  the  center 
of  the  most  productive  cotton  territory  in  the  State,  also 
a port  of  entry  and  the  receiving  and  distributing  point 
for  the  surrounding  country.  Large  invoices  of  cotton 
are  annually  handled  here  or  shipped  by  rail  And  river 
to  the  seaboard  and  Europe.  It  is  located  on  the 
Louisville,  New  Orleans  and  Texas  and  on  the  Cincin- 
nati, New  Orleans  and  Texas  Pacific  railroads,  the 
transportation  facilities  also  including  daily  communica- 
tion by  river  with  St.  Louis,  Memphis,  Natchez  and 
New  Orleans,  and  points  on  the  Arkansas  and  White 
rivers.  Its  site  is  elevated  and  uneven,  a series  of  hills 
rising  from  the  river  bank  and  extending  some  distance 
into  the  interior.  During  the  Civil  war  they  were 
utilized  for  defensive  purposes,  and  made  the  founda- 
tions of  a line  of  almost  impregnable  fortifications — 
bomb  proofs,  etc.  After  repeated  attacks  by  the 
Union  forces,  General  Grant -besieged  the  city,  and  on 
July  4,  1863,  compelled  its  surrender  by  General  Pem- 
berton with  a force  of  several  thousand  men.  Since 
the  close  of  the  war  the  city  has  increased  in  popula- 
tion, wealth  and  importance,  a condition  of  affairs  that 
is  still  maintained. 

It  now  contains  two  national  banks  with  a total  cap- 
ital of  $250,000,  one  savings  bank  and  one  State  bank, 
three  daily  papers,  ten  churches,  four  of  which  are 
under  the  direction  of  colored  residents,  a high  school, 
four  grammar  schools,  and  some  manufacturing  enter- 
prises, including  car  works,  cotton  seed  oil  and  planing 
mills,  machine  shops  and  electric  light  works.  Street 
railways  are  operated  and  efficient  fire  and  police  de- 
partments are  provided  by  municipal  authority.  The 
population  of  the  city,  which  was  11,814  in  1880,  was 
returned  at  14,834  in  1900. 

VICKSBURG,  THE  SIEGE  of.  General  Grant,  in  his 
retrospect  of  the  campaign  which  terminated  with  the  sur- 
render of  Vicksburg,  declares  that  it  was  suggested  and 
developed  by  circumstances.  The  elections  of  1862,  he 
continues,  had  gone  against  the  prosecution  of  the  war, 
and  a forward  movement  to  a decisive  victory  was  neces- 
sary. Immediately  after  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  General 
Halleck  assumed  command  in  the  field  of  the  armies  of 
the  Ohio,  Mississippi,  and  Tennessee,  and  began  pre- 
parations for  the  capture  of  Corinth,  located  at  the 
intersection  of  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  and  Memphis  and 
Charleston  railroads,  in  Alcorn  county,  Miss.  As 
will  be  remembered,  Corinth  was  evacuated  during 
May,  1862;  Memphis  was  captured  by  the  Union  forces 
in  June  of  the  same  year,  and  one  month  later  Halleck 
was  recalled  to  Washington.  During  that  summer 
engagements  between  the  opposing  forces  were  frequent, 
including  that  at  Iuka  and  the  repulse  of  Van  Dorn  at 
Corinth.  Soon  after  the  latter  event  General  Grant, 
who,  meanwhile,  had  been  placed  in  command  of  the 
Department  of  Tennessee,  suggested  to  General  Halleck 
that  an  advance  be  made  southwardly  along  the  Missis- 
sippi river  with  Vicksburg  as  the  objective  point.  The  lo- 
cation of  that  city,  he  suggested,  then  as  now  one  of  the 
most  important  in  the  South,  together  with  its  value  to 
the  enemy  as  a receiving  and  distributing  point,  and  as 
an  obstacle  to  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi,  made  its 
capture  indispensable  to  the  destruction  of  Confederate 


VIC 


supremacy  in  the  Gulf  States,  as  also  necessary  to  the 
restoration  of  confidence  at  the  North  in  the  perpetuity 
of  the  Union.  General  Grant,  realizing  this  condition 
of  affairs,  formulated  plans  for  “ a forward  movement 
to  a decisive  victory,”  with  results  that  have  become 
part  of  the  record  of  events  in  the  nation’s  history. 

Active  operations  preliminary  to  the  Vicksburg  cam- 
paign began  on  November  2,  1862,  the  union  forces  ag- 
gregating between  thirty  and  forty  thousand  men  under 
the  command  of  General  Grant,  with  Generals  Sherman, 
McPherson  and  Hamilton  as  his  immediate  subordinates. 
The  Confederates,  forty  thousand  in  number,  were  at- 
tached to  the'command  of  Gen.  J.  C.  Pemberton  and 
encamped  at  various  points  in  Grenada,  Tallahatchie 
and  Marshall  counties,  Miss.  Holly  Springs  was  cap- 
tured on  November  13th,  and  made  the  base  of  sup- 
plies for  the  union  forces;  and  on  December  8th,  of  the 
same  year,  General  Sherman  was  ordered  to  take  com- 
mand of  the  troops  at  Memphis,  together  with  those  com- 
posing General  Curtis’  command  east  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  proceed  to  Vicksburg,  wheie,  in  conjunction  with  the 
gun-boat  fleet  stationed  in  the  vicinity  under  the  com- 
mand of  Admiral  Porter,  he  was  to  undertake  the  reduc- 
tion of  that  city.  Two  weeks  later,  or  about  December 
20th,  General  Van  Dorn  recaptured  Holly  Springs,  and 
for  more  than  a week  communication  with  the  North  was 
interrupted.  Meanwhile  General  Sherman,  with  an 
army  of  32,000  men,  arrived  at  Milliken’s  Bend,  and 
Pemberton’s  forces,  having  retreated  from  the  Talla- 
hatchie country,  were  concentrated  at  Vicksburg,  and 
throughout  the  country  immediately  surrounding.  On 
November  29th  an  attack  by  General  Sherman  upon 
Haines  Bluff,  a strongly  fortified  point  on  the  Yazoo 
river  eleven  miles  north  of  Vicksburg,  was  repulsed  with 
severe  loss  to  the  Union  -troops.  Early  in  January, 
1863,  Gen.  J.  A.  McClernand,  of  Illinois,  took  com- 
mand of  the  army  in  the  Yazoo  country,  and  Sherman, 
after  a hotly  contested  fight  continuing  three  days, 
effected  the  capture  of  Arkansas  Post,  on  the  Arkansas 
river,  and  5,000  Confederate  soldiers  with  their  arms, 
equipments,  and  stores.  Immediately  after  this  event 
General  Grant,  who  had  established  his  headquarters  at 
Memphis,  visited  General  McClernand.  After  a con- 
ference, the  latter  was  ordered  to  Young’s  Point  and 
Milliken’s  Bend,  where  General  Grant  arrived  on 
January  29th,  and,  assuming  command  of  the  Union 
forces,  commenced,  as  he  tell  us,  “ the  real  work  of 
the  campaign.”  At  that  time  a large  portion  of 
the  country  between  Vicksburg  and  Skipwith’s 
Landing  and  Vicksburg  and  Grand  Gulf  was 
more  or  less  submerged,  and  the  movements  of  the 
army  were  thereby  materially  obstructed.  In  addition 
to  this,  the  approaches  to  Vicksburg  were  strongly  forti- 
fied and  an  assault  upon  the  city  would  only  be  at- 
tended with  disastrous  consequences.  In  this  emergency, 
the  capture  of  the  place  was  a problem  apparently  im- 
possible of  solution.  To  reach  the  high  ground  to  the 
rear  of  the  city  and  prosecute  the  siege  from  that  direc- 
tion was  the  only  feasible  plan  which  suggested  itself. 
This  could  be  accomplished,  it  was  thought,  either  by 
widening  and  deepening  the  canal  cut  by  General 
Thomas  Williams  early  in  1862,  across  the  peninsula 
from  Young’s  Point  to  the  river  below ; by  marching  the 
Union  forces  down  the  west  bank  of  the  river,  crossing 
over  and  attacking  Vicksburg  from  the  south,  or  turning 
the  channel  of  the  Mississippi  at  Lake  Providence,  La. 
Work  on  the  latter  as  also  on  the  canal  was  commenced, 
but  in  March  a heavy  rise  in  the  river,  together  with  the 
insurmountable  obstructions  encountered,  caused  their 
total  abandonment,  while  the  plan  to  attack  Vicksburg 
from  the  south,  owing  to  the  high  water  which  would 
ha.w  prevented  the  proposed,  march  down  the  west 


6195 

bank  of  the  river,  was  deemed  impracticable.  An  expedi- 
tion, commanded  by  General  Ross,  to  open  a way  through 
Moon  Lake,  Yazoo  Pass,  the  Tallahatchie  and  Yalla- 
busha  to  the  Yazoo  river,  encountered  defeat  at  Fort 
Pemberton,  as  also  did  the  movement  by  way  of  Steele’s 
Bayou  to  the  same  objective  point.  Finally,  General 
Grant  determined  to  run  the  batteries  with  the  gun- 
boat fleet,  which  at  the  same  time  was  to  serve  as  an 
escort  for  the  supply  boats  and  tiansports,  to  convey 
his  army  through  the  swamps  and  bayous  west  of  the 
river  from  Milliken’s  Bend,  via  Bayou  Vidal  to  New 
Carthage  and  Hard  Times  (the  latter  being  oppositi 
Grand  Gulf),  ferry  it  across  the  river  and  inaugurate 
an  attempt  for  the  capture  or  reduction  of  Vicksburg 
Bom  that  direction.  McClernand’s  corps  reached  New 
Carthage  during  the  first  week  in  April,  and  at  10 
o’clock  in  the  night  of  April  16th  the  gun-boat  fleet,  led 
by  the  Benton , Admiral  Porter’s  flag-ship,  passed  the 
batteries  commanding  the  river  approaches  to  the  city 
without  having  sustained  serious  damage  or  loss  of  life. 
One  week  later  a fleet  of  supply  boats  successfully  per- 
formed the  same  feat.  The  army  was  next  moved  for- 
ward to  Hard  Times,  and  on  April  29th  an  attack  was 
made  upon  Grand  Gulf  by  the  gun-boats  but  without 
results.  The  same  night  Porter  ran  the  batteries  erected 
for  the  defense  of  Grand  Gulf,  while  the  troops  marched 
across  a peninsula  extending  into  the  river  from  Louisi- 
ana, and  by  daylight  the  following  morning  the  army 
and  navy  occupied  De  Shroon,  La.,  proceeding  thence 
to  Bruinsburg,  a point  on  the  river  west  of  Port  Gibson, 
Miss.  That  same  night  Sherman,  who  remained  above 
Vicksburg,  made  a feint  in  the  direction  of  Haines 
Bluff  to  divert  the  attention  of  Pemberton’s  army.  In 
this  he  was  successful,  and  on  May  1st  he  retired  from 
before  the  Bluff  in  obedience  to  orders  and  proceeded 
to  rejoin  the  main  army.  The  same  day  General  Grant 
defeated  the  Confederates  under  General  Bowen  and 
captured  Port  Gibson. 

At  this  time  General  Grant’s  army  aggregated  about 
33,000  men,  opposed  to  which  were  Confederates  ap- 
proximating 60,000  in  number,  well  equipped  and  com- 
manded by  men  of  large  experience.  On  May  3d 
Grand  Gulf  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Union  forces. 
General  Grant  originally  intended  to  make  that  place  a 
base  of  supplies,  but  on  reaching  there  he  ascertained 
that  General  Banks,  upon  whom  he  relied  for  large  re- 
enforcements, would  be  unable  to  furnish  them  for 
several  days,  and  he  accordingly  abandoned  the  idea, 
deciding  to  move  on  to  Vicksburg  with  such  supplies  as 
were  on  hand  and  “ make  the  country  furnish  the 
balance.”  On  May  6th  General  Sherman  reached 
Grand  Gulf  and  on  the  day  following  the  movement  for- 
ward was  begun.  On  the  afternoon  of  May  12th  Gen- 
eral McPherson  was  confronted  by  a considerable  Con- 
federate force  at  Raymond,  supported  by  two  batteries 
of  artillery.  In  the  battle  which  followed,  the  enemy 
was  defeated  with  a total  loss  of  820,  including  killed, 
wounded,  and  missing,  the  Union  loss  being  442.  Two 
days  later  Jackson,  the  capital  of  and  most  important 
railway  center  in  the  State,  the  command  and  defense 
of  which  Gen.  Joseph  E.  Johnston  had  assumed  on  the 
previous  evening,  was  captured  with  a loss  of  845  to  the 
enemy  and  280  to  the  Union  forces. 

Immediately  after  the  retreat  of  the  Confederates 
Johnston  ordered  Pemberton  to  make  an  attack  upon 
Sherman  at  or  near  Clinton.  Pemberton  undertook  to 
comply.  General  Grant  states  in  his  Memoirs  that  the 
force  accompanying  Pemberton  upon  this  occasion 
“numbered  in  all  about  25,000  men.”  The  opposing 
armies  met  at  Champion  Hills  on  the  morning  of  May 
16th,  and  the  fighting  continued  until  the  middle  of  the 
afternoon.  Pemberton  was  defeated  with  a total  Iomi 


V I c 


6196 

of  over  6,000.  The  Union  loss  was  410  killed,  1,844 
wounded,  and  187  missing.  The  retreating  army  at- 
tempted to  make  a stand  on  the  Big  Black,  but  was 
again  put  to  flight,  the  march  toward  Vicksburg  was 
resumed,  and  by  May  19th  that  city  was  com- 
pletely invested  by  the  victorious  army.  During  the 
ensuing  week  repeated  assaults  were  made  upon  the 
city’s  defenses,  but  without  results  advantageous  to  the 
Union  army,  and  on  May  23d  the  siege  began.  From 
this  date  reenforcements  and  supplies  were  rapidly  for- 
warded to  General  Grant,  and  by  the  middle 
of  June  his  army  numbered  71,000  men,  variously 
distributed  throughout  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
Vicksburg — his  armament  consisting  of  220  field- 
guns,  \vhi9h  were  trained  upon  the  city,  together 
with  half-a-dozen  thirty-two  pounders  and  eight 
heavy  guns  furnished  by  Admiral  Porter.  The 
siege  was  conducted  and  continued  with  uninter- 
rupted vigor,  notwithstanding  the  threatening  appear- 
ance of  Johnston’s  army  in  the  rear  of  the  Union 
forces,  and  every  means  known  to  the  art  of  war  that 
would  work  to  the  advantage  of  the  besiegers  or 
besieged  was  employed  by  the  opposing  generals  during 
the  progress  of  this,  the  closing  struggle  of  the  cam- 
paign. Mines  and  counter-mines  were  pushed  in 
all  directions,  charged  and  exploded,  but  without  the 
accomplishment  of  any  advantage  to  either  side.  On 
July  2d  the  Union  army  had  advanced  to 
within  a short  distance  of  the  enemy’s  lines,  and 
preparations  for  an  assault  to  be  made  four  days  later 
were  completed.  On  July  3d,  however,  Gen- 
eral Pemberton  communicated  with  General  Grant 
asking  for  an  armistice  “ with  the  view  to  arranging 
terms  for  the  capitulation  of  Vicksburg.”  To  this 
General  Grant  replied  that  “ the  useless  effusion  of 
blood  ” could  “ be  ended  at  any  time  by  the  uncon- 
ditional surrender  of  the  city  and  garrison.”  These 
terms  were,  after  some  further  discussion,  accepted, 
provision  being  also  made  for  paroling  the  prisoners, 
the  privates  to  retain  their  clothing,  the  field  officers 
their  clothing  and  side  arms,  and  the  field  staff  and 
cavalry  officers  one  horse  each.  At  ten  o’clock  on  the 
morning  of  July  4,  1863,  the  Confederate  soldiers' 
marched  from  behind  their  works,  and,  stacking  arms 
letired.  The  same  day  General  Logan’s 'command 
took  possession  of  the  “stronghold  of  the  great  river” 
and  the  campaign  for  its  possession  was  concluded. 
Prisoners  to  the  number  of  31,600,  with  172  cannon, 
60,000  muskets  and  other  equipments,  were  among  the 
fruits  of  the  victory.  Five  days  later  General  Gardner 
surrendered  Port  Hudson,  La.,  with  6,000  prisoners, 
51  guns,  many  small  arms  and  other  stores,  and  the 
war  for  the  possession  of  the  Mississippi  was  at  an  end. 
The  Union  loss  during  the  campaign  was  estimated  in 
round  numbers  at  8,900;  that  of  the  Confederates  at 
nearly  60,000. 

VICO,  Giovan  Battista,  Italian  jurist  and  phi- 
losopher, was  the  son  of  Antonio  Vico,  a small  book- 
seller, and  was  born  at  Naples  on  June  23,  1668.  At 
the  age  of  seven  he  had  a serious  fall  and  severely 
injured  his  head,  which  produced  in  him  “ the  melan- 
choly and  sour  temper  suited  to  men  of  talent.” 
Afterward  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  scholastic 
philosophy. 

In  1708  he  published  his  De  ratione  studiorum,  in 
1710  De  antiquissima  Italorum  sapientia,  in  1720  De 
universi  juris  uno principio  et fine  uno , and  in  1721  De 
constant ia  jurisprudents.  On  the  strength  of  these 
works  he  offered  himself  as  a candidate  for  the  univer- 
sity chair  of  jurisprudence  then  vacant,  with  a yearly 
stipend  of  600  ducats.  But  he  was  rejected  by  the 
examiners,  although  all  his  competitors  have  remained 


unknown  to  fame.  Without  any  sense  of  discourage* 
ment  he  returned  to  his  favorite  studies,  and  in  1725 
published  the  first  edition  of  the  work  that  forms  tbs 
basis  of  his  renown,  Pnncipii  d'una  Scienza  Nuova, 
Jn  1730  he  produced  a second  edition  of  the  Scienza 
Nuova , so  much  altered  in  style  and  with  so  many  sub 
stantial  additions  that  it  was  practically  a new  work 
In  1735  Charles  III.  of  Naples  marked  his  recognition 
of  Vico’s  merits  by  appointing  him  historiographer- 
royal,  with  a yearly  stipend  of  100  ducats.  But  tin 
philosopher  derived  little  enjoyment  from  his  new  post. 
Attacked  by  a cruel  malady,  mind  and  memory  failed. 
But  during  frequent  intervals  of  lucidity  he  resumed  his 
pen  and  made  new  corrections  in  his  great  work,  of 
which  a third  edition  appeared  in  1744,  piefaced  by  a 
letter  of  dedication  to  Cardinal  Trojano  Acquaviva. 
Vico  expired  on  January  20th  of  the  same  >ear. 

VICTOR  I.,  St.,  bishop  of  Rome  from  about  190  to 
202,  succeeded  Eleutherus  and  was  followed  by  Zephy- 
rinus.  His  name  is  chiefly  associated  with  a display  of 
intolerance  toward  the  bishops  of  Asia  Minor  for  the 
view  they  took  in  the  Quartodeciman  controversy;  he 
also  excommunicated  Theodotus  of  Byzantium  on  ac- 
count of  his  doctrine  as  to  the  Person  of  Christ. 

VICTOR  II.,  one  of  the  series  of  German  popes  and 
the  successor  of  Leo  IX.,  was  consecrated  in  St.  Peter’s, 
Rome,  on  April  13,  1055.  At  the  instance  of  Gebhard, 
bishop  of  Ratisbon,  uncle  of  the  emperor  Henry  III., 
he  had  been  appointed  while  still  a young  man  to  the 
see  of  Eichstadt;  in  this  position  his  great  talents  soon  en- 
abled him  to  render  important  services  to  Henry,  whose 
chief  adviser  he  ultimately  became.  As  guardian  of 
Henry’s  infant  son,  and  adviser  of  the  empress  Agnes, 
Victor  now  wielded  enormous  power,  which  he  began 
to  use  with  much  tact  for  the  maintenance  of  peace 
throughout  the  empire  and  for  strengthening  the  papacy 
against  the  aggressions  of  the  barons.  He  died  shortly 
after  his  return  to  Italy,  at  Arezzo,  on  July  28,  1057. 
Plis  successor  was  Stephen  IX.  (Frederick  of  Lorraine). 

VICTOR  III.,  pope  from  May  24,  1086,  to  Septem- 
ber 16,  1087,  was  the  successor  of  Pope  Gregory  VII. 
Son  of  Landolfo  V. , prince  of  Benevento,  he  was  born 
in  1027;  in  his  thirtieth  year  he  entered  the  cloister  at 
Monte  C'assino,  changing  his  name  of  Dauferius  into 
Desiderius.  He  soon  became  abbot  of  the  monastery, 
and  in  1059  Nicolas  IT.  raised  him  to  the  cardinalate. 
He  was  elected  Pope,  May  24,  1086,  but  showed  genuine 
reluctance  to  accept  the  embarrassing  honor  thu^  thrust 
upon  him,  and  after  his  tardy  consecration,  which  did 
not  take  place  till  May  9,  1087,  he  withdrew  at  once  to 
Monte  Cassino,  where  he  died  September  16,  1087. 
His  successor  was  Urban  II. 

VICTOR  IV.  Two  antipopes  have  claimed  this 
name: — (1)  Cardinal  Gregorio  Conti,  who  was  chosen 
by  a party  in  succession  to  the  antipope  Anacletus  II. 
in  1138,  but  through  the  influence  of  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux  was  induced  two  months  afterward  to  make  his 
submission  to  Innocent  II.;  and  (2)  Cardinal  Octavianus, 
the  Ghibelline  antipope,  elected  in  1159,  and  counte- 
nanced by  the  emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa.  He  died 
at  Lucca  April  20,  1164. 

VICTOR,  Claude  Perrin,  duke  of  Belluno,  mar- 
shal of  France,  was  born  at  La  Marche  (Vosges)  on 
December  7,  1764.  In  1781  he  entered  the  army  as  a 
common  soldier,  and  after  ten  years’  service  he  received 
his  discharge  and  settled  at  Valence.  Soon  afterward 
he  joined  the  local  volunteers  and  in  less  than  a year 
had  risen  to  the  command  of  a battalion.  He  greatly 
distinguished  himself  on  the  Italian  frontier,  and  for  his 
bravery  at  the  siege  of  Toulon  in  1793  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  afterward  served  for 
some  time  with  the  army  of  the  eastern  Pyrenees  ’-A 


VIC 


m the  Italian  campaign  of  1795-97  he  so  acquitted  him- 
self at  Mondovi,  Roveredo,  Porto  Legnago,  and  many 
other  places,  that  he  was  promoted  to  be  general  of  a 
division.  After  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio  he  for 
some  time  commanded  the  forces  in  the  department  of 
La  Vendee;  but  in  1798  he  was  again  in  Italy  and  in 
the  battle  of  Marengo  especially  took  a very  important 
part,  In  1803  he  became  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Batavian  army,  and  after  the  peace  of  Amiens  he  acted 
for  eighteen  months  as  French  plenipotentiary  at  Copen- 
hagen. On  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  with  Prussia  he 
joined  the  fifth  army  corps  as  chief  of  the  general  staff; 
at  the  battle  of  Friedland  he  commanded  the  first  corps 
in  such  a manner  that  Napoleon  made  him  marshal  of 
the  empire  on  the  field.  After  the  peace  of  Tilsit  he 
became  governor  of  Prussia,  and  in  1808  he  was  created 
duke  of  Belluno.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  wars 
of  1813-14,  till  in  February  of  the  latter  year  he  had 
the  misfortune  to  arrive  too  late  at  Montereau-sur- 
Yonne.  The  result  was  a scene  of  violent  recrimination 
and  his  deprivation  by  the  emperor,  who  transferred  his 
command  to  Gerard.  Thus  wounded  in  his  amour 
propre , Victor  now  transferred  his  allegiance  to  the 
Bourbon  dynasty,  and  in  December,  1814,  received 
from  Louis  XVIII.  the  command  of  the  second  military 
division.  In  1815  he  accompanied  the  king  to  Ghent, 
and  on  the  second  restoration  he  was  made  a peer  of 
France  and  major-general  of  the  royal  guard.  In  1821 
he  was  appointed  war  minister  and  held  this  office  for 
two  years.  After  the  revolution  of  1830  he  retired  alto- 
gether into  private  life.  His  death  took  place  at  Paris 
on  March  3,  1841. 

VICTOR,  Sextus  Aurelius.  A person  of  this 
name  was  made  prefect  of  Pannonia  by  Julian  about 
360  (Amm.  Marc.  xxi.  10),  and  may  be  identical  with 
the  man  who  was  consul  along  with  Valentinian  in  373 
and  with  the  prefect  of  the  city  of  the  same  name  who 
is  mentioned  in  an  inscription  of  the  time  of  Theodo- 
sius. Four  small  historical  works  have  been  ascribed 
to  him  on  more  or  less  doubtful  grounds — (1)  Origo 
Gentis  Romani , (2)  De  Viribus  Illustribus  Roma’,  (3) 
De  Ccesaribusy  (4)  De  Vita  et  Moribus  Tmperatorum 
Romanorum  excerpt  a ex  Libris  Sex.  A ur.  Victoris.  The 
four  have  generally  been  published  together  under  the 
name  Historia  Rornana , but  the  fourth  piece  is  a re- 
chauffe of  the  third;  ar*d,  though  all  are  late,  there  is  no 
sufficient  reason  to  think  that  they  are  by  one  hand. 

VICTOR  AMADEUS,  the  name  of  three  dukes  of 
Savoy.  See  Savoy. 

VICTOR  EMMANUEL,  king  of  Italy,  born  at 
Turin  on  March  14,  1820,  was  the  son  of  Charles 
Albert,  prince  of  Carignano,  who  in  1831  became 
king  of  Sardinia.  After  the  Austrian  occupation  of 
Ferrara  in  1847  he  was  among  those  who  pressed  for 
an  immediate  declaration  of  war;  and,  when  a year 
later  hostilities  broke  out,  he  threw  himself  into  the 
struggle  heart  and  soul.  At  Goito,  where  he  was 
wounded,  his  reckless  bravery  turned  the  tide  of  battle, 
and  in  every  encounter  he  was  to  be  seen  in  the  thickest 
of  the  fight.  During  the  armistice  that  followed  the 
defeat  of  Custozza  (July  25th)  he  was  engaged  in  the 
reorganization  of  the  Sardinian  army.  The  abdication 
of  his  father  on  the  evening  of  the  battle  of  Novara 
(March  23,  1849)  made  him  king  of  a ruined  state. 
From  Radetzky  he  obtained  some  mitigation  of  the 
hard  terms  at  first  demanded  by  the  conqueror,  espe- 
cially in  the  withdrawal  of  the  Austrian  claim  that  the 
Sardinian  constitution  should  be  abolished.  It  was  the 
maintenance  of  this  constitution,  at  a time  when  re- 
action swept  away  every  other  vestige  of  representative 
government  in  Italy,  that  gained  for  Victor  Emmanuel 
the  title  of  the  honest  king  ( re  palantuomo 1 and  won 


6197 

for  him  the  confidence  of  the  Italian  nation,  and  ulti- 
mately the  Italian  crown.  In  the  bitter  days  that  fol- 
lowed Novara,  the  king,  culumniated,  misunderstood, 
and  charged  like  his  father  with  treachery,  showed  a 
noble  forbearance  and  a self-mastery  that  could  hardly 
have  been  expected  from  his  passionate,  uncultured 
nature.  Though  in  D’Azeglio  and  Balbo  he  had  excel- 
lent friends  and  advisers,  it  was  not  till  1852  that  the 
accession  of  Cavour  (q.v.)  to  power  gave  him  a man  of 
great  political  genius  for  his  guide.  From  that  time 
the  career  of  Victor  Emmanuel  became  what  Cavour 
made  it. 

At  the  end  of  1855,  while  the  allied  troops  were  still 
in  the  East,  Victor  Emmanuel  visited  Paris  and  Lon- 
don. In  1859  Cavour’s  object  was  attained  and  France 
united  with  Sardinia  against  Austria,  the  king,  sorely 
against  his  will,  giving  his  daughter  Clotilde  in  marriage 
to  Jerome  Napoleon.  Victor  Emmanuel  met  Napoleon 
III.  at  Genoa  on  May  13th,  and  on  the  30th  fought  at 
the  head  of  a body  of  Sardinians  and  Zouaves  at  the 
battle  of  Palestro.  After  the  victory  of  Magenta  (June 
4th;  the  allied  monarchs  entered  Milan,  where  Victor 
Emmanuel  for  the  first  time  saw  Garibaldi.  In  the 
crowning  victory  of  June  24th,  while  the  French  were 
engaged  at  Solferino,  the  king  with  his  Italians  carried 
the  village  of  San  Martino.  The  peace  of  Villafranca 
left  Venetia  and  the  Quadrilateral  to  Austria.  The  ex- 
traordinary events  of  the  next  year  united  all  Italy,  with 
the  exception  of  Rome  and  of  what  still  remained  to 
Austria,  under  the  patriot  king,  who  was  now  excom- 
municated by  the  pope  (see  Italy).  A scene  of  great 
violence  had  passed  between  the  king  and  Cavour  when 
the  peace  of  Villafranca  was  accepted  by  the  former; 
but  their  old  friendship  was  soon  restored,  and  the 
death  of  Cavour  in  1861  plunged  Victor  Emmanuel  in 
the  deepest  grief.  The  Prussian  alliance  of  1866  incor- 
porated Venetia  with  Italy.  The  personal  desire  of  the 
king  to  assist  Napoleon  III.  in  the  war  of  1870  gave 
way  before  the  wiser  counsels  of  his  ministers;  and  the 
entry  of  his  troops  into  Rome,  after  the  disasters  of  the 
French  army  and  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  garrison, 
completed  Victor  Emmanuel’s  task  and  the  union  of 
Italy.  He  lived  for  eight  years  more,  reigning  always 
as  a constitutional  king,  and  preserving  amid  the  splen- 
dors of  a great  court  the  simple  tastes  of  his  early  life. 
He  died  at  Rome  of  a fever  on  January  9,  1878,  and 
lies  entombed  in  the  Pantheon. 

VICTORIA,  a British  colony  occupying  the  south- 
eastern corner  of  Australia  ; its  western  boundary  is  the 
141st  meridian  ; on  the  east  it  runs  out  to  a point  at 
Cape  Howe,  in  1500  E.  longitude,  being  thus  rudely 
triangular  in  shape;  the  river  Murray  constitutes  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  northern  boundary,  its  most  northerly 
point  being  in  340  S.  latitude  ; the  southern  boundary 
is  the  coast-line  of  the  Southern  Ocean  and  of  Bass 
Strait ; the  most  southerly  point  is  Wilson’s  Promontory 
in  390  S.  latitude.  The  greatest  length  east  and  west 
is  about  480  miles  ; the  greatest  width,  in  the  west,  is 
about  250  miles.  The  area  is  officially  stated  to  be 
87,884  square  miles. 

Victoria  enjoys  an  exceptionally  fine  climate.  Roughly 
speaking,  about  one-half  of  the  days  in  the  year  present 
a bright,  cloudless  sky,  with  a bracing  and  dry  atmos- 
phere, pleasantly  warm  but  not  relaxing.  These  days 
are  mainly  in  the  autumn  and  spring.  During  the  last 
twenty  years  there  have  been  on  an  average  13 1 days 
annually  on  which  rain  has  fallen  more  or  less  (chiefly 
in  winter),  but  heavy  rains  do  not  exceed  thirty  in  the 
year.  The  average  yearly  rainfall  is  about  26  inches. 
The  disagreeable  feature  of  the  Victorian  climate  is  the 
occurrence  of  north  winds,  which  blow  on  an  average 
about  sixty  days  in  the  yea'-  In  winter  thev  are  r-old 


V I c 


6198 

and  dry,  and  have  a slightly  depressing  effect.  But  in 
summer  they  are  hot  and  dry,  and  generally  bring  with 
!hem  disagreeable  clouds  of  dust.  The  winds  them- 
selves blow  for  periods  of  two  or  three  days  at  a time, 
and  if  the  summer  has  six  or  eight  such  periods  it  be- 
comes relaxing  and  produces  languor.  These  winds 
cease  with  extraordinary  suddenness,  being  replaced  in 
a minute  or  two  by  a cool  and  bracing  breeze  from  the 
south.  The  temperature  often  falls  40°  or  500  Fahr. 
in  an  hour.  The  maximum  temperature  occurs  in  F eb- 
ruary,  averaging  105. 6°  Fahr.  in.  the  shade.  The  mini- 
mum is  in  July,  wnen  the  thermometer  registers  as  low 
as  300.  The  mean  for  the  whole  year  is  5 7. 30.  The 
temperature  never  falls  below  freezing-point,  except  for 
an  hour  or  two  before  sunrise  in  the  coldest  month. 
Snow  has  twice  been  known  to  fall  in  Melbourne  for  a 
few  minutes,  in  1849  and  1882.  It  is  common  enough, 
however,  on  the  plateau ; Ballarat,  which  is  over  1,000 
feet  high,  always  has  a few  snow  storms,  and  the  roads 
to  Omeo  among  the  Australian  Alps  lie  under  several 
feet  of  snow  in  the  winter.  The  general  healthiness  of 
the  climate  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  average  death- 
rate  for  the  last  five  years  has  been  only  14.37  Per 
thousand  of  the  population.  The  rainfall  of  the  colony 
varies  considerably.  On  the  table-land  it  averages  about 
forty  inches,  at  Melbourne  25.44  inches,  along  the 
Murray  basin  twenty  inches,  and  in  the  “ Wimmera”  or 
north-west  corner  not  more  than  fifteen  inches. 

During  1886  665,196  ounces  of  gold  were  obtained  of 
the  value  of  $13,000,000.  The  total  yield  from  1851  to 
1886  was  54,393,182  ounces,  of  the  value  of  about 
$ 1 , 000 , 000 , 000.  The  number  of  miners  is  about  26,000, 
of  whom  nearly  5,000  are  Chinese.  These  devote 
themselves  in  nearly  equal  proportions  to  alluvial  min- 
ing and  quartz  mining.  But  little  is  now  done  in  the 
way  of  merely  surface  alluvial  digging.  The  shafts  are 
carried  down  to  the  beds  of  ancient  rivers,  where  the 
layers  of  what  are  called  “ wash  dirt  ” vary  in  thickness 
from  one  to  twelve  feet,  yielding  from  a h|df  to  three 
ounces  per  cubic  yard.  Quartz  mining  is  rapidly  in- 
creasing in  extent,  though  the  total  quantity  of  gold 
obtained  is  steadily  decreasing  and  the  expense  of  get- 
ting it  is  increasing,  for  the  shafts  are  becoming  of 
excessive  depth.  One  at  Stawell  penetrates  2,409  feet 
below  the  surface;  two  others  exeeed  2,000;  and  there 
are  in  all  seventeen  shafts  each  over  1,000  feet  in 
depth.  The  average  yield  of  this  quartz  has  been  of 
late  about  ten  pennyweights  to  the  ton.  About  one- 
third  of  the  area  of  Victoria  is  supposed  to  be  aurifer- 
ous, but  only  1,300  square  miles  have  as  yet  been 
worked.  Besides  gold,  Victoria  produces  a little  tin, 
copper,  and  antimony,  and,  in  still  smaller  quantities, 
zinc,  lead,  cobalt,  bismuth,  and  manganese.  Iron  ore 
is  being  smelted,  but  the  industry  has  not  yet  reached 
a paying  condition.  Great  efforts  are  being  made  to 
discover  coalfields  or  to  open  up  those  that  are  known 
to  exist.  The  total  value  of  the  gold  raised  in  the 
colony  up  to  date  (1900)  is  estimated  at  $1,285,000,000; 
the  number  of  miners  at  the  gold-fields  in  1900 
was  29,035. 

The  native  trees  belong  chiefly  to  the  Myrtacecp , being 
largely  composed  of  Eucalypti  or  gum  trees.  There 
are  several  hundred  species,  the  most  notable  being 
Eucalyptus  amygdalina , a tree  with  tall  white  stem, 
'mooth  as  a marble  column,  and  without  branches  for 
sixty  or  seventy  feet  from  the  ground.  It  is  singularly 
beautiful  when  seen  in  groves,  for  these  h?*’®  all  the 
appearance  of  lofty  pillared  cathedrals.  These  trees  are 
among  the  tallest  in  the  world,  averaging  in  some  dis- 
tricts about  300  feet.  The  longest  ever  measured  was 
found  prostrate  on  the  Black  Spur;  it  measured  470 
feet  in  length;  it  was  81  feet  in  girth  near  the  root. 


Eucalyptnts  globulus  or  blue  gum  has  broad  green 
leaves,  which  yield  the  eucalyptus  oil  of  the  pharma- 
copoeia. Eucalyptus  rostrata  is  extensively  used  in  the 
colony  as  a timber,  being  popularly  known  as  red  gum 
or  hard  wood.  It  is  quite  unaffected  by  weather,  and 
almost  indestruc.  'ble  when  used  as  piles  for  piers  or 
wharves.  Smaller  spec!  s of  eucalyptus  form  the  com- 
mon “bush.”  Melaleucas,  also  of  Myrtacea  kind,  are 
prominent  objects  along  all  the  coasts,  where  they  grow 
densely  on  the  sandhills,  forming  “ ti-tree  ” scrub. 
Eucalyptus  dumosa  is  a species  which  grows  only  six  to 
twelve  feet  high,  but  with  a straight  stem;  the  trees 
grow  so  close  together  that  it  is  difficult  to  penetrate 
the  scrub  formed  by  them.  Eleven  and  a half  million 
acres  of  the  Wimmera  district  are  covered  with  this 
“mallee  scrub,”  as  it  is  called. 

The  indigenous  animals  belong  almost  wholly  to  the 
Marsupialia.  Kangaroos  are  tolerably  abundant  on  the 
grassy  plains,  but  the  process  of  settlement  is  causing  their 
extermination.  A smaller  species  of  almost  identical 
appearance  called  the  wallaby  is  still  numerous  in  the 
forest  lands.  Kangaroo  rats,  opossums,  wombats, 
native  bears,  bandicoots,  and  native  cats  all  belong  to 
the  same  class.  The  wombat  forms  extensive  burrows 
in  some  districts.  The  native  bear  is  afrugivorous  little 
animal,  and  very  harmless.  Bats  are  numerous,  the 
largest  species  being  the  flying  fox,  very  abundant  in 
some  districts.  Eagles,  hawks,  turkeys,  pigeons,  ducks, 
quail,  snipe,  and  plover  are  common;  but  the  charac- 
teristic denizens  of  the  forest  are  vast  flocks  of  parrots, 
parakeets,  and  cockatoos,  with  sulphur-colored  or  crim- 
son crests.  The  laughing  jackass  (giant  kingfisher)  is 
heard  in  all  the  country  parts,  and  magpies  are  nu- 
merous everywhere.  Snakes  are  numerous;  but  less 
than  one-fourth  of  the  species  are  venomous,  and  they 
are  all  very  shy.  The  deaths  from  snake-bite  do  not 
average  two  per  annum.  A great  change  is  rapidly 
taking  place  in  the  fauna  of  the  country,  owing  to  cul- 
tivation and  acclimatization.  Dingoes  have  nearly  dis- 
appeared, and  rabbits,  which  were  introduced  only  a 
few  years  ago,  now  abound  in  such  numbers  as  to  be  a 
positive  nuisance.  Deer  are  also  rapidly  becoming  nu- 
merous. Sparrows  and  swallows  are  as  common  as  in 
England.  The  trout,  which  has  also  been  acclimatized, 
is  taking  full  possession  of  some  of  the  streams. 

Victorian  sheep  (12,700,000)  give  an  exceptionally 
large  yield  of  wool,  and  their  fleeces  obtain  a higher 
price  than  any  other  grown  in  Australia.  The  colony 
had  1,783,000  cattle,  437,000  horses,  and  about  283,- 
000  pigs, 'in  1899. 

There  were  (1901)  39,831  cultivated  holdings  in  colony, 
containing  over  2,417,157  acres  of  land  actually  culti- 
vated; in  almost  all  farms  there  is  much  land  that  is  not 
actually  tilled.  Every  year,  however,  a larger  and  larger 
proportion  is  brought  under  the  plow.  The  average 
produce  per  acre  of  wheat  crop  was  1 1 ]/2  bushels;  the 
average  per  acre  of  oats,  23  bushels;  of  barley,  22 
bushels;  of  potatoes,  tons.  There  are  10,300  acres 
of  vineyards,  producing  986,041  gallons  of  wine,  and 
this  industry  is  fast  increasing.  The  hop  plantations  in 
1887  yielded  5,023  hundredweights  of  hops.  The  fol- 
lowing crops  are  being  more  or  less  experimented  with: 
Arrowroot,  beetroot,  flax,  mangel  wurzel,  mustard, 
olives,  poppies,  oranges,  and  some  other  fruits.  In  the 
same  year  there  were  produced  12,008  hundredweights 
of  tobacco.  Almost  every  fruit  is  grown  more  or  less, 
but  the  banana  and  orange  cannot  be  considered  com- 
mercially successful.  Apples,  pears,  peaches,  grapes, 
loquats,  mulberries,  plums,  gooseberries,  strawberries, 
melons,  apricots,  raspberries,  cherries,  currants,  quinces, 
almonds,  figs,  walnuts,  all  grow  well  and  are  in  common 
use.  Bananas,  pine-apples,  oranges  and  passion  fruit 


VIC  — VID 


lie  cheap,  but  they  come  from  the  northern  colonies. 
Tomatoes  are  plentiful  and  cheap,  being  easily  grown  in 
all  parts  of  the  colony. 

The  central  half  of  Victoria  is  well  supplied  with  a 
close  network  of  railways,  while  several  long  lines 
branch  out  into  the  less  settled  districts  east  and  west. 
A line  parallel  to  the  coast,  joining  Melbourne  to 
Bairnsdale,  is  sufficient  for  the  Gippsland  traffic.  From 
Sale  a number  of  short  lines  are  being  constructed  for 
the  convenience  of  the  surrounding  district.  To  the  west 
there  is  a line  270  miles  long  joining  Melbourne  to 
Portland,  giving  off  short  branches  on  both  sides. 
Three  lines  are  being  steadily  pushed  forward  to  the 
northwest  into  the  Wimmera  district.  In  1889  there 
was  a total  length  of  1,880  miles  open  for  traffic. 

The  well-settled  parts  of  the  colony  are  excellently 
supplied  with  macadamized  roads,  which  are  constructed 
and  repaired  by  shire  councils,  whose  chief  function  it  is 
to  raise  revenues,  each  from  its  own  district,  to  support 
the  roads  in  that  district.  The  less  settled  districts  have 
tracks  on  which  riding  or  driving  is  excellent  after  fine 
weather,  but  not  after  much  rain. 

Victoria  has  420  telegraph  stations,  connected  by 
4,096  miles  of  line.  Melbourne  is  connected  with  every 
town  or  borough  in  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New  Zea- 
land. It  is  also  joined  with  London,  the  length  of  line 
being  13,695  miles.  The  shortest  recorded  time  for  the 
transmission  of  a message  along  this  line  is  thirty-two 
minutes;  the  average  time  is  about  three  hours.  There 
are  about  1,300  telephone  wires  in  use  in  the  colony, 
chiefly  in  Melbourne. 

Victoria  enjoys  almost  absolute  autonomy.  The 
practical  government  of  the  country  rests  with  the  par- 
liament, consisting  of  two  houses.  The  legislative 
council  contains  forty- two  members  elected  by  fourteen 
electoral  provinces.  Each  member  holds  his  seat  for 
six  years,  a third  of  them  retiring  every  two  years  but 
being  eligible  for  reelection.  To  be  eligible  for  elec- 
tion a candidate  must  be  over  thirty  years  of  age  and 
possessed  of  freehold  property  to  the  extent  of  $500 
per  annum.  The  electoral  body  consists  of  all  citizens 
over  twenty-one  years  of  age,  either  possessing  prop- 
erty of  the  yearly  value  of  $50  or  paying  rates  on  prop- 
erty of  not  less  than  $125  annual  value.  To  these  are 
added  all  graduates  of  universities  and  all  members  of 
the  learned  professions.  Members  of  the  legislative 
council  receive  no  payment.  They  form  a sort  of  court 
of  revision  of  the  work  done  in  the  lower  house.  The 
legislative  assembly  consists  of  eighty-six  members 
elected  by  fifty-five  electoral  districts ; they  are  paid  at 
the  rate  of  $1,500  a year.  A general  election  must  take 
lace  every  three  years.  In  all  other  respects  it  resem- 
les  very  closely  the  British  House  of  Commons. 
Every  man  of  the  full  age  of  twenty-one  years  who  has 
taken  out  his  elector’s  right,  has  a vote  for  the  election 
of  a member  for  the  district  in  which  he  resides.  All 
voting  is  by  ballot.  The  governor  is  appointed  by  Lhe 
sovereign  of  the  British  empire.  He  has  the  power  of 
assenting  to  or  rejecting  bills  sent  up  to  him  from  par- 
liament, except  eight  classes,  which  he  is  bound  to  re- 
fer to  the  sovereign,  who  can  disallow  all  bills  by  sig- 
nifying disapproval  of  them  within  two  years  of  their 
being  passed  by  the  legislature.  The  governor  is  as- 
sisted by  an  executive  council  consisting  of  the  minis- 
ters and  ex-ministers  of  the  crown.  The  cabinet 
consists  of  treasurer,  chief  secretary,  minister  of  public 
instruction,  commissioner  of  trade  and  customs,  minister 
of  mines,  postmaster-general,  minister  of  lands,  min- 
ister of  public  works,  minister  of  agriculture,  solicitor- 
general,  attorney-general,  and  minister  of  defense.  The 
civil  service  of  Victoria  is  under  the  control  of  three 
commissioners,  who  are  appointed  for  a term  of  three 


6199 

years  by  government,  but  are  then  wholly  independent. 
Their  business  is  to  make  .all  appointments,  determine 
all  promotions,  and  watch  over  the  administration  of 
the  Civil  Service  Act.  Their  existence  has  effectually 
abolished  the  evils  of  political  patronage. 

V ictoria  possesses  a most  efficiently  organized  system  of 
state  schools,  where  the  education  given  is  free,  secu- 
lar, and  compulsory. 

The  population  in  1901  was  1,200,914  (603,901  males 
and  597,013  females),  of  whom  about  one-half  were 
born  in  the  colony  and  rather  less  than  a third  in  the 
British  Isles.  The  estimated  population  at  the  end  o! 
1889  was  1,200,000.  In  religion  a third  are  Episco- 
palians, a fourth  Catholics,  a sixth  Presbyterians,  and 
an  eighth  Wesleyans. 

VICTORIA,  capital  of  British  Columbia  and  the 
principal  town  of  Vancouver  Island,  in  the  southeast 
corner  of  which  it  is  finely  situated  (48°  25'  20"  N. 
latitude,  1230  22'  24"  W.  longitude),  on  a small  arm  of 
the  sea,  its  harbor,  however,  only  admitting  vessels 
drawing  eighteen  feet.  Till  1858  Victoria  was  a post  of 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  The  city  was  ir  :orporated 
in  1862;  and,  according  to  the  census  of  1901,  the 
population  was  20,816,  including  Chinese  and  Indians, 
spread  over  an  area  of  four  square  miles. 

VICTORIA,  a city  of  Brazil,  capital  of  trie  province 
of  Espirito  Santo,  270  miles  northeast  from  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  in  200  18'  S.  latitude  and  400  20'  W.  longitude. 
Victoria,  which  has  a white,  negro,  and  mixed  popu* 
lation  (1899)  of  13,500,  stands  on  the  west  side  of  an 
island  at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Espirito  Santo,  the 
entrance  of  which  is  defended  by  five  forts,  and  also 
rendered  difficult  of  access  by  several  other  islets  and 
reefs  rising  little  above  high-water  mark.  The  town  is 
regularly  laid  out  and  well-built,  with  some  good  streets, 
two  or  three  fine  churches,  a substantial  governor’s 
residence,  and  a few  other  conspicuous  buildings.  The 
surrounding  district  grows  much  rice,  sugar,  and  manioc, 
which,  with  other  produce,  are  here  shipped,  chiefly  for 
the  neighboring  coast  towns. 

VICTORIA,  the  capital  of  Victoria  county,  Texas,  is 
situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Guadalupe  river,  a short 
distance  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  way  of  Lavaca 
Bay,  37  miles  from  Indianola  and  100  miles  east  of 
San  Anotnio.  The  surrounding  country  is  highly  fer- 
tile, producing  large  crops  of  cereals,  cotton,  sugar  cane 
etc. , and  adding  largely  to  the  business  development  of 
the  place.  Victoria  is  also  the  principal  shipping  point 
for  vast  herds  of  cattle,  raised  in  that  part  of  Texas, 
the  river  being  navigable  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  and 
the  railway  accommodations  being  so  complete  as  to 
afford  superior  inducements  for  prompt  service  and 
rapid  transit.  Victoria,  as  a consequence,  is  growing 
rapidly  and  is  one  of  the  many  promising  towns  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  State.  It  contains  one  national 
and  one  private  bank  with  a total  cash  capital  of  $375,- 
000,  two  weekly  newspapers,  between  seven  and  ten 
churches,  a convent,  a well-organized  school  system, 
three  hotels,  two  lumber  mills,  one  or  more  flour-mills, 
many  stores,  also  suitable  buildings  for  the  transaction 
of  business  incident  to  its  position  as  county  seat.  The 
population,  which  was  stated  at  2,534  in  1880,  was,  in 
1900,  estimated  at  4,010. 

VIDA,  Marco  Girolamo,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
Latin  poets  and  scholars  of  the  age  of  Leo  X.,  was  borr 
at  Cremona,  shortly  before  the  year  1490.  During  his 
early  manhood  he  acquired  considerable  fame  by  the 
composition  of  two  didactic  poems  in  the  Latin  tongue, 
on  the  Game  of  Chess  and  on  the  Silkworm.  This  rep- 
utation induced  him  to  seek  the  papal  court  in  Rome, 
which  was  rapidly  becoming  the  headquarters  of  polite 
learning,  the  place  where  students  might  expect  advance 


6200 


V I D — VIE 


ment  through  their  literary  talents.  Vida  reached  Rome 
in  the  last  years  of  the  pontificate  of  Julius  II.  Leo.  X., 
on  succeeding  to  the  papal  chair  (1513),  treated  him 
with  marked  favor,  bestowed  on  him  the  priory  of  St. 
Sylvester  at  Frascati,  and  bade  him  compose  a heroic 
Latin  poem  on  the  life  of  Christ.  Such  was  the  origin 
of  the  Christiad , Vida’s  most  celebrated,  if  not  his  best, 
performance.  It  did  not,  however,  see  the  light  in 
Leo’s  lifetime.  Between  the  years  1520  and  1527  Vida 
produced  the  second  of  his  masterpieces  in  Latin  hexam- 
eters, a didactic  poem  on  the  Art  of  Poetry . Among 
his  other  writings  should  be  mentioned  three  eloquent 
orations  in  defense  of  Cremona,  against  Pavia,  com- 
osed  upon  the  occasion  of  some  dispute  as  to  precedency 
etween  those  two  cities.  Vida  died  at  Alba  on  Sep- 
tember 27,  1566. 

VIDOCQ,  FRANgois  Jules,  the  typical  French 
detective  of  the  sensational  novel,  was  born  in  July, 
1775,  and  spent  the  first  thirty  years  of  his  life  in  every 
kind  of  villainy  from  petty  larceny  to  manslaughter, 
probably  as  a preparation  for  the  work  of  detecting 
thieves,  which  was  to  occupy  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
About  1804,  after  having  served  eight  years  in  the  gal- 
leys, he  decided  to  make  his  living  in  future  as  a spy;  to 
betray  thieves  instead  of  assisting  them.  The  Napole- 
onic Government  was  not  very  scrupulous  about  the 
means  which  it  used  so  long  as  the  work  was  done. 
Accordingly  a Bureau  of  Surete  was  organized,  of  which 
Vidocq  was  made  chief.  He  held  this  position  for  thir- 
teen years,  when  he  was  suspended  owing  to  the  be- 
lief that  he  was  the  organizer  of  most  of  the  robberies 
which  he  professed  to  discover.  He  published  what 
purported  to  be  a true  history  of  his  life  in  1844,  and 
he  died  in  Belgium  in  the  year  1850. 

VIEN,  Joseph  Marie,  French  painter,  was  not  only 
the  master  but  the  forerunner  of  David,  and  the  author 
of  the  classic  movement  which,  inaugurated  under  Louis 
XVI.,  ran  itself  out  under  the  first  empire.  He  was 
born  at  Montpellier,  June  18,  1716.  When  in  1776,  at 
the  height  of  his  established  reputation,  he  became 
director  of  the  school  of  France,  at  Rome,  he  took 
David  with  him  among  his  pupils.  Bonaparte  acknowl- 
edged his  merit  by  making  him  a senator.  He  died  at 
Paris  on  March  27,  1809,  leaving  behind  him  several 
brilliant  pupils,  among  whom  were  Vincent,  Regnault, 
Suv6e,  M6nageot,  Taillasson,  and  others  of  high  merit. 

VIENNA  (Germ.  Wien),  the  capital  and  largest  city 
of  the  Austrian-Hungarian  empire,  is  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Danube,  in  48°  13'  N.  latitude  and 
io°  23'  E.  longitude,  at  the  height  of  about  550  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Vienna  is  the  principal  resi- 
dence of  the  emperor,  the  see  of  an  archbishop,  the  seat 
of  the  imperial  and  Cisleithan  (Austrian)  ministries,  the 
meeting  place  of  the  Austrian  diet,  and  also  the  meet- 
ing place,  alternately  with  Buda-Pesth,  of  the  delega- 
tions. Vienna  is  now  officially  divided  into  the  follow- 
ing ten  municipal  districts: — the  inner  town  (Innere 
Stadt)  or  old  city  of  Vienna,  Leopoldstadt,  Landstrasse, 
Wieden,  Margarethen,  Mariahilf,  Neubau,  Josefstadt, 
Alsergrund,  and  Favoriten.  The  inner  town,  which 
lies  almost  exactly  in  the  center  of  the  others,  is,  un- 
like the  older  parts  of  most  European  towns,  still  the 
most  aristocratic  quarter,  containing  the  palaces  of  the 
emperor  and  of  many  of  the  nobility,  the  government 
offices,  many  of  the  embassies  and  legations,  the  opera 
\iouse,  and  the  principal  hotels.  Leopoldstadt,  which 
is  the  only  district  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube  canal, 
)s  the  chief  commercial  quarter,  and  is  inhabited  to  a 
great  extent  by  Jews.  Mariahilf,  Neubau,  and  Mar- 
garethen are  the  chief  seats  of  manufacturing  industry. 
Landstrasse  may  be  described  as  the  district  of  official- 
ism; there  too  are  the  British  and  German  embassies. 


Alsergrund,  with  the  enormous  general  hospital,  the 
military  hospital,  and  the  municipal  asylum  for  the  in- 
sane, is  the  medical  quarter. 

In  the  number  of  its  large  and  handsome  modern 
buildings  Vienna  can  hold  its  own  with  any  European 
capital.  Most  of  these  are  found  in  or  adjoining  the 
Ring-Strasse,  which  certainly  ranks  as  one  of  the 
most  imposing  achievements  of  recent  street  architect- 
ure. 

Vienna  is  the  intellectual  as  well  as  the  material  cap- 
ital of  Austria — emphatically  so  in  regard  to  the  Ger- 
man part  of  the  empire.  Its  university,  established  in 
1365,  is  now  attended  by  nearly  2,030  students,  and  the 
medical  faculty  enjoys  a world- wide  reputation.  Besides 
an  adequate  supply  of  elementary  and  secondary 
schools,  the  other  educational  institutions  include  a 
large  polytechnic,  an  agricultural  academy,  a military 
school,  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant  theological 
seminaries,  a conservatorium  of  music,  a training 
school  for  aspirants  to  a diplomatic  career,  a commer- 
cial college,  and  numerous  technical  and  special  schools. 
Its  scientific  institutions  are  headed  by  the  Academy  of 
Science.  The  Academy  of  Art  was  founded  in  1707. 
Few  European  capitals  possess  more  valuable  art  col- 
lections than  Vienna.  The  picture  gallery  in  the  Bel- 
vedere Palace,  formerly  the  residence  of  Prince  Eugene, 
is  unsurpassed  for  its  specimens  of  Rubens,  Diirer,  and 
the  Venetian  masters.  The  Lower  Belvedere,  at  the 
other  end  of  the  garden,  contains  the  famous  Ambras 
collection  of  armor,  curiosities,  and  antiquities.  The 
private  picture  galleries  of  Prince  Liechtenstein,  Count 
Harrach,  and  Count  Czernin  are  of  great  extent  and 
importance;  and  the  collection  of  drawings  and  en- 
gravings known  as  the  “ Albertina,”  in  the  palace  of  the 
archduke  Albert,  is  familiar  to  all  connoisseurs.  The 
collections  of  the  various  museums,  etc.,  which  are  not 
unworthy  of  the  handsome  buildings  in  which  they  are 
exhibited,  and  the  extensive  military  collections  of  the 
arsenal  must  also  be  mentioned. 

In  1901  the  population  of  Vienna  proper,  i.e.,  the 
ten  municipal  districts,  amounted  to  1,505,402,  a number 
which  gave  it  the  fourth  place  among  the  cities  of 
Europe.  Including  the  suburbs,  the  total  population 
rose  to  1,674,957.  The  above  figures  are  exclusive  of 
the  garrison  ot  20,700  men.  The  overwhelming  ma- 
jority of  the  inhabitants  are  Roman  Catholics;  the  Jews 
number  about  75,000,  and  the  Protestants  26,500. 

VIENNE,  a department  of  France,  formed  in  1790 
out  of  Poitou  (four-fifths  of  its  present  area),  Touraine 
(one-seventh),  and  Berry,  lies  between  46°  3'  and  47° 
io'  N.  latitude,  and  0°  6'  W.  and  i°  12'  E.  longitude, 
and  is  bounded  by  Deux-S£vres  on  the  west,  Charente 
on  the  south,  Haute-Vienne  on  the  southeast,  Indre  on 
the  east,  Indre-et-Loire  on  the  northeast  and  north,  and 
Maine-et-Loire  on  the  northwest. 

Of  the  total  area  of  1,722,478  acres,  arable  land 
occupies  1,119,675,  grass  76,899,  vines  90,750,  woods 
193,322,  and  heath,  pasture,  and  uncultivated  land 
146,971.  The  principal  crops  are  wheat,  meslin,  rve, 
barley,  oats,  buckwheat,  maize,  potatoes,  beetroot,  colza 
seed,  hemp,  flax,  hay,  clover,  lucerne,  sainfoin,  wine. 
Oak,  ash,  alder,  and  birch  are  the  principal  forest  trees, 
and  among  the  fruit-trees  are  the  chestnut,  walnut,  and 
almond.  Iron  and  manganese  occur,  and  there  are 
numerous  quarries  of  building  and  lithographic  stones, 
lime,  limestone,  millstones,  marl,  and  a sort  of  pebbles 
which  are  cut  into  “Chatellerault  diamonds.”  There 
are  sulphur  and  iron  mineral  springs.  The  most  impor- 
tant industrial  establishments  are  the  national  arms 
manufactory  and  the  cutlery  works  at  Chatellerault ; in 
other  parts  of  the  department  are  forges,  blast  furnaces, 
wool -spinning  mills  (580  spindles),  hemp-spinning  mills 


6201 


V I E - 

(4,000  spindles,  of  which  only  1,500  are  in  use,  and  28 
looms),  manufactories  of  serges  and  coarse  cloth, 
vinegar,  candles,  leather,  tiles  and  pottery,  paper-works, 
breweries,  distilleries,  rope-yards,  lime-kilns,  and  numer- 
ous plaster  and  flour-mills.  Corn,  wine,  brandy,  vege- 
tables, fruit,  chestnuts,  fodder,  cattle,  cutlery,  and 
dressed  hides  are  exported;  butcher’s  meat,  colonial 
produce,  and  coals  are  imported.  The  population,  in 
1881,  was  340,295,  and,  in  1901,  333,896,  an  increase  of 
IOI>795  since  1801.  Vienne  forms  part  of  the  diocese 
of  Poitiers,  has  its  court  of  appeal  and  academy  at 
Poitiers,  and  belongs  to  the  Tours  army  corps  district. 
The  chef-lieu  is  Poitiers  (population  34,628  in  1886), 
and  the  department  is  divided  for  purposes  of  adminis- 
tration into  5 arrondissements  (Poitiers  Chatellerault, 
population  of  town  14,498  in  1886 ; Civray,  2,464; 
Loudun,  4,041 ; Montmorillon,  4,155),  31  cantons,  and 
300  communes. 

VIENNE,  a town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  an  arron- 
dissement  in  the  department  of  Isere,  historically  and 
industrially  the  first,  and  by  population  the  second,  city 
of  Dauphine,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhone, 
at  the  point  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Gere,  nineteen 
miles  south  of  Lyons  by  the  railway  to  Marseilles.  The 
Gere  supplies  the  motive  power  to  numerous  factories. 
About  one  million  yards  of  cloth  are  annually  produced, 
and  from  8,000  to  9,000  hides  are  dressed.  The  other 
industrial  establishments  include  a paper-mill,  an  iron 
and  copper  foundry  (400  men),  iron-works,  foundries, 
lapidaries’  workshops,  glass-works,  brick-works,  and 
calcining  and  refining  furnaces  in  connection  with  the 
lead  and  zinc  mines  in  the  neighborhood.  Grain  is  an 
important  article  of  commerce.  A suspension  bridge 
connects  Vienne  with  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhone, 
where  the  village  of  St.  Colombe  occupies  part  of  the 
site  of  the  ancient  town.  Near  St.  Romain-en-Gal  is  a 
tower  built  by  Philip  of  Valois  to  defend  the  right,  or 
French,  bank,  as  distinguished  from  the  left,  which  be- 
longed to  the  empire.  The  population  in  1881  was 
22,740  (commune  26,060),  and  in  1901,  25,500  (commune 
25,480). 

VIENNE,  Haute-,  a department  of  France,  formed 
in  1790  out  of  Limousin  (three-fifths).  La  Marche  (one- 
fourth),  Poitou,  and  Berry,  and  formerly  known  as 
Haut-Limousin,  lies  between  450  26'  and  46°  23'  N. 
latitude  and  o°  38'  and  i°  54'  E.  longitude,  and  is 
bounded  by  the  Indre  on  the  north,  Creuse  on  the  east, 
Correze  on  the  southeast,  Dordogne  on  the  southwest, 
Charente  on  the  west,  and  Vienne  on  the  northwest. 

The  department  is  on  the  whole  unproductive.  The 
chestnut  is  here  characteristic,  as  the  apple  in  Nor- 
mandy, and  with  the  potato  and  turnip  it  forms  the 
chief  food  of  the  people.  The  brooks  are  fringed  by 
fine  meadows,  and  the  hills  are  covered  with  heaths  or 
forests  of  beech,  hornbeam,  oak,  birch,  and  chestnut. 
The  mineral  wealth  consists  of  iron,  copper,  tin,  wol- 
fram, antimony,  serpentine,  fine-grained  granite,  gneiss, 
garnets,  emeralds,  and  a kind  of  porphyry,  which  takes 
a fine  polish.  There  are  inexhaustible  supplies  of  china 
clay,  in  which  an  export  trade  is  carried  on  with  Russia 
and  America.  Five  thousand  eight  hundred  workmen 
are  employed  in  porcelain  manufactories,  650  in  paper 
and  pasteboard  mills,  560  in  wool  and  cotton  spinning 
mills  and  manufactories  of  flannel,  druggets,  woolen 
cloaks,  and  carpets,  600  in  shoe-making,  600  in  manu- 
factories of  sabots.  340  in  glove  manufactories,  370  in 
tan-yards,  325  in  leather-dressing  works,  130  in  coach- 
building and  wheelwrights’  shops,  125  in  cabinet  work- 
shops, 325  in  printing  works,  and  100  in  distilleries. 
There  are  forges,  foundries,  copper-works,  and  manu- 
factories of  agricultural  and  other  implements.  Por- 
celain, china  clay,  woven  goods,  boots  and  shoes, 


VI  G 

sabots,  gloves,  leather,  cattle,  horses,  wood,  chestnuts, 
hemp,  and  paper  are  exported ; corn,  wine,  coal,  raw 
materials,  and  various  manufactured  articles  are  im- 
ported. The  population  in  1881  was  349,332  and  in 
1901,  374,212,  an  increase  of  117,982  since  1801.  Li- 
moges is  the  chef-lieu. 

VIERZON,  a town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Cher,  124  miles  by  rail  to  the  south  of  Paris.  The 
Cher  and  the  Vevre  unite  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  on 
which  lie  the  communes  of  Vierzon-Ville  (population 
12,514  in  1901)  and  Vierzon- Village  (6,995);  Vierzon- 
Bourgneuf  (1,498)  is  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cher.  The 
three  communes  together  have  a population  of  19,007. 
Vierzon  has  several  large  manufactories  for  the  produce 
tion  of  agricultural  machines,  also  foundries,  porcelain 
and  earthenware  works  and  glass-works.  A very  fine 
technical  school  has  just  been  opened. 

VIETA,  or  Viete,  Francois,  Seigneur  de  la 
Bigoti£re,  more  generally  known  as  Franciscus 
Vieta,  mathematician,  was  born  in  1540  at  Fontenay- 
le-Comte,  in  Poitou.  On  the  completion  of  his  studies 
in'law  at  Poitiers,  Vieta  began  his  career  as  an  advocate 
in  his  native  town.  This  he  left  about  1567,  and  some- 
what later  we  find  him  at  Rennes  as  a councilor  of  the 
parlement  of  Brittany.  The  religious  troubles  drove  him 
thence,  and  Rohan,  the  well-known  chief  of  the  Hugue- 
nots, took  him  under  his  special  protection.  He 
recommended  him  in  1580  as  a “ maitre  des  requetes  ” 
(master  of  requests);  and  Henry  of  Navarre,  at  the  in- 
stance qf  Rohan,  addressed  two  letters  to  Henry  III.  of 
France  on  March  3d  and  April  26,  1585,  to  obtain 
Vieta’s  restoration  to  his  former  office,  but  without 
result.  After  the  accession  of  Henry  of  Navarre  to 
the  throne  of  France,  Vieta  filled  in  1589  the  position  of 
councilor  of  the  parlement  at  Tours.  He  afterward 
became  a royal  privy  councilor,  and  remained  so  till  his 
death,  which  took  place  suddenly  at  Paris  in  February, 
1603,  but  in  what  manner  we  do  not  know;  Anderson, 
the  editor  of  his  scientific  remains,  speaks  only  of  a 
“prseceps  et  immaturum  autoris  fatum.” 

VIGEVANO,  a town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Pavia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ticino,  twenty-four 
miles  southwest  from  Milan  and  about  the  same  distance 
northwest  from  Pavia.  It  is  a mediaeval  walled  town, 
with  an  arcaded  market-place,  a cathedral,  and  a castle 
of  the  Sforza  family,  dating  from  the  fourteenth  century 
and  adorned  with  a loggia  by  Bramante.  It  is  a place 
of  some  importance  in  the  silk  trade,  and  also  produces 
excellent  macaroni.  The  population  in  1901  was  16,- 
794  (commune,  20,096). 

VIGIL,  in  its  ecclesiastical  sense,  means  the  day 
preceding  a festival.  In  the  liturgy  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  there  are  special  offices  for  the  vigils 
of  the  greater  feasts,  and  the  vigil  is  regarded  as  more 
or  less  of  a fast  day.  In  the  early  church  there  was  a 
widespread  practice  of  celebrating  festivals,  of  martyrs 
especially,  by  actual  vigils  ( Vigilice  or  pernoetationes , 
7Cavvvxi^£<s)  in  the  churches;  but  this  led  to  such  serious 
evils  that  the  custom  had  to  be  discouraged,  and  now 
survives,  if  at  all,  only  in  rare,  unauthorized,  and  con- 
siderably disguised  forms.  In  some  of  the  stricter 
religious  orders  the  daily  office  is  recited  at  various 
hours  of  the  night  as  well  as  during  the  day;  but,  if 
these  nocturnal  services  are  spoken  of  as  vigils,  it  is 
only  in  the  popular  meaning  of  that  word. 

VIGILANTIUS,  presbyter,  celebrated  as  the  author 
of  a work,  no  longer  extant,  against  superstitious  prac- 
tices, which  called  forth  one  of  the  most  violent  and 
scurrilous  of  Jerome’s  polemical  treatises,  was  born 
about  370  at  Calagurris  in  Aquitania  (the  modem  Saint 
Bertrand  de  Comminges  in  the  department  of  Haute- 
Garonne),  where  his  father  kept  a a statio  ” or  inn  on 


6202 


V I G — V I L 


the  great  Roman  road  from  Aquitania  to  Spain.  While 
still  a youth  his  talent  became  known  to  Sulpicius 
Severus,  who  had  estates  in  that  neighborhood,  and  in 
395  Sulpicius,  who  probably  baptized  him,  sent  him 
with  letters  to  Paulinus  of  Nola,  where  he  met  with  a 
friendly  reception.  On  his  return  to  Severus  in  Gaul 
he  was  ordained  ; and,  having  soon  afterward  inherited 
means  through  the  death  of  his  father,  he  set  out  for  Pal- 
estine, where  he  was  received  with  great  respect  by  Je- 
rome at  Bethlehem.  The  stay  of  Vigilantius  lasted  for 
some  time ; but,  as  was  almost  inevitable,  he  was 
dragged  into  the  dispute  then  raging  about  Origen,  in 
which  he  did  not  see  fit  wholly  to  adopt  Jerome’s  atti- 
tude. On  his  return  to  the  west  he  was  the  bearer  of  a 
letter  from  Jerome  to  Paulinus,  and  at  various  places 
where  he  stopped  on  the  way  he  appears  to  have  ex- 
pressed himself  about  Jerome  in  a manner  that  when 
reported  gave  great  offense  to  that  father,  and  provoked 
him  to  write  a reply  ( Ep .,  61).  Vigilantius  now  settled 
for  some  time  in  Gaul,  and  is  said  by  one  authority 
(Gennadius)  to  have  afterward  held  a charge  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Barcelona.  About  403,  some  years  after  his  re- 
turn from  the  east,  Vigilantius  wrote  his  celebrated 
work  against  superstitious  practices.  The  year  of  his 
death  is  unknown. 

VIGILIUS,  pope  from  537  to  555,  succeeded  Sil- 
verius  and  was  followed  by  Pelagius  I.  He  was 
ordained  by  order  of  Belisarius  while  Silverius  (q.v.) 
was  still  alive  ; his  elevation  was  due  to  Theodora.  He 
died,  most  probably,  in  the  beginning  of  555. 

VIGNA,  Pietro  de  la,  or  Petrus  de  Vinea,  the 
emperor  Frederick  II. ’s  minister,  was  born  at  Capua, 
probably  about  1190.  In  1232  he  was  at  Rome  on  a 
mission  to  Gregory  IX.,  and  in  1234-35  he  was  in 
England  negotiating  the  marriage  of  his  master  with 
Henry  I II.’s  sister  Isabella.  In  1247  he  was  at  the 
very  height  of  his  power  and  regarded  as  the  emperor’s 
alter  ego.  But  from  this  height  of  prosperity  Peter 
suddenly  fell  very  early  in  1249,  and  all  kinds  of  stories 
have  been  invented  to  explain  an  event  that  puzzled  his 
contemporaries  as  well  as  succeeding  ages.  He  was 
thrown  into  prison  and  blinded,  after  which  he  was  led 
about  from  place  to  place  as  a public  example,  “ the 
master-councilor  of  the  emperor,  who  was  lord  of  his 
law  and  betrayed  him  to  the  pope.”  His  death  must 
have  taken  place  about  April,  1249. 

VIGNETTE  (Fr.  little  vine,  a tendril ; Lat.  viticula ), 
a term  originally  applied  to  the  flourishes  in  the  form  of 
vine  tendril,  branches  and  leaves  with  which  the  capitals 
in  ancient  manuscripts  were  surrounded.  Similar  deco- 
rations were  introduced  into  printed  books,  and  all 
kinds  of  printers’  ornaments,  such  as  head  and  tail 
pieces,  came  to  be  designated  as  vignettes.  More 
recently  the  name  has  been  applied  to  any  small 
engraving  (as  on  the  title  page  of  a book),  design,  or 
even  photograph,  which  is  not  circumscribed  by  a 
definite  border. 

VIGNOLA.  See  Barocchio. 

VIGNY,  Alfred  de,  a French  poet  of  exceptionally 
refined  and  original  faculty,  which  was  kept  from  volu- 
minous production  by  a fastidiousness  perhaps  verg- 
ing on  affectation,  was  born  at  Loches  (Indre-et-Loire) 
March27, 1799.  For  generations  the  ancestors  of  Alfred 
de  Vigny  had  been  soldiers,  and  he  himself  joined  the 
army  at  the  age  of  sixteen.  But  the  Revolutionary  and 
Napoleonic  wars  were  over,  and  after  twelve  years  of  life 
in  barracks  he  retired,  preserving,  however,  a very  high 
estimate  of  the  duties  and  career  of  the  soldier.  While 
still  serving  he  had  made  his  mark  by  the  publication  in 
1822  of  a volume  of  poems,  and  in  1826  by  another, 
together  with  the  famous  prose  romance  of  Cinq-Mars. 
It  so  happens  that  some  of  his  most  celebrated  books — 


Eloa,  Dolorida , Molse — appeared  before  the  work  c# 
younger  members  of  the  Romantic  school  whose  pro- 
ductions strongly  resemble  these  poems.  It  is  quite 
certain  that  the  other  Alfred— A lfred  de  Musset— felt 
the  influence  of  his  elder  namesake,  and  an  impartial 
critic  might  discern  no  insignificant  marks  of  the  same 
effect  in  the  work  of  Hugo  himself.  Even  Lamartine, 
considerably  Vigny’s  elder  and  his  predecessor  in  poetry, 
seems  rather  to  have  been  guided  by  Vigny  than  Vigny 
by  him. 

In  the  year  before  the  revolution  of  July  he  produced 
at  the  Theatre  Fran^ais  a translation  or  rather  para- 
phrase of  Othello , and  an  original  piece,  Marechale 
d'Ancre.  In  1832  he  published  the  curious  book  Stello , 
and  in  1835  he  brought  out  his  drama  of  Chatterton , 
which  shocked  French  taste  even  after  five  years  of 
Romantic  education,  by  the  hero’s  suicide,  but  had  a 
considerable  success.  The  same  year  saw  the  publica- 
tion of  Servitude  et  grandeur  Militaires , a singular 
collection  of  sketches  rather  than  a connected  work,  in 
which  Vigny’s  military  experience,  his  idea  of  the 
soldier’s  duties,  and  his  rather  poetical  views  of  history 
were  all  worked  in.  In  1842  Alfred  de  Vigny  was 
elected  to  the  Academy,  whose  meetings  he  frequented 
with  an  assiduity  rather  surprising  in  a man  of  such 
retired  habits  and  (according  to  Sainte-Beuve)  rather 
troublesome  to  his  colleagues.  But  he  produced  nothing 
save  a few  scraps;  and,  beyond  the  work  already 
enumerated,  little  has  to  be  added  except  his  Journal 
d'un  Poete  and  the  poems  called  Les  Destinees,  edited, 
with  a few  fragments,  by  M.  Louis  Ratisbonne  immedi- 
ately after  his  death.  Among  his  dramatic  work,  how- 
ever, should  be  mentioned  Quitte  pour  la  Peur  and  an 
adaptation  of  the  Merchant  of  Venice  called  Shylock. 
Les  Destinees  excited  no  great  admiration  in  France, 
but  they  contain  some  exceedingly  beautiful  poetry  of  an 
austere  kind,  such  as  the  magnificent  speech  of  Nature 
in  “ La  Maison  du  Berger  ” and  the  remarkable  poem 
entitled  “ La  Colere  de  Samson.”  Vigny  died  at  Paris 
September  17,  1863. 

VIGO,  a town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Ponte-- 
vedra,  486  miles  by  rail  northwest  from  Madrid,  is  pict- 
uresquely situated  on  the  side  of  a hill  (Castelo)  which 
slopes  down  to  the  southern  shore  of  the  Ria  de  Vigo. 
There  are  some  fisheries  at  Vigo;  but  the  manufactures 
of  the  place  are  insignificant.  Its  activity  is  entirely 
due  to  its  magnificent  anchorage;  it  is  a regular  port  of 
call  for  several  international  lines  of  steamers,  and  has 
a very  important  trade;  the  chief  imports  are  cotton  and 
woolen  fabrics,  sugar,  hides,  etc.,  while  cattle,  sardines, 
grain,  and  eggs  are  exported.  The  population  within 
the  municipal  limits  in  1898  was  17,000. 

VIKING  (plural,  vikings),  a name  given  to  the 
piratical  Northmen  who  infested  the  coasts  of  the 
British  Islands  and  of  France  in  the  eighth,  ninth,  and 
tenth  centuries.  This  word  is  quite  unconnected  with 
“king,”  being  derived  from  the  Scandinavian  vik,  a 
bay ; and  this  class  of  marauders  were  so  called  because 
their  ships  put  off,  not  like  the  king’s  ships,  from  the 
lawful  harbor,  but  from  the  bay. 

VILKOMIR,  or  Wilkomierz,  a district  town  of 
Russia,  in  the  government  of  Kovno,  forty-four  miles 
northeast  of  the  capital  of  the  province,  is  one  of  the 
oldest  cities  in  that  part  of  western  Russia.  Founded 
as  early  as  1025,  it  suffered  much  from  the  attacks  of 
the  Teutonic  Knights,  as  well  as  from  internal  wars.  It 
flourished  in  the  sixteenth  century  under  “ Magdeburg 
law,”  but  soon  came  upon  adverse  times  again  during 
the  wars  between  Poland,  Russia,  and  Sweden.  It  was 
annexed  to  Russia  in  1796.  Its  position  on  the  princi, 
pal  highway  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Kovno  gave  it  some 
trade  in  flax,  but  this  is  now  declining.  Its  population 


V t T 


increased  from  7,300  in  i860,  to  18,240  in  1898.  Vil- 
komir  has  a fine  church  dating  from  the  fourteenth 
century. 

VILLA,  a term  now  applied  to  a detached  suburban 
residence  with  one  acre  or  less  of  ground  attached  to  it. 
In  the  time  of  the  Romans  villas  were  a cluster  of  build- 
ings in  the  country,  forming  a sort  of  a private  town, 
and  containing  in  one  the  residence  of  the  proprietor, 
farmer  and  servants,  and  all  the  necessary  offices  and 
accomodations  for  the  cattle,  the  gardens,  the  pleasure 
grounds,  etc.  These  villas  were  sometimes  of  enor- 
mous size,  but  they  do  not  seem  to  have  been  built  on 
any  regular  architectural  plan,  so  as  to  produce  an 
effect  commensurate  with  their  extent.  Villas  were  di- 
vided into  several  parts  according  to  their  uses;  first, 
the  villa  Urbana  was  the  portion  in  which  the  pro- 
prietor resided,  and  was  laid  out,  as  the  name  indicates, 
in  the  manner  very  similar  to  that  of  a town-house. 
The  size  and  style  of  this  part  depended  of  course  on 
the  pleasure  or  quality  of  the  master.  It  contained  the 
eating  rooms,  bed-chambers,  baths,  covered  porticoes, 
walks,  and  terraces.  The  villa  Rusticae  was  set  apart 
for  the  servants,  stabling,  etc.,  and  the  accommodation 
of  the  cattle.  Its  extent  depended  upon  the  size  of  the 
farm  and  the  number  of  cattle.  The  number  of  serv- 
ants accommodated  in  a villa  was  very  great.  The 
livery  servants,  along  with  the  gardeners  for  the 
pleasure  grounds,  comedians,  musicians,  etc.,  belonged 
to  the  villa  Urbana.  The  villicus  presided  over  the 
others,  including  the  servants  for  tilling  the  land,  the 
herdsmen,  shepherds,  goatherds,  swineherds,  etc. 

VILLA  DE  CONTAS,  a town  of  Brazil,  in  the 
province  of  Bahia,  230  miles  southwest  from  the  city  of 
Bahia,  on  the  Brumado  (Contas  Pequeno),  a head- 
stream  of  the  Rio  de  Contas  (Jussiape),  which  rises  on 
the  east  slope  of  the  neighboring  Serra  das  Almas,  and 
flows  thence  to  the  coast  at  Barra  do  Rio  Contas.  This 
town,  which  has  a mixed  population  (1895)  of  12,200 
whites,  negroes,  half-castes,  and  Indians,  lies  in  a fer- 
tile district,  producing  much  cotton,  sugar,  and  tobacco. 
Villa  de  Contas  is  the  capital  of  the  department  of  the 
same  name,  which  was  detached  in  1833  from  the  old 
department  of  Jacobina. 

VILLA  DO  RIO  PARDO,  a town  of  Brazil,  in  the 
rovince  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
acuhy  at  its  confluence  with  the  Pardo,  about  eighty 
miles  due  west  from  Porto  Alegre,  in  300  S.  latitude 
and  5 20  W.  longitude,  is  one  of  the  most  flourishing 
towns  in  the  province,  with  a total  population  (1895)  of 
12,500,  including  6,000  whites,  4,500  negroes  and 
colored,  and  about  1,000  civilized  Indians.  The  district 
is  fertile  and  well-watered,  and  grows  an  excellent  flax, 
which  supplies  a number  of  local  hand-looms.  A con- 
siderable export  trade  is  carried  on  by  the  river  craft, 
which  here  ship  mate  (Paraguay  tea),  jerked  meat,  linen, 
and  other  products  for  the  coast  towns. 

VILLANI,  Giovanni,  Italian  chronicler,  was  the 
son  of  Villano  di  Stoldo,  and  was  born  at  Florence  in 
the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century;  the  precise 
year  is  unknown.  He  was  of  good  burgher  extraction, 
and,  following  the  traditions  of  his  family,  applied  him- 
self to  commerce.  In  1328  a terrible  famine  visited 
many  provinces  of  Italy,  including  Tuscany,  and  Villani 
was  appointed  to  guard  Florence  from  the  worst  effects 
of  that  distressing  period.  He  has  left  a record  of  what 
was  done  in  a chapter  of  his  Chronicle , which  still  remains 
a monument  to  the  economic  wisdom  in  which  the  medi- 
aeval Florentines  were  often  so  greatly  in  advance  of 
their  age.  He  was  present  in  Florence  during  the  un- 
happy period  that  elapsed  between  the  entry  of  the  duke 
of  Athens  and  his  axpulsion  by  the  Florentines.  In- 
volved through  no  fault  of  his  own  in  the  failure  of  the 


6203 

commercial  company  of  the  Bonaccorsi,  which  in  its 
turn  had  been  drawn  into  the  failure  of  the  company  of 
the  Bardi  (1345),  Villani  toward  the  end  of  his  life  suf- 
fered much  privation  and  for  some  time  was  kept  in 
rison.  In  1348  he  fell  a victim  to  the  plague  described 
y Boccaccio. 

VILLARS,  Claude  Louis  Hector,  Duke  of; 
French  general,  was  born  at  Moulins  on  May  8,  1653. 
After  spending  some  time  at  the  college  of  Juilly,  he 
became  a page  of  the  grand  e curie , and  then  entered 
the  army  as  a volunteer.  He  first  saw  service  in  Hol- 
land under  Louis  XIV.,  and  later  under  Conde,  Turenne, 
and  Luxembourg  in  Germany,  where  in  1674  he  ob- 
tained the  command  of  a troop  of  horse.  In  1712 
Villars,  at  the  head  of  an  army  raised  with  great  diffi- 
culty by  the  French,  defeated  the  Austrians  under 
Albemarle  in  a brilliant  action  at  Denain,  compelled 
Prince  Eugene  to  raise  the  siege  of  Landrecies,  and 
took  several  fortresses  and  towns.  This  brilliant  cam- 
paign raised  again  the  almost  desperate  fortunes  of 
France  and  led  to  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713)  and  the 
peace  of  Rastadt  (1714).  For  many  years  after  this 
Villars  exerted  great  influence  at  court,  until  he  was 
finally  supplanted  by  Fleury.  In  1733  the  war  with 
Austria  again  broke  out,  and  in  the  following  year 
Villars,  although  over  eighty  years  of  age,  was  sent  tc 
take  command  in  Italy.  But  after  some  successes  he 
demanded  his  recall,  either  in  consequence  of  his  in- 
creasing infirmities  or  of  disgust  at  the  conduct  of  his 
ally,  the  king  of  Sardinia;  he  died  on  his  way  back  tc 
France,  at  Turin,  on  June  17,  1734. 

, V1LLEFRANCHE  DE  ROUERGUE,  a town  of 
France,  chef-lieu  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Aveyron,  is  situated  390  miles  south  of  Paris 
by  th^*  railway  to  Toulouse,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Aveyron.  The  population  in  1901  was  10,433  (commune 
10,366),  and  in  1886  8,092  (commune  9,836). 

VILLEFRANCHE-SUR-SAONE,  a commercial 
and  manufacturing  town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  an  ar- 
rondissement in  the  department  of  Rhone,  is  situated 
on  the  Morgon,  near  its  junction  with  the  Saone,  eight- 
een miles  by  rail  nearly  north  of  Lyons.  The  chief 
industrial  establishments  are  factories  of  coarse  woven 
goods,  cotton,  fustian,  “ molletons,”  prints,  and 
blankets,  tan-yards,  puddling-works,  spinning-mills,  dis- 
tilleries, foundries,  and  a saw-mill.  The  wines  of 
Beaujolais,  hemp,  cloth,  linen,  cottons,  drapery  goods, 
and  cattle  are  the  principal  articles  of  trade.  The  pop- 
ulation 12,032  (commune  13,074)  in  1881,  was  14,157 
(commune  12,518)  in  1901. 

VILLEHARDOUIN,  Geoffroy  de,  the  first 
vernacular  historian  of  France,  and  perhaps  of  modern 
Europe,  who  possessed  literary  merit,  is  rather  supposed 
than  known  to  have  been  born  at  the  chateau  from 
which  he  took  his  name,  near  Troyes  in  Champagne, 
about  the  year  1160.  Not  merely  his  literary  at.d  his- 
torical importance,  but  almost  all  that  is  known  about 
him,  comes  from  his  chronicle  of  the  fifth  crusade,  or 
Conquete  de  Constantinople.  Nothing  is  positively 
known  of  his  ancestry.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died 
in  1213. 

VILLEINAGE.  See  Copyhold  and  Slavery. 

VILLEMAIN,  Abel  Francois,  historian  of  French 
literature,  was  born  at  Paris  on  June  11,  1790.  He 
was  educated  at  the  lycee  Louis-le-Grand,  and  was 
only  twenty  when  he  was  appointed  to  an  assistant- 
mastership  at  the  lycee  Charlemagne.  This  appoint- 
ment was  shortly  exchanged  for  a post  at  the  ficoie 
Normale.  He  early  devoted  himself  to  the  composi- 
tion of  the  Academic  prize  essays  which  have  founded 
the  fortune  of  so  many  French  men  of  letters,  and  in 
1812  he  gained  the  prize  with  an  Sloge  on  Montaigne,, 


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6204 

which  was  followed  by  other  successful  attempts.  His 
second  successful  essay,  On  Criticism , had  the  honor 
of  being  read  by  the  author  before  the  Academy  and 
the  allied  sovereigns  who  were  then  (April,  1814)  in 
Paris.  Under  the  restoration  he  was  appointed,  first, 
assistant  professor  of  modern  history  and  then  professor 
of  French  eloquence  at  the  Sorbonne.  Here  he  began 
and  continued  for  about  ten  years  a series  of  literary 
lectures  which  had  an  extraordinary  effect  on  his  younger 
contemporaries.  In  1819  he  published  a book  on 
Cromwell , remarkable  fora  Frenchman  of  his  day,  and 
two  years  later  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy. 

For  more  than  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  he  took 
no  open  part  in  public  affairs,  though  his  literary  activ- 
ity continued  to  be  considerable,  the  books  which  he 
published  being  in  part  workings-up  of  his  brilliant 
Sorbonne  courses.  His  death  took  place  at  Paris,  on 
May  8,  1867. 

VILLEN  A,  a town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Alicante,  is  situated  thirty-seven  miles  by  rail  to  the 
northwest  of  that  town,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  little 
river  Vinalapo.  The. slopes  of  the  surrounding  hills  are 
clothed  with  vines,  and  there  are  also  some  extensive 
salt  lagoons.  The  annual  fair  of  Villena  (September 
29th-October  5th),  dealing  in  the  produce  of  the  neigh- 
borhood, is  still  of  considerable  importance.  The  in- 
dustries (soap-making,  weaving,  distilling)  are  not 
extensive.  The  population  within  the  municipal 
boundaries  in  1897  was  12,424. 

VILLENEUVE-SUR-LOT,  a town  of  France, 
:hef-lieu  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Lot- 
et-Garonne,  is  built  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Lot, 
twenty-two  miles  north  of  Agen  by  a line  which 
branches  at  Penne  from  the  Agen  and  Perigueux  rail- 
way. Important  markets  of  cattle,  horses,  wines,  and 
Agen  plums  are  held.  Boots  and  shoes,  sausages, 
tinned  foods,  and  buttons  are  made,  and  there  are  mar- 
ble works  and  large  mills.  The  population  in  1881  was 
9,520  (commune  14,560)  and  in  1901,  10,780  (commune 
14,693).  Of  these  1,102  were  prisoners  at  Eysses. 

VILLIERS,  George.  See  Buckingham,  Duke  of. 

VILLON,  Francis,  whose  real  surname  is  a matter 
of  much  dispute,  so  that  he  is  also  called  Corbueil, 
Corbier,  De  Montcorbier,  and  Des  Loges,  though  in 
literature  Villon  is  the  sole  term  used,  was  born  in 
1431,  and,  as  it  seems,  certainly  at  Paris.  The  mixture 
of  the  real  and  the  ironical  in  the  singular  poems  called 
Testaments , which  form  his  chief,  if  not  his  only  certain, 
work,  make  it  very  unsafe  to  speak  positively  as  to 
such  details  of  his  life  as  depend  upon  them.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  derived  his  surname  from  a friend  and 
benefactor  named  Guillaume  de  Villon,  an  ecclesiastic 
and  a person  of  some  property  and  position.  The  poet, 
either  by  his  assistance  or  in  some  other  way,  became  a 
student,  and  took  the  degree  of  bachelor  in  1450  and 
that  of  master  in  1452.  Between  this  year  and  1455 
nothing  positive  is  1 nown  of  him,  except  that  nothing 
was  known  against  him. 

On  June  4,  1455,  the  first  important  incident  of  his 
life  that  is  known  occurred.  Being  in  the  company  of 
a priest  named  Giles  and  a girl  named  Isabeau,  he  met 
a certain  Breton,  a master  of  arts,  who  was  also  in  the 
company  of  a priest,  Philippe  Chermoye  or  Sermoise  or 
Sermaise.  A scuffle  ensued;  daggers  were  drawn ; and  Ser- 
maise,  who  is  accused  of  having  attackedVillon  and  drawn 
the  first  blood,  not  only  received  a dagger  thrust  in  re- 
turn, but  a blow  from  a stone  which  struck  him  down. 
Sermaise  died  of  his  wounds.  Villon  fled,  and  was  sen- 
tenced to  banishment — a sentence  which  was  remitted 
in  January,  1456,  the  formal  pardon  being  extant 
strangely  enough  in  two  different  documents.  A 
year  utter  he  was  again  in  trouble.  Indeed,  Villon’s 


serious  troubles  were  only  beginning,  for  hitherto 
he  had  been  rather  injured  than  guilty.  He  left 
Paris  for  Angers  in  the  very  early  spring  of  1456-57, 
and  shortly  afterward  (in  March)  the  chapel  of  the  Col 
lege  of  Navarre  was  broken  open  and  five  hundred  gold 
crowns  stolen.  The  inquiries  set  on  foot  discovered  a 
gang  of  student  robbers,  one  of  whom,  Guy  Tabarie, 
turned  king’s  evidence  and  accused  Villon,  who  was 
then  absent,  of  being  the  ringleader.  He  escaped,  how- 
ever, by  appealing  from  the  bishop’s  court,  where  as  a 
clerk  he  had  been  tried,  to  the  pail.ament  of  Paris, 
by  which  body  his  sentence  was  commuted  to  banish- 
ment— that  is,  of  course,  banishment  from  the  capital. 
Where  he  went  and  what  he  did  for  the  next  four  years 
we  do  not  know.  But  at  his  next  certain  appearance 
he  is  again  in  trouble.  He  tells  us  that  he  had  spent 
the  summer  of  1461  in  the  bishop’s  prison  (bishops  were 
fatal  to  Villon)  of  Meung.  His  crime  is  not  known; 
but  his  enemy,  or  at  least,  judge,  was  Thibault  d’  Aus- 
signy,  who  held  the  see  of  Orleans.  Villon  owed  his 
release  to  a general  jail  delivery  at  the  accession  of 
Louis  XI.,  and  became  a free  man  again  on  October 
2d.  It  was  now  that  he  wrote  the  Grand  Testament , 
and  this,  the  work  which  has  immortalized  him,  is  the 
last  certain  fact  which  is  known  of  his  life.  He  is  said 
to  have  died  about  1461. 

The  obscurity,  the  unhappiness,  and  the  evil  repute 
of  Villon’s  life  would  not  in  themselves  be  a reason  for 
the  minute  investigation  to  which  the  events  of  that  life 
have  been  subjected.  But  his  poetical  work,  scanty 
as  the  certainly  genuine  part  of  it  is,  is  of  such  extraor- 
dinary interest,  and  marks  such  an  epoch  in  the  history 
of  European  literature,  that  he  has  been  at  all  times  an 
interesting  figure. 

VILNA,  or  Wilno,  a Lithuanian  government  of 
West  Russia,  has  the  Polish  province  of  Suwalki  on  the 
west,  Kovno  and  Vitebsk  on  the  noith  and  east,  and 
Minsk  and  Grodno  on  the  east  and  south.  Its  area  is 
16,421  square  miles.  Vilna  lies  on  the  broad,  marshy 
swelling,  dotted  with  lakes,  which  separates  Poland 
( q.v .)  from  East  Prussia  and  stretches  east-northeast  to- 
ward the  Valdai  Plateau. 

In  spite  of  the  unfertile  soil,  sufficient  cereals  are 
grown  for  the  needs  of  the  population  and  to  supply  the 
distilleries.  Apart  from  finer  breeds  kept  by  a few  land- 
owners,  the  cattle  of  the  peasantry  belong  to  inferior 
varieties.  More  than  one-third  of  the  area  is  covered 
with  forests,  whence  a considerable  quantity  of  timber 
is  exported,  partly  to  Germany,  for  shipbuilding.  A 
variety  of  petty  trades  are  carried  on  in  the  villages  of 
the  forest  region — sledges,  cars,  wheels,  and  wooden- 
ware  being  made  by  the  peasants.  Tar,  pitch,  and 
potash  are  exported.  The  manufactures  have  only  be- 
gun to  develop  of  late.  An  active  trade  in  timber, 
corn,  and  flax  (exported)  and  in  manufactured  goods 
(imported)  is  carried  on.  Vilna  is  divided  into  seven 
districts,  the  chief  towns  of  which  (with  their  popula- 
tions in  1898)  are — Vilna  (see  below),  Vileika  (3,905b 
Disna  (8,030),  Lidy  or  Lida  (7,940),  Oshmiany  (4,470). 
The  pop.  (1898)  of  the  province  was  1,591,912. 

Vilna,  or  Wilno,  capital  of  the  above  government, 
is  situated  436  miles  to  the  southwest  of  St.  Petersburg, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Vilia  with  the  Vileika,  and  at  the 
intersection  of  two  great  railway  lines,  one  from  St. 
Petersburg  to  Warsaw,  the  other  from  Libau  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Don.  The  scientific  societies  of  Vilna, 
especially  the  medicai  and  archaeological,  are  well 
known.  In  spite  of  the  war  of  1812  and  the  Polish 
risings  of  1831  and  1863,  the  population  has  of  late  in- 
creased rapidly.  In  1898  it  numbered  154,532.  The  in- 
habitants are  chiefly  Roman  Catholics  in  religion  and 
Poles  by  nationality.  The  Jews  are  steadily  increasing 


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in  numbers  and  now  make  more  than  one- third  of  the 
opuiation.  The  town  has  an  important  trade  in  tim- 
er (with  Prussia),  as  also  in  grain. 

VINCENNES,  a town  of  France  in  the  department 
of  Seine,  four  miles  east  of  Paris,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  a railway  and  two  tramways.  The  castle  was 
begun  by  Louis  VII.  in  1164,  and  rebuilt  by  Philip 
Augustus.  Napoleon  altered  the  castle  into  a vast 
maga2ine  of  war  materials.  Louis  XVIII.  added  an 
armory;  and  under  Louis  Philippe  numerous  casemates 
and  a new  fort  on  the  east  side  were  constructed.  The 
population  of  Vincennes  was  30,336  in  1901. 

VINCENNES,  the  capital  of  Knox  county,  Inch, 
and  the  oldest  town  in  the  State,  is  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Wabash  river,  116  miles  south  of  Indianap- 
olis, 148  miles  east  of  St.  Louis,  58  miles  south  of 
Terre  Haute,  and  5 1 miles  north  of  the  Ohio  river.  It 
was  first  settled  in  1740  by  French  Canadians,  who  es- 
tablished an  Indian  trading  post,  and  from  1800  to 
1814  was  the  capital  of  Indiana  Territory.  The  city’s 
growth  has  been  gradual  but  permanent  and  substan- 
tial, and  it  has  long  been  known  as  the  center  of  a 
populous  and  wealthy  district.  Its  railway  conveniences 
are  exceptionally  comprehensive,  embracing  the  Cairo 
division  of  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  St. 
Louis, Ohio  and  Mississippi, Evansville  and  Terre  Haute, 
and  the  Indianapolis  and  Vincennes  roads,  while  the 
Wabash  river  affords  a navigable  route  to  the  Ohio  and 
other  southern  waterways.  The  city  is  finely  built,  and 
includes  among  its  improvements  many  structures,  both 
public  and  private,  architecturally  and  otherwise  su- 
perior. It  contains  a court  house,  two  high-schools, 
three  national  banks  with  a total  capital  of  $300,000, 
nine  Protestant  churches,  a Catholic  cathedral,  three 
daily  and  four  weekly  papers,  several  packing  houses, 
flour  and  woolen  mills,  breweries,  manufactures  of 

f (lumbers’  supplies,  agricultural  implements,  carriages, 
urniture,  brick  and  tile,  etc-  The  city  is  lighted  with 
gas  and  electric  lights,  and  is  in  all  particulars  a pros- 
perous and  progressive  municipality.  Its  population, 
which  was  7,080  in  1880,  in  1900  was  returned  at  10,249. 

VINCENT,  or  Vincentius,  St.,  deacon  and  mar- 
tyr, according  to  the  Roman  Breviary , was  born  of 
noble  parents  at  Huesca  (Osca)  in  Spain,  and  was  edu- 
cated by  Valerius,  bishop  of  Zaragoza,  who  in  due  time 
ordained  him  to  the  diaconate.  Under  the  persecution 
of  Diocletian  he  was  arrested  and  taken  to  Valencia. 
Having  stood  firm  in  his  profession  before  Dacian  us, 
the  governor,  he  was  subjected  to  excruciating  tortures 
and  thrown  into  prison,  where  angels  visited  him, 
lighting  up  his  dungeon  with  celestial  light,  re- 
lieving his  pains,  loosening  his  bonds,  and  mingling 
their  voices  with  his  in  psalms  of  praise.  His  warders, 
having  seen  these  wonders  through  the  chinks  of  the 
wall,  forthwith  became  Christians.  He  was  afterward 
brought  out  and  laid  upon  a soft  mattress  that  he  might 
regain  sufficient  strength  for  new  torments;  but,  while 
Dacianus  was  vainly  meditating  punishment,  the  saint 
gently  breathed  his  last,  as  a crowd  of  bystanders  kissed 
his  feet  and  treasured  up  his  blood  in  napkins.  The 
tyrant  exposed  the  body  to  wild  beasts,  but  a raven 
miraculously  descended  and  protected  it;  it  was  then 
thrown  into  the  sea,  but  could  not  be  hid,  and  finally 
received  decent  burial.  The  date  assigned  to  his  mar- 
tyrdom is  304;  he  is  commemorated  on  January  22d. 

VINCENT,  George,  English  landscape  and  marine 
painter,  was  born  at  Norwich  in  June,  1796.  He 
studied  art  under  “ Old  ” Crome,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen 
began  to  contribute  to  the  Norwich  exhibition.  From 
1814  till  1823  he  exhibited  occasionally  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  also  in  the  Water-Color  Exhibition  and 

389 


the  British  Institution.  In  1819  he  removed  from  Nor 
wich  to  London,  and  he  was  a contributor  10  the  Suf- 
folk Street  gallery  from  its  foundation  in  1824  till  1830. 
He  possessed  great  artistic  abilities;  but  unfortunately 
he  fell  into  dissipation,  and  his  works  became  slight  and 
hastily  executed.  Finally  he  dropped  out  of  sight,  and 
he  is  believed  to  have  died  about  1831. 

VINCENT  of  Beauvais,  or  Vincentius  Bellova 
CENSis,  the  encyclopaedist  of  the  Middle  Ages,  was  prob- 
ably a native  of  Beauvais.  The  exact  dates  of  his 
birth  and  death  are  unknown.  A tolerably  old  tradi* 
tion,  preserved  by  Louis  a Valleoleti  (<r.  1413),  gives  the 
latter  as  1264,  but  Tholomaeus  de  Luca,  Vincent’s 
younger  contemporary  (ob,  1 321),  seems  to  reckon  him  as 
living  during  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  X.  (1272-1276), 
If  we  assume  1264  as  the  year  of  his  death,  the  im- 
mense volume  of  his  works  forbids  us  to  think  he  could 
have  been  ’ ora  much  later  than  1190.  Very  little  is 
known  of  his  career.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  he  at 
one  time  h the  post  of  “ reader  ” at  the  monastery  of 
Royaumont  ( Mons  Regalis ),  not  far  from  Paris,  on  the 
Oise,  founded  by  St.  Louis  between  1228  and  1235.  St 
Louis  read  the  books  that  he  compiled,  and  supplied  the 
funds  for  procuring  copies  of  such  authors  as  he  required 
for  his  compilations.  Queen  Margaret,  her  son  Philip, 
and  her  son-in-law  Theobald  V.  of  Champagne  and 
Navarre  are  also  named  among  those  who  urged  him  to 
the  composition  of  his  “ little  works,”  especially  the  De 
Institutione  Principum.  Though  Vincent  may  well 
have  been  summoned  to  Royaumont  even  before  1240. 
there  is  no  actual  proof  that  he  lived  there  before  the  re 
turn  of  Louis  IX.  and  his  wife  from  the  Holy  Land, 
early  in  the  summer  of  1254.  But  it  is  evident  that 
he  must  have  written  his  work  De  Eruditione Filiorum 
Regalium  (where  he  styles  hi  1V1  self  as  “ Vincentius  Bel- 
vacensis,  de  online  praedicatorum,  qualiscumque  lector 
in  monasterio  de  Regali  Monte  ”)  after  this  date  and  yet 
before  January,  1260,  the  approximate  date  of  his  Trac 
tatus  Consolatorius.  When  he  wrote  the  latter  work  he 
must  have  left  Royaumont,  as  he  speaks  of  returning 
from  the  funeral  of  Prince  Louis  (January  15,  1260) 
w ad  nostram  domum,”  a phrase  which  can  hardly  be  ex  - 
plained otherwise  than  as  referring  to  his  own  Domini 
can  house,  whether  at  Beauvais  or  elsewhere. 

VINCENT  of  Lerins,  St.,  an  ecclesiastical  writer 
of  the  Western  Church,  of  whose  personal  history 
hardly  anything  is  known,  except  that  he  was  a native 
of  Gaul,  possibly  brother  of  St.  Loup,  bishop  of 
Troyes,  that  he  became  a monk  and  priest  in  the  mon- 
astery of  Lerinum  (island  of  St.  Honorat  opposite 
Cannes),  and  that  he  died  in  or  about  450. 

VINCENT  DE  PAUL,  St.,  founder  of  the  “ Con- 
gregation of  Priests  of  the  Mission,”  usually  known 
as  Lazarites  ( q.v .),  was  bom  on  April  24,  1576, 
at  Pouy  near  Dax  (Landes).  After  passing  through 
the  school  at  Dax  he  studied  at  Toulouse,  and  was 
ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1600.  Some  time  after- 
ward, while  on  board  a felucca  off  Marseilles,  he  had 
the  misfortune  to  be  captured  by  Barbary  pirates, 
who  took  him  to  Tunis  and  sold  him  as  a slave. 
His  third  master,  who  happened  to  be  a renegade 
Italian,  he  succeeded  in  converting,  and  both  managed 
to  make  their  escape,  landing  at  Aigues-Mortes  neat 
Marseilles  in  June,  1607.  After  short  stays  at  Avignon 
and  Rome,  Vincent  found  his  way  to  Paris,  where  he 
became  favorably  known  to  Monsieur  (afterward 
Cardinal)  de  B£rulle,  who  was  then  engaged  in  founding 
the  congregation  of  the  French  Oratory.  In  1617  he 
accepted  the  curacy  of  CMtillon-l&s-Dombes  (or  sur- 
Chalaronne),  and  it  was  here  that  he  received  from  the 
countess  of  Joigny  the  means  by  which  he  was  enabled 
to  found  his  first  a confr^rie.”  The  subsequent  history 


6206  V I N 


of  the  priests  of  the  mission  will  oe  found  in  the  article 
Lazarites.  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  died  September  27, 
1660. 

VINCENT  FERRER,  St.,  a great  Spanish 
Dominican  preacher,  was  born  of  respectable  parentage 
at  Valencia  on  January  23,  1355.  In  February,  1374, 
he  took  the  Dominican  habit,  and  after  spending  some 
years  in  teaching,  and  in  completing  his  theological 
studies,  he  was  licensed  to  preach.  He  graduated  as 
doctor  of  theology  at  Lerida  in  1374,  and  his  sermons 
in  the  cathedral  of  Valencia  from  1385  onward  soon 
became  famous.  He  died  at  Vannes  on  April  5, 
1419,  and  was  canonized  by  Calixtus  III.  in  1455,  his 
festival  (duplex)  being  observed  on  April  5th. 

VINCI.  See  Leonardo  da  Vinci. 

VINDELICIA,  or  the  country  of  the  Vindelici,  is  a 
name  of  the  Roman  province  which  was  also  called 
Rhsetia  Secunda.  (See  Ridetia.) 

VINE.  Of  the  grape  vines  ( Vitis)  V.  vinifera  is 
the  species  best  known  and  longest  cultivated;  but  out 
of  ten  species  that  grow  wild  in  the  United  States  four 
(V.  rotundifolia%  V Labrusca , V.  cestivalis  and  V. 
cordifolia)  according  to  Engelmann,  are  cultivated  and 
have  given  origin  to  numerous  derivatives  used  for  wine- 
making purposes.  Some  of  the  American  varieties  have 
been  introduced  into  France  and  other  countries  in- 
fested with  Phylloxera , to  serve  as  stocks  on  which  to 
graft  the  better  kinds  of  European  vines,  because  their 
roots,  though  perhaps  equally  subject  to  the  attacks  of 
the  insects,  do  not  suffer  so  much  injury  from  them  as 
the  European  species.  American  vines  should  not, 
however,  be  introduced  for  grafting  or  other  purposes 
into  a vine-growingcoun  try  hitherto  free  from  Phylloxera , 
but  only  into  those  in  which  the  insect  has  already 
spread. 

Although  the  genus  Vitis  comprises,  according  to 
Bentham  and  Hooker,  more  than  two  hundred  species, 
mostly  natives  of  tropical  or  subtropical  regions,  yet 
less  than  half-a-dozen  species  have  any  economic  value, 
while  the  great  interest  centers  in  four  or  five  only. 

The  conformation  of  the  vine  stem  has  elicited  a vast 
amount  of  explanatory  comment.  The  most  generally 
accepted  explanation  is  the  “ sympodial  ” one.  Accord- 
ing to  this,  the  shoot  of  the  vine  is  a “sympode,”  con- 
sisting of  a number  of  “ podia  ” placed  one  over  the 
other  in  longitudinal  series.  Each  podium  consists  of 
a portion  of  the  stem  bearing  one  or  more  leaves,  each 
with  an  axillary  bud  or  buds,  and  terminating  in  a ten- 
dril or  an  inflorescence.  In  V.  Labrusca  there  is  a ten- 
dril opposite  to  each  leaf,  so  that  the  podium  bears  only 
a single  leaf.  In  other  species  there  is  a definite  ar- 
rangement of  the  leaves,  some  with  and  others  without 
tendrils  opposite  to  them,  the  numerical  order  remain- 
ing constant  or  nearly  so.  These  arrangements  have 
doubtless  some  reference  to  climatic  phenomena,  con- 
tinuity of  growth  being  arrested  by  cold  and  promoted 
by  warmth.  In  any  case  it  is  obvious  that  these  facts 
might  be  turned  to  practical  ends  in  cultivation. 

Practically  the  tendrils  assist  the  plant  in  its  native 
state  to  scramble  over  rocks  or  trees.  As  in  the  case  of 
similar  formations  generally,  they  are  endowed  with  a 
sensitiveness  to  touch  which  enables  them  to  grasp  and 
coil  themselves  round  any  suitable  object  which  comes  in 
their  way,  and  thus  to  support  the  plant.  The  tendrils  of 
the  Virginian  creeper  ( Vitis  or  A mpelopsis  hederacea ; the 
Parthenocissus  quinquefolia  of  Planchon)  are  branched, 
each  branch  terminating  in  a little  sucker-like  expan- 
sion by  means  of  which  it  adheres  firmly  to  walls  or 
rocks.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  J apanese  spe- 
cies now  so  commonly  grown  against  walls  under  the 
name  of  Ampelopsis  Veitchii  (the  Parthenocissus  tricus - 
tidata  of  Planchon).  The  extremities  of  these  tendrils 


turn  away  from  the  light,  and  by  this  means  they  are 
enabled  to  enter  crevices,  inside  which  they  expand  and 
fix  themselves,  just  as  the  lewis  or  key,  used  by  stone- 
masons, is  fixed  into  blocks  of  stone.  The  anomalous 
position  of  the  stamens  in  front  of  the  petals  is  ex- 
plained by  the  abortion  or  non-development  of  an  outer 
row  of  stamens,  indications  of  which  are  sometimes 
seen  on  the  hypogynous  disk  encircling  the  ovary.  The 
seeds  or  grape  stones  are  somewhat  club-shaped,  with 
a narrow  neck-like  portion  beneath,  which  expands  into 
a rounded  and  thickened  portion  above.  On  the  inner 
or  central  side  of  the  seed  is  a ridge  bounded  on  either 
side  by  a shallow  groove.  This  ridge  indicates  the 
point  of  union  of  the  “ raphe  w*or  seed-stalk  with  the 
seed;  it  serves  to  distinguish  the  varieties  of  V.  viniferc, 
from  those  of  other  species.  In  the  true  vines  the  neck 
of  the  seed  is  much  longer  than  in  the  American  vines, 
and  the  ridge  or  “chalaza  ” occupies  the  upper  half  of 
the  seed,  not  the  middle  portion,  as  in  the  American 
kinds.  In  endeavoring  to  trace  the  filiation  and  affinities 
of  the  vine,  the  characteristics  afforded  by  the  seed  are 
specially  valuable,  because  they  have  not  been  wittingly 
interfered  with  by  human  agency.  Characteristics  de- 
rived from  the  size,  color,  or  flavor  of  the  berry  are  of  less 
value  for  historical  or  genealogical  purposes  than  those 
which  are  the  outcome  of  purely  natural  conditions. 

The  native  country  ov  the  European  vine  is  consid- 
ered to  be  the  region  south  of  the  Caspian.  From  this 
presumed  center  it  has  spread  eastward  into  Central 
Asia  and  westward  to  both  sides  of  the  Mediterranean, 
Central  Europe,  and  as  far  north  as  Belgium  (Plan- 
chon). 

The  vine  requires  a high  summer  temperature  and  a 
prolonged  period  in  which  to  ripen  its  fruit.  Where 
these  are  forthcoming,  it  can  be  profitably  cultivated, 
even  though  the  winter  temperature  be  very  low. 
Tchihatchef  mentions  that  at  Envan  in  Russian  Armenia 
the  mean  winter  temperature  is  7.  i°  C.  and  falls  in 
January  to — 300  C.,  and  at  Bokhara  the  mean  tempera- 
ture of  January  is  40  C.  and  the  minimum — 22°  C.,  and 
yet  at  both  places  the  vine  is  grown  with  success.  In 
the  Alps  it  is  profitably  cultivated  up  to  an  altitude  of 
1,870  feet,  and  in  the  north  of  Piedmont  as  high  as  3,180 
feet.  At  the  present  time  the  limit  of  profitable  culti- 
vation in  Europe  passes  from  Brittany,  latitude  470  30', 
to  beyond  the  Rhine  by  Li£ge  and  through  Thuringia 
to  Silesia  in  latitude  510  55'  (Grisebach).  In  former 
centuries  vines  were  cultivated  to  the  north  of  this 
region,  as,  for  instance,  in  Holland,  in  Belgium  largely, 
and  in  England,  where  they  might  still  be  grown. 
Indeed,  experiments  have  lately  been  made  in  this  direc- 
tion near  Cardiff  in  South  Wales.  The  yield  is  satisfac- 
tory and  the  wine  made,  the  variety  known  as  Gamay 
noir,  is  described  as  being  like  still  champagne.  In  the 
Middle  Ages,  owing  to  various  causes,  the  better  wines 
of  France  and  Germany  could  not  be  obtained  in  Eng- 
land except  at  prohibitive  prices ; but,  when  this  state 
of  things  ceased  and  foreign  wines  could  be  imported, 
the  English  consumers  would  no  longer  tolerate  the  in- 
ferior productions  of  their  own  vineyards.  It  is  also 
probable  that  the  English  mixed  sugar  or  honey  with  the 
wine  and  thus  supplied  artificially  that  sweetness  which 
the  English  sun  denied.  It  is  a curious  fact  that  at  the 
present  day  much  or  even  most  of  the  wine  of  finest 
quality  is  made  at  or  near  the  northern  limits  of 
possible  cultivation  with  profit.  This  circumstance  is 
probably  explained  by  the  greater  care  and  attention 
bestowed  both  on  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  on  the 
manufacture  of  the  wine  in  northern  countries  than  in 
those  where  the  climate  is  more  propitious.  The  relative 
inferiority  of  the  wines  made  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
and  in  Australia  is  partly  due  to  variations  of  climate. 


V IN 


toe  vine  not  yet  having  adapted  itself  to  the  new  con- 
ditions, and  partly  to  the  deficient  skill  of  the  manu- 
facturers. That  such  inferiority  may  be  expected  to 
disappear  is  suggested  by  the  success  of  vine-culture  in 
Madeira  and  the  Canary  Islands. 

The  development  of  other  species  of  Vitis,  such  as  the 
curious  succulent  species  of  Soudan  and  other  parts  of 
equatorial  Africa,  or  the  numerous  kinds  in  India  and 
Cochin  China,  is  of  course  possible  under  suitable  con- 
ditions; but  it  is  obvious  that  an  extremely  long  period 
must  elapse  before  they  can  successfully  compete  with 
the  product  of  many  centuries. 

For  currants  and  raisins,  both  produced  by  varieties 
of  the  grapevine,  see  the  respective  articles. 

Apart  from  their  economic  value,  vines  are  often 
cultivated  for  purely  ornamental  purposes,  owing  to  the 
elegance  of  their  foliage,  the  rich  coloration  they  assume, 
the  shade  they  afford,  and  their  hardihood. 

Diseases  of  Vines. — The  organic  diseases  which 
affect  the  vine  may  be  divided  into  two  categories,  those 
caused  by  insects  and  those  caused  by  parasitic  fungi. 

Diseases  Caused  by  Insects. — Kaltenbach  in  1874 
enumerated  thirty-two  species  of  insects  which  injure 
the  vine;  and  since  then  others  have  been  added  to  the 
list.  We  here  deal  only  with  the  most  important. 
Among  those  which  attack  the  leaves  and  young  buds  a 
small  beetle,  Anomala  vitis , one  of  the  Scarabceidce , 
does  great  harm  in  some  parts  of  southern  Europe  by 
devouring  the  soft  tissue  of  the  leaves.  A genus  of 
weevils,  Otiorhynchus , contains  several  species  which 
are  injurious  to  the  vine,  chiefly  by  the  adult  beetle  de- 
vouring the  buds.  O.  raucus , hirticornis , picipes , nigri- 
tus,  ligustici , and  sulcatus  are  all  reported  from  vari- 
ous places  as  doing  much  damage;  the  larvae  of  the  last 
mentioned  species  attack  the  root  of  the  vine,  causing 
the  shoots  to  be  small  and  ultimately  bringing  about 
the  death  of  the  plant.  Fortunately  the  members  of 
this  genus  have  no  wings,  so  that  the  damage  they  cause 
is  to  a great  extent  localized.  The  same  kind  of  injury 
is  caused  by  a small  Chrysomeleous  beetle,  Eumolpus 
vitis.  The  larvae  of  several  Lepidoptera  attack  the  vine 
in  the  same  way,  destroying  the  young  buds.  Among 
these  Ncenia  typica,  Agrotis  tritici  and  A.  pronuba 
may  be  mentioned.  The  larvae  of  Tortrix  pilleriana 
in  the  early  spring  weave  the  young  vine  leaves  together, 
and,  inclosed  in  this  nest,  devour  the  soft  tissue  at 
leisure.  The  imago  emerges  from  the  chrysalis  in  July, 
and  shortly  after  lays  its  eggs  upon  the  upper  surface  of 
the  vine  leaf.  After  a few  weeks  the  caterpillars  emerge 
and  continue  their  work  of  destruction.  Lethrus  ceph- 
a botes,  one  of  the  Scarabceidce,  is  very  injurious  in  vine- 
yards which  have  a dry  sandy  soil.  The  beetles  live  in 
pairs  in  holes  in  the  ground;  during  the  summer  the 
beetle  bites  off  the  small  young  shoots  and  drags  them 
away  to  its  hole,  where  it  is  believed  they  serve  as  food 
for  the  larvae.  In  this  way  very  serious  damage  is 
caused  to  the  vine  plants.  Rhyne  kites  betuleti , a weevil, 
also  does  much  damage  to  the  young  shoots  and  leaves. 
The  grape*  are  attacked  by  the  caterpillar  of  a moth, 
Conchylis  ambiguella,  which  lays  its  egg  in  the  young 
fruit;  and  in  a similar  way  the  larva  of  Graptolitha 
(1 Conchylis  botrana)  attacks  the  flowers  and  fruit.  The 
larva  of  the  cockchafer,  Melolontha  vulgaris,  also  does 
much  damage  by  biting  through  and  devouring  the  roots. 
Coccus  vitis  is  a small  scale  insect  of  reddish  brown 
color,  with  irregular  black  spots  in  the  female,  which 
lives  in  the  bark  of  old  or  neglected  vines  and  weakens 
the  tree. 

By  far  the  most  destructive  of  all  insect  pests  which 
attack  the  cultivated  vine  is  Phylloxera  vastatrix. 
This  much-dreaded  insect  belongs  to  the  family  Aphidce 
or  plant  Uce  of  the  order  HemipUra..  The  een>ic  con- 


6207 

tains  several  species  which  live  upon  oak  trees.  Their 
proper  home  is  in  North  America;  but  they  have  been 
found  in  English  vineries  since  1863.  The  symptoms  of 
the  disease  first  appeared  in  France  about  the  same  time, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Tarascon.  From  the  depart- 
ment of  Gard  the  infection  spread  south  to  the  sea,  and 
east,  west,  and  north,  till  the  southeastern  corner  of 
France  was  thoroughly  infected.  Another  center  of 
infection  arose  a few  years  later  near  Bordeaux  in  Gi- 
ronde, whence  the  disease  spread  till  the  whole  of  the 
southern  half  of  France  was  more  or  less  severely  at- 
tacked. The  parasite  was  first  discovered  in  France  in 
the  year  1868.  The  Phylloxera  has  spread  to  Corsica; 
it  has  appeared  here  and  there  among  the  vineyards  of 
the  Rhine  and  Switzerland;  it  is  found  in  Spain  and 
Portugal,  Austria,  Hungary,  Italy,  and  Greece;  and  in 
1885  its  presence  was  discovered  in  Australia  (Victoria), 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in  Algeria.  Hence  it 
is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  with  very  few  exceptions 
its  distribution  is  co-extensive  with  that  of  the  cultivated 
grape-vine. 

The  symptoms  of  the  disease,  by  means  of  which  an 
infected  spot  may  be  readily  recognized,  are  these:  The 
vines  are  stunted  and  bear  few  leaves,  and  those  small 
ones.  When  the  disease  reaches  an  advanced  stage,  the 
leaves  are  discolored,  yellow,  or  reddish,  with  their 
edges  turned  back,  and  withered.  The  grapes  are  ar- 
rested in  their  growth  and  their  skin  is  wrinkled.  If  the 
roots  are  examined,  numerous  fusiform  swellings  are 
found  upon  the  smaller  rootlets.  These  are  at  first  yel- 
lowish in  color  and  fleshy;  but  as  they  grow  older  they 
become  rotten  and  assume  a brown  or  black  color.  I i 
the  roots  on  which  these  swellings  occur  be  examined 
with  a lens,  a number  of  minute  insects  of  a yellowish 
brown  color  are  observed;  these  are  the  root-forms  (radi- 
cola)  of  Phylloxera. 

The  natural  enemies  of  the  Phylloxera  are  few  in 
number:  they  include  some  mites, — Hoplophora  arctata 
Thyroglyphus  phylloxerce, — and  the  millepede  Polyx- 
enus  lagurus , which  devours  the  subterranean  forms. 
Innumerable  artifices  have  been  proposed  to  combat 
the  terrible  disease  caused  by  this  minute  insect,  but 
none  of  them  seem  to  be  completely  successful.  As 
a rule  the  means  suggested  are  to  render  the  soil  unin- 
habitable for  the  root  forms  by  injecting  certain  chem- 
ical poisons.  Since  the  importance  of  the  winter  egg 
in  the  life-history  of  the  insect  was  demonstrated  by 
Balbiani,  attempts  have  been  made  to  destroy  these 
eggs  by  rubbing  the  branches  with  a chain  armor 
glove,  or  some  such  contrivance  for  removing  the 
outer  layers  of  the  bark,  which  should  be  burnt- 
Again,  certain  varieties  of  American  vines,  which 
have  the  reputation  of  being  Phylloxera  proof, 
have  been  grafted  on  European  stocks;  but  this  has 
proved  to  be  only  a doubtful  success  as  regards  the 
Phylloxera , while  the  wine  made  from  such  vines  has 
undoubtedly  deteriorated.  The  treatment  which  has 
been  most  successful  is  periodically  to  submerge 
the  vineyard  for  a period  of  not  less  than  forty 
days.  Where  this  plan  has  been  tried  it  has  been  most 
successful;  unfortunately  the  majority  of  vineyards 
are  planted  on  hillsides  and  other  places  where  this 
method  of  treatment  is  impracticable.  The  root- 
dwelling forms  do  not  thrive  in  a sandy  soil;  hence 
vines  grown  in  a district  where  such  soil  is  found 
usually  escape  the  disease. 

Fungoid  Diseases. — The  most  destructive  form  of 
fungoid  disease  which  attacks  the  vine  is  caused  by  a 
Pyrenomycetous  fungus,  Oidiurn  ( Erysiphe ) Tuckeri. 
The  disease  was  first  noticed  in  England  in  1845;  in 
1848  it  appeared  at  Versailles;  by  1851  it  had  spread 
through  all  the  Droducing  countries  of  Europe, 


6zo8 


V I N 


being  especially  virulent  in  the  lands  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean;  and  in  the  following  year  it  made  its 
appearance  in  Madeira.  There  is  little  doubt  that,  like 
the  Phylloxera , the  Oidium  is  in  its  origin  American. 
The  disease  is  characterized  by  the  appearance  of  a 
white  mycelium  on  the  young  leaves;  this  spreads 
quickly  and  attacks  the  older  leaves  and  branches,  and 
ultimately  reaches  the  grapes.  At  first  these  are 
marked  only  by  small  brown  spots;  but  the  spots 
spread  and  fuse  together,  the  skin  of  the  grape  is  de- 
stroyed, and  the  flesh  decays,  the  seed  only  remaining 
apparently  untouched.  The  disease  spreads  by  the 
mycelium  growing  over  the  epidermis  of  the  plant. 
The  hyphae  composing  the  mycelium  are  provided  with 
haustona,  which  project  into  the  cells  of  the  affected 
art.  Some  of  the  hyphae  which  project  from  the  leaf 
ear  conidia,  which  are  constricted  off  one  at  a time, 
and  it  is  by  their  means  that  the  fungus  spreads.  The 
perithecia  have  not  yet  been  discovered  in  Europe.  But 
it  is  not  impossible  that  this  stage  of  the  life-history  of 
Oidium  exists  in  the  United  States  in  the  form  of 
Uncinula  spiralis , which  causes  a widely  spread  disease 
among  the  American  vines.  The  Oidium  is  in  its 
turn  attacked  by  a fungus  of  the  same  tribe,  Cicinno- 
holus  Cesatii , De  By,  which  lives  parasitically  within 
the  hyphae  of  its  host,  and  at  times  even  succeeds  in 
destroying  it.  The  means  which  have  proved  most  effi- 
cacious, both  as  a remedy  and  a preventive  of  this  dis- 
ease, is  to  scatter  flowers  of  sulphur  over  the  vines, 
before  the  morning  dew  has  evaporated.  Another 
method  is  to  boil  one  part  of  lime  with  three  parts  of 
sulphur,  and  to  sprinkle  the  mixture  over  the  affected 
plants. 

Another  fungus  which  attacks  vines,  especially  those 
of  America,  is  Peronospora  viticola.  The  mycelium 
spreads  through  the  green  parts  of  the  plant,  attacking 
the  leaves,  twigs,  and  unripe  grapes.  On  the  upper 
side  of  the  leaf,  where  it  is  first  visible,  it  forms  pale 
green,  irregular  spots,  which  become  darker  in  color. 
On  the  under  side  of  the  leaf  these  patches  are  white 
and  are  composed  of  the  spore-bearing  hyphae.  The 
leaf  ultimately  becomes  dried  up  and  brittle.  The 
grapes  which  are  attacked  cease  to  grow,  turn  brown  or 
white,  and  ultimately  dry  up  and  fall  off.  This  disease 
has  been  successfully  treated  with  a spray  of  copper 
sulphate  and  lime,  or  sulphate  of  iron;  solutions  of 
these  salts  prevent  the  conidia  from  germinating. 

Anthracnose  is  the  name  usually  given  to  a disease 
which  was  formerly  known  as  “charbon,”  “pech,”  or 
“ brenner.”  This  disease  is  caused  by  the  parasitism  of 
Sphaceloma  ampelinum , one  of  the  Pyrenomycetous 
fungi.  The  fungus  assails  all  the  green  parts  of  the 
vine,  and  injures  the  leaves  and  young  shoots  as  much 
as  it  does  the  grape  itself.  The  first  sign  of  its  presence 
is  the  appearance  of  a minute  spot,  which  is  grayish  in 
the  center,  with  a brown  border,  and  which  increases  in 
iize;  in  the  stalks  it  assumes  an  oval  shape,  with  its 
long  axis  parallel  to  the  stalk,  while  in  the  leaves  and 
grapes  it  is  more  or  less  circular  in  outline.  The 
center  of  the  spots  on  the  grapes  becomes  darker  as  the 
disease  advances,  and  a red  line  appears  dividing  the 
dark  brown  border  into  an  outer  and  an  inner  rim  and 
giving  a very  characteristic  appearance  to  the  diseased 
plant.  The  berries  do  not  shrivel  up  as  those  do  that 
are  affected  by  the  black  rot.  The  mycelium  oi  Sphace- 
loma grows  just  beneath  the  cuticle  of  the  vine,  through 
which  it  soon  bursts,  giving  rise  to  a number  of  minute 
hyphae,  which  bear  conidia.  These  are  minute,  oval, 
colorless  spores,  which  serve  to  spread  the  disease  over 
the  vineyard  and  from  place  to  place.  The  complete 
life-history  of  this  form  is  at  present  unknown;  and  in- 
formation as  to  where  the  fungus  passes  the  winter,  and 


in  what  form,  would  probably  afford  some  useful 
indications  as  to  the  method  that  should  be  adopted  to 
combat  the  disease.  Anthracnose  has  been  known  in 
Europe  for  many  years,  but  has  only  been  observed  in 
America  since  1881,  whither  it  was  probably  imported 
from  the  Old  World.  As  a preventive  to  its  attacks 
a solution  (50  per  cent.)  of  iron  sulphate  has  been  found 
very  useful,  as  well  as  care  in  planting  on  well-drained 
soil  that  does  not  lie  too  low,  the  disease  seldom  ap- 
pearing in  dry,  well-exposed  vineyards. 

The  black  rot,  like  the  Oidium  and  P.  viticola , is 
American  in  its  origin.  It  has  been  known  and  observed 
there  since  1848,  but  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  France 
in  1885.  The  disease  is  caused  by  a fungus,  Physalos 
pora  Bidwelliiy  Sacc.  (Photna  uvicola),  one  of  the 
Pyrenomycetes,  and  by  some  authorities  it  has  been  con- 
sidered to  be  a further  stage  in  the  life-history  of  Spha- 
celoma. The  fungus  confines  its  attacks  to  the  grapes, 
the  leaves  and  stems  being  rarely  if  ever  affected.  The 
grapes  are  not  assailed  until  nearly  full-grown,  when  a 
brownish  spot  appears,  which  spreads  over  the  whole 
grape.  The  latter  at  first  retains  its  plumpness,  but  on 
the  appearance  of  little  black  pustules,  which  first  occur 
on  the  part  first  affected,  the  grape  begins  to  shrivel. 
This  continues  until  the  grape  is  reduced  to  a black, 
hard  mass,  with  the  folds  of  skin  pressed  closely  against 
the  seed.  The  disease  does  not  spread  from  grape  to 
grape,  so  that  as  a rule  only  a certain  number  of  grapes 
in  a bunch  are  destroyed.  The  hyphae  of  the  mycelium 
of  this  fungus  are  separate,  with  numerous  short 
branches.  The  pustules  on  the  surface  are  due  to  fructi- 
fications, pycnidia,  and  spermagonia.  The  presence  of 
conidia  has  also  been  recently  demonstrated.  The 
fungus  passes  the  winter  in  the  withered  grapes  which 
fall  to  tne  ground  ; hence  every  care  should  be  taken 
to  collect  these  and  burn  them.  The  use  of  the  solu- 
tions mentioned  above  may  also  be  recommended  as  a 
preventive. 

Among  the  other  fungi  which  infest  the  vine  may  be 
mentioned  Phyllosticta  viticola  and  Ph.  Labrusca ',  which, 
when  the  attack  is  severe,  cause  the  destruction  of  the 
leaves,  the  only  part  they  assail.  These,  like  the  fore- 
going, are  members  of  the  Pyrenomycetes.  To  the 
same  class  belongs  also  Cercospora  vitis  (Cladosporium 
viticolum),  which  has  club-shaped  spores  of  a green- 
brown  color.  This  also  attacks  the  leaves ; but,  unless 
the  season  is  extremely  unfavorable,  it  does  little  harm. 

A very  disastrous  root-disease  of  the  vine  is  due  to 
the  ravages  of  the  fungus  Dematophora  necatrix,  which 
forms  subterranean  strings  of  mycelium — so-called  rhizo- 
morphs — the  fructification  of  which  is  as  yet  not  known? 
it  forms  conidia  and  sclerotia,  however,  and  presents 
certain  analogies  to  the  Discomycetes.  The  diseased 
roots  have  been  confounded  with  those  attacked  by 
Phylloxera.  The  only  mode  of  combating  the  malady 
seems  to  be  to  uproot  the  plants  and  burn  them.  Isola- 
tion of  the  diseased  areas  by  means  of  trenches  has  also 
been  practiced.  This  fungus  has  extended  its  ravages 
considerably  in  southern  France  and  Switzerland  within 
the  last  ten  years. 

VINEA.  See  Vigna. 

VINEGAR  is  a dilute  form  of  acetic  acid,  having  a 
flavor  that  varies  according  to  the  source  from  which  it 
is  obtained.  Vinegar  has  been  known  from  the 
earliest  historical  period,  and  its  power  of  acting  on 
and  dissolving  mineral  substances  rendered  it  an  im- 
portant agent  in  the  hands  of  the  alchemists.  They 
were,  however,  unacquainted  with  pure  acetic  acid;  the 
most  concentrated  solution  they  possessed,  called 
spiritus  veneris , was  obtained  by  distillation  from 
cupric  acetate  (verdigris).  The  nature  of  acetous  fer- 
mentation, and  the  rationale  of  the  processes  by  which 


YIN 


VIO 


vinegar  is  prepared,  are  explained  under  Fermenta- 
tion ; and  the  acetic  acid,  obtained  by  the  destructive 
distillation  of  wood,  is  dealt  with  under  Tar.  Here  we 
have  to  do  only  with  the  various  kinds  of  vinegar  used 
for  table,  medicinal,  and  other  household  purposes. 
Malt,  wine,  and  beetroot  vinegars  are  made  by  the 
slow  process,  while  for  the  quick  method  dilute 
brandy  or  other  spirit  is  most  largely  employed. 

Cider  Vinegar. — The  form  preferred  in  this  country 
is  made  by  crushing  apples,  and  expressing  their  juice, 
and  allowing  it  to  ferment  to  a point  at  which  fermen- 
tation ceases.  It  will  then  be  converted  into  vinegar, 
which  is  said  to  be  superior  to  any  other. 

Malt  vinegar  is  the  preparation  commonly  manufact- 
ured in  the  United  Kingdom,  the  high  alcoholic  duties 
ther:  excluding  the  use  of  spirits  in  the  industry.  A 
fermented  wort  is  prepared,  as  in  brewing,  which  is  run 
into  casks  laid  on  their  side,  bung-hole  upwards,  till 
they  are  three-fourths  filled.  These  casks  have  a hole 
bored  in  each  end  near  the  top,  and  between  the  three 
holes  a constant  circulation  of  air  is  secured  over  the 
surface  of  the  liquid.  The  casks  are  disposed  in  low- 
roofed  vaults,  artificially  heated,  in  which  free  circula- 
tion of  air  is  kept  up;  but  sometimes  the  process  is 
carried  on  in  the  open  air  in  what  is  termed  a vinegar 
field.  According  to  the  temperature  (which  should  be 
about  700  Fahr.)  and  other  conditions,  the  acetification 
of  the  wort  may  occupy  from  weeks  to  months.  From 
the  casks  the  vinegar  is  transferred  to  large  tuns  pro- 
vided with  false  bottoms,  over  which  a thick  layer  of 
stalks  and  skins  of  grapes  and  raisins,  etc.,  termed 
rapes,  is  strewn.  Through  this  the  vinegar  is  filtered 
from  one  tun  into  another,  whereby  it  is  cleared  from 
mucilaginous  matter  and  the  last  traces  of  alcohol  are 
thoroughly  oxidized.  Wine  vinegar  is  made  in  France 
and  other  vine-cultivating  countries  from  wine  lees  and 
inferior  wines.  The  finest  vinegar  is  yielded  by  white 
wines,  the  product  being  purer,  pleasanter,  and  gener- 
ally stronger  than  ordinary  malt  vinegar.  Vinegar  is 
also  largely  prepared  from  beetroot,  from  the  juice  of 
other  saccharine  vegetables  and  fruits,  and  from  sugar; 
and  indeed  all  sources  of  alcohol  may  be  regarded  as 
possible  materials  for  making  vinegar.  Quick  method 
vinegar  is  made,  principally  in  Germany,  from  dilute 
spirit  (about  one  of  proof  spirit  to  six  of  water),  to 
which  are  added  small  proportions  of  sugar,  honey,  or 
malt  extract.  The  standard  liquor  used  by  different 
manufacturers  varies  considerably.  The  process  is  also 
used  to  some  extent  in  England  for  converting  fer- 
mented and  clarified  malt  wort  into  vinegar.  Com- 
mercial vinegar  varies  much  in  strength.  What  is 
termed  “ proof  ” vinegar  contains  4.6  per  cent,  of  real 
acetic  acid;  and,  as  it  requires^  twenty-four  grains  of 
anhydrous  carbonate  of  soda  to  neutralize  each  fluid 
ounce,  it  is  also  Known  as  No.  24.  In  the  same  way 
weaker  qualities  are  known  as  No.  22,  No.  20,  etc., 
these  figures  indicating  the  grains  of  carbonate  of  soda 
which  neutralize  a fluid  ounce. 

Vinegar  is  extensively  consumed  in  the  preparation 
of  pickles  and  sauces,  and  as  a table  condiment,  espe- 
cially with  salad  vegetables  and  fish.  F or  many  culin- 
ary purposes  it  is  flavored  with  aromatic  herbs  and 
spices.  Aromatic  vinegar,  made  from  glacial  acetic 
acid  and  perfumes,  possesses  a refreshing  stimulating 
pungency,  as  is  familiarly  known  by  its  use  in  vinai- 
grettes. Marseilles  vinegar,  or  thieves’  vinegar,  is  an 
aromatic  preparation  used  as  a prophylactic  and  masker 
of  evil  odors.  Vinegar  is  also  a menstruum  for  several 
medicinal  agents  ; and  in  a concentrated  condition  it  is 
a valuable  rubefacient  and  external  stimulant. 

VINELAND,  a post-town  located  and  established 
iD  Cumbbrland  county,  N.  J.,  during  1861,  has  since 


6209 

that  date  annually  grown  in  wealth,  population,  and  im* 
portance.  It  is  situated  on  the  West  Jersey  railroad  at 
its  intersection  with  the  Vineland  road,  35  miles  from 
Philadelphia  and  1 15  from  New  York  city,  being  also 
within  easy  distance  of  the  leading  cities  of  the  State. 
Fruit-growing  and  farming  are  extensively  engaged  in 
throughout  the  surrounding  country,  for  which  Vine- 
land  is  the  receiving  and  distributing  center,  at  the 
same  time  conducting  large  and  varied  lines  of  manu- 
facturing industries.  Among  these  are  foundries  and 
machine  shops,  boot  and  shoe,  clothing  and  glove 
factories,  saw-mills,  edge-tool  works,  incubators,  brass 
novelties,  buttons,  glass,  rugs,  patent  medicines,  bake- 
pans,  band-saws,  wine,  brick,  hardware,  etc,  etc. , all  of 
which  are  steadily  adding  to  the  volume  of  business 
transacted  each  season.  The  city  contains  two  banks, 
one  daily  and  two  weekly  papers,  also  one  semi- 
monthly and  two  monthly  publications,  eleven  churches, 
a high  school,  several  large  hotels,  four  public  halls, 
and  many  stores  and  other  trade  resorts.  The  fruit,  in- 
cluding peaches,  grapes,  etc.,  shipped  from  Vineland  to 
the  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  other  markets  of  sup- 
ply, enjoy  an  enviable  reputation.  The  population  o^ 
Vineland  has  increased  from  3,000  in  1880  to  4,370  in 
1900. 

VI  NET,  Alexandre  Rodolphe,  a French  critic 
though  not  a Frenchman,  was  born  near  Lausanne,  on 
June  17,  1797.  Vinet’s  Chrestomathie  Fran  (a  is  e 
(1829)  his  Ettides  sur  la  Littirature  Frangaise  au 
XlXhne  Siecle  and  his  Histoire  de  la  Litterature 
Frangaise  au  XVIIIeme  Siecle,  together  with  his  Etudes 
sur  Pascal , Etudes  sur  les  Moralistes  des  X VIeme  et 
XVI lime  Siecles , Histoire  de  la  Predication  pendant 
les  Reformes , and  other  books  gave  evidence  of  a wide 
knowledge  of  literature,  a sober  and  acute  literary  judg- 
ment, and  a very  considerable  faculty  of  appreciation. 
On  the  whole  he  belongs  to  the  academic  school  of 
critics  rather  than  to  the  romantic-impressionist  school. 
Vinet  died  on  May  15,  1847,  at  Clarens  (Vaud).  A 
considerable  part  of  his  works  was  not  printed  until 
after  his  death. 

VINNITSA,  a district  town  of  Russia,  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Podolia,  is  situated  on  the  Bug,  137  miles 
to  the  northeast  of  Kamenets-Podolsk,  and  29 
by  rail  from  the  Zhmerinka  junction  on  the  rail- 
way from  Odessa  to  Lemberg.  It  was  founded  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  but  nothing  now  remains  of  its  two 
stone  forts.  Its  old  Jesuit  college  is  now  a gymnasium. 
Owing  to  the  great  fertility  of  the  neighborhood,  there 
are  a number  of  distilleries;  and  the  Vinnitsa  mer- 
cnants,  mostly  Jews,  carry  on  trade  in  grain  and  spirits. 
The  population  in  1898  was  28,995. 

VIOL.  See  Violin. 

VIOLET.  The  violets  comprise  a genus  of  at  least 
IOO,  some  say  200,  species,  found  principally  in  temperate 
regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere;  a few  also  occur  in 
mountainous  districts  of  South  America,  while  the  genus 
is  not  wholly  without  representatives  in  Australia.  The 
species  are  mostly  low-growing  herbs  with  alternate 
leaves  provided  with  large  leafy  stipules.  The  flowers  are 
solitary,  or  rarely  in  pairs,  at  the  end  of  slender  axillary 
flower-stalks.  The  flowers  themselves  are  very  irregu- 
lar in  form,  with  five  sepals  prolonged  at  the  base,  and 
five  petals,  the  lowest  one  larger  than  the  others  and 
provided  with  a spur. 

V.  odorata  is  highly  prized  for  its  fragrance,  and  in 
cultivation  numerous  varieties  have  originated.  The 
garden  pansies  or  heartseases  are  derivatives  from  V. 
tricolor , a cornfield  weed,  V.  altaica , and  V.  grandi - 
flora.  They  are  reputed  to  have  been  first  raised, 
about  1810,  by  Lady  Marv  Bennet,  with  the  assistance 
of  her  gardener,  Mr.  Richardson,  the  term  pansy?  K 


6210 


VIO 


pensee  having  been  long  attributed  to  V.  tricolor.  The 
variety  and  richness  of  coloring  in  these  flowers  are 
very  remarkable.  “ Bedding  violas,”  which  differ  from 
pansies  in  some  slight  technical  details,  have  been  raised 
by  crossing  V.  lutea  with  V.  calcarata.  The  violas  are 
credited  with  powerful  emetic  and  diuretic  properties, 
on  which  account  they  have  been  admitted  into  son  of 
the  pharmacopoeias;  but  they  are  now  very  little  used. 

VIOLIN,  a stringed  instrument  employed  in  orchestral 
and  chamber  music.  The  body  is  a resonant  box, 
composed  of  a belly,  back,  and  six  ribs,  all  shaped  out 
of  thin  wood  to  various  curves,  the  belly  and  back  being 
scooped  out  of  solid  slabs,  and  the  ribs  planed  and  bent. 
The  whole  is  glued  together  upon  six  internal  blocks. 
Pine  is  used  for  the  belly,  maple  for  the  other  parts. 
The  external  surface  is  covered  with  a fine  hard  varnish 
of  a brown,  red,  orange,  or  yellow  color,  which  renders 
the  box  more  resonant.  To  this  box  is  glued  a solid 
neck  or  handle,  slightly  inclined  to  the  plane  of  the  box, 
and  along  the  whole  instrument  four  gut  strings  are 
stretched  by  means  of  as  many  pegs  and  a tail-piece. 
They  are  tuned  in  fifths,  and  set  in  vibration  with  a bow, 
strung  with  horsehair  well  rubbed  with  rosin,  which  is 
held  in  the  right  hand,  the  scale  being  completed  by 
stopping  the  strings  with  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand, 
in  which  the  instrument  is  held,  on  an  ebony  finger- 
board glued  to  the  handle,  and  projecting  over  the  body 
of  the  fiddle.  The  movable  bridge,  across  which  the 
strings  are  strained,  forms  the  spring  or  mechanical 
center  of  the  violin,  and  answers  co  the  reed  in  wood 
wind  instruments.  It  has  two  feet,  of  which  the  treble 
or  right  hand  one  rests  firmly  on  that  part  of  the  belly 
which  is  supported  by  a sound-post  resting  on  the  back, 
thus  forming  a rigid  center  of  vibration,  while  the  bass 
or  left-hand  foot,  resting  on  the  freely- vibrating  part  of 
ihe  belly,  communicates  to  it,  and  through  it  to  the  air 
in  the  box,  the  vibrations  which  the  bow  excites  in  the 
strings.  The  belly  is  strengthened,  and  its  vibration 
regulated  and  increased,  by  a longitudinal  bar  glued 
inside  it  exactly  under  the  bass  foot  of  the  bridge. 
Two  incisions  in  the  belly,  called  sound-holes,  from 
their  letting  out  the  sound,  also  facilitate  and  modify  the 
vibration.  The  middle  pair  of  ribs  on  each  side  have 
an  inward  curvature,  to  afford  the  bow  better  access  to 
the  strings.  The  superficial  area  of  the  belly  is  divided 
by  the  bridge  into  two  approximately  equal  parts,  for 
an  obvious  acoustical  reason ; but  the  upper  half  is 
longer  and  narrower  than  the  lower,  which  is  relatively 
short  and  broad.  This  device  gives  greater  length  to  the 
vibrating  portion  of  the  strings,  and  hence  greater 
compass  to  the  instrument.  It  also  brings  the  bowing 
place  on  the  strings  nearer  to  the  player. 

The  viol  is  an  instrument,  or  rather  a family  of  in- 
struments, of  merit  and  interest,  though  now  super- 
seded by  the  violin,  with  the  exception  of  the  double 
bass,  which  still  survives  as  a practical  instrument. 
The  following  are  the  points  in  which  the  viol  differs 
from  the  violin: 


The  Viol  has — 

1.  A flat  back  of  joiner’s  work. 

2.  Shoulders  with  a contrary 

flexure  in  the  pattern,  and 
an  oblique  slope  in  the 
back. 

3.  A high  bridge  mounted  on 

legs. 

C-shaped,  sometimes  “flam- 
ing sword,”  sound  holes. 

5.  A thin  broad  handle. 

6.  Six  or  seven  strings,  tuned 

by  fourths  and  a third. 

7.  Square  or  obtuse  corners. 

8.  Deep  ribs. 

q.  A soft  penetrating  tone. 

Tn  the  matter  of  4.  and  7 


The  Violin  has — 

1.  A scooped-out  back,  mod- 

elled like  the  belly. 

2.  Square  shoulders,  and  a top 

like  the  bottom. 

3.  A low  bridge  with  feet  only. 
4 /shaped  sound  holes. 

5.  A thick  narrow  handle. 

6.  Four  strings  tuned  by  fifths. 

7.  Acute  corners. 

8.  Shallow  ribs. 

9.  A ringing  brilliant  tone. 

a few  viols,  made  after  the 


violin  had  been  perfected,  and  chiefly  Italian,  follow  the 
violin.  The  modern  double  bass  also  follows  the  violin 
in  these  points  and  in  5.  The  viol  was  made  in  three 
main  kinds—  discant,  tenor  and  base — answering  to  the 
cantus,  medius,  and  bassus  of  vocal  music.  Each  of 
these  three  kinds  admitted  of  some  variation  in  dimen- 
sions, especially  the  bass,  of  which  three  distinct  sizes 
ultimately  came  to  be  made — (1)  the  largest,  called  the 
concert  bass  viol;  (2)  thedivision  or  solo  bass  viol,  usually 
known  by  its  Italian  name  of  viola  da  gamba;  and  (3) 
the  lyra  or  tablature  bass  viol.  The  normal  tuning  of 
the  viols,  as  laid  down  in  the  earliest  books,  was  adapted 
from  the  lute  to  the  bass  viol,  and  repeated  in  higher 
intervals  in  the  rest.  The  fundamental  idea,  as  in  the 
lute,  was  that  the  outermost  strings  should  be  two 
octaves  apart — hence  the  intervals  of  fourths  with  a 
third  in  the  middle. 

The  violin,  as  the  name  imports,  is  a modified  form  of 
the  viol,  an  instrument  constructed  on  exactly  similar 
principles,  though  different  in  every  detail.  It  dates 
from  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century ; the  viol  was 
perfected  somewhat  earlier. 

The  earliest  use  of  the  viols  was  to  double  the  parts 
of  vocal  concerted  music;  they  were  next  employed  in 
special  compositions  for  the  viol  trio  written  in  the  same 
compass.  Many  such  works  in  the  form  of  “ fantasies  ” 
or  “ fancies,”  and  preludes  with  suites  in  dance  form,  by 
the  masters  of  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries,  exist  in  manuscript;  a set  by  Orlando  Gib- 
bons, which  are  good  specimens,  has  been  published 
by  the  English  Musical  Antiquarian  Society.  Later, 
the  viols,  especially  the  bass,  were  employed  as  solo  in- 
struments, the  methods  of  composition  and  execution 
being  based  on  those  of  the  lute. 

The  violin  was  produced  by  applying  to  the  viol  certain 
principles  borrowed  from  its  smaller  predecessors.  It 
would  be  equally  correct  to  say  that  it  was  produced 
by  applying  to  the  geige  other  principles  borrowed  from 
the  viol.  Tradition  indicates  one  of  the  Tieffen- 
briickers,  a German  family  whose  members  for  more 
than  a century  were  famous  lute-makers  in  Venetia  and 
Lombardy,  as  the  inventor.  The  earliest  instrument 
of  the  violin  type  known  is  a tenor  made  by  Fr.  Linaroli 
of  Bergamo,  at  Venice,  in  1563;  and  the  earliest  makers 
whose  authentic  works  have  descended  to  us  in  con- 
siderable numbers  are  Gaspar  da  Said  and  Maggini, 
both  of  Brescia. 

The  early  Italian  school  is  chiefly  represented  by  the 
Brescian  makers,  Gaspar  da  Salo,  Giovanni  Paolo  Mag- 
gini, Giovita  Rodiani,  and  thetwoZanettos  (1580-1630). 
It  is,  however,  misleading  to  denominate  it  the  Bres- 
cian school,  for  its  characteristics  are  shared  by  the 
earliest  makers  of  Cremona  and  Venice.  To  eyes 
familiar  with  the  geometrical  curves  of  the  later  Cre- 
mona school  most  of  the  violins  of  these  makers,  like 
the  early  violins  of  England  and  Germany,  have  a rude 
and  uncouth  appearance.  The  height  of  the  model 
varies  ; the  pattern  is  attenuated  ; the  /-holes  share  the 
general  rudeness  of  design,  and  are  set  high  in  the  pat. 
tern.  Andreas  Amati  of  Cremona,  the  eldest  maker  oi 
that  name,  effected  some  improvements  on  this  primi- 
tive model  ; but  the  violin  owes  most  to  his  sons,  An- 
tonio and  Geronimo,  who  were  partners.  Nicholas, 
son  of  Geronimo,  and  Antonio  Stradivari,  the  pupil  of 
Nicholas,  each  did  something  to  perfect  the  model ; 
but  the  substantial  improvements  which  converted  the 
Brescian  violin  into  the  modern  instrument  were  the 
work  of  Antonio  and  Geronimo.  These  improvements, 
which  were,  in  fact,  of  an  artistic  rather  than  a scien- 
tific nature,  consisted  in  modeling  the  instrument  iq 
all  its  outlines  and  surfaces  to  regular  curves.  Paint 
ing  and  inlaying  had  long  been  employed  in  the  decora 


V 

tion  oC  stringed  instruments ; but  the  brothers  Amati 
were  the  first  who  applied  to  the  violin  the  fundamental 
law  of  decorative  art,  that  the  decorative  and  construct- 
ive elements  should  be  blended  in  their  inception ; in 
other  words,  the  construction  should  be  itself  decora- 
tive and  the  decoration  itself  constructive.  The  nature 
of  the  instrument  suggested  the  application  of  this  law, 
for  all  extraneous  additions  to  the  varnished  wood  of 
which  it  consists  tend  to  damp  the  tone.  Nicholas 
Amati  (1596-1684)  made  some  slight  improvements  in 
the  Cremona  model,  and  Antonio  Stradivari  (1649- 
1737)  finally  settled  the  typical  Cremona  pattern,  which 
has  been  generally  followed;  for  the  majority  of  violins 
since  made,  whether  by  good  or  bad  makers,  are  copies 
of  Stradivari.  Besides  the  last  named,  the  following 
makers  worked  generally  on  the  Amati  model — Cappa, 
Gobetti,  the  Grancino  family,  Andreas  Guarnieri,  and 
his  son  Giuseppe,  the  Ruggieri  family,  and  Serafin  of 
Venice.  Balestrieri,  the  Bergonzi  family,  Alessandro 
Gagliano,  the  earlier  members  of  the  Guadagnini 
family,  Montagnana,  and  Panormo  were  pupils  or  fol- 
lowers of  Stradivari.  Landolfi,  Storioni,  and  Carlo 
Giuseppe  Testore,  a pupil  of  Giovanni  Grancino,  leaned 
to  the  model  of  Giuseppe  Guarnieri  del  Gesu.  Some 
resemblances,  especially  in  the  matter  of  the  varnish, 
are  traceable  between  the  works  of  makers  who  lived 
contemporaneously  in  the  same  town,  e.g .,  in  Naples, 
Milan,  and  Venice. 

The  Amati  method  was  adapted  to  the  higher  model 
by  Jacob  Stainer  of  Absam,  near  Hall  in  Tyrol,  whose 
well-known  pattern  was  chiefly  followed  by  the  makers 
of  England,  Tyrol,  and  Germany,  down  to  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  thenceforward  fell  into 
disuse,  owing  to  the  superior  musical  qualifies  of  the 
Cremona  violin  and  to  improved  means  of  communica- 
tion, which  enabled  the  violin-makers  of  other  coun- 
tries to  procure  wood  sufficiently  soft  and  tenacious  to 
be  worked  to  the  flat  model.  The  school  of  Stainer  is 
represented  among  many  others  by  Albani,  Hornsteiner, 
the  Klotz  family  (who  made  large  numbers  of  instru- 
ments excellent  in  their  kind),  Schorn  of  Salzburg,  and 
Withalm  of  Nuremberg.  The  English  makers  may  be 
divided  into  three  successive  groups  : 1.  an  antique 

English  school,  having  a character  of  its  own  (Ray man, 
Urquhart,  Pamphilon,  Barak  Norman,  Duke  of  Ox- 
ford, etc.);  2.  imitators  of  Stainer,  at  the  head  of 
whom  stands  Peter  Wamsley  (Smith,  Barrett,  Cross, 
Hill,  Aireton,  Norris,  etc.);  3.  a later  school  who 
leaned  to  the  Cremona  model  (Banks,  Duke  of  Hol- 
born,  Betts,  the  Forsters,  Gilkes,  Carter,  Fendt, 
Parker,  Harris,  Matthew  Hardie  of  Edinburgh,  etc.) 
The  early  French  makers  have  little  merit  or  interest 
(Bocquay,  Gavinies,  Pierray,  Guersan,  etc.);  but  the 
later  copyists  of  the  Cremona  models  (Lupot,  Aldric, 
Chanot,  the  elder,  Nicholas,  Pique,  Silvestre,  Vuil- 
laume,  etc. ) produced  admirable  instruments,  some  of 
which  rank  next  in  merit  to  the  first-rate  makers  of 
Cremona. 

The  tenor  violin,  in  compass  a fifth  lower  than  the 
treble  violin,  appears  to  have  preceded  the  latter;  and 
from  existing  specimens  we  know  that  the  bass  violin, 
now  termed  the  violoncello,  with  a tuning  an  octave 
below  the  tenor,  appeared  very  shortly  afterward.  A 
double  bass  violin,  tuned  a fourth  below  the  violoncello 
and  usually  known  as  the  basso  da  camera , completed 
the  set  of  instruments  in  violin  shape;  but  from  the 
difficulty  attending  its  manipulation  it  never  came  into 
general  use.  The  celebrated  double  bass  player,  Drag- 
onetti,  occasionally  used  the  basso  de  camera,  and  an 
English  player  named  Hancock,  who  dispensed  with 
the  highest  or  E string,  is  still  remembered  for  his  per- 
formances on  this  unusual  instrument. 


IO  6211 

The  tenor  and  violoncello  are  made  on  the  same 
general  model  and  principles  as  the  violin,  with  certain 
modifications.  Both  are  relatively  to  their  pitch  made 
smaller  than  the  violin,  because,  if  they  were  so  con- 
structed as  to  have  the  same  relation  to  the  pitch  and 
tension  of  the  strings  as  the  violin,  they  would  not  only 
have  an  overpowering  tone  but  would  be  unmanageable 
from  their  size. 

It  is  commonly  said  that  an  old  violin  is  better  than 
a new  one.  Other  things  being  equal,  and  supposing 
the  older  to  be  in  fair  preservation,  this  is  true;  it  is  also 
true  that  of  old  violins  the  best,  as  a rule,  have  survived. 
Good  violins,  however,  have  been  continuously  made, 
and  are  still  being  made,  though  since  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  cheapness  of  the  “ trade  ” fiddle, 
made  by  the  hundred  by  divided  labor,  has  much  cir- 
cumscribed the  business  of  the  higher-class  workman. 
The  best  workmen  of  different  countries  differ  little  in 
merit;  but  it  is  seldom  that  any  maker  out  of  Italy  is 
successful  in  varnishing  his  work  so  as  to  impart  to  it 
the  superior  resonance  which  characterizes  the  best 
Italian  violins.  The  varnish,  originally  merely  orna- 
mental and  preservative,  has  become  an  essential  part 
of  the  work,  from  its  intimate  connection  with  the  tone. 
The  secret  of  making  varnish  is  not  lost,  as  is  some- 
times stated;  the  difficulty  consists  in  applying  and  dry- 
ing it  with  reference  to  the  climate  where  the  operation 
takes  place.  In  moist  climates,  oil  varnish,  which  is 
the  best,  dries  too  slowly;  hence  the  use  of  spirit  var- 
nish, which  is  more  manageable,  but  has  not  the  effect 
of  permeating  the  superficial  tissues  of  the  wood  so  as  tc 
increase  and  perpetuate  its  elasticity.  Many  well-made 
modern  violins,  notably  those  of  some  French  makers, 
have  proved  failures,  because  they  have,  under  a mis- 
taken belief,  been  made  out  of  old  and  dry  wood. 
After  a few  years  pine  begins  to  lose  its  elasticity;  the 
old  makers  used  wood  that  was  only  just  sufficiently 
seasoned,  and  they  preserved  its  elasticity  by  applying 
their  varnish  at  once. 

It  is  also  commonly  said  that  a flat  violin  is  preferable 
to  a high-modeled  one.  This  must  be  accepted  with 
some  modification.  Instruments  which  are  excessively 
flat  should  be  avoided,  for  reasons  above  stated.  A 
moderate  height,  rather  less  than  the  medium,  is  most 
favorable  to  vibration;  what  is  really  essential  is  thar 
the  sound-holes  should  be  in  horizontal  planes,  not  in 
planes  inclined  at  a considerable  angle  to  the  transverse 
section  of  the  instrument.  Such  sound-holes,  as  may 
be  proved  at  once  by  the  ear,  have  the  property  of  im- 
mediately letting  out  the  vibrations  of  the  small  mass 
of  air  which  lies  directly  under  the  bridge,  and  thus  rob 
the  great  mass  of  air  in  the  body  of  the  fiddle  of  the 
impulse  necessary  to  set  it  properly  in  vibration;  hence 
the  tone,  though  quickly  yielded  and  not  feeble  to  the 
ear  of  the  player,  is  found  at  a short  distance  to  be 
deficient  in  force  and  flexibility.  The  violins  most  in 
request  are  the  larger  specimens  of  the  Amati  family, 
of  Stradivari  and  his  best  pupils,  and  of  the  two  cousins 
Giuseppe  Guarnieri — the  instruments  of  Giuseppe  called 
“ del  Qesu,”  from  his  use  of  the  sacred  monogram  on 
his  tickets,  being  by  some  players  preferred  to  those  of 
Stradivari.  For  old  instruments  of  the  best  class  pur- 
chasers must  be  prepared  to  payfrom  $1,000  to  $3,000, 
according  to  their  quality  and  state  of  preservation. 
Second-class  old  Italian  instruments,  and  first-rate  speci- 
mens of  the  best  school  of  French  copyists,  can  usually 
be  bought  for  smaller  sums  down  to  $100.  The  chief 
seats  of  the  wholesale  violin  manufacture  are  Mirecourt 
in  France  and  Markneukirchen  in  Saxony. 

The  violin  bow,  which  is  made  of  Brazil  wood,  was 
reduced  to  its  present  admirable  shape  about  1 780  by 
Francois  Tourte  of  Paris  (1747—1835)^  whose  bows  are 


6212 


V I O — VIP 


still  esteemed  above  all  others.  A fair  Tourte  bow  is 
generally  worth  $50;  but  a fine  one  has  been  sold  for 
$150;  and  one  of  his  best  violoncello  bows,  which  are 
rarities,  was  recently  sold  in  Paris  for  $220.  Bows, 
however,  which  leave  little  to  be  desired  are  made  in 
great  numbers  by  English,  French,  and  German  makers. 
A good  bow  is  of  more  importance  to  a player  than  a 
good  violin;  something  may  be  done  with  an  indifferent 
instrument,  but  no  one  can  play  with  a bad  bow. 

The  best  strings  have  always  been  made  in  Italy;  the 
climate  of  northern  Europe  is  unsuitable  for  the  manu- 
facture. Good  strings  are  essential  to  the  player,  and 
they  should  be  frequently  changed,  as  they  only  retain 
their  shape  at  the  place  where  the  bow  touches  them, 
and  their  elasticity,  for  a limited  period. 

VIOLLET-LE-DUC,  Eugene  Emmanuel,  French 
architect  and  writer  on  archaeology,  was  born  at  Paris 
January  27,  1814.  From  1845  to  1856  he  was  occupied 
on  the  restoration  of  Notre  Dame  in  Paris  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Lassus,  and  also  with  that  of  the  abbey  of  St. 
Denis.  In  1849  he  began  the  restoration  of  the  fortifi- 
cations of  Carcassonne  and  of  Amiens  cathedral;  and 
m later  years  he  restored  Laon  cathedral,  the  chateau 
Df  Pierrefonds,  and  many  other  important  buildings. 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Napoleon  III.,  and  during 
the  siege  of  Paris  (1871)  gave  valuable  help  as  an  engi- 
neer to  the  beleaguered  army.  He  held  many  impor- 
tant offices,  both  artistic  and  political,  and  was  for  many 
years  inspector-general  of  the  ancient  buildings  through- 
out a large  part  of  France.  His  last  work  was  the 
general  scheme  for  the  Paris  exhibition  buildings  in 
1878.  He  died  September  17,  1879. 

VIOLONCELLO.  See  Violin. 

VIOTTI,  Giovanni  Battista,  violinist  and  musical 
composer,  was  born  at  Fontanetto  in  Piedmont,  March 
*3,  *753- 

Viotti’s  playing  was  distinguished  by  an  extreme 
purity  of  style,  a magnificent  tone,  and  an  endless  vari- 
ety of  poetical  and  imaginative  expression.  He  was 
undoubtedly  the  best  violinist  of  the  age,  and  the  best 
composer  for  his  instrument.  Among  his  works  are 
twenty-nine  violin  concertos,  a series  of  symphonies 
concertantes  for  two  violins,  forty-five  duos,  eighteen 
trios,  and  twenty-one  quartettes,  and  a great  number 
of  sonatas,  notturnos,  and  other  instrumental  works. 
His  school  was  worthily  perpetuated  by  his  pupil  Rode. 
He  died  in  London  March  10,  1824. 

VIPER.  The  vipers  constitute  a family  ( Viperidce ) 
of  Old-World,  poisonous,  viviparous  snakes,  which  have 
a single  movable  poison  fahg  on  either  side  of  the  upper 
jaw,  without  any  excavation  or  pit  between  the  eye  and 
the  nostril— thus  differing  from  the  Crotalidce.  They 
have  a post-frontal  and  a maxillary  bone,  which  latter 
is  swollen  and  upright,  articulating  with  the  pre-frontal 
by  a ginglymus,  and  short — not  reaching  the  premaxilla. 
Vipers  are  mostly  more  or  less  thick-bodied  and  short- 
tailed, the  head  being  entirely  covered  above  with  small 
scales,  except  in  a single  species.  The  nose  is  often 
recurved,  and  some  scales  of  the  head  are  elongated  so 
as  to  form  “ horns  ” in  several  species. 

The  common  viper  ( V.  berus)  is  easily  distinguished 
from  the  harmless  ring-snake  by  the  black  and  white  (or 
yellow)  band  behind  the  head,  which  is  generally  con- 
spicuous in  the  latter  animal.  It  is  also  distinguishable 
(apart  from  individual  varieties)  from  the  snake  Cor- 
onello , by  having  a dark  V-shaped  mark  on  its  head 
and  a dark  zig-zag  line  down  the  back.  It  is  this  viper 
which  has  the  top  of  the  head  covered  by  shields  (whi"h 
may  be  regular  or  irregular  in  outline)  instead  of  small 
scales  only.  It  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  of 
snakes,  being  found  from  northern  Spain  eastward  to 
the  island  of  2nd  frown  jtha  northern  boundary 


of  Persia  to  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle  m Scandinavia, 
though  it  is  not  found  in  Ireland.  It  inhabits  all  sorts 
of  situations,  though  it  prefers  a dry  soil,  and  it  may 
be  met  with  at  an  elevation  of  9,000  feet  above  the  sea. 
It  seeks  its  prey  at  night,  and  penetrating  the  burrows 
of  mice  will  eat  their  nestlings.  Its  bite  is  sometimes 
fatal  to  large  dogs,  and  occasionally  to  weakly  children. 
It  brings  forth  in  April  and  May  from  five  to  fourteen 
young,  which  are  hatched  as  they  are  born. 

The  other  European  vipers  are  V.  aspis,  V.  ammo - 
dytes%  and  V.  latastii.  V.  aspis  is  very  like  the  com- 
mon viper,  save  as  to  the  scales  on  the  head,  and  the 
fact  that  its  snout  is  somewhat  turned  up.  It  inhabits 
France,  Switzerland  and  Italy.  V.  ammodites isa  some- 
what larger  species,  with  a singular  pointed  process  ex- 
tending upward  from  the  snout  end.  It  is  found  in 
Egypt,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Turkey,  Greece,  Southern 
Austria,  and  Italy.  V.  latastii  is  a species  intermediate 
between  V aspis  and  V.  avimodytes.  It  inhabits 
Spain,  Portugal,  Morocco  and  Algiers.  Thus  of  the 
four  European  vipers,  two  are  also  found  in  Africa  and 
one  in  both  Africa  and  Asia.  There  are  three 
exclusively  Indian  vipers — V.  xanthina,  V.  persica 
and  V.  russellii.  V.  xanthina  is  an  animal  about 
two  and  one-half  feet  long.  As  in  all  the  other  non- 
European  vipers,  the  body  scales  are  strongly  keeled. 
It  is  found  in  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Persia. 
V.  persica  is,  as  its  name  implies,  a Persian 
animal.  The  scales  above  each  eye  are  so  modified  as 
to  form  a horn.  V.  russellii  is  hornless,  but  very 
large;  it  is  said  to  attain  a length  of  more  than  six  feet. 
It  is  widely  distributed,  inhabiting  India,  Burmah,  Siam, 
Ceylon,  Sumatra,  and  Java.  Two  vipers  are  common 
to  Asia  and  Africa.  One  of  these,  V.  mauritanica , ex- 
tends from  Algiers  to  Persia.  It  maybe  nearly  five  feet 
long.  The  other  species,  V.  cerastes , is  a much  smaller 
snake,  never  being  much  more  than  twenty  inches  in 
length.  It  is  remarkable  for  two  long  pointed  horns 
(which  stand  up  over  either  eye),  and  is  widely  distributed 
in  North  Africa  and  Arabia.  All  the  other  species  of 
the  genus  Viper  a are  exclusively  African,  and  only 
one  is  found  north  of  the  Sahara.  This  is  V.  avizennee. 
It  has  no  horns,  and  only  attains  a length  of  about  six- 
teen inches.  V.  superciliaris  is  also  a small  snake,  but 
it  has  a large  rugose  supraorbital  plate.  It  comes  from 
Mozambique.  The  puff-adder  (V.  arietans)  is  a large 
thick  snake,  which  may  be  four  feet  long.  It  is  a very 
deadly  animal,  and  is  widely  distributed  over  southern 
and  central  Africa,  extending  to  both  the  east  and  west 
coast  of  that  continent.  It  is  without  horns.  V.  nasi- 
cornis  is  a beautifully  colored,  large  and  bulky  snake, 
which  may  be  upward  of  six  feet  long.  Two  horns 
project  obliquely  forward  from  just  in  front  of  either 
nostril.  It  inhabits  southern  Africa.  It  is  a very  ven- 
omous animal.  V.  rhinoceros  is  another  1-jrge  snake, 
which  comes  from  both  the  east  and  west  coasts.  It  has 
a pair  of  horns  upstanding  between  its  nostrils,  each 
clothed  with  but  a single  shield.  V.  cornuta  has  scaly 
prominences,  which  are  hardly  “ horns,  ” and  which  con- 
sist each  of  a group  of  four  or  five  large  upright  distinct 
scales  placed  above  one  of  the  eyes.  It  isa  small  snake 
hardly  ever  more  than  twenty  inches  long.  It  inhab- 
its  western,  southern  and  eastern  Africa.  V.  caudalis 
is  a still  smaller  snake,  which  has  a single  scale  extend- 
ing upward  over  either  eye.  It  comes  from  southern 
Africa,  as  also  does  V.  schneideri,  which  is  like  the  last 
species,  save  that  it  has  nothing  at  all  representing  horns. 
V.  inornata  is  also  hornless,  though  it  has  the  supraor- 
bital region  somewhat  elevated.  It  is  a very  small 
snake,  only  about  fifteen  inches  long.  It  is  a South  Afri- 
can species,  as  also  are  V.  atropos  and  V.  atropoidest 
which  are  both  hornless  and  are  about  two  feet  long. 


V I R 


VIRGIL  (P.  Vergilius  Maro)  enjoyed  in  ancient 
times  an  unquestioned  supremacy  among  Roman  poets. 
His  preeminence  in  poetry  was  as  distinctly  recognized  as 
that  of  Cicero  in  prose.  Virgil  is  the  only  complete  repre- 
sentative of  the  deepest  sentiment  and  highest  mood  of 
his  countrymen  and  of  his  time.  In  his  pastoral  and 
didactic  poems  he  gives  a living  voice  to  the  whole 
charm  of  Italy,  in  the  /Eneid  to  the  whole  glory  of 
Rome.  He  was  in  the  maturity  of  his  powers  at  the 
most  critical  epoch  of  the  national  life,  one  of  the  most 
critical  epochs  in  the  history  of  the  world.  Keeping 
aloof  from  the  trivial  daily  life  of  his  contemporaries, 
he  was  moved  more  profoundly  than  any  of  them  by 
the  deeper  currents  of  emotion  in  the  sphere  of  govern- 
ment, religion,  morals,  and  human  feeling  which  were 
then  changing  the  world;  and  in  uttering  the  enthusiasm 
of  the  hour,  and  all  the  new  sensibilities  that  were 
stirring  in  his  own  heart  and  imagination,  he  had,  in 
the  words  of  Sainte-Beuve,  “ divined  at  a decisive  hour 
of  the  world  what  the  future  would  love.”  He  was 
also  by  universal  acknowledgment  the  greatest  literary 
artist  whom  Rome  produced. 

The  great  work  which  he  accomplished  was  the 
result  of  the  steady  devotion  of  his  genius,  undistracted 
by  pleasure  or  business,  to  his  appointed  task.  For  the 
first  half  of  his  life  he  prepared  himself  to  be  the  great 
poet  of  his  time  and  country  with  a high  ambition  and 
unresting  industry,  equaled  only  by  the  ambition  and 
industry  with  which  Cicero  prepared  himself  to  be  the 
greatest  orator  and  the  most  accomplished  exponent  of 
philosophy  among  his  contemporaries  and  countrymen. 
The  second  half  of  his  career  was  a religious  consecra- 
tion of  all  his  powers  of  heart,  mind,  and  spirit  to  his 
high  office.  He  was  born  October  19th  in  the  year  70 
B.C.,  in  a farm  on  the  banks  of  the  Mincio,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Andes,  not  far  from  the  town  of  Mantua. 

The  scenery  familiar  to  his  childhood,  which  he 
recalls  with  affection  both  in  the  Eclogues  and  the 
Georgies , was  that  of  the  green  banks  and  slow  windings 
of  the  Mincio  and  the  rich  pastures  in  its  neghborhood. 
Like  his  friend  and  contemporary  Horace,  and  unlike 
the  poets  of  the  preceding  generation,  who  were  mem- 
bers either  of  the  aristocracy  or  of  the  class  closely 
associated  with  it,  he  sprung  from  the  class  of  yeomen, 
whose  state  he  pronounces  the  happiest  allotted  to  man 
and  most  conducive  to  virtue  and  piety. 

After  studying  under  a rhetorician,  who  was,  probably 
about  the  same  time,  the  teacher  of  the  future  emperor, 
he  proceeded  to  the  study  of  philosophy  under  Siron 
the  Epicurean,  who,  in  common  with  other  teachers  of 
that  sect,  appears  to  have  had  the  gift  of  inspiring  en- 
thusiasm for  his  subject  and  affection  for  himself. 

Our  next  knowledge  of  him  is  derived  from  allusions 
to  his  circumstances  and  state  of  feeling  contained  in 
the  Eclogues , and  belongs  to  a period  nine  or  ten  years 
later.  Of  what  happened  to  him  in  the  interval,  during 
which  the  first  civil  war  took  place  and  Julius  Caesar 
was  assassinated,  we  have  no  indication  from  ancient 
testimony  or  from  his  own  writings.  We  might  conject- 
ure that  this  was  a time  of  studious  leisure  passed  in 
his  father’s  house  in  the  country,  as  the  life  of  Milton 
was  passed  after  leaving  Cambridge.  In  42  B.c.,  the 
year  of  the  battle  of  Philippi,  when  he  was  in  his 
twenty-eighth  year,  we  find  him  leading  such  a life,“  cul- 
tivating his  woodland  Muse,”  and  enjoying  the  protec- 
tion of  Asinius  Pollio,  the  governor  of  the  district 
north  of  the  Po. 

Soon  afterward  we  hear  of  him  living  in  Rome,  en- 
joying, in  addition  to  the  patronage  of  Pollio,  the  favor 
of  Maecenas,  intimate  with  Varius,  who  was  at  first  re- 
garded as  the  rising  poet  of  the  new  era,  and  soon  after- 
ward with  Horace,  who  had  just  returned  from  his  un- 


6213 

fortunate  adventure  with  the  army  of  Brutus.  Soon 
afterward  he  withdrew  from  habitual  residence  in  Rome 
and  lived  chiefly  in  Campania,  either  at  Naples  or  in  a 
country  house  in  the  neighborhood  of  NoJa.  Here- 
sided  also  for  some  time  in  Sicily;  and  there  is  in  the 
fourth  Georgic  distinct  evidence  of  his  familiarity  with 
the  neighborhood  of  Tarentum.  He  was  one  of  the 
companions  of  Horace  in  the  famous  journey  to  Brun- 
disium;  and  it  seems  not  unlikely  that,  sometime  be- 
fore 23  B.C.,  he  made  the  voyage  to  Athens  which  forms 
the  subject  of  the  third  ode  of  the  first  book  of  the  Odes 
of  Plorace. 

The  seven  years  from  37  to  30  B.c.  were  devoted  to 
the  composition  of  the  Georgies.  In  the  following  year 
he  read  the  poem  to  Augustus,  on  his  return  from  Asia. 
The  remaining  years  of  his  life  were  spent  on  the  com- 
position of  the  AEneid.  In  the  course  of  its  composi- 
tion, in  23  B.c.,  the  year  of  the  death  of  the  young 
Marcellus,  he  read  three  books,  the  2nd,  4th,  and  6th, 
to  the  emperor  and  the  members  of  the  imperial  family. 
In  19  B.c.,  after  the  yEneid was  finished,  but  not  finally 
corrected,  he  set  out  for  Athens,  intending  to  pass  three 
years  in  Greece  and  Asia,  and  to  devote  that  time  to 
perfecting  the  workmanship  of  the  poem.  At  Athens 
he  met  Augustus  and  was  persuaded  by  him  to  return 
with  him  to  Italy.  While  visiting  Megara  under  a 
burning  sun,  he  was  seized  with  illness,  and,  as  he  con- 
tinued his  voyage  without  interrupution,  he  grew 
rapidly  worse,  and  died  on  September  21st,  in  his  fifty- 
first  year,  a few  days  after  landing  at  Brundisium.  In  his 
last  illness  he  called  for  the  cases  containing  his  manu- 
scripts, with  the  intention  of  burning  the  /Eneid.  He 
had  previously  left  directions  in  his  will  that  his  literary 
executors^  Varius  and  Tucca,  should  publish  nothing  of 
his  which  had  not  already  been  given  to  the  world  by 
himself.  This  pathetic  desire  that  the  work  to  which 
he  had  given  so  much  care,  and  of  which  such  great  ex- 
pectations  were  formed,  should  not  survive  him,  has  been 
used  as  an  argument  to  prove  his  own  dissatisfaction 
with  the  poem. 

He  was  buried  at  Naples,  where  his  tomb  was  long 
regarded  with  religious  veneration,  and  visited  as  a tem- 
ple. That  veneration  was  a survival  of  the  feeling  with 
which  he  was  regarded  in  his  lifetime,  and  is  greater 
than  what  we  find  attaching  to  the  actual  memory  of  any 
other  ancient  poet,  though  the  mystery  connected  with 
the  personality  of  Homer  excited  a greater  curiosity. 
The  feeling  which  his  countrymen  and  contemporaries 
entertained  toward  him  seems  justified  by  the  personal 
impression  which  he  produces  on  modern  readers — an 
impression  of  sanctity,  as  of  one  who  habitually  lived 
in  a higher  and  serener  sphere  than  that  of  this  world. 
The  reverential  love  inspired  by  him,  is  something  dis- 
tinct from  the  affection  felt  for  Horace  as  a familiar 
friend,  a wise  counselor,  and  genial  companion,  sharing 
the  ordinary  interests  and  pleasures  of  life,  liable  to  the 
same  weaknesses  and  endeared  by  the  same  social  charm 
as  those  who  are  best  liked  in  the  intercourse  of  our  own 
day. 

VIRGIL,  Polydore),  author  of  the  Historia  Ang - 
lica,  otherwise  known  as  P.  V.  Castellensis,  was  a 
kinsman  of  Cardinal  Hadrian  Castellensis,  a native  of 
Castro  in  Etruria,  and  was  born  about  1470.  His 
father’s  name  is  said  to  have  been  George  Virgil;  his 
great-grandfather,  Anthony  Virgil,  “a  man  well  skilled 
in  medicine  and  astrology,”  had  professed  philosophy  at 
Paris,  as  did  Polydore’s  own  brother  and  prot£g6,  John 
Matthew  Virgil,  at  Pavia,  in  1 5 1 7.  A third  brother  was 
a London  merchant  in  1511.  Polydore  is  said  to  have 
been  educated  at  Bologna,  and  was  probably  in  the  service 
of  Guido  Ubaldo,  duke  of  Urbino,  before  1498,  as  in 
the  dedication  of  his  first  work.  Liber  Proverbiorum 


6214  V 

(April,  1498),  he  styles  himself  this  prince’s  client. 
Polydore’s  second  book,  De  Inventoribus  Re  nun,  is 
dedicated  to  Guido’s  tutor,  Ludovicus  Odaxius,  from 
Urbino,  in  August,  1499.  After  being  chamberlain  to 
Alexander  VI.  he  came  to  England  in  1501  as  deputy 
collector  of  Peter’s  pence  for  the  cardinal.  As  Hadrian’s 
proxy,  he  was  enthroned  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  in 
October,  1504.  It  was  at  Henry  VII. ’s  instance  that  he 
commenced  his  Historia  Anglica — a work  which, 
though  seemingly  begun  as  early  as  1505,  was  not  com- 
pleted till  August,  1533,  the  date  of  its  dedication  to 
Henry  VIII.,  nor  published  till  1534.  In  May,  1514, 
he  and  his  patron,  the  cardinal,  are  found  supporting 
Wolsey’s  claims  to  the  cardinalship,  but  he  had  lost  the 
reat  minister’s  favor  before  the  year  was  out.  In  1525 
e published  the  first  edition  of  Gildas,  dedicating  the 
work  to  TGunstall,  bishop  of  London.  Next  year  ap- 
peared his  Liber  de  Prodigiis , dedicated  from  London 
(July)  to  Francesco  Maria,  duke  of  Urbino.  Some- 
where about  1538  he  left  England,  and  remained  in 
Italy  for  some  time.  Ill-health,  he  tells  us,  forbade 
him  on  his  return  to  continue  his  custom  of  making 
daily  notes  on  contemporary  events.  About  the  end  of 
1551  he  went  home  to  Urbino,  where  he  appears  to 
have  died  in  1555.  He  had  been  naturalized  in  Octo- 
ber, 1510,  and  had  held  several  clerical  appointments  in 
England.  In  1508  he  was  appointed  archdeacon  of 
Wells,  and  in  1513  prebendary  of  Oxgate  in  St.  Paul’s 
Cathedral,  both  of  which  offices  he  held  after  his  return 
to  Urbino. 

VIRGINAL.  See  Pianoforte. 

VIRGINIA,  one  of  the  original  thirteen  States  of  the 
North  American  Union,  extends  from  36°  31'  to39°  27' 
N.  latitude,  and  from  75°  13'  to  83°  37'  W.  longitude. 
It  is  rudely  triangular  in  form — its  southern  boundary, 
the  base  of  the  triangle,  a nearly  east  to  west  line,  being 
440  miles  long,  the  northwestern  565,  the  northern  and 
northeastern  230  and  the  eastern  125  miles.  On  the 
south  it  is  bounded  by  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee, 
on  the  west  and  northwest  by  Kentucky  and  West 
Virginia,  on  the  north  and  northeast  by  Maryland,  and 
on  the  east  by  the  Virginian  Sea  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Its  greatest  length  from  east  to  west  is  476  miles,  its 
greatest  breadth  from  north  to  south  192  miles.  It  is 
subdivided  into  100  counties.  The  area  is  variously 
stated  at  42,330  and  40,125  (land  area)  square  miles; 
the  latter  is  that  given  at  the  census  of  1900.  Of 
the  1,854,184  inhabitants  of  Virginia  (925,897  males, 
and  928,287  females),  in  1900,  494,240  were  en- 
gaged in  gainful  occupations  — 254,099,  or  over  50 
per  cent.,  in  agriculture,  30,418  in  trade  and  transporta- 
tion, and  63,059  in  manufactures  and  mining  and 
mechanical  industries;  but  now  (in  1902)  a very  much 
larger  proportion  of  the  industrial  population  is  engaged 
in  mining,  manufacturing,  trade,  and  transportation,  in 
consequence  of  the  opening  of  mines,  the  erection  of 
blast-furnaces,  coke  ovens,  and  various  manufacturing 
establishments  since  1880. 

Speaking  broadly,  Virginia  may  be  divided  into  a low- 
land and  a highland  country.  Its  southeastern  part — 
over  23,000  square  miles,  or  more  than  half  of  the  whole 
— has  the  aspect  of  a broadly  undulating  plain,  that, 
with  but  few  marked  variations  of  relief,  rises  from  the 
sea-level  to  from  400  to  800  feet  above  it.  The  north- 
western portion  is  a region  composed  of  approximately 
parallel  mountain  ranges,  running  entirely  across  the 
State  from  northeast  to  southwest,  separated  by  nearly 
parallel  valleys — the  whole  presenting  all  the  varieties  of 
relief  peculiar  to  the  Appalachian  country  between  the 
levels  of  800  and  5, 700  feet.  To  speak  more  accurately, 
the  State  is  naturally  divided  into  seven  grand  di\  isions 
or  belts,  each  with  marked  characteristics  of  relief  and 


I R 

geological  structure,  and  each  succeeding  the  other, 
somewhat  as  a more  or  less  ascending  stairway,  from 
the  sea  to  the  northwest. 

1.  Tidewater  Virginia  is  the  marine  plain  of  Quater- 
nary and  Tertiary  structure,  10,850  square  miles  in  area, 
that  extends  westward,  for  nearly  100  miles,  from  the 
Atlantic  border  to  “The  Ridge,”  the  granitic  escarp- 
ment which  by  its  rise  determines  the  tidal  limit  in  the 
great  rivers  of  the  State. 

2.  Midland  Virginia  is  the  triangular  area  (12,470 
square  miles)  which,  25  miles  wide,  along  the  Potomac 
and  100  wide  along  the  North  Carolina  line,  extends 
from  the  Tidewater  escarpment  westward  to  the  eastern 
base  of  the  Atlantic  coast  range,  the  broken  eastern 
range  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains. 

3.  Piedmont  Virginia  is  the  area  (6,680  square 
miles)  of  greatly  diversified  country,  some  250  miles  in 
length  and  20  to  30  miles  in  width,  that  stretches  be- 
tween the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  Coast  Range  mountains, 
including  all  of  the  latter  and  the  eastward  spurs  and 
slopes  of  the  former. 

4.  Blue  Ridge  Virginia  is  the  Virginian  portion 
(300  miles  in  length)  of  the  great  mountain  chain  of 
that  name,  with  its  numerous  tablelands — especially 
the  Floyd-Carroll-Grayson  plateau  (1,230  square  miles) 
in  the  southwest,  having  an  altitude  of  from  916  to 
5,700  feet. 

5.  The  valley  of  Virginia  is  the  Virginian  portion 
(300  miles)  of  the  length  of  the  great  limestone  or 
Appalachian  valley  of  the  Atlantic  highlands,  one  that, 
made  up  of  numerous  subordinate  valleys,  extends  with 
unbroken  continuity  from  Canada  to  Alabama,  and  has 
for  its  whole  length,  with  varying  local  names,  the  Blue 
Ridge  on  its  eastern  and  the  Kittatinny  or  Great  North 
Mountain  on  its  western  border. 

6.  Appalachia  (4,500  square  miles),  a region  of  alter- 
nating “ rich  ” and  “ poor  ” valleys  (according  as  they 
are  carved  from  the  lime-abounding  or  from  the  slaty 
sandstone  rocks  of  the  Silurian  or  the  Devonian  groups), 
is  Virginia’s  portion  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains 
region  proper,  the  one  that  lies  between  the  Great 
Valley  on  the  east  and  the  great  Carboniferous  escarp- 
ment of  the  Trans- Appalachia  plateau. 

7.  Trans- Appalachia  (mainly  the  1,200  square  miles 
in  Buchanan,  Dickenson,  and  Wise  counties)  is  the 
Virginian  portion  of  the  tableland  that  extends  westward 
from  the  great  Carboniferous  escarpment  or  Alleghany 
“backbone.”  It  is  eroded  from  the  Carboniferous 
rocks,  and  so  is  the  great  coal-bearing  portion  of  the 
State. 

The  State  lies  in  the  middle  latitudes.  It  is  open  to 
the  sea  on  the  east;  its  great  mountain  chains  guard  it 
on  the  north  and  west;  and  it  has  accordingly  as  nearly 
a climate  of  means  as  any  of  the  Atlantic-bordering 
States  can  have.  Its  position  and  physical  structure 
also  give  great'variety  to  its  climate;  that  of  itb  border- 
ing sea  islands  and  large  peninsulas  is  insular;  that  of 
its  great  Tidewater  and  Midland  plains  is  warm  tem- 
perate; that  of  Piedmont  and  the  Great  Valley  is 
typically  mild  temperate;  and  that  of  the  Blue  Ridge 
plateau  and  of  the  high  valleys  and  tablelands  of  Ap- 
palachia is  more  uniformly  cool  temperate  than  in 
higher  latitudes. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  zones  of  Virginia  are 
6o°  to  65°  in  eastern  Tidewater;  550  to  6o°  in  west- 
ern Tidewater,  and  most  of  Midland;  500  to  550  in  the 
higher  parts  of  Midland,  in  most  of  Piedmont,  and  in 
the  lower  parts  of  the  Valley  and  Appalachia;  450  to 
50°  in  northeast  Piedmont,  in  most  of  the  Valley,  and 
in  the  lower  valleys  of  Appalachia ; and  400  t*/  450  on 
the  Blue  Ridge,  on  and  near  the  high  levels  of  the  Val- 
ley, and  in  moc*  *\f  Appalachia.  The  average  for  the 


V I R 


State  is  near  56°,  ranging  from  48°  in  the  highlands  to 
64°  in  the  lowlands — from  the  mean  adapted  to  grass 
to  that  suitable  for  cotton.  The  changes  of  temperature 
are  great,  but  not  so  sudden  or  so  extreme  as  they  are 
in  the  regions  to  the  northeast  and  northwest. 

The  varied  and  abundant  mineral  resources  of  the 
State  are  as  yet  but  imperfectly  developed.  Her  medic- 
inal mineral  springs  are  numerous,  and  many  of  them 
well  known.  Tidewater  abounds  in  fertilizing  marls, 
and  in  choice  brick-clays,  sands,  and  shell-limestones 
for  building.  Lime-burning,  from  oyster-shells,  is  an 
important  industry.  Midland  abounds  in  superior 
granites,  which  are  extensively  quarried  near  Richmond 
and  Petersburg;  in  the  best  of  slates  for  roofing  and 
other  purposes,  especially  in  Albermarle  and  Bucking- 
ham counties;  in  Jura-Trias  brownstones  and  sand- 
stones; in  trar  ror  Belgian  blocks;  in  soapstones  (steat- 
ites), limestones,  and  in  brick,  plastic,  and  fire  clays. 
Thick  beds  of  excellent  bituminous  coal  and  of  natural 
coke  are  found  in  the  Jura-Trias  of  Chesterfield  and 
adjacent  counties,  which  have  long  been  mined;  ocher 
beds  are  worked  in  Chesterfield  county;  thick  beds  of 
magnetic,  specular,  and  limonite  iron  ores,  and  of  gold, 
silver,  and  copper-bearing  rocks,  traverse  its  whole 
length  from  northeast  to  southwest.  Its  gold  belt,  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  miles  wide,  rich  in  free,  quartz,  and 
pyritous-rock  gold,  traverses  the  whole  western  tier  of 
Midland  counties,  for  more  than  200  miles,  from  the 
Potomac  to  the  Dan;  in  this  belt,  in  Louisa  county,  at 
the  Arminius  copper  mines,  veins  of  white  pyrites, 
forty-two  feet,  bearing  46  per  cent,  of  sulphur  and 
considerable  yellow  copper,  have  been  opened  ar.d  re- 
duction works  erected  for  a 300  tons  daily  output; 
12,000  tons  of  pyrites  were  shipped  in  1886.  Manganese, 
mica,  plumbago,  titanium,  cyanite,  garnets,  emeralds, 
quartz,  and  other  Archaean  and  Jura-Trias  minerals  are 
found  at  many  points.  The  minerals  and  metals  now 
exploited  are  gold,  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  manga- 
nese, hematites,  magnetites,  and  limonites,  mica,  slates, 
granites,  brownstones,  and  trap-rock.  Piedmont  has 
extensive  beds  of  magnetic,  specular,  and  limonite  iron 
ore  throughout  its  length;  chromic  iron  ore  is  found  in 
the  northeast;  copper  ores  abound  especially  along 
the  west  border  in  spurs  of  Blue  Ridge;  manganese  de- 
posits have  been  worked  at  various  points;  the  same 
Archaean  and  Jura-Trias  building  stones  and  minerals 
are  found  here  as  in  Midland,  the  marbles  of  Bedford 
and  Loudoun  counties  of  fine  quality.  Iron  ores, 
manganese,  slates,  and  marbles  are  now  exploited. 
The  Blue  Ridge  abounds  in  copper  and  iron  ores  for  its 
whole  length  in  Virginia;  these  as  well  as  pyritous 
silver,  copper,  and  iron  ores,  are  especially  abundant  in 
the  FIoyd-Carroll-Grayson  or  southwest  plateau,  where 
also  auriferous  quartz  is  milled;  tin  mines  have  been 
opened  in  Rockbridge  county;  the  great  Potsdam  or 
primordial  iron  belt,  with  its  vast  deposits  of  ore,  flanks 
the  western  base  of  the  Blue  Ridge  in  Virginia  for 
nearly  300  miles,  and  from  the  rich  deposits  of  manga- 
nese in  the  same  belt  two-thirds  of  the  manganese  out- 
put of  the  United  States  in  1886  was  mined;  glass-sand 
of  the  best  quality  and  fire  and  other  clays  are  abundant, 
and  so  are  building  sandstones  in  the  western  Blue 
Ridge.  Mining  operations  are  now  extensively  con- 
ducted in  iron  and  manganese  ores.  The  Great  Valley 
is  all  underlain  by  limestones  suitable  for  ornamental, 
building,  and  agricultural  purposes;  its  cement  (hy- 
draulic) and  architectural,  fluxing,  and  agricultural 
limes  are  noted  for  their  purity;  extensive  beds  of  iron- 
ore  are  found  among  its  hills  ; marbles,  barytes,  brick 
and  fire-clays,  and  travertine  marls  are  abundant ; there 
are  large  deposits  of  lead  and  zinc  ores,  especially  in  the 
southwest,  in  Pulaski  and  Wythe  counties,  when?  tfiev 


6215 

accompany  the  great  iron-ore  deposits  of  the  Cripple 
Creek  region;  from  the  Vespertine  (No.  x.)  beds  of  the 
Lowei  Carboniferous,  in  Montgomery  and  Pulaski 
counties,  from  15,000  to  20,000  tons  of  semi-anthracite 
coal  are  annually  mined ; ochers  are  mined  in  Page  and 
Augusta  counties  ; iron,  manganese,  zinc,  and  lead  ores 
are  now  mined  on  quite  an  extensive  scale,  and  lime- 
burning is  an  important  industry.  Appalachian  Vir- 
ginia abounds  in  very  remarkable  beds  of  limonite  iron 
ores,  found  (often  under  large  areas,  in  a more  or  less 
stratified  condition)  in  the  Hudson  river  (iii. ),  Clinton 
(v.),  and  Oriskany  (vii.)  formations  of  Cambrian  and 
Silurian  age ; there  are  also  deposits  of  magnetic  hema- 
tites in  Craig  and  Giles  counties ; limestones  of  the 
Valley  (ii. ),  Trenton  (iii.),  and  Lower  Helderberg  (vi.) 
formations,  underlying  the  “ rich  ” valleys  and  ridges, 
abound,  and  furnish  the  best  of  materials  for  building, 
lime-burning,  and  blast-furnace  fluxing  purposes,  as  well 
as  for  beautiful  encrinal  and  other  fancy  marbles ; in  its 
Vespertine  (x. ) areas  are  numerous  patches  of  anthracite 
and  semi-anthracite  coals,  worked  and  workable  for  local 
use  ; in  the  Appalachian  portions  of  Smyth  and  Washing- 
ton counties  are  large  deposits  of  rock-salt  and  gypsum; 
travertine  marls,  caves  abounding  in  nitrous  earths, 
and  chalybeate,  sulphur,  alum,  hot,  warm,  and  other 
mineral  springs  are  common;  sandstones  and  slates  for 
building  purposes  are  plentiful.  The  iron-ores  of  Alle- 
ghany county  and  those  of  the  Appalachian  portions 
of  Rockbridge  and  Botetourt  counties  are  extensively 
mined  for  local  blast-furnaces;  marbles  and  gypsum  are 
quarried;  considerable  salt  is  manufactured,  and  semi- 
anthracite  coal  in  Pulaski  for  use  in  local  zinc  furnaces. 
Trans-Appalachia  is  Virginia’s  1,000  square  miles  of  the 
Great  Coal  Basin  of  the  Ohio,  or  the  Trans- Appalachian 
Coal  Basin  (the  one  usually,  but  improperly,  called  the 
Great  Appalachian  Coal  Basin);  this  is  all  underlain  by 
thick  and  easily  accessible  beds  of  the  best  of  semi- 
bituminous  and  bituminous  coals,  those  of  the  Lower 
(xii. ) and  of  the  Middle  (xiii.)  Coal  groups  of  the  Carbon- 
iferous. Only  the  semi-bituminous  coking,  steam,  and 
domestic  coal  of  this  region  is  now  mined  for  exporta- 
tion at  Pocahontas,  Tazewell  county,  from  which  639,751 
tons  (93,550  of  them  converted  into  coke)  were  shipped 
in  1886,  the  traffic  having  begun  with  the  shipment  of 
105,805  tons  in  1883.  From  the  Flat-top  coalfield,  in- 
cluding the  Pocahontas  and  some  adjacent  mines  in 
West  Virginia,  1,314,700  tons  of  coal  were  mined  in 
1887,  part  of  which  was  made  into  about  145,000  tons 
of  coke,  equal  in  quality  to  any  made  in  the  United 
States.  This  fuel  is  remarkably  high  in  fixed  carbon 
and  low  in  ash  and  sulphur,  and  therefore  admirably 
adapted  for  metallurgical  purposes.  Twenty  mineral 
springs  of  Virginia,  used  medicinally,  were  reported  to 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey  in  1886  (Tide- 
water 1,  Midland  4,  Blue  Ridge  2,  Valley  5,  Appa- 
lachia 8);  they  were  reported  as  chalybeate,  alum,  white 
sulphur,  red  sulphur,  blue  sulphur,  warm  sulphur,  cold 
sulphur,  hot  sulphur,  lithia,  healing,  ague,  and  sweet 
chalybeate.  These  and  many  others  not  reported  are 
visited  as  health  resorts,  and  many  of  them  ship  to 
market  large  quantities  of  their  waters. 

The  variety  of  vegetation  in  Virginia  is  very  great, 
the  range  being  from  a profitable  growth  of  semi- 
tropical  cotton  to  semi-arctic  pines  and  balsams.  From 
one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  State  is  now  covered  by 
forests  of  native  evergreen  and  deciduous  trees.  Hard 
and  soft  woods,  in  nearly  equal  proportions,  form  the 
original  forests  of  Tidewater  and  Midland — the  plain 
regions;  hard  woods  predominate  in  the  high  country 
divisions;  the  park-like  hardwood  forests  of  the  Great 
Valley  have  grown  up  since  its  occupation  by  white 
roexv 


62 16  V 

The  flora  of  Virginia  includes  nearly  every  species  of 
plant  found  in  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi, 
excepting  only  the  extreme  south.  The  cleared  lands 
of  the  State,  about  two-sevenths  of  the  whole,  are  de- 
voted to  orchards,  vineyards,  meadows  and  pastures, 
to  market  and  other  gardens,  and  to  crops  of  maize 
(Indian  corn),  wheat,  oats,  rye,  buckwheat,  barley, 
peas,  beans,  peanuts,  round  (Irish)  and  long  (sweet) 
potatoes,  turnips,  cabbage,  clover,  flax,  hemp,  cotton, 
tobacco,  etc.  Cereal  and  root  crops  are  abundantly 
grown  in  all  parts,  as  also  are  tobacco,  hay,  clover  and 
grass  seeds,  flax  and  flaxseed,  hops,  hemp  and  cotton. 
Nearly  half  the  State,  part  of  Piedmont,  and  all  Blue 
Ridge,  the  Valley,  and  the  Appalachias  is  a natural 
grass  country — half  of  it  the  habitat  of  the  famous  blue 
grass — and  well  adapted  to  grazing  and  dairy-farming; 
the  special  crops  of  Tidewater  are  those  of  market- 
gardens,  early  vegetables,  and  round  and  sweet  pota- 
toes in  the  east,  and  of  peanuts  and  cotton  in  the  west; 
tobacco  is  a specialty  of  southwest  Midland  and  Pied- 
mont. 

The  buffalo  and  elk,  common  when  white  men  first 
settled  here,  are  now  extinct;  deer,  red  and  gray  foxes, 
rabbits,  hares,  ground-hogs  or  woodchucks,  red,  gray, 
and  ground  squirrels,  opossums,  polecats,  muskrats, 
martens,  minks,  weasels,  bats,  rats,  and  mice  are  found 
everywhere;  otters  and  beavers,  once  numerous  in  all 
parts,  are  again  becoming  common  in  south  Midland 
and  elsewhere;  black  bears  frequent  the  Appalachian 
and  borders  of  the  adjacent  Valley  divisions;  wild-cats, 
catamounts,  and  the  small  wolves  are  occasionally  met 
in  unfrequented  portions  of  the  mountain  regions. 
Of  game  or  food  birds,  partridges  (quails),  pigeons, 
wood  doves,  grouse  (pheasants),  larks,  thrushes,  snipe, 
wild  turkeys  and  several  kinds  of  wild  ducks  are  found 
in  nearly  all  parts;  the  coasts,  the  inland  bays,  the 
great  estuary  rivers,  and  the  marshes  of  Tidewater 
fairly  swarm,  especially  during  the  colder  months,  with 
canvass-back,  mallard,  creek,  red-head,  bald-face,  teal, 
and  other  wild  ducks,  and  with  wild  geese,  swans,  snipe, 
and  other  water  and  water-side  fowl;  gulls  and  other 
sea  birds  frequent  the  coast.  Song-birds,  including 
mocking-birds,  orioles,  bobolinks,  robins,  cat-birds, 
blue-birds,  wrens,  tanagers,  sparrows,  etc.,  abound;  the 
English  sparrow  is  domiciled  in  all  the  cities  and  towns; 
numming-birds  are  plentiful.  The  common  birds  of 
prey,  eagles,  hawks,  owls,  a vulture  (the  turkey  buz- 
zard); the  wading  birds  (herons,  grass  snipes,  fly-up-the- 
creeks,  etc.)  and  the  various  swimming  birds  are 
abundant.  The  common  reptiles  include  land  and 
water  tortoises,  or  turtles  and  terrapins  (some  highly 
prized  for  food),  and  harmless  snakes,  useful  in  the  de- 
struction of  vermin,  frogs,  toads,  salamanders,  etc.; 
the  poisonous  rattlesnakes,  copperheads,  and  mocca- 
sins are  sometimes  encountered,  but  are  not  numerous. 
The  comparatively  harmless  black  snakes  are  more  com- 
mon. Of  edible  salt  water  fishes,  more  than  thirty 
kinds  are  taken  in  quantities  in  Chesapeake  Bay  waters, 
including  sturgeon,  rock-fish,  trout,  chub,  sheepshead, 
spot,  sunfish,  blue- fish,  shad,  herring,  anchovy,  Spanish 
mackerel,  cod,  bonito,  drum,  menhaden,  bass,  sea-eels, 
and  hog-fish;  while  dozens  of  kinds  not  used  for  food 
are  known.  The  freshwater  fishes  are  perch,  pickerel, 
cat-fish,  chub,  bass,  sucker,  fall-fish,  salmon,  nog-fish, 
red-horse,  red-eye,  carp,  mullet,  sun-fish,  eels,  and 
trout  in  the  mountain  streams.  Of  the  abounding 
crustaceans,  edible  crabs  and  lobsters  are  caught  in 
great  numbers  in  the  marine  waters,  and  millions  of 
bushels  of  oysters,  clams,  and  other  shell-fish  are  an- 
nuallv  sent  to  market. 

The  government  is  intrusted  to  three  departments,  each 
with  distinct  and  separate  cowers.  ( i ) The  legislative 


I R 

authority  is  vested  in  a general  assembly,  composed  of  a 
house  of  delegates  of  one  hundred  and  a senate  of  forty 
members,  which  meets  biennially  at  Richmond;  the  mem- 
bers of  the  house  of  delegates  are  elected  for  two  years, 
those  of  the  senate  for  four — half  the  latter  being  elected 
biennially.  (2)  The  executive  authority  is  vested  in  a 
governor,  elected  by  the  people  for  four  years.  A lieu- 
tenant-governor is  elected  at  the  same  time,  who  is 
president  of  the  senate,  and  who,  should  a vacancy  occur 
during  the  term  of  office,  becomes  governor.  The  other 
executive  officers  are  a secretary  of  the  commonwealth, 
a treasurer,  first  and  second  auditors  of  public  accounts, 
a superintendent  of  public  printing,  a superintendent  of 
the  penitentiary,  a railroad  commissioner,  a commis- 
sioner of  agriculture,  a registrar  of  the  land  office,  and  a 
superintendent  of  public  instruction.  (3)  The  judicial 
authority  is  vested — (a)  in  justices  of  peace,  three  in 
each  of  the  magisterial  districts  into  which  *he  counties 
are  subdivided;  ( b ) in  judges  of  county  courts;  (c)  in 
judges  of  the  seventeen  circuit  courts  into  which  the 
State  is  divided,  and  judges  of  city  courts;  and  (rl)  in  a 
supreme  court  of  appeals  of  five  judges.  The  right  of 
appeal,  with  specified  limitations,  is  provided  for  from 
each  of  the  above  courts  to  the  other,  in  the  order 
named;  the  supreme  court  has  only  appellate  jurisdic- 
tion save  in  cases  of  habeas  corpus,  mandamus,  and 
prohibition.  The  justices  of  the  peace,  a supervisoi,  a 
constable,  and  an  overseer  of  the  poor  are  elected  by  the 
voters  of  each  magisterial  district  to  serve  two  years;  the 
general  assembly  elects  the  county  judges  for  terms  of 
six  years,  the  circuit  judges  for  terms  of  eight  years,  and 
the  judges  of  the  supreme  court  of  appeals  for  terms 
of  twelve  years.  An  attorney-general  for  the  State  is 
elected  at  and  for  the  same  time  as  the  governor.  In  the 
congress  of  the  United  States,  Virginia  has  two  senators 
and  ten  representatives.  Aliens  can  acquire  and  hold 
any  property  in  Virginia  on  the  same  footing  as  citizens. 

The  population  of  Virginia  before  the  separation  of 
West  Virginia  in  1862  is  shown  by  the  following 
table: — 


Census. 

Population . 

Increase 
per  cent 

Persons  per 
sq.  m. 

Census. 

| 

Population.  1 

Increase 
per  cent. 

Persons  per 
sq.  m.  j 

J79° 

747,610 

11. 5 

1830 

1,211,405 

13-7 

18.7 

1800 

880, 200 

17.7 

13.6  | 

1840 

i,239.797 

2.3 

19. 1 

1810 

974,600 

10.7 

15.0  . 

1850 

1,421,661 

14.6 

21.9 

1820 

| 1,065,116 

9.2 

16.4 

i860 

1, 596>3i8 

12  ? 

24.6 

In  1870  the  population  of  Virginia  was  1,225,163, 
and  that  of  West  Virginia  442,014.  In  1880,  while 
West  Virginia  had  618,457  inhabitants  (39.9  per  cent, 
increase),  Virginia  had  1,512,565  (745,589  males, 
766,976  females).  The  United  States  census  of  1900 
gave  Virginia  1,854,184. 

The  accompanying  table  shows  the  distribution  of 
the  population  in  1880,  according  to  the  grand  divisions. 
There  were  m addition  six  Chinese  and  eighty-five 
Indians.  The  number  of  'oreign  born,  19,461  (in  1900), 
does  not  amount  to  1 per  cent,  of  the  population. 


Tidewater  .•••••*•••••••••••••• • 

White. 

Colored. 

201,578 

198,140 

148,138 

37,°29 

199,628 

96,345 

213,691 
245, 151 
103,620 
2,617 
51,478 
9,°59 

Midland  ••••  

Piedmont 

PI  up  R idge  - - 

The  Valley 

The  Appalachias  

Virginia  ( 1900) 

1,  i92.855 

661,329 

V I R 


The  original  stock  of  the  whites  was  mainly  English, 
Scottish,  and  Huguenot  French  in  Tidewater,  Midland, 
and  Piedmont,  and  Scottish  (largely  Scoto-Irish  from 
migrating  by  way  of  Ireland),  German,  and  English  in 
the  remainder  of  the  State — in  proportions  in  the  order 
named. 

Virginia  has  nine  cities  with  over  10,000  inhabitants. 
In  1900  Richmond,  the  State  capital,  had  85,050,  Nor- 
folk 46,624,  Petersburg  21,810,  Lynchburg  18,891,  Alex- 
andria 14,528,  and  Portsmouth  17,427  — Danville  com- 
ingnext  with  16,520. 

The  public  school  system  of  the  State,  organized  in 
1870,  provides  (1)  primary  and  (2)  intermediate  in- 
struction in  the  common  branches  of  education,  includ- 
ing preparation  for  college,  by  graded  primary  and  high 
schools — the  latter  confined  to  cities,  towns,  and  large 
villages — free  to  all  between  the  ages  of  five  and 
twenty-one  inclusive;  (3)  advanced  instruction  and 
training  in  scientific  and  professional  studies,  by  a mili- 
tary institute,  an  agricultural  and  mechanical  college, 
male  and  female  normal  schools,  and  an  institution  for 
the  deaf-mutes  and  the  blind — all  for  whites,  and  by  a 
normal  and  agricultural  institute  and  normal  college 
for  colored  pupils — tuition  free  to  a selected  number 
from  all  parts  of  the  State;  and  (4)  higher  instruction 
in  the  complete  academic,  scientific,  technical,  and  pro- 
fessional schools  of  the  university  of  Virginia,  its 
academic  department  tuition  free  to  all  young  men  of 
Virginia,  over  eighteen  years  of  age,  under  restrictions 
in  regard  to  culture.  The  State  schools  confer  no 
honorary  degrees.  Equal  provision,  but  in  entirely 
separate  schools,  is  made  by  law  for  white  and  colored. 

The  public  free  school  system  is  in  charge  of  a board 
of  education.  The  State  makes  liberal  grants  to  the  mil- 
itary institute,  the  agricultural  and  mechanical  college, 
the  normal  and  agricultural  institute,  the  three  normal 
schools,  and  the  university. 

Private  and  corporate  schools  embrace  academies  and 
high  schools  for  boys  preparatory  for  college  or  univer- 
sity; female  colleges,  mainly  under  denominational  con- 
trol; and  the  well-known  colleges  of  St.  John’s  in 
Tidewater;  Hampden-Sidney,  Randolph-Macon,  Rich- 
mond, and  Virginia  Medical  in  Midland;  and  Roanoke, 
Emory  and  Henry,  and  Washington  and  Lee  University 
in  the  Valley.  The  college  of  William  and  Mary 
(founded  in  1693),  suspended  by  reason  of  losses  during 
the  Civil  war,  is  now  a normal  school. 

There  are  four  first-class  lunatic  asylums — at  Will- 
iamsburg, Staunton,  and  Marion,  and  (for  colored 
patients)  at  Petersburg.  The  census  of  1880  returned 
2,411  insane — 1,171  males,  1,240  females;  1,719  white 
and  692  colored.  Pauperism  is  not  common  in  Virginia; 
in  1870  there  were  only  3,890  paupers,  supported  by  pub- 
lic charity  at  a cost  of  $303,081;  in  1880  the  total  num- 
ber was  3,138,  2,117  °f  these  being  in  almshouses,  of 
whom  1,027  were  colored.  Deaf  mutes  and  blind  are 
well  cared  for  in  a noble  institution  at  Staunton.  The 
disabled  Confederate  soldiers  of  Virginia  are  aided  by 
the  State.  There  is  also,  near  Richmond,  a soldiers’ 
home. 

The  total  valuation  of  the  State  in  1900  was  $423,- 
842,680. 

Though  Virginia  has  great  natural  advantages  for  be- 
coming a leading  manufacturing  State,  less  than  5 per 
cent,  of  its  population  is  engaged  in  manufacturing  in- 
dustries. The  more  important  manufactures  are  those 
of  iron,  tobacco,  leather,  coke,  cotton,  manures,  paper, 
agricultural  implements  and  machinery,  builders’  ma- 
terials, vehicles,  lumber,  lime,  tanning  extracts,  railway 
cars  and  locomotives,  flour  and  mill  products,  spelter, 
salt,  distilled  spirits,  canned  fruits,  vegetables,  etc. 

The  navigable  tidal  bays,  creeks,  rivers,  harbors. 


6217 

and  roads  of  Tidewater  Virginia  furnish  more  than 
a thousand  miles  of  channels  for  commerce;  Rich- 
mond, at  the  head  of  the  tidal  waters  of  the  James, 

1 17  miles  from  Chesapeake  Bay,  is  reached  by  ocean 
ships  drawing  15  feet  of  water;  West  Point,  at  York 
Head,  41  miles  from  the  bay,  has  18  feet  of  depth; 
Elizabeth  river  gives  to  the  fine  harbor  of  Norfolk 
a channel  25  feet  deep;  while  Hampton  Roads,  with 
its  400  square  miles  of  area,  is  the  largest  as  well  as  the 
most  central  and  commodious  landlocked  harbor  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States.  Ship  canals  con- 
nect the  great  waterways  of  Virginia  with  those  of 
North  Carolina  and  beyond  to  the  southward;  and,  sim 
ilarly,  northward  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay  is  con- 
nected with  Delaware  Bay.  At  the  beginning  of  1889 
there  were  35  railway  companies  working  2,540  miles  of 
road,  all  of  standard  4 feet  9 inches  gauge,  except  some 
256  miles  of  narrow-gauge  short  lines.  Virginia  early 
took  part  in  the  construction  of  railways,  investing 
many  millions  in  the  stocks  of  the  various  lines  now 
reaching  nearly  every  part  of  the  State;  beginning  about 
1830,  it  had  147  miles  of  railway  in  1840,  384  in  1850, 
1,350  in  i860,  1,449  in  1870,  1,893  *n  1880,  2,430  in 
1885,  and  3,793,  with  some  200  miles  more  in  course  of 
construction,  at  the  beginning  of  1900.  Eight  great 
through  railway  lines  connect  its  trade  and  manufactur- 
ing centers  with  those  of  other  States. 

The  mound-builders  of  the  Mississippi  valley  had  out- 
posts, as  evidenced  by  remains  of  their  earth-works,  in 
the  mountain  passes  of  Appalachia.  At  the  time  of  the 
arrival  of  the  whites  the  Powhatans  held  most  of  Tide- 
water, the  Mannahoacks  the  northeast  and  the  Mona- 
cans the  southwest  of  Midland  and  Piedmont;  the 
Cherokees  held  the  Tennessee  basin  parts  of  the  Valley 
and  Appalachia,  and  Algonkin  tribes — Shawnees,  Del- 
awares, etc. — the  rest  of  those  divisions.  Many  of  the 
place  names  are  still  Indian.  Cabot  probably  entered 
Chesapeake  Bay  in  1498;  when  ’Raleigh’s  ships,  in  1584, 
brought  to  England  glowing  accounts  of  the  Albemarle 
Sound  region,  the  whole  country  was  named  Virginia  in 
honor  of  Elizabeth,  the  virgin  queen.  The  first  per- 
manent English  settlement  in  America  was  made  at 
Jamestown,  Va.,  May  13,  1607,  by  100  settlers  sent  froir 
England  by  Sir  Thomas  Gates  and  Company,  who  had 
obtained  in  April,  1606,  a charter  from  James  I.  to 
plant  two  colonies  in  Virginia — a southern  somewhere 
between  340  and  410,  and  a northern  between  38°  and 
450  N.  latitude,  but  at  places  not  less  than  100  miles 
apart.  In  1609  the  London  Company  superseded 
Gates’,  which  had  merely  held  its  settlement  and  given 
to  the  world  the  romantic  adventures  of  Captain  John 
Smith,  (, q.v .)  King  James  gave  the  London  Company, 
by  charter,  a sea-front  of  400  miles — 200  north  and  200 
south  from  Point  Comfort — all  islands  witnin  100  mues 
of  the  coast,  and  all  the  country  back  from  this  400 
miles  of  frontage  “ throughout  from  sea  to  sea,”  and  to 
its  colonists  all  the  rights  of  natural-born  Englishmen; 
under  this  charter  Virginia  had  jurisdiction  over  her 
imperial  colonial  territory,  and  under  it  holds  the  frag- 
ment of  that  colony  now  called  Virginia.  The  colony 
of  the  London  Company  grew  and  prospered,  and  in 
1619  Governor  Yardley  organized  at  James  City,  the 
capital,  a few  miles  inland  from  Jamestown,  the  first 
legislative  body  that  met  in  North  America;  in  1621  the 
London  Company  granted  the  colony  a liberal  consti- 
tution, the  general  form  of  which  Virginia  has  always 
preserved.  In  August,  1619,  a Dutch  man-of-war  sold 
at  Jamestown  twenty  African  negroes,  and  intro- 
duced negro  slavery.  In  1624  James  I.  arbitrarily 
deprived  the  London  Company  of  its  charter,  and  Vir- 
ginia became  a royal  colony,  which  was,  till  the  revoluton, 
a favorite  and  generally  a loyal  royal  province  governed 


62  is 


VI  R - 

by  the  coastiution  of  1621,  the  king  appointing  the 
governor  and  council  and  the  people  electing  the  mem- 
bers of  the  house  of  burgesses.  In  1698  the  capital  was 
transferred  to  Williamsburg,  where,  under  royal  patron- 
age, William  and  Mary  College  had  been  established  in 
1693.  The  colony  soon  occupied  most  of  Tidewater 
and  its  Midland  border ; in  1716  Governor  Spoiswood 
crossed  the  Blue  Ridge,  and  was,  so  far  as  known,  the 
first  white  man  to  enter  the  Great  Valley,  which  was 
soon  thereafter  occupied  by  large  numbers  of  Scottish 
and  some  German  and  English  settlers.  Indian  wars 
followed  as  settlers  moved  westward,  but  in  1744  Vir- 
ginia purchased  from  the  Indians  jhe  right  to  make 
settlements  to  the  Ohio,  and  built  a fort  where  Pitts- 
burgh now  stands ; the  French  captured  this  in  1.754, 
and  the  long  French  and  Indian  war  followed,  until  the 
1763  treaty  of  Paris  ended  it  and  made  the  Mississippi 
the  western  boundary  of  Virginia.  During  that  war,  in 
1755,  Braddock  was  defeated;  and  in  1758  Fort  Du- 
quesne,  which  under  the  French  had  taken  the  place  of 
Pittsburgh,  was  captured  and  renamed  Fort  Pitt.  In 
1 7 73  the  general  assembly  of  Virginia  resolved  for  an 
“ inter-colonial  committee  of  correspondence,”  and  was 
dissolved  by  Lord  Dunmore,  the  royal  governor.  In 
May,  1774,  it  again  met  and  protested  against  the  clos- 
ing of  the  port  of  Boston ; Dunmore  again  dissolved  it, 
but  the  burgesses,  the  members  elected  by  the  people, 
reassembled  and  passed  resolutions  denouncing  British 
taxation  and  recommending  to  the  other  colonies  an 
annual  congress  of  delegates — leading  in  this  as  it  had 
in  recommending  committees  of  correspondence.  Vir- 
ginia took  a leading  part  in  the  subsequent  war  of  in- 
dependence, but  the  various  steps  of  her  policy  need  not 
be  detailed  here  (see  United  States,  and  compare 
also  Jefferson  and  Washington). 

The  great  territory  of  Virginia,  reaching  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Mississippi,  and  now  divided  into  five 
large  States,  made  the  other  States  of  the  Union  ap- 
prehensive of  her  future  domination.  In  1781,  to 
promote  harmony,  she  offered  to  cede  to  the  general 
government  all  her  territory  beyond  the  Ohio,  and  in 
1 784  she  made  the  cession,  only  stipulating  that  the 
territory  thus  voluntarily  given  up  should,  when 
peopled,  be  divided  into  new  States,  in  which  slavery 
should  be  forever  prohibited,  and  that  the  remainder 
of  her  territory — that  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Ohio — 
should  remain  inviolably  hers.  In  1 787  the  convention 
of  the  States,  at  Philadelphia,  presided  over  by  Wash- 
ington, adopted  the  present  constitution  of  the  United 
States,  and  this  Virginia,  in  convention,  ratified  in  1788. 
In  the  war  of  1812-14  with  England,  Virginia  bore  a 
conspicuous  part,  as  also  in  that  of  1846-47  with  Mexico. 
The  Civil  war  of  1861-65  was  more  disastrous  in  its 
consequences  to  Virginia  than  to  any  other  State  of  the 
Union;  from  first  to  last  its  territory  was  overrun, 
hundreds  of  battles  and  minor  engagements  took  place 
within  its  borders,  and  all  the  destruction  incident  to 
gigantic  military  operations  fell  upon  it ; tens  of  thou- 
sands of  its  best  men  were  killed  in  battle;  its  territory 
was  dismembered,  and  a third  part  of  it  cut  off,  while 
more  than  three  hundred  million  dollars’  worth  of  prop- 
erty was  destroyed  in  what  remained. 

For  some  time  after  1865  Virginia  was  under  Federal 
military  control  as  “ District  No.  1 ; ” but  on  December 
3,  1867,  a convention,  elected  by  the  people,  under  an 
Act  of  the  United  States  Congress,  met  and  framed  a 
new  constitution,  prohibiting  slavery  and  accepting  the 
results  of  the  war ; this  was  ratified  by  a popular  vote, 
July  6,  1869,  at  which  time  members  of  a general  as- 
sembly and  State  officers  were  also  elected.  The  chosen 
governor  was  inaugurated  September  21,  1869;  the 
general  assembly  met  October  5,  1869,  and  ratified  the 


-VIS 

fourteenth  and  fifteenth  amendments  to  the  constitution 
of  the  United  States ; and  on  January  26,  1870,  Vir- 
ginia was  readmitted  to  representation  in  Congress,  and 
released  from  military  control. 

VIRGINIA  CITY,  the  county  seat  of  Storey  county, 
Nev.,  and  the  largest  and  most  important  city  of  the 
State,  is  situated  upon  the  steep,  rugged  eastern  slope 
of  Mount  Davidson;  about  6,300  feet  above  sea  level. 
A branch  line  connects  it  with  the  Central  Pacific  Rail- 
road at  Reno.  Virginia  City  is  built  over  the  great 
Comstock  lode,  the  mineral  vein  which  has  yielded 
probably  more  of  the  precious  metals  than  any  other 
single  deposit  in  the  world.  With  the  varying  for- 
tunes of  this  lode  the  prosperity  of  Virginia  City  is 
intimately  connected.  It  was  founded  in  1859,  and  in 
i860  its  inhabitants  numbered  2,345.  In  1861  it  re- 
ceived a city  charter.  It  continued  to  increase  until 
toward  the  end  of  that  decade,  when  the  falling  off  in 
the  receipts  from  the  mines  caused  a partial  exodus 
from  the  town,  and  the  census  of  1870  showed  only 
7,048  inhabitants.  The  discovery  of  the  “ great  bo- 
nanza” in  1875  produced  a return  of  prosperity,  but 
this  was  but  transient,  and  before  the  next  census  the 
city  was  again  on  the  wane.  In  1890  the  census  showed 
8,511  inhabitants.  In  1900  the  United  States  census 
showed  2,695  only.  The  city  is  laid  out  rather 
irregularly,  conforming  to  some  extent  to  the  surface 
of  the  mountain  side.  Some  streets  have  been 
graded,  at  great  expense,  as  it  involved  much  rock 
cutting. 

VIRGIN  ISLANDS,  a group  of  small  West  India 
Islands  (see  West  Indies),  about  one  hundred  in  num- 
ber, for  the  most  part  uninhabited,  extending  eastward 
from  Porto  Rico,  and  lying  between  170  and  180  50'  N. 
latitude,  and  64°  10'  and  65°  30'  W.  longitude.  Their 
total  area  may  be  estimated  at  about  465  square  miles, 
and  their  population  at  67,000.  The  westerly  portion 
of  the  group  belongs  to  Spain,  the  central  to  Denmark, 
and  the  easterly  to  Great  Britain. 

The  Virgin  Islands  were  discovered  by  Columbus  on 
his  second  voyage,  in  1494,  and  named  Las  Virgenes, 
in  honor  of  St.  Ursula  and  her  companions.  In  1666 
the  English  established  themselves  on  Tortola,  which 
has  ever  since  remained  in  their  possession.  In  the 
seventeenth  century  the  Virgin  Islands  were  favorite  re- 
sorts of  the  Buccaneers,  (q.v.)  The  Danish  Islands 
of  St.  Thomas  and  St.  John  were  taken  by  the  British 
in  1801,  but  restored  the  following  year.  In  1807  they 
surrendered  to  the  British,  and  continued  in  their  hands 
till  1815,  when  they  were  again  restored.  The  British 
Virgin  Islands,  in  1901,  had  a pop.  of  4,908 ; area,  58  sq.  m. 

VISCONTI.  See  Milan. 

VISCOUNT  (Latin  vice-comes),  a titled  rank  of  no- 
bility, the  fourth  in  the  order  of  the  British  peerage, 
and  consequently  intervening  between  the  dignities  of 
earl  and  baron.  The  first  English  viscount,  as  that 
term  now  is  used  and  understood,  was  John,  Baron 
Beaumont,  K.G.,  who,  by  letters  patent  dated  Feb- 
ruary 12,  1440,  by  Henry  VI.  was  created  Viscount 
Beaumont.  The  title  vice-comes , however,  existed  in 
England  certainly  as  early  as  the  Domesday  survey;  and 
in  those  early  times  it  was  borne  by  a county  offi- 
cer, who  was  deputy  to  the  comes  or  earl,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  feudal  system,  which  knew  no  titles  inde- 
pendent of  offices.  The  vice-cojnes , whose  title  from 
the  first  may  fairly  be  translated  “ viscount,”  and  who 
acted  in  the  absence  of  the  earl,  may  be  considered  to 
have  been  identical  with  the  functionary  known  by  the 
English  term  “ shire-reeve  ” or  “ sheriff,”  or,  as  we  now 
should  say,  “ high-sheriff.  ” 

VISE  (Escalier,  a Vis),  a spiral  or  corkscrew  stair- 
case, the  steps  of  which  wind  round  and  rest  on  a per- 


VIS  — VIT 


pendicular  pillar  called  the  newel.  In  the  Nor- 
man style  the  steps  rested  on  a spiral  arch;  but  in  later 
times  the  steps  rested  on  single  stones  stretching  from 
the  newel  to  the  wall.  This  kind  of  staircase  was  that 
most  generally  used  in  mediaeval  buildings. 

VISHNU.  See  Brahmanism. 

VISTULA.  See  Poland. 

VITALIANUS,  bishop  of  Rome  from  657  to  672, 
succeeded  Eugenius  I.  and  was  followed  by  Adeodatus. 
In  the  monothelite  controversy  then  raging  he  acted 
with  cautious  reserve,  refraining  at  least  from  express 
condemnation  of  the  Typtts  of  Constans  II.  The  chief 
episode  in  his  uneventful  pontificate  was  the  visit  of 
Constans  to  Rome ; the  pope  received  him  “ almost 
with  religious  honors,”  a deference  which  he  requited 
by  stripping  all  the  brazen  ornaments  of  the  city — even 
to  the  tiles  of  the  Pantheon — and  sending  them  to  Con- 
stantinople. Archbishop  Theodore  was  sent  to  Canter- 
bury by  Vitalian. 

VITEBSK,  a government  of  western  Russia,  with 
Livonia  and  Pskoff  on  the  north,  Smolensk  on  the  east, 
Moghileff,  Minsk,  and  Vilna  on  the  south,  and  Cour- 
land  on  the  west,  has  an  area  of  17,440  square  miles. 

The  pop.  (1898),  1,502,916,  is  chiefly  White  Russian 
(61  per  cent.)  and  Lettish  (21  per  cent.);  Jews  come 
next  (10  per  cent.)  The  Poles  make  only  about  2.3  per 
cent  of  the  population,  and  there  are  moreover  about 
10,000  Germans  in  the  northwest.  The  Great  Russians 
number  only  a few  thousands.  Nearly  two-thirds  of 
the  inhabitants  are  Orthodox  or  Raskolnik,  the  remain- 
der being  Catholics,  Jews,  or  Lutherans. 

Agriculture  is  the  chief  industry,  but  the  yearly  produce 
rarely  suffices  for  the  wants  of  the  population,  and  corn 
has  to  be  imported  from  Smolensk.  Rye,  oats,  and 
potatoes  are  the  chief  crops,  occupying  about  a third  of 
the  area.  Flax  is  an  important  crop  for  export.  Cattle- 
breeding  is  only  moderately  prosperous.  The  most 
important  branches  of  manufacture  are  represented  by 
distilleries,  flour-mills,  and  tanneries.  As  a rule,  the 
White  Russian  population  of  the  villages  is  very  poor, 
and  great  numbers  of  the  peasants  are  compelled  every 
year  to  leave  their  homes  in  search  of  work.  Of  domes- 
tic trades,  the  manufacture  of  wooden  wares,  as  well  as 
some  boat-building  and  flax-combing,  may  be  mentioned. 
The  principal  exports  are  flax,  linseed,  timber,  and 
hides.  There  is  a brisk  water-traffic  on  the  Dtina  by 
boats  to  Riga. 

Vitebsk,  capital  of  the  above  government,  stands 
on  both  banks  of  the  Dima,  on  the  railway  from 
Smolensk  to  Riga,  345  miles  west  of  Moscow.  It  is  an 
old  town,  with  decaying  mansions  of  the  old  nobility, 
and  dirty  Jewish  quarters,  half  of  its  65,871  inhabitants 
being  Jews.  Its  manufactures  are  insignificant,  and  the 
poorer  classes  support  themselves  by  gardening,  boat- 
building, and  the  flax  trade,  while  the  merchants  carry 
on  an  active  business  with  Riga  in  grain,  flax,  hemp, 
tobacco,  sugar,  and  timber. 

VITELLIUS,  Aulus,  the  ninth  of  the  twelve 
Caesars,  and  Roman  emperor  during  the  greater  part  of 
69  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Lucius  Vitellius,  who  had  been 
consul  and  governor  of  Syria  under  Tiberius.  Under 
Galba,  to  the  general  astonishment,  he  was  chosen  to 
command  the  army  of  Lower  Germany,  and  here  he 
made  himself  popular  with  his  subalterns  and  with  the 
soldiers  by  an  outrageous  prodigality  and  an  excessive 
good  nature,  which  soon  proved  quite  fatal  to  order 
and  discipline.  Far  from  being  an  ambitious  or  schem- 
ing man,  he  was  lazy  and  self-indulgent,  fond  of  eating 
and  drinking,  and  he  was  in  fact  drifted  into  empire  by 
the  promptings  of  Csecina  and  Valens,  commanders  of 
two  legions  oh  the  Rhine.  Through  these  two  men  a 
military  revolution  was  speedily  accomplished,  and  early 


6219 

in  69  Vitellius  was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Cologne,  or, 
to  speak  more  accurately,  emperor  of  the  armies  of 
Upper  and  Lower  Germany.  In  fact,  he  was  never  ac- 
knowledged as  emperor  by  the  entire  Roman  world, 
though  at  Rome  the  senate  accepted  him  and  decreed  to 
him  the  usual  imperial  honors.  But  after  all  he  was 
only  emperor  in  name.  It  was  noted  as  a bad  omeh 
that  he  received  the  title  of  supreme  pontiff  on  the  an- 
niversary of  the  day  of  Allia,  390  b.c.  , on  which  Rome 
was  all  but  utterly  overthrown  by  the  Gauls.  As  soon 
as  it  was  known  that  the  armies  of  the  East,  Dalmatia, 
and  Illyricum  had  declared  for  Vespasian,  Vitellius, 
finding  himself  deserted  by  many  of  his  adherents,  was 
for  resigning  the  title  of  emperor.  On  the  entrance  into 
Rome  of  Vespasian’s  troops  he  was  dragged  out  of  some 
miserable  hiding-place,  and,  with  his  hands  tied  behind 
him,  insulted,  unpitied,  driven  to  the  fatal  Gemonian 
stairs,  and  there  struck  down  amid  a shower  of  fierce 
eager  blows.  “Yet  I was  once  your  emperor,”  were 
the  last,  and,  as  far  as  we  know,  the  noblest  words  of 
Vitellius.  He  perished  thus  miserably  in  his  fifty- 
seventh  year. 

VITERBO,  a city  of  Italy,  capital  of  a circondario 
in  the  province  of  RomeJ  lies  1,200  feet  above  sea-level, 
on  the  Arcione,  at  the  northwestern  base  of  Monte 
Cimino  (3,450  feet),  on  the  high  road  between  Florence 
and  Rome,  42  miles  north-northwest  of  the  latter  city. 
The  inhabitants  of  Viterbo  (17,279  in  1901)  are  chiefly 
dependent  on  agriculture;  hemp  is  a specialty  of  the 
district,  and  tobacco  and  various  grains  are  largely 
grown,  as  well  as  the  olive  and  vine.  There  are  in  the 
vicinity  numerous  mineral  springs;  the  warm  sulphur 
spring  of  Bulicame,  about  two  miles  off,  is  alluded  to 
by  Dante. 

VITICULTURE.  The  cultivation  of  the  grape 
vine  is  said  to  be  yet  in  its  infancy  in  the  United  States. 
However  this  may  be,  there  is  no  country  in  the  world, 
where  greater  attention  is  paid  to  its  culture  and  develop- 
ment with  results  that  are  shown  in  the  wonderful  im- 
provement made  in  the  products  of  the  plant.  The 
grape  is  indigenous  to  America,  having  been  discovered 
in  various  sections  of  the  country  at  an  early  date,  and 
known  by  the  names  of  fox  grape,  summer  and  winter 
grapes,  muscadines,  etfc.  It  has  since  grown  to  be  one 
of  the  most  delicious  of  domesticated  fruits,  and  the 
highest  skill  known  to  the  art  of  horticulture  is  em- 
ployed in  promoting  its  quality  and  variety. 

The  European  grape  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
native  of  Persia,  and  while  its  early  history  is  involved 
in  doubt,  ancient  writers  in  prose  and  verse  sang  the 
praises  of  both  the  fruit  and  its  wine.  The  use  of  the 
latter,  as  is  well  known,  was  general  in  ancient  and 
medieval  times  in  Egypt  and  the  East,  but  during  the 
rule  of  Mohammed  it  was  prohibited  in  the  countries 
of  the  latter,  while  its  introduction  into  Europe  was 
followed  by  its  universal  adoption,  and  where  the  scien- 
tific cultivation  of  the  vine  has  since  come  to  be  one  of 
the  most  important,  productive,  and  prosperous  in- 
dustries. They  are  now  included  under  the  general  head 
Vitis  vinifera , and  are  supposed  to  belong  to  the  same 
species.  Their  attempted  culture  in  America  was  at  first 
unsuccessful,  thought  to  be  due  to  unfavorable  climatic 
conditions,  but  when  the  climate  of  California  was 
ascertained  to  be  promotive  of  their  growth  they  were 
extensively  cultivated,  and  to-day  many  species  of  the 
V.  vinifera  flourish  in  the  genial  climate  of  the  Pacific 
Coast. 

Prior  to  this,  as  early  indeed  as  1620,  European  vines 
were  planted  in  Virginia,  subsequently  in  Delaware  and 
Pennsylvania,  but  with  indifferent  results,  and  through 
succeeding  years  the  attention  of  horticulturists  has  been 
largely  directed  to  the  development  and  improvement 


V T T 


6220 

the  native  species.  Their  leading  characteristics  are  de- 
scribed as  “ luxuriance  of  growth,  and  rambling  unre- 
strained habits  of  vine,  often  mounting  the  tops  of  the 
tallest  forest  trees  and  loading  them  down  with  their 
weight  of  foliage  and  fruit,  which  was  of  inferior  quality.” 
Early  in  the  thirties  the  Catawba,  a native  grape,  was  de- 
veloped, and  in  1835  Major  Adlum,  a resident  of  George- 
town, D.  C.,  first  brought  it  into  public  notice.  It  re- 
ceived the  attention  of  Nicholas  Longworth,  Prof. 
Ernest,  Messrs.  Werk,  Buchanan  and  other  scientific 
fruit-growers  of  Southern  Ohio,  and  the  hillsides  which 
border  the  Ohio  river  for  a considerable  distance  above 
and  below  Cincinnati  have  since  been  terraced  and 
otherwise  transformed  into  vineyards,  covering  thou- 
sands of  acres,  producing  millions  of  pounds  of  fruit, 
from  which  still  and  sparkling  wines  of  unsurpassed 
purity  and  delicacy  are  made.  Extensive  vineyards  in 
which  the  Catawba,  Isabella,  Delaware,  Concord,  and 
other  varieties  of  the  native  grape  are  grown  are 
to  be  found  at  Put-in-Bay,  and  among  the  other 
islands  of  Lake  Erie,  as  also  about  Sandusky  City, 
Cleveland,  and  elsewhere  in  Northern  Ohio,  from 
which  an  equally  superior  article  of  wine  and  an 
excellent  quality  of  brandy  are  made.  In  1845  A. 
J.  Downing  mentions  twelve  native  varieties  which  he 
says  “ are  accidentally  improved  varieties  that  have 
sprung  up  in  the  woods  and  fields  from  wild  vines.” 
None  of  the  varieties  mentioned  by  him  are  grown  now 
aside  from  the  Scuppernong,  which  is  strictly  a southern 
variety.  Since  that  date,  hundreds  of  new  varieties, 
many  of  which  rival  the  very  best  qualities  of  foreign 
plants,  have  been  added  to  the  list,  and  found  capable 
of  resisting  the  vicissitudes  of  our  soils  and  climates,  em- 
bracing in  addition  to  those  above  mentioned  the  Cyn- 
thiana,  Virginia  seedling,  Herbemont  and  many  others 
less  conspicuous,  but  equally  desirable.  The  varieties 
known  to  the  South  of  Europe  flourish  in  California, 
where  they  were  introduced  in  1 771.  Upon  the  progress 
of  the  grape  industry  in  that  State,  Prof.  George  Hus- 
mann,  of  Napa,  has  this  to  say : 

“ When  gold  was  discovered  in  California,  during  the 
txciting  times  of  its  early  settlement,  by  those  who 
locked  by  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  over  the 
plains  and  across  the  ocean  to  seek  the  glittering  treas- 
ure among  its  hills  and  along  its  streams,  but  few  had 
an  idea  that  this  land,  with  its  rainless  summers,  would, 
in  the  short  space  of  time  which  has  since  elapsed,  be- 
come more  famous  for  its  golden  fruit  and  wine  than  it 
could  ever  be  by  the  glittering  metal  found  in  the  depths 
of  the  earth ; that  its  hills  and  plains,  looking  so  dry 
and  barren  during  the  summer  months,  would  sustain 
smiling  vineyards  and  trees  laden  with  fruit.  It  was 
generally  supposed  that  vines  and  trees  could  only  live 
and  thrive  with  irrigation;  that  the  Mission  grape,  first 
cultivated  by  the  Jesuit  fathers,  which  even  then  found 
its  way  into  the  mines  and  was  readily  purchased  by  the 
delvers  after  gold,  could  only  reach  its  luscious  ripeness 
by  being  freely  supplied  with  water  during  the  dry 
months.  From  this  small  beginning,  at  one  location 
and  one  variety,  what  a change!  Grape-growing  has 
spread  over  the  whole  State,  until  its  wine  crop — only 
one  of  the  uses  to  which  the  grape  is  devoted — is  esti- 
mated at  about  20,000,000  gallons  a year.  From  one 
variety  cultivated  then,  we  have  close  to  400  varieties 
now,  and  we  already  produce  as  fine  wines  as  any  coun- 
try on  the  globe.  From  the  few  scattering  small  vine- 
yards then  in  the  State,  which  were  irrigated  several 
times  a year,  our  vineyards  now  look  down  on  the  land 
from  the  highest  tops  of  the  mountains,  and  there  pro- 
luce  their  choicest  fruits,  without  irrigation,  being  more 
secure  from  frost  and  other  deleterious  influences  there 
ihan  in  the  valleys.  Their  smiling  verdure  greets  the 


eye  and  is  readily  distinguished  thousands  of  feet  above 
the  valleys.  Our  raisins  are  already  competing  with  the 
finest  London  layers  in  the  markets  of  the  world,  and 
our  table  grapes  are  shipped  to  every  city  and  town  in 
the  Union.” 

What  is  true  of  California  in  respect  to  the  cultiva 
tion  of  the  vine  is  equally  true  of  every  State  wherein 
the  industry  has  obtained  even  imperfectly.  In  1867 
the  total  acreage  devoted  to  viticulture  in  the  United 
States  did  not  exceed  2,000,000.  By  1880  it  had 
greatly  increased  its  area,  with  a total  wine  product 
of  23,453,827  gallons,  one-half  of  which  was  produced 
in  California,  the  balance  in  Ohio,  New  York,  and  the 
other  States  in  which  the  vine  is  grown  as  a business 
venture. 

Vine  culture,  the  soil  and  climate  being  adapted 
thereto,  is  inaugurated  either  by  cutting,  layering  and 
grafting,  or  by  planting  the  seeds.  In  the  latter  case 
methods  usual  to  the  propagation  of  plants  from  seeds 
are  successfully  employed.  When  the  plants  thus  de- 
rived have  attained  a year’s  growth  they  are  set  out 
and  trained  until  they  bear  grapes,  when  the  unhealthy 
or  imperfect  shoots  are  removed  and  the  cultivation  of 
the  plant  proceeded  with.  Viticulture  is  also  com- 
menced with  cuttings.  These  are  usually  started  in 
hot-houses  and  demand  especial  attention.  Still  an- 
other plan  is  that  of  “ layering,”  which  consists  of  a 
cutting  connected  with  the  parent  vine,  its  vitality 
being  thereby  preserved  until  it  can  form  roots.  Graft- 
ing is  the  most  familiar  method  and  needs  no  explana- 
tion. The  vine  is  grown  on  arbors  or  trellises,  forming 
a useful  and  ornamental  shade,  also  attached  to  stakes 
arranged  at  regular  intervals,  along  which  it  is  trained. 
This  method  is  found  the  most  advantageous  in  vine- 
yards located  on  hillsides,  and  the  products  in  the  United 
States,  as  above  related,  include  the  grape,  wine,  and 
raisins.  The  diseases  to  which  they  are  subject  are 
mildew,  blight,  and  that  caused  by  the  phylloxera , or 
root-louse. 

VITORIA,  a town  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  Basque 
province  of  Alava,  stands  at  a height  of  about  1,750 
feet  above  sea-level,  on  a small  hill  commanding  the 
plain  of  Alava,  234  miles  by  rail  north-northeast  of 
Madrid.  Vitoria,  from  its  favorable  position,  is  an 
important  center  of  trade  in  wine,  wool,  horses,  mules, 
and  hardware;  the  chief  industries  are  paper-making, 
carriage-building,  cabinet -making,  tanning,  and  the 
manufacture  of  earthenware.  The  population  within 
the  municipal  boundaries  in  1898  was  30,514. 

VITRfi,  a town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  an  arron- 
dissement  in  the  department  of  Ille-et-Vilaine,  stands 
on  a hill  rising  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Vilaine,  twenty- 
four  miles  east  of  Rennes  by  the  railway  to  Paris.  The 
chief  articles  of  trade  are  cloth,  hosiery,  and  thick 
clothing  made  of  goats’  skins.  The  chateau  of  Les 
Rochers,  celebrated  through  Madame  de  S£vign6, 
stands  three  miles  from  the  town.  The  population  in 
1901  was  9,557  (commune  10,447). 

VITRIFIED  FORTS  is  the  name  given  to  certain 
rude  stone  inclosures  whose  walls  bear  traces  of  having 
been  subjected  to  the  action  of  fire.  They  are  gener- 
ally situated  on  elevated  hills,  which  occupy  strong  and 
easily  defended  positions.  Their  form  is  irregular,  and 
seems  to  have  been  determined  rather  by  the  contour  of 
the  flat  summits  which  they" inclose  than  by  any  definite 
architectural  plan.  The  walls  vary  in  size,  some  being 
comparatively  small,  while  a few  are  upward  of  twelve 
feet  high,  and  are  so  broad  that  they  present  the  appear- 
ance of  huge  embankments.  Weak  and  exposed  parts 
in  the  defense  are  strengthened  by  double  or  triple  walls, 
and  occasionally  vast  lines  of  ramparts,  composed  of 
large  blocks  oi  unhewn  and  unvitrified  stones,  are 


V I T 


6 22t 


drawn  around  the  fortified  hills  at  some  distance  from 
the  vitrified  center.  No  lime  or  cement  has  been  found 
in  any  of  these  structures,  but  all  of  them  present  the 
peculiarity  of  being  more  or  less  consolidated  by  the 
fusion  of  the  rocks  of  which  they  are  built.  This 
fusion,  which  has  been  caused  by  the  application  of 
- ntense  heat,  is  not  equally  complete  and  regular  in  the 
various  forts,  or  even  in  the  walls  of  the  same  fort.  In 
some  cases  the  stones  are  only  partially  melted  and  cal- 
cined; in  others  their  adjoining  edges  are  fused  so  that 
they  are  firmly  cemented  together;  in  many  instances 
pieces  of  rock  are  enveloped  in  a glassy,  enamel-like 
coating  which  binds  them  into  a uniform  whole;  and  at 
times,  though  rarely,  the  entire  length  of  the  wall  pre- 
sents one  solid  mass  of  vitreous  substance. 

Since  John  Williams — one  of  the  earliest  of  British 
geologists,  and  author  of  The  Mineral  Kingdom  — 
first  described,  in  1777,  these  singular  ruins,  about  fifty 
examples  have  been  discovered  in  different  parts  of 
Scotland.  The  most  remarkable  are  Dun  Mac  Uisne- 
achain,  the  ancient  Beregonium,  north  of  Oban ; 
Tap  o’  Noth,  in  Aberdeenshire;  Craig  Phadraic  and 
Dun  Dhardhail,  in  Inverness;  Knockfarrail,  near  Strath- 
peffer;  Dun  Creich,  in  Sutherland;  Findhaver,  near 
Aberlemno ; Barryhill,  in  Perthshire ; Laws,  near 
Dundee;  Dun  Gall  and  Burnt  Island,  in  Buteshire; 
Anwoth,  in  Kirkcudbright ; and  Cowdenknowes,  in 
Berwickshire.  Dun  Mac  Uisneachain  is  the  largest 
in  area,  being  250  yards  long  by  50  yards  broad.  The 
strongest  and  most  cyclopean  is  the  Tap  o’  Noth:  here 
the  walls  are  about  eight  feet  high,  and  between  twenty 
and  thirty  feet  thick.  In  Dun  Mac  Uisneachain,  Barry- 
hill, and  Laws  the  remains  of  small  rectangular  huts  or 
dwellings  have  been  found. 

For  a long  time  it  was  supposed  that  these  forts  were 
limited  in  their  range  to  Scotland  ; but  they  are  now 
known  to  exist  in  Londonderry  and  Cavan,  in  Ireland  ; 
in  Upper  Lusatia,  Bohemia,  Silesia,  Saxony,  and  Thu- 
ringia ; in  the  provinces  on  the  upper  banks  of  the 
Rhine,  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Nahe  ; in 
the  Ucker  Lake,  in  Brandenburg,  where  the  walls  are 
formed  of  burnt  and  smelted  bricks ; and  in  several 
places  in  France,  such  as  Chateauvieux,  Peran,  La 
Courbe,  Saint  Suzanne,  Puy  de  Gaudy,  and  Thaiiron. 
They  have  not  been  found  in  England  or  Wales  ; and 
Worsaae,  Herbst,  Rygh,  Hildebrand,  and  Stephens  as- 
sert that  they  do  not  exist  in  Denmark  or  in  Scandinavia. 

All  the  examples  yet  described  present  a general 
similarity  in  form  and  structure.  In  some  of  the  conti- 
nental forts  the  vitrified  walls  are  supported  by  masses 
of  unvitrified  stone  built  up  on  each  side.  This,  in  all 
probability,  constituted  an  essential  feature  in  the 
Scottish  forts.  Except  on  the  hypothesis  of  buttresses 
of  a similar  kind,  it  is  impossible  to  explain  the  vast 
quantities  of  loose  stones  which  are  found  both  inside 
and  outside  many  of  the  vitrified  walls. 

The  method  by  which  the  fusion  of  such  extensive 
fortifications  was  produced  has  always  excited  much 
interest  and  conjecture.  Williams,  when  he  first 
directed  attention  to  the  subject,  maintained  that  the 
builders  of  the  forts,  whoever  they  were,  found  out, 
either  during  the  process  of  smelting  bog-ore,  or 
while  offering  sacrifices,  the  power  of  fire  in  vitrifying 
stone,  and  that  they  improved  upon  this  discovery  by 
using  it  for  the  purpose  of  cementing  and  strengthen- 
ing their  strongholds.  This  view  has  been  keenly  con- 
troverted, and  other  theories  have  been  suggested.  It 
has  been  held  that  the  vitrified  summits  were  not  forts 
at  all,  but  the  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes  (West,  Pen- 
nant, and  Cordiner),  an  hypothesis  long  since  aban- 
doned as  unscientific ; that  the  vitrified  summits  are 
not  so  much  vitrified  forts  as  vitrified  sites,  and  that 

890 


the  vitrescence  was  produced  by  beacon  fires  lighted 
during  times  of  invasion,  or  by  bonfires  kindled  on  hill 
tops  in  religious  celebrations  (Sir  George  Mackenzie^ 
Dr.  S.  Hibbert,  and  Principal  Daniel  Wilson);  ands 
lastly,  that  if  they  were  forts  they  must  have  originally 
been  built  of  wood  and  stone,  and  that  their  present 
vitrified  appearance  is  not  due  to  design,  but  to  their 
being  set  on  fire  by  a besieging  enemy  (A.  Fraser 
Tytler,  Forbes  Leslie,  Von  Cohausen,  and  Dr.  Joseph 
Anderson).  The  theory  of  Williams — which  has,  with 
modifications,  been  accepted  by  all  the  principal 
British  and  Continental  authorities,  such  as  MacCul- 
loch,  Hugh  Miller,  Virchow,  Schaaffhausen,  Thuot, 
and  Montaiglon — is  likely  to  hold  the  field. 

VITRIOL,  a name  formerly  and  sometimes  still  given 
to  sulphuric  acid  and  to  certain  sulphates  (see  Sulphur). 
Oil  of  vitriol  is  concentrated  sulphuric  add.  Blue  vitriol 
is  sulphate  of  copper;  green  vitriol,  sulphate  of  iron 
(copperas,  ferrous  sulphate);  and  white  vitriol,  sulphate 
of  zinc. 

VITRUVIUS,  a Roman  architect  and  engineer, 
whose  full  name  was  Marcus  Vitruvius  Pollio,  the 
author  of  a very  celebrated  work  on  architecture.  Noth 
ing  is  known  about  his  personal  history,  except  what 
can  be  gathered  from  incidental  remarks  in  his  own 
writings. 

From  the  early  Renaissance  down  to  a comparatively 
recent  time  the  influence  of  Vitruvius’  treatise  has 
been  remarkably  great.  Throughout  the  period  of  the 
classical  revival  Vitruvius  was  the  chief  authority  stud 
ied  by  all  architects,  and  in  every  point  his  precepts  were 
accepted  as  final.  In  some  cases  a failure  to  under- 
stand his  meaning  led  to  curious  results;  for  example, 
the  mediaeval  custom  not  uncommon  in  England,  of 
placing  rows  of  earthenware  jars  under  the  floor  of  the 
stalls  in  church  choirs,  appears  to  have  been  an  attempt 
to  follow  out  Vitruvius’  remarks  about  the  advantages 
of  placing  bronze  vases  around  the  auditorium  of 
theatres.  Bramante,  Michaelangelo,  Palladio,  Vig- 
nola, and  earlier  architects  were  careful  students  of 
Vitruvius’  work,  which  through  them  has  largely  in- 
fluenced the  architecture  of  almost  all  European  coun- 
tries down  to  the  present  century,  a very  remarkable  in- 
stance of  the  success  and  influence  of  a book  being 
actively  redeveloped  a very  long  time — about  fifteen 
centuries — after  its  author’s  lifetime.  There  is  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  book  was  either  popular  or 
influential  among  the  ancient  Romans,  and  yet  in  more 
modern  times  its  influence  has  been  unbounded.  Its 
archseological  value  is  very  great,  as  without  it  we 
should  find  it  very  difficult  to  understand  the  uses  of  the 
various  parts  of  such  houses  as  those  at  Pompeii,  and 
many  interesting  details  with  regard  both  to  construc- 
tion and  design  would  have  remained  unintelligible. 

VITTOR1A,  an  inland  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  Italian 
province  of  Syracuse*  about  eighteen  miles  by  road 
east-southeast  from  Terranova,  stands  in  the  midst  of  a 
rich  vine  and  olive  district,  which  also  produces  silk, 
rice,  and  honey.  The  population  in  1901  was  23,755. 
It  is  quite  a modern  town — founded  toward  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  principal  church 
(San  Giovanni)  dates  from  1854. 

VITUS,  St.,  according  to  the  Roman  Breviary, 
while  still  a ^ery  young  boy,  had  been  baptized  without 
the  knowledge  of  his  father,  who,  on  learning  this, 
spared  no  effort  to  bring  about  his  return  to  paganism. 
After  other  severe  measures  had  been  tried  in  vain  he 
was  delivered  to  Valerian  to  be  scourged,  but  even  this 
had  no  effect,  and  he  was  handed  back  to  his  father. 
Admonished  by  an  angel,  Vitus,  accompanied  by 
Modestus  and  Crescentia,  by  whom  he  had  been  brought 
up,  now  took  refuge  abroad,  where  his  fame  for  sanctify 


6222 


V I V- 

became  so  great  that  he  was  summoned  by  Diocletian 
to  heal  his  child,  who  was  grievously  vexed  with  a 
devil.  Successful  in  this,  he  was  urged  by  the  ungrate- 
ful emperor  to  worship  the  pagan  deities,  and  on  his 
refusal  was  cast  into  prison.  Along  with  Modestus 
and  Crescentia  he  was  sentenced  to  be  plunged  into  a 
caldron  of  molten  lead,  resin,  and  pitch,  but  here  their 
experience  was  that  of  the  three  Hebrew  children. 
Next  they  were  cast  before  the  lion,  but  the  wild  beast 
fawned  upon  them  and  licked  their  feet.  Finally  they 
were  torn  limb  from  limb.  The  three  are  com- 
memorated on  June  15th.  The  more  extended  legend 
of  St.  Vitus  relates  that,  on  one  occasion  when  he  had 
been  shut  up  in  a dungeon,  his  father  looking  through  a 
chink  in  the  door  beheld  him  dancing  with  seven 
beautiful  angels;  so  dazzled  was  he  by  the  sight  that  he 
became  blind,  and  recovered  only  through  the  interces- 
sion of  his  son.  St.  Vitus  is  accordingly  the  patron 
saint  of  dancers  and  actors,  and  is  invoked  against  the 
disease  known  as  St.  Vitus’  Dance,  {q.v. ) He  is  the 
patron  of  Saxony,  Bohemia,  and  Sicily,  and  through- 
out Germany  ranks  as  one  of  the  fourteen  “ Nothhelfer  ” 
of  the  church. 

VIVARINI,  the  surname  of  a family  of  painters  of 
Murano  (Venice),  who  produced  a great  quantity  of 
work  in  Venice  and  its  neighborhood  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  leading  on  to  that  phase  of  the  school  which  is 
represented  by  Carpaccio  and  the  Bellinis. 

Antonio  Vivarini  was  probably  the  earliest  of  this 
family.  He  came  from  the  school  of  Andrea  da  Mu- 
rano, and  his  works  show  the  influence  of  Gentile  da 
Fabriano.  The  earliest  known  date  of  a picture  of  his, 
an  altar-piece  in  the  Venetian  academy,  is  1440;  the 
latest,  in  the  Lateran  museum,  1464. 

Bartolommeo  Vivarini  is  known  to  have  worked 
from  1450  to  1499.  He  learned  oil-painting  from  An- 
tonello  da  Messina,  and  is  said  to  have  produced,  in 
1473,  the  first  oil  picture  done  in  Venice. 

Luigi  or  Alvise  Vivarini  painted  in  1490  and  on 
to  1505.  The  works  of  Luigi  show  an  advance  on  those 
of  his  predecessors,  hik  best  work  being  one  which  he 
executed  for  the  Scuola  di  S.  Girolamo  in  Venice,  rep- 
resenting the  saint  caressing  his  lion,  and  some  monks 
decamping  in  terror.  The  architecture  and  perspective 
in  this  work  are  superior.  Other  works  by  Luigi  are 
in  Treviso  and  in  Milan. 

VIVES,  Tuan  Luis  (or  Ludovicus),  a well-known 
scholar  of  the  third  and  fourth  decades  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  was  born  at  Valencia,  in  Spain,  in  March, 
1492.  At  the  instance  of  his  friend  Erasmus  he  pre- 
pared an  edition  of  Augustine’s  De  Civitate  Dei,  which 
was  published  in  1522  with  adedication  to  Henry  VIII. 
of  England.  Soon  afterward  he  was  invited  to  England 
and  appointed  tutor  to  the  Princess  Mary,  for  whose 
benefit  he  wrote  De  Ratione  Studii  Puerilis  Epistolce 
Duce.  While  in  England  he  resided  a good  deal  at 
Oxford,  where  he  was  made  doctor  of  laws  and  lectured 
on  philosophy.  Having  openly  declared  himself  against 
the  king’s  divorce,  he  lost  the  royal  favor  and  was 
thrown  into  prison,  where  he  remained  for  six  months. 
On  his  release  he  went  to  Spain  and  afterward  to  the 
Low  Countries,  finally  settling  in  Bruges,  where  he 
married  and  devoted  himself  to  the  composition  of  his 
numerous  works,  which  were  chiefly  directed  against 
the  scholastic  philosophy  and  the  preponderant  author- 
ity of  Aristotle.  He  died  on  May  6,  1540. 

VIVISECTION  is  the  term  employed  to  denote 
operations  performed  on  living  animals,  with  a view  to 
increasing  the  physiological  knowledge  of  the  operator. 
The  earliest  anatomists,  to  whom  the  use  of  the  knife 
upon  the  human  body  was  forbidden,  utilized  animals 
for  their  experiments,  and  the  Alexandrian  school  largely 


-VIZ 

practiced  vivisection.  It  was  not,  however,  until  about 
the  year  1820  that  the  experimentations  of  the  great 
French  physiologists  attracted  attention.  A protest 
was  made  at  that  time  against  the  extent  to  which  vivi- 
section had  been  carried  on  in  the  veterinary  colleges. 
The  Academy  of  Sciences,  after  full  discussion,  con- 
cluded that  the  charge  of  needless  cruelty  was  unwar- 
ranted, and  no  notice  should  be  taken  of  it.  Of  more 
recent  years  societies  have  been  formed,  in  England 
and  elsewhere,  by  persons  who  consider  that  no  amount  of 
benefit  which  might  be  obtained  for  humanity,  can  pos- 
sibly justify  scientific  experiments  on  the  lower  animals. 
We  do  not  care  to  pronounce  an  opinion  on  this  mat- 
ter; but,  as  contrasted  with  the  services  which  the  re- 
searches of  Bernard,  Brown-Sequard,  and  Hunter  have 
rendered  to  humanity  through  knowledge  acquired  by 
vivisection,  the  puling  sentimentality  which  objects  to 
the  scientific  investigation  of  disease,  simply  because  it 
involves  the  life  of  the  lower  animals,  appears  to  be  too 
ridiculous  for  argument.  It  might  further  be  stated 
that  but  for  the  researches  upon  the  life  of  the  lower 
animals,  veterinary  science  itself  would  to-day  be  at  a 
very  low  ebb.  That  the  practice  of  vivisection  should 
not  be  wantonly  entered  upon  or  indulged  in  for  non- 
scientific  purposes  is  granted  as  freely  as  the  fact  that 
surgical  operations  should  not  be  performed  in  hospitals 
for  the  mere  instruction  of  students.  We  do  not  be- 
lieve that  either  the  latter  or  former  occur. 

VIZAGAPATAM,  a British  district  of  India,  in 
Madras  presidency,  lying  between  170  14'  30"  and  180 
58'  N.  latitude  and  82°  19'  and  83°  59'  E.  longitude, 
with  an  area  of  3,477  square  miles.  Including  the 
Jaipur  and  Vizianagram  zamindaries,  which  are  under 
British  administration,  the  area  is  17,380  square  miles. 
Vizagapatam  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Ganjam  dis- 
trict, on  the  east  by  Ganjam  and  the  sea,  on  the  south 
by  the  sea  and  Godavari  district,  and  on  the  west  by 
the  Central  Provinces.  It  is  a beautiful,  picturesque, 
and  hilly  country,  forming  part  of  the  large  extent  of 
shore  known  as  the  Orissa  coast,  but  for  the  most  part 
it  is  unhealthy.  The  plain  along  the  Bay  of  Bengal  is 
exceedingly  rich  and  fertile.  It  is  described  as  a vast 
sheet  of  cultivation,  green  with  rice  fields  and  gardens 
of  sugar-cane  and  tobacco.  There  are  great  varieties 
of  climate  in  the  district.  Along  the  coast  the  air  is 
soft  and  relaxing,  the  prevailing  winds  being  south- 
easterly. The  average  annual  rainfall  at  Vizagapatam 
exceeds  forty  inches. 

The  census  of  1901  returned  the  population  of  the 
district,  exclusive  of  the  agency  tracts,  at  1,790,468. 
Including  the  Jaipur  and  Vizianagram  dependencies, 
the  total  population  of  the  district  was  2,485,141. 
There  are  five  towns  with  populations  of  more  than 
10,000,  viz.: — Vizagapatam  and  Vizianagram  ( q.v.); 
Anakapalle,  13,341;  Bobbili,  14,943;  anc^  Salur,  11,856. 
The  chief  crops  are  rice,  which  is  the  staple  product  of 
the  country,  and  sugar.  The  cultivation  of  indigo  is 
also  successfully  carried  on. 

Vizagapatam,  a municipal  and  seaport  town,  the 
administrative  headquarters  of  the  above  district, 
with  a population  in  1901  of  35,291.  It  lies  on  a small 
bay,  the  south  extremity  of  which  is  bounded  by  a 
promontory  known  as  the  Dolphin’s  Nose,  and  its 
northern  extremity  by  the  suburb  of  Waltair.  The 
principal  exports  are  grain  and  sugar,  and  the  principal 
industries  of  the  town  are  elk  horn  and  ivory  knick- 
knacks  and  gold  and  silver  filigree  work. 

VIZI  AD  RUG,  or  Gheria,  a port  in  Ratn&giri  dis- 
trict, Bombay  presidency,  India,  about  thirty  miles 
south  of  Ratndgiri  town  and  170  miles  south  of  Bombay 
city,  in  160  33'  40"  N.  latitude  and  730  22'  10"  E. 
longitude.  It  is  one  of  the  best  harbors  on  the  western 


v T Z — V L A 


coast  of  India,  being  without  any  bar,  and  may  be 

entered  in  all  weathers;  even  to  large  ships  it  affords 
safe  shelter  during  the  southwest  monsoon.  The  chief 
interest  of  the  place  centers  in  its  fort,  which  is  one  of 
the  strongest  Mohammedan  fortresses  in  the  Concan, 
and  rises  grandly  about  ioo  feet  above  the  river. 

VIZIANAGRAM,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  ex- 
tensive estates  or  zamindaries  in  India,  included  in  the 
Vizagapatam  district  of  the  Madras  presidency,  with  an 
area  of  about  3,000  square  miles,  and  a population 
(1901)  of  844,168.  The  chief  town,  Vizianagram,  had 
in  1901  a population  of  25,577. 

VIZIER  (Arabic  IVazir),  literally  the  “burden 
bearer  ” of  the  sovereign.  The  office  of  vizier,  which 
spread  from  the  Arabs  to  the  Persians,  Turks,  Mon 
gols,  and  other  Oriental  peoples,  arose  under  the  first 
Abbasid  caliphs,  and  took  shape  under  their  great  min- 
isters the  Barmecides.  The  vizier  stood  between  sov- 
ereign and  subjects,  representing  the  former  in  all  mat- 
ters touching  the  latter.  The  title  of  wazir  was  often 
given  to  ministers  of  a special  department,  such  as  the 
treasury  or  the  police,  but  the  wazir  (the  grand  vizier, 
as  Europeans  say)  bore  the  whole  burden  of  the  state, 
and,  although  his  position  was  absolutely  uncertain,  de- 
pending on  the  mere  will  of  the  sovereign,  his  power 
was  unlimited.  His  place  was  one  of  dizzy  grandeur 
but  of  extreme  difficulty.  He  was  expected  to  be  able 
to  answer  all  questions,  realize  every  wish  of  the  caliph, 
keep  the  coffers  of  the  state  full,  and  yet  find  time  to 
cultivate  the  personal  favor  of  the  sovereign  by  the  dis- 
play of  social  gifts.  Such  were  the  Barmecide  viziers, 
the  brilliant  type  of  which  all  subsequent  Oriental  min- 
isters are  more  or  less  imperfect  copies. 

VIZZINI,  an  inland  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  Italian 
province  of  Catania,  thirty-nine  miles  east-northeast  of 
Terranova  and  thirty-four  miles  west-northwest  of  Syra- 
cuse, is  a prosperous  country  place  of  15,966-  inhab- 
itants (1901). 

VLACHS,  Vlach,  otherwise  written  Wallack,  is  a 
general  name  for  all  the  members  of  the  Latin -speaking 
race  inhabiting  eastern  Europe.  The  name  is  in  its 
origin  identical  with  our  “ Welsh,”  “ Welshman,”  and 
represents  a Slavonic  adaptation  of  a generic  term 
applied  by  the  T eutonic  races  at  the  time  of  the  migra- 
tion of  peoples  to  all  Roman  provincials.  It  thus  finds 
its  analogies  in  the  German  name  for  Italy — Welsch- 
land  (Walischland),  in  the  Walloons  of  the  Low 
Countries,  the  “ Wallgau  ” of  Tyrol,  etc. 

The  Slavs,  at  least  in  their  principal  extent,  first 
knew  the  Roman  empire  through  a Teutonic  medium, 
and  adopted  their  terms  Vlach,  V oloch,  from  the  Ostro- 
Gothic  equivalent  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  “ Wealh.”  The 
name  is  thus  of  foreign  origin,  the  native  Vlachs  con- 
tinuing to  this  day  to  call  themselves  “ Rumeni,™ 
Romeni , or  even  Romani ; and  it  is  from  the  native 
pronunciation  of  the  Roman  name  that  we  have  the 
equivalent  expression  Rouman , a word  which  must  by 
no  means  be  confined  to  that  part  of  the  Vlach  race 
inhabiting  the  present  kingdom  of  Roumania.  This 
Vlach  or  Rouman  race  constitutes  a distinct  division 
of  the  Latin  family  of  peoples,  widely  disseminated 
throughout  eastern  Europe,  both  north  and  south  of 
the  Danube.  North  of  the  Danube  the  Roumans 
inhabit,  besides  Walachia  and  Moldavia,  Bessarabia 
and  the  adjoining  South-Russian  districts,  a large  part 
of  Transylvania  and  the  Hungarian  Banat,  and  extend 
sporadically  from  the  Bug  to  the  Adriatic.  South  of 
the  Danube  the  central  glens  of  Pindus  form  the 
rincipal  nucleus  of  Rouman  habitation,  but  there  is 
esides  a considerable  colony  in  the  Epirote  district  of 
Musakja,  in  Altolia  and  Acarnania,  in  various  districts 
of  Albania,  Thessaly,  Macedonia,  and  the  Bulgarian 


6223 

principality.  In  Servia  this  element  is  preponderant  in 
the  Timok  valley,  while  in  Istria  it  is  represented  by 
the.  Cici,  at  present  largely  Slavonized,  as  are  now 
entirely  the  kindred  Morlachs  of  Dalmatia. 

The  center  of  gravity  of  the  Vlach  or  Rouman  race 
is  at  present  unquestionably  north  of  the  Danube, 
and  corresponds  roughly  to  the  limits  of  Trajan’s  Da- 
cian province  From  this  circumstance  the  popular 
idea  has  arisen  that  the  race  itself  repiesents  the  de- 
scendants of  the  Romanized  population  of  Trajan’s 
Dacia  which  was  assumed  to  have  maintained  an  un- 
broken existence  in  Walachia,  Transylvania,  etc.,  be- 
neath the  dominion  of  a succession  of  invaders.  The 
Vlachs  of  Pindus,  etc.,  on  this  hypothesis,  were  to  be 
regarded  as  later  immigrants  from  the  lands  north  of 
the  Danube.  In  1871  lCoeslei  published,  in  a collective 
form,  a series  of  essays,  in  which  he  absolutely  denied 
the  claim  of  the  Roumanian  and  Transylvanian  Vlachs 
to  be  regarded  as  Dacian  autochthones.  He  laid  stress 
on  the  statements  of  Vopiscus  and  others  as  implying 
the  total  withdrawal  of  the  Roman  provincials  from 
Trajan’s  Dacia  by  Aurelian,  and  on  the  non-mention 
by  historians  of  a Latin  population  in  the  lands  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  lower  Danube,  during  their  successive 
occupation  by  Goths,  Huns,  Gepidae,  Avars,  Slavs, 
Bulgars,  and  other  barbarian  races.  He  found  the  first 
trace  of  a Rouman  settlement  north  of  the  Danube  in 
a Transylvanian  diploma  of  1222.  Roesler’s  thesis  has 
been  generally  regarded  as  an  entirely  new  departure  in 
critical  ethnography.  As  a matter  of  fact,  his  conclu- 
sions had  to  a great  extent  been  already  anticipated  by 
Sulzer  in  his  Geschichte  des  Transalpinischen  Daciens^ 
ublished  at  Vienna  in  1781,  and  at  a still  earlier  date 
y the  Dalmatian  historian  Lucius  of  Trau  in  his  work 
De  Regno  Dalmatia  et  Croatia , 1666. 

VLADIKAVKAZ,  a fortified  town  of  Russia,  in 
the  province  of  Terek,  is  advantageously  and  pictur- 
esquely situated  at  the  northern  base  of  the  Great  Cau» 
casus  chain,  on  a raised  plain,  2,230  feet  above  the  sea- 
level,  where  the  gorge  of  the  Terek  emerges  from  the 
mountain  tracts.  It  is  tidily  built,  and  its  population 
since  it  became  an  entrepot  for  trade  between  Russia 
and  Caucasus  has  rapidly  grown  (43,843  in  1898).  The 
transport  of  merchandise  is  the  principal  occupation  0 A 
the  place. 

VLADIMIR,  a government  of  middle  Russia, 
bounded  by  Moscow  and  Tver  on  the  west,  Yaroslav  ar?4 
Kostroma  on  the  north,  Nijniy  Novgorod  on  the  east, 
Tamboff  and  Ryazan  on  the  south,  has  an  area  of  18,864 
square  miles.  It  extends  over  the  eastern  parts  of  tb^ 
central  plateau  of  middle  Russia. 

The  population  (1,570,733  in  1898)  is  thoroughly 
Great  Russian;  the  Finnish  tribes,  Muroma  and  Mery\ 
which  formerly  inhabited  the  region,  have  been  absorbed 
by  the  Slavonians,  as  also  have  the  Karelians  who  are 
supposed  to  have  formerly  inhabited  the  territory;  the 
descendants  of  the  few  hundred  Karelian  families, 
which  were  settled  by  Peter  I.  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
Pereyaslavl,  still,  however,  maintain  their  language. 
Agriculture  is  carried  on  everywhere,  but  is  in  a pros- 
perous state  only  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Klyasma,  nnd 
grain  is  imported.  The  culture  of  flax,  both  for  local 
manufactures  and  for  export — especially  about  Me?  nki 
— is  important;  so  also  are  that  of  hemp  and  gardening. 
Natural  pastures  being  by  no  means  deficient,  the  num- 
ber of  cattle  is  greater  than  might  be  expects*  in  1 
province  so  backward  in  agriculture. 

A distinctive  feature  of  Vladimir  is  the  great  variety 
of  petty  trades  carried  on  in  its  villages  by  peasants  whet 
still  continue  to  cultivate  their  allotments  and  thuc 
combine  manufacture  with  agriculture. 

The  manufacture®  of  Vladimir  are  equally  xwoortanj 


5224  V L A - 

out  of  the  aggregate  production  of  the  fifty  govern- 
ments of  European  Russia  (1,329,602,000  rubles  in 
1889),  Vladimir  was  returned  for  88,827,000  rubles, 
exclusive  of  numerous  minor  manufactures  not  included 
in  the  census.  In  the  number  of  workmen  employed 
»n  manufactures  (102,900)  Vladimir  is  second  only  to 
Moscow,  and  in  its  production  it  is  second  only  to 
Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg.  The  chief  industrial  estab- 
lishments are  cotton  and  linen  factories,  glass,  chemical, 
and  iron  works,  distilleries,  and  tanneries. 

Vladimir  is  divided  into  fourteen  districts,  the  chief 
towns  of  which  (with  populations  in  1898)  are  Vladi- 
mir (q.v.),  28,315 ; Alexandroff,  6,915 ; Ivanovo-Voz- 
nesensk, 53,949;  Kovroff,  8,050;  Melenki,  6,470;  Mu- 
rom (q.v.)t  13,680;  Pereyaslavl  Zalyesskiy,  7,470;  Pok- 
rofif,  2,700;  Shuya  (q.v.)t  21,430;  Sudogda,  1,880: 
Suzdal,  6,770;  Vyazniki,  6,015;  and  Yurieff  Polskiy, 
5,400.  Kirzhatch  (3,285),  Voznesensk  (6,000),  and 
Gavrilovsk  (1,780)  have  also  municipal  institutions. 
Ivanovo,  Gusevsk  Kholui,  and  several  others,  though 
mere  villages,  are  more  important  than  some  district 
towns. 

Vladimir,  capital  of  the  above  government,  is 
known  in  history  as  Vladimir-on -the- Klyasma,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  Vladimir  in  Volhynia.  It  is  pict- 
uresquely situated  on  the  Klyasma  and  Lybed,  114 
miles  by  rail  to  the  east  of  Moscow.  Vladimir  is  a de- 
caying place ; its  population  has  only  risen  to  28,315  in 
1898  from  13,865  in  1859.  The  manufactures  are  for 
the  most  part  insignificant,  and  trade  has  not  the  im- 
portance it  has  in  some  of  the  district  towns. 

VLADIVOSTOK,  the  chief  naval  station  of  Russia 
on  the  Pacific,  is  situated  in  430  7'  N.  latitude  and  1310 
55'  E.  longitude,  on  the  Gulf  of  Peter  the  Great  in  the 
Sea  of  Japan.  Though  standing  in  almost  the  same 
parallel  as  Marseilles,  Vladivostok  has  an  average 
annual  temperature  of  only  38.5°  F.,  and,  although  the 
gulf  itself  never  freezes,  a thin  ice-crust  forms  along 
the  shores  in  December,  keeping  ships  ice-bound  for 
from  thirty  to  forty-five  days. 

The  settlement  of  Vladivostok,  though  founded  only 
in  1861,  had  in  1898  28,896  inhabitants,  chiefly  mili- 
tary; and  for  hundreds  of  miles  inland  the  sole  popula- 
tion consists  of  small  military  posts  by  which  commu- 
nication is  maintained  up  the  Suifun  to  Lake  Khangka 
and  the  Cossack  settlements  on  the  Usuri.  Vladivos- 
tok is  connected  with  headquarters  by  telegraph. 
VOGEL WEIDE.  See  Walter  von  der  Vogel- 

WEIDE. 

VOGHERA  ( Vicus  Trio),  a town  of  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Pavia,  and  nineteen  miles  by  rail  to 
the  south-southwest  of  that  city,  on  the  Staffora. 
The  neighborhood  is  fertile  and  produces  much  silk,  in 
which,  as  well  as  in  grain  and  wine,  an  active  trade  is 
carried  on.  The  population  in  1901  was  12,900. 

VOGLER,  Georg  Joseph,  usually  known  as  Abb6 
Vogler,  organist  and  composer,  was  born  at  Wurzburg, 
June  15,  1749.  In  1769  he  prosecuted  his  higher  studies 
at  Bamberg,  removing  thence  in  1771  to  Mannheim. 
Here  he  composed  a ballet  for  the  elector  Karl  Theodor, 
who,  charmed  with  his  talent,  sent  him  to  Bologna,  to 
study  under  the  Padre  Martini.  Unsatisfied  with  the 
method  of  that  learned  theorist,  he  studied  for  five 
months  under  V alotti,  at  Padua,  and  afterward  proceeded 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1773,  ad- 
mitted to  the  famous  academy  of  Arcadia,  made  a knight 
of  the  Golden  Spur,  and  appointed  protonotary  and 
chamberlain  to  the  pope. 

On  his  return  to  Mannheim  in  1775  Vogler  was  ap- 
pointed court  chaplain  and  second  “maestro  di  cap- 
pella.  * He  now  established  his  first  great  music  school, 
which  Winter,  Ritter,  Kraus*  Daozi  and  Knecht 


- voi 

came  for  instruction.  His  pupils  were  devoted  to  him, 
but  he  made  innumerable  enemies,  for  the  principles 
upon  which  he  taught  were  confessedly  opposed  to 
those  of  all  other  teachers  whatsoever. 

In  1778  the  elector  removed  his  court  to  Munich. 
Vogler  followed  him  thither  in  1780,  but,  dissatisfied 
with  the  reception  accorded  to  his  dramatic  composi- 
tions, soon  quitted  his  post,  and  traveled  for  some 
years  in  Spain,  Greece,  Armenia,  remote  districts  of 
Asia  and  Africa,  and  even  Greenland,  in  search  of  un- 
corrupted forms  of  national  melody.  In  1 786  he  was 
appointed  “kapellmeister*’  to  the  king  of  Sweden, 
founded  his  second  music  school  at  Stockholm,  and 
attained  extraordinary  celebrity  by  his  performances  on 
an  instrument  called  the  “ orchestrion” — a species  of 
organ  invented  by  himself.  In  1790  he  brought  this 
instrument  to  London,  and  performed  upon  it  with  great 
effect  at  the  Pantheon,  for  the  concert-room  of  which 
he  also  constructed  an  organ  upon  his  own  principles. 

From  London  Vogler  proceeded  to  Rotterdam  and 
the  chief  towns  on  the  Rhine.  We  hear  of  him  at 
Berlin  in  1880,  at  Vienna  in  1804,  and  at  Munich  in 
1806.  But  while  at  Frankfort  in  1807  he  received  an 
invitation  from  Louis  I.,  grand-duke  of  Hesse- Darm- 
stadt, offering  him  the  appointment  of  “ kapellmeister,” 
with  the  order  of  merit,  the  title  of  privy  councilor,  a 
salary  of  3,000  florins,  a house,  a table  supplied  from  the 
duke’s  own  kitchen,  and  other  privileges,  which  deter- 
mined him  to  bring  his  wanderings  at  last  to  a close. 

At  Darmstadt  he  opened  his  third  and  most  famous 
music  school,  the  chief  ornaments  of  which  were  Gans- 
bacher,  Weber,  and  Meyerbeer.  One  ofVogler’s  latest 
exploits  was  a journey  to  Frankfort  in  1810,  to  witness 
the  production  of  Weber’s  Sylvana.  He  continued 
hard  at  work,  genial  and  pleasant  to  the  last,  and  died 
suddenly  of  apoplexy  at  Darmstadt,  May  6,  1814. 

VOICE  is  produced  by  the  vibrations  of  the  vocal 
cords,  two  ligaments  or  bands  of  fibrous  elastic  tissue 
situated  in  the  larynx.  It  is  to  be  distinguished  from 
speech,  which  is  the  production  of  sounds  intended  to  ex- 
press ideas.  Many  of  the  lower  animals  have  voice,  but 
none  have  the  power  of  speech  in  the  sense  in  which  man 
possesses  that  faculty.  There  may  be  speech  without 
voice,  as  in  whispering,  while  in  singing  a scale  of  musi- 
cal  tones  we  have  voice  without  speech.  Regarding 
speech,  see  Phonetics  and  Speech-Sounds;  also  the 
articles  on  the  various  letters  of  the  alphabet. 

I.  Physiological  Anatomy. — The  organ  of  voice,  the 
larynx , is  situated  in  man  in  the  upper  and  fore  part  of 
the  neck,  where  it  forms  a well-known  prominence  in  the 
middle  line.  It  opens  below  into  the  trachea  or  wind- 
pipe, and  above  into  the  cavity  of  the  pharynx,  and  it 
consists  of  a framework  of  cartilages,  connected  by  elas- 
tic membranes  or  ligaments,  two  of  which  constitute  the 
true  vocal  cords.  These  cartilages  are  movable  on  each 
other  by  the  action  of  various  muscles,  which  thus  regu- 
late the  position  and  the  tension  of  the  vocal  cords. 
The  trachea  conveys  the  blast  of  air  from  the  lungs 
during  expiration,  and  the  whole  apparatus  may  be 
compared  to  an  acoustical  contrivance  in  which  the 
lungs  represent  the  wind  chest  and  the  trachea  the  tube 
passing  from  the  wind  chest  to  the  sounding  body  con- 
tained in  the  larynx.  Suppose  two  tight  bands  of  any 
elastic  membrane,  such  as  thin  sheet  india-rubber, 
stretched  over  the  end  of  a wide  glass  tube  so  as  to  leave 
a narrow  chink  between  the  free  borders  of  the  mem- 
brane, and  that  a powerful  blast  of  air  is  driven  through 
the  tube  by  a bellows.  The  pressure  would  so  distend 
the  margins  of  the  membrane  as  to  open  the  aperture 
and  allow  the  air  to  escape;  this  would  cause  a fall  of 
pressure,  and  the  edges  of  the  membrane  would  spring 
back  by  their  elasticity  to  their  former  position ; again 


VOI  — VOL 


622^ 


the  pressure  would  increase,  again  the  edges  of  the 
membrane  would  be  distended;  and  those  actions  would 
be  so  quickly  repeated  as  to  cause  the  edges  of  the  mem- 
brane to  vibrate  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  produce  a 
musical  tone,  the  pitch  of  which  would  depend  on  the 
number  of  vibrations  executed  in  a second  of  time.  The 
condensation  and  rarefaction  of  the  air  thus  produced 
are  the  chief  cause  of  the  tone,  as  Von  Helmholtz  has 
pointed  out,  and  in  this  way  the  larynx  resembles  the 
syren  in  its  mode  of  producing  tone  (see  Acoustics). 
It  is  evident  also  that  the  intensity  or  loudness  of  the 
tone  would  be  determined  by  the  amplitude  of  the  vi- 
brations of  the  margins  of  the  membrane,  and  its  pitch 
would  be  affected  by  any  arrangements  effecting  an  in- 
crease or  decrease  of  the  tension  of  the  margins  of  the 
membrane.  The  pitch  might  also  be  raised  by  the 
strength  of  the  current  of  air,  beeause  the  great  ampli- 
tude of  the  vibrations  would  increase  the  mean  tension 
of  the  elastic  membrane.  With  tones  of  medium  pitch, 
the  pressure  of  the- air  in  the  trachea  is  equal  to  that  of 
a column  of  mercury  of  160  mm. ; with  high  pitch, 
920  mm. ; and  with  notes  of  very  high  pitch,  945  mm. ; 
while  in  whispering  it  may  fall  as  low  as  that  represented 
by  30  mm.  of  water.  Such  is  a general  conception  of 
the  mechanism  of  voice. 

2.  General  Physiological  Characteristics. — The  in- 
tensity or  loudness  of  voice  depends  on  the  amplitude  of 
the  movement  of  the  vocal  cords.  Pitch  depends  on  the 
number  of  vibrations  per  second ; and  the  length,  size, 
and  degree  of  tension  of  the  cords  will  determine  the 
number  of  vibrations.  The  more  tense  the  cords  the 
higher  the  pitch,  and  the  greater  the  length  of  the 
cords  the  lower  will  be  the  pitch.  The  range  of  the 
human  voice  is  about  three  octaves,  that  is  from  fa  (87 
vibrations  per  second)  to  sol  (768  vibrations).  In  men, 
by  the  development  of  the  larynx,  the  cords  become 
more  elongated  than  in  women,  in  the  l-atio  of  three 
to  two,  so  that  the  male  voice  is  of  lower  pitch  and  is 
usually  stronger.  At  the  age  of  puberty  the  larynx 
grows  rapidly,  and  the  voice  of  a boy  “ breaks  ” in  con- 
sequence of  the  lengthening  of  the  cords,  generally  fall- 
ing an  octave  in  pitch.  A similar  change,  but  very 
much  less  in  amount,  occurs  at  the  same  period  in  the 
female.  At  puberty  in  the  female  there  is  an  increase 
of  about  one-third  in  the  size  of  the  glottis,  but  it  is 
nearly  doubled  in  the  male,  and  the  adult  male  larynx 
is  about  one-third  greater  than  that  of  the  female.  In 
advanced  life  the  upper  notes  of  the  register  are  gradu- 
ally weakened  and  ultimately  disappear,  while  the 
character  of  the  voice  also  changes,  owing  to  loss  of 
elasticity  caused  by  ossification,  which  first  begins 
about  middle  life  in  the  thyroid  cartilage,  then  appears 
in  the  cricoid,  and  much  later  in  the  arytenoid. 
Eunuchs  retain  the  voices  of  childhood ; and  by  careful 
training  it  is  possible  in  normal  persons  to  arrest  the 
development  of  the  larynx  so  that  an  adult  male  can 
still  sing  the  soprano  parts  sometimes  used  in  cathedral 
choirs.  There  is  a range  for  ordinary  voices  of  nearly 
two  octaves,  and  certain  rare  voices  may  have  a range 
of  three  and  a half  octaves. 

The  quality  of  the  human  voice  depends  on  the  same 
laws  that  determine  the  quality,  clang-tint,  or  timbre  of 
the  tones  produced  by  any  musical  instrument.  Musi- 
cal tones  are  formed  by  the  vibrations  of  the  true  vocal 
cords.  These  tones  may  be  either  pure  or  mixed,  and 
'n  both  cases  they  are  strengthened  by  the  resonance  of 
the  air  in  the  air  passages  and  in  the  pharyngeal  and 
oral  cavities. 

In  singing,  one  can  readily  observe  that  the  tone  may 
appear  to  come  chiefly  from  the  chest,  from  the  throat, 
or  from  the  head,  or  it  may  show  the  peculiar  quality 
of  tone  termed  falsetto.  Authorities  differ  much  in  the 


nomenclature  applied  to  these  varieties  of  the  voice. 
Thus  the  old  Italian  music  masters  spoke  of  the  voce  di 
petto,  voce  di  gola,  and  voce  di  testa.  Madam  Seiler 
describes  five  conditions,  namely,  the  first  series  of 
tones  of  the  chest  register,  the  second  series  of  tones  oi 
the  chest  register,  the  first  series  of  tones  of  the  falsetto 
register,  the  second  series  of  tones  of  the  falsetto  register, 
and  the  head  register.  French  writers  usually  refer  to 
two  registers  only,  the  chest  and  the  head;  while  Behnke 
gives  three  registers  for  male  voices  (lower  thick,  upper 
thick,  and  upper  thin),  and  five  for  the  voices  of  women 
and  children  (lower  thick,  upper  thick,  lower  thin,  upper 
thin,  and  small). 

VOIRON,  a manufacturing  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Is&re,  stands  on  the  banks  of  the  Morge, 
(a  tributary  of  the  Is&re)  and  on  the  lower  slopes 
of  a mountain  nearly  2,500  feet  high,  fifteen  miles  north- 
northwest  of  Grenoble  on  the  Lyons  railway.  The 
chief  attraction  of  the  town  lies  in  the  fine  views  it  pos- 
sesses of  the  mountains  of  Grenoble  and  the  valley  of 
the  Isere.  The  population  in  1901  was  10,575. 

VOITURE,  Vincent,  the  best  writer  of  vers  de 
societe  that  France  has  yet  produced,  and  one  of  the 
most  influential  preceptors  of  classical  French  prose, 
was  born  at  Amiens  in  1598.  Voiture  lived  a careless 
and  Epicurean  life  for  just  fifty  years,  and  died  at  th« 
outbreak  of  the  Fronde,  which  killed  the  society  ta 
which  he  was  accustomed,  on  May  26,  1648. 

VOLAPtjK.  The  utility  ana  desirability  of  a uni* 
versal  language  have  long  been  a theme  for  discussion 
by  philologists,  and  its  accomplishment  has  been  a 
dream  (as  yet  unfulfilled)  for  the  solace  of  many  enthu- 
siasts. The  most  respectable  attempt  to  attain  this 
happy  consummation  of  a language  which  should  be 
used  all  over  the  world,  and  draw  men  close  together  in 
the  bonds  of  a common  speech  is  that  which  has  been 
called  “ vol-a-piik  ” or  world  language,  a word  derived 
from  two  words  of  its  own,  vol  meaning  world,  and 
piik  meaning  speech.  The  word  is  formed  according  to 
the  invariable  rule  that  in  compounding  words  the  modi- 
fying word  is  always  put  first,  and  the  letter  a is  sand- 
wiched in  between  the  two  root  words,  thus  in  a meas- 
ure taking  the  place  of  the  hyphen  in  English.  The  in- 
ventor of  the  language  is  Johann  Martin  Schleyer,  a 
native  of  Baden,  who  was  born  in  1831,  and  now  resides 
in  Constance,  where  he  devotes  his  time  to  the  diffusion 
of  knowledge  of  his  scheme  of  language.  He  was  edu- 
cated for  the  priesthood  of  the  Catholic  church,  and 
was  always  an  ardent  philologist.  In  1879  he  first  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  a universal  speech,  and  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  year  he  published  the  grammar  of  the  lan- 
guage ; it  is  claimed  that  he  constructed  the  entire  gram- 
mar in  a single  month,  a feat  indicative  of  transcendent 
abilities. 

There  are  many  features  about  the  language  to  rec- 
ommend it  to  the  student,  and  it  is  gradually  acquiring 
a wider  scope,  and  is  nearing  perfection  owing  to  the 
fact  that  many  scholars  in  all  parts  of  the  civilized 
world  are  constantly  cairying  on  correspondence  in  the 
tongue,  and  their  suggestions  and  improvements  must 
necessarily  bear  fruit  in  a greater  accuracy  of  detail  and 
flexibility  in  use. 

The  Roman  letters  are  used  in  the  alphabet,  with  the 
following  omitted,  q and  w,  and  the  following  modified 
vowels  added,  a,  6,  and  ii — these  latter  additions  being 
considered  a grave  fault.  The  order  adopted  in  the 
alphabet  is  as  follows:  First  the  vowels,  a,  e,  i,  o,  u; 
then  the  modified  or  secondary  vowels,  a,  6,  and  ii,  and 
lastly  the  consonants,  all  arranged  according  to  their 
cognate  sound  or  mode  of  utterance — b,  p;  d,  t;  v,  f; 
h,  y,  g,  k;  1,  r,  m,  n;  s,  j,  c,  x,  z.  The  vowels  have  the 
continental  sound,  while  the  modified  a,  6,  ii,  have  the 


6*2  6 


VOL 


German  sound;  the  consonants  are  pronounced  as  in 
English,  except  j,  which  is  sh , c like  English  j in  job,  z 
like  Is,  and  y as  in  yet.  There  are  no  diphthongs,  each 
word  having  as  many  syllables  as  it  has  vowels.  The 
accent  of  words  is  always  on  the  last  syllable,  with  the 
exception  of  the  two  enclitics  li  and  la , which  when 
added  to  a word  (for  interrogative  purposes),  does  not  dis- 
turb the  accent,  which  still  remains  on  the  last- syllable 
of  the  original  word  to  which  it  is  attached.  The  root 
words  of  the  language  are  almost  entirely  monosyllabic, 
although  there  are  a few  exceptions  to  this  rule,  some  of 
the  root  words  being  dissyllabic  and  others  trisyllabic. 
The  meaning  of  these  root  words  are  always  either  ab- 
stract or  concrete.  The  sibilants  s,  c,  j,  x,  and  z sel- 
dom, if  ever,  occur  as  the  final  letters  of  a root.  The 
English  being  the  language  most  widely  diffused  over 
the  earth,  the  general  practice  has  been  to  select  from  it 
all  the  root  words  which  can  be  made  to  conform  to  the 
laws  of  orthography  of  the  Volapiik  language.  Where 
no  word  of  this  class  is  available  in  English,  recourse  is 
had  to  some  of  the  other  European  tongues — the  Latin 
or  the  Romance.  In  the  English  roots  various  changes 
are  made,  such  as  the  substitution  of  one  letter  for 
another,  as  l for  r in  Europe,  the  Volupiik  being  Yulop, 
the  spelling  of  Volapiik  being  purely  phonetic. 

In  some  instances  where  the  root  was  too  attenuated 
it  was  supplemented  by  the  prefixing  or  suffixing  of 
an  additional  letter.  In  the  selection  of  root  words, 
the  letters  r and  h were  avoided,  and  thus  the  necessity 
of  going  to  the  various  languages  to  supply  the  vocab- 
ulary with  root  words  of  which  no  two  must  sound 
alike  and  have  different  meanings.  Another  peculiarity 
of  the  root  words  is  that  they  must  begin  and  end  with 
a consonant.  This  is  necessary  in  order  that  they  may 
be  able  to  receive  the  sign  of  inflection  which  is  a vowel 
either  prefixed  or  affixed  The  words  are  derived 
from  roots  very  much  as  in  the  Aryan  languages,  and 
their  meaning  is  modified  by  the  addition  of  prefixes  or 
suffixes,  which  invariably  convey  the  same  idea.  For 
instance,  cl  is  the  suffix  which  conveys  the  idea  of  an 
actor  or  doer  or  an  inhabitant.  Tid  means  instruction. 
Now  combine  the  two  and  we  have  Tide  l,  one  who 
loes  instruction,  or  a teacher;  Deut  means  Germany; 
Deut-el  is  an  inhabitant  of  Deut,  or  a German.  Our 
space  will  not  permit  us  to  go  into  more  detail  than 
has  been  given  in  regard  to  this  branch  of  the 
subject. 

The  modifications  to  which  the  words  of  the  Volapiik 
language  are  subject  are  person,  case,  gender,  number, 
mood,  voice,  tense,  degree.  The  singular  is  the  prim- 
itive form  of  the  root.  There  is  no  dual.  The  plural 
is  invariably  formed  by  adding  s to  the  singular,  no 
matter  what  the  part  of  speech.  Thus  man , man  ; 
mans , men  ; golob , I go  ; golobs , we  go.  In  the  numer- 
ation the  tens  are  formed  by  the  addition  of  s to  the 
units  ; thus  bal,  one ; bals , ten,  There  are  three  gen- 
ders, masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter.  The  names  of 
males  and  females  are  as  in  English  in  the  masculine 
and  feminine  genders;  but  the  names  of  inanimate 
objects,  unlike  the  English,  are  masculine  instead  of 
neuter.  The  three  pronouns  and  verb  terminations  for 
masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter  are  om , of,  os.  The 
first  two  are  used  as  explained  above,  while  the  third  is 
only  used  impersonally  as  for  instance,  lotos,  it 
thunders.  In  nouns  referring  to  persons  the  feminine 
ji  is  prefixed  when  the  female  is  meant ; thus,  viudel  is 
a widower,  while  ji-viudel  is  a widow.  In  the  case  of 
animals  (corresponding  somewhat  to  the  English  com- 
mon gender)  the  root  word  indicates  the  species  irre- 
spective of  sex.  Thus  jeval  is  horse,  while  if  we  wish 
to  express  a stallion  or  mare  we  must  prefix  either  the 
masculine  om  or  the  feminine  ji.  From  this  we  have 


omjeval,  a stallion,  and  jijeval,  a mare.  There  are  many 
other  salient  points  in  the  grammar  of  this  most  facile 
language,  but  space  forbids  our  noticing  more  than  the 
tenses.  These  are  expressed  by  the  vowels  prefixed  to 
the  root  words.  The  present  is  denoted  by  the  prefix  a 
while  a denotes  the  imperfect,  e for  the  perfect,  i 
for  the  pluperfect,  o for  the  future  and  u for  the  future 
perfect.  The  prefix  a for  the  active  voice  is  always 
omitted,  however.  Thus  pen,  to  write,  becomes  Penob, 
I write ; Apenob,  I wrote ; Epenob,  I have  written, 
etc.  The  order  of  words  or  syntax  of  a sentence  is 
generally  as  follows:  Subject,  predicate,  object,  as 
John  beats  Jim,  thus  preserving  the  English  idiom. 
Adjectives  generally  follow  the  nouns  they  modify,  but 
adverbs,  except  in  the  cases  of  verbs,  precede  the  words 
they  modify. 

The  adoption  of  the  language  among  the  learned  was 
very  slow,  and  for  a long  time  the  system  had  no 
adherents  outside  of  Germany,  but  in  1882  it  began  to 
be  noticed  simultaneously  both  in  Austria  and  in  the 
United  States.  In  the  latter  country  the  number  of 
Volapiikists  gradually  increased  until  in  1887  an  article 
in  the  American  Magazine  drew  general  attention  to 
the  subject,  since  which  time  the  interest  has  been 
unabated  and  the  language  is  rapidly  growing  in  favor, 
and  societies  for  its  propagation  have  been  formed  in 
many  of  the  American  cities.  The  language  has  under- 
gone some  modification  at  the  hands  of  various  profess- 
ors, the  principal  of  these  latter  being  Professor  Ker- 
choffs,  and  when  the  convention  of  Volapiikists  was 
held  in  Munich  in  1887,  considerable  time  was  spent  in 
adopting  and  adapting  these  changes  and  modifications. 
The  bibliography  of  the  language  is  not  extensive  as 
yet,  but  the  number  of  works  in  the  language  is  con- 
stantly on  the  increase.  Up  to  the  present  time  about 
200  books  in  this  tongue  have  appeared. 
VOLCANOES.  See  Geology. 

VOLE  (Germ.  Wuhlmaus,  Fr.  Campagnol ).  This 
word,  little  known  as  it  is  to  the  majority  of  English 
people,  is  the  proper  name  for  a genus  containing  three 
of  the  commonest  of  the  English  mammals,  namely,  the 
water,  bank,  and  field  voles — animals  generally  called 
“ water-rat,”  “ red  field-mouse,”  and  “ short-tailed  field- 
mouse  ” respectively.  The  scientific  name  for  the  group 
is  Arvicola,  a genus  which,  with  the  lemmings  and  two 
or  three  other  genera,  forms  the  subfamily  Arvicolince 
of  the  great  Rodent  family  Muridce,  whose  proper  place 
in  the  general  system  is  shown  under  Mammalia. 

The  voles,  as  a whole,  are  distinguished  by  their  squat 
and  heavy  shape,  their  slower  and  less  graceful  move- 
ments, very  small  eyes,  blunt  snout,  inconspicuous 
ears,  and  shortened  limbs  and  tail,  in  all  of  which  points 
they  are  markedly  contrasted  with  the  true  rats  and 
mice  of  the  genus  Mus , the  only  animals  with  which 
they  can  be  confounded.  But  by  far  the  most  important 
characteristic  of  the  voles  lies  in  their  molar  teeth,  which 
have  been  said  to  form  “ the  perfection  of  Rodent 
dentition”  from  their  wonderful  specialization  and  adap- 
tation to  the  purpose  of  grinding  vegetable  substances. 

Owing  to  the  manner  of  the  growth  of  the  teeth, 
their  general  pattern  of  spaces  and  angles  is  but  little 
affected  by  age  and  wear,  remaining  practically  the 
same  throughout  the  life  of  the  animal.  Thus  the  vari- 
ations in  the  pattern  have  been  generally  used  in  classi- 
fying the  different  genera  and  species  of  the  group. 

The  species  of  vole  number  about  forty-three,  of  which 
about  thirteen  are  European,  twenty  Asiatic,  and  ten 
North- American,  none  being  found  either  in  Africa,  In- 
dia (except  in  the  extreme  north),  Australia,  or  South 
America.  The  group  is  therefore  one  peculiarly  char- 
acteristic of  the  temperate  parts  of  the  northern  hemi 
sphere. 


VOL 


VOLGA,  The,  the  chief  river  of  European  Russia, 
rises  in  the  Valdai  plateau  of  Tver  in  northwestern 
Russia,  and  after  a winding  course  of  2,325  miles  (1,040 
in  a straight  line)  falls  into  the  Caspian  at  Astrakhan. 
It  is  by  far  the  largest  river  of  Europe,  those  next  in 
length,  the  Danube  and  the  Ural,  being  only  1,735  and 
1,478  miles  respectively,  while  the  Rhine  (825  miles)  is 
shorter  even  than  two  of  the  chief  tributaries  of  the 
Volga — the  Oka  and  the  Kama.  Its  drainage  area, 
which  includes  the  whole  of  middle  and  eastern  as  well 
as  part  of  southeastern  Russia,  amounts  to  563,300 
square  miles,  thus  exceeding  the  aggregate  superficies  of 
Germany,  France,  and  the  United  Kingdom.  A hun- 
dred tributaries  of  the  Volga  are  navigable  for  an  aggre- 
gate length  of  14,600  miles,  a distance  greater  than  the 
aggregate  length  of  all  the  railways  of  England  and 
Wales.  The  drainage  area  embraces  twenty-one  prov- 
inces of  the  Russian  empire,  or,  in  other  words,  nearly 
the  whole  of  Great  Russia  proper,  and  has  a population 
of  nearly  40,000,000. 

The  Volga  rises  in  the  extensive  marshes  covering 
the  western  parts  of  the  Valdai  plateau,  where  the 
Dima  also  has  its  origin.  Small  streamlets  languidly 
circulate  from  marsh  to  marsh,  so  that  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  say  which  of  these  ought  to  be  regarded  as  the 
real  source.  Lake  Seliger  was  formerly  so  considered ; 
but  at  present  that  distinction  is  given  to  a small 
stream  trickling  into  a wooden  trough  from  beneath 
a small  chapel  in  the  midst  of  an  extensive 
marsh  to  the  south  of  Seliger.  The  honor  has  also 
been  claimed  of  late,  not  without  plausibility,  for  the 
Runa  rivulet.  At  Tsaritsyn  the  Volga  reaches  its 
extreme  southwestern  limit,  where  it  is  separated  from 
the  Don  by  an  isthmus  of  only  forty  miles  in  width.  The 
isthmus  is  too  high  to  be  crossed  by  means  of  a canal, 
but  a railway  at  Dubofifka  brings  the  Volga  into  some 
sort  of  connection  with  the  Don  and  the  Sea  of  Azoff. 
At  Tsaritsyn  the  river  takes  a sharp  turn  in  a south- 
easterly direction  toward  the  Caspian;  it  enters  the 
Caspian  steppes,  and  some  fifty  miles  below  Tsaritsyn 
sends  off  a branch — the  Akhtuba — which  accompanies 
it  for  330  miles  before  falling  into  the  Caspian.  Here 
the  Volga  receives  no  tributaries;  its  right  bank  is 
skirted  by  low  hills,  but  on  the  left  it  spreads  freely, 
joining  the  Akhtuba  by  many  branches  when  its  waters 
are  high,  and  flooding  the  country  for  from  15  to  35 
miles.  The  width  of  the  main  branch  ranges  from  520 
to  3,500  yards,  and  the  depth  exceeds  80  feet.  The 
Delta  proper  begins  40  miles  above  Astrakhan,  and  the 
branches  subdivide  so  as  to  reach  the  sea  by  as  many 
as  200  separate  mouths. 

VOLHYNIA,  a government  of  southwestern  Rus- 
sia, bounded  by  the  Polish  provinces  of  Lublin  and 
Siedlce  on  the  west,  Grodno  and  Minsk  on  the  north, 
Kieff  on  the  east,  and  Podolia  and  Galicia  (Austria)  on 
the  south,  has  an  area  of  27,743  square  miles. 

Kaolin,  pottery  clay,  and  iron  ore  are  the  chief  min- 
eral products;  amber  also  is  occasionally  found  in  the 
Tertiary  sands.  The  climate  of  Volhynia,  notwith- 
standing the  influence  of  its  marshes,  is  much  milder 
than  that  of  Central  Russia  within  the  same  latitudes. 
The  vegetation  'on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Avratynsk 
Hills  begins  to  show  something  of  a West-European 
character;  oaks,  maples,  and  limes  prevail,  while  on  the 
northern  slope  there  are  immense  forests  of  Scotch  fir. 
The  forests  cover  more  than  one-third  of  the  entire 
area,  and  it  is  reckoned  that  2,500,000  acres  yield  timber 
for  building  purposes. 

The  population  of  Volhynia  in  1898  was  2,997,902. 
Agriculture  cannot  be  said  to  flourish  except  on  the 
Avratynsk  plateau  and  its  slopes,  but  is  still  the  chief 
occupation,  and  more  than  one-third  of  the  area 


6227 

is  under  crops.  The  fertile  soil  of  the  south  produces 
a surplusage  of  grain,  which  is  either  used  in  distilleries 
or  exported.  Hay  is  exported,  but  cattle-breeding  has 
been  almost  stationary  since  1850.  Wool  is  exported. 
Beets  are  largely  grown  for  sugar.  The  culture  of  to- 
bacco is  rapidly  extending.  In  the  Polyesie  the  princi- 
pal occupations  are  connected  with  the  export  of  tim- 
ber and  firewood,  the  preparation  of  pitch,  tar,  potash, 
and  various  wooden  wares,  and  boat-building.  The 
wild  boar,  bear,  fox,  and  hare  are  hunted. 

VOLNEY,  Constantin  Francois  Chassebceuf, 
Comte  de,  was  born  at  Craon,  France,  on  February  3^ 
1 757-  ^ When  he  was  about  four  and  twenty  he  acquired 
some  reputation  by  an  essay  on  the  chronology  of 
Herodotus,  and  was  introduced  into  literary  and 
philosophical  society.  He  was  a member  both  of  the 
States- General  and  of  the  Constituante,  and  distin- 
guished himself  as  an  ardent  reformer.  In  1791  appeared 
the  book  Les  Ruines.  The  book  of  which  the  full  title 
is  Les  Ruines,  ou  Meditation  sur  les  Revolutions  des 
Empires , purports  to  contain  the  discourses  of  a travel- 
er among  the  ruins  of  Palmyra  with  a very  eighteenth- 
century  genius.  Volney  was  a good  deal  more  than  a 
mere  author.  He  tried  to  put  his  politico-economic 
theories  into  practice  in  Corsica,  where,  in  1792,  he 
bought  an  estate  and  made  an  attempt  to  cultivate 
colonial  produce.  He  was  thrown  into  prison  during 
the  Jacobin  triumph,  but  escaped  the  guillotine.  He 
was  some  time  professor  of  history  at  the  newly-founded 
ficole  Normale,  lectured  there  and  published  his  lectures. 
Then  he  undertook  a journey  to  the  United  States, 
the  result  of  which  took  form  in  a book  (chiefly  geo- 
graphical) published  in  1803.  Next  year  he  republished 
and  much  enlarged  his  early  essay  on  Herodotus.  He 
died  at  Paris  on  April  25,  1820,  and  his  complete 
works  appeared  soon  afterward  in  eight  volumes* 

VOLO,  a town  and  seaport  of  Greece,  on  the  east 
coast  of  Thessaly,  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  to  which  it 
gives  its  name.  Volo,  which  is  regularly  visited  by  the 
Austrian,  French,  and  Greek  steamers  plying  weekly 
between  the  Piraeus  and  Constantinople,  is  the  only 
outlet  for  the  produce  of  northern  Greece.  The  exports 
(tobacco,  hides  and  skins,  fruits,  olive  oil,  raw  silk  and 
cocoons,  etc.)  were  valued  in  1886  at  $155,000,  while 
the  imports  (cereals,  cotton  goods,  petroleum,  sugar, 
etc.)  amounted  to  $1,295,000.  Pop.  (1897),  16,232. 

VOLOGDA,  a government  of  northeastern  Russia, 
having  Archangel  on  the  north,  Tobolsk  on  the  east, 
Perm,  Vyatka,  Kostroma,  and  Yaroslavl  on  the  south, 
Novgorod  and  Olonetz  on  the  west.  This  immense 
government,  which  comprises  an  area  of  155,500  square 
miles,  stretches  in  a northeasterly  direction  for  800 
miles,  from  Novgorod  to  the  Urals,  including  the  broad 
depression  drained  by  the  Sukhona  from  the  southwest 
and  the  Vytchegda  from  the  northeast,  head-waters  of 
the  Dwina. 

The  population  (1,365,587  in  1898  as  against  960,850 
in  1861),  consists  chiefly  of  Great  Russians  (88  per 
cent.),  and  Zyrians  (12  per  cent.;  only  7 per  cent  ac- 
cording to  Rittich). 

The  chief  occupation  of  the  Russians  is  agriculture^ 
and  the  average  crops  of  1883  to  1889  were  rye,  785, 
000  quarters;  barley,  926,000;  oats,  925,000;  othet 
grains,  197,000;  and  potatoes,  107,000  quarters.  They 
also  fell  timber,  prepare  tar,  pitch,  and  potash,  and 
manufacture  wooden  utensils.  In  the  southwest  they 
pursue  a variety  of  domestic  trades  (spinning,  weaving, 
sewing  of  plain  cloth,  etc).  The  manufacturing  in- 
dustry  is  represented  by  a few  ironworks,  distilleries, 
paper-mills,  and  a variety  of  small  manufactures.  Salt 
was  raised  in  1881-89  to  the  average  amount  of  65,000 
hundredweights.  Flax,  linen  cloth,  linseed,  butter. 


6228 


VOL 


tar,  pitch,  timber,  and  furs  are  the  main  items  of  export, 
the  chief  centers  for  trade  being  Vologda,  Verkhovajsk, 
and  Ustyug. 

Vologda  is  divided  into  ten  districts,  the  chief  towns 
(with  populations  in  1898  being  Vologda  (see  below), 
Gryazovets  (2,225)  Kadnikoff  (1,520),  Nikolsk  (1,880), 
Solvytchegodsk  (1,320),  Totma  (3,380),  Ustyug  Velikiy 
(7,980),  Ust-Sysolsk  (4,100),  Velsk  (1,410),  and  Yarensk 
(1,250). 

Vologda,  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situ- 
ated in  its  southwestern  corner,  302  miles  to  the  north- 
east of  Moscow,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail 
via  Yaroslavl  Vologda  is  a considerable  commercial 
tenter,  flax,  linseed,  oats,  hemp,  butter,  and  eggs  being 
bought  to  a large  amount  in  the  neighboring  districts 
and  in  Vyatka,  and  exported  both  to  St,  Petersburg 
and  Archangel.  The  population  is  (1898)  was  27,822. 

VOLSC1.  See  Italy  and  Rome. 

VOLSK,  or  Voljsk,  a district  town  of  Russia,  in 
the  government  of  Saratoff,  and  ninety  miles  to  the 
northeast  of  that  town,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Volga, 
was  a century  ago  but  a small  village  (Malykovo),  re- 
cently, however,  it  has  grown  to  be  one  of  the  im- 
nortant  towns  on  the  lower  Volga,  and  its  population 
has  rapidly  increased  from  23,500  in  i860  to  27,039  in 
1898. 

VOLTA,  Alessandro,  was  bom  at  Como  on  Feb- 
ruary 18,  1745.  In  1774  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
physics  in  the  gymnasium  of  Como,  and  in  1777  he  left 
his  native  town  for  the  first  time  to  travel  through 
Switzerland,  where  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship 
with  De  Saussure.  In  1779  a chair  of  physics  was 
founded  in  Pavia,  and  Volta  was  chosen  to  occupy  it 
In  1782  he  undertook  a journey  through  France,  Ger- 
many, Holland,  and  England,  and  became  acquainted 
with  nearly  all  the  scientific  celebrities  of  that  day.  In 
1791  he  received  the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal  Society. 
In  1801  Napoleon  called  him  to  Paris,  to  show  his 
experiments  on  contact  electricity,  and  a medal  was 
struck  in  his  honor.  He  was  made  a senator  of  the 
kingdom  of  Lombardy.  In  1815  the  emperor  of  Aus- 
tria made  him  director  of  the  philosophical  faculty  of 
Padua.  In  1819  he  retired,  and  settled  down  again  in 
his  native  town.  He  died  on  March  5,  1827. 

VOLTAIRE,  Francois  Marie  Arouet  de,  whose 
real  name  was  Francois  Marie  Arouet  simply, 
was  bom  November  21,  1694,  at  Paris.  Voltaire 
appears  to  have  received  no  very  regular  education 
till  he  was  ten  years  old;  but  the  Abb6  de  Chateauneuf 
instructed  him  pretty  early  in  belles  lettres  and  deism, 
and  he  showed  when  quite  a child,  the  unsurpassed  fac- 
ulty for  facile  verse-making  which  always  distinguished 
him,  and  to  which  the  literary  tastes  and  models  of  the 
time  lent  themselves  with  special  readiness.  But  at  the 
age  just  mentioned  he  was  sent  to  the  College  Louis-le- 
Grand,  which  was  under  the  management  of  the  Jesuits. 
This  was  in  1704.  He  remained  there  till  1711. 

His  troubles  began  when,  in  August,  1711,  at  the  age 
of  seventeen,  he  came  home,  and  the  usual  battle  began 
between  a son  who  desired  no  profession  but  literature 
and  a father  who,  in  those  days  not  quite  unreasonably, 
refused  to  consider  literature  a profession  at  all.  For 
a time  Voltaire  submitted,  and  read  law  at  least  nom- 
inally, doing  a number  of  other  things  besides  or  instead 
of  that  study. 

It  does  not  appear  that  Voltaire  got  into  any  great 
scrapes,  and  the  anecdotes  recorded  of  this  wild  oats 
time  of  his  are  harmless  enough.  But  his  father  natu- 
rally prognosticated  little  good  to  him  from  such  society, 
and  tried  to  break  him  off  from  it  by  sending  him  first  to 
Caen  and  then  in  the  suite  of  the  Marquis  de  Chateau- 
neuf, the  abba’s  brother,  to  the  Hague.  Almost  exactly 


at  the  time  of  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.  he  returned  u* 
Paris,  to  fall  once  more  into  literary  and  templar  society, 
and  to  make  the  tragedy  of  (Edipe , which  he  had  af. 
ready  written,  privately  known.  He  was  now  intra 
duced  to  a less  questionable  and  even  more  distinguished 
coterie  than  Vendome’s  to  the  famous  “court  ol 
Sceaux,”  the  circle  of  the  beautiful  and  ambitious 
Duchesse  du  Maine.  It  seems,  though  it  is  not  cer- 
tainly known,  that  Voltaire  lent  himself  to  the  duchess' 
frantic  hatred  of  the  regent  Orleans,  and  helped  to 
compose  lampoons  on  that  prince.  At  any  rate,  in 
May,  1716,  he  was  exiled,  first  to  Tulle,  then  to  Sully, 
He  was  allowed  to  return,  but  again  fell  under  suspicion 
of  having  been  concerned  in  the  composition  of  two 
violent  libels — one  in  Latin  and  one  in  French — called 
from  their  first  words  the  Pnero  Regnante  and  the 
Pai  vu,  was  inveigled  by  a spy  named  Beauregard  into 
a real  or  burlesque  confession,  and  on  May  16,  1717, 
was  arrested  and  sent  to  the  Bastille.  He  remained 
there  for  eleven  months,  recast  (Edipe , began  the 
Henriadey  and  determined  to  alter  his  name.  Ever 
after  his  exit  from  the  Bastille  in  April,  1718,  he  was 
known  as  Arouet  de  Voltaire,  or  simply  Voltaire, 
though  legally  he  never  abandoned  his  patronymic. 

A further  “ exile”  at  Chatenay  and  elsewhere  succeeded 
the  imprisonment,  and  though  Voltaire  was  admitted  to 
an  audience  by  the  regent  and  treated  graciously  it  is 
clear  that  he  was  not  trusted,  and  the  inconveniences  he 
had  suffered  for  a time  induced  even  his  incorrigibly 
mischievous  nature  to  keep  quiet.  Edipe  was  acted 
at  the  Theatre  Frangais  on  November  18th  of  the  year  of 
release,  and  was  very  well  received.  But  adversity  had 
by  no  means  done  with  him.  In  the  spring  of  the  next 
year  the  production  of  Lagrange-Chancel’s  libels,  enti- 
tled the  Philippiquesy  again  brought  suspicion  on  him. 
He  was  informally  exiled,  and  spent  much  time  with 
Marshal  Villars,  again  increasing  his  store  of  “ reminis- 
cences.” He  returned  to  Paris  in  the  winter,  and  his 
second  play,  Artemire , was  produced  in  February, 
1 720.  It  was  a failure,  and  though  it  was  recast  with 
some  success  Voltaire  never  published  it  as  a whole,  and 
used  parts  of  it  up  in  other  work.  During  the  late 
autumn  and  winter  of  1722-23  he  abode  chiefly  in  Paris, 
taking  a kind  of  lodging  in  the  town  house  of  M.  de 
Bernieres,  a nobleman  of  Rouen,  and  endeavoring  to 
procure  a “ privilege”  for  his  poem,  The  Henriade.  In 
this  he  was  disappointed,  but  he  had  the  work  printed 
at  Rouen  nevertheless,  and  spent  the  summer  of  1723 
revising  it.  In  November  he  caught  smallpox  and  was 
very  seriously  ill,  so  that  the  book  was  not  given  to  the 
world  till  the  spring  of  1 724  (and  then  of  course,  as  it 
had  no  privilege,  appeared  privately).  Almost  at  the 
same  time,  March  4th,  his  third  tragedy,  Mariamne , 
appeared,  at  first  with  great  success,  but  before  the 
curtain  fell  complete  damnation  fell  on  it.  In  1726  he 
visited  England.  The  visit  lasted  about  three  years, 
from  1726  to  1729;  and,  as  if  to  make  the  visitor’s  luck 
certain,  George  I.  died  and  George  II.  succeeded  soon 
after  his  arrival.  The  new  king  was  not  fond  of 
“ boetry,”  but  Queen  Caroline  was;  and  the  international 
jealousy  (which,  though  there  was  no  actual  war,  was 
never  stronger  than  then)  was  pleased  at  the  thought  of 
welcoming  a distinguished  exile  from  French  illiber- 
ality.  But  he  visited  Paris  now  and  then,  without  per- 
mission (at  other  times  he  obtained  permission  to  go 
without  visiting  it),  and  his  mind,  like  tne  mind  of  every 
exiled  Frenchman,  was  always  set  thereon.  He  at  last 
gained  full  license  to  return  in  the  spring  of  1 729.  _ 

He  was  full  of  literary  projects,  and  immediately 
after  his  return  he  is  said  to  have  increased  his  fortune 
immensely  by  a lucky  lpttery  speculation.  The  Hen - 
riade  was  at  last  licensed  in  France;  Brutus , a pla\ 


VOL 


6229 


which  he  had  printed  in  England,  was  accepted  for  per- 
formance, but  kept  back  for  a time  by  the  author;  and 
he  began  the  celebrated  poem  of  the  Pucelle , the 
amusement  and  the  torment  of  great  part  of  his  life. 
But  he  had  great  difficulties  with  two  of  his  chief  works 
which  were  ready  to  appear,  and  did  after  a fashion 
appear  in  1731 — to  wit,  Charles  XII.  and  the  Leltres 
sur  les  Anglais.  In  1732  another  tragedy,  Eriphile , 
appeared  with  the  same  kind  of  halting  success  which 
had  distinguished  the  appearance  of  its  elder  sisters 
since  CEdipe.  But  at  last,  on  August  13,  1732,  he 
produced  Zaire , the  best  (with  Merope ) of  all  his  plays, 
and  one  of  the  ten  or  twelve  best  plays  of  the  whole 
French  classical  school.  It  was  in  1733  that  two 
important  books,  the  Lettres  Philosophiques  sur  les 
A nglais  and  the  Temple  du  Gout  appeared. 

If  the  English  visit  may  be  regarded  as  having  finished 
Voltaire’s  education,  the  Cirey  residence  may  be  justly 
said  to  be  the  first  stage  of  his  literary  manhood.  He 
had  written  important  and  characteristic  work  before ; 
but  he  had  always  been  in  a kind  of  literary  Wander - 
jahre . He  now  obtained  a settled  home  for  many 
years,  and,  taught  by  his  numerous  brushes  with  the 
authorities,  he  began  and  successfully  carried  out  that 
system  of  keeping  out  of  personal  harm’s  way,  and  of 
at  once  denying  any  awkward  responsibility,  which 
made  him  for  nearly  half  a century  at  once  the  chief 
and  the  most  prosperous  of  European  heretics  in  regard 
to  all  established  ideas.  He  was  in  no  great  or  imme- 
diate danger  on  this  particular  occasion,  especially  as 
he  was  perfectly  ready  to  deny  his  authorship,  and  he 
traveled  about  for  some  time,  visiting  the  camp  at 
Philippsburg,  where  some  not  very  important  fighting, 
notable  only  for  being  the  last  campaign  of  Eugene, 
was  going  on.  It  was  not  till  the  summer  of  1734  that 
Cirey,  a half-dismantled  country  house  on  the  borders 
of  Champagne  and  Lorraine,  was  fitted  up  with  Vol- 
taire’s money  and  became  the  headquarters  of  himself, 
of  his  hostess,  and  now  and  then  of  her  accommodating 
husband.  Many  pictures  of  the  life  here,  some  of  them 
not  a little  malicious,  survive.  It  was  not  entirely  a 
bed  of  roses,  for  the  “ respectable  Emily’s  ” temper  was 
violent,  and  after  a time  she  sought  lovers  who  were  not 
so  much  des  cerebraux  as  Voltaire.  But  it  provided  him 
with  a safe  and  comfortable  retreat  and  with  something 
of  the  same  kind  of  convenience  for  literary  work  which 
matrimony  provides  for  more  commonplace  or  more 
scrupulous  men  of  letters.  In  March,  1735,  the  ban 
was  formally  taken  off  him,  and  he  was  at  liberty  to 
return  to  Paris,  a liberty  of  which  he  availed  himself 
but  sparingly  now  and  ever  afterward,  finding  himself 
better  away  from  the  capital.  At  Cirey  he  wrote  inde- 
fatigably  and  did  not  neglect  business.  The  principal 
literary  results  of  his  early  years  here  were  the  play  of 
A hire  (1736)  and  a long  treatise  on  the  Newtonian 
system  which  he  and  Madame  du  Chatelet — an  expert 
mathematician — wrote  together. 

In  April,  1739,  a- journey  was  made  to  Brussels,  to 
Paris,  and  then  again  to  Brussels,  which  was  the  head- 
quarters for  a considerable  time  owing  to  some  law  af- 
fairs of  the  Du  Chatelets.  Frederick,  king  of  Prussia, 
made  not  a few  efforts  to  get  Voltaire  away  from  Mad- 
ame du  Chatelet,  but  unsuccessfully,  and  the  king 
earned  the  lady’s  cordial  hatred  by  persistently  refusing 
or  omitting  to  invite  her.  At  last  in  September,  1 740, 
Voltaire  and  Frederick  met  for  the  first  time  at  Cleves; 
an  interview  followed  three  months  later  by  a longer 
visit  at  Remusberg.  Brussels  was  again  the  headquar- 
ters in  1741,  by  which  time  Voltaire  had  finished  the 
best  and  the  second  or  third  best  of  his  plays,  Merope 
and  Mahomet.  Mahomet  was  played  first  in  the  year 
and  at  the  place  just  m**^ioned:  it  did  not  appear  in 


Paris  until  August  next  year,  and  Merope  not  till  1743. 
During  these  years  Voltaire’s  production  of  miscellanies 
was  as  constant  as  usual,  but  his  time  allotted  to  serious 
work  was  chiefly  given  to  history  and  much  of  the 
Essai  sur  les  Mceurs  and  the  Silcle  de  Louis  XIV. 
was  now  composed. 

The  death  of  Madame  du  Chatelet  (1749)  is 
another  turning  point  in  the  history  of  Voltaire. 
For  some  time  after  Madame  du  Chatelet’s  death  he 
was  in  a state  of  pitiable  unsettlement.  He  went  on 
writing  tales  like  Zadig.  He  engaged  in  a foolish  and 
undignified  struggle  with  Cr6billon  pere  (not  fils)  a 
dramatist,  who,  in  part  of  one  play,  Rhadamiste  et 
Zenobie , has  struck  a note  of  tragedy  in  the  grand 
Cornelian  strain,  which  Voltaire  could  never  hope  to 
echo,  and  who,  in  most  of  his  other  efforts,  was  and  is 
mainly  futile.  He  used  the  most  extraordinary  efforts 
to  make  himself  more  popular  than  he  was,  but  he 
could  not  help  being  uncomfortable  in  a city  where  the 
court  all  but  threatened,  and  where  the  city  did  more 
than  all  but  laugh. 

All  this  time  Frederick  of  Prussia  had  been  contin 
uing  his  invitations,  and  the  “ respectable  Emily  ” was 
no  longer  in  the  way.  It  does  not  appear  that,  at  any 
rate  at  first,  Frederick  made  any  real  difficulty  as 
to  money.  Indeed  he  behaved  on  the  whole  very  gen- 
erously. Voltaire  left  Paris  on  June  15,  1 75 1,  and 
reached  Berlin  on  July  10th. 

This  Berlin  visit  might  itself  be  treated,  without 
undue  extension,  at  the  length  of  the  present  article ; 
but  its  circumstances  may  be  presumed  to  be  already 
more  or  less  familar  to  most  English  readers  from  the 
two  great  essays  of  Macaulay  and  Carlyle  as  well  as 
from  the  Frederick  of  the  latter.  He  left  Frederick 
in  March,  1753,  and  after  a series  of  vicissitudes 
reached  Colmar  in  July.  Here  he  remained  awhile. 

Voltaire’s  second  stage  was  now  over,  and  he  was 
about  to  try  complete  independence  of  hosts  and 
patrons,  mistresses  and  friends.  Even  now,  however, 
in  his  sixtieth  year,  it  required  some  more  external 
pressure  to  induce  him  to  take  this  apparently  obvious 
step. 

His  first  resting-place,  Geneva,  was  reached  in  the 
middle  of  December;  but  Voltaire  had  no  purpose  of 
remaining  in  the  city,  and  almost  immediately  bought  a 
country  house  just  outside  the  gates,  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  of  Les  D61ices.  This,  the  first  house  of  his 
own  which  he  can  be  said  to  have  possessed,  is  still 
standing,  though  now  absorbed  in  the  suburbs.  It  wag 
pretty,  with  fine  views;  but  it  had  advantages  of  a non* 
aesthetic  kind  for  its  owner,  of  which  he  made  no  secret. 
He  was  here  practically  at  the  meeting-point  of  four 
distinct  jurisdictions — Geneva,  the  canton  Vaud,  Sar- 
dinia, and  France,  while  other  cantons  were  within 
easy  reach.  Before  finally  settling  in  Ferney  he 
bought  other  houses  dotted  about  these  territories,  so 
never  to  be  without  a refuge  close  at  hand  in  case  of 
sudden  storms.  At  Les  D61ices  he  set  up  a consider- 
able establishment,  which  his  great  wealth  (obtained 
chiefly  by  speculation  in  the  manner  already  more  than 
once  hinted  at)  made  him  able  easily  to  afford.  He 
kept  open  house  for  visitors;  he  had  printers  close  at 
hand  in  Geneva;  he  fitted  up  a private  theater  in  which 
he  could  enjoy  what  was  perhaps  the  greatest  pleasure 
of  his  whole  life — acting  in  a play  of  his  own,  stage 
managed  by  himself. 

From  this  time  forward  many  of  the  most  celebrated 
men  of  Europe  visited  him  there,  and  large  parts  of  his 
usual  biographies  are  composed  of  extracts  from  their 
accounts  of  Ferney.  His  new  occupations  by  no  means 
quenched  his  literary  activity,  but  on  the  contrary  stim  • 
ulated  it 


15230  VOL- 

How  he  built  a church  and  got  into  trouble  in  so 
doing  at  Ferney,  how  he  put  “ Deo  erexit  Voltaire  ” on 
it  (1760-61)  and  obtained  a relic  from  the  pope  for  his 
new  building,  how  he  entertained  a grand-niece  of  Cor- 
neille, and  for  her  benefit  wrote  his  well-known  “ com- 
mentary” on  that  poet,  are  matters  of  interest,  but  to 
be  passed  over  briefly. 

In  1 768  he  entered,  it  would  seem  out  of  pure  wan 
tonness,  into  an  indecent  controversy  with  the  bishop 
of  the  diocese  (who,  like  an  honest  man,  was  not  par- 
ticularly well  satisfied  with  his  occasional  conformity);  he 
had  differences  with  the  superior  landlord  of  part  of  his 
estate,  the  president  De  Brosses;  and  he  engaged  in  a 
long  and  tedious  return  match  with  the  republic  of 
Geneva,  in  which  the  ’scoring  was  alternate  and  rather 
bewildering,  Geneva  playing  at  one  time  an  insult  to 
Voltaire’s  friend  and  patron  Catherine  of  Russia,  and 
Voltaire  replying  at  another  by  setting  up  a rival  colony 
of  watchmakers  at  Ferney.  The  match  went  on  the 
whole  in  favor  of  Voltaire,  for  during  its  course  a 
theater  was  authorized  in  the  city,  and  he  himself,  a 
kind  of  exile  from  it,  was  applied  to  to  mediate  between 
different  classes  of  the  community.  But  the  general 
events  of  this  Ferney  life  are  somewhat  of  that  happy 
kind  which  are  no  events— the  distractions  and  employ- 
ments of  a man  who  has  nothing  serious  to  occupy  him- 
self about. 

In  this  way  things  went  on  for  many  years,  and  Vol- 
taire, who  had  been  an  old  man  when  he  established 
himself  at  Ferney,  became  a very  old  one  almost  with- 
out noticing  it.  The  death  of  Louis  XV.  and  the  ac- 
cession of  Louis  XVI.  excited  even  in  his  aged  breast 
the  hope  of  reentering  Paris,  but  he  did  not  at  once  re- 
ceive any  encouragement,  despite  the  reforming  minis- 
try of  Turgot.  A much  more  solid  gain  to  his  hap- 
piness was  the  adoption,  or  practical  adoption,  in  1 776, 
of  Reine  Philiberte  de  Varicourt,  a young  girl  of 
noble  but  poor  family,  whom  Voltaire  rescued  from  the 
convent,  installed  in  his  house  as  an  adopted  daughter, 
and  married  to  the  Marquis  de  Villette.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  his  last  and  fatal  visit  to  Paris  was  due  to  his 
own  wish  or  to  the  instigation  of  his  niece.  At  any 
rate  he  had,  at  the  end  of  1777  and  the  beginning  of 
1778,  been  carefully  finishing  a new  tragedy — Irene — 
for  production  in  the  capital ; he  started  on  Feb- 
ruary 5th,  and  five  days  later  arrived  at  the  city  which 
he  had  not  seen  for  eight  and  twenty  years. 

He  was  received  with  immense  rejoicings,  not  indeed 
directly  by  the  court,  but  by  the  Academy,  by  society, 
and  by  all  the  more  important  foreign  visitors.  About 
a fortnight  after  his  arrival  age  and  fatigue  made  him 
seriously  ill,  and  a confessor  was  sent  for.  But  he 
recovered,  scoffed  at  himself  as  usual,  and  prepared 
more  eagerly  than  ever  for  the  first  performance  of 
Irene  on  March  16th.  At  the  end  of  the  month  he 
was  able  to  go  out  and  attend  a performance  of  it, 
which  has  often  been  described,  and  was  a kind  of 
apotheosis.  He  even  began  or  proceeded  with  an- 
other tragedy — Agathocle — and  attended  several  Aca- 
demic meetings.  But  such  proceedings  in  a case  of  a 
man  of  eighty-four  were  impossible.  To  keep  himself 
up  he  exceeded  even  his  usual  excess  in  coffee,  and 
about  the  middle  of  May  he  became  very  ill.  For  about 
a fortnight  he  was  alternately  better  and  worse ; but 
on  May  30th  the  priests  were  once  more  sent  for — to 
wit,  his  nephew  the  Abb6  Mignot,  the  Abbe  Gaultier, 
who  had  officiated  on  the  former  occasion,  and  the 
parish  priest,  the  cur6  of  St.  Sulpice.  He  was,  however, 
in  a state  of  half  insensibitity,  and  petulantly  motioned 
them  away.  The  legends  set  afloat  about  his  dying 
m a state  of  terror  and  despair,  are  certainly  false;  but 
it  must  be  regarded  as  singular  and  unfortunate  that  he 


- VO  R 

who  had  more  than  once  gone  out  of  his  way  to  con. 
form  ostentatiously  and  with  his  tongue  in  his  cheek 
should  have  neglected  or  missed  this  last  opportunity. 
The  result  was  a difficulty  as  to  burial  which  was  com- 
promised by  hurried  interment  at  the  abbey  of  Seel* 
lieres  in  Champagne,  anticipating  the  interdict  of  the, 
bishop  of  the  diocese  by  an  hour  or  two.  On  July  10, 
1791,  the  body  was  transferred  to  the  Pantheon,  but  it 
was  not  to  rest  there,  and  during  the  Hundred  Days  it 
was  once  more,  it  is  said,  disentombed,  and  stowed 
away  in  a piece  of  waste  ground.  His  heart,  taken 
from  the  body  when  it  was  embalmed,  and  given  to 
Madame  Denis  and  by  her  to  Madame  de  Villette,  was 
preserved  in  a silver  case,  and  when  it  was  proposed 
(in  1864)  to  restore  it  to  the  other  remains,  the  sar- 
cophagus at  Sainte  Genevieve  (the  Pantheon),  was 
opened  and  found  to  be  empty. 

VOLTERRA,  a town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Pisa,  fifty-one  miles  by  rail  east-southeast  from  Leg- 
horn, and  thirty-five  by  road  west-northwest  from 
Siena,  stands  on  a commanding  olive-clad  eminence 
about  1,600  feet  above  sea-level,  and  is  surrounded  by 
the  massive  remains  of  its  ancient  walls,  Some  four  and 
one-half  miles  in  circuit.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  vases  and  other  orna- 
ments from  alabaster,  of  good  quality,  found  in  the 
vicinity  of  Volterra  and  near  Leghorn.  The  popula- 
tion 1901  was  7,027  (commune  14,063). 

VOLUNTEERS.  See  Militia. 

VOLUSENUS,  Florentius  (that  is,  Florence 
Wilson  or  Wolsey,  though  in  an  English  letter  he 
writes  himself  VOLUZENE),  a Scottish  humanist  of  the 
first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  whose  elegant  Latinity, 
but  still  more  the  thoughtful  beauty  of  his  Christian 
philosophy,  claims  for  him  a high  place  among  the 
scholars  of  his  age.  That  he  was  born  near  Elgin,  and 
studied  philosophy  at  Aberdeen,  may  be  only  an  Infer- 
ence from  a passage  in  the  dialogue  De  Tranquillitate 
Animi , but  it  is  certain  that  he  died  at  Vienne  in 
Dauphine,  France,  in  1546. 

VONDEL,  Joost  van  der,  Dutch  poet,  was  born 
in  1587  and  died  in  1697. 

VORAGINE,  Jacobus  de,  archbishop  of  Genoa,  is 
said  to  have  been  born  at  the  little  village  of  Varaggio, 
near  Savona,  about  the  year  1230.  He  entered  the 
order  of  St.  Dominic  in  1244.  In  1288  Nicholas  em- 
powered him  to  absolve  the  people  of  Genoa  for  their 
offense  in  aiding  the  Sicilians  against  Charles  II.  Early 
in  1292  the  same  pope,  himself  a Franciscan,  summoned 
James  to  Rome  intending  to  consecrate  him  archbishop 
of  Genoa  with  his  own  hands.  If  we  may  trust  Echard, 
he  was  a model  bishop,  and  especially  distinguished 
himself  by  his  efforts  to  appease  the  civil  discords  of 
Genoa.  His  death  seems  to  have  taken  place  in  June, 
1298.  His  two  chief  works  are  the  Chronicon  Janu 
ense  and  the  Golden  Legend  or  Lombardica  Hystoria 
The  former  is  partly  printed  in  Muratori  ( Scriptores 
Rer.  Ital.y  ix.  6).  It  is  divided  into  twelve  parts.  The 
Golden  Legend , one  of  the  most  popular  religious 
works  of  the  Middle  Ages,  is  a collection  of  the  legend- 
ary lives  of  the  greater  saints  of  the  mediaeval  church, 
the  preface  divides  the  ecclesiastical  year  into  four  per- 
iods corresponding  to  the  various  epochs  of  the  world’s 
history,  a time  of  deviation,  of  renovation,  of  reconcili- 
ation, and  of  pilgrimage. 

VORARLBERG,  the  most  western  division  of  the 
Austrian- Hungarian  monarchy,  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Bavaria,  on  the  west  by  the  Lake  of  Constance, 
Liechtenstein  and  Switzerland,  on  the  south  by  Switzer- 
land, and  on  the  east  by  Tyrol.  About  one-third  of  the 
surface  (almost  exactly  1,000  square  miles  in  extent)  is 
occupied  by  pasture,  upward  of  one-sixth  by  forests, 


v o r _ v o s 


one-seventh  by  meadows,  and  only  one-twentieth  by 
arable  land.  In  correspondence  with  these  figures,  we 
find  that  the  chief  employments  of  the  inhabitants  are 
cattle-rearing,  dairy-farming,  and  forestry. 

In  1 88 1 the  district  contained  61,115  cattle,  and 
cheese  is  produced  in  large  quantities.  Grain  is  culti- 
vated in  the  valley-bottoms,  but  not  more  than  enough 
is  raised  to  cover  the  home  consumption;  potatoes, 
fruit,  and  wine  are  also  produced.  The  manufacturing 
industry  is  also  by  no  means  unimportant,  occupying 
nearly  3a  per  cent,  of  the  population.  The  chief  branch 
is  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton,  which  is  carried 
on  with  special  vigor  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  towns 
and  larger  villages.  A characteristic  industry  is  the 
construction  of  wooden  chalets,  which  are  exported  to 
Switzerland  by  water.  Many  of  the  men  spend  the 
summer  in  Switzerland  as  masons  and  laborers,  return- 
ing to  their  homes  in  winter.  In  1901  the  population 
numbered  147,373,  nearly  all  of  Teutonic  stock  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  faith.  The  chief  towns,  none  of  which 
are  large,  are  Bregenz  (4,736  inhabitants),  the  capital, 
and  the  port  of  Austria  on  the  Lake  of  Constance,  Blu- 
denz  (3,150  inhabitants),  Feldkirch  (3,600),  and  Dorn- 
birn.  Vorarlberg  belongs  to  the  see  of  Brixen,  the 
prince-bishop  of  which  is  represented  by  a vicar-general 
at  Feldkirch.  The  provincial  diet  consists  of  twenty- 
one  members,  including  the  vicar-general.  The  crown- 
land  sends  two  representatives  to  the  imperial  parliament. 

VORONEZH,  a government  of  southern  Russia,  is 
bounded  by  Tamboff  on  the  north,  Saratoff  and  the 
Don  Cossacks  on  the  east,  Kharkoff  on  the  south,  and 
Kursk  and  Orel  on  the  west,  and  has  an  area  of 
25,443  square  miles. 

The  population  is  steadily  increasing,  and  reached 
2,546,255  in  1898  as  against  1,974,400  in  i860.  It 
is  Little  Russian  in  the  southwest  (from  35  to  40  per 
cent.,  according  to  different  estimates),  and  Great  Rus- 
sian elsewhere.  There  are  also  a few  German  colonies 
with  some  3,500  inhabitants,  and  a few  Poles  (2,000). 

Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation,  and  grain  is  ex- 
ported to  a considerable  amount.  The  sunflower  has 
also  been  much  cultivated  of  late  for  oil.  The  Voronezh 
horses  enjoy  a high  reputation  in  Russia,  as  also  do  its 
cattle,  and  cattle-breeding  has  advanced  during  the  last 
thirty  years.  Bees  are  kept  in  many  villages,  and  honey 
is  gathered  to  the  annual  amount  of  more  than  10,000 
hundredweights.  Market-gardening  and  fishing  are  also 
of  importance.  The  manufactures  are  of  recent  growth; 
the  chief  products  being  spirits,  oil,  sugar,  woolens,  and 
tallow.  Wheat  and  other  grains,  flour,  flax,  tallow  and 
hides,  wool,  and  cattle  are  the  chief  items  of  export. 

Voronezh,  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  sit- 
uated on  a high  bank  of  the  river  of  the  same  name, 
365  miles  by  rail  to  the  south  of  Moscow.  A few  fac- 
tories for  cleansing  wool  and  for  the  preparation  of 
tallow  and  oil,  as  well  as  some  distilleries,  have  arisen 
of  late.  The  population  of  the  town  increased  from 
39,800  in  i860  to  84,146  in  1898.  It  is  now  an  impor- 
fant  entrepot  for  grain,  flax,  tallow,  hides,  sugar,  wood, 
and  coal  from  the  Don;  the  railway  traffic  amounts  to 
two  and-one  half  million  hundredweights,  and  that  of 
the  Razdelnaya  junction,  close  by,  to  nearly  thrice 
that  amount. 

VORTEX  MOTION.  See  Hydromechanics. 

VOSGES,  a mountain  range  of  central  Europe, 
stretching  along  the  west  side  of  the  Rhine  valley  in  a 
north-northeast  direction  from  Basel  to  Mains,  for  a dis- 
tance of  150  miles.  Since  1871  the  southern  portion, 
from  the  Ballon  d’ Alsace  to  Mont  Donon,  has  been  the 
political  boundary  between  France  and  Germany. 
There  is  a remarkable  similarity  between  the  Vosges 
and  the  corresponding  range  of  the  Black  Forest  on  the 


6231 

other  side  of  the  Rhine ; both  lie  within  the  same  ds. 
grees  of  latitude  and  have  the  same  geological  formation; 
both  are  characterized  by  fine  forests  on  their  lower 
slopes,  above  which  are  open  pasturages  and  rounded 
summits  of  a uniform  altitude;  both  have  a steep  fall 
to  the  Rhine  and  a gradual  descent  on  the  other  side. 
The  Vosges  in  their  southern  portion  are  mainly  of 
granite,  with  some  porphyritic  masses,  and  of  a kind  of 
red  sandstone  (occasionally  1,640  feet  in  thickness) 
which  on  the  western  versant  bears  the  name  of  “ gr£s 
Vosgien.” 

VOSGES,  a frontier  department  of  eastern  France, 
was  formed  in  1790,  for  the  most  part  of  territory  pre- 
viously belonging  to  Lorraine,  with  fragments  of 
Franche-Comte,  Champagne,  and  Alsace.  The  portion 
belonging  to  Alsace  was  ceded  to  Germany  in  1871. 
Lying  between  470  48'  and  48°  32'  N.  latitude,  and  50 
22'  and  70  io'  E.  longitude,  the  department  is  bounded 
by  Alsace-Lorraine  on  the  east,  and  by  the  departments 
of  Meurthe-et-Moselle  on  the  north,  Meuse  on  the 
northwest,  Haute-Marne  on  the  west,  and  Haute-Saone 
on  the  south.  The  Vosges  Mountains  form  a natural 
boundary  on  the  east.  The  highest  point  is  the  Hoh- 
neck  (4,482  feet)  near  the  Schlucht.  The  south  of  the 
department  is  traversed  by  the  Monts  Faucilles  (2,000 
feet),  which  form  part  of  the  European  watershed,  sep- 
arating the  basins  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Rhone.  The 
Moselle  and  the  Meuse,  tributaries  of  the  Rhine,  have 
the  largest  drainage  areas  in  the  department;  a small 
district  in  the  northwest  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the 
Seine  (Ornain  and  Marne),  the  rest  to  that  of  the 
Rhone.  The  height  above  the  sea,  the  northward  ex- 
posure of  the  valleys,  and  the  impervious  subsoil  com- 
bine to  make  the  climate  severe;  the  average  tempera- 
ture at  fipinal  (1,070  feet)  is  49°  F.  The  annual 
rainfall  is  twenty-four  inches  at  Epinal,  thirty-one  at  St. 
Die,  and  more  in  the  mountains. 

Of  a total  area  of  1,452,181  acres,  arable  land  occu- 
pies 603,201  acres,  grass  199,839,  wood  361,526,  heath, 
pasture,  and  uncultivated  land  81,486,  and  vineyards 
12,054.  The  crops  in  1804  were — wheat  1,911,470 
bushels,  meslin  494,483,  rye  710,627,  barley  103,262, 
oats  3,225,755,  buckwheat  63,409,  potatoes  17,787,404, 
dry  vegetables  45,974,  fodder  beetroot  25,060  tons, 
tobacco  33  tons,  hops  79  tons,  hemp  seed  138  tons, 
hemp  99  tons,  linseed  39  tons,  flax  22  tons,  hemp,  flax, 
and  poppy  oils  94  tons,  colza  seed  206  tons,  fodder 
457,383  tons,  wine  2,869,000  gallons  (average  of  pre- 
ceding ten  years  3,964,441).  The  department  stands 
first  in  France  for  the  extent  and  importance  of  the 
woods  under  forest  rule,  though  only  third  for  the 
actual  area  of  forest  land.  The  state  owns  one-third 
of  the  forests,  private  individuals  one-fifth,  and  the  com- 
munes the  rest.  Oaks,  beeches,  hornbeams,  birches, 
aspens,  and  maples  thrive  on  the  plains,  beeches  and 
oaks  on  the  higher  grounds,  and  firs,  beeches,  and 
pines  on  the  mountains.  The  annual  value  of  timber 
produced  is  $1,400,000,  and  9,000,000  fir  planks,  be- 
sides other  kinds,  are  annually  cut  in  300  sawmills. 
Traces  of  gold  are  found,  and  the  department  contains 
silver  and  lead  mines,  copper  ore,  iron  ore  (4,530  tons 
of  iron  annually),  zinc,  manganese,  cobalt,  and  anti- 
mony. In  1884,  681  tons  of  coal  were  mined,  and  in 
1882  1,595  tons  of  peat  were  dug;  1,336  persons  are 
employed  in  432  quarries  of  marble,  sandstone,  granite, 
and  building  and  lithographic  stones.  The  department 
is  rich  in  hot,  cold,  sulphate,  sodic,  calcium,  '-on, 
bicarbonate,  and  gaseous  mineral  springs.  Those  at 
Plombieres  were  known  to  the  Romans.  Thirty-seven 
thousand  hands  are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  pig 
and  cast  iron  (for  all  which  wood  is  the  chief  fuel)  ana 
wares  of  iron  and  steel.  The  cotton  industry  (135,00c 


VOS— VO w 


6232 

looms  and  423,724  spindles)  has  been  largely  developed 
since  1871;  canvas  and  linen  are  woven  at  G£rardmer 
(3,000  looms).  The  manufacture  of  cloth  employs  500 
workmen,  of  lace  1,000,  embroidery  by  the  hand  and 
loom  40,000  workwomen,  silk  spinning  1,000  spindles. 
Wool  is  spun  and  hosiery  manufactured.  Coopers’ 
work  (over  300  tons)  is  exported,  as  are  also  sabots. 
At  Spinal  several  hundred  workmen  are  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  images;  and  musical  instruments  are 
made  at  Mirecourt.  One  thousand  workmen  are  em- 
ployed in  glass-works,  and  1,937  in  paper-mills  (10,000 
tons  of  paper  and  cardboard).  The  department  con- 
tains in  all  409  industrial  establishments;  200,000  tons 
of  coal  are  imported.  There  are  281  miles  of  railway, 
177  of  national  roads,  and  3,096  of  other  roads.  The 
Eastern  canal  connects  the  Saone  with  the  Moselle 
and  Meuse.  The  population  in  1901  was  419,784,  of 
whom  189,176  were  engaged  in  agriculture  and  131,- 
253  in  manufactures;  the  population  in  1886  was  413,- 
707. 

VOSS,  Johann  Heinrich,  German  poet,  archaeol- 
ogist, and  translator,  was  born  at  Sommersdorf  in 
Mecklenburg,  February  20,  1 751.  From  1766  to  1769 
Voss  attended  school  at  Neubrandenburg.  He  went  to 
Gottingen  in  1772,  in  response  to  the  invitation  of  Boie, 
whose  attention  he  had  attracted  by  poems  contributed 
to  the  Gottingen  Musenalmanach.  In  1775  Boie  made 
over  to  him  the  editing  of  the  Musenalmanach , which 
he  continued  to  issue  for  many  years.  He  married 
Boie’s  sister,  Ernestine,  in  1777,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  accepted  the  position  of  rector  at  Ottendorf  in 
Hanover.  As  the  climate  of  Ottendorf  did  not  suit  his 
health,  he  resigned  this  office  in  1 782,  and  went  as  rector 
to  Eutin,  where  he  remained  until  1802.  He  then  lived 
for  some  time  in  Jena,  but  in  1805  he  accepted  a call  to 
a professorship  at  Heidelberg.  He  died  at  Heidelberg 
on  March  29,  1826. 

VOSSIUS,  Gerardus  Johannes,  classical  scholar 
and  theologian,  was  born  near  Heidelberg  in  1577.  He 
received  his  education  at  Dort  until  he  entered  the  theo- 
logical college  and  then  the  university  of  Leyden.  He 
there  became  the  lifelong  bosom  friend  of  Hugo 
Grotius,  and  pursued  with  great  zest  the  study  of  the 
classics,  Hebrew,  ecclesiastical  history,  and  theology. 
In  1600  he  was  made  rector  of  the  high  school  at  Dort, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  philology  and  historical 
theology.  From  1614  to  1619  he  filled  the  office  of 
director  of  the  theological  college  at  Leyden.  But  in 
the  year  1622  he  received  the  appointment  of  professor 
of  rhetoric  and  chronology,  and  subsequently  of  Greek, 
in  the  university.  In  1624  the  university  of  Cambridge 
offered  him  a professorship,  which  he  declined.  Two 
years  afterward  another  unsuccessful  effort  was  made 
to  induce  him  to  settle  in  England,  but  he  accepted  from 
Archbishop  Laud  a prebend  in  Canterbury  cathedral  of 
the  value  of  $500  per  annum,  without  residence,  coming 
over  to  England  to  be  installed  in  1629,  when  he  was 
made  LL.D.  at  Oxford.  In  1632 he  left  Leyden  to  take 
the  post  of  professor  of  history  in  the  newly  founded 
Athenaeum  at  Amsterdam,  which  he  held  till  his  death, 
March  17,  1649. 

VOSSIUS,  Isaac,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
at  Leyden  in  1618,  and  was  carefully  educated  by  his 
father.  After  three  years  spent  on  a learned  tour 
through  England,  France,  and  Italy,  he  accepted  in 
1648  an  invitation  to  the  court  of  the  brilliant  Queen 
Christina  of  Sweden,  whom  he  taught  Greek.  He  de- 
clined the  offer  of  the  chair  of  history  at  Amsterdam 
vacated  by  his  father’s  death,  and  continued  for  some 
years  in  Sweden,  with  occasional  visits  to  Holland.  In 
1658  he  finally  left  Sweden.  His  father’s  merits  and 
bis  own  learning  procured  him  favor  with  Louis  XIV. 


of  France  and  in  England.  In  1670  he  removed  tt» 
England,  was  made  LL.  D.  of  Oxford,  and  in  spite  oi 
notorious  looseness  of  morals  and  levity  of  character 
received  a canonry  at  Windsor  from  Charles  II.  in  1673, 
residing  in  the  castle,  where  he  died  in  February,  1689. 

VOTKINSK,  an  iron-works  in  the  Urals,  in  the  Rus- 
sian government  of  Vyatka,  forty-seven  miles  north  of 
Sarapul,  and  eight  miles  from  the  Kama,  was  founded 
in  1756.  Its  population  reached  18,480  in  1898. 
Together  with  the  Kamsk  iron-works,  Votkinsk  was 
till  lately  one  of  the  chief  government  establishments 
for  the  construction  of  steamers  for  the  Caspian  flotilla, 
as  well  as  of  locomotives  for  the  Siberian  railway,  and 
it  has  long  been  renowned  for  its  excellent  tarantasses 
and  other  smaller  iron-wares,  as  well  as  for  its  knitted 
goods. 

VOUET,  Simon,  French  painter,  born  at  Paris,  Jan- 
uary, 9,  1590,  passed  many  years  in  Italy,  where  he 
married,  and  established  himself  at  Rome,  enjoying 
there  a high  reputation  as  a portrait  painter.  Louis 
XIII.  recalled  him  to  France,  lodged  him  in  the  Louvre 
with  the  title  of  First  Painter  to  the  Crown,  and  gave 
him  a considerable  salary.  All  royal  work  for  the  pal- 
aces of  the  Louvre  and  the  Luxembourg  was  placed  in 
his  hands;  the  king  became  his  pupil;  he  formed  a large 
school,  and  renewed  the  traditions  of  that  of  Fontaine- 
bleau. Vouet  was  an  exceedingly  skillful  painter,  espe- 
cially in  decoration,  and  executed  important  works  of 
this  class  for  Cardinal  Richelieu  (Rueil  and  Palais 
Royal)  and  other  great  nobles.  His  better  easel  pict- 
ures bear  a curious  resemblance  to  those  of  Sassoferrato. 
Almost  everything  he  did  was  engraved  by  his  sons-in- 
law  Tortebat  and  Dorigny. 

VOW,  a solemn  undertaking  to  do  something  which 
is  held  to  be  acceptable  to  the  Deity.  In  the  antique  re- 
ligions mere  prayer,  without  some  material  expression 
of  homage,  was  not  held  to  be  a complete  or  normal 
act  of  worship  ( cf  Sacrifice).  Supplications,  there- 
fore, were  generally  presented  to  the  Deity  in  connec- 
tion with  a sacrifice,  or,  if  the  moment  of  need  was  one 
at  which  a ritual  offering  could  not  well  be  presented, 
the  prayer  for  help  was  naturally  accompanied  by  a 
promise  to  present  a gift  at  a future  time.  Thus  prayer 
together  with  a vow  is  a sort  of  imperfect  act  of  wor- 
ship, which  has  to  be  completed  by  the  discharge  of  the 
vow  at  the  sanctuary. 

The  vows  of  which  we  read  in  the  Old  Testament 
and  in  classical  authors  are  generally  conditional  on  the 
fulfillment  of  the  petition  with  which  they  are  coupled. 
Such  vows  are  made  on  occasions  of  special  need,  ot 
difficulty  (Ps.  lxvi.  13  seq.;  Pliny,  H.  N.,  viii.  21  [57], 
“ turn praecipuus  votorum  locus  est  cum  spei  nullus  est  ”) 
as  before  a perilous  enterprise  (Gen.  xxviii.  20;  Judg.  xi. 
30).  Of  ordinary  vows  a common  type  in  antiquity  was 
a promise  made  in  peril  by  sea,  sickness,  or  other  straits, 
to  suspend  in  a temple  a picture  or  other  symbol  of  the 
danger  against  which  the  Divine  aid  was  implored. 
This  usage  passed  into  Christianity  and  survives  in 
Catholic  countries,  where  votive  pictures  and  models 
of  eyes,  hands,  etc.,  cured  in  answer  to  prayer,  are  still 
seen  in  churches.  At  the  council  of  Lestines  the  use 
of  such  models  was  condemned  as  a pagan  practice. 

In  point  of  obligation,  vows  were  analogous  to  oaths 
(Numb.  xxx.  2);  their  sanction  was  not  human  but 
Divine  (Deut.  xxiii.  21).  Thus  slackness  or  fraud  in 
the  fulfillment  of  vows  is  the  mark  of  an  age  of  declining 
faith  (Mai.  i.  14  ; Harith,  MoalL,  1.  69  Arnold;  Lucian, 
Jupiter  Trap.,  c.  15;  cf.  Eccles.  v.  4).  Among  the 
Arabs  the  speedy  fulfillment  of  vows  was  favored  by  a 
rule  of  abstinence  from  certain  enjoyments  and  conven- 
iences  ( ihr&m ),  which  custom  imposed  till  the  vow  was 
fulfilled.  This  appears  to  have  been  the  ancient  practice 


VRA-VUL 


6233 


of  other  Semitic  nations  also ; among  the  Hebrews  it 
survives  in  the  Nazarite  vow  (see  Nazarite),  and  prob- 
ably  also  in  the  esar  or  issar  (interdict),  which  is  men- 
tioned along  with  vows  in  Numb,  xxx.,  and  is  described 
in  verse  13  as  “ an  oath  of  abstinence  to  afflict  the  soul” 
—words  which  seem  to  show  that  fasting  is  specially 
contemplated. 

The  simple  vow  presupposes  that  the  sanctuary  or  the 
customary  day  of  sacrifice  is  remote;  the  conditional 
vow,  on  the  other  hand,  may  often  be  made  at  the 
sanctuary  itself,  where  the  Godhead  is  nearest  to  man 
(Gen.  xxviii.  20;  1 Sam.  i.  11  ; Iliad , vii.  93).  In 
Christian  times  vows  to  present  a material  gift  (vota 
realia)  have  been  less  important  than  vows  to  adopt  a 
certain  course  of  life  ( vota  personalia ),  a change  which 
naturally  followed  from  the  modification  of  the  idea  of 
sacrifice  in  Christianity  (see  Sacrifice).  The  personal 
vows  recognized  by  the  Catholic  church  are  of  various 
kinds,  covering  all  manner  of  actions  religiously  meri- 
torious (e.g.,  pilgrimage  or  crusading);  but  the  most 
prominent  have  been  vows  of  abstinence  (fasting,  chas- 
tity), to  which  the  growth  of  asceticism  gave  a positive 
value.  Most  important  of  all  is  the  monastic  vow  of 
poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience  (see  Monachism). 
The  presupposition  of  all  such  vows  is  that  there  is  a 
higher  life  of  godliness,  which  cannot  be  attained  to 
by  Christians  at  large,  and  which  all  are  not  bound  to 
attempt,  although  there  is  merit  in  consecrating  oneself 
to  it.  From  this  point  of  view  it  came  about  in  process 
of  time  that  vows  of  self-consecration  were  viewed  as 
necessarily  perpetual  To  fall  back  from  a purpose  of 
higher  life  was  not  at  all  the  same  thing  as  never  to 
have  formed  such  a purpose.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
church  was  careful  to  guard  against  the  rash  assumption 
of  vows,  by  requiring  certain  formalities  in  the  act,  and 
by  the  institution  of  the  novitiate,  as  a period  of  proba- 
tion. The  power  of  the  pope  to  dispense  with  vows, 
which  appears  in  the  Decretals , was  of  later  growth. 
Protestantism,  denying  the  superior  merit  of  the  ascetic 
life,  rejects  all  perpetual  vows,  and  indeed  shows  little 
favor  to  vows  of  any  kind. 

VRANCX,  Sebastian,  born  about  1572,  was  a 
painter  of  the  Antwerp  school,  of  very  moderate  ability. 
Most  of  his  pictures  represent  scenes  of  war,  such  as  the 
sack  of  towns,  cavalry  combats,  and  the  like.  Though 
occasionally  vigorous  in  drawing,  his  paintings  are  dull 
and  heavy  in  tone.  The  date  of  his  death  is  uncertain. 

VULCAN,  the  old  Roman  fire-god,  answering  to  the 
Greek  Hephaestus  with  whom  he  was  con- 

founded by  the  ancients.  How  closely  Vulcan  was 
identified  with  the  fire,  regarded  as  a person,  appears 
from  the  stories  of  the  birth  of  Cseculus  and  Servius 
Tullius,  both  of  whom  were  called  sons  of  Vulcan,  and 
were  supposed  to  have  been  conceived  by  virgins  who 
had  been  impregnated  by  sparks  of  fire  from  the  hearth. 
At  Rome  his  temple  was  in  the  Campus  Martius  out- 
side the  city  walls.  There  was  a festival  of  Vulcan 
called  the  Volcanalia  on  August  23d,  in  which  the  peo- 
ple threw  animals  into  the  fire  instead  of  themselves. 
On  J me  7th  there  was  a fishermen’s  festival,  with 
games,  held  under  the  superintendence  of  the  “ praetor 
urbanus,”  and  the  fish  were  brought  to  the  Volcanal 
and  sacrificed  to  the  god  instead  of  human  victims. 
Another  festival  of  Vulcan  was  the  Tubilustria,  or  puri- 
fication of  trumpets  on  May  23d,  Vulcan  being  regarded 
as  the  father  of  trumpets.  At  Ostia  there  was  a festival 
of  Vulcan  (Volcanalia)  presided  over  by  a “praetor 
sacris  Volcani  faciundis;”  and  at  Ostia  there  were  also 
a temple  and  a pontifex  of  Vulcan.  At  Rome  there 
was  a “flamen”  of  Vulcan,  who  sacrificed  to  Maia, 
wife  of  Vulcan,  May  1st.  According  to  others  the 
<jame  of  V ulcan’s  wife  was  Majesta. 


VULCANO.  Set  Lipari  Islands. 

VULGATE.  See  Bible. 

VULTURE,  the  name  of  certain  birds  whose  best 
known  characteristic  is  that  of  feeding  upon  carcasses, 
and  these  birds,  owing  to  this  obscene  habit,  are  in  many 
hot  countries  regarded  with  favor  as  useful  scavengers. 
The  genus  Vultur,  as  instituted  by  Linnaeus,  is  now 
restricted  by  ornithologists  to  a single  species,  V.  mon~ 
achus%  the  other  species  included  therein  by  him,  o 1 
thereto  referred  by  succeeding  systematists,  being  else- 
where relegated  ( cf  Lammergeyer);  but  the  most  im- 
portant taxonomic  change  that  has  been  introduced  is 
that  by  Professor  Huxley  ( Proc . Zool.  Society , 1867,  pp. 
462-464),  who  pointed  out  the  complete  structural  dif- 
ference between  the  Vultures  of  the  New  World  and  those 
of  the  Old,  regarding  the  former  as  constituting  a distinct 
Family,  Catha7'tidce  (which,  however,  would  be  more 
properly  named  Sarcorhamphidce ),  while  he  united  the 
latter  with  the  ordinary  diurnal  Birds-of-Prey  Gypaetidce . 

The  American  Vulture  may  be  said  to  include  four 
genera: — (1)  Sarcorhatnphus , the  gigantic  Condor,  the 
male  distinguished  by  a large  fleshy  comb  and  wattles; 
(2)  Gypagus , the  King- Vulture,  with  its  gaudily-colored 
head  and  nasal  caruncle;  (3)  Catharistaf  containing  the 
so-called  Turkey-Buzzard  of  English-speaking  Ameri- 
cans with  its  allies;  and  (4)  Pseudogryph usf  the  great 
Californian  Vulture — of  very  limited  range  on,  the 
western  slopes  of  North  America,  and  threatened  with 
speedy  extinction  through  the  use  of  poison.  The  true 
Vultures  of  the  Old  World,  Vulturidce  in  the  restricted 
sense,  are  generally  divided  into  five  or  six  genera,  of 
which  Neophron  has  been  not  unjustifiably  separated  as 
forming  a distinct  Subfamily,  Neophronince — its  mem- 
bers, of  comparatively  small  size,  differing  both  in 
structure  and  habit  considerably  from  the  rest.  One  of 
them  is  the  so-called  Egyptian  Vulture  or  Pharaoh’s 
Hen,  N.  percnopteras , a bird  whose  delicacy  of  build 
and  appearance  contrast  forcibly  with  its  choice  of  the 
most  filthy  kind  of  food.  Of  the  genera  composing  the 
other  Subfamily,  Vult urines,  space  is  wanting  to  say 
much.  Gyps  numbers  seven  or  eight  local  species  and 
races,  on  more  than  one  of  which  the  English  name 
Griffon  has  been  fastened.  The  best  known  is  G.fulvus , 
which  by  some  authors  is  accounted  “ British,”  from  an 
example  having  been  taken  in  Ireland,  though  under 
circumstances  which  suggest  its  appearance  so  far  from 
its  nearest  home  in  Spain  to  be  due  to  man’s  interven- 
tion.  The  species,  however,  has  a wider  distribution 
on  the  European  continent  (especially  toward  the 
northeast)  than  the  Egyptian  Vulture,  and  in  Africa 
nearly  reaches  the  Equator,  extending  also  in  Asia  to 
the  Himalaya;  but  both  in  the  Ethiopian  and  Indian 
regions  its  range  inosculates  with  that  of  several  allied 
forms  or  species.  Pseudogyps  with  two  forms — one 
Indian,  the  other  African— -differs  from  Gyps  by  having 
twelve  instead  of  fourteen  rectrices.  Of  the  genera 
Otogyps  and  Lophogyps  nothing  here  need  be  said;  and 
then  we  have  Vidtur,  with,  as  mentioned  before,  its 
sole  representative,  V.  inonachus , commonly  known  as 
the  Cinereous  Vulture,  a bird  which  is  found  from  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar  to  the  sea-coast  of  China.  Almost 
all  these  birds  inhabit  rocky  cliffs,  on  the  ledges  of 
which  they  build  their  nests. 

The  question  whether  Vultures  in  their  search  for 
food  are  guided  by  sight  of  the  object  or  by  its  scent  has 
long  excited  much  interest,  and  the  advocates  of  either 
opinion  have  warmly  contended  in  its  behalf.  Without 
denying  to  them  the  olfactory  faculty,  it  seems  to  be 
now  generally  admitted,  notwithstanding  the  assertions 
to  the  contrary  of  Waterton  and  a few  more,  that  the- 
sense  of  sight  is  in  almost  every  case  sufficient  to 
account  for  die  observed  facts.  The  mode  in  which  com- 


5234  V Y A - 

munication  is  effected  between  the  birds,  which  are 
soaring  at  an  immense  height,  seems  at  first  inexplic- 
able, but  Canon  Tristram  has  suggested  [Ibis,  1859,  p. 
280)  this  simple  solution  of  the  supposed  mystery: — 

“ The  Griffon  who  first  descries  his  quarry  descends 
from  his  elevation  at  once.  Another,  sweeping  the 
horizon  at  a still  greater  distance,  observes  his  neigh- 
bor’s movements  and  follows  his  course.  A third,  still 
further  removed,  follows  the  flight  of  the  second;  he  is 
traced  by  another;  and  so  a perpetual  succession  is  kept 
up  so  long  as  a morsel  of  flesh  remains  over  which  to 
consort.  ” 

VYATKA,  or  Viatka,  a government  of  northeast- 
ern Russia,  with  Vologda  on  the  north,  Perm  on  the  east, 
Ufa  and  Kazan  on  the  south,  and  Nijni  Novgorod  and 
Kostroma  on  the  west,  has  an  area  of  59,124  square 
miles.  It  has  on  its  northern  boundary  the  flat  water- 
parting  which  separates  the  basins  of  the  Northern 
Dwina  and  Volga,  and  its  surface  is  an  undulating 
plateau  of  from  800  to  1,400  feet  above  sea-level, 
deeply  grooved  by  rivers  and  assuming  a hilly  aspect  on 
their  banks,  broken  up  as  they  are  by  ravines.  Per- 
mian sandstones,  marls,  and  limestones  cover  it;  over 
these  is  bowlder  clay  with  extensive  forests  and 
marshes.  The  Kama  rises  in  the  northeast,  and,  after 
making  a wide  sweep  through  Perm,  flows  along  its 
southeastern  boundary,  while  the  whole  of  the  govern- 
ment is  watered  by  the  Vyatka  and  its  numerous  tribu 
taries.  Both  the  Kama  and  the  Vyatka  are  navigable, 
as  also  are  several  of  their  tributaries;  the  Izha  and 
Votka,  which  flow  into  the  latter,  have  important  iron- 
works on  their  banks.  As  many  as  1,700,000  hundred- 
weights of  grain,  iron,  hides,  leather,  tallow,  timber,  and 
wooden  wares  were  loaded  in  1883  at  the  landing-places  of 
Vyatka,  while  the  traffic  on  the  Kama  is  still  more 
important.  There  are  no  railways,  but  the  province  is 
traversed  by  the  great  highway  to  Siberia,  and  by  two 
*»ther  roads  by  which  goods  from  the  south  are  trans- 
ported to  loading-places  on  the  Vytchegda  and  the  Yug 
to  be  shipped  farther  north  to  Archangel  Lakes  are 
numerous,  and  vast  marshes  are  met  with  everywhere, 
especially  in  the  north;  three-quarters  of  the  area  is 
under  forests.  The  climate  is  very  severe,  the  average 
yearly  temperature  being  36°  F.  at  Vyatka  (January, 
8.2°;  July,  67.0°),  and  350  at  Slobodskoi  (January, 

3-s°;  July>  65.3°).  # 

The  population  in  1898  was  3,082,788,  and  though 
sparse  on  the  average,  is  somewhat  dense  in  the  better- 
situated  valleys.  The  bulk  consists  of  Great  Russians 
(81  per  cent.),  but  there  are  also  considerable  remains  of 
the  aboriginal  Votiaks  (250,000),  Tcheremisses  (about 
150,000),  Tartars,  Tepters,  Permians,  and  even  Bash- 
kirs. Mohammedans  number  about  100,000,  and 
pagans  (Tcheremisses  and  Votiaks)  about  11,000.  The 
Votiaks  (Otiaks),  a Finnish  stem  of  the  Permian  group, 
call  themselves  Ot,  Ut,  or  Ud,  and  the  Tartars  call 
them  Ar,  so  that  it  is  supposed  that  they  may  be  akin 
to  the  Ars  of  the  Yenisei.  They  are  middle  sized,  with 
fair  hair  and  eyes,  often  red-haired;  and  the  general 
structure  of  the  face  and  skull  is  Finnish. 

The  soil  is  fertile,  especially  in  the  valleys  of  the 
south;  rye,  barley,  oats,  buckwheat,  and  to  some  extent 
wheat  are  grown.  The  crops  of  1885  were  rye,  4,006,- 
000  quarters;  oats,  3,957,000;  barley,  734,000;  wheat, 
98,000;  potatoes,  23 1 ,000  quarters.  Corn  is  exported 
to  the  Kama  or  to  the  north,  as  also  are  flax  and  hemp. 
There  is  no  want  of  natural  meadows  in  the  south,  and 
cattle- rearing  prospers.  The  Vyatka  horses,  a fine 
breed,  though  rather  small,  are  well  known  throughout 
Russia.  There  were  in  1883  706,600  horses,  925,100 
cattle,  and  1,446,400  sheep.  Attempts  are  being  made 
to  »n 'reduce  finer  breeds  of  cows  and  sheefx 


- V YS 

Industries  are  developing  steadily,  there  having  been 
in  1884,  6S4  establishments,  which  employed  9,700 
workmen,  and  showed  a yearly  return  of  $7,750,000, 
They  include  distilleries  ($4,425,000),  iron  works, 
chemical  works,  tanneries,  soap  and  glass  works,  and 
cotton  and  paper  mills.  Votkinsk  (q.v.)  has  a con- 
siderable yearly  production  of  agricultural  machinery 
and  steam-engines.  The  crown  manufactory  of  guns  at 
Izhevsk  works  up  yearly  10,000  hundredweights  of  steel. 
Domestic  trades  give  occupation  to  more  than  40,000  per- 
sons, and  their  returns  in  1884  reached  $3,534,000.  The 
manufacture  of  wooden  vessels,  window  frames,  doors, 
furniture,  sledges,  and  carts  supplies  a considerable  ex* 
port  trade  to  the  steppe  provinces  of  the  lower  Volga. 
Domestic  weaving  produces,  it  is  estimated,  about 
5,400,000  yards  of  linen  every  year. 

Trade  is  considerable — iron,  copper,  tar,  pitch, 
glass,  leathet,  paper,  timber,  and  wooden  wares,  as  also 
grain,  hides,  flax,  linseed,  honey,  and  other  raw  prod- 
uce being  exported  to  Nijni  Novgorod,  Orenburg,  and 
Siberia;  while  groceries  and  various  manufactured 
goods  are  imported. 

Vyatka  distinguishes  itself  very  favorably  by  its 
schools,  libraries,  surgeons,  and  hospitals.  There  were 
in  1884,  641  primary  and  22  secondary  schools. 

Vyatka,  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated 
on  the  Vyatka  river,  653  miles  to  the  northeast  of  Mos- 
cow. It  is  built  mostly  of  wood,  on  the  steep  hills 
which  rise  above  the  river,  as  well  as  on  their  slopes 
and  at  their  base.  Two  public  gardens,  a small  public 
library,  and  the  usual  educational  institutions  of  a Rus- 
sian provincial  town  are  all  that  it  can  boast  of.  Its 
manufactures  are  insignificant,  but  its  trade  in  grain, 
leather,  tallow,  candles,  soap,  wax,  paper  and  furs  is  im- 
portant. The  population  in  1898  was  26,480. 

VYAZMA,  a district  town  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Smolensk,  and  109  miles  by  rail  to  the  north- 
east of  that  town,  was  a populous  place  as  early  as  the 
eleventh  century,  and  carried  on  a lively  trade  with 
Narva  on  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  It  is  an  important  cen- 
ter for  the  trade  of  Smolensk;  grain,  hemp,  linseed  and 
hemp  seed,  tallow,  and  hides  are  exported  to  St.  Pe- 
tersburg and  Riga,  while  fish,  metals,  and  manufactured 
goods  are  supplied  to  the  neighboring  region.  The 
population  was  15,000  in  1898. 

VYERNYI,  formerly  Almaty,  capital  of  the  Rus- 
sian Central-Asian  province  of  Semiryetchensk,  is 
situated  on  a plateau  at  the  base  of  the  Trans-Ili 
Alatau,  in  430  16'  N.  latitude,  forty-seven  miles  to  the 
south  of  the  Hi  river.  It  was  founded  in  1854.  In 
1898  the  population  numbered  22,982,  nearly  3,000  of 
them  military.  Around  the  central  blocks  are  several 
suburbs  of  wooden  and  brick  houses;  the  streets  are 
broad  and  planted  with  trees.  Situated  as  it  is  on  the 
site  of  the  old  Almaty,  at  the  crossing  of  two  roads — 
from  Kuldja  to  Tashkend,  and  from  Semipalatinsk  to 
Kashgar — Vyernyi  carries  on  an  active  trade  in  wheat, 
rice,  com,  tea,  oil,  and  tobacco.  The  dislocation  of  the 
rocks  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Alatau  mountains  is 
the  cause  of  severe  earthquakes,  the  last  of  which,  on 
June  9,  1887,  destroyed  or  damaged  nearly  a thousand 
stone  houses  in  Vyernyi  and  its  neighborhood,  killing 
326  persons.  Slighter  shocks  were  felt  up  till  Febru- 
ary, 1888. 

VYSHNIY  VOLOTCHOK,  a district  town  of  Rus- 
sia, in  the  government  of  Tver,  eighty-two  miles  by 
rail  to  the  northwest  of  that  city,  owes  its  importance 
to  its  situation  in  the  center  of  the  Vyshne-Volotsk 
navigation  system,  which  connects  the  upper  Volga 
with  the  Neva.  The  inhabitants  (11,590  in  1898)  sup- 
port themselves  chiefly  by  shipping,  and  partly  by  the 
cotton  industry.  The  trade  is  still  considerable. 


w. 


Wis  simply  double  v,  so  far  as  the  form  goes;  but 
its  value,  like  its  name,  is  double  u , and  it  dates 
back  to  a time  when  ti  and  v had  not  been  fully  differ- 
entiated, one  into  a vowel,  the  other  into  a consonant  (see 
under  U).  The  oldest  form  of  the  letter  was  uu , some- 
times u only;  e.g. , uulfheard,  uilfrith,  in  the  Liber  Vita, 
ninth  century.  Later  a peculiar  symbol  appears, 
called  “ wen;”  this  belonged  to  the  runic  alphabet,  which 
the  Latin  superseded;  it  undoubtedly  represented  the  w- 
sound,  but  died  out  about  1300,  probably  through  the  in- 
fluence of  French  copyists.  As  early  as  the  eleventh 
century  we  find  w;  later  w. 

The  sound  denoted  by  W is  a voiced  labial,  formed 
by  rounding  the  lips  so  much  that  the  voice  cannot  es- 
cape without  friction.  We  may  perhaps  mark  out  three 
noticeable  sounds:  (1),  the  clear  vowel  u ; (2),  a consonant 
u,  equivalent  to  a “ glide”  in  the  dipthongs  “ eu,”  “ ou,” 
etc.,  i.e.,  a sound  which  is  held  not  long  enough  to  be 
a vowel  as  forminga  syllable  by  itself,  yet  without  suffi- 
cient friction  to  make  a consonant;  (3),  the  consonant 
w.  The  difference  between  (2)  and  (3)  may  be  illustrat- 
ed by  the  initial  sounds  of  French  “oui,”  and  English 
“we;”  the  ou  in  “ oui  ” is  a consonant  u;  it  does  not 
make  a syllable  distinct  from  the  following  i,  and  so  it 
is  not  a vowel;  yet  it  is  quite  distinguishable  from  the 
w in  “ we.  ” It  is  probable,  from  some  slight  indications, 
principally  in  Sanskrit,  that  both  (2)  and  (3)  were 
sounds  of  the  Indo-European  language.  But  it  could 
hardly  be  supposed  that  they  would  be  kept  rigorously 
distinct  in  the  derived  languages;  they  lie  too  near  to- 
gether. 

In  English  the  w-sound  has  commonly  held  its  own. 
It  has  survived  in  writing,  even  in  the  almost  impossi- 
ble combination  wr,  as  in  “wrath,”  “write,”  “wreck,” 
“wretch,”  but  the  sound  is  lost.  In  several  Old  Eng- 
lish words  the  combination  cw  was  exchanged  for  gu,  as 
was  natural  under  French  influence,  e.g.,  quoth  (O.E. 
cw xS),  quell  (O.E.  cwellan),  queen  (O.E.  cwen). 

The  digraph  wk  denotes  the  voiceless  sound  corre- 
sponding to  the  voiced  w.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases 
where  it  occurs  it  represents  original^,  as  in  who,  what 
(original  base  kwa)\  these  were  originally  written,  hwa, 
hwaet;  so  also  “while”  was  “ hwil,”  “ wheeze”  was 
“hwses”(Lat.  ques-tus).  In  similar  combinations  with 
/and  r the  h has  been  lost,  as  in  “ loud,”  formerly 
“hlud”  ( xXvroS);  raven  (hraefn),  ring  (hring);  and  in 
hw  the  h seems  to  have  robbed  the  w of  its  voice  (a  re- 
sult denoted  by  the  writing  wh),  and  then  fallen  off 
here  also  as  an  independent  sound. 

WABASH,  a leading  and  important  city  of  northern 
Indiana,  and  capital  of  Wabash  county,  is  centrally 
located  on  the  Wabash  river  forty-two  miles  from  Ft. 
Wayne,  and  within  easy  distance  of  Indianapolis,  the 
State  capital.  The  natural  resources  of  the  surround- 
ing territory,  which  embrace  natural  gas, superior  water- 
power and  other  valuable  auxiliaries,  have  materially 
enhanced  the  value  of  the  city  as  a manufacturing  point, 


and  concentrated  here  some  of  the  most  influential  in- 
dustries in  the  State.  In  addition  to  these  the  trans- 
portation facilities  available  are  comprenensive  and  in- 
valuable, including  the  several  lines  of  the  Wabash 
system,  the  Cincinnati,  Wabash  and  Michigan  road, 
the  Wabash  and  Erie  canal,  etc.,  placing  the  city  in 
immediate  communication  with  Chicago,  St.  Louis, 
Cincinnati,  and  other  points  at  the  East,  South,  and 
Northwest,  and  otherwise  adding  to  its  prominence  as 
a business  center.  The  city  contains  one  State  and 
two  national  banks,  two  weekly  papers,  a high  school, 
a female  academy,  a court-house,  eight  churches,  three 
hotels,  an  opera  house  and  public  hall,  and  mercantile 
houses  representing  every  department  of  trade.  The 
manufacturing  plants  consist  of  machine  shops,  sash, 
door,  and  blind  works,  school  and  church  furniture, 
woolen  mills,  flour  and  lumber  mills,  tile  works,  machin- 
ery, toys,  brooms,  etc.,  and  the  work-shops  of  the 
Cincinnati,  Wabash  and  Michigan  railroad.  Gas  and 
electric  lights  are  employed  for  heating  and  illuminating 
purposes,  and  the  water  supply,  obtained  from  natural 
springs,  is  unsurpassed  by  that  of  any  city  in  the  country 
for  its  purity  and  volume.  In  1880  the  population  was 
, 3,800.  In  1900  it  was  returned  at  8,618. 

WABASH,  a river  in  the  United  States*  rises  in 
western  Ohio,  runs  west  and  southwest  through  Indiana, 
forming  the  southern  half  of  its  western  boundary  on 
the  borders  of  Illinois  to  the  Ohio  river,  146  miles 
from  its  mouth,  is  550  miles  long,  and  navigable  by 
steamers  at  highwaterfor  300,  and  has  for  its  principal 
branches  the  Tippecanoe,  Big  Vermillion,  Embarras  and 
White  rivers — the  last  200  miles  long.  The  Wabash 
and  Erie  canal  connects  the  lakes  with  the  Mississippi. 

WACE,  whom  most  modern  writers  without  any 
authority  call  Robert,  but  who  simply  calls  himself 
“Maistre  Wace,”  was  a clerk  [clerc  lisant ) and 
trouv£re  of  the  twelfth  century,  who  was  born  in  Jersey, 
studied  at  Caen,  and  received  from  Henry  II.  a pr:bend 
at  Bayeux  with  other  gifts.  Nothing  is  known  certainly 
of  the  dates  of  his  birth  or  death;  but  the  one  is  con- 
jecturally  put  at  about  1120,  and  the  other  at  1180. 
Wace  has  left  two  long  romances,  the  Roman  de  Brut 
and  the  Roman  de  Ron,  both  of  which  are  interesting 
monuments  of  Norman  French,  while  the  latter  is  a 
document  of  some  importance  for  English  history,  the 
writer  informing  us  that  he  got  some  direct  information 
from  his  father,  who  no  doubt  was  not  his  only,  source 
The  Roman  de  Brut,  the  longer  of  the  two,  is  in  octo- 
syllabic couplets  of  a facile  and  somewhat  undistin- 
guished kind.  It  has  generally  been  regarded  as  a mere 
versifying  of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  a point  which 
turns  to  some  extent  of  course  on  the  vexed  question  of 
Geoffrey’s  own  originals.  The  Roman  de  Rou , a chron- 
icle of  the  Norman  dukes,  is  much  more  interesting  and 
much  more  vigorously  written.  Wace  is  not  in  mere 
oetical  value  a very  good  example  of  the  trouv&res,  but 
is  subjects  give  him  interest,  especially  for  Englishmen. 


w A C — WAG 


6236 

WACO,  a leading  dty  of  central  Texas  and  capital  of 
McLennan  county,  is  eligibly  located  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Brazos  river  at  a point  where  the  Bisque  river 
empties  into  that  stream,  95  miles  northeast  from 
Austin  and  250  miles  north  of  Galveston.  It  is  in  the 
midst  of  an  extensive  agricultural  country  and  the  ship- 
ping point  for  large  consignments  of  cotton,  wool, 
cereals,  and  live  stock,  and  since  the  advent  of  railroads 
has  advanced  with  rapid  strides  to  a conspicuous  posi- 
tion commercially  and  financially  among  its  contempo- 
raries in  the  southwest.  The  river,  which  is  spanned  at 
Waco  with  a wire  suspension  bridge,  is  navigable  dur- 
ing a major  portion  of  the  year,  and  with  the  railway 
system,  made  up  of  the  Houston  and  Texas  Central,  St. 
Louis,  Arkansas  and  Texas  and  the  Missouri,  Kansas 
and  Texas  roads,  completes  a line  of  transportation 
*ecommodations  adequate  and  valuable.  Each  of  the 
railroads  entering  the  city  occupies  a separate  depot  and 
has  made  important  improvements  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  service.  The  city  contains  three  national 
and  one  State  bank  with  a combined  capital  of  $560,- 
000,  two  daily  and  five  weekly  papers,  also  one  semi- 
monthly publication  and  one  monthly  magazine,  a 
court  house,  six  hotels,  an  opera  house  and  public  hall, 
the  Waco  Female  College,  the  Waco  (Baptist)  uni- 
versity, established  in  1861  and  accessible  to  both 
sexes,  a commercial  college,  a convent,  fourteen 
churches,  and  a large  collection  of  stores.  The  manu- 
factories include  planing,  flour,  and  woolen  mills,  foun- 
dry and  machine  shops,  brick  works,  canning  establish- 
ments, shirt  factories,  electric  light  works,  carriage 
factories,  flavoring  extracts,  fencing,  etc.,  etc.,  repre- 
senting large  investments  and  producing  an  output 
annually  increasing  in  values.  The  city  is  supplied 
with  gas,  electric  lights,  street  railways,  and  other  mod- 
ern appointments,  and  had  in  1900  a population  of 
20,686  against  14,445  reported  in  1890. 

WADAI.  See  Soudan, 

WADDING,  Luke,  ecclesiastical  historian,  born  at 
Waterford  in  1588,  emigrated  with  his  parents  to  Spain 
in  early  youth,  and  from  Spain  passed  to  Portugal,  to 
study  at  the  Irish  College  in  Lisbon.  While  still  a 
student,  he  entered  the  order  of  Cordeliers,  or  Friars 
Minim,  in  1604,  taking  the  name  Michael  Angelo  of 
St.  Romulus,  and  his  early  reputation  for  learning  soon 
obtained  for  him  a professorship  of  theology  at  Sala- 
manca. Philip  III.  of  Spain  was  anxious  to  procure 
the  formal  definition  of  the  Immaculate  Conception 
B.  V.  M.,  which  had  been  left  open  by  the  council  of 
Trent,  and  sent  Diego  de  Torres,  bishop  of  Cartagena, 
as  ambassador  to  the  pope  for  that  purpose.  Torres, 
being  himself  a Cordelier,  made  choice  of  Wadding  to 
accompany  him  on  his  embassy.  He  made  Rome  his 
headquarters  for  the  remainder  of  his  life,  dying  there 
as  principal  of  the  Irish  College  of  St  Isidore  in  1657. 

WAFERS,  as  articles  of  stationery,  consist  of  thin, 
brittle,  adhesive  disks,  used  for  securing  papers  together, 
and  for  forming  a basis  for  impressed  official  seals. 
Wafers  are  made  of  a thin  paste  of  very  fine  flour, 
baked  between  “ wafer  irons  ” over  a charcoal  fire  till 
the  thin  stratum  of  paste  becomes  dry  and  brittle,  and 
the  flour  starch  is  partly  transformed  into  glutinous 
adhesive  dextrin.  The  cake  is  cut  into  round  disks 
with  suitable  steel  punches.  Wafers  of  gelatin  are  also 
made. 

WAFERS,  in  relation  to  the  Roman  Catholic  usage 
of  the  Eucharistic  communion  is  the  name  given  (chiefly 
by  non-Catholics)  to  the  thin  circular  portions  of  un- 
leavened bread  which  are  used  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  in  the  celebration  and  administration  of  the 
Eucharist.  In  ancient  times,  the  bread  and  wine  for  the 
Eafc&arist  were  contributed  by  the  faithful  and  a place 


is  found  in  every  Eucharistic  service  of  every  known 
liturgy  for  this  offering  still  known  by  the  name  ol 
Offertory.  But  in  the  Latin  church  for  many  cent- 
uries the  bread,  which  as  being  unleavened  and  differ- 
ent from  that  in  common  use  needed  special  prepartioi^ 
has  been  provided  by  the  clergy,  and  the  practice  has 
been  followed  of  preparing  it  in  the  form  of  thin  cakes 
commonly  although  not  necessarily  circular,  and  fre- 
quently impressed  with  representations  of  sacred  em 
blems,  as  the  Crucifixion,  the  Lamb,  the  Christian 
monogram,  the  Crest,  and  other  sacred  symbols.  The 
circular  form  itself  is  by  some  ritualistic  writers  regarded 
as  symbolical,  the  circle  being  a figure  of  perfection. 
The  wafers  used  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church  are 
made  of  different  sizes,  the  smallest  about  an  inch  in 
diameter  for  communion  of  the  people,  a second  con- 
siderably larger  for  the  celebration  of  the  mass,  and  a 
third  still  larger  to  be  placed  in  the  Monstrance 
for  the  service  of  benediction  or  exposition. 

WAGER.  The  .law  of  wagers  may  be  divided  for 
purposes  of  convenience  into  two  great  classes,  dealing 
respectively  with  procedure  and  with  substantive  law. 
In  both  classes  the  legal  importance  of  the  wager  has 
tended  to  diminish.  Determination  of  cases,  civil  and 
criminal,  by  means  of  wager  or  analogous  forms  of  pro- 
cedure, is  a characteristic  feature  of  archaic  law.  The 
legis  actio  sacramenti  at  Rome — at  first  a real,  then  a 
fictitious  wager — the  wager  of  battle  and  of  law  in  Eng- 
land, of  the  highest  antiquity  in  their  origin,  survived 
up  to  a comparatively  late  period  in  the  history  of  both 
legal  systems.  Wager  of  battle  in  England  was  a mode 
of  trial  which  was  allowed  in  certain  cases,  viz.,  on  a 
writ  of  right  (see  Writ),  and  on  appeals  of  treason 
and  felony  (see  Appeal).  Wager  of  law  ( vadiatio  legis) 
was  a right  of  a defendant  in  actions  of  simple  contract 
debt  and  of  detinue.  It  superseded  the  ordeal  (itself 
called  lex  in  the  Assize  of  Clarendon  and  other  ancient 
constitutional  records).  In  the  wager  of  law  the  de- 
fendant, with  eleven  compurgators,  appeared  in  court, 
and  he  swore  that  he  did  not  owe  the  debt  or  (in  detinue) 
that  he  did  not  detain  the  plaintiff’s  chattel;  while  the 
compurgators  swore  that  they  believed  that  he  spoke 
the  truth.  It  was  an  eminently  unsatisfactory  way  of 
arriving  at  the  merits  of  a claim,  and  it  is  therefore  not 
surprising  to  find  that  the  policy  of  the  law  was  in  favor 
of  its  restriction  rather  than  of  its  extension.  Thus  it 
was  not  permitted  where  the  defendant  wa  s not  a person  of 
good  character,  where  the  king  sued,  where  the  defend- 
ant was  the  executor  or  administrator  of  the  person  al- 
leged to  have  owed  the  debt,  or  in  any  actions  other 
than  those  named,  even  though  the  cause  of  action 
were  the  same.  No  wager  of  law  was  allowed  in 
assumpsit , even  though  the  cause  of  action  were  a 
simple  debt.  This  led  to  the  general  adoption  of  as- 
sumpsit— proceeding  originally  upon  a fictitious  aver- 
ment of  a promise  by  the  defendant — as  a means  of  re- 
covering debts.  Another  form  of  the  judicial  wager  in 
use  up  to  1845  was  the  feigned  issue  by  which  questions 
arising  in  the  course  of  chancery  proceedings  were  sent 
for  trial  by  jury  in  a common  law  court.  The  plaint- 
iff averred  the  laying  of  a wager  with  the  defendant 
that  a certain  event  was  as  he  alleged;  the  defendant 
admitted  the  wager  but  disputed  the  allegation;  on  this 
issue  was  joined.  8 and  9 Viet.  c.  109  enabled  such 
questions  to  be  referred  by  the  chancery  to  the  common 
law  courts  in  a direct  manner. 

A wager  may  be  defined  as  a “ promise  to  pay  money 
or  transfer  property  upon  the  determination  or  ascer- 
tainment of  an  uncertain  event.”  At  common  law 
wagers  were  legally  enforceable,  subject  to  certain  rules 
dictated  by  considerations  of  public  policy,  e.g.,  that 
they  did  not  lead  to  immorality  or  breach  of  the  peace. 


WAG 


623; 


or  expose  a third  person  to  ridicule.  Parliament  gradu- 
ally intervened  to  confine  the  common  law  within 
narrower  limits,  both  in  commercial  and  non-com- 
mercial wagers,  and  both  by  general  and  temporary 
enactments. 

The  mere  making  of  a wager  is  not  now  illegal,  as  it 
was  under  the  earlier  statutes  ; it  is  simply  unenforcea- 
ble. The  winner  has  no  legal  remedy  against  the  loser 
or  the  stakeholder.  The  loser  can  recover  his  stake 
where  it  still  remains  in  the  stakeholder’s  hands  or  has 
been  paid  over  to  the  winner  after  notice  from  the  loser 
to  the  stakeholder  not  to  pay  it  over.  He  cannot  re- 
cover where  it  has  been  paid  over  to  the  winner  with- 
out notice.  The  agent  in  a wagering  contract  may 
have  legal  rights  against  his  principal,  though  the  prin- 
cipal has  none  against  the  other  party.  Though  wagers 
themselves  are  now  void  and  not  illegal,  securities  for 
wagers  are  still  either  illegal  (as  a bet  on  the  result  of 
a game)  or  void  (as  a bet  on  the  result  of  something 
other  than  a game,  such  as  a contested  election).  This 
difference  is  important  as  affecting  the  question  of  bur- 
den of  proof  in  actions  on  securities  originally  given  for 
wagering  purposes.  Where  the  consideration  is  illegal, 
the  plaintiff  must  show  affirmatively  that  he  gave  value, 
but  the  mere  absence  of  consideration  throws  on  him 
no  such  duty.  In  commercial  matters  the  most  im- 
portant examples  are  wagering  policies  of  insurance, 
that  is,  policies  made  by  persons  having  no  insurable 
interest,  and  made  void  by  statute. 

In  the  United  States  the  loser  may,  by  the  legislation 
of  some  States,  recover  his  money  if  he  sue  within  a 
limited  time. 

WAGES.  Wages,  although  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon and  familiar  terms  in  economic  science,  is  at  the 
same  time  one  of  the  most  difficult  to  define  accurately. 
The  natural  definition  is  that  wages  is  the  “ reward  for 
labor,”  but  then  we  are  at  once  confronted  with  the 
difficulty  so  well  stated  by  Adam  Smith : “ The  greater 

part  of  people  understand  better  what  is  meant  by  a 
quantity  of  a particular  commodity  than  by  a quantity 
of  labor ; the  one  is  a plain,  palpable  object,  the  other 
an  abstract  notion,  which,  though  it  can  be  made  suffi- 
ciently intelligible,  is  not  altogether  so  natural  and 
obvious.”  It  is,  however,  only  when  we  refer  to  the 
list  of  “ occupations  ” in  any  civilized  country  that  we 
can  really  form  an  adequate  idea  of  the  variety  of  classes 
to  which  the  term  labor,  as  defined  by  Mill,  may  be  ex- 
tended. Accordingly  it  seems  natural  to  adopt  as  the 
preliminary  definition  of  “ wages  ” something  equivalent 
to  that  of  Prof.  Walker  in  his  work  on  the  Wages 
Question  (the  best  book  on  the  subject  as  a whole),  viz., 
“ the  reward  of  those  who  are  employed  in  production 
with  a view  to  the  profit  of  their  employers  and  are  paid 
at  stipulated  rates.  ” It  may  be  observed  that  by  ex- 
tending the  meaning  of  production,  as  is  now  done 
by  most  economists,  to  include  all  kinds  of  labor,  and 
by  substituting  benefit  for  profit,  this  definition  will  in- 
clude all  grades  of  wages.  Having  thus  limited  the 
class  of  those  who  earn  “ wages,”  the  next  point  is  to 
consider  the  way  in  which  the  wages  ought  to  be 
measured.  The  most  obvious  method  is  to  tal^e  as  the 
rate  of  time-wages  the  amount  of  money  earned  in  a cer- 
tain time , and  as  the  rate  of  task-wages  the  amount  of 
money  obtained  for  a given  amount  of  work  of  a given 
quality;  and  in  many  inquiries  this  rough  mode  of 
measurement  is  sufficient. 

Variations  in  the  purchasing  power  of  money  maybe 
due  in  the  first  place  to  causes  affecting  the  general  level 
of  prices  in  a country.  Such,  for  instance,  is  a debase- 
ment of  the  coinage.  Professor  Thorold  Rogers  has 
ascribed  much  of  the  degradation  of  labor  which  ensued 
to  this  fact;  and  Lord  Macaulay  has  given  a graphic 

391 


account  of  the  evils  suffered  by  the  laboring  classes  prior 
to  the  recoinage  of  1696.  The  issues  of  inconvertible 
paper  notes  in  excess  of  the  national  requirements  have 
frequently  caused  a disturbance  of  real  wages,  and  it  is 
certain  that  in  this  case  wages  as  a rule  do  not  rise  so 
quickly  as  commodities.  A general  rise  m prices  duetto 
great  discoveries  of  the  precious  metals  would,  if  nomi- 
nal wages  remained  the  same,  of  course  cause  a fall  in 
real  wages.  There  are,  however,  good  grounds  for 
supposing  that  the  stimulus  given  to  trade  in  this  case 
would  raise  wages  at  least  in  proportion.  Similarly  it  is 
possible  that  a general  fall  in  prices,  owing  to  a relative 
scarcity  of  the  precious  metals,  may  lower  the  prices  of 
commodities  before  it  lowers  thepriceof  labor,  in  which 
case  there  is  a rise  in  real  wages.  In  the  controversy  as 
to  the  possible  advantages  of  bimetallism  this  is  one  of 
the  points  most  frequently  discussed. 

In  a systematic  treatment  of  the  wages  question  it 
would  be  natural  to  examine  next  the  causes  which 
determine  the  general  rate  of  wages  in  any  country  at 
any  time.  This  is  a problem  to  which  economists  have 
given  much  attention,  and  is  one  of  great  complexity. 
But,  however  difficult  it  may  be  to  obtain  an  accurate 
measure  of  the  general  rate  of  wages  for  practical  pur- 
poses, there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  value  and  neces- 
sity of  the  conception  in  the  theory  of  political  economy. 
For,  as  soon  as  it  is  assumed  that  industrial  competition 
is  the  principal  economic  force  in  the  distribution  of  the 
wealth  of  a community,  and  this  is  in  reality  the  funda- 
mental assumption  of  modern  economic  science,  a 
distinction  must  be  drawn  between  the  most  general 
causes  which  affect  all  wages,  and  the  particular  causes 
which  lead  to  differences  of  wages  in  different  employ- 
ments. In  other  words,  the  actual  rate  of  wages 
obtained  in  any  particular  occupation  depends  partly  on 
causes  affecting  that  group  compared  with  others,  and 
partly  on  the  general  conditions  which  determine  the 
relations  between  labor,  capital,  and  production  over 
the  whole  area  in  which  the  industrial  competition  is 
effective.  Thus  the  theory  of  the  wages  question 
consists  of  two  parts,  or  gives  the  answers  to  two 
questions: — (1)  What  are  the  causes  which  determine 
tne  general  rate  of  wages  ? (2)  Why  are  wages  in  some 

occupations  and  at  some  times  and  places  above  or 
below  this  general  rate  ? 

With  regard  to  the  first  question,  Adam  Smith,  as  in 
almost  every  important  economic  theory,  gives  an 
answer  which  combines  two  views  which  were  subse- 
quently differentiated  into  antagonism.  “ The  produce 
of  labor  constitutes  the  natural  recompense  or  wages  of 
labor,”  is  the  opening  sentence  of  his  chapter  on 
wages.  But  then  he  goes  on  to  say  that  “ this  original 
state  of  things,  in  which  the  laborer  enjoyed  the  whole 
produce  of  his  own  labor,  could  not  last  beyond  the 
first  introduction  of  the  appropriation  of  land  and  the 
accumulation  of  stock.”  And  he  thus  arrives  at  the 
conclusion  that  “ the  demand  for  those  who  live  by 
wages,  it  is  evident,  cannot  increase  but  in  proportion 
to  the  increase  of  the  funds  which  are  destined  to  the 
payment  of  wages.  ” This  is  the  germ  of  the  celebrated 
wages-fund  theory  which  was  carried  to  an  extreme  by 
J.  S.  Mill  and  others.  The  wages-fund  theory  as  a 
real  attempt  to  solve  the  wages  question  may  be  re- 
solved into  three  propositions.  (1)  In  any  country  at 
any  time  there  is  a determinate  amount  of  capital 
unconditionally  destined  for  the  payment  of  labor. 
This  is  the  wages-fund.  (2)  There  is  also  a determinate 
number  of  laborers  who  must  work  independently  of 
the  rate  of  wages — that  is,  whether  the  rate  is  high  or 
low.  (3)  The  wages-fund  is  distributed  among  the 
laborers  solely  by  means  of  competition,  masters  com- 
peting with  one  another  for  labor,  and  laborers  with 


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62138 

one  another  for  work,  and  thus  the  average  rate  of 
wages  depends  on  the  proportion  between  wage-capital 
and  population.  It  follows  then,  according  to  this 
«‘fiw,  that  wages  can  only  rise  either  owing  to  an 
increase  of  capital  or  a diminution  of  population,  and 
this  accounts  for  the  exaggerated  importance  attached 
by  Mill  to  the  Malthusian  theory  of  population.  It 
’.iso  follows  from  the  theory  that  any  restraint  of  com- 
etition  in  one  direction  can  only  cause  a rise  of  wages 
y a corresponding  fall  in  another  quarter,  and  in  this 
form  it  was  the  argument  most  frequently  urged  against 
(he  action  of  trade  unions. 

As  regards  the  first  of  these  propositions — that  there 
is  always  a certain  amount  of  capital  destined  for  the 
employment  of  labor — it  is  plain  that  this  destination  is 
not  really  unconditional.  In  a modern  society  whether 
or  not  a capitalist  will  supply  capital  to  labor  depends 
on  the  rate  of  profit  expected,  and  this  again  depends 
proximately  on  the  course  of  prices.  But  the  theory 
as  stated  can  only  consider  profits  and  prices  as  acting 
in  an  indirect  roundabout  manner  upon  wages.  Nor  is 
the  second  proposition  perfectly  true,  namely,  that  there 
is  always  a certain  amount  of  laborers  who  must  work 
independently  of  the  rate  of  wages.  For  the  returns  of 
pauperism  and  other  statistics  show  that  there  is  always 
a proportion  of  “ floating  ” labor  sometimes  employed 
and  sometimes  not.  Still,  on  the  whole,  the  second 
proposition  is  a much  more  adequate  expression  of  the 
truth  than  the  first;  for  labor  cannot  afford  to  lie  idle  or 
to  emigrate  so  easily  as  capital. 

The  third  proposition,  that  the  wages-fund  is  distributed 
solely  by  competition,  is  also  found  to  conflict  with  facts. 
Competition  may  be  held  to  imply  in  its  positive  mean- 
ing that  every  individual  strives  to  attain  his  own  eco- 
nomic interest  regardless  of  the  interest  of  others.  In 
some  cases  this  end  may  be  attained  most  effectively 
by  means  of  combination,  as,  for  example,  when  a 
number  of  people  combine  to  create  a practical 
monopoly.  Again,  the  end  may  be  attained  by  leaving 
the  control  to  government,  or  by  obeying  the  unwritten 
rules  of  long-established  custom.  But  these  methods  of 
satisfying  the  economic  instinct  are  opposed  to  compe- 
ition  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  term,  and  certainly  as 
used  in  reference  to  labor.  Thus,  on  the  negative  side 
competition  implies  that  the  economic  interests  of  the 
persons  concerned  are  attained  neither  by  combination, 
nor  by  law,  nor  by  custom.  The  most  important 
omission  of  the  wages-fund  theory  is  that  it  fails  to  take 
account  of  the  quantity  produced  and  of  the  price 
obtained  for  the  product.  If  we  bring  in  these  ele- 
ments, we  find  that  there  are  several  other  causes  to  be 
considered  besides  capital,  population,  and  competition. 
There  are,  for  example,  the  various  factors  in  the 
efficiency  of  labor  and  capital,  in  the  organization  of 
industry,  and  in  the  general  condition  of  trade. 

An  industrial  society  may  be  regarded,  in  the  first 
place,  as  a great  productive  machine  turning  out  a vast 
variety  of  products  for  the  consumption  of  the  members 
of  the  society.  The  distribution  of  these  products,  so 
far  as  it  is  not  modified  by  other  social  and  moral  con- 
ditions, depends  upon  the  principle  of  “ reciprocal 
demand.”  In  a preliminary  rough  classification  we  may 
make  three  groups — the  owners  of  land  and  natural 
products,  the  owners  of  capital  or  reserved  products  and 
instruments,  and  the  owners  of  labor.  To  obtain  the 
produce  requisite  even  for  the  necessary  wants  of  the 
community  a combination  of  these  three  groups  must 
take  place,  and  the  relative  reward  obtained  by  each 
will  vary  in  general  according  to  the  demands  of  the 
others  for  its  services.  Thus,  if  capital,  both  fixed  and 
circulating,  is  scanty,  while  labor  and  land  are  both 
abundant,  the  reward  of  capital  will  be  high  relatively 


to  rent  and  wages.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  the  high 
rate  of  profits  obtained  in  early  societies.  According 
to  this  view  of  the  question  the  aggregate  amount  paid 
in  wages  depends  partly  on  the  general  productiveness 
of  all  the  productive  agents  and  partly  on  the  relative 
power  of  the  laborers  as  compared  with  the  owners  of 
land  and  capital.  Under  a system  of  perfect  industrial 
competition  the  general  rate  of  wages  would  be  so  ad- 
justed that  the  demand  for  labor  would  be  just  equal  to 
the  supply  at  that  rate.  If  all  labor  and  capital  were 
perfectly  uniform  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  carry  the 
analysis  further,  but  as  a matter  of  fact,  instead  of  two 
great  groups  of  laborers  and  capitalists,  we  have  a multi- 
tude of  subdivisions  all  under  the  influence  of  reciprocal 
demand.  Every  sub-group  tries  to  obtain  as  much  as 
possible  of  the  general  product,  which  is  practically 
always  measured  in  money.  The  determination  of 
relative  wages  depends  on  the  constitution  of  these 
groups  and  their  relation  to  one  another.  Under  any 
given  social  conditions  there  must  be  differences  of 
wages  in  different  employments,  which  may  be  regarded 
as  permanent  until  some  change  occurs  in  the  condi- 
tions; in  other  words,  certain  differences  of  wages  are 
stable  or  normal,  while  others  depend  simply  on  tem- 
porary fluctuations  in  demand  and  supply.  First  of  all, 
a broad  distinction  must  be  drawn  between  the  natural 
and  artificial  causes  of  difference,  or,  in  Adam  Smith’s 
phraseology,  between  those  due  to  the  nature  of  the 
employments  and  those  due  to  the  policy  of  Europe. 

In  addition  to  these  so-called  natural  causes  of  differ- 
ence, are  those  arising  from  law,  custom,  or  other  so- 
called  artificial  causes.  They  may  be  classified  under 
four  headings.  (1)  Certain  causes  artificially  restrain 
industrial  competition  by  limiting  the  number  of  any 
particular  group.  Up  to  the  close  of  last  century,  and 
in  many  instances  to  a much  later  date,  the  regulations  of 
guilds  and  corporations  limited  the  numbers  in  each  trade. 
(2)  In  some  employments,  however,  law  and  custom  tend 
unduly  to  increase  the  amount  of  competition.  This  is 
to  a great  extent  the  case  in  the  church  and  the  scholastic 
professions  owing  to  the  large  amount  of  charitable 
education.  In  the  same  way  state-aided  education  of  a 
commercial  and  technical  kind  may  result  in  lowering 
the  rates  (relatively)  of  the  educated  business  classes. 
It  is  said  that  one  reason  why  the  Germans  replace 
Englishmen  in  many  branches  is  that,  having  obtained 
their  education  at  a low  rate,  there  are  more  of  them 
qualified,  and  consequently  they  accept  lower  wages. 
The  customary  idea  that  the  position  of  a clerk  is  more 
genteel  than  that  of  an  artisan  accounts  largely  for  the 
excessive  competition  in  the  former  class,  especially  now 
that  education  is  practically  universal.  (3)  In  some  cases 
law  and  custom  may  impede  or  promote  the  circulation 
of  labor.  Differences  in  wages  in  different  parts  of  the 
same  country  and  in  different  occupations  are  still  largely 
due  to  impediments  in  the  way  of  the  movement  of 
labor,  which  might  be  removed  or  lessened  by  the  gov- 
ernment making  provisions  for  migration  or  emigration. 
(4)  On  many  occasions  in  the  past  the  law  often  directly 
interfered  to  regulate  wages.  The  Statute  of  Laborers, 
passed  immediately  after  the  Black  Death,  was  an  at- 
tempt in  this  direction,  but  it  appears  to  have  failed. 

But,  although  the  direct  intervention  of  the  state, 
with  the  view  of  raising  the  nominal  rates  of  wages,  is, 
according  to  theory  and  experience,  worse  than  useless, 
still,  when  we  consider  real  wages  in  the  evident  sense 
of  the  term,  there  seems  to  be  an  almost  indefinite 'scope 
for  state  interference.  The  analysis  previously  given  of 
real  wages  shows  that  logically  all  these  improvements  in 
the  conditions  of  labor,  by  diminishing  the  “ quantity  of 
labor”  involved  in  work,  are  equivalent  to  a real  rise  in 
wages.  Experience  has  also  shown  that  the  state  may 


WAG 


advantageously  interfere  in  regulating  the  methods  of 
paying  wages. 

The  power  of  trade  unions  in  regulating  wages  is  in 
most  respects  analogous  in  principle  to  that  of  legisla- 
tion just  noticed.  Nominal  wages  can  only  be  affected 
within  comparatively  narrow  limits,  depending  on  the 
condition  of  trade  and  the  state  of  prices,  while  in  many 
cases  a rise  in  the  rate  in  some  trades  or  places  can  only 
be  accomplished  by  a corresponding  depression  else- 
where. At  .the  same  time,  however,  it  can  hardly  be 
questioned  that  through  the  unions  nominal  wages  have 
on  the  whole  risen  at  the  expense  of  profits — that  is  to 
say,  that  combinations  of  laborers  can  make  better  bar- 
gains than  individuals.  The  unions  can,  moreover,  look 
after  the  interests  of  their  members  in  many  ways 
which  improve  their  general  condition  or  raise  the  real 
rate  of  wages,  and  when  nominal  wages  have  attained  a 
natural  maximum,  and  some  method  of  arbitration  or 
sliding-scale  is  in  force,  this  indirect  action  seems  the 
principal  function  of  trade  unions.  Machinery  affects 
the  condition  of  the  working-classes  in  many  ways. 
The  most  obvious  mode  is  the  direct  substitution  of 
machinery  for  labor.  It  is  clear  that  any  sudden  and 
extensive  adoption  of  labor-saving  machinery  may,  by 
throwing  the  laborers  out  of  employment,  lower  the  rate 
of  wages,  and  it  is  easy  to  understand  how  riots  arose 
repeatedly  owing  to  this  cause.  But  as  a rule  the  effect 
of  labor-saving  machinery  in  diminishing  employment 
has  been  greatly  exaggerated,  because  two  important 
radical  considerations  have  been  overlooked.  In  the 
rst  place,  any  radical  change  made  in  the  methods  of 
production  will  be  only  gradually  and  continuously 
adopted  throughout  the  industrial  world ; and  in  the 
second  place  these  radical  changes,  these  discontinuous 
leaps,  tend  to  give  place  to  advances  by  small  incre- 
ments of  invention. 

It  is  clear  on  taking  a balance  that  the  great  increase 
in  population  in  this  century  has  been  largely  caused,  or 
rather  rendered  possible,  by  the  increased  use  of  labor- 
saving  machinery.  The  way  in  which  the  working 
classes  were  at  first  injured  by  the  adoption  of  ma- 
chinery was  not  so  much  by  a diminution  in  the  number 
of  hands  required  as  by  a change  in  the  nature  of  the 
employment.  Skilled  labor  of  a certain  kind  lost  its 
peculiar  value,  and  children  and  women  were  able 
to  do  work  formerly  only  done  by  men.  But  the  prin- 
cipal evils  resulted  from  the  wretched  conditions  under 
which,  before  the  factory  legislation,  the  work  was  per- 
formed; and  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  a de- 
terioration of  the  type  of  laborer,  both  moral  and  physic- 
al, was  effected.  It  is,  however,  a mistake  to  suppose 
that  on  the  whole  the  use  of  machinery  tends  to  dis- 
pense with  skill.  On  the  contrary,  everything  goes  to 
prove  that  under  the  present  system  of  production  on  a 
large  scale  there  is  on  the  whole  far  more  skill  required 
than  formerly.  Taking  the  most  general  view  of  the 
mbject,  the  more  there  is  produced  or  acquired  in 
exchange  from  other  countries,  so  much  more  is  there 
to  consume.  But  this  very  improvement  in  the  produc- 
tion and  acquisition  of  wealth  facilitates  the  creation  of 
flew  capital,  and  increases  the  rate  of  accumulation, 
and  thus  there  is  a greater  intensity  in  the  demand  of 
capital  for  labor,  and  the  rate  of  profits  falls  while  the 
rate  of  wages  rises. 

WAGNER,  Rudolph,  anatomist  and  physiologist, 
was  born  in  June,  1805,  at  Baireuth,  where  his  father 
was  a professor  in  the  gymnasium.  He  began  the 
study  of  medicine  at  Erlangen  in  1820,  and  finished  his 
curriculum  in  1826  et  Wurzburg,  where  he  had  attached 
himself  mostly  to  Schonlein  in  medicine  and  to  Heusin- 
ger  in  comparative  anatomy.  Aided  by  a public  sti- 
pendium,  he  spent  a year  or  more  studying  in  the  Jar- 


6235 

din  des  Plantes,  under  the  friendly  eye  of  Cuvier,  and 
in  making  zoological  discoveries  at  Cagliari  and  other 
places  on  the  Mediterranean.  On  his  return  he  set  up 
111  medical  practice  at  Augsburg,  whither  his  father 
had  been  transferred;  but  in  a few  months  he  found  an 
opening  for  an  academical  career,  on  being  appointed 
prosector  at  Erlangen,  In  1832  he  became  full  profess- 
or of  zoology  and  comparative  anatomy  there,  and  held 
that  office  until  1840,  when  he  was  called  to  succeed 
Blumenbach  at  Gottingen.  At  the  Hanoverian  uni- 
versity he  remained  till  his  death  in  1864,  being  much 
occupied  with  administrative  work  as  pro-rector  for  a 
number  of  years,  and  for  nearly  the  whole  of  his  resi= 
dence  troubled  by  ill-health  (hereditary  phthisis).  In 
i860  he  gave  over  the  physiological  part  of  his  teaching 
to  a new  chair,  retaining  the  zoological,  with  which  his 
career  had  begun.  While  at  Frankfurt,  on  his  way  tc 
examine  the  Neanderthal  skull  at  Bonn,  he  was  struck 
with  paralysis,  and  died  at  Gottingen  a few  months  later 
(May,  1864)  in  his  fifty-ninth  year. 

WAGNER,  Wilhelm  Richard,  dramatic  com 
poser  and  reformer  of  the  musical  drama,  was  born  a; 
Leipsic  on  May  22,  1813.  In  1822  he  was  sent  to  the 
Kreuzschule  at  Dresden.  In  1828  he  was  removed  to 
the  Nicolaischule  at  Leipsic.  His  First  Symphony 
was  performed  at  the  Gewandhaus  concerts  in  1833,  and 
in  the  following  year  he  was  appointed  conductor  of  the 
opera  at  Magdeburg.  The  post  was  an  unprofitable  one; 
and  Wagner’s  life  at  this  period  was  very  unsettled. 
He  had  composed  an  opera  called  Die  Feen , adapted 
from  Gozzi’s  La  Donna  Serpente , and  another  Das 
Liebesverbot , founded  on  Shakespeare’s  Measure  for 
Measure , but  these  were  never  performed,  and  for  some 
considerable  time  the  young  composer  found  it  difficult 
to  obtain  a hearing. 

In  1836  Wagner  married,  Fraulein  Wilhelmiria 
Planer,  an  actress  at  the  theater  at  Konigsberg.  He 
had  accepted  an  engagement  there  as  conductor,  but, 
the  lessee  becoming  bankrupt,  the  scheme  was 
abandoned  in  favor  of  a better  appointment  at  Riga. 
Accepting  this,  he  remained  actively  enployed  until 
1839,  when  he  made  his  first  visit  to  Paris,  taking  with 
him  an  unfinished  opera,  for  which  he  had  himself  pre- 
pared a libretto,  upon  the  lines  of  Lord  Lytton’s  novel 
Rienzi.  The  venture  proved  a most  unfortunate  one 
Wagner  was  unsuccessful  in  all  his  attempts  to  achieve 
popularity,  and  Rienzi , destined  for  the  Grand  Op6raf 
was  relentlessly  rejected.  He  completed  it,  however 
and  in  1842  it  was  produced  at  the  court  theater  in 
Dresden,  where,  with  Madame  Schroeder  Devrient  and 
Herr  Tichatschek  in  the  principal  parts,  it  achieved  an 
immense  success,  and  undoubtedly  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  great  composer’s  lame.  Though,  in  completing 
Rienzi , Wagner  had  put  forth  all  the  strength  he  then 
possessed,  that  work  was  far  from  representing  his  pre- 
conceived ideal.  This  he  now  endeavored  to  embody 
in  Der  Fliegende  Hollander , for  which,  as  before,  he 
composed  both  the  libretto  and  the  music.  The  piece 
was  warmly  received  at  Dresden,  January  2,  1843;  but 
its  success  was  by  no  means  equal  to  that  of  Rienzi . 

Wagner  was  now  fairly  launched  upon  his  arduous 
career.  On  February  2,  1843,  he  was  formally  installed 
as  hofkapellmeister  at  the  Dresden  theater,  and  he  cele- 
brated the  event  by  at  once  beginning  the  composition 
of  a new  opera.  For  the  subject  of  this  he  selected  the 
legend  of  Tannhauser,  collecting  his  materials  from  the 
ancient"  Tannhauser- Lied,”  the  Volhsbuck,  Tieck’spoet 
ical  Erzahlung , Hoffman’s  story  of  Der  Sdngerkrieg,  and 
the  mediaeval  poem  on  Der  Wartburgkrieg.  This  last- 
named  legend  introduces  the  incidental  poem  of  “ Lohe- 
rangrin,”  and  led  to  the  study  of  Wolfram  von  Eschen- 
bach’s  Parzival  und  Titurelt  with  strange  effect  upon 


WAG 


6240 

Wagner’s  subsequent  inspirations.  But  for  the  present 
he  confined  himself  to  the  subject  in  hand;  and  on  Oc- 
tober 19,  1845,  he  produced  his  Tannhduser,  with  Mad- 
ame Schroeder  Devrient,  Fraulein  Johanna  Wagner, 
Herr  Tichatschek,  and  Herr  Mitterwurzer  in  the  prin- 
cipal parts.  Notwithstanding  this  powerful  cast,  the 
success  of  the  new  work  was  not  brilliant,  for  it  carried 
still  farther  the  principles  embodied  in  Der  Fliegende 
Hollander,  and  these  principles  were  not  yet  understood 
either  by  the  public  or  the  critics.  But  Wagner  boldly 
fought  for  them,  and  would  probably  have  gained  the 
victory  much  sooner  than  he  did  had  he  not  taken  a 
fatally  prominent  partin  the  political  agitations  of  1849, 
after  which  his  position  in  Dresden  became  untenable. 
In  fact,  after  the  flight  of  the  king,  and  the  subsequent 
suppression  of  the  riots  by  troops  sent  from  Berlin,  a 
formal  act  of  accusation  was  drawn  up  against  him,  and 
he  had  barely  time  to  escape  to  Weimar,  where  Liszt 
was  at  that  moment  engaged  in  preparing  Tannhduser 
for  performance  at  the  court  theater,  before  the  storm 
burst  upon  him  with  a violence  that  seriously  alarmed 
both  his  friends  and  himself.  Without  the  loss  of  a 
moment  Liszt  procured  a passport,  and  escorted  his 
guest  as  far  as  Eisenach.  Wagner  proceeded  in  all  haste 
to  Paris,  and  thence  to  Zurich,  where,  with  few  inter- 
ruptions, he  lived  in  strict  retirement  until  the  autumn 
of  1859.  And  it  was  during  this  period  that  most  of  his 
literary  productions — including  Oper  und  Drama , Ueber 
das  Dirigiren , Das  Judenthum  in  der  Musik,  and  other 
like  works — were  given  to  the  world.  We  have  spoken 
of  Wagner’s  incidental  study  of  the  legends  of  “ Lohe- 
rangrin  ” and  “ Parzival”  during  the  time  that  he  was 
preparing  the  libretto  of  Tannhduser.  After  the  pro- 
duction of  that  opera  he  again  recurred  to  the  subject, 
chose  Lohengrin  as  the  title  for  his  next  opera,  and 
elaborated  the  conception  with  his  usual  minute  and 
affectionate  care,  carrying  out  his  new  principles  some- 
what farther  than  he  had  hitherto  ventured  to  do. 

Lohengrin  was  produced  at  Weimar,  under  Liszt’s 
direction,  on  August  28,  1850.  It  was  a severe  trial  to 
Wagner  not  to  be  permitted  to  hear  his  own  work,  but 
he  knew  that  all  that  could  be  done  for  it  was  done,  and 
he  responded  to  Liszt’s  appeal  for  a new  creation  by 
meditating  upon  his  famous  tetralogy,  Der  ring  des  Ni- 
belungen , the  four  divisions  of  which — Das  Rhein  gold. 
Die  Walkiiro,  Siegfried,  G otter ddmmerung- — though 
each  as  long  as  an  ordinary  opera,  are  in  reality  but  parts 
of  one  colossal  whole.  At  this  time,  also,  he  first  be- 
gan to  lay  out  the  plan  of  Tristan  und  Isolde , and  to 
think  over  the  possibilities  of  Parsifal . 

It  was  during  the  period  of  his  exile  that  Wagner 
matured  his  plans  and  brought  his  style  to  its  culmi- 
nating point  of  perfection;  but  it  was  not  until  some 
considerable  time  after  his  return  that  any  of  the  works 
he  then  meditated  were  placed  upon  the  stage.  In  1855 
he  accepted  an  invitation  to  London,  where  he  conducted 
the  concerts  of  the  Philharmonic  Society  with  great 
success.  In  1857  he  completed  the  libretto  of  Tristan 
und  Isolde  at  Venice,  taking  as  the  basis  of  his  scheme 
the  Celtic  legend  modified  by  Gottfried  of  Strasburg’s 
mediaeval  treatment  of  the  subject  (see  Gottfried  and 
Romance}.  But  the  music  was  not  completed  till 
5859.  In  that  year  Wagner  visited  Paris  for  the  third 
time;  and,  after  much  negotiation,  in  which  he  was 
nobly  supported  by  the  Prince  and  Princess  Mettemich, 
Tannhduser  was  accepted  at  the  Grand  Op£ra.  Mag- 
nificent preparations  were  made  for  its  production.  It 
was  rehearsed  164  times,  14  times  with  the  full  orchestra; 
and  the  scenery,  dresses,  and  stage  accessories  generally 
were  placed  entirely  under  the  composer’s  direction. 
More  than  $40,000  was  expended  upon  the  venture; 
Mid  th*»  work  was  performed  ix  ihe  first  time  in  the 


French  language  on  March  13,  1861.  But,  for  political 
reasons,  a powerful  clique  determined  to  suppress  both 
the  piece  and  its  composer.  A scandalous  riot  was  in- 
augurated by  the  members  of  the  Parisian  J ockey  Club, 
and  so  great  was  the  disturbance  that  after  the  third 
representation  the  opera  was  withdrawn  to  reappear  no 
more.  Wagner  was  broken-hearted.  But  the  Princess 
Metternich  continued  to  befriend  him,  and,  in  1861,  he 
received,  through  her  intercession,  a pardon  for  his 
political  offenses,  with  permission  to  settle  in  any  part  of 
Germany,  except  Saxony.  Even  this  restriction  was 
removed  in  1862. 

Wagner  now  settled  for  a time  in  Vienna,  where 
Tristan  und  Isolde  was  accepted,  but  abandoned  after 
fifty-seven  rehearsals,  through  the  incompetence  of  the 
tenor,  Herr  Ander.  Lohengrin  was,  however,  pro- 
duced on  May  15,  1861,  when  Wagner  heard  it  for  the 
first  time.  In  1863  he  published  the  libretto  of  Der 
Ring  des  Nibelungen.  Der  Fliegende  Hollander  was 
performed  at  Munich  in  1864;  and  on  June  10,  1865, 
Tristan  und  Isolde  was  produced  for  the  first  time, 
with  Herr  and  Frau  Schnorr  in  the  principal  parts. 
Die  Meistersinger  von  Niirnberg,  first  sketched  in  1845, 
was  completed  in  1867,  and  first  performed  at  Munich 
under  the  direction  of  Herr  Von  Biilow,  June  21,  1868. 
The  success  of  the  opera  was  very  great. 

After  this  Wagner  resided  permanently  at  Baireuth,  in 
ahouse  named  Wahnfried,  in  the  garden  of  which  he  him- 
self built  the  tomb  in  which  his  remains  now  rest.  Mean- 
time Der  Ring  des  Nibelungen  was  rapidly  approach- 
ing completion,  and  on  August  13,  1876,  the  introduc- 
tory portion,  Das  Rheingold , was  performed  at  Bai- 
reuth for  the  first  time,  followed  on  the  14th  by  Die 
Walkiire , on  the  16th  by  Siegfried , and  on  the  17th  by 
Gotterdammerung.  The  success  of  the  work,  the  story 
of  which  is  founded  on  the  famous  Nibelungen  lied,  was 
very  great ; and  the  performance,  directed  by  Herr 
Hans  Richter,  excited  extraordinary  attention. 

Wagner’s  next,  last,  and  perhaps  greatest  work  was 
Parsifal,  based  upon  the  legend  of  the  Holy  Grail. 
The  libretto  was  complete  before  his  visit  to  London  in 
1877.  The  music  was  begun  in  the  following  year,  and 
completed  at  Palermo  January  13,  1882.  The  first  six- 
teen performances  took  place  at  Baireuth  in  July  and 
August,  1882,  under  Wagner’s  own  directing,  and  fully 
realized  the  expectations  that  had  been  formed  of  them. 
Toward  the  close  of  1882  his  health  began  to  decline 
rapidly.  He  spent  the  autumn  at  Venice,  in  the  Palazzo 
Vendramini,  on  the  Grand  canal,  and  was  well  enough 
on  Christmas  Eve  to  conduct  his  own  first  symphony 
(composed  in  1833),  at  a private  performance  given  at 
the  Liceo  Marcello.  But  late  in  the  afternoon  of 
February  13,  1883,  he  was  seized  with  a sudden  at- 
tack of  faintness,  and  on  that  evening  he  calmly  breathed 
his  last. 

WAGTAIL,  a little  bird  that  delights  us  equally  by  its 
neat  coloration,  its  slender  form,  its  nimble  actions,  and 
its  sprightly  notes.  The  Pied  Wagtail  of  authors,  it  is  the 
Motacilla  lugubris  of  modern  ornithology,  or  M.yarrelli 
of  some  writers,  and  has  for  its  very  near  ally  the  M. 
alba  of  Linnaeus,  which  has  a wide  range  in  Europe, . 
Asia,  and  Africa.  Eleven  other  more  or  less  nearly-allied 
species  are  recognized  by  Mr.  Sharpe,  who  has  labori- 
ously treated  the  complicated  synonymy  of  this  group  of 
birds.  Eight  of  these  are  natives  of  Asia,  several  of 
them  wintering  in  India,  and  one,  M.  ocularis,  even 
occasionally  reaching  the  west  coast  of  North  America, 
while  the  rest  are  confined  to  Africa.  No  colors  but 
black,  gray,  or  white  enter  into  the  plumage  of  any  of 
the  foregoing;  but  in  the  species  peculiar  to  Madagascar, 
M.  flaviventris,  as  well  as  in  that  which  it  much  resem- 
bles. the  so-called  Gray  Wagtail  of  Britain,  M.  melan < 


WAH- 

ope  (M.  boarula  or  stdpkurea  of  some  authors),  a great 
part  of  the  lower  surface  is  yellow. 

WAHABEES,  or  WahhAbIs.  See  Arabia. 

WAINE WRIGHT,  Thomas  Griffiths,  journalist 
and  subject-painter,  was  born  at  Chiswick,  England,  in 
October,  1794.  In  1819  he  entered  on  a literary  life,  and 
began  to  write  for  The  Literary  Pocket-Book , Black- 
wood's Magazine , and  The  Foreign  Quarterly  Review. 
He  is, however,  most  definitelyidentified  with  77^  London 
Magazine , to  which,  from  1820  to  1823,  he  contributed 
some  smart  but  most  flippant  art  and  other  criticisms, 
under  the  signatures  of  “James  Weathercock,”  “Mr. 
Bonmot,”  and  “ Herr  Vinkbooms.”  He  also  practiced 
as  an  artist,  designing  illustrations  to  Chamberlayne’s 
poems,  and  from  1821  to  1825  exhibiting  in  the  Royal 
Academy  figure  pictures,  including  a Romance  from 
Undine , Paris  in  the  Chamber  of  Helen,  and  the  Milk 
Maid's  Song.  He  died  of  apoplexy  about  the  year  1852, 
in  Hobart  Town  hospital,  whither  he  had  had  been 
transported  for  forgery  in  1837. 

WAITZ,  Georg,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of 
modern  German  historians,  was  born  at  Flensburg,  in 
the  duchy  of  Schleswig,  on  October  9,  1813.  On  grad- 
uating at  Berlin  in  August,  1836,  Waitz  went  to  Han- 
over to  assist  Pertz  in  the  great  national  work  of  pub- 
lishing the  Monumenta  Germanics  Historica;  and  the 
energy  and  learning  he  displayed  in  that  position  won 
him  a summons  to  tne  chair  of  history  at  Kiel  in  1842. 
The  young  professor  soon  began  to  take  an  interest  in 
politics,  and  in  1846  entered  the  provincial  diet  as 
representative  of  his  university.  His  leanings  were 
strongly  German,  so  that  he  became  somewhat  obnox- 
ious to  the  Danish  Government,  a fact  which  made  an 
invitation  in  1847  to  become  professor  of  history  at 
Gottingen  peculiarly  acceptable.  In  the  autumn  of 
1849  Waitz  began  his  lectures  at  Gottingen.  At  the 
same  time  Waitz’s  pen  was  not  idle,  and  his  industry  is 
to  be  traced  in  the  list  of  his  works  and  in  the  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  different  historical  societies  to  which  he 
belonged.  In  1875  Waitz  removed  to  Berlin  to  succeed 
Pertz  as  principal  editor  of  the  Monumenta  Germanics 
Historica.  In  spite  of  advancing  years  the  new  editor 
threw  himself  into  the  work  with  all  his  former  vigor, 
and  took  journeys  to  England,  France,  and  Italy  to 
collate  works  preserved  in  these  countries.  He  died  at 
Berlin  on  May  24,  1886. 

WAKE  (from  the  Anglo-Saxon  wacian , to  watch), 
is  the  English  equivalent  of  the  ecclesiastical  Vigil, 

(1 q.v .)  In  early  times  the  day  was  considered  as  begin- 
ning and  ending  at  sunset ; Sundays  and  holidays,  in 
consequence,  began  not  on  the  morning  but  on  the  pre- 
vious evening  (the  eve  of  the  holiday)  and  worshipers 
then  repaired  to  the  churches  for  worship.  The  follow- 
ing day  was  spent  in  amusement.  Each  church  when 
consecrated  was  dedicated  to  a saint,  and  on  the  anni- 
versary of  that  day  was  kept  the  parish  wake.  In  many 
places  was  a second  wake  on  the  birthday  of  the  saint. 
On  these  occasions  the  floor  of  the  church  was  strewn 
with  rushes  and  flowers,  and  the  altar  and  pulpit  were 
decked  with  boughs  and  leaves.  In  the  churchyard 
tents  were  erected  to  supply  cakes  and  ale  for  the  use  of 
the  crowd  on  the  morrow  which  was  kept  as  a holiday. 
The  second  part  of  the  festival  seems  to  have  made  the 
most  impression  on  the  popular  mind,  and  the  word 
wake  came  to  be  applied  to  it.  Crowds  resorted  to 
wakes  in  neighboring  parishes,  hawkers  or  merchants 
were  attracted  by  the  crowd,  and  ultimately  they  be- 
came mere  fairs  or  markets,  little  under  the  influence  of 
the  church,  and  disgraced  by  scenes  of  indulgence  and 
riot.  A statute  was  afterward  made  which  forbade  fairs 
and  markets  in  country  churchyards,  but  this  law  was  not 
strictly  enforced.  Henry  VIII.,  however,  effected  a 


-WAR  6241 

more  important  change;  he  ordered  the  day  of  dedica- 
tion be  kept  in  all  the  parishes  on  the  first  Sunday  in 
October,  and  that  festival  gradually  ceased  to  be  ob- 
served. The  Saint’s  day  festivals,  however,  were  not 
affected  and  are  still  kept  in  many  English  parishes 
under  the  name  of  “ country  wakes.  ” A lyke-wake  or 
liche  wake  is  the  watching  of  a dead  body  all  night  by 
the  friends  and  neighbors  of  the  deceased.  The  custom 
no  doubt  originated  in  superstitious  fear  either  of  pass- 
ing the  night  alone  with  a dead  body,  or  of  its  being 
interfered  with  by  evil  spirits.  It  must  at  all  times 
have  led  to  scenes  ill  suited  to  the  occasion,  and  it  now 
survives  only  among  the  lower  classes  in  Ireland. 

WAKEFIELD,  a municipal  and  parliamentary  bor- 
ough and  market-town  of  England,  in  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire,  of  which  division  it  is  the  shire-town,  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  the  Calder,  and  on  the  Lancashire 
and  Yorkshire,  Great  Northern,  and  Northeastern  rail- 
way lines,  nine  miles  south  of  Leeds  and  175  miles 
from  London.  Formerly  Wakefield  was  the  great  em- 
porium of  the  cloth  manufacture  in  Yorkshire,  but  it 
has  within  the  present  century  been  superseded  in  this 
respect  by  Leeds.  Although  its  manufacturing  impor- 
tance is  now  small  in  comparison  with  that  of  several 
other  Yorkshire  towns,  it  possesses  large  mills  for  spin- 
ning worsted  and  carpet  yarns,  cocoa  fiber,  and  China 
grass.  It  has  also  rag-crushing  mills,  chemical  works, 
soap-works,  and  iron-works;  and  there  are  a large  num- 
ber of  collieries  in  the  neighborhood.  Wakefield  is  the 
chief  agricultural  town  in  the  West  Riding,  and  has  one 
of  the  largest  corn-markets  in  the  north  of  England. 
The  population  of  the  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  (area  1,553  acres)  in  1901  was  45,854.  By 
the  Act  of  1885  the  parliamentary  borough  was  enlarged 
by  the  addition  of  the  suburb  of  Bellevue. 

WAKEFIELD,  Edward  Gibbon,  colonial  states- 
man, was  born  in  London,  March  20,  1796,  of  an 
originally  Quaker  family.  In  consequence  of  an  elope- 
ment he  was  sentenced  to  penal  servitude,  and  it  was 
thus  that  his  attention  was  turned  to  the  subject  of  the 
colonies  and  the  evils  attendant  on  the  prevailing  system 
of  government  of  the  settlements.  He  then  began  to 
write  on  these  and  cognate  subjects,  and  for  many  years 
was  a leading  authority  on  the  subjects  of  emigration 
and  colonization.  In  1833  he  published  anonymously 
England  and  America , a work  primarily  intended  to 
develop  his  own  colonial  theory,  which  is  done  in  the 
appendix  entitled  “ The  Art  of  Colonization.”  In  1836 
he  published  the  first  volume  of  an  edition  of  Adam 
Smith,  which  he  did  not  complete.  In  1837  the  New 
Zealand  Association  was  established,  and  he  became  its 
managing  director.  Scarcely,  however,  was  this  great 
undertaking  fairly  commenced  when  he  accepted  the 
post  of  private  secretary  to  Lord  Durham  on  the  latter’s 
appointment  as  special  commissioner  to  Canada.  For 
several  years  Wakefield  continued  to  direct  the  New 
Zealand  Company.  In  1846  Wakefield,  exhausted  with 
labor,  was  struck  down  by  apoplexy,  and  spent  more 
than  a year  in  complete  retirement,  writing  during  his 
gradual  recovery  his  Art  of  Colonization.  In  1853, 
after  the  grant  of  a constitution  to  New  Zealand,  he 
took  up  his  residence  in  the  colony,  and  immediately 
began  to  act  a leading  part  in  colonial  politics.  In 
1854  he  appeared  in  the  first  New  Zealand  parliament 
as  extra- official  adviser  of  the  acting  governor,  a position 
which  excited  great  jealousy,  and  as  the  mover  of  a res- 
olution demanding  the  appointment  of  a responsible 
ministry.  It  was  carried  unanimously,  but  difficulties 
prevented  its  being  made  effective  until  after  the  mover’s 
retirement  from  political  life.  In  December,  1854, 
after  a fatiguing  address  to  a public  meeting,  followed 
by  prolonged  exposure  to  a southeast  gale,  his  constitu- 


W AK  — W AL 


6242 

fc.ion  entirely  broke  dcwn.  He  spent  the  rest  of  his  life 
in  retirement,  dying  at  Wellington  on  May  16,  1862. 

WAKEFIELD,  Gilbert,  classical  scholar,  theolo- 
gian, and  politician,  was  born  at  Nottingham,  February 
22, 1756.  He  became  fellow  of  his  college  in  1776,  and 
sn  1778  was  ordained  by  the  bishop  of  Peterborough. 
He  held  curacies  for  a short  time  at  Stockport  and 
Liverpool,  but  in  1779  quitted  the  church  and  accepted 
the  post  of  classical  tutor  at  the  Nonconformist  acad- 
emy at  Warrington.  During  this  short  period  he  pub- 
lished translations  of  Matthew  and  the  first  epistle  to 
the  Thessalonians,  and  treatises  on  inspiration  and  bap- 
tism. His  most  important  production  at  this  time  was 
the  Silva  Critica , “ illustrating  the  Scriptures  by  light 
borrowed  from  the  philology  of  Greece  and  Rome.” 
His  next  important  work  was  a new  translation  of  the 
New  Testament,  retaining  as  much  of  the  language  of  the 
Authorized  Version  as  he  deemed  consistent  with  ac- 
curacy. This  soon  reached  a second  edition.  He  com- 
menced an  edition  of  Pope,  which  he  was  prevented 
from  completing  by  the  competition  of  Warton,  but  the 
notes  were  published  separately.  His  edition  of  Lucre- 
tius, a work  of  high  pretensions  and  little  solid  per- 
formance, appeared  in  1796.  After  assailing  with  equal 
acerbity  writers  so  diverse  in  their  principles  as  Wilber- 
force  and  Thomas  Paine,  he  in  January,  1798,  “em- 
ployed a few  hours”  in  drawing  up  a reply  to  Bishop 
Watson’s  Address  to  the  People  of  Great  Britain . 
These  few  hours  procured  him  two  years’  imprison- 
ment in  Dorchester  jail.  He  was  convicted  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1799,  of  having  published  a seditious  libel.  The 
sympathy  excited  for  him,  however,  led  to  a subscrip- 
tion, amounting  to  no  less  than  $25,000,  and  forming  a 
sufficient  provision  for  his  family  upon  his  death,  which 
occurred  September  9,  1801,  shortly  after  his  liberation. 

WAKEFIELD,  an  important  town  in  Wakefield 
township,  Middlesex  county,  Mass.,  is  located  on  the 
Boston  and  Maine  railroad  ten  miles  from  Boston,  with 
vhich  it  is  also  connected  by  other  mediums  of  trans- 
portation. The  town  contains  two  weekly  papers, 
three  banks,  seven  churches,  a high  school,  a public 
hall  and  other  incidents  of  growth,  but  its  chief  im- 
portance is  due  to  its  prominence  as  a manufacturing 
town.  It  contains  no  less  than  a dozen  large  and 
thoroughly  equipped  boot  and  shoe  factories  and  is  ex- 
tensively engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  reed  chairs  and 
furniture,  rattan  goods,  chair  cane,  bamboo  easels, 
novelties,  etc.  besides  these  there  are  carriage  reposi- 
tories, foundries,  shoe-tool  works,  piano  factories,  and 
foundries  for  the  construction  of  machines  for  generat- 
ing gas.  The  population  in  1900  was  returned  at  9,290. 
The  town  v,  as  formerly  known  as  South  Reading  and 
as  connected  with  Salem  by  rail. 

WAKIDI.  See  Tabari. 

WALACHIA.  See  Roumania  and  Vlachs. 

WALAFRID  STRABO  (or  Strabus,  i.e .,  “ squint- 
;yed”),  was  born  in  Germany  (808-9),  but  the  exact 
place  is  unknown.  His  taste  for  literature  early  dis- 
played itself,  and  by  the  age  of  eighteen  he  had  already 
achieved  a reputation  among  the  learned  men  of  his 
age.  He  was  educated  at  the  monastery  of  Reichenau, 
near  Constance,  where  he  had  for  his  teachers  Tatto 
and  Wettin,  to  whose  visions  he  devotes  one  of  his 
poems.  Later  on  in  life  ( c . 826-829)  he  psssed  to 
Fulda,  where  he  studied  for  some  time  under  Hrabanus 
Maurus  before  returning  to  Reichenau,  of  which  mon- 
astery he  was  made  abbot  in  838.  There  is  a story, 
based,  however,  on  no  good  evidence,  that  Walafrid 
devoted  himself  so  closely  to  letters  as  to  neglect  the 
duties  of  his  office,  owing  to  which  he  was  expelled 
from  his  house ; but,  from  his  own  verses,  it  seems  that 
he  real  cause  of  his  flight  to  Spires  was  that,  notwith- 


standing the  fact  that  he  had  been  tutor  to  Charles  the 
Bald,  he  espoused  the  side  of  his  elder  brother  Lothair 
on  the  death  of  Louis  the  Pious  in  840.  He  was,  how- 
ever, restored  to  his  monastery  in  842,  and  died  August 
16,  849,  on  an  embassy  to  his  former  pupil.  His  epi- 
taph was  written  by  Hrabanus  Maurus,  whose  elegiacs 
praise  him  for  being  the  faithful  guardian  of  his  mon- 
astery. 

WALCH,  the  name  of  a family  of  scholars. 

I.  Johann  Georg  Walch  was  born  at  Meiningen  in 
1693,  died  in  1775,  and  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Jena 
under  Olearius  and  Buddaeus.  From  1716  he  was  pro- 
fessor at  Jena  of  philosophy,  rhetoric,  and  poetry  suc- 
cessively, and  afterward  (from  1724)  of  theology.  His 
university  lectures  and  published  works  ranged  over 
the  wide  fields  of  ecclesiastical  history  in  its  various 
branches,  particularly  the  literature  and  the  contro- 
versies of  the  church,  dogmatics,  ethics,  and  pastoral 
theology. 

II.  Johann  Ernst  Immanuel  Walch,  son  of  the 
above,  born  at  Jena  in  1725,  became  professor  of  phi- 
losophy in  the  university  in  1750,  and  of  rhetoric  and 
poetry  in  1 759.  He  died  in  1 778.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  philological,  antiquarian,  and  mineralogical 
acquirements. 

III.  Christian  Wilhelm  Franz  Walch,  younger 
brother  of  J.  E.  I.  Walch,  was  born  at  Jena,  December 
25,  1726.  He  was  educated  at  Jena  under  his  father’s 
direction,  and  as  early  as  1745-1747  lectured  in  the 
university  in  branches  of  exegesis,  philosophy,  and  his- 
tory. He  then  traveled  with  his  brother  J.  E.  I. 
Walch  for  a year  through  the  Continent,  making  the 
acquaintance  of  the  learned  men  of  each  country.  On 
his  return  he  was  made  professor  of  theology  in  Jena, 
but  in  1753  he  accepted  an  invitation  to  Gottingen, 
where  he  spent  his  life  as  professor  of  theology.  His 
permanent  place  among  learned  theologians  rests  on 
his  works  on  ecclesiastical  history.  He  here  holds  the 
third  place  in  the " important  trio  Sender,  Mosheim, 
Walch.  Sender  was  much  Ins  superior  in  originality 
and  boldness,  and  Mosheim  in  clearness,  method,  and 
elegance.  But  to  his  wide,  deep,  and  accurate  learning, 
to  his  conscientious  and  impartial  examination  of  the 
facts  and  the  authorities  at  first  hand,  and  to  “ his  exact 
quotation  of  the  sources  and  works  illustrating  them 
and  careful  discussion  of  the  most  minute  details”  all 
succeeding  historians  are  deeply  indebted.  He  died  in 
1784. 

IV.  Carl  Friedrich  Walch,  brother  of  the  last 
named,  was  professor  of  jurisprudence  at  Jena,  and  the 
author  of  several  valuable  legal  works.  He  was  born 
in  1734  and  died  at  Jena  in  1799.  His  son,  Georg 
Ludwig,  born  in  1785,  was  for  a time  professor  in  the 
Kloster  gymnasium  of  Berlin  and  afterward  in  the 
university  of  Greifswald.  He  edited  valuable  editions 
of  Tacitus’  Agricola  and  Germania.  He  died  1838. 

WALCHEREN.  See  Zealand. 

WALDECK-PYRMONT,  a small  principality  in 
the  northwest  of  Germany,  is  the  eighteenth  factor  of 
the  German  empire  in  point  of  area,  and  the  twenty- 
fourth  in  point  of  population.  It  consists  of  two  sepa- 
rate portions  lying  about  thirty  miles  apart,  viz.,  the 
county  of  Waldeck,  embedded  in  Prussian  territory  be- 
tween the  provinces  of  Westphalia  and  Hesse-Nassau, 
and  the  principality  (fiirstenthum)  of  Pyrmont,  farther 
to  the  north,  between  Lippe,  Brunswick,  and  Hanover. 
The  united  area  is  433  square  miles,  or  about  half  the 
size  of  Cambridgeshire  in  England,  and  the  united  pop- 
ulation in  1901  was  57,918.  Agriculture  and  cattle 
rearing  are  the  main  resources  of  the  inhabitants  in  both 
parts  of  the  principality,  but  the  soil  is  nowhere  very 
fertile.  Rye  is  the  principal  crop;  but  oats,  potatoes, 


W A L 


and  flax  are  also  grown  in  considerable  quantities. 
Iron,  slate,  and  building-stone  are  worked  at  various 
points,  and,  along  with  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  pigs, 
wool,  and  timber,  form  the  chief  exports.  Trade  and 
manufactures  are  much  retarded  by  the  almost  com- 
plete isolation  of  the  country  from  railways. 

The  capital  and  the  residence  of  the  prince  is  Arolsen 
(2,442  inhabitants)  in  Waldeck;  twelve  smaller  “ towns” 
and  about  100  villages  are  also  situated  in  the  county. 
The  only  town  in  Pyrmont  is  Bad  Pyrmont,  with  about 
1,500  inhabitants,  at  one  time  a highly  fashionable 
watering-place  on  account  of  its  chalybeate  and  saline 
springs.  VVildungen  is  also  a spa  of  some  repute.  The 
inhabitants  to  the  north  of  the  Eder  are  of  Saxon  stock; 
to  the  south  of  Franconium — a difference  which  is  dis- 
tinctly marked  in  dialect,  costumes,  and  manners. 
Nearly  all  are  Protestants.  In  1902  the  population 
was  58,204. 

WALDENBURG,  an  active  industrial  town  in 
Prussian  Silesia,  is  situated  on  the  Polsnitz,  thirty-nine 
miles  southwest  of  Breslau.  Among  the  chief  indus- 
trial establishments  are  a large  porcelain  and  stoneware 
factory,  extensive  fire-clay  works,  glass  works,  and  a 
china-painting  establishment ; and  there  are  numerous 
flax  spinneries  and  linen  factories  in  the  neighborhood. 
The  town,  which  received  municipal  rights  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  had  a population  of  14,999  in  1901. 
There  are  villages  of  the  same  name  in  Saxony  and 
Wiirtemberg. 

WALDENSES,  The,  a name  given  to  the  members 
of  an  heretical  sect  which  arose  in  the  south  of  France 
about  1170.  The  history  of  the  sects  of  the  Middle 
Ages  is  obscure,  because  the  earliest  accounts  of  them 
come  from  those  who  were  concerned  in  their  suppres- 
sion, and  were  therefore  eager  to  lay  upon  each  of 
them  the  worst  enormities  which  could  be  attributed  to 
any.  In  later  times  the  apologists  of  each  sect  reversed 
the  process,  and  cleared  that  in  which  they  were  inter- 
ested at  the  expense  of  others.  So  far  as  can  be  dis- 
covered the  heretical  sects  of  the  Middle  Ages  rested 
upon  a system  of  Manicfiseism  which  was  imported 
into  Europe  from  the  East  (see  Manich^ism).  Its 
presence  in  Europe  can  first  be  traced  in  Bulgaria  soon 
after  its  conversion  in  862,  where  the  struggle  between 
the  Eastern  and  Western  churches  for  the  new  con- 
verts opened  a way  for  the  more  hardy  speculations  of 
a system  which  had  never  entirely  disappeared,  and 
found  a home  among  the  Paulicians  in  Armenia.  The 
name  of  Cathari,  taken  by  the  adherents  of  this  new 
teaching,  sufficiently  shows  the  Oriental  origin  of  their 
opinions,  which  spread  from  Bulgaria  among  the 
Slavs,  and  followed  the  routes  of  commerce  into  cen- 
tral Europe.  The  earliest  record  of  their  presence  there 
is  the  condemnation  of  ten  canons  of  Orleans  as  Mani- 
cheesin  1022,  and  soon  after  this  we  find  complaints  of  the 
prevalence  of  heresy  in  northern  Italy  and  in  Germany. 

The  system  of  Catharism  recognized  two  classes  of 
adherents,  credentes  and  perfecti.  The  perfecti  only 
were  admitted  to  its  esoteric  doctrines  and  to  its  super- 
stitious practices.  To  the  ordinary  men  it  seemed  to 
be  a reforming  agency,  insisting  on  a high  moral 
standard,  and  upholding  the  words  of  Scripture  against 
the  traditions  of  an  overgrown  and  worldly  church. 
Its  popular  aim  and  its  rationalistic  method  made  men 
overlook  its  real  contents,  which  were  not  put  clearly 
before  them.  It  may  be  said  generally  that  Catharism 
formed  the  abiding  background  of  mediaeval  heresy. 
Its  dualistic  system  and  its  anti-social  principles  were 
known  only  to  a few,  but  its  anti-ecclesiastical  organi- 
zation formed  a permanent  nucleus  round  which  gathered 
a great  deal  of  political  and  ecclesiastical  discontent. 
The  result  was  that  in  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 


6243 

century  there  was  a tendency  to  class  all  bodies  of 
heretics  together:  partly  their  opinions  had  coalesced; 
partly  they  were  assumed  to  be  identical. 

Most  of  these  sects  were  stamped  out  before  the 
period  of  the  Middle  Ages  came  to  a close.  The  Wal- 
denses,  under  their  more  modern  name  of  the  Vaudois, 
have  survived  to  the  present  day  in  the  valleys  of  Pied- 
mont, and  have  been  regarded  as  at  once  the  most 
ancient  and  the  most  evangelical  of  the  mediaeval  sects. 
As  regards  their  antiquity,  the  attempts  to  claim  for 
them  an  earlier  origin  than  the  end  of  the  twelfth  cent- 
ury can  no  longer  be  sustained.  They  rested  upon  the 
supposed  antiquity  of  a body  of  Waldensian  literature, 
which  modern  criticism  has  shown  to  have  been  tam- 
pered with.  This  discovery  did  away  with  the  ingenious 
attempts  to  account  for  the  name  of  Waldenses  from 
some  other  source  than  from  the  historical  founder  of 
the  sect,  Peter  Waldo  or  Valdez. 

Putting  these  views  aside  as  unsubstantial,  we  will 
consider  the  relation  of  the  Waldenses  as  they  appear  in 
actual  history  with  the  sects  which  preceded  them. 
Already  in  the  ninth  century  there  were  several  protests 
against  the  rigidity  and  want  of  spirituality  of  a purely 
sacerdotal  church.  In  1 1 10  an  apostate  monk  in  Zeeland, 
Tanchelm,  carried  their  views  still  further,  and  asserted 
that  the  sacraments  were  only  valid  through  the  merits 
and  sanctity  of  the  ministers. 

It  was  about  this  time  (1170)  that  a rich  merchant  of 
Lyons,  Peter  Waldo,  sold  his  goods  and  gave  them  to 
the  poor  : then  he  went  forth  as  a preacher  of  voluntary 
poverty.  His  followers,  the  Waldenses,  or  poor  men 
of  Lyons,  were  moved  by  a religious  feeling  which  could 
find  no  satisfaction  within  the  actual  system  of  the 
church,  as  they  saw  it  before  them.  Like  St.  Francis, 
Waldo  adopted  a life  of  poverty  that  he  might  be  free  to 
preach,  but  with  this  difference  that  the  Waldenses 
preached  the  doctrine  of  Christ  while  the  Franciscans 
preached  the  person  of  Christ;  Waldo  reformed  teaching 
while  Francis  kindled  love;  hence  the  one  awakened 
antagonisms  which  the  other  escaped.  Pope  Alexander 
III.,  who  had  approved  of  the  poverty  of  the  Walden- 
sians,  prohibited  them  from  preaching  without  the  per- 
mission of  the  bishops  (1179).  Waldo  answered  that  he 
must  obey  God  rather  than  man.  The  result  of  this 
disobedience  was  excommunication  by  Lucius  III.  in 
1184.  Some  were  readmitted  into  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  one,  Durandus  de  Osca  (1210),  attempted  to  found 
an  order  of  Pauperes  Catholici,  which  was  the  forerun- 
ner of  the  order  of  St.  Dominic.  Many  were  swept 
away  in  the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses,  [q.v.) 
Others  made  an  appeal  to  Innocent  III.,  protesting  their 
orthodoxy.  Their  appeal  was  not  successful,  for  they 
were  formally  condemned  by  the  Lateran  council  of 
I2I5* 

The  earliest  definite  account  given  of  the  Waldensian 
opinion  is  that  of  the  inquisitor  Sacconi  about  1250. 
He  divides  them  into  two  classes,  those  north  of  the 
Alps  and  those  of  Lombardy.  The  first  class  hold  (1) 
that  oaths  are  forbidden  by  the  gospel,  (2)  that  capital 
punishment  is  not  allowed  to  the  civil  power,  (3)  that 
any  layman  may  consecrate  the  sacrament  of  the  altar, 
and  (4)  that  the  Roman  Church  is  not  the  church  of 
Christ.  The  Lombard  sect  went  farther  in  (3)  and  (4), 
holding  that  no  one  in  mortal  sin  could  consecrate  the 
sacrament,  and  that  the  Roman  Church  was  the  scarlet 
woman  of  the  Apocalypse,  whose  precepts  ought  not  to 
be  obeyed,  especially  those  appointing  fast-days. 

These  opinions  were  subversive  of  the  system  of  the 
mediaeval  church,  and  were  naturally  viewed  with  great 
disfavor  by  its  officials ; but  it  cannot  fairly  be  said 
that  they  have  much  in  common  with  the  opinions  of 
the  Reformers  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  mediaeval 


W A L 


6244 

church  set  forth  Christ  as  present  in  the  orderly  com- 
munity of  the  faithful ; Protestantism  aimed  at  setting 
the  individual  in  immediate  communion  with  Christ, 
without  the  mechanical  intervention  of  the  officers  of 
the  community;  the  Waldenses  merely  set  forward  a 
new  criterion  of  the  orderly  arrangement  of  the  church 
according  to  which  each  member  was  to  sit  in  judg- 
ment on  the  works  of  the  ministers,  and  consequently 
on  the  validity  of  their  ministerial  acts.  It  was  a rude 
way  of  expressing  a desire  for  a more  spiritual  com- 
munity. As  these  opinions  became  more  pronounced 
persecution  became  more  severe,  and  the  breach  between 
the  Waldenses  and  the  church  widened.  The  Waldenses 
withdrew  altogether  from  the  ministrations  of  the  church, 
and  chose  ministers  for  themselves  whose  merits  were 
recognized  by  the  body  of  the  faithful.  Gradually  the 
separation  from  the  church  became  more  complete : the 
sacraments  were  regarded  as  merely  symbolical;  the 
priests  became  helpers  of  the  faithful ; ceremonies  dis- 
appeared; and  a new  religious  society  arose  equally 
unlike  the  mediaeval  church  and  the  Protestantism  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

The  spread  of  these  heretical  sects  led  to  resolute  at- 
tempts at  their  suppression.  The  revival  of  preaching, 
which  was  the  work  of  the  order  of  St.  Dominic,  did 
more  to  combat  heresy,  especially  where  its  persuasions 
jvere  enforced  by  law.  The  greatest  blow  struck 
igainst  heresy  was  the  transference  of  the  duty  of  in- 
quiry into  heresy  from  the  bishops  to  Dominican  in- 
quisitors. Everywhere,  and  especially  in  the  district 
round  Toulouse,  heretics  were  keenly  prosecuted,  and 
before  the  continued  zeal  of  persecution  the  Waldenses 
slowly  disappeared  from  the  chief  centers  of  population 
and  took  refuge  in  the  retired  valleys  of  the  Alps.  In 
the  more  accessible  regions  north  and  south  heresy  was 
exposed  to  a steady  process  of  persecution,  and  tended 
to  assume  shifting  forms.  Among  the  valleys  it  was 
less  easily  reached,  and  retained  its  old  organization 
and  its  old  contents.  At  times  attempts  were  made  to 
suppress  the  sect  of  the  Vaudois,  but  the  nature  of  the 
country  which  they  inhabited,  their  obscurity,  and  their 
isolation  made  the  difficulties  of  their  suppression 
greater  than  the  advantages  to  be  gained  from  it.  How- 
ever, in  1487,  Innocent  VIII.  issued  a bull  for  their  ex- 
termination, and  Alberto  de’  Capitanei,  archdeacon  of 
Cremona,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a crusade  against 
them.  Attacked  in  Dauphin^  and  Piedmont  at  the 
same  time,  the  Vaudois  were  hard  pressed;  but  luckily 
their  enemies  were  encircled  by  a fog  when  marching 
upon  their  chief  refuge  in  the  valley  of  the  Angrogne, 
and  were  repulsed  with  great  loss.  After  this  Charles 
II.,  duke  of  Piedmont,  interfered  to  save  his  territories 
from  further  confusion,  and  promised  the  Vaudois 
peace.  They  were,  however,  sorely  reduced  by  the  on- 
slaught which  had  been  made  upon  them,  and  lost  their 
ancient  spirit  of  independence. 

The  last  step  in  the  development  of  the  Waldensian 
body  was  taken  in  1530,  when  two  deputies  of  the 
Vaudois  in  Dauphine  and  Provence,  Georges  Moreland 
Pierre  Masson,  were  sent  to  confer  with  the  German 
and  Swiss  Reformers.  A letter  addressed  to  CEcolom- 
padius  gives  an  account  of  their  practices  and  beliefs  at 
that  time,  and  shows  us  a simple  and  unlettered  com- 
munity, which  was  the  survival  of  an  attempt  to  form 
an  esoteric  religious  society  within  the  mediaeval  church. 

The  result  of  this  intercourse  was  an  alliance  between 
the  Vaudois  and  the  Swiss  and  German  reformers.  A 
synod  was  held  in  1532  at  Chanforans  in  the  valley  of 
the  Angrogne,  where  a new  confession  of  faith  was 
adopted,  which  recognized  the  doctrine  of  election,  as- 
similated the  practices  of  the  Vaudois  to  those  of  the 
Swiss  congregations,  renounced  for  the  future  all  recog- 


nition of  the  Roman  communion,  and  established  then 
own  worship  no  longer  as  secret  meetings  of  a faithful 
few  but  as  public  assemblies  for  the  glory  of  God.  Thus 
the  Vaudois  ceased  to  be  relics  of  the  past,  and  became 
absorbed  in  the  general  movement  of  Protestantism. 
This  was  not,  however,  a source  of  quiet  or  security. 
In  France  and  Italy  alike  they  were  marked  out  as 
special  objects  of  persecution,  and  the  Vaudois  church 
has  many  records  of  martyrdom. 

According  to  the  latest  official  returns  the  Waldensian 
church  had,  in  1886-87,  43  churches  and  38  mission 
stations  throughout  Italy.  The  ordained  pastors  num- 
bered 37,  evangelists  6,  and  male  and  female  teachers  56, 
the  total  number  of  salaried  agents  being  124.  The 
church  had  4,005  members,  and  the  day  schools  were  at- 
tended by  2,206  scholars,  the  Sunday  schools  by  2,482. 
The  total  income,  about  three-fourths  of  it  contributions 
from  the  U nited  Kingdom  and  other  Protestant  countries 
of  northern  Europe,  amounted  to  upward  of  $50,000. 

WALDO,  Valdo,  or  Valdez,  Peter.  See  p.  6243. 

WALES.  See  England. 

WALKER,  a town  of  Northumberland,  England, 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  river  Tyne,  two  miles  east  of 
Newcastle-on-Tyne.  Along  the  banks  of  the  Tyne 
there  are  large  iron  and  chemical  works,  ship  and  boat- 
building establishments,  and  brick  and  tile  works.  The 
population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  1,200 
acres)  in  1901  was  11,527. 

WALKER,  Frederick,  subject  painter,  was  born 
in  London,  England,  on  May  24,  1840.  While  very 
young  he  began  to  draw  from  the  antique  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  at  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  placed  in  the 
office  of  an  architect.  The  occupation  proved  uncon- 
genial; at  the  end  of  eighteen  months  he  resumed  his 
work  from  the  Elgin  marbles  at  the  Museum,  attending 
art  classes;  and  in  March,  1858,  he  was  admitted  a 
student  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He  soon  turned  his 
attention  to  designing  for  the  wood-engravers,  and 
served  an  apprenticeship  of  three  years  with  J.  W. 
Whymper.  His  earliest  book-illustrations  appeared  in 
i860  in  Once  a Week , a periodical  to  which  he  contrib- 
uted largely,  as  also  to  the  Cornhill  Magazine , where 
his  admirable  designs  to  the  works  of  Thackeray  and 
those  of  his  daughter  appeared.  He  was  elected  an  asso- 
ciate of  the  Society  of  Painters  in  Water  Colors  in  1864, 
and  a full  member  in  1866;  and  in  1871  he  became  an 
associate  of  the  Royal  Academy.  His  first  oil  picture, 
the  Lost  Path , was  exhibited  in  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1863,  where  it  was  followed  in  1867  by  the  Bathers , 
one  of  the  artist’s  finest  works,  in  1868  by  the  Vagrants , 
now  in  the  National  Gallery,  in  1869  by  the  Old  Gate , 
and  in  1870  by  the  Plow , a powerful  and  impressive 
rendering  of  ruddy  evening  light,  of  which  the  landscape 
was  studied  in  Somerset.  On  June  5,  1875,  he  died  of 
consumption  at  St.  Fillan’s,  Perthshire,  Scotland. 

WALKER,  Sears  Cook,  astronomer,  was  born  at 
Wilmington,  Mass.,  on  March  28,  1805.  He  kept 
a school  at  Philadelphia  till  1845,  when  he  was 
appointed  assistant  at  the  Washington  observatory. 
Shortly  afterward  he  took  charge  of  the  astronomical 
department  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey,  where 
he  was  among  the  first  to  make  use  of  the  electric  tele- 
graph for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  difference  of 
longitude  between  two  stations,  and  he  introduced  the 
method  of  registering  transit  observations  electrically 
by  means  of  a chronograph.  He  also  investigated  the 
orbit  of  the  newly  discovered  planet  Neptune.  He 
died  at  Cincinnati  on  January  30,  1853. 

WALKER,  Rev.  George,  an  Irish  clergyman,  dis- 
tinguished for  the  part  he  took  in  the  heroic  defense  of 
Londonderry  against  the  army  of  James  II..  was  born 
in  the  county  of  Tyrone,  of  English  parents,  in  the 


W AL 


early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  Glasgow,  and,  entering  the  church, 
became  rector  of  Donoughmore.  The  early  life  of 
Walker  was  not  remarkable.  When  the  Irish  army 
entered  Ulster,  and  took  possession  of  Kilmore  and 
Coleraine,  Walker  sought  refuge  in  Londonderry,  the 
headquarters  of  “ the  Englishry  ” since  the  times  of 
James  I.,  when  the  confiscated  lands  of  the  county  had 
been  bestowed  on  the  corporation  of  the  city  of  Lon- 
don, and  a Saxon  colony,  English  and  Scotch,  had  been 
planted  there,  who  had  converted  a waste  into  the 
richest  district  of  Ireland.  The  town  was  fortified 
sufficiently  to  protect  it  from  the  pike-armed  Celtic 
peasantry,  and  it  had  resisted  more  than  one  attack. 
But  it  was  not  so  defended  as  to  oppose  regular  troops. 
Lundy,  the  governor,  was  in  secret  communication  with 
the  enemy,  and  prepared  to  hand  over  the  town  to  them; 
but  some  of  his  own  officers  protested  against  this  course, 
and  the  citizens,  remarkable  at  the  time  for  that  high 
courage  which  characterizes  a dominant  race,  and  the 
possession  of  those  qualities  which  made  the  soldiers  of 
Cromwell  famous,  determinednot  to  yield.  The  bishop, 
Ezekiel  Hopkins,  in  vain  inculcated  the  doctrine  of 
passive  obedience  at  a conference;  he  was  interrupted  by 
a lad,  one  of  a daring  band  known  as  the  “ thirteen 
Scotch  apprentices,”  who  called  out:  u A good  sermon, 
my  lord,  a very  good  sermon;  but  we  have  no  time  to 
hear  it  now.”  A Scotch  fanatic, named  Hewson,  urged 
the  Presbyterians  not  to  ally  themselves  with  the 
enemies  of  the  covenant;  but  he  was  laughed  at  by  his 
countrymen.  The  thirteen  apprentices  closed  the  city 
gates,  and  defied  the  enemy.  It  was  then  that  Walker, 
described  as  an  aged  clergyman,  who  had  taken  refuge 
in  the  city,  encouraged  the  townspeople  to  fight  to  the 
last.  Walker  saved  Lundy  from  the  rage  of  the  popu- 
lace, and  enabled  him  to  quit  the  city  in  safety.  Major 
Baker,  who  soon  after  died,  and  Walker  became  joint 
governors,  aided  by  Captain  Adam  Campbell.  The 
siege  is  the  most  memorable  in  the  British  history. 
It  began  in  April  and  lasted  till  the  end  of  July,  1689. 

The  inhabitants  were  reduced  to  the  greatest  ex- 
tremities by  hunger,  but  they  were  sustained  to  the 
last  by  the  rousing  sermons  preached  to  them  by 
Walker  in  the  cathedral,  and  the  example  he  and 
Captain  Campbell  set  in  heading  sallying  parties.  When 
the  siege  was  raised  by  the  English  fleet  entering  the 
harbor,  Walker  went  to  London.  He  was  warmly  re- 
ceived at  court,  thanked  by  the  House  of  Commons, 
created  D.  D.  by  Oxford,  and  bishop  of  Derry  by  the 
king.  Portraits  of  him  were  in  every  house  in  England, 
and  his  triumph  would  have  been  complete  had  the  Pres- 
byterians not  thought  that  their  share  in  the  defense  of 
the  city  was  overlooked  and  provoked  useless  controversy. 
Walker  could  not  be  induced  to  take  quiet  possession 
jf  his  bishopric;  he  would  head  a troop  at  the  battle  of 
the  Boyne,  and  he  was  there  killed. 

WALLACE,  Sir  William,  the  most  popular  na- 
tional hero  of  Scotland,  is  believed  to  have  been  the 
second  son  of  Sir  Malcolm  Wallace  of  Elderslie  and 
Auchinbothie,  in  Renfrewshire.  The  date  of  his  birth 
is  not  certainly  ascertained,  but  is  usually  given  as 
1270.  The  only  authority  for  the  events  of  his  early 
life  is  the  metrical  history  y[  Blind  Harry.  He  lived 
about  two  centuries  later  than  Wallace,  during  which  a 
considerable  body  of  legend  had  probably  gathered 
round*  the  name,  and  these  popular  “gestis”  he  incor- 
porates in  his  narrative.  The  treaty  of  Irvine,  by 
which  the  Scottish  nobles  agreed  to  acknowledge 
Edward  as  their  sovereign  lord,  is  printed  in  Rymer’s 
Foedera.  It  is  dated  July  9,  1297,  and  is  the  first 
public  document  i.i  which  the  name  of  Sir  William 
Wallace  occurs.  Wallace  retired  to  the  north,  and 


6245 

although  deserted  by  the  barons  was  soon  at  the  head 
of  a large  army.  The  vigor  aud  success  of  his  opera- 
tions was  such  that  in  a short  time  he  succeeded  in 
recovering  almost  all  the  fortresses  held  by  the  English 
to  the  north  of  the  Forth.  He  had  begun  the  siege  of 
Dundee  when  he  received  information  that  an  English 
army,  led  by  the  earl  of  Surrey  and  Cressingham  the 
treasurer,  was  on  its  march  northward.  Leaving  the 
citizens  of  Dundee  to  continue  the  siege  of  the  castle, 
he  made  a rapid  march  to  Stirling.  After  an  unsuc* 
cessful  attempt  to  bring  Wallace  to  terms,  the  English 
commander,  on  the  morning  of  September  11,  1297, 
began  to  cross  the  bridge  of  Stirling.  When  about 
one-half  of  his  army  had  crossed,  and  while  they  were 
still  in  disorder,  they  were  attacked  with  such  fury  by 
Wallace,  that  almost  all  were  slain,  or  driven  into  the 
river  and  drowned.  Those  on  the  south  side  of  the  river 
were  seized  with  panic  and  fled  tumultuously,  having 
first  set  fire  to  the  bridge.  The  Scots,  however, 
crossed  by  a ford,  and  continued  the  pursuit  of  the 
enemy  as  far  as  Berwick. 

The  English  were  everywhere  driven  from  Scotland. 
To  increase  the  alarm  of  the  English,  as  well  as  to  re- 
lieve the  famine  which  then  prevailed,  Wallace  organ- 
ized a great  raid  into  the  north  of  England,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  devastated  the  country  to  the  gates 
of  Newcastle.  On  his  return  he  was  elected  guardian  of 
the  kingdom.  In  this  office  he  set  himself  to  reorgan- 
ize the  army  and  to  regulate  the  affairs  of  the  country, 
His  measures  were  marked  by  much  wisdom  and  vigor, 
and  fora  short  time  succeeded  in  securing  order,  even  in 
the  face  of  the  jealousy  and  opposition  of  the  nobles. 
Edward  was  in  Flanders  when  the  news  of  this  success- 
ful revolt  reached  him.  He  hastened  home,  and  at  the 
head  of  a great  army  entered  Scotland  in  July,  1298. 
Wallace  was  obliged  to  adopt  the  only  plan  of  cam- 
paign which  could  give  any  hope  of  success.  He 
slowly  retired  before  the  English  monarch,  driving  off  all 
supplies  and  wasting  the  country.  His  plan  came  very 
near  being  successful.  Edward,  compelled  by  famine, 
had  already  given  orders  for  a retreat  when  he  received 
information  of  Wallace’s  position  and  intentions.  The 
army,  then  at  Kirkliston,  was  immediately  set  in  mo- 
tion, and  the  next  morning  (July  22,  1298),  Wallace 
was  brought  to  ba  ttle  in  the  vicinity  of  Falkirk.  After 
an  obstinate  fight  the  Scots  were  overpowered  and 
defeated  with  great  loss.  With  the  remains  of  his 
army  Wallace  found  refuge  for  the  night  in  the 
Torwood.  He  then  retreated  to  the  north,  burn- 
ing the  town  and  castle  of  Stirling  on  his  way.  He 
resigned  the  office  of  guardian  and  betook  himself 
again  to  a wandering  life  and  a desultory  and  predatory 
warfare  against  the  English.  At  this  point  his  history 
again  becomes  obscure.  He  is  known  to  have  paid  a 
visit  to  France,  with  the  purpose  of  obtaining  aid  for 
his  country  from  the  French  king.  This  visit  is  nar- 
rated  with  many  untrustworthy  details  by  Blind  Harry; 
but  the  fact  is  established  by  other  and  indisputable 
evidence.  When  in  the  winter  of  1303-4  Edward  re- 
ceived the  submission  of  the  Scottish  nobles,  Wallace 
was  expressly  excepted  from  all  terms.  And  after  the 
capture  of  Stirling  castle  and  Sir  William  Oliphant, 
and  the  submission  of  Sir  Simon  Fraser,  he  was  left 
alone,  but  resolute  as  ever  in  refusing  allegiance  to  the 
English  king.  A price  was  set  upon  his  head,  and  the 
English  governors  and  captains  in  Scotland  had  orders 
to  use  every  means  for  his  capture.  On  August  5, 
1305,  he  was  taken — as  is  generally  alleged,  through 
treachery — at  Robroyston,  near  Glasgow,  by  Sir  John 
Menteith,  carried  to  the  castle  of  Dumbarton,  and 
thence  conveyed  in  fetters  and  strongly  guarded  tc 
London.  He  reached  London  on  August  22d,  and  tb 


W A L 


6246 

next  day  was  taken  to  Westminster  Hall,  where  he  was 
impeached  as  a traitor.  To  the  accusation  Wallace 
made  the  simple  reply  that  he  could  not  be  a traitor  to 
the  king  of  England,  for  he  never  was  his  subject,  and 
never  swore  fealty  to  him.  He  was  found  guilty  and 
condemned  to  death.  The  sentence  was  executed  the 
same  day  with  circumstances  of  unusual  cruelty. 

WALLACE,  William,  mathematician,  was  born 
on  September  23,  1768,  in  Eifeshire,  Scotland.  In 
1784  his  family  removed  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  him- 
self was  set  to  learn  the  trade  of  a bookbinder;  but  his 
taste  for  mathematics  had  already  developed  itself,  and 
he  made  such  use  of  his  leisure  hours  that  before  the 
completion  of  his  apprenticeship  he  had  made  con- 
siderable acquirements  in  geometry,  algebra,  and 
astronomy.  He  became  assistant  teacher  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  academy  of  Perth  in  1794,  and  this  post  he 
exchanged  in  1803  for  a mathematical  mastership  in 
the  Royal  Military  College  at  Great  Marlow  (after- 
ward at  Sandhurst).  In  1819  he  was  chosen  to  suc- 
ceed Playfair  in  the  chair  of  mathematics  at  Edin- 
burgh, and  in  1838,  when  compelled  by  ill-health  to 
retire,  he  received  a government  pension  for  life.  He 
died  in  Edinburgh,  after  a lingering  illness,  on  April 
28,  1843. 

WALLASEY,  a town  of  Cheshire,  England.  It  is 
about  two  miles  northwest  of  Birkenhead,  of  which 
part  of  it  is  practically  a suburb.  The  population  of 
the  urban  sanitary  district  (which  includes  Liscard  and 
Poulton,  with  Seacomb,  the  total  area  being  3,408 
acres)  in  1901  was  53,580. 

WALLA  WALLA,  the  oldest  and  one  of  the  most 
substantially-built  cities  in  Washington,  and  capital  of 
Walla  Walla  county,  is  delightfully  situated  on  a river 
of  the  same  name,  which  rises  among  the  mountains  of 
the  Cascade  Range,  and,  coursing  its  way  through  the 
beautiful  Walla  Walla  valley,  finally  merges  into  the 
Columbia  river  at  Wallula.  The  surrounding  country 
is  described  as  possessed  of  unexampled  fertility  and 
almost  endless  agricultural  resources.  It  is  highly 
cultivated,  and  the  large  crops  of  cereals  and  other  pro- 
ducts annually  gathered  in  the  valley  find  their  market 
at  Walla  Walla,  whence  they  are  shipped  to  depots  of 
supply  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  city  is  also 
the  trade  center  of  northern  Idaho  and  northeastern 
Oregon,  and  the  business  derived  from  these  sources 
contributes  materially  to  augment  the  volume  of 
prosperity  yearly  exhibited.  Its  location  on  the 
Pendleton  Division  of  the  Union  Pacific  places  the  city 
in  direct  communication  with  Portland  and  Spokane 
Falls,  and  by  branches  of  the  same  and  other  railway 
systems  its  facilities  for  promptly  meeting  the  demands 
of  trade  and  travel  are  ample  and  reliable.  The  mineral 
resources  of  the  tributary  country  are  equally  rich  and 
made  up  of  iron,  coal,  lime,  marble,  etc.,  while  the 
precious  metals  are  to  be  found  in  the  formations  of  the 
Cascade  Mountains,  for  all  of  which,  it  is  said,  Walla 
Walla  is  the  natural  distributing  point.  In  other 
respects,  as  a financial,  commercial,  and  educational 
center,  the  city  is  widely  known.  It  contains  one  private 
bank,  two  national  and  two  savings  banks,  with  a total 
cash  capital  of  more  than  $500,000,  three  daily  and  two 
weekly  papers,  ten  churches,  schools,  hotels,  public 
buildings,  court-house,  stores,  etc.,  and  manufactures 
of  wire-fence,  iron,  hardware  novelties,  lumber,  sash, 
doors,  and  blinds,  leather,  flour,  cheese,  beer,  etc.,  be- 
ng  also  provided  with  gas  and  electric-light  works. 
The  population  in  1900  was  10,049. 

WALLENSTEIN  (properly  Waldstein),  Adal- 
bert Eusebius  von,  duke  of  Friedland,  Sagan,  and 
Mecklenburg,  was  born  in  Bohemia,  September  15, 
1583.  His  parents  were  Protestants.  After  the  death 


of  his  parents  he  was  sent  by  his  uncle  to  the  Jesuit 
college  at  Olmiitz,  where  he  joined  the  Roman  Catholic 
church.  In  1599  he  went  to  the  university  of  Altdorf, 
which  he  had  to  leave  in  consequence  of  some  boyish  fol- 
lies. Afterward  he  studied  at  Bologna  and  Padua.  While 
in  Padua  he  gave  much  attention  to  astrology,  and 
during  the  rest  of  his  life  he  seems  never  to  have 
wavered  in  the  conviction  that  he  might  trust  to  the 
stars  for  indications  as  to  his  destiny. 

For  some  time  Wallenstein  served  in  the  army  of  the 
emperor  Rudolph  II.  in  Hungary.  In  1606  he  re- 
turned to  Bohemia,  and  soon  afterward  he  married  a rich 
widow,  Lucretia  Nikossie  von  Landeck,  whose  lands  in 
Moravia  he  inherited  after  her  death  in  1614.  Sup- 
orting  the  archduke  P'erdinand  in  his  war  with  Venice, 
e became  favorably  known  at  court,  and  his  influence 
was  increased  by  his  marriage,  in  1616,  with  Isabella 
Katharina,  daughter  of  Count  Harrach,  a confidential 
adviser  of  the  emperor  Matthias. 

In  the  disturbances  which  broke  out  in  Bohemia  in 
1618 — disturbances  which  proved  to  be  the  beginning 
of  the  Thirty  Years’  War — advances  were  made  to 
Wallenstein  by  the  revolutionary  party;  but  he  preferred 
to  associate  himself  with  the  imperial  cause,  for  which 
he  repeatedly  fought  with  marked  success.  In  1620  he 
was  made  quartermaster-general  of  the  army  of  the 
League,  commanded  by  Tilly. 

The  battle  of  Weissenberg  placed  Bohemia  absolutely 
at  the  mercy  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand;  and  Wallen- 
stein, who  was  a man  of  insatiable  ambition,  knew  how 
to  turn  the  prevailing  confusion  to  his  own  advantage. 
His  possessions  he  was  allowed  to  form  into  a territory 
called  Friedland,  and  he  was  raised  in  1622  to  the  rank 
of  an  imperial  count  and  palsgrave,  in  1623  to  that  of  a 
prince.  In  1625  he  was  made  duke  of  Friedland.  In 
the  government  of  his  principality  he  displayed  much 
vigor  and  foresight. 

The  early  successes  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  in  the 
Thirty  Years’  War  were  due  chiefly  to  the  army  of  the 
League,  which  he  could  only  indirectly  control.  When 
he  was  threatened  with  a coalition  of  the  Protestant 
powers,  with  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  as  his  most 
active  enemy,  he  was  anxious  to  have  an  army  of  his 
own,  which  should  be  more  devoted  than  that  of  the 
League  to  the  interests  of  his  dynasty.  In  these  cir- 
cumstances Wallenstein  saw  that  he  might  have  an 
opportunity  of  playing  a great  part  in  the  events  of  the 
age;  and  accordingly,  early  in  1626,  he  offered  to  raise 
an  army  for  the  imperial  service.  After  some  negotia- 
tions the  offer  was  accepted,  the  understanding  being 
that  the  troops  were  to  be  maintained  at  the  cost  of  the 
countries  they  might  occupy.  Wallenstein  had  always 
been  a popular  commander,  and  great  numbers  of 
recruits  flocked  to  his  standard,  so  that  he  soon  found 
himself  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  30,000  men.  With 
this  force  he  marched  northward  for  the  purpose  of  co- 
operating with  Tilly  against  Christian  IV.  and  Mansfeld. 
No  engagement  was  fought  in  1625;  hut  on  April  25, 
1626,  Wallenstein  defeated  Mansfeld  at  the  bridge  of 
Dessau,  and  later  in  the  year  Christian  IV.  was  defeated 
by  Tilly  at  Lutter.  Wallenstein  pursued  Mansfeld  into 
Hungary,  where  the  Protestant  general  effected  a junc- 
tion with  Bethlen  Gabor.  Before  the  end  of  the  year 
Mansfeld  died,  and  Bethlen  Gabor  came  to  terms  with 
the  emperor.  / 

Having  established  peace  in  Hungary,  Wallenstein 
proceeded,  in  1627,  to  clear  Silesia  of  some  remnants  of 
Mansfeld’s  army;  and  at  this  time  he  bought  from  the 
emperor  the  duchy  of  Sagan,  his  outlay  in  the  conduct 
of  the  war  being  taken  into  account  in  the  conclusion  of 
the  bargain.  He  then  joined  Tilly  in  the  struggle  with 
Christian  IV.,  and  afterward  took  possession  of  tk« 


WAL 


duchy  of  Mecklenburg-  He  galled  to  capture  Stral- 
sund,  which  he  besieged  for  several  months  in  1628. 
Notwithstanding  this  check,  the  imperial  cause  pros- 
pered; and  early  in  1629  Christian  IV,  was  obliged  to 
accept  terms  of  peace.  About  the  same  time  Ferdi- 
nand issued  the  famous  edict  of  restitution,  which 
excited  deep  resentment  in  every  Protestant  State  in  the 
realm. 

Meanwhile  Wallenstein  had  made  for  himself  a host 
of  enemies  among  the  princes  of  the  empire.  They  re- 
garded him  as  an  upstart,  and  complained  of  the  inces- 
sant exactions  of  his  army.  Ferdinand  was  very  un- 
willing to  part  with  one  who  had  served  him  so  well ; 
but  the  demand  was  pressed  so  urgently  by  the  electors 
in  1630,  that  he  had  no  alternative,  and  in  September 
of  that  year  envoys  were  sent  to  Wallenstein  to  announce 
his  removal.  Wallenstein  accepted  the  emperor’s 
decision  calmly,  and  retired  to  Gitschin,  the  capital  of 
his  duchy  of  Friedland. 

Some  months  before  the  dismissal  of  Wallenstein, 
Gustavus  Adolphus  had  landed  in  Germany,  and  it  soon 
became  obvious  that  he  was  by  far  the  most  formidable  of 
the  enemies  with  whom  the  emperor  had  yet  had  to  con- 
tend. Tilly  was  defeated  at  Breitenfeld  and  in  the  bat- 
tle of  the  Lech,  where  he  received  a mortal  wound; 
and  Gustavus  advanced  to  Munich,  while  Bohemia  was 
occupied  by  his  allies  the  Saxons.  After  the  battle  of 
Breitenfeld  the  emperor  entreated  Wallenstein  to 
come  once  more  to  his  aid.  Wallenstein  at  first  de- 
clined ; he  had,  indeed,  been  secretly  negotiating  with 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  in  the  hope  that  he  might  thus  be 
able  to  maintain  his  hold  over  his  great  possessions. 
In  the  end,  however,  he  accepted  the  offers  made  to 
him  by  Ferdinand,  and  in  the  spring  of  1632  he  took  the 
field  with  an  army  of  more  than  40,000  men.  This 
army  was  placed  absolutely  under  his  control,  so  that 
he  assumed  the  . position  of  an  independent  prince 
rather  than  of  an  ordinary  subject. 

His  first  aim  was  to  drive  the  Saxons  from  Bohemia., 
—an  object  which  he  accomplished  without  serious  diffi- 
culty. Then  he  advanced  against  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
who  attacked  him  near  Nuremberg  on  September 
3d,  but  was  driven  back.  On  November  16,  1632,  a 
decisive  battle  was  fought  at  Liitzen,  in  Saxony.  In 
this  battle  the  imperialists  were  routed,  but  Gustavus 
Adolphus  was  killed. 

To  the  dismay  of  Ferdinand,  Wallenstein  made  no 
use  of  the  opportunity  provided  for  him  by  the  death  of 
the  Swedish  king,  but  withdrew  to  winter  quarters  in 
Bohemia.  In  the  campaign  of  1633  much  astonish- 
ment was  caused  by  his  apparent  unwillingness  to  at- 
tack the  enemy.  The  truth  was  that  he  was  preparing 
to  desert  the  emperor.  He  entered  into  negotiations 
with  Saxony,  Brandenburg,  Sweden,  and  France;  and 
one  of  his  conditions  was  that  the  possession  of  the  king- 
dom of  Bohemia  should  be  guaranteed  to  him.  Irritated 
by  the  distrust  excited  by  his  proposals,  and  anxious  to 
make  his  power  felt,  he  at  last  assumed  the  offensive, 
and  in  October  he  defeated  the  Swedes  at  Steinau. 
Soon  afterward  he  entered  Lusatia  and  took  Gorlitz 
and  Bautzen,  and  dispatched  a troop  of  cavalry  as  far 
as  Berlin.  He  then  resumed  the  negotiations,  and 
pressed  for  a full  and  final  acceptance  of  his  plans.  In 
December  he  retired  with  his  army  to  Bohemia,  fixing 
his  headquarters  at  Pilsen. 

It  had  soon  been  suspected  in  Vienna  that  Wallen- 
stein was  playing  a double  part,  and  the  emperor  en- 
couraged by  the  Spaniards  at  his  court,  anxiously  sought 
for  means  of  getting  rid  of  him.  Wallenstein  was  well 
aware  of  the  designs  formed  against  him,  but  displayed 
little  energy  in  his  attempts  to  thwart  them. 

His  principal  officers  assembled  around  him  at  a ban- 


6247 

quet  on  January  12,  1634,  when  he  submitted  to  them 
a declaration  to  the  effect  that  they  would  remain  true 
to  him.  This  declaration  they  signed.  On  January 
24th  the  emperor  had  signed  a secret  patent  removing 
him  from  his  command  and  requiring  the  army  to  obey 
Count  Gallas;  and  imperial  agents  had  been  laboring  to 
undermine  Wallenstein’s  influence.  Another  patent 
charging  Wallenstein  and  two  of  his  officers  with  high 
treason,  and  naming  the  generals  who  were  to  assume 
the  supreme  command  of  the  army,  was  signed  onFeb= 
ruary  18th,  and  published  in  Prague. 

When  Wallenstein  heard  of  the  publication  of  this 
patent  he  realized  the  full  extent  of  his  danger,  and  on 
February  23d,  accompanied  by  several  of  his  most  inti- 
mate friendsxand  guarded  by  about  1,000  men,  he  went 
from  Pilsen  to  Eger,  hoping  to  obtain  the  protection  of 
the  Protestant  general  Bernard  of  Weimar  After  the 
arrival  of  the  party  at  Eger,  Colonel  Gordon,  the  com- 
mandant, and  Colonels  Butler  and  Leslie  agreed  to  rid 
the  emperor  of  his  enemy.  On  the  evening  or  Feb- 
ruary 25th  Wallenstein’s  supporters,  Illo,  Kinsky. 
Terzky.  and  Neumann,  were  received  at  a banquet  by 
the  three  colonels,  and  murdered  by  several  dragoons. 
Butler,  accompanied  by  Captain  Devereux  and  a num- 
ber of  soldiers,  then  hurried  to  the  house  where  Wallen- 
stein was  staying,  and  broke  into  his  room.  He  had 
just  taken  a bath,  and  was  standing  in  his  shirt  ready  to 
go  to  bed.  He  was  instantly  killed  by  a thrust  of 
Devereux’s  partisan.  The  body  was  taken  to  the 
citadel,  and  laid  beside  those  of  his  murdered  comrades. 

WALLER,  Edmund,  enjoyed  in  the  latter  half  of 
his  long  life  a high  reputation  as  a poet,  which  has  been 
partly  fixed  by  the  compliments  of  Dryden  and  Pope. 
Waller  is  a singular  and  piquant  figure  in  the  history  of 
the  seventeenth  century;  his  relations  with  Charles  L, 
with  the  Long  Parliament,  with  Cromwell,  with  Charles 
II.,  his  position  as  a poet,  as  a courtier,  as  a privileged 
water-drinker  among  the  bibulous  Restoration  wits, 
form  a combination  that  has  no  parallel.  The  charactei 
might  be  paralleled,  but  the  run  of  incidents  is  unique- 
He  was  born  at  Coleshill,  in  Hertfordshire,  March  3, 
1605.  H1S  father  died  when  he  was  eleven  years  old, 
He  entered  parliament  at  sixteen,  and  sat  also  in  the 
first  and  in  the  third  parliament  of  Charles  I. 

When  he  first  began  to  write  verses  is  a doubtful  and 
disputed  point  Clarendon  says  that  he  began  at  an  age 
when  most  men  leave  off,  and  if  we  put  this  at  thirty, 
there  ir  no  published  or  even  probable  evidence  to  the 
contrary;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  argued  that  he 
began  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  in  1623,  this  being  the 
date  of  the  subject  of  his  first  poem — Prince  Charles’ 
escape  from  a storm  at  St.  Andero.  This  earliest  date 
must  be  increased  by  at  least  two  years,  the  whole  point 
of  the  poem  being  Charles’  marriage  with  his  queen 
Henrietta,  which  took  place  in  1625. 

In  the  struggle  between  king  and  parliament,  Waller 
tried  at  first  to  mediate,  holding  the  king’s  demands 
unconstitutional,  but  endeavoring  through  his  advisers 
to  induce  him  to  modify  them,,  He  made  such  a mark 
as  a speaker  in  the  Short  Parliament  that  at  the  opening 
of  the  Long  Parliament  he  was  chosen  by  the  Commons 
to  conduct  the  impeachment  of  Judge  Crawley  for  his 
ship-money  decision.  Thereafter,  as  the  struggle  be- 
came fiercer,  with  a view  apparently  to  prevent  parlia 
ment  from  proceeding  to  extremities,  he  engaged  in 
what  was  known  as  Waller’s  plot,  lie  behaved  with 
the  most  abject  meanness  when  arrested  by  order  ol 
Pym  on  May  31, 1643,  saved  himself  by  at  once  turning 
informer  and  making  disclosures  that  were  at  least  un- 
reserved, and  was  let  off  eventually  with  a fine  of  $50,- 
000  and  banishment.  It  was  from  his  exile  in  Paris,  in 
1645,  that  he  directed  his  first  publication  of  poems- 


6248  W A L 


He  lived  there  in  nigh  repute  as  a wit  and  & munificent 
host  till  1654,  when  Cromwell,  at  the  intercession  of  his 
anti- Royalist  relatives,  allowed  him  to  return  to  Eng- 
land, and  try  to  mend  his  impaired  estate.  He  cele- 
brated the  Protector’s  greatness  in  a lofty  panegyric, 
and  Cromwell  is  said  to  have  relished  his  pleasant  quali- 
ties as  a companion. 

Upon  the  Restoration  Waller  hastened  to  express  his 
joy,  mingled  with  trembling,  “ Upon  His  Majesty’s 
Happy  Return,”  and  found  little  difficulty  in  making 
his  peace.  He  met  the  king’s  complaint  that  his  con- 
gratulation was  inferior  to  his  panegyric  on  the  Protector 
with  the  famous  retort,  “ Poets,  Sire,  succeed  better  in 
fiction  than  in  truth.”  He  was  soon  on  such  terms 
with  Charles  that  he  applied  for  the  provostshipof  Eton; 
the  king  agreed,  but  Clarendon  refused,  on  the  ground 
that  he  was  a layman,  and  the  refusal  was  sustained  by 
the  council.  He  thus  failed  in  his  only  application  for 
substantial  evidence  of  the  king’s  favor,  but  in  every 
other  respect  the  changed  state  of  things  made  his  old 
age  happy.  He  died  in  1687,  at  the  age  of  eighty-two, 
and  at  the  height  of  his  poetic  reputation. 

WALLINGFORD,  a post-town  in  the  township  of 
Wallingford,  New  Haven  county,  Conn.,  is  situated 
on  the  Quinepiad  river,  twelve  miles  northeast  of 
New  Haven,  and  twenty-four  miles  south  of  Hartford. 
It  is  finely  located  and  handsomely  built,  and  in  addi- 
tion to  its  importance  as  a manufacturing  town,  has  be- 
come an  attractive  summer  resort.  The  New  York, 
Hartford  and  New  Haven  railroad  passes  through  the 
town,  and  the  Boston  and  New  York  Air  Line,  in  its 
immediate  vicinity,  making  the  town  easily  accessible 
and  affording  to  merchants  and  producers  available  traf- 
fic facilities.  The  village  has  four  churches,  one  weekly 
and  one  monthly  paper,  one  national  and  one  savings 
bank,  a town-hall,  a high-school,  a large  and  hand- 
somely appointed  hotel  for  summer  travel,  and  many 
stores.  The  manufactures  include  silver  and  plated- 
ware,  rubber  clothing,  paper  boxes,  bolts,  dippers,  bi- 
cycles and  other  commodities.  The  population  in  1900 
was  .returned  at  6,737. 

WALLIS,  John,  an  eminent  English  mathematician, 
logician*  and  grammarian,  was  born  on  November  23, 
1616,  at  Ashford,  in  Kent,  England.  Having  been 
previously  instructed  in  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew,  he 
was  in  1632  sent  to  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  and 
afterward  was  chosen  fellow  of  Queen’s  College.  His 
adherence  to  the  Parliamentary  party  was  in  1643  re- 
warded by  the  living  of  St.  Gabriel,  Fenchurch  street, 
London.  In  1644  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  scribes 
or  secretaries  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  Westmin- 
ster. In  1645  he  attended  those  scientific  meetings 
which  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Royal  Society. 
When  the  Independents  obtained  the  superiority,  Wal- 
lis adhered  to  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant.  He 
was  in  June,  1649,  appointed  Savilian  professor  of  ge- 
ometry at  Oxford.  In  1654  he  took  the  degree  of  D.D., 
and  four  years  later  succeeded  Doctor  Langbaine  as 
keeper  of  the  archives.  After  the  Restoration  he  was 
named  one  of  the  king’s  chaplains  in  ordinary.  While 
complying  with  the  terms  of  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  Wal- 
lis seems  always  to  have  retained  moderate  and  rational 
notions  of  ecclesiastical  polity.  He  died  at  Oxford  on 
October  28.  1 703,  in  the  eighty-seventh  year  of  his  age. 

WALLON,  or  Walloon,  the  collective  name  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  southeastern  division  of  Belgium,  who 
are  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  population  chiefly 
by  their  Romance  speech  and  darker  complexion.  The 
Wallon  domain  comprises  the  four  provinces  of  Hai- 
nault,  Namur,  Li£ge,  and  Luxemburg,  besides  about 
one-third  of  Brabant.  It  forms  a nearly  regular  right- 
angled  riangle  with  apex  Maastricht  within  the 


Dutch  frontier,  the  base  s retching  along  the  French 
frontier  in  a southeasterly  direction,  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Lille  to  Longwy  at  the  southwest  corner  of 
German  Luxemburg.  It  coincides  almost  exactly  with 
the  section  of  the  Meuse  basin  comprised  within  Bel- 
gian territory,  and  has  a total  area  of  6,000  square 
miles,  or  about  one-half  of  the  kingdom,  with  a popula- 
tion (1896)  of  2,780,000,  or  considerably  less  than  half 
of  the  entire  Belgian  population.  But  from  the  follow- 
ing figures  it  is  evident  that  the  Romance  is  steadily 
gaining  on  the  Flemish  (Teutonic)  section  and  will  soon 
be  in  a majority.  In  1830  the  Wallon  population  num- 
bered 1,360,000  as  against  1,860,000  Flemish;  in  1866 
the  corresponding  figures  were  2,040,000  and  2,406,000; 
and  in  1896  they  were  2,780,000  and  3,060,000. 

WALLSEND,  a town  of  Northumberland,  Eng- 
land, on  the  north  bank  of  the  Tyne,  four  miles  east- 
northeast  of  Newcastle.  There  are  still  some  remains 
of  the  old  church  of  the  eleventh  century  in  the  Tran- 
sition Norman  style.  At  an  early  period  Wallsend 
was  famous  for  its  coals,  but  the  name  has  now  a gen- 
eral application  to  coal  that  does  not  go  through  a sieve 
wi  b meshes  five-eighths  of  an  inch  in  size.  The  colliery, 
which  was  opened  in  1807,  has  frequently  been  the 
scene  of  dreadful  accidents.  There  are  ship  and  boat 
building-yards,  engineering  works,  lead  and  copper 
smelting  works,  cement  works,  and  brick  and  tile 
works.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district 
(area  1,20?  acres)  in  1901  was  9,351. 

WALKING-STICKS.  The  habit  of  using  a stick, 
either  for  a support  or  merely  as  a fashion,  is  of  great 
antiquity,  and  in  modern  times  the  supply  of  such 
articles  constitutes  a large  branch  of  trade.  Walking- 
sticks  chiefly  consist  of  the  small  stems  or  canes  of 
certain  palms,  as  the  Malacca  cane,  and  others  called 
Whangee  and  Penang  Lawyers;  the  woody  stems  of  some 
small  species  of  bamboo  are  also  used,  besides  straight 
shoots  of  orange,  cinnamon,  myrtle,  and  other  shrubs. 
The  preparation  and  sale  of  walking-sticks  are  ex- 
tensively carried  on  in  this  country,  and  the  finer  sorts 
are  richly  and  tastefully  mounted.  Of  late  years  the 
relic  cane,  supposed  to  be  cut  from  the  field  of  some 
celebrated  battle,  or  from  the  under-brush  of  some 
historic  locality,  has  been  in  great  demand.  Walking- 
sticks,  especially  the  gold  mounted  variety,  are  favorite 
articlesffor  presents.  The  affectation  of  carrying  a short 
cane  is  much  indulged  in  by  the  “dude”  element,  but  is 
far  more  common  in  England  than  in  the  United  States. 

WALNUT  ( Jugtans ),  a genus  of  seven  or  eight 
species,  natives  of  the  temperate  regions  of  the  north- 
ern  hemisphere,  some  even  extending  into  Mexico  and 
the  West  Indies.  They  are  all  trees,  usually  of  large 
iise,  with  alternate  stalked,  unequally  pinnate  leaves, 
and  abounding  in  an  aromatic  resinous  juice. 

The  fruit  is  a kind  of  drupe,  the  fleshy  husk  of  which 
fe  the  dilated  receptacular  tube,  while  the  two-valved 
stone  represents  tne  two  carpels.  The  solitary  seed 
has  no  perisperm  or  albumen,  but  has  two  large  and 
curiously  crumpled  cotyledons  concealing  the  plumule, 
the  leaves  of  which,  even  at  this  early  stage,  show 
traces  of  pinnae. 

The  species  best  known  is  J.  regia , the  Common 
Walnut,  a native  of  the  mountains  of  Greece,  of 
Armenia,  of  Afghanistan  and  the  northwest  Himalayas, 
and  also  found  in  Japan.  Traces  of  the  former  exist- 
ence of  this  or  of  a very  closely-allied  species  arc  found 
in  the  Post-Tertiary  deposits  of  Provence  and  else- 
where, proving  the  former  much  wider  extension  of  the 
species.  At  the  present  day  the  tree  is  largely  culti- 
vated in  most  temperate  countries  for  the  sake  of  its 
timber  or  for  its  edible  nuts.  The  timber  is  specially 
valued  for  cabinet  work  and  for  gun-stocks,  the  beauty 


W A L 


of  its  markings  rendering  it  desirabie  for  the  first-named 
purpose,  while  its  strength  and  elasticity  fit  it  for  the 
second.  The  young  fruits  are  used  for  pickling.  When 
ripe  the  seeds  are  much  esteemed  as  a delicacy,  while  in 
France  much  oil  of  fine  quality  is  extracted  from  them 
by  pressure. 

Among  the  American  species  J.  nigra,  the  Black 
Walnut,  is  especially  noteworthy  as  a very  handsome 
tree,  whose  timber  is  of  great  value  for  furniture  pur- 
poses, but  which  is  now  becoming  scarce.  In  Britain 
it  forms  a magnificent  tree.  The  White  Walnut,  J. 
cinerea,  is  a smaller  tree;  its  leaves  are  used  medicinally. 

Closely  allied  to  the  walnuts  and  sometimes  con- 
founded with  them  are  the  hickories  (see  Hickory). 

WALPOLE,  Horace,  who  was  born  on  September 
24,  1717,  was  accepted  and  recognized  throughout  his  life 
as  the  youngest  of  the  six  children  of  Sir  Robert  Wal- 
pole by  Catherine  Shorter,  but  by  some  of  the  scandal- 
mongers of  a later  age,  Carr,  Lord  Hervey,  the  half- 
brother  of  the  peer  who  wrote  the  Memoirs  of  the 
Court  of  George  the  Second , has  been  called  his  father. 
About  1728  he  was  sent  to  Eton,  and  in  1735  matricu- 
lated at  King’s  College,  Cambridge.  Two  years  ( 1 739- 
41)  were  spent  in  the  recognized  grand  tour  of  France 
and  Italy,  in  company  with  Gray  the  poet,  whose 
acquaintance  had  been  made  amid  the  classic  groves  of 
Eton  and  Cambridge.  They  stopped  a few  weeks  in 
Paris,  and  lingered  for  three  months  under  the  shadow 
of  the  magnificent  portals  of  the  cathedral  of  Rheims, 
on  the  pretense  of  learning  the  French  language.  At 
Reggio,  Walpole  and  Gray  parted  in  anger.  The  latter 
was  shy  in  manners  and  absorbed  in  literature,  while 
his  more  opulent  companion  lived  in  society,  and  only 
dabbled  in  antiquities  for  pleasure’s  sake.  Walpole  in 
after  years  took  the  blame  of  these  differences  on  him- 
self, and  it  is  generally  believed  that  the  quarrel  arose 
from  his  laying  too  much  stress  upon  his  superiority  in 
position.  In  1744  the  two  friends  were  nominally 
reconciled,  but  the  breach  was  not  cemented. 

During  Walpole’s  absence  he  was  returned  to  parlia- 
ment in  1 741  for  the  Cornish  borough  of  Callington. 
He  represented  three  constituencies  in  succession,  Cal- 
lington 1741-54,  the  family  borough  of  Castle  Rising 
from  1754  to  1 757»  and  the  more  important  constitu- 
ency of  King’s  Lynn,  for  which  his  father  had  long  sat 
in  parliament,  from  the  latter  date  until  1768.  In  that 

{'ear  he  retired,  probably  because  his  success  in  political 
ife  had  not  equaled  his  expectations,  but  he  con- 
tinued until  the  end  of  his  days  to  follow  and  to  chron- 
icle the  acts  and  the  speeches  of  both  houses  of  parlia- 
ment. Through  his  father’s  influence  he  had  obtained 
three  lucrative  sinecures  producing  at  least  $25,000  a 
year,  and  for  many  years  (1745-84)  he  enjoyed  a share, 
estimated  at  about  $7,500  a year,  of  a second  family 
perquisite,  the  collectorship  of  customs.  The  possession 
of  these  ample  endowments  and  of  a leasehold  house  in 
Arlington  street,  which  was  left  to  him  by  his  father, 
enabled  him,  a bachelor  all  his  days,  to  gratify  every 
expensive  luxury  and  every  costly  taste.  He  purchased 
in  1747  the  charmingly  situated  villa  of  Strawberry  Hill, 
near  Twickenham,  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames,  and  six 
years  later  began  a series  of  alterations  in  the  Gothic 
style,  not  completed  for  nearly  a quarter  of  a century 
later,  under  which  the  original  cottage  became  trans- 
formed into  a building  without  parallel  in  Europe. 
Some  years  after  this  purchase  he  established  a printing 
press  there  for  the  gratification  of  his  literary  tastes, 
and  many  of  the  first  editions  of  his  own  works  were 
struck  off  within  its  walls.  His  nephew,  the  reckless 
third  earl,  died  in  1791,  and  Horace  succeeded  to  the 

reerage,  but  he  never  took  his  place  in  the  House  of 
.ords,  and  sometimes  sigred  his  name  as  “ the  uncle  of 


6249 

the  late  earl  of  Orford.”  All  his  life  long  he  was  the 
victim  of  the  gout,  but  he  lived  to  extreme  old  age,  and 
died  unmarried,  in  Berkeley  Square,  London,  March  2, 
1797. 

The  pen  was  ever  in  Horace  Walpole’s  hand,  and 
his  entire  compositions  would  fill  many  volumes.  His 
two  works  of  imagination,  the  romance  of  the  Castle  of 
Otranto  and  the  tragedy  of  the  Mysterious  Mother,  are 
now  all  but  forgotten.  On  the  Catalogue  of  Royal 
and  Noble  Authors  of  England  Walpole,  whose  pro- 
fessed liberalism  only  stopped  short  of  the  principles 
of  republicanism,  spent  many  hours  of  toilsome  re- 
search. The  best  edition  is  that  which  appeared  in 
five  volumes,  in  1806.  The  Memoirs  of  the  Last  Ten 
Years  of  the  Reign  of  George  II.  was  edited  by  Lord 
Holland;  its  successor,  Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of  Kitig 
George  III.,  was  published  under  the  editorial  care  of 
Sir  Denis  Le  Marchant,  who  poured  into  his  annota 
tions  a vast  store  of  information;  the  last  volumes  of 
the  series,  Journal  of  the  Reign  of  George  III.  from 
1771  to  1783,  were  edited  and  illustrated  by  Doran; 
and  to  these  works  should  be  added  the  Reminiscences , 
which  Walpole  wrote  in  1788  for  the  gratification  of 
the  Misses  Berry.  These  labors  would  in  themselves 
have  rendered  the  name  of  Horace  Walpole  famous  for 
all  time,  but  his  delightful  Letters  are  the  crowning 
glory  of  his  life. 

WALPOLE,  Sir  Robert,  Earl  of  Orford* 
prime  minister  of  England  from  1721  to  1742,  was 
born  on  August  26,  1676,  and  was  sent  to  Eton  and  to 
King’s  College,  Cambridge.  On  his  father’s  decease 
the  electors  of  the  family  borough  of  Castle  Rising  re- 
turned him  in  January,  1701,  to  the  House  of  Commons 
as  their  representative,  but  after  two  short-lived  parlia- 
ments he  sought  the  suffrages  of  the  more  important 
constituency  of  King’s  Lynn  (1702),  and  was  elected  as 
its  member  at  every  subsequent  dissolution,  until  he 
left  the  lower  House.  From  the  first  he  took  a keen 
interest  in  the  business  of  the  House,  and  not  many 
months  passed  away  before  his  shrewdness  in  counsel 
and  his  zeal  for  the  interests  of  the  Whigs  were  generally 
recognized.  In  March,  1705,  according  to  the  state- 
ment of  Archdeacon  Coxe,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
council  to  Prince  George  of  Denmark,  the  inactive  hus- 
band of  Queen  Anne,  and  then  lord  high  admiral  of 
England.  Complaints  against  the  administration  of 
the  navy  were  then  loud  and  frequent  (Burton’s  Queen 
Anne , ii.  22-31),  and  the  responsibilities  of  his  new 
position  tested  his  capacity  for  public  life.  His  abil- 
ities proved  equal  to  the  occasion,  and  justified  his  ad- 
vancement, in  succession  to  his  life-long  rival  Henry  St. 
John,  to  the  more  important  position  of  secretary-at-war 
(February,  1708),  an  office  of  recent  creation  but  in  time 
of  war  of  great  responsibility,  which  brought  him  into 
immediate  contact  with  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and 
the  queen.  With  this  post  he  held  for  a short  time 
(1710)  the  treasurership  of  the  navy,  and  by  the  dis- 
charge of  his  official  duties  and  by  his  skill  in  debate  be- 
came admitted  to  the  inmost  councils  of  the  ministry. 
His  energies  shone  forth  with  irresistible  vigor;  both 
in  debate  and  in  the  pamphlet  press  he  took  up  the 
cause  of  the  ministry,  and  in  revenge  for  his  zeal  his 
political  opponents  brought  against  him  an  accusation 
of  personal  corruption.  On  these  charges,  now  univer- 
sally acknowledged  to  have  proceeded  from  party  ani- 
mosity, he  was  in  the  spring  of  1712  expelled  from  the 
House  and  committed  to  the  Tower.  At  the  dissolu- 
tion of  1713  the  faithful  electors  of  King’s  Lynn  again 
placed  their  trust  in  him,  and  during  this  parliament, 
the  last  summoned  by  Queen  Anne,  he  took  the  leading 
part  in  defense  of  Steele  against  the  attacks  of  the 
Tories. 


WAL 


6250 


With  the  accession  of  George  the  Whigs  regained 
fheir  supremacy,  and  for  nearly  half  a century  they 
etain^d  the  control  of  English  politics.  The  prizes  fell 
o the  victors,  and  Walpole  obtained  the  lucrative  if 
unimportant  post  of  paymaster- general  of  the  forces  in 
the  administration  which  was  formed  under  the  nominal 
rule  of  Lord  Halifax,  but  of  which  Stanhope  and 
Townshend  were  the  guiding  spirits.  Halifax  died,  and 
after  a short  interval  Walpole  was  exalted  into  the  con- 
spicuous position  of  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  (October  11,  1715).  Jeal- 
ousies, however,  prevailed  among  the  Whigs,  and 
the  German  favorites  of  the  new  monarch  quickly 
showed  their  discontent  with  the  heads  of  the  ministry. 
Townshend  was  forced  into  resigning  his  secretaryship 
of  state  for  the  dignified  exile  of  viceroy  of  Ireland,  but 
he  never  crossed  the  sea  to  Dublin,  and  the  support 
which  Sunderland  and  Stanhope,  the  new  advisers  of 
the  king,  received  from  him  and  from  Walpole  was  so 
grudging  that  Townshend  was  dismissed  from  the  lord- 
lieutenancy  (April,  1717),  and  Walpole  on  the  next 
morning  withdrew  from  the  ministry.  On  the  financial 
crash  which  followed  the  failure  of  the  South  Sea 
scheme,  the  public  voice  insisted  that  Walpole  should 
assume  a more  prominent  place  in  public  life.  Wal- 
pole, as  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  (April,  1721),  became  with  Townshend 
responsible  for  the  country’s  government  (though  for 
some  years  they  had  to  contend  with  the  influence  of 
Carteret),  and  during  the  rest  of  the  reign  of  George  I. 
they  remained  at  the  head  of  the  ministry.  The  hopes 
of  the  Jacobites,  which  revived  with  these  financial 
troubles,  soon  drooped  in  disappointment. 

The  Continent  was  still  troubled  with  wars  and 
rumors  of  wars,  but  a treaty  between  England,  Prussia, 
and  France  was  successfully  effected  at  Hanover,  in 
1725.  England  was  kept  free  from  warfare,  and  in  the 
general  prosperity  which  ensued  Walpole  basked  in  the 
royal  favor.  His  eldest  son  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
as  Baron  Walpole  (June  10,  1723),  and  he  himself 
became  a knight  of  the  Bath  in  1725,  and  was  rewarded 
with  the  Garter  in  1726.  Next  year  the  first  King 
George  died,  and  Walpole’s  enemies  fondly  believed  he 
would  be  driven  from  office,  but  their  expectations  were 
doomed  to  disappointment.  The  confidence  which  the 
old  king  had  reposed  in  him  was  renewed  by  his  successor, 
and  in  the  person  of  Queen  Caroline,  the  discreet  ruler 
of  her  royal  spouse,  the  second  George,  the  Whig  min- 
ister found  a faithful  and  life-long  friend.  For  three 
years  he  shared  power  with  Townshend,  but  the  jealous 
Walpole  brooked  no  rival  near  the  throne,  and  his 
brother-in-law  withdrew  from  official  life  in  May,  1730. 
Walpole’s  influence  received  a serious  blow  in  1733. 
The  enormous  frauds  on  the  excise  duties  forced  them- 
selves on  his  attention,  and  he  proposed  some  arrange- 
ments by  which  the  income  resulting  to  the  national 
exchequer  from  the  duties  on  wine  and  tobacco  might 
be  largely  increased.  His  opponents  fastened  on  these 
proposals  with  irresistible  force,  and  so  serious  an  agita- 
tion stirred  the  country  that  the  ministerial  measure 
was  dropped  amid  general  rejoicing.  Several  of  his 
most  active  antagonists  were  dismissed  from  office  or 
deprived  of  their  regiments,  but  their  spirit  remained 
nnquenched,  and  when  Walpole  met  a new  House  of 
Commons  in  1 734,  his  supporters  were  far  less  numerous. 
The  Gin  Act  of  1736,  by  which  the  tax  on  that  drink 
was  raised  to  an  excessive  amount,  led  to  disorders  in 
the  suburbs  of  London;  and  the  imprisonment  of  two 
notorious  smugglers  in  the  Tolbooth  at  Edinburgh 
resulted  in  those  Porteous  riots  which  have  been 
rendered  famous  in  the  Heart  of  Midlothian.  These 
"vents  weakened  his  influence  with  large  classes  in 


England  and  Scotland,  but  his  parliamentary  supremacy 
remained  unimpaired.  His  constant  friend  Queen 
Caroline  died,  and  the  prince  of  Wales,  long  discontented 
with  his  parents  and  their  minister,  flung  himself  into 
active  opposition. 

The  minister  long  resisted  the  pressure  of  the  opposi- 
tion for  war,  but  at  the  close  of  1739  he  abandoned  his 
efforts  to  stem  the  current,  and  with  a divided  cabinet 
was  forced,  as  the  king  would  not  allow  him  to  resign, 
into  hostility  with  Spain.  The  Tory  minority  had 
seceded  from  parliament,  but  at  the  commencement  of 
the  session,  in  November,  1739,  they  returned  to  their 
places  with  redoubled  energies.  The  campaign  was 
prosecuted  with  vigor,  but  the  successes  of  the  troops 
brought  little  strength  to  Walpole’s  declining  popu- 
larity, and  when  parliament  was  dissolved  in  April, 
1741,  his  influence  had  faded  away.  In  the  new  House 
of  Commons  political  parties  were  almost  evenly 
balanced.  Their  strength  was  tried  immediately  on  the 
opening  of  parliament.  The  voting  on  the  return  for 
Chippenham  was  accepted  as  a decisive  test  of  parties, 
and,  as  Walpole  was  beaten  on  a preliminary  point  in 
connection  with  the  return,  he  resolved  upon  resigning 
his  places.  On  February  9,  1742,  he  was  created  earl 
of  Oxford,  and  two  days  later  he  ceased  to  be  prime 
minister.  A committee  of  inquiry  into  the  conduct  of  his 
ministry  for  the  previous  ten  years  was  ultimately 
granted,  but  its  deliberations  ended  in  nought,  and 
Walpole  was  allowed  to  spend  the  rest  of  his  days  in 
retirement  at  Houghton.  There  he  died  March  18, 1 745. 

WALPURGIS,  Walpurga,  or  Walburga,  St., 
was  born  in  Sussex  about  the  end  of  the  seventh  or  the 
beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  and  was  educated  at 
Winburn,  England,  where,  after  taking  the  veil,  she 
remained  for  twenty- seven  years.  She  is  commemo- 
rated at  various  times,  but  principally  on  May  1,  her  day 
taking  the  place  of  an  earlier  heathen  festival,  which 
was  characterized  by  various  rites  marking  the  com- 
mencement of  summer.  In  art  she  is  represented  with 
a crozier,  and  bearing  in  her  hand  a flask  of  balsam. 

WALRUS,  or  Morse.  In  the  article  Mammalia 
it  was  shown  that  the  existing  members  of  the  Pinniped 
division  of  the  order  Carnivora  are  divided  into  three 
very  distinct  groups,  the  true  seals  ( Phocidce ),  the  sea- 
bears  or  eared  seals  {Otari idee),  and  the  Trichechidce , 
containing  the  walrus  alone,  in  some  respects  inter- 
mediate between  the  other  two,  but  also  possessing, 
especially  in  its  greatly  modified  dentition,  peculiar 
characteristics  of  its  own. 

Trichechus  is  the  almost  universally  accepted  generic 
name  by  which  the  walrus  is  known  to  zoologists,  but 
lately  some  confusion  has  been  introduced  into  literature 
by  the  revival  of  the  nearly  obsolete  terms  Rosmarus  by 
some  authors  and  Odobcenus  by  others.  T.  rosmarus 
is  the  name  of  the  species  met  with  in  the  Arctic  seas  ; 
that  of  the  North  Pacific,  if  distinct,  is  T.  obesus. 
The  following  description  will  apply  equally  to  both. 
A full-grown  male  walrus  measures  from  ten  to 
eleven  feet  from  the  nose  to  the  end  of  the  very 
short  tail,  and  is  a heavy,  bulky  animal,  especially 
thick  about  the  shoulders.  The  head  is  rounded, 
the  eyes  rather  small,  and  there  are  no  external 
ears.  The  muzzle  is  short  and  broad,  with,  on 
each  side,  a group  of  very  stiff,  bristly  whiskers,  which 
become  stouter  and  shorter  in  old  animals.  The  tail 
scarcely  projects  beyond  the  skin.  The  fore-limbs  are 
free  only  from  the  elbow  ; the  hand  is  broad,  flat,  and 
webbed,  the  five  fingers  being  of  nearly  equal  length, 
the  first  slightly  the  longest.  Each  finger  has  a small, 
flattened  nail,  situated  on  the  dorsal  surface  at  a consid- 
erable distance  from  the  end.  The  hind-limbs  are  in- 
closed in  the  skin  of  the  body  almost  to  the  heel.  The 


W A L 


free  portion,  when  expanded,  is  fan-shaped,  the  two 
outer  toes  (first  and  fifth)  being  the  longest,  especially 
the  latter.  Cutaneous  flaps  project  considerably  be- 
yond the  bones  of  the  toes.  The  nails  of  the  first  and 
fifth  toes  are  minute  and  flattened;  those  of  the  sec- 
ond, third,  and  fourth  elongated,  sub-compressed,  and 
pointed.  The  soles  of  both  fore  and  hind  feet  are  bare, 
rough,  and  warty.  The  surface  of  the  skin  generally  is 
covered  with  short,  adpressed  hair  of  a light,  yellowish- 
brown  color,  which,  on  the  under  parts  of  the  body  and 
base  of  the  flippers,  passes  into  dark  reddish-brown  or 
chestnut.  In  old  animals  the  hair  becomes  more  scanty, 
sometimes  almost  entirely  disappearing,  and  the  skin 
shows  ample  evidence  of  the  rough  life  and  pugnacious 
habits  of  the  animal  in  the  innumerable  scars  with 
which  it  is  usually  covered.  It  is  everywhere  more  or 
less  wrinkled,  especially  over  the  shoulders,  where  it  is 
thrown  into  deep  and  heavy  folds. 

One  of  the  most  striking  external  characteristics  of 
the  walrus  is  the  pair  of  tusks  which  descend  almost  di- 
rectly downward  from  the  upper  jaw,  sometimes  attain- 
ing a length,  in  old  animals,  of  twenty  inches,  or  even 
more.  In  the  female  they  are  as  long  or  sometimes 
longer  than  in  the  male,  but  less  massive.  In  the 
young  of  the  first  year  they  are  not  visible.  These 
tusks  correspond  to  the  upper  canine  teeth  of  other 
mammals. 

The  principal  food  of  the  walrus  consists  of  bivalved 
molluscs,  which,  by  means  of  its  tusks,  it  digs  up  from 
the  mud  and  sand  in  which  they  lie  buried  at  the  bottom 
of  the  sea.  It  crushes  and  removes  the  shells  by  the 
aid  of  its  grinding  teeth  and  tongue,  and  swallows  only 
the  soft  part  of  the  animal.  Portions  of  various  kinds 
of  algae  or  sea- weeds  have  been  found  in  its  stomach,  but 
whether  swallowed  intentionally  or  not  is  still  doubtful. 

The  commercial  products  of  the  walrus  are  its  oil, 
hide  (used  to  manufacture  harness  and  sole-leather  and 
twisted  into  tiller  ropes),  and  tusks.  The  ivory  of  the 
latter  is,  however,  inferior  in  quality  to  that  of  the 
elephant.  Its  flesh  forms  an  important  article  of  food 
to  the  Eskimo  and  Tchuktchis.  Of  the  coast  tribes  of 
the  last-named  people  the  walrus  forms  the  chief  means 
of  support. 

Geographically  the  walrus  is  confined  to  the  northern 
circumpolar  regions  of  the  globe,  extending  apparently 
as  far  north  as  explorers  have  penetrated,  but  its  south- 
ern range  has  been  much  restricted  of  late  in  conse- 
quence of  the  persecutions  of  man.  On  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  America  it  was  met  with  in  the  sixteenth  cent- 
ury as  low  as  the  southern  coast  of  Nova  Scotia  and  in 
the  last  century  was  common  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence and  on  the  shores  of  Labrador.  It  still  inhabits 
the  coast  round  Hudson’s  Bay,  Davis  Straits,  and 
Greenland,  where,  however,  its  numbers  are  daily  de- 
creasing. It  is  not  found  on  the  Arctic  coast  of 
America  between  the  97th  and  158th  meridians.  Fos- 
sil remains  of  walruses  and  closely  allied  animals  have 
been  found  in  the  United  States,  and  in  England,  Bel- 
gium, and  France,  in  deposits  of  Quaternary  and  late 
Tertiary  age. 

WALSALL,  a municipal  and  parliamentary  borough 
and  market-town  of  Staffordshire,  England,  8 miles 
north-northwest  of  Birmingham  and  123  northwest  of 
London.  The  principal  street  is  spacious  and  regular, 
and,  although  the  side  streets  are  generally  crooked  and 
mean,  the  suburbs  are  for  the  most  part  built  with 
regularity  and  neatness.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  town 
are  extensive  coal-mines  and  limestone  quarries.  Iron- 
stone is  also  obtained,  and  brick  clay  is  dug.  The 
town  possesses  iron  and  Drass  foundries,  corn-mills,  and 
tanneries.  One  of  the  staple  industries  is  the  manufact- 
ure of  the  various  kinds  of  ironmongery  required  in 


6 25F 

the  construction  of  harness  and  carriages.  Locks  and 
keys,  bolts,  pulleys,  and  other  hardware  goods  are  also 
largely  manufactured.  The  area  of  the  municipal 
borough  was  extended  in  1877  to  6,929  acres;  the  popu- 
lation in  1881  was  58,795.  The  population  of  the  par 
liamentary  borough  (area  7,478  acres)  in  1901  was 
86,440. 

WALSH,  William,  is  included  among  Johnson’s 
Most  Eminent  English  Poets , but  is  justly  said  to  be 
“ known  more  by  his  familiarity  with  greater  men  than 
by  anything  done  or  written  by  himself.”  He  was  a 
native  of  Worcestershire,  represented  his  native  county 
in  several  parliaments,  and  was  gentleman  of  the  horse 
to  Queen  Anne.  He  was  born  in  1663,  and  died  in 
1709. 

WALSINGHAM,  Sir  Francis,  secretary  of  state 
under  Elizabeth,  was  born  about  1536.  After  a good 
rivate  education  he  entered  King’s  College,  Cam- 
ridge,  but  did  not  take  a degree.  He  remained  abroad 
during  the  reign  of  Mary,  and  the  knowledge  of  foreign 
languages  he  thus  acquired  is  said  to  have  commended 
him  to  the  notice  of  Cecil,  Lord  Burghley.  In  the 
parliament  which  met  in  January,  1558-59,  he  was  re- 
turned for  Banbury,  and  in  that  which  met  in  January, 
1562-63,  for  both  Banbury  and  Lyme  Regis;  he  de- 
cided to  sit  for  the  latter  place.  Nothing  further  is 
known  of  his  political  history,  till  in  1568  he  wrote  to 
Cecil  a letter  on  the  Darnley  murder,  which  shows  that 
he  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  Cecil  and  the  regent 
Murray,  and  was  fully  convinced  of  Queen  Mary’s 
guht.  In  August,  1570,  Walsingham  was  selected  as 
special  ambassador  to  France  in  connection  with  the 
negotiations  for  the  toleration  of  the  Huguenots,  and  in 
December  took  up  his  residence  as  permanent  ambassa- 
dor at  Paris.  On  December  1,  1577,  he  was  knighted, 
and  on  April  22d  of  the  following  year  made  chancellor 
of  the  order  of  the  garter.  In  June  following,  along 
with  Lord  Cobham,  he  was  sent  to  the  Netherlands  to 
assist  in  arranging  a pacification  of  the  States,  but  the 
extraordinary  vacillation  of  Elizabeth  rendered  his  mis- 
sion a total  failure.  In  July,  1581,  he  was  again  sent 
on  an  embassy  to  Paris. 

From  the  first  Walsingham,  equally  with  Cecil,  Lord 
Burghley,  was  strongly  hostile  to  Queen  Mary  of  Scot- 
land. By  constant  watchfulness  and  the  skillful  use  of 
spies  he  succeeded  in  discovering  the  inmost  secrets  ol 
her  policy  and  plans.  He  permitted  the  Babington 
conspiracy  to  develop  until  letters  passed  between 
Babington  and  Mary  which,  if  they  are  to  be  accepted 
as  genuine,  proved  that  the  scheme  for  the  assassination 
of  Elizabeth  had  Mary’s  full  approval.  Mary  and  her 
friends  declared  that  Walsingham  had  counterfeited  her 
ciphers;  but  that  Babington  sent  her  letters  informing 
her  of  the  assassination  scheme  is  beyond  denial. 
Mary’s  friends,  without  any  proof  but  her  own  assevera- 
tion, affirm  that  the  letters  never  reached  her,  and  that 
Mary’s  letters  in  reply,  the  authenticity  of  which  Bab- 
ington to  the  last  never  doubted,  were  forged  by  the 
agents  of  Walsingham.  The  asseveration  of  Mary  is, 
however,  robbed  of  all  value  by  the  fact  that,  in  addi- 
tion to  denying  the  authenticity  of  the  letters,  she  denied 
all  knowledge  of  the  Babington  conspiracy;  for  Men- 
doza, the  Spanish  ambassador,  while  the  plot  was  in 
progress,  wrote  to  Philip  II.  that  Mary  had  informed 
him  she  was  fully  acquainted  with  it.  The  accusation 
against  Walsingham,  that  he  was  an  accomplice  in 
bringing  Mary  to  the  block  on  false  and  forged  evidence, 
cannot  therefore  be  entertained,  although  there  cannot 
be  any  doubt  that  he  regarded  her  execution  as  a happy 
deliverence  from  a position  of  great  political  embar- 
rassment. He  was  one  of  the  commissioners  on  her 
trial,  and  on  Mary  hinting  that  the  incriminating  letter* 


W A L 


6252 

had  been  written  by  him,  called  God  to  witness  that  he 
“had  done  nothing  unbecoming  an  honest  man." 

By  becoming  surety  for  the  debts  of  Sir  Philip  Sid- 
ney, Walsingham,  on  account  of  a flaw  in  the  power  of 
attorney  left  by  Sidney,  found  himself  on  Sidney’s 
death  unexpectedly  involved  in  pecuniary  ruin.  But, 
although  one  of  the  ablest  and  wisest  of  Elizabeth’s 
councilors,  his  honesty  had  frequently  ruffled  her  self- 
esteem, and  she  witnessed  his  embarrassments  without 
deigning  to  lend  him  the  smallest  help.  He  died  at  his 
house  in  Seething  lane,  London,  April  6,  1590,  in  cir- 
cumstances of  so  great  poverty  that  his  friends  buried 
him  in  St.  Paul’s  at  night  to  save  the  expense  of  a 
public  funeral. 

WALTHAM,  a city  in  Middlesex  county,  Mass., 
is  in  effect  a township,  containing  several  bodies  of 
urban  population,  together  with  rural  districts.  It  is 
situated  about  nine  miles  west-northwest  from  Boston, 
being  in  fact  a suburb  of  that  city.  Besides  the  large 
village  of  Waltham,  there  are  comprised  in  the  city  five 
others,  viz.,  Bleachery,  Chemistry,  New  Church,  Pros- 
pectville,  and  Robert’s  Crossing.  These  have  absorbed 
nearly  all  the  population  of  the  city,  the  rural  inhabit- 
ants being  comparatively  few  in  number.  The  pop- 
ulation, by  the  State  census  of  1890  was  18,707,  about 
one-fourth  being  of  foreign  birth.  The  population  in 
1900  was  returned  at  23,481.  Waltham  is  known 
all  over  the  world  for  its  machine-made  watches,  of 
which  over  1,400  are  turned  out  daily. 

WALTHAM  ABBEY,  or  Waltham  Holy  Cross, 
a market-town  of  Essex,  England.  At  Waltham  Cross 
on  the  great  northern  road,  about  a mile  west  of  Wal- 
tham, is  the  beautiful  cross  erected  (1291-94)  by  Ed- 
ward I.  at  one  of  the  resting-places  of  the  corpse  of 
Queen  Eleanor  on  its  way  to  burial  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  It  is  of  Caen  stone  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  designed  by  Pietro  Cavalini,  a Roman  sculptor. 
It  is  hexagonal  in  plan,  and  consists  of  three  stages,  de- 
creasing toward  the  top,  which  is  finished  by  a crocketed 
spirelet  and  cross.  The  area  of  the  urban  sanitary  dis- 
trict of  Waltham  Holy  Cross  is  11,017  acres,  the  popu- 
lation being  5,368. 

WALTHAMSTOW,  a town  of  Essex,  England,  now 
practically  a suburb  of  London,  is  situated  a short  dis- 
tance east  of  the  river  Lea,  on  a branch  of  the  Great 
Eastern  railway.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary 
district  (area  4,374  acres)  in  1901  was  95,125. 

WALTHER,  Bernhard,  astronomer,  was  born  at 
Nuremberg  in  1430.  He  was  a man  of  large  means, 
which  he  devoted  to  scientific  pursuits.  When  Regio- 
MONTANUS  settled  at  Nuremberg  in  1471,  Wal- 

ther  built  for  their  common  use  an  observatory  and  a 
printing  office,  from  which  numerous  calendars  and 
ephemerides  were  issued,  which  became  of  great  impor- 
tance for  the  voyages  of  discovery.  At  this,  the  first 
German  observatory,  clocks  driven  by  weights  were  first 
ased  in  astronomical  observations  in  1484.  The  obser- 
vations, continued  until  Walther’s  death  in  May,  1504, 
were  published  by  Schoner  in  1544,  and  by  Snell  in  1618, 
as  an  appendix  to  his  edition  of  Landgrave  William’s 
observations. 

WALTHER  VON  DER  VOGELWEIDE,  the  most 
illustrious  of  the  German  minnesanger,  was  born  in 
Tyrol  between  1165  and  1170.  H*.  belonged  to  a noble 

family,  but  had  no  hereditary  possessions.  At  an  early 
age  he  seems  to  have  given  evidence  of  an  aptitude  for 
poetry,  and  his  genius  was  developed  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  older  poet  Reinmar,  whom  he  soon  far  sur- 
passed. His  earliest  patron  was  the  young  and  brill- 
iant Duke  Frederick  of  Austria,  at  whose  court  in  Vi- 
enna he  spent  several  years.  After  Duke  Frederick’s 
death  Walther  betook  himself  to  King  Philip,  at  whose 


coronation  in#  Mainz  on  September  8,  1198,  he  was 
present.  In  1217  he  was  at  the  court  of  Duke  Leo- 
pold of  Austria,  after  whose  departure  for  the  Holy 
Land  he  appears  to  have  been  received  first  by  the 
duke’s  uncle,  Henry  of  Medlik,  then  by  Berthold  of 
Andechs,  the  patriarch  of  Aquileia.  On  the  return  of 
Duke  Leopold,  Walther  again  spent  some  time  with  him; 
but  in  1220  he  joined  the  retinue  of  the  imperial  vicar 
Engelbert  of  Cologne;  and  Frederick  II.'s  son,  Henry, 
to  whom  he  seems  to  have  acted  as  tutor.  In  1224 
Walther  retired  to  Wurzburg,  where,  although  living  in 
privacy,  he  watched  closely  the  course  of  public  affairs. 
He  may  have  taken  part  in  the  crusade  ol  1228,  but  he 
certainly  did  not  reach  Palestine.  He  died  about  1230 
at  Wurzburg. 

WALTON,  or  Walton-le-Dale,  a township  of 
Lancashire,  England,  is  situated  on  the  south  bank  of 
the  Ribble,  one  and  one-half  miles  southeast  of  Preston. 
Cotton-spinning  is  carried  on,  and  there  are  market- 
gardens  in  the  vicinity.  The  population  of  the  urban 
sanitary  district  (area  4,683  acres)  11,286  in  1901. 

WALTON,  or  Walton-on-the-Hill,  a township 
of  Lancashire,  England,  now  practically  a suburb  of 
Liverpool,  three  miles  northeast  of  the  central  station. 
It  consists  largely  of  villas  and  the  better  class  of  resi- 
dences. The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district 
(area  1,907  acres)  in  1901  was  25,536. 

WALTON,  Brian,  bishop  of  Chester,  and  editor  of 
the  great  London  Polyglott  Bible,  was  born  at  Sey- 
mour, in  the  district  of  Cleveland,  Yorkshire,  in  1600. 
He  went  to  Cambridge  as  a sizar  of  Magdalene  Col- 
lege in  1616,  migrated  to  Peterhouse  in  1618,  was 
bachelor  in  1619,  and  master  of  arts  in  1623.  After 
holding  a school  mastership  and  two  curacies  he  was  in 
1626  made  rector  of  St.  Martin’s  Orgar  in  London 
(1626).  In  1642  he  was  ordered  into  custody  as  a 
delinquent;  thereafter  he  took  refuge  at  Oxford,  and 
ultimately  returned  to  London  to  the  house  of  Dr. 
Fuller,  dean  of  Ely,  whose  daughter  Jane  was  hfi 
second  wife.  In  this  retirement  he  planned  and  exe 
cuted  his  great  work,  a Polyglott  Bible  which  should 
be  completer,  cheaper,  and  provided  with  a better 
critical  apparatus  than  any  previous  work  of  the  kind 
(see  Polyglott).  The  proposals  for  the  Polyglott 
appeared  in  1652,  and  the  book  itself  came  out  in  six 
great  folios  in  1657,  having  been  printing  for  five  years, 
lie  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Chester  in  December, 
1660.  In  the  following  spring  he  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  at  the  Savoy  Conference,  but  took  little 
part  in  the  business.  In  the  autumn  of  1661  he  paid  a 
short  visit  to  his  diocese,  and  returning  to  London  he 
fell  ick  and  died  on  November  29th. 

WALTON,  Izaak,  author  of  The  Corn-pleat  Angler \ 
hooked  a much  bigger  fish  than  he  angled  for  when  he 
offered  his  quaint  treatise  to  the  public.  There  is 
hardly  a name  in  literature,  even  of  the  first  rank, 
whose  immortality  is  more  secure,  or  whose  personality 
is  the  subject  of  a more  devoted  cult.  Not  only  is  he 
the  sacer  vates  of  a considerable  sect  in  the  religion  of 
recreation,  but  multitudes  who  have  never  put  a worm 
on  a hook — even  on  a fly-hook — have  been  caught  and 
securely  held  by  his  picture  of  the  delights  of  the  gen- 
tle craft  and  his  easy  leisurely  transcript  of  his  own 
simple,  peaceable,  lovable,  and  amusing  character.  He 
was  born  at  Stafford  in  August,  1593 ; the  register  of 
his  baptism  gives  his  father’s  name  as  Jervis,  and  noth- 
ing more  is  known  of  his  parentage.  He  settled  iv 
London  as  a shopkeeper.  In  1624  he  had  a shop  in 
Fleet  street  opposite  the  Temple,  and  was  described  as 
a linen-draper.  In  1632  he  bought  a lease  of  a house 
and  shop  m Chancery  Lane,  and  was  described  as  a 
“ sempster  ” or  milliner.  The  last  forty  years  of  his 


WAL- 

tong  life  seem  to  have  been  spent  in  ideal  leisure  arid 
occupation,  and  he  died  in  1683. 

The  first  edition  of  The  Cotnpleat  Angler  was  pub- 
lished in  1653,  but  the  peaceful  angler  continued  to  add 
to  its  completeness  in  his  leisurely  way  for  a quarter  of 
a century.  There  was  a second  edition  in  1656,  a third 
in  1661  (identical  with  that  of  1664),  a.  fourth  in  1668, 
and  a fifth  in  1676.  In  this  last  edition  the  thirteen 
chapters  of  the  original  have  grown  to  twenty-one,  and 
a second  part  was  added  by  his  loving  friend  and 
brother  angler,  Charles  Cotton,  who  took  up  “ Venator” 
where  Walton  had  left  him,  and  completed  his  instruc- 
tion in  fly-fishing  and  the  making  of  flies.  Walton  did 
not  profess  to  be  an  expert  with  the  fly ; the  fly-fishing 
in  his  first  edition  was  contributed  by  Mr.  Thomas 
Barker,  a retired  cook  and  humorist,  who  produced  a 
treatise  of  his  own  in  1659;  but  in  the  use  of  the  live 
worm,  the  grasshopper,  and  the  frog,  “ Piscator  ” him- 
self could  speak  as  a master.  The  famous  passage 
about  the  frog — often  misquoted  about  the  worm— 
“ use  him  as  though  you  loved  him,  that  is,  harm  him 
as  little  as  you  may  possibly,  that  he  may  live  the 
longer” — appears  in  the  original  edition. 

WALTZ  (Ger.  Walzer,  literally,  roller),  a national 
German  dance,  said  to  have  originally  come  from 
Bohemia.  It  first  became  a fashionable  dance  in  the 
other  countries  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteeth  century. 
It  is  danced  to  music  of  three-quarter  time  by  any  num- 
ber of  couples,  who,  with  the  gentleman’s  right  arm 
round  his  partner’s  waist,  wheel  rapidly  round  on  an 
axis  of  their  own,  advancing  at  the  same  time  round  the 
room.  Some  time  ago  the  Valse  a Deux  Temps  was 
generally  adopted — a form  of  the  waltz  not  so  graceful 
as  the  older  one,  because  not  so  correspondent  to  the 
rhythm  of  the  music — but  this  has  now  given  place  to 
the  Valse  a Trois  Temps. 

WAMPUM,  a name  given  to  shells  and  shell  beads, 
used  as  money,  and  worn  for  ornaments  in  strings  and 
belts  by  the  North  American  Indians. 

WAN-CHOW-FU,  aprefectural  city  in  the  Chinese 
province  of  Che-keang,  and  one  of  the  ports  opened  by 
treaty  to  foreign  trade,  is  situated  on  the  south  bank  of 
the  river  Gow,  about  twenty  miles  from  the  sea.  Its 
present  name,  which  signifies  the  “ mild  district, and 
which  is  correctly  descriptive  of  the  climate,  though  not 
of  the  inhabitants,  was  given  to  it  during  the  last 
dynasty  (1368-1644).  The  walls,  which  were  built  in 
the  tenth  century,  are  about  six  miles  in  circumference, 
thirty-five  feet  in  height,  and  twelve  feet  broad  at  the 
top.  The  gates,  seven  in  number,  were  put  up  in  1598. 
Wan-chow  is  about  1563  miles  by  road  from  Peking  and 
600  from  Hankow.  The  country  in  the  neighoorhood 
of  the  town  is  hilly  and  pretty,  while  opposite  the  north- 
west gate  “Conquest  Island”  forms  a picturesque  object. 
The  island  is,  however,  more  beautiful  than  healthy. 
The  port,  which  was  opened  to  foreign  trade  in  1876, 
has-  not  justified  the  great  expectations  which  were 
formed  of  its  probable  success  as  a commercial  center. 
WANDERING  JEW.  See  Jew,  Wandering. 

WANSTEAD,  a village  of  Essex,  England,  now 
really  a London  suburb,  eight  miles  by  rail  northeast  of 
Liverpool  street  station.  It  possesses  the  usual  char- 
acteristics of  the  better-class  eastern  suburbs  of  Lon- 
don. Wanstead  Park,  184  acres  in  extent,  was  opened 
in  1882.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district 
(area  about  1,072  acres)  in  1901  was  7,362. 

WAPITI  (Cervas  Canadensis ),  a species  of  deer, 
nearly  allied  to  the  stag,  but  considerably  exceeding  it 
in  size,  being  four  and  a half  feet  in  height  at  the 
shoulder.  It  is  a native  of  North  America,  found  as 
far  south  as  Carolina,  and  as  far  north  as  56°  or  570 
N.  latitude.  It  is  yellowish  brown  on  the  upper  part; 

892 


“WAR  6253 

the  sides  gray;  a pale  yellowish  patch  on  each  buttock- 
bounded  by  a black  line  on  the  thigh;  the  neck,  a 
mixture  of  red  and  black,  with  long,  coarse  black  hair 
falling  down  from  it  in  front,  like  a dewlap;  a black 
mark  at  each  angle  of  the  mouth.  The  hair  is  crisp 
and  hard,  but  there  is  a soft  down  beneath  it.  The 
antlers  are  large,  much  like  those  of  the  stag,  but  the 
first  branch  bends  down  almost  over  the  face.  The 
wapiti  is  called  elk  and  gray  moose  in  some  parts  of 
America,  although  very  different  from  the  true  elk,  or 
moose  deer.  It  is  found  chiefly  in  low  grounds,  or  in 
parts  of  the  forest  adjacent  to  savannahs  and  marshes. 
Its  flesh  is  coarse  and  dry.  The  hide  makes  excellent 
leather. 

WAR.  Whatever  definition  of  the  word  “army” 
(see  Army)  be  adopted,  the  fact  that  it  is  a body  of 
men  organized  for  the  effective  employment  of  arms  is 
the  essence  of  it.  Hence  the  nature  of  the  most  effect- 
ive organization  and  employment  of  armies  in  active 
warfare  at  any  given  period  has  always  turned  upon  the 
nature  of  the  arms  in  use  at  the  time.  The  laboratory 
and  workshops  of  science  in  recent  years  have  in  fact 
produced  and  forced  on  a change  in  the  nature  of  fight- 
ing, of  a kind  which  it  is  safe  to  say  never  entered  the 
mind  of  any  one  of  the  inventors  whose  skill  made  it 
necessary.  And  yet  the  change  is  of  such  a kind  that, 
though  due  to  the  development  of  very  material  things, 
as,  for  instance,  the  greater  rapidity  of  fire,  the  greater 
range  of  weapons,  and  the  like,  it  is  much  more  re- 
markable in  its  effect  on  the  spirit  of  armies  and  the 
nature  of  fighting  discipline  than  in  almost  any  other 
aspect. 

In  all  periods  of  war,  under  all  conditions  of  arms, 
the  moral  forces  which  affect  armies  have  been  the  great 
determining  factors  of  victory  and  defeat.  From  a date 
much  earlier  than  the  day  when  Caesar,  defeated  at 
Dyrrachium,  gained  the  empire  of  the  world  by  so  act- 
ing as  to  restore  the  morale  of  his  army  before  the  great 
contest  at  Pharsalia,  it  has  been  on  this  nice  feeling  of 
the  moral  pulse  of  armies  that  the  skill  of  great  com- 
manders has  chiefly  depended.  In  that  respect  there  is 
nothing  new  in  the  modern  conditions  of  war.  It  was 
this  stability  of  morale  that  enabled  the  Southern  armies, 
in  tile  late  Civil  war  between  the  States  of  the  Union,  tq 
endure  the  hardships  and  privations  which  beset  them, 
and  to  gain  the  splendid  victories  which  they  did  in  the 
face  of,  sometimes,  overwhelming  odds,  and  always 
superior  equipment.  Whenever  the  confidence  of  the 
soldiers  in  their  leaders  was  destroyed  or  diminished  the 
result  was  at  once  apparent  in  their  fighting  qualifica- 
tions. So  long  as  Jackson  led  his  brigade  it  was  the 
“Stone-wall”  brigade.  With  him  at  their  head  they 
were  invincible,  because  they  were  confident.  Without 
him,  they  did  not  do  half  so  well. 

The  history  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  furnishes 
another  commentary  of  the  same  nature.  For  the  entire 
period  of  the  war  prior  to  the  assumption  of  command 
by  Grant  the  career  of  this  army  had  been  one  of 
almost  continuous  disaster,  and  the  reason  alleged  was 
the  lack  of  confidence  in  its  commanders,  both  by  the 
soldiers  composing  the  army  and  the  government  at 
Washington.  McClellan  furnishes  a noticeable  in- 
stance, on  the  one  hand,  and  Hooker  and  Burnside  on 
the  other.  McClellan,  in  his  correspondence  with  the 
secretary  of  war,  openly  charged  Mr.  Stanton  with 
having  done  his  best  to  destroy  the  army  by  fomenting 
distrust  and  encouraging  criticism  of,  if  not  insubordi- 
nation to,  the  commanding  general. 

It  is  among  the  first  of  these  principles  that  for  suc- 
cess in  our  days  careful  peace  practice.,  adapted  to 
the  actual  conditions  of  fighting,  must  precede  the 
entry  on  a campaign.  When  letters  from  the  seat  of 


W A,R 


6254 

war  in  1866  brought  home  to  Europe  the  effect  which 
the  breech-loader  was  producing  in  determining  the 
contest,  the  first  impression  was  that  of  simple  consterna- 
tion. It  was  supposed  that  Prussia,  by  the  possession 
of  that  weapon  alone,  had  made  herself  mistress  of  Eu- 
rope. Gradually  it  came  to  be  known  that  the  secret 
of  Prussian  power  lay,  not  in  her  breech-loader  alone, 
but  at  least  as  much  in  her  perfect  organization.  In 
1870  her  scarcely  less  startling  successes  tended  for  a 
time  to  produce  an  effect  almost  as  blinding  upon  the 
eyes  of  those  who  watched  them.  There  was  a dispo- 
sition to  assume  that  whatever  had  been  done  in  the 
war  by  the  Prussians  was,  by  the  deliberate  choice  and 
determination  of  the  best  and  most  successful  soldiers 
in  Europe,  shown  to  be  the  best  thing  that  could  be 
done  under  the  circumstances.  The  exhaustive  state- 
ment of  facts  contained  in  the  Prussian  official  narrative 
and  in  the  regimental  histories,  and  the  evidence  of  eye- 
witnesses innumerable,  have,  however,  gradually  made 
it  evident  that,  valuable  as  the  experiences  of  the 
1870  campaign  unquestionably  are  for  soldiers  of  all 
nations,  the  Prussian  successes  were  certainly  not  due 
to  the  carrying  out  of  what  are  now  regarded  by  the 
best  Prussian  officers  themselves  as  the  principles  of 
action  which  ought  to  determine  practice  in  future  wars. 
But  during  the  course  of  the  war  itself  the  Prussian 
army,  prepared  by  the  soundest  peace  training  to  adapt 
itself  to  whatever  conditions  it  met  with,  was  continu- 
ally and  progressively  modifying  its  practice  under  the 
experience  of  conditions  which  it  had  been  impossible 
fully  to  anticipate. 

The  essential  change  which  appears  to  have  come 
over  modern  war  may  be  stated  thus : Under  the  con- 
ditions of  the  past,  the  general  in  command  of  an  army 
relied  upon  its  perfection  in  drill  and  in  formal  man- 
euvers for  enabling  him  to  direct  it  with  success  against 
the  weak  points  of  an  adversary.  Now  he  must  depend 
instead  upon  the  perfection  of  its  organization  and  of  a 
training  adapted  to  make  each  man  ready  when  required 
to  apply  sound  principles  in  every  emergency,  and,  above 
all,  as  soon  as  possible,  voluntarily  to  place  himself  under 
authority  again,  so  as  to  secure  unity  of  action.  To 
summarize  this  statement  in  a single  sentence,  and  em- 
ploying the  word  organization  in  the  larger  sense  ex- 
explained  above,  the  change  consists  in  the  substitution 
of  organization  for  drill  as  a means  of  battle-action, 
in  other  words,  a living  organism  must  take  the  place 
of  a mechanical  instrument. 

It  is  necessary,  in  discussing  the  application  of  past 
experience  to  modern  war,  to  make  intelligible  the  dis- 
tinction between  these  two  fields  of  experience,  because, 
undoubtedly,  the  changes  wrought  by  time  affect  the 
two  great  parts  of  the  art  of  war  in  very  different  ways 
and  in  a very  different  degree.  But  in  fact  there  are 
many  parts  of  the  study  of  tactics  which  are  not  strictly 
included  within  its  province  when  that  is  limited  to  the 
field  of  battle.  The  distinction  between  the  two 
provinces  having  been  understood  as  a general  idea,  it 
will  be  seen  at  once  how  it  has  happened  that  in  the 
varied  incidents  of  warfare  it  has  become  necessary  to 
apply  the  terms  “ tactics  ” and  “ strategy  ” to  other 
matters.  For  no  army  can  determine  for  itself  or  know 
beforehand  absolutely  what  will  be  a field  or  a day  of 
battle.  Hence  it  is  necessary  throughout  almost  the 
entire  course  of  a campaign  to  take  those  precautions 
and  take  into  account  those  considerations  which  apply 
properly  to  the  period  of  actual  combat.  Thus,  though 
an  enemy  may  in  fact  be  many  marches  distant,  it  is 
necessary  to  provide  against  his  possible  attack,  by 
having  some  troops  always  on  the  alert  while  others  are 
marching  with  all  the  ease  and  security  which  the  pro- 
tection of  these  procures  for  them.  It  is  necessary  also 


in  a similar  manner  to  have  protection  for  the  repose  of 
an  army,  and  to  detail  troops  for  this  purpose. 

It  must  be  always  a question  how  far  the  circum- 
stances of  our  own  time  have  so  changed  as  to  limit  the 
period  within  which  it  is  worth  while  to  devote  very 
careful  study  to  the  wars  of  the  past.  On  the  one 
hand,  the  greater  number  of  officers  in  any  army  will 
never  find  time  exhaustively  to  study  all  the  great  cam- 
paigns which  would  be  of  value  if  they  had  really  so  known 
them  as  to  acquire  the  experience,  as  far  as  may  be, 
of  the  various  actors  in  them,  and  it  is  therefore  of 
special  importance  that  the  most  modern  experiences  at 
least  should  be  completely  known  to  them.  On  the 
other  hand,  even  after  all  the  campaigns  which  have 
taken  place  since  breech-loaders  and  rifle-guns  have  be- 
come the  determining  factors  of  battles  have  been  care- 
fully studied,  it  can  hardly  be  claimed  for  them  that  they 
present  a picture  approximately  complete  of  all  the  pos- 
sibilities of  modern  war.  To  any  one  who  tells  us  that 
nothing  applicable  to  the  wars  of  the  future  is  now  to 
be  learned  from  the  campaigns  of  Napoleon,  or  even 
from  the  events  of  the  Peninsular  war,  we  are  pre- 
pared to  reply  by  adducing,  either  from  almost  any  one 
of  Napoleon’s  most  important  campaigns  or  from  the 
Peninsula,  specific  lessons,  for  the  most  part  experiences 
of  human  nature,  and  illustrations  of  the  mistakes  which 
men  are  liable  to  make,  which  have  in  no  wise  been  di- 
minished in  value  by  the  changes  which  have  come  over 
the  face  of  war.  , 

In  many  respects,  no  doubt,  even  the  Roman  armies 
in  the  time  of  Hannibal  acted  on  strategidal  principles 
that  are  applicable  in  our  own  time.  Y et  the  change  in  the 
conditions  under  which  armies  began  to  live  in  the  field 
was  so  great  from  the  moment  when,  in  order  to  facili- 
tate and  hasten  their  movements,  they  began  to  be  thus 
supplied  from  a particular  “base,”  and  along  these 
“ lines  of  communication,”  that  the  art  of  handling  them 
in  campaigns  changed  almost  as  completely  as  tactics 
ever  changed.  New  combinations  became  possible. 
Skill  was  turned  into  a new  direction.  In  other  words, 
strategy,  like  tactics,  changes  when  its  implements  or 
weapons  change.  If  now  it  be  asked  whether  since  the 
days  of  Napoleon  and  Wellington  the  implements,  oi 
strategy  have  not  changed  almost  as  completely  as  those 
of  tactics,  it  must  be  answered  that  the  change  has 
been  even  more  complete.  Nowhere  has  the  truth  of 
this  statement  been  more  apparent  than  in  the  late  war 
in  the  United  States.  The  most  complete  revolution  of 
tactics  and  manipulation  of  war  material  in  naval  op- 
erations that  the  world  has  witnessed  began  with  the 
construction  of  Ericsson’s  Monitor , and  affected  not 
only  America,  but  the  entire  world,  as  this  article  will 
later  on  fully  show. 

Not  only  have  we  to  deal  with  new'  material  condi- 
tions, but,  as  already  observed,  the  armies  which  have 
to  be  led  under  these  new  circumstances  have  therfiselves 
been  profoundly  changed,  not  only  in  their  armament 
but  in  the  very  spirit,  discipline,  and  organization  by 
which  they  are  held  together.  What  is  true  of  the  pri- 
vate, of  the  sergeant,  of  the  captain,  in  his  relation  with 
superiors,  is  even  truer  of  the  leader  of  the  brigade,  of 
the  division,  of  the  army-corps,  of  the  cooperating  army. 
The  whole  method  of  the  Prussian  discipline  and  or- 
ganization, as  it  showed  itself  in  1870,  implied  an  intel- 
ligent independence  of  action  in  all  ranks  that  most 
seriously  affected  the  strategical  ' operations.  In  fact, 
in  that  campaign  two  very  noteworthy  points  may  be 
observed.  From  the  first  battle  at  Weissenburg  up  to 
and  including  Gravelotte,  the  peculiar  feature  of  the  war 
was  that  the  German  successes  at  each  action — Weissen- 
burg, Worth,  Spicheren,  Colombey-Nouilly,  Mars-la- 
Tour — were  much  more  important  in  their  strategical 


WAR 


than  in  their  tactical  aspect — much  more  important, 
that  is  to  say,  in  their  general  influence  on  the  campaign 
than  in  the  severity  of  the  losses  in  men  and  material 
inflicted  on  the  enemy.  The  losses  in  battle  were  in 
fact  greater  on  the  side  of  the  victors  than  on  that  ot  the 
vanquished.  Yet.  secondly,  each  of  these  actions,  up  to 
but  not  including  Gravelotte,  was  brought  on  by  the 
determination  of  subordinate  leaders,  and  was  not 
designed  beforehand  either  by  the  king’s  headquarters 
or  by  the  headquarters  of  any  one  of  the  three  armies. 
It  cannot  of  course  be  denied  that  there  was  an  element 
of  danger  in  this  way  of  managing  a campaign.  But 
the  general  who  attempts  to  carry  out  a modern 
campaign  without  having  realized  the  nature  of  this 
strictly  strategical  experience  is  reckoning  without  his 
host.  Armies^  now  occupy,  even  when  in  numbers 
similar  to  those  of  the  past,  distances  vastly  greater 
than  was  the  case  in  former  times.  One  of  two  things 
must  happen:  either  a general  must  attempt  to  pre- 
scribe the  action  of  his  subordinate  leaders  with  a 
rigidity  which  nowadays  will  continually  prevent  them 
from  carrying  out  what  would  be  his  wishes  could  he  be 
on  the  spot  to  advise  them;  or  .he  will  find  that  he  has, 
as  best  he  may,  to  make  his  strategical  movements  fit 
into  events  which  have  not  been  previously  designed  by 
himself.  The  Prussian  headquarters,  realizing  fully  the 
dangers  involved  in  the  plan  which  they,  in  fact  yielding 
to  necessity,  accepted,  found  no  fault  with  the  generals 
who  had  initiated  battles  which  had  proved  successful, 
fearing  to  do  more  injury  to  the  spirit  of  the  army  than 
would  be  compensated  by  any  other  advantage. 
Nevertheless  the  notes  of  warning  thrown  out  in  the 
official  history  of  the  war  are  clear  and  umistakable. 
To  us  it  appears  that  this  condition  of  things  is  an 
element  in  modern  war  to  be  foreseen  and  prepared  for, 
that  it  represents,  not  an  accident  of  the  1870  campaign, 
but  an  almost  inevitable  consequence  of  the  present  con- 
dition of  armies.  It  was  their  high  spirit,  their  high 
training,  their  knowledge  of  war,  which  made  the 
German  leaders  so  hard  to  keep  within  the  leash  when 
they  saw  the  prey  before  them,  and  realized  that  it  was 
a matter  of  moments  whether  it  could  be  seized  or  not. 
There  is  nothing  like  this  campaign,  in  the  peculiar 
mode  in  which  its  strategical  aspects  developed,  in  all 
the  past  history  of  war. 

The  character  of  all  military  operations,  whether 
those  of  strategy  or  tactics,  is  mainly  determined  by  the 
nature  of  the  armies  engaged  in  them.  An  army  as  it 
exists  in  the  field  owes  its  constitution  largely  to  those 
military  institutions  which  have  been  fully  described  for 
each  of  the  armies  of  our  time  under  Army.  But  an 
army  in  the  field  differs  considerably  in  each  case  from 
that  which  has  been  described  as  “ the  machine  in  a 
state  of  rest.”  This  will  be  obvious  at  once  if  we  con- 
sider the  first  question  which  attracts  the  attention  of  a 
commander  about  to  lead  an  army  in  war.  He  has  to 
choose  the  line  of  operations  along  which  his  army  will 
act.  The  considerations  which  determine  his  choice 
are  mainly  connected  with  the  necessity  he  is  under  of 
providing  at  all  times  for  the  supply  of  his  army  with 
Food,  forage,  and  ammunition,  while  he  directs  it  against 
the  point  at  which  he  is  to  strike. 

In  order  that,  for  actual  fighting  purposes  and  dur- 
ing war,  “ that  vast  and  complicated  machine,”  an 
army,  may  so  act,  “ that  the  whole  aggregate  force  of 
its  numerous  parts  may  be  exerted  in  any  direction  and 
on  any  point  required,”  the  necessities  of  the  individual 
soldier  must  be  so  provided  for  as  not  to  hamper  its 
working.  A body  of  even  thirty  thousand  men  occu- 
pies a very  considerable  space,  and  requires  an  amount 
of  food  that  completely  disturbs  the  ordinary  peace 
arrangements  of  most  places  at  which  it  arrives  in  the 


6255 

course  of  its  movements.  Hence,  apart  from  the  large 
means  of  transport,  such  as  a great  fleet  or  ample  rail- 
way  communication,  which  may  be  sometimes  used  to 
carry  a whole  army  to  a given  destination,  an  army  re- 
quires what  is  known  as  “ transport  ” for  an  altogether  dif- 
ferent purpose.  The  food  and  ammunition  must  be  dis- 
tributed to  the  several  battalions  of  soldiers  composing 
the  army  from  the  points  at  which  it  has  been  collected, 
and  within  the  battalions  it  will  often  be  necessary  to 
distribute  it  by  transport  to  the  men.  Similarly  for  the 
conveyance  of  the  sick  and  wounded  of  an  army  trans- 
port is  required.  In  former  days  the  arrangements 
which  were  made  to  provide  an  army  with  what  was 
needed  in  this  way  were  clumsy  in  the  extreme.  But 
now  that  the  great  nations  of  the  continent  of  Europe 
have  adopted  a system  by  which  all  the  population  is 
available  for  military  service,  the  result  is  that  from  the 
moment  of  declaration  of  war  a modern  army  enters 
upon  a campaign  with  the  whole  of  its  “transport,” 
using  the  term  in  the  sense  we  have  employed,  as  defi- 
nitely a part  of  the  disciplined  army  as  its  infantry,  its 
cavalry,  or  artillery  are.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to 
exaggerate  the  importance  of  this  change  in  facilitating 
the  operations  of  an  army  in  the  field. 

The  difficulty  in  rapidly  transferring  an  army,  chiefly 
because  of  its  attendant  departments, affects  all  strategic- 
al movements  by  railway.  The  embarking  of  troops 
on  a railway,  and  their  disembarking  from  the  carriages, 
is  an  operation  of  such  slowness  that  for  comparatively 
short  journeys  it  is  actually  quicker  for  troops  to  march 
than  to  move  by  railway.  The  miscalculations  and 
mistakes  which  were  made  so  recently  as  1870  by  the 
French  army,  from  failure  to  understand  these  facts,  led 
often  to  the  most  disastrous  consequences.  In  one 
instance  Gambetta,  insisting  on  sending  troops  by  rail- 
way which  Aurelle  de  Palladines  had  wished  to  march, 
hampered  the  operations  of  that  veteran  by  the  delay 
which  was  thus  imposed  upon  certain  portions  of  the 
army.  There  is,  in  fact,  between  the  distance  to  be 
moved  over  and  the  number  of  troops  to  be  moved  by 
a line  of  railway,  a proportion  which  determines  whether 
it  is  a more  rapid  operation  to  march  or  to  travel  by 
railway. 

An  army  in  the  field,  however,  in  addition  to  having 
transport  present  with  it  for  distribution,  needs  to  be 
able  to  replenish  its  supplies;  and,  though  in  fertile 
countries  like  France  the  feeding  of  the  army  may  be 
greatly  assisted  by  requisitions  or  by  opening  markets, 
it  is  impossible  to  depend  for  existence  on  these  alone. 
Fresh  supplies  of.  ammunition  at  least  must  be  continu- 
ally received  from  a secure  source,  and  the  means  must 
be  available  for  feeding  the  army  in  case  the  resources 
of  the  country  fail.  Nowadays,  and  in  most  countries, 
the  main  line  of  supply  is  carried  along  lines  of  rail- 
way; but,  as  these  are  always  liable  to  be  destroyed  by 
a retreating  enemy,  transport,  independent  of  that 
which  is  required  merely  for  distribution,  must  be  pro- 
vided in  the  form  of  wagons,  carts,  or  pack  animals 
sufficient  to  supply,  for  at  least  some  days,  the  entire 
army. 

The  source  from  which  an  army  is  supplied  is  usually 
spoken  of  as  its  “ base  ” or  its  “ base  of  supply.”  The 
direction  in  which  a general  proposes  to  advance,  and 
along  which  it  will  be  necessary  to  arrange  for  supply, 
is  spoken  of  as  his  “ line  of  operations.”  The  direction 
along  which  the  army,  having  already  advanced  to  some 
distance  from  its  base,  is  supplied,  is  spoken  of  as  its 
“ line  of  communications.”  Now,  as  the  line  of  commu- 
nications may  come  to  be  of  great  length  as  an  army 
advances,  and  as  the  army  needs  to  have  its  fighting 
strength  available  in  the  front  when  it  is  engaged  with 
the  enemy,  it  is  clear  that  the  long  lines  of  road  at 


WAR 


6256 

railway  along  which  the  food  and  ammunition  are 
moving  forward,  while  parties  of  sick  and  wounded  men 
are  going  backward,  become  weak  points  in  its  condition, 
which  must  be  jealously  guarded,  but  are  difficult  ade- 
quately to  protect  throughout  their  length,  without  de- 
tracting too  much  from  the  force  in  the  front.  In 
modern  war  the  effort  of  the  general  is  directed  to  main- 
taining in  its  full  efficiency  “ the  vast  and  complicated 
machine  ” which  he  handles,  and  to  breaking  up  and 
destroying  the  efficiency  of  that  to  which  he  is  opposed. 
This  is  the  central  fact  to  be  kept  in  mind.  Generals 
and  soldiers,  long  accustomed  to  look  at  war  from  this 
point  of  view,  frequently  embody  their  whole  conception 
of  strategy  in  a phrase  which  to  a reader,  taking  it  in  its 
simple  form,  is  apt  to  seem  like  a mere  truism — that 
the  great  principle  of  strategy  is  to  concentrate  the 
largest  possible  force  at  the  right  moment  at  the  decisive 
point.  So  stated,  strategy  may  seem  to  have  nothing 
exceptional  in  its  nature,  and  to  involve  no  study  of  the 
nature  of  the  great  organizations  of  men  with  which  it 
is  concerned.  But,  in  fact,  this  study  and  this  knowl- 
edge are  presupposed  by  those  who  thus  explain  their 
art.  It  is  because  armies  are  not  mere  gatherings  of 
armed  men,  but  have  a vitality  of  their  own,  that  some 
very  heavy  blows  may  be  struck  against  them  without 
affecting  a vital  point,  while  a more  skillfully  directed 
stroke  may  destroy  their  whole  future  power  of  action. 
An  army,  then,  as  it  stands  in  the  field,  is  of  this  char- 
acter, that,  while  the  fighting  force  directly  opposed  to 
the  enemy  is  an  organism  which  depends  for  its  vitality 
upon  the  trained  spirit  of  order,  discipline,  and  enthu- 
siasm or  devotion  which  holds  it  together,  and  on  the 
trained  capacity  for  mutual  and  effective  fighting  co- 
operation which  makes  it  act  like  one  man,  it  has  also, 
reaching  far  behind  it,  a long  and  weak  tail,  on  the 
safety  of  which  its  very  existence  depends. 

Now,  if  by  employing  a large  portion,  or  the  whole 
of  his  own  force,  against  a smaller  portion  of  the  ene- 
my’s, a general  can  break  up  and  defeat  it,  the  advan- 
tage gained  depends  on  the  fact  that  he  has  broken  up 
the  organic  unity  of  this  portion.  Even  if,  as  may 
easily  happen,  he  has  lost  more  men  than  the  enemy 
during  the  effort,  that  very  little  affects  the  importance 
of  the  result  on  the  future  of  the  campaign.  The 
strength  of  armies  cannot  be  measured  by  counting 
heads  within  the  theater  of  war.  It  depends  upon  the 
organized  force  that  the  general  is  able  to  use  and  to  direct. 
During  the  earlier  battles  of  the  1870  campaign,  for 
instance,  the  Germans  lost  very  many  more  men  than 
the  French,  but  at  Weissenburg  they  broke  up  the 
organic  efficiency  of  a French  division  of  about  8,000 
men.  At  Worth  they  broke  up  the  organic  efficiency 
of  40,000  men  at  least.  After  Worth  the  French  army 
which  had  fought  there  had  for  the  time  being  ceased  to 
be  an  effective  fighting  body  at  all.  Throughout  the  cam- 
paign it  never  recovered  efficiency.  The  German  forces, 
on  the  other  hand,  though  they  had  lost  more  fighting  men 
than  the  French,  had  actually  increased  their  own  effect- 
ive power.  Their  organic  unity  was  retained,  and  the 
spirit  which  inspired  it  had  been  incalculably  raised  by 
victory.  But  if  a general  can  in  any  way  interfere  with 
the  source  from  which  an  enemy  is  obtaining  his  supplies 
of  food,  ammunition,  and  fresh  men,  he  can  diminish 
his  fighting  power  as  effectually  as  if  he  broke  up  the 
organic  unity  in  battle.  A body  of  men  who  are  starv- 
ing can  as  little  be  held  in  the  bonds  of  organization  as 
a body  of  men  who  are  dispersed.  Hence  the  slightest 
movement  which  threatens  that  long  and  weak  tail  al- 
ready described  obliges  the  general  whose  line  of  com- 
munications is  threatened  to  take  steps  for  its  protection. 

At  first  sight  it  is  not  very  obvious,  since  each  army 
possess  lightly  movable  troops — cavalry,  mounted  in- 


fantry, and  the  like — why  these  should  not  be  able  to 
pass  round  the  front  of  the  opposing  army,  and  get  at 
the  unguarded  parts  of  the  roads  and  railways  along 
which  the  supplies  are  moving.  To  some  extent, 
during  the  Civil  war,  this  was  actually  done  by  the 
great  leaders  of  horsemen  on  either  side — Sheridan  and 
Stuart.  In  all  probability  a similar  attempt  will  be 
made  in  future  wars  by  the  great  bodies  of  Russian 
Cossacks,  and  perhaps  by  the  cavalry  of  Germany, 
France,  and  Austria.  But  what  facilitated  the  raids  of 
the  American  cavalry  of  either  army  was  the  fact  that 
they  were  moving  in  a country  where  all  the  people 
spoke  the  same  language  as  themselves,  and  where 
they  were  sure  to  find  sympathizers  to  supply  them 
with  needed  information.  Under  ordinary  circum- 
stances the  difficulty  is  that  each  armyCaces  the  other 
without  any  approach  to  complete  knowledge  of  the 
distribution  of  the  troops  opposed  to  it.  The  part  of 
the  enemy’s  line  of  communication  which  is  nearest  to 
you  is  also  the  part  nearest  to  the  main  body  of  that 
enemy’s  own  army.  In  order  to  get  at  some  parts  of 
his  communications  which  would  be  out  of  reach  of 
support  from  the  main  army,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
send  the  assailing  light  troops  to  points  several  marches 
in  rear.  This  involves  a long  detour,  an  elaborately 
prepared  march,  and  the  risk  that  the  enemy  may 
become  aware  of  what  is  designed. 

The  situation  is  altogether  changed  if,  instead  of  the 
two  armies  fronting  one  another  directly,  one  of  the 
two  is  able  to  make  its  movements  in  such  a way  that, 
while  it  securely  covers  its  own  line  of  communications, 
its  direct  march  forward  threatens  to  strike  the  line  of 
communications  of  the  enemy.  Then  the  light  troops 
can  at  once  strike  the  most  exposed  parts  in  all  security. 
Under  those  circumstances  the  army  whose  communica- 
tions are  threatened  is  obliged  immediately,  for  fear  of 
losing  its  means  of  existence,  to  turn  to  face  its  oppo- 
nents. The  advantage  so  gained  by  the  army  which  has 
obliged  its  enemy  to  conform  to  its  movement  is  very 
great.  For  the  choice  of  position  can  no  longer  be 
made  by  the  assailed  army  solely  with  the  view  to  gain- 
ing success  in  battle.  It  may  be  obliged  to  fight  in  a 
position  tactically  disadvantageous,  and  if  it  is  defeated 
the  defeat  is  almost  certain  to  be  fatal : for  it  will  be 
driven  away  from  the  means  of  replenishing  supplies. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  army  to  which  it  is  opposed,  if 
obliged  by  ill-success  in  action  to  retreat,  falls  securely 
back  upon  fresh  supplies,  and  suffers  only  to  the  extent 
of  its  actual  defeat  on  the  battle-field. 

Discipline  is  the  very  life-blood  of  an  army,  and  it  is 
on  the  field  of  battle,  that  is,  within  the  province  of 
tactics,  that  it  shows  its  potency.  To  interfere  in  any 
way  with  this  spirit,  as  it  determines  the  power  of  the 
commander  over  his  men  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy 
and  under  the  stress  of  battle,  to  introduce  the  least 
malignant  influence  into  it,  is  to  blood-poison  the  army. 
Therefore,  as  no  army  can  nowadays  hope,  in  presence 
of  a modern  enemy  armed  with  the  weapons  of  to-day, 
to  carry  out  a system  of  maneuvers  in  which  discipline 
can  be  maintained  with  the  old  facility,  and  under  con 
ditions.  so  favorable  to  it  as  those  of  the  past,  we  must 
approach  the  subject  with  a caution  proportioned  to  its 
vital  importance.  The  American  Civil  war  seemingly 
furnishes  a contradiction  to  the  proposition  here  laid 
down;  for  in  the  Confederate  army,  composed  as  it  was 
of  material  of  so  high  a class — men  restive  under  all 
restraint  of  arbitrary  nature — discipline  in  the  sense 
here  used  was  impossible;  and  yet  no  superior  fighting 
aggregation  of  men  was  ever  gotten  together  in  the 
history  of  war,  ancient  or  modern.  In  the  Northern 
armies  also,  discipline  was,  to  a less  degree,  impossible. 
These  military  organizations  were  composed  almost 


WAR 


entirely  of  volunteers,  and  were  officered  by  civilians, 
whose  knowledge  of  military  duties  was  very  vague,  and 
who  were  content  to  allow  each  man  to  act  as  a unit  on 
the  field  of  battle,  so  long  as  there  was  no  absolute  call 
for  concert.  This  condition  of  affairs  gave  rise  to  the 
much  resented  remark  of  a veteran  European  strategist 
that  the  armies  of  the  Civil  war  were  nothing  but 
armed  mobs  in  conflict,  and  not  armies  in  battle. 
Curiously  enough  it  is  from  an  English  scientific  author, 
from  Mr.  Darwin,  that  one  of  the  ablest  of  recent 
German  writers  on  war  has  borrowed  the  penetrating 
phrase  which  sums  up  the  essential  element,  common 
to  the  discipline  of  the  past  with  that  of  the  present, 
which  it  is  vital  to  us  not  to  shake  or  to  impair.  The 
engrained  habit  of  mutual  confidence  among  all  ranks 
of  a regiment  is  the  factor  in  its  strength  which  attracted 
Mr.  Darwin’s  attention  as  the  cause  of  its  incalculable 
superiority  in  power  over  an  armed  mob.  Baron  von 
der  Goltz  accepts  thestatementas  true,  without  reserve. 
When,  however,  we  come  to  consider  what  has  enabled 
armies  to  acquire  this  engrained  habit,  we  are  met  by 
some  very  curious  experiences.  In  the  first  place,  the 
instinctive  habit  of  obedience  to  a word  of  command, 
as  coming  from  one  who  has  the  right  and  the  duty  to 
give  that  command,  has  to  be  carried  into  the  very 
limbs  of  a man. 

Now  the  capacity  to  act  together  under  the  orders  of 
one  man  can  never  be  dispensed  with  under  any  of  the 
conditions  of  modern  war.  The  instinctive  obedience 
of  a rank  of  soldiers  to  the  order  to  turn  “ Right  about,  ” 
when  that  order  sends  them  back  into  the  ground 
where  shells  are  bursting  and  where  bullets  are  raining, 
has  been  a power  in  fighting  too  great  ever  to  throw 
it  away.  In  proportion  as  men  understand  war  they 
value  this  effect,  and  would  be  unwilling  even  to  dimin- 
ish at  a given  moment  actual  loss  of  life  if  that  diminu- 
tion were  secured  by  any  sacrifice  of  this  power.  But, 
under  the  modern  conditions  of  war,  the  loss  inflicted 
within  a given  time  by  the  terrible  weapons  now  in  the 
hands  of  all  armies  is  so  great  that  the  formations  under 
which  on  a parade  ground  the  armies  of  the  past  pre- 
pared to  move  in  actual  fighting  under  the  orders  of 
their  commanders  are  mechanically  as  much  as  morally 
dissolved.  Not  even  can  the  voice  of  the  captain  or 
the  subaltern  be  heard,  much  less  that  of  the  lieutenant- 
colonel,  above  the  din  of  breech-loaders  and  of  shrapnel 
shells.  The  great  problem  of  modern  tactics,  in  so  far 
as  it  concerns  actual  fighting,  which  regulates  every- 
thing else,  is  how  to  maintain  the  old  unity  under  the 
new  conditions  which  make  it  so  difficult. 

This  much  at  least  we  know,  that  from  the  moment 
that  infantry  are  actually  involved  in  a modern  breech- 
loader fight  all  maneuvering  has  ceased  to  be  possible. 
The  natural  and  the  necessary  deduction  from  this  is 
that  the  only  influence  which  can  be  exercised  upon 
such  a fight  by  any  but  very  subordinate  leaders  is  to 
throw  into  it  fresh  bodies  of  men  who  till  then  have 
been  retained  in  close  formations.  Now  the  experience 
of  the  1870  battles  showed  clearly  that  the  effect  of 
fresh  bodies  thus  thrown  into  a fight  is  very  great 
indeed.  Moreover,  that  experience  showed  further  that 
the  direction  in  which  the  fresh  force  is  thrown  into  a 
contest  already  engaged  between  two  bodies  of  infantry 
is  vitally  important  in  determining  how  great  the  effect 
of  the  blow  so  delivered  will  be.  The  tendency  of  any 
great  fight  is  to  break  up  into  a series  of  partially  inde- 
pendent actions.  Therefore  it  almost  always  happens 
that  in  each  of  fchese  there  are  on  both  sides  certain 
weak  points,  which  present  opportunities  to  a skillful 
assailant.  These  arise  either  from  circumstances  of 
ground  or  from  the  inevitable  disconnection  produced 
by  isolated  action  of  particular  bodies  of  troops.  Skill 


6257 

now  consists  in  taking  advantage  of  these  opportunities, 
in  anticipating  the  conditions  under  which  they  are 
likely  to  occur,  in  preparing  to  escape  from  similar 
dangers,  and  in  pressing  home  a success.  Here  then  is 
the  way  in  which  the  organization  spoken  of  above  as 
the  means  of  battle  action  makes  itself  felt.  It  is  im- 
possible now  for  the  commander-in-chief  of  a great 
army  to  be  ready  at  each  part  of  a battle  for  one  of 
these  emergencies.  Scarcely  can  the  commander  of  a 
division  of  10,000  men,  or  even  the  commander  of 
3,000,  meet  all  the  local  incidents  that  occur.  At  each 
stage  of  the  hierarchy  there  is  needed  a man  who,  in 
proportion  to  the  extent  of  the  opportunity  or  the 
danger,  is  ready  to  seize  or  to  meet  it. 

Cavalry  striking  by  sudden  surprise  on  the  flank  of 
unprepared  infantry  or  artillery,  engaged  with  other 
enemies,  may  produce  an  effect,  great  to  an  extent  of 
which  as  yet  we  have  no  adequate  example  in  modern 
war.  That  is  the  conclusion  drawn  from  their  own 
experiences  of  the  1870  campaign  by  the  most  experi- 
enced leaders  who  were  employed  in  it.  Count  Von 
Moltke  in  1882,  and  Prince  Kraft  of  Hohenlohe-IngeF 
fingen  in  his  letters  on  cavalry  published  in  1887,  have 
alike  pronounced  decisively  on  the  subject,  and  it 
would  be  easy  to  show  that  the  whole  weight  of  the  best 
military  opinion  in  all  countries  except  Russia  is  on  the 
same  side. 

The  practical  possibility  on  most  fields  of  battle  of 
cavalry  being  thus  employed  depends  on  two  facts — on 
the  one  hand  the  extent  to  which  almost  all  ground 
presents  opportunities  to  a skillful  leader  for  moving 
his  men  unobserved  from  point  to  point  of  a great 
battle-field,  and  on  the  other  that  absorption  in  the 
intense  excitement  of  a modern  fight  which  prevents 
men  from  observing  what  is  taking  place  anywhere 
beyond  the  immediate  range  of  their  own  employment. 

It  follows  from  this  that  the  utmost  possible  skill  in 
the  handling  of  cavalry  as  a mounted  arm  will  be  re- 
quired if  cavalry  is  to  take  advantage  of  such  chances  as 
modern  fight  will  present  to  it.  Now,  in  all  periods 
since  the  invention  of  firearms,  there  has  been  a tend- 
ency, as  improvements  in  weapons  has  taken  place,  to 
attempt  to  put  cavalry  on  a level  in  point  of  firearms 
with  the  infantry  with  which  it  has  had  to  contend. 
Invariably,  when  that  rare  development  of  armies,  a 
great  cavalry  leader,  has  arisen,  he  has  swept  away  all 
attempts  of  the  kind,  and  has  employed  his  cavalry 
with  their  proper  weapon,  the  “ arme  blanche,”  sword 
or  lance.  « 

Nothing  is  more  noteworthy  throughout  the  1870 
campaign  than  the  extraordinary  superiority  of  the 
German  artillery  over  the  French.  There  were  no 
doubt  certain  technical  reasons  for  this;  but  by  far  the 
most  important  reasons  were  these: — (1)  the  German 
batteries  had  been  trained  habitually  so  to  cooperate  that 
a French  battery  almost  always  found  itself  opposed  to 
a German  brigade  of  six  batteries  when  it  came  to  fight- 
ing; and  (2)  at  all  their  maneuvers  the  Germans  had 
been  training  for  war,  while  the  French  artillery  had 
not.  The  German  artillery  had  never  fired  off  a gun 
which  had  not  been  properly  laid  at  an  assigned  object, 
with  the  range  determined,  the  nature  of  the  projectile 
declared,  and  the  fuse  to  burst  the  shell  so  far  fixed 
that,  had  it  been  necessary  actually  to  fire  in  earnest, 
every  man  would  have  gone  through  an  almost  exactly 
similar  experience.  The  French,  on  the  other  hand, 
had  piqued  themselves  on  their  dashing  battery  ma- 
neuvers, and  had  been  content  to  fire  off  a blank  cart- 
ridge as  rapidly  as  possible,  no  matter  how  the  gun  was 
laid,  or  what  would  have  happened  about  the  shell. 

Ordinarily  a battle  will  now  begin  by  artillery  open- 
ing fire  at  a range  which  is  fixed  by  the  necessity  of  th> 


WAR 


6258 

attacking  artillery  not  exposing  itself  during  the  time 
that  it  is  coming  up  to  the  enemy’s  effective  fire  with 
shrapnel  shell.  This  is  reckoned  at  about  3,800  yards. 
From  that  point  the  artillery,  as  soon  as  it  has  been 
able  sufficiently  to  occupy  the  fire  of  the  enemy  to  make 
further  advance  possible,  pushes  in  to  a distance  of  from 
2,200  yards  to  2,700  yards.  Infantry  in  the  meantime 
will  have  been  pushed  on  sufficiently  to  protect  the 
ground  thus  to  be  occupied  by  the  artillery  from  direct 
attacks  from  the  enemy.  At  this  point  an  artillery  duel 
is  practically  the  certain  beginning  of  the  regular  battle. 
The  artillery  will  fire  at  any  of  the  other  arms  as  soon 
as  it  is  able  to  bring  any  effective  fire  to  bear  on  them. 
It  is  no  easy  matter  for  infantry  to  attack  other  infantry 
until  the  artillery  has  prepared  the  way  for  them  by  a 
heavy  fire.  But  the  artillery  will  hardly  ever  be  able  to 
do  this  until  it  has  established  such  an  ascendancy  over 
the  enemy’s  artillery  that  the  latter  is  either  silenced  or 
at  least  temporarily  withdrawn. 

So  far  we  have  spoken  of  what  may  properly  be  called 
the  minor  tactics  of  the  three  arms,  though  that  name 
is  often  applied  in  quite  a different  sense.  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  it  is  in  that  portion  of  tactics  that 
the  complexity  and  difficulty  of  the  present  stdge  of 
the  question  lie.  As  regards  the  larger  handling  of 
armies,  the  tendency  of  recent  wars  has  been  rather  to 
simplification  than  to  increased  difficulty.  The  employ- 
ment of  artillery  in  great  masses,  never  in  isolated  bat- 
teries, is,  so  far  as  that  arm  is  concerned,  its  most  im- 
portant law.  So  much  so  is  this  the  case  that,  even 
when  as  many  as  eighty-four  guns  were  collected  to- 
gether at  Worth,  the  Germans  found  it  to  answer  best  to 
turn  all  of  them  at  once  upon  a single  French  battery, 
and  then  upon  another,  and  so  on.  Wherever  possible, 
some  at  least  of  the  guns  will  take  up  an  enfilading 
positiorl;  that  is,  they  will  fire  from  flank  to  flank  of  the 
troops  they  assail,  in  preference  to  firing  directly  at 
them.  It  is  always  advantageous  to  the  fire  of  artillery 
to  have  great  depth  rather  than  great  extent  to  fire  at, 
because  range  is  much  more  difficult  to  fix  correctly 
than  direction. 

The  principles  regulating  the  marches  of  armies 
which  precede  battles  are  determined  by  the  conditions 
of  a modern  battle  itself.  As  a rule  nowadays  the  cav- 
alry of  an  army  will  be  certainly  pushed  far  forward  in 
advance  of  the  main  body.  Therefore,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  small  parties  of  horsemen  employed  as  or- 
derlies, for  keeping  up  the  connection  between  one 
part  of  an  army  and  another,  and  to  aid  the  infantry  in 
the  immediate  work  of  local  security,  the  marching  body 
will  in  ordinary  country  consist  of  artillery  and  infantry. 
The  tendency  for  every  action  to  begin  by  artillery  fire 
continually  leads  more  and  more  to  the  pushing  for- 
ward of  that  arm  to  the  front  of  the  column,  only 
sufficient  infantry  being  placed  before  it  on  the  road  to 
give  protection  in  case  of  sudden  attack,  and  to  furnish 
the  necessary  troops  for  the  defense  of  the  guns  at  the 
beginning  of  an  action.  The  exact  order  of  march  will 
therefore  necessarily  vary  with  the  character  of  the 
country  through  which  the  army  moves.  In  very 
mountainous  districts,  in  which  collision  with  an  enemy 
may  occur  at  any  moment,  it  may  be  necessary  to  push 
forward  infantry  instead  of  cavalry.  In  all  cases  where 
mountain  defiles  have  to  be  passed,  detached  infantry 
must  gain  possession  of  the  heights  before  the  main 
body  enters  the  defile. 

Since  the  great  object  of  all  marches  is  to  deliver  the 
army  in  fighting  order  on  the  battle-field,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  force  should  not  be  dispersed  too  widely  on  the 
march,  but  it  is  quite  as  necessary  with  large  bodies  of 
troops  that  the  march  should  not  be  made  upon  too  few 
roads.  An  army  corps  with  its  attendant  wagons  occu- 


pies in  depth  about  twenty-five  miles  on  a single  road.  As 
under  most  circumstances  a day’s  march  is  about  thir- 
teen or  fourteen  miles,  it  is  clear  that,  if  an  army  corps 
were  moving  in  the  ordinary  road  formation  on  a single 
road,  the  rear  of  the  column  would  scarcely  be  able  to 
arrive  on  the  same  day  that  the  head  of  the  column  was 
first  involved  in  action.  Nor  is  it  always  possible  to 
place  the  whole  of  the  fighting  force  in  front  and  to  leave 
the  whole  mass  of  wagons  in  rear.  Ambulances  and 
surgeons  at  least,  as  well  as  ammunition  columns,  are 
required  at  the  very  moment  of  battle.  Therefore  it  is 
advisable  to  employ  as  many  roads  as  possible  that  are 
within  convenient  reach  of  one  another.  The  difference 
between  the  lengths  of  march  that  have  been  done  by 
troops  under  favorable  and  unfavorable  conditions  is  so 
great  that  it  is  impossible  to  fix  any  specific  length  as 
the  march  that  can  under  all  circumstances  be  relied  on. 
Good  spirits,  good  roads,  high  training,  and  favorable 
weather  on  the  one  hand,  and  depression,  deep  mud, 
storms,  and  want  t of  marching  condition  on  the  other, 
are  elements  that  must  be  taken  into  account  in  all  such 
matters.  Of  the  difficulties  which  a large  number  of 
troops  marching  on  a single  road  encounter,  a striking 
illustration  is  afforded  by  an  incident  of  the  1866  cam- 
paign. According  to  the  Austrian  official  account, 
the  men  marched  eight  abreast  in  order  to  diminish 
the  length  of  road  occupied.  Yet,  though  this 
unusually  wide  marching  front  was  taken  up  by 
the  infantry,  and  corresponding  formations  were  as  far 
as  possible  taken  by  the  other  arms,  the  length  of  the 
longest  column,  according  to  Von  der  Goltz,  was,  when 
actually  on  the  road,  from  front  to  rear,  sixty  seven  and 
a half  miles  in  length.  In  this  case  about  three  corps  were 
marching  together.  Hence  it  is  always  desirable  when 
possible  to  allow  one  road  at  least  to  each  division.  An- 
other striking  illustration  both  of  the  size  of  modern  armies 
and  of  the  length  occupied  by  troops  on  a road  is  given 
by  Von  der  Goltz.  He  calculates  that,  if  the  present 
German  army  were  placed  on  one  road,  it  would  reach 
from  Mainz  to  the  Russian  frontier,  the  whole  distance 
being  densely  packed  with  men,  guns,  and  wagons. 
Again,  he  shows  that  either  the  present  French  or  Ger- 
man army  extended  in  battle  array  would  occupy  the 
entire  length  of  the  common  frontier  of  the  countries. 

The  subject  of  outposts  is  also  one  which,  for  its 
full  explanation,  would  require  a volume  to  itself.  The 
general  principle  on  which  their  use  is  based  is  that  a 
slender  cordon  of  men  shall  so  surround  an  army  when 
at  rest  that  no  enemy  can  approach  its  quarters  unob- 
served, and  that  this  cordon  shall  be  supported  by 
pickets  from  which  the  actual  sentries  for  the  cordon 
are  taken,  and  these  again  by  stronger  but  less  nu- 
merous bodies,  serving,  to  connect  together  the  dif- 
ferent parts,  so  that,  if  the  enemy  attempts  to  drive  in 
the  outposts  at  any  point,  he  meets  with  a continually 
increasing  resistance.  In  this  broad  indication  of  the 
method,  the  principle  is  equally  applicable  to  cavalry 
and  to  infantry  outposts.  In  general,  however,  the 
security  of  a modern  army,  when  not  in  actual  contact 
with  an  enemy  preparatory  to  battle,  depends  chiefly  on 
the  early  information  gained  by  cavalry  pushed  far  out 
beyond  the  rest  of  the  army.  The  cavalry  will  be  at 
a distance  of  at  least  one  or  two  days’  march  in  advance 
and  on  the  flanks  scouring  the  country  in  all  directions. 

The  introduction  of  steam,  armor,  the  torpedo,  and 
other  modern  changes  must  necessarily  have  produced 
modifications  in  naval  strategy  and  tactics  since  the  days 
of  the  last  great  naval  war.  In  the  course  of  the  last 
eighty  years  wars  on  land,  both  in  Europe  and  else- 
where, have  been  frequent,  and  soldiers  have  thus  been 
enabled  to  keep  pace  with  modern  inventions,  and  to 
accommodate  their  strategy  and  tactics  to  the  ever  chang- 


WAR 


mg  conditions  of  the  problem.  But  since  1805,  when 
Great  Britain,  by  her  victory  of  Trafalgar,  placed  her- 
self in  undisputed  command  of  the  seas,  and,  having 
tendered  herself  superior  to  all  possible  combinations 
against  her,  was  thus  enabled  to  found  unmolested  her 
colonial  empire,  the  world  has  seen  no  naval  war  of 
sufficient  magnitude  to  enable  seamen  to  lay  down 
maxims  of  strategy  and  tactics  founded  on  actual  expe- 
rience. It  does  not  follow,  however,  that  we  must 
necessarily  give  up  the  problems  as  insoluble;  we  are 
entitled  to  reason  by  analogy.  The  lessons  of  history, 
if  not  followed  too  slavishly,  will  act  as  a useful  guide  ; 
and  when  we  have  made  due  allowance  for  the  super- 
seding of  sail  by  steam  power,  and  the  consequent  limits 
to  the  mobility  of  all  fighting  ships  dependent  on  their 
supply  of  coal,  when  we  have  taken  into  consideration 
the  cutting  of  the  Suez  canal  and  the  possibility  of 
another  through  Panama,  and  when  we  have  given  due 
weight  to  the  possession  by  various  nations  of  certain 
strategic  points  on  the  surface  of  the  globe  where  coal 
may  be  obtained,  we  shall  be  able  to  construct  some  not 
altogether  imaginary  theories  of  future  naval  strategy, 
and  shall  probably  find  that  the  problem  bears  a striking 
family  resemblance  to  that  which  presented  itself  in  the 
past. 

The  effective  blockade  of  an  enemy’s  ports  would  of 
' itself  provide  for  the  protection  of  commerce,  for  if  no 
hostile  ships  could  escape  there  would  be  nothing  to 
prey  upon  the  commerce.  Such  experience,  however, 
as  was  gained  during  the  American  Civil  war,  supported 
by  numerous  peace  trials  and  general  nautical  experi- 
ence on  the  subject,  cends  to  show  that  a perfectly 
effectual  blockade  is  impossible,  as  against  steamers: 
some  vessels  of  high  speed  will  certainly  find  means  of 
escaping  on  dark  nights  or  during  thick  weather,  so 
that  it  becomes  necessary  for  a rich  commercial  nation, 
whose  merchant  ships  cover  every  sea,  to  make  arrange- 
ments for  providing  cruisers  of  superior  speed  and 
greater  coal  endurance,  to  look  after  every  one  of  the 
hostile  raiders  which  may  escape  the  blockade  and  en- 
deavor to  adopt  the  tactics  of  the  famous  “Alabama.” 
Some  half-dozen  Confederate  cruisers  of  feeble  power 
and  insignificant  speed  succeeded  in  driving  the  merchant 
flag  of  the  United  States  off  the  ocean,  and  deprived 
this  country  of  the  large  share  of  the  carrying  trade  of 
the  world  which  it  then  possessed. 

If  naval  strategy  has  been  modified  by  the  recent  in- 
ventions and  alterations  in  warlike  materials  and  the 
motive  power  of  ships,  it  is  certain  that  the  same  causes 
have  had  a still  greater  effect  upon  all  preconceived 
notions  of  naval  tactics.  Weather  gauge  will  no  longer 
be  sought  for  as  an  advantage.  In  fact  in  all  cases  of 
attack  by  surprise,  such  as  an  assault  by  torpedo  boats, 
or  other  light  craft,  for  the  purpose  of  harassing  a fleet, 
the  attacking  force  would  certainly  approach  from  the 
leeward,  by  which  tactics  the  smoke  from  every  gun 
fired  by  the  fleet  would  act  as  a screen  to  hide  their 
movements,  and  protect  them  from  machine  gun  fire; 
for  not  even  the  beams  of  the  electric  light  can  pene- 
trate smoke.  A large  amount  of  speculative  writing 
has  lately  been  indulged  in,  by  both  English  and 
French  writers,  as  to  the  naval  tactics  of  the  future. 
We  hear  of  “ramming  tactics,”  “ the  end-on  attack,” 
“the  melee,”  and  various  other  somewhat  vague  phrases, 
used  to  express  the  views  of  theorists  as  to  the  probable 
tactics  of  a future  naval  battle;  and,  while  the  torpedoist 
tells  us  that  his  weapon  (meaning  the  locomotive  tor- 
pedo) will  certainly  decide  an  action,  and  forbid  ships  to 
approach  near  enough  for  ramming,  the  artillerist 
laughs  to  scorn  the  inaccuracy  and  limited  range  of 
torpedoes  moving  in  such  a dense  medium  as  water, 
and  maintains  that  his  weapon,  of  far  greater  accuracy, 


6259 

almost  equal  destructive  power,  and  immensely  greater 
range,  will  as  of  old  decide  the  battle. 

It  is  probable  that  all  three  weapons,  ram,  gun,  and 
torpedo,  will  play  a part  in  future  naval  battles,  though 
many  thoughtful  and  practical  seamen  seem  to  be  com* 
ing  to  the  conclusion  that  the  ram  will  not  be  deliber 
ately  used,  except  perhaps  to  give  the  coup  de  gmce  to 
a ship  with  her  engines  already  disabled;  and  this  even 
would  appear  to  be  a wanton  destruction  of  a ship 
which  might  become  a valuable  prize",  and  an  inhuman 
sacrifice  of  lives  no  longer  capable  of  exercising  any 
material  influence  on  the  battle.  It  seems  to  be 
thought  that  ramming,  when  it  takes  place  in  action, 
will  be  as  often  accidental  as  deliberate;  and  indeed  the 
present  high  speed  and  great  size  and  weight  of  iron- 
clads would  probably  forbid  practical  seamen  from 
adopting  that  mode  of  attack.  Two  ships  of  from  ten 
to  thirteen  thousand  tons,  meeting  end-on  at  a speed  of 
twenty-eight  knots  an  hour  (assuming  the  speed  of  each 
to  be  fourteen  knots),  would  certainly  produce  mutual 
destruction,  with  loss  of  the  lives  of  almost  all  on 
board,  and  it  seems  difficult  to  believe  that  any  two 
men  who  still  retained  calm  judgment  and  reason 
would  deliberately  adopt  such  a suicidal  method  of 
fighting,  if  indeed  it  be  possible  to  steer  two  large 
ships  at  high  speed  with  such  accuracy  as  to  cause  a 
direct  collision — a point  which  many  practical  seamen 
doubt. 

On  the  other  hand,  a ship  striking  another  on  the 
broadside,  or  at  any  angle  approaching  a right  angle, 
would  probably  cause  the  destruction  of  the  latter,  with 
but  trifling  injury  to  herself,  supposing  her  bows  to  be 
properly  constructed  for  ramming;  but,  in  order  to 
place  a ship  in  a situation  to  strike  such  a blow  (both 
ships  proceeding  at  speed),  she  would  herself,  have 
to  assume  a very  critical  position;  that  is  to  say, 
she  would  have  to  expose  her  broadside,  or  in  other 
words,  she  would  have  to  place  herself  almost  as  much 
across  the  assumed  path  of  her  adversary  as  the  adver- 
sary was  across  hers;  in  which  position  the  miscalcula- 
tion of  a few  seconds  in  time,  a knot  or  two  in  speed, 
or  even  a small  touch  of  the  helm  of  either  ship  at  the 
last  moment,  would  turn  the  would-be  rammer  into  the 
victim.  It  is  probable  therefore  that,  if  ramming  takes 
place  in  action,  it  will  be  more  frequently  by  accident 
than  design. 

WARANGAL,  or  Worungul,  an  ancient  town  in 
the  Nizam’s  Dominions,  or  Hyderabad  State,  situated 
eighty-six  miles  northeast  of  Hyderabad  City,  and  con- 
taining in  1901  a population  of  4,347.  It  was  the  an- 
cient capital  of  the  Hindu  kingdom  of  Telingana, 
founded  by  the  Narapati  Andhras,  of  which  now  little 
remains  to  denote  its  former  grandeur  except  the  fouf 
gateways  of  the  temple  of  Siva. 

WARASDIN.  See  Varasd. 

WARBECK,  Perkin,  a pretender  to  the  crown 
of  England,  was  born  in  London,  though  said  to  have 
been  the  son  of  a Jew  of  Tournay,  where  he  spent  his 
boyhood.  In  1490  he  appeared  at  the  court  of  the 
Duchess  of  Burgundy,  sister  of  Edward  IV.  of 
England;  and  here  professed  to  be  the  duke  of  York, 
the  younger  of  the  two  sons  of  Edward  IV.,  murdered 
in  the  tower.  In  1492  he  landed  at  Cork,  where  he 
was  welcomed.  Subsequently  he  was  received  at  the 
court  of  Charles  VIII.  of  France,  as  duke  of  York; 
and  from  the  court  of  Burgundy,  where  he  was  treated 
as  nephew  of  the  Duchess,  he  went  to  Kent,  and  at- 
tempted a rising  against  Henry  VII.  He  next  went 
to  Scotland,  where  James  IV.  gave  him  the  daughter  of 
the  Earl  of  Huntly  in  marriage. 

In  1498  he  came  to  .Cornwall,  took  the  title  of  Rich- 
ard IV.  of  England,  was  taken  prisoner,  escaped  froica 


6260 


WAR 


prison,  was  retaken,  was  detected  in  a plot,  and  finally 
‘xecuted  at  Tyburn,  November  23,  1499. 

WARBLER,  in  ornithology,  the  name  bestowed  in 
*773  by  Pennant  on  :he  birds  removed,  in  1769,  by 
Sfcopoli  from  the  Linnsean  genus  Motacilla  to  one 
founded  and  called  by  him  Sylvia — the  last  being 
I word  employed  by  several  of  the  older  writers  in  an 
indefinite  way — that  is  to  say,  on  all  the  species  of 
Motacilla  which  were  not  Wagtails.  “Warbler”  has 
long  been  used  by  English  technical  writers  as  the 
equivalent  of  Sylvia , and  consequently  generally  applied 
to  all  members  of  the  Family  Sylviidce  thereoi  raised, 
which  has  since  been  so  much  subdivided  as  to  include 
s vast  number  of  genera,  while  species  almost  innu- 
merable have  from  time  to  time  been  referred  to  it. 

The  birds  known  as  “ American  Warblers,”  forming 
what  hasmow  for  a long  while  been  almost  universally 
recognized  as  * distinct  family,  Mniotiltidcc , possess  but 
nine  instead  of  ten  primaries,  and  are  peculiar  to  the 
New  World.  More  than  130  species  have  been  de- 
scribed, and  these  have  been  grouped  in  twenty  genera 
or  more,  of  which  members  of  all  but  three  are  at  least 
summer  visitants  to  North  America.  As  a whole  they 
are  much  more  brightly  colored  than  the  Sylviidce 
( Malurus , if  it  belongs  to  them,  always  excepted);  for, 
though  the  particular  genus  Mniotilta  (from  which,  as 
the  fortune  of  nomenclature  will  have  it,  the  family 
takes  its  right  name)  is  one  of  the  most  abnormal — its 
colors  being  plain  black  and  white,  and  its  habits 
rather  resembling  those  of  a Tree-creeper  {q.v.) — in 
other  groups  chestnut,  bluish  gray,  and  green  appear, 
the  last  varying  from  an  olive  to  a saffron  tint,  and  in 
some  groups  the  yellow  predominates  to  an  extent  that 
has  gained  for  its  wearers,  belonging  to  the  genus 
Dendrceca , the  name  of  “ Golden  ” Warblers.  In  the 
genus  Setophaga , the  members  of  which  deserve  to  be 
called  “Fly-catching”  Warblers,  the  plumage  of  the 
males  at  least  presents  yellow,  orange,  scarlet  or  crimson. 

WARBURTON,  Eliot  Bartholomew  George, 
traveler  and  novelist,  born  in  1810  near  Tullamore, 
Ireland,  made  a hit  with  his  first  book,  The  Crescent 
and  the  Cross.  It  was  a book  of  Eastern  travel,  in 
Turkey,  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Egypt,  and  fairly  divided 
public  attention  with  Mr.  Kinglake’s  Eothen , which 
appeared  in  the  same  year,  1844.  His  first  success  as 
an  author  tempted  him  to  try  again,  but  he  had  unhap- 
pily a short  career,  and  did  not  again  equal  The  Cres- 
cent and  the  Cross.  His  most  substantial  work  was  a 
Memoir  of  Prince  Rupert,  published  in  1849,  enriched 
with  original  documents,  and  written  with  eloquent 
partiality  for  the  subject.  He  produced  another  histor- 
ical novel,  Darien , or  The  Merchant  Prince  (1851). 
The  knowledge  therein  shown  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
isthmus  led  to  his  selection  by  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Company  to  explore  the  country  and  negotiate  a treaty 
with  the  Indian  tribes.  He  sailed  on  this  mission  in 
the  Amazon , which  perished  by  fire  with  nearly  all  on 
board  on  January  4,  1852. 

WARBURTON,  William,  bishop  of  Gloucester, 
was  born  on  December  24,  1698.  In  1723  he  was 
ordained  deacon  by  the  archbishop  of  York,  and  on 
March  1,  1727,  received  priest’s  orders  from  the  bishop 
of  London.  He  had  occupied  the  interval  in  various 
literary  labors,  the  most  important  being  the  notes  he 
contributed  to  Theobald’s  edition  of  Shakespeare.  He 
received  from  Sir  Robert  Sutter  the  small  living  of 
Griesiey,  in  Nottinghamshire,  exchanged  next  year  for 
that  of  Brant  Broughton,  in  Lincolnshire,  and  was 
made  an  honorary  M.A.  of  Cambridge.  Here  for 
eighteen  years  he  spent  his  time  in  intense  study,  the 
first  result  of  which  was  his  celebrated  treatise  on  the 
‘Uiauce  between  church  and  sdate,  published  in  1736. 


IIis  next  performance,  the  famous  Divine  Legation  of 
Moses  Demonstrated  on  the  Principles  of  a Religions 
Deist , the  first  part  of  which  was  published  in  1738, 
will  long  preserve  his  name  as  the  author  of  the  most 
daring  and  ingenious  of  theological  paradoxes. 
The  deists  had  made  the  absence  of  any  incul- 
cation of  the  doctrine  of  a future  life  an 
objection  to  the  divine  authority  of  the 
Mosaic  writings.  Warburton  boldly  admits  the  fact, 
and  turns  it  against  the  adversary.  No  human  legis- 
lator, he  contends,  would  have  omitted  such  a sanction 
of  morality ; ergo,  the  legislation  was  divine.  It  may  be 
doubted  whether  the  argument  ever  convinced  any  one ; 
and  its  cogency  was  not  assisted  by  the  multitude  of 
minor  paradoxes  with  which  it  was  interwoven,  such  as 
the  identification  of  the  scenery  of  the  sixth  book  of  the 
AEneid  with  the  exhibitions  of  the  Eleusinian  mys- 
teries. But  the  author’s  extraordinary  power,  learning 
and  originality  were  acknowledged  on  all  hands, 
though  he  excited  censure  and  suspicion  by  a circum- 
stance highly  honorable  to  him,  his  tenderness  to  the 
alleged  heresies  of  Conyers  Middleton.  The  second 
volume  of  the  work  appeared  in  1741.  In  1757  he  was 
made  dean  of  Bristol,  and  in  1760  bishop  of  Gloucester. 
His  last  important  act  was  to  found,  in  1768,  the  War- 
burtonian  lecture,  “ to  prove  the  truth  of  revealed 
religion  from  the  completion  of  the  prophecies  in  the 
Old  and  New  Testament  which  relate  to  the  Christian 
church,  especially  to  the  apostasy  of  Papal  Rome.” 
After  the  death  of  his  only  son  in  1776  he  fell  into  a 
lethargic  languor,  which  was  terminated  by  death  on 
June  7,  1779. 

WARD.  See  Infant. 

WARD,  Edward  Matthew,  history  and  genre 
painter,  was  born  at  London  in  1816.  Among  his  early 
boyish  efforts  in  art  was  a series  of  clever  illustrations 
to  the  Rejected  Addresses  of  his  uncles  Horace  and 
James  Smith,  which  was  followed  soon  afterward  by 
designs  to  some  of  the  papers  of  Washington  Irving. 
In  1830  he  gained  the  silver  palette  of  the  Society  of 
Arts  ; and  in  1835,  aided  by  Wilkie  and  Chantrey,  he 
entered  the  schools  of  the  Royal  Academy.  In  1836  he 
went  to  Rome,  where  in  1838  he  gained  a silver  medal 
from  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke  for  his  Cimabue  and 
Giotto,  which  in  the  following  year  was  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy.  The  young  artist  now  turned  his 
thoughts  to  fresco-painting,  which  he  studied  under 
Cornelius  at  Munich.  Among  the  more  important  of  his 
works  may  be  named  Charlotte  Corday  Led  to  Execution 
(1852),  The  Last  Sleep  of  Argyll  (1854),  The  Emperor 
of  the  French  Receiving  the  Order  of  the  Garter  (1859), 
painted  for  the  queen;  The  Ante-chamber  at  Whitehall 
during  the  Dying  Moments  of  Charles  II.  (1861), 
Doctor  Johnson's  First  Interview  with  John  Wilkes 
(1865),  and  The  Royal  Family  of  France  in  the  Temple , 
painted  in  I 51,  and  usually  considered  the  artist’s 
masterpiece.  For  several  years  before  his  death  Ward 
suffered  from  ill-health  and  mental  depression,  whL*h 
led  to  temporary  aberration  of  intellect.  He  died  *t 
Windsor,  on  January  15,  1879. 

WARD,  James,  animal  painter  and  engraver,  v.*tc 
born  in  London,  on  October  23,  1769.  His  Landscaps 
with  Cattle , acquired  for  the  National  Gallery  at  a coit 
of  $7,500,  was  painted  in  1820-22  at  the  suggestion  ol 
West,  in  emulation  of  the  Bull  of  Paul  Potter  at  The 
Hague.  His  Boa  Serpent  Seizing  a Horse  was  exe- 
cuted in  1822,  and  his  admirable  Gray  Horse , shown  in 
the  Old  Masters’  Exhibition  of  1879,  dates  from  1828. 
Ward  also  produced  portraits,  and  many  landscapes  like 
the  Gordale  Scar  and  the  Harlech  Castle  in  the  National 
Gallery.  Sometimes  he  turned  aside  into  the  less  fruit* 

| ful  paths  of  allegory,  as  in  his  unsuccessful  Pool  0/ 


WAR 


6261 


Bethesda  (1818),  and  Triumph  of  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton (1818).  He  was  a frequent  contributor  to  the  Royal 
Academy  and  the  British  Institution,  and  in  1841  he  col- 
lected 140  examples  of  his  art,  and  exhibited  them  in  his 
house  in  Newman  street.  He  was  elected  an  Associate 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1807,  and  a full  member  in 
1811,  and  died  at  Cheshunt  on  November  23,  1859. 

WARD,  William,  mezzotint-engraver,  an  elder 
brother  of  James  Ward  (see  above),  was  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1766.  In  1795  he  began  to  exhibit  in  the  Royal 
Academy,  of  which  in  1814  he  was  elected  an  associate 
engraver.  He  also  held  the  appointment  of  mezzotint- 
engraver  to  the  prince  regent  and  the  duke  of  Y ork. 
He  executed  six  plates  after  Reynolds,  engraved  many 
of  the  works  of  his  brother-in-law,  George  Morland, 
and  his  mezzotints  after  Andrew  Geddes,  which  include 
the  full-lengths  of  Sir  David  Wilkie  and  of  Patrick  Bry- 
done,  are  of  great  merit.  His  engravings  are  full  of 
artistic  spirit,  and  show  fine  feeling  for  color  ; and  they 
are  excellently  tender  and  expressive  in  their  rendering 
of  flesh.  He  died  suddenly  on  December  1,  1826. 

WARDEN,  an  officer  appointed  for  the  naval  or 
military  protection  of  some  particular  district  of 
country.  In  order  to  keep  the  districts  of  England 
adjoining  to  Scotland  and  Wales  in  an  attitude  of 
defense,  great  officers,  called  Lords  Warden  of  the 
marches,  were  appointed,  to  whom  the  duty  of  protect- 
ing the  frontier  was  committed.  From  this  source 
originated  the  name  Ward,  applied  to  the  subdivision 
of  the  counties  of  Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  and 
Durham,  a term  afterward  extended  to  the  divisions  of 
a city,  .town,  or  burgh,  adopted  for  municipal  purposes. 
The  custodian  of  Dover  Castle  was  created  by  William 
the  Conqueror  warden  of  Cinque  Ports  (g.v.),  and 
guardian  of  adjacent  coasts;  an  office  comprising  ex- 
tensive jurisdiction,  civil,  naval,  and  military,  the 
greater  part  of  which  was  taken  away  in  1856,  as  to  the 
Lord  Warden  of  the  Stannaries. 

WARDHA,  or  WuRDA,  a British  district  in  the  chief 
commissionership  of  the  central  provinces  of  India, 
with  an  area  of  2,401  square  miles.  Wardha  is  hilly  in 
the  north,  and  intersected  by  spurs  from  the  Satpura 
range.  The  central  portion  includes  the  three  peaks  of 
Malegaon  (1,726  feet),  Nandgaon  (1,874  feet),  and  Jait- 
garh  (2,086  feet).  The  Wardha,  and  its  affluent  the 
Wana,  are  the  only  rivers  of  any  importance. 

The  census  of  1901  disclosed  a population  of  387,221 
(males  195,564,  females  191,657),  Hindus  numbering 
328,523,  Mohammedans  14,200,  Christians  96,  and  abo- 
riginals 41,933.  The  district  contains  five  towns  with  a 
population  exceeding  5,000.  Wardha  (5,816),  the  chief 
town,  has  wide  and  regular  streets,  having  been  built  in 
1866. 

WARDLAW,  Ralph,  D.D.,  the  most  celebrated 
preacher  and  theologian  in  the  roll  of  Scotch  Independ- 
ents was  a seceder  by  extraction,  and  studied  in  con- 
nection with  the  Associate  Secession  church.  Before 
he  had  completed  his  curriculum,  however,  he  had  con- 
vinced himself  that  Congregational  independency  was 
the  scriptural  system  of  church  government.  In  1800 
he  began  to  preach,  and  after  .some  time  settled  in  Glas- 
gow as  pastor  of  an  Independent  church.  In  1811  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology  to  the  congrega- 
tional body  in  Scotland  in  conjunction  with  the  Rev. 
Greville  Ewing;  an  office  he  retained  along  with  his 
pastorate  to  the  period  of  his  death,  which  happened 
December  17,  1853.  Wardlaw’s  life  was  a very  labori- 
ous and  earnest  one.  Besides  discharging  ably  and 
faithfully  the  duties  of  the  pulpit  and  the  professor’s 
chair,  he  was  a voluminous  author,  often  involved  in 
theological  controversy,  and  a public  actor  in  the  relig- 
ious and  philanthropical  movements  of  the  day. 


WARDSHIP,  in  English  feudal  law,  was  the  guard- 
ianship which  the  feudal  lord  had  over  his  vassal’s  land, 
while  the  latter  was  an  infant  or  minor.  .Until  the 
majority  of  the  infant,  the  lord,  out  of  the  profits, 
provided  a fit  person  to  render  the  services  incumbent 
on  the  vassal. 

WARE,  an  ancient  market  town  of  Herts,  England, 
is  situated  in  a valley  on  the  north  side  of  the  river  Lea, 
and  on  a branch  of  the  Great  Eastern  railway,  two 
miles  east-northeast  of  Hertford,  and  twenty-two  and 
one-quarter  north  of  London  by  rail.  The  principal 
street  is  the  spacious  High  street,  running  east  and  west 
by  the  river.  The  houses  are  chiefly  modern,  but  there 
are  a few  of  the  old  timber  frame  houses.  The  Lea,  by 
means  of  which  there  is  good  water  communication,  is 
crossed  by  an  iron  bridge  erected  in  1845.  The  New 
River  Head  is  half  a mile  distant.  The  famous  “ great 
bed  of  Ware  ” referred  to  in  Shakespeare’s  Twelfth 
Night , which  formerly  was  at  the  Saracen’s  Head,  has 
been  removed  to  Rye  House,  two  miles  distant.  The 
town  possesses  breweries  and  brick-fields,  and  there  is  a 
large  trade  in  malt.  The  population  of  the  urban  sank 
tary  district  (area  about  641  acres),  in  1901  was  7,277. 
Ware  is  the  “ town  of  fame”  alluded  to  by  Cowper  in 
his  “John  Gilpin.”  William  Godwin  was  for  some 
time  minister  of  the  independent  chapel  there.  William 
of  Ware  was  the  teacher  of  Duns  Scotus. 

WARE,  a representative  and  flourishing  town  of 
Hampshire  county,  Mass.,  largely  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton  and  woolen  fabrics,  is  located  on  the 
Ware  River  railroad,  thirty-seven  miles  from  Win- 
chendon  and  twenty-one  miles  from  Springfield.  The 
Ware  river,  upon  which  the  town  -is  also  situated,  fur- 
nishes valuable  water  power.  Two  weekly  papers  are 
published,  and  two  banks,  one  of  which  has  a capital  of 
$300,000,  together  with  half  a dozen  churches,  schools, 
hotels,  and  a large  number  of  stores,  are  included  among 
the  established  undertakings,  besides  manufactures  of 
hosiery,  denims,  flannels  and  other  woolen  goods,  paper, 
flour,  lumber,  boots  and  shoes,  and  iron  products.  The 
population  in  1900  was  8,263. 

WAREHOUSING  SYSTEM  is  a plan  for  lessening 
the  pressure  of  excise  or  customs  duties  by  postponing 
payment  of  them  until  the  goods  they  are  laid  on  pass 
to  the  consumer,  or  at  all  events  to  the  retail  dealer.  A 
merchant  who  might  import  a thousand  dollars’  worth 
of  wine  and  tobacco,  if  he  only  paid  duty  on  it  by  in- 
stallments as  it  went  out  to  the  dealer,  would  be  quite 
unable  to  import  so  much  if  he  had  to  pay  somewhere 
from  one  to  five  thousand  dollars  of  duty  on  its  arrival. 
The  system  of  bonded  warehouses  was  hence  adopted. 
The  taxable  commodity  thus  came  to  be  locked  up  in  a 
government  warehouse,  and  the  duty  to  be  paid  on  its 
removal,  along  with  a proportional  fee  or  rent  for  the 
custody  of  the  article,  or  its  accommodation  in  gov- 
ernment premises.  This  process  by  which  the  govern- 
ment holds  in  custody  the  go'ods  of  private  persons  has 
produced  some  curious  effects  on  mercantile  law  and 
trading  practices.  When  transactions  have  taken  place 
about  bonded  goods,  should  they  be  injured  or  de- 
stroyed it  may  come  to  be  a question  of  nice  adjust- 
ment who  is  to  bear  the  loss,  seeing  there  is  not  pos- 
session to  show  ownership;  and  still  nicer  questions 
sometimes  arise  as  to  whether  such  goods  are  or 
are  not  part  of  a bankrupt  estate.  There  is  a difficulty 
in  securing  money  upon  goods  without  transferring 
their  absolute  possession,  as  in  the  case  of  pledging  or 
pawning. 

The  warehousing  system,  however,  by  retaining  the 
goods  for  the  owner,  whoever  he  may  be,  has  created  a 
complete  system  of  paper  money  in  the  transference  of 
the  title  deeds,  as  they  may  be  called,  of  such  goods* 


6262 


WAR 


the  dock-warrants  or  other  documents,  the  possession  of 
which  is  equivalent  to  possession  of  goods. 

WARM-BLOODED  ANIMALS.  Under  this  title 
are  included  those  vertebrates  which  possess  a four- 
chambered  heart  and  spongy  lungs,  being  so  arranged 
that  the  venous  or  impure  blood  is  propelled  over  a large 
but  closely  packed  capillary  area  of  the  lungs  by  suc- 
cessive contraction  of  a special  ventricle,  receiving  it 
from  a distinct  auricle  (these  being  called  the  right  or 
pulmonary  ventric  and  auricle),  while  the  blood  thus 
purified  by  the  action  of  the  air  in  the  lungs  is  conveyed 
to  another  auricle,  and  propelled  over  the  whole  system 
by  a second  distinct  ventricle  (these  being  known  as  the 
somatic  auricle  and  ventricle).  The  only  animals  which 
exhibit  these  structural  peculiarities  are  mammals  and 
birds.  In  man  and  in  the  ox,  the  mean  temperature  of 
the  body  is  100  degrees;  in  the  mouse  it  is  99,  while  in 
the  whale  it  is  103  degrees;  in  birds  it  ranges  in  differ- 
ent species  from  103  to  1 12  degrees.  The  warm-blooded 
animals  present,  however,  gradations  of  the  heat-mak- 
ing power.  In  the  hvbernating  animals  there  is  com- 
monly a loss  of  heat  of  from  10  to  2.0  degrees  during  the 
winter  sleep,  and  in  the  bat  the  temperature  falls  40 
degrees.  In  the  cold-blooded  animals,  the  fishes,  am- 
phibians and  reptiles,  the  temperature  of  the  blood 
rarely  exceeds  that  of  the  surrounding  medium. 

WARMINSTER,  an  ancient  market-town  of  Wilt- 
shire, England.  It  consists  chiefly  of  one  street  about  a 
mile  in  length.  The  town  possesses  a large  silk  mill, 
engineering  and  agricultural  implement  works,  and 
malt  works.  There  is  a considerable  agricultural  trade. 
The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  6,370 
acres)  in  1901  was  7,640. 

WARP,  in  weaving,  signifies  the  yarn  or  thread  which 
runs  lengthwise  in  the  cloth. 

WARPING,  a mode  of  improving  land  practiced 
where  rivers  bring  down  large  quantities  of  mud,  or 
where  mud  is  brought  up  from  estuaries  from  the  tide. 
It  is  practiced  in  some  of  the  valleys  of  the  Alps,  and 
the  rich  soil  brought  down  from  the  mountains  is  thus 
arrested  and  made  to  increase  the  fertility  of  the  fields. 
It  is  practiced  in  England  on  the  tidal  waters  of  the 
Ouse,  Trent,  and  other  rivers  falling  intp  the  Humber, 
and  of  late  years  in  some  of  the  Southern  States. 
About  a century  ago  warping  began  to  be  practiced  by 
means  of  small  tunnels  made  through  embankments;  the 
water  being  allowed  to  remain  and  deposit  its  sediments 
of  earthy  particles,  before  the  sluices  were  opened  for 
it  to  flow  off.  Warping  has  now  been  carried  on  upon 
a larger  scale  with  large  canals,  embankments,  and  flood- 
gates. Land  previously  sterile  and  worthless  has  been 
covered  with  good  soil,  and  has  become  very  productive. 
The  compartment  which  is  embanked  around  in  order 
to  do  vvarping  is  generally  only  fifty  acres  or  less,  the 
farmer  only  warping  one  field  in  a season,  because,  in 
the  meantime,  it  is  unproductive.  In  some  cases,  how- 
ever, 500  or  600  acres  hav?  been  warped  in  one  season. 
In  the  river  which  flows  into  the  Humber,  the  water 
coming  down  the  river  is  unsuitable  for  warping  and 
contains  no  such  quantity  of  sediments  as  the  tidal 
waters. 

WARRANT,  in  law,  an  authority  empowering  a 
person  to  act  in  a way  which  would  not  be  lawful  with- 
out such  authority.  The  term  occurs  very  early  in  con- 
stitutional documents;  it  is  found  in  the  Assize  of  Clar- 
endon and  the  Assize  of  the  Forest,  both  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  II.  A warrant  must  be  under  the  hand  and 
seal  of  the  person  issuing  it,  unless  such  formalities  be 
dispensed  with  by  statute.  By  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States  and  of  almost  all  the  States,  warrants  are 
not  to  issue  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by 
'oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the 


place  to  be  searched  and  the  person  or  thing  to  K 
seized.  These  provisions  have  been  held  not  to  mean 
that  there  shall  be  no  arrest  without  warrant,  but  to 
confine  the  right  of  arrest  to  circumstances  similar  to 
those  which  justify  it  in  English  law.  The  consti- 
tutions of  some  States  forbid  general  warrants.  A war- 
rant is  generally  necessary  for  the  payment  of  money 
out  of  the  United  States  or  a State  treasury. 

WARRANTY  is  etymologically  another  form  of 
Guarantee,  (q.v.)  It  is  used,  however,  in  a rather 
different  sense.  The  sense  common  to  both  words  is 
that  of  a collateral  contract,  under  which  responsibility 
for  an  act  is  incurred,  and  for  a breach  of  which  an  ac- 
tion for  damages  lies..  Warranty  generally  expresses 
the  responsibility  of  the  person  doing  the  act,  guarantee 
the  responsibility  of  some  other  person  on  his  behalf. 

Warranty  in  conveyance  of  real  estate  is  expressly 
abolished  by  statute  in  many  States.  In  some  States 
warranty  is  implied  on  the  transfer  and  indorsement  of 
negotiable  instruments. 

WARREN,  Samuel,  author  of  Ten  Thousand  a 
Year , was  born  in  Denbighshire  in  1807.  He  entered 
at  the  Inner  Temple  in  1828,  and  was  successful  in  his 
profession.  Very  early  in  his  career,  before  he  was 
called  to  the  bar,  he  had  begun  to  write  for  Blackwood. 
His  Passages  from  the  Diary  of  a Late  Physician 
appeared  in  that  magazine  between  August,  1830,  and 
October,  1831,  being  collected  into  two  volumes  in 
1832.  A third  volume  was  published  in  1838.  But  his 
great  success  was  Ten  Thousand  a Year,  which  ran  in 
Blackwood  from  October,  1839,  to  August,  1841,  and 
was  published  separately  immediately  on  its  conclusion. 
In  1847  he  made  another  venture,  but  Now  and  Then 
was  not  a success.  The  Lily  and  the  Bee,  a squib  on 
the  Crystal  Palace,  published  in  1851,  though  it  had 
the  honor  of  translation  into  Italian,  was  a signal  failure. 
A pessimistic  dissertation  on  The  Intellectual  and 
Moral  Development  of  the  Age,  published  in  1853,  also 
fell  flat,  and  thenceforth  Warren,  after  publishing  his 
Works , Critical  (ind  Imaginative , in  four  volumes,  in 
1854,  retired  on  his  laurels.  He  died  at  London, 
July  29,  1877. 

WARREN,  the  capital  of  Trumbull  county,  Ohio, 
and  an  extensive  manufacturing  center,  is  situated  on 
the  Mahoning  river,  fourteen  miles  northwest  of  Youngs- 
town, and  fifty-two  miles  southeast  of  Cleveland,  The 
New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  division  of  the  New 
York,  Lake  Erie  and  Western,  the  Ashtabula  and  Pitts- 
burgh, and  the  Pittsburgh  and  Western  railroads  occupy 
separate,  depots  and  complete  a well-organized  and  sus- 
tained traffic  system  which  adds  to  the  city’s  importance 
as  the  competitor  of  adjoining  and  distant  cities  in  spe- 
cial lines  of  productive  industry.  It  is  located  in  the 
midst  of  a rich  agricultural  and  lumber  country,  also 
contiguous  to  mines  of  bituminous  coal,  petroleum  and 
iron  ore,  also  to  quarries  of  what  is  commercially  known 
as  “ Berea  Grit,”  valuable  for  grindstones,  the  outDut 
from  all  of  which  sources  of  supply  is  shipoed  from 
Warren.  The  city  contains  three  national  banks-  with 
an  aggregate  capital  of  $400,000,  one  daily  and  three 
weekly  papers,  ten  churches,  a comprehensive  and  effect- 
ive educational  system, -five  finely  appointed  hotels, 
one  opera-house,  and  public  halls,  also  a large  number 
of  stores,  jobbing  houses,  and  other  commercial  vent- 
ures. The  manufactures  comprise  foundries  and  ma- 
chine shops,  stoves,  boilers,  oil  tanks  and  pumps,  grat- 
ings and  hardware  specialties  generally,  flour,  lumbei 
and  woolen  mills,  paints,  carriages,  furniture,  gloves, 
cigars,  etc.  Gas  and  electric  light  are  utilized,  and  the 
city  otherwise  offers  substantial  and  des:rable  induce- 
ments  for  investments  for  business  or  residence  purposes 
The  present  (1890)  population  is  returned  at  6,036. 


WAR 


WARREN,  the  capital  of  Warren  county,  Penn., 
is  located  on  the  Dunkirk,  Alleghany  Valley  and  Pitts- 
burgh, the  Pennsylvania  Central,  and  the  Rochester 
and  Pittsburgh  division  of  the  Western  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania  railroads,  and  at  the  junction  of  the  Alle- 
ghany and  Conewango  rivers.  The  city  is  on  the 
direct  route  from  Lake  Erie  to  the  coal  fields  of  Penn- 
sylvania, in  close  proximity  to  the  oil  regions  of  the 
State,  and  otherwise  advantageously  situated  for  pur- 
poses of  trade  and  manufacture.  The  streets  are  broad 
and  cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  being  also  well 
shaded  and  highly  improved;  while  the  buildings,  both  in 
the  business  and  residence  portion  of  the  city,  are  sub- 
stantial and  attractive  structures.  The  city  contains 
three  banks  with  a combined  capital  of  $300,000, 
and  a total  surplus  of  $200,000,  two  daily  and  five 
weekly  papers,  a court-house,  a high  school  and 
union  school,  a public  library,  eight  churches,  together 
with  stores,  shops,  hotels,  public  halls,  etc.;  the 
manufactures  consisting  of  carriages,  chairs,  carpets, 
cigars,  carbons,  doors,  sash  and  blinds,  boilers,  harness, 
handles  and  spokes,  lubricating  oils,  lumber,  flour  and 
feed,  the  industries  including  in  addition  iron  works, 
petroleum  refineries,  electric  light  works,  and  other  pro- 
ductive enterprises.  The  population  df  the  city  in 
1900  was  8,043. 

WARRENSBURG,  the  capital  of  Johnson  county, 
Mo.,  is  situated  on  Black  river  in  Warrensburg 
township,  thirty  miles  west  of  Sedalia,  sixty-four  miles 
southeast  of  Kansas  City,  and  218  miles  from  St.  Louis. 
It  is  the  center  of  an  extensive  and  highly  productive 
agricultural  country,  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  an 
extended  range  of  quarries  from  which  a superior  article 
of  sandstone  is  obtained.  This  latter  commodity  is 
much  used  for  building  purposes  in  all  the  leading  cities 
of  the  State,  and  forms  a staple  article  of  shipment. 
Flour,  woolen  and  iron  products  are  largely  manufac- 
tured, while  native  wines,  put  up  in  the  county,  enjoy  a 
reputation  for  purity  and  other  qualities  of  more  than 
local  importance.  The  city  contains  three  weekly 
papers,  one  monthly  periodical,  three  banks,  a commo- 
dious and  well  arranged  steam-elevator,  several  churches 
and  schools,  being  also  the  location  of  the  State  Normal 
School  for  southern  Missouri,  with  nearly  500  students, 
together  with  a full  complement  of  hotels,  stores  and 
other  commercial  undertakings.  Thw  population  (1900) 
was  4,724. 

WARRINGTON,  a municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  and  market-town  of  England,  chiefly  in  Lan- 
cashire but  partly  in  Cheshire,  18  miles  west-southwest 
of  Manchester,  20  miles  east  of  Liverpool,  and  182 
from  London.  Warrington,  in  the  period  before  the 
introduction  of  railways,  possessed  special  advantages 
through  its  connection  with  the  Mersey  and  Irweil 
navigation,  and  it  now  enjoys  unusual  facilities  for  the 
transit  of  heavy  goods  both  by  canal  and  railway,  while 
its  situation,  midway  between  Manchester  and  Liver- 
pool, and  on  the  main  line  of  the  London  and  North- 
Western  railway,  forms  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  its 
prosperity.  Perhaps  it  is  now  best  known  for  its  trade 
in  heavy  leather,  the  tanneries  in  its  immediate  neigh- 
borhood consuming  on  an  average  about  10,000  hides 
a week.  It  has  also  a meat  variety  of  important  iron 
manufactures,  including  iron  in  bar,  hoop,  and  wire 
rod,  and  files  and  tools  and  pins.  There  ar|,  besides, 
soap  factories,  breweries,  makings,  cotton  mills,  and 
glass-works.  The  population  of  the  parliamentary 
borough  (area  3,783  acres)  in  1901  was  64,241.  The  j 
population  of  the  municipal  borough  (area  1,442  acres) 
in  the  same  year  was  61,452. 

WARSAW,  a government  of  Russian  Poland,  oc- 
cupies a narrow  strip  of  land  to  the  left  of  the  lower 


6263 

Bug,  and  of  the  Vistula  from  its  junction  with  the  Bug 
to  the  Prussian  frontier,  and  is  bounded  by  the  Polish 
governments  of  Plock  and  Lomza  on  the  noith, 
Siedlce  on  the  east,  and  Radom,  Piotrkow,  and  Kalisz 
on  the  south.  It  has  an  area  of  5,623  square  miles, 
and  in  1898  the  population  was  1,933,689,  of  whom  638,- 
209  were  then  reckoned  as  living  in  the  capital.  It  oc- 
cupies the  great  plain  of  central  Poland  and  Mazovia, 
and  is  low  and  flat  with  only  a few  hills  in  the  south, 
and  along  the  course  of  the  Vistula  in  the  northwest, 
where  the  terraces  on  the  left  bank  descend  by  steep 
slopes  to  the  river.  Terrible  inundations  often  devas- 
tate the  region  adjacent  to  the  confluence  of  the  Vis- 
tula with  the  Narew  and  Bug,  and  marshes  cover  the 
low-lying  grounds.  The  soil,  which  consists  either  of 
bowlder  clay,  lacustrine  clays,  or  sandy  fluviatile  de- 
posits, is  not  particularly  fertile.  The  Vistula  traverses 
the  government  from  southeast  to  northwest,  and  is 
joined  by  the  Narew  and  Bug  from  the  right,  and  by 
the  Bzura  from  the  left.  It  is  an  important  channel  of 
communication  (see  Poland). 

The  government  is  divided  into  thirteen  districts,  the 
chief  towns  of  which  are  Warsaw  (■/.  v.),  Blonie 
(1,370  inhabitants),  Gora  Kalwaria  (2,630),  Gostyniri 
(8,870),  Grojec  (3,500),  Kutno  (13,210),  Lowicz  (8,720), 
Novo-Minsk  (1,830),  Radziejewo  (7,680),  Radzymin 
(4,200),  Skiernewice  (3,720),  Sochaczew  (5,130),  and 
Wloclawek  (20,660).  Novy  Dwor  (4,420),  Neszawa, 
(2,330),  Gombin  (3,000),  and  several  others  have 
municipal  institutions. 

Warsaw  ( Warszaxua ),  capital  of  Poland,  and  chief 
town  of  the  above  government,  is  beautifully  situ- 
ated on  the  left  bank  of  the  Vistula,  395  miles  to 
the  east  of  Berlin,  and  700  miles  to  southwest  of  St. 
Petersburg.  It  stands  on  a terrace  nearly  100  feet  in 
height,  which  stretches  far  to  the  westward,  and 
descends  by  steep  slopes  toward  the  river,  leaving  a 
broad  beach  at  its  base.  The  suburb  of  Praga  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Vistula,  here  from  450  to  880  yards 
broad,  is  connected  with  Warsaw  by  two  bridges,  the 
railway  bridge,  which  passes  right  under  the  guns  of 
the  Alexandrovsk  citadel  to  the  north,  and  the  Alex* 
androvsk  bridge  in  the  center  of  the  town. 

With  its  population  of  nearly  638,209,  its  beautiful 
river,  its  ample  communications  and  its  commerce,  its 
university  and  scientific  societies,  its  palaces  and 
numerous  places  of  amusement,  Warsaw  is  one  of  the 
most  pleasant  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  animated 
cities  of  eastern  Europe.  In  Russia  it  is  excelled  it 
importance  by  the  two  Russian  capitals  only. 

The  streets  of  Warsaw  are  very  animated,  and  are 
adorned  with  many  fine  buildings.  The  present  uni- 
versity, founded  as  the  “ Glawnaja  Szkola,”  in  1816, 
but  closed  in  1832*  was  again  opened  in  1864;  it  has  a 
remarkable  library  of  more  than  350,000  volumes,  rich 
natural  history  collections,  a fine  botanic  garden,  and 
an  observatory  well  known  for  its  astronomical  work. 
There  are  75  professors  and  nearly  1,000  students. 
The  teaching  is  in  Russian,  and  mostly  by  Russians, 
and  the  close  intercourse  which  used  to  exist  between 
the  university  and  the  educated  classes  of  Poland  is 
becoming  a thing  of  the  past.  The  rich  university 
library,  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world,  was  confiscated 
in  1794,  and  transferred  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  it 
became  the  nucleus  of  the  present  imperial  public 
library;  and,  after'  the  insurrection  of  1831,  it  was 
again  ransacked  for  the  same  purpose.  The  medical 
school,  which  enjoys  high  repute  in  the  scientific  world, 
still  retains  the  right  of  teaching  in  Polish,  and  has 
about  220  students. 

Warsaw  is  semicircular  in  plan,  the  diameter,  nearly 
five  miles  in  length,  lying  along  the  Vistula,  Thw 


WAR 


6264 

central  point  of  the  life  of  the  place  is  the  castle 
(Zamek  Krolewski)  on  Sigismund  Square.  It  was 
built  by  the  dukes  of  Mazovia,  enlarged  by  Sigismund 

III.  (whose  memorial  stands  opposite)  and  Ladislaus 

IV. ,  and  embellished  by  Stanislaus  Augustus.  At  pres- 
ent it  is  inhabited  by  the  “governor-general  of  the 
provinces  on  the  Vistula,”  and  its  pictures  and  other  art 
treasures  have  been  removed  to  St.  Petersburg. 

The  suburb  of  Praga,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Vistula,  is  poorly  built  and  often  flooded;  but  the 
bloody  assaults  which  led  to  its  capture  in  1 794  by  the 
Russians  under  Suwaroff,  and  in  1831  by  Paskevitch, 
give  it  a name  in  history. 

Warsaw  has  of  late  become  industrially  important, 
and  now  has  more  than  320  establishments,  employing 
nearly  20,000  workmen,  and  producing  to  the  amount 
of  nearly  40,000,000  rubles  annually.  The  leading  in- 
dustries are  the  production  of  plated  silver-ware,  with  a 
wide  market  throughout  Russia,  machinery  and  engines, 
chemicals,  musical  instruments,  especially  pianos,  car- 
pets, boots  and  shoes,  largely  exported,  carriages,  woolen 
cloth,  leather  wares,  spirits  and  beer.  The  trade  of 
Warsaw  is  considerable. 

The  events  associated  with  the  name  of  Praga  have 
been  already  alluded  to.  Among  other  battlefields  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Warsaw  is  that  of  Grochowo,  where 
the  Polish  troops  were  defeated  in  1831  after  a gallant 
fight.  Raszyn  saw  its  fields  covered  with  blood  in  the 
war  of  1809,  with  Austria;  at  Maciejowice,  fifty  miles 
up  the  Vistula,  Kosciuszko  was  wounded  and  taken  by 
the  Russians  in  1794;  and  twenty  miles  down  the  river 
stands  the  fortress  of  Modlin,  now  Novogeorgievsk, 
fortified  by  Napoleon,  taken  in  1813  by  the  Russians, 
and  the  last  stronghold  of  the  Poles  during  the  insur- 
rection of  1831. 

The  history  of  Warsaw  from  the  sixteenth  century 
onward  is  intimately  connected  with  that  of  POLAND, 
{(j.v.)  The  precise  date  of  the  foundation  of  the  town 
is  not  known.  From  the  seventeenth  century  posses- 
sion of  it  was  continually  disputed  by  the  Swedes,  the 
Russians,  and  the  Brandenburgers  and  the  Austrians. 
Charles  Gustavus  of  Sweden  took  it  in  1655  and  kept 
it  for  a year;  the  Poles  retook  it  in  July,  1656,  but  lost 
it  again  almost  immediately.  Augustus  II.  and  Au- 
gustus III.  did  much  for  its  embellishment,  but  it  had 
much  to  suffer  during  the  northern  war.  Charles  XII, 
took  it  in  1702,  but  in  the  following  year  peace  was 
made  between  the  Swedes  and  Stanislaus  Lezczyn- 
ski,  and  it  became  free  again.  The  disorderly  rule  of 
the  Rzec  Pospolita  opened  a large  field  for  Russian  in- 
trigue, and  in  1764  the  Russians  took  possession  of  it 
and  secured  the  election  of  Stanislaus  Poniatowski, 
which  led,  in  1773,  to  the  first  partition  of  Poland.  In 
November,  1794,  the  Russians  took  it  again,  after  the 
bloody  assault  on  Praga,  but  next  year,  in  the  third  par- 
tition of  Poland,  Warsaw  was  given  to  Prussia.  In 
November,  1806,  the  town  was  occupied  by  the  troops 
of  Napoleon,  and  after  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  was  made 
the  capital  of  the  independent  duchy  of  Warsaw;  but 
the  Austrians  took  it  on  April  21,  1809,  and  kept  it 
till  June  2d,  when  it  once  more  became  independent, 
but  only  for  a few  years.  The  Russians  finally  took  it 
on  February  8,  1813,  since  which  time  they  have  always 
retained  it.  On  November  29,  1830,  Warsaw  gave  the 
signal  of  the  great,  but  unsuccessful  insurrection  which 
lasted  nearly  one  year;  it  was  taken  after  great  blood- 
shed, by  Paskevitch,  on  September  7,  1831.  Deporta- 
tions on  a large  scale,  executions,  and  confiscation  of 
the  domains  of  the  nobility  followed,  and  until  1856 
Warsaw  remained  under  severe  military  rule.  In  1862 
a series  of  demonstrations  began  to  be  made  in  Warsaw  in 
fevor  of  the  independence  of  Poland,  and  after  a bloody 


repression  a general  insurrection  followed  in  January, 
1863,  the  Russians  remaining,  however,  masters  of  tht 
situation.  The  Russian  Government  now  decided  to 
take  the  most  stringent  measures  to  crush  the  powers  of 
the  clergy,  the  landed  nobility  and  the  turbulent  War- 
saw artisans  and  educated  classes.  Executions,  banish- 
ment to  the  convict  prisons  of  Siberia,  and  confiscation 
of  estates  followed.  Deportation  to  Siberia  and  the  in- 
terior of  Russia  was  carried  out  on  an  unheard-of 
scale.  Scientific  societies  and  high  schools  were  closed; 
monasteries  and  nunneries  were  emptied.  Hundreds 
of  Russian  officials  were  called  in  to  fill  up  administra- 
tive posts,  the  schools  and  the  university;  the  Russian 
language  was  rendered  obligatory  in  official  acts,  in  all 
legal  proceedings,  and  even,  to  a great  extent,  in  trade. 
The  very  name  of  Poland  was  expunged  from  offi- 
cial writings,  and,  while  the  old  institutions  were  abol- 
ished, the  Russian  tribunals  and  administrative  institu- 
tions were  introduced.  The  serfs  were  liberated  . (See 
Poland.) 

WARSAW,  the  county  seat  of  Kosciusko  county, 
Ind.,  is  situated  on  the  Tippecanoe  river,  in  Wayne 
township,  108  miles  south  of  Chicago,  on  the  Pitts- 
burgh, Fort  Wayne  and  Chicago  railroad,  at  its  junction 
with  the  Cincinnati,  Wabash  and  Michigan  road.  The 
country  in  this  vicinity  is  undulating,  and  the  scenery  is 
attractive  and  varied,  small  lakes  interspersed  with 
forests  of  hard- wood  appearing  at  frequent  intervals. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  large  crops  of  cereals  an- 
nually produced  are  stored  at  Warsaw  for  consumption 
and  shipment,  making  the  city  an  important  and  active 
trade  and  business  center.  One  daily  and  three  weekly 
papers,  together  with  two  monthly  magazines  are 
regularly  issued  at  Warsaw,  the  city  also  containing 
three  banks,  six  churches,  a court-house,  a high 
school  and  graded  schools,  an  opera  house,  with  a seat- 
ing capacity  of  nearly  1,000,  three  first-class  hotels, 
several  grain  elevators,  and  a long  list  of  mercantile  and 
manufacturing  establishments.  Among  the  latter  are 
embraced  an  iron  foundry,  furniture  factory,  three  saw- 
mills, flour  and  woolen  mills,  pulley  works,  and  other 
plants  of  lesser  importance.  The  population  of  the  city 
was  3,987  in  1900. 

WARSAW,  the  capital  of  Wyoming  county,  N.  Y., 
and  the  chief  town  in  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
many  beautiful  valleys  that  follow  each  other  in  rapid 
succession  in  the  western  portion  of  the  State,  is 
situated  on  Allen’s  creek  at  the  intersection  of  the 
New  York,  Lake  Erie  and  Western,  and  the 
Rochester  and  Pittsburgh  railroads.  The  village  is 
eligibly  located,  and  the  romantic  scenery  in  the  vicinity, 
embracing  a number  of  cataracts,  one  of  which  has  a 
perpendicular  fall  of  nearly  100  feet,  gorges  between 
cliffs  of  great  height,  and  other  picturesque  features,  to- 
gether with  its  accessibility,  have  made  the  village  a 
well  known  and  favored  summer  resort.  It  is  also 
situated  contiguous  to  large  salt  deposits  which  employ 
a large  force  of  operatives  and  are  sources  of  large 
revenues.  The  village  has  two  banks,  a union  school- 
house  costing  nearly  $50,000,  three  weekly  papers, 
seven  churches,  three  hotels,  also  a sanitarium,  and  is 
otherwise  provided  with  stores,  warehouses,  etc.,  req- 
uisite to  its  position  as  a business  center.  There  are 
four  salt- work  plants  conducted  here,  besides  one  found- 
ry, grist  aid  planing  mills,  wooden -ware  factory,  cigar 
factory,  and  other  substantial  manufacturing  enterprises. 
The  population  approximated  3,048  in  1900. 

WART  is  9 papillary  excrescence  of  the  surface, 
most  commonly  of  the  skin,  but  in  special  circum- 
stances also  of  the  transitional  and  mucous  membraues. 
The  ordinary  broad  and  flat  warts  of  the  skin  occur 
mostly  upon  the  hands  of  children  and  young  persons; 


WAR 


a long  pendulous  variety  occurs  about  the  chin  or  neck 
of  children  who  are  constitutionally  delicate  (it  used  to 
be  thought  a mark  of  scrofula)  and  on  the  scalp  in 
adults.  Both  the  broad  sessile  warts  of  the  fingers  and 
hands  and  the  thin  hanging  warts  of  the  neck  and  head 
are  apt  to  come  out  in  numbers  at  a time;  a crop  of 
them  suddenly  appears,  to  disappear  after  a time  with 
equal  suddenness.  Hence  the  supposed  efficacy  of 
charms.  A single  wart  will  sometimes  remain  when 
the  general  eruption  has  vanished.  The  liability  to 
crops  of  warts  runs  in  families.  In  after  life  a wart  on 
the  hands  or  fingers  is  usually  brought  on  by  some 
irritation,  often  repeated,  even  if  it  be  slight.  A 
special  form  has  been  observed  on  the  hands  of  those 
much  occupied  with  anatomical  dissection.  Chimney- 
sweeps and  workers  in  coal-tar,  petroleum,  etc.,  are 
subject  to  warts,  which  often  become  cancerous. 
Ordinary  innocent  warts  occur  singly  in  later  life  on  the 
nose  or  lips  or  other  parts  of  the  face,  sometimes  on 
the  tongue.  Toward  old  age  there  are  apt  to  be  broad 
and  flattened  patches  of  warts  on  the  back,  of  a greasy 
consistence  and  brownish  color. 

A wart  consists  essentially  of  a framework  or  ground- 
plan  of  small  blood-vessels  supported  by  bands  of 
fibrous  tissue,  and  a more  or  less  thick  covering  of  epi- 
dermic scales.  When  the  wart  is  young,  the  surface  is 
a rounded  and  even  knob;  as  it  gets  rubbed  and  worn 
the  surface  appears  cleft  into  thread-like  projecting 
points.  It  is  owing  to  its  vascular  ground-plan  that  a 
wart  is  liable  to  come  back  after  being  shaved  off;  the 
vessel  or  vessels  are  cut  down  to  the  level  of  the  skin, 
but  the  current  of  blood  is  still  forced  into  the  stem, 
and  the  branches  tend  to  be  thrown  out  beyond  the 
surface  as  before.  This  fact  has  a bearing  on  the 
treatment  of  warts.  If  they  are  shaved  or  snipped  off, 
the  blood-vessels  of  the  stem  should  be  destroyed  at 
the  same  time  by  caustic,  or  made  to  shrivel  by  an 
astringent.  The  same  end  is  served  by  a gradually 
tightening  ligature  (such  as  a thread  of  elastic  pulled 
out  from  an  old  brace)  round  the  base  or  neck  of  the 
wart;  an  ordinary  thread  is  apt  to  cut  too  deep  and  may 
cause  suppuration.  The  best  treatment  is  to  rub  an 
astringent,  or  acid,  or  caustic  substance  into  the  sur- 
face of  the  wart. 

WARTON.  Three  authors  of  this  name,  a father 
and  two  sons,  were  leaders  of  reaction  against  the 
didactic  poetry  of  Pope’s  school,  and  did  much  to  help 
forward  the  descriptive  and  romantic  revival. 

Thomas  Warton,  born  in  1688,  was  vicar  of  Bas- 
ingstoke in  Hampshire,  and  professor  of  poetry  at 
Oxford.  He  published  nothing  during  his  lifetime,  but 
after  his  death,  in  1745,  his  son  Joseph  published  some 
of  his  poet -y  under  the  title  Poems  on  Several  Occasions , 
1748. 

Joseph  Warton,  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Dunsford,  in  Surrey,  in  1722,  and  sent  to 
Winchester  school  in  1736.  Collins  was  already  there, 
and  the  school  seems  to  have  been  at  the  time  quite  a 
nest  of  singing  birds  quickened  into  unusual  ambition  by 
a visit  from  Pope.  Collins  and  Warton  became  close 
friends,  read  Milton  and  Spenser  together,  and  wrote 
verses  which  they  sent  to  the  Gentleman  s Magazine , 
verses  of  such  promise  that  Johnson  formally  criticised 
them.  The  two  friends  went  to  Oxford  together,  and 
took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  the  same  year  (1743). 
Warton  was  far  from  having  the  genius  of  Collins  but 
he  had  abundance  of  poetical  enthusiasm,  and  they  were 
at  one  in  their  impatience  under  the  prevailing  taste  for 
moral  and  ethical  poetry.  He  became  an  active  and 
prominent  man  of  letters,  produced  an  edition  of  Virgil 
in  1753,  with  distinguished  coadjutors,  and  a transla- 
tion of  the  Eclogues  and  the  Georgies , and  a prepara- 


6265 

tory  essay  by  himself ; made  the  acquaintance  of  John- 
son, and  wrote  papers  on  Shakespeare  and  Homer  in 
The  Adventurer.  The  last  three  years  of  the  critic’s 
life  were  spent  in  preparing  an  edition  of  Dryden, 
which  was  completed  and  published  by  his  son  in  1811. 
He  died  in  London  in  February,  1800,  at  the  age  of 
seventy-eight. 

Thomas  Warton,  the  younger  brother  of  Joseph; 
at  least  as  active  and  influential  as  he  in  enlarging  the 
poetic  ideas  of  the  eighteentn  century,  was  born  at 
Basingstoke  in  1728.  He  was  still  more  precocious  as 
a poet  than  his  brother — translated  one  of  Martial’s 
epigrams  at  nine,  and  wrote  The  Pleasures  of  Melan- 
choly at  seventeen — and  he  showed  exactly  the  same 
bent.  The  first  proof  that  he  gave  of  his  extraordinarily 
wide  scholarship  was  in  his  Observations  on  the  Poetry 
of  Spenser , published  in  1 754,  when  the  author  was 
twenty-six.  The  first  volume  of  his  monumental  work, 
The  History  of  English  Poetry , appeared  twenty  years 
later,  in  1774,  the  second  volume  in  1778,  and  the  third 
in  1781.  His  busy  and  convivial  life  was  ended  by  a 
paralytic  stroke  in  May,  1790. 

WARWICK,  a midland  county  of  England,  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Stafford,  on  the  east  by 
Leicester  and  Northampton,  on  the  south  by  Oxford  and 
Gloucester,  and  on  the  west  by  Worcester.  Its  great- 
est length  from  north  to  south  is  fifty  miles,  and  its 
greatest  breadth  thirty-three  miles.  Its  area  is  566,458 
acres  or  about  879  square  miles. 

Surface  and  Geology. — The  surface  of  the  county  is 
of  a gently  undulating  nature.  For  a description  of  the 
scenery  and  early  history  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
article  Shakespeare. 

The  chief  elevations  are  the  Edge  Hills  on  the  south- 
ern border  of  the  county,  where  they  rise  in  some  places 
to  about  800  feet  above  sea-level. 

The  lofty  elevation  of  the  county  in  general  is  evi- 
denced by  the  fact  that  rivers  flow  from  it  in  several 
directions,  contributing  to  each  of  the  three  systems  of 
the  Severn,  Trent,  and  Thames.  According  to  the 
report  of  the  Coal  Commission  in  1871,  the  area  of  the 
Warwickshire  coal-field  is  thirty  square  miles,  the 
thickness  of  the  coal  being  from  twenty-six  to  thirty 
feet.  The  quantity  mined  in  1885  was  1,281,724  tons. 
The  minerals  of  the  county  are  limestone,  freestone, 
iron,  blue  flagstone,  marl,  and  blue  clay. 

The  climate  is  generally  mild  and  healthy.  The  soil 
is  on  the  whole  good,  and  consists  of  various  loams, 
marls,  gravels,  and  clays,  well  suited  for  most  of  the 
usual  crops.  It  is  rich  in  pasture-land,  and  dairy  farm- 
ing is  increasing.  It  has  excellent  orchards  and  market- 
gardens,  and  possesses  some  of  the  finest  woodlands  in 
England.  Nearly  all  the  farm  buildings  are  good;  and 
many  of  the  cottages  of  the  laborers  are  exceedingly 
picturesque.  There  are  many  charming  villages  in  the 
county. 

The  principal  seats  of  manufacture  in  the  county  are 
Birmingham  and  Coventry  ( qq.v .)  Suffice  it  to  say 
here  that  in  Birmingham  almost  every  article  of  use, 
from  a pin  to  a steam-engine,  is  produced,  and  that 
Coventry  has  long  been  famous  for  it  ribbons  and 
watches,  and  has  recently  won  a well-merited  reputation 
for  bicycles  and  tricycles. 

The  county  is  well  supplied  with  excellently  preserved 
roads.  There  are  also  a great  number  of  canals  giving 
access  to  the  Trent,  the  Mersey,  the  Thames;  and  the 
Severn.  The  London  and  North-Western,  the  Great 
Western,  the  Midland,  and  various  branch  railways 
traverse  the  county  in  various  directions.  The  popula- 
tion in  1901  was  347,691  (177,321  males  and  170,370 
females).  The  population  of  Birmingham  is  now  sep- 
arated estimated. 


6266 


WAR-WAS 


Warwick,  the  county  town  of  Warwickshire, 
and  a municipal  and  parliamentary  borough,  is  finely 
situated  on  the  Avon,  8 miles  northeast  of  Strat- 
ford-on-Avon and  108  northwest  of  London.  The 
glory  of  Warwick  is  still  its  castle,  which  has  been 
truly  pronounced  to  be  the  “most  magnificent  of  the 
ancient  feudal  mansions  of  the  English  nobility  still 
used  as  a residence.”  Its  position  is  at  once  command- 
ing and  picturesque,  standing  as  it  does  on  a rock  over- 
hanging the  Avon. 

WARWICK,  a town  of  Kent  county,  R.  I.,  with  a 
population  in  1900  of  21,316.  It  is  made  up  of  several 
villages  lying  on  the  Pawtuxet  river  and  near  Narra- 
gansett  Bay.  The  various  towns  are  principally  devoted 
to  cotton  manufacturing. 

WARWICK,  Richard  xNevil,  Earl  of,  was  born 
between  1420  and  1430.  He  was  descended  from  a 
family  of  note  in  the  north  of  England,  that  of  the 
Nevils,  who  enjoyed  for  many  generations  the  title  of 
the  earls  of  Westmorland.  His  descent  from  John  of 
Gaunt  made  him  naturally  a member  of  the  Lancastrian 
party,  but  the  marriage  of  his  aunt,  Cicely  Nevil,  to 
Richard,  duke  of  York,  connected  him  also  with  the 
Yorkist  house.  As  first  cousin  of  Edward  IV.  and  sec- 
ond cousin  of  Henry  VI.  he  was  well  fitted  for  the 
double  part  he  was  destined  to  play  in  English  history. 

[ When  the  struggle  between  the  Roses  began  he  and 
his  father  threw  in  their  lot  with  the  Yorkists.  The 
first  attempt  of  the  duke  of  Y ork  (in  1450)  to  assert  his 
claims  proved  unsuccessful,  but  three  years  later  the 
final  loss  of  Guienne,  coupled  with  the  king’s  imbecility, 
enabled  him  to  renew  his  efforts.  The  duke  became 
protector,  but  the  king’s  recovery  drove  him  from 
power  and  forced  him  to  take  up  arms  a second  time. 
He  was  now  joined  actively  by  Warwick  and  his  father, 
the  former  of  whom  raised  a body  of  troops  and  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  Yorkist  victory  at  St.  Albans 
(J455)- 

When  in  1459  the  duke  of  York  took  up  arms 
for  the  third  time,  Warwick  'and  his  father,  the 
earl  of  Salisbury,  joined  him  at  Ludlow.  The  king 
retired  northward  and  intrenched  himself  at  North- 
ampton, where  he  was  defeated  with  much  loss  by 
Warwick,  and  taken  prisoner.  Warwick  returned  with 
his  captive  to  London,  and  the  duke  of  York  at 
once’  claimed  the  crown.  After  much  debate  the  king 
was  'induced  to  consent  to  a compromise,  by  which  he 
was  to  retain  the  crown  during  life,  and  the  duke  of 
York  and  his  heirs  were  to  succeed  him.  The  queen, 
however,  refused  to  sanction  this  arrangement,  and 
assembled  an  army  in  the  north.  The  duke  of  York, 
marching  against  her,  was  defeated  and  killed  at  Wake- 
field (December,  1460).  The  Yorkist  victory  of 
Mortimer’s  Cross  (1461)  did  not  stop  the  queen’s  march 
on  London,  and  Warwick,  attempting  to  bar  her 
progress,  was  entirely  defeated  at  the  second  battle 
of  St.  Albans.  The  king  fell  into  the  hands  of  his 
own  party,  but  Warwick  escaped.  The  Lancastrian 
triumph  was,  however,  short-lived.  The  citizens  of 
London,  already  devoted  to  the  house  of  York,  were 
exasperated  by  the  excesses  of  the  Lancastrian  troops, 
and  when  Warwick,  with  Edward,  earl  of  March, 
raised  another  army  and  marched  toward  the  capital, 
the  queen  was  forced  to  retire  to  the  north.  Warwick 
and  Edward  entered  the  city,  and  the  latter  was  pro- 
claimed king  under  the  title  of  Edward  IV.  The  san- 
guinary battle  of  Towton  (March,  1461),  in  which  the 
victory  was  greatly  due  to  the  skill  and  energy  of  War- 
wick, secured  the  crown  for  Edward,  and  gave  the 
nation  peace  for  several  years. 

For  some  time  Warwick  did  his  best  to  maintain 
Edward  on  his  throne.  An  attempt  on  the  part  of  the 


Lancastrians  in  1463  to  recover  their  power  was  put 
down  by  the  united  efforts  of  the  Nevils.  Montague 
defeated  Percy  at  Hedgley  Moor  and  Somerset  at  Hex- 
ham, while  Warwick  besieged  and  took  Bamborough 
Castle,  which  was  held  by  Sir  Ralph  Grey.  Soon 
afterward  Henry  VI.  was  taken  prisoner  and  was 
lodged  by  Warwick  in  the  Tower. 

But  the  power  and  ambition  of  Warwick  were  toe 
great  to  allow  the  good  understanding  between  the  king- 
maker and  the  king  to  be  of  long  duration.  The  first 
difference  between  them  arose  on  the  question  of  the 
king’s  marriage.  A period  of  intrigue  and  insurrection 
followed.  Edward,  whose  troops  were  defeated  at 
Edgecote,  fell  into  Warwick’s  hands,  and  was  confined 
in  Warwick’s  castle  at  Middleham.  When,  however, 
the  opposing  faction  took  advantage  of  the  • disruption 
between  Warwick  and  Edward  and  rose  in  insurrection, 
Warwick  quickly  subdued  them,  and  Edward  was  re- 
leased and  a temporary  reconciliation  followed.  The 
situation  had,  however,  by  this  time  become  intolerable. 
Fresh  insurrections  broke  out,  and  it  was  clearly  proven 
that  Warwick  was  the  instigator.  The  king  at  once 
marched  against  the  conspirators,  and  Warwick  re- 
treated to  Calais,  but  was  denied  admittance  into  the 
fortress  by  his  own  lieutenant.  Thereupon  he  took  ref- 
uge with  the  king  of  France,  and  resolved' openly  to 
side  with  the  Lancastrians.  This  measure  naturally 
caused  a coolness  between  him  and  some  of  his  allies. 
However,  Warwick,  having  obtained  assistance  from 
the  French  king,,  landed  in  the  south  of  England  and 
compelled  the  king  of  England  to  flee  to  Flanders;  but 
this  success  was  only  evanescent.  The  Lancastrian 
king  had  only  been  a few  months  on  the  throne  upon 
which  he  had  been  set  by  the  £ar 1 of  Warwick,  when  a 
fresh  insurrection  broke  out  and  the  Yorkist  king  was 
enabled  ;to  return,  and  on  Easter  day,  1471,  at  Barnet, 
the  forces  of  the  king  and  earl  of  Warwick  joined 
battle.  The  royalists  were  victorious,  and  the  earl  was 
slain  in  battle. 

WASHING  AND  WASHING-MACHINES.  Al- 
though domestic  washing  is  a simple  enough  process, 
yet  it  may  be  useful  to  give  a brief  description  of  the 
most  efficient  way  of  conducting  it,  in  so  far  as  experi- 
ence and  correct  principles  can  guide  such  an  operation. 
The  first  essential  is  suitable  water,  in  other  words, 
soft  water.  Yellow  soap  being  the  kind  chiefly  used  in 
washing  linen,  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  not 
desirable  to  purchase  it  very  pale  in  color,  or  very  low 
in  price.  In  order  to  gratify  the  desife  for  a light  color, 
soapmakers  are  obliged  to  reduce  the  strength  of  good 
dark  soaps  with  adulterants;  and  it  will  give  some  idea 
of  how  easily  the  demand  for  cheapness  may  be  met  to 
state  that  hard  soap,  which  should  not  contain  so  much 
as  25  per  cent,  of  water,  can  be  made  with  as  much  as 
75  per  cent.  Soap,  as  is  well  known,  improves  by 
keeping.  Soft  or  potash  soap  is  sometimes  used  to 
wash  coarse  things,  on  account  of  its  being  stronget 
than  hard  soap,  but  its  smell  is  objectionable.  Soda  is 
easily  procured  good;  and  with  respect  to  washing  pow- 
ders, as  their  merit  depends  on  the  amount  of  alkali 
which  they  contain,  suffice  it  to  say  that  to  buy  them  is 
only  a dear  way  of  buying  soda. 

In  arranging  clothes  for  washing,  it  is  desirable  to 
sort  them  into  kinds  most  suitable  for  washing  together; 
such  as  lace,  nets,  and  fine  muslin  into  one  heap;  white 
body  linen  into  another;  colored  things  of  the  nature  of 
prints  and  ginghams  into  another,  and  so  on.  It  is  also 
desirable  to  wash  clothes  as  soon  as  possible  after  they 
are  soiled.  Previous  to  washing,  all  white  articles 
should  be  soaked  for  a night  in  cold  water,  in  which  a 
little  soda  has  been  dissolved,  as  the  steeping  in  alkaline 
water  greatly  aids  in  removing  all  dirt  of  a greasy 


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nature.  Hie  clothes  should  then  be  washed  twice  in 
clean  tepid  water,  with  a sufficient  supply  of  soap.  If 
the  water  is  quite  cold,  the  dirt  is  taken  off  with  diffi- 
culty; and  if  too  hot,  it  is  apt  to  fix  it  into  the  fiber  of 
the  cloth.  The  clothes  should  next  be  examined  for 
spots  and  stains,  so  as  to  remove  them,  if  possible,  by 
an  additional  rubbing,  after  which  they  are  boiled  for  at 
least  fifteen  minutes  in  soap  and  water.  Ink-stains  or 
iron-molds  require  to  be  taken  out  with  oxalic  acid,  or 
the  essential  salts  of  lemon  (oxalate  of  potash);  and  fruit 
stains  by  boiling  the  stained  parts  with  pearlash.  After 
being  boiled,  the  clothes  are  rinsed  twice  in  cold  water; 
and  in  the  second  rinsing,  a little  bluing  is  added,  to 
neutralize  any  yellowness  occasioned  by  the  washing. 
When  this  is  done,  they  are  wrung,  and  hung  out  to  dry. 

For  the  washing  of  flannels,  it  is  even  more  desirable 
that  the  water  should  be  soft  than  for  linen  or  cotton; 
and  it  should  contain  no  soda  or  potash  in  any  form,  as, 
although  a little  alkali  would  more  effectually  remove 
dirt,  yet  it  always  turns  woolens  yellow,  and  at  the 
same  time  thickens  them.  It  is  well  to  remember  also 
that  all  rubbing,  wringing,  or  squeezing  tends  to  make 
woolen  goods  shrink  by  facilitating  their  tendency  to 
felt  or  mat  into  thicker  fabric.  With  respect  to  ladies’ 
colored  dresses  made  of  fine  wool,  such  as  merino,  it  is 
considered  best  to  wash  them  in  soft  warm  water  with 
ox-gall,  say  a pint  in  a tubfull  of  water.  Ox-gall  is  a 
soap  in  its  chemical  nature,  and  it  clears  and  brightens 
the  colors. 

The  ,washing  of  printed  colored  fabrics,  especially 
muslins,  has  of  late  years  become  a difficult  operation, 
on  account  of  the  fugitive  nature  of  some  of  the  dye- 
s'tuffs  employed.  The  beautiful  hues  produced  by  the 
aniline  or  coal-tar  colors,  and  by  the  archil  lakes  in 
imitation  of  them,  have  led  to  their  being  extensively 
used  in  calico  printing  as  well  as  in  the  dyeing  of  silk  and 
wool.  These  dyes  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  permanent 
on  any  fabric;  but  on  cotton  they  require  to  be  fixed 
by  mordants,  such  as  albumen  (white  of  egg),  which 
will  scarcely  stand  washing  at  all,  and  to  which  hot 
water  is  utter  destruction.  The  same  thing  is  true  of 
some  other  dyes,  such  as  the  light  blue  produced  by 
artificial  ultramarine.  If  economy  is  to  be  studied,  it  is 
far  batter  to  have  printed  dresses  done  in  fast  colors — 
the  reds  and  purples  from  madder  forexample — as  they, 
although  less  attractive  at  first,  can  be  washed  without 
injuring  their  appearance.  All  such  articles  should  be 
washed  in  soft  warm  water;  that  which  has  been  used 
for  flannels,  if  not  too  dirty,  will  do.  When  thoroughly 
cleansed,  rinse  them  well  in  clean  cold  water,  and  do 
not  allow  them  to  renjain  long  in  contact  before  they 
are  hung  up  to  dry.  White  silk  articles,  as  stockings 
and  gloves,  should  be  washed  with  soap,  first  in  milk- 
warm,  and  afterward  in  nearly  boiling  water.  They 
will  be  improved  if  hung  up  for  a short  time  in  the 
fumes  of  burning  sulphur  (sulphurous  acid)  while  still 
damp. 

We  have  now  to  notice  the  domestic  washing-machines 
which  have  of  late  years  come  into  rather  extensive 
use.  A machine  of  this  kind,  when  in  motion,  ought  to 
produce  at  least  ,as  much  agitation  as  will  keep  up  a 
constant  change  in  the  deterging  solution  in  contact 
with  the  linen,  and  at  the  same  time  cause  the  clothes 
to  slide  over  each  other  in  a somewhat  analogous  man- 
ner to  hand-washing.  There  is  an  old  form  of  washing- 
machine  called  the  dolly-tub,  which  has  been  in  use  in 
Yorkshire,  England,  for  a century.  It  consists  essen- 
tially of  a presser  or  dolly,  which  is  simply  a round 
piece  of  wood,  say  ten  inches  in  diameter,  with  from 
three  to  five  legs,  rounded  at  the  ends ; the  whole 
exactly  resembling  a foot-stool,  but  with  the  addition  of 
an  upright  rod  or  spindle  from  its  center,  with  a cross- 


6267 

piece  at  the  top  for  working  it.  Any  vessel  such  as  u 
tub,  barrel  or  box,  may  be  used  to  hold  the  clothes, 
which  are  washed  by  moving  the  dolly  first  one  way 
and  then  the  other,  at  the  same  time  a certain  pressure 
being  exerted  on  them  against  the  sides  and  bottom  of 
the  vessel. 

Of  recent  washing-machines,  a certain  class  of  them 
are  modifications  of  the  dolly  machine,  with  spring 
ribbed  boards,  on  which  the  linen  is  rubbed  by  a swing- 
ing motion.  Another  class  consists  of  boxes  which  also 
oscillate  upon  the  axes,  but  operate  by  jerking  the 
clothes  and  water  from  side  to  side.  A third,  and  per- 
haps the  most  efficient  class,  are  made  upon  the  principle 
of  the  dash  wheel,  so  much  used  in  large  bleach-works. 
In  this  machine,  the  materials  to  be  washed  are  lifted  by 
internal  ribs  of  the  rim  of  a large  wheel,  and  allowed  to 
fall  with  some  force  from  fully  half  its  height  into  the 
cleansing  liquid,  this  being  of  course  repeated  as  the 
wheel  rotates. 

Washing  by  steam,  though  little  known  formerly,  is 
now  practiced  to  a considerable  extent.  The  French, 
chemist,  Chaptal,  first  brought  the  process  to  perfection. 
Besides  a saving  of  fuel,  soap,  and  manual  labor  to  the, 
extent  of  at  least  one  half,  the  wear  and  tear  of  the 
linen  attending  rubbing  and  beating  is  avoided.  The 
efficacy  of  steam  in  washing  depends  upon  its  penetrat- 
ing and  dissolving  property.  The  clothes  are  first 
steeped  in  a ley  of  soda  or  potash,  or  in  a mixture  of 
alkali  and  soap,  and  then  hung  in  a wooden  vessel  kept 
full  of  steam  by  a pipe  communicating  with  the  boiler. 
On  a small  scale,  a large  cask,  made  air-tight,  will 
answer,  and  a common  tea-kettle  will  produce  steam 
enough.  There  must  be  an  aperture  to  allow  the  air 
to  escape  when  the  steam  first  enters ; the  air  being 
expelled,  the  aperture  is  shut.  In  half  an  hour  the  din. 
is  sufficiently  loosened  to  wash  out  with  ease,  and  the 
linen  is  found  to  be  extremely  white. 

WASHINGTON,  one  of  the  United  States,  the 
forty-second  in  order  of  admission,  having  been  admit- 
ted by  proclamation  of  President  Harrison  November 
11,  1889.  It  is  the  extreme  northwestern  political  sub- 
division of  the  Union  (except  the  detached  Alaska), 
and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Canadian  prov- 
ince of  British  Columbia,  on  the  east  by  Idaho,  on 
the  south  by  Oregon  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  It  lies  between  45°  40'  and  490  o'  N.  latitude, 
and  1 1 70  o'  and  124°  44'  W.  longitude,  and  has  a tola! 
land  area  within  its  boundaries  of  66,880  square  miles 
and  a water  area  of  3, 1 14  square  miles;  its  average 
length  from  east  to  west  is  330  miles  and  from  north 
to  south  is  220  miles.  The  State  is  divided  by  the  Cas- 
cade Mountains  into  two  unequal  sections,  which  have 
very  different  climatic  and  physical  characteristics  and 
commercial  and  business  interests.  The  climate  is 
very  mild,  on  account  of  the  warm  oceanic  current  from 
Japan  which  flows  south  along  the  coast.  The  moist- 
ure-bearing winds,  moving  inland  from  the  ocean,  are 
chilled  against  the  Cascade  Mountains,  and  cause  the 
western  section  of  the  State  to  have  a very  heavy  annual 
rainfall  (about  fifty-three  inches)  which  is  quite  unevenly 
distributed  throughout  the  year.  The  rainy  season  begins 
about  October  and  continues  till  May,  during  which 
time  rain  falls  about  as  frequently  as  snow  falls  in  the 
East,  whole  weeks  of  pleasant  weather  at  times  inter- 
’ening  between  storms.  The  summers  are  generally 
dry,  though  occasional  showers  occur.  Thunder  and 
lightning  and  cyclones  are  unknown  in  this  part  of  the 
State.  .The  temperature  ranges  from  io°  above  zero  in 
winter  to  85°  above  in  midsummer.  The  summers  are 
cool  and  pleasant  and  the  winters  mild;  flowers  bloom 
in  the  open  air  every  month  in  the  year,  and  the  nights 
in  summer  are  always  cool  and  refreshing.  The  climate 


5268 


WAS 


in  the  western  section  is  similar  to  that  ot  southern 
Englando  That  of  the  eastern  section  is  remarkable  for 
clearness  and  brightness;  it  is  hot  and  dry  in  summer, 
and  has  a brief  and  severe  winter.  The  climate  is  tem- 
pered by  a remarkable  balmy  wind,  called  the  Chinook 
wind,  coming  over  the  mountains  from  the  great  Japan- 
ese current  of  the  Pacific.  In  the  summer  it  is  a cool 
wind  tempering  the  heat,  and  in  the  winter  it  is  a warm 
wind,  before  which  snow  and  ice  disappear  with'  mar- 
velous rapidity. 

The  Cascade  range  is  the  local  name  of  the  exten- 
sion through  the  State  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  the 
great  and  sharply-defined  mountain  chain  which  ex- 
tends at  a distance  from  shore  of  about  ioo  miles 
through  the  Pacific  States  and  Territories.  To  the 
north  of  the  Columbia  river  the  range  widens  out 
considerably  into  a region  of  high  grassy  mountain 
lateaus,  of  deep  canons,  heavily  timbered  slopes,  and 
igh  peaks  of  volcanic  origin,  furnishing  mountain 
scenery  of  indescribable  grandeur.  The  western  slopes 
are  covered  with  magnificent  forests,  principally  of  fir, 
the  trees  growing  to' an  immense  size.  The  mountain 
plateaus  are  from  3,000  to  5,000  feet  in  elevation, 
untimbered  and  covered  with  excellent  grass,  furnishing 
a large  extent  of  valuable  pasture  land.  On  the  eastern 
slope  the  forests  are  more  open,  and  consist  principally 
of  bull  and  yellow  pine,  tamarack,  fir,  and  white  cedar. 
The  Northern  Pacific  railroad  reaches  the  sea  by  two 
routes,  one  of  which  goes  down  the  Columbia  river, 
and  the"  other  crosses  the  Cascade  range  by  the  Stam- 
pede Pass  in  470  20'  N.  latitude ; this  pass  has  an  ele- 
vation of  3,600  feet,  and  is  in  a region  of  beautiful 
deeply-embosomed  lakes,  the  high  cliff-like  banks  of 
which  are  crowned  with  splendid  evergreen  forests. 
To  the  north  of  the  Stampede  Pass  the  range  becomes 
higher,  and  more  rough  and  rugged  than  it  is  farther 
south.  There  seems  to  have  been  a volcanic  center 
between  the  Yakima  and  Wenatchee  rivers  and  about 
midway  between  the  upper  Yakima  lakes  and  the 
Columbia,  the  highest  peak  of  which  is  known  as 
Mount  Stuart,  from  which  poured  a grand  flood  of  lava 
to  the  east  and  south,  forming  the  elevated  range 
between  the  Yakima  and  Wenatchee  known  as  the 
Wenatchee  Mountains,  and  crossing  the  present  chan- 
nel of  the  Columbia  and  forming  Badger  Mountain 
on  the  east.  To  the  north  of  the  48th  parallel, 
which  is  about  the  line  of  the  Spokane  river  and  the 
westward-flowing  portion  of  the  upper  Columbia,  the 
country  changes,  becoming  more  independent  in  its 
mountain  formations,  and  the  eastern  jutting  ranges  of 
the  Cascades  meet  and  join  with  the  earlier  rock  mate- 
rials of  the  western  spurs  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Here  the  great  interior  basin  may  be  considered  as 
ending,  for  to  the  north  the  Rocky  and  Cascade  ranges 
approach,  and  are  blended  in  inextricable  confusion. 
The  principal  rivers  having  their  sources  in  the  Cascade 
Mountains  on  the  west  are  the  Nooksack,  Skagit, 
Stillagaumish,  Snohomish,  Puyallup,  and  Nisqually 
flowing  into  Puget  Sound,  the  Chehalis  flowing  into 
Gray’s  Harbor,  and  the  Cowlitz  and  Lewis  rivers  flow 
ing  into  the  Columbia;  while  on  the  east  are  the 
Methow,  Chelan,  Wenatchee,  Yakima,  and  Klickitat, 
flowing  into  the  Columbia.  The  mountains  are  well 
stocked  with  large  game,  as  deer,  bear,  mountain  sheep, 
mountain  goats,  wolves,  panthers,  foxes,  etc.,  the 
valleys,  plateaus,  and  lakes  with  feathered  game,  and 
the  streams  and  lakes  with  trout  and  salmon. 

Th«  western  section  of  the  State  lying  between 
the  Cascades  and  the  ocean  is  the  smaller  of  the  two, 
and  is  covered  with  timber  throughout  nearly  its  entire 
extent.  The  principal  natural  feature  is  Puget  Sound — 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  sheets  of  salt,  water  in  the 


world,  if  not  indeed  the  most  beautiful.  It  is  an  arm  oi 
the  sea  joining  the  waters  of  the  Gulf  of* Georgia  and 
Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  and  stretching  about  100  miles 
to  the  south  into  the  heart  of  the  country;  it  has  a great 
number  of  bays,  coves,  inlets,  and  channels  branching 
off  from  the  main  sound,  altogether  forming  a collection 
of  harbors  unsurpassed  in  the  world.  The  total  area 
of  the  Sound  is  about  2,000  square  miles,  with  a shore- 
line of  about  1,800  miles.  The  water  is  very  deep,  in 
places  more  than  800  feet,  the  ordinary  depths  in  the 
inlets  and  channels  being  from  300  to  600  feet.  These 
depths  in  some  places  continue  right  up  to  the  shore, 
so  that  vessels  of  the  deepest  draught  could  go  and  tie 
up  to  the  trees  on  the  banks  as  to  a wharf.  The  tides 
in  Puget  Sound  vary  ordinarily  from  about  nine  feet  at 
Port  Townsend  to  fifteen  feet  or  more  at  Olympia  and 
the  remote  inlets.  Along  the  shores,  and  for  many 
miles  back,  the  country  is  covered  with  the  densest 
growth  of  very  fine  timber.  The  region  of  the  Olympic 
Mountains  lying  between  Puget  Sound  and  the  Pacific 
has  never  been  explored  to  any  extent,  owing  to  the 
enormous  difficulties  of  penetrating  the  forests,  which, 
besides  the  standing  trees,  consist  of  masses  of  fallen 
timber  and  undergrowth.  No  rivers  or  creeks  navigable 
for  canoes  penetrate  any  distance  into  it.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  Puget  Sound  once  extended  much  farther 
south,  and  occupied  the  Willamette  valley  of  Oregon. 
Its  retrogression  has  left  large  areas  of  low-lying  land 
bordering  the  Sound  and  between  it  and  the  Columbia, 
which,  when  brought  under  cultivation,  are  found  to 
be  remarkably  fertile.  There  are  large  areas  of  these 
low-lying  lands  covered  with  water  at  the  highest*  tides 
which  could  be  .easily  reclaimed  by  dyking;  about  30,- 
000  acres  have  been  so  reclaimed,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  150,000  acres  besides  can  be  thus  improved.  There 
are  two  fine  harbors  on  the  Pacific  coast,  Gray’s  and 
Willapa,  and  several  others  along  the  shore  of  the 
Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca. 

Western  Washington  is  specially  adapted  to  rais- 
ing all  the  grasses,  oats,  hops,  the  root-crops,  and 
fruits;  whatever  requires  great  heat  does  not  ripen  well. 
Eastern  Washington  differs  in  a very  marked  manner 
and  in  almost  every  material  respect  from  the  western 
section.  South  of  the  forty-eighth  parallel  and  east  of 
the  Cascades  it  is  essentially  a prairie  country,  which  owes 
its  origin  to  the  great  lava  flow  that  covered  northeastern 
Oregon.  This  lava  has  disintegrated  in  the  course  of 
ages,  and  produced  a soil  which  is  unsurpassed  in  the 
world  for  richness.  The  region  lying  between  the*  Blue 
Mountains  and  the  Snake  river,  known  as  the  Walla 
Walla  country,  and  that  between  the  Snake  and  the 
Spokane,  known  as  the  Palouse  and  Spokane  countries, 
are  noted  for  their  fertility.  This  is  also  the  case  with 
the  regions  along  the  eastern  foot-hills  of  the  Cascades 
known  generally  as  the  Yakima  and  Kittitass  valleys. 
In  these  valleys  almost  every  product  of  the  temperate 
zone  is  grown  in  the  greatest  abundance  and  of  the 
finest  quality;  though  the  rainfall  here  is  so  light  that 
some  irrigation  is  necessary.  Besides  the  cereals,  suck 
as  wheat,  oats,  barley,  flax,  etc.,  there  are  grown  grapes, 
apples,  cherries,  peaches,  prunes,  potatoes,  both  white 
and  sweet,  tobacco,  cotton,  broom  corn,  sorghum,  pea- 
nuts, egg  plants,  etc.  Over  a large  part  of  this  eastern 
section,  however,  the  rainfall  is  not  sufficient,  and  irriga- 
tionjnust  be  resorted  to.  With  irrigation  properly  con- 
ducted it  is  safe  to  say  that  pearly  every  foot  of  lan£ 
now  classed  as  desert  will  be  found  to  be  as  productive 
as  the  regions  more  favored  by  rain. 

That  part  of  eastern  Washington  north  of  the  Colum- 
bia and  Spokane  rivers  is  a region  of  low-timbered 
mountains  and  fertile  valleys.  This  is  mostly  given  up 
tn  the  Indians.,  th<n-e  being  the  two  large  reservations 


WAS 


called  the  Columbia  and  Colville  reservations  stretching 
from  the  Cascade  mountains  eastward  to  the  southward- 
flowing portion  of  the  Columbia,  and  embracing  7,880 
square  miles  of  land.  North  of  Spokane  river  is  the 
Colville  country,  which  is  open  to  settlement,  and  in 
which  are  much  good  land  and  large  quantities  of  valua- 
ble timber. 

The  most  important  natural  feature  of  eastern  Wash- 
ington is  the  Columbia  river,  which  enters  the  State 
from  British  Columbia  at  about  1170  30'  W.  longitude, 
and  pursues  neaidy  a southerly  course  to  the  “ Big 
Bend,”  a distance  of  no  miles,  where  it  takes  a westerly 
course,  which  it  keeps  for  93  miles  until  it  receives  the 
waters  of  the  Okanogan,  where  it  changes  its  course 
again  to  the  south,  keeping  it  for  224  miles,  until  it 
unites  with  its  greatest  tributary,  the  Snake  river;  from 
this  point  it  keeps  a westerly  course,  breaking  through 
the  Cascades,  and  entering  the  Pacific  in  latitude  46° 
15'.  It  forms  the  boundary  between  Washington  and 
Oregon  for  this  latter  part  of  its  course.  The  lower 
portion  of  the  Columbia  is  described  under  Oregon, 
(. q.v .)  The  upper  part  may  be  briefly  described  as 
a deeply  canoned  river  with  numerous  rapids  and 
falls.  Above  the  mouth  of  the  Okanogan  it  is  un- 
navigable  and  in  all  probability  incapable  of  improve- 
ment except  in  short  stretches.  The  Kettle  Falls, 
near  the  northern  boundary,  are  the  most  marked  on 
the  river,  being  about  twenty-five  feet  at  low  water. 
Here  each  year  the  Indians  from  all  directions  gather 
on  neutral  ground  to  take  salmon  for  their  next  year’s 
subsistence.  A salmon  chief  is  elected,  whose  duties 
are  to  keep  order  and  to  divide  equitably  all  the  fish 
taken.  The  fish  are  taken  in  baskets  as  they  try  to 
jump  the  falls,  those  that  fail  falling  back  into  the 
baskets.  That  part  of  the  Columbia  from  the  north- 
ern bcmndary-line  to  the  “ Big  Bend  ” is  the  mosf  beauti- 
ful portion  of  the  river  within  the  State,  except  where  it 
breaks  through  the  Cascades.  Throughout  this  portion 
there  is  considerable  bottom-land,  and  this  and  the 
neighboring  hills  and  mountains  are  well  covered  with 
fine  open  timber,  with  charming  little  grassy  prairies 
scattered  here  and  there.  Below  the  Big  Bed  the  canon 
of  the  Columbia  becomes  more  prominent,  the  timber 
recedes  from  the  banks,  and  the  channel  narrows  be- 
tween basalt  rocks,  and  in  places  is  highly  dangerous  to 
anyone  who  intrusts  himself  upon  the  waters.  The 
general  depth  of  the  canon  is  about  2,000  feet.  Much 
gold  is  found  in  the  sand  bars  and  low  terraces  along  the 
river. 

The  principal  tributaries  of  the  Columbia  within  the 
State  are  Clarke’s  Fork,  the  outlet  of  Lake  Pend  d’- 
Oreille,  an  unnavigable  stream  flowing  through  a deep 
canon,  which  enters  the  Columbia  just  above  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  State.  The  Spokane  river, 
one  of  the  most  important  tributaries,  is  the  outlet  of 
Lake  Coeur  d’Alene,  which  drains  a large  extent  of  the 
Bitter  Root  Mountains.  The  Spokane,  from  the  lake 
to  Spokane  Falls,  a distance  of  about  thirty  miles,  flows 
just  below  the  level  of  a lovely  prairie  country;  at  the 
falls  the  river  takes  a plunge  of  156  feet,  and  from  there 
to  the  Columbia  it  flows  through  a deep  canon.  These 
falls  of  the  Spokane  furnish  one  of  the  finest,  most  ac- 
cessible, and  most  easily  controlled  water-powers  in  the 
world,  and  already  they  are  utilized  to  a considerable 
extent  for  manufacturing  purposes.  The  Okanogan  is 
the  next  important  tributary;  it  rises  in  British  Colum- 
bia and  flows  southward  through  Lakes  Okanogan  and 
Osoyoos,  and  enters  the  State  in  1 190  30' W.  longitude. 
Its  course  lies  through  a rich  and  inviting  country.  At 
its  mouth  was  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  old 
Hudson’s  Bay  Company^  trading  posts.  The  Methow 
river,  Lake  Chelan  and  its  outlet,  and  the  Wenatchee 

893 


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are  rivers  of  considerable  magnitude,  draining  the  east- 
ern slopes  of  the  Cascades.  They  are  in  a mountainous 
country  presenting  few  attractions  to  the  settler.  The 
Y akima,  which  also  comes  from  the  Cascades,  is  of  far 
greater  importance,  as  about  its  headwaters  is  a large 
amount  of  fine  agricultural  land,  and  the  river  itself  and 
its  tributaries  will  ultimately  furnish  the  water  for  ir- 
rigating an  enormous  extent  of  very  fine  land  now  vir- 
tually desert.  Already  large  irrigating  canals,  having  a 
total  length  of  325  miles,  are  projected,  and  work  on 
them  has  been  commenced. 

The  largest  tributary  of  the  Columbia,  the  Snake, 
joins  it  about  eight  miles  below  the  mouth  of  the  Yak- 
ima.  The  Snake  is  navigable  for  the  whole  150  miles 
of  its  course  through  the  State,  but  has  some  diffi- 
cult rapids.  It  flows  through  a canon  1,000  to  2,000 
feet  deep,  which  it  has  cut  for  itself  through  the  lava 
deposits. 

An  area  nearly  encircled  by  the  Columbia,  below  the 
Big  Bend  and  the  Snake,  in  the  last  fifty  miles  of  it., 
course,  is  known  as  the  Great  Plain  of  the  Columbia. 
Its  southern  part  is  an  alkaline,  nearly  waterless  desert, 
the  principal  vegetation  being  sage  brush;  the  northern 
part  is  somewhat  more  elevated,  and  is  for  the  most 
part  a rich,  rolling,  grassy  country  intersected  here  and 
there  by  coules , or  deep  and  almost  vertical  cuts  through 
the  basalt  rock  underlying  the  soil.  They  indicate  the 
former  presence  of  large  streams  of  water. 

Forests. — Very  valuable  forests  exist  in  every  part  of 
western  Washington  and  in  the  northern  part  of  eastern 
Washington.  In  1900,  the  sawmills  of  Washington  (fifth 
state  of  the  Union  in  the  lumber  industry),  produced 
cut  lumber  to  the  amount  of  2,300  million  feet,  valued 
at  $30,000,000.  The  principal  timber  is  yellow  and  red 
fir,  ordinarily  known  as  “ Oregon  pine,”  which  consti- 
tutes the  bulk  of  the  forest;  white  and  red  cedar, 
spruce,  and  larch  also  abound.  White  pine  of  magnif- 
icent size  grows  on  the  upper  benches  of  the  Cascade 
Mountains ; white  fir  and  hemlock  are  also  found. 
Alder,  maple,  ash,  oak,  and  cottonwood  occur  in  abund- 
ance on  the  bottom-lands  of  western  Washington.  The 
ash  and  oak  are  of  inferior  quality,  but  the  alder,  maple, 
and  cottonwood  are  superior  to  woods  of’ their  kind 
grown  elsewhere.  Bull  pine,  yellow  pine,  and  tamarack 
grow  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Cascade  range,  and 
constitute  the  bulk  of  the  forests  of  eastern  Washington, 
They  make  a fair  quality  of  lumber,  but  greatly  inferior 
to  the  products  of  the  western  slopes  and  the  Pacific 
coast  regions. 

Fisheries. — The  salmon  fisheries  of  the  Columbia 
river,  Willapa  Harbor,  Gray’s  Harbor,  and  Puget 
Sound  form  one  of  the  leading  industries  of  the  State.- 
The  preservation  of  salmon  in  cans  was  commenced  in 
1866  on  the  Columbia  river,  and  the  business  rapidly 
increased,  so  that  now  the  annual  value  of  the  pack  is 
from  $2,000,000 to  $2,500,000.  Halibut,  cod,  sturgeon, 
flounder,  herring,  and  smelt  abound  in  the  Pacific  off 
the  coast  of  Washington,  and  in  the  waters  of  Puget 
Sound,  though  the  catch  is  as  yet  very  small. 

Mines  aiid  Mining. — The  mineral  resources  of  the 
State  are  very  great  upon  both  sides  of  the  Cascade 
Mountains.  There  are  large  tracts  of  valuable  coal- 
lands  between  Puget  Sound  and  the  Cascades,  stretch- 
ing all  the  way  from  Bellingham  Bay  on  the  north  to 
the  Columbia  river  on  the  south.  The  veins  at  present 
worked  vary  from  five  to  twenty-four  feet  in  thickness,  and 
in  quality  from  lignite  to  bituminous  coal,  some  of  which 
produces  gas  and  coke  of  superior  excellence.  Mines 
are  also  worked  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Cascades 
about  the  head  of  the  Yakima  river.  . The  present 
known  area  of  coal-lands  in  the  State  is  about  180  > 
COO  acres,  and  the  total  product  tor  the  year  1899 


WAS 


6270 

amounted  to  2.029,881  tons,  valued  at  $3,603,989. 
The  supply  of  coal  for  the  Pacific  coast  is  mainly  drawn 
from  the  beds  in  Washington  and  their  continuation  in 
British  Columbia. 

There  are  large  deposits  of  valuable  iron  ore  in  the 
western  part  of  the  State  and  in  the  Cle-elum  region 
east  of  the  mountains.  Brown  hematite  iron  ore  is 
found  in  Skagit  county,  magnetic  ore  in  King  county, 
and  bog  iron  ore  of  the  best  quality  in  several  counties, 
notably  Jefferson,  King,  and  Pierce;  but  these  deposits 
have  not  yet  been  worked  to  any  great  extent.  There 
can  be  no  question,  however,  that  the  existence  of  coal, 
iron,  and  timber  in  the  near  vicinity  of  Puget  Sound 
piust  make  this  a great  manufacturing  and  shipbuilding 
center.  Limestone  is  found  in  great  abundance  on 
San  Juan  Island,  in  the  Puyallup  valley,  and  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  State.  Copper,  lead,  and 
tin  are  found  in  different  localities. 

The  northern  part  of  eastern  Washington  abounds 
in  mines  of  the ' precious  metals,  and  these  are  now 
being  worked  on  quite  an  extensive  scale.  In  the  Col* 
ville  district  (between  the  Columbia,  Clarke’s  Fork,  and 
Spokane  rivers)  the  prevailing  country  rock  is  lime- 
stone, and  the  prevailing  mineral  is  argentiferous 
galena;  at  some  points  gray  copper  ore  is  found  carry- 
ing both  silver  and  lead,  and  in  others  silver  chlorides 
are  found.  The  development  of  these  mines  has  been 
delayed  by  lack  of  railway  facilities,  but  this  will  be 
remedied  in  a short  time  by  lines  now  projected  and 
incorporated. 

The  Kettle  river  district  lies  to  the  west  of  the 
Columbia,  and  in  regions  about  the  headwaters  of  the 
river.  The  mines  are  very  varied  in  their  character, 
comprising  placer  gold,  gold  quartz,  copper,  and  galena 
with  carbonates.  Some  of  the  placer  mines  have  yielded 
heavily,  the  gold  being  coarse  and  obtained  by  ground 
sluicing.  Very  valuable  quartz  ledges,  assaying  eighty 
to  2,000  ounces  of  gold  per  ton,  have  been  discovered 
in  a formation  of  granite  and  slate. 

The  Okanogan  district  comprises  the  mines  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Okanogan,  Salmon,  and  the  Similkameen 
rivers  and  Osoyoos  lake.  Here  the  formation  is  granite, 
syenite,  and  porphyry,  and  the  ores  are  galena,  gray 
copper,  and  quartz,  carrying  sulpliurets  and  native  silver. 

The  cities  of  Tacoma  on  Puget  Sound,  and  of  Spo- 
kane Falls  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State,  are  the  dis- 
tributing points  for  all  these  mines,  as  well  as  for  the 
Coeur  d’Alene  mines  in  northern  Idaho. 

Shipbuilding. — Shipyards  exist  at  Seattle  and  Tacoma, 
and  at  other  points  on  Puget  Sound,  at  Gray’s  Harbor 
and  Willapa  Harbor,  and  on  the  Columbia  river.  The 
vessels  constructed  are  mainly  schooners  for  the  fishing 
and  lumber-carrying  trade  ; many  of  them  also  are  pro- 
vided with  auxiliary  steam-power.  All  raw  materials 
for  their  construction  are  found  in  the  vicinity.  The 
yellow  fir  of  the  Pacific  coast  is  stronger  than  oak  and 
more  durable,  and  is  recognized  as  a superior  timber  for 
shipbuilding  by  the  famous  builders  of  the  Clyde  and 
of  Marseilles,  as  well  as  of  our  own  country.  Vessels  of 
4,854  tons  were  built  during  1896,  and  the  industry  is 
rapidly  growing. 

Commerce.  — The  principal  articles  of  export  are 
lumber,  coal,  wheat,  and  salmon,  and  their  annual  value 
is  from  $30,000,000  to  $31,000,000.  In  the  year  from 
December,  1899,  to  November,  1900,  the  total  flour  ex- 
ports at  Puget  Sound  were  1,037,583  barrels  as  com- 
pared with  688,535  the  previous  year. 

Railways. — Washington  was  the  last  of  the  political 
subdivisions  of  the  United  States  to  be  reached  by 
railroads.  In  1887  the  Northern  Pacific  was  completed 
through  the  Cascades  and  direct  rail  connection  secured 
with  the  East.  The  mileage  is  now  (1902)  2,965  miles. 


Education. — There  are  1,944  common  schools  in  the, 
State,  under  the  supervision  of  a superintendent  of 
public  instruction  and  a board  of  education  of  three 
persons,  all  of  whom  are  appointed  by  the  governor. 
In  each  county,  county  superintendents  and  a board  of 
county  examiners  visit  the  schools  and  report  to  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction.  There  is  held 
each  year  a territorial  teachers’  institute,  and  local 
teachers’  institutes  are  also  held  in  different  sections. 
These  common  schools  are  supported  by  county  taxes 
and  by  certain  criminal  fines.  Special  taxes  are  also 
permitted  in  counties  under  certain  conditions.  There 
were  in  1900  about  100,000  children  under  instruction, 
at  a cost  of  $1,795,795- 

The  general  government  has  set  aside  for  educational 
purposes  one -eighteenth  of  all  the  land  in  the  State, 
comprising  about  2,500,000  acres.  All  children  must 
attend  school  at  least  three  months  in  the  year. 

There  is  a university  at  Seattle,  supported  by  annual 
appropriations  of  the  legislature.  It  has  four  depart- 
ments at  present: — literature,  science,  and  the  arts;  law; 
medicine;  and  military  instruction.  There  is  a semi- 
nary for  young  ladies  at  Tacoma,  which  ranks  as  one  of 
the  first  institutions  of  its  kind  on  the  coast.  There  is 
also  a college  under  the  management  of  the  Methodist 
church  in  the  same  city.  There  are  also  twenty-four 
higher  institutions  of  learning  scattered  throughout  the 
State,  consisting  of  colleges,  seminaries,  and  academies, 
most  of  which  are  under  sectarian  control,  and  some  of 
which  have  already  a liberal  endowment. 

Churches. — -All  the  leading  Christian  sects  are  well 
represented  in  the  State,  their  membership  and  value 
of  church  property  being  about  in  the  order  given 
below: — Methodist  Episcopal,  Roman  Catholic,  Prot- 
estant Episcopal,  Congregational,  Baptist,  Presbyterian, 
Christian,  Lutheran,  German  Reformed,  and  Unitarian. 

Government. — The  executive  power  of  the  State  is 
vested  in  a governor,  lieutenant  governor,  secretary  of 
state,  treasurer,  auditor,  attorney  general,  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction,  and  commissioner  of  public 
lands,  who  hold  office  for  four  years;  and  the  legislature 
consists  of  a senate  and  house  of  representatives,  the 
former  of  thirty-five  and  the  latter  of  seventy  members. 
The  sessions  of  the  legislature  are  biennial. 

Population. — The  total  population  was  518,103  in  1 90c 
(304,178  males,  213,925  females),  according  to  the  census 
of  that  year,  classified  as  follows: — whites,  496,304; 
negroes,  2,514;  Chinese,  3,629;  Japanese,  5,61:7.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  there  are  about  10,000  Indians.  The 
census  population  in  1890  was  349,390.  The  capital  is 
Olympia,  and  the  chief  city  is  Tacoma  (pop.  1900, 
37,714),  both  on  Puget  Sound,  Seattle  has  a population 
of  80,671. 

Banks.—  There  were  in  1900  in  the  State  79  national 
banks,  with  a capital  of  $3,250,000,  and  27  State  and 
savings  banks,  with  a capital  of  $1,349,960,  and  also  a 
number  of  private  banks. 

History. — The  first  event  in  history  relating  to 
Washington  was  the  discovery,  in  1592,  of  the  Strait 
of  Juan  de  Fuca  by  an  old  Greek  pilot  of  that 
name  in  the  service  of  Spain.  In  1775  Captain 
Hecata,  a Spanish  navigator,  discovered  the  mouth  of 
the  Columbia,  but  was  unable  to  enter  the  river. 
Captain  Kendrick,  an  American  navigator,  in  1789 
sailed  into  the  Strait  of 'Fuca  and  through  the  Gulf 
of  Georgia  and  Queen  Charlotte  Sound  to  the  Pacific, 
and  was  the  first  to  clearly  make  known  the  character 
of  these  inland  waters.  On  the  nth  of  May,  1792, 
Captain  Gray,  of  the  American  ship  Columbia , sailed 
into  and  explored  for  about  fifteen  miles  the  great  river 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  his  ship.  This  first  en- 
trance into  the  Columbia  river  gave  the  United  States 


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their  principal  claim  to  the  territory  drained  by  the 
river,  and  is  thus  a very  important  episode  in  the  history 
of  the  Oregon  region,  which  formerly  comprised  the 
present  States  of  Oregon,  Washington,  and  Idaho. 
In  October  of  the  same  year  (1792),  an  -Englishman, 
Lieutenant  Broughton,  sailed  up  and  examined  the 
Columbia  for  about  100  miles  from  its  mouth.  The 
coast  soon  became. quite  well  known,  and  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  fitted  out  a number  of  expe- 
ditions to  obtain  a knowledge  of  the  interior.  The 
most  important  of  these  was  that  of  Lewis  and  Clark, 
who  were  directed  to  ascend  the  Missouri,  cross  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  trace  the  Columbia  from  its 
sources  to  the  sea.  They  began  the  ascent  of  the  Mis- 
souri in  1804,  and  spent  the  winter  of  1804-5  at  Fort 
Mandan.  In  the  next  season,  after  incredible  hard- 
ships and  great  sufferings,  they  crossed  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  reached  the  Clearwater  river.  Here 
they  made  boats  and  proceeded  down  it,  the  Snake 
river,  and  the  main  Columbia,  reaching  the  Pacific  in 
December,  1805.  They  returned  by  nearly  the  same 
route. 

The  next  important  era  in  the  history  of  the  State 
was  the  attempt  of  J.  J.  Astor  to  establish  a fur-trading 
empire  on  the  Columbia  and  its  tributary  lands  and 
streams.  Two  expeditions  were  sent  out  in  1810  for 
this  purpose,  one  byland  and  one  by  sea.  The  latter 
reached  the  Columbia  in  1811,  and  established  a trading 
post  at  Astoria  near  the  mouth  of  the  river.  The  land 
expedition  reached  this  post  in  1812.  In  the  meantime, 
in  hopes  of  forestalling  Astor’s  expeditions,  the  North- 
West  Fur  Company  sent  a party  in  1810  to  cross  the 
mountains  and  reach  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  before 
them.  This  expedition  experienced  great  difficulty  in 
crossing  the  mountains  in  520  N.  latitude,  but  in  the 
spring  of  1811  they  reached  the  Columbia,  and  went 
down  to  its  mouth,  where  they  found  Astor’s  sea  party 
already  established.  This  North-West  Fur  Company’s 
expedition  was  the  first  to  navigate  the  upper  Columbia, 
or  to  traverse  any  part  of  the  country  drained  by  it.  In 
1813  the  fortunes  of  war  compelled  the  transfer  of  the 
Astor  Fur  Company  to  the  North-West  Fur  Company. 
Henceforward  for  many  years  the  history  of  the  State 
is  the  history  of  the  operations  of  the  great  North- 
West  and  Hudson’s  Bay  Companies,  and  of  the  effort  of 
private  parties  to  get  a share  in  the  profits  of  the  fur 
trade.  A number  of  trading  posts  were  built,  and  ex- 
ploring and  trading  expeditions  sent  into  all  parts  of 
the  country.  Missionaries  began  to  arrive,  and  emi- 
grants to  drift  in  by  sea  and  land. 

During  all  the  years  in  which  this  region  was  first 
being  explored  and  settled,  a dispute  had  been  going  on 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  in  regard 
to  its  ownership,  which  at  different  times  waxed  so 
fierce  as  to  threaten  war.  Finally  an  arrangement  was 
arrived  at,  and  in  1846  the  treaty  was  signed  fixing  the 
boundary-line  at  the  49th  parallel.  The  Territory  of 
Oregon  (comprising  Washington,  Idaho,  and  Oregon) 
was  formed  in  1848,  and  Gen.  Joseph  Lane,  the  first  Ter- 
ritork  1 governor,  arrived  in  1849,  a^ter  which  United 
States  courts  were  established.  The  Territory  of 
Washington  was  established  in  1853,  and  its  first  gov- 
ernor was  Isaac  I.  Stevens. 

The  number  of  manufacturing  establishments  in  1960 
was  3,631,  employing  $52,649,760  of  capital  and  35,000 
wage-earners.  The  value  of  the  manufacturing  prod- 
ucts for  the  year  was  $86,795,051,  the  cost  of  materials 
used  being  $49,099,182. 

WASHINGTON,  the  capital  of  Washington 
county,  Penn.,  is  situated  on  Chartiers  creek,  and 
is  famed  both  as  an  educational  and  business  center. 
The  tributary  country  is  very  fertile,  and  its  mining 


resources,  consisting  of  bituminous  coal  and  limestone, 
are  equally  productive.  The  city  is  also  located  on  the 
Wheeling  and  Pittsburgh  branch  of  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  road, equidistant  between  Wheeling  and  Pittsburgh, 
'on  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati  and  St.  Louu,  .he  Waynes 
burg  and  Washington  railroads  and  the  National  road, 
rendering  it  easily  accessible  and  provided  with  unrivaled 
facilities  for  rapid,  communication  with  all  parts  of  the 
State  and  United  States.  The  city  contains  a f'ourt 
house  and  other  county  buildings,  ten  churches,  three 
national  and  two  private  banks,  one  daily,  one  semi- 
weekly,  and  four  weekly  papers,  besides  two  monthly 
publications,  a high-school  and  graded  schools,  with 
other  educational  advantages,  including  a female  sem 
inary  and  the  Washington  and  Jefferson  college,  the  lat- 
ter established  by  the  Presbyterians  in  1802,  and  now 
having  a library  of  more  than  10,000  volumes.  The 
city  also  contains  a number  of  desirable  hotels,  public 
halls,  stores,  etc.,  and  in  addition  to  the  usual  comple 
ment  of  manufacturing  enterprises,  Washington  is  the 
location  of  glass  plants,  woolen  mills,  tank  and  jack 
factories  and  other  industries  connected  with  the  pro 
duction  and  refinement  of  petroleum.  Coal  and  wood 
are  extensively  exported,  and  the  city  is  provided  with 
every  facility  for  the  conduct  of  the  large  and  growing 
business  of  which  it  is  the  base  of  operations.  The 
population  in  1900  was  stated  at  7,670,  an  increase  of 
nearly  3,000  during  the  ten  years  previous. 

WASHINGTON,  the  capital  ol  Daviess  county, 
Ind.,  is  located  on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  railroad,  at 
the  crossing  of  the  Evansville  and  Terre  Haute  road, 
58  miles  north  of  the  Ohio  river,  80  miles  from  Terre 
Haute,  20  miles  from  Vincennes,  and  173  miles  east  of 
St.  Louis.  It  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a bituminous 
coal  district,  among  the  richest  in  the  State,  and  of  an 
agricultural  territory  fully  as  productive  of  wheat  and  other 
cereals,  while  the  surrounding  country  is  covered  with 
a thick  growth  of  hardwood  timber.  Under  the  influ- 
ence of  aids  so  substantial  and  valuable  the  development 
of  Washington  has  kept  pace  with  the  times,  and  its 
growth  has  been  steady  and  permanent.  It  now  con- 
tains one  daily  and  three  weekly  papers,  two  national 
banks,  a court-house  and  administrative  offices,  four 
hotels,  public  halls,  stores,  etc.,  together  with  an  ex- 
cellently managed  graded  school  system,  provided'  with 
all  necessary  conveniences  and  appliances,  and  a full 
representation  of  the  various  religious  organizations  and 
a number  of  houses  of  worship.  Coal  mining  is  Ex- 
tensively carried  on,  and  the  manufacturing  plants  em- 
brace nearly  all  of  the  representative  and  leading 
industries.  The  population  in  1900  was  8,551. 

WASHINGTON,  the  capital  city  and  seat  of  gov 
eminent  of  the  United  States,  is  situated  on  the  left  on 
east  bank  of  the  Potomac  river,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Anacostia,  or  Eastern  branch,  the  head  of  navigation 
and  tide,  106J4  miles  from  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  185 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  latitude  of  Washington 
(naval  observatory)  is  38°  53'  38"  N.,  longitude  770 
3'  1.35"  west  of  Greenwich.  The  city  forms  a part  ot 
the  District  of  Columbia,  which  is  under  the  immediate 
control  of  the  United  States  Government.  The  char- 
ters of  Washington  and  Georgetown  were  abolished  by 
congress  in  1871.  Under  the  act  of  1874  the  manage 
ment  is  in  the  hands  of  three  commissioners  appointed 
by  the  president,  consisting  of  two  residents  (civilians) 
and  one  army  officer  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers.  The 
salary  of  the  commissioners  is  $5,000  per  year. 

The  District  of  Columbia,  since  the  retrocession  to 
the  State  of  Virginia,  has  an  area  of  sixty-five  square 
miles,  and  its  population  is  increasing.  Population  of 
the  city,  278,718.  Most  of  its  area  is  a plateau,  elevated 
300  to  400  feet  above  the  river,  and  traversed  by  the 


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Anacostia  liver  and  Rock  creek.  Just  above  the  mouth 
of  the  former  stream  the  bluffs  which  form  the  descent 
from  the  plateau  recede  from  the  river,  leaving  an  area 
of  bottom  land  about  six  square  miles  in  extent  between 
that  stream  and  the  Potomac.  This  bottom-land  is 
undulating,  much  of  it  being  but  slightly  elevated  above 
the  river,  while  the  highest  parts  are  scarcely  more  than 
1 00  feet  above  high  tide.  The  city  of  Washington  is 
built  upon  this  bottom-land,  while  its  immediate  sub- 
urbs extend  up  the  bluffs  and  over  the  plateau  to  the 
northward.  The  bluffs  return  to  the  river  immediately 
above  the  city,  and  upon  their  slopes  is  built  the  old 
city  of  Georgetown,  which  is  practically  continuous 
with  Washington.  There  are  several  suburban  villages 
scattered  over  the  district,  including  Mount  Pleasant, 
Tenallytown,  Brightwood,  Le  Droit  Park,  and  Union- 
town. 

The  climate  of  Washington  is  characterized  by  great 
humidity,  long-continued  but  not  excessive  heat  in  sum- 
mer, with  mild  winters.  Snow  does  not  often  fall,  and 
never  lies  long  on  the  ground. 

Three  railroads  enter  the  city,  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  and  the  Pennsylvania,  which  afford  communication 
with  the  north  and  west,  and  the  Richmond  and  West 
Point  Terminal,  which  extends -southward.  Besides  its 
railroad  connections,  regular  lines  of  steamers  ply  to 
northern  and  southern  ports  during  most  of  the  year. 

The  plan  of  the  city  is  regular  and  symmetrical. 
Radiating  from  the  Capitol  are  three  streets,  running 
north,  south,  and  east,  and  known  respectively  as 
North,  South,  and  East  Capitol  streets.  These,  to- 
gether with  a line  of  public  parks  running  west  from  the 
Capitol,  divide  the  city  into  quarters,  known  as  the 
northwest,  northeast,  southeast,  and  southwest  quarters. 
The  streets  run  in  the  cardinal  directions,  the  north  and 
south  ones  being  designated  by  numbers,  and  the  east 
and  west  ones  by  the  letters  of  the  alphabet — the  num- 
bers increasing  eastward  and  westward  from  the  meri- 
dian of  the  Capitol,  the  letters  progressing  northward 
and  southward  from  a parallel  through  that  building. 
In  addition  to  these  streets,  there  is  a system  of  avenues, 
which  run  diagonally  to  the  cardinal  directions,  and 
which  bear  the  names  of  States.  The  intersections  of 
the  streets  and  avenues  have  given  opportunity  for  the 
construction  of  many  small  parks  in  the  forms  of  tri- 
angles, circles,  quadrilaterals,  etc.,  which,  with  the 
numerous  larger  parks  scattered  about  the  city,  add 
greatly  to  its  beauty  and  healthfulness. 

The  streets  and  avenues  have  a total  area  of  1,501 
acres,  the  pavements  150  acres,  the  public  reservations 
and  parks  790  acres.  Aggregate  length  of  streets,  279 
miles;  of  avenues,  65  miles.  The  thoroughfares  are 
wider  than  in  any  other  city  on  the  globe,  the  avenues 
ranging  in  width  from  120  to  160  feet,  while  the  streets 
range  from  80  to  120  feet.  The  area  comprised  in  the 
streets,  avenues,  and  public  parks  is  considerably  more 
than  half  the  area  of  the  city.  As  the  width  of  the 
streets  is  in  most  cases  in  excess  of  the  demands  of 
travel,  a portion  of  this  width  has,  in  the  residence 
streets,  been  left  between  the  sidewalks  and  the  houses, 
and  has  been  improved  as  a public  parking.  In  some 
cases,  similar  parking  has  been  left  in  the  middle  of  the 
streets.  Of  the  avenues  and  streets,  30  per  cent,  are 
paved  with  smooth  pavements,  either  asphalt,  coal-tar, 
concrete,  or  asphalt  blocks;  10  per  cent,  are  paved 
with  granite  or  trap  blocks,  and  an  equal  extent  with 
cobble  or  rubble;  4^  per  cent,  are  macadamized,  and 
14  per  cent.  are  graveled,  while  the  remainder  are 
unimproved.  The  paved  streets  are  swept  by  machin- 
ery at  frequent  intervals.  With  the  exception  of  the 
business  streets  every  street  is  lined  with  shade  trees, 
which,  arching  over  the  pavements,  form  continuous 


shade  for  miles.  The  trees  are  mainly  elms  and 

mapl'es. 

The  river  is  crossed  by  three  bridges — the  Long 
Bridge,  by  which  the  city  is  directly  connected  with  the 
Virginia  shore,  the  Aqueduct  Bridge,  so  named  because 
it  formerly  carried  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal,  and 
the  Chain  Bridge,  farther  up  the  river. 

The  water  supply  of  the  district  comes  from  the  Po- 
tomac. It  is  taken  out  of  the  river  at  the  head  of  a 
cataract  known  as  Great  Falls,  about  sixteen  miles 
above  the  city,  where  it  is  collected  in  the  receiving 
reservoir,  capacity  163,000,000  gallons.  It  is  brought 
to  the  distributing  reservoir,  capacity  300,000,000  gal- 
lons, thirty-three  acres  in  area,  just  above  Georgetown, 
in  an  aqueduct,  passing  through  a receiving  reservoir 
on  the  way,  and  is  thence  brought  to  Washington  and 
Georgetown  through  iron  mains.  No  pumping  is  done, 
except  to  supply  the  suburbs  on  the  bluffs.  The  water 
is  excellent  and  the  supply  ample.  In  order  to  give  a 
stronger  head  in  certain  sections  of  the  city  a tunnel  has 
been  constructed  to  conduct  a part  of  the  supply  from 
the  distributing  reservoir  to  a third  reservoir,  north  of 
the  middle  of  the  city.  The  sewer  system  of  the  city 
was  not,  like  its  streets,  planned  in  advance,  but  was 
suffered  to  grow  up,  and  is  in  consequence  imperfect. 
There  are  three  main  outlet  sewers,  one  emptying  into 
the  Potomac  just  above  the  Long  Bridge,  another  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Anacostia,  while  the  third,  after  skirt- 
ing the  city  at  the  base  of  the  bluffs,  empties  into  the 
Anacostia.  The  houses  are  generally  connected  with 
the  sewers.  The  city  is  fairly  well  lighted  with  gas 
and  electric  lights. 

The  district  has  an  excellent  common  school  system, 
modeled  after  that  of  New  England;  it  is  managed  by  a 
board  of  trustees  appointed  by  the  commissioners. 
Separate  schools  are  maintained  for  white  and  colored 
pupils.  Legislation  for  the  district  is  enacted  by  con- 
gress. The  district  has  courts  of  its  own,  the  judges 
being  appointed  by  the  president.  The  people  have  no 
voice  in  the  management  of  affairs.  Thus  is  presented 
the  singular  spectacle  of  the  capital  of  a great  republic 
governed  by  an  absolute  pbwer.  Still  more  singular, 
perhaps,  is  the  fact  that  this  is  the  best  governed 
municipality  in  the  United  States. 

The  real  estate  ^nd  personal  property  in  the  District 
of  Columbia  is  valued  at  $254,189,536,  thus  classed: 
Taxable  property,  $112,802,101;  belonging  to  the 
United  States,  $120,589,684;  belonging  to  district  gov- 
ernment, $2,258,872;  churches,  etc.,  exempt,  $6,604,- 
634;  taxable  personal  property,  $11,934,245.  The  yearly 
expenses  of  the  district  government  are  about  $4,800,000, 
of  which  the  United  States  pays  one-half. 

The  death  rate  among  the  white  population  is  less 
than  in  any  other  American  city  approaching  Washington 
in  size. 

The  public  buildings  are  scattered  widely  over  the 
city.  The  Capitol  stands  upon  an  eminence  toward  the 
the  eastern  edge  of  the  thickly  settled  portion,  in  the 
midst  of  extensive'  grounds.  It  consists  of  a central 
building,  surmounted  by  a dome,  and  flanked  by  two 
wings,  in  which  are  the  chambers  of  the  two  houses  of 
congress.  The  length  of  the  building  is  751  feet,  while 
its  breadth  ranges  in  different  parts  from  121  to  324 
feet.  It  covers  nearly  3^  acres.  Its  extreme  height, 
from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the  statue  of  Liberty, 
which  stands  upon  the  dome,  is  307^  feet.  The  ma- 
terial of  the  central  building  is  sandstone,  tha  of  the 
wings  marble,  while  the  dome  is  of  iron.  The  entire 
cost  of  the  building  has  been  $13,000,000.  Besides  the 
two  houses  of  congress,  the  Capitol  is  occupied  by  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court  and  the  library  of  con- 
gress. For  the  latter  a separate  building  is  now  in 


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process  of  erection,  upon  ground  just  east  of  the 
Capitol. 

The  treasury  is  situated  one  and  a half  miles  west  of 
the  Capitol,  at  the  corner  of  15th  street  and  Pennsylvania 
avenue;  it  is  built  mainly  of  granite,  in  the  Ionic  style, 
and  measures  468  by  264  feet,  with  a court  in  the  in- 
terior. It  contains  some  500  rooms,  and  cost  $6,000,000. 
The  building  occupied  by  the  state,  war,  and  navy 
departments  is  just  west  of  the  treasury,  separated 
from  it  by  the  president’s  residence,  which  is  known  as 
the  White  House.  It  is  built  entirely  of  granite,  is 
567  feet  long  by  471  feet  wide,  and  128  feet  in  height, 
and  cost  $10,000,000.  The  interior  department  build- 
ing is  on  F Street  North,  nearly  equidistant  from  the 
Capitol  and  treasury.  It  occupies  two  squares  of  the 
city,  being  453  by  331  feet,  with  an  interior  court.  It 
is  simple  in  its  proportions  and  in  the  Doric  style.  It 
is  built  in  part  of  freestone,  in  part  of  marble,  while  the 
interior  is  of  granite.  This  building  cost  $2,700,000. 
The  post-office  department  building  is  directly  opposite 
the  interior  department,  and  occupies  a whole  square. 
The  style  is  Corinthian,  and  the  material  is  marble. 
The  dimensions  are  300  by  204  feet,  with  an  interior 
court,  and  its  cost  was  $1,700,000. 

Running  westward,  from  the  Capitol  grounds  to  the 
river  is  a line  of  public  reservations,  having  a breadth 
of  four  squares,  from  B Street  North  to  B Street  South. 
Within  these  extensive  grounds  are  several  public 
structures,  the  botanic  gardens,  the  buildings  of  the 
fish  commission,  the  army  medical  museum,  the  na- 
tional museum,  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  the  de- 
partment of  agriculture,  and  the  Washington  monument. 
All  these  are  of  brick,  with  the  exception  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  which  is  of  brown  sandstone,  and 
the  monument,  which  is  of  marble.  This  is  a plain 
obelisk,  fifty-five  feet  square  at  the  base  and  555  feet  in 
height.  The  White  House  is  situated  between  the 
treasury  and  the  building  of  the  state,  war,  and  navy 
departments,  on  Pennsylvania  avenue,  in  the  midst  of 
ample  grounds.  It  is  of  sandstone,  170  feet  long 
by  86  feet  wide.  Among  the  other  public  buildings 
are  the  naval  observatory,  the  government  printing 
office,  the  navy  yard,  artillery  barracks,  marine  bar- 
racks, naval  hospital,  the  city  hall,  the  bureau  of  en- 
graving and  printing,  and  the  pension  office.  Outside 
the  former  city  limits  are  the  government  asylum  for 
the  insane,  the  national  college  for  the  deaf  and  dumb, 
the  reform  school,  and  in  the  midst  of  a large  and  beau- 
tiful public  park  the  soldiers’  home,  a retreat  for  aged 
and  disabled  soldiers. 

It  was  the  design  of  those  who  laid  out  the  city  that 
its  principal  growth  should  be  east  of  the  Capitol.  Cer- 
tain causes,  however,  prevented  this  result,  and  sent  the 
wealth  and  fashion  into  the  northwestern  quarter.  This 
quarter  contains  at  present  more  than  half  the  popula- 
tion and  over  three-quarters  of  the  taxable  property  of 
the  District.  In  this  section  are  many  thousands  of 
residences  of  fine  and  varied  architecture,  the  display  of 
which  has  been  much  encouraged  by  the  freedom  of 
the  building  regulations. 

Washington  is  one  of  the  most  cosmopolitan  of 
cities.  Its  population  is  not  only  drawn  from  all  parts 
of  the  United  States,  but  every  civilized  nation  has  its 
representatives  there.  Its  social  life  is  characterized  by 
a degree  of  variety  and  freedom  rarely  enjoyed  else- 
where. It  has  become  in  recent  .years  the  American 
center  of  scientific  thought,  and  is  rapidly  gathering 
men  of  letters. 

Washington  was  selected  as  the  site  for  the  Jgderal 
capital  in  1790.  The  States  of  Maryland  and  Virginia 
had  ceded  to  the  general  government  a tract  of  land  ten 
miles  square,  lying  on  both  sides  of  the  Potomac,  for 


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that  purpose.  The  Virginia  portion  was  subsequently 
retroceded  to  that  State.  In  1 790  Georgetown  was  a city 
of  considerable  importance,  but  upon  the  site  of  Wash- 
ington there  were  very  few  settlers.  The  plan  of  the 
city  was  drawn  by  Major  l’Enfant,  and  the  city  laid  oui 
in  accordance  therewith  by  Andrew  Ellicott.  At  that 
time  the  greater  part  of  the  site  lying  west  of  the  Capi 
tol  was  a morass,  well-nigh  impassable.  The  machinery 
of  the  government  was  moved  to  Washington  iri  1800, 
when  it  was  “ a backwoods  settlement  in  the  wilder- 
ness.” It  existed  principally  upon  paper,  and  the  mag- 
nificence  of  the  plan  only  served  to  emphasize  the  pow 
erty  of  the  execution.  In  1814,  during  the  second  war 
with  Great  Britain,  it  was  captured  by  the  British  troopss 
and  the  Capitol,  together  with  most  of  the  other  public 
buildings,  was  burned.  In  1839  it  was  described  as  3 
“ large  straggling  village  reared  in  a drained  swamp.*' 
Indeed,  in  1871,  although  it  had  attained  to  considera* 
ble  size,  it  was  exceedingly  backward  in  all  municipal 
improvements.  The  public  buildings  and  grounds  were 
neglected.  The  streets  were  deep  in  mud,  or  clouded 
with  dust;  the  unbuilt  portions  were  morasses,  and  the 
sewerage  was  worse  than  useless.  In  that  year  Congress 
abolished  the  charters  of  the  two  cities,  and  instituted  a 
form  of  territorial  government,,  with  a governor  and 
legislative  assembly.  The  matter  of  municipal  improve* 
ment  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  a board  of  public  works, 
with  authority  to  carry  out  a comprehensive  scheme. 
The  work  was  commenced  and  pushed  forward  with  the 
greatest  energy,  and  almost  fabulous  results  were 
achieved.  In  a very  few  years  the  appearance  of  the 
city  was  revolutionized.  The  cost  of  these  improve- 
ments was,  however,  enormous,  and  it  was  increased 
greatly  by  the  rapidity  with  which  the  work  was  done. 
Much  of  it,  too,  was  badly  executed,  so  that  it  has 
been  necessary  to  replace  it.  But,  in  spite  of  these 
drawbacks,  the  fact  that  Washington  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  comfortable  cities  in  the  world  is 
principally  due  to  the  first  governor  of  the  District  and 
his  board  of  public  works.  This  government  lived  too 
fast  to  live  long.  In  1874  Congress  abolished  the  terri- 
torial form,  and  established  the  present  government  by 
three  commissioners. 

The  following  figures  illustrate  the  growth  of  the 
District  in  population:  1800,  14,093;  1820,  33,039; 
1840,  43,712;  i860,  75,080;  1870,  131,700;  1880,  177,- 
624;  1885^203,459.  Washington  had  109,199  inhab- 
itants in  1870,  147,293  in  1880,  and  278,718  in  1900. 

WASHINGTON  COURT-HOUSE,  the  capital  ot 
Fayette,  one  of  the  leading  counties  in  the  southern  part 
of  Ohio,  is  situated  on  what  is  known  as  Sugar  or  Paint 
creek  and  is  importer  c as  a manufacturing  center,  as 
also  for  the  amount  :-;nd  value  of  the  business  annually 
transacted  there.  Its  location  as  a railway  distributing 
point  is  equally  conspicuous,  the  city  being  a place  of 
meeting  for  trains  on  the  Columbus,  Cincinnati  and  Mid- 
land, on  the  Ironton  division  of  the  Dayton,  Ft.  Wayne 
and  Chicago,  the  Cincinnati  and  Muskingum  Valley  and 
other  traffic  lines,  by  which  it  is  afforded  unrivaled  ad- 
vantages for  shipments  to  the  eastern,  western  and 
southern  markets.  It  was  settled  at  a comparatively 
early  day  and  the  improvements  since  made,  of  a char- 
acter both  substantial  and  handsome,  are  rendered  ad- 
ditionally attractive  by  the  beauty  of  their  surroundings. 
The  various  departments  of  the  press,  schools,  finance, 
and  mercantile  endeavor  are  prominently  represented 
and  ably  maintained.  One  daily  and  three  weekly  papers 
are  published,  three  banks  are  actively  in  operation,  and 
in  the  busy  seasons  the  monetary  transactions  represent 
large  amounts.  The  town  also  contains  six  churches,  a 
large  and  thoroughly  organized  union  school,  and  three 
hotels,  besides  stores  and  depots  of  supply  generally 


WAS 


6274 

and  manufactures  of  gas-machines,  patent  fire-grates, 
phosphates,  lumbet  and  lumber  products,  tile,  boots 
and  shoes,  brooms,  soap,  chewing-gum,  sifters,  furni- 
ture, etc.  The  population  was  5,751  in  1900. 

WASHINGTON,  George,  the  first  president  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Westmoreland  county,  Va. , 
February  22,  1732.  His  ancestry  can  be  traced  no 
further  back  than  his  great-grandfather  John,  who 
■iettled  in  Virginia  about  1657.  His  father  died  when 
George  was  but  twelve  years  old,  and  George  inherited 
the  homestead  in  Stafford  county,  Va.,  nearly  opposite 
Fredericksburg.  Very  little  is  known  of  Washington’s 
early  life,  probably  because  there  was  little  to  tell. 
The  story  of  the  hatchet  and  cherry  tree  are  quite 
apocryphal,  having  been  invented  by  his  subsequent 
biographers.  George’s  life  was  not  different  from  that 
common  to  Virginia  families  in  easy  circumstances. 
Hunting,  fishing,  plantation  affairs,  and  a little  reading 
made  up  its  substance.  His  education  was  but  element- 
ary and  very  defective,  except  in  mathematics,  in 
which  he  was  largely.self-taught.  Sparks  has  “ edited  ” 
the  spelling,  grammar,  and  rhetoric  of  Washington’s 
Writings  to  such  an  extent  as  to  destroy  their  value  as 
evidence.  About  1748  we  begin  to  know  something 
of  Washington’s  life.  He  was  then  at  Mount 
Vernon  with  his  half  brother  Lawrence,  who  was  his 
guardian.  Lawrence  was  the  son-in-law  of  his  neighbor 
Lord  Fairfax,  with  whom  he  had  served  at  Carthagena, 
and  had  made  the  acquaintance  of  Admiral  Vernon, 
from  whom  Mount  Vernon  was  named.  A commission 
as  midshipman  was  obtained  for  George  through  the 
admiral,  but  the  opposition  of  the  boy’s  mother  put  an 
end  to  the  scheme.  As  a substitute,  the  appointment 
as  surveyor  of  the  enormous  Fairfax  property  was 
given  to  Washington  at  the  age  of  sixteen;  and  the  next 
three  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  this  service.  He 
seems  already  to  have  impressed  others  with  a belief  in 
his  force  of  mind  and  character,  for  at  the  age  of  nine- 
teen, when  the  first  indications  of  the  “French  and 
Indian  war  ” appeared,  he  was  appointed  adjutant  of 
the  Virginia  troops,  with  the  rank  of  major;  in  1753, 
when  he  had  barely  attained  his  majority,  the  young 
man  was  made  commander  of  the  northern  military 
district  of  Virginia  by  the  new  lieutenant-governor, 
Dinwiddie. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  French  and  Indian  war  in 
1753-54  Washington  was  the  agent  sent  by  Governor 
Dinwiddie  to  warn  the  French  away  from  their  new 
forts  in  western  Pennsylvania;  the  command  of  the 
Virginia  troops  who  began  hostilities  fell  to  him,  and 
his  vigorous  defense  of  Fort  Necessity  immedi- 
ately made  him  so  prominent  a figure  that  in  1755, 
at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  he  v as  commissioned  com- 
mander-in-chief of  all  the  Virginia  forces.  He  served 
in  Braddock’s  campaign,  and  in  the  final  defeat  showed 
for  the  first  time  that  fiery  energy  which  always  lay 
hidden  beneath  his  calm  and  unruffled  exterior.  He 
ranged  the  whole  field  on  horseback,  making  himself 
the  most  conspicuous  mark  for  Indian  bullets,  and,  in 
spite  of  what  he  called  the  “ dastardly  behavior  ” of  the 
regular  troops,  brought  the  little  remnant  of  his  Vir- 
ginians out  of  action  in  fair  order.  In  spite  of  this 
reckless  exposure  he  was  one  of  the  few  unwounded 
officers.  For  a year  or  two  his  task  was  that  of  “de- 
fending a frontier  of  more  than  350  miles  with  700 
men;” but  in  1 758  he  had  the  pleasure  of  commanding  the 
advance  guard  of  the  expedition  which  captured  Fort  Du 
Quesne  and  renamed  it  Fort  Pitt.  The  war  in  Virginia 
being  then  at  an  end,  he  resigned  his  post,  married  Mrs. 
Custus,  a widow,  and  settled  at  Mount  Vernon. 

Washington’s  life  for  the  next  twenty  years  was 
'Uic  r^Iy  that  of  a typical  Virginia  planter,  a consistent 


member  of  the  Established  (Episcopal)  Church,  a large 
slaveholder,  a strict  but  considerate  master,  and  a 
widely  trusted  man  of  affairs.  His  extraordinary  escape 
in  Braddock’s  defeat  had  led  a colonial  minister  to  de- 
clare in  a sermon  his  belief  that  the  young  man  had 
been  preserved  to  be  “the  saviour  of  his  country.” 
If  there  was  any  such  impression  it  soon  died  away, 
and  Washington  gave  none  of  his  associates  reason  to 
consider  him  an  uncommonly  endowed  man. 

Like  others  of  the  dominant  caste  in  Virginia,  he  was 
repeatedly  elected  to  the  legislature,  but  he  is  not  known 
to  have  made  any  set  speeches  in  that  body,  or  to  have 
said  anything  beyond  a statement  of  his  opinion  and  the 
reasons  for  it.  That  he  thought  a great  deal,  and  took 
full  advantage  of  his  legislative  experiences  as  a political 
education,  is  shown  by  his  letter  of  April  5,  1769,  to 
his  neighbor  George  Mason,  communicating  the  Phila- 
delphia non-importation  resolutions,  which  had  just 
reached  him.  Without  speech-making,  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  struggles  of  his  legislature  against 
Governor  Dunmore,  and  his  position  was  always  a rad- 
ical one.  He  even  opposed  petitions  to  the  king  and 
parliament,  on  the  ground  that  the  question  had  been 
put  by  the  ministry  on  the  basis  of  right,  not  of  expe- 
diency, that  the  ministry  could  not  abandon  the  right 
and  the  colonists  could  not  admit  it,  and  that  petitions 
must  be,  as  they  had  been,  rejected.  In  1774  the  Vir- 
ginia Convention,  appointing  seven  of  its  members  as 
delegates  to  the  Continental  Congress,  named  Wash- 
ington as  one  of  them ; and  with  this  appointment  his 
national  career  begins. 

Washington’s  letters  during  his  service  in  Congress 
show  that  he  was  under  no  delusions  as  to  the  outcome 
of  the  taxation  struggle,  and  that  he  expected  war. 

His  associates  in  congress  recognized  his  military 
ability  at  once,  and  most  of  the  details  of  work  look- 
ing toward  preparations  for  armed  resistance  were  by 
common  consent  left  to  him.  Even  in  the  intervals  of  his 
congressional  service  he  was  occupied  in  urging  on  the 
formation,  equipment,  and  training  of  Virginia  troops, 
and  it  was  generally  understood  that,  in  case  of  war, 
Virginia  would  expect  him  to  act  as  her  commander-in- 
chief. History  was  not  to  be  cheated  in  that  fashion. 
The  two  most  powerful  colonies  were  Virginia  and 
Massachusetts.  War  began  in  Massachusetts;  New 
England  troops  poured  in  almost  spontaneously;  it  was 
necessary  to  insure  the  support  of  the  colonies  to  the 
southward;  and  the  Virginia  colonel  who  was  at  the 
head  of  all  the  military  committees  was  just  the  man 
whom  the  New  England  delegates  desired.  When  Con- 
gress, after  the  fights  at  Lexington  and  Concord, 
resolved  to  put  the  colonies  into  a state  of  defense,  the 
first  practical  step  was  the  unanimous  selection,  on  mo- 
tion of  John  Adams  of  Massachusetts,  of  Washington 
as  commander-in-chief  of  the  armed  forces  of  the  United 
Colonies.  Refusing  any  salary,  he  accepted  the  posi- 
tion, asking  “ every  gentleman  in  the  room,”  however, 
to  remember  his  declaration  that  he  did  not  believe 
himself  to  be  equal  to  the  command,  and  that  he  ac- 
cepted it  only  as  a duty  made  imperative  by  the  una- 
nimity of  the  call.  He  reiterated  this  belief  in  private 
letters  even  to  his  wife;  and  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt 
that,  to  the  day  of  his  death,  he  was  the  most  deter 
mined  skeptic  as  to  his  fitness  for  the  positions  to  which 
he  was  called  in  succession.  Lie  was  commissioned 
June  19,  1775,  and  reached  Cambridge,  Mass.,  July  2d, 
taking  command  of  the  levies  there  assembled  for  ac- 
tion against  the  British  garrison  of  Boston.  The  battle 
of  Bunker  Hill  had  already  taken  place,  and  Washing- 
ton’s work  until  the  following  spring  was  to  bring  about 
some  semblance  of  military  discipline,  to  obtain  am- 
munition and  military  stores,  to  correspond  with  coo 


WAS 


gress  and  the  colonial  governors,  to  guide  military 
operations  in  the  widely  separated  parts  of  a great  con- 
tinent, to  create  a military  system  and  organization  for 
a people  who  were  entirely  unaccustomed  to  such  a 
thing  and  impatient  under  it,  and  to  bend  the  course  of 
events  steadily  toward  driving  the  British  out  of  Boston. 
It  is  not  easy  to  see  how  Washington  survived  the  year 
177 5 ; the  colonial  poverty,  the  exasperating  annoyances, 
the  selfishness  or  stupidity  which  cropped  out  again  and 
again  from  the  most  patriotic  of  his  coadjutors,  were 
enough  to  have  broken  down  most  men.  They  com- 
pleted his  training.  If  he  was  not  a great  man  when  he 
went  to  Cambridge,  he  w^as  a general  arid  a statesman 
in  the  best  sense  when  he  drove  the  British  out  of  Bos- 
ton in  March,  1776.  From  that  time  until  his  death 
he  was  the  foremost  man  of  the  continent. 

The  military  operations  of  the  remainder  of  the 
war  are  given  elsewhere  (see  United  States). 
Washington’s  retreat  through  the  Jerseys;  the  man- 
ner in  which  he  turned  and  struck  his  pursuers 
at  Trenton  and  Princeton,  and  then  established  himself 
at  Morristown  so  as  to  make  the  way  to  Philadelphia 
impassable;  the  vigor  with  which  he  handled  his  army 
at  Chad’s  Ford  and  Germantown;  the  persistence  with 
which  he  held  the  strategic  position  of  Valley  Forge 
through  the  dreadful  winter  of  1777-8,  in  spite  of  the 
misery  of  his  men,  the  clamors  of  the  people,  and  the 
impotence  of  the  fugitive  Congress — all  went  to  show 
that  the  fiber  of  his  public  character  had  been  hardened 
to  its  permanent  quality.  It  was  a serious  addition  to 
his  burdens  that  the  spirit  which  culminated  in  Benedict 
Arnold  chose  this  moment  to  make  its  appearance. 
Many  of  the  American  officers  had  been  affronted  by  the 
close  personal  friendship  which  had  sprung  up  between 
La  Fayette  and  Washington,  and  by  the  diplomatic 
deference  which  the  commander-in-chief  felt  compelled 
to  show  to  other  foreign  officers.  Some  of  the  latter 
showed  no  gratitude.  The  name  of  one  of  them,  Con- 
way, an  Irish  soldier  of  fortune  from  the  French  service, 
is  attached  to  what  was  called  “ Conway’s  Cabal.”  He 
formed  a scheme  for  replacing  Washington  in  the  com- 
mand by  Gates,  who  had  just  succeeded  in  forcing 
Burgoyne  to  surrender  at  Saratoga;  and  a number  of 
officers  and  men  in  civil  life  were  mixed  up  in  it.  The 
treaty  of  1778  with  France  put  an  end  to  every  such 
plan.  It  was  a flat  absurdity  to  expect  foreign  nations 
to  deal  with  a second-rate  man  as  commander-in-chief 
while  Washington  was  in  existence,  and  he  seems  to 
have  had  no  more  trouble  of  this  kind.  The  prompt 
and  vigorous  pursuit  of  Clinton  across  the  Jerseys  to- 
ward New  York,  and  the  battle  of  Monmouth,  in  which 
the  plan  of  battle  was  thwarted  by  Charles  Lee,  another 
of  the  foreign  officers,  closed  the  direct  military  record 
of  Washington  until  the  end  of  the  war.  The  enemy 
confined  their  movements  to  other  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent, and  Washington  did  little  more  than  watch  their 
headquarters  in  New  York  city.  It  was  more  than  ap- 
propriate, however,  that  he  who  had  been  the  main- 
spring of  the  war,  and  had  borne  far  more  than  his  share 
of  its  burdens  and  discouragements,  should  end  it  with 
the  campaign  of  Yorktown,  conceived  by  himself,  and 
the  surrender  of  Cornwallis,  The  war  was  then  really 
over,  but  the  commander-in-chief  retained  his  commis- 
sion until  December  28,  1783,  when  he  returned  it  to 
Congress,  then  in  session  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  and  retired 
to  Mount  Vernon. 

By  this  time  the  canonization  of  Washington  had 
9 fairly  begun.  He  occupied  such  a position  in  the 
American  political  system  as  no  man  could  possibly  hold 
again.  He  had  become  a political  element,  quite  apart 
from  the  Union,  the  States,  or  the  people  of  either.  In 
a country  where  communication  was  still  slow  and 


6275 

difficult,  the  general  knowledge  that  Washington  favored 
anything  superseded  argument  and  the  necessity  of 
information  with  very  many  men.  The  army,  at  the  end 
of  the  war,  was  justly  dissatisfied  with  its  treatment. 
The  officers  were  called  to  meet  at  Newburgh,  and  it 
was  the  avowed  purpose  of  the  leaders  of  the  movement 
that  the  army  should  march  westward,  appropriate 
vacant  lands,  leave  congress  to  negotiate  for  peace  with- 
out an  army,  and  “ mock  at  their  calamity  and  laugh 
when  their  fear  cometh.”  It  was  the  less  publicly 
avowed  purpose  to  make  their  commander-in-chief  king, 
if  he  could  be  persuaded  to  aid  in  establishing  a monarchy. 
Washington  put  a summary  stop  to  the  whole  pro- 
ceeding. Their  letter  to  him  detailed  the  weakness  of 
a republican  form  of  government  as  they  had  experi- 
enced it,  their  desire  for  “ a mixed  government,”  with 
him  at  its  head,  and  their  belief  that  “ the  title  of  king” 
would  be  objectionable  to  few  and  of  material  advantage 
to  the  country.  His  reply  was  peremptory,  and  even 
angry.  He  stated  in  plain  terms  his  abhorrence  of  the 
proposal;  he  was  at  a loss  to  conceive  what  part  of  his 
conduct  could  have  encouraged  their  address ; they 
could  not  have  found  “ a person  to  whom  their  schemes 
were  more  disagreeable  ;”  and  he  threatened  them  with 
exposure  unless  the  affair  was  stopped  at  once.  His  in- 
fluence, and  that  alone,  secured  the  quiet  disbanding  of 
the  discontented  army.  His  influence  was  as  powerful 
after  he  had  retired  to  Mount  Vernon  as  before  his 
resignation. 

When  the  Federal  Convention  met  at  Philadelphia  in 
May,  1787,  to  frame  the  present  constitution,  he  was 
resent  as  a delegate  from  Virginia,  though  much  against 
is  will;  and  a unanimous  vote  soon  made  him  its 
presiding  officer.  l ie  took  no  part  in  the  debates,  how- 
ever, beyond  such  suggestive  hints  as  his  proposal  to 
amend  a restriction  of  the  standing  army  to  5,000  men 
by  forbidding  any  enemy  to  invade  the  United  States 
with  more  than  3,000.  He  approved  the  constitution 
which  was  decided  upon,  believing,  as  he  said,  “ that  it 
was  the  best  constitution  which  could  be  obtained  at 
that  epoch,  and  that  this  or  a dissolution  awaits  our 
choice,  and  is  the  only  alternative.”  All  his  influence 
was  given  to  secure  its  ratification,  and  his  influence  was 
probably  decisive.  When  it  had  been  ratified,  and  the 
time  came  to  elect  a president,  there  was  no  more  hesita- 
tion than  if  the  country  had  been  a theocracy.  The 
office  of  president  had  been  “ cut  to  fit  the  measure  of 
George  Washington,”  and  no  one  thought  of  any  other 
person  for  it.  The  unanimous  vote  of  the  electors  made 
him  the  first  president  of  the  United  States  ; their 
unanimous  vote  re-elected  him  in  1792-93;  and,  even 
after  he  had  positively  refused  to  serve  for  a third  term, 
two  electors  obstinately  voted  for  him  in  1796-97.  The 
public  events  of  his  presidency  are  given  elsewhere  (see 
United  States).  One  can  hardly  follow  them  with- 
out receiving  the  conviction  that  the  sudden  success  of 
the  new  system  was  due  mainly  to  the  existence  at  that 
time  of  such  a character  as  Washington.  He  held  the 
two  national  parties  apart,  and  prevented  party  contest 
until  the  new  form  of  government  had  been  firmly  estab- 
lished. It  seems  hardly  possible  that  the  final  result 
should  have  been  balked,  even  if  “ blood  and  iron”  had 
been  necessary  to  bring  it  about.  It  would  be  unwise 
to  attribute  the  quiet  attainment  of  the  result  to  the 
political  sense  of  the  American  people  alone,  or  to  use 
it  as  an  historical  precedent  for  the  voluntary  assumption 
of  such  a risk  again,  without  the  advantage  of  such  a 
political  factor  as  Washington. 

The  unconscious  drift  of  Washington’s  mind  was 
toward  the  Federal  party;  his  letters  to  La  Fayette  and 
Henry,  in  December,  1798,  and  January,  1799,  are 
enough  to  make  that  evident.  When  the  Republican 


WAS 


6276 

party  was  formed,  about  1793,  it  could  not  have  been 
expected  that  its  leaders  would  long  submit  with 
patience  to  the  continual  interposition  of  Washington’s 
name  and  influence  between  themselves  and  their 
opponents;  but  they  maintained  a calm  exterior.  Some 
of  their  followers  were  less  discreet.  The  president’s 
proclamation  of  neutrality  between  France  and  Great 
Britain  excited  them  to  anger;  his  support-  of  Jay’s 
treaty  with  Great  Britain  roused  them  to  fury.  Forged 
letters,  purporting  to  show  his  desire  to  abandon  the 
revolutionary  struggle,  were  published;  he  was  accused 
of  drawing  more  than  his  salary;  hints  of  the  propriety 
of  a guillotine  for  his  benefit  began  to  appear;  some 
spoke  of  him  as  the  “stepfather  of  his  country.”  The 
attacks  embittered  the  close  of  his  term  of  service;  he 
declared,  in  a cabinet  meeting  in  1793,  that  “he  had 
never  repented  but  once  the  having  slipped  the  moment 
of  resigning  his  office,  and  that  was  every  moment 
since.”  Indeed,  the  most  unpleasant  portions  of  Jef- 
ferson’s Ana  are  those  in  which,  with  an  air  of  psycho- 
logical dissection,  he  details  the  storms  of  passion  into 
which  the  president  was  hurried  by  the  newspaper 
attacks  upon  him.  These  attacks,  however,  came  from 
a very  small  fraction  of  the  politicians;  the  people  never 
wavered  in  their  devotion  to  the  president,  and  his 
election  would  have  been  unanimous  in  1796,  as  in  1789 
and  1792,  if  he  had  been  willing  to  serve. 

All  accounts  agree  that  Washington  was  of  imposing 
presence.  He  measured  just  six  feet  when  prepared 
for  burial;  but  his  height,  in  his  prime,  as  given  in  his 
orders  for  clothes  from  London,  was  three  inches  more. 
LaFayelte  says  that  his  hands  were  “ the  largest  he 
ever  saw  on  a man.  ” Curtis  says  that  his  complexion 
was  “fair,  but  considerably  florid.”  His  weight  was 
about  220  pounds.  The  various  and  widely-differing 
portraits  of  him  find  exhaustive  treatment  in  the  seventh 
volume  of  Winsor’s  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of 
the  United  States.  The  editor  thinks  that  “ the  favor- 
ite profile  has  been  unquestionably  Houdcn’s,  with 
Stuart’s  canvas  for  the  full  face,  and  probably  Trum- 
bull’s for  the  figure.”  Stuart’s  face,  however,  gives  the 
popular  notion  jof  Washington,  though  it  has  always 
been  a subject  of  curious  speculation  to  some  minds  how 
much  of  the  calm  and  benign  expression  of  the  face  was 
due  to  the  shape  of  Washington’s  false  teeth. 

Washington  was  childless:  said  the  people  of  his 
time,  he  was  the  father  only  of  his  country.  Collateral 
branches  of  the  family  have  given  the  Lees,  the  Custises 
and  other  families  a claim  to  an  infusion  of  the  blood, 
but  no  direct  descendants  of  Washington  can  claim  his 
honors,  or  disgrace  his  name.  His  estate  of  Mount 
Vernon  was  acquired  in  1858  by  an  association,  and  has 
been  practically  national  property  ever  since. 

Retiring  from  the  presidency  in  1797,  Washington 
resumed  the  plantation  life  which  he  most  loved,  the 
society  of  his  family,  and  the  care  of  his  slaves.  He 
had  resolved  some  lime  before  never  to  obtain  another 
slave,  and  “ wished  from  his  soul  ” that  his  State  could 
be  persuaded  to  abolish  slavery;  “ it  might  prevent 
much  future  mischief.”  He  was  too  old,  hov'ever,  to 
attempt  further  innovations.  In  1798  he  was  made 
commander-in-chief  of  the  provisional  army  raised  in 
expectation  of  open  war  with  France,  and  was  fretted 
almost  beyond  endurance  by  the  quarrels  of  Federalist 
politicians  about  the  distribution  of  commissions.  In 
the  midst  of  his  military  preparations  he  was  struck 
down  by  sudden  illness,  which  lasted  but  for  a day,  and 
he  died  at  Mount  Vernon,  December  14,  1799.  The 
third  of  the  series  of  resolutions  introduced  in  the 
house  of  representatives  five  days  after  his  death,  by 
John  Marshall,  and  passed  unanimously,  states  exactly, 
if  a trifle  rhetorically,  the  position  of  Washington  in 


American  history:  “ First  in  war,  first  in  peace,  and 
first  in  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen.” 

Washington’s  disorder  was  an  oedematous  affection 
of  the  wind-pipe,  contracted  by  careless  exposure  dur- 
ing a ride  in  a snow-storm,  and  aggravated  by  neglect 
afterward,  and  by  such  contemporary  remedies  as  ex- 
cessive bleeding,  gargles  of  “ molasses,  vinegar,  and 
butter”  and  “vinegar  and  sage  tea,”  which  “almost 
suffocated  him,”  and  a blister  of  cantharides  on 
the  throat.  He  died  without  theatrical  adieus;  his 
last  words  were  only  business  directions,  affectionate 
remembrances  to  relatives,  and  repeated  apologies  to 
the  physicians  and  attendants  for  the  trouble  he  was 
giving  them.  J ust  before  he  died,  says  his  secretary,  Mr. 
Lear,  he  felt  his  own  pulse;  his  countenance  changed;  the 
attending  physician  placed  his  hands  over  the  eyes  of 
the  dying  man,  “and  he  expired  without  a struggle  or 
a sigh.  ” 

WASHOE  SILVER  MINES,  a rich  deposit' of 
siliceous  argentiferous  galena,  discovered  in  1859  in  a 
range  of  hills  on  the  east  side  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
on  the  borders  of  California  and  Nevada,  near  the 
sources  of  Carson’s  river,  160  miles  east  by  north  of 
Sacramento.  The  Ore  produced  as  much  as  $2,000 
to  the  ton,  and  was  largely  exported.  The  discovery  of 
these  mines  caused  a great  excitement  in  California  and 
a large  emigration. 

WASPS.  The  order  Hymenoptera  is  divided  into 
two  sub-orders,  the  Terebrantia  and  the  Aculeata. 
The  latter  is  subdivided  into  several  sub-sections,  one  of 
which,  the  Diploptera  (Latreille),  includes  all  the  true 
wasps. 

The  Diploptera' are  in  their  turn  divided  into  three 
familes — (1)  the  Vespidce , (2)  the  Eumenidce , and  (3) 
the  Masaridce,  which  together  comprise  some  1,000  dif- 
ferent species.  They  are  characterized  bv  their  wings, 
which  are  present  in  both  sexes  and  also  in  the  neuters, 
being  longitudinally  folded  when  at  rest.  The  antennae 
are  usually  elbowed,  and  contain  twelve  or  thirteen 
joints;  in  some  cases  they  are  clavate.  A pair  of 
notched  faceted  eyes  are  present,  and  three  ocelli  in  the 
top  of  the  head.  The  mouth-parts  are  arranged  for 
sucking,  but  have  not  reached  that  degree  of  perfection 
found  among  the  bees.  Hence  wasps  cannot  obtain 
the  sugary  secretion  from  deeply-seated  nectaries,  and 
their  visits  to  flowers  are  confined  to  such  as  are  shallow 
or  widely  opened;  they  particularly  frequent  the  Um- 
belliferce.  The  maxillae  are  elongated  and  compressed, 
the  maxillary  palp  six-jointed.  The  labium  bears  a 
tongue  which  is  glandular  at  the  tip;  the  paraglossae  are 
linear.  The  labial  palp  has  three  or  four  joints.  The 
thorax  is  oval,  and  its  sides  prolonged  backward  to  the 
base  of  the  wings.  The  fore  wing  has  two  or  three 
sub-marginal  cells.  The  legs  are  not  provided  with  any 
adaptations  for  collecting  pollen.  The  abdomen  is 
sometimes  pedunculate,  its  anterior  segment  being 
drawn  out  into  a long  stalk,  which  connects  it  with  the 
thorax.  The  females  and  the  neutrals  are  armed  with 
a powerful  sting.  The  usual  color  of  these  insects  is 
black,  relieved  to  a greater  or  less  degree  by  spots  and 
patches  of  yellow  or  buff. 

The  Diploptera  may  be  subdivided  into  two  groups. 
One  of  the  groups  includes  the  family  Vespidce.  The 
other  group  contains  two  smaller  families,  the  Eumen- 
idee and  the  Masaridce,  the  members  of  which  are  soli- 
tary in  their  mode  of  life. 

In  addition  to  their  social  habits,  the  members  of  the 
vespidce  family  are  characterized  by  certain  structural 
features.  The  anterior  wings  have  three  submarginal 
cells.  The  antennae  have  thirteen  joints  in  the  males 
and  twelve  in  the  females  ; the  claws  of  the  tarsi  are 
simple ; the  anterior  four  tibiae  have  two  spines  at  the 


WAS 


cip  j the  abdomen  is  bat  rarely  pedunculated,  and  the 
posterior  segments  are  often  very  contractile.  The 
members  of  this  family  approximate  very  closely  to 
bees  in  their  social  manner  of  life.  The  communities 
are  composed  of  males,  females,  and  neuters  or  work- 
eis.  Unlike  the  bees’,  the  wasps’  community  is  annual, 
existing  for  one  summer  only.  Most  of  the  members 
die  at  the  approach  of  autumn,  but  a few  females  which 
have  been  fertilized  hibernate  through  the  winter,  shel- 
ved under  stones  or  in  hollow  trees.  In  the  spring 
and  with  the  returning  warm  weather  the  female  re- 
gains her  activity  and  emerges  from  her  hiding-place. 
She  then  sets  about  finding  a convenient  place  for  build- 
ing a nest  and  establishing  a new  colony.  The  com- 
mon wasp  ( V.  vulgaris ) usually  selects  some  burrow  or 
hole  in  the  ground,  which,  if  too  small,  she  may  en- 
large into  a chamber  suitable  for  her  purpose.  She 
then  commences  to  build  the  nest.  This  is  constructed 
of  small  fibers  of  old  wood,  which  the  wasp  gnaws, 
and  kneads,  when  mixed  with  the  secretion  from  the 
salivary  glands,  into  a sort  of  papier-mache  pulp. 
Some  of  this  is  formed  into  a hanging  pillar  attached  to 
the  roof  of  the  cavity,  and  in  the  lower  free  end  of  this 
three  shallow,  cup-like  cells  are  hung.  In  each  of  these 
an  egg  is  laid.  The  foundress  of  the  society  then  con- 
tinues to  add  cells  to  the  comb,  and  as  soon  as  the 
grubs  appear  from  the  first-laid  eggs  she  has  in  addition 
to  tend  and  feed  them. 

The  grubs  are  apodal,  thicker  in  the  middle  than  at 
either  end ; the  mandibles  bear  three  teeth ; the  maxillae 
and  labium  are  represented  by  fleshy  tubercles.  The 
body,  including  the  head,  consists  of  fourteen  segments, 
which  bear  lateral  tubercles  and  spiracles.  They  have 
no  anus.  They  are  suspended  with  the  head  down- 
ward in  the  cells,  and  require  a good  deal  of  attention, 
being  fed  by  their  mother  upon  insects  which  are  well 
chewed  before  they  are  given  to  the  larvae,  or  upon  honey. 
After  about  a fortnight  thegrubs  cease  tofeed,  and,  form- 
ing a silky  cover  to  their  cells,  become  pupae.  This  quies- 
cent stage  lasts  about  ten  days,  at  the  end  of  which  period 
they  emerge  as  the  imago  or  perfect  insect.  As  soon  as 
the  cell  is  vacated  it  is  cleaned  out  and  another  egg  depos- 
ited. In  this  way  two  or  three  larvae  occupy  successively 
the  same  cell  during  the  summer.  The  first  wasps  that  ap- 
pear in  a nest  are  neuters  or  workers,  and  these  at  once 
set  to  work  to  enlarge  the  comb,  and  feed  the  larvae,  etc. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  summer  only  workers  are 
produced,  but,  as  fruit  ripens  and  food  becomes  more 
abundant,  fully  developed  females  and  males  appear, 
the  latter  from  parthenogenetically  developed  eggs  of  the 
latter  broods  of  workers.  The  males  and  females  are 
larger  than  the  workers,  and  require  larger  cells  for 
their  development ; these  are  usually  kept  apart  from 
one  another  and  from  those  of  the  workers.  The 
males  may  be  distinguished  by  their  longer  antennae, 
by  the  more  elongated  outline  of  their  body,  and  by  the 
absence  of  a sting. 

At  the  approach  of  autumn  the  society  begins  to 
creak  up;  the  males  fertilize  the  females  while  flying 
nigh  in  the  air.  They  then  die,  often  within  a few 
hours.  The  workers  leave  the  nest,  carrying  with  them 
any  grubs  that  remain  in  the  cells,  and  both  soon  per- 
ish. The  nest  is  entirely  deserted.  The  females  which 
have  been  fertilized  creep  into  crevices  under  stones  or 
trees,  or  hide  among  moss,  and  hibernate  until  the 
warmth  of  the  following  spring  induces  them  to  leave 
their  hiding-places  and  set  about  founding  a new  com- 
munity. 

There  are  altogether  seven  species  of  Vespa  met  with 
in  Britain.  V.  vulgaris , the  common  or  ground 
vasp,  V.  rufa , the  red  wasp,  distinguished  by  its  red- 
dish-yellow legs,  and  V.  germanica%  the  German  wasp. 


6277 

with  three  black  spots  upon  its  first  abdominal  segment, 
are  classed  together  as  ground  wasps.  They  build  their 
nests  in  burrows  in  the  ground,  but  this  is  not  an  inva 
riable  rule;  they  may  be  distinguished  from  the  tree 
wasps  by  the  first  joint  in  the  antennae  of  the  female 
being  black.  The  tree  wasps  build  stouter  nests  upon 
branches  of  trees;  the  first  joint  of  the  antennae  of  the 
females  is  yellow  in  front.  The  tree  wasps  are  V \ ar« 
borea9  sylvestris , norwegica , and  crabro . 

The  hornet,  V.  crabro , is  the  largest  species  occur 
ring  in  Great  Britain.  They  occur  much  more  rarely 
than  the  common  wasp,  and  appear  to  be  almost  con- 
fined to  the  southern  half  of  England.  Their  nests  re- 
semble those  described  above,  but  are  larger;  they  are 
found  in  hollow  trees  or  deserted  outhouses.  Their 
communities  are  smaller  in  number  than  those  of  wasps. 
The  hornet,  where  it  occurs  in  any  number,  does  a con- 
siderable amount  of  damage  to  forest  trees  by  gnawing 
the  bark  off  the  younger  branches  to  obtain  material 
for  constructing  its  nest.  It  usually  selects  the  ash  or 
alder,  but  sometimes  attacks  the  lime,  birch,  and  willow. 
Like  the  wasp,  it  does  much  damage  to  fruit,  upon  the 
juices  of  which  it  lives.  On  the  other  hand,  the  wasp 
is  useful  by  keeping  down  the  number  of  flies  and  other 
insects.  The  genus  Vespa  is  very  widely  spread;  it 
contains  over  forty  species,  distributed  all  over  the 
world.  Some  of  the  largest  and  handsomest  come 
from  eastern  Asia.  V.  mandarina  of  China  and  Japan, 
andV,  magnifica  of  the  East  Indies  and  Nepal,  measure 
two  inches  across  the  wings;  V.  orientalis  found  in 
Greece,  Egypt,  and  the  East,  builds  its  nest  of  clay. 

The  only  other  genus  of  Vespidce  which  is  found  in 
Europe  is  Polistes,  which  occurs  in  the  countries  bor 
dering  the  Mediterranean. 

Some  of  the  members  of  this  genus  store  up  honey, 
which  in  the  case  of  a South- American  species  is  poison- 
ous, from  the  nature  of  the  flowers  from  which  it  ii 
gathered.  The  members  of  this  genus  have  a slendei 
body;  the  thorax  is  more  oblong  than  in  the  genus 
Vespa , the  palps  stouter,  and  the  abdomen  more  dis- 
tinctly pedunculate.  The  genus  Iscknogaster9  from  the 
East  Indies,  has  many  structural  features  in  common 
with  the  Eumenidce.  The  genus  Icaria  is  common  in 
Australia  and  the  East  Indies.  Synoeca  is  a South 
American  genus,  which  builds  large  nests,  sometimes 
three  feet  in  length,  closely  applied  to  the  branch  01  j* 
tree;  they  never  contain  more  than  one  layer  of  cells, 
which  are  horizontally  placed.  The  whole  nest  is  built 
of  coarse  material,  chiefly  small  pieces  of  bark;  and 
there  is  only  one  opening,  at  the  lower  end. 

Another  South- American  genus,  Chartergus9  makes  a 
tough  nest,  pendant  from  boughs  of  trees,  and  opening 
to  the  exterior  below  by  a median  aperture.  The 
combs  are  arranged,  somewhat  like  funnels,  inside  one 
another,  but  with  spaces  between.  The  apex  of  each 
comb  is  pierced  by  a hole  for  the  wasps  to  pass  from 
one  gallery  to  another.  The  nest  of  Tatua9  which 
occurs  in  Mexico  and  South  America,  is  also  pendant, 
but  the  combs  are  horizontal;  the  opening  from  the 
exterior  is  at  the  side,  and  the  passage  from  one  gallery 
to  another  is  also  lateral.  The  external  appearance  oi 
the  nest  of  Nectarina , found  in  Brazil  and  other  parts 
of  South  America,  resembles  that  of  the  common  wasp, 
but  is  rougher.  Internally  the  combs  are  arranged 
concentrically,  more  or  less  parallel  with  the  external 
covering  which  affords  them  support. 

The  members  of  the  two  remaining  families,  the 
Eumenidce  and  the  Masaridce , resemble  one  another  in 
their  solitary  mode  of  life;  only  males  and  females 
exist — no  workers  dr  neuters  being  found. 

Solitary  species  ( Eumenidce ),  with  three  submarginal 
cells  in  the  fore  wing;  antennae  with  thirteen  joints  in 


WAS  — WAT 


6278 

the  male,  twelve  in  the  female;  abdomen  sometimes 
pedunculate,  posterior  segments  contractile.  In  the 
foregoing  structural  features  the  Eumcnidce  resemble  the 
Vespidie , but  they  differ  in  having  bifid  claws  on  their 
tarsi,  and  the  four  anterior  tibiae  have  but  one  spine  at 
the  tip.  The  mandibles  are  elongated,  and  form  a kind 
of  rostrum,  in  this  respect  approaching  the  Fossores. 

Eumenes  coarctata  is  the  only  British  species  of  this 
genus.  The  female  is  half  an  inch  long,  the  male 
somewhat  shorter.  The  abdomen  is  connected  with 
the  thorax  by  a long  peduncle.  The  color  is  black,  re- 
lieved by  spots  of  yellow.  It  constructs  small  spherical 
cells  of  mud,  which  are  found  attached  to  stems  of 
plants,  very  generally  to  the  heath.  At  first  the  cell 
opens  to  the  exterior  by  means  of  a round  pore;  one 
egg  is  deposited  in  each  cell,  and  a store  of  honey  as 
food  for  the  larva  when  hatched;  the  cell  is  then  closed 
with  mud.  The  larva  of  some  species  are  carnivorous, 
and  then  the  food  supply  stored  up  in  the  cell  consists  of 
caterpillars  and  other  insect  larvse  which  have  been  par- 
alyzed by  the  parent  wasp  stinging  them  through  the 
cerebral  ganglion;  when  the  larva  of  the  Eumenes 
emerges  from  the  egg  it  sets  upon  these  and  devours 
them.  The  genus  Odynerus  contains  a very  large  num- 
ber of  species,  found  in  all  pans  of  the  world.  The 
members  of  this  genus  are  about  the  size  of  a fly,  and 
they  differ  from  Eumenes  in  having  a sessile  abdomen. 
Some  of  the  species  construct  their  cells  in  sand  heaps, 
lining  them  with  agglutinated  grains  of  sand;  others 
live  in  cavities  of  trees  lined  with  the  same  material, 
while  others  build  their  nests  of  mud.  Like  some  of 
the  species  of  Eumenes , they  store  up  paralyzed  Eepi- 
dopterous  and  Chrysomeleous  larvae  as  food  for  their 
carnivorous  grubs. 

The  members  of  the  third  family,  the  Ma  sari  da,  are 
sharply  distinguished  by  the  possession  of  only  two 
submarginal  cells  in  the  fore  wing.  Their  antennae  are 
frequently  clavate,  particularly  so  in  the  genus  Celonites; 
they  are  twelve-jointed,  but  as  the  terminal  joints  are 
almost  fused  they  appear  to  be  composed  of  only  eight 
joints.  The  wings  are  not  so  completely  folded  as  in 
the  other  two  families,  and  the  abdomen  is. but  slightly 
contractile.  The  maxillae  are  short  and  their  palps 
very  small,  with  but  three  or  four  joints. 

The  number  of  genera  comprised  in  this  family  is 
small;  none  occur  in  Britain,  but  in  southern  Europe 
&ome  species  are  found.  They  make  their  nest  in  cavi- 
ties in  the  earth,  generally  in  a bank,  and  construct  an 
irregular  gallery  leading  down  to  it. 

The  number  of  wasps  is  kept  down  by  numerous 
enetnies.  The  most  effective  of  these  live  in  the  nests 
and  devour  the  larvae;  among  them  are  two  species  of 
beetle,  Rhipiphorus  paradoxus  and  Lebia  linearis. 
Two  species  of  Ichneumon,  a species  of  Anthomyia , 
and*  the  larva  of  a Volucella  also  infest  the  nests  of 
wasps  and  prey  upon  the  grubs.  The  last-named  is 
also  found  in  beehives.  In  the  tropics  some  species  are 
attacked  by  fungi,  the  hyphge  of  which  protrude  be- 
tween the  segments  of  the  abdomen,  and  give  the  wasp 
a very  extraordinary  appearance. 

WASTE  (Vastum)  is  used  in  law  in  several  senses, 
of  which  four  are  the  most  important.  (1)  Waste  of  a 
manor  is  that  part  of  a manor  subject  to  rights  of  com- 
mon, as  distinguished  from  the  lord’s  demesne.  (2) 
Year,  day,  and  waste  was  a part  of  the  royal  prerogative, 
acknowledged  by  the  statute  De  Preerogativa  Regis. 
The  king  had  the  profits  of  freehold  lands  of  those 
attainted  of  felony  and  petit  treason  and  of  fugitives  for 
a year  and  a day  with  a right  of  committing  waste  in 
sense  (3)  thereon.  After  the  expiration  of  a year  and  a 
day  the  lands  returned  to  the  lord  of  the  fee.  Attainder 
for  felony  being  now  abolished,  the  right  has  ceased  to 


exist.  (3)  The  most  usual  signification  of  the  woru  is 
“ any  unauthorized  act  of  a tenant  for  a freehold  estate, 
not  of  inheritance  or  for  any  lesser  interest,  which  tends 
to  the  destruction  of  the  tenement,  or  otherwise  to  the 
injury  of  the  inheritance. ” Waste  is  either  voluntary 
or  permissive.  Voluntary  waste  is  by  act  of  commis- 
sion, as  by  pulling  down  a house,  cutting  down  trees, 
opening  new  quarries  or  mines  (though  not  continuing 
the  working  of  existing  ones),  or  doing  anything  which 
may  destroy  evidence,  such  as  conversion  of  arable  into 
meadow  land.  _ Permissive  waste  is  by  act  of  omission, 
such  as  allowing  buildings  to  fall  out  of  repair.  (4) 
Waste  of  assets  or  devastavit  is  a squandering  and  mis- 
application of  the  estate  and  effects  of  a deceased  person 
by  his  executors  or  administrators,  for  which  they  are 
answerable  out  of  their  own  pockets  as  far  as  they  have 
or  might  have  had  assets  of  the  deceased.  In  the  United 
States,  especially  in  the  Western  States,  rtiany  acts,  such 
as  the  felling  of  timber,  are  not  considered  waste  which 
would  be  waste  in  England.  In  some  States  waste  is  a 
cause  of  forfeiture;  in  some  it  gives  a right  to  treble 
damages.  The  writ  of  estrepement  is  still  in  use. 

WATCH.  Timepieces  moved  by  a spiral  spring 
instead  of  a weight  were  made  as  early  as  the  six- 
teenth century,  though  the  law  which  governs  the 
mechanical  theory  of  springs  was  first  enunicated  by 
Huygens  in  the  seventeenth  century  ( ut  tensio  sic  vis); 
this,  however,  is  not  invariable. 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  watches  now  made 
both  on  the  Continent  and  in  America  have  the 
mechanism  known  as  the  going  barrel  in  substitution 
for  the  chain  and  fusee.  In  the  going  barrel  the 
mainspring  is  of  great  length,  and  only  a few  coils  ot 
it  are  brought  into  action.  In  watches  without  a 
fusee  the  apparatus  for  preventing  overwinding  is 
different  from  that  in  the  old  form  of  watch;  it  goes  by 
the  name  of  the  Geneva  stop,  and  the  principle  of  i& 
is  simple.  If  two  wheels  work  together,  of  which 
one  has  the  spaces  between  some  two  or  more  ad- 
jacent teeth  filled  up,  it  is  evident  that  that  wheel  cannot 
be  turned  quite  round.  And  it  will  be  the  same  thing 
if  one  of  the  wheels  is  only  a cylinder  with  a s'ingle 
tooth  in  it,  and  the  other  has  a certain  number  of 
notches,  not  going  all  round,  through  which  that  tooth 
can  pass.  If,  therefore,  a one-toothed  wheel  of  this 
kind  is  fixed  to  the  barrel  arbor,  which  is  turned  by 
the  key,  and  works  into  a wheel  with  only  four  or  five 
notches  in  it  and  a blank  space  through  which  the 
tooth  cannot  pass,  it  will  evidently  allow  the  barrel  to 
be  wound  up  the  four  or  five  turns  and  no  more;  and 
as  it  unwinds  it  turns  the  stopping  wheel  back  again 
with  it. 

The  balance  being  common  to  all  the  watch  escape- 
ments, it  will  be  proper  first  to  describe  that,  and  the 
conditions  to  which  it  is  subject.  The  two  equal  arms, 
with  equal  weights  at  each  end,  in  article  Clocks  are 
really  a balance  just  as  much  as  the  wheel  which  is 
commonly  used  as  the  more  convenient  form.  But 
there  is  not  that  essential  element  of  a modern  balance 
— the  thin  spiral  spring,  opening  and  closing  itself  at 
every  vibration.  The  outer  end  of  the  spring  is  at- 
tached to  the  frame  by  a cock,  and  the  inner  to  the 
balance ; and  the  time  of  vibration  depends  only  on 
the  strength  of  the  spring  and  the  moment  of  inertia 
of  the  balance,  and  not  at  all  upon  the  extent  or  angle 
of  the  vibration.  And,  as  the  force  of  a spring  varies 
( approximately)  inversely  as  its  length,  this  suggests 
a ready  method  of  regulating  the  watch ; for  it  is  easy 
to  make  a pointer  or  index,  or  “regulator”  turning 
on  a ring  fixed  to  the  watch  plate,  concentric  with  the 
balance,  and  having  two  pins  in  it,  called  curb  pins , 
just  close  enough  together  to  embrace  the  spring,  so 


W A T 


that  as  the  index  is  moved  one  way  or  the  other,  the 
length  of  the  spring  which  is  free  to  vibrate  may  be- 
come shorter  or  longer.  When  the  regulator  has 
been  moved  as  far  as  it  can  go  toward  fast , suppose, 
and  the  watch  still  loses,  the  spring  has  to  be  short- 
ened at  the  cock  into  which  its  outer  end  is  pinned  ; 
and,  in  order  that  the  balance  may  be  capable  of  al- 
teration, so  as  still  to  stand  square  with  the  escape- 
ment when  the  spring  is  in  its  neutral  state,  the  other 
end  is  not  actually  pinned  to  the  balance,  but  the 
cock  is  on  a small  ring  which  is  set  on  the  axis  or 
verge  of  the  balance  pretty  tight  by  friction,  but  cap- 
able of  being  turned  by  hand. 

The  necessity  for  a large  amount  of  compensation 
having  arisen  from  the  variation  of  the  elasticity  of 
the  spring,  the  first  attempts  at  correcting  it  were  by 
acting  on  the  spring  itself  in  the  manner  of  a common 
regulator.  Harrison’s  compensation  consisted  of  a 
compound  bar  of  brass  and  steel  soldered  together, 
having  one  end  fixed  to  the  watch-frame  and  the 
other  carrying  two  curb  pins  which  embraced  the 
spring.  As  the  brass  expands  more  than  the  steel, 
any  increase  of  heat  made  the  bar  bend ; and  so,  if  it 
was  set  the  right  way,  it  carried  the  pins  along  the 
spring,  so  as  to  shorten  it.  This  contrivance  is  called 
a compensation  curb ; and  it  has  often  been  reinvented 
or  applied,  in  a modified  form. 

The  compensation  which  was  next  invented  left  the 
spring  untouched,  and  provided  for  the  variations  of 
temperature  by  the  construction  of  the  balance  itself. 
Each  portion  of  the  rim  of  the  balance  is  composed  of 
an  inner  bar  of  steel  with  an  outer  one  of  brass 
soldered  upon  it,  and  carrying  the  weights  which  are 
screwed  to  it.  As  the  temperature  increases,  the  brass 
expanding  must  bend  the  steel  inward,  and  so  carries 
the  weights  farther  in,  and  diminishes  the  moment  pf 
inertia  of  the  balance.  The  first  person  who  practiced 
this  method  of  uniting  them  appears  to  have  been 
Thomas  Earnshaw,  who  brought  the  chronometer  to 
the  state  in  which  it  has  remained  for  the  last  century, 
with  scarcely  any  alteration  except  more  complete 
compensation. 

A few  chronometers  have  been  made  with  glass  bal- 
ance-springs, which  have  the  advantage  of  requiring 
very  little  primary  and  no  secondary  compensation, 
on  account  of  the  very  small  variation  in  their  elastic- 
ity, compared  with  springs  of  steel  or,  any  other 
metal.  Dent  also  invented  a very  different  method  of 
effecting  the  primary  and  secondary  compensation 
at  once,  and  without  any  additional  appendage  to  the 
balance  or  addition  to  the  cost.  He  called  it  the  pris- 
matic balance , from  the  shape  of  the  steel  rim.  A 
prism  of  cast  steel  will  bend  more  easily  from  the 
edge  than  the  other  way,  and  consequently  the  mo- 
tion is  greater  when  it  is  being  curved  by  heat  than 
when  it  is  pulled  straighter  by  cold,  which  is  exactly 
what  is  wanted.  The  difference  is  not  quite  so  great 
as  it  ought  to  be  for  complete  secondary  compensation 
for  a very  wide  range  of  temperature,  but  it  is  enough 
to  give  the  requisite  compensation  for  all  ordinary 
variations  of  temperature,  and  chronometers  so  com- 
pensated were  found  to  be  also  more  than  usually 
steady  in  their  rate,  for  even  in  the  best  chronometers 
there  appear  every  now  and  then  quite  capricious  varia- 
tions. 

The  best  chronometers,  with  all  these  improve- 
ments, cannot  be  relied  on  to  keep  a rate  equal  to  that 
of  a good  astronomical  clock  of  the  usual  kind,  though 
they  occasionally  do  so  for  a short  time. 

The  escapements  in  practical  use  are — (i)  the  old 
vertical  escapement,  now  almost  disused;  (2)  the 
ievert  very  much  the  most  common  in  English  watches; 


6279 

(3)  the  horizontal  or  cylinder , which  is  equally  corn- 
mon  in  foreign  watches,  though  it  was  of  English  in- 
vention ; (4)  the  duplex , which  used  to  be  more  in 
fashion  for  first-rate  watches  than  it  is  now;  and  (5) 
the  detached  or  chronometer  escapement,  so  called  be- 
cause it  is  always  used  in  marine  chronometers. 

The  vertical  escapement  is  simply  the  original  clock 
escapement.  The  lever  escapement,  as  it  is  now  uni- 
versally made,  was  invented  late  in  the  last  century  by 
Thomas  Mudge.  The  principle  is  the  same  as  in  the 
dead-beat  escapement  clock  (see  Clock),  with  the  ad- 
vantage that  there  is  no  friction  on  the  dead  faces  of 
the  pallets  beyond  what  is  necessary  for  locking. 
The  reason  why  this  friction  cannot  be  avoided  with 
a pendulum  is  that  its  arc  of  vibration  is  so  small  that 
the  requisite  depth  of  intersection  cannot  be  got  be- 
tween the  two  circles  described  by  the  end  of  the  lever 
and  any  pin  in  the  pendulum  which  would  work  into 
it ; whereas,  in  a watch,  the  pin  which  is  set  in  a 
cylinder  on  the  verge  of  the  balance,  does  not  generally 
slip  out  of  the  nick  in  the  end  of  the  lever  until  the 
balance  has  got  150  past  its  'middle  position.  There  is 
also  further  provision  added  for  safety.  In  the  cylin- 
der which  carries  the  impulse-pin  there  is  a notch 
just  in  front  into  which  the  other  pin  on  the  lever  fits 
as  they  pass ; but  when  the  notch  has  got  past  the 
cylinder  it  would  prevent  the  lever  from  returning, 
because  the  safety-pin  cannot  pass  except  through  the 
notch,  which  is  only  in  the  position  for  letting  it  pass 
at  the  same  time  the  impulse-pin  is  engaged  in  the 
lever.  The  pallets  in  a lever  escapement  (except  bad 
and  cheap  ones)  are  always  jeweled,  and  the  scape- 
wheel  is  of  brass.  The  staff  of  the  lever  also  has  jeweled 
pivot-holes  in  expensive  watches,  and  the  scape-wheel 
has  in  all  good  ones.  The  holes  for  the  balance-pivots 
are  now  always  jeweled,  if  nothing  else  is.  The 
scape-wheel  in  this  and  most  of  the  watch  escapements 
generallybeats  five  times  in  a second,  in  large  chronom- 
eters four  times ; and  the  wheel  next  to  the  scape- 
wheel  carries  the  seconds-hand.  Macdowall’s  single- 
pin escapment  was  adapted  to  watches  exactly  as  the 
dead  escapement  of  clocks  is  turned  into  the  lever 
escapements. 

The  duplex  escapement  is  probably  so  called  be- 
cause there  is  a double  set  of  teeth  in  the  scape-wheel 
— the  long  ones  (like  those  of  the  lever  escapement  in 
shape)  for  locking  only,  and  short  ones  (or  rather 
upright  pins  on  the  rim  of  the  wheel)  for  giving  the 
impulse  to  the  pallet  on  the  verge  of  the  balance.  It 
is  a single-beat  escapement,  i.  e.,  the  balance  only  re- 
ceives the  impulse  one  way,  or  at  every  alternate 
beat,  as  in  the  chronometer  escapement,  and  in  a few 
clock  escapements  which  have  never  come  into  use. 

The  chronometer  or  detached  escapement  is  now 
generally  set  in  a radial  direction  from  the  verge, 
whereas  Earnshaw  made  it  sloped  backward,  or  un- 
dercut, like  the  scape-wheel  teeth.  The  early  history 
of  escapements  on  this  principle  does  not  seem  to  be 
very  clear.  They  appear  to  have  originated  in  France  ; 
but  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  were  considerably 
improved  by  the  first  Arnold,  who  died  in  1799. 

An  escapement  called  the  lever  chronometer  has  been  « 
several  times  reinvented,  which  implies  that  it  has 
never  come  into  general  use.  It  is  a combination  of 
the  lever  as  to  the  locking  and  the  chronometer  as 
to  the  impulse.  It  involves  a little  drop,  and  there- 
fore waste  of  force  as  a tooth  of  the  wheel  just  escapes 
at  the  “ passing  ” beat  where  no  impulse  is  given. 

Repeating- watches,  i.  e.,  watches  which  strike  the 
hours  and  quarters  on  pushing  in  the  handle,  are  now 
scarcely  ever  made  and  with  very  good  reason,  for  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  crowd  into  the  space  of  even  a 


6280 


WAT 


large-sized  watch  the  quantity  of  wheels  and  other 
things  required  for  the  repeating  work  without  unduly 
interfering  with  the  going  part,  and  besides  that,  the 
striking  work  itself  is  very  liable  to  get  out  of  order. 

The  winding  of  watches  without  a key  is  an  object 
for  which  there  have  been  several  inventions,  and  it 
possesses  a considerable  advantage,  besides  the  mere 
convenience  of  being  independent  of  a key;  for,  as 
there  is  then  no  occasion  to  open  it,  the  case  may  be 
made  to  fit  more  closely,  and  the  air  is  more  com- 
pletely excluded,  and  consequently  the  watch  will  go 
longer  without  cleaning;  and  it  also  saves  the  thick- 
ness and  the  cost  of  a double  back  to  the  case.  The 
first  plan  of  the  kind  was  that  of  pulling  out  the  knob 
of  the  handle,  which  went  into  the  watch,  and  had  a 
gathering  click  attached  to  it  which  wound  up  the  fusee, 
or  the  barrel,  by  means  of  a ratchet.  But  this  was 
not  found  to  answer;  it  was  liable  to  get  out  of  or- 
der; and,  moreover,  at  every  time  of  winding  fresh 
air  was  pumped  into  the  watch,  which  soon  produced 
injurious  effects.  A far  better  plan  is  that  of  com- 
bining the  two  objects  of  winding  and  setting  the 
hands  by  means  of  the  handle,  in  the  manner  we  shall 
now  describe.  A wheel  on  the  barrel  has  beveled 
teeth,  and  there  is  another  small  beveled  wheel  on  a 
spindle  which  ends  in  a milled  head  within  the  handle 
or  pendant;  these  two  wheels  cannot  conveniently  be 
arranged  so  as  to  work  into  each  other  without  the 
intervention  of  a third  between  them.  It  is  easy  to  see 
that  turning  the  milled  head  will  wind  up  the  barrel. 
The  same  arrangement  might  of  course  be  applied  to 
the  fusee,  though  it  would  increase  the  size ; but  in 
fact  these  watches  are  made  without  one,  and  the 
practice  is  increasing.  The  winding  wheel  is  also 
made  with  the  well-known  contrivance  of  Breguet, 
known  by  the  name  of  the  “tipsy  key  ” when  applied 
to  a commoil  winding  key,  which  enables  you  to  turn 
the  handle  the  wrong  way  without  doing  anything  ex- 
cept moving  a ratchet-wheel  over  its  click,  and  con- 
sequently without  straining  the  watch  in  attempting 
to  wind  it  the  wrong  way.  The  same  handle  and 
wheels  are  also  made  use  of  to  set  the  hands,  thus: — 
there  is  a small  wheel  which  turns  on  a stud  at  tho 
end  of  the  lever,  and  as  the  lever  turns  on  a pivot, 
when  its  end,  which  justprojects  through  the  rim  of  the 
watch,  is  pushed  on  one  side,  the  wheel  will  then  be 
thrown  into  gear  with  the  winding  wheel  and  the  hour 
pinion  in  the  middle  of  the  watch;  and  consequently, 
if  the  handle  is  then  turned,  it  will  alter  the  hands, 
just  as  they  are  usually  altered  from  the  back  by  a key 
in  foreign  watches,  so  that  the  face  need  never  be 
opened.  Of  course,  while  this  is  doing,  you  do  at  the 
same  time  wind  up  the  watch  a little  if  the  hand  has 
to  be  turned  the  way  for  winding;  but  that  is  of  no 
consequence,  except  that  you  cannot  put  the  hands 
forward  immediately  after  you  have  completely  wound 
up  the  watch. 

In  the  chronograph  watch  there  is,  in  addition  to 
the  center  seconds-hand,  an  independent  seconds-hand 
which,  when  not  in  operation,  stands  at  zero.  Pres- 
sure on  the  crown-piece  acts  successively  (1)  on  a 
starting  motion,  (2)  on  a-  stopping  motion,  and  (3) 
on  a motion  which  sends  the  hand  back  by  the  short- 
est path  to  zero. 

Watches  are  also  made  with  what  are  called  split 
seconds- hands — -the  two  hands  being  in  their  ordinary 
state  together  and  appearing  as  one,  but  when  you 
push  in  a knob  one  of  them  is  stopped,  while  the 
other  goes  on ; the  time  shown  by  the  stopped  one  is 
of  course  the  time  of  the  observation.  There  is,  how- 
ever, another  plan,  in  which  these  two  hands,  or  at 
least  the  socket  of  one  and  the  arbor  of  the  other,  are 


connected  by  a pair  of  disks  set  obliquely  on  the  arbor 
and  the  socket  respectively,  so  that,  whenever  the 
spring  which  keeps  them  together  is  allowed  to  act, 
it  brings  the  loose  hand  up  to  the  hand  fixed  on  the 
arbor;  and  it  does  not  signify  how  long  it  may  be 
stopped  by  throwing  the  disks  out  of  contact. 

For  the  use  of  electrical  engineers  and  others  who 
are  brought  within  the  influence-of  powerful  electrical 
machinery,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  introduce 
non-magnetizable  watches.  At  present  this  is  best 
secured  by  making  the  balance  of  silver  or  platinum 
alloy,  and  the  balance  spring  of  gold  or  palladium. 
The  use  of  steel  in  moving  parts  of  the  works  is  care- 
fully avoided,  and  thus  fairly  good  timekeepers  indif- 
ferent to  magnetic  influences  are  produced. 

The  introduction  of  machinery  for  the  manufacture 
of  watch  movements  has  had  the  effect  of  greatly 
cheapening  the  commoner  class  of  watches,  and  yet 
supplying  a fairly  satisfactory  timekeeper.  It  is  in 
America  that  the  application  of  machinery  to  watch- 
making has  found  its  greatest  development,  and  its 
success  has  enabled  the  American  manufacturers  to 
obtain  considerable  foothold  in  the  European  market 
for  cheap  watches.  But  watch  movements  are  now 
also  very  extensively 'made  by  machinery  in  Birming- 
ham, Coventry,  and  several  Lancashire  towns. 

That  which  is  now  known  all  over  the  world  as  the 
“American  Watch,’’  affords  a remarkable  instance  of 
the  throwing  away  of  precedent  and  previous  condi- 
tions so  conspicuous  in  both  the  political  and  me- 
chanical history  of  the  country.  The  English  watch, 
above  described,  had  its  highest  development  in  the 
compensation  balance.  But  it  remained  thick,  large* 
clumsy,  and  maintained  for  the  most  part  a steady 
adherence  to  the  clumsy  and  unnecessary  barrel  and 
fusee.  It  had  a large  number  of  parts  made  by  hand, 
and  different  parts  by  different  workmen,  so  that  it 
was  difficult  to  put  it  together,  and  it  was  always  ex- 
pensive beyond  the  means  of  the  masses.  Long  after 
the  Swiss  and  other  makers  had  abandoned  the  two 
principal  features  of  the  English  watch — the  barrel- 
and-fusee,  the  chain  and  vertical  escapement — they 
were  still  adhered  to  by  English  watch-makers,  and 
there  was  still  maintained  a disposition  to  reject  any 
stem-winding  arrangement  long  after  its  success  was 
assured,  for  the  reason  that  it  could  not  be  adapted  to 
any  but  the  simpler  “ going-barrel.” 

The  American  watch  was  formed  upon  the  idea  of 
interchangeable  parts , since  not  only  cheapness  and 
uniform  efficiency , but  the  ppssibility  of  extensive 
manufacture  of  any  machine,  depend  upon  that  idea. 
In  1852  a man  named  Dennison,  a watch-maker,  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  making  watches  by  machinery ; most 
of  the  machines  to  be  invented  for  the  purpose,  and 
run  by  power.  His  idea  was,  it  is  said,  to  by  this 
ipeans  be  able  finally  to  produce  ten  finished  watches 
per  day.  He  induced  three  other  men  to  join  him  in 
this  enterprise,  Howard,  Davis  and  Curtis.  They 
found  that  they  could  not  buy  and  import  any  of  the 
imperfect  machines  then  in  use  in  Switzerland,  and 
were  compelled,  fortunately  in  the  end,  to  invent  and 
construct  their  own  machines.  They  succeeded,  how- 
ever, and  leaving  out  all  details  of  difficulty  and  dis- 
couragement, produced  their  first  watch  in  1853.  Lit- 
tle was  to  be  expected  of  this  first  attempt,  and  the 
first  American  watch  was  not  such  as  are  now  made, 
yet  in  many  respects  it  was  an  improvement  upon  all 
its  predecessors,  and  it  was  machine-made.  These 
men,  among  other  difficulties,  found  that  they  must 
move  their  factory  for  the  apparently  slight  reason 
that  it  was  situated  in  a district  of  clay  soil,  from 
which  an  impalpable  dust  arose.  Their  final  location 


WAT 


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was  near  Waltham,  Mass.  They  became  the  Boston 
Watch  Co.  and  later  the  American  Watch  Co.,  and  in- 
stead of  their  ten  watches  per  day  thought  possible, 
their  output  soon  amounted  to  several  hundred.  In 
twenty-two  years  after  starting  they  had  sold  more 
than  one  million  handsome  and  reliable  machine-made 
watches. 

Against  the  machine-produced  American  watch  the 
interest  of  the  entire  watch-making  world  was  enlisted 
from  the  beginning.  They  were  alleged  to  be  cheap, 
“snide,”  unreliable,  toy  watches,  “dumb”  watches. 
Yet  the  industry  has  steadily  grown  until  it  may  be  truth- 
fully said  that  the  majority  of  mankind  carries  an  Amer- 
ican watch.  For  it  will  be  found  useless,  in  the  end,  to 
attempt  to  combat  with  mere  tradition  in  this  country, 
the  substantial  facts  of  cheapness,  utility  and  beauty. 
It  is  useless  to  give  at  this  date  the  statistics  of  the 
industry,  since  it  has  long  since  ceased  to  be  included 
among  the  struggles  and  doubts,  and  from  an  infant 
has  grown  to  a giant,  and  demand  and  supply,  con- 
stantly increasing  with  the  growth  of  prosperity  and 
intelligence,  render  mere  statistics  useless  except  for 
the  purpose  of  comparing  the  immediate  present  with 
a past  not  yet  forty  years  old. 

The  greatest  number  of  pieces  contained  in  an 
American  watch  is  16?.  Some  of  them  contain  much  less 
than  this  number.  The  best  English  watches  at  the 
time  of  the  beginnings  of  American  manufacture  had 
more  than  twice  this  number,  the  Swiss  having  pre- 
viously thrown  away  nearly  600  of  the  800  pieces  of  the 
original  English  watch,  thus  forcing  to  some  extent  a 
modification  of  construction.  Except  in  exceptional 
cases  of  cheap  watches  made  for  specific  commercial 
purposes,  such  as  that  known  as  the  “ Waterbury,”- 
American  watches  are  all  jeweled,  the  number  of  jew- 
els varying  from  seven  to  nineteen,  according  to 
grade.  All  the  wheels  are  stamped  out  in  blanks  and 
the  teeth  cut  by  machinery.  The  most  difficult  of  these 
cutting  operations  is  that  of  the  escapement,  which  is 
of  steel,  with  peculiar  hooked  teeth.  The  machine  for 
doing  this  work  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  all 
automatic  devices. 

But  the  chiefest  peculiarity  of  the  American  watch 
is  that  stated  above — the  interchangeableness  of  all  its 
parts.  Every  part,  even  the  tiniest  screw,  is  precisely 
repeated  thousands  of  times.  If  the  number  of ‘an 
American  watch  is  given  by  its  owner  in  any  part  of 
the  world,  and  a broken  piece  sent  by  mail,  he  will  re- 
ceive again  by  mail,  a piece  which  is  the  exact  du- 
plicate of  the  one  he  desires  to  repair,  and  it  can  be  in- 
serted, and  will  perform  its  functions,  as  though  orig- 
inally placed  there.  Repairs  of  the  first  quality  are 
therefore  on  hand  and  ready  for  insertion  in  every  vil- 
lage. The  old  and  tormenting  mistakes  caused  by  fil- 
ing, fitting,  adjusting,  are  unknown,  and  want  of  skill 
and  certainty  has  largely  ceased  to  be  an  annoyance. 
Now,  in  the  United  States,  the  majority  of  school 
children  are  equipped  with  reliable  watches. 

WATER,  as  everybody  knows,  is  a generic  term 
which  includes  a great  variety  of  different  substances. 
But  when  we  compare  any  two  species  - we  always  find 
more  of  agreement  than  of  difference  in  properties 
which  suggests  that  all  waters  consist  essentially  of  the 
same  thing,  which  is  only  modified  differently  in  the 
several  varieties  by  the  nature  or  proportion  of  impuri- 
ties. This  surmise  is  confirmed  by  the  results  of  scien- 
tific inquiry.  In  all  ordinary  waters,  such  as  are  used 
for  primary  purposes,  the  impurities  amount  to  very 
little  by  weight — as  a rule  to  less  than  one-tenth  of  1 
per  cent.  Lake  waters,  as  a class,  are  relatively  pure, 
especially  so  if  the  mountain  slopes  over  which  the  rain 
collects  into  a lake  are  relatively  free  of  soluble  com- 


ponents. River  water  varies  very  much  in  composition 
even  in  the  same  bed,  as  a river  in  the  course  of  its 
journey  toward  the  ocean  passes  from  one  kind  of  earth 
to  others;  while,  compared  with  spring-waters,  relatively 
poor  in  dissolved  salts,  rivers  are  liable  to  be  contam- 
inated with  more  or  less  of  suspended  matter.  Spring 
waters,  having  been  filtered  through  more  or  less  con- 
siderable strata  of  earth,  ai'e,  as  a class,  clear  of  sus- 
pended, but  rich  in  dissolved,  mineral  matter.  Of  ordi- 
narily occurring  minerals  only  a few  are  perceptibly 
soluble  in  water,  and  of  these  carbonate  of  lime,  sul- 
phate of  lime,  and  common  salt  are  the  most  widely 
diffused. 

In  the  relatively  rare  cases  where  a spring  water  in 
the  course  of  its  migrations  meets  with  a deposit  of 
common  salt  or  other  soluble  salts,  it  dissolves  more  or 
less  of  these  and  becomes  a salt-water.  Most  salt- 
waters  are  substantially  solutions  of  common  salt 
(chloride  of  sodium),  associated  with  only  little  of  salts 
of  potash  and  magnesia.  Immense  quantities  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas  are  being  constantly  produced  in  the 
interior  of  the  earth,  probably  by  the  action,  at  high 
temperatures,  of  steam  on  the  carbonates  of  lime  and 
magnesia.  Some  of  it  collects  and  is  stored  up  tempo- 
rarily in  cavities,  but  the  bulk  streams  out  into  the 
atmosphere,  invisibly  as  a rule,  through  what  one  might 
call  the  capillaries  of  the  earth’s  body ; but  here  and 
there  it  unites  into  veins  and  arteries  and  comes  forth, 
it  may  be,  as  a mighty  carbonic  acid  spring.  A far 
more  frequent  occurrence  is  that  a mass  of  water  and  a 
mass  of  carbonic  acid  meet  within  the  earth.  Asa  rule, 
the  pressure  on  the  gas  is  more  than  one  atmosphere, 
and  the  supply  of  the  gas  is  abundant.  The  water  then 
takes  up  considerably  more  carbonic  acid  than  it  would 
under  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure,  and  if  an  outlet  be 
provided,  perhaps  artificially  by  a boring,  a frothy  mass 
of  carbonic-acid  water  comes  forth  as  a fountain,  some- 
times of  great  volume.  Such  carbonic-acid  waters  are 
met  with  in  many  parts  of  the  wmrld — chiefly,  however, 
in  Germany.  The  well-known  Apollinaris  water  is  an 
example. 

In  addition  to  its  natural  components,  water  is  liable 
to  be  contaminated  through  accidental  influxes  of 
foreign  matter.  Thus,  for  instance,  all  the  Scottish 
Highland  lochs  are  brown  through  the  presence  in  them 
of  dissolved  peaty  matter.  Rivers  flowing  through,  or 
wells  sunk  in,  populous  districts  may  be  contaminated 
with  excrementitious  matter,  discharges  from  industrial 
establishments,  etc.  Our  instinct  rebels  against  the 
drinking  of  a contaminated  water,  and  it  guides  us 
correctly.  Not  that  those  organic  compounds  are  in 
themselves  hurtful.  An  otherwise  pure  water,  contam- 
inated with  (say)  one-ten-thousandth  of  its  volume  of 
urine,  might  be  drunk  with  perfect  confidence.  Yet  the 
presence  of  especially  nitrogenous  organic  matter  is  a 
serious  source  of  danger,  inasmuch  as  such  matter  forms 
the  natural  food  or  soil  for  the  development  of  micro- 
organisms, including  those  kinds  of  bacteria  which  are 
now  supposed  to  propagate  infectious  diseases.  Hap- 
pily nature  has  provided  a remedy.  The  nitrogenous 
organic  matter  dissolved  in  (say)  a river  speedily  suffers 
disintegration  by  the  action  of  certain  kinds  of  bacteria, 
wflth  formation  of  ammonia  and  other  (harmless)  pro- 
ducts of  simple  constitution;  and  the  ammonia,  again, 
is  no  sooner  formed  than,  by  the  conjoint  action  of 
other  bacteria  and  atmospheric  oxygen,  it  passes  first 
into  (salts  of)  nitrous  and  then  nitric  acid.  A water 
which  contains  combined  nitrogen  in  the  form  of 
nitrates  only  is,  as  a rule,  safe  organically;  if  nitrites 
are  present  it  becomes  liable  to  suspicion;  the  presence 
of  ammonia  is  a worse  symptom;  and  if  actual  nitroge- 
nous organic  matter  is  found  in  more  than  microscopic 


6282 


W AT 


traces  the  water  is  possibly  (not  necessarily)  a danger- 
ous water  to  drink. 

All  waters,  unless  very  impure,  become  safe  by  boil- 
ing, which  process  kills  any  bacteria  or  germs  that  may 
be  present. 

Of  the  ordinary  saline  components  of  waters,  soluble 
magnesia  and  lime  salts  are  the  only  ones  which  are  ob- 
jectionable sanitarily  if  present  in  relatively  large  pro- 
portion. Carbonate  of  lime  is  harmless;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  widely  diffused  notion  that  the  presence 
of  this  component  adds  to  the  value  of  a water  as  a 
drinking  water  is  a mistake.  The  farinaceous  part  of 
food  alone  is  sufficient  to  supply  all  the  lime  the  body 
needs;  besides,  it  is  questionable  whether  lime  intro- 
duced in  any  other  form  than  that  of  phosphate  is  avail- 
able for  the  formation  of,  for  instance,  bone  tissue. 
The  fitness  of  a water  for  washing  is  determined  by  its 
degree  of  softness.  A water  which  contains  lime  or 
magnesia  salts  decomposes  soap  with  formation  of 
insoluble  lime  or  magnesia  salts  of  the  fatty  acids  of  the 
soap  used.  So  much  of  the  soap  is  simply  wasted; 
only  the  surplus  can  effect  any  cleansing  action.  That 
part  of  the  hardness  of  a water  which  is  actually  owing 
to  carbonate  of  lime  (or  magnesia)  can  easily  be  re- 
moved in  two  ways.  (1)  By  boiling,  the  free  carbonic 
acid  goes  off  with  the  steam,  and  the  carbonate  of  lime, 
being  bereft  of  its  solvent,  comes  dotwn  as  a precipitate 
which  can  be  removed  by  filtration,  or  by  allowing  it  to 
settle,  and  decanting  off  the  clear  supernatant  liquor. 
(2)  A method  of  Clark’s  is  to  mix  the  water  with  just 
enough  of  milk  of  lime  to  convert  the  free  carbonic 
acid  into  carbonate.  Both  this  and  the  original  carbon- 
ate of  lime  are  precipitated,  and  can  be  removed  as  in 
the  first  case. 

From  any  uncontaminated  natural  water  pure  water 
is  easily  prepared.  The  dissolved  salts  are  removed  by 
distillation;  if  care  be  taken  that  the  steam  to  be  con- 
densed is  dry,  and  if  its  condensation  be  effected  within 
a tube  made  of  a suitable  metal  (platinum  or  silver  are 
best,  but  copper  or  block  tin  work  well  enough  for  or- 
dinary purposes),  tne  distillate  can  contain  no  impu- 
rities except  atmospheric  gases,  which  latter,  if  neces- 
sary, must  be  removed  by  boiling  the  distilled  water  in 
a narrow-necked  flask  until  it  begins  to  “ bump,”  and 
then  allowing  it  to  cool  in  the  absence  of  air.  This 
latter  operation  ought,  strictly  speaking,  to  be  performed 
in  a silver  or  plantinum  flask,  as  glass  is  appreciably 
attacked  by  hot  water.  For  most  purposes  distilled 
water,  taken  as  it  comes  from  the  condenser,  is  suffi- 
ciently pure. 

WATER-BED,  called  also  the  Hydrostatic  Bed,  or 
Floating  Mattress.  It  is  well  known  that  the  life  and 
health  of  every  part  of  the  animal  body  depend  on  the 
sufficient  circulation  through  them  of  refreshed  blood. 
Now,  when  a person  in  health  is  sitting  or  lying,  the 

Sarts  of  the  flesh  compressed  by  the  weight  of  the  body 
o not  receive  the  blood  so  copiously  as  at  other  times, 
and  if  from  any  cause  the  action  of  the  heart  has  become 
weak,  the  interruption  will  follow  both  more  quickly 
and  be  more  complete.  A peculiar  uneasiness  soon 
arises  where  the  circulation  is  thus  obstructed,  impel- 
ling to  change  of  position;  and  the  change  is  made  as 
regularly  and  with  as  little  reflection  as  the  winking  of 
the  eyes  to  wipe  and  moisten  the  eyeballs. 

A person  weakened  by  disease,  however,  while  gen- 
erally feeling  the  uneasiness  sooner,  as  explained  above, 
and  becoming  restless,  makes  the  changes  with  increas- 
ing fatigue;  and  should  the  sensationsbecome  indistinct, 
as  in  the  delirium  of  fever,  in  palsy,  etc.,  or  should  the 
patient  have  become  too  weak  to  obey  the  sensation, 
the  compressed  parts  are  kept  so  long  without  their 
natural  supply  of  blood,  that  they  lose  their  vitality, 


and  become  what  are  called  sloughs  or  mortified  parts. 
These,  if  the  patient  survives,  have  afterward  to  be 
thrown  off  by  the  process  of  ulceration,  leaving  deep 
hollows  to  be  filled  up  by  new  flesh  during  a tedious 
convalescence. 

Many  a fever  or  other  disease,  after  a favorable 
crisis,  has  terminated  fatally  from  this  occurrence  of 
sloughing  on  the  back  or  sacrum.  The  same  termina- 
tion is  common  in  lingering  consumptions,  palsies,  spine 
diseases,  etc.,  and  generally  in  cases  that  confine  the 
patient  long  to  bed. 

It  was  to  mitigate  all,  and  entirely  to  prevent  most 
of  the  evils  attendant  on  the  necessity  of  remaining  long 
in  a recumbent  posture,  that  the  hydrostatic  bed  was 
devised  by  Dr.  Neil  Arnott,  late  one  of  the  Queen’s 
physicians.  The  bed  may  be  shortly  described  as  a 
mattress  floating  on  water,  with  a loose  sheet  of  caout- 
chouc cloth  properly  secured  between  it  and  the 
water,  to  prevent  its  being  wetted.  A person  rests  on 
it  as  a waterfowl  does  on  its  bulky  feathers,  with  as  little 
inequality  of  local  pressure  as  ifinabath.  A trough 
of  the  dimensions  of  a wide  sofa  or  bed,  having  six  or 
seven  inches  depth  of  water  in  it,  with  the  required 
caoutchouc  covering,  is  the  foundation,  on  which 
clothes  and  pillows  are  laid  as  in  a common  bed.  The 
bed  not  only  prevents  the  occurrence  of  bed-sores,  but 
by  lessening  antecedent  distress  lessens  also  the  danger 
of  the  illness.  On  a sudden  emergency,  or  when  the 
need  of  the  fluid  support  is  not  very  urgent,  local  relief 
may  be  given  by  forming  in  any  way  a partial  hollow 
or  depression  in  a bed,  and  placing  in  it  a water  sack  or 
bag  half  filled,  so  as  to  remain  loose  or  slack.  This  ap- 
proaches in  effect  the  slack  sided  cushion,  which  is 
another  modification  of  the  invention. 

WATERBURY,  a city  of  Connecticut,  situated  in 
one  of  the  beautiful  valleys  of  New  Haven  county,  at 
the  junction  of  Great  Book,  Mad,  and  Naugatuck  rivers, 
is  a city  of  handsome  residences,  and  more  extensively 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  brass  goods  than  any 
other  productive  center  in  the  world.  The  New  York, 
New  Haven  and  Hartford;  New  York  and  New  England, 
and  the  Meriden,  Waterbury  and  Connecticut  River  rail- 
roads furnish  abundant  transportation  accommodations. 
The  city  is  finely  laid  out,  and  the  streets  and  avenues, 
which  center  at  a public  park,  are  broad,  well  paved, 
lighted,  and  shaded.  Among  the  prominent  and  archi- 
tecturally attractive  edifices  which  have  been  erected  in 
the  vicinity  is  the  St.  John’s  Episcopal  church,  built  of 
granite,  in  the  Norman  style;  the  new  city  hall,  and 
a number  of  private  residences.  In  addition  to  these 
the  city  also  contains  eight  churches  of  handsome 
appearance  and  substantial  construction,  a high-school 
and  grammar  schools,  a seminary  for  girls,  public 
library  of  between  18,000  and  20,000  volumes,  four 
national  banks,  .with  a combined  capital  of  $500,000, 
one  private  and  three  savings  banks,  a number  of 
scientific  and  educational  societies,  an  opera  house, 
music  hall,  several  hotels,  and  a large  number  of  stores. 
The  manufacturing  industries  are  varied,  representing 
an  aggregate  investment  of  $23,400,000  with  $33,778,- 
905  of  products,  and  giving  employment  to  15.500 
operatives.  The  lines  conducted  embrace  brass  and 
metal  goods,  shears,  scissors,  steel  traps,  belt-hooks, 
lamps,  riveis,  machinery,  stove  and  harness  trim- 
mings, varnish,  buttons,  brass  tubes,  silver-plated 
ware,  malleable  iron,  clocks  and  watches,  carriages, 
photographers’  supplies,  suspenders,  boots  and  shoes, 
and  other  articles  of  lesser  importance.  The  population 
in  1870  was  10,826;  in  1880*  17,806,  and  in  1900  it  was 
returned  at  45,859. 

WATERFORD,  a maritime  county  of  Ireland,  in  the 
province  of  Munster,  is  bounded  east  by  Waterford 


W A T 


Harbor,  separating  it  from  Wexford,  north  by  Kil- 
kenny and  by  Tipperary,  west  by  Cork,  and  south  by 
the  Atlantic.  Its  greatest  length  from  east  to  west  is 
fifty-two  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  from  north  to 
south  is  twenty-eight  miles.  The  total  area  is  461,552 
acres,  or  about  721  square  miles.  The  coast-line  is  in 
some  parts  bold  and  rocky,  and  is  indented  by  numerous 
bays  and  inlets,  the  principal  being  Waterford  Harbor; 
Tramore  Bay,  with  picturesque  cliffs  and  some  exten- 
sive caves,  and  noted  for  its  shipwrecks,  on  account  of 
the  rocky  character  of  its  bed;  Dungarvan  Harbor,  much 
frequented  for  refuge  in  stormy  weather;  and  Youghal 
Harbor,  partly  separating  county  Waterford  from 
county  Cork.  The  surface  of  the  county  is  to  a large 
extent  mountainous,  especially  toward  the  west  and 
northwest,  consisting  chiefly  of  metamorphosed  Lower 
Silurian  rocks,  the  valleys  being  occupied  by  Carbonif- 
erous Limestone.  The  southeastern  division  of  the 
county  is  for  the  most  part  level,  consisting  chiefly  of 
day  slate  interrupted  by  patches  of  primitive  limestone, 
and  also  by  conglomerate  and  basalt,  forming  in  some 
parts  of  the  coast  lofty  columnar  cliffs.  Coal  and  iron 
were  formerly  wrought,  but  the  only  mineral  product 
now  of  importance  is  copper,  the  mines  at  Knockmahon 
ranking  next  in  Ireland  to  those  at  Berehaven.  Lead 
raining,  formerly  prosecuted  with  some  success,  has  now 
practically  ceased.  Lime  is  abundant,  and  coralline  sea- 
^and  is  obtained.  Slate  is  quarried  in  considerable 
quantities  at  Lismore,  and  there  are  also  quarries  of 
valuable  sandstone  and  of  marble.  Ochers  and  clays  for 
the  manufacture  of  earthenware  are  also  obtained. 
Though  Waterford  has  benefited  in  its  communications 
by  the  important  rivers  in  its  vicinity,  the  only  large 
river  it  can  properly  claim  as  belonging  to  it  is  the 
Blackwater.  Waterford  Harbor  may  be  called  the 
estuary  of  three  important  rivers,  the  Suir,  the  Nore, 
and  the  Barrow,  but  neither  of  the  last  two  touches  the 
county.  The  Suir  reaches  it  at  its  union  with  the  Nier 
about  eight  miles  from  Clonmel,  and  thence  forms  its 
northern  boundary  with  Tipperary  and  Kilkenny.  It 
is  navigable  for  vessels  of  800  tons  burden  to  Water- 
ford, for  barques  and  large  lighters  to  Carrick-on-Suir, 
and  for  boats  of  fifty  tons  to  Clonmel. 

The  land  is  generally  better  adapted  for  pasturage 
than  for  tillage,  although  there  are  considerable  tracts 
of  rich  soil  in  the  southeastern  districts.  The  total 
number  of  holdings  in  1886  was  10, 188,  of  which  26 
were  above  500  acres  in  extent,  1,029  between  loo  and 
>oo  acres,  1,660  between  50  and  100  acres,  2,726  be- 
tween 15  and  50  acres,  2,530  between  1 and  15  acres, 
and  2,217  did  not  exceed  1 acre.  Out  of  a total  of 
456,198  acres  only  83,968  acres,  or  18.4  per  cent.,  were 
under  crops;  235,801  acres,  or  51.7  per  cent.,  were  under 
grass;  330  acres  fallow;  19,317  acres,  or  4.2  per  cent., 
woods  and  plantations;  22,791  acres,  or  5.0  per  cent., 
bog  and  marsh;  76,137  acres,  or  16.7  per  cent.,  barren 
mountain  land;  and  17,854,  or  3.9  per  cent.,  water, 
roads,  fences,  etc.  Since  1859  the  area  under  crops  has 
decreased  nearly  a third,  the  amount  in  that  year  being 
116,940  acres.  Corn  crops  occupied  59,848  acres  in 
1859  and  only  35,461  in  1886,  the  areas  under  wheat  in 
these  years  being  respectively  23,671  and  1,326  acres, 
under  oats  32,526  and  32,795  acres,  and  under  barley, 
here,  etc.,  3,651  and  1,340  acres.  The  area  under  green 
crops  in  1859  was  38,213  acres,  and  in  1886  it  was  24,- 
4.36  acres,  the  areas  under  potatoes  in  these  years  being 
respectively  23,385  and  14,361  acres,  under  turnips 
10,886  and  6,171  acres,  and  under  other  green  crops 
4,04.2  and  3,904  acres.  Horses  between  1859  and 
1886  diminished  from  14,184  to  12,794,  of  which  9,122 
were  2 years  old  and  upward,  but  cattle  increased  from 
84,440  to  102,878,  of  which  39,428  were  milch  cows, 


6283 

and  sheep  from  42,408  to  55,805,  while  pfgs  decreased 
from  55,701  to  44,510.  The  number  of  mules  in  1886 
was  942,  of  asses  4,319,  of  goats  5,510,  and  of  poultry 
258,058.  In  1876,  according  to  the  Return  of  Owners 
of  Land , Waterford  was  divided  among  814  proprietors, 
possessing  454,937  acres  at  an  annual  valuation  01 
$1,383,210,  or  an  average  of  about  $3  per  acre.  The 
estimated  extent  of  waste  lands  was  880  acres.  Of  the 
owners  600  possessed  one  acre  and  upward.  The  num- 
ber of  large  estates  is  exceptionally  great. 

The  woolen  manufacture,  except  for  private  use,  i? 
now  practically  extinct,  but  the  cotton  manufacture  is 
still  of  some  importance.  There  are  also  breweries, 
distilleries,  and  a large  number  of  flour-mills.  Sea- 
fishing is  prosecuted  chiefly  at  Dungarvan.  There  are 
valuable  salmon  fisheries  on  the  Blackwater  and  the  Suir. 

From  the  city  of  Waterford  the  Waterford  and  Cen- 
tral Ireland  line  goes  northward  to  Kilkenny,  the 
Waterford  and  Limerick  by  Carrick-on-Suir  and  Clon- 
mel to  Limerick,  the  Waterford  and  Tramore  to  Tra- 
more, and  the  Waterford,  Dungarven  and  Lismore  to 
Lismore,  where  it  joins  a branch  of  the  Great  South- 
Western, 

From  119,457  in  1812  the  population  increased  by 
1841  to  196, 187,  but  by  1861  it  diminished  to  134,252, 
by  1871  to  123,310,  and  by  1901  to  87,030  (males 
42,905,  females  44,125).  The  total  number  of  emi- 
grants from  May  1,  1857,  to  December  31,  1878, 
was  67,080,  and  to  December  31,  1885,  it  was  79,240. 
In  1880  the  number  reached  2,675,  and  in  1885  it 
was  1,333.  The  county  is  divided  into  8 baronies, 
with  82  parishes,  and  1,557  townlands.  The  prin- 
cipal towns  are  Waterford  (population  27,947),  Dun- 
garvan (6,306),  Tramore  (2,036),  Portlaw  (1,891), 
and  Lismore  (1,860).  Before  the  Redistribution  Act 
of  1885  the  county  returned  two  members  to  parlia- 
ment, the  borough  of  Waterford  two,  and  Dungarvan 
one — Clonmel,  which  is  partly  in  Waterford,  also  re- 
turning one.  The  county  now  returns  two  members, 
for  the  East  and  West  Divisions  respectively,  while 
the  county  of  the  city  of  Waterford  returns  one 
member,  and  Dungarvan  and  Clonmel  have  been 
disfranchised.  It  is  in  the  Leinster  circuit,  and  assizes 
are  held  at  Waterford,  and  quarter  sessions  at  Lismore, 
Dungarvan,  and  Waterford.  It  is  in  the  Cork  military 
district,  and  there  is  a brigade  depot  at  Clonmel,  and 
barrack  stations  at  Dungarvan  and  Waterford.  The 
Catholics  formed  94.8  per  cent,  of  the  population  in 
1871,  and  95.0  in  1881,  the  Episcopalians  in  the  same 
years  4. 1 per  cent.  The  proportion  of  persons  who 
could  read  and  write  in  1871  was  35.7  per  cent.,  and  in 
1881  it  was  45.8;  in  1881  10.6  per  cent,  could  read  but 
could  not  write,  and  43.6  could  neither  read  nor  write 
— 14.3  per  cent,  being  under  seven  years  of  age. 

Waterford,  a city,  county  of  a city,  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough,  and  the  chief  town  of  the  above 
county,  is  finely  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Suir 
four  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Barrow,  at  the 
head  of  the  tidal  estuary  called  Waterford  Harbor,  and 
on  several  railway  lines  which  afford  it  convenient  com- 
munication with  all  parts  of  Ireland.  It  is  thirty-two 
miles  west  of  Wexford,  seventy-six  northeast  of  Cork,  and 
ninety-seven  south-southwest  of  Dublin.  The  Suir  is 
crossed  by  a wooden  bridge  of  thirty-nine  arches,  and 
832  feet  long,  connecting  Waterford  with  the  suburb  of 
Ferrybank.  The  town  is  built  chiefly  along  the  banks  of 
the  river,  occupying  for  the  most  part  low  and  level 
ground  except  at  its  western  extremity.  There  are  a 
number  of  hospitals  and  similar  benevolent  institutions, 
including  the  leper  house  founded  in  the  reign  of  King 
John,  now  possessing  an  income  of  $5,000  a year,  and 
made  use  of  practically  as  an  in  fir  maty.  The  town 


WAT 


6284 

possesses  breweries,  salt-houses,  foundries,  and.  flour- 
mills; and  there  is  a large  export  trade-in  cattle,  sheep, 
and  pigs,  and  in  agricultural  produce.  The  population 
of  the  city  (area  10,059  acres)  in  1871  was  29,979,  and 
in  1901  it  was  27,947. 

Waterford  Harbor  is  a winding  and  well  sheltered 
bay,  formed  by  the  estuary  of. the  river  Suir,  and  after- 
ward by  the  joint  estuary  of  the  Nore  and  Barrow.  Its 
length  to  the  sea  is  about  fifteen  miles.  Its  entrance  is 
about  two  and  one-half  miles  wide,  and  is  well  lighted 
by  a fixed  bright  light  on  the  ancient  donjon  of  Hook 
Tower  (139  feet  in  height),  by  a red  light  on  Dunmore 
pier,  and  by  two  leading  lights  at  Duncannon.  The 
quay,  at  which  vessels  of  2,000  tons  burden  can  dis- 
charge, was  enlarged  in  1705  by  the  removal  of  the  city 
walls,  and  is  about  one  and  one-quarter  miles  in  length. 
At  Ferrybank,  on  the  Kilkenny  side  of  the  river,  there  is 
a shipbuilding  yard  with  patent  slip  and  graving  dock. 
By  the  Suir  there  is  navigation  for  barges  to  Clonmel, 
by  the  Barrow  for  sailing  vessels  to  New  Ross  and 
thence  for  barges  to  Athy,  and  by  the  Nore  for  barges 
to  Inistiogue.  The  total  number  of  vessels  connected 
with  the  port  in  1885  was  33,  of  5,246  tons.  The  num- 
ber of  British  and  foreign  vessels  that  entered  the  port, 
in  the  same  year  was  1,784  of  530,092  tons,  while  1,255 
of  412,326  tons  cleared. 

WATER  GLASS,  the  soluble  silicates  of  potash  or 
soda,  or  a mixture  of  both.  It  is  usually  prepared  by 
boiling  silica  with  caustic  alkali  under  pressure,  about 
sixty  pounds  to  the  square  inch  in  a digester.  When 
pure  and  solid  it  has  the  appearance  of  common  glass, 
and  is  slowly  soluble  in  boiling  water.  A solution  of 
water  glass  is  used,  mixed  with  sand,  etc.,  to  form 
artificial  stone.  It  is  also  spread  on  the  surface  of 
stone  to  protect  it  from  decay,  as  it  sinks  in  and 
cements  the  particles  together ; and  it  enters  into  the 
composition  of  some  kinds  of  cement.  In  the  art  of 
stereochromy,  or  fresco  painting  {q.v.),  water  glass  is 
now  much  used.  It  has  also  become  useful  in  certain 
dyeing  processes,  having  in  some  cases  been  found  to 
answer  the  purpose  of  dunging. 

WATER-HEN.  See  Moor-Hen. 

WATER-LILY,  a somewhat  vague  term  given  to 
almost  any  floating  plant  with  conspicuous  flowers,  but 
applying  more  especially  to  the  species  of  Nymphcea 
and  Nuphar.  These  are  aquatic  plants  with  their  thick 
fleshy  rootstocks  or  tubers  embedded  in  the  mud,  and 
throwing  up  to  the  surface  circular  shield-like  leaves, 
and  leafless  flower-stalks,  each  terminated  by  a single 
flower,  often  of  great  beauty,  and  consisting  of  four 
or  five  sepals,  and  numerous  petals  gradually  passing 
into  the  very  numerous  hypogynous  or  perigynous 
stamens  without  any  definite  line  of  demarcation  be- 
tween them.  The  ovary  consists  of  numerous  carpels 
united  together  and  free,  or  more  or  less  imbedded  in 
the  top  of  the  flower-stalk.  The  ovary  has  many  cavi- 
ties with  a large  number  of  ovules  attached  to  its  walls, 
and  is  surmounted  by  a flat  stigma  of  many  radiating 
rows  as  in  a poppy.  The  fruit  is  baccate,  and  the  seeds 
are  remarkable  for  having  their  embryo  surrounded  by 
an  endosperm  as  well  as  by  a perisperm.  The  anatomi- 
cal construction  of  these  plants  presents  many  peculiar- 
ities which  have  given  rise  to  discussion  as  to  the  allo- 
cation of  the  order  among  the  dicotyledons  or  among 
the  monocotyledons,  the  general  balance  of  opinion 
being  in  favor  of  the  former  view.  The  leaf-stalks  and 
flower-stalks  are  traversed  by  longitudinal  air-passages, 
whose  disposition  varies  in  different  species.  The  spe- 
cies of  Nymphcea  are  found  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe. 
Their  flowers  range  from  white  to  rose-colored,  yellow, 
and  blue.  Some  expand  in  the  evening  only,  others 
close  soon  after  noon. 


WATERLOO,  a village  of  Belgium,  in  the  province 
of  Brabant,  nine  and  one-half  miles  to  the  south-south- 
east of  Brussels,  was  the  headquarters  of  the  duke  of 
Wellington  from  June  17  to  19,  1815,  and  has  given  its 
name  throughout  the  English-speaking  world  to  the 
famous  battle  fought  in  its  neighborhood  on  June  18, 
1815.  (See  Napoleon.) 

WATERLOO,  the  capital  of  Black  Hawk  county, 
Iowa,  is  centrally  located  on  both  sides  of  the  Cedar 
river,  about  100  miles  from  Dubuque,  105  from  Des 
Moines,  and  156  from  Burlington.  The  Burlington, 
Cedar  Rapids  and  Northern,  Illinois  Central,  and 
Chicago,  St.  Paul  and  Kansas  City  railroads,  im- 
portant factors  in  the  city’s  development,  occupy 
separate  depots,  and  are  invaluable  means  of  com- 
munication with  all  portions  of  the  United  States.  The 
river,  opposite  the  city,  is  of  exceptional  width  and  fur- 
nishes immense  water-power,  which  is  largely  adopted 
in  the  manufactures  conducted  in  the  vicinity,  which  are 
extensive  and  growing.  It  is  also  the  center  of  a fertile 
agricultural  country,  and  the  shipping  point  for  very 
large  consignments  of  grain  and  produce.  The  city 
contains  three  banks,  four  weekly  papers,  a comprehen- 
sive and  valuable  graded  school  system,  ten  churches, 
two  opera  houses,  a masonic  hall,  and  an  extensive  line 
of  commercial  enterprises.  Besides  the  repair  shops  of 
the  Illinois  Central  railroad,  which  are  located  at 
Waterloo,  the  city  contains  manufactures  of  wind-mills, 
lumber,,  and  lumber  products,  furniture,  wagons,  plows, 
hollow- ware,  brooms,  well-drilling  machinery,  cigars, 
etc.,  and  operates  electric  light  works  for  illuminating 
purposes.  The  population  in  1900  was  returned  at 
12,580. 

WATERLOO-WITH-SEAFORTH,  a watering- 
place  of  Lancashire,  England,  on  the  Irish  Sea,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Mersey,  nearly  opposite  New  Brighton  in 
Cheshire,  and  on  the  Liverpool,  Crosby  and  Southport 
railway,  four  miles  north-by-west  of  Liverpool.  On 
account  of  its  facilities  for  bathing,  firm  sands,  pleasant 
scenery,  and  nearness  to  Liverpool,  of  which  indeed  it 
may  now  be  considered  a suburb,  it  is  much  frequented 
during  the  summer  months.  It  is  well  and  regularly 
built,  and  possesses  the  usual  characteristics  of  a rising 
watering-place.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary 
district  (area  740  acres)  was  10,118  in  190 1. 

WATER-POWER.  The  value  of  water-power 
depends  much  on  the  nature  of  the  source  of  supply, 
whether  steady  or  otherwise.  Where  streams  supply- 
ing water-power  are  liable  to  fall  off  much  in  dry 
weather,  large  impounding  reservoirs  are  necessary  to 
keep  the  mills  from  being  stopped  during  the  summer. 
These,  however,  being  generally  expensive  concerns,  are 
seldom  made  for  one  mill,  but  rather  by  some  association 
of  mill  owners  ; and  often  by  a water  company  or  commis- 
sion for  supplying  a town  with  water,  to  afford  compen- 
sation to  the  mills  by  storing  up  flood  water,  for  what  is 
abstracted  for  the  use  of  the  town.  On  small  streams 
there  is  generally  a pond  provided  fit  to  hold  a night’s 
water,  or,  perhaps,  even  a Sunday’s,  in  addition  ; but  in 
the  case  of  large  rivers,  there  is,  in  general,  only  a weir  or 
dam  across  the  river  to  direct  the  water  into  the  intake 
lade.  When  the  inclination  in  the  bed  of  the  stream  is 
small,  the  lades  require  to  be  proportionally  long,  to 
give  sufficient  fall,  and  are  often  above  a mile  long  or 
more  from  the  intake  to  the  lower  end  of  the  tail  or  dis- 
charge lade,  where  the  water  is  returned  to  the  stream. 
The  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  has  been  frequently  used 
for  driving  water-wheels.  The  most  useful  and  generally 
the  most  eligible  mode  of  applying  water  to  the  driving 
of  machinery  is  by  means  of  a vertical  wheel,  and  the 
wheel  is  put  in  motion  either  by  the  water  acting  on 
blades  or  floats  by  impulse  derived  from  its  velocity 


WAT  6285 


acquired  in  falling,  or  by  the  weight  of  water  being  ap- 
plied to  one  side  of  the  wheel.  The  former  mode  of 
applying  the  water  is  generally  adopted  in  low  falls, 
say  under  six  feet  or  thereabouts,  and  to  what  is  called 
an  undershot  wheel,  i.e.,  a wheel  where  the  effective 
head  of  water  is  below  the  level  of  the  center ; and  to 
make  the  application  efficient  that  portion  of  the  periph- , 
ery  of  the  wheel  measuring  from  the  point  of  impact 
of  the  water  to  a point  directly  below  the  center  requires 
to  be  surrounded  by  a casing,  generally  of  stone,  but 
sometimes  of  cast  iron,  called  the  arc,  closely  fitted  to 
the  extremity  of  the  floats,  so  as  to  prevent  any  consid- 
erable escape  of  water. 

WATER-POWER.  In  the  proper  turbine  (from 
Ital.  turbino , a whirlwind)  the  water  passes  either, 
first,  vertically  down  through  the  wheel  between  fixed 
screw-blades,  which  give  it  a spiral  motion,  and  then 
strikes  similar  blades  attached  to  a movable  spindle,  but 
placed  in  the  opposite  direction,  so  that  the  impact  of 
the  water  communicates  a rotatory  motion  to  the  blades 
and  spindle;  or,  second,  a modification  of  the  foregoing 
is  to  pass  the  water  from  the  center  horizontally  outward 
through  fixed  curved  blades  so  as  to  give  it  a rotatory 
or  tangential  motion,  and  thereby  cause  it  to  act  on  the 
blades  of  the  wheel  which  revolves  outside. 

In  the  reactionary  wheel  the  water  is  admitted  at  the 
center  of  the  wheel  from  below,  passes  to  the  circum- 
ference between  curved  blades  of  the  wheel,  and  es- 
capes by  tangential  orifices  at  the  circumference,  there 
being  valves  made  to  open  more  or  less,  according  to 
the  quantity  of  water  and  to  the  power  required. 

Both  the  turbine  and  the  reciprocatory  engine  have 
been  made  use  of  as  water-meters.  The  turbine  and 
the  reciprocatory  engine  have  the  advantage  of  being 
able  to  take  the  use  of  a fall  much  greater  in  height 
than  the  diameter  of  the  largest  wheel  that  can  be  made; 
but  for  all  ordinary  falls,  a good  breast  or  overshot 
wheel,  or  even  an  undershot  one,  is,  on  the  whole, 
generally  considered  better. 

Sometimes  in  this  country,  and  often  in  Europe, 
the  machinery  is  all  on  board  a vessel  moored  in  a 
river,  so  as  to  rise  and  fall  with  the  level  of  the  water, 
and  thereby  keep  its  water-wheel  always  immersed  to 
the  proper  depth.  At  the  old  London  Bridge  water 
works,  the  wheel  which  rose  and  fell  with  the  tide  was 
worked  by  the  current  of  both  the  flood  and  ebb. 

The  other  mode  of  applying  the  water  to  a vertical 
wheel  by  making  it  act  by  its  gravity,  is  the  more  perfect 
and  economical  mode,  where  circumstances  will  admit  of 
it,  and  is  generally  adopted  in  falls  of  any  considerable 
height,  say  of  six  feet  and  upward,  and  where  the 
water  can  be  let  on  above  the  level  of  the  center. 
Sometimes,  when  there  is  very  little  fall  beyond  the 
mere  current  of  the  stream,  the  floats  simply  dip  into 
the  water,  like  the  paddles  of  a steamer,  in  which  case 
no  sole  or  shrouding  is  required;  and  to  make  allow- 
ance for  the  rise  of  the  water  in  the  tail-lade  during  the 
floods,  which  is  generally  called  back  water,  and  se- 
riously impedes  and  sometimes  stops  the  motion  of  the 
wheel;  occasionally  the  wheel  and  its  arc  are  so  con- 
structed as  to  be  capable  of  being  raised  or  depressed  to- 
gether, without  throwing  the  machinery  out  of  gear. 

The  wheels  are  called  respectively  breast  and  over- 
shot wheels,  according  as  the  water  is  let  on  more  near 
to  the  level  of  the  center  or  to  the  crown  of  the  wheel; 
and  they  have,  instead  of  straight  floats,  curved  or 
kneed  buckets,  according  as  they  may  be  made  of  iron 
plate  or  of  wood,  and  of  such  a shape  as  to  retain  the 
water  down  to  the  lowest  possible  point.  There  are 
generally  in  good  wheels  ventilating  openings  in  the  sole 
for  the  escape  of  air.  The  overshot  wheel  has  this  dis- 
advantage that,  as  the  water  has  ’ittle  or  no  power 

394 


until  considerably  past  the  top  center,  the  wheel  is  bur- 
dened with  a useless  weight  of  water.  In  reckoning 
the  power  of  water,  its  weight  being  sixty- two  and  one- 
half  pounds  to  a cubic  foot,  theoretically,  528  feet, 
falling  vertically  one  foot  a minute,  would  be  equal  to 
one  Boulton  and  Watt  horse-power  of  33,000  pounds, 
lifted  one  foot  a minute;  but  the  effective  power  is  far 
short  of  that,  and  60  per  cent,  of  it  requiring  880  cubic 
feet,  falling  one  foot  a minute,  is  generally  reckoned  a 
fair  allowance  for  an  effective  horse-power.  Seventy-five 
per  cent.,  requiring  704  feet,  falling  one  foot  a minute, 
is  about  the  highest  that  has  ever  been  spoken  of,  and 
it  is  doubtful  whether  even  more  than  70  per  cent  has 
ever  been  attained;  while  with  low  falls  and  imperfectly 
constructed  wheels,  it  is  often  reckoned  that  a horse- 
power requires  nearly  1,000  cubic  feet  a minute. 

The  velocity  of  the  periphery  of  an  undershot  wheel 
is  usually  from  500  to  600  feet  a minute,  and  that  of  a 
bucket  wheel,  overshot,  or  breast,  from  300  to  450  feet. 
It  is  seldom  that  the  whole  height  of  a fall  can  be  ad- 
vantageously made  use  of;  for  if  the  wheel  be  placed  so 
low  as  to  get  the  benefit  of  the  whole  height  of  the  fall 
in  the  low  states  of  the  water,  very  often  it  is  liable,  in 
floods,  to  have  the  lower  rim  immersed,  and  to  be  ob- 
structed or  stopped  by  back  water. 

WATERPROOF.  See  India-Rubber. 
WATER-PROOFING.  (See  Caoutchouc.)  Be- 
sides the  application  of  caoutchouc,  peculiar  methods 
have  been  employed  to  render  cloth  impervious  to  water, 
at  the  same  time  allowing  the  passage  of  air,  the  ab- 
sence of  this  property  in  the  impermeable  caoutchouc 
manufactures  having  been  found  disadvantageous.  T wo 
plans  are  adopted  for  water-proofing  woolen  cloths, 
without  rendering  them  quite  impervious  to  air — the 
first  is  to  dip  the  cloth  into  a solution  of  soap,  and  thor- 
oughly rub  it  into  the  texture,  after  which  it  is  dipped 
into  a solution  of  alum;  a decomposition  of  the  soap 
and  alum  is  effected,  and  the  minute  openings  between 
the  fibers  are  in  some  way  partly  filled  so  as  to  exclude 
water. 

In  the  second  plan,  the  cloth  is  dipped  into  a solution 
of  gelatine  and  isinglass,  and  afterward  into  a solution 
of  galls.  A kind  of  tanning  process  is  the  result,  the 
gelatine  which  has  pervaded  the  cloth  being  rendered 
as  insoluble  as  leather  by  the  union  with  the  tannin  of 
uie  galls. 

WATERSPOUT.  See  Meteorology. 

WATER-SUPPLY.  An  ample  supply  of  pure 
water  is  of  the  utmost  importance  for  the  healthiness  of 
towns.  When  the  population  of  a district  is  scattered 
it  is  possible  to  supply  individual  wants  by  means  of 
streams,  springs,  or  shallow  wells;  but  when  a number  of 
people  are  congregated  within  t he  limited  area  of  a town 
the  natural  supply  of  water  in  this  area  is  liable  to  be 
insufficient,  and  is  also  in  danger  of  being  contaminated 
by  sewage  and  house  refuse.  Accordingly,  works  for 
the  collection,  storage,  purification,  and  distribution  of 
water  are  indispensable  necessities  in  towns,  for  the 
preservation  of  health  and  the  promotion  of  cleanliness. 
All  supplies  of  fresh  water  come  primarily  from  the 
clouds,  though  portions  may  eventually  be  drawn  from 
the  bowels  of  the  earth.  Water  when  distilled  is  ob- 
tained in  its  purest  form  ; and  the  heat  of  the  sun  is  con- 
tinually drawing  up  large  quantities  of  moisture  from 
sea  and  land,  forming  clouds  which  return  it  as  rain  to 
the  earth.  Some  of  the  rain  is  quickly  evaporated  from 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  returned  to  the  clouds ; 
some  sinks  into  the  ground  to  feed  springs  and  under- 
ground stores  of  water ; and  some  passes  into  streams 
and  rivers,  whence  it  flows  into  the  sea,  from  which  the 
greater  portion  of  the  rain  is  derived.  The  available 
water-supply  of  any  district,  accordingly,  principally 


6286 


W A T 


depends  on  the  rainfall  of  the  locality  and  the  extent  of 
the  gathering  ground.  The  proportion  of  the  rainfall 
which  is  actually  serviceable  for  water-supply  depends 
greatly  upon  the  season  of  the  year  in  which  the  rain 
falls;  for  evaporation  is  very  active  in  the  hot  season, 
whereas  in  the  cold  season  its  influence  is  slight.  Com- 
paratively little  effect  is  produced  by  variations  in  the 
amount  of  rain  in  the  warm  season,  except  in  extreme 
cases,  owing  to  the  large  proportion  drawn  off  by  evap- 
oration, whereas  the  rainfall  during  the  cold  season  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  for  replenishing  the  sources 
of  supply  which  have  been  drained  during  the  summer. 
The  period  of  the  year,  therefore,  in  which  the  rain 
falls  is  of  more  consequence  than  the  total  amount  in 
the  year;  and  a drought  is  much  more  likely  to  result 
from  a dry  winter  than  from  a dry  summer. 

Other  circumstances  also  modify  the  influence  of 
evaporation.  Rain  descending  in  a heavy  continuous 
fall,  by  sinking  into  the  ground  or  escaping  into  the 
water-courses,  is  less  exposed  to  diminution  by  evapo- 
ration than  several  separate  showers  of  rain,  equivalent 
in  total  volume,  but  spread  over  a longer  period. 
Forests  and  vegetation  shelter  the  ground  from  the 
influence  of  evaporation ; and  thereby,  in  spite  of 
abstracting  some  of  the  moisture  for  their  own  require- 
ments, they  augment  the  proportion  of  available  rain- 
fall. The  nature  and  slope  of  the  surface  stratum, 
moreover,  notably  affect  the  loss  from  evaporation. 
The  percolation  of  rain  through  porous  strata  is  the 
origin  of  springs  and  subterranean  reservoirs  of  water, 
whence  so  many  supplies  are  derived.  Sand,  gravel, 
chalk,  and  sandstone  are  very  absorbent  strata;  while 
the  oolites  and  other  limestones  are  permeable  to  a 
smaller  extent.  The  amount  of  percolation  depends 
upon  the  rainfall,  the  porosity  of  the  stratum,  and  the 
extent  of  its  exposed  surface;  and  it  varies  inversely  as 
the  evaporation,  being  greatest  in  winter,  and  during 
heavy,  long-continued  rainfalls,  and  least  in  the  summer 
and  with  short  showers  of  rain.  On  impermeable  strata, 
the  whole  of  the  rain  not  removed  by  evaporation  finds 
its  way  into  the  watercourses.  The  streams,  however, 
draining  these  strata  have  a very  variable  discharge,  as 
they  are  rapidly  swollen  after  a heavy  fall  of  rain,  and 
soon  subside  (see  River  Engineering),  while  in  fine 
summer  weather  they  are  liable  to  be  dried  up.  Accord- 
ingly, torrential  streams,  in  their  natural  condition,  are 
not  suitable  for  water  supply,  as  they  tend  to  fail  when 
they  are  most  wanted,  and  owing  to  their  rapid  flow 
they  carry  along  a large  quantity  of  matter  in  sus» 
pension. 

The  simplest  method  of  procuring  pure  water  is  to 
collect  the  rain  as  it  falls  from  the  clouds;  and  this 
method  is  a necessity  where,  as  in  tropical  countries, 
there  is  an  excessive  rainfall  during  one  period  of  the 
year,  followed  by  a long  drought,  unless  the  rain  sinks 
into  a permeable  stratum  whence  it  can  subsequently  be 
drawn.  These  open  tanks,  however,  excavated  in  the 
ground,  have  to  be  numerous,  and  often  large  in  extent, 
to  collect  sufficient  rain  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  sur- 
rounding population  for  several  months;  and  the  water 
in  them  is  subject  to  loss  from  evaporation  during  the 
dry  season.  A very  valuable  source  of  water-supply  is 

{provided  by  springs.  These  springs  appear  at  the 
owest  point  of  the  outcrop  of  a permeable  stratum, 
where  it  rests  upon  an  impermeable  stratum;  and  they 
constitute  the  outflow  of  the  rain  which  has  percolated 
through  that  stratum.  A spring  depends  for  its  supply 
upon  the  extent  of  the  underground  reservoir  furnished 
by  the  permeable  stratum;  and  its  discharge  is  regulated 
by  its  level  in  relation  to  the  line  of  saturation  of  the 
stratum  and  the  resistance  offered  to  its  flow.  The 
gathering  ground  of  a spring  consists  of  the  portions  of 


the  permeable  stratum  drained  by  it  which  are  actually 
exposed  at  the  surface,  provided  the  surface  slope  is  not 
very  steep,  and  also  of  any  impermeable  surface  strata 
sloping  from  a higher  level  toward  the  permeable  out- 
crop. The  position  of  the  spring  is  determined  by  the 
dip  of  the  underlying  impermeable  stratum  and  the  line 
of  least  resistance  to  the  underground  flow.  When 
the  permeable  stratum  covers  the  surface,  and  is  of 
small  extent,  as  when  it  forms  a thin  cap  to  a hill,  an 
outflow  only  occurs  after  a fall  of  rain.  Where  a 
permeable  stratum,  with  a limited  gathering  ground, 
has  a sufficient  depression  at  some  point  to  cause  the 
line  of  saturation  to  sink  occasionally  below  the  level  of 
the  outcrop,  the  outflowing  spring  is  intermittent;  and 
the  time  of  the  appearance  of  such  springs  (or  bournes,  as 
they  are  termed)  can  be  accurately  predicted  by  observ- 
ing the  rise  of  the  water  in  the  neighboring  wells  sunk 
into  these  permeable  strata.  A spring  is  generally 
clear,  and  free  from  organic  impurities,  as  particles  in 
suspension  are  removed  by  the  natural  filtration,  and 
organic  matters  are  oxidized  and  eliminated  in  the 
passage  of  the  water  through  the  ground.  The  water, 
however,  collects  any  soluble  gases  and  salts  which 
exist  in  the  strata  through  which  it  flows;  and  most 
springs  contain  some  inorganic  compounds  in  solution, 
depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  strata  and  the  distance 
traversed.  Occasionally  springs  are  so  strongly  impreg- 
nated with  certain  substances  as  to  receive  specific  names, 
such  as  sulphuretted,  chalybeate,  and  saline  springs; 
but  in  such  cases  they  are  of  more  value  for  medicinal 
purposes  than  as  sources  of  water-supply.  The  abun- 
dant springs  derived  from  the  chalk,  though  containing 
considerable  quantities  of  carbonate  of  lime,  are  quite 
suitable  for  domestic  purposes.  Springs  from  large 
underground  supplies  possess  the  advantage  of  a fairly 
constant  temperature,  as  their  sources  are  protected 
from  atmospheric  changes;  but  underground  waters  are 
subject  to  the  rise  of  temperature,  experienced  in  de- 
scending below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  of  n°  F.,  on 
the  average,  for  each  fifty-two  feet  of  depth. 

In  olden  times  the  only  other  obvious  sources  of 
water  supply  besides  rain  and  springs,  were  the 
watercourses  which  carried  off  the  surplus  rainfall. 
Streams  and  rivers  afford  the  most  ample  supply,  but 
they  become  turbid  in  flood-time;  and  when  they  have  a 
rapid  fall,  and  drain  an  impermeable  basin,  they  fail  in 
times  of  drought.  These  objections  have,  however, 
been  overcome  by  settling-tanks,  filter-beds,  and 
storage-reservoirs — so  that  now  the  principal  supplies 
are  drawn  from  these  sources.  The  best  sources  of 
water  are  found  in  streams  draining  uncultivated  mount- 
ainous districts,  where  a plentiful  rainfall  on  steep 
impervious  strata  affords  a very  pure  though  somewhat 
intermittent  supply.  The  freedom  from  habitations,  the 
rapid  flow  of  rain  off  the  surface,  the  absence  of  organic 
impurities  and  of  soluble  salts,  prevent  any  chance  of 
contamination  beyond  occasional  discoloration  by  peat. 

There  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  wells,  namely,  shal- 
low wells,  sunk  into  a superficial  permeable  stratum; 
and  deep  wells,  sunk  through  an  impermeable  stratum 
into  an  underlying  permeable  stratum.  Both  kinds  of 
wells  tap  the  underground  waters  which  are  the  sources 
of  springs,  and  furnish  artificial  outlets  for  waters  which 
would  either  find  a natural  outlet  in  springs  at  the  out- 
crop, or  which,  owing  to  a depression  of  the  strata, 
may  not  possess  a natural  outlet  at  a low  enough  level 
ever  to  drain  the  lower  part  of  the  underground  reser- 
voir. Shallow  wells,  sunk  cne  ordinary  manner, 
have  tong  oeen  used  for  collecting  moderate  supplies  of 
water,  where  a permeabie  stratum,  such  as  the  Bagshot 
sands,  or  the  gravel  covering  parts  of  the  London  basrn, 
overlies  a watertight  stratum  such  as  the  London  Clay, 


W A 1 


especially  where  a slignt  depression  in  the  impervious 
stratum  toward  the  center,  or  a considerable  expanse 
of  the  surface  stratum,  prevents  a ready  outflow  from 
the  permeable  beds.  Many  parts  of  London  were  sup- 
plied for  a long  time  in  this  manner;  for  the  rain  per- 
colating the  bed  of  gravel  flowed  into  the  wells  sunk  in 
it,  from  whence  the  water  could  be  drawn  up. 

Shallow  wells  are  still  very  useful  in  supplying  scat- 
tered populations,  but  they  are  exposed  to  the  worst 
forms  of  contamination  when  the  houses  are  near  to- 
gether. Shallow  wells,  in  fact,  must  be  resorted  to  with 
great  caution,  and  only  when  an  absence  of  habitations, 
or  a thorough  inspection  of  the  district  drained  by  the 
well,  affords  assurance  of  freedom  from  organic  pollution. 

Deep  wells,  passing  generally  through  impervious 
beds  into  a permeable  water-bearing  stratum  to  a depth 
at  which  an  adequate  supply  of  water  is  obtained,  are 
mostly  free  from  organic  impurities,  partly  owing  to  the 
protection  of  the  superincumbent  impervious  stratum, 
and  partly  to  the  filtration  any  impurities  must  undergo 
before  reaching  the  well.  The  level  of  the  water  in  the 
well  depends  upon  the  water-level  in  the  stratum ; and 
generally  the  water  has  to  be  raised  by  pumping  to  the 
surface.  The  most  favorable  strata  for  deep  wells  in 
England  are  the  Chalk,  Oolites,  New  Red  Sandstone, 
and  Lower  Greensand.  The  yield  of  these  wells  depends 
upon  the  extent  of  the  portion  of  the  underground 
reservoir  which  they  can  drain;  and  the  reservoir  de- 
pends for  its  supply,  as  in  the  case  of  springs,  on  the 
extent  of  the  stratum  exposed  at  the  surface,  the  drain- 
age it  may  receive  from  adjoining  impermeable  strata, 
and  the  amount  of  rainfall  over  these  areas.  As  these 
points  can  only  be  roughly  estimated,  it  is  impossible 
to  judge  of  the  yield  beforehand  ; and  much  depends  on 
the  fissures  the  well  may  happen  to  pierce,  as  the  main 
flow  in  many  rocks  takes  place  along  their  fissures.  It 
is  disadvantageous  to  sink  a well  where  the  superin- 
cumbent impervious  stratum  is  very  thick,  not  merely 
because  of  the  depth  that  has  to  be  sunk  before  reaching 
water,  but  also  on  account  of  the  slow  rate  of  the  under- 
ground flow  at  a long  distance  from  the  outcrop,  and 
owing  to  the  compression  of  the  porous  stratum  by  the 
mass  above  it.  For  instance,  the  deep  well  on  South- 
ampton Common,  sunk  through  465  feet  of  impervious 
beds,  has  only  yielded  a small  supply  of  water,  though 
carried  852  feet  into  the  chalk.  A well  may  also  prove 
a failure  owing  to  a fault  or  an  impervious  barrier  inter- 
rupting the  underground  flow,  if  it  is  sunk  on  the  side 
of  the  fault  or  barrier  away  from  which  the  dip  of  the 
stratum  inclines. 

A supply  obtained  from  veils  may  be  increased  by 
reaching  the  water  flowing  through  undrained  fissures 
or  lying  in  untouched  cavities,  either  by  sinking  fresh 
wells,  or  by  driving  headings  from  the  bottom  of  exist- 
ing wells  in  various  directions,  both  of  which  courses 
were  adopted  for  extending  the  Brighton  water-supply. 
Continued  pumping  sometimes  improves  the  supply 
when  the  stratum  is  well  saturated  and’  the  drain  is  not 
sufficient  to  lower  the  water-level  permanently.  This 
result  is  due  to  the  steepening  of  the  gradient  of  flow 
toward  the  well  by  the  depression  of  the  water-level  in 
the  well,  which  increases  the  velocity  of  flow,  whereby 
the  channels  of  access  are  cleared  out  and  enlarged,  so 
that  the  water  flows  more  readily  and  quickly  into  the 
well  than  at  the  commencement.  The  supply  from 
springs  and  streams  can  only  be  increased  by  storing  up 
the  excess  of  supply  in  the  wet  season,  to  make  up  for 
the  deficiency  in  the  dry  season.  This  can  be  accom- 
plished by  means  of  storage  reservoirs,  which  some- 
times are  found  suitably  provided  by  nature  in  the  form 
of  lakes,  or  may  be  constructed  in  mountain  valleys  by 
of  dfi  mf 


6287 

A lake  is  a natural  reservoir  of  water,  caused  by  the 
influx  of  a stream  into  a depression  of  an  impermeable 
stratum,  which  is  barred  to  a certain  height  by  a ridge 
across  its  outlet,  over  which  the  water  has  to  rise  before 
it  can  flow  away  (see  Lake).  The  water  of  lakes  is 
generally  of  exceptional  purity,  owing  to  its  being 
usually  supplied  by  the  drainage  from  the  impervious 
uncultivated  ground  of  uninhabited  mountainous  dis- 
tricts, and  its  general  freedom  from  pollution,  and  on 
account  of  the  lake  serving  as  a deep  subsiding  reservoir 
for  any  matters  in  suspension  contained  in  the  inflowing 
streams,  of  which  the  Lake  of  Geneva  in  relation  to  the 
turbid  upper  Rhone  is  a notable  instance.  To  increase 
the  storage  capacity  of  a lake  intended  to  serve  as  a 
reservoir,  and  avoid  injury  to  vested  interests,  the  ordi- 
nary water-level  of  the  lake  has  to  be  raised  by  height- 
ening the  barrier  at  its  outlet.  By  this  means  the'  lake 
is  not  unduly  lowered  by  the  drain  upon  it  during  the 
dry  season,  and  compensation  water  is  provided  to 
supply  the  water-rights  along  the  stream  below.  The 
extent  to  which  the  water-level  of  the  lake  has  to  be 
raised  depends  upon  the  area  of  the  lake,  the  influx  into 
it,  and  the  supply  drawn  off.  The  amount  of  water 
that  can  be  collected  depends  on  the  catchment  area, 
and  the  rainfall  of  the  driest  years,  less  the  loss  from 
evaporation.  The  storage  capacity  must' be  regulated 
by  the  number  of  consecutive  days,  in  time  of  drought, 
that  the  supply  might  have  to  be  drawn  from  the  reser 
voir  without  its  receiving  any  accession  of  water.  This 
period  has  been  variously  estimated  at  from  70  to  300 
days  according  to  the  locality;  for,  owing  to  thesmallef 
fluctuations  in  the  rainfall  and  in  the  periods  of  drought 
in  very  rainy  districts,  and  the  less  amount  of  evapora- 
tion, a much  smaller  storage  suffices  for  very  wet  dis- 
tricts than  for  very  dry  ones. 

Where  no  natural  lake  is  available  for  a reservoir,  an, 
artificial  lake  may  be  formed  by  constructing  a dam 
across  a narrow  gorge  of  a mountainous  valley,  thereby 
impounding,  in  the  winter,  the  stream  draining  the  val- 
ley, and  storing  up  a supply  for  the  following  summer. 
To  prevent  an  escape  of  the  water  thus  impounded,  the 
reservoir  must  be  formed  on  an  impervious  stratum,  and 
all  cracks  and  fissures  closed,  or  the  bed  and  banks 
must  be  rendered  water-tight  by  a surface  layer  of  im- 
pervious material.  Occasionally  the  configuration  of 
the  ground  and  the  amount  of  storage  required  render 
it  necessary  to  form  a series  of  impounding  reservoirs 
at  different  levels  along  a valley,  thereby  increasing  the 
number,  but  keeping  down  the  height  of  the  dams. 
The  capacity  of  a reservoir  depends  upon  the  form  and 
levels  of  the  valley  in  which  it  is  situated,  and  the 
height  of  the  dam  retaining  it.  As,  however,  the  ex- 
tent of  the  water  surface  is  considerably  increased  by 
raising  the  water-level,  an  additional  height  of  dam  adds 
largely  to  the  capacity  of  a reservoir.  A reservoir  dam 
is  constructed  either  with  earthwork  in  an  embankment 
sloped  on  each  side,  and  with  a water-tight  puddle  01 
concrete  trench  along  the  center,  or  of  masonry. 

In  moist  climates,  and  for  moderate  heights,  embank- 
ments of  earth  are  adopted  with  advantage  for  reser- 
voir dams,  more  especially  when  ample  materials  can 
be  readily  obtained,  either  by  excavations  in  the  reser- 
voir, thus  enlarging  its  capacity,  or  elsewhere  near  at 
hand,  and  where  a rock  foundation  is  not  easily  attain- 
able. All  loose  material  must  be  removed  from  the  site 
of  the  dam ; and  the  puddle  trench  in  the  center  must 
be  carried  down  to  a solid  impervious  bed.  The  em- 
bankment must  be  brought  up  in  thin  layers  carefully 
punned  or  rolled,  the  most  retentive  materials  being 
placed  near  the  middle,  and  the  looser  materials  to- 
ward the  outside.  The  inner  slope,  facing  the  reser 
voir,  is  usually  made  a to  1,  and  pitched  on  the  surface 


6288 


WAT 


to  protect  it  from  the  wash  of  the  waves.  The  outer 
slope  is  formed  to  the  angle  of  stability  of  the  material 
employed,  generally  2 to  i ; and  occasionally  berms 
are  introduced,  diminishing  the  liability  to  slips.  The 
best  puddled  clay  is  used  for  the  central  trench  ; but 
the  remainder  of  the  embankment  should  not  be  com- 
posed exclusively  of  clay,  as  stiff  clay  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  weather,  especially  on  the  exposed  outer 
slope,  tends  to  slip.  An  earthen  dam  possesses  ample 
stability  if  it  is  perfectly  solid ; but  it  may  fail  from  the 
infiltration  of  water  through  it,  owing  to  faulty  con- 
struction, or  from  settlement,  leading  to  its  overtopping 
by  the  water  in  the  reservoir. 

In  hot,  dry  countries,  an  earthen  embankment  is  liable 
to  crack  and  become  somewhat  disintegrated ; and  high 
embankments,  owing  to  their  flat  side  slopes,  require  a 
very  large  amount  of  material.  Accordingly,  in  Spain, 
masonry  dams  have  been  adopted ; and  they  are  pref- 
erable to  earthen  dams  when  the  height  exceeds  about 
eighty  feet,  and  where  a rock  foundation  can  be  secured. 
Besides  a solid  rock  foundation,  the  conditions  of  stabil- 
ity of  a masonry  dam  are  that  the  maximum  pressure 
shall  not  exceed  the  limit  that  the  masonry  can  sustain 
without  injury,  and  that  the  lines  of  resultant  pressures, 
with  the  reservoir  empty  and  full,  shall  not  anywhere 
pass  outside  the  middle  third  of  the  section  of  the  dam, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  tension  at  the  faces. 
With  the  reservoir  empty,  the  pressures  on  the  dam  are 
merely  those  due  to  its  weight.  With  the  reservoir  full, 
the  water  exerts  a horizontal  thrust  against  the  inner 
face  of  the  dam,  equal  to  the  weight  of  a column  of 
water  having  the  depth  of  the  water  resting  against  the 
dam,  and  acting  at  the  center  of  pressure,  which  is  at 
two-thirds  of  the  depth  down  from  the  water-level. 

The  direction  and  amount  of  the  resultant  are  readily 
obtained  graphically  by  the  parallelogram  of  forces,  the 
point  of  application  being  at  the  intersection  of  the 
vertical  from  the  centre  of  gravity  with  the  horizontal 
line  one-third  up  from  the  base;  for,  by  drawing  the 
horizontal  and  vertical  lines  proportionate  in  length  to 
the  water-pressure  and  weight  of  the  dam  respectively, 
the  diagonal  represents  the  resultant  of  these  forces  both 
in  magnitude  and  direction.  When  the  inner  face  of 
the  dam  is  battered,  the  weight  of  water  resting  on  this 
face  must  be  added  to  the  weight  of  the  dam  when  the 
reservoir  is  full.  The  resultant  pressures  necessarily  in- 
crease with  the  depth;  and  the  maximum  pressure  is  at 
or  near  the  base  of  the  inner  face  when  the  reservoir  is 
empty,  and  of  the  outer  face  when  the  reservoir  is  full. 
The  top  has  only  to  be  made  wide  enough  to  re- 
sist the  shock  of  the  waves  and  floating  ice  in  the  reser- 
voir; but  the  base,  having  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  dam 
together  with  the  water  pressure,  requires  widening  out 
adequately  for  the  safe  limit  of  pressure  on  the  masonry 
not  to  be  exceeded;  and,  as  the  water-pressure  with  the 
full  reservoir  deflects  the  resultant  toward  the  outer 
face,  this  face  is  given  a considerable  batter.  All  dams 
have  to  be  raised  high  enough  not  to  be  overtopped  by 
the  highest  waves  in  a storm,  depending  on  the  size  and 
exposure  of  the  reservoir. 

Sometimes  a small  dam  is  placed  across  the  upper 
end  of  a reservoir,  so  as  to  form  a small  settling  reser- 
voir, in  which  the  inflowing  stream  can  deposit  any 
sediment  before  passing  into  the  main  reservoir.  A 
waste  weir  is  provided  at  a suitable  place  in  the  dam 
with  its  sill  slightly  lower  than  the  highest  proposed 
water-level  in  the  reservoir,  so  that  the  surplus  water, 
when  this  level  is  reached,  may  flow  over  into  the  lye- 
wash.  The  length  of  the  weir  should  be  made  suffi- 
cient for  the  discharge  over  it  to  pass  off  the  inflow 
during  a flood,  so  as  to  insure  the  dam  against  being 
■owertooped  by  a rise  of  water  in  the  reservoir,  which 


would  be  fatal  to  an  earthen  dam.  To  provide  for  u 
large  discharge  without  a great  length  of  weir,  the  sill 
of  the  weir  may  be  placed  somewhat  lower,  and  planks 
laced  temporarily  across  it  to  retain  the  water  at  its 
ighest  level  on  the  approach  of  the  summer.  The 
water  is  drawn  off  from  the  reservoir,  as  required  for 
supply,  through  an  outlet  culvert  passing  from  a low 
level  in  the  reservoir  into  a conduit  in  the  valley  below. 
This  culvert  was  formerly  frequently  placed  through 
the  lowest  part  of  the  dam,  being  readily  formed  during 
the  construction  of  the  dam,  and  giving  command  of  all 
the  water  in  the  reservoir.  Accidents,  however,  have 
often  been  traced  to  the  unequal  settlement  of  the 
earthen  embankment  near  the  culvert,  or  to  infiltration 
of  water  into  the  embankment,  either  by  escaping  from 
the  culvert  fractured  by  settlement,  or  by  finding  a 
passage  along  the  outside  line  of  the  culvert  or  pipes. 
No  possible  considerations  can  justify  the  burying  of 
outlet  pipes  at  the  base  of  a high  embankment,  with 
the  valves  regulating  the  discharge  at  the  outer  extrem- 
ity, whereby  the  water-pressure  always  acts  along  the 
whole  length  of  the  pipes,  and  their  inspection  is 
impracticable.  In  some  cases  a valve-tower  is  erected 
in  the  center  of  the  embankment,  by  which  means  the 
water  can  be  shut  off  from  a portion  of  the  pipes.  If, 
however,  the  outlet  pipes  are  carried  under  the  embank- 
ment, they  should  be  laid  in  the  solid  ground,  and 
should  be  commanded  along  their  entire  length  by  a 
valve-tower  placed  at  the  inner  toe  of  the  embankment. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  far  safer  to  carry  the  outlet  pipes  in 
a tunnel  constructed  through  the  side  of  the  valley, 
beyond  one  end  of  the  embankment.  In  the  case  of 
masonry  dams,  the  outlet  is  generally  constructed  in 
the  solid  rock  distinct  from  the  dam;  but  at  Villar  the 
outlet  culvert  has  been  carried  through  the  center  of 
the  dam. 

A reservoir  in  a mountain  valley  is  at  a sufficient 
elevation  for  the  water  to  flow  by  gravitation  to  the 
locality  to  be  supplied;  and  it  is  only  necessary  to  form 
a conduit  by  canals,  tunnels,  aqueducts,  and  pipes,  of 
adequate  size  in  relation  to  the  gradient,  to  convey  the 
daily  supply  required  (see  Hydromechanics).  In 
olden  times  hills  were  contoured,  and  valleys  were 
crossed  by  colossal  aqueducts,  at  great  expense,  to  ob- 
tain a regular  inclination,  which  was  reduced  by  the 
circuitous  route  that  had  to  be  taken  (see  Aqueduct), 
Now,  however,  hills  are  pierced  by  tunnels;  and,  by  the 
employment  of  cast-iron,  deep  wide  valleys  can  be 
crossed  by  inverted  siphons  following  the  depressions 
of  the  land — so  that  a much  straighter  course  is  attaina- 
ble, affording  better  gradients,  and  therefore  enabling 
smaller  conduits  to  be  adopted,  which  is  of  great  im- 
portance when  long  distances  have  to  be  traversed. 

The  water  obtained  from  rivers  in  low  districts,  and 
from  wells,  has  to  be  raised  by  pumping  to  the  height 
necessary  to  obtain  a proper  pressure  for  supply;  and 
the  pumps  have  to  be  in  duplicate,  to  prevent  a failure 
in  the  supply  in  the  event  of  a break-aown.  Thus  the 
water  supply  of  London  has  to  be  raised  by  pumping  to 
fill  the  service  reservoirs. 

The  water  obtained  for  supply  is  frequently  not  suf- 
ficiently pure  to  be  at  once  distributed  for  domestic 
purposes.  The  impurities  to  which  water  is  liable  are 
of  three  kinds,  namely,  particles  of  matter  in  suspen- 
sion, inorganic  substances  in  solution,  and  organic  mat- 
ters in  solution  or  of  extreme  minuteness.  Suspended 
matters  are  readily  removed  by  subsidence  if  the  par- 
ticles are  heavy,  and  by  filtration  if  the  particles  are 
flocculent  or  light.  Some  inorganic  compounds  are 
readily  removed,  while  others  cannot  be  dealt  with  in  a 
practical  manner.  Allusion  has  already  been  made 
to  subsiding  reservoirs  formed  at  the  head  of  large 


W A T 


storage  reservoirs  ; the  object  of  these,  however,  is 
rather  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  silt  and  sand  in 
the  principal  reservoir  than  for  the  purpose  of  purifica- 
tion, but  the  principle  is  the  same.  Supplies  from 
large  reservoirs  are  generally  free  from  matters  in  sus- 
pension, except  sometimes  during  heavy  floods,  owing 
to  the  subsidence  in  the  reservoir  itself ; but  river  sup- 
plies have  often  to  be  led  into  settling-reservoirs,  where 
the  water,  while  at  rest,  can  deposit  its  heavier  par- 
ticles before  passing  on  to  the  filter-beds  for  the  removal 
of  the  lighter  portions.  Over  the  bottom  of  brick 
tanks  layers  of  clean  material  are  spread,  decreasing  in 
coarseness  from  small  rubble  to  sharp  sand,  with  a total 
average  thickness  of  about  four  feet.  The  actual  filtra- 
tion is  effected  by  the  upper  layer  of  sand  ; and  the 
lower  layers  allow  the  passage  of  the  water  unaccom- 
panied by  the  sand.  The  efficiency  of  the  filtration  de- 
pends upon  the  slowness  of  the  passage  of  the  water, 
which  should  not  exceed  a flow  of  from  two  and  a half 
to  three  gallons  per  square  foot  of  area  per  hour.  The 
filter  must  periodically  be  cleaned  by  scraping  off  the 
top  surface  of  the  sand,  which  becomes  choked  with 
the  matter  removed  from  the  water;  and  after  a time 
a fresh  layer  of  sand  has  to  be  provided.  Filtration, 
though  in  itself  a purely  mechanical  operation,  has  been 
found  to  reduce  the  organic  impurities  in  the  water, 
which  must  be  due  either  to  their  oxidation  from  ex- 
posure in  thin  layers  to  the  air  in  the  process  of  filter- 
ing or  to  the  actual  removal  of  very  minute  organisms 
floating  in  the  water,  or  probably  to  both  causes  com- 
bined. 

Many  waters  drawn  from  springs,  wells,  and  rivers 
fed  by  springs  Contain  inorganic  salts  in  solution,  and, 
though  innocuous  and  pleasant  for  drinking,  are  not 
good  for  general  domestic  and  manufacturing  pur- 
poses, owing  to  their  curdling  soap  and  incrusting 
kettles,  boilers  and  pipes.  This  quality,  known  as 
hardness , is  mainly  due  to  salts  of  lime,  which  are  found 
in  large  quantities  in  waters  drawn  from  the  chalk. 
Most  of  the  lime  in  solution  is  in  the  form  of  bicarbon- 
ate, having  been  produced  from  the  very  slightly  soluble 
carbonate  of  lime  of  which  chalk  and  other  limestones 
are  mainly  composed,  by  combination  with  free  car- 
bonic acid,  C02.  It  is  therefore  only  necessary  to  re- 
move half  of  the  carbonic  acid  from  the  bicarbonate  to 
reconvert  it  into  the  insoluble  carbonate.  This  can  be 
done  either  by  boiling,  which  drives  off  the  excess  of 
carbonic  acid,  depositing  the  carbonate  of  lime  which 
forms  the  troublesome  incrustation  in  pipes  and  boilers 
where  chalk  water  is  used,  or  by  adding  caustic  lime 
to  the  water,  which,  combining  with  the  excess  of  car- 
bonic acid,  reduces  the  bicarbonate,  forming  carbon- 
ate of  lime,  which  is  precipitated.  To  indicate  the  de- 
gree of  hardness  of  various  waters,  Doctor  Clark’s  scale 
of  i°  of  hardness  for  each  grain  of  chalk  in  one 
gallon  of  water  is  employed.  Some  waters  have  22°, 
or  even  more  degrees  of  hardness;  and  all  waters  are 
termed  hard  which  contain  more  than  50;  but  by  the 
softening  process  waters  of  220  of  hardness  can  be  re- 
duced to  about  50.  The  remaining  or  permanent  hard- 
ness consists  of  sulphate  of  lime  and  other  soluble  salts. 
The  waters  obtained  from  mountainous  districts  are 
very  soft,  and  therefore  very  valuable  for  manufactur- 
ing districts;  but  they  have  more  action  upon  lead,  and 
are  more  liable  to  absorb  organic  impurities  than  water 
highly  charged  with  inorganic  salts. 

The  water-supply  required  is  estimated  in  gallons  per 
head  of  population,  with  additions  in  manufacturing 
districts  for  trade  purposes.  The  consumption  varies 
greatly  in  different  towns,  ranging  from  about  twelve  to 
fifty  gallons  per  head  per  day;  and  it  depends  more 
upon  the  fittings  and  other  sources  of  waste  than  upon 


6289 

the  habits  of  the  population,  though  the  consumption 
per  head  is  greater  in  the  wealthier  quarters.  An  ample 
supply,  for  domestic  and  general  requirements,  is  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  gallons  per  head  daily.  The 
actual  rate  of  consumption  varies  with  the  time  of  day, 
and  also  with  the  period  of  the  year,  being  greatest  be- 
tween 7 and  10  A.M.,  and  in  June,  July,  and  August, 
and  least  from  9 p.m.  to  5 a.m.,  and  in  January, 
February,  and  March.  To  provide  a sufficient  reserve 
for  sudden  demands,  such  as  for  a fire,  and  to  insure  an 
adequate  supply  to  every  house,  a service-reservoir  has 
to  be  constructed,  into  which  the  water  from  the  source 
of  supply  is  led.  The  reservoir  consists  generally  of  a 
brick  or  concrete  tank,  rendered  inside  with  cement, 
sunk  in  the  ground,  and  roofed  over  with  brick  arches 
resting  on  the  side  walls  and  intermediate  pillars,  over 
which  a covering  of  earth  is  spread.  By  this  means 
light  and  heat  are  excluded,  which,  together  with  a 
depth  of  at  least  fifteen  feet  of  water,  prevents  the 
growth  of  minute  aquatic  plants,  of  which  the  germs 
are  found  in  some  well  waters,  particularly  from  the 
New  Red  Standstone,  and  maintains  the  water  at  a 
tolerably  even  temperature.  The  reservoir  should  have 
a capacity  of  not  less  than  twenty-four  hours’  supply, 
and  should  be  at  a sufficient  elevation  to  command  the 
whole  of  the  district  it  serves,  and  if  possible  afford  a 
good  pressure  on  the  fire -hydrants.  Where  a town 
stands  at  very  different  levels,  separate  reservoirs  at  dif- 
ferent elevations  for  supplying  the  high-level  and  low 
level  districts  are  advisable,  to  equalize  the  pressure. 

In  England  the  common  form  of  supply  is  on  the  in- 
termittent system.  On  this  plan,  each  house  is  pro- 
vided with  a cistern,  into  which  water  from  the  main  is 
admitted  for  a short  period,  once  or  twice  a day,  by 
means  of  a valve  on  each  service  main,  which  is  opened 
and  closed  by  the  turncock  for  each  separate  district. 
When  the  cistern  is  filled,  the  inlet  pipe  is  closed  by  the 
rising  of  the  floating  ball  shutting  the  bali  tap.  The 
supply  is,  accordingly,  limited  to  the  contents  of  the 
cistern,  except  during  the  short  period  the  water  is 
turned  on;  and  the  cistern  is  proportioned  to  the  accom- 
modation of  the  house.  The  water  in  these  open  cis- 
terns is  liable  to  contamination  from  impurities  of 
various  kinds  settling  in  them  and  not  being  cleaned 
out;  but  it  is  often  exposed  to  heat,  a smoky  atmos- 
phere, and  dust,  and  sometimes  to  sewage  gas.  More- 
over, in  the  event  of  a fire,  the  turncock  has  to  be  sum- 
moned before  a supply  of  water  can  be  obtained.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  adoption  of  the  constant  system  has  been 
urged,  and  in  many  places  carried  out.  Before  substi- 
tuting a constant  for  an  intermittent  supply,  it  is  essen- 
tial to  overhaul  thoroughly  the  pipes  and  joints,  and  to 
substitute  screw-down  taps,  which  close  gradually,  for 
the  leaky,  suddenly-closing  plug-taps,  which  throw  a 
sudden  pressure  on  the  pipes.  Waste  in  water-closets 
can  be  stopped  by  the  insertion  of  a waste  preventer, 
which  only  allows  a definite  quantity  of  water  to  pass 
each  time  the  plug  is  raised  (see  Sewerage).  The  de- 
tection of  accidental  waste  from  leakages  has  been  much 
facilitated  by  the  introduction  of  a waste-water  meter, 
which  records  graphically,  on  a revolving  cylinder,  the 
amount  of  water  which  is  passing  the  place  where  the 
meter  is  fixed. 

There  are  two  classes  of  water-meters — the  positive 
and  the  inferential.  The  positive  meter,  such  as  Ken- 
nedy’s and  Frost’s  piston  meters,  measures  the  actual 
quantity  of  water  passed  through  it,  as  recorded  by  the 
strokes  of  a piston  working  in  the  cylinder,  which  is 
successively  filled  from  the  top  and  bottom,  and  affords 
a measure  of  the  water  introduced;  while  the  inferential 
meter,  such  as  that  of  Siemens,  measures  only  the  revo- 
lutions of  a turbine  actuated  by  the  flow  of  the  p»sc»up 


WAT 


6290 

water,  of  which  the  quantity  is  deduced  from  the  veloc- 
ity. The  positive  meter  is  more  accurate,  and  meas- 
ures very  small  flows;  whereas  the  turbine  meter  may 
sometimes  not  be  turned  by  very  small  flows  which  are 
gradually  increased.  Measurement  by  meter  would 
seem  naturally  to  follow  the  adoption  of  the  constant 
service  for  domestic  supply,  as  well  as  for  manufac- 
tories. Its  general  adoption  has,  however,  been  hin- 
dered by  the  fear  that  a charge  by  quantity,  instead  of 
by  rental,  might  press  unduly  upon  the  poorer  classes, 
and  induce  them  to  stint  themselves  of  a proper  supply, 
and  also  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  a very  cheap  and  at 
the  same  time  a perfectly  trustworthy  meter  of  adequate 
durability.  To  avoid  the  possibility  of  checking  a suf- 
ficient use  of  water  in  the  poorer  tenements,  it  has  been 
proposed  to  allow  a definite  supply  at  the  ordinary  rate, 
and  only  to  charge  by  meter  for  any  excess  over  this 
amount. 

WATERTON,  Charles,  naturalist  and  traveler, 
was  born  at  Walton  Hall,  near  Pontefract,  Yorkshire, 
in  1782.  After  being  educated  at  the  Roman  Catholic 
college  of  Stonyhurst,  and  traveling  a short  time  on 
the  Continent,  he  went  to  Demerara  to  manage  some 
estates  belonging  to  his  family.  In  his  first  journey, 
which  began  in  1812,  the  principal  object  of  which  was 
to  collect  the  poison  known  as  curari,  he  traveled 
through  British  Guiana  by  the  Demerara  and  Essequibo 
rivers  to  the  frontiers  of  Brazilian  Guiana,  making 
many  natural  history  collections  and  observations  by  the 
way.  After  spending  some  time  in  England  he  returned 
to  South  America  in  1816,  going  by  Pernanjbuco  and 
Cayenne  to  British  Guiana,  where  again  he  devoted  his 
time  to  the  most  varied  observations  in  natural  history. 
For  the  third  time,  in  1820,  he  sailed  from  England  for 
Demerara,  and  again  he  spent  his  time  in  similar 
pursuits.  Another  sojourn  in  England  of  about  three 
years  was  followed  by  a visit  to  the  United  States  in 
1824;  and,  having  touched  at  several  of  the  West  India 
islands,  he  again  went  on  to  Demerara,  returning  to 
England  at  the  end  of  the  year.  In  182S  he  published 
the  results  of  his  four  journeys,  under  the  title 
of  Wanderings  in  South  America — consisting  largely 
of  a collection  of  observations  on  the  appearance, 
character,  and  habits  of  many  of  the  animals  to 
be  found  in  British  Guiana.  He  died  May  27,  1865, 
from  the  result  of  an  accident. 

WATERTOWN,  a city  of  the  United  States,  the 
county-seat  of  Jefferson  county,  N.  Y.,  is  situated 
upon  both  sides  of  Black  river,  7 miles  above  its 
mouth,  and  is  140  miles  northwest  of  Albany.  It  is  laid 
out  rather  irregularly,  with  sixty  miles  of  streets,  is 
supplied  with  water  by  pumping,  water-power  being 
used,  and  is  well  sewered.  The  river  at  this  point  is 
sixty  yards  wide.  It  falls  112  feet  in  two  miles,  and 
flows  through  the  city  in  a succession  of  rapids,  furnish- 
ing a magnificent  water-power  to  the  numerous  paper, 
jvoolen,  and  cotton  mills  and  machine  shops  which  line 
its  banks. 

The  town  is  on  the  Rome,  Watertown  and  Ogdensburg 
and  the  Utica  and  Black  River  railroads.  The  city  was 
first  settled  in  1800,  and  incorporated  in  1869.  It  con- 
tains five  banks,  one  daily  and  two  weekly  papers,  a 
court-house,  ten  churches,  a high  school,  academy,  and 
intermediate  schools,  five  hotels,  an  opera  house,  pub- 
lic halls,  stores,  manufactories,  etc.  The  latter  include 
carriages,  hollow  ware,  furniture,  planing  and  flour 
mills,  spirit  levels,  paper,  woodenware,  lamps,  sash, 
doors,  and  blinds,  woolen  goods,  sewing  machines, 
washing  machines,  files,  engines,  steam  blowers,  ther- 
mometers, agricultural  implements,  etc.  The  popula- 
tion in  1900  was  21,696. 

WATERTOWN,  a city  in  Jefferson  and  Dodge 


counties,  Wis.,  is  situated  upon  both  sides  of  Rock  river^ 
in  a rich  farming  region.  The  city  is  an  important  point 
on  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  and  Chicago,  Milwau- 
kee and  St.  Paul  railways,  between  Milwaukee  and 
Madison,  and  is  the  largest  and  most  progressive  place 
in  either  of  the  above-named  counties.  There  are  two 
banks  established  in  the  city,  three  weekly  papers,  thir- 
teen churches,  a high  school  and  graded  schools,  also 
the  Northwestern  Lutheran  University  established  in 
1865,  and  a Catholic  college.  In  the  way  of  manufactures 
there  are  foundries  and  machine-shops,  woolen,  flour, 
lumber  and  planing-mills,  cigar  and  shoe  factories, 
breweries,  and  other  lines.  The  population  in  1900  vis 
returned  at  8,437. 

WATERTOWN,  aleading  town  of  the  recently  admit- 
ted State,  Southern  Dakota,  is  centrally  located  in  Cad* 
dington  county,  and  gives  promise  of  rapid  and  substan- 
tial growth.  The  railroad  facilities,  embracing  the  Pa- 
cific division  of  the  Minneapolis  and  St.  Louis,  Dakota 
Central  division  of  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  and 
the  Burlington,  Cedar  Rapids  and  Northern  systems,  the 
number  and  character  of  the  improvements  perfected 
and  proposed  in  Watertown  and  vicinity,  together  with 
the  commercial,  financial,  and  educational  inducements 
available,  not  only  emphasize  such  promise,  but  give 
assurance  of  its  speedy  realization.  There  are  now 
one  daily  and  three  weekly  papers,  besides  a monthly 
magazine,  published  there,  the  town  also  containing 
three  national  and  two  State  banks,  besides  a banking 
and  investment  company,  three  or  more  hotels,  a num 
ber  of  churches  and  schools,  an  opera  house,  and  othev 
places  of  public  resort,  many  stores,  and  a long  list  of 
manufacturing  plants  devoted  to  the  production  of 
lumber,  finished  and  in  the  rough,  agricultural  imple- 
ments, carriages,  machinery,  hardware,  cigars,  furni- 
ture, etc.  Gas  is  used  for  illuminating  purposes  and 
other  modern  conveniences  are  employed.  The  popu- 
lation in  1900  was  3,352.  * 

WATERTOWN,  a manufacturing  town  of  Middle- 
sex county,  Mass.,  is  located  on  the  Charles  river,  also 
on  the  Watertown  branch  of  the  Fitchburg  railroad. 
It  is  eight  miles  west  of  Boston,  of  which  citv  it  is  an 
attractive  suburb;  but  its  chief  importance  is  due  to  the 
number  and  variety  of  manufactures  carried  on  there. 
These  embrace  starch,  soap,  paint,  paper  bag  and 
paper  works,  cloth,  knit  goods,  and  wire  factories, 
stove  foundries,  cardigan  jacket  and  knit  cloth  mills, 
sewing  machine  needles,  etc.,  besides  the  usual  run  of 
enterprises  in  the  various  lines  of  production  not  in- 
cluded in  the  above.  The  town  also  contains  one 
weekly  paper,  two  banks,  .schools,  churches,  hotels 
stores,  warehouses,  etc.,  and  a population  in  igoo  of 
about  9,706. 

WATERVILLE,  a city  of  Kennebec  county,  Me., 
is  located  on  the  west  bank  of  Kennebec  river  at  the 
head  of  navigation,  eighteen  miles  east  of  Augusta  and 
eighty  miles  north  of  Portland,  also  at  the  junction  of  the 
Lewiston  and  Skowhegan  branches  of  the  Maine  Cen- 
tral railroad.  Ticonic  Falls,  on  the  Kennebec  river  op- 
posite the  city,  furnishes  an  abundance  of  water-power, 
and  i^enerally  utilized  for  propelling  the  machinery  of 
the  manufacturing  plants  in  operation  at  Waterville 
and  vicinity,  more  especially  the  flour  and  planing  mills. 
The  city  is  the  seat  of  Colby  University,  a Baptist  col- 
lege established  in  1820,  under  the  name  of  “ Waterville 
College,”  and  at  present  having  a library  of  between 
ten  and  fifteen  thousand  volumes.  The  city  also  con- 
tains seven  churches,  four  weekly  newspapers,  one 
monthly  magazine,  three  national  and  one  savings 
banks,  schools,  halls,  and  about  one  hundred  stores.  The 
manufactures  are  very  extensive,  including  shirt  and 
underwear  factories,  also  those  devoted  to  men’s  cloth 


WAT 


ing;  woolen  and  cotton  mills,  wood  pulp  and  box- 
board  mills,  carriage  repositories,  and  match  factories, 
agricultural  implements  and  car-wheel  works,  wood- 
working machinery,  stoves  and  iron -castings,  and  other 
industries.  The  population  in  1900  was  returned  at 
9,477- 

WATERWORKS.  See  Water-Supply. 

WATERY  GRIPES  is  the  popular  name  for  a 
form  of  serous  diarrhea  occurring  in  infants  in 
which  there  are  copious  discharges  of  thin  watery 
matter,  often  limpid,  or  almost  colorless,  and  oc- 
casionally intermixed  with  flakes  or  shreds.  This 
form  of  diarrhea  may  be  induced  in  weakly  children 
by  sudden  impressions  of  cold  on  the  surface,  so 
as  to  check  perspiration;  or  it  may  be  brought  on 
by  cold  drinks  when  the  body  is  heated.  The  ex- 
haustion brought  about  by  the  copious  excretion  from 
the  bowels  is  sometimes  so  great  that  the  case  might  be 
mistaken  for  one  of  cholera.  On  the  occurrence  of  such 
an  attack  the  child  should  at  once  be  wrapped  up  in 
warm  flannel,  placed  in  a bed,  with  a bag  of  hot  dry 
bran  over  the  belly,  and  some  arrowroot,  with  a little 
brandy,  given  in  teaspoonfuls  frequently,  or  larger 
doses,  according  to  the  age;  and  the  medical  attendant 
should  at  once  be  sent  for.  If  medical  aid  cannot  be 
readily  procured,  opium  must  be  carefully  used  to  check 
the  profuse  evacuations.  One  of  the  best  preparations 
is  aromatic  powder  of  chalk  and  opium,  every  forty 
grains  of  which  contain  one  grain  of  opium.  From 
three  to  five  grains  of  this  powder,  with  a quarter  of  a 
grain  of  ipecacuanha,  may  be  given  and  repeated  every 
three  or  four  hours,  two  or  three  times,  unless  any  head 
symptoms  (due  to  the  opium)  are  perceived. 

WATFORD,  a market  town  of  Herts,  England,  is 
situated  on  a ridge  of  gravel  overlooking  the  river 
Colne,  on  the  Grand  Junction  canal,  and  on  the  Lon- 
don and  Northwestern  railway,  branches  of  which 
here  diverge  to  St.  Albans  and  to  Rickmansworth, 
eight  miles  southwest  of  St.  Albans  and  seventeen  and 
three-quarters  northwest  of  London  by  rail,  the 
distance  by  road  from  Charing  Cross  being  fifteen 
miles.  It  consists  chiefly  of  one  spacious  street,  about 
one  and  one-half  miles  in  length,  running  north- 
westward from  the  river.  A bridge  connects  it 
with  Bushey  on  the  south  side  of  the  river,  a suburb 
chiefly  of  villas.  For  the  water-supply  of  the  town 
a reservoir  capable  of  containing  one  million  gallons 
has  lately  been  constructed.  The  town  possesses  corn- 
mills,  breweries,  malt  kilns,  and  an  iron  foundry.  The 
population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  530  acres) 
in  1S71  was  7,461,  and  in  1881  it  was  10,073.  Jn  1882 
the  area  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  was  extended 
to  871  acres;  the  population  of  that  area  in  lyoi  was 
14,162. 

WATSON,  Richard,  bishop  of  Llandaff,  was  born 
in  August,  1737,  at  Ilaversharn,  in  Westmoreland,  and 
was  the  son  of  the  master  of  the  grammar  school  of 
that  place.  He  was  entirely  educated  by  his  father, 
who  sent  him  in  1754  to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
He  was  elected  a fellow  of  Trinity  in  1760,  and  about 
the  same  time  had  the  offer  of  the  post  of  chaplain  to 
the  factory  at  Bencoolen. 

In  1771  he  became  a candidate  for  the  regius  profes- 
sorship of  divinity,  and  at  the  age  of  thirty-four  gained 
what  he  calls  “ the  first  place  for  honor  in  the  univer- 
sity,” “and,”  he  adds,  “exclusive  of  the  mastership  of 
Trinity  College,  I have  made  it  the  first  for  profit.”  In 
1768  he  published  Institutiones  Metallurgies , intended 
to  give  a scientific  form  to  chemistry  by  digesting  facts 
established  by  experiment  into  a connected  series  of 
propositions.  In  1781  he  followed  this  up  with  a 
volume  of  Chemical  Essays , which  Davy  told  De 


6291 

Quincey  remained  as  late  as  1813,  after  all  recent  dis- 
coveries, unsurpassed  as  a manual  of  introductory  dis- 
cipline. His  course  as  professor  of  divinity  was  no  less 
decisive.  lie  produced  several  anonymous  pamphlets 
on  the  liberal  side  in  the  subscription  controversy  and 
other  topics  of  the  day,  and  some  sermons,  one  of  which 
was  thought  likely  to  have  involved  him  in  a prosecu- 
tion, but  which,  Dunning  said,  contained  “just  such 
treason  as  ought  to  be  preached  once  a month  at  St. 
James’.”  It  is  said  to  have  prevented  his  obtaining  the 
provostship  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  In  1776  he 
answered  Gibbon’s  chapters  on  Christianity,  and  had 
the  honor  of  being  one  of  the  only  two  opponents  whom 
Gibbon  treated  with  respect.  He  had  always  opposed 
the  American  war,  and  when  the  accession  of  Lord 
Shelburne  to  power  in  1782  afforded  the  then  un fre- 
quent opportunity  of  advancing  a liberal  in  politics'  and 
religion  to  a bishopric,  Watson  was  made  bishop  of 
Llandaff,  being  permitted  to  retain  his  other  prefer 
ments  on  account  of  the  poverty  of  the  see.  Shelburne, 
he  says,  expected  great  service  from  him  as  a pam- 
phleteer, but  WTatson  proved  from  the  ministerial  point 
of  view  a most  impracticable  prelate.  In  1796  he  pub- 
lished his  Apology  for  the  Bible , in  answer  to  Thomas 
Paine,  at  present  the  best  known  of  his  numerous 
writings.  It  was  most  effective  in  its  day;  in  ours  Chris- 
tianity would  hardly  be  attacked  or  defended  by  the 
arms  employed  bv  either  disputant.  Undismayed  by 
the  displeasure  of  the  court,  or  perhaps  hoping  to  over- 
come it,  Watson  continued  to  exert  his  pen  with  vigor, 
and  in  general  to  good  purpose,  denouncing  the  slave 
trade,  advocating  the  union  with  Ireland,  and  offering 
financial  suggestions  to  Pitt,  who  seems  to  have  fre- 
quently consulted  him.  In  1798  his  Address  to  the 
People  of  Great  Britain,  enforcing  resistance  to  French 
arms  and  French  principles,  ran  through  fourteen  edi- 
tions, but  estranged  him  from  many  old  friends,  who 
accused  him,  probably  with  injustice,  of  aiming  to  make 
his  peace  with  the  government.  Hedied  on  July  2,  1816. 

WATT,  James,  the  inventor  of  the  modern  con- 
j densing  steam-engine,  was  born  at  Greenock,  January 
19,  1736-  His  father  was  a small  merchant  there,  who 
lost  his  trade  and  fortune  by  unsuccessful  speculation, 
and  James  was  early  thrown  on  his  own  resources. 
Having  a taste  for  mechanics  he  made  his  way  to 
London,  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  to  learn  the  business 
of  a philosophical-instrument  maker,  and  became  ap- 
prenticed to  one  Morgan,  in  whose  service  he  remained 
for  twelve  months.  Before  going  to  London  he  had 
made  acquaintance  with  some  of  the  professors  in 
Glasgow  college,  and  on  his  return  to  Scotland,  in  1756, 
he  sought  them  out  and  obtained  work  in  repairing 
astronomical  instruments.  He  next  tried  to  establish 
himself  as  an  instrument  maker  in  Glasgow,  but  the  city 
guilds  would  not  recognize  a craftsman  who  had  not 
served  the  full  term  of  common  apprenticeship,  and 
Watt  was  forbidden  to  open  shop  in  the  burgh.  The 
college,  however,  took  him  under  its  protection,  and  in 
1757  he  was  established  in  its  precincts  with  the  title 
of  mathematical-instrument  maker  to  the  university. 
Before  many  months  Black,  the  discoverer  of  latent 
heat,  then  lecturer  on  chemistry,  and  Robison,  then  a 
student,  afterward  professor  of  natural  philosophy, 
became  his  intimate  friends,  and  with  them  he  often  dis 
cussed  the  possibility  of  improving  the  steam-engine,  oi 
which  at  that  time  Newcomen’s  was  the  most  advanced 
type.  The  engine  was  then  applied  only  to  pumping 
water — chiefly  in  the  drainage  of  mines;  and  it  was  so 
clumsy  and  wasteful  of  fuel  as  to  be  but  little  used. 

In  Newcomen’s  engine  the  cylinder  stood  vertically 
under  one  end  of  the  main  lever  or  “beam”  and  was 
j open  at  the  top.  Steam,  at  a pressure  scarcely  greats 


W A T 


6292 

than  (hat  of  the  atmosphere,  was  admitted  to  the  under 
side;  this  allowed  the  piston  to  be  pulled  up  by  a 
counterpoise  at  the  other  end  of  the  beam.  Com- 
munication with  the  boiler  was  then  shut  off,  and  the 
steam  in  the  cylinder  was  condensed  by  injecting  a jet 
of  cold  water  from  a cistern  above.  The  pressure  of 
the  air  on  the  top  of  the  piston  then  drove  it  down, 
raising  the  counterpoise  and  doing  work.  The  injec- 
tion water  and  condensed  steam  which  had  gathered  in 
the  cylinder  were  drained  out  by  a pipe  leading  down 
into  a well. 

Watt  at  once  noticed  that  the  alternate  heating  and 
cooling  of  the  cylinder  in  Newcomen’s  engine  made  it 
work  with  tedious  slowness  and  excessive  consumption 
of  steam.  His  first  attempt  at  a remedy  was  to  use  for 
the  material  of  the  cylinder  a substance  that  would  take 
in  and  give  out  heat  slowly.  Wood  was  tried,  but  it 
made  matters  only  a little  better,  and  did  not  promise  to 
be  durable.  He  then  entered  on  a scientific  examination 
of  the  properties  of  steam,  studying  by  experiment  the 
relation  of  its  density  and  pressure  to  the  temperature, 
and  concluded  that  two  conditions  were  essential  to  the 
economic  use  of  steam  in  a condensing  ^team-engine. 
One  was  that  the  temperature  of  the  condensed  steam 
should  be  as  low  as  possible,  ioo°  F.  or  lower,  other- 
wise the  vacuum  would  not  be  good;  the  other  was,  to 
quote  his  own  words,  “ that  the  cylinder  should  be  always 
as  hot  as  the  steam  which  entered  it.”  In  Newcomen’s 
engine  these  two  conditions  were  incompatible,  and  it 
was  not  for  some  months  that  Watt  saw  a means  of 
reconciling  them.  Early  in  1765,  while  walking  on  a 
Sunday  afternoon  in  Glasgow  Green,  the  idea  flashed 
upon  him  that,  if  the  steam  were  condensed  in  a vessel 
distinct  from  the  cylinder,  it  would  be  practicable  to 
make  the  temperature  of  condensation  low,  and  still 
keep  the  cylinder  hot.  Without  delay  Watt  put  this 
idea  to  the  test,  and  found  that  the  separate  condenser 
did  act  as  he  had  anticipated.  To  maintain  the  vacuum 
in  it  he  added  another  new  organ,  namely,  the  air- 
pump,  the  function  of  which  is  to  remove  the  condensed 
steam  and  water  of  injection  along  with  any  air  that 
gathers  in  the  condenser.  To  further  his  object  of 
keeping  the  cylinder  as  hot  as  the  steam  that  entered 
it,  Watt  supplemented  his  great  invention  of  the  sepa- 
rate condenser  by  several  less  notable  but  still  important 
improvements.  All  these  features  were  specified  in  his 
first  patent,  in  words  which  have  been  quoted  in  the 
article  Steam-Engine. 

This  patent  was  not  obtained  till  January,  1769, 
nearly  four  years  after  the  inventions  it  covers  had  been 
made.  In  the  interval,  Watt  had  been  striving  to  dem- 
onstrate the  merits  of  his  engine  by  trial  on  a large 
scale.  His  earliest  experiments  left  him  in  debt,  and, 
finding  that  his  own  means  were  quite  insufficient  to 
allow  him  to  continue  them,  he  agreed  that  Doctor  Roe- 
buck, founder  of  the  Carron  iron-works,  should  take 
two-thirds  of  the  profits  of  the  invention  in  considera- 
tion of  his  bearing  the  cost.  An  engine  was  then 
erected  at  Kinneil,  near  Linlithgow,  where  Roebuck 
lived,  and  this  gave  Watt  the  opportunity  of  facing 
many  difficulties  in  details  of  construction.  But  the  ex- 
periments made  slow  progress,  for  Roebuck’s  affairs 
became  embarrassed,  and  Watt’s  attention  was  en- 
gaged by  other  work.  He  had  taken  to  surveying,  and 
was  fast  gaining  reputation  as  a civil  engineer.  In  1767 
he  was  employed  to  make  a survey  for  a Forth  and 
Clyde  canal.  He  prepared  plans  for  the  harbors  of 
Ayr,  Port-Glasgow,  and  Greenock,  for  deepening  the 
Clyde,  and  for  building  a bridge  over  it  at  Hamilton. 
In  the  course  of  this  work  he  invented  a simple  microm- 
eter for  measuring  distances. 

M ean while  the  engine  had  not  been  wholly  neglected. 


Watt  had  made  the  acquaintance,  through  his  friend 
Doctor  Small,  of  Matthew  Boulton,  a man  ofenergy  and 
capital,  who  owned  the  Soho  engineering  works  at 
Birmingham.  Boulton  agreed  to  buy  Roebuck’s  share 
in  the  invention,  and  to  join  Watt  in  applying  to  parlia- 
ment for  an  act  to  prolong  the  term  of  the  patent.  The 
application  was  successful.  In  1775  au  act  was  passed 
continuing  the  patent  for  twenty-five  years. 

During  the  next  ten  years  we  find  Watt  assiduously 
engaged  in  developing  and  introducing  the  engine.  Its 
first  and  for  a time  its  only  application  was  in  pumping; 
it  was  at  once  put  to  this  use  in  the  mines  of  Cornwall, 
where  Watt  was  now  frequently  engaged  in  superin- 
tending the  erection  of  engines.  Further  inventions 
were  required  to  fit  it  for  other  uses,  and  these  followed 
in  quick  succession.  Watt’s  second  steam-engine  patent 
is  dated  1781.  A third  patent,  in  1782,  contained  two 
new  inventions  of  the  first  importance.  Up  to  this  time 
the  engine  had  been  single-acting;  Watt  now  made  it 
double-acting ; that  is  to  say,  both  ends  of  the  cylinder, 
instead  of  only  one,  were  alternately  put  in  communi- 
cation with  the  boiler  and  the  condenser.  Up  to  this 
time  also  the  steam  had  been  admitted  from  the  boiler 
throughout  the  whole  stroke  of  the  piston;  Watt  now 
introduced  the  system  of  expansive  working,  in  which 
the  admission  valve  is  closed  after  a portion  only  of  the 
stroke  is  performed,  and  the  steam  inclosed  in  the 
cylinder  is  then  allowed  to  expand  during  the  remainder 
of  the  stroke,  doing  additional  work  upon  the  piston 
Without  making  any  further  demand  upon  the  boiler 
until  the  next  stroke  requires  a fresh  admission  of 
steam.  His  fourth  patent,  taken  out  in  1784,  describes 
the  well-known  “parallel  motion,”  an  arrangement  of 
links  by  which  the  top  of  the  piston-rod  is  connected  to 
the  beam  so  that  it  may  either  pull  or  push,  and  is  at 
the  same  time  guided  to  move  in  a sensibly  straight 
line. 

Still  a later  invention  was  the  throttle-valve  and  cen- 
trifugal governor,  by  which  the  speed  of  rotative  engines 
was  automatically  controlled.  One  more  item  in  the 
list  of  Watt’s  contributions  to  the  development  of  the 
steam-engine  is  too  important  to  be  passed  without 
mention:  the  indicator,  which  draws  a diagram  of  the 
relation  of  the  steam’s  pressure  to  its  volume  as  the 
stroke  proceeds,  was  first  used  by  Boulton  and  Watt  to 
measure  the  work  done  by  their  engines,  and  so  to  give 
a basis  on  which  the  charges  levied  from  their  customers 
were  adjusted.  It  would  be  difficult  to  exaggerate  the 
part  which  this  simple  little  instrument  has  played  in 
the  evolution  of  the  steam-engine. 

The  commercial  success  of  the  engine  was  not  long  in 
being  established.  By  1783  all  but  one  of  the  New- 
comen pumping-engines  in  Cornwall  had  been  displaced 
by  Watt’s.  Rival  manufacturers  came  forward,  among 
whom  Bull  and  Hornblower  are  the  most  conspicuous 
names.  They  varied  the  form  of  the  engine,  but  they 
could  not  avoid  infringing  Watt’s  patent  by  the  use  of 
a separate  condenser.  When  action  was  taken  against 
them  on  that  ground,  they  retaliated  by  disputing  the 
validity  of  the  fundamental  patent  of  1769.  In  the  case 
of  Boulton  and  Watt  v.  Bull,  the  court  was  divided  on 
this  point,  but  in  an  action  against  Hornblower  the 
patent  was  definitely  affirmed  to  be  valid  by  a unani- 
mous finding  of  the  Court  of  King’s  Bench.  This  was 
in  1799,  only  a year  before  the  monopoly  expired,  but 
the  decision  enabled  the  firm  to  claim  a large  sum  as 
arrears  of  patent  dues.  In  connection  with  these  trials 
Watt  himself,  as  well  as  his  early  friends  Black  and 
Robison,  drew  up  narratives  of  the  invention  of  the 
steam-engine,  which  are  of  much  interest  to  the  student 
of  its  history. 

On  the  expiry,  in  1800,  of  the  Act  by  which  the 


WAT-WAU 


patent  of  1769  had  been  extended,  Watt  gave  up  his 
share  in  the  business  of  engine-building  to  his  sons, 
James,  who  carried  it  on  along  with  a son  of  Boulton 
for  many  years,  and  Gregory,  who  died  in  1804.  The 
remainder  of  his  life  was  quietly  spent  at  Heathfield 
Hall,  his  house  near  Birmingham,  where  he  devoted  his 
time,  with  scarcely  an  interruption,  to  mechanical  pur- 
suits. His  last  work  was  the  invention  of  machines  for 
copying  sculpture — one  for  making  reduced  copies,  an- 
other for  taking  facsimiles  by  means  of  a light  stiff 
frame,  which  carried  a pointer  over  the  surface  of  the 
work,  while  a revolving  tool  fixed  to  the  frame  along- 
side of  the  pointer  cut  a corresponding  surface  on  a 
suitable  block.  His  life  drew  to  a tranquil  close,  and 
the  end  came  at  Heathfield,  August  19,  1819.  His  re- 
mains were  interred  in  the  neighboring  parish  church 
of  Handsworth. 

WATTEAU,  Antoine,  French  painter,  was  born  at 
Valenciennes  in  1684.  Thrown  on  his  own  resources 
at  an  early  age,  the  boy  went  moneyless  and  ragged  to 
Paris.  There,  after  a hard  struggle,  he  succeeded  in 
getting  work  with  a painter  of  saints  for  country  cus- 
tomers, who  assigned  to  Watteau,  the  future  limner  of 
gallant  feastings,  the  repetition  of  dozens  of  St.  Nich- 
olas. This  brought  him  food  and  shelter,  and  in  his 
few  holidays  Watteau  sketched  and  drew.  From  this 
shop  he  passed  to  the  studio  of  Gillot,  whose  influence 
enabled  him  to  follow  the  time  direction  of  his  own 
special  gifts,  but  he  left  him,  finding  employment  with 
Audran,  the  decorator,  then  at  work  in  the  Luxem- 
bourg. In  1709  he  competed  for  the  great  prize,  and 
standing  only  second,  applied  for  a crown  pension  to 
enable  him  to  go  to  Italy.  As  proofs  of  his  deserts,  he 
carried  to  the  Academy  his  first  two  pictures.  His 
cause  was  espoused  by  De  la  Fosse,  and  he  was  instantly 
made  an  associate  of  that  body,  becoming  a full  mem- 
ber in  1717.  His  diploma  picture,  Embarkation  for 
the  Isle  of  Venus , is  now  in  the  Louvre.  Suffering  al- 
ways from  lung  disease,  and  of  a highly  nervous  tem- 
perament, Watteau  was,  however,  unfitted  to  live  and 
work  with  others,  and,  in  spite  of  his  professional  suc- 
cess and  his  assured  reputation,  he  held  himself  apart, 
ill  at  ease  with  himself  and  seldom  happy  in  his  work, 
which  suffered  in  sympathy  with  his  changing  moods. 
A visit  to  London  further  disturbed  his  health,  and  in 
1721  he  returned  to  Paris,  establishing  himself  for  a 
while  in  the  house  of  his  friend  Gersaint,  the  picture 
dealer,  for  whom  he  painted  a sign-board  which  had  an 
extraordinary  success.  Hoping  to  find  rest  and  some 
alleviation  to  his  increasing  sufferings  from  country  air, 
he  accepted  a lodging  at  Nogent,  where  shortly  after  his 
arrival,  on  July  18,  1721.  he  died. 

WATTS,  Isaac,  theologian  and  hymn  writer,  was 
born  at  Southampton  July  17,  1674.  He  was  the  eld- 
est of  nine  children,  and  was  named  after  his  father, 
who  kept  a boarding  establishment  at  Southampton. 
The  father  also  wrote  poetry,  and  a number  of  his 
pieces  were  included  by  mistake  in  vol.  i.  of  the  son’s 
Posthumous  Works.  Young  Watts  is  stated  to  have 
entered  on  the  study  of  the  classics  when  only  in  his 
fifth  year,  and  at  the  age  of  seven  or  eight  to  have  com- 
posed some  devotional  pieces  to  please  his  mother. 
His  nonconformity  precluded  him  from  entering  either 
of  the  universities,  but  in  his  sixteenth  year  he  went  to 
study  at  an  academy  in  London  kept  by  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Rowe,  minister  of  the  Independent  meeting  at 
Haberdashers’  Hall.  In  his  Improvement  of  the  Mind 
(1741)  Watts  has  expounded  his  method  of  study,  but 
the  precepts  there  laid  down  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  jus- 
tified by  his  early  example,  for  it  is  overwork  at  this  period 
of  his  life  that  is  believed  to  have  caused  the  weak  and 
uncertain  health  of  his  subsequent  years.  Probably  it 


b293 

was  as  much  from  this  cause  as  from  diffidence,  that  he 
deferred  preaching  his  first  sermon  till  the  day  he  en- 
tered on  his  twenty-fourth  year.  Meantime  he  resided 
as  tutor  in  the  family  of  Sir  John  Hartopp  at  Stoke 
Newington,  where  he  probably  prepared  the  materials 
of  his  two  educational  works — Logick , or  the  Right 
Use  of  Reason  in  the  Enquiry  after  Truth  (1725),  and 
The  Knowledge  of  the  Heavens  and  the  Earth  Made 
Easy , or  the  Eirst  Principles  of  Geography  and  As * 
tronomy  Explained  (1726).  In  his  twenty-fourth  year 
Watts  was  chosen  assistant  to  Doctor  Chauncy,  pastor 
of  the  Independent  congregation,  Mark  Lane,  London, 
and  two  years  later  he  succeeded  as  sole  pastor.  The 
state  of  his  health  led  to  the  appointment  of  an  assistant 
in  1703.  In  1712  Watts  took  up  his  residence  with  Sir 
Thomas  Abney  of  Abney  Park,  where  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life,  the  arrrangement  being  continued 
by  Lady  Abney  after  her  husband’s  death.  Watts 
preached  only  occasionally,  devoting  his  leisure  chiefly 
to  the  writing  of  hymns,  the  preparation  of  his  sermons 
for  publication,  and  the  composition  of  theological 
works.  Being  little  over  five  feet  in  height,  and  far 
from  robust  in  health,  he  did  not  specially  excel  as  an 
orator,  although  the  felicity  of  his  illustrations,  his 
transparent  sincerity,  and  his  benevolent  wisdom  gave 
to  his  preaching  an  exceptional  charm.  His  religious 
opinions  were  more  liberal  in  tone  than  was  at  any  time 
common  in  the  community  to  which  he  belonged;  hi? 
views  regarding  Sunday  recreation  and  labor  were 
scarcely  of  Puritanical  strictness;  his  Calvinism  was 
modified  by  his  rejection  of  the  doctrine  of  reprobation, 
and  he  was  in  the  habit  of  representing  the  heaven  of 
the  Christian  as  affording  wide  scope  for  the  exercise  of 
the  special  habits  and  tastes  formed  by  the  employ- 
ments of  earth.  For  an  estimate  of  Watts  as  a hymn 
writer,  see  Hymns.  He  died  November  23,  1748,  and 
was  buried  at  Bunhill  Fields. 

WAUKEGAN,  the  county  seat  of  Lake  county,  111., 
occupies  a prominent  bluff  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan,  thirty-six  miles  north  of  Chicago  and  fifty  miles 
from  Milwaukee,  on  the  main  line  of  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern  railroad.  From  its  elevated  site  Waukegan 
can  be  seen  for  miles,  and  its  proximity  to  both  Chicago 
and  Milwaukee  have  made  the  beautiful  city  a favorite 
place  of  resort  or  summer  residence  for  citizens  of  both 
municipalities.  The  principal  part  of  the  city,  includ- 
ing the  residence  portion,  is  built  fronting  the  lake  and 
presents  a handsome  appearance,  while  the  space 
between  the  foot  of  the  bluff  and  the  lake  shore  is 
devoted  to  garden  and  other  purposes,  adding  materi- 
ally  to  the  attraction  of  the  scene.  Of  late  years  the 
city  has  received  considerable  accessions  of  capital  for 
investment  in  industrial  enterprises.  Waukegan  also 
contains  nine  churches,  a high  school,  and  other  educa- 
tional institutions,  both  public  and  private,  a national 
bank,  two  weekly  papers,  several  hotels,  an  opera  house, 
a large  number  of  stores  and  other  depots  of  supply. 
Gas  and  electric  lights,  with  other  appointments  of  a 
useful  character,  have  been  adopted,  and  the  city  is 
steadily  growing  in  population  (9,426  in  1900)  and  im- 
portance. 

WAUKESHA,  the  county  seat  of  Waukesha  county, 
Wis.,  is  situated  on  the  Fox  river,  twenty  miles  west  of 
Milwaukee.  It  is  a handsome  city  with  many  fine  resi- 
dences and  has  some  celebrity  as  a watering  place,  min- 
eral springs  being  abundant.  Population  (1900),  7,419. 

WAUSAU,  county  seat  of  Marathon,  one  of  thr 
central  counties  of  Wisconsin,  is  situated  upon  theWis« 
consin  river  near  its  junction  with  Rib  river,  also  upon 
the  Wisconsin  Valley  division  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
and  St.  Paul,  and  upon  a branch  of  the  Milwaukee,  Lake 
Shore  and  Western  railroads  The  city  is  the  center  ©J 


WAV 


6294 

a large  area  of  territory  grown  to  pine  timber  and  is  [ 
widely  known  as  one  of  the  most  enterprising  points  in  J 
the  State  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  rough  and  I 
dressed  lumber,  sash,  doors,  blinds,  flooring,  and  other  | 
lumber  products.  From  a dozen  to  fifteen  planing 
mills  are  in  constant  operation,  in  addition  to  box  and 
sash  factories,  also  saw-mills,  saw-mill  machinery  works, 
foundries  and  machine  shops,  furniture  and  cigar  fac- 
tories, etc.,  a proportion  of  the  motive  power  being  ob- 
tained from  Wisconsin  river.  These  industries  repre- 
sent large  outlays  and  producing  outputs  representing 
large  values.  The  city  contains  five  weekly  papers,  two 
banks,  seven  churches,  a high  school  and  graded  schools, 
an  opera  house,  several  hotels,  warehouses  and  stores, 
etc.  Some  mining  and  granite  quarrying  are  carried 
on  in  the  vicinity  with  prosperous  results.  Population 
(1900),  12,354. 

WAVE.  By  this  term  is  commonly  understood  a 
state  of  disturbance  which  is  propagated  from  one  part 
of  a medium  to  another.  Thus  it  is  energy  which 
passes,  and  not  matter — though  in  some  cases  the 
wave  permanently  displaces,  usually  to  a small  amount 
only,  the  medium  through  which  it  has  passed.  Cur- 
rents, on  the  other  hand,  imply  the  passage  of  matter 
associated  with  energy. 

The  subject  is  one  which,  except  in  a few  very  simple 
or  very  special  cases,  has  as  yet  been  treated  only  by 
approximation  even  when  the  most  formidable  pro- 
cesses of  modern  mathematics  have  been  employed — so 
that  this  sketch,  in  which  it  is  desired  that  as  little  as 
possible  of  higher  mathematics  should  be  employed, 
must  be  confined  mainly  to  the  statement  of  results. 
And  the  effects  of  viscosity,  though  very  important, 
cannot  be  treated. 

There  are  few  branches  of  physics  which  do  not  pre- 
sent us  with  some  forms  of  wave,  so  that  the  subject  is 
a very  extensive  one : — tides,  rollers,  ripples,  bores, 
breakers,  sounds,  radiations  (whether  luminous  or 
obscure),  telegraphic  and  telephonic  signaling,  earth- 
quakes, the  propagation  of  changes  of  surface-tempera- 
ture into  the  earth’s  crust — all  are  forms  of  wave- 
motion.  Several  of  these  phenomena  have  been  treated 
in  other  parts  of  this  work,  and  will  now  be  but  briefly 
referred  to ; others  require  more  detailed  notice. 

When  a medium  is  in  stable  equilibrium,  it  has  no 
kinetic  energy,  and  its  potential  energy  is  a minimum. 
Any  local  disturbance,  therefore,  in  general  involves  a 
communication  of  energy  to  part  of  the  medium,  and  it 
is  usually  by  some  form  of  wave-motion  that  this  energy 
spreads  to  other  parts  of  the  medium.  The  mere  with- 
drawal of  a quantity  of  matter  (as  by  lifting  a floating 
body  out  of  still  water),  local  condensation  of  vapor  in 
the  air,  the  crushing  of  a hollow  shell  by  external  press- 
ure, the  change  of  volume  resulting  from  an  explosion, 
or  from  the  sudden  vaporization  of  a liquid — are  known 
to  all  as  common  sources  of  violent  wave-disturbance. 

Waves  may  be  free  or  forced.  In  the  former  class 
the  disturbance  is  produced  once  for  all,  and  is  then 
propagated  according  to  the  nature  of  the  medium  and 
the  form  of  the  disturbance.  Or  the  disturbance  may 
be  continued,  provided  the  waves  travel  faster  than  does 
the  center  of  disturbance.  In  forced  waves,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  disturbing  force  continues  to  act  so  as 
to  modify  the  propagation  of  the  waves  already  pro- 
duced. Thus,  while  a gale  is  blowing,  the  character  of 
the  water-waves  is  continually  being  modified ; when  it 
subsides,  we  have  regular  oscillatory  waves,  or  rollers, 
for  the  longer  ones  not  only  outstrip  the  shorter  but 
ire  less  speedily  worn  down  by  fluid  friction.  The  huge 
mass  of  water  which  some  steamers  raise,  especially 
when  running  at  a high  speed,  is  an  excellent  example 
if  a forced  wave  The  ocean-tide  is  mainly  a forced 


wave,  depending  on  the  continued  action  of  the  moor* 
and  sun  ; but  the  tide-wave  in  an  estuary  or  a tidal  river 
is  practically  free — being  almost  independent  of  moon 
and  sun,  and  depending  mainly  upon  the  configuration 
of  the  channel,  the  rate  of  the  current,  an  l the  tidal 
disturbance  at  the  mouth. 

In  the  article  Mechanics,  it  has  been  proved  by  the 
most  elementary  considerations  that  an  inextensible  but 
flexible  rope,  under  uniform  tension,  when  moving  at  a 
certain  definite  rate  through  a smooth  tube  of  any  form, 
exerts  no  pressure  on  the  interior  of  the  tube.  In  fact, 
the  rope  must  press  with  a force  T /r  (where  T is  the 
tension  and  r the  radius  of  curvature),  on  the  unit  of 
length  in  consequence  of  its  tension,  and  with  a force 
- fiv 2 \r  (where  v is  the  speed,  and  /x  the  mass  of  unit 
length)  in  consequence  of  its  inertia.  That  there  may 
be  no  pressure  on  the  tube,  i.e.,  that  it  may  be  dispensed 
with,  we  must  therefore  have  T — juv2=o,  or  v=  v^T ///. 
From  this  it  follows  that  a disturbance  of  any  form  (of 
course  with  continuous  curvature)  runs  along  a stretched 
rope  at  this  definite  rate,  and  is  unchanged  during  its 
progress.  In  the  proof,  the  influence  of  gravity  was 
left  out  of  consideration,  and  this  result  may  therefore 
be  applied  to  the  motion  of  a transverse  disturbance 
along  a stretched  wire,  such  as  that  of  a pianoforte, 
where  the  tension  is  very  great  in  comparison  with  the 
weight  of  the  wire.  But  the  italicized  word  any,  above, 
gives  an  excellent  example  of  one  of  the  most  difficult 
parts  of  the  whole  subject,  viz.,  the  possibility  of  a 
solitary  wave.  This  is  a question  upon  which  we  can- 
not here  enter. 

If  we  restrict  ourselves  to  slight  disturbances  only, 
theory  points  out  and  trial  verifies  that  they  are  super- 
posable.  In  fact  in  the  great  majority  of  investigations 
which  have  been  made  with  regard  to  waves,  the  dis- 
turbances have  been  assumed  to  be  slight,  so  that  we 
can  avail  ourselves  of  the  principle  of  superposition  of 
small  motions  (see  Mechanics),  which  is  merely  an 
application  of  the  mathematical  principle  of  “ neglecting 
the  second  order  of  small  quantities.  ” The  verification 
by  trial  is  given  at  once  by  watching  how  the  ring- 
ripples  produced  by  two  stones  thrown  into  a pool  pass 
through  one  another  without  any  alteration;  that  by 
obsemation  is  evident  to  any  one  who  sees  an  object  in 
sunlight,  when  the  whole  intervening  space  is  full  of  in- 
tense wave-motion. 

Remembering  that  the  displacements  are  supposed  to 
be  very  small,  our  fundamental  result  may  now  be  ex- 
pressed by  saying  that  the  force  acting  on  unit  length 
of  the  disturbed  wire,  to  restore  it  to  its  undisturbed 
position,  is  T /r  or  ftv2  / r.  Thus  the  ratio  of  the  accel- 
eration of  each  element  to  its  cui'vature  is  the  square  of 
the  rate  of  propagation  of  the  wave.  It  will  be  shown 
below  that  this  is  the  immediate  interpretation  of  the 
differential  equation  of  the  wave-motion. 

If  we  now  consider  a free  rod,  set  into  longitudinal 
vibration  by  friction,  we  are  led  to  a particular  case  of 
reflection  of  a wave  from  a free  end.  The  condition  is 
obviously  that,  at  such  a point,  there  can  be  neither 
compression  nor  elongation. 

Suppose  the  wire  above  spoken  of  to  be  massless,  or 
at  least  so  thin,  and  of  such  materials,  that  the  whole 
mass  of  it  may  be  neglected  in  comparison  with  the 
masses  of  a system  of  equal  pellets,  which  we  now  sup- 
pose to  be  attached  to  the  wire  at  equal  distances  from 
one  another.  The  weights  of  these  pellets  may  be  sup- 
ported by  a set  of  very  long  vertical  strings,  one  attached 
to  each,  so  that  the  arrangement  is  unaffected  by  gravity. 
The  wire  may  be  supposed  to  be  stretched,  as  before, 
with  a definite  tension  which  is  not  affected  by  small 
transverse  disturbanqes.  We  will  take  the  case  of  trans- 
verse disturbances  only,  but  i*  is  ««*sy  to  see  that  result? 


WAV 


of  precisely  the  same  form  will  be  obtained  for  longi- 
tudinal disturbances.  A moment’s  thought  will  con- 
vince the  reader  that  there  must  be  a limit  to  the.  fre- 
quency of  the  oscillations  which  can  be  transmitted 
along  a system  like  this,  though  there  was  none  such 
with  the  continuous  wire.  It  is  not  difficult  to  find  this 
limit. 

Instead  of  pellets  on  a tended  wire,  we  might  have  a 
series  of  equal  bar  magnets,  supported  horizontally  at 
proper  distances  from  one  another  in  a line.  The  mag- 
netic forces  here  take  the  place  of  the  tension;  and  by  ar- 
ranging the  magnets  with  their  like  poles  together, 
i.e.,  by  inverting  the  alternate  ones,  we  can  produce 
the  equivalent  of  pressure  instead  of  tension  along.the 
series.  If  the  magnets  have  each  bifilar  suspension, 
their  masses  will  come  in,  as  well  as  their  moments  of 
inertia,  in  the  treatment  of  tranverse  disturbances. 

This  question  is  closely  connected  with  Stokes’ 
explanation  of  fluorescence,  for  the  effect  of  a disturb- 
ing force,  of  a shorter  period  than  the  limit  given 
above,  applied  continuously  to  one  of  the  pellets,  would 
be  to  accummulate  energy  mainly  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood;  and  this,  if  we  suppose  the  disturbing 
force  to  cease,  would  be  transmitted  along  the  system 
in  waves  of  periods  equal  at  least  to  the  limit.  These 
would  correspond  to  light  of  lower  refrangibility  than 
the  incident,  but  having  as  characteristic  a definite  upper 
limit  of  refrangibility. 

Such  investigations,  with  their  results,  prepare  us  to 
expect  that  the  usual  mode  of  investigating  the  propa- 
gation of  sound  cannot  be  correct  in  the  case  of  ex- 
ceedingly high  notes  if  the  medium  consist  of  discrete 
particles.  The  questions  of  the  gradual  change  of  type 
or  the  dying  away  even  of  plane  waves  of  sound, 
whether  by  reason  of  their  form,  by  fluid  friction,  or 
by  loss  of  energy  due  to  radiation,  are  much  too  com- 
plex to  be  treated  here. 

In  all  ordinary  simple  sounds  even  of  very  high  pitch 
the  displacements  are  extremely  small  compared  with 
the  wave  length,  so  thal  the  approximate  solution  gives 
the  speed  with  considerable  accuracy.  A very  refined 
experimental  test  that  this  speed  is  independent  of  the 
pitch  consists  in  listening  to  a rapid  movement  played 
by  a good  band  at  a great  distance.  But  there  seems  to 
be  little  doubt  that,  under  certain  conditions  at  least, 
very  loud  sounds  travel  a great  deal  faster  than  ordinary 
sounds.  The  above  investigation  gives  the  speed  of  sound 
relatively  to  the  air.  Relatively  to  the  earth’s  surface,  it 
has  to  be  compounded  with  the  motion  of  the  air  itself. 
But,  as  the  speed  of  wind  usually  increases  from  the 
surface  upward,  at  least  for  a considerable  height,  the 
front  of  a sound-wave,  moving  with  the  wind,  leans  for- 
ward, and  the  sound  (being  propagated  perpendicularly 
to  the  front)  moves  downward;  if  against  the  wind, 
upward. 

In  the  case  of  a disturbance  in  air  due  to  a very  sud- 
den explosion,  as  of  dynamite  or  as  by  the  passage  of 
a flash  of  lightning,  it  is  probable  that  for  some  distance 
from  the  source  the  motion  is  of  a projectile  character; 
and  that  part  at  least  of  the  flash  is  due  to  the  heat  de- 
veloped by  practically  instantaneous  and  very  great  com- 
pression of  each  layer  of  air  to  which  this  violent  motion 
extends.  Leaving  out  of  consideration,  as  already  suffi- 
ciently treated  in  a special  article,  the  whole  subject  of 
Tides,  whether  in  oceans  or  in  tidal  rivers,  there  remain 
many  different  forms  of  water  waves  all  alike  interesting 
and  important.  The  most  usual  division  of  the  free  waves 
is  into  long  waves,  oscillatory  waves  and  ripples.  The 
first  two  classes  run  by  gravity,  the  third  mainly  by 
surface-tension  (see  Capillary  Action).  But,  while 
the  long  waves  agitate  the  water  to  nearly  the  same 
AinoiQfii  :*fc  >aU  depths,,  rixfc  "Lief  disturbance  due  to  oscil- 


6295 

latory  waves  or  to  ripples  is  confined  to  the  upper  layers 
of  the  water,  from  which  it  dies  away  with  great  rapidity 
in  successive  layers  below.  We  will  treat  of  these  three 
forms  in  the  order  named. 

Long  Waves. — The  first  careful  study  of  these  waves 
was  made  by  Scott  Russell  ( q.v .)  in  the  course  of  an 
inquiry  into  traffic  on  canals.  He  arrived  at  the  remark- 
able result  that  there  is  a definite  speed,  depending  on 
the  depth  of  the  water,  at  which  a horse  can  draw  a 
canal-boat  more  easily  than  at  any  other  speed,  whether 
less  or  greater.  And  he  pointed  out  that,  when  the 
boat  moves  at  this  speed,  it  agitates  the  water  less,  and 
therefore  damages  the  banks  less,  than  at  any  lower. 
This  particular  speed  is  thus,  in  fact,  that  of  free  pro- 
pagation of  the  wave  raised  by  the  boat ; and,  when 
the  boat  rides,  as  it  were,  on  this  wave,  its  speed  is 
maintained  with  but  little  exertion  on  the  part  of  the 
horse.  If  the  boat  be  made  to  move  slower,  it  leaves 
behind  it  an  ever  lengthening  procession  of  waves,  of 
course  at  the  expense  of  additional  labor  on  the  part  of 
the  horse. 

The  theory  of  the  motion  of  such  a wave  is  based  on 
the  hypothesis  that  all  particles  in  a transverse  section 
of  the  canal  have,  at  the  same  instant,  the  same  horizon- 
tal speed.  However  great  this  horizontal  motion  may 
be,  the  vertical  motion  of  the  water  may  be  very  small, 
for  it  depends  on  the  change  of  horizontal  speed  from 
section  to  section  only.  A hint,  though  a.  very  imper- 
fect one,  as  to  the  formation  of  breakers  on  a gently 
sloping  beach,  is  given  by  considering  that  in  shallow 
water  the  front  and  rear  of  an  ordinary  surface-wave 
must  move  at  different  rates,  the  front  being  in  shal- 
lower water  than  the  rear,  and  therefore  allowing  the 
rear  to  gain  upon  it. 

Oscillatory  Waves. — The  typical  example  of  these 
waves  is  found  in  w’hat  is  called  a “ swell,”  or  the  regu- 
lar rolling  waves  which  continue  to  run  in  deep  w ater 
after  a storm.  Their  character  is  essentially  periodiCj 
and  this  feature  at  once  enables  us  to  select  from 
the  general  integrals  of  the  equations  of  non-rotatory 
fluid-motion  the  special  forms  which  we  require.  The 
investigation  may,  without  sensible  ioss  of  completeness 
for  application,  be  still  further  simplified  by  the  assump- 
tion that  the  disturbance  is  two-dimensional,  i.e.,  that 
the  motion  is  precisely  the  same  in  any  two  vertical 
planes  drawn  parallel  to  the  direction  in  which  the 
waves  are  traveling.  The  investigation  is,  unfortunately, 
very  much  more  simple  in  an,  analytical  than  in  a geo- 
metrical form. 

Atlantic  rollers,  of  a wave-length  of  (say)  300  feet, 
travel  at  the  rate  of  about  40  feet  per  second,  or  27 
miles  an  hour.  But,  even  if  they  be  of  40  feet  height 
from  trough  to  crest  (which  is  probably  an  exagger- 
ated estimate),  the  utmost  disturbance  of  a water  par- 
ticle at  a depth  of  300  feet  is  not  quite  half  an  inch 
from  its  mean  position.  This  shows,  in  a very  strik- 
ing manner,  what  a mere  surface-effect  is  in  this  way 
due  to  winds,  and  how  the  depths  of  the  ocean  are 
practically  undisturbed  by  such  causes. 

This  investigation  has  been  carried  to  a second,  and 
even  to  a third,  approximation  by  Stokes,  with  the  re- 
sult that  the  form  of  a section  of  the  surface  is  no 
longer  the  curve  of  sines,  in  which  the  crests  anr 
troughs  are  equal.  The  crests  are  steeper  and  higher, 
and  the  troughs  wider  and  shallower,  than  the  first  ap 
proximation  shows.  Also  the  forward  horizontal  mo- 
tion of  each  particle  under  the  crest  is  no  longer  quite 
compensated  for  by  its  backward  motion  under  the 
trough,  so  that  what  sailors  call  the  “heave  of  the  sea" 
is  explained.  The  water  is  permanently  displaced  for- 
ward by  each  succeeding  wave.  But  this  effect,  like  the 
whole  disturbance,  is  greatest  in  the  surface  layer 


WAV 


6296 

diminishes  rapidly  for  each  lower  layer.  The  third 
approximation  shows  that  the  speed  of  the  waves  is 
greater  than  that  above  assigned,  by  a term  depending 
on  the  square  of  the  ratio  of  the  height  to  the  length  of 
a wave. 

Ripples. — This  slowest-moving  oscillatory  wave  may 
be  regarded  as  the  limit  between  waves  proper  and  rip- 
ples. That  ripples  run  faster  the  shorter  they  are  is 
easily  seen  by  watching  the  apparently  rigid  pattern  of 
them  which  precedes  a body  moving  uniformly  through 
still  water.  The  more  rapid  the  motion  the  closer  do 
the  ripple-ridges  approach  one  another.  Excellent  ex- 
amples of  ripples  are  produced  by  applying  the  stem  of 
a vibrating  tuning-fork  to  one  side  of  a large  rectangular 
box  full  of  liquid.  From  the  pitch  of  the  note,  and  the 
wave-length  of  the  ripples,  we  can  make  an  appproxi- 
mate  determination  of  surface-tension,  a quantity  some- 
what difficult  to  measure  by  statical  processes.  The 
conditions  of  production  of  ripples  by  wind,  or  generally 
in  a surface  of  separation  of  two  fluids,  each  of  which 
has  any  motion  parallel  to  this  surface,  are  given  in 
Hydromechanics. 

While  the  disturbances  considered  are  so  small  as  to 
be  superposable,  i.e.,  independent  of  one  another,  the 
effect  of  superposition  is  merely  a kinematical  question, 
and,  as  such,  has  been  very  fully  treated  under  Me- 
chanics. See  also  Acoustics,  Light,  and  Wave 
Theory.  Thus  ripple-patterns,  ordinary  beats  of 
musical  sounds,  composition  of  lunar  and  solar  ocean 
tides,  diffraction,  phenomena  of  polarized  light  in  crys- 
tals or  in  transparent  bodies  in  the  magnetic  field,  etc. , 
are  all,  in  principle  at  least,  simple  kinematical  conse- 
quences of  superposition. 

WAVERTREE,  a township  of  Lancashire,  partly 
in  duded  within  the  parliamentary  limits  of  Liverpool, 
England.  The  town  possesses  roperies  and  a brewery. 
An  extensive  pumping  station  connected  with  the  Liver- 
pool water-works  is  in  the  vicinity.  The  population  of 
the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  1,838  acres)  in  1901 
was  14,097. 

WAVE  THEORY  OF  LIGHT,  A general  state- 
ment  of  the  principles  of  the  undulatory  theory,  with 
elementary  explanations,  has  already  been  given  under 
Light,  and  in  the  article  on  Ether  the  arguments 
which  point  to  the  existence  of  an  all-pervading  medium, 
susceptible  in  its  various  parts  of  an  alternating  change 
of  state,  have  been  traced  by  a master  hand;  but  the 
subject  is  of  such  great  importance,  and  is  so  intimately 
involved  in  recent  optical  investigation  and  discovery, 
that  a more  detailed  exposition  of  the  theory,  with  ap- 
plication to  the  leading  phenomena,  was  reserved  for  a 
special  article.  That  the  subject  is  one  of  difficulty 
may  be  at  once  admitted.  Even  in  the  theory  of  sound, 
as  conveyed  by  aerial  vibrations,  where  we  are  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  nature  and  properties  of  the  vehicle, 
the  fundamental  conceptions  are  not  very  easy  to  grasp, 
and  their  development  makes  heavy  demands  upon  our 
mathematical  resources.  That  the  situation  is  not  im- 
proved when  the  medium  is  hypothetical  will  be  easily 
understood.  For,  although  the  evidence  is  overwhelm- 
ing in  favor  of  the  conclusion  that  light  is  propagated 
as  a vibration,  we  are  almost  entirely  in  the  dark  as  to 
what  it  is  that  vibrates  and  the  manner  of  vibration. 
This  ignorance  entails  an  appearance  of  vagueness,  even 
in  those  parts  of  the  subject  the  treatment  of  which 
would  not  really  be  modified  by  the  acquisition  of  a 
more  precise  knowledge,  e.g.,  the  theory  of  the  colors 
of  thin  plates,  and  of  the  resolving  power  of  optical 
instruments.  But  in  other  parts  of  the  subject,  such 
as  the  explanation  of  the  laws  of  double  refraction  and 
of  the  intensity  of  light  reflected  at  the  surface  of  a 
transparent  medium,  the  vagueness  is  not  merelv  one  of 


language;  and  If  we  wish  to  reach  definite  resists  by 
the  a priori  road  we  must  admit  a hypothetical  element, 
for  which  little  justification  can  be  given.  The  dis- 
tinction here  indicated  should  be  borne  clearly  in  mind. 
Many  optical  phenomena  must  necessarily  agree  with 
any  kind  of  wave  theory  that  can  be  proposed;  others 
may  agree  or  disagree  with  a particular  form  of  it.  In 
the  latter  case  we  may  regard  the  special  form  as  dis- 
proved, but  the  undulatory  theory  in  the  proper  wider 
sense  remains  untouched. 

Of  such  special  forms  of  the  wave  theory  the  most 
famous  is  that  which  assimilates  light  to  the  transverse 
vibrations  of  an  elastic  solid.  Transverse  they  must  be 
in  order  to  give  room  for  the  phenomena  of  polariza- 
tion. This  theory  is  a great  help  to  the  imagination, 
and  allows  of  the  deduction  of  definite  results  which 
are  at  any  rate  mechanically  possible.  An  isotropic 
solid  has  in  general  two  elastic  properties — one  relating 
to  the  recovery  from  an  alteration  of  volume,  and  the 
other  to  the  recovery  fromastateof  shear,  in  which  the 
strata  are  caused  to  slide  over  one  another.  It  has 
been  shown  by  Green  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  sup- 
pose the  luminiferous  medium  to  be  incompressible,  and 
thus  the  only  admissible  differences  between  one  iso- 
tropic medium  and  another  are  those  of  rigidity  and  of 
density.  Between  these  we  are  in  the  first  instance 
free  to  choose.  The  slower  propagation  of  light  in 
glass  than  in  air  may  be  equally  well  explained  by  sup- 
posing the  rigidity  the  same  in  both  cases  while  the 
density  is  greater  in  glass,  or  by  supposing  that  the 
density  is  the  same  in  both  cases  while  the  rigidity 
is  greater  in  air.  Indeed  there  is  nothing,  so  far,  to  ex- 
clude a more  complicated  condition  of  things,  in  which 
both  the  density  and  rigidity  vary  in  passing  from  one 
medium  to  another,  subject  to  the  one  condition  only  of 
making  the  ratio  of  velocities  of  propagation  equal  to 
the  known  refractive  index  between  the  media. 

When  we  come  to  apply  this 'theory  to  investigate 
the  intensity  of  light  reflected  from  (say)  a glass  surface, 
and  to  the  diffraction  of  light  by  very  small  particles 
(as  in  the  sky),  we  find  that  a reasonable  agreement 
with  the  facts  can  be  brought  about  only  upon  the  sup- 
position that  the  rigidity  is  the  same  (approximately,  at 
any  rate)  in  various  media,  and  that  the  density  alone 
varies.  At  the  same  time  we  have  to  suppose  that  the 
vibration  is  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  polarization. 

Up  to  this  point  the  accordance  may  be  regarded  as 
fairly  satisfactory;  but.  when  we  extend  the  investiga 
tion  to  crystalline  media  in  the  hope  of  explaining  the 
observed  laws  of  double  refraction,  we  find  that  the 
suppositions  which  would  suit  best  here  are  inconsistent 
with  the  conclusions  we  have  already  arrived  at.  In  the 
first  place,  and  so  long  as  we  hold  strictly  to  the  analogy 
of  an  elastic  solid,  we  can  only  explain  double  refrac. 
tion  as  depending  upon  anisotropic  rigidity,  and  thiii 
can  hardly  be  reconciled  with  the  view  that  the  rigidity 
is  the  same  in  different  isotropic  media.  And  if  we 
pass  over  this  difficulty,  and  inquire  what  kind  ol 
double  refraction  a crystalline  solid  would  admit  of,  we 
find  no  such  correspondence  with  observation  as  would 
lead  us  to  think  that  we  are  upon  the  right  track.  Tho 
theory  of  anisotropic  solids,  with  its  twenty-one  elastic 
constants,  seems  to  be  too  wide  for  optical  double 
refraction,  which  is  of  a much  simpler  character. 

For  these  and  other  reasons,  especially  the  awkward- 
ness with  which  it  lends  itself  to  the  explanation  of  div^ 
persion,  the  elastic  solid  theory,  valuable  as  a piece  of 
purely  dynamical  reasoning,  and  probably  not  without 
mathematical  analogy  to  the  truth,  can  in  optics  be  re- 
garded only  as  an  illustration. 

In  recent  years  a theory  has  been  received  with  much 
favor  in  which  light  is  regarded  as  an  electromagnets 


WAV 


phenomenon.  The  dielectric  medium  is  conceived  to  be 
subject  to  a rapidly  periodic  “ electric  displacement,” 
the  variations  of  which  have  the  magnetic  properties 
of  an  electric  current.  On  the  basis  of  purely  elec- 
trical observations  Maxwell  calculated  the  velocity  of 
propagation  of  such  disturbances,  and  obtained  a value 
not  certainly  distinguishable  from  the  velocity  of  light. 
Such  an  agreement  is  very  striking;  and  a further 
deduction  from  the  theory,  that  the  "Specific  inductive 
capacity  of  a transparent  medium  is  equal  to  the  square 
of  the  refractive  index,  is  supported  to  some  extent  by 
observation.  The  foundations  of  the  electrical  theory 
are  not  as  yet  quite  cleared  of  more  or  less  arbitrary 
hypothesis;  but,  when  it  becomes  certain  that  a dielec- 
tric medium  is  susceptible  of  vibrations  propagated  with 
the  velocity  of  light,  there  will  be  no  hesitation  in 
accepting  the  identity  of  such  vibrations  with  those  to 
which  optical  phenomena  are  due.  In  the  meantime, 
and  apart  altogether  from  the  question  of  its  probable 
truth,  the  electromagnetic  theory  is  very  instructive,  in 
showing  us  how  careful  we  must  be  to  avoid  limiting 
our  ideas  too  much  as  to  the  nature  of  the  luminous 
vibrations. 

The  intensity  of  light  of  given  wave-length  must 
depend  upon  the  amplitude,  but  the  precise  nature 
of  the  relation  is  not  at  once  apparent.  We  are  not 
able  to  appreciate  by  simple  inspection  the  relative  in- 
tensities of  two  unequal  lights;  and,  when  we  say,  for 
example,  that  one  candle  is  twice  as  bright  as  another, 
we  mean  that  two  of  the  latter  burning  independently 
would  give  us  the  same  light  as  one  of  the  former. 
This  may  be  regarded  as  the  definition;  and  then 
experiment  may  be  appealed  to  to  prove  that  the 
intensity  of  light  from  a given  source  varies  inversely 
as  the  square  of  the  distance.  But  our  conviction  of 
the  truth  of  the  law  is  perhaps  founded  quite  as  much 
upon  the  idea  that  something  not  liable  to  loss  is  radi- 
ated outward  and  is  distributed  in  succession  over  the 
surfaces  of  spheres  concentric  with  the  source,  whose 
areas  are  as  the  squares  of  the  radii.  The  something 
can  only  be  energy;  and  thus  we  are  led  to  regard  the 
rate  at  which  energy  is  propagated  across  a given  area 
parallel  to  the  waves  as  the  measure  of  intensity;  and 
this  is  proportional,  not  to  the  first  power,  but  to  the 
square  of  the  amplitude. 

Practical  photometry  is  usually  founded  upon  the 
law  of  inverse  squares  (see  Light);  and  it  should  be 
remembered  that  the  method  involves  essentially  the 
use  of  a diffusing  screen,  the  illumination  of  which, 
seen  in  a certain  direction,  is  assumed  to  be  inde- 
pendent of  the  precise  direction  in  which  the  light  falls 
upon  it;  for  the  distance  of  a candle,  for  example, 
cannot  be  altered  without  introducing  at  the  same  time 
a change  in  the  apparent  magnitude,  and  therefore  in 
the  incidence  of  some  part  at  any  rate  of  the  light. 

With  this  objection  is  connected  another,  which  is 
often  of  greater  importance,  the  necessary  enfeeblement 
of  the  light  by  the  process  of  diffusion.  And,  if  to  main- 
tain the  brilliancy  we  substitute  regular  reflectors  for 
diffusing  screens,  the  method  breaks  down  altogether 
by  the  apparent  illumination  becoming  independent  of 
the  distance  of  the  source  of  light. 

The  use  of  a revolving  disk  with  transparent  and 
opaque  sectors  in  order  to  control  the  brightness,  as 
proposed  by  Fox- Talbot,  may  often  be  recommended  in 
scientific  photometry,  when  a great  loss  of  light  is  inad- 
missible. The  law  that,  when  the  frequency  of  in- 
termittence  is  sufficient  to  give  a steady  appearance, 
the  brightness  is  proportional  to  the  angular  magnitude 
of  the  open  sectors  appears  to  be  well  established. 

It  has  been  shown  under  Optics  that  a system  of 
rays,  however  many  reflections  or  refractions  they  may 


6297 

have  undergone,  are  always  normal  to  a certain  surface, 
or  rather  system  of  surfaces. 

The  magnifying  power  is  not  necessarily  the  same  in 
all  directions.  Consider  the  case  of  a prism  arranged  as 
for  spectrum  work.  Passage  through  the  prism  does 
not  alter  the  vertical  width  of  the  stream  of  light ; hence 
there  is  no  magnifying  power  in  this  direction.  What 
happens  in  a horizontal  direction  depends  upon  circum- 
stances. A single  prism  in  the  position  of  mini- 
mum deviation  does  not  alter  the  horizontal  width  of 
the  beam.  The  same  is  true  of  a sequence  of  any 
number  of  prisms  each  in  the  position  of  minimum 
deviation,  or  of  the  combination  called  by  Thollon  a 
couple,  when  the  deviation  is  the  least  that  can  be 
obtained  by  rotating  the  couple  as  a rigid  system , 
although  a further  diminution  might  be  arrived  at  by 
violating  this  tie.  In  all  these  cases  there  is  neither 
horizontal  nor  vertical  magnification,  and  the  instru- 
ment behaves  as  a telescope  of  power  unity.  If,  how- 
ever, a prism  be  so  placed  that  the  angle  of  emergence 
differs  from  the  angle  of  incidence,  the  horizontal  width 
of  the  beam  undergoes  a change.  If  the  emergence  be 
nearly  grazing,  there  will  be  a high  magnifying  power 
in  the  horizontal  direction ; and,  whatever  may  be  the 
character  of  the  system  of  prisms,  the  horizontal  magni- 
fying power  is  represented  by  the  ratio  of  widths. 
Brewster  suggested  that,  by  combining  two  prisms  with 
refracting  edges  at  right  angles,  it  would  be  possible  to 
secure  equal  magnifying  power  in  the  two  directions, 
and  thus  to  imitate  the  action  of  an  ordinary  telescope. 

The  theory  of  magnifying  power  is  intimately  con- 
nected with  that  of  apparent  brightness.  By  the  use 
of  a telescope  in  regarding  a bright  body,  such,  for 
example,  as  the  moon,  there  is  a concentration  of  light 
upon  the  pupil  in  proportion  to  the  ratio  of  the  area 
of  the  object-glass  to  that  of  the  pupil.  But  the 
apparent  brightness  remains  unaltered,  the  apparent 
superficial  magnitude  of  the  object  being  changed  in 
precisely  the  same  proportion,  in  accordance  with  the 
law  just  established. 

A plane  wave  of  course  remains  plane  after  reflection 
from  a truly  plane  surface;  but  any  irregularities  in  the 
surface  impress  themselves  upon  the  wave.  In  the 
simplest  case,  that  of  perpendicular  incidence,  the 
irregularities  are  doubled , any  depressed  portion  of  the 
surface  giving  rise  to  a retardation  in  the  wave  front  of 
twice  its  own  amount.  It  is  assumed  that  the  lateral 
dimensions  of  the  depressed  or  elevated  parts  are  large 
multiples  of  the  wave-length ; otherwise  the  .assimila- 
tion of  the  various  parts  to  plane  waves  is  not  legitimate. 

In  like  manner,  if  a plane  wave  passes  perpendicu- 
larly through  a parallel  plate  of  refracting  material, 
a small  elevation  at  any  part  of  one  of  the;  surfaces 
introduces  a retardation  in  the  corresponding  part  of 
the  wave-surface.  An  error  in  a glass  surface  is  thus  or 
only  one-quarter  of  the  importance  of  an  equal  error  in  a 
reflecting  surface.  Further,  if  a plate,  otherwise  true, 
be  distorted  by  bending,  the  errors  introduced  at  the  two 
surfaces  are  approximately  opposite,  and  neutralize  one 
another. 

In  practical  applications  it  is  of  importance  to  recog- 
nize the  effects  of  a small  departure  of  the  wave-surface 
from  its  ideal  plane  or  spherical  form. 

The  number  of  perceptible  bands  increases  pari  passu 
with  the  approach  of  the  light  to  homogeneity.  For 
this  purpose  there  are  two  methods  that  may  be  used. 

We  may  employ  light,  such  as  that  from  the  soda 
flame,  which  possesses  ab  initio  a high  degree  oi 
homogeneity.  If  the  range  of  wave-length  included  be 
a corresponding  nun.'  er  of  interference  fringes 
may  be  made  visible.  The  above  is  the  number  ob- 
tained by  Fizeau,  and  Mien  Ison  has  recently  gone  aa 


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5298 

far  as  200,000.  The  narrowness  of  the  bright  line  of 
light  seen  in  the  spectroscope,  and  the  possibility  of  a 
large  number  of  Fresnel’s  bands,  depend  upon  precisely 
the  same  conditions;  the  one  is  in  truth  as  much  an 
interference  phenomenon  as  the  other. 

In  the  second  method  the  original  light  may  be 
highly  composite,  and  homogeneity  is  brought  about 
with  the  aid  of  a spectroscope.  The  analogy  with  the 
first  method  is  closest  if  we  use  the  Spectroscope  to  give 
us  a line  of  homogeneous  light  in  simple  substitution 
for  the  artificial  flame.  Or,  following  Foucault  and 
Fizeau,  we  may  allow  the  white  light  to  pass,  and  subse- 
quently analyze  the  mixture  transmitted  by  a narrow 
slit  in  the  screen  upon  which  the  interference  bands  are 
thrown.  In  the  latter  case  we  observe  a channeled 
spectrum,  with  maxima  of  brightness  corresponding  to 
the  wave-lengths.  In  either  case  the  number  of  bands 
observable  is  limited  solely  by  the  resolving  power  of 
the  spectroscope,  and  proves  nothing  with  respect  to 
the  regularity,  or  otherwise,  of  the  vibrations  of  the 
original  light. 

The  truth  of  this  remark  is  strikingly  illustrated  by 
the  possible  formation,  with  white  light,  of  a large 
number  of  achromatic  bands. 

If  a system  of  Fresnel’s  bands  be  examined  through  a 
prism,  the  central  white  band  undergoes  an  abnormal 
displacement,  which  has  been  supposed  to  be  incon- 
sistent with  theory.  The  explanation  has  beeif  shown 
by  Airy  to  depend  upon  the  peculiar  manner  in  which 
the  white  band  is  in  general  formed. 

Theory  and  observation  alike  show  that  the  trans- 
mitted colors  of  a thin  plate,  e.g.,  a soap  film  or  a 
layer  of  air,  are  very  inferior  to  those  reflected.  Speci- 
mens of  ancient  glass,  which  have  undergone  superficial 
.decomposition,  on  the  other  hand,  sometimes  show 
transmitted  colors  of  remarkable  brilliancy.  The  prob- 
able explanation,  suggested  by  Brewster,  is  that  we 
have  here  to  deal  not  merely  with  one,  but  with  a 
series  of  thin  plates  of  not  very  different  thicknesses. 
It  is  evident  that  w ith  such  a series  the  transmitted  col- 
ors would  be  much  purer,  and  the  reflected  much 
brighter  than  usual.  If  the  thicknesses  are  strictly 
equal,  certain  wave-lengths  must  still  be  absolutely 
missing  in  the  reflected  light;  while  on  the  other  hand 
a constancy  of  the  interval  between  the  plates  will  in 
general  lead  to  a special  preponderance  of  light  of 
some  other  wave-length  for  which  all  the  component 
parts  as  they  ultimately  emerge  are  in  agreement  as  to 
phase. 

All  that  can  be  expected  from  a physical  theory  is 
the  determination  of  the  composition  of  the  light  re- 
flected from  or  transmitted  by  a thin  plate  in  terms  of 
the  composition  of  the  incident  light.  The  further 
question  of  the  chromatic  character  of  the  mixtures 
thus  obtained  belongs  rather  to  physiological  optics, 
and  cannot  be  answered  without  a complete  knowledge 
of  the  chromatic  relations  of  the  spectral  colors  them- 
selves. Experiments  upon  this  subject  have  been  made 
by  various  observers,  and  especially  by  Maxwell,  who 
has  exhibited  his  results  on  a color  diagram  as  used  by 
Newton.  A calculation  of  the  colors  of  thin  plates, 
based  upon  Maxwell’s  data,  and  accompanied  by  a 
drawing  showing  the  curve  representative  of  the  entire 
series  up  to  the  fifth  order,  has  recently  been  published; 
and  to  this  the  reader  who  desires  further  information 
must  oe  referred,  with  the  remark  that  the  true  colors 
are  not  seen  in  the  usual  manner  of  operating  with  a 
plate  of  air  closed  between  glass  surfaces,  on  account  of 
the  contamination  with  white  light  reflected  at  the 
other  surfaces  of  the  glasses.  This  objection  is 
arvoided  when  a soap  film  is  employed,  to  the  manifest 
advantage  of  the  darker  colors,  such  as  the  red  of  the 


first  order.  The  colors  of  Newton’s  scale  are  met  witft 
also  in  the  light  transmitted  by  a somewhat  thin  plate 
of  doubly-refracting  material,  such  as  mica,  the  plane 
of  analysis  being  perpendicular  to  that  of  primitive 
polarization. 

If  Newton’s  rings  are  examined  through  a prism, 
some  very  remarkable  phenomena  are  exhibited,  de- 
scribed in  his  twenty-fourth  observation.  “ When  the 
two  object-glasses  are  laid  upon  one  another,  so  as  to 
make  the  rings  of  the  colors  appear,  though  with  my 
naked  eye  I could  not  discern  above  eight  or  nine  of 
those  rings,  yet  by  viewing  them  through  a prism  I 
could  see  a far  greater  multitude,  insomuch  that  I could 
number  more  than  forty.  * * * And  I believe 

that  the  experiment  may  be  improved  to  the  discovery 
of  far  greater  numbers.  * * * But  it  was  on 

but  one  side  of  these  rings,  namely,  that  toward  which 
the  refraction  was  made,  which  by  the  refraction  was 
rendered  distinct,  and  the  other  side  became  more  con- 
fused than  when  viewed  with  the  naked  eye.  * * * 

“ I have  sometimes  so  laid  one  object-glass  upon  the 
other  that  to  the  naked  eye  they  have  all  over  seemed 
uniformly  white,  without  the  least  appearance  of  any  of 
the  colored  rings;  and  yet  by  viewing  them  through  a 
prism  great  multitudes  of  those  rings  have  discovered 
themselves.  ” 

Newton  was  evidently  much  struck  with  these  “so 
odd  circumstances;”  and  he  explains  the  occurrence  of 
the  rings  at  unusual  thicknesses  as  due  to  the  dispersing 
power  of  the  prism.  The  blue  system  being  more  re- 
fracted than  the  red,  it  is  possible  under  certain  con- 
ditions that  the  nth  blue  ring  may  be  so  much  displaced 
relatively  to  the  corresponding  red  ring  as  at  one  part 
of  the  circumference  to  compensate  for  the  different 
diameters.  A white  stripe  may  thus  be  formed  in  a 
situation  where  without  the  prism  the  mixture  of  colors 
would  be  complete,  so  far  as  could  be  judged  by  the  eye. 

The  simplest  case  that  can  be  considered  is  when  the 
“thin  plate”  is  bounded  by  plane  surfaces  inclined  to 
one  another  at  a small  angle.  By  drawing  back  the 
prism  (whose  edge  is  parallel  to  the  intersection  of  the 
above-mentioned  planes)  it  will  always  be  possible  so  to 
adjust  the  effective  dispersing  power  as  to  bring  the  nth 
bars  to  coincidence  for  any  two  assigned  colors,  and 
therefore  approximately  for  the  entire  spectrum.  The 
formation  of  the  achromatic  band,  or  rather  central 
black  band,  depends  indeed  upon  the  same  principles  as 
the  fictitious  shifting  of  the  centre  of  a system  of  Fres- 
nel’s bands  when  viewed  through  a prism. 

But  neither  Newton  nor,  as  would  appear,  any  of  his 
successors  has  explained  why  the  bands  should  be  more 
numerous  than  usual,  and  under  certain  conditions 
sensibly  achromatic  for  a large  number  of  alternations. 
It  is  evident  that,  in  the  particular  case  of  the  wedge- 
shaped  plate  above  specified,  such  a result  would  not 
occur.  The  width  of  the  bands  for  any  color  would  be 
proportional  to  X,  as  well  after  the  displacement  by  the 
prism  as  before;  and  the  succession  of  colors  formed  in 
white  light  and  the  number  of  perceptible  bands  would 
be  much  as  usual. 

In  the  fourth  part  of  the  second  book  of  his  Optics 
Newton  investigates  another  series  of  rings,  usually 
(though  not  very  appropriately)  known  as  the  colors  of 
thick  plates.  The  fundamental  experiment  is  as  fol- 
lows: At  the  center  of  curvature  of  a-  concave  looking- 
glass,  quick-silvered  behind,  is  placed  an  opaque  card, 
perforated  by  a small  nole  through  which  sunlight  is 
admitted.  The  main  oody  of  the  light  returns  through 
the  aperture;  but  a series  of  concentric  rings  are 
seen  upon  the  card,  the  formation  of  which  was  proved 
byNewtou  to  require  the  cooperation  of  the  two  sur- 
faces of  the  mirror,.  Thus  the  diameters  of  the  rings 


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depend  upon  the  thickness  of  the  glass,  and  none  are 
formed  when  the  glass  is  replaced  by  a metallic  specu- 
lum. The  brilliancy  of  the  rings  depends  upon  imper- 
fect polish  of  the  anterior  surface  of  the  glass,  and  may 
be  augmented  by  a coat  of  diluted  milk.  The  rings 
may  also  be  well  observed  without  a screen  in  the  man- 
ner recommended  by  Stokes.  For  this  purpose  all  that 
is  required  is  to  place  a small  flame  at  the  center  of  the 
curvature  of  the  prepared  glass,  so  as  to  coincide  with 
its  image.  The  rings  are  then  seen  surrounding  the 
flame  and  occupying  a definite  position  in  space. 

The  explanation  of  the  rings,  suggested  by  Young, 
and  developed  by  Herschel,  refers  them  to  interference 
between  one  portion  of  light  scattered  or  diffracted 
by  a particle  of  dust,  and  then  regularly  refracted  and 
reflected,  and  another  portion  first  regularly  refracted 
and  reflected  and  then  diffracted  at  emergence  by  the 
same  particle.  It  has  been  shown  by  Stokes  that  no 
regular  interference  is  to  be  expected  between  portions 
of  light  diffracted  by  different  particles  of  dust. 

In  the  memoir  of  Stokes  will  be  found  a very  com- 
plete discussion  of  the  whole  subject,  and  to  this  the 
reader  must  be  referred  who  desires  a fuller  knowledge. 
Our  limits  will  not  allow  us  to  do  more  than  touch 
upon  one  or  two  points.  The  condition  of  fixity  of  the 
rings  when  observed  in  air,  and  of  distinctness  when  a 
screen  is  used,  is  that  the  systems  due  to  all  parts  of  the 
diffusing  surface  should  coincide;  and  it  is  fulfilled  only 
when,  as  in  Newton’s  experiments,  the  source  and 
screen  are  in  the  plane  passing  through  the  center 
of  curvature  of  the  glass.  The  objection  most  fre- 
quently brought  against  the  undulatory  theory  in  its 
infancy  was  the  difficulty  of  explaining  in  accordance 
with  it  the  existence  of  shadows.  Thanks  to  Fresnel 
and  his  followers,  this  department  of  optics  is  now  pre- 
cisely the  one  in  which  the  theory  has  secured  its  great- 
est triumphs. 

The  principle  employed  in  these  investigations  is  due 
to  Huygens,  and  may  be  thus  formulated.  If  round  the 
origin  of  waves  an  ideal  closed  surface  be  drawn,  the 
whole  action  of  the  waves  in  the  region  beyond  may  be 
regarded  as  due  to  the  motion  continually  propagated 
across  the  various  elements  of  this  surface.  The  wave 
motion  due  to  any  element  of  the  surface  is  called  a 
secondary  wave,  and  in  estimating  the  total  effect  regard 
must  be  paid  to  the  phases  as  well  as  the  amplitudes  of 
the  components.  It  is  usually  convenient  to  choose  as 
the  surface  of  resolution  a wave- front,  i.e.,  a surface  at 
which  the  primary  vibrations  are  in  one  phase. 

Any  obscurity  that  may  hang  over  Huygens’  princi- 
ple is  due  mainly  to  the  indefiniteness  of  thought  and 
expression  which  we  must  be  content  to  put  up  with  if 
we  wish  to  avoid  pledging  ourselves  as  to  the  character 
of  the  vibrations.  In  the  application  to  sound,  where 
we  know  what  we  are  dealing  with,  the  matter  is  simple 
enough  in  principle,  although  mathematical  difficulties 
would  often  stand  in  the  way  of  the  calculations  we 
might  wish  to  make.  The  ideal  surface  of  resolution 
may  be  there  regarded  as  a flexible  lamina;  and  we 
know  that  if,  by  forces  locally  applied,  every  element 
of  the  lamina  be  made  to  move  normally  to  itself  exactly 
as  the  air  at  that  place  does,  the  external  aerial  motion 
is  fully  determined.  By  the  principle  of  superposition 
the  whole  effect  may  be  found  by  integration  of  the 
partial  effects  due  to  each  element  of  the  surface,  the 
other  elements  remaining  at  rest. 

The  general  explanation  of  the  formation  of  shadows 
may  also  be  conveniently  based  upon  Huygens’  zones. 
If  the  point  under  consideration  be  so  far  away  from 
the  geometrical  shadow  that  a large  number  of  the 
earlier  zones  are  complete,  then  the  illumination,  deter- 
mined sensibly  by  the  first  zone,  is  the  same  as  if  there 


6299 

were  no  obstruction  at  all.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
point  be  well  immersed  in  the  geometrical  shadow,  the 
earlier  zones  are  altogether  missing,  and,  instead  of  a 
series  of  terms  beginning  with  finite  numerical  magni- 
tude and  gradually  diminishing  to  zero,  we  have  now  to 
deal  with  one  of  which  the  terms  diminish  to  zero  at 
both  ends.  The  sum  of  such  a series  is  very  approxi- 
mately zero,  each  term  being  neutralized  by  the  halves 
of  its  immediate  neighbors,  which  are  of  the  opposite 
sign.  The  question  of  light  or  darkness  then  depends 
upon  whether  the  series  begins  or  ends  abruptly.  With 
few  exceptions,  abruptness  can  occur  only  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  first  term,  viz.,  when  the  secondary  wave 
of  least  retardation  is  unobstructed,  or  when  a ray 
passes  through  the  point  under  consideration.  Accord- 
ing to  the  undulatory  theory  the  light  cannot  be  regarded 
strictly  as  traveling  along  a ray;  but  the  existence  of  an 
unobstructed  ray  implies  that  the  system  of  Huygens’ 
zones  can  be  commenced,  and,  if  a large  number  of  these 
zones  are  fully  developed  and  do  not  terminate  abruptly, 
the  illumination  is  unaffected  by  the  neighborhood  of 
obstacles.  Intermediate  cases  in  which  a few  zones 
only  are  formed  belong  especially  to  the  province  of 
diffraction. 

An  interesting  exception  to  the  general  rule  that  full 
brightness  requires  the  existence  of  the  first  zone 
occurs  when  the  obstacle  assumes  the  form  of  a small 
circular  disk  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  incident  waves. 
In  the  earlier  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  Delisle 
found  that  the  center  of  the  circular  shadow  was  occu- 
pied by  a bright  point  of  light,  but  the  observation 
passed  into  oblivion  until  Poisson  brought  forward  as 
an  objection  to  Fresnel’s  theory  that  it  required  at  the 
center  of  a circular  shadow  a point  as  bright  as  if  no 
obstacle  were  intervening.  If  we  conceive  the  primary 
wave  to  be  broken  up  at  the  plane  of  the  disk,  a system 
of  Huygens’  zones  can  be  constructed  which  begin  from 
the  circumference;  and  the  first  zone  external  to  the  disk 
plays  the  part  ordinarily  taken  by  the  center  of  the 
entire  system.  The  whole  effect  is  the  half  of  the 
first  existing  zone,  and  this  is  sensibly  the  same  as  if 
there  were  no  obstruction. 

When  light  passes  through  a small  circular  or  annular 
aperture,  the  illumination  at  any  point  along  the  axis 
depends  upon  the  precise  relation  between  the  aperture 
and  the  distance  from  it  at  which  the  point  is  taken. 
If,  as  in  the  last  paragraph,  we  imagine  a system  of 
zones  to  be  drawn  commencing  from  the  inner  circular 
boundary  of  the  aperture,  the  question  turns  upon  the 
manner  in  which  the  series  terminates  at  the  outer 
boundary.  If  the  aperture  be  such  as  to  fit  exactly  an 
integral  number  of  zones,  the  aggregate  effect  may  be 
regarded  as  the  half  of  those  due  to  the  first  and  last 
zones.  If  the  number  of  zones  be  even,  the  action  of 
the  first  and  last  zones  is  antagonistic,  and  there  is 
complete  darkness  at  the  point.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  number  of  zones  be  odd,  the  effects  conspire ; and 
the  illumination  (proportional  to  the  square  of  the 
amplitude)  is  four  times  as  great  as  if  there  were  no 
obstruction  at  all. 

The  process  of  augmenting  the  resultant  illumination 
at  a particular  point  by  stopping  some  of  the  secondary 
rays  may  be  carried  much  further.  By  the  aid  of  pho- 
tography it  is  easy  to  prepare  a plate,  transparent  where 
the  zones  of  odd  order  fall,  and  opaque  where  those  of 
even  order  fall.  Such  a plate  has  the  power  of  a con- 
densing lens,  and  gives  an  illumination  out  of  all  pro- 
portion to  what  could  be  obtained  without  it.  An 
even  greater  effect  (fourfold)  would  be  attained  if  it 
were  possible  to  provide  that  the  stoppage  of  the  light 
from  the  alternate  zones  were  replaced  by  a phase- 
reversal  without  loss  of  amplitude. 


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6300 

The  results  of  the  theory  of  circular  apertures  admit 
of  an  interesting  application  to  coronas , such  as  are  often 
seen  encircling  the  sun  and  moon.  They  are  due  to  the 
interposition  of  small  spherules  of  water,  which  act  the 
part  of  diffracting  obstacles.  In  order  to  the  forma- 
tion of  a well-defined  corona  it  is  essential  that  the 
particles  be  exclusively,  or  preponderating^,  of  one  size. 

If  the  origin  of  light  be  treated  as  infinitely  small,  and 
be  seen  in  focus,  whether  with  the  naked  eye  or  with  the 
aid  of  a telescope,  the  whole  of  the  light  in  the  absence 
of  obstacles  would  be  concentrated  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  the  focus.  At  other  parts  of  the  field 
the  effect  is  the  same,  by  Babinet’s  principle,  whether 
the  imaginary  screen  in  front  of  the  object-glass  is  gen- 
erally transparent  but  studded  with  a number  of  opaque 
circular  disks,  or  is  generally  opaque  but  perforated 
with  corresponding  apertures.  Consider  now  the  light 
diffracted  in  a direction  many  times  more  oblique  than 
any  with  which  we  should  be  concerned,  were  the  whole 
aperture  uninterrupted,  and  take  first  the  effect  of  a 
single  small  aperture.  The  light  in  the  proposed  direc- 
tion is  that  determined  by  the  size  of  the  small  aper- 
ture in  accordance  with  the  law’s  already  investigated, 
and  its  phase  depends  upon  the  position  of  the  aperture. 
If  we  take  a direction  such  that  the  light  (of  given  wave- 
length) from  a single  aperture  vanishes,  the  evanes- 
cence continues  even  when  the  whole  series  of  apertures 
is  brought  into  contemplation.  Hence,  whatever  else 
may  happen,  there  must  be  a system  of  dark  rings  formed, 
the  same  as  from  a single  small  aperture.  In  direc- 
tions other  than  these  it  is  a more  delicate  question  how 
the  partial  effects  should  be  compounded.  If  we  make 
the  extreme  suppositions  of  an  infinitely  small  source 
and  absolutely  homogeneous  light,  there  is  no  escape  from 
the  conclusion  that  the  light  in  a definite  direction  is  arbi- 
trary, that  is,  dependent  upon  the  chance  distribution  of 
apertures.  If,  however,  as  in  practice,  the  light  be 
heterogeneous,  the  source  of  finite  area,  the  obstacles 
in  motion,  and  the  discrimination  of  different  directions 
imperfect,  we  are  concerned  merely  with  the  mean 
brightness  found  by  varying  the  arbitrary  phase-relations, 
and  this  is  obtained  by  simply  multiplying  the  brightness 
due  to  a single  aperture  by  the  number  of  apertures. 
The  diffraction  pattern  is  therefore  that  due  to  a single 
aperture,  merely  brightened  n times. 

In  his  experiments  upon  this  subject  Fraunhofer  em- 
ployed plates  of  glass  dusted  over  with  lycopodium,  or 
studded  with  small  metallic  disks  of  uniform  size;  and 
he  found  that  the  diameters  of  the  rings  were  propor- 
tional to  the  length  of  the  waves  and  inversely  as  the 
diameter  of  the  disks. 

In  another  respect  the  observations  of  Fraunhofer 
appear  at  first  sight  to  be  in  disaccord  wfith  theory;  for 
his  measures  of  the  diameters  of  the  red  rings,  visible 
when  white  light  wras  employed,  correspond  with  the 
law  applicable  to  dark  rings,  and  not  to  the  different 
law  applicable  to  the  luminous  maxima.  Verdet  has, 
however,  pointed  out  that  the  observation  in  this  form 
is  essentially  different  from  that  in  which  homogeneous 
red  light  is  employed,  and  that  the  position  of  the  red 
rings  would  correspond  to  the  absence  of  blue-green 
light  rather  than  to  the  greatest  abundance  of  red  light. 
Verdet’s  own  observations,  conducted  with  great  care, 
fully  confirm  this  view,  and  exhibit  a complete  agree- 
ment with  theory. 

By  measurements  of  coronas  it  is  possible  to  infer  the 
size  of  the  particles  to  which  they  are  due,  an  applica- 
tion of  considerable  interest  in  the  case  of  natural  corona 
—the  general  rule  being,  the  larger  the  corona  the 
smaller  the  water  spherules.  Young  employed  this 
method  not  only  to  determine  the  diameters  of  cloud 
particles  (e.g. , j&qq  inch),  but  also  those  of  fibrous 


material,  for  which  the  theory  is  analogous.  His  in- 
strument was  called  the  eriometer. 

Our  investigations  and  estimates  of  resolving  power 
haVe  thus  far  proceeded  upon  the  supposition  that  there 
are  no  optical  imperfections,  whether  of  the  nature  of  a 
regular  aberration  or  dependent  upon  irregularities  of 
material  and  wprkmanship.  In  practice  there  will 
always  be  a certain  aberration  or  error  of  phase,  which 
we  may  also  regard  as  the  deviation  of  the  actual  wave- 
surface  from  its  intended  position.  In  general,  we  may 
say  that  aberration  is  unimportant,  when  it  nowhere  (or 
at  any  rate  over  a relatively  small  area  only)  exceeds  a 
small  fraction  of  the  wave-length. 

Talbot’s  Bands. — These  very  remarkable  bands 
are  seen  under  certain  conditions  when  a tolerably  pure 
spectrum  is  regarded  with  the  naked  eye,  or  with  a tele- 
scope, half  the  aperture  being  covered  by  a thin  plate, 
e.g.,  of  glass  or  mica.  The  view  of  the  matter  taken 
by  the  discoverer  was  that  any  ray  which  suffered  in 
traversing  the  plate  a retardation  of  an  odd  number  of 
half  wave-lengths  would  be  extinguished,  and  that  thus 
the  spectrum  would  be  seen  interrupted  by  a number  of 
dark  bars.  But  this  explanation  cannot  be  accepted  as 
it  stands,  being  open  to  the  same  objection  as  Arago’s 
theory  of  stellar  scintillation.  It  is  as  far  as  possible 
from  being  true  that  a body  emitting  homogeneous 
light  would  disappear  on  merely  covering  half  the  aper- 
ture of  vision  with  a half-wave  plate.  Such  a con- 
clusion would  be  in  the  face  of  the  principle  of  energy, 
which  teaches  plainly  that  the  retardation  in  question 
leaves  the  aggregate  brightness  unaltered.  The  actual 
formation  of  the  bands  comes  about  in  a very  curious 
way,  as  is  shown  by  a circumstance  first  observed  by 
Brewster.  When  the  retarding  plate  is  held  on  the 
side  toward  the  red  of  the  spectrum,  the  bands  are  not 
seen.  Even  in  the  contrary  case,  the  thickness  of  the 
plate  must  not  exceed  a certain  limit,  however  pure  the 
spectrum  may  be.  A satisfactory  explanation  of  these 
bands  was  first  given  by  Airy. 

If  it  be  desired  to  see  a given  number  of  bands  in  the 
whole  or  in  any  part  of  the  spectrum,  the  thickness  of 
the  retarding  plate  is  thereby  determined,  independently 
of  all  other  considerations.  But  in  order  that  the  bands 
may  be  really  visible,  and  still  more  in  order  that  they 
may  be  black,  another  condition  must  be  satisfied.  It 
is  necessary  that  the  aperture  of  the  pupil  be  accom- 
modated to  the  angular  extent  of  the  spectrum,  or 
^reciprocally.  Black  bands  will  be  too  fine  to  be  well 
seen  unless  the  aperture  of  the  pupil  be  somewhat  con- 
tracted. One-twentieth  to  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch  is 
suitable.  The  aperture  and  the  number  of  bands  being 
both  fixed,  the  condition  of  blackness  determines  the 
angular  magnitude  of  a band  and  of  the  spectrum.  The 
use  of  a grating  is  very  convenient,  for  not  only  are 
there  several  spectra  in  view  at  the  same  time,  but  the 
dispersion  can  be  varied  continuously  by  sloping  the 
grating.  The  slits  may  be  cut  out  of  tin-plate,  and 
half  covered  by  mica  or  “microscopic  glass,”  held  in 
position  by  a little  cement. 

If  a telescope  be  employed  there  is  a distinction  to 
be  observed,  according  as  the  half-covered  aperture  is 
between  the  eye  and  the  ocular,  or  in  front  of  the 
object-glass.  In  the  former  case  the  function  of  the 
telescope  is  simply  to  increase  the  dispersion,  and  the 
formation  of  the  bands  is  of  course  independent  of  the 
particular  manner  in  which  tbe  dispersion  arises.  If, 
however,  the  half-covered  aperture  be  in  front  of  the 
object-glass,  the  phenomenon  is  magnified  as  a whole, 
and  the  desirable  relation  between  the  (unmagnified) 
dispersion  and  the  aperture  is  the  same  as  without  the 
telescope.  There  appears  to  be  no  further  advantage 
in  the  use  of  a telescope  than  the  increased  facility  of 


VV  A V 


accommodation,  and  for  this  of  course  a very  low  power 
suffices. 

Polarization. — A ray  of  ordinary  light  is  symmet- 
rical with  respect  to  the  direction  of  propagation.  If, 
for  example,  this  direction  be  vertical,  there  is  nothing 
that  can  be  said  concerning  the  north  and  south  sides  of 
the  ray  that  is  not  equally  true  concerning  the  east  and 
west  sides.  In  polarized  light  this  symmetry  is  lost. 
Huygens  showed  that  when  a ray  of  such  light  falls  upon 
a crystal  of  Iceland  spar,  which  is  made  to  revolve  about 
the  ray  as  an  axis,  the  phenomena  vary  in  a manner  not 
to  be  represented  as  a mere  revolution  with  the  spar 
In  Newton’s  language,  the  ray  itself  has  sides,  or  is 
polarized. 

Malus  discovered  that  ordinary  light  may  be  polarized 
by  reflection  as  well  as  by  double  refraction ; and 
Brewster  proved  that  the  effect  is  nearly  complete  when 
the  tangent  of  the  angle  of  incidence  is  equal  to  the 
refractive  index,  or  (which  comes  to  the  same)  when 
the  reflected  and  refracted  rays  are  perpendicular  to  one 
another.  The  light  thus  obtained  is  said  to  be  polarized 
in  the  plane  of  reflection. 

Reciprocally,  the  character  of  a polarized  ray  may  be 
revealed  by  submitting  it  to  the  test  of  reflection  at  the 
appropriate  angle.  As  the  normal  to  the  reflecting 
surface  revolves  (in  a cone)  about  the  ray,  there  are  two 
azimuths  of  the  plane  of  incidence,  distant  1800,  at 
which  the  reflection  is  a maximum,  and  two  others, 
distant  900  from  the  former,  at  which  the  reflection 
(nearly)  vanishes.  In  the  latter  case  the  plane  of  inci- 
dence is  perpendicular  to  that  in  which  the  light  must 
be  supposed  to  have  been  reflected  in  order  to  acquire 
its  polarization. 

The  full  statement  of  the  law  of  double  refraction  is 
somewhat  complicated,  and  scarcely  to  be  made  intel- 
ligible, except  in  terms  of  the  wave  theory;  but,  in 
order  merely  to  show  the  relation  of  double  refraction 
in  a uniaxal  crystal,  such  as  Iceland  spar,  to  polarized 
light,  we  may  take  the  case  of  a prism  so  cut  that  the 
refracting  edge  is  parallel  to  the  optic  axis.  By  travers- 
ing such  a prism,  in  a plane  perpendicular  to  the  edge, 
a ray  of  ordinary  light  is  divided  into  two,  of  equal 
intensity,  each  of  which  is  refracted  according  to  the 
ordinary  law  of  Snell.  Whatever  may  be  the  angle  and 
setting  of  the  prism,  the  phenomenon  may  be  repre- 
sented by  supposing  half  the  light  to  be  refracted  with 
one  index  (1.65),  and  the  other  half  with  the  different 
index  (1.48).  The  rays  thus  arising  are  polarized — the 
one  more  refracted  in  the  plane  of  refraction,  and  the 
other  in  the  perpendicular  plane.  If  these  rays  are  now 
allowed  to  fall  upon  a second  similar  prism,  held  so 
that  its  edge  is  parallel  to  that  of  the  first  prism,  there 
is  no  further  duplication.  The  ray  first  refracted  with 
index  1.65  is  refracted  again  in  like  manner,  and  simi- 
larly the  ray  first  refracted  with  index  1.48  is  again  so 
refracted.  But  the  case  is  altered  if  the  second  prism 
be  caused  to  rotate  about  the  incident  ray.  If  the  rota- 
tion be  through  an  angle  of  900,  each  ray  is  indeed 
refracted  singly ; but  the  indices  are  exchanged.  The 
ray  that  suffered  most  refraction  at  the  first  prism  now 
suffers  least  at  the  second,  and  vice  versa.  At  inter- 
mediate rotation  the  double  refraction  reasserts  itself, 
each  ray  being  divided  into  two,  refracted  with  the 
above-mentioned  indices,  and  of  intensity  depend- 
ent upon  the  amount  of  rotation,  but  always  such 
that  no  light  is  lost  (or  gained)  on  the  whole,  by  the 
separation. 

The  law  governing  the  intensity  was  formulated  by 
Malus,  and  has  been  verified  by  the  measures  of  Arago 
and  other  workers.  If  0 be  the  angle  of  rotation  from 
the  position  in  which  one  of  the  rays  is  at  a maximum, 
while  the  other  vanishes,,  the  intensities  are  proportional 

395 


6301 

to  cos20  and  sin*0.  On  the  same  scale,  if  we  neglect 
the  loss  by  reflection  and  absorption,  the  intensity  of 
the  incident  light  is  represented  by  unity. 

A similar  law  applies  to  the  intensity  with  which  a 
polarized  ray  is  reflected  from  a glass  surface  at  the 
Brewsterian  angle.  If  0 be  reckoned  from  the  azimuth 
of  maximum  reflection,  the  intensity  at  other  angles  may 
be  represented  by  cos20,  vanishing  when  6=90°. 

The  phenomena  here  briefly  sketched  force  upon  us 
the  view  that  the  vibrations  of  light  are  transverse  to 
the  direction  of  propagation.  In  ordinary  light  the 
vibrations  are  as  much  in  one  transverse  direction  as  in 
another  ; and  when  such  light  falls  upon  a doubly  re- 
fracting, or  reflecting,  medium,  the  vibrations  are 
resolved  into  two  definite  directions,  constituting  two 
rays  polarized  in  perpendicular  planes,  and  differently 
influenced  by  the  medium.  In  this  case  the  two  rays 
are  necessarily  of  equal  intensity. 

When  polarized  light  is  transmitted  through  a moder- 
ately thin  plate  of  doubly  refracting  crystal,  and  is  then 
analyzed,  e.g.,  with  a Nicol,  brilliant  colors  are  often 
exhibited,  analogous  in  their  character  to  the  tints  of 
Newton’s  scale.  With  his  usual  acuteness,  Young  at 
once  attributed  these  colors  t;o  interference  between  the 
ordinary  and  extraordinary  waves,  and  showed  that  the 
thickness  of  crystal  required  to  develop  a given  tint,  in- 
versely proportional  to  the  doubly  refracting  power, 
was  an  agreement  with  this  view.  But  the  complete 
explanation,  demanding  a fuller  knowledge  of  the  laws 
of  interference  of  polarized  light,  was  reserved  for  Fres- 
nel and  Arago.  The  subject  is  one  which  admits  of 
great  development,  but  the  interest  turns  principally 
upon  the  beauty  of  the  effects,  and  upon  the  facility 
with  which  many  of  them  may  be  obtained  in  experiment 

In  general  a polarized  ray  traveling  along  the  axis  of 
a uniaxal  crystal  undergoes  no  change ; but  it  was  ob 
served  by  Arago  that,  if  quartz  be  used  in  this  experi 
ment,  the  plane  of  polarization  is  found  to  be  rotated 
through  an  angle  proportional  to  the  thickness  of  crys 
tal  traversed.  The  subject  was  further  studied  by  Biot,, 
who  ascertained  that  the  rotation  due  to  a given  thick 
ness  is  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  wave-length  of  the 
light,  thus  varying  very  rapidly  with  the  color.  In  some 
specimens  of  quartz  (called  in  consequence  right-handed) 
the  rotation  is  to  the  right,  while  in  others  it  is  to  the 
left.  Equal  thicknesses  of  right  and  left-handed  quart? 
may  thus  compensate  one  another. 

Fresnel  has  shown  that  the  rotation  of  the  plane  may 
be  interpreted  as  indicating  a different  velocity  of  propa 
gation  of  the  two  circularly-polarized  components  into 
which  plane-polarized  light  may  always  be  resolved. 
In  ordinary  media  the  right  and  left-handed  circularly 
polarized  rays  travel  at  the  same  speed,  and  at  any  stage 
of  their  progress  recompound  a ray  rectilinearly- polarized 
in  a fixed  direction.  But  it  is  otherwise  if  the  velocities 
of  propagation  of  the  circular  components  be  even 
slightly  different. 

A remarkable  connection  has  been  observed  between 
the  rotatory  property  and  the  crystalline  form.  Thus 
Herschel  found  that  m many  specimens  the  right- 
handed  and  left-handed  varieties  of  quartz  could  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  disposition  of  certain  subordinate 
faces.  The  crystals  of  opposite  kinds  are  symmetrical 
in  a certain  sense,  but  are  yet  not  superposable.  The 
difference  is  like  that  between  otherwise  similar  right 
and  left  handed  screws.  The  researches  of  Pasteur 
upon  the  rotatory  properties  of  tartaric  acid  have  opened 
up  a new  and  most  interesting  field  of  chemistry.  At 
that  time  two  isomeric  varieties  were  known — ordinaiy 
tartaric  acid,  which  rotates  to  the  right,  and  racemic 
acid,  which  is  optically  inactive,  properties  of  the  acids 
shared  also  by  the  salts.  Pasteur  found  that  the  cry* 


W A V 


6302 

tals  of  tartaric  acid  and  of  the  tartrates  possessed  a 
right-handed  structure,  and  endeavored  to  discover  cor- 
responding bodies  with  a left-handed  structure.  After 
many  trials  crystallizations  of  the  double  racemate  of 
soda  and  ammonia  were  obtained,  including  crystals  of 
opposite  kinds.  A selection  of  the  right-handed  speci- 
mens yielded  ordinary  dextro-tartaric  acid,  while  a simi- 
lar selection  of  the  left-handed  crystals  gave  a new 
variety — laevo- tartaric  acid,  rotating  the  plane  of  polari- 
sation to  the  left  in  the  same  degree  as  ordinary  tartaric 
acid  rotates  it  to  the  right.  A mixture  in  equal  propor- 
tions of  the  two  kinds  of  tartaric  acid,  which  differ 
scarcely  at  all  in  their  chemical  properties,  reconstitutes 
racemic  acid. 

The  possibility  of  inducing  the  rotatory  property  in 
bodies  otherwise  free  from  it  was  one  of  the  finest  of 
Faraday’s  discoveries.  He  found  that,  if  heavy  glass, 
bisulphide  of  carbon,  etc.,  are  placed  in  a magnetic 
field,  a ray  of  polarized  light,  propagated  along  the 
fines  of  magnetic  force,  suffers  rotation.  The  laws  of 
the  phenomenon  were  carefully  studied  by  Verdet,  whose 
conclusions  may  be  summed  up  by  saying  that  in  a given 
medium  the  rotation  of  the  plane  for  a ray  proceeding 
m any  direction  is  proportional  to  the  difference  of 
magnetic  potential  at  the  initial  and  final  points.  In 
bisulphide  of  carbon,  at  180  and  for  a difference  of 
potential  equal  to  unity  C,  G.  S.,  the  rotation  of  the 
plane  of  polarization  of  a ray  of  soda  light  is  .0402 
minute  of  angle. 

A very  important  distinction  should  be  noted  between 
the  magnetic  rotation  and  that  natural  to  quartz,  syrup, 
etc.  In  the  latter  the  rotation  is  always  right-handed 
or  always  left-handed  with  respect  to  the  direction  of 
the  ray.  Hence  when  the  ray  is  reversed  the  absolute 
direction  of  rotation  is  reversed  also.  A ray  which 
traverses  a plate  of  quartz  in  one  direction,  and  then 
after  reflection  traverses  the  same  thickness  again  in  the 
opposite  direction,  recovers  its  original  plane  of  polariza- 
tion. It  is  quite  otherwise  with  the  rotation  under 
magnetic  force.  In  this  case  the  rotation  is  in  the  same 
absolute  direction  even  though  the  ray  be  reversed. 
Hence,  if  a ray  be  reflected  backward  and  forward  any 
number  of  times  along  a line  of  magnetic  force,  the  ro- 
tations due  to  the  several  passages  are  all  accumulated. 
The  non-reversibility  of  light  in  a magnetized  medium 
proves  the  case  to  be  of  a very  exceptional  character, 
and  (as  was  argued  by  Thomson)  indicates  that  the  mag- 
netized medium  is  itself  in  rotatory  motion  independ- 
ently of  the  propagation  of  light  through  it. 

The  theory  of  the  diffraction,  dispersion,  or  scattering 
of  light  by  small  particles,  as  it  has  variously  been 
called,  is  of  importance,  not  only  from  its  bearings  upon 
fundamental  optical  hypotheses,  but  on  account  of  its 
application  to  explain  the  origin  and  nature  of  the  light 
from  the  sky.  The  view,  suggested  by  Newton  and 
advocated  in  more  recent  times  by  such  authorities  as 
Herschel  and  Clausius,  that  the  light  of  the  sky  is  a 
blue  of  the  first  order  reflected  from  aqueous  particles, 
was  connected  with  the  then  prevalent  notion  that  the 
suspended  moisture  of  clouds  and  mists  was  in  the  form  of 
vesicles  or  bubbles.  Experiments  such  as  those  of 
Briicke  pointed  to  a different  conclusion.  When  a 
weak  alcholic  solution  of  mastic  is  agitated  with  water, 
the  precipitated  gum  scatters  a blue  light,  obviously 
similar  in  character  to  that  from  the  sky.  Not  only 
would  it  be  unreasonable  to  attribute  a vesicular  struct- 
ure to  the  mastic,  but  (as  Briicke  remarked)  the  dis- 
persed light  is  much  richer  in  quality  than  the  blue  of 
the  first  order.  Another  point  of  great  importance  is  well 
brought  out  in  the  experiments  of  Tyndall  upon  clouds 
precipitated  by  the  chemical  action  of  light.  When- 
ever mrticles  are  sufficiently  fine,  the  light  emitted 


laterally  is  blue  in  color,  and  tn  a direction  perpendict* 

lar  to  the  incident  beam,  is  completely  polarized. 

About  the  color  there  can  be  no  prima  facie  diffi- 
culty; for  as  soon  as  the  question  is  raised,  it  is  seen 
that  the  standard  of  linear  dimension,  with  reference  to 
which  the  particles  are  called  small,  is  the  wave-length 
of  light,  and  that  a given  set  of  particles  would  (on  any 
conceivable  view  as  to  their  mode  of  action)  produce  a 
continually  increasing  disturbance  as  we  pass  along  the 
spectrum  toward  the  more  refrangible  end. 

On  the  other  hand,  that  the  direction  of  complete 
polarization  should  be  independent  of  the  refracting 
power  of  the  matter  composing  the  cloud  has  been  consid- 
ered mysterious.  Of  course,  on  the  theory  of  thin 
plates,  this  direction  would  be  determined  by  Brewster’s 
law;  but  if  the  particles  of  foreign  matter  are  small  in 
all  their  dimensions,  the  circumstances  are  materially 
different  from  those  under  which  Brewster’s  law  is  ap- 
plicable. 

The  investigation  of  this  question  upon  the  elastic 
solid  theory  will  depend  upon  how  we  suppose  the  solid 
to  vary  from  one  optical  medium  to  another.  The 
slower  propagation  of  light  in  glass  or  water  than  in 
air  or  vacuum  may  be  attributed  to  a greater  density,  or 
to  a less  rigidity,  in  the  former  case;  or  we  may  adopt 
the  more  complicated  supposition  that  both  these  quan- 
tities vary,  subject  only  to  the  condition  which  restricts 
the  ratio  of  velocities  to  equality  with  the  known  re- 
fractive index. 

According  to  the  principles  of  the  wave  theory,  the 
dispersion  of  refraction  can  only  be  explained  as  due  to 
a variation  of  velocity  with  wave-length  or  period.  In 
aerial  vibrations,  and  in  those  propagated  through  an 
elastic  solid,  there  is  no  such  variation ; and  so  the  ex- 
istence of  dispersion  was  at  one  time  considered  to  be 
a serious  objection  to  the  wave  theory.  Dispersion 
in  vacuo  would  indeed  present  some  difficulty,  or  at 
least  force  upon  us  views  which  at  present  seem  unlikely 
as  to  the  constitution  of  free  ether.  The  weight  of  the 
evidence  is,  however,  against  the  existence  of  dispersion 
in  vacuo.  “ Were  there  a difference  of  one  hour  in  the 
times  of  the  blue  and  red  rays  reaching  us  from  Algol, 
this  star  would  show  a well-marked  coloration  in  its 
phases  of  increase  and  decrease.  No  trace  of  coloration 
having  been  noticed,  the  difference  of  times  cannot 
exceed  a fraction  of  an  hour.  It  is  not  at  all  probable 
that  the  parallax  of  this  star  amounts  to  one-tenth  of  a 
second,  so  that  its  distance,  probably,  exceeds  2,000,000 
radii  of  the  earth’s  orbit,  and  the  time  which  is  required 
for  its  light  to  reach  us  probably  exceeds  thirty  years, 
or  250,000  hours.  It  is  therefore  difficult  to  see  how 
there  can  be  a difference  as  great  as  four  parts  in  a 
million  between  the  velocities  of  light  coming  from  near 
the  two  ends  of  the  bright  part  of  the  spectrum.” 

For  the  velocity  of  light  in  vacuo , as  determined  in  kil- 
ometres per  second  by  terrestrial  methods  (see  Light), 
Newcomb  gives  the  following  tabular  statement : — 


Michelsori,  at  Naval  Academy,  in  1879 299,910 

Michelson,  at  Cleveland,  1882 ; 299,853 

Newcomb,  at  Washington,  1882,  using  only  re- 
sults supposed  to  be  nearly  free  from  con- 
stant errors 299,860 

Newcomb,  including  all  determinations 299,810 

To  these  may  be  added,  for  reference — 

Foucault,  at  Paris,  in  1862........ 298,000 

Cornu,  at  Paris,  in  1874 298,500 

Cornu,  at  Paris,  in  1878 300,400 

This  last  result,  as  discussed  by  Listing 299,990 

Young  and  Forbes,  1880-1881 301,387 


Newcomb  concludes,  as  the  most  probable  result— 
Velocity  of  light  in  vacuv=#zq§, 860^30  kilometres. 

It  should  be  mentioned  that  Young  and  Forbes  in- 
ferred from  their  observations  a difference  of  velocities 


WAX 


of  blue  and  red  light  amounting  to  about  2 per  cent., 
but  that  neither  Michelson  nor  Newcomb,  using 
Foucault’s  method,  could  detect  any  trace  of  such  a dif- 
ference. 

The  limits  of  this  article  do  not  permit  the  considera- 
tion of  the  more  speculative  parts  of  our  subject.  We 
will  conclude  by  calling  attention  to  a recent  experi- 
mental research  by  Michelson,  the  results  of  which 
cannot  fail  to  give  valuable  guidance  to  optical  theorists. 

This  was  a repetition  under  improved  conditions  of  a 
remarkable  experiment  of  Fizeau,  by  which  it  is  proved 
that  when  light  is  propagated  through  water,  itself  in 
rapid  movement  in  the  direction  of  the  ray,  the  velocity 
is  indeed  influenced,  but  not  to  the  full  extent  of  the 
velocity  of  the  water. 

W AX  is  a solid  fatty  substance  of  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble origin,  allied  both  in  sources  and  constitution  to  the 
fixed  oils  and  fats.  From  fats  or  solid  oils  wax  differs 
principally  in  its  greater  hardness  and  higher  melting- 
point;  but  in  the  strictly  chemical  sense,  while  oils  and- 
fats  are  glycerides,  a true  wax  contains  no  glycerine,  but 
is  a combination  of  fatty  acids  with  certain  solid  mona- 
tomic alcohols.  Of  wax  from  animal  sources  there  are 
in  commerce  beeswax,  which  forms  wax  par  excellence , 
Chinese  insect  wax,  and  spermaceti.  The  more  import- 
ant vegetable  waxes  are  J apanese  wax,  myrtle-berry  wax, 
carnauba  wax,  and  palm  wax. 

Beeswax  is  secreted  by  all  honey  bees,  and  by  them 
formed  into  the  cell  walls,  etc.,  of  their  comb.  It  is 
separated  by  draining  the  honey,  melting  the  drained 
comb  in  boiling  water,  and  collecting  the  wax  which 
solidifies  on  the  top  as  the  water  cools.  In  this  state  it 
is  formed  into  cakes  of  raw  or  yellow  wax,  good  exam- 
ples of  which  are  of  a light  yellow  color,  translucent,' 
with  a faint  pleasant  odor  of  honey.  At  ordinary  tem- 
peratures it  breaks*with  a granular  fracture,  and  in  thin 
flakes  or  pellets  it  softens  with  the  heat  of  the  hand  and 
can  be  kneaded  between  the  fingers.  Its  specific  gravity 
is  0.960;  it  melts  at  about  62°  C.,  and  solidifies  just 
under  its  melting-point  without  evolution  of  heat.  It 
is  soluble  in  hot  ether,  essential  and  fixed  oils,  benzol, 
bisulphide  of  carbon,  and  chloroform,  and  to  some  ex- 
tent in  boiling  alcohol,  but  it  is  unaffected  by  water  and 
cold  alcohol.  Yellow  wax,  on  account  of  the  color- 
ing matter  and  other  contaminations  it  contains,  is  un- 
fit for  many  uses.  The  chief  of  these  is  candle-making. 
To  remove  soluble  matter  it  is  first  melted  over  boiling 
water;  and  for  bleaching  it  is  formed  into  thin  shreds 
and  strips  so  as  to  expose  the  greatest  possible  surface. 
So  prepared,  it  is  spread  out  and  frequently  watered 
and  turned  in  the  direct  sunlight,  a slow  but  ehective 
process.  To  hasten  the  bleaching  action,  the  wax  may 
be  mixed  with  about  one-sixth  of  pure  spirit  of  turpen- 
tine; and  this  preparation,  on  exposure,  by  its  copious 
production  of  ozone,  effects  in  four  or  five  days  a bleach- 
ing which  otherwise  would  occupy  three  or  four  weeks. 
When  the  bleaching  is  complete  all  trace  of  turpentine 
oil  will  have  disappeared.  Bleaching  may  also  be  ef- 
fected by  chlorine,  permanganate  of  potash,  and  other 
chemicals,  but  these  injuriously  affect  the  wax,  in  some 
cases  forming  substitution  products  which  cannot  be  re- 
moved, and  which  in  burning  give  off  deleterious  fumes. 
Wax  is  obtained  in  all  parts  of  the  world  where  there  is 
vegetation  sufficient  to  support  bees;  but  it  is  most 
largely  forthcoming  from  tropical  and  subtropical  re- 
gions. It  is  subject  to  extensive  adulteration  from 
powdered  mineral  substances,  flour,  cheaper  waxes, 
paraffin,  etc.  Its  uses  are  multifarious;  but  it  is  most 
largely  consumed  in  making  candles  for  the  religious 
services  of  Roman  Catholic  and  Orthodox  Greek  Chris- 
tians, and  for  wax  figures  and  models  (see  Wax  En- 
ures). 


6303 

Chinese  Insect  Wax,  or  Pe  La , is  a secretion 
deposited  by  an  insect,  Coccus  ceriferus,  Fabr. , in  the 
twigs  of  a species  of  ash.  The  wax  is,  in  its  origin  and 
the  functions  it  performs  in  the  insect  economy,  closely 
related  to  the  lac  produced  by  the  allied  species  of 
Coccus  (see  Lac).  When  separated  from  the  twigs 
which  it  incrusts,  and  purified,  it  is  a hard  translucent 
white  crystalline  body,  similar  to  spermaceti.  It  melts 
at  from  82°  to  86°  C.,  and  in  composition  consists  of 
cerin,  one  of  the  constituents  of  beeswax.  It  is  little 
known  in  European  commerce,  but  forms  a highly 
important  article  of  trade  in  China  and  Japan,  where 
it  is  largely  used  for  candle-making  and  for  medicinal 
purposes. 

Japanese  Wax  is  a hard,  wax-like  fat  which  now 
forms  an  important  export  from  Japan.  It  is  obtained 
from  the  small  stone  fruits  of  several  species  of  Rhus 
cultivated  in  Japan.  For  the  extraction  of  the  wax, 
which  is  present  to  the  extent  of  about  20  per  cent., 
the  fruits  are  ground  and  treated  by  either  of  three 
methods — (1)  heating  and  pressure,  (2)  boiling  in 
water,  and  (3)  maceration  with  ether  or  bisulphide  of 
carbon.  The  wax  is  subsequently  bleached,  and  as  it 
comes  into  the  market,  consists  of  yellowish  hard  cakes, 
covered  often  with  a fine  white  powdery  efflorescence. 
It  has  a resinous,  unpleasant,  rancid  odor. 

Myrtle-Berry  Wax  is  obtained  from  the  fruit  of  sev- 
eral species  of  Myrica  in  the  United  States,  New 
Granada,  Venezuela,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
other  regions.  It  is  a hard,  greenish  substance,  with  a 
pleasant  balsamic  odor.  Its  melting-point  is  about 
450  C.,  and  it  consists  principally  of  free  palmitic  acid 
with  a little  stearic  acid  and  myristic  acid — -a  very  small 
proportion  of  these  being  combined  as  glycerides.  It 
is  consumed  principally  in  the  United  States  in  combi- 
nation with  beeswax  for  candles;  and  it  is  said  the 
Hottentots  eat  it  like  cheese. 

Carnatiba  Wax  is  an  exudation  on  the  surface  of  the 
growing  leaves  of  the  carnauba  palm,  Corypha  cerifera , 
L.,  which  flourishes  in  tropical  South  America.  The 
wax  is  obtained  by  cutting  off  and  drying  the  young 
leaves,  from  which  it  is  then  shaken  as  fine  dust,  and 
caked  by  melting  either  over  an  open  fire  or  in  boiling 
water. 

Palm-Tree  Wax  is  an  exudation  formed  on  the  stems 
of  two  South  American  palms,  Ceroxyloh  andicola , H. 
and  K. , and  Klopstockia  cerifera , Kars.  As  scraped 
from  the  trees  and  compacted  by  melting,  it  is  a mix- 
ture of  resin  and  wax,  having  a melting-point  as  high 
as  1020  to  1050  C.  The  pure  wax  may  be  separated 
by  digesting  with  boiling  spirit,  when  it  is  obtained 
with  a melting-point  of  720  C.  and  a composition 
analogous  to  carnauba  wax,  like  which  it  is  used  for 
candles. 

WAXY  DEGENERATION  is  a morbid  process  in 
which  the  healthy  tissue  of  various  organs  is  trans- 
formed into  a peculiar  substance,  allied  in  some  re- 
spects to  amyloid  compounds,  and  in  others  to  albumin 
ous  substances.  Organs  affected  by  this  degeneration 
have  a certain  resemblance  in  consistency  and  physical 
character  to  wax.  They  may  be  cut  into  portions  of 
the  most  regular  shape,  with  sharp  angles  and  smooth 
surfaces;  and  the  thinnest  possible  slices  may  be  re- 
moved by  a knife  for  microscopic  examination.  Such 
organs  are  abnormally  translucent,  increased  in  volume, 
solidity  and  weight.  Usually,  the  first  parts  affected  by 
this  degeneration  are  the  small  blood  vessels,  the  mid- 
dle or  muscular  coat  first  being  changed.  Subsequently 
the  secreted  cells  become  similarly  affected.  When  a 
solution  of  iodine  is  brought  in  contact  with  such  tis- 
sues, a very  deep  violet  red  color  is  produced  ; and  this 
| deep  red  color  is  alone  a sufficiently  characteristic  test. 


WAX 


6304 

Although  amyloid  degeneration  is  common  to  many  tis- 
sues and  organs,  the  parts  most  frequently  affected  are 
the  spleen,  liver,  and  kidneys.  This  morbid  condition 
in  one  or  more  organs  is  the  expression  of  a general 
pathological  state,  the  conditions  and  relations  of  which 
are  as  yet  little  known. 

WAX  FIGURES.  Beeswax  is  possessed  of  prop- 
erties which  render  it  a most  convenient  medium  for 
preparing  figures  and  models,  either  by  modeling  or  by 
casting  in  molds.  At  ordinary  temperatures  it  can  be 
cut  and  shaped  with  facility;  it  melts  to  a limpid 
fluid  at  a low  heat;  it  mixes  with  any  coloring  matter, 
and  takes  surface  tints  well;  and  its  texture  and  con- 
sistency may  be  modified  by  the  addition  of  earthy  mat- 
ters and  oils  or  fats.  When  molten,  it  takes  the 
minutest  impressions  of  a mold,  and  it  sets  and 
hardens  at  such  a temperature  that  no  ordinary  climatic 
influences  affect  the  form  it  assumes,  even  when  it  is 
cast  in  thin  laminae.  The  facilities  which  wax  offers 
for  modeling  have  been  taken  advantage  of  from  the 
remotest  times.  Figures  in  wax  of  their  deities  were 
used  in  the  funeral  rites  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and 
deposited  among  other  offerings  in  their  graves;  many 
of  these  are  now  preserved  in  museums.  That  the 
Egyptians  also  modeled  fruits  can  be  learned  from 
numerous  allusions  in  early  literature.  Among  the 
Greeks  during  their  best  art  period,  wax  figures  were 
largely  used  as  dolls  for  children;  statuettes  of  deities 
were  modeled  for  votive  offerings  and  for  religious  cere- 
monies, and  wax  images  to  which  magical  properties 
were  attributed  were  treasured  by  the  people.  Wax 
figures  and  models  held  a still  more  important  place 
among  the  ancient  Romans.  The  practice  of  wax 
modeling  can  be  traced  through  the  Middle  Ages,  when 
votive  offerings  of  wax  figures  were  made  to  churches, 
and  the  memory  and  lineaments  of  monarchs  and  great 
personages  were  preserved  by  means  of  wax  masks  as  in 
the  days  of  Roman  patricians.  In  these  ages  malice 
and  superstition  found  expression  in  the  formation  of 
wax  images  of  hated  persons,  into  the  bodies  of  which 
long  pins  were  thrust,  in  the  confident  expectation  that 
thereby  deadly  injury  would  be  induced  to  the  person 
represented;  and  this  belief  and  practice  continued  till 
the  seventeenth  century. 

About  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  Flaxman 
executed  in  wax  many  portraits  and  other  relief  figures 
which  Josiah  Wedgwood  translated  into  pottery  for  his 
jasper  ware.  The  modeling  of  the  soft  parts  of  dissec- 
tions, etc.,  for  teaching  illustrations  of  anatomy  was 
first  practiced  at  Florence,  and  is  now  very  common. 
Such  preparations  formed  part  of  a show  at  Hamburg 
In  1721,  and  from  that  time  wax-works,  on  a plane 
lower  than  art,  have  been  popular  attractions.  These 
exhibitions  consist  principally  of  images  of  historical  or 
notorious  personages,  made  up  of  waxen  masks  on  lay 
figures  in  which  sometimes  mechanism  is  fitted  to  give 
motion  to  the  figure. 

WAX  MINERAL  is  a natural  product  known  under 
the  name  of  ozokerit.  It  used  only  to  be  found  in 
small  quantities  oozing  from  rocks  of  coal  formation 
near  Edinburgh,  candles  as  curiosities  being  made  of  it 
by  the  miners ; but  this  hydrocarbon  is  now  got  near 
Newcastle,  in  Wales,  in  Galicia,  in  Roumania.  In 
Utah  and  California  it  has  now  become  an  important 
article  commercially,  for  the  manufacture  of  candles. 
When  found  it  has  a dark,  rich  brown  color,  slightly 
greenish  and  translucent  in  thin  films;  but  when  re- 
fined it  resemb>s  well  bleached  bees-wax.  Its  melting 
point  is  about  sixty  degrees. 

WAX  WING,  a bird  first  so-called  apparently  by 
Selby  in  1825,  having  been  before  known  as  the  “ Silk- 
tail  a literal  rendering  of  the  German  Seidenschwanz 


— or  “ Chatterer  ” — the  prefix  “ German,”  “ Bohemian, 
or  “ Waxen  ” being  often  also  applied.  Selby’s  conven- 
ient name  has  now  been  generally  adopted,  since  the 
bird  is  readily  distinguished  from  almost  all  others  by 
the  curious  expansion  of  the  shaft  of  some  of  its  wing- 
feathers  at  the  tip  into  a flake  that  looks  like  scarlet 
sealing-wax,  while  its  exceedingly  silent  habit  makes  the 
name  “ Chatterer  ” wholly  inappropriate,  and  indeed 
this  last  arose  from  a misinterpretation  of  the  specific 
term  garruhis,  meaning  a Jay  (from  the  general  resem- 
blance in  color  of  the  two  birds),  and  not  referring  to 
any  garrulous  quality.  It  is  the  Ampelis  garrulns  of 
Linnaeus  and  of  more  recent  ornithologists.  It  is  now 
pretty  evident  that  the  Waxwing,  though  doubtless 
breeding  yearly  in  some  parts  of  northern  Europe,  is  as 
irregular  in  the  choice  of  its  summer-quarters  as  in  that 
of  its  winter-retreats.  Moreover,  the  species  exhibits 
the  same  irregular  habits  in  America.  Mr.  Drexler  on 
one  occasion,  in  Nebraska,  saw  it  in  “millions.”  In 
1861  Kennicott  found  it  breeding  on  the  Yukon,  and 
later  Mr.  MacFarlane  had  the  like  good  fortune  on  the 
Anderson  river. 

Beautiful  as  is  the  bird  with  its  drooping  crest,  its 
cinnamon  brown  plumage,  passing  in  parts  into  gray  or 
chestnut,  and  relieved  by  black,  white,  and  yellow — all 
of  the  purest  tint — the  external  feature  which  has  invited 
most  attention  is  the  “ sealing-wax”  (already  men- 
tioned) which  tips  some  of  the  secondary  or  radial  quills, 
and  occasionally  those  of  the  tail.  This  is  nearly  'as 
much  exhibited  by  the  kindred  species,  A.  cedroi'um — 
the  well-known  Cedar-bird  in  North  America — which  is 
easily  distinguished  by  its  smaller  size,  less  black 
chin -spot,  the  yellower  tinge  of  the  lower  parts,  and 
the  want  of  white  on  the  wings.  In  the  A.  phoeni- 
copterus  of  southeastern  Siberia  and  Japan,  the  remiges 
and  rectrices  are  tipped  with  red  in  the  ordinary  way 
without  dilatation  of  the  shaft  of  the  feathers. 

Both  the  Waxwing  and  Cedar-bird  seem  to  live  chiefly 
on  insects  in  summer,  but  are  marvelously  addicted  to 
berries  during  the  rest  of  the  year,  and  will  gorge 
themselves  if  opportunity  allow.  Hence  they  are  not 
pleasant  cage-birds,  though  quickly  becoming  tame. 

WEALTH.  The  most  commonly  accepted  defini- 
tion of  wealth  is  that  it  consists  of  all  useful  and  agree- 
able things  which  possess  exchange  value,  and  this 
again  is  generally  regarded  as  coextensive  with  all  de- 
sirable things  except  those  which  do  not  involve  labor 
or  sacrifice  for  their  acquisition  in  the  quantity  desired. 
On  analysis  it  will  be  evident  that  this  definition  im- 
plies, directly,  preliminary  conceptions  of  utility  and 
value,  and  indirectly,  of  sacrifice  and  labor,  and  these 
terms,  familiar  though  they  may  appear,  are  by  no 
means  simple  and  obvious  in  their  meaning.  U tility,  for 
the  purposes  of  economic  reasoning,  is  usually  held  to 
mean  the  capacity  to  satisfy  a desire  or  serve  a purpose 
(J.  S.  Mill),  and  in  this  sense  is  clearly  a much  wider 
term  than  wealth.  Sunshine  and  fresh  air,  good  temper 
and  pleasant  manners,  and  all  the  infinite  variety  of 
means  of  gratification,  material  and  immaterial,  are 
covered  by  utility  as  thus  defined.  Wealth  is  thus  a 
species  of  utility,  and  in  order  to  separate  it  from 
other  species  some  differentia  must  be  found.  This, 
according  to  the  general  definition,  is  exchange  value, 
but  a little  reflection  will  show  that  in  some  cases  it  is 
necessary  rather  to  contrast  value  with  wealth. 
“Value,”  says  Ricardo,  expanding  a thought  of  Adam 
Smith,  “ essentially  differs  from  riches,  for  value  de- 
pends not  on  abundance,  but  on  the  difficulty  or  facility 
of  production.”  Suppose  that  in  the  total  money  value 
of  the  national  inventory,  a decline  were  observed  to  be 
in  progress,  while  at  the  same  time,  as  is  quite  possi- 
ble, an  increase  was  noticed  in  the  quantity  of  all  the 


W E A 


Important  items  and  an  improvement  in  their  quality,  it 
vvould  be  in  accordance  with  common  sense  to  say  that 
the  wealth  of  the  country  was  increasing  and  not  de- 
creasing. 

So  great  are  these  difficulties  that  some  economists 
(< e.g .,  Ricardo)  have  proposed  to  take  utility  as  the  di- 
rect measure  of  wealth,  and,  as  Mr.  Sidgwick  has 
. pointed  out,  if  double  the  quantity  meant  double  the 
utility,  this  would  be  an  easy  and  natural  procedure. 
But  even  to  the  same  individual  the  increase  in  utility 
is  by  no  means  simply  proportioned  to  the  increase  in 
quantity,  and  the  utility  of  different  commodities  to  dif- 
ferent individuals,  and  a fortiori  of  different  amounts,  is 
proverbial.  The  very  same  things  may  to  the  same  in- 
dividual be  productive  of  more  utility,  simply  owing  to 
a change  in  his  tastes  or  habits,  and  a different  distri- 
bution of  the  very  same  things,  which  make  up  the 
wealth  of  a nation,  might  indefinitely  change  the  quan- 
tity of  utility,  but  it  would  be  paradoxical  to  say  that  the 
wealth  had  increased  because  it  was  put  to  better  uses. 

We  thus  seem  thrown  back  on  value  as  the  essential 
characteristic,  allowance  being  made  for  any  change  in 
the  standard  of  value;  but  there  are  still  difficulties  to 
be  overcome.  Some  things  that  undoubtedly  possess 
value  or  that  can  command  a price,  are  immaterial,  e.g., 
the  advice  of  a lawyer  or  physician  or  the  song  of  a 
prima  donna , and,  although  perhaps  the  skill  of  a 
workman  (in  any  grade  of  the  social  scale)  might  be  con- 
sidered as  attached  to  the  man,  as  a coal  mine  is  attached 
to  a place,  it  is  more  in  accordance  with  popular  usage 
to  consider  skill  as  immaterial,  while  at  the  same  time  it 
seems  equally  natural  prima  facie  to  confine  the  term 
wealth  to  material  things  in  the  common  sense.  Again, 
the  credit  system  of  a country  is  a product  of  great 
labor  and  sacrifice;  it  is  most  closely  connected  with  the 
production  of  its  material  wealth  in  the  narrowest  sense, 
and  it  certainly  commands  a pecuniary  value,  and  yet 
credit  is  more  generally  held  to  be  a representative 
rather  than  a part  of  wealth,  owing  apparently  to  its  un- 
substantial character . Apart  from  the  question  of  ma- 
teriality some  writers  have  insisted  on  relative  per- 
manence and  possibility  of  accumulation  as  essential  at- 
tributes of  wealth,  and  have  thus  still  further  narrowed 
the  scope  of  the  definition. 

Applying  these  rules  to  the  definition  of  wealth,  per- 
haps the  best  solution  is  that  which  is  generally  con- 
nected with  German  economists  (e.g.,  Held).  Wealth 
consists  of  utilities,  and  in  the  first  great  department  of 
economics — the  consumption  of  wealth — it  is  utility 
with  which  we  are  principally  concerned — the  idea  of 
value,  for  example,  being  overshadowed.  The  most 
general  law  of  the  consumption  of  wealth  is  that  succes- 
sive portions  of  any  stock  give  a diminishing  amount  of 
utility  when  consumed.  Then  in  the  department  of 
the  production  of  wealth  the  most  important  character- 
istics are  the  labor  and  sacrifice  necessary  to  puc  the 
utilities  desired  into  the  things  and  to  place  the  things 
where  they  are  wanted.  The  idea  of  value  is  again 
secondary  and  subordinate.  In  the  department  of  the 
distribution  of  wealth,  the  fundamental  conception  is  the 
right  of  appropriation;  and  accordingly  J.  S.  Mill  very 
properly  commences  this  part  of  his  subject  by  an 
account  of  the  relative  advantages  of  the  socialistic  and 
individual  systems  of  property.  It  is  quite  possible 
under  the  former  to  conceive  of  all  the  distribution 
being  made  without  any  exchange  and  with  reference 
simply  to  the  wants  or  the  deserts  of  the  members  of 
the  society.  Thus  it  is  not  until  we  arrive  at  the 
department  of  the  exchange  of  wealth  that  the  charac- 
teristic of  value  becomes  predominant,  although  of 
course  value  is  closely  connected  with  utility  and  labor 
and  sacrifice. 


6305 

Usually,  however,  it  will  be  found  that  in  most  cases 
anything  which  can  fairly  be  classed  as  wealth  in  one 
department  is  also  wealth  in  the  others,  and  thus  the 
definition  is  reached  that  wealth  in  general  consists  of 
all  “ consumable  utilities  which  require  labor  for  their 
production  and  can  be  appropriated  and  exchanged.” 

WEANING  AND  FEEDING  IN  INFANCY. 
The  propriety  of  mothers  nursing  their  own  children  is 
so  universally  acknowledged  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
physician  less  frequently  to  urge  maternal  nursing  than 
to  indicate  those  cases  in  which  it  becomes  necessary  to 
substitute  another  mode  of  rearing  the  infant.  Women 
who  labor  under  any  mortal  or  weakening  disease  are 
obviously  disqualified  from  the  office  of  nurse.  Some 
who  are  in  other  respects  healthy  have  breasts  incapable 
of  secreting  a sufficient  supply  of  milk.  In  other  in- 
stances the  breasts  may  perform  their  functions  well, 
but  the  nipple  may  be  naturally  so  small,  or  may  be  so 
obliterated  by  the  pressure  of  tight  stays,  as  not  to  ad- 
mit of  its  being  laid  hold  of  by  the  child.  These  are 
actual  physical  hindrances  to  nursing.  Again,  women 
may,  and  in  the  higher  classes  do,  possess  such  ex- 
tremely sensitive  and  excitable  temperaments  as  will 
render  it  imprudent  for  them  to  suckle  their  own  chil- 
dren. Frightened  and  excited  by  every  accidental 
change  in  the  infant’s  countenance,  and  inordinately 
moved  by  the  common  agitations  of  life,  such  persons 
are  kept  in  a state  of  continual  fever  which  materially 
interferes  with  the  formation  of  milk,  both  as  to  quality 
and  quantity.  Women  who  become  mothers  at  a late 
period  of  life  have  seldom  the  flexibility  of  disposition 
or  the  physical  aptitude  for  the  secretion  of  milk  re- 
quired to  constitute  a good  nurse.  In  ordinary  case? 
the  child  should  be  put  to  the  breast  as  soon  as  the  lat- 
ter begins  to  contain  anything;  and  then,  if  the  secre- 
tion of  milk  has  fairly  commenced,  it  will  require  no 
other  food  until  the  seventh  or  eighth  month,  provided 
the  mother  be  a good  nurse.  During  the  first  five  or 
six  months  the  infant  should  be  put  to  the  breast  at 
regular  intervals  of  about  four  hours;  after  the  teeth 
begin  to  appear  the  child  need  not  suck  more  than  four 
times  in  twenty-four  hours,  some  artificial  food  being 
given  to  it  twice  during  tne  same  period.  This  at  first 
may  consist  of  bread  steeped  in  hot  water,  with  the 
addition  of  sugar  and  cow’s  milk,  and  subsequently  a 
little  broth,  free  from  salt,  and  vegetables  given  once  a 
day.  The  spoon  is  now  the  best  medium  of  feeding,  as 
the  food  should  be  more  solid  than  could  be  drawn 
through  the  sucking  bottle.  The  time  for  weaning 
should  be  that  indicated  by  nature,  when,  by  providing 
the  child  with  teeth,  she  furnishes  it  with  the  means  of 
obtaining  its  nourishment  from  substances  more  solid 
than  milk.  If  the  infant  has  been  accustomed  to  a 
gradually  diminished  supply  of  maternal  and  an  increase 
of  artificial  food,  weaning  will  be  a comparatively  easy 
process,  and  much  of  that  suffering,  both  to  parent  and 
child,  will  be  spared,  which  commonly  ensues  when  a 
sudden  change  is  made.  In  ordinary  cases  the  period 
of  weaning  varies  from  the  seventh  to  the  twelfth 
month ; sometimes  the  child  is  kept  at  the  breast  for  a 
much  longer  period  from  the  popular  idea  that  lactation 
prevents  pregnancy,  but  such  unusually  prolonged  lac- 
tation is  usually  injurious  to  both  mother  and  child. 

In  those  cases  in  which  it  is  inexpedient  and  impos- 
sible for  a mother  to  suckle  her  own  child,  the  choice  of 
a wet  nurse  becomes  a subject  of  much  importance. 
Upon  this  subject  Doctor  Maunsell  lays  down  the  follow- 
ing practical  and  important  rules:  •“  The  great  thing  we 
have  to  look  at  is  to  ascertain  that  both  the  woman  and 
her  child  are  in  good  health,  and  of  this  we  must  en- 
deavor to  judge  by  the  following  signs;  the  woman’s 
general  appearance  and  form  should  be  observed,  and 


W E A 


6306 

Aey  ought  to  be  such  as  betoken  a good  constitution. 
Her  skin  should  be  free  from  eruptions,  her  tongue 
clean,  indicating  a healthy  digestion;  her  gums  and 
teeth  should  be  sound  and  perfect;  the  breasts  should 
be  firm  and  well  formed,  not  too  large  or  flabby,  and 
with  perfect,  well  developed  nipples.  We  should  see 
that  the  milk  flows  freely  upon  a slight  pressure;  and 
we  should  allow  a little  of  it  to  remain  in  a glass  in 
order  that  we  might  judge  its  quality.  It  should  be 
thin  and  of  a bluish  white  color,  sweet  to  the  taste, 
and  when  allowed  to  stand,  should  throw  up  a consider- 
able quantity  of  cream.  A nurse  should  not  be  old, 
but  it  is  better  that  she  should  have  one  or  two  children 
before,  as  she  will  then  be  likely  to  have  more  milk, 
and  may  be  supposed  to  have  acquired  more  experience 
in  the  management  of  infants.  Having  examined  the 
mother,  we  must  next  turn  to  the  child,  which  should 
be  well  nourished,  clean  and  free  from  eruptions, 
especially  on  the  head  and  buttocks.  We  should  also 
examine  its  mouth  to  ascertain  that  it  is  free  from  sores 
or  aphthae.  If  both  woman  and  child  bear  such  an  ex- 
amination, we  may  with  tolerable  security  pronounce  the 
former  a good  nurse.’’  In  one  respect  we  differ  from 
this  eminent  physician.  He  holds  that  “ the  more  re- 
cently the  nurse’s  confinement  has  taken  place,  pro- 
vided she  has  recovered  from  its  effects,  the  better.” 
Supposing  a nurse  is  required  for  a new  born  infant, 
this  rule  holds  good ; but  provided  a nurse  is  required 
for  an  infant  three  or  four  months  old  (for  example),  it 
is  preferable  to  obtain  a nurse  whose  milk  is  that  age. 
We  believe  it  is  a general  physiological  law  that  the 
milk  should  correspond  with  the  age  of  the  infant,  that 
is  to  say  that  the  infant  taken  at  any  given  age  from  its 
mother,  before  the  normal  period  of  weaning,  chould 
be  provided  with  a nurse  who  was  confined  about  the 
same  time  as  its  own  mother. 

A wet  nurse  should  be  preferred  to  any  kind  of  arti- 
ficial feeding ; but  peculiar  cases  may  occur  in  which  it 
is  impossible  to  procure  a wet  nurse ; or  an  infant 
whose  mother  is  capable  of  nursing  it  may  be  the  sub- 
ject of  a disease  that  may  be  transmitted  through  the 
infant  to  the  nurse.  In  these  cases  a food  must  be  pro- 
vided as  nearly  as  possible  resembling  the  natural  food, 
and  this  is  generally  sought  for  among  the  food  of  animals. 
The  milk  of  the  cow  is  most  generally  used  in  conse- 
auence  of  its  being  most  easily  obtained.  The  most 
important  difference  between  cow’s  milk  and  woman’s 
milk  is  the  great  excess  of  casein  in  the  former.  The 
former  fluid  may,  however,  be  made  to  resemble  the  lat- 
ter in  composition  in  either  of  the  following  ways:  (1) 
on  gently  heating  the  cow’s  milk,  a membrane  of  casein 
forms  on  the  surface : by  removing  two  or  three  of  these 
membranes  as  they  form  we  can  I'educe  the  quantity  of 
casein  to  the  desired  extent ; or  (2)  we  may  dilute  cow’s 
milk  with  twice  its  bulk  of  pure  water,  and  add  a little 
sugar.  This  food  should  be  administered  at  a natural 
temperature  (of  about  98°)  through  a sucking  bottle; 
and  as  the  child  grows  older  it  will  soon  be  able  to 
take  natural  cow’s  milk  without  inconvenience.  The 
rules  regarding  the  times,  etc.,  for  feeding,  are  similar  to 
' hose  laid  down  for  suckling.  Assuming  that  the  infant, 
whether  brought  up  at  the  breast  or  artificially  reared, 
has  been  safely  weaned,  we  have  to  consider  what  rules 
should  be  laid  down  regarding  its  food  subsequently. 
For  some  months  after  weaning  the  food  should  con- 
sist of  semi-fluid  substances,  such  as  milk  thickened 
with  baked  flour,  or  pap,  to  which  a little  sugar  should 
be  added.  Light  broths  should  also  be  administered, 
especially  in  the  occasional  cases  in  which  milk  seems  to 
disagree,  and  bread  and  butter  may  be  tried  in  small 
quantity.  We  shall  conclude  this  article  with  the  fol- 
lowing “ model  of  a suitable  diet  for  children”  which  can- 


not be  too  strongly  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  all 
young  mothers.  A healthy  child  of  two  or  three 
years  old  commonly  awakes  at  five  or  six  o’clock 
in  the  morning  hungry  and  thirsty,  and  sometimes 
even  earlier.  Immediately  after  awakening  a little 
bread  and  milk  should  be  given  to  it  (or  when  the 
child  is  too  young  a little  bread  pap).  The  latter 
should  be  warm,  but  in  the  former  case  the  bread  may 
be  eaten  from  the  hand  and  the  milk  allowed  to  be 
drank  cold,  as  it  is  well  at  this  meal  to  furnish  no  in- 
ducement for  eating  beyond  that  of  hunger.  After  eat- 
ing, the  child  will  generally  sleep  again  for  an  hour  or 
two  ; and  about  nine  o’clock  it  should  get  its  second 
meal  of  bread  softened  in  water,  which  latter  is  to  be 
drained  off  and  a little  milk  and  sugar  added  to  the 
bread.  Between  one  and  two  the  child  may  have  din- 
ner, consisting  at  the  younger  ages  of  beef,  mutton, 
or  chicken  broth  (deprived  of  all  fat),  and  bread. 
When  a sufficient  number  of  teeth  are  developed  to  ad- 
mit of  chewing  being  performed,  a little  animal  food, 
such  as  chicken  01  roast  or  broiled  mutton,  or  beef,  not 
too  much  dressed,  can  be  allowed,  with  a potato,  or  bread, 
or  some  kind  of  vegetable.  After  dinner  some  drink 
will  be  requisite  : and  a healthy  child  requires  and  in- 
deed wishes  for  nothing  but  water.  Light,  fresh  table 
beer  would  not  be  injurious  to  a child  four  or  five  years 
old,  but  it  is  unnecessary.  Between  six  and  seven  o’clock 
the  child  may  have  its  last  meal  of  bread  steeped  in 
water,  etc.,  as  at  nine  o’clock  in  the  morning.  A 
healthy  child  which  has  been  in  the  open  air  the  greater 
part  of  the  day,  will  be  ready  for  bed  shortly  after  this 
last  supply,  and  will  require  nothing  more  until  the  next 
morning.  Similar  regimen  and  hours  may  be  adopted 
throughout  the  whole  period  of  childhood,  only  as  the 
fifth  year  approaches  giving  for  breakfast  and  supper 
bread  and  milk  without  water  and  either  warm  or  cold, 
according  to  the  weather  and  the  child’s  inclination. 
The  supply  of  food  upon  awakening  in  the  morning 
may  be  gradually  discontinued,  and  breakfast  be  given 
somewhat  earlier. 

WEASEL.  The  smallest  species  of  the  group  of 
animals  of  which  the  polecat  and  stoat  are  well-known 
members  (see  Mammalia).  It  is  Mustela  vulgaris  of 
Linnoeus,  but  belongs  to  the  section  ( Putorius ) of  the 
genus. 

The  weasel  is  an  extremely  elegant  little  animal, 
with  elongated  slender  body,  the  back  generally  much 
arched,  the  head  small  and  flattened,  ears  short  and 
rounded,  neck  long  and  flexible,  limbs  very  short, 
five  toes  on  eac*h  foot,  all  with  sharp,  compressed, 
curved  claws,  tail  rather  short,  slender,  cylindrical,  and 
pointed  at  the  tip,  fur  short  and  close.  The  upper 
parts,  outside  of  limbs  and  tail,  are  a uniform  reddish- 
brown,  the  under  parts  pure  white.  In  very  cold  regions, 
both  in  Europe  and  America,  it  turns  completely  white 
in  winter,  but  less  regularly  and  at  a lower  temperature 
than  its  near  ally  the  stoat  or  ermine,  from  which  it  is 
easily  distinguished  by  its  smaller  size,  and  by  its  want- 
ing the  black  end  of  the  tail.  The  length  of  the  head 
and  body  of  the  male  is  usually  about  eight  inches,  that 
of  the  tail  two  and  one-half  inches  ; the  female  is 
smaller.  The  common  weasel  is  pretty  generally  dis- 
tributed throughout  Europe,  Northern  and  Central 
Asia,  British  North  America,  and  the  northern  portions 
of  the  United  States.  Mice,  rats,  voles,  and  moles,  as 
well  as  frogs,  constitute  its  principal  food.  It  is  gen- 
erally found  on  or  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  it 
can  not  only  pursue  its  prey  through  very  small  holes 
and  crevices  of  rocks  and  under  dense  tangled  herbage, 
but  follows  it  up  the  stems  and  branches  of  trees,  or 
even  into  the  water,  swimming  with  perfect  ease. 

It  constructs  a nest  of  dried*  leaves  and  herbage,. 


W E A 


placed  in  a hole  in  the  ground  or  a bank  or  hollow  tree, 
in  which  it  brings  up  its  litter  of  four  to  six  (usually  five) 
young  ones.  The  mother  will  defend  her  young  with 
the  utmost  desperation  against  any  assailant,  having 
been  often  known  to  sacrifice  her  own  life  rather  than 
desert  them. 

WEATHERFORD,  capital  of  Parker  county,  Tex., 
is  located  on  the  Texas  Pacific  railroad,  65  miles  west 
of  Dallas,  200  miles  north  of  Austin,  31  miles  from 
Fort  Worth,  and  11  miles  from  the  Brazos  river.  The 
country  in  the  vicinity,  though  hilly,  is  highly  cultivated; 
and  the  location  of  extensive  stock  ranches,  makes 
Weatherford  a trade  center  and  shipping  point  of  great 
importance,  as  also  the  scene  of  business  transactions 
involving  large  amounts.  The  city  contains  three 
banks,  two  weekly  papers,  schools,  churches,  hotels, 
stores,  commission  and  warehouses,  also  a court  house 
and  county  offices.  Besides  the  manufactures  proper, 
which  include  large  and  varied  lines  of  production,  prin- 
cipal among  which  are  lumber,  castor  oil,  flour,  canned 
goods,  candy,  etc.,  the  city  is  the  shipping  point  for  the 
cotton  grown  in  Parker  and  adjoining  counties,  and 
much  of  the  annual  crop  is  ginned,  sampled,  and  other- 
wise prepared  for  market  at  Weatherford,  an  additional 
and  potent  factor  in  promoting  the  city’s  prosperity. 
The  population  in  1900  was  reported  at  4,786.  - 

WEAVER-BIRD,  the  name  by  which  a group  of 
betwcc*  aoo  and  300  *peci«  are  now  utuallr  called, 
from  the  alaborately  interwoven  nesti  that  many  of 
them  build,  tome  of  the  itructurea  being  of  the  most 
marvelous  kind.  By  the  older  syst  ematiaU  tuch  of  these 
bird*  as  were  then  known  were  distributed  among  the 
genera  Oriolus , Lvxia,  Emberiza , and  I' ring  ilia,  and  it 
was  Cuvier  who  in  1817  first  brought  togcthci  these 
dissevered  forms,  comprising  them  in  a genus  Phcstts. 
Since  hi*  time  others  have  been  referred  to  its  neigh- 
borhood, and  especially  the  genu*  J idu*  with  it*  alhea, 
«*>■  to  make  the&  $ Subfamily  Ploezituzs  which  in 
1847  was  raised  by  Professor  Cabanis  to  the  rank  of  a 
Family  Plqceidcc. 

Where  so  many  forms  are  concerned,  only  a few  of 
the  most  important  can  now  be  mentioned.  The  type  of 
Cuvier’s  genus  is  certainly  the  Loxia  philippina  of  Lin- 
naeus, so  termed  from  the  islands  it  inhabits.  But  the 
typical  Weaver-bird  of  Latham  (not  that  he  had  the 
name  in  that  precise  form)  is  the  Hyphantornis  cuculla- 
ta  or  textor  of  modern  writers,  an  African  species,  and 
it  is  to  the  Ethiopian  region  that  by  far  the  greatest 
number  of  these  birds  belong,  and  in  it  they  seem  to 
attain  their  maximum  of  development.  They  are  all 
small,  with,  generally  speaking,  a Sparrow-like  build; 
but  in  richness  of  coloring  the  males  of  some  are  very 
conspicuous — glowing  in  crimson,  scarlet,  or  golden- 
yellow,  set  off  by  jet-black,  while  the  females  are 
usually  dull  in  hue.  Some  species  build  nests  that  are 
not  very  remarkable,  except  in  being  almost  invariably 
domed — others  (such  as  the  Philippine  Weaver-bird, 
Ploceus  philippinus , just  named)  fabricate  singular 
structures  of  closely  and  uniformly  interwoven  tendrils 
or  fine  roots,  that  often  hang  from  the  bough  of  a tree 
over  water,  and,  starting  with  a solidly  wrought  rope, 
open  out  into  a globular  chamber,  and  then  contract 
into  a tube  several  inches  in  length,  through  which  the 
birds  effect  their  exit  and  entrance.  But  the  most  won- 
derful nests  of  all,  and  indeed  the  most  wonderful  built 
by  birds,  are  those  of  the  so-called  Sociable  Grosbeak, 
PhilkeUerus  socius,  of  Africa.  These  are  composed 
wholly  of  grass,  and  are  joined  together  to  the  number 
of  100  or  200 — indeed  320  are  said  to  have  been  found 
in  one  of  these  aggregated  masses,  which  usually  take 
the  form  of  a gigantic  mushroom,  affording  a home 
and  nursery  to  many  pairs  of  the  birds  which  have  been 


6307 

at  the  trouble  of  building  it.  These  nests,  however, 
have  been  so  often  described  and  figured  by  South- 
African  travelers  that  there  is  no  need,  here  to  dilate 
longer  on  their  marvels. 

The  group  of  Widow-birds,  Viduince , is  remarkable 
for  the  extraordinary  growth  of  the  tail-feathers  in  the 
males  at  the  breeding-season.  In  the  largest  species, 
Vidua  (sometimes  called  Chera)  progne , the  cock-bird, 
which,  with  the  exception  of  a scarlet  and  buff  bar  on 
the  upper  wing-coverts,  is  wholly  black,  there  is  simply 
a great  elongation  of  the  rectrices;  but  in  V.  paradisea 
the  form  of  the  tail  is  quite  unique.  The  middle  pair 
of  feathers  have  the  webs  greatly  widened,  and  through 
the  twisting  of  the  shafts  their  inferior  surfaces  are  ver- 
tically opposed.  These  feathers  are  comparatively 
short,  and  end  in  a hair-like  filament.  The  next  pair 
are  produced  to  the  length  of  about  a foot — the  bird 
not  being  so  big  as  a Sparrow — and  droop  gracefully  in 
the  form  of  a sickle. 

WEAVING  is  the  art  of  forming  cloth  by  the  inter- 
lacing of  yarn  or  other  filaments  in  a loom.  In  weaving, 
two  kinds  or  sets  of  yarn  are  used,  the  warp  and  the 
weft.  The  warp  consists  of  the  threads  of  yarn  which 
extend  generally  but  not  always  in  parallel  lines  from 
end  to  end  the  whole  length  of  the  web;  the  weft  yarn 
crosses  and  intersects  the  warp  at  right  angles,  and  fills 
up  the  breadth  of  the  web.  The  warp  is  mounted  on 
the  loom  for  weaving,  and  into  it  the  weft  is  thrown  by 
means  of  a shuttle. 

To  appearance  the  varieties  of  woven  cloth  are  end- 
less; but  these  differences  are  only  in  part  due  to  the 
method  of  weaving.  The  textile  materials  employed, 
the  methods  used  in  spinning  and  preparing  yarns,  the 
dye  colors  resorted  to,  and  the  finishing  processes,  may 
vary  indefinitely  and  so  contribute  to  give  variety  of 
character  to  the  resultant  product.  The  complexities 
of  the  art  of  weaving  itself  are  reducible  to  a few  funda- 
mental operations,  which  do  not  of  necessity  demand 
the  most  intricate  mechanism. 

The  series  of  inventions  which  have  led  up  to  the 
marvelously  ingenious  looms  of  the  present  day  began 
with  the  invention  of  the  fly  shuttle,  so  called  because 
of  the  rapidity  of  its  motion,  by  John  Kay  of  Bury  in 
1 733*  Previous  to  Kay’s  time  the  shuttle  was  thrown 
by  the  weaver’s  hand  across  and  through  the  warp 
threads  from  side  to  side  of  the  web.  His  invention 
brought  the  plain  hand-loom  practically  into  the  form 
in  which  it  continues  at  present. 

The  Jacquard  apparatus  is  the  most  important  and 
ingenious  appliance  which  has  ever  been  adapted  to 
weaving,  since  by  its  agency  it  has  become  possible  to 
produce  the  most  intricate  and  extended  patterns  with 
the  same  certainty  and  with  almost  as  much  rapidity  as 
plain  cloth.  The  credit  of  introducing  and  making  the 
machine  a practical  success — if  not  the  whole  honor  of 
the  invention — is  clue  to  Joseph  Marie  Jacquard  {q.v.) 
of  Lyons.  Attention  was  first  directed  to  this  ingenious 
artisan  by  a model  of  a net-making  machine  invented  by 
him,  which  was  deposited  in  the  Conservatoire  des 
Arts  et  Metiers.  He  was  requested  in  1801  by 
Napoleon  to  examine  and  improve  on  a complicated 
loom,  and  thereupon  he  undertook  to  produce  a simple 
appliance  to  supplant  the  involved  mechanism. 

The  fundamental  principle  of  the  Jacquard  apparatus 
is  simple,  although  in  its  working  fine  mechanical  de- 
tails are  essential.  Its  object  is  to  effect  the  raising 
of  any  number  of  separate  leashes,  corded  leashes,  or 
heddles,  in  any  order  and  succession,  without  special 
tying  of  harness. 

The  first  loom  in  which  all  the  motions  in  weaving 
were  connected  and  controlled  by  one  motive  power 
was  the  ribbon  loom,  known  also  as  the  Dutch  o* 


WEB 


6308 

Dutch  engine  loom.  A machine  in  which  four  to  six 
ieces  could  be  woven  simultaneously  is  recorded  to 
ave  been  in  existence  in  Dantzic  in  the  last  quarter  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  In  1745  John  Kay,  inventor  of 
the  fly  shuttle,  and  Joseph  Stell  patented  improvements 
on  the  Dutch  engine  loom,  which  they  said  “ may  go 
or  be  worked  by  hands,  water,  or  any  other  force.” 
The  ribbon  loom  may  be  regarded  as  a series  of  distinct 
looms  mounted  within  one  frame,  each  having  its  own 
warp  and  cloth  beams,  heddles,  and  shuttle,  but  all 
worked  by  one  set  of  treadles  and  with  a single  batten. 
The  shuttles  are  thrown  across  the  narrow  web  by  a 
rack-and-pinion  arrangement;  they  are  simultaneously 
shot,  and  each  occupies  the  place  of  its  next  neighbor 
to  the  right  or  left  alternately.  The  Jacquard  appa- 
ratus and  the  drop-box  arrangement  for  changing 
shuttles  with  change  of  weft  are  applied  to  the  ribbon 
loom. 

The  application  of  power  to  the  weaving  of  ordinary 
webs  has  developed  along  a different  line,  and  the  com- 
mon power-loom  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  ribbon 
loom.  The  loom  made  in  1745  by  Vaucanson,  which 
also  foreshadowed  the  Jacquard  apparatus,  embodied 
many  improvements  on  the  conception  of  De  Gennes, 
and  presented  some  of  the  important  features  of  the 
modern  power-loom.  The  practical  realization  of  auto- 
matic weaving  was,  however,  deferred  for  forty  years, 
and  the  world  owes  it  to  a clergyman  of  the  Church  of 
England,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Edmund  Cartwright.  (See  Cot- 
ton . ) Doctor  Cartwright’s  original  loom  was  but  an  im- 
perfect machine,  although  his  patent  was  minute  and 
detailed.  The  power-loom  fought  its  way  to  supremacy 
but  slowly,  for  an  imperfect  power-loom  is  no  better 
than  a hand-loom;  and  it  was  only  after  the  minor  adap- 
tations and  adjustments  which  frequently  make  the 
difference  between  success  and  failure  were  brought  into 
operation,  that  the  real  advantages  of  power-loom  weav- 
ing became  obvious.  Even  yet,  for  many  purposes,  the 

{jower-loom  has  not  succeeded  in  supplanting  the  hand- 
00m  weaving. 

For  the  successful  working  of  a power-loom  several 
adjustments  are  necessary  which  are  not  required  in  the 
case  of  the  hand-loom.  The  hand-loom  weaver  winds 
up  his  web  on  the  cloth  beam  from  time  to  time  as  the 
work  progresses,  and  he  moves  forward  the  temples  by 
which  the  woven  fabric  is  kept  extended  to  its  proper 
breadth.  In  the  power-loom  these  must  be  accom- 
plished automatically,  and  the  motions  must  be  self- 
adjusting  with  the  progress  of  weaving.  More  impor- 
tant still,  a self-acting  appliance  must  be  provided  to 
stop  the  motion  of  the  loom  in  case  of  the  weft  thread 
becoming  exhausted  or  being  broken.  This  is  secured 
by  a delicate  and  ingenious  contrivance  called  the 
“ fork-and-grid  stop  motion,”  which  depends  for  its 
action  on  the  lightly  balanced  prongs  of  a fork.  These 
prongs  come  in  contact  with  the  weft  thread  between 
the  selvedge  of  the  web  and  the  shuttle  box  each  time 
the  shuttle  is  shot  to  the  side  at  which  the  apparatus  is 
fixed.  If  the  prongs  meet  no  thread  they  are  not 
thrown  up,  and  being  unmoved,  a connection  is  formed 
to  the  moving  lay,  and  by  a system  of  levers  the  loom 
is  immediately  thrown  out  of  gear  and  stopped. 
Equally  essential  is  it  to  provide  means  to  stop  the 
loom  should  the  shuttle  stick  in  the  warp  or  otherwise 
fail  to  be  carried  from  side  to  side  of  the  lay.  It  is 
clear  that,  should  the  lay  beat  up  with  the  shuttle 
sticking  in  the  weft,  there  would  ensue  complete  wreck 
of  the  warp.  There  are  two  ways  of  dealing  with  such 
a contingency.  The  first,  invented  in  1796  by  Miller 
of  Glasgow,  is  the  “stop-rod  motion,”  the  action  of 
which  depends  on  the  shuttle  raising,  as  it  enters  the 
shuttle-box*  a catch,  which  if  left  down  would  strike 


against  a frog  or  stop,  and  so  throw  the  loom  out  of 
gear.  The  second  device  is  the  loose  reed,  in  which 
there  is  an  appliance  for  liberating  the  lower  part  of  the 
reed  when  any  obstruction  is  met  in  the  warp,  and 
thereby  preventing  a blow  being  given  by  the  beating- 
up  motion. 

For  many  purposes  the  weaving  of  double  doth  is 
important.  It  permits  of  the  formation  of  aground  of 
inferior  material  with  a surface  of  finer  texture;  and  it 
affords  great  scope  for  the  formation  of  colored  pat- 
terns, allowing  of  the  production  of  double-faced  text- 
ures, which  may  or  may  not  correspond  in  pattern 
according  to  pleasure.  It  moreover  increases  the  thick- 
ness and  weight  of  woven  fabrics,  and  it  is  the  basis  of 
tubular  weaving,  such  as  is  practiced  for  making  hose, 
tubes,  seamless  sacking,  etc. 

Piled  fabi'ics  are  textures  woven  with  a looped  or 
otherwise  raised  surface.  Looped  pile  is  any  fabric  in 
which  the  woven  loops  remain  uncut,  as  in  Brussels  and 
tapestry  carpets  and  terry  velvets.  When  these  loops 
are  cut  in  the  finished  texture,  then  the  material  is 
a cut  pile,  such  as  ordinary  velvet,  fustian,  imitation  of 
sealskin,  and  other  imitation  furs.  For  ordinary  loop 
and  cut  pile  fabrics  two  warps  are  required,  the  regular 
beam  warp  and  the  “ pole  ” or  pile  warp.  The  latter, 
being  raised  into  loops,  is  worked  up  more  rapidly  than 
the  ordinary  warp,  and  it  has  consequently  to  be  of 
greater  length,  and  wound  on  a separate  beam.  The 
ground  or  foundation  may  be  either  a plain  or  a twilled 
texture,  and  after  every  third  pick  of  weft  a wire  is  in- 
troduced into  the  shed  and  beaten  up  and  woven  into 
the  cloth.  In  this  way,  by  the  stretching  of  the  pile 
warp  over  the  wire,  a row  of  loops  is'formed  across  the 
web,  the  size  of  the  loops  being  regulated  by  the  size  of 
the  wire.  If  a looped  pile  is  being  woven,  then  it  only 
remains  to  pull  out  the  wires  from  behind  and  again 
weave  them  in  in  front  as  the  work  proceeds.  But  if 
cut  pile  is  being  made,  then  either  the  loops  must  be  cut 
along  the  top  before  the  wire  is  withdrawn,  or  the  wire 
may  at  one  end  be  provided  with  a knife  edge  which  it- 
self cuts  the  loops  as  it  is  being  pulled  out.  For  velvets, 
etc.,  the  wires  are  provided  with  a groove  on  their  upper 
face,  and  along  this  groove  a cutting  knife  called  a trivet 
is  run  to  cut.  the  loops. 

WEBER,  Carl  Maria  Friedrich  Ernst  von, 
musical  composer  and  creator  of  “romantic  opera,”  was 
born  at  Eutin,  near  Liibeck,  December  18,  1786.  He 
came  of  a musical  family.  The  child  was  taught  to 
sing  and  place  his  fingers  upon  the  pianoforte  almost  as 
soon  as  he  could  speak,  though  he  was  unable  to  walk 
until  he  was  four  years  old.  Happily  his  power  of 
observation  and  aptitude  for  general  learning  were  so 
precocious  that  he  seems,  in  spite  of  all  these  disadvan- 
tages, to  have  instinctively  educated  himself  as  became 
a gentleman.  His  first  music- master  was  Keuschler, 
who  gave  him  instruction  at  Weimar  in  1796.  In  1798 
Michael  Haydn  taught  him  gratuitously  at  Salzburg. 
In  April  the  family  visited  Vienna,  removing  in  the 
autumn  to  Munich.  Here  the  child’s  first  composition 
— a set  of  “ Six  Fughettas  ” — was  published,  and  here 
also  he  took  lessons  in  singing  from  Valesi,  and  in  com- 
position from  Ivalcher,  under  whom  he  made  rapid 
progress.  Soon  after  this  he  began  to  play  successfully 
in  public,  and  his  father  compelled  him  to  write  inces- 
santly. Among  the  compositions  of  this  period  were  a 
mass  and  an  opera — Die  Macht  der  Liebe  und  des 
Weins — now  destroyed. 

In  1800  the  family  removed  to  Freiberg,  where  the 
Ritter  von  Steinsberg  gave  Carl  Maria  the  libretto  ol 
an  opera  called  Das  Waldmadchen , which  the  boy, 
though  not  yet  fourteen  years  old,  at  once  set  to  music, 
and  produced  in  November  at  the  Freiberg  theater 


WEB 


The  performance  was  by  no  means  successful,  and  ti  e 
composer  himself  was  accustomed  to  speak  of  the  work 
as  “ a very  immature  production;”  yet  it  was  afterward 
reproduced  at  Chemnitz,  and  even  at  Vienna. 

Carl  Maria  returned  with  his  father  to  Salzburg  in 
1801.  Here  he  composed  his  second  opera,  Peter 
Scktnoll  und seine  Nachbarn.  In  1803  Carl  Maria  was 
appointed  conductor  of  the  opera  at  Breslau,  before  he 
had  completed  his  eighteenth  year.  Here  he  began  a 
new  opera  called  Riibezahl , the  libretto  of  which  was 
based  upon  a well-known  legend  of  the  Riesengebirge. 
The  plot  of  the  piece  was  “ romantic  ” to  the  last  de- 
gree, and  Weber  worked  at  it  enthusiastically,  but  it 
was  never  completed,  and  little  of  it  has  been  preserved 
beyond  a quintette  and  the  masterly  overture,  which,  re- 
written in  1811  under  the  title  of  Der  Beherrscher  der 
Geister , now  ranks  among  its  author’s  finest  instrument- 
al compositions. 

Quitting  Breslau  in  1806,  Weber  removed  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  to  Stuttgart,  where  he  had  been  offered  the 
post  of  private  secretary  to  Duke  Ludwig,  brother  of 
Frederick,  king  of  Wiirtemberg.  Notwithstanding  vari- 
ous distractions  he  worked  hard,  and  in  1809  remodeled 
Das  Waldmddchen , under  the  title  of  Sylvana,  and 
prepared  to  produce  it  at  the  court  theater.  But  a 
dreadful  calamity  prevented  its  performance.  His 
father  had  misappropriated  a large  sum  of  money  placed 
in  the  young  secretary’s  hands  for  the  purpose  of  clear- 
ing a mortgage  upon  one  of  the  duke’s  estates.  No 
one  doubted  Weber’s  innocence,  but  after  a summary 
trial  he  and  his  father  were  ordered  to  quit  the  country, 
and  on  February  27th  they  began  a new  life  at  Mannheim. 
Having  provided  a comfortable  home  for  his  father, 
and  begun  the  composition  of  a new  comic  opera  in 
one  act,  called  Abu  Hassan , Weber  removed  to  Darm- 
stadt. On  September  16,  1810,  he  reproduced  Sylvana 
under  its  new  title  at  Frankfort,  but  with  very  doubt- 
ful success.  Abu  Hassan  was  completed  at  Darmstadt 
in  January,  1811. 

Weber  started  in  February,  1811,  on  an  extended  artistic 
tour,  during  the  course  of  which  he  made  many  influen- 
tial friends,  and  on  June  4th  brought  out  Abu  Hassan 
with  marked  success  at  Munich.  His  father  died  at 
Mannheim. in  1812,  and  after  this  he  had  no  settled 
home,  until  in  1813  his  wanderings  were  brought  to 
an  end  by  the  unexpected  offer  of  an  appointment  as 
kapellmeister  at  Prague,  coupled  with  the  duty  of  en- 
tirely remodeling  the  performances  at  the  opera-house. 
Weber  resigned  his  office  at  Prague,  September  30, 
[816,  and  on  December  21st  Frederick  Augustus,  king 
of  Saxony,  appointed  him  kapellmeister  at  the  German 
opera  at  Dresden.  And  now  he  once  more  gave  his 
attention  to  the  story  of  Der  Freischiitz , which,  with 
the  assistance  of  Friedrich  Kind,  he  developed  into  an 
admirable  libretto,  under  the  title  of  Des  Jdgers  Braut. 
Weber  and  Kind  sketched  the  scenario  of  the  new 
opera  in  February,  1817.  On  March  1st  the  poet  placed 
the  complete  libretto  in  the  hands  of  the  composer,  who 
wrote  the  first  note  of  the  music  on  July  2d — beginning 
with  the  duet  which  opens  the  second  act.  The  great 
work  was  completed  May  13,  1820,  on  which  day  Weber 
wrote  the  last  note  of  the  overture.  He  had  engaged 
to  compose  the  music  to  Wolff’s  Gipsy  drama,  Preciosa. 
Two  months  later  this  also  was  finished,  and  both 
pieces  ready  for  the  stage.  In  consequence  of  the 
unsatisfactory  state  of  affairs  at  Dresden,  it  had  been 
arranged  that  both  Preciosa  and  Der  Freischiitz — no 
longer  known  by  its  original  title,  Des  Jdgers  Braut 
— should  be  produced  at  Berlin.  Preciosa  was  pro- 
duced with  great  success  at  the  old  Berlin  opera-house 
on  June  14,  1821.  On  June  18th,  the  anniversary  of  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  the  opening  of  the  new  “ Schauspiel- 


6309 

haus”  was  celebrated  by  the  production  of  Der  Frei- 
schiitz. The  success  of  the  piece  was  triumphant.  The 
work  was  received  with  equal  enthusiasm  at  Vienna 
on  October  3d,  and  at  Dresden  on  January  26,  1822. 

For  his  next  opera  Weber  accepted  a libretto,  based 
by  Frau  Wilhelmine  von  Chezy,  on  the  story  of 
Euryanthe , as  originally  told  in  the  thirteenth  century  in 
Gilbert  de  Montreuil’s  Roman  de  la  Violette , and  repeated 
with  alterations  in  the  Decamerone , in  Shakespeare’s 
Cymbeliney  and  in  several  later  forms.  In  place  of  the 
ghostly  horrors  of  Der  Freischiitz , the  romantic  ele- 
ment was  here  supplied  by  the  chivalric  pomp  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  The  libretto,  though  soundly  abused 
by  shallow  critics,  is  really  an  exceptionally  good  one. 
Weber’s  third  and  last  dramatic  masterpiece  was  an 
Plnglish  opera  written  for  Covent  Garden  theater,  upon 
a libretto  adapted  by  Planche  from  Wieland’s  Oberon. 
Destined  for  the  English  stage  sixty  years  ago,  this 
was  necessarily  disfigured  by  the  spoken  dialogue  aban- 
doned in  Euryanthe ; but  in  musical  beauty  it  is  quite 
equal  to  it,  while  its  fairies  and  mermaids  are  as  vividly 
real  as  the  specters  in  Der  Freischiitz.  Though  already 
far  gone  in  consumption,  Weber  began  to  compose  the 
music  on  January  23,  1825.  In  March,  1826,  he  arrived 
in  London,  and  on  June  5th  he  died  immediately  after 
the  production  of  the  opera. 

WEBER’S  LAW  is  the  principal  generalization  of 
that  branch  of  scientific  investigation  which  has  come 
to  be  known  as  “ psycho-physics.”  According  to  Fech- 
ner,  who  has  done  most  to  prosecute  these  inquiries 
and  to  consolidate  them  under  a separate  name,  “ psycho- 
physics is  an  exact  doctrine  of  the  relation  of  function 
or  dependence  between  body  and  soul.”  In  other 
words,  it  is  throughout  an  attempt  to  submit  to  definite 
measurement  the  relation  of  physical  stimuli  to  the 
resulting  psychical  or  mental  facts,  and  forms  an 
important  department  of  experimental  psychology.  It 
deals  with  the  quantitative  aspects  of  mental  facts — 
their  intensity  or  quantity  proper  and  their  duration. 
Physical  science  enables  us,  at  least  in  the  case  of  some 
of  the  senses,  to  measure  with  accuracy  the  objective 
amount  of  the  stimulus,  and  introspection  enables  us  to 
state  the  nature  of  the  subjective  result.  We  thus 
determine,  as  Wundt  puls  it,  the  limit  values  between 
which  changes  of  intensity  in  the  stimulus  are  accom- 
panied by  changes  in  sensation.  But  the  central  in- 
quiry of  psycho-physics  remains  behind.  Between  the 
quantitative  minimum  and  the  quantitative  maximum 
thus  fixed  can  we  discover  any  definite  relation  between 
changes  in  the  objective  intensity  of  the  stimuli  and 
changes  in  the  intensity  of  the  sensations  as  estimated 
by  consciousness?  The  answer  of  psycho-physics  to 
this  inquiry  is  given  in  the  generalization  variously 
known  as  “Weber’s  law,”  “ Fechner’s  law,”  or  the 
“psycho-physical  law,”  which  professes  to  formulate 
with  exactitude  the  relations  which  exist  between 
change  of  stimulus  and  change  of  sensation. 

E.  H.  Weber  (1795-1878)  was  the  first  (after  a pro- 
longed series  of  experiments  on  the  sensations  of  sight, 
hearing  and  touch)  to  clothe  this  generality  with  scien- 
tific precision  by  formulating  the  law  which  has  since 
gone  by  his  name.  The  purport  of  the  law  is  that,  in 
order  that  the  sensational  difference  may  remain  un- 
changed, the  increase  of  stimulus  must  maintain  the 
same  proportion  to  the  intensity  of  the  preceding  stim- 
ulus. The  smallest  perceptible  difference  is  therefore 
not  absolutely  the  same,  but  it  remains  relatively  the 
same,  that  is,  it  remains  the  same  fraction  of  the  pre- 
ceding stimulus.  The  law  may  be  formulated  thus:  The 
difference  between  any  two  stimuli  is  experienced  as  of 
equal  magnitude,  in  case  the  mathematical  relation  of 
these  stimuli  remains  unaltered.  Or,  otherwise  ex- 


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6310 

pressed,  in  order  that  the  Intensity  of  a sensation  may 
increase  in  arithmetical  progression,  the  stimulus  must 
increase  in  geometrical  progression. 

WEBSTER,  Daniel,  American  statesman,  was 
born  at  Salisbury,  N.  H.,  January  18,  1782.  His 
family  can  be  traced  back  without  difficulty  to 
Thomas  Webster,  of  Scottish  ancestry,  who  settled  in 
New  Hampshire  in  1636,  but  no  further.  Ebenezer 
Webster,  the  father  of  Daniel,  rose  to  the  rank  of 
captain  in  the  “ French  and  Indian  War.”  From  him 
his  sons  Ezekiel  and  Daniel  inherited  great  physical 
force;  their  mother,  Abigail  Eastman,  gave  them  their 
intellectual  powers.  Living  on  the  frontier,  Daniel 
was  compelled  to  depend  for  early  education  on  his 
mother  and  on  the  scanty  schooling  customary  in 
winter;  and  for  much  of  this  he  was  indebted  to  the 
fact  that  he  was  physically  the  weakest  of  his  family. 
It  is  a little  odd,  however,  that  he  failed  utterly  in  that 
with  which  his  final  reputation  was  so  closely  connected, 
in  his  own  words:  “ There  was  one  thing  I could  not 
do:  I could  not  make  a declamation ; I could  not  speak 
before  the  school.”  When  he  was  fifteen  years  old  a 
family  council  decided  to  send  him  to  college.  After 
an  imperfect  preparation,  he  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College  in  1801,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  Boston  in  1805,  from  the  office  of  Christopher 
Gore. 

Regard  for  his  father  made  Webster  begin  practice  in 
the  town  of  Boscawen,  near  his  early  home;  but  his 
father  died  within  a year,  and  he  removed  to  Portsmouth, 
the  largest  town  of  the  State.  Here  he  took  a leading 
place  at  the  bar,  having  but  one  rival.  In  May,  1813, 
he  entered  Congress  as  a representative  from  New 
Hampshire,  being  placed  at  once  on  the  committee  of 
foreign  affairs.  As  a moderate  Federalist,  he  held  that 
attacks  on  Canada  should  cease,  and  that  the  war  should 
ihe  confined  to  the  ocean.  His  first  speech  showed  that 
the  raw  New  Hampshire  boy  of  a dozen  years  before 
had  developed  new  powers.  The  position  of  any 
Federalist  in  Congress,  however,  was  not  a wide  sphere 
of  influence;  and  Webster,  removing  to  Boston  in  1816, 
gave  up  political  life  for  some  years. 

At  the  Massachusetts  bar  Webster  soon  gained  a 
place  as  prominent  as  he  had  held  in  New  Hampshire, 
and  within  three  years  his  reputation  as  a lawyer  had 
become  national.  His  national  standing  was  gained  by 
his  argument  in  the  “ Dartmouth  College  case,”  practi- 
cally indorsed  by  the  Supreme  Court.  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege had  been  chartered  by  the  king  in  1769.  In  1816 
the  New  Hampshire  legislature  undertook  to  alter  the 
charter  and  reorganize  the  corporation;  and  the  State 
courts  sustained  the  legislature  in  a suit  brought  by  the 
old  trustees  against  the  new.  On  appeal  to  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  the  United  States  in  1818,  Webster 
contended  that  the  college  was  an  eleemosynary  cor- 
poration, over  which  the  legislature  had  no  more  power 
than  the  king  who  chartered  it;  that  the  king  had  no 
power  to  void  such  a charter,  and  the  New  Hampshire 
legislature  no  such  sovereign  powers  as  parliament; 
that  the  legislature’s  action  came  within  the  federal 
constitution’s  prohibition  of  State  legislation  altering 
, contracts;  that  “the  charter  of  1769  is  a contract;” 
that  “ the  acts  in  question  impair  this  contract;”  and 
that  they  were  therefore  unconstitutional  and  void. 
The  Supreme  Court  upheld  Webster’s  view,  and  it  was 
soon  seen  that  he  had  worked  a serious  change  in  the 
relations  of  the  States  to  corporations,  as  they  had 
thus  far  been  understood.  The  States  endeavored  to 
meet  the  new  rule  by  inserting  in  their  charters  clauses 
retaining  the  right  to  alter  them;  but  the  spirit  of  the 
“ Dartmouth  College  case,”  which  has  always  had  its 
opponents  among  American  lawyers,  has  had  its  influ- 


ence upon  judges  everywhere,  in  every  variety  ot  cog- 
nate cases.  From  this  time  Webster  was  recognized  as 
the  leading  lawyer  of  the  country,  and  his  services  were 
in  constant  demand. 

His  cases  are  quite  beyond  statement  within  the  space 
here  available.  Some  of  his  leading  constitutional  cases 
were  those  of  Gibbons  v.  Ogden,  in  1824,  in  which  he 
overthrew  the  action  of  the  New  York  legislature,  in 
granting  to  Ogden,  assignee  of  Fulton  and  Livingston,  3 
monopoly  of  steam  navigation  in  New  York  waters,  as 
an  interference  with  the  right  of  Congress  to  regulate 
commerce;  Ogden  v.  Saunders,  in  1827,  in  whichhe  at- 
tacked the  right  of  a State  to  pass  bankruptcy  laws;  the 
Girard  College  case,  in  1844,  in  which  he  maintained 
that  Christianity  was  an  essential  part  of  the  common 
law;  and  the  case  of  Luther  v.  Borden,  commonly 
known  as  the  Rhode  Island  case,  in  1848,  in  which  he 
laid  the  foundation  for  the  subsequent  definition  of  the 
“guarantee  clause”  of  the  constitution,  and  stated  the 
meaning  of  the  “ republican  government  ” of  a State. 
Like  other  American  lawyers,  he  made  no  distinction 
in  his  practice  between  kinds  of  cases,  and  was  often 
retained  in  criminal  causes.  The  most  celebrated  of 
these  were  the  trials  of  Goodrich  and  Knapp;  in  the 
latter  is  the  passage  on  the  power  of  conscience,  which 
has  been  declaimed  by  countless  American  schoolboys. 

Webster’s  reputation  as  an  orator  began  with  his  ad- 
dress at  Plymouth  in  1820,  on  the  200th  anniversary  of 
the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims.  It  was  increased  by  his 
address  at  the  laying  of  the  corner  stone  of  the  Bunker 
Hill  monument  in  1825,  on  the  50th  anniversary  of  the 
battle,  and  by  that  which  commemorated  in  1826  the 
50th  anniversary  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
and  the  coincident  deaths  of  Jefferson  and  John  Adams. 
On  every  great  public  occasion  thereafter,  if  Webster 
was  obtainable,  he  was  held  to  be  the  natural  speaker 
to  be  chosen. 

In  December,  1823,  Webster  returned  to  Congress  as 
a representative  from  Massachusetts,  and  his  first  speech, 
in  January,  1824,  in  support  of  a resolution  to  send  a 
commissioner  to  Greece,  then  in  insurrection,  made 
him  the  first  .of  congressional  speakers.  During  his 
service  in  the  house  the  tariff  of  1824  came  up  for  dis- 
cussion. Representing  a commercial  district,  Webster’s 
speech  has  always  been  a source  of  gratification  to 
American  opponents  of  protection.  He  repudiated  the 
name  of  “ American  system,”  claimed  by  Clay  for  the 
system  of  protection  which  he  was  introducing.  When 
the  tariff  of  1828,  which  was  still  more  protective,  came 
up  for  discussion,  Webster  had  ceased  to  oppose  pro- 
tection; but  his  speech  does  not  attempt  to  argue  in 
favor  of  it.  It  can  hardly  escape  notice  that,  in  his 
published  Works , Webster  has  but  two  subsequent 
speeches  in  Congress  on  the  tariff,  both  defending  pro- 
tection rather  as  a policy  under  which  industries  had 
been  called  into  being  than  as  an  advisable  policy,  if  the 
stage  had  been  clear  for  the  adoption  of  a new  policy. 

In  1827  Webster  was  sent  to  the  senate,  in  which  he 
remained  until  his  death,  with  the  exception  of  his 
service  in  the  cabinet  in  Tyler’s  administration.  In 
January,  1830,  came  the  crowning  event  of  his  political 
life.  A debate  on  public  lands,  under  a resolution 
offered  by  Senator  Foot,  thence  known  as“  Foot’s  reso- 
lution,” had  wandered  off  into  all  possible  fields.  In 
course  of  it,  Hayne,  of  South  Carolina,  attacked  New 
England  for  having  pursued  a selfish  policy  as  to  west- 
ern lands.  Webster  replied.  During  Hayne’s  answer 
Webster  drew  from  him  the  first  distinct  and  public 
statement  of  the  new  doctrine  of  nullification,  of  the 
constitutional  right  of  a State  to  forbid  the  execution 
within  its  jurisdiction  of  acts  of  congress  which  it 
considered  unconstitutional.  Thishadbeen  the  product 


WEB 


oi  Calhoun's  intellect,  widen  was  generally  taken  to  be 
tile  source  of  Hayne’s  inspiration.  Webster’s  reply  is 
his  famous  “ second  speech  on  Foot’s  resolution.”  He 
began  by  a defense  of  Massachusetts,  which  has  been 
severely  criticised,  and  is  perhaps  open  to  criticism.  • But 
if  effect  is  \o  be  taken  as  a test,  it  is  above  criticism. 
The  remainder  of  the  speech  was  of  intense  interest, 
not  merely  to  New  England,  but  to  the  whole  North  and 
West,  and  to  all  the  progressive  elements  of  the  country. 
He  stated  the  anarchistic  doctrine  of  nullification  in  its 
nakedness,  extorted  from  Hayne  an  unwilling  half-ad-, 
mission  of  the  exactness  of  his  statement,  and  then  went 
on  to  trample  on  it  with  such  an  exhibition  of  logic, 
sarcasm,  and  elephantine  humor  as  has  never  been  heard 
in  the  senate  before  or  since.  It  is  on  this  speech  that 
Webster’s  fame  was  built.  Southern  men  had  taken 
the  lead  so  long  that  it  was  a new  sensation  to  the 
North  and  West  to  see  a Southern  leader  completely 
overmatched  by  their  champion;  and  “ Black  Dan  Web- 
ster,” a popular  name,  due  to  his  dark  complexion,  bee- 
tling brows,  and  heavy  cast  of  features,  was*  for  twenty 
years  the  representative  of  Northern  sentiment  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  Union. 

Calhoun  took  Hayne’s  place  in  the  senate  in  1833, 
introduced  and  defended  resolutions  indorsing  the  right 
of  nullification,  and  was  still  more  fully  answered  by 
Webster.  For  the  next  seventeen  years  the  records  of 
the  senate  are  full  of  constitutional  arguments  between 
the  two.  Webster’s  oratory  made  him  an  invaluable 
member  of  the  Whig  party,  and  his  addresses  at  politi- 
cal meetings  are  so  numerous  as  to  defy  special  men- 
tion. A leader  so  distinguished  had  a fair  right  to  think 
of  the  presidency,  but  it  always  remained  just  beyond 
his  reach.  In  the  general  Whig  confusion  of  1836  he 
received  the  fourteen  electoral  votes  of  Massachusetts. 
In  1840  the  candidature  of  Harrison  left  him  no  chance. 
In  1844  Webster’s  retention  of  his  position  under  Tyler 
gave  Clay  an  overwhelming  advantage  with  his  party. 
In  1848  the  nomination  of  Taylor,  which  Webster  de- 
clared “ one  not  fit  to  be  made,”  was  a fatal  blow  to  the 
prospects  of  the  Massachusetts  leader.  His  final  failure 
to  obtain  the  Whig  nomination  in  1852  put  an  end  to 
his  political  career. 

When  the  Whig  party  came  into  power  in  1841, 
Webster  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  (foreign  af- 
fairs), and  he  retained  his  post  under  Tyler,  after  his 
colleagues  had  broken  with  the  new  president  and  re- 
signed. There  was  good  reason  for  his  action.  When 
he  entered  office,  war  with  Great  Britain  was  a probable 
event  of  the  near  future.  The  M’Leod  case,  in  which 
the  State  of  New  York  insisted  on  trying  a British  sub- 
ject, with  whose  trial  the  Federal  Government  had  no 
power  to  interfere,  while  the  British  Government  had 
declared  that  it  would  consider  conviction  and  execution 
a casus  belli;  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  search  by 
British  vessels  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  of  which  Ameri- 
cans had  a deep-seated  detestation,  quite  apart  from  any 
feeling  about  the  slave-trade;  the  Maine  boundary,  as 
to  which  the  action  of  a State  might  at  any  time  bring 
the  federal  government  into  armed  collision  with  Great 
Britain — all  these  at  once  met  the  new  secretary,  and 
he  felt  that  he  had  no  right  to  abandon  his  work  for 
party  reasons.  With  the  special  commissioner  from 
Great  Britain,  Lord  Ashburton,  he  concluded  the  treaty 
of  1842,  which  settled  all  these  questions  satisfactorily  to 
both  parties.  At  the  same  time  Webster  took  the  op- 
portunity to  end  the  long  controversy  as  to  the  right  of 
impressment.  Sixteen  years  afterward  the  British  Gov- 
ernment admitted  at  last  the  correctness  of  the  Ameri- 
can position. 

Leaving  the  cabinet  in  1843,  Webster  was  returned  to 
the  Senate  in  1845,  and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life 


6311 

there.  He  opposed  the  annexation  of  Texas  and  the 
Mexican  War,  and  was,  as  before,  the  recognized  spokes- 
man of  his  party.  As  the  growing  intensity  of  the 
quarrel  over  the  organization  of  the  territory  acquired 
from  Mexico  revealed  the  depth  of  the  chasm  which 
now  yawned  between  the  sections,  Webster’s  standing- 
ground  m American  politics  disappeared.  His  speech 
of  March  7,  1850,  winch  stamped  him,  in  the  opinion  of 
many  of  his  former  Northern  worshipers,  as  a recreant 
bidding  for  Southern  votes  for  the  presidency,  was 
really  little  different  from  his  former  words.  It  was  the 
country  that  had  changed.  He  was  still  for  the  Union 
as  the  one  controlling  consideration,  with  an  equal  dis- 
like for  the  abolitionist  and  the  secessionist,  who  en- 
dangered the  Union.  But  the  North  and  the  South 
were  already  so  far  apart  that  not  even  Webster  could 
stand  with  one  foot  in  one  and  the  other  foot  in  the  other 
section;  and  his  fate  was  parallel  with  that  of  John 
Dickinson,  who  essayed  a similar  role  during  the  Revo- 
lution. Angered  at  the  spirit  with  which  his  speech 
was  received,  Webster  threw  all  his  influence  toward 
driving  through  the  Whig.  Convention  of  1852  an  in 
dorsement  of  the  compromise  of  1850  “in  all  its  parts/ 
including,  of  course,  the  Fugitive  Slave  Act.  The 
result  was  his  own  failure  to  receive  the  Whig  nomina 
tion  for  the  presidency,  and  the  downfall  of  his  party. 
Just  before  the  election  he  died  at  his  home,  Marshfield 
Mass.,  October,  1852. 

Webster  was  twice  married — to  Grace  Fletcher,  of 
New  Hampshire,  in  1808,  and  two  years  after  her  death 
to  Catherine  Bayard  le  Roy,  of  New  York,  in  1829, 
One  of  his  sons,  Edward,  lost  his  life  in  the  Mexican 
War ; his  only  surviving  child,  Fletcher  Webster* 
colonel  of  a Massachusetts’  regiment,  was  killed  at  Bull 
Run. 

WEBSTER,  John,  the  date  of  whose  birth  and 
death  are  unknown,  the  greatest  of  Shakespeare’s  con- 
temporaries or  successors,  was  a writer  for  the  stage  in 
the  year  1601,  and  published  in  1604  the  city  pageant 
for  that  year,  “invented  and  written  by  John  Webster, 
merchant-tailor.”  In  the  same  year  a tragedy  by  Ford 
and  Webster  was  licensed  for  the  stage.  Three  years 
later,  in  1607,  two  comedies  and  a tragedy,  Westward 
Ho  ! Northzvard  Ho  ! and  The  Famous  History  of  Sir 
Thomas  Wyatt , “ written  by  Thomas  Dekker  and  John 
Webster,”  were  given  to  the  press.  In  1612  John 
Webster  stood  revealed  to  the  then  somewhat  narrow 
world  of  readers  as  a tragic  poet  and  dramatist  of  the 
very  foremost  rank  in  the  very  highest  class.  rThe 
White  Devil , also  known  as  Vittoria  Corombona , is  a 
tragedy  produced  about  this  time.  The  Duchess  of 
Malfy  (an  Anglicized  version  of  Amalfi,  corresponding 
to  such  designations  as  Florence,  Venice,  and  Naples) 
was  probably  brought  on  the  stage  about  the  time  of  the 
death  of  Shakespeare;  it  was  first  printed  in  the 
memorable  year  which  witnessed  the  first  publication  of 
his  collected  plays. 

WEBSTER,  Noah,  American  lexicographer,  was 
the  son  of  a farmer,  and  was  born  in  West  Hartford, 
Conn.,  October  16,  1758.  In  his  early  years  he  was 
engaged  in  agricultural  work,  but  attended  a district 
school  in  the  winter,  and  when  fourteen  years  of  age 
began  the  study  of  the  classics  under  the  Rev.  Nathan 
Perkins,  D.D.  He  entered  the  freshman’s  class  at  Yale 
College  in  1774,  and  while  in  his  junior  year  there  he 
took  part  as  a volunteer  in  the  expedition  against  General 
Burgoyne.  After  graduating  in  1778  he  supported  him- 
self by  teaching  while  prosecuting  the  study  of  law. 
Having  begun  at  this  time  to  note  down  every  word 
whose  meaning  he  did  not  properly  understand,  he  was 
first  led  to  conceive  the  scheme  of  a new  dictionary 
from  his  frequent  inability  to  find  proper  definitions  of 


WEB-WED 


6312 

words  in  those  in  current  use.  His  experience  as  a 
teacher  soon  convinced  him  also  of  the  need  of  better 
instruction  books  in  English,  and  this  he  endeavored 
to  supply  by  his  Grammatical  Institute  of  the  English 
Language,  the  first  part  of  which  appeared  in  1783, 
and  a second  and  third  part  in  the  following  years.  It 
comprehended  a spelling-book,  English  grammar,  and 
compilation  of  English  reading,  and  very  soon  found  a 
place  in  most  of  the  schools  of  the  United  States.  In 
1785  he  prepared  a course  of  lectures  on  the  English 
language,  which  he  delivered  in  the  principal  American 
cities,  and  published  in  1789  under  the  title  Dis- 
sertations on  the  English  Language.  Meanwhile  he 
also  continued  to  take  a deep  interest  in  all  prominent 
political  questions.  In  his  Sketches  of  American  Policy 
(1784)'  he  made  the  first  distinct  proposal  for  a new 
constitution  for  the  United  States,  and  when  the  work 
of  the  commissioners  was  completed,  in  1787,  he  was 
asked  by  them  to  recommend  the  new  constitution  to 
the  American  people,  which  he  did  in  an  Examination 
of  the  Leading  Principles  of  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion. After  his  marriage  in  1789  he  established  him- 
self in  the  practice  of  law  at  Hartford.  In  1793 
he  was  induced  to  found  at  New  York  a paper  called 
Minerva , with  which  was  connected  the  Herald , a 
semi-weekly;  the  titles  of  the  papers  were  subse- 
quently altered  respectively  to  the  Commercial  Adver- 
tiser and  the  New  York  Spectator.  In  1795  he  con- 
tributed to  his  paper  several  articles,  under  the  signature 
of  Curtius,  in  vindication  of  Jay’s  treaty  with  Great 
Britain,  which  were  reprinted  and  had  considerable  effect 
in  allaying  opposition  to  it.  In  1798  he  removed  to 
New  Haven,  which  town  he  was  chosen  soon  afterward 
to  represent  in  the  general  assembly  of  Connecticut.  In 
1802  appeared  his  well-known  treatise  on  The  Rights  of 
Neutrals.  Having  removed  in  1812  to  Amherst,  he 
took  there  a leading  part  in  the  establishment  of  the 
academy  and  then  of  the  college,  of  which  he  was  chosen 
the  first  president.  He  also  represented  Amherst  in 
the  court  of  Massachusetts.  In  1822  he  returned  to 
New  Haven.  Meanwhile  his  lexicographical  studies, 
though  much  interrupted  by  his  professional  and  po- 
litical duties,  had  never  been  entirely  suspended.  In 
1806  he  published  his  Compendious  Dictionary  of  the 
English  Language , but  this  was  only  preparatory  to  a 
larger  work.  In  1824  he  sailed  for  Europe  to  complete 
his  researches,  and  after  spending  some  time  in  Paris, 
continued  his  labors  in  the  library  at  Cambridge,  where 
he  finished  the  dictionary.  It  was  published  in  1828, 
and  a second  edition  with  many  additions  appeared  in 
1841.  He  also  completed  the  revision  of  an  appendix  a 
few  days  before  his  death,  which  took  place  May  20, 
1843. 

WEBSTER,  Thomas,  figure  painter,  was  born  at 
London,  March  20,  1800.  In  1821  he  was  admitted 
student  of  the  Royal  Academy,  to  whose  exhibition  he 
contributed,  in  1824,  portraits  of  Mrs.  Robinson  and 
Family.  In  the  following  year  he  gained  the  first 
medal  in  the  school  of  painting.  Till  1879  he  con- 
tinued to  exhibit  in  the  Royal  Academy,  work  of  a 
genial  and  gently  humorous  character,  dealing  com- 
monly with  subjects  of  familiar  incident,  and  especially 
of  child  life.  Many  of  these  were  exceedingly  popular, 
particularly  his  Ptmch  (1840),  which  procured  in  1841 
his  ejection  as  A.R.A.,  followed  five  years  later  by 
full  membership.  He  became  an  honorary  retired 
academician  in  1877,  and  died  at  Cranbrook,  Kent,  on 
September  23,  1886. 

WEBSTER,  a village  of  Massachusetts,  located  in 
Worcester  county,  on  the  Norwich  division  of  the  New 
York  and  New  England  road,  sixteen  miles  south  of 
Worcester,  and  fifty-seven  miles  southwest  of  Boston. 


The  town  is  also  situated  on  French  rivei,  and  is  the 
site  of  many  and  important  manufacturing  undertak- 
ings. Webster  is  described  as  a typical  New  England 
town,  not  only  in  respect  to  its  plan,  improvements, 
etc.,  but  also  in  respect  to  the  enterprise  and  go-ahead 
spirit  of  the  inhabitants,  to  which  the  villages  of  that 
section  are  indebted  for  their  growth  and  possessions. 
Webster  contains  one  national  and  one  savings  bank, 
two  weekly  papers,  several  churches  and  schools,  two 
hotels,  and  quite  a number  of  stores.  The  manufacture 
of  boots  and  shoes  is  extensively  carried  on;  also  that 
of  plain  and  fancy  cassimeres,  cloths,  and  cambrics, 
woolen  and  linen  fabrics,  yarns  and  worsteds,  lumber 
and  lumber  products,  carriages,  hardware  and  hardware 
novelties.  In  1880  the  population  was  5,696;  in  1900  it 
had  increased  to  8,804. 

WEDDERBURN,  Alexander,  Baron  Loughbor- 
ough in  1780,  earl  of  Rosslyn  in  1801,  lord  high  chan- 
cellor of  Great  Britain,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Peter 
Wedderburn  (a  lord  of  session  as  Lord  Chesterhall), 
and  was  born  in  East  Lothian,  February  13,  1733.  He 
acquired  the  rudiments  of  his  education  at  Dalkeith, 
and  in  his  fourteenth  year  was  sent  to  the  university  of 
Edinburgh.  It  was  from  the  first  his  desire  to  practice 
at  the  English  bar,  though  in  deference  to  his  father’s 
wishes  he  qualified  as  an  advocate  at  Edinburgh,  June 
29,  1754.  His  father  was  called  to  the  bench  in  1755, 
and  for  the  next  three  years  Wedderburn  stuck  to  his 
practice  in  Edinburgh.  Through  his  prudence  in  having 
taken  the  preliminary  steps  some  years  previously,  he 
was  called  to  the  English  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple 
November  25,  1757.  In  his  new  position  he  acted  with 
characteristic  energy.  In  1763  he  became  king’s  coun- 
sel and  bencher  of  Lincoln’s  Inn,  and  for  a short  time 
went  the  northern  circuits,  but  was  more  successful 
in  obtaining  business  in  the  Court  of  Chancery. 
When  George  Grenville,  whose  principles  leaned  to 
Toryism,  quarreled  with  the  court,  Wedderburn  af- 
fected to  regard  him  as  his  leader  in  politics.  At 
the  dissolution  in  the  spring  of  1768  he  was  re- 
turned by  Sir  Lawrence.  Dundas  for  Richmond  as 
a Tory,  but  in  the  struggles  over  Wilkes  he  took  the 
popular  side  of  “ Wilkes  and  liberty,”  and  resigned  his 
seat  (May,  1769).  In  recompense  for  the  loss  of  his 
seat  in  parliament,  he  was  returned  by  Lord  Clive  for 
his  pocket-borough  of  Bishop’s  Castle,  in  Shropshire 
(January,  1770).  During  the  next  session  he  acted 
vigorously  in  opposition,  but  his  conduct  was  always 
viewed  with  distrust  by  his  new  associates.  In  Janu- 
ary, 1771,  he  was  offered  and  accepted  the  prize  of 
solicitor-general.  The  high  road  to  the  woolsack  was 
now  open  to  his  steps,  but  his  defection  from  his  former 
path  has  stamped  his  character  with  general  infamy. 
All  through  the  American  War  his  declamation  was 
consistently  employed  against  the  cause  of  the  colonies, 
and  his  treatment  of  Franklin  is  indelibly  written  in 
history.  In  June,  1778,  Wedderburn  was  promoted  to 
the  post  of  attorney-general,  and  in  the  same  year  he 
refused  the  dignity  of  chief  baron  of  the  exchequer  be- 
cause the  offer  was  not  accompanied  by  the  promise  of 
a peerage.  In  June,  1780,  he  was  created  justice  of  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas,  and  he  was  at  the  same  time 
gratified  by  the  title  of  Baron  Loughborough.  During 
the  existence  of  the  coalition  ministry  of  North  and 
Fox,  the  great  seal  was  in  commission  (April  to  Decem- 
ber, 1783),  and  Lord  Loughborough  held  the  leading 
place  among  the  commissioners.  In  1792,  during  the 
period  of  the  French  Revolution,  Lord  Loughborough 
seceded  from  Fox,  and  January  28,  1793,  he  received 
the  great  seal  in  the  Tory  cabinet  of  Pitt.  It  was 
probably  through  his  advice  that  George  III.  refused 
his  assent  to  Pitt’s  proposals,  and  that  the  removal  of 


WE'D-WEI 


the  disabilities  under  which  the  Catholics  groaned  was 
delayed  for  another  quarter  of  a century.  When  the 
^rime  minister  found  that  he  could  not  carry  out  his 
compact  with  his  Catholic  fellow-subjects  he  resigned, 
and  Addington  succeeded  to  his  place.  Much  to  Lord 
Loughborough’s  surprise,  no  place  was  found  for  him 
in  Addington’s  cabinet,  and  he  was  obliged  to  resign  his 
post  of  lord  chancellor  (April  14,  1801).  His  fall,  in 
1801,  was  softened  by  the  grant  of  an  earldom  (he  was 
created  earl  of  Rosslyn  April  21,  1801,  with  remainder 
to  his  nephew).  After  this  date  he  rarely  appeared  in 
public,  but  he  was  a constant  figure  at  all  the  royal  fes- 
tivities. He  attended  one  of  those  gatherings  at  Frog- 
more,  December  31,  1804.  On  the  following  day  he 
was  seized  with  gout  in  the  stomach,  and,  January  2, 
1805,  he  died  at  his  seat,  Baylis,  near  Salt  Hill,  Wind- 
sor. His  remains  were  buried  in  St.  Paul’s  Cathedral 
on  January  nth. 

WEDGE,  one  of  the  mechanical  powers,  and  in 
principle  a modification  of  the  inclined  plane.  The 
power  is  applied  by  pressure,  or  more  generally  by  per- 
cussion, to  the  back,  thus  forcing  the  edge  forward.  The 
wedge  is  employed  for  such  purposes  as  the  splitting  of 
wood,  the  fastening  firmly  the  handle  of  an  axe,  the 
raising  of  a ship  in  a dry  dock,  etc.  The  investigation 
on  statical  principles  of  the  mechanical  advantage  of 
the  wedge  is  extremely  unsatisfactory,  the  power, 
which  is  scarcely  ever  a “ pressure,”  being  always  as- 
sumed to  be  one,  and  the  enormous  friction  on  the  sides 
of  the  wedge  being  generally  neglected;  the  theoretical 
result  thus  arrived  at  is  that  the  pressure  applied  at  the 
back  is  to  the  resistance  or  weight  as  one-half  width  of 
the  back  of  the  wedge  is  to  the  length  of  side.  In  the 
application  of  the  wedge  to  the  splitting  of  wood  in  di- 
rection of  the  fibers,  the  split  generally  extends  some 
distance  in  advance  of  the  edge  of  the  wedge,  and  the 
action  of  the  latter  is  then  a combination  of  the  action 
of  the  wedge  with  that  of  the  lever;  in  fact,  this  action 
is  found  more  or  less  in  all  applications  of  the  wedge  as 
a cutting  or  splitting  weapon  and  tends  further  to  com- 
plicate the  statical  investigations  of  its  mechanical  prop- 
erties. The  best  and  simplest  illustrations  of  the  single 
wedge  are  axes,  nails,  plugs,  planes,  chisels,  needles,  and 
all  sharp-pointed  instruments. 

WEDGWOOD,  Josiah,  the  most  distinguished  of 
English  manufacturers  of  pottery,  born  in  1730,  was 
the  youngest  child  of  Thomas  Wedgwood,  who  owned 
a thriving  pottery  in  Burslem.  In  1744  he  was  appren- 
ticed to  his  eldest  brother,  who  had  succeeded  to  the 
management  of  his  father’s  pottery;  and  in  1751,  when 
the  term  of  his  apprenticeship  had  expired,  Josiah 
Wedgwood  became  manager  of  the  neighboring  Alder 
pottery,  with  a very  moderate  salary.  In  1759  he 
started  as  an  independent  potter  at  the  Ivy-House 
works  in  Burslem.  In  1769  Wedgwood  opened  new 
otteries  on  a larger  scale  at  Etruria  in  Staffordshire, 
aving  entered  into  partnership  with  Thomas  Bentley 
of  Liverpool.  After  Bentley’s  death  in  1780,  Wedg- 
wood became  sole  owner  of  the  Etruria  pottery  till 
1790,  when  he  took  some  of  his  sons  into  partnership. 
He  died  on  January  3,  1795,  in  the  65th  year  of  his  age, 
leaving  to  his  children  a well-earned  fortune  of  more 
than  half  a million. 

WEDNESBURY,  a market-town  and  parliamentary 
borough  of  Staffordshire,  England,  is  situated  near  the 
source  of  the  Tame,  on  the  Great  Western  and  London 
and  North-Western  railway  lines,  eight  miles  northwest 
of  Birmingham,  and  13 6j4  miles  northwest  of  London. 
The  neighborhood  of  Wednesbury  has  been  long  cele- 
brated for  its  iron  and  coal  mines,  the  coal  being 
unequaled  as  fuel  for  the  smith’s  forge.  A special  kind 
of  iron  ore  is  obtained  which  is  manufactured  into  axes 


6313 

and  other  edge-tools.  The  town  possesses  large  steel 
and  iron  works,  the  more  important  manufactures 
being  those  of  the  large  kind  of  iron  work  used  by 
railway  companies  (such  as  bridges,  cranes,  switches, 
roofs,  wheels,  axletrees,  boiler-plates,  and  rails),  water, 
steam,  and  gas  pipes,  and  various  kinds  of  wrought-iron 
work.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district 
(area  2,124  acres),  which  is  identical  with  the  township, 
in  1871  was  25,030,  and  in  1881  it  was  24,566.  Until 
1885  the  parliamentary  borough  had  an  area  of  11,340 
acres,  with  a population  in  1871  of  116,809  and  in  1881 
of  124,437.  West  Bromwich,  formerly  included  in  it, 
has  been  erected  into  a separate  borough,  leaving  in 
Wednesbury  an  area  which  in  1901  had  a population  of 
38,142. 

WEEK.  See  Calendar  and  Sabbath. 

WEEVER.  The  weevers  ( Trachinus)  are  small 
marine  fishes  which  are  common  on  the  coasts  of 
Europe,  and  which  have  attained  notoriety  from  the 
painful  and  sometimes  dangerous  wounds  they  are  able 
to  inflict  upon  those  who  incautiously  handle  them. 
They  belong  to  a family  of  spiny-rayed  fishes  ( True  hi- 
fi  idee),  and  are  distinguished  by  a long  low  body  with  two 
dorsal  fins,  the  anterior  of  which  is  composed  of  six  or 
seven  spines  only,  the  posterior  being  long  and  many- 
rayed;  their  anal  resembles  in  form  and  composition  the 
second  dorsal  fin.  The  ventral  fins  are  placed  in  ad- 
vance of  the  pectorals,  and  consist  of  a spine  and  five  rays. 
The  caudal  fin  has  the  hind  margin  not  excised.  _ The 
body  is  covered  with  very  small  scales,  sunk  in  and 
firmly  adherent  to  the  skin,  but  the  upper  surface  of  the 
head  is  bony,  without  integument.  The  head,  like  the 
body,  is  compressed,  with  the  eyes  of  moderate  size  and 
placed  on  the  side  of  the  head;  the  mouth  is  wide,  ob- 
lique, and  armed  with  bands  of  very  small  teeth. 

Several  species  of  weevers  are  known,  but  two  only 
occur  on  the  British  coasts,  viz.,  the  Greater  Weever 
( Trachinus  draco)  and  the  Lesser  Weever  (T.  vipera.) 
The  weevers  are  bottom  fish,  burying  and  hiding  them- 
selves in  the  sand  or  between  shingle — the  lesser  species 
living  close  inshore  and  the  greater  preferring  deeper 
water,  and  being  found  sometimes  floating  on  the 
surface  at  a distance  of  several  miles  from  the  shore. 
The  wounds  are  inflicted  by  the  dorsal  and  opercular 
spines  are  very  painful,  and  sometimes  cause  violent 
local  inflammation.  In  the  absence  of  any  special  poison 
organ,  it  is  most  probable  that  the  mucous  secretion  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  spines  has  poisonous  properties.  The 
spines  are  deeply  grooved,  the  poisonous  fluid  which  is 
lodged  in  the  grooves  being  thus  introduced  into  the 
punctured  wound. 

WEEVIL,  a very  old  Anglo-Saxon  term,  now  com- 
monly applied  to  the  members  of  a group  of  Coleoptera 
termed  the  Rhyncophora. 

WEIGHING  MACHINES.  See  Balance,  also 
Mechanics  and  Mint. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.  This  subject 
may  be  best  divided  for  convenience  of  reference  into 
two  parts. — I.  Scientific,  including  the  facts  and  data 
usually  needed  for  scientific  reference;  and  II.  Com- 
mercial, including  the  weights  and  measures  of  modern 
countries  as  used  in  commerce. 

I.  Scientific.  A unit  of  length  is  the  distance 
between  two  points  defined  by  some  natural  or  artificial 
standard,  or  a multiple  of  that.  A unit  is  an  abstract 
quantity,  represented  by  a certain  standard,  and  more 
or  less  perfectly  by  copies  of  the  standard.  A unit  of 
mass  is  the  matter  of  a standard  of  mass,  or  a multiple 
of  that.  A unit  of  weight  is  the  attractive  force  exerted 
between  a unit  of  mass  and  some  given  body  at  a fixed 
distance — this  force  being  the  weight  of  the  unit  in 
relation  to  the  given  body,  or  any  other  body  of  equal 


W h.  I 


6314 


mass.  Usually  the  given  body  is  the  earth,  and  the 
distance  a radius  of  the  earth.  Standards  of  length 
are  all  defined  on  metal  bars  at  present  in  civilized 
countries.  Various  natural  standards  have  been  pro- 
posed, such  as  the  length  of  the  polar  diameter  of  the 
earth  (inch),  the  circumference  of  the  earth  (meter)  in  a 
given  longitude,  a pendulum  vibrating  in  one  second  at 
a fixed  distance  from  the  earth,  a wave  of  light  emitted 
by  an  incandescent  gas,  etc.  Standards  of  length  are  | 
of  two  types,  the  defining  points  being  either  at  a j 
certain  part  of  two  parallel  lines  engraven  in  one  plane 
(a  line  standard),  or  else  points  on  two  parallel  sur- 
faces, which  can  only  be  observed  by  contact  (an  end- 
standard).  The  first  type  is  always  used  for  accurate 
purposes.  Units  of  surface  are  always  directly  related 
to  standards  of  length,  without  any  separate  standards. 
Volume  is  either  determined  by  the  lineal  dimensions 
of  a space  or  a solid,  or,  for  accurate  purposes,  by  the 
mass  of  water  contained  in  a volume  at  a given  tem- 
perature, which  -again  is  measured  either  by  liquid 
measure,  or,  more  accurately,  by  weight. 

Comparisons. — Lengths  nearly  equal  are  compared 
accurately  by  fixing  two  micrometer  microscopes  with 
their  axes  parallel,  and  at  the  required  distance  apart, 
on  a massive  support  which  will  not  quickly  vary  with 
temperature;  then  the  two  lengths  to  be  compared,  e.g ., 
the  standard  yard  and  another,  are  alternately  placed 
beneath  the  microscopes,  and  their  lengths  observed 
several  times.  The  error  of  a single  observation  in  the 
standards  department  is  stated  to  be  a 100,000th  of  an 
inch. 

Volumes  are  always  most  accurately  defined  by  their 
weight  of  water,  as  weighing  can  be  more  accurately 
done  than  measuring.  Volumes  of  liquid  are  similarly 
ascertained  by  their  weight.  Volumes  of  gas  are  meas- 
ured in  a graduated  glass  vessel  inverted  over  a liquid, 
or  for  commercial  purposes  by  some  form  of  registering 
flow-meter.  Masses  are  compared  by  the  Balance 
(y.z/.),  which  may  be  made  to  indicate  a 100, 000, oooth 
of  the  mass. 

Temperature  and  the  Atmosphere. — All  the  serious 
difficulties  of  weighing  and  measuring  result  from  these 
causes,  the  effects  of  which  and  their  corrections  we 
will  briefly  notice.  In  measurement,  since  all  bodies 
expand  by  heat,  the  temperature  at  which  any  measure 
or  standard  bar  represents  the  abstract  unit  requires  to 
be  accurately  stated , and  observed,  the  accuracy  of 
optical  observation  being  about  equal  to  of  a degree 
F.  of  expansion  in  a standard.  Another  method  is  to 
attach  a parallel  bar  of  very  expansible  metal  to  one 
end  of  the  standard,  and  read  its  length  on  the  standard 
at  the  other  end;  this  insures  a more  thorough  uni- 
formity of  mean  temperature  between  the  standard 
and  the  heat-measurer.  The  most  accurate  method  is 
by  immersing  the  measures  in  a liquid,  of  which  the 
temperature  is  read  by  several  thermometers. 

The  temperature  adopted  for  the  standards  is  not  the 
iame  in  different  countries.  In  any  case  an  aliquot 
part  of  the  thermal  unit  from  freezing  to  boiling  of 
water  should  be  adopted;  62°  is  ^ and  68°  is  £ of  this 
interval.  Whether  a much  higher  temperature  would 
not  be  more  conducive  to  accuracy  is  a question.  No 
substance  expands  uniformly  with  temperature,  most 
materials  expanding  more  rapidly  at  higher  temper- 
atures. But  variations  of  3 or  4 per  cent,  may  easily 
be  found  in  the  rates  of  different  specimens  apparently 
•alike;  hence  the  individual  expansion  of  every  impor- 
tant measure  needs  to  be  ascertained. 

Weighing  is  complicated  by  being  done  in  a dense 
and  variable  atmosphere,  unless  — as  in  the  most  refined 
work — the  whole  balance  is  placed  in  a vacuum.  When 
in  the  air  all  bodies  placed  in  the  balance  must,  for 


accurate  purposes,  have  their  volume  known ; and  the 
weight  of  an  equal  volume  of  such  air  as  they  are 
weighed  in  must  be  added  to  their  apparent  weight  to 
get  their  true  weight. 

The  composition  of  the  air  also  varies,  and  most  seri- 
ously in  the  amount  of  aqueous  vapor;  so  that  it  may 
be  concluded  that  the  moisture  of  the  air  is  the  main 
point  to  be  noted,  after  its  temperature  and  pressure. 

The  weight  of  a cubic  inch,  or  other  linearly  meas- 
ured volume,  of  water  is  not  yet  very  accurately  known. 
The  oberservations  have  been  made  by  weighing  closed 
hollow  metal  cases  in  and  out  of  water  (thus  obtaining 
the  weight  of  an  equal  volume  of  water)  and  then  gaug- 
ing the  size  of  the  case  with  exactitude.  Cubes,  cylin- 
ders, and  spheres  have  been  employed. 

The  English  imperial  standard  yard  is  a bronze  bar 
thirty-eight  inches  long,  one  inch  square;  the  defining 
lines,  thirty-six  inches  apart,  are  cut  on  gold  studs,  sunk 
in  holes,  so  that  their  surface  passes  through  the  axis  of 
the  bar.  This  bar  when  in  use  rests  on  a lever  frame, 
which  supports  it  at  8 points,  4. 78  inches  apart,  on  rollers 
which  divide  the  pressure  exactly  equally.  The  standard 
pound  is  a thick  disk  of  platinum  about  one  and  one- 
sixth  inches  across,  and  one  inch  high,  with  a shallow 
groove  around  it  near  the  top. 

The  toleration  of  error  in  copies  for  scientific  pur- 
poses, by  the  English  Standards  Department,  is  .0005 
inch  on  the  yard  or  lesser  lengths,  about  equal  to  15 
divisions  of  the  micrometer;  on  the  pound  .0025  grain, 
about  a division  of  the  official  balances;  on  the  ounce 
.001  grain;  on  the  gallon  1 grain,  and  on  the  cubic  foot 
4 grains.  The  toleration  for  commercial  copies  is  .005 
on  the  yard,  .001  on  the  foot  and  under,  and  . 1 grain  on 
weights  of  1 ounce  to  1 pound.  The  first  F rench  stand- 
ard meter  (of  1799)  *s  a platinum  bar  end-standard  of 
about  1 inch  wide  and  \ inch  thick;  the  new  standard  of 
the  International  Metric  Commission  is  a line-standard 
of  platino-iridium,  40  inches  long  and  .8 'inch  square, 
grooved  out  on  all  four  sides  so  that  its  section  is  be- 
ween  X and  H form.  The  new  standard  kilogram, 
like  the  old  one,  is  a cylinder  of  platinum  of  equal 
diameter  and  height. 

The  legal  theory  of  the  British  system  of  weights  and 
measures  is — (A)  the  standard  yard,  with  all  lineal 
measures  and  their  squares  and  cubes  based  upon  that; 

(B)  the  standard  pound  of  7,000  grains,  with  all 
weights  based  upon  that,  with  the  troy  pound  of  5,760 
grains  for  trade  purposes;  (C)  the  standard  gallon,  de- 
clared to  contain  10  pounds  of  water  at  62°  F.,  be- 
ing in  volume  277.274  cubic  inches,  which  contain 
each  252.724  grains  of  water  in  a vacuum  at  62°,  or 
252.458  grains  of  water  weighed  with  brass  weights  in 
air  of  62°  with  the  barometer  at  30  inches. 

The  legal  theory  of  the  metric  system  of  weights  and 
measures  is — (A)  the  standard  meter,  with  decimal 
fractions  and  multiples  thereof;  (B)  the  standard  kilo- 
gram, with  decimal  fractions  and  multiples  thereof; 

(C)  the  liter  (with  decimal  fractions  and  multiples),  de- 
clared to  be  a cube  of  -po  meter,  and  to  contain  a kilo- 
gram of  water  at  40  C.  in  a vacuum.  No  standard 
liter  exists,  all  liquid  measures  being  legally  fixed  by 
weight. 

The  legal  equivalents  between  the  British  and  French 
systems  are — meter  = 39. 37079  inches;  kilogram  = 
15,432.34874  grains.  By  the  more  exact  comparisons  of 
Captain  Clarke  (1866)  the  meter  (at  o°  C.,  320  F.)  is 
equal  to  39-37043196  inches  of  the  yard  at  62°  F.;  but 
Rogers  in  1882  compared  the  meter  as  39.37027.  The 
kilogram  determination  above  is  that  of  Professor 
Miller  (1844)  against  the  kilogram  des  Archives,  but 
in  1884  the  international  kilogram  yielded  15,432. 
35639- 


WEI-WEL 


II.  Commercial. — In  this  section  v/e  shall  only 
refer  to  such  measures  as  are  in  actual  use  at  the  present 
time;  the  various  systems  of  the  Continental  towns  have 
been  superseded  by  the  metric  system  now  in  force,  and 
are  therefore  not  needed  now  except  for  historical  j 
purposes. 

* United  States  and  Great  Britain . — 

Length — 

inch,  12  = foot,  3 = yard,  5%  = pole, 

1 in.  12  36  198 

4 — chain,  10  = furlong,  8 = mile. 

792  7,920  63,360 

Hand,  4 inches;  fathom,  2 yards;  knot  or  geographical 
mile  = T = 1.1507  miles.  The  chain  is  divided  in  100 
links  for  land  measure;  link  ==  7.92  inches. 

Terms  of  square  measure  are  squares  of  the  long 
measures. 

Volume:  dry — 

pint,  2 = quart,  4 = gallon, 
cub.  in.  34.659  69.318  277.274 

2 — peck.  4 = bushel.  8 = quarter. 

554.548  2,218.19  I7.745-6 

Gill  = pint;  poitle  = 2 quarts;  5 quarters  = wey 
or  load;  2 weys  = last. 

Volume:  wet — 

Pint  and  quart  | G11  = fiirkin> 

as  above.  ) ’ y ’ 

cub.  ins.  277.274  2,495.5 

Ji  4 = barrel  or  | 2 = pipe,  butt,  or 

) hogshead,  f puncheon. 

9,981.9  19,963.8 

Avoirdupois  weight,  for  everything  not  excepted  below 
drachm,  16  = ounce,  16  = pound,  14  = stone, 

27.3  grains  437-5  7,000  98,000 

2 = quarter,  4 = hundred,  20  = ton. 

196,000  grs.  1T2  lb.  2,240  lb. 

Troy  weight  (gold,  silver,  platinum,  and  jewels  except 
diamonds  and  pearls) — 

grain,  24  = pennyweight,  20  = ounce,  12  = pound. 

1 grain  24  480  5,760 

Diamond  and  pearl  weight — - 

grain,  4 = carat,  150  = ounce  Troy. 

.8  grain  3.2  480 

Apothecaries’  dispensing  weight,  for  prescriptions  only — 

grain,  20  = scruple,  3 = drachm,  8 = ounce,  12  = pound. 

1 grain  20  60  480  5*760 

Apothecaries’  fluid  measure — 

minim,  60  ==  drachm,  S = ounce,  20  — pint,  8 =gallon. 
.91  gr.,  water  54.7  437.5  8,750  70,000 

.036  cub.  in.  .216  1.733  34-659  277.274 

Metric  System. — The  report  to  the  French  National 
Assembly  proposing  this  system  was  presented  March 
17,  1791,  the  meridian  measurements  finished  and 
adopted  June  22,  1799,  an  intermediate  system  of 
division  and  names  tolerated  May  28,  1812,  abolished 
and  pure  decimal  system  enforced  January  1,  1840. 
Since  then  Netherlands,  Spain  (1850),  Italy,  Greece, 
Austria  (legalized  1876),  Germany,  Norway  and  Sweden 
(1878),  Switzerland,  Portugal,  Mexico,  Venezuela, 
Argentine  Republic,  Hayti,  New  Grenada,  Mauritius, 
Congo  Free  State,  and  other  states  have  adopted  this 
system.  The  use  of  it  is  permissive  in  Great  Britain, 
India,  Canada,  Chili,  etc.  The  theory  of  the  system  is 
that  the  meter  is  a 10, 000, oooth  of  a quadrant  of  the 
earth  through  Paris;  the  liter  is  a cube  of  ^ meter; 
the  gram  is  , „L00  of  the  liter  filled  with  water  at  40  C.; 
the  franc  weighs  5 grams.  In  land  measure  the  unit 
is  the  are  (10  metres  square)=  119.60  square  yards;  and 
the  hectare=2. 4736  acres.  Other  multiplesof  the  units 
are  merely  nominaTand  not  practically  used. 

* United  States — Inch  =n  1.000049  British  inch,  and  other  meas- 
ures in  proportion.  Gallon  = .83292  British  gallon.  Bushel  =x 
.96946  British  bushel.  Weight,  as  Great  Britain. 


6315 

WEIMAR,  the  capital  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Saxe- 
Weimar-Eisenach,  the  largest  of  the  Thuringian  states 
is  situated  in  a pleasant  valley  on  the  11m , 50  miles  south- 
west of  Leipsic  and  136  miles  southwest  of  Berlin. 

I Weimar  has  now  no  actual  importance,  though  it  will 
always  remain  a literary  Mecca.  It  is  a peaceful  little 
German  town,  abounding  in  excellent  educational,  lite- 
rary, artistic-,  and  benevolent  institutions;  its  society  is 
cultured,  though  perhaps  a little  narrow;  while  the 
even  tenor  of  its  existence  is  undisturbed  by  any  great 
commercial  or  manufacturing  activity.  The  population 
j in  1885  was  21,565;  in  1782,  six  years  after  Goethe’s 
arrival,  it  was  about  7,000;  and  in  1834,  two  years  after 
his  death,  it  was  10,638.  Pop.  (igoo),  28,489. 

WEISSKNFELS,  an  industrial  town  in  the  province 
of  Saxony,  Prussia,  is  situated  on  the  Saale,  eighteen 
and  one-half  miles  southwest  of  Leipsic,  and  nineteen 
south  of  Halle.  Weissenfels  manufactures  machinery, 
sugar,  pasteboard,  paper,  leather  goods,  pottery,  and 
gold  and  silver  wares.  It  contains  also  an  iron  foundry, 
and  carries  on  trade  in  timber  and  grain.  In  the  neigh- 
borhood are  large  deposits  of  sandstone  and  lignite. 
The  population  of  the  town  in  1900  was  24,766. 

WEKA,  or  Weeka.  See  Ocydrome. 

WELDING,  the  process  by  which  some  substances 
are  united  together  in  a softened  state.  It  is  generally 
applied  to  such  metals  as  malleable  iron,  two  pieces  of 
which,  heated  to  redness,  may  be  made  to  unite  by  ap- 
plying them  together  and  beating  with  a hammer. 
Other  substances,  such  as  horn  and  tortoise  shell,  can 
be  welded  by  making  separate  pieces  soft  by  heat,  and 
pressing  them  together,  which  causes  so  intimate  a union 
that  no  traces  of  the  junction  remain  after  cooling. 

WELLESLEY,  Richard  Wesley  (or  Wellesley) 
Marquis  of,  eldest  son  of  the  first  earlof  Mornington, 
an  Irish  peer,  and  eldest  brother  of  the  duke  of  Well- 
ington, was  born  June  20,  1760.  By  his  father’s  death 
in  1781  he  became  earlof  Mornington,  taking  his  seat  in 
the  Irish  House  of  Peers.  In  1784  he  entered  the  Eng- 
lish House  of  Commons  as  member  for  Beeralston. 
Soon  afterward  he  was  appointed  a lord  of  the  treasury 
by  Pitt,  with  whom  he  rapidly  grew  in  favor.  In  1793 
he  became  a member  of  the  board  of  control  over  In- 
dian affairs;  and,  although  he  was  best  known  to  the 
public  by  his  speeches  in  defense  of  Pitt’s  foreign  policy, 
he  was  now  gaining  the  acquaintance  with  Oriental 
affairs  which  made  his  rule  over  India  so  wonderfully 
effective  from  the  moment  when,  in  1797,  he  accepted 
the  office  of  governor- general.  That  Pitt  and  Welles- 
ley had  consciously  formed  the  design  of  acquiring  a 
great  empire  in  India  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  the 
American  colonies  has  not  been  proved;  but  the  rivalry 
with  France,  which  in  Europe  placed  England  at  the 
head  of  coalition  after  coalition  against  the  French  re- 
public and  empire,  made  Wellesley’s  rule  in  India  an 
epoch  of  enormous  and  rapid  extension  of  English 
power.  Soon  after  his  landing  in  April,  1798,  he  learned 
than  an  alliance  had  been  formed  between  Tippoo  Saib 
and  the  French  republic.  Wellesley  resolved  to  antici- 
pate the  action  of  the  enemy,  and  ordered  preparations 
for  war.  The  invasion  of  Mysore  followed  in  Febru- 
ary, 1799,  and  the  campaign  was  brought  to  a rapid 
close  by  the  capture  of  Seringapatam  (see  India  and 
Wellington).  In  1803  the  restoration  of  the  peshwa 
was  taken  in  hand,  which  proved  the  prelude  to  the 
great  Mahratta  war  against  Sindhia  and  the  raja  of 
Berar.  The  result  of  these  wars  and  of  the  treaties 
which  followed  them  was  that  French  influence  in 
India  was  extinguished,  that  forty  millions  of  pop- 
ulation and  ten  millions  of  revenue  were  added  to  the 
British  dominions,  and  that  the  powers  of  the 
Mahratta  and  all  other  princes  were  so  reduced  that 


W E L 


6316 

England  became  the  really  dominant  authority  over  all 
India. 

On  the  fall  of  the  coalition  ministry  in  1807,  Welles- 
ley (an  English  peer  from  1797  and  marquis  in  the 
peerage  of  Ireland  from  1799)  was  invited  by  George 
III.  to  join  the  duke  of  Portland’s  cabinet,  but  he  de- 
clined, pending  the  discussion  in  parliament  of  certain 
charges  brought  against  him  in  respect  of  his  Indian 
administration.  Resolutions  condemning  him  for  the 
abuse  of  power  were  moved  both  in  the  Lords  and 
Commons,  but  defeated  by  large  majorities.  In  1809 
Wellesley  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Spain.  A few 
months  later,  after  the  duel  befween  Canning  and  Cas- 
tlereagh  and  the  resignation  of  both,  Wellesley  ac- 
cepted the  post  of  foreign  secretary  in  Percival’s  cab- 
inet. In  1821  he  was  appointed  to  the  lord-lieutenancy 
of  Ireland.  Catholic  emancipation  had  now  become 
an  open  question  in  the  cabinet,  and  Wellesley’s  accept- 
ance of  the  vice-royalty  was  believed  in  Ireland  to  her- 
ald the  immediate  set  tlement  of  the  Catholic  claims.  But 
the  hopes  of  the  Catholics  still  remained  unfulfilled; 
Lord  Liverpool  died  without  having  grappled  with  the 
problem.  Canning  in  turn  passed  away;  and  on  the 
assumption  of  office  by  Wellington,  who  was  opposed 
to  Catholic  emancipation,  his  brother  resigned  the  lord- 
lieutenancy.  In  1833  he  resumed  the  office  of  lord- 
lieutenant  under  Earl  Grey,  but  the  ministry  fell  a few 
months  later,  and,  with  one  short  exception,  Wellesley 
did  not  further  take  part  in  official  life.  He  died  on 
September  26,  1842. 

WELLINGBOROUGH,  a market-town  of  North- 
amptonshire, England,  is  situated  on  the  declivity  of  a 
hill  near  the  junction  of  the  Ise  with  the  Nen,  and  on 
the  London  and  North-Western  and  Midland  railway 
lines,  sixty-three  and  one-half  miles  north-northwest  of 
London,  and  ten  and  one-half  east-northeast  of  North- 
ampton. Formerly  the  town  was  famed  for  the  chalyb- 
eate springs  to  which  it  owes  its  name.  It  is  now  of 
some  importance  as  a center  of  agricultural  trade;  but 
the  staple  industry  is  leather.  A great  impulse  *0  the 
prosperity  of  the  town  was  given  by  the  introduction  of 
the  boot  and  shoe  trade,  especially  the  manufacture  of 
uppers.  Smelting,  brewing,  and  iron-founding  are  also 
carried  on,  as  well  as  the  manufacture  of  portable 
steam  engines.  A coal  depot  of  the  Midland  railway 
is  also  situated  in  the  town.  The  population  of  the 
township  and  urban  sanitary  district  (area  3,992  acres) 
in  1871  was  9,385  and  in  1901  it  was  16,794. 

WELLINGTON,  a town  of  Shropshire,  England, 
on  the  Great  Western  and  London  and  North-Western 
railway  lines,  and  on  the  Shropshire  Union  canal, 
151%  miles  northwest  of  London,  11  east  of  Shrews- 
bury, and  31  northwest  of  Birmingham.  The  manu- 
facture of  agricultural  implements,  iron  and  brass  found- 
ing, {,nd  malting  are  carried  on.  The  population  of 
Jhe  urban  sanitary  district  (area  352  acres)  in  1871  was 
5,926,  and  in  1901  it  was  8,217. 

WELLINGTON,  a market-town  of  Somerset,  Eng- 
land, is  situated  on  a gentle  elevation  at  the  foot  of  the 
Blackdowns  near  the  river  Tone,  and  on  the  Great 
Western  railway,  170  miles  south-southwest  of  London, 
and  7 southwest  of  Taunton.  The  staple  industry 
is  the  woolen  manufacture;  iron-founding  and  brick  and 
tile  making  are  also  carried  on.  The  population  of  the 
township  and  urban  sanitary  district  (area  5,195  acres) 
in  1871  was  6,286,  and  in  1901  it  was  8,360. 

WELLINGTON,  the  chief  town  of  Hutt  county, 
New  Zealand,  and  the  seat  of  the  colonial  government,  is 
situated  in  the  southwest  of  North  Island,  on  the  shores 
of  Port  Nicholson,  in  410  16'  25"  S.  latitude,  and  174° 
.47' 25"  E.  longitude,  80  miles  east  of  Nelson,  160  south 
•f  New  Plymouth,  and  1,200  southeast  of  Sydney. 


Wellington  was  the  first  settlement  of  the  New  Zea- 
land colonists.  As  a shipping  port  Wellington  ranks 
next  to  Auckland  and  Lyttelton.  It  possesses  foundries, 
ship-building  yards,  boot  factories,  soap  and  candle 
works,  tanneries,  woolen,  coffee,  flour,  and  saw-mills, 
breweries,  aerated  water-works,  coach  factories,  brick 
and  tile  works,  and  a very  extensive  meat-preserving 
establishment,  which  exports  large  supplies  to  Europe. 
The  area  of  the  municipal  borough  is  1,100  acres,  and 
from  4,176  in  1861  the  population  increased  to  13,488 
in  1871  and  20,563  in  1881,  while  in  1901  the  city  and 
suburbs  had  49,344  inhabitants. 

WELLINGTON,  the  county  seat  of  Sumner  county, 
Kan.,  an  enterprising  and  thriving  city,  is  situated  on 
Slate  creek,  30  miles  from  Wichita  and  252  miles 
from  Kansas  City.  It  is  also  located  on  the  Kansas 
City  and  St.  Joe  line  of  the  Rock  Island  road,  and  is  a 
prominent  shipping  station  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka 
and  Santa  Fe  system,  possessing  superior  facilities  for 
handling  the  heavy  consignments  of  grain  and  produce 
from  the  surrounding  country,  for  which  Wellington  is 
the  market  and  distributing  point.  In  addition  to 
advantages  in  this  connection,  the  city  is  the  location  of 
a line  of  manufactures  that  are  steadily  increasing  in 
number,  while  its  mercantile,  monetary,  and  educational 
features  have  contributed  to  the  extension  of  its  in- 
fluence and  importance.  Four  national  banks  are 
established  at  Wellington,  and  two  daily  and  four 
weekly  papers  are  regularly  issued.  The  city  also 
contains  churches,  schools,  and  other  improvements  of  a 
public  character,  four  large  hotels,  an  opera  house  and 
one  or  more  public  halls,  together  with  additional 
evidences  of  the  progressive  character  of  residents,  and 
which  have  given  it  a conspicuous  position  among  the 
cities  of  the  State.  A number  of  grist  and  lumber  mills 
are  in  continuous  operation  ; the  manufacturing  indus- 
tries also  embracing  salt  works,  galvanized  iron  and 
electric  light  works,  foundries  and  machine  shops, 
carriage,  sash,  door  and  blind,  and  broom  factories, 
with  other  enterprises  perfected  and  prospective.  The 
population,  quoted  at  6,500  in  1885,  had  decreased  to 
nearly  4,245  by  1900. 

WELLINGTON,  Arthur  Wellesley,  Duke  of, 
was  the  fourth  son  of  Garrett,  earl  of  Mornington,  now 
remembered  only  as  a musician.  Arthur  (born  in  Ire- 
land in  the  spring  of  1769)  was  sent  to  Eton,  and 
subsequently  to  the  military  college  at  Angers.  He 
entered  the  army  as  ensign  of  the  73d  regiment  in 
1787,  passed  rapidly  through  the  subaltern  grades, 
became  major  of  the  33d,  and  purchased  the  lieutenant- 
colonelcy  of  that  regiment  in  1 793  with  money  advanced 
to  him  by  his  eldest  brother.  His  first  experience  of 
active  service  was  in  the  disastrous  campaign  of  1 794- 
95,  when  the  British  force  under  the  duke  of  York  was 
driven  out  of  Holland  by  Fichegru.  In  1796  he  was 
sent  with  his  regiment  to  India.  In  1798  Colonel 
Wellesley’s  eldest  brother,  Lord  Mornington,  afterward 
marquis  of  Wellesley,  arrived  in  India  as  governdr- 
general.  The  war  with  Tippoo  Saib  followed.  The 
33d  regiment  was  attached  to  the  subsidiary  force  fur- 
nished by  the  nizam,  and  Colonel  Wellesley  was  intrusted 
with  the  command  of  this  division,  under  the  orders  of 
General  Harris.  In  a preliminary  attack  upon  the 
works  of  Seringapatam,  Wellesley  met  with  a repulse; 
in  the  successful  assault  upon  the  town  he  commanded 
the  reserve.  Though  his  military  services  in  this  short 
campaign  were  not  of  a striking  character,  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  his  brother  to  the  supreme  military  and 
political  command  in  Mysore. 

The  result  of  Wellesley’s  singular  personal  ascend- 
ancy among  the  Mahrattas  came  into  full  view  when  the 
Mahratta  war  broke  out.  In  the  meantime,  however. 


W E L 6317 


his  Indian  career  seemed  likely  to  be  sacrificed  to  the 
calls  of  warfare  in  another  quarter.  Wellesley  was 
ordered  by  the  governor-general,  in  December,  1800, 
to  take  command  of  a body  of  troops  collected  for 
foreign  service  at  Trincomalee,  in  Ceylon.  It  was  at 
first  intended  that  these  troops  should  act  against  Java 
or  Mauritius;  their  destination  was,  however,  altered 
to  Egypt,  and  a notification  was  made  to  Wellesley 
that  in  consequence  of  this  change  General  Baird  would 
be  placed  in  command  above  him.  Though  deeply 
offended  at  the  loss  of  the  command,  Wellesley  so  com- 
pletely sank  all  personal  grievance  in  his  devotion  to 
the  public  cause,  that,  in  opposition  to  his  instructions, 
and  at  the  risk  of  incurring  severe  censure,  he  moved 
the  troops  on  his  own  responsibility  from  Trincomalee  to 
Bombay,  from  the  conviction  that,  if  they  were  to  be  of 
any  use  in  Egypt,  it  was  absolutely  necessary  that  they 
should  provision  at  Bombay  without  delay.  At  Bom- 
bay Wellesley  was  attacked  by  fever,  and  prevented 
from  going  on  to  Egypt.  He  returned  with  great  satis- 
faction to  his  government  in  Mysore,  where  he  remained 
until  the  Mahratta  war  broke  out. 

In  the  spring  of  1805,  Wellesley,  now  Sir  Arthur, 
quitted  India  and  returned  home.  He  was  immediately 
sent  on  the  expedition  to  Hanover  which  was  rendered 
abortive  by  the  battle  of  Austerlitz.  In  1806  he  was 
elected  member  of  parliament  for  the  borough  of  Rye, 
and  in  the  following  year  was  appointed  Irish  secretary. 
After  serving  in  this  office  for  a few  months  he  was  em- 
ployed in  the  expedition  against  Copenhagen,  where 
little  glory  was  to  be  gained.  In  the  summer  of  1808 
he  took  command  of  a body  of  troops  destined  to 
operate  against  the  French  in  Spain  or  Portugal. 
Finding  that  the  junta  of  Corufia  wished  for  no  foreign 
soldiery,  he  proceeded  to  fulfill  his  instructions  by 
acting  against  Junot  at  Lisbon.  He  landed  at  Mondego 
Bay  in  the  first  week  of  August,  and  moved  southward, 
driving  in  the  enemy’s  posts  at  Roliga  on  August  17th. 
On  the  2 1st  the  battle  of  Vimiero  was  fought  and  won. 
In  the  midst  of  this  engagement,  however,  Sir  Harry 
Burrard  landed,  and  superseded  Wellesley  in  the  com- 
mand. Wellesley  in  vain  called  upon  this  general  to 
follow  up  the  pursuit  when  the  victory  was  gained.  The 
convention  of  Cintra  provided  for  the  evacuation  of 
Portugal  by  the  French,  but  it  gave  Junot  and  all  his 
troops  a free  return  to  France.  So  great  was  the  public 
displeasure  in  England  at  the  escape  of  the  enemy,  that 
a court  of  inquiry  was  held  into  all  the  circumstances 
attending  the  convention  of  Cintra.  At  this  inquiry  the 
rejection  of  Wellesley’s  counsels  by  his  superior  officer 
at  the  close  of  the  battle  of  Vimiero  was  fully  proved. 

After  the  failure  of  Sir  John  Moore’s  campaign  in 
the  winter  of  1808-9,  Wellesley,  who  had  in  the  mean- 
time resumed  his  duties  as  Irish  secretary,  returned  to 
the  Peninsula  as  chief  in  command.  His  first  move  was 
against  Soult,  who  had  captured  Oporto.  He  drove 
the  French  out  of  this  city  by  a singularly  bold  and 
fortunate  attack,  and  then  prepared  to  march  against 
Madrid  by  the  valley  of  the  Tagus.  Wellesley,  uncon- 
scious of  Soult’s  presence  in  force  on  his  flank,  advanced 
against  Madrid,  and  finally  drew  up  at  Talavera  to 
meet  the  attack  of  Victor,  who  had  defeated  Cuesta 
and  driven  him  back  on  the  English.  The  battle  was 
begun  on  July  27th  and  continued  on  the  28th. 
Wellesley  gained  a complete  victory,  and  decisively 
proved  the  superiority  of  English  troops  under  his  com- 
mand over  those  of  the  enemy.  A peerage,  with  the 
title  of  Viscount  Wellington,  was  conferred  upon  him 
for  his  victory  at  Talavera.  Up  to  this  time  Napoleon, 
with  the  bulk  of  his  armies,  had  been  occupied  with  the 
war  against  Austria.  The  peace  of  Vienna,  concluded 
in  October,  1809,  made  him  free  to  throw  «n  almost 

890 


unlimited  force  into  the  Spanish  Peninsula.  The  Eng. 
lish  army  in  the  meantime  wintered  in  the  neighbor- 
hood  of  Almeida.  As  summer  approached,  Welling- 
ton’s anticipations  were  realized.  Massena,  who  had 
distinguished  himself  above  every  other  general  in  the 
Austrian  war  of  1809,  arrived  in  Spain,  and  moved 
against  Portugal  with  an  army  of  70,000  men.  Welling- 
ton was  unable  to  prevent  Ciudad  Rodrigo  from  falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  French.  But  in  the  spring  o? 
1811  Wellington  received  reenforcements  from  Eng- 
land. He  now  moved  against  the  enemy.  Massena 
retreated  northward,  devastating  the  country  with 
unsparing  severity  in  order  to  check  the  pursuit. 

In  the  meantime  Soult,  who  was  besieging  Cadiz,  had 
received  orders  from  Napoleon  to  move  to  the  support 
of  Massena.  Leaving  part  of  his  force  in  front  of 
Cadiz,  he  marched  northward  and  captured  Badajoz. 
Here,  however,  he  learnt  that  Massena  was  in  full  re- 
treat,  and  also  that  his  own  army  besieging  Cadiz  had 
been  attacked  and  beaten.  He  in  consequence  returned 
and  resumed  the  blockade.  Wellington,  freed  from 
pressure  on  the  south,  and  believing  Massena  to  be 
thoroughly  disabled,  considered  that  the  time  had  come 
for  an  advance  into  Spain.  The  fortresses  of  Almeida, 
Ciudad  Rodrigo,  and  Badajoz  had  to  be  recaptured  from 
the  French.  Leaving  a small  force  to  besiege  Almeida, 
Wellington  went  southward  to  arrange  with  Beresford 
for  the  siege  of  Badajoz.  During  his  absence  Massena 
again  took  the  field,  and  marched  to  the  relief  of  Al- 
meida. Wellington  returned  in  time  to  defeat  him  at 
Fuentes  d’Onoro,  and  Almeida  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  British.  Wellington  resumed  the  offensive,  and  on 
January  19,  1812,  Ciudad  Rodrigo  was  taken  by  storm. 
The  road  into  Spain  was  now  open;  it  only  remained  to 
secure  Portugal  itself  and  the  line  of  communication  by 
the  capture  of  Badajoz.  Wellington  crossed  the  Tagus 
and  completed  the  investment  of  this  fortress  by  the 
middle  of  March.  It  was  necessary  at  whatever  cost  to 
anticipate  the  arrival  of  Soult  with  a relieving  army, 
and  on  April  6th  Wellington  ordered  the  assault.  The 
fearful  slaughter  which  took  place  before  the  British 
were  masters  of  the  defenses  caused  Wellington  to  be 
charged  with  indifference  to  the  loss  of  human  life. 

The  advance  into  Spain  against  the  French  line  of 
communication  between  Madrid  and  the  Pyrenees  was 
now  begun.  Marmont,  who  had  succeeded  Massena 
in  the  command,  fell  back  and  allowed  Wellington  to 
occupy  Salamanca;  but  on  reaching  the  Douro  he 
turned  upon  his  assailant,  and,  by  superior  swiftness  in 
marching,  threatened  to  cut  the  English  off  from  Portu- 
gal. Wellington  now  retreated  as  far  as  Salamanca, 
and  there  extricated  himself  from  his  peril  by  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  victories  which  he  ever  gained  (July  22d). 
Instead  of  immediately  following  this  up,  which  from  a 
military  point  of  view  would  have  been  the  better  course, 
Wellington  thought  it  wise  to  advance  upon  the  Spanish 
capital.  King  Joseph  retired  southward  and  the  Eng- 
lish entered  Madrid  in  triumph.  The  political  effect  of 
this  act  was  very  great,  but  the  delay  gave  the  French 
northern  army  time  to  rally.  On  marching  against’ 
them  Wellington  was  checked  by  the  obstinate  defense 
of  Burgos.  Moreover,  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  the 
capital,  Soult  was  now  ordered  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Cadiz,  and  to  move  to  the  support  of  King  Joseph. 
Gathering  his  forces,  and  uniting  them  with  the  French 
army  of  the  center,  he  pressed  on  toward  Madrid.  It 
was  impossible  for  Wellington  to  maintain  his  position, 
and  he  was  compelled  once  more  to  retire  into  Portugal, 
while  Madrid  passed  back  into  the  hands  of  the  French. 
Wellington  was  now  invested  by  the  cortes  with  the  su- 
preme command  of  the  Spanish  armies. 

The  disasters  of  the  Russian  campaign  had  com- 


W E L 


6318 

pelled  Napoleon  to  withdraw  some  of  his  best  regi- 
ments from  the  Peninsula.  Against  a weakened 
and  discouraged  adversary  Wellington  took  the  field 
with  greatly  increased  numbers,  and  with  the  utmost 
confidence  of  victory.  His  design  was  to  throw 
himself  directly  upon  the  French  line  of  communica- 
tion, keeping  his  left  pushed  forward  in  advance  of  his 
center,  so  as  to  threaten  the  envelopment  of  the  forti- 
fied posts  held  by  the  enemy.  Napoleon  had  foreseen 
that  this  would  be  the  strategy  of  the  English  com- 
mander, and  had  ordered  King  Joseph  to  neglect  every 
point  to  the  center  and  east,  and  to  concentrate  at 
Valladolid.  This  order  had  been  but  imperfectly 
obeyed.  The  advance  of  the  allied  army  was  irresisti- 
ble. Position  after  position  was  evacuated  by  the 
French,  until  Wellington,  driving  everything  before 
him,  came  up  with  the  retreating  enemy  at  Vitoria,  now 
encumbered  with  an  enormous  train  of  fugitives,  and 
with  the  spoils  of  five  years’  occupation  of  Spain.  His 
victory,  won  on  June  21st,  was  overwhelming.  All  the 
artillery  and  almost  all  the  treasure  and  stores  of  the 
French  army  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors. 
Both  armies  now  rested  for  some  weeks,  during  which 
interval  Wellington  gained  the  confidence  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  district  by  his  unsparing  repression  of 
marauding,  his  business-like  payment  for  supplies,  and 
the  excellent  discipline  which  he  maintained  among  his 
soldiers.  In  February,  1814,  the  advance  was  renewed. 
The  Adour  was  crossed,  and  Soult,  leaving  a garrison 
in  Bayonne,  fell  back  on  Orthes.  At  Orthes  he  was  at- 
tacked and  defeated.  Bordeaux  now  declared  in  favor 
of  the  Bourbons,  and  admitted  the  English.  Soult’slast 
move  was  upon  Toulouse.  Here,  after  the  allies  had 
entered  Paris,  but  before  the  abdication  of  Napoleon 
had  become  known,  the  last  battle  of  the  war  was 
fought.  Peace  being  proclaimed,  Wellington  took 
leave  of  his  army  at  Bordeaux,  and  returned  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  was  received  with  extraordinary  honors. 

After  the  treaty  of  Paris  (May  30)  Wellington  was 
appointed  British  ambassador  at  the  French  capital. 
He  remained  in  France  until  February,  1815,  when,  in 
consequence  of  the  return  of  Lord  Castlereagh  to  Eng- 
land to  meet  the  House  of  Commons,  he  took  that 
minister’s  place  at  the  congress  at  Vienna.  His  imper- 
fect acquaintance  with  French  feeling  was  strikingly 
proved  in  the  dispatch  which  he  sent  home  on  learning 
.jf  Napoleon’s  escape  from  Elba.  “He  has  acted,”  he 
.vrote,  “ upon  false  or  no  information,  and  the  king 
(Louis  XVIII.)  will  destroy  him  without  difficulty  and 
in  a short  time.”  Almost  before  Wellington’s  unfortu- 
nate prediction  could  reach  London,  Louis  had  fled 
beyond  the  frontier,  and  France  was  at  Napoleon’s  feet. 
The  ban  of  the  congress,  however,  went  out  against 
the  common  enemy  of  mankind,  and  the  presence  of 
Wellington  at  Vienna  enabled  the  allies  at  once  to  de- 
cide upon  their  plans  for  the  campaign.  T o Wellington 
and  Bliicher  was  committed  the  invasion  of  France  from 
the  north,  while  the  Russians  and  Austrians  entered  it 
from  the  east.  Wellington,  with  35,000  English  troops 
and  about  60,000  Dutch,  Germans,  and  Belgians,  took 
his  post  in  the  Netherlands,  guarding  the  country  west 
of  the  Charleroi  road.  Bliicher,  with  120,000  Prus- 
sians, lay  between  Charleroi,  Namur,  and  Li£ge.  In 
the  meantime  Napoleon  had  outstripped  the  prepara- 
tions of  his  adversaries,  and  by  June  13th  had  concen- 
trated 130,000  men  on  the  northern  frontier  about 
Philippeville. 

Although  the  French  advance  on  the  center  became 
evident  at  the  front  on  the  morning  of  the  14th,  it  was 
Unknown  to  Wellington  till  the  afternoon  of  the  15th 
(after  the  Prussians  had  been  driven  out  of  Charleroi) 
that  the  French  had  made  any  movement  whatever. 


How  it  was  that  the  advance  Remained  unknown  td 
Wellington  for  twenty-four  hours  has  not  been  explained. 
Commencing  his  concentration  eastward  twenty-four 
hours  too  late,  he  was  unable  to  fulfill  his  design  of  as- 
sisting Bliicher.  Ney,  getting  a start  on  the  Brussels 
road,  kept  the  English  occupied  at  Quatre  Bras  during 
the  16th,  while  Napoleon  was  dealing  with  the  Prus- 
sians at  Ligny— though  the  ultimate  defeat  of  the  French 
at  Quatre  Bras,  and  Napoleon’s  own  failure  to  follow 
up  his  victory  at  Ligny  by  a rapid  pursuit,  rendered  it 
possible  for  the  allies  to  effect  two  clays  later  the  com- 
bination which  they  had  failed  to  effect  at  Ligny.  On 
the  morning  of  Sunday,  June  18,  Wellington,  assured 
of  Bliicher’s  assistance,  awaited  Napoleon’s  attack  on 
the  memorable  plain  of  Waterloo.  How,  a!t  the  head 
of  30,000  English  and  40,000  mixed  troops,  he  with- 
stood the  onslaught  of  the  French  army,  and  ultimately, 
in  union  with  Bliicher,  swept  them  from  the  field,  needs 
not  to  be  recounted  here. 

Ending  his  military  career  with  one  of  the  greatest 
achievements  in  history,  Wellington  suddenly  became, 
from  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  moment,  the 
most  influential  politician  in  Europe.  The  czar  and  the 
emperor  of  Austria  were  still  at  Nancy  when  Paris  sur- 
rendered. Wellington  had  reason  to  believe  that  Alex- 
ander bore  so  hostile  a feeling  toward  Louis  XVIII., 
that  if  matters  were  not  settled  before  the  arrival  of 
the  czar  at  Paris,  the  Bourbon  dynasty  might  not  be 
restored  at  all.  He  therefore  took  affairs  into  his  own 
hands,  and  concluded  an  arrangement  whereby  the 
regicide  Fouch£,  at  that  moment  the  most  powerful 
man  in  Paris,  was  accepted  as  the  minister  of  Louis 
XVIII.  The  negotiation  with  Fouche  was  not  a dig- 
nified episode  in  Wellington’s  life;  he  stooped,  however, 
to  a somewhat  humiliating  expedient  in  order  to  avert 
substantial  mischief.  The  next  manifestation  of  his 
personal  ascendancy  was  of  a finer  kind.  The  con- 
ditions of  peace  with  France  had  to  be  determined  by 
the  allies;  and,  while  the  czar  urged  that  France  should 
be  left  with  undiminished  territory,  Prussia  demanded, 
as  a guarantee  against  renewed  aggression,  the  annexa- 
tion of  Alsace  and  Lorraine.  The  British  cabinet  at 
first  inclined  to  the  Prussian  view.  Wellington,  how- 
ever, argued  strongly  for  the  opposite  policy.  Welling- 
ton’s arguments  brought  the  English  Government  round 
to  his  own  view,  and  so  turned  the  balance  in  favor  of 
the  czar’s  policy  of  forbearance  and  against  the  annexa- 
tions demanded  by  Prussia. 

Peace  being  concluded,  Wellington  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  joint  army  of  occupation,  by 
which  it  was  stipulated  that  France  should  be  watched 
for  the  next  five  years.  Returning  to  England,  he  sank 
into  the  comparative  insignificance  of  master- general  of 
the  ordnance,  with  a seat  in  the  cabinet.  For  the  next 
three  years  he  was  little  before  the  world;  but  in  1822, 
on  the  death  of  Castlereagh,  he  was  sent  in  the  place  of 
that  minister  to  represent  Great  Britain  at  the  congress 
of  Verona.  The  main  question  before  the  congress 
was  the  policy  to  be  adopted  with  regard  to  the  Spanish 
movement,  whether  called  revolutionary  or  constitu- 
tional, by  which  the  absolute  monarchy  of  King  Ferdi- 
nand had  been  overthrown.  No  sooner  had  Welling- 
ton arrived  at  Verona  than  he  found  that  the  czar  was 
bent  upon  obtaining  a joint  declaration  of  all  the 
powers  condemning  the  Spanish  constitution,  and  com- 
mitting to  the  Russian  army,  as  the  mandatory  of  Eu- 
rope, the  task  of  overthrowing  it.  In  pursuance  of  his 
instructions,  Wellington  now  stated  that  Great  Britain 
would ' rather  sever  itself  from  the  European  alliance 
cemented  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  than  consent  to  any  such 
joint  declaration;  and  the  information  which  he  had 
privately  acquired  at  Paris  enabled  him  to  inform  the 


w a l 


czar  that  his  project  of  employing  Russian  troops  in 
Spain  would  certainly  be  thwarted  by  France.  Armed 
with  these  two  powerful  arguments — the  one  public 
and  official,  the  other  personal  and  private — Wellington 
had  no  great  difficulty  in  preventing  the  summary  fram- 
ing of  a decree  against  Spain  like  that  which  had  been 
issued  two  years  before  by  the  congress  of  Troppau 
against  the  constitution  of  Naples. 

In  the  cabinet  of  Lord  Liverpool  the  influence  of 
Canning  had,  since  Castlereagh’s  death,  been  predomi- 
nant on  all  matters  of  foreign  policy.  Though  Wel- 
lington disliked  the  tone  of  defiance  frequently  used 
by  Canning  toward  the  autocratic  courts,  he  was  sin- 
cerely at  one  with  Canning’s  Spanish  policy;  and, 
wheri  Canning,  abandoning  his  position  of  passive  neu- 
trality between  the  Turkish  Government  and  insurgent 
Greece,  proposed  to  attempt  joint  diplomatic  action 
with  Russia  in  hope  of  terminating  the  struggle,  the 
duke  was  willing  to  cooperate  in  this  policy  within  cer- 
tain limits.  Canning,  while  really  anxious  to  assist  the 
Greeks,  based  his  new  policy  officially  on  the  need  of 
preventing  Russia  from  acting  alone.  He  therefore 
consented,  on  the  coronation  of  the  czar  Nicholas  in 
1826,  to  carry  proposals  10  St.  Petersburg  for  the 
diplomatic  cooperation  of  Russia  and  England  in  bring- 
ing about  a settlement  of  the  Greek  question.  On 
April  4,  1827,  the  protocol  of  St.  Petersburg  was 
signed,  by  which  the  two  powers  agreed  that  the  media- 
tion of  England  should  be  offered  to  the  Porte,  on  terms 
that  Greece  should  be  granted  local  autonomy,  but  re- 
main part  of  the  Ottoman  empire  and  tributary  to  the 
sultan.  Scarcely  had  this  protocol  been  signed  when 
the  accession  off  Canning  to  the  premiership  caused 
Wellington  to  withdraw  from  the  government, 

'Canning  died  in  August,  1827,  and  on  the  fall  of  Lord 
Goderich’s  cabinet  five  months  later  Wellington  be- 
came prime  minister.  His  cabinet  included  at  the  first 
Huskisson,  Palmerston,  and  other  followers  of  Canning. 
The  repeal  of  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts  having 
been  carried  in  the  House  of  Commons  in  the  session  of 
1828,  Wellington,  to  the  great  disappointment  of  Tories 
like  Lord  Eldon,  recommended  the  House  of  Lords 
not  to  offer  further  resistance,  and  the  measure  was  ac- 
cordingly carried  through.  Soon  afterward  a quarrel 
between  the  duke  and  Huskisson  led  to  the  retirement 
from  the  ministry  of  all  its  more  liberal  members.  It 
was  now  hoped  by  the  so-called  Protestant  party  that 
Wellington,  at  the  head  of  a more  united  cabinet, 
would  offer  a steady  resistance  to  Catholic  emancipation. 
Never  were  men  more  bitterly  disappointed.  Catholic 
emancipation  was  the  great  act  of  Wellington’s  ministry; 
in  other  respects  his  tenure  of  office  was  not  marked  by 
much  success. 

As  soon  as  Catholic  emancipation  was  carried,  the 
demand  for  a reform  of  parliament  agitated  Great  Brit- 
ain from  end  to  end.  The  duke  was  ill-informed  as  to 
the  real  spirit  of  the  nation.  He  conceived  the  agita- 
tion for  reform  to  be  a purely  fictitious  one,  worked  up 
by  partisans  and  men  of  disorder  in  their  own  interest, 
and  expressing  no  real  want  on  the  part  of  the  public 
at  large.  Met  with  a firm  resistance,  it  would,  he  be- 
lieved, vanish  away,  with  no  worse  result  than  the 
possible  plunder  of  a few  houses  by  the  city  mobs. 
Thus  wholly  unaware  of  the  strength  of  the  forces 
which  he  was  provoking,  the  duke,  at  the  opening  of 
the  parliament  which  met  after  the  death  of  George 
IV.,  declared  against  any  parliamentary  reform  what- 
ever. This  declaration  led  to  the  immediate  fall  of  his 
government.  Lord  Grey,  the  chief  of  the  new  minis- 
try, brought  in  the  Reform  Bill,  which  was  resisted  by 
Wellington  as  long  as  anything  was  to  be  gained  by 
resistance.  When  the  creation  of  new  peers  was 


6319 

known  to  be  imminent,  Wellington  was  among  those 
who  counseled  the*  abandonment  of  a hopeless 
struggle.  His  opposition  to  reform  made  him  for  a 
while  unpopular.  He  was  hooted  by  the  mob  on  the 
anniversary  of  Waterloo,  and  considered  it  necessary 
to  protect  the  windows  of  Apsley  House  with  iron 
shutters. 

For  the  next  two  years  the  duke  was  in  opposition. 
On  the  removal  of  Lord  Althorp  to  the  House  of  Lords 
in  1834,  King  William  IV.  unexpectedly  dismissed  the 
Whig  ministry  and  requested  Wellington  to  form  a 
cabinet.  The  duke,  however,  recommended  that  Peel 
should  be  at  the  head  of  the  government,  and  served 
under  him,  during  the  few  months  that  his  ministry 
lasted,  as  foreign  secretary.  On  Peel’s  later  return  to 
power  in  1841  Wellington  was  again  in  the  cabinet, 
but  without  departmental  office  beyond  that  of  com- 
mander-in-chief. On  Peel’s  defeat  in  1846,  the  duke 
retired  from  active  public  life.  He  was  now  nearly 
eighty.  His  organization  of  the  military  force  m Lon- 
don against  the  Chartists  in  April,  1848,  and  his  letter  to 
Sir  John  Burgoyne  on  the  defenses  of  the  country,  proved 
that  the  old  man  had  still  something  of  his  youth  about 
him.  But  the  general  character  of  Wellington’s  last 
years  was  rather  that  of  the  old  age  of  a great  man 
idealized.  To  the  unbroken  splendors  of  his  military 
career,  to  his  honorable  and  conscientious  labors  as  a 
parliamentary  statesman,  life  unusually  prolonged 
added  an  evening  of  impressive  beauty  and  calm. 
Death  came  to  him  at  last  in  its  gentlest  form.  He 
passed  away  on  September  14,  1852,  and  was  buried 
under  the  dome  of  St.  Paul’s  in  a manner  worthy  both 
of  the  nation  and  of  the  man.  His  monument,  a mere 
fraction  of  the  work  originally  designed,  stands  in  the 
chapel  at  the  southwestern  end  of  the  cathedral. 

WELLINGTONIA  is  the  name  given  by  Lindley 
to  a genus  including  only  one  species,  the  W.  gigantea , 
the  greatest  of  all  pines.  Americans  refer  the  Welling- 
tonia  to  the  genus  Sequoia , which  contains  two  species, 
S.  sempervirens  and  S.  gigantea.  The  foliage  of  the 
latter  is  very  similar  to  that  of  an  arbor  vitae,  the  leaves 
being  very  small  like  scales,  and  closely  appressed  to 
small  slender  branchlets.  The  W.  gigantea  has  a co- 
lumnar stem,  which  branches  only  on  the  upper  half 
of  it,  the  branches  of  comparative  small  size,  and  not 
forming  an  umbrageous  head.  The  stem  attains  a 
height  of  300  feet,  and  sometimes  is  perfectly  straight 
and  erect. 

One  Californian  tree  is  known  321  feet  in  height; 
and  near  it  lies  a large  one  which  has  fallen,  and  which 
was  broken  against  another  large  tree  in  its  fall ; its 
diameter  when  broken  300  feet  from  its  base  being 
18  feet.  Another  tree  is  102  feet  in  circumference  at 
the  base.  This  tree  is  found  only  in  a limited  district 
in  California,  on  the  Sierra  Nevada,  or  at  an  elevation 
of  4,000  to  5,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It 
was  discovered  in  1850  by  Mr.  Dowd,  who,  being  en- 
gaged in  deer  hunting,  came  with  astonishment  into 
the  midst  of  a group  of  these  trees,  now  known  as  the 
Mammoth  Trees  of  Calaveras.  In  this  locality,  within 
an  area  of  fifty  acres,  there  are  123  large  trees,  20  of 
which  exceed  25  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base,  quid  are 
therefore  about  78  feet  in  circumference.  A tree  which 
was  felled  was  302  feet  in  height,  and  96  feet  in  cir- 
cumference at  the  ground.  It  was  sound  in  the  center. 
Its  age  may  be  guessed  at  something  like  3,000  years. 
It  was  calculated  to  contain  about  500,000  cubic  feet 
of  timber.  Five  men  were  employed  twenty-two  days 
in  felling  it,  by  boring  great  auger  holes  and  sawing 
between  them.  When  it  was  cut  through  it  remained 
steadfast  on  its  base,  and  more  than  two  days  were 
spent  in  driving  in  great  wedges  to  cause  it  to  fall.  A 


WEL-WER 


6320 

wooden  house  has  been  erected  on  the  stump,  where 
dancing  parties  sometimes  enjoy  themselves.  For  sev- 
eral years  the  Wellingtonias  of  Calaveras  were  supposed 
so  be  the  only  trees  of  their  kind  in  existence,  but 
groups  have  been  found  in  other  parts  of  the  same 
district,  and  scattered  trees  in  a number  of  localities. 

WELLS,  a municipal  borough  in  the  county  of  Som- 
erset, England,  at  the  foot  of  the  Mendip  Hills,  135 
miles  west  of  London.  At  present  it  is  a place  of  little 
importance,  except  for  its  cathedral,  markets,  and 
assizes.  The  population  of  the  city  (726  acres)  in  1901 
was  5,834. 

WELLS VILLE,  a prominent  town  of  Columbiana 
county,  Ohio,  is  situated  on  the  Ohio  river,  twenty 
miles  above  Steubenville,  and  forty-eight  miles  below 
Pittsburgh.  It  is  also  located  on  the  Cleveland  and 
Pittsburgh  railroad,  102  miles  from  Cleveland,  and  has 
direct  communication  with  Cincinnati  and  Southern 
cities  by  way  of  the  river.  The  scenery  in  the  vicinity 
of  Wellsville  is  varied  and  attractive,  and  the  interests 
centered  there  are  extensive  and  valuable,  special 
reference  being  had  to  those  of  a productive  character. 
These  latter  include  five  foundries,  beside  iron  and  steel 
works,  terra-cotta  works,  electric  light  works,  grist, 
lumber,  and  planing  mills,  manufactories  of  leather 
belting  and  mechanical  supplies,  rockingham  ware, 
fire-brick,  hardware,  wooden  ware,  paper,  brooms,  etc., 
etc.,  all  of  which  are  in  successful  operation  and 
annually  turn  out  large  invoices  of  goods,  which 
supply  a constant  demand  in  trade  centers  throughout 
the  country.  One  daily  and  two  weekly  papers  are 
issued,  and  two  banks  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
public  service.  The  city  contains,  in  addition,  seven 
churches,  a union  school,  a number  of  public  improve- 
ments, halls,  hotels,  etc.,  and  a large  number  of  stores. 
The  population  of  2,515  in  1870  was  increased  to  3,500 
in  1880,  and  to  6,146  in  igoo. 

WELSHPOOL,  or  Pool,  a market-town  and  munic- 
ipal and  parliamentary  borough  in  Montgomeryshire, 
North  Wales,  is  situated  in  the  upper  Severn  valley 
not  far  from  the  river,  on  the  Shropshire  Union  canal, 
and  on  the  Cambrian  railway,  207  miles  northwest  of 
London,  8 north  of  Montgomery,  and  18  west  of  Shrews- 
bury. The  flannel  manufacture,  formerly  its  chief  in- 
dustry, has  now  ceased,  but  there  is  a large  man- 
ufactory of  tweeds  and  woolen  shawls.  The  population 
of  the  municipal  borough  (area  19,549  acres)  in  1871 
was  7,370  and  in  1881  it  was  7,107.  The  population 
of  the  parliamentary  borough  (area  6,761  acres)  in  1901 
was  7,211. 

WENCESLAUS,  German  king,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
emperor  Charles  IV.,  of  the  house  of  Luxemburg.  He 
was  born  in  1361,  and  when  three  years  of  age  was 
crowned  as  his  father’s  successor  in  Bohemia.  In  1376 
he  was  elected  king  of  the  Romans,  and  in  1378,  on  the 
death  of  Charles  IV.,  he  mounted  the  Bohemian  and 
German  thrones.  In  1393,  in  the  course  of  a struggle 
with  the  archbishop  of  Prague,  he  shocked  both  friends 
- and  enemies  by  the  murder  of  the  vicar-general  John  of 
Pomuk,  who,  after  being  subjected  to  torture,  was 
bound  and  thrown  into  the  river  Moldau.  With  all  his 
faults,  Wenceslaus  was  sincerely  anxious  to  check  the 
violence  of  the  Bohemian  nobles.  They  accordingly 
plotted  against  him,  and  in  Jobst  of  Moravia,  to  whom 
Brandenburg  had  been  given  in  pledge  by  Sigismund, 
the  brother  of  Wenceslaus,  they  found  a powerful  friend 
and  leader.  Wenceslaus  was  taken  prisoner  in  1394, 
and  kept  for  some  months  in  close  confinement,  and  he 
was  set  free  only  when  the  German  princes  threatened 
that  if  he  were  detained  the  conspirators  would  be 
treated  as  enemies  of  the  empire.  He  was  unable  to 
recover  more  than  the  appearance  of  power,  and  in  1395 


he  made  himself  an  object  of  general  contempt  by  selling 
to  John  Galeazzo  Visconti,  of  Milan,  the  dignity  of  a 
duke  of  Lombardy.  In  1402  he  was  made  prisoner  by 
his  brother  Sigismund,  who  kept  him  in  confinement 
for  nineteen  months.  After  his  release  he  was  not  less 
arbitrary  than  before,  and  he  caused  much  discontent 
by  encouraging  the  disciples  of  Huss,  whom  he  supported, 
not  apparently  because  he  cared  for  their  doctrines,  but 
because  he  found  it  convenient  to  use  them  as  an  instru- 
ment against  the  clergy.  On  the  death  of  Rupert  in 
1410  Wenceslaus,  while  retaining  the  title  of  the  king 
of  the  Romans,  resigned  his  claims  to  the  imperial  dig- 
nity in  favor  of  Sigismund,  who  was  elected  to  the 
German  throne.  Wenceslaus  died  of  a stroke  of  apo- 
plexy on  August  16,  1419. 

WENDS.  See  Saxony. 

WENDS  (from  the  same  root  as  to  wend,  to  wander, 
and  signifying  the  wandering  or  roving  border  tribes), 
the  name  given  by  the  Germans  to  a branch  of  Slavs, 
which,  as  early  as  the  sixth  century,  occupied  the  north 
and  east  of  Germany  from  the  Elbe  along  the  coast  of 
the  Rhine  to  the  Vistula,  and  as  far  south  as  Bohemia. 
They  were  divided  into  several  tribes  which  were  sub- 
dued by  the  Germans,  and  either  extirpated  or  gradually 
Germanized  and  absorbed,  although  remains  of  them  are 
still  here  and  there  to  be  found.  In  a narrower  sense 
the  name  of  Wends  is  given  to  those  remnants  of  a 
Slavic  population  of  Lusatia,  who  still  speak  the  Wendic 
tongue,  and  preserve  their  peculiar  manners  and  cus- 
toms. They  number  about  150,000.  The  Wends,  like 
the  other  subject  Slavic  tribes,  were  in  early  times 
cruelly  oppressed  by  their  German  masters;  in  recent 
times  their  lot  has  been  more  tolerable. 

WENLOCK,  or  Much  Wenlock,  a market-town 
and  municipal  borough  of  Shropshire,  England,  is  situ- 
ated on  a branch  of  the  Great  Western  railway,  163^ 
miles  northwest  of  London,  n south  of  Wellington, 
and  12  southeast  of  Shrewsbury.  The  town  is  chiefly 
dependent  on  its  agricultural  trade.  There  are  lime- 
stone quarries  in  the  neighborhood.  The  population  of 
the  municipal  borough  (the  area  of  which  is  about 
33,000  acres  and  embraces  17  parishes)  in  1871  was 
19,401  and  in  1881  it  was  18,442.  In  addition  to  the 
municipal  authority  the  town  itself  is  under  the  govern- 
ment of  a local  board.  The  population  of  the  urban 
sanitary  district  (area  9,737  acres)  in  1871  was  2,531, 
and  in  1901  it  was  2,821. 

WENTWORTH.  Thomas,  See  Strafford. 

WENZEL,  Karl  Friedrich,  German  metallurgist, 
was  born  at  Dresden  in  1 740.  In  Amsterdam  he  took 
lessons  in  surgery  and  chemistry,  and  then  entered  the 
Dutch  navy  as  a surgeon.  After  some  years  a sea  life 
lost  its  charm  for  him,  and  he  resigned,  returning  to 
his  native  land  in  1766  to  complete  his  chemical  studies 
at  Leipsic.  He  also  made  some  very  careful  chemical 
experiments,  particularly  on  the  mixture  of  solutions  of 
various  salts,  and  wrote  several  books  on  chemical  sub- 
jects; his  claim  for  remembrance  rests  on  one  of  these, 
Vorlesungen  iiber  die  chemische  Verwan d tschaf  t der 
Korper.  It  was  published  in  1777;  a second  edition 
appeared  in  1782,  and  a third  with  additions  in  1800. 
In  1780  Wenzel  received  the  appointment  of  director  of 
mines  at  Freiberg  from  the  elector  of  Saxony,  and  in 
1786  that  of  chemist  in  the  porcelain  works  at  Meissen. 
He  died  at  Freiberg  on  February  26,  1793. 

WERDAU,  a manufacturing  town  of  Saxony,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Pleisse,  in  the  industrial  district  of  Zwickau, 
about  forty  miles  south  of  Leipsic.  Its  chief  industries 
are  cotton  and  wool-spinning  and  the  weaving  of  cloth, 
but  machinery  of  various  kinds,  paper,  and  a few  other 
articles  are  also  manufactured.  The  population,  4,994 
in  1834,  was  17,638  in  1901.  The  adjoining  village  of 


WER- 

Leubnitz,  with  2,400  inhabitants,  is  now  practically  a 
part  of  Werdau. 

WEREWOLF.  See  Lycanthropy. 

WERGELAND,  Henrik  Arnold,  Norwegian  poet 
and  prose  writer,  was  born  in  1805,  and  died  in  1845. 

WERNER,  Abraham  Gottlob,  the  father  of  Ger- 
man geology,  was  born  in  Oberlausitz,  Saxony,  Septem- 
ber 25,  1750.  In  1771  he  repaired  to  the  university  of 
Leipsic  and  went  through  the  usual  curriculum  of 
study,  but  continued  to  devote  himself  with  the  greatest 
ardor  to  mineralogical  pursuits.  While  still  a student  he 
wrote  his  first  work  on  the  external  characters  of  minerals 
( Ueber  die  aussern  Kennzeichen  der  Fossilien , Leipsic, 
1764.)  which  at  once  gave  him  a name  among  the 
mineralogists  of  the  day.  His  friends  in  Freiberg,  who 
had  watched  his  progress  with  much  gratification,  called 
him  at  the  close  of  his  college  life  to  be  inspector  in  the 
mining  school  and  teacher  of  mineralogy  there.  To  the 
development  of  that  school  and  to  the  cultivation  of 
mineralogy  and  geognosy  he  henceforth  devoted  the 
whole  of  his  active  and  indefatigable  industry.  He  died 
at  Freiberg  on  June  30,  1817. 

WERNER,  Friedrich  Ludwig  Zacharias,  Ger- 
man poet,  was  born  at  Konigsberg  on  November  18, 
1768,  and  died  at  Vienna  on  January  17,  1823. 

WERNIGERODE,  a town  of  Prussian  Saxony, 
about  twelve  miles  to  the  southwest  of  Halberstadt,  is 
situated  on  the  Holzemme,  on  the  north  slopes  of  the 
Harz  Mountains.  The  population  of  Wernigerode  in 
1900  was  11,083;  including  the  immediately  adjoining 
villages  of  Noscherode  and  Hasserode,  it  was  15,804. 

WESEL,  a strongly  fortified  industrial  town  in 
Westphalia,  Prussia,  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Rhine  and  the  Lippe,  forty-six  miles  southwest  of 
Munster,  and  thirty-five  miles  southeast  of ‘Nimeguen 
in  Holland.  Wesel  carries  on  a considerable  trade  both 
by  railways  and  its  two  rivers;  wood  and  fish  are  per- 
haps the  main  exports.  It  has  manufactures  of  wire, 
leaden  pipes,  and  other  metal  goods,  pianofortes,  sugar, 
etc.  The  population  was  27,677  in  1901. 

WESEL,  John  Kuchrath,  of  Oberwesel  (see 
above),  was  born  in  the  early  yeai;s  of  the  fifteenth  cent- 
ury, and  died  under  sentence  of  imprisonment  for  life  on 
a charge  of  heresy  in  the  Augustinian  convent  in  Mainz 
in  1481.  He  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  humanist  movement  in  Germany,  and  to  have  had 
some  intercourse  and  sympathy  with  the  leaders  of  the 
Hussites  in  Bohemia. 

WESER  (O.  Germ.  Visuracha , Wisura , Lat.  Visur- 
gis),  one  of  the  chief  rivers  of  Germany,  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  Werra  and  the  Fulda  at  Miinden,  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Hanover,  flows  to  the  north  and 
north-northwest,  and  enters  the  North  Sea  below  Brem- 
erhafen,  to  the  east  of  the  Jade  Bay.  The  mouth  is  170 
miles  from  Miinden,  but  the  winding  course  of  the  river 
is  279  miles  long;  if  the  measurement  be  made  from  the 
source  of  the  Werra,  in  Thuringia,  the  total  length  of 
the  stream  is  439  miles.  The  Wesser  drains  a basin 
estimated  at  18,360  square  miles.  Its  principal  tribu- 
taries on  the  right  are  the  Aller,  Wiimme,  Drepte,  Lune, 
and  Geeste,  and  on  the  left  the  Diemel,  Nethe,  Emmer, 
Werre,  Aue,  and  Hunte.  The  Werra  and  Fulda  are 
both  navigable  when  they  unite  to  form  the  Weser;  the 
Aller,  Wiimmer,  Geeste,  and  Hunte  are  also  navigable. 
Beyond  the  junction  of  the  Hunte,  the  Weser,  hitherto 
a single  stream,  is  divided  into  several  channels  by 
islands. 

WESLEY,  an  English  family  of  special  ecclesiastical 
distinction,  claims  descent  from  the  ancient  De  Welles- 
leys, one  of  whom,  Guy,  was  made  a thane  by  Athelstan 
about  938,  the  family  seat  beingat  W elswe,  near  W ells,  in 
Somerset.  Two  brothers,  John  and  Bartholomew, 


-WES  6321 

were  among  the  ministers  ejected  for  noncomformity  ii 
1662. 

Samuel,  son  of  the  above  John,  was  born  Decern- 
ber  17,  1662.  He  was  educated  at  an  academy  a t 
Stepney,  London,  and  in  August,  1683,  entered  Exeter 
College,  Oxford,  as  a pauper  scholaris,  shortly  after 
which  he  joined  the  Church  of  England.  He  graduated 
B.A.  1688,  was  ordained  priest  February  24,  1689,  and 
the  following  year  was  presented  to  the  living  of  South 
Ormsby,  Lincolnshire.  In  1697  he  removed  to  Ep- 
worth,  Lincolnshire,  where  he  died  April  25,  1735. 
Among  other  works  he  was  the  author  of  Life  of  Christ 
(1693),  Elegies  on  Queen  Mary  and  Archbishop  Tillot 
son  (1695),  History  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  in 
Verse  (1704),  Pious  Communicant  Rightly  Prepared 
(1700),  and  Latin  Comtnentary  on  the  Book  of  Job 
I1 733).  After  the  battle  of  Blenheim  he  published 
(1705)  a long  poem  on  Marlborough,  or  the  Fate  of 
Europe , for  which  Marlborough  made  him  chaplain  of 
a regiment.  He  had  nineteen  children,  of  whom  three 
sons,  Samuel,  John,  and  Charles,  acquired  eminence. 
He  died  in  1735. 

Samuel  was  born  in  London,  February  10,  1690,  and 
educated  at  Westminster  school,  where  he  was  nom 
inated  king’s  scholar.  In  1 71 1 he  entered  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  and  on  taking  his  M.A.  degree  returned  to 
Westminster  as  tutor.  Wesley  became  master  of 
Tiverton  grammar-school  in  1732,  and  died  there  No- 
vember 6,  1739. 

John,  brother  of  the  preceding  and  founder  of  Meth- 
odism, was  born,  probably  at  Epworth,  June  17  (O.S., 
28  N.S.),  1703.  There  was  a tradition  in  the  family 
that  he  was  christened  John  Benjamin,  but  he  nevw 
made  use  of  the  second  name.  When  his  father’s  rec- 
tory was  burned  down  in  1 709,  he  was  for  a time  left 
in  the  building,  and  narrowly  escaped  death.  He 
entered  Charterhouse  in  1 7 14,  whence,  in  1720,  he  was 
elected  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  In  1726  he  became 
fellow  of  Lincoln,  and  in  1727  graduated  M.A.  After 
acting  for  some  time  as  his  father’s  curate,  he  settled 
in  November,  1729,  at  Oxford,  and  began  to  take  pupils. 
About  the  same  time,  along  with  his  brother  Charles 
and  others,  he  commenced  that  systematic  course  of 
religious  life  which  led  to  their  being  termed  by  the 
Oxonians,  Methodists.  A full  record  of  the  religious 
labors  of  Wesley  is  given  under  Methodism.  In  the 
organization  of  Methodism  he  displayed  not  only 
extraordinary  energy  and  capacity  for  work,  but  re- 
markable administrative  powers.  His  oratory  was  col- 
loquial, terse,  and  homely,  but  never  vulgar,  while  his 
expressive  and  refined  features,  and  intense  yet  rea- 
soned earnestness,  enabled  him  to  acquire  among  his 
followers  a personal  influence  of  an  unrivaled  kind. 
He  died  March  2,  1791.  Wesley  translated  several 
hymns  from  the  German  for  the  collections  edited  by 
him  and  his  brother  Charles,  but  is  not  known  to  have 
been  the  author  of  any  original  hymns  (see  Hymns).  The 
first  collection  of  Psalms  and  Hymns  edited  by  the 
brothers  appeared  anonymously  in  1738,  and  a Collec- 
tion of  Moral  and  Sacred  Poems  from  the  Most  Cele - 
brated  Authors,  in  1744.  He  was  the  author  of  Prim- 
itive Physic  (1747),  Explanatory  Notes  on  the  New 
Testament  (1755),  Notes  on  the  Old  and  New  Testa 
ments  (1764),  Doctrine  of  Original  Sin  (1757),  Survey 
of  the  Wisdom  of  God  in  Creation  (1763),  Preservative 
Against  Unsettled  Notions  in  Religion  (1770),  and  A 
Calm  Address  to  our  American  Colonies  (1775). 
also  edited  the  Christian  Library,  in  fifty  volumes. 

Charles,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  pre- 
maturely at  Epworth.  December  18,  1708.  He  entered 
Westminster  school  in  1716,  was  admitted  a king’s 
scholar  in  1721,  a*id  entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  m 


WES 


6322 

1 726.  To  a serious  illness  which  happened  to  him  in 
February,  1738,  he  attributed  a moral  change  which  he 
associated  with  conversion  and  a conscious  sense  of 
pardon.  He  seconded  his  brother  in  his  evangelizing 
labors  in  England  with  unceasing  diligence,  and,  al- 
though not  possessing  his  brother’s  gifts  of  oratory  and 
personal  magnetism,  contributed-  by  his  hymns  an  ele- 
ment of  success  to  the  movement,  of  prime  and  perma- 
nent importance.  He  published  no  fewer  than  4,100 
hymns  of  his  own  composition,  and  left  about  2,000  in 
manuscript.  He  died  March  29,  1788.  His  Sermons , 
with  memoir,  appeared  in  1816;  a Life , by  Rev.  Thomas 

iackson,  in  1841,  and  his  Journal , with  notes  by  Rev. 
’homas  Jackson,  1849. 

Two  sons  of  Charles  Wesley  attained  eminence  as 
musicians:  Charles,  born  1757,  died  1815,  organist  of 
St.  George’s,  Hanover  Square,  London,  who  in  1778 
published  Six  Concertos  for  the  Organ  and  Harp;  and 
Samuel  (1766-1837),  organist  of  the  Chapel  Royal, 
noticed  below. 

WESLEY,  Samuel,  musical  composer,  son  of 
Charles  Wesley  (see  above),  was  born  at  Bristol,  Febru- 
ary 24,  1766,  and  developed  so  precocious  a talent  for 
music  that  at  three  years  old  he  played  the  organ  and  at 
eight  composed  an  oratorio  entitled  Ruth.  He  died, 
October  11,  1837,  leaving  a vast  number  of  MSS.  and 
primed  compositions. 

W ESSEL.  W esselus  Gansfortius,  German  theo- 
logian and  mystic,  was  born  at  Groningen  in  1400 
(Hardenberg),  in  1419  (Suffridus  Petri),  or  in  1421. 
For  thirty  years  he,  was  the  foremost  theological  acade- 
mician in  Paris,  where  he  had  many  famous  pupils. 
He  died  on  October  4,  1489,  with  the  confession  on  his 
lips,  “ I know  only  Jesus  the  crucified.”  He  is  buried 
in  the  middle  of  the  choir  of  the  church  of  the  “ Geest- 
lichen  Maegden,”  whose  director  he  had  been. 
WESSEX.  See  England. 

WEST,  Benjamin,  history  and  portrait  painter,  was 
born  in  1738,  at  Springfield,  in  Pennsylvania,  coming 
of  an  old  Quaker  family  who  had  emigrated  from 
Buckinghamshire.  When  a boy  of  seven  he  began  to 
show  his  inclination  to  art,  and  at  the  age  of  eighteen 
he  settled  in  Philadelphia  as  a portrait-painter.  After  a 
short  time  he  removed  to  New  York,  where  he  prac- 
ticed his  profession  with  considerable  success.  In  1760, 
through  the  assistance  of  some  friends,  he  was  enabled 
to  complete  his  artistic  education  by  a visit  to  Italy. 
Oi  the  expiry  of  his  Italian  visit  he  settled  in  London 
as  an  historical  painter.  His  success  was  not  long 
doubtful.  George  III.  took  him  under  his  special 
patronage;  and  commissions  flowed  in  upon  him  from 
all  quarters.  In  1768  he  was  one  of  the  four  artists 
who  submitted  to  the  king  the  plan  for  a royal  academy, 
of  which  he  was  one  of  the  earliest  members;  and  in 
1772  he  was  appointed  His  Majesty’s  historical  painter. 
So  high  did  he  stand  in  public  favor  that  on  the  death 
of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  in  1792,  he  was  elected  his 
successor  as  president  of  the  Royal  Academy,  an  office 
which  he  held  for  twenty-eight  years.  In  1804  he 
resigned  his  office,  but  an  all  but  unanimous  request 
that  he  should  return  to  the  chair  induced  him  to  recall 
his  resignation.  Time  did  not  at  all  weaken  the  energy 
with  which  he  labored  at  his  easel.  When  sixty-five, 
he  painted  one  of  his  largest  works,  Christ  Healing 
the  Sick.  This  was  originally  designed  to  be  presented 
to  the  Quakers  in  Philadelphia,  to  assist  in  erecting  a 
hospital.  On  its  completion  it  was  exhibited  in  Lon- 
don to  immense  crowds,  and  was  purchased  by  the 
British  Institution  for  3,000  guineas,  West  sending  a 
replica  to  Philadelphia.  He  died  in  1820,  in  his 
eighty-second  year,  and  was  buried  in  St.  Paul’s- 
WESTALL,  Richard,  subject  painter,  was  born  in 


Hertford  in  1765,  of  a Norwich  family.  In  1808  he 
published  a poem,  A Day  in  Spring , illustrated  by  his 
own  pencil.  He  became  an  associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1792,  and  a full  member  in  1794;  and  dur- 
ing his  later  years  he  was  a pensioner  of  the  Academy. 
His  last  employment  was  to  give  art  instruction  to  the 
Princess  Victoria.  He  died  on  December  4,  1836.  His 
brother,  William  Westall,  A.R.A.  (bom  in  1781),  land- 
scape painter,  is  mainly  known  by  his  illustrations  to 
works  of  travel.  He  died  in  1850. 

WEST  BAY  CITY,  a leading  and  growing  city  of 
Bay  county,  Mich.,  is  located  on  Saginaw  river,  oppo- 
site Bay  City  proper,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
bridges;  also  on  the  Bay  City  divisions  of  the  Michigan 
Central  and  the  Flint  and  Pere  Marquette  railroads.  A 
line  of  steamers  plies  regularly  between  West  Bay  City, 
Alpena,  Mackinaw  City,  and  other  points  on  Lake 
Pluron,  and  railways  now  in  progress  of  construction 
will  soon  place  it  in  direct  communication  with  other 
points  in  the  State  and  Northwest.  The  city  was 
formerly  known  as  W enona,  but,  during  the  seventies, 
became  incorporated  and  included  the  villages  of  Banks 
and  Salzburg  within  its  municipal  limits.  In  1888  an 
act  was  adopted  by  the  Michigan  legislature  providing 
for  the  consolidation  of  West  Bay  City  and  Bay  City, 
but  it  has  never  been  carried  into  effect,  the  former 
electing  to  retain  its  corporate  privileges.  It  is 
the  center  of  a large  trade  and  among  the  most  impor- 
tant cities  in  the  State,  making  a specialty  of  the  manu- 
facture of  lumber  and  salt.  Two  banks,  one  State  and 
one  savings,  are  successfully  operated,  and  a daily  and 
weekly  paper  is  published  there.  The  city  also  contains 
six  churches,  a high  school  and  number  of  graded 
schools,  besides  being  the  location  of  the  State  normal 
school  and  of  a public  school  library  founded  by  a resi- 
dent of  the  county  and  containing  many  thousand  vol- 
umes. The  manufactures  are  chiefly  lumber,  shingles, 
laths,  and  salt — boiler  works,  however,  with  electric 
light  works,  foundries,  and  machine  shops,  being  suc- 
cessfully conducted,  and  two  ship-yards,  among  the 
largest  on  the  chain  of  lakes  between  Duluth  and 
Buffalo,  in  constant  operation  during  the  season  of 
navigation.  The  city  is  lighted  by  electricity,  supports 
well  regulated  municipal  departments,  has  several  fine 
hotels,  and  is  reached  from  Bay  City  by  means  of  a 
thoroughly-equipped  street  railroad.  The  population 
in  1900  was  13,119. 

WESTBOROtJGH,  a manufacturing  town  of 
Worcester  county,  Mass.,  with  a population  of  5»4°°' 
It  has  good  railroad  and  banking  facilities  and  contains 
several  seminaries  and  schools. 

WEST  BROMWICH,  a municipal  and  parliament- 
ary borough  of  Staffordshire,  Eng.,  is  situated  near  the 
River  Tame,  and  on  the  Great  Western  railway,  six 
miles  northwest  of  Birmingham,  and  133X  miles  from 
London.  There  are  several  large  foundries,  smelting- 
furnaces,  and  forges,  but  the  staple  manufactures  are  the 
various  kinds  of  implements  of  wrought -iron  used  for 
household,  agricultural,  and  mechanical  purposes. 
The  town  also  possesses  brass  foundries,  mattings 
limekilns,  and  brickyards.  Population,  1901,  65,172. 

WESTBURY,  Richard  Bethell,  Baron,  Eng 
lish  statesman,  was  the  son  of  Dr.  Richard  Bethell, 
and  was  born  at  Bradford,  Wilts,  in  1800. 

In  1851  he  obtained  a seat  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, where  he  continued  to  sit,  first  as  member  for 
Aylesbury,  then  as  member  for  Wolverhampton,  until 
he  was  raised  to  the  peerage.  Attaching  himself  to  the 
Liberals,  he'  became  solicitor-general  in  1852,  and 
attorney-general  in  1856  and  again  in  1859.  On  June 
26,  1861,  on  the  death  of  Lord  Campbell,  he  was  cre- 
ated lord  high  chancellor  of  Great  Britain,  with  the  title 


« 


WES 


of  Baron  Westbury  of  Westbury,  county  Wilts.  His 
principal  legislative  achievements  were  the  passing  of 
the  Divorce  Act,  1857,  and  of  the  Land  Registry  Act, 
1862  (generally  known  as  Lord  Westbury’s  Act),  the 
latter  of  which  in  practice  proved  a failure.  Lord 
Westbury  died  on  July  20,  1873,  within  a day  of  the 
time  of  the  death  of  Bishop  Wilberforce,  his  special 
antagonist  in  debate. 

WEST  CHESTER,  a borough  and  the  county  seat 
of  Chester  county,  Penn.,  is  situated  twenty-seven  miles 
west  of  Philadelphia,  in  a thickly  settled  farming  region, 
devoted  principally  to  market  gardening  and  the  dairy 
industry.  Its  population  in  1880  was  7,046,  and  in  1900 
was  9,524. 

WEST  DERBY,  a township  in  Lancashire,  England, 
now  virtually  a suburb  of  Liverpool,  about  four  miles 
northeast  of  Liverpool  Exchange..  It  is  chiefly  com- 
posed of  houses  inhabited  by  the  wealthier  merchants 
of  Liverpool.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary 
district  (area  5,561  acres)  was  48,614  in  1901. 

WESTERLY,  a growing  town  of  Washington 
county,  R.  I.,  is  situated  on  the  Pawcatuck  river  at  the 
head  of  navigation,  and  on  the  main  line  of  the  New 
York,  Providence  and  Boston  railroad,  half-way  be- 
tween Providence  and  New  London.  It  is  located  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  quarries  producing  granite  of 
unsurpassed  quality  and  susceptible  of  the  finest  finish, 
the  quarrying  and  working  of  which  give  employment  to 
nearly  five  hundred  experienced  operatives,  and  an 
equal  number  of  laborers.  The  stone  is  adapted  both 
to  building  and  artistic  purposes,  and  many  of  the  lead- 
ing edifices  of  Hartford,  New  Haven,  Stonington,  New 
London,  and  other  cities  in  the  East  and  in  the  West,  are 
constructed  of  this  material.  Westerly  is  also  an  im- 
portant trade  and  manufacturing  center,  and  one  of  the 
most  substantially  built  towns  along  the  Sound.  It  con- 
tains four  savings  and  four  national  banks,  with  an  aggre- 
gate capital  of  nearly  one  million  dollars.  Two  weekly 
papers,  ten  churches,  a high  school,  public  library,  an 
opera  house,  a number  of  hotels,  one  of  which  was  recent- 
ly completed  at  a cost  of  $300,000,  and  many  stores, 
commercial  warehouses,  etc.  The  manufactures  in- 
clude cotton,  woolen,  and  flannel  goods,  proprietary 
medicines,  carriages,  flour  machinery,  and  building  ma- 
terials. The  city  is  lighted  by  gas  and  is  otherwise 
supplied  with  conveniences  and  appliances  adaptive  to 
municipal  demands.  The  city  population  in  1900  was 
about  7,541. 

WESTFIELD,  a city  of  Hampden  county,  Mass., 
handsomely  situated  on  the  river  of  the  same  name  and 
surrounded  by  a country  of  surpassing  beauty  and  fer- 
tility, is  conspicuous  for  its  importance  as  an  industrial 
and  trade  center.  The  Boston  and  Albany  and  New 
York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  railroads  meet  at 
Westfield  and  furnish  complete  traffic  facilities  to  all 
points  in  New  England  and  the  east,  communication 
with  the  southern  and  western  markets  being  obtained 
by  means  of  connecting  lines,  through  which  an  outlet 
is  afforded  for  the  large  and  varied  lines  of  manufacture 
turned  out.  These  embrace  whips,  lashes  and  stocks, 
in  the  manufacture  of  which  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
firms  are  extensively  wgaged,  furnace-drafts,  drain- 
pipe, organ-pipes,  cotton-waste,  steam-heating  appa- 
ratus, steam-power,  corundum  and  emery  wheels, 
wooden-ware,  lumber,  paper,  extracts,  leather,  thread, 
cigars,  advertising  novelties,  etc.,  annually  footing  up  in 
values  to  a very  large  amount.  The  city  contains  two 
national  and  two  savings  banks,  two  weekly  papers,  ten 
churches,  a high  school  and  academy,  also  the  Westfield 
State  Normal  School,  three  hotels,  an  opera  house  and 
music  hall  with  a total  seating  capacity  of  2,000,  and  a 
large  number  of  well-stocked  and  maintained  commercial 


6323 

enterprises.  The  city  is  lighted  by  gas  and  has  recently 
completed  a system  of  water  supply  at  an  expense  ol 
$250,000.  In  1888  the  population  was  stated  at  8,400, 
and  in  1900  at  12,310. 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA.  This  British  colony, 
the  portion  of  Australia  that  lies  to  the  west  of  1290  E. 
longitude,  forming  considerably  more  than  one-third  of 
the  whole,  has  an  area  of  975,920  square  miles,  is 
1,280  miles  in  length  and  800  in  breadth,  and  has  a 
coast-line  of  3,500  miles.  It  is  divided  into  five  districts 
— Central,  Central  Eastern,  South-Eastern,  North,  and 
Kimberley.  With  little  or  no  cold  anywhere,  the  beat 
of  summer  over  the  whole  area  is  considerable.  West- 
ern Australia  differs  from  the  country  to  the  east  in 
having  no  extensive  ranges  to  collect  vapor,  while  the 
trade  winds  blow  off  the  dry  land  instead  of  from  the 
ocean;  for  these  two  reasons  the  climate  is  very  dry. 
Thunderstorms  often  supply  almost  the  only  rainfall  m 
the  interior.  The  southwestern  corner,  the  seat  of 
settlements,  is  the  only  portion  where  rains  can  H 
depended  on  for  cultivation;  but  even  there  few  places 
have  a rainfall  of  forty  inches.  As  one  goes  northward 
the  moisture  lessens.  The  northwest  and  all  the  coast 
along  to  Kimberley,  with  most  of  that  district,  suffer 
much  from  dryness. 

The  hot  wind  of  Swan  river  is  from  the  east  and 
northeast;  but  it  is  from  the  south  in  summer  to  Kim- 
berley and  the  northwest.  In  one  season  the  land 
breeze  is  hot,  in  another  cool,  but  always  dry.  Perth 
has  an  average  rainfall  of  twenty-nine  inches  with  an 
evaporation  of  sixty-six.  The  temperature  ranges  from 
340  to  109°  in  the  shade.  In  1889  there  fell  32!  inches 
on  100  days,  while  Albany  had  32  on  138  davs, 
Augusta  46  on  122  days,  and  York  less  than  18  on  81 
days.  The  estimated  population  (1901)  was  182,553. 

The  earliest  mines  were  of  lead  and  copper  in  Vic- 
toria district.  Berkshire  valley  has  in  addition  plum- 
bago, the  Irwin  antimony,  and  Woongong  silver.  The 
Geraldine  lead  and  silver  ores  were  first  worked  in 
1845.  Wheal  Fortune  and  Tortura  mines  are  of  sil- 
ver-lead; Gelira,  Wheal  Alpha,  and  Narra  Narra  of 
copper.  Iron  ores  are  abundant;  they  are  magnetic  at 
Mount  Magnet.  Coal  has  not  yet  been  found  in  any 
quantity.  Carboniferous  rocks  are  seen  in  several 
places,  and  fair  specimens  of  coal  have  been  obtained. 
A semi-bituminous  mineral  near  the  Swan  and  the 
Murray  yields  a pale  oil,  which  would  serve  to  varnish 
wood.  Gold,  long  looked  for,  has  been  found  in  Kim- 
berley; and  diggers  rushed  to  the  country  about  the 
Margaret,  Mary,  and  Elvira  rivers.  The  majority  did 
not  find  returns  equal  to  expenditure;  but  auriferous 
quartz  of  great  richness  has  been  reported  recently. 
The  proclaimed  gold-field  lies  between  160  and  ig)4° 
S.,  126°  and  1290  E.  Building  stone  is  found  of  many 
varieties. 

Agriculture  was  once  confined  to  the  Swan  river 
quarter,  but  is  rapidly  extending  northward  in  Victoria 
district,  where  the  land  is  free  of  timber,  though  the 
rain-fall  is  very  light.  In  Kimberley,  tropical  produce, 
especially  sugar,  cotton,  spices,  and  rice,  can  be  readily 
raised.  The  southwest  is  essentially  a farming  country, 
but  the  soil  is  generally  sandy.  In  1901  201,946  acres 
were  in  crop  (hay,  104,104;  wheat,  74,130;  barley,  2,579; 
oats,  5,881 ; maize,  100).  The  total  area  under  vines  in 
1900  was  3,246  acres. 

Timber  was  too  thick  in  the  old  settlement  for  flocks 
and  herds;  the  squatting  districts  are  eastward  of  the 
dividing  range  and  north  of  the  Swan.  The  want  of 
water  both  eastward  and  northward  stops  progress,  but 
sheep  stations  are  established  in  oases  of  eastern  des- 
erts. The  northwest,  in  spite  of  drought,  is  a favorite 
locality  for  squatters  ; but  the  better  watered  Kimberley* 


WES 


6324 

is  regarded  as  the  most  hopeful.  The  total  area  alien- 
ated in  the  colony  up  to  the  end  of  iyoo  was  6,619,284 
acres.  The  live  stock  consisted,  at  the  end  of  1900,  of 
68,231  horses,  338,665  cattle,  and  2,431,861  sheep.  Some 
parts,  chiefly  in  the  southwest,  are  troubled  with  poison 
plants.  Boring  in  ill-watered  places,  as  the  southern 
and  central  districts,  furnishes  water  for  stock.  The 
Angora  goat  has  been  a success  there.  Rabbits  already 
begin  to  trouble  squatters.  In  proportion  to  inhabit- 
ants Western  Australia  has  advanced  in  pastoral  pur- 
suits beyond  its  neighbors,  except  in  the  quality  of  stock 
and  the  get-up  of  wool.  At  the  census  of  1891,  8,746 
persons  were  returned  as  directly  engaged  in  agricul- 
tural pursuits  and  6,380  persons  were  engaged  in  indus- 
trial pursuits. 

Judged  by  its  vegetable  forms,  Western  Australia 
would  seem  to  be  older  than  Eastern  Australia,  South 
Australia  being  of  intermediate  age.  Indian  relations 
appear  on  the  northern  side,  and  South  African  on  the 
western.  There  are  fewer  Antarctic  and  Polynesian 
representatives  than  in  the  eastern  colonies.  European 
forms  are  extremely  scarce.  Gompared  with  the  other 
side  of  Australia,  a third  of  the  genera  of  the  southwest 
is  almost  wanting  in  the  southeast.  In  the  latter,  fif- 
ty-five, having  more  than  ten  species  each,  have  1,260 
species;  but  the  former  has  as  many  in  fifty-five  of  its 
eighty  genera.  Baron  Von  Mueller  declared  that 
*'  nearly  half  of  the  whole  vegetation  of  the  Australian 
continent  has  been  traced  to  within  the  boundaries  of 
the  Western  Australian  territory.” 

The  timber  trees  of  the  southwest  are  almost  une- 
qualed. Of  the  eucalypts,  the  jarrah  or  mahogany, 
E.  marginata , is  first  for  value.  It  runs  over  five 
degrees  of  latitude,  and  its  wood  resists  the  teredo  and 
the  ant. 

Of  the  mammals,  fossil  forms  partake  of  the  existing 
marsupial  character,  Diprotodon  being  allied  to  the 
wombat  and  kangaroo.  Nail-bearing  kangaroos  are  in 
the  northwest ; the  banded  one,  size  of  a rabbit,  is  on 
Sharks  Bay.  Nocturnal  phalangers  live  in  holes  of 
trees  or  in  the  ground.  Carnivorous  Phascogalce  are 
found  in  southwest.  There  are  three  kinds  of  wombat. 
The  colony  has  only  two  species  of  wallabies  to  five  in 
New  South  Wales.  The  dingo  is  the  wild  dog.  The 
platypus  ( Ornithorhynchus ) and  the  Echidna  are  the 
only  forms  of  the  Monotremata.  The  seal,  whale,  and 
dugong  occur  in  the  adjacent  seas. 

The  west  is  not  so  rich  as  the  east  of  Australia  in 
birds.  Many  forms  are  absent  and  others  but  poorly 
represented,  though  some  are  peculiar  to  the  west. 
The  turtle  is  obtained  as  an  article  of  food.  The  fresh- 
water fishes  are  not  all  like  those  of  the  east.  They  in- 
clude the  mullet,  snapper,  ring  fish,  guard  fish,  bonita, 
rock  cod,  shark,  saw  fish,  parrot  fish,  and  cobbler. 
Under  the  head  of  fisheries  may  be  mentioned  the  pearl 
oyster,  which  is  dived  for  by  natives  at  Sharks  Bay  ; 
the  trepang  or  beche-de-mer  is  also  met  with  in  the 
north.  Insects  are  well  represented,  especially  Coleop- 
tera , Lepidoptera , Hymenoptera,  Hemiptera , and 
Dipt  era. 

Safe  harbors  are  few,  and  hundreds  of  miles  of  the 
coast-line  are  without  shelter  for  a vessel.  The  coast- 
ing traffic,  until  recently,  was  confined  to  the  south- 
west, from  the  Sound  to  Victoria  district,  but  wool  is 
now  shipped  at  the  northwest,  as  well  as  pearls,  while 
wool,  pearl  shells,  hides,  taftow,  and  gold  are  claiming 
attention  in  the  tropical  northeast.  The  imports  for 
1900  amounted  to  $29,810,890;  the  exports  reached 
$34,260,270,  the  main  items  being  wool,  shells,  guano, 
timber,  sandalwood,  pearls,  lead,  copper,  manna  gum, 
and  gold. 

The  pastoral  industry  occupies  the  first  place.  Fish- 


eries are  taking  an  important  position  (pearl  shell, 
b£che-de-mer,  and  preserved  or  tinned  fish).  Mandurah, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Murray,  and  Freemantle  have 
preserving  sheds  for  mullet  and  snapper.  Guano  beds 
are  worked  to  much  advantage  at  the  Lacepede  Isles. 
Salt  is  produced  largely  at  Rottnest  Island.  Raisins 
are  dried,  and  the  oil  of  castor  trees  is  expressed.  The 
mulberry  tree  succeeds  well,  and  sericulture  is  making 
progress.  Dugong  oil  is  got  from  Sharks  Bay. 
Honey  and  wax  are  becoming  valuable  exports ; from 
the  abundance  of  flowers  the  hives  can  be  emptied  twice 
a year.  Manna  and  gums  of  various  kinds  are  among 
the  resources  of  the  country.  Among  the  wines  made 
are  the  Riesling,  Burgundy,  Sweetwater,  Hock,  and 
Fontainebleau. 

Excellent  roads  were  made  during  the  period  of  con- 
vict labor.  The  nprthern  railway  from  Northampton 
mines  to  Port  Geraldton  is  thirty-five  miles  long.  The 
eastern  line  is  from  Freemantle  through  Perth  to 
Guildford  (twenty  miles)  and  to  Beverley  (ninety  miles). 
Communication  between  the  several  ports  is  conducted 
by  steamers,  which  have  been  aided  by  a state  subsidy. 

Western  Australia  is  a crown  colony,  administered 
by  a governor,  his  executive  council,  and  a legislative 
council  partly  nominated  by  the  governor.  The  colo- 
nial revenue  tor  1900  amounted  to  $15,050,025,  the  ex- 
penditure to  $14,493,270.  In  1901  there  were  1,978  mile? 
of  railroad. 

As  in  other  colonies,  the  denominational  system 
formerly  prevailed ; but  lately  an  effort  has  been  made 
to  have  public  schools  on  a broader  basis.  The  total 
expenditure  in  1900  was  $390, 155-  The  Perth  Inquire * 
was  the  first  newspaper;  there  are  now  eleven  in  the 
colony. 

Of  the  182,553  inhabitants  36,199  are  in  Perth,  the 
capital,  20,359  in  Freemantle,  1, 000  at  Albany,  900  at 
York.  Some  trouble  from  the  aborigines  was  expe- 
rienced by  settlers  at  first,  but  now  many  of  them  are 
useful  upon  stations,  making  good  shepherds.  A suc- 
cessful mission  for  natives  has  been  conducted  for  many 
years  at  New  Norcia,  about  eighty  miles  north  of 
Perth,  by  Spanish  monks. 

WEST  HAM,  an  eastern  suburb  of  London,  in  the 
county  of  Essex,  England.  It  possesses  large  chemical 
works,  match  works,  candle  factories,  manure  works, 
flour-mills,  cocoa-nut  fiber  factories,  patent  leather  cloth 
factories,  smelting  works,  and  copper  works.  The 
population  of  the  parish,  urban  sanitary  district,  and 
parliamentary  borough  (area  about  5,390  acres)  in  1901 
was  267,308. 

WEST  HOBOKEN,  a village  of  West  Hoboken 
township,  Hudson  county,  N.  J.,  is  two  miles  west  of 
Hoboken  proper,  and  three  miles  from  New  York  city. 
It  is  popular  as  a resort  and  summer  residence,  but 
derives  its  chief  importance  from  the  manufacture  of 
silk  and  silk  plush  carried  on,  there  being  no  less  than 
fifteen  establishments  operating  in  that  field  of  industry. 
The  village  is  so  situated  as  to  command  a fine  view  of 
the  Hudson  river  and  the  surrounding  country,  and  con- 
tains schools,  churches,  and  many  fine  private  resi- 
dences. Besides  the  manufacture  of  silk,  there  are  a 
number  of  houses  which  devote  their  attention  to  the 
production  of  kid-gloves,  plush-cases,  rock-candy, 
chemicals,  and  other  standard  articles  of  ornament  and 
utility.  The  population  in  1900  was  stated  at  23,094. 

WEST  HOUGHTON,  a township  of  Lancashire, 
England.  There  are  coal-mines  in  the  neighborhood, 
and  the  town  possesses  a silk  factory,  print-works,  and 
cotton-mills.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary 
district  (area  4,341  acres)  in  1901  was  11,197. 

WEST  INDIES.  This  important  archipelago  re- 
ceived the  name  of  the  West  Indies  from  Columbus, 


WES 


who  hoped  that,  through  the  islands,  he  had  found  a 
new  route  to  India.  It  is  also  sometimes  known  as  the 
Antilles  (a  name,  however,  more  properly  applied  to  a 
part  than  to  the  whole),  as  Columbus,  on  his  arrival 
here,  was  supposed  to  have  reached  Antilla,  a fabled 
country,  said  to  lie  far  to  the  westward  of  the  Azores, 
which  found  a vague  and  uncertain  place  on  the  maps 
and  charts  of  many  geographers  before  that  time. 
Columbus  first  landed  on  St.  Salvador,  or  Watling 
Island,  named  by  the  natives  Guanahani,  and  took  pos- 
session of  it  for  the  Spanish  crown. 

Spain  was  not  long  allowed  to  retain  an  undisputed 
hold  upon  the  islands:  British  and  Dutch  seamen  soon 
sought  the  new  region,  accounts  concerning  the  fabu- 
lous wealth  and  treasure  of  which  stirred  all  Europe, 
and  a desultory  warfare  began  to  be  waged  among  the 
various  voyagers  who  flocked  to  this  El  Dorado,  in 
consequence  of  which  the  Spaniards  found  themselves 
gradually  but  surely  forced  from  many  of  their  vantage 
grounds,  and  compelled  very  materially  to  reduce  the 
area  over  which  they  had  held  unchecked  sway.  The 
first  care  of  the  English  settlers  was  to  find  out  the  real 
agricultural  capabilities  of  the  islands,  and  they  dili- 
gently set  about  planting  tobacco,  cotton,  and  indigo. 
A French  West  India  Company  was  incorporated  in 
1625,  and  a settlement  established  on  the  island  of  St. 
Christopher,  where  a small  English  colony  was  already 
engaged  in  clearing  and  cultivating  the  ground;  these 
were  driven  out  by  the  Spaniards  in  1630,  but  only  to 
return  and  again  assume  possession.  About  this  time, 
also,  the  celebrated  buccaneers,  Dutch  smugglers,  and 
British  and  French  pirates  began  to  infest  the  neighbor- 
ing seas,  doing  much  damage  to  legitimate  traders  and 
causing  commerce  to  be  carried  on  only  under  force 
of  arms,  and  with  much  difficulty  and  danger.  Indeed, 
it  was  not  till  the  beginning  of  last  century — some  time 
after  Spain  had,  in  1670,  given  up  her  claim  to  the 
exclusive  possession  of  the  archipelago — that  these 
rovers  were  rendered  comparatively  harmless;  and 
piracy  yet  lingered  off  the  coasts  down  to  the  early 
years  of  the  present  century.  In  1640  sugar-cane 
began  to  be  systematically  planted,  and  the  marvelous 
prosperity  of  the  West  Indies  commenced  ; it  was  not 
from  the  gold  and  precious  stones,  to  which  the 
Spaniards  had  looked  for  wealth  and  power,  but  from 
the  cane  that  the  fortunes  of  the  West  Indies  were  to 
spring.  The  successful  propagation  of  this  plant  drew 
to  the  islands  crowds  of  adventurers,  many  of  them 
men  of  considerable  wealth.  The  West  Indies  were 
for  many  years  used  by  the  English  Government  as 
penal  settlements,  the  prisoners  working  on  the  plant- 
ations as  slaves.  In  1655  a British  force  made  an 
unsuccessful  attack  on  Hayti,  but  a sudden  descent 
on  Jamaica  was  more  fortunate  in  its  result,  and  that 
rich  and  beautiful  island  has  since  remained  in  the 
possession  of  Great  Britain.  The  Portuguese  were 
the  first  to  import  Negroes  as  slaves,  and  their  ex- 
ample was  followed  by  other  nations  having  West- 
Indian  colonies,  the  traffic  existing  for  about  300 
years.  In  1660  a division  of  the  islands  was  arranged 
between  England  and  France,  the  remaining  aborigines 
being  driven  to  specified  localities,  but  this  treaty  did 
not  produce  the  benefits  expected  from  it,  and  as  wars 
raged  in  Europe  the  islands  frequently  changed  hands. 
Hayti,  now  divided  into  two  republics,  has  suffered 
much  from  internal  broils  and  revolutions. 

The  West  Indies  are  situated  in  about  20°  N.  lati- 
tude, and  750  W.  longitude,  and  form  a broken,  but 
Upon  the  whole,  continuous  barrier,  shutting  out  as  it 
Were  the  Atlantic  Ocean  from  the  lesser  basins  of  the 
Caribbean  Sea  and  Gulf  of  Mexico.  These  two  seas 
are  separated  by  the  island  of  Cuba  and  the  isthmus  of 


6325 

Yucatan,  with  the  great  Campeche  Bank  surround- 
ing three  sides  of  the  latter.  Spring  tides  do  not 
rise  above  four  feet,  nor  neaps  above  two  and  one- 
half  feet.  The  equatorial  current  sweeps  around  Trini- 
dad and  the  Antilles  into  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  the 
Gulf  Stream  passes  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  way  of 
the  Florida  Channel.  The  well-known  Sargasso  Sea 
lies  to  the  northeast  of  the  islands. 

The  average  surface  temperature  of  the  sea  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  islands  is  from  750  to  78°  F.  in 
February,  from  790  to  8o°  in  May,  and  from  82°  to 
.84°  in  August.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the 
Gulf  Stream  in  the  Florida  Channel  is  8o°  F. 

The  various  groups  which  go  to  form  the  West 
Indies  have  in  some  cases  more  than  one  name,  but  the 
following  classification  is  that  usually  adopted:  To  the 
north  lie  the  Bahamas,  situated  upon  the  Great  Baha- 
ma Bank,  south  from  which  is  Cuba;  Jamaica,  again, 
lies  to  the  south  of  the  latter,  and  to  the  east  of  Jamaica 
are  Hayti  and  Porto  Rico.  Still  farther  to  the  east 
lie  the  Virgin  Islands,  south  of  which  are  the  Caribbee 
Islands,  or  Antilles  proper,  divided  by  mariners  into  the 
Leeward  and  Windward  groups.  Trinidad  lies  close  to 
the  coast  of  South  America.  Thus  the  whole  archi- 
pelago stretches,  in  the  form  of  a rude  arc,  from  Florida 
and  Yucatan  in  North  America  to  Venezuela  in  South 
America. 

Area  and  Population  of  the  Islands  according  to  the 
latest  Returns. 


Year. 

Square 

Miles. 

Pop. 

United  States  : 

Cuba  ( now  [1902]  independent) 

1899 

35*994 

1,572,797 

Porto  Rico 

3,600 

953,243 

British  : 

Bahamas 

1901 

5,450 

53,735 

Barbados 

1901 

166 

195,000 

Jamaica 

1901 

4,200 

745,io4 

Turks  and  Caicos 

1901 

224 

5,350 

Ueeward  Islands : 

Antigua,  etc 

Virgin  Islands 

1901 

170 

34,971 

1901 

58 

4,908 

Dominica 

1901 

291 

28,894 

46,440 

St.  Kitts,  Nevis,  etc 

1901 

150 

Montserrat 

1901 

32 

12,215 

Trinidad  and  Tobago 

1901 

1,868 

272,000 

Windward  Islands: 

Grenada 

1901 

133 

65,523 

St.  Vincent 

1901 

132 

41,054 

St.  Ducia 

1901 

233 

49,895 

Independent: 

Hayti 

1894 

10,204 

1,210,625 

San  Domingo 

1888 

18,045 

610,000 

French : 

Guadeloupe,  etc 

1900 

688 

172,100 

Martinique 

1900 

380 

189,600 

Dutch : 

Curagoa 

1900 

210 

30,119 

Bonaire 

1900 

95 

4,926 

Aruba 

1900 

69 

9,59i 

St.  Martin,  St.  Eustache,  and 

Saba 

1900 

29 

7,057 

Danish  : 

St.  Thomas,  St.  John,  Santa 

138 

Cruz,  etc 

1900 

30,504 

The  principal  rivers  are  the  Cauto,  the  Sagua  la 
Grande,  and  the  Sagua  le  Chica  in  Cuba,  the  Ric 
Grande  and  Plantain  Garden  in  Jamaica,  and  the  Gran 
Yacui,  the  Neiba,  and  Yuna  in  Hayti,  all  have,  neces- 
sarily, short  courses,  and  none  of  them  are  of  much 
importance. 


6326 


WES 


The  population  is  almost  entirely  of  European, 
Negro,  or  East- Asiatic  origin.  The  Negroes  far  out- 
number the  others,  but  the  Asiatics  are  rapidly  increas- 
ing in  numbers.  With  the  exception  of  part  of 
the  Bahamas,  all  the  islands  lie'  between  the  isotherms 
of  770  and  82°  F.  The  extreme  heat,  however,  is 
greatly  tempered  by  the  sea  breezes,  and  by  long,  cool, 
refreshing  nights.  Frost  is  occasionally  formed  in  the 
cold  season  when  hail  falls,  but  snow  is  unknown.  The 
seasons  may  be  divided  as  follows.  The  short  wet 
season,  or  spring,  begins  in  April  and  lasts  from  two 
to  six  weeks,  and  .s  succeeded  by  the  short  dry  season,, 
when  the  thermometer  remains  almost  stationary  at  about 
$o°  F.  In  July  the  heat  increases  to  an  extent  well  nigh 
unbearable,  and  thunder  is  heard  to  rumble  in  the  dis- 
tance, No  change  need  now  be  looked  for  till  after  a 
period  varying  from  the  end  of  July  to  the  beginning 
of  October,  when  the  great  rainfall  of  the  year  com- 
mences, accompanied  by  those  tremendous  and  destruc- 
tive hurricanes,  so  intimately  and  truly  associated  with 
popular  ideas  regarding  this  region,  011  which  the 
annual  rainfall  averages  sixty-three  inches. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  the  islands  is  not  remarkable. 
Gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  tin,  platinum,  lead,  coal  of 
a poor  quality,  cobalt,  mercury,  arsenic,  antimony, 
manganese,  and  rock  salt  either  have  been  or  are 
worked.  Of  late  years  asphalt  has  been  worked  to  con- 
siderable advantage  among  the  pitch  lakes  of  Trinidad. 
Opal  and  chalcedony  are  the  principal  precious  stones. 

The  fauna  of  the  region  is  Neotropical,  belonging  to 
that  region  which  includes  South  and  part  of  Central 
America,  although  great  numbers  of  birds  from  the 
North  American  portion  of  the  Holaretic  realm  migrate 
*,0  the  islands.  The  resident  birds,  however,  eighteen 
genera  of  which  are  certainly  Neotropical,  show  beyond 
doubt  to  which  faunal  region  the  islands  properly  be- 
long. Mammals  are,  as  in  most  island  groups,  rare.  The 
agouti  abounds,  and  wild  pigs  and  dogs  are  sufficiently 
numerous  to  afford  good  sport  to  the  hunter,  as  well  as 
smaller  game,  in  the  shape  of  armadillos,  opossums,  musk- 
rats, and  raccoons.  The  non-migrating  birds  include  tro- 
gons,  sugar-birds,  chatterers,  and  many  parrots  and  hum- 
ming birds.  Waterfowl  and  various  kinds  of  pigeons  are  in 
abundance.  Reptiles  are  numerous:  snakes — both  the 
boa  and  adder — are  innumerable,  while  lizards,  scor- 
pions, tarantulas,  and  centipedes  are  everywhere.  In- 
sects are  in  great  numbers,  and  are  often  very  annoying. 
Among  domestic  animals  mules  are  largely  reared,  and 
where  the  country  affords  suitable  pasture  and  forage 
cattle-breeding  is  extensively  engaged  in. 

The  flora  of  the  islands  is  of  great  variety  and  rich- 
ness, as  plants  have  been  introduced  from  most  parts  of 
the  globe,  and  flourish  either  in  a wild  state  or  under 
cultivation;  grain,  vegetables,  and  fruits,  generally  com- 
mon in  cool  climates,  maybe  seen  growing  in  luxuriance 
within  a short  distance  of  plants  which  only  attain 
perfection  under  the  influence  of  extreme  heat,  nothing 
being  here  required  for  the  successful  propagation  of 
both  but  a difference  in  the  height  of  the  lands  upon 
which  they  grow.  The  forests,  which  are  numerous 
and  wide-spreading,  produce  the  most  valuable  woods 
and  delicious  fruits.  Palms  are  in  great  variety,  and 
there  are  several  species  of  gum-producing  trees.  But 
it  is  to  the  agricultural  resources  of  the  islands  that  the 
greatest  importance  attaches.  For  centuries  almost  the 
whole  care  of  the  planters  was  bestowed  upon  the  culti- 
vation of  the  sugar-cane  and  tobacco  plant,  but  since  the 
emancipation  of  the  slaves  and  the  fall  in  the  price  of 
sugar,  attention  has  been  turned  to  the  production  of 
other  and  more  varying  crops.  Sugar  is  still  the  staple 
product,  and  has  for  some  time  been  grown  in  consider- 
able quantities  on  the  small  holdings  of  the  Negroes  and 


other  laborers.  Crops  of  tobacco,  beans,  peas,  maize, 
and  Guinea  corn  are  also  becoming  popular,  and  a 
species  of  rice,  which  requires  no  flooding  for  its  suc- 
cessful propagation,  is  largely  produced.  For  further 
particulars  see  Cuba,  Jamaica,  Hayti,  and  other 
articles  on  separate  islands. 

WESTMACOTT,  Sir  Richard,  one  of  the  princi- 
pal English  sculptors  of  the  classical  revival,  was  born 
in  London  in  1775,  and  while  yet  a boy  learned  the 
rudiments' of  the  plastic  art  in  the  studio  of  his  father, 
who  was  then  a sculptor  of  some  reputation.  In  1805 
he  was  elected  an  associate,  and  in  1811  a full  member 
of  the  Royal  Academy;  in  1827  he  was  appointed  to 
succeed  Flaxman  as  Royal  Acadqmy  professor  of 
sculpture,  and  in  1837  he  was  knighted.  A large  num- 
ber of  important  public  monuments  were  executed  by 
him,  including  many  portrait  statues;  but,  like  most 
sculptors  of  the  pseudoclassic  revival,  he  was  not  suc- 
cessful with  this  class  of  draped  figure.  He  died  Sep- 
tember 1,  1856,  after  about  fifteen  years  of  retirement 
from  active  work. 

WESTMEATH,  an  inland  county  of  Ireland,  in  the 
province  of  Leinster,  is  bounded  northwest  by  Long- 
ford, north  by  Cavan,  northeast  and  east  by  Meath, 
south  by  King’s  county,  and  west  by  Roscommon. 
Its  greatest  length  from  east  to  west  is  about  forty  miles, 
and  its  greatest  breadth  from  north  to  south  about 
thirty-five  miles.  The  total  area  is  453,453  acres,  or 
about  708  square  miles.  The  general  average  height  of 
the  surface  of  the  county  is  over  250  feet  above  sea- 
level.  Being  diversified  with  hill,  valley,  lake,  and  river, 
it  is  highly  picturesque,  but  in  no  part  can  it  be  termed 
mountainous.  Good  limestone  is  obtainable  for  build- 
ing or  agricultural  purposes,  but  in  some  cases  the 
limestone  is  difficult  to  calcine.  Copper,  lead,  coal, 
and  marble  have  been  dug,  but  are  not  found  in  suffi- 
cient quantities  to  make  the  speculation  profitable.  A 
large  surface  is  occupied  by  bog.  A special  feature  of 
Westmeath  is  the  number  of  large  loughs,  which  have  a 
combined  area  of  nearly  17,000  acres.  The  occupations 
are  almost  wholly  agricultural,  dairy  farming  predominat- 
ing. Flour  and  meal  are  largely  made.  The  only 
textile  manufactures  are  those  of  friezes,  flannels,  and 
coarse  linens  for  home  use.  The  only  mineral  of  any 
value  is  limestone. 

De  Burgo  in  1760  placed  the  population  at  50,340; 
in  the  parliamentary  census  of  1812  it  was  given  as  112,- 
000;  in  1821  it  amounted  to  128,819,  in  1841  to  141,- 
300,  in  1861  to  90,879,  and  in  1901  to  61,527  (males 
31,790,  females  29,737).  Between  1841  and  1881  the 
decrease  has  thus  been  49.18  per  cent.  Roman  Catho- 
lics in  1881  numbered  92.2  per  cent,  of  the  population, 
and  Protestant  Episcopalians  6.9-  In  1881  54  per  cent, 
of  the  population  could  read  and  write,  14. 7 per  cent, 
could  read,  but  not  write,  and  31.3  per  cent,  could 
neither  read  nor  write- -14.8  per  cent,  being  under  seven 
years  of  age.  Th^re  were  none  who  could  speak  Irish 
only,  828  could  speak  Irish  and  English.  The  principal 
towms  are  Athlone,  of  which  half  (3,072  inhabitants  out 
of  6,755)  is  within  the  county,  the"  remainder  being  in 
Roscommon,  and  Mullingar  (4,787),  the  county  town, 
a Catholic  cathedral  city,  and  an  important  railway 
junction.  The  county  is  divided  into  12  baronies, 
and  contains  63  parishes  and  1,356  towmlands.  It 
is  in  the  home  circuit,  and  assizes  are  held  at  Mullin- 
gar, and  quarter  sessions  at  Mullingar  and  Moate. 

WESTMINSTER.  See  London. 

WESTMORLAND,  a northern  inland  county  ok 
England,  adjoins  Cumberland  on  the  northwest,  Lan- 
cashire on  the  southwest  and  south,  Yorkshire  on  the 
east,  and  a small  part  of  Durham  on  the  extreme  north- 
east. In  form  it  may  be  regarded  as  an  irregular  polv- 


, WES 


gon,  with  two  large  re-ehtering  angles  on  the  south- 
west and  southeast.  Its  length  from  northeast  to  south- 
west is  forty-two  miles,  while  from  east  to  west  it 
measures  forty  miles.  The  total  area  is  505,864  acres. 
Whereof  4,958  aci-es  are  foreshore,  and  8,519  are  water. 

Physically  the  county  may  be  roughly  divided  into 
two  areas.  (1)  The  great  upland  tract  in  the  north- 
eastern part,  bordering  on  the  western  margin  of  York- 
shire and  part  of  Durham,  consisting  mainly  of  a wild 
moorland  area.  (2)  The  area  comprising  about  a third 
of  the  massif  of  the  Lake  District  proper,  with  its 
eastward  continuation,  the  Langdale  and  Ravenst one- 
dale  Fells,  and  also  the  fells  of  Middleton  and  Rarbon 
farther  south. 

The  rainfall  is  exceptionally  heavy.  The  largest 
quantity  recorded  appears  to  be  that  in  the  mountains 
along  the  county  boundary,  west  of  Grasmere,  where 
the  mean  amounts  to  as  much  as  140  inches.  At  Sty 
Head  the  rainfall  amounts  to  243.98  inches.  The 
heaviest  precipitation  takes  place  in  the  months  of 
January,  September,  and  October,  and  the  smallest  in 
July. 

Among  the  denizens  of  the  mountains  are  several 
plants  distinctly  alpine  in  character ; and  others,  more 
or  less  boreal  in  their  principal  stations,  are  here  found 
at  nearly  their  southernmost  point  of  distribution.  Bog 
plants  are  also  conspicuous  in  their  variety,  and  include 
several  forms  of  some  rarity.  The  lichens,  mosses,  and 
ferns  are  well  represented.  Of  trees  the  oak  and  the 
common  elm  do  not  seem  quite  at  home  anywhere 
except  in  the  more  sheltered  nooks,  and  in  parks  and 
other  cultivated  places.  But  the  place  of  the  common 
elm  is  well  supplied  by  the  wych  elm,  which  grows  to 
great  perfection.  In  place  of  the  oak  the  sycamore  is 
seen  almost  everywhere  in  the  lower  lands  ; and  there 
are  probably  few  parts  of  England  where  the  ash 
thrives  so  well,  or  attains  to  so  large  dimensions. 

Coal,  the  most  important  mineral  product,  occurs  in 
connection  with  the  Carboniferous  rocks,  but  most  of 
the  seams  are  thin  and  their  quality  is  inferior,  so  that 
they  have  long  ceased  to  have  the  industrial  importance 
they  once  possessed.  Fireclays  of  excellent  quality  and 
•of  unusual  thickness  occur  with  the  coals  at  Argill,  but 
have  not  hitherto  been  turned  to  industrial  account. 
Among  the  building- stones  those  of  the  New  Red  de- 
serve the  first  rank.  The  warm-tinted,  easily-worked, 
and  durable  Penrith  Sandstone  furnishes  one  of  the 
finest  building-stones  in  the  kingdom. 

According  to  the  agricultural  returns  for  1887  the 
total  extent  of  green  crops  was  10,232  acres;  of  grain 
crops,  19,124,  whereof  17,320  were  of  oats,  and  only 
469  of  wheat,  and  118  of  rye;  seed-grasses,  14,951; 
and  207,017  acres  of  permanent  pasture.  The  total 
number  of  horses  is  given  as  8,547;  of  cows  and  heifers 
in  milk  or  in  calf,  24,097;  of  other  cattle,  39,225;  of 
sheep,  334,97s;  an.d  of  pigs>  4.731- 

The  manufacturing  industries,  owing  to  the  absence 
of  any  large  supplies  of  native  fuel,  are  not  numerous. 
The  principal  is  woolen  manufacture  in  one  form  or 
another,  and  this  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  low  country 
in  and  near  Kendal.  Paper-making  is  also  carried  on. 
The  assizes  are  held  at  Carlisle.  The  principal  town 
is  Kendal,  which  had  in  1881  a population  of  13,69 6. 
Other  towns,  all  much  lass  important  as  regards  both 
size  and  population,  are  Appleby,  Kirkby  Lonsdale, 
Bowness,  Kirkby  Stephen,  Ambleside,  Shap,  and 
Orton.  The  county  sends  two  members  to  parliament. 
According  to  the  census  of  1901  there  were  64,411 
inhabitants  (31,515  males,  32,676  females),  the  decrease 
since  1871  being  819.  The  proportion  of  population  to 
acreage  is  one  person  to  7.80  acres. 

WEST  NEW  BRIGHTON,  a city  of  Richmond 


632; 

county,  N.  Y.,  situated  on  the  north  shore  of  Staten 
Island,  and  eight  miles  from  New  York  city,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  ferry.  Its  beauty  of  location,  ad- 
jacency to  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  and  easy  access 
thereto,  have  made  the  city  a popular  place  of  residence 
for  merchants  engaged  in  business  in  those  two  cities, 
who  have  completed  improvements  of  a substantial 
character,  that  add  materially  to  the  attractions  of 
the  place,  and  the  country  surrounding.  Two  weekly 
papers  are  published  there,  and  some  manufacturing  is 
carried  on,  the  latter  consisting  principally  of  carriages, 
confectionery,  and  lumber,  also  some  lighter  articles  ot 
lesser  importance  and  utility.  The  population  is  now 
included  in  Greater  New  York. 

WESTON-SUPER-MARE,  a watering-place  of 
Somerset,  England,  is  situated  at  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  Uphill  Bay,  a recess  of  the  Bristol  Channel. 
The  town  has  been  long  famed  for  its  potteries.  The 
population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  2,770 
acres)  in  1901  was  14,884. 

WESTPHALIA  (Germ.  Westfalen ),  a province  in 
the  west  of  Prussia,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
province  of  Hanover,  on  the  east  by  the  province  of 
Hanover,  the  principalities  of  Lippe-Detmold  and 
Schaumburg-Lippe,  the  duchy  of  Brunswick,  the  prov- 
ince of  Hesse,  and  the  principality  of  Waldeck,  on  the 
southwest  by  Rhenish  Prussia,  and  on  the  northwest 
by  Holland.  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south  is 
no  miles,  its  greatest  breadth  is  124  miles,  and  its  total 
area  is  7,800  square  miles. 

About  forty-two  per  cent,  of  the  surface  is  given  up 
to  agriculture,  twenty-five  per  cent,  to  pastures  and 
moors;  twenty-eight  per  cent,  is  under  wood;  and  the 
remainder  is  unproductive.  The  fertility  of  the  soil 
varies;  it  is  most  unfertile  in  the  north  and  northeast. 
A great  proportion  of  the  land  is  in  the  hands  of  small 
farmers  and  peasant  proprietors,  who  as  a class  are 
well  to  do,  though  their  system  of  farming  is  in  some 
respects  antiquated.  Grain  of  various  kinds  is  grown, 
though  not  in  sufficient  quantity  to  meet  the  demands 
of  the  province;  potatoes,  peas  and  beans,  fruit,  and 
tobacco,  are  also  produced;  but  perhaps  the  - most  im- 
portant crops  are  hemp  and  flax,  which  places  West- 
phalia among  the  leading  flax-producing  districts  of 
Germany.  The  forests  are  chiefly  on  the  mountains  of 
the  Sauerland,  and  in  the  south  generally.  Consider- 
able numbers  of  cattle  and  pigs  are  reared,  the  latter 
yielding  the  well-known  Westphalian  hams;  goats  are 
also  numerous  in  some  districts;  and  the  government  pays 
some  attention  to  the  breeding  of  horses  in  this  province. 
Sheep  are  comparatively  few.  (Compare  the  agricult- 
ural statistics  under  Prussia.) 

In  virtue  of  its  abundant  coal  and  iron  Westphalia  is 
one  of  the  busiest  industrial  quarters  of  Germany. 
There  are  coal-fields  in  the  north  and  in  other  districts, 
and  the  great  coal-field  of  the  Ruhr  extends  into  the 
province.  The  district  of  Arnsberg,  occupying  the 
south  of  the  province,  is  the  center  of  the  mineral  in. 
dustry.  Dortmund  gives  name  to  one  of  the  five  min- 
ing districts  into  which  Prussia  is  officially  divided. 
Westphalia  produces  more  iron  ore  than  any  other 
province  in  Prussia  except  the  Rhine  province  and 
Silesia;  next  to  Silesia  it  produces  the  most  zinc,  and 
next  to  Saxony  the  most  copper;  and  it  yields  more 
sulphur  than  any  other  province.  Argentiferous  lead, 
antimony,  limestone,  gypsum,  marble,  and  slates  are 
also  worked.  There  are  seven  salt-works  and  numerous 
mineral  springs. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  the  province  encourages  an 
extensive  manufacturing  industry,  the  leading  branches 
of  which  are  linen-weaving  and  iron-working.  The 
linen  industry  is  very  ancient,  and  since  the  fourteenth 


6328  w 

century  has  flourished  in  this  province  between  the 
Lippe  and  Weser.  Its  chief  center  is  now  Bielefeld, 
which  also  manufactures  jute.  The  cotton  factories  of 
Munster  are  important.  Woolens,  stockings,  and  rib- 
bons are  also  manufactured  to  some  extent.  The  pop- 
ulation is  2,202,726,  or  282  per  square  mile.  About  52 
per  cent,  are  Roman  Catholics,  most  of  whom  are  found 
in  the  southern  district  of  Arnsberg.  About  46 y2  per 
cent  are  Protestants.  Education  is  well  attended  to. 
The  seat  of  government  is  at  Munster  ; and  the  province 
is  divided  into  the  three  districts  of  Minden,  Munster, 
and  Arnsberg.  It  has  thirty-one  members  in  the  Prus- 
sian parliament,  and  seventeen  in  the  imperial  diet. 

Westphalia  was  the  name  given  to  the  western  portion 
of  the  early  duchy  of  Saxony,  (y.z/.)  When  Henry  the 
Lion  fell  under  the  ban  of  the  empire  his  Saxon  domains 
were  distributed  by  the  emperor.  The  Sauerland  and 
some  other  parts  of  Westphalia  fell  to  the  archbishops 
of  Cologne,  who  afterward  received  from  Frederick 
Barbarossa  the  title  of  dukes  of  Westphalia  and  Angria. 
The  northern  portion  of  the  original  Westphalia  became 
the  nucleus  of  the  circle  of  Westphalia  in  Maximilian’s 
administrative  organization  of  the  empire,  while  the 
duchy  of  Westphalia,  as  an  appanage  of  Cologhe,  was 
included  in  the  scattered  circle  of  the  Lower  Rhine. 
The  circle  of  Westphalia  embraced,  roughly  speaking, 
what  is  now  Oldenburg,  Hanover  to  the  West  of  the 
Weser,  the  districts  of  Munster  and  Minden,  and  a few 
other  territories,  an  area  of  about  27,000  square  miles, 
which  in  Maximilian’s  time  was  divided  among  four 
bishoprics  and  innumerable  small  secular  states  with  an 
aggregate  population  of  about  3,000,000.  The  peace  of 
Luneville  in  1801  transferred  all  parts  of  this  circle  west 
of  the  Rhine  to  France,  while  in  1803  t^ie  duchy  of 
Westphalia  was  granted  to  the  duke  of  Hesse-Nassau 
as  compensation  for  his  former  possessions  to  the  west 
of  the  Rhine,  which  had  also  been  added  to  France. 

In  1807  Napoleon  constituted  the  kingdom  of  West- 
phalia and  gave  it  to  his  youngest  brother  Jerome. 
It  comprised  all  the  Prussian  provinces  as  far  east  as 
the  Elbe,  and  extended  south  to  Fulda  and  the  Thu- 
ringian  states,  embracing  an  area  of  about  14,880  square 
miles,  with  a population  of  2,000,000.  Nearly  the 
whole  of  Hanover  was  added  to  this  kingdom  in  1810  ; 
but  next  year  Napoleon  again  took  away  the  greater 
part,  as  well  as  other  territories,  leaving,  however, 
17,740  square  miles,  with  2,057,000  inhabitants.  This 
kingdom  was  intended  to  take  the  lead  in  the  Confedera- 
tion of  the  Rhine.  After  the  battle  of  Leipsic  in  1813 
the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  was  abolished,  and  things 
reverted  to  their  previous  order  until  the  congress  of 
Vienna  rearranged  the  map  of  Europe,  when  Westphalia, 
as  we  now  understand  the  term,  was  assigned  to  Prussia. 

The  peace  of  Westphalia,  concluded  in  1648  at  Osna- 
briick  and  Munster,  put  an  end  to  the  Thirty  Years’ 
War  (see  Germany).  Pop.  (1900),  3,187,777. 

WEST  POINT,  the  site  of  the  ‘United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy,  and  a fortress  erected  during  the  war  of 
independence,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hudson  river, 
fifty-two  miles  north  of  New  York.  The  military 
academy  is  on  a plain  160  to  180  feet  above  the  river, 
surrounded  by  the  bold  scenery  of  one  of  the  finest 
river  passes  in  the  world.  The  forts  and  a river  chain 
were  taken  by  the  British  in  1777,  but  abandoned  after 
Burgoyne’s  surrender,  and  stronger  forts  were  built 
which  Gen.  Benedict  Arnold  bargained  to  betray,  a 
plot  foiled  by  the  arrest  of  Major  Andre.  The  acad- 
emy was  established  in  1802  for  fifty  cadets.  Since  the 
present  system  of  appointment  was  adopted  in  1843, 
the  number  has  increased  to  above  300.  It  is  governed 
by  a board  of  five  visitors,  and  has  a staff  of  fifty-one 
professors  and  teachers.  The  education  is  free,  each 


ES 

pupil  engaging  to  serve  eight  years.  Each  member  of 
congress  has  the  right  to  nominate  one  cadet  from  hi* 
district,  and  ten  are  appointed  by  the  president.  Tin 
course  of  study  and  discipline  is  four  years:  (1)  mathe 
matics,  engineering,  bayonet  exercising,  fencing,  schoo 
of  the  soldier;  (2)  mathematics,  French,  tactics  o: 
infantry,  fencing,  artillery  and  cavalry;  (3)  natural 
philosophy,  chemistry,  drawing,  riding,  tactics;  (4) 
military  and  civil  engineering,  mineralogy,  geology, 
chemistry,  law,  literature,  practical  military  engineer- 
ing, tactics. 

WEST  SPRINGFIELD,  a town  of  Hampden 
county,  Mass.,  opposite  Springfield,  on  the  Connecticut 
river.  It  has  manufactories  of  paper  and  cotton  cloth 
and  a population  (1900)  of  7,105. 

WEST  SUPERIOR,  a city  of  Douglas  county, 
Wis.,  and  the  center  of  an  extensive  mining  district, 
is  situated  on  the  borders  of  Lake  Superior,  half-a- 
dozen  miles  southeast  of  Duluth  and  1 7 1 miles  north  of 
St.  Paul.  It  is  one  of  the  leading  railroad  points  in 
the  State,  being  a prominent  station  on  the  Chicago, 
St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Omaha;  Duluth,  South  Shore 
and  Atlantic,  Eastern  Railway  of  Minnesota  and  the 
Northern  Pacific  lines,  and  is  also  the  seat  of  a numbef 
of  metal  industries  and  other  manufacturing  plants. 
The  city  contains  three  weekly  papers,  three  banks,  a 
number  of  hotels,  municipal  buildings*  public  halls  and 
stores,  besides  boiler  works,  foundries,  iron  and  steel 
works,  lumber  and  planing  mills,  sheet  iron  works  and 
other  lines  of  production,  the  yearly  output  from  which 
is  constantly  increasing  in  volume  and  value.  The 
same  is  true  as  to  the  population,  which  during  recent 
years  has  been  largely  increased  in  number,  and  which 
was  returned  at  11,983  by  the  United  States  census  of 
1890  x op.  Superior  City  (1900),  31,091. 

WEST  TROY,  a village  of  Albany  county,  N.  Y.,  is 
situated  in  the  bottom-land  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Hudson,  opposite  Troy,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
an  iron  bridge;  it  is  five  miles  north  of  Albany.  It  is  at 
the  termini  of  the  Erie  and  Champlain  canals,  and  is 
on  a railroad  line  of  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal 
Company.  The  village  is  well  laid  out,  has  water  and 
gas,  is  provided  with  street  oars,  and  has . extensive 
manufactories  of  a varied  character,  but  particularly  of 
iron.  The  Watervliet  (U.  S.)  arsenal  is  situated  here. 
The  pop.  is  now  included  in  Colonie  and  Green  Island. 

WEST  VIRGINIA,  one  of  the  northeastern  central 
States  of  the  American  Union,  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland,  on  the  east  and  south 
by  Virginia,  and  on  the  west  by  Kentucky  and  Ohio, 
and  has  an  area  of  24,780  square  miles. 

The  form  of  the  State  is  extremely  irregular.  It 
may  be  roughly  likened  to  an  ellipse,  the  greatest  di- 
ameter of  which  lies  nearly  northeast  and  southwest.  Its 
boundary  upon  the  east  and  south  is  made  up  of  the  ir- 
regular line  which  limited  the  counties  which  were  set 
off  from  Virginia  for  the  formation  of  this  State.  Upon 
the  west  tne  boundary  is  low-water  upon  the  further 
shore  of  the  Big  Sandy  and  Ohio  rivers.  A long  nar- 
row strip,  known  as  the  “ Panhandle,”  projects  north- 
ward some  sixty  miles  along  the  Ohio — the  boundary 
being  the  continuation  of  the  straight  line  which  sepa- 
rates Ohio  and  Pennsylvania.  To  the  east  of  this  the 
northern  boundary  follows  Mason  and  Dixon’s  line; 
then,  dropping  in  a due  south  direction  to  the  “ Fairfax 
Stone,”  it  follows  thence  easterly  the  course  of  the  Poto- 
mac to  its  junction  with  the  Shenandoah. 

The  entire  State  is  mountainous  or  hilly,  being  com- 
prised within  the  region  known  as  the  Cumberland  or 
Alleghany  plateau.  The  highest  land  in  the  State  is 
upon  the  eastern  and  southern  boundary,  where  the 
plateau  in  many  places  reaches  elevations  exceeding 


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6329 


4,000  feet.  Thence  the  country  has  a general  slope  to 
the  northwest,  and  is  lowest  along  the  Ohio,  where  the 
elevation  is  but  600  to  800  feet.  This  plateau  has 
been  subjected  to  stream  erosion  until  it  has  become  a 
network  of  narrow  crooked  ridges  with  deep  gorges  or 
narrow  valleys.  The  height  of  the  ridges  and  the  depth 
of  the  valleys,  together  with  the  ruggedness  of  the  coun- 
try, diminish  toward  the  northwest,  until,  near  the  Ohio, 
the  hills  become  rounded  and  softer  -d  in  outline,  and 
the  valleys  are  broad  and  fertile. 

The  drainage  system  of  the  State  is  in  some  respects 
peculiar.  Although  the  general  slope  is  toward  the 
northwest,  the  Potomac,  which  flows  southeasterly  to 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  has  cut  its  way  far  back  into^the 
plateau,  and  drains,  by  means  of  numerous  long 
branches,  the  northeastern  quarter  of  the  State.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  State  is  drained  to  the  Ohio  by  means  of 
several  large  branches  which  flow  in  a general  northwest- 
erly direction.  Heading  in  the  southwest  is  the  Big 
Sandy,  forming  a portion  of  the  State  boundary.  Four- 
teen miles  above  its  mouth  enters  the  Guyandotte,  and 
fifty  miles  above  the  Guyandotte  comes  the  Great  Ka- 
nawha, one  of  the  principal  branches  of  the  Ohio.  It  is 
known  in  North  Carolina  and  Virginia,  and  in  West 
Virginia  to  the  Great  Falls,  by  the  name  of  New 
nver.  In  West  Virginia  it  has  numerous  large  tribu- 
taries— the  Big  and  Little  Coal  rivers.  Piney,  and  Blue- 
Stone  from  the  south,  and  the  Pocotaligo,  Elk,  Gauley, 
and  Greenbrier  from  the  north.  The  next  branch  of 
the  Ohio,  proceeding  northward,  is  the  Little  Kanawha, 
*vhich  empties  into  the  Ohio  at  Parkersburg.  The 
northwestern  part  of  the  State  is  drained  by  the  Monon- 
gahela,  one  of  the  two  head  branches  of  the  Ohio,  and 
its  tributaries.  Of  these  streams  the  Ohio  is  navigable 
for  river  steamers  at  nearly  all  stages  of  water.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  Kanawha  to  a point  near  the 
Kanawha  Falls,  while  the  Big  Sandy,  the  Guyandotte, 
and  the  Monongahela  are  navigable  for  flatboats  for 
long  distances,  and  these,  as  well  as  numerous  other 
streams,  are  largely  used  for  the  floating  of  lumber. 
All  the  streams  of  the  State,  and  especially  the  smaller 
ones,  have  a rapid  fall,  but  their  enormous  water-power 
has  as  yet  been  utilized  only  to  a trifling  extent. 

The  climate  is  nowhere  severe,  although,  owing  to 
the  range  in  elevation  within  the  State,  there  is  a con- 
siderable range  in  temperature.  The  mean  annual  tem- 
perature ranges  from  540  to  550  F.,  being  highest  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Ohio,  in  the  western  part  of 
the  State,  and  lowest  upon  the  high  mountains,  in  the 
eastern  and  northeastern  portion.  The  rainfall  may 
be  given  broadly  at  between  forty  and  fifty  inches 
annually.  It  also  varies  with  the  elevation,  being  less 
in  the  lower  portions  and  greatest  upon  the  high 
mountains. 

The  fauna  of  the  State  is  that  common  to  the  whole 
southern  Appalachian  region.  Much  of  the  area  being 
as  yet  in  a state  of  nature,  deer  of  the  white-tailed 
species  are  still  abundant,  and  black  bear  are  not  in- 
frequently met  with  in  the  more  rugged  and  remote 
portions.  Wild  turkeys  are  still  found  in  some  locali- 
ties, and  the  mountains  have  long  been  a popular 
resort  for  hunters,  while  the  streams,  abounding  in 
trout,  afford  an  equally  attractive  field  for  the  angler. 
The  timber  resources  of  the  State  are  enormous,  and  a 
small  proportion  of  its  area,  amounting  to  only  about 
25  per  cent.,  has  been  cleared.  The  remainder  is 
covered  with  virgin  forest.  This  consists  mainly  of 
broad-leafed  trees  of  the  most  valuable  sorts  for 
lumber,  such  as  chestnut,  black  walnut,  cherry,  ash, 
poplar,  hickory,  locust,  maple,  oak,  etc.  Consider- 
able areas  of  white  pine  are  found  in  the  highest  por- 
tions of  the  plateau,  being  practically  the  only  original 


forest  of  this  wood  left  in  the  United  States.  Besides 
these  there  are  considerable  quantities  of  yellow  pine, 
hemlock,  spruce,  and  cedar,  scattered  through  the 
State. 

Viewed  broadly,  the  geological  structure  of  West 
Virginia  is  extremely  simple.  Practically  the  entire 
State  is  overlaid  by  nearly  horizontal  beds  of  the  Car- 
boniferous formation.  The  coal  of  West  Virginia  forms 
its  principal  mineral  wealth.  It  is  estimated  that  of 
its  entire  area  not  less  than  16,000  square  miles  are 
underlaid  by  workable  beds  of  coal.  In  the  matter  of 
coal  production  the  State  is  rapidly  acquiring  promi- 
nence. From  a production  in  1873  of  600,000  tons,  it 
reached  in  1900  a production  ot  over  21,153,000  tons, 
being  exceeded  by  only  two  of  the  states,  viz.,  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Illinois.  The  production  is  limited  only  by 
the  demand,  as  the  supply  is  almost  inexhaustible. 
The  coals  of  the  State  are  of  every  variety  except  anthra- 
cite, and  are  noted  for  their  purity  for  coking,  steam, 
and  gas  purposes  and  for  domestic  fuel.  Iron  ore  is 
abundant.  In  1900,  about  1,000,000  tons  of  coke  were 
produced. 

Salt  springs  are  found  in  the  valley  of  the  Kanawha, 
and  in  that  of  the  Ohio;  and  there  are  extensive  evapo- 
rating works  in  both  these  localities.  The  production, 
however,  has  been  retarded  by  the  competition  of  those 
in  Michigan,  owing  to  the  greater  cheapness  offuel  and 
better  facilities  for  transportation  in  the  latter  locality. 
The  production  of  salt  in  West  Virginia  in  1900 
amounted  to  221,534  barrels.  West  Virginia  contains 
numerous  valuable  mineral  springs,  among  the  best 
known  of  which  are  the  Greenbrier  White  Sulphur 
springs  in  Greenbrier  county,  Capon  springs  in  Hamp- 
shire county,  Irondale  springs,  in  Preston  county,  and 
Red  Sulphur  springs  and  Salt  Sulphur  springs  both  in 
Monroe  county. 

While  the  entire  State  may  be  said  to  be  either 
mountainous  or  hilly,  it  contains  a large  extent  of 
arable  land.  Nearly  all  of  the  lower  hill  country  can 
be  cultivated,  while  in  the  mountainous  region  there 
are  numerous  broad  valleys  of  excellent  soil,  and  every- 
where the  hill  and  mountain  sides  can  be  cultivated  if 
the  slope  is  not  excessively  steep.  The  twelfth  census 
(1900)  reported  an  area  of  10,654,513  acres  of  land  in 
farms,  of  which  5,498,981  acres,  or  about  one-half  the 
area  of  the  State,  was  improved  land,  this  being  maimy 
in  the  lower  and  less  mountainous  portion.  The  aver- 
age size  of  farms  was  1 15  acres,  showing  as  compared 
with  the  average  10  years  earlier,  viz.,  142  acres,  a de- 
cided decrease.  The  value  of  farms  and  farming  imple- 
ments amounted  to  $173,336,090.  The  numbers  of  live 
stock  upon  farms,  as  distinguished  from  animals  owned 
for  business  purposes  in  cities,  consisted  in  June,  1900, 
of  185,188  horses,  11,470  mules,  968,843  sheep  and  lambs, 
442,884  hogs,  205,601  milch  cows,  and  434,181  other 
cattle — showing  that  the  live  stock  interests  of  the  State 
are  very  large.  The  estimated  value  of  all  farm  prod- 
ucts sold,  consumed,  or  on  hand  was  $25,696,189.  The 

rincipal  agricultural  products  are  wheat,  Indian  corn. 

ay  and  forage,  tobacco,  oats,  and  garden  vegetab’es. 
The  cereal  products  for  1899  consisted  of  16,610,730 
bushels  of  corn,  4,326,150  of  wheat,  and  1,833,840  of 
oats. 

The  manufactures,  which  rapidly  developing,  are 
concentrated  mainly  at  Wheeling,  on  the  Ohio, 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  State;  they  consist 
mainly  of  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel, ►glass,  flouring 
and  grist  mill  products,  lumber,  and  leather.  There 
were  in  1900  4,415  manufacturing  establishments,  em- 
ploying a capital  of  $55,719,938  and  35,000  persons. 
The  value  of  manufactured  products  was  $74,177,681, 

There  are  2,460  miles  of  completed  railroads. 


WES 


6330 

The  State  early  in  its  history  (December,  1863) 
adopted  a liberal  system  of  free  schools.  The  plan  is* 
known  as  the  township  or  district  system — the  magis- 
terial district  or  subdivision  of  each  county  being  taken 
as  the  unit  for  taxation,  and  the  general  control  of  all 
the  school  interests  of  the  district  being  placed  in  the 
hands  of  a district  board  of  education,  elected  by  the 
people,  and  authorized  among  other  duties  to  levy 
taxes,  to  determine  the  number  of  months  of  school  and 
the  number  of  sub-districts,  to  plant  and  build  school- 
houses,  and  to  manage  the  financial  and  other  school 
interests  of  the  districts.  There  is  likewise  in  each 
county  a superintendent,  and  in  the  State  a general 
superintendent.  This  system  has  since  been  main- 
tained and  strengthened  by  legislative  enactment,  till 
from  133  school-houses  and  431  public  schools  of  all 
grades  in  1865,  there  were  in  1900,  5,856  school-houses 
in  the  State.  In  1865  the  amount  expended  in  support 
of  free  schools  was  $7,722;  this  eraduallv  increased,  till 
in  1901  the  amount  was  $2,250,000.  The  number  of 
teachers  employed  by  public  appropriation  was  387  in 
1865 ; in  1901  it  was  7,350-  The  estimated  value  of 
school-houses  in  the  State,  $140,000  in  1865,  was 
$3,471,697  in  1900.  The  school  system  involves  also 
what  is  known  as  the  irreducible  school  fund.  The  prin- 
cipal, which  amounts  to  over  $620,000,  is  permanently 
invested.  This  fund  is  constantly  augmented  from 
sources  provided  by  law  and  by  voluntary  contributions. 

The  financial  condition  of  the  State  is  highly  satisfac- 
tory. The  receipts  of  the  State  Treasury  for  the  fiscal 
year  1899-1900,  including  a balance  of  $119,212  brought 
forward,  were  $1,806,015;  the  disbursements  for  all  pur- 
poses $1,790,478;  leaving  a balance  October  1,  1900,  of 
$1,134,750.  This  balance  consisted  of  $127,532  of  the 
Slate  fund,  and  of  $324,048  school  funds. 

The  assessed  valuation  of  real  estate  in  1900  amounted 
to  $147,058,218,  and  that  of  personal  property  to  $53,- 
101,906 ; that  of  railroad  property  $22,028,362.  In  1900 
the  assessed  valuation  was  $222,182,486. 

The  development  of  population  is  steady.  The 
principal  cities  are  Wheeling,  Parkersburg,  Martins- 
burg,  Charleston  (the  State  capital),  Crafton  and 
Charlestown.  The  increase  in  population  from  1890  to 
1900  was  25.7  per  cent.  The  proportion  of  native 
whites  was  93  per  cent,  of  the  whole  number  of  whites, 
which  is  larger  than  that  of  any  other  State  in  the 
Union.  The  population  at  the  tJ.  S.  census  of  1900 
was  returned  at  958,800  and  that  of  Wheeling,  Charles- 
ton and  Parkersburg  is  shown  by  local  investigation  to 
have  very  largely  increased. 

The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a governor  elected 
by  the  people  for  a term  of  four  years,  and  ineligible 
under  the  constitution  for  reelection.  There  are  also 
an  auditor,  a treasurer,  an  attorney-general,  a secretary 
of  State  and  State  superintendent  of  free  schools,  who 
with  the  governor  constitute  a board  of  public  works, 
and  are  likewise  elected  by  the  people  for  terms  of  four 
years,  except  the  secretary  of  State  and  a librarian  (who 
is  ex  officio  adjutant-general),  who  are  appointed  by 
the  governor.  Th«£  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a 
Senate  and  house  of  delegates.  The  Senate  embraces 
twenty-six  members,  half  of  whom  are  elected  every 
alternate  two  years,  for  a term  of  four  years.  The 
house  of  delegates  consists  of  sixty-six  members,  who 
are  elected  every  two  years.  The  legislature  meets 
biennially,  and  may  be  convened  in  extraordinary  ses- 
sion by  the  governor,  or  by  the  concurrence  of  three- 
fifths  of  its  members.  The  veto  power  is  vested  in  the 
governor,  but  a majority  concurring  in  each  house  of 
the  legislature  overrides  it.  The  judiciary  consists  of  a 
supreme  court  of  appeals,  with  four  judges,  who  in  case 
of  their  equal  division  affirm  the  judgment  of  the  lower 


court,  and  of  circuit  courts,  with  one  judge  each,  ex- 
ercising  general  original  power  and  appellate  jurisdic- 
tion over  magistrates  or  justices  of  tne  peace,  and  of 
magistrates  and  justices  of  the  peace,  whose  jurisdiction 
in  civil  cases  is  limited  to  $300,  and  who  exercise  crimi- 
nal jurisdiction  in  petty  offenses,  and  may  issue  warrants 
of  arrest  and  make  preliminary  examination  and  commit 
for  trial  in  the  circuit  court  in  cases  of  crime.  The 
fiscal  regulations  of  the  counties  are  confided  to  a board, 
consisting  of  three  county  commissioners.  * The  county 
organization  consists  of  these  commissioners,  a sheriff, 
deputy  sheriffs,  a circuit  court  clerk,  a county  clerk, 
who  is  recorder  of  deeds,  wills,  etc.,  board  of  education, 
school  trustees,  overseers  of  roads,  a commissioner  of 
school  lands,  an  overseer  of  the  poor,  and  a commis- 
sioner of  accounts.  All  these,  except  the  deputy  sheriffs, 
commissioner  of  accounts,  commissioner  of  school  lands, 
and  overseer  of  the  poor,  are  elected  by  the  people. 

The  establishment  of  West  Virginia  as  a State  was 
consummated  on  June  20,  1863.  Its  creation  and  ad- 
mission were  due  to  conditions  which  existed  prior  to 
the  Civil  war  of  1861-5,  to  popular  sentiment  which 
those  conditions  developed  when  the  war  was  precipi- 
tated, and  to  the  exigencies  of  the  war  itself.  The 
Alleghany  Mountains  had  divided  the  State  of  Virginia 
politically  and  commercially,  and  in  the  sentiment  relat- 
ing to  her  systems  of  taxation,  revenue,  and  public  ex- 

fienditure,  into  a Virginia  and  a “ Western”  Virginia, 
ong  before  the  civil  conflict  gave  permanent  result,  and 
fixed  an  official  definition  to  the  line  of  demarcation  be- 
tween them.  Even  after  the  war  and  the  formation 
of  the  new  State  the  title  to  twro  counties,  Jefferson  and 
Berkeley,  “lying  east  of  the  mountains,”  was  the  sub- 
ject of  legislation  and  contention  before  the  courts. 
They  were  in  1870  judicially  declared  by  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States  to  be  a part  of  the  State  of 
West  Virginia.  The  western  part  of  Virginia  was 
sparsely  peopled,  its  great  forests  undeveloped,  its  vast 
mineral  resources  only  partially  realized,  and  its  slave 
interests  comparatively  small.  The  eastern  section  con- 
tained the  larger  population,  owned  the  great  bulk  of 
slave  property,  and  exercised  controlling  power  over 
State  affairs.  The  Alleghanies,  dividing  the  two  sec 
tions,  in  the  absence  of  transverse  railroad  facilities,  nat. 
urally  sent  the  citizens  of  one  side  with  the  flow  cf\ 
their  navigable  waters  to  western  and  southern  markets, 
while  those  of  the  other,  moved  by  similar  natural 
causes,  turned  to  the  seaboard  for  their  commercial  and 
business  intercourse.  The  basis  of  taxation,  the  basis 
of  representation,  and  the  relation  of  the  slave  interests 
to  these,  with  the  measure  and  distribution  of  public 
funds  for  works  of  internal  improvement  and  other 
questions  of  local  concern,  constituted  elements  of 
continual  controversy,  and  served  to  detract  largely 
from  the  homogeneity  of  the  population.  Early  in 
January,  1861,  the  legislature  of  Virginia,  in  extra 
session,  passed  a bill  calling  a convention  of  the  peo- 
ple to  meet  in  the  following  month.  At  the 
same  election  the  people  were  to  vote  on  the  ques- 
tion whether  the  separation  of  Virginia  from  the 
Union  should  be  determined  by  the  convention  or  be 
submitted  by  the  convention  to  the  people  for  ratification 
or  rejection.  The  majority  at  the  election  in  favor  of 
submitting  the  question  of  secession  to  the  people  was 
overwhelming,  amdwas  construed  as  indicating  the  loyal 
sentiment  of  the  people  of  northwestern  Virginia.  On 
April  17th,  after  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter,  the 
convention  passed  an  ordinance  of  secession,  and  on  the 
24th  a schedule  submitting  it  to  the  people.  The  ordi- 
nance of  secession  was  adopted  by  the  people  of  Virginia, 
but  the  majority  against  it  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  State  was  very  large.  A convention  of  the  unionist 


WET-WEX 


counties,  which  met  at  Wheeling  in  June,  adopted  an 
ordinance  for  the  reorganization  of  the  State  govern- 
ment, and  in  August  adopted  an  ordinance  providing 
for  the  formation  of  a new  State,  to  be  named 
“ Kanawha,”  comprising  thirty-nine  specified  counties, 
and  to  include  other  counties  also  named,  provided  their 
vote  should  indicate  such  desire.  Under  this  provision 
a number  of  counties  were  afterward  added  to  the  orig- 
inal thirty-nine.  At  the  time  of  the  vote  upon  the  prop- 
osition to  form  a new  State,  war  was  raging  throughout 
its  proposed  borders,  and  many  of  its  counties  had  been 
the  scene  of  violence  and  bloodshed.  Many  citizens 
were  in  the  field  as  soldiers  on  the  respective  sides, 
and  this  fact,  coupled  with  the  general  conditions* 
caused  a small  vote  to  be  polled.  Of  this  compara- 
tively small  vote,  however,  a large  majority  was 
for  the  new  State,  and  members  were  elected  to 
a constitutional  convention.  This  convention  met 
at  Wheeling,  in  November,  and  formed  a con- 
stitution for  the  proposed  new  State,  and  designated  it 
the  State  of  West  Virginia.  This  constitution  was 
submitted  to  the  people,  and  adopted  by  an  over- 
whelming majority  in  April,  1862.  In  May  the  legis- 
lature of  the  “ reorganized  government”  of  Virginia 
passed  a bill  to  authorize  the  formation  of  the  new  State 
out  of  the  territory  of  the  old  State  of  Virginia,  as 
indicated  by  the  recently  ratified  constitution,  and  in 
the  same  month  this  Act  of  the  Legislature,  accompanied 
by  its  memorial  and  a certified  copy  of  the  constitution 
and  proceedings  by  which  it  had  been  adopted,  was 
presented  to  Congress.  The  subject  led  to  grave  dis- 
cussion in  that  body,  but  ultimately  the  proposed 
constitution  was  carried,  with  but  one  modification 
affecting  the  freedom  of  children  of  slaves  thereafter  to 
be  born  within  the  limits  of  the  new  State.  A new 
constitution  was  adopted  in  1872.  The  State  of  West 
Virginia  being  the  result  of  a double  revolution — that 
of  the  State  of  Virginia  against  the  Federal  Union  and 
that  of  her  northwestern  counties  against  the  seceding 
State  of  Virginia — its  people  are  conservative  and 
strikingly  homogeneous.  Even  in  the  throes  of  revo- 
lution declaring  separation  from  the  mother  State  pro- 
vision was  made  for  the  assumption  of  a just  share  of 
the  old  State  debt,  though  its  adjustment  has  never  yet 
been  reached.  West  Virginia  has  no  other  debt. 
Falling  naturally,  as  did  most  of  the  border  States,  im- 
mediately after  the  war,  into  violent  proscriptions  of 
the  returning  Confederate  element,  West  Virginia  was 
one  of  the  first  of  the  States  to  modify  and  repeal  these 
enactments.  By  the  election  of  1870  they  were  abro- 
gated forever,  and  since  that  time  the  issues  and  con- 
sequences of  war  have  so  far  disappeared  as  to  leave  no 
perceptible  trace  behind. 

WETSTEIN,  John  Jacob,  New  Testament  critic, 
was  born  at  Basel,  March  5,  1693.  While  still  a stud- 
ent he  began  to  direct  his  attention  to  the  special  pur- 
suit of  his  life — the  text  of  the  Greek  New  Testament. 
Wetstein  paid  great  attention  also  to  Syriac  and  Tal- 
mudic Hebrew.  In  the  spring  of  1714  he  undertook  a 
learned  tour,  which  led  him  to  Paris  and  England,  the 
great  object  of  his  inquiry  everywhere  being  manuscripts 
of  the  New  Testament.  In  Paris  he  examined  the  Co- 
dex Ephraemi,  and  on  arriving  in  England,  in  August, 
1715,  the  Codex  Alexandrinus  and  the  Codex  Bezce 
with  many  others. 

In  1729  the  charge  of  projecting  an  addition  of  the 
Greek  Testament  savoring  of  Socinianism  was  formally 
laid  against  him.  The  end  of  the  long  and  unedifying 
trial  was  his  dismissal,  May  13,  1730,  from  his  office  of 
curate  of  St.  Leonard’s.  He  then  removed  from  Basel 
to  Amsterdam.  As  soon  as  he  reached  Amsterdam  he 
published  anonymously  the  Prolegomena . which  he  had 


6331 

proposed  should  accompany  his  Greek  Testament,  and 
which  was  republished  by  him,  with  additions,  as  part 
of  his  great  work,  1751.  The  next  year  (1731)  the 
Remonstrants  offered  him  the  chair  of  philosophy  in 
their  college  at  Amsterdam,  vacated  by  the  illness  of 
John  Le  Clerc,  on  condition  that  he  should  clear  him- 
self of  the  suspicion  of  heresy.  He  thereupon  returned 
to  Basel,  and  procured  a reversal  (March  22,  1732)  of 
the  previous  decision,  and  readmission  to  all  his  clerical 
offices.  But,  on  his  becoming  a candidate  for  the 
Hebrew  chair  at  Basel,  his  orthodox  opponents  pro- 
cured his  defeat  and  his  retirement  to  Amsterdam.  For 
the  rest  of  his  life  he  continued  professor  in  the  Re- 
monstrant college,  declining  in  1744  the  Greek  chair  at 
Basel.  In  1746  he  once  more  visited  England,  and  col- 
lated Syriac  MSS.  for  his  great  work.  At  last  this  ap- 
peared in  1751-52,  in  two  folio  volumes,  under  the  title 
Novum  Testamentum  Grcecum  Editionis  Receptee  cum 
Ledionibus  Variantibus  Codicum  MSS.,  etc.  He  did 
not  long  survive  the  completion  of  this  work.  He  died 
at  Amsterdam,  March  9,  1754. 

WETTE,  De.  See  De  Wette. 

WEXFORD,  a maritime  county  of  Ireland,  in  the 
province  of  Leinster,  is  bounded  north  by  Wicklow, 
east  and  south  by  St.  George’s  Channel,  and  west  by 
Waterford,  Kilkenny,  and  Carlow.  Its  greatest  length 
from  its  northeastern  extremity  at  Kilmichael  Point  to 
Hookhead  Point  at  Waterford  Harbor  is  upward  of 
sixty  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  from  east  to  west 
thirty-four  miles.  The  area  is  576,588  acres,  or  about 
901  square  miles. 

The  soil  for  the  most  part  is  a cold  and  stiff  clay 
resting  on  clay- slate.  The  interior  and  western  dis 
tricts  have  it  much  inferior  to  those  round  the  coasts. 
In  the  southeastern  peninsula  of  Forth  and  Bargy  th* 
soil  is  a rich  alluvial  mold  mixed  with  coralline  sand- 
stone and  limestone.  The  peninsula  of  Hookhead, 
owing  to  the  limestone  formation,  is  specially  fruitful. 
In  the  western  districts  of  the  county  there  are  large 
tracts  of  turf  and  peat-moss. 

There  has  been  no  marked  change  in  the  area  under 
green  crops,  which  was  44,735  acres  in  1849,  50,498  in 
1876,  and  45,958  in  1886.  The  area  under  grain  crops 
has,  however,  declined  nearly  a half,  being  in  1849  163,- 
321  acres,  in  1876  109,193  acres,  and  in  1896  only  95,- 
512  acres.  Of  green  crops  there  has  been  since  1849  a 
great  increase  in  the  area  under  turnips,  and  a cor- 
responding decrease  in  the  area  under  potatoes.  The 
number  of  horses  in  1886  was  27,878,  of  which  942 
were  used  for  recreation.  Mules  numbered  1,767,  and 
asses  8,031.  Cattle  numbered  126,410,  of  which  37,- 
936  were  milch  cows.  The  number  of  sheep  was  122,- 
373,  of  which  48,243  were  one  year  old  and  upward. 
Pigs  numbered  67,478,  goats  6,369,  and  poultry  571,* 
107. 

The  Dublin,  Wicklow  and  Wexford  railway  inters 
sects  the  county,  and  from  Wexford  a branch  of  the 
Great  Southern  and  Western  passes  northwestward, 
joining  the  lines  to  Kilkenny  and  Kildare.  The  river 
Slaney  is  navigable  for  barges  to  Enniscorthy,  and  the 
Barrow  for  large  vessels  to  New  Ross. 

Except  in  the  town  of  Wexford  the  manufactures 
and  trade  are  of  small  importance.  There  are  im- 
portant fisheries  at  Wexford,  and  one  or  two  fishing 
villages  along  the  south  coast.  The  fishing  grounds 
are  good. 

According  to  the  calculation  of  De  Burgo  the  popu- 
lation in  1 760  was  66,804;  the  parliamentary  census  of 
1812  places  it  at  112,000;  in  1821  it  amounted  to  170,- 
806,  in  1841  to  202,033,  *n  1861  to  143,954,  in  1871  to 
132,666,  and  in  1901  to  103,860  (51,614  males  and  52,- 
246  females).  Roman  Catholics  in  1881  formed  91. 1 


WEY— WH A 


6332 


per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  Protestant  Episcopa- 
lians 8.2  per  cent.  In  1881  the  number  of  persons  who 
could  read  and  write  amounted  to  51.5  per  cent,  of  the 
population,  15.3  per  cent,  could  read  but  not  write, 
and  33.2  per  cent,  could  neither  read  nor  write — 14.7 
per  cent,  being  under  seven  years  of  age.  All  could 
speak  English,  and  512  could  speak  English  and  Irish. 
The  principal  towns  are  Wexford  (12,163),  New  Ross 
(of  which  a portion  containing  6,375  is  in  this  county, 
the  other  portion  containing  295  inhabitants  being  in 
Kilkenny),  Enniscorthy  (5,666),  and  Gorey  (2,450). 
The  county  is  divided  into  ten  baronies,  and  contains 
144  parishes  and  1,600  town-lands. 

Wexford,  a seaport,  market-town,  and  municipal 
borough,  and  the  chief  town  of  the  above  county,  is 
finely  situated  on  the  south  side  of  the  Slaney,  where  it 
discharges  into  Wexford  Harbor,  on  the  Dublin,  Wick- 
low and  Wexford  railway  and  a branch  line  of  the 
Great  Southern  and  Western,  eighty-two  miles  south  of 
Dublin  and  fifteen  southeast  of  Enniscorthy.  The  port 
has  communication  by  steamer  with  Liverpool  and 
Bristol.  The  principal  exports  are  agricultural  produce, 
live  stock  and  whisky.  Ship-building  is  carried  on, 
and  also  tanning,  malting,  brewing,  iron-founding, 
distilling,  and  the  manufacture  of  artificial  manure, 
flour,  agricultural  implements,  and  rope  and  twine. 
The  population  of  the  town  in  1901  was  12,163. 

WEYMOUTH,  and  Melcombe  Regis,  a seaport, 
watering-place,  market-town,  and  municipal  borough 
of  Dorset,  England,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the 
small  river  Wey,  on  Weymouth  Bay.  Weymouth  has 
steam  connection  with  the  Channel  Islands,  France, 
and  various  ports  on  the  English  coast.  The  principal 
exports  are  Portland  stone,  bricks  and  tiles,  and  pro- 
visions, and  the  imports  are  coal,  timber,  garden  and 
dairy  produce,  and  wine.  Ship  and  boat  building,  rope 
and  sail  making,  and  brewing  are  carried  on.  The 
population  of  the  municipal  borough  of  Weymouth  and 
Melcombe  Regis  (area  763  acres)  in  1871  was  13,259, 
and  in  1901  it  was  15,715. 

WEYMOUTH,  a city  of  Norfolk  county.  Mass., 
organized  by  the  consolidation  of  north,  south,  and 
east  Weymouth  a ad  Hingham,  and  largely  engaged  in 
manufactures,  is  located  on  the  Old  Colony  railroad 
twelve  miles  southeast  of  Boston.  The  city  proper  has 
four  churches,  two  banks,  and  one  weekly  paper,  but 
with  the  villages  embraced  in  the  consolidation,  con- 
tains fifteen  churches  and  two  high  schools  besides  the 
educational  facilities  of  the  several  district  organizations 
of  the  township.  The  publishers  of  the  weekly  above 
referred  to  also  issue  a separate  edition  for  each  village 
designated  in  the  act  of  the  consolidation  under  the  sev- 
eral following  names:  The  Shore , The  News , and  The 
South  Shore  Citizen.  The  importance  of  Weymouth 
is  due  to  its  manufactures;  that  of  boots  and  shoes  is 
the  most  extensively  engaged  in,  there  being  not  less 
than  thirty  firms,  employing  an  aggregate  of  more  than 
2,000  skilled  and  experienced  hands  thus  occupied. 
The  renaming  industries  include  stoves,  engines, 
stationary  and  movable,  also  marine  engines,  fur- 
niture, paper-boxes,  phosphates,  hammocks,  carpet- 
sweepers,  isinglass,  fireworks,  mittens,  leather,  feed- 
bags,  and  patent  medicines.  The  population  of  the 
City  in  1890  was  10,866. 

WHALE,  aname  applied  rather  loosely  to  various  an- 
imals of  the  order  Cetacea , the  general  characteristics  and 
classification  of  which  have  been  described  in  the  article 
Mammalia.  All  the  members  of  the  sub-order  Mysta- 
cocetiy  or  Cetacea  with  whalebone,  are  called  “ whales.  ” 
But  of  the  Odontocetiy  or  Cetacea  with  teeth,  only  cer- 
tain of  the  larger  ones  are  so  termed,  the  smaller  spe- 
cies being  popularly  spoken  of  as  “ bottlenoses,”  “dol- 


phins,” and  “porpoises;”  yet  so  indefinitely  has  the 
word  been  applied  that  a true  dolphin  ( Delphinus 
tursio),  not  exceeding  eight  feet  in  length,  is  described 
in  some  works  as  the  “ smaller  bottlenosed  whale.” 

Although  by  their  mode  of  life  so  far  removed  from 
close  observation  that  it  is  impossible  to  become  as 
familiar  with  them  in  their  natural  conditions  as  with 
many  other  animals,  whales  are  in  many  respects  the 
most  interesting  and  wonderful  of  all  creatures;  and 
there  is  much  in  their  structure  and  habits  which  is  well 
worthy  of  study,  much  that  is  difficult  to  understand, 
and  much  that  leads  to  great  generalizations  and  throws 
light  upon  far-reaching  philosophical  speculations. 
There  was  once,  and  may  still  be  in  many  places,  a 
common  idea  that  a whale  is  a fish.  T o realize  the  fal- 
lacy of  this  notion  we  have  only  to  consider  what  a fish 
really  is,  what  under  all  the  diversities  of  form,  size  and 
color  known  among  fishes  there  is  common  to  them  all, 
and  we  see  that  in  everything  which  characterizes  a 
true  fish  and  separates  it  from  other  classes,  as  reptiles, 
birds,  and  mammals,  the  whale  resembles  the  last-named 
and  differs  from  the  fish.  It  is  as  essentially  a mammal 
as  a cow  or  a horse,  and  simply  resembles  a fish  exter- 
nally because  it  is  adapted  to  inhabit  the  same  element; 
but  it  is  no  more  on  that  account  a fish  than  is  a bat, 
because  adapted  to  pass  a great  part  of  its  existence  on 
the  wing  in  the  air,  nearly  related  to  a bird.  The  whole 
structure  of  a whale  is  a most  instructive  instance  of  a 
type  of  organization  which  is  common  to  and  charac- 
teristic of  the  class  Mammalia , only  specially  modified 
or 'adapted  to  a peculiar  mode  of  life. 

The  external  fish-like  form  is  perfectly  suited  for 
sv/imming  through  the  water;  the  tail,  however,  is  not 
placed  vertically  as  in  fishes,  but  horizontally,  a posi- 
tion which  accords  better  with  the  constant  necessity 
for  rising  to  the  surface  for  the  purpose  of  breathing. 
The  hairy  covering  characteristic  of  all  mammals, 
which  if  present  might  interfere  with  rapidity  of  move- 
ment through  the  water,  is  reduced  to  the  merest  rudi- 
ments— a few  short  bristles  about  the  chin  or  upper 
lip — which  are  often  only  present  in  very  young  ani- 
mals. The  function  of  keeping  the  body  warm  is  sup- 
plied by  a thick  layer  of  non-conducting  material,  the 
“ blubber,”  a peculiarly  dense  kind  of  fat  placed  imme- 
diately beneath  the  skin.  The  fore-limbs,  though 
functionally  reduced  to  mere  paddles,  with  no  power  of 
motion  except  at  the  shoulder  joint,  have  beneath  their 
smooth  and  continuous  external  covering  all  the  bones, 
joints,  and  even  most  of  the  muscles,  nerves,  and  arte* 
ries,  of  the  human  arm  and  hand;  and  rudiments  even 
of  hind  legs  are  found  buried  deep  in  the  interior  of  the 
animal,  apparently  subserving  no  useful  purpose,  but 
pointing  an  instructive  lesson  to  those  who  are  able  to 
read  it. 

The  Greenland,  or  more  properly  Arctic,  right  whale 
( Balcena  mysticetus ) attains,  when  full-grown,  a length 
of  from  forty-five  to  fifty  feet.  In  this  species  all  the 
peculiarities  which  distinguish  the  head  and  mouth  of 
the  whale  from  those  of  other  mammals  have  attained 
their  greatest  development.  The  head  is  of  enormous 
size,  exceeding  one-third  of  the  whole  length  of  the 
creature.  The  cavity  of  the  mouth  is  actually  larger 
than  that  of  the  body,  thorax,  and  abdomen  together. 
The  upper  jaw  is  very  narrow,  but  greatly  arched  from 
before  backwards,  to  increase  the  height  of  the  cavity 
and  allow  for  the  great  length  of  the  baleen  or  “ whale- 
bone” blades;  the  enormous  rami  of  the  mandibles  are 
widely  separated  posteriorly,  and  have  a still  further 
outward  sweep  before  they  meet  at  the  symphysis  in 
front,  giving  the  floor  of  the  mouth  the  shape  of  an  im- 
mense spoon.  The  baleen  blades  attain  the  number  of 
380  or  more  on  each  side,  and  those  in  the  middle  of  the 


WH  A 


series  have  a length  of  ten  or  sometimes  twelve  feet. 
They  are  black  in  color,  fine  and  highly  elastic  in  text- 
ure, and  fray  out  at  the  inner  edge  and  ends  into  long, 
delicate,  soft,  almost  silky,  but  very  tough,  hairs.  The 
remarkable  development  of  the  mouth  and  of  the  struct- 
ures in  connection  with  it,  which  distinguishes  the  right 
whale  among  all  its  allies,  is  entirely  in  relation  to  the 
nature  of  its  food.  It  is  by  this  apparatus  that  it  is  en- 
abled to  avail  itself  of  the  minute  but  highly  nutritious 
crustaceans  and  pteropods  which  swarm  in  immense 
shoals  in  the  seas  it  frequents.  The  large  mouth  enables 
it  to  take  in  at  one  time  a sufficient  quantity  of  water  filled 
with  these  small  organisms,  and  the  length  and  delicate 
structure  of  the  baleen  provide  an  efficient  strainer  or 
hair-sieve  by  which  the  water  can  be  drained  off.  If  the 
baleen  were  rigid,  and  only  as  long  as  is  the  aperture 
between  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  when  the  mouth  is 
shut,  a space  would  be  left  beneath  it  when  the  jaws 
were  separated,  through  which  the  water  and  the  minute 
particles  of  food  would  escape  together.  But  instead  of 
this  the  long,  slender,  brush-like,  elastic  ends  of  the 
whalebone  blades  fold  back  when  the  mouth  is  closed, 
the  front  ones  passing  below  the  hinder  ones  in  a chan- 
nel lying  between  the  tongue  and  the  lower  jaw.  When 
the  mouth  is  open,  their  elasticity  causes  them  to 
straighten  out  like  a bow  unbent,  so  that  at  whatever 
distance  the  jaws  are  separated  the  strainer  remains  in 
perfect  action,  filling  the  whole  of  the  interval.  The 
mechanical  perfection  of  the  arrangement  is  completed 
by  the  great  development  of  the  lower'  lip,  which  rises 
stiffly  above  the  jaw-bone  and  prevents  the  long,  slender, 
flexible  ends  of  the  baleen  from  being  carried  outward 
by  the  rush  of  water  from  the  mouth,  when  its  cavity  is 
being  diminished  by  the  closure  of  the  jaws  and  raising 
of  the  tongue. 

The  southern  right  whale  ( B . australis ) resembles 
the  last  in  the  absence  of  dorsal  fin  and  of  longitudinal 
furrows  in  the  skin  of  the  throat  and  chest,  but  differs 
in  that  it  possesses  a smaller  head  in  proportion  to  its 
body,  shorter  baleen,  a different-shaped  contour  of  the 
upper  margin  of  the  lower  lip,  and  a greater  number  of 
vertebrae.  The  genus  inhabits  the  temperate  seas  of  both 
northern  and  southern  hemispheres  and  is  divided  into 
several  species  according  to  their  geographical  distribu- 
tion : — B.  biscayensis  of  the  North  Atlantic,  B.  japonica 
of  the  North  Pacific,  B.  australis  of  the  South  Atlantic, 
and  B.  antipodarum  and  B.  novce-zelandiee  of  the  South 
Pacific. 

The  whale  commonly  called  “ humpback  ” {Megaptera 
boops)  by  whalers,  perhaps  on  account  of  the  low 
hump-like  form  of  the  dorsal  fin,  is  very  distinctly  char- 
acterized from  all  others  of  the  group,  especially  by  the 
immense  length  of  the  pectoral  fins  or  flippers,  which 
are  indented  or  scalloped  along  their  margins,  and  are, 
except  at  their  base,  of  a white  color,  nearly  all  the  rest 
of  the  body  being  black.  It  differs  from  the  right  whale 
and  resembles  the  rorqual  in  having  the  skin  of  the 
throat  and  chest  marked  with  deep  longitudinal  fur- 
rows. The  baleen  plates  are  short  and  broad  and  of  a 
deep  black  color.  The  usual  length  of  the  adult  ranges 
from  forty-five  to  fifty  feet.  Whales  of  the  genus  Me- 
gaptera are  found  in  the  South  Atlantic  and  in  both  the 
North  and  the  South  Pacific. 

The  rorquals  or  fin  whales  have  the  plicated  skin  of 
the  throat  like  that  of  Megaptera,  the  furrows  being 
more  numerous  and  close-set ; but  the  pectoral  fin  is 
comparatively  small  and  the  dorsal  fin  distinct  and 
falcate.  The  head  is  comparatively  small  and  flat,  and 
pointed  in  front,  the  baleen  short  and  coarse,  the  body 
long  and  slender,  and  the  tail  very  much  compressed 
before  it  expands  into  the  “ flukes.”  The  rorquals  are 
perhaps  the  most  abundant  and  widely  distributed  of  all 

m 


<5333 

the  whales,  being  found  in  some  of  their  modification* 
in  all  seas,  except  the  extreme  Arctic,  and  probably 
Antarctic  regions.  Owing  to  the  small  quantity  and 
inferior  quality  of  their  whalebone,  the  comparatively 
limited  amount  of  blubber  or  subcutaneous  fat,  and 
their  great  activity  and  the  difficulty  of  capturing  them 
by  the  old  methods,  these  whales  were  not  until  re- 
cently an  object  of  pursuit  by  whale-fishers  ; but,  since 
the  introduction  of  steam-vessels,  and  especially  of  ex- 
losive  harpoons  fired  from  guns  in  the  place  of  those 
urled  by  the  human  hand,  a regular  fishery  has  been 
established  on  the  coast  of  Finmark. 

Only  one  member  of  the  toothed  whale  group,  the 
sperm  whale  or  cachalot  ( Physeter  macrocephalus), 
rivals  the  large  whalebone  whales  in  size,  its  length  and 
bulk  being  about  equal  to,  or  somewhat  exceeding,  the 
Arctic  right  whale,  from  which,  however,  it  is  very 
different  in  outward  appearance  and  in  structure.  The 
head  is  about  one-third  of  the  length  of  the  body,  very 
massive,  high  and  truncated  in  front,  owing  its  huge 
size  and  remarkable  form  mainly  to  the  great  accumula- 
tion of  a peculiarly  modified  form  of  fatty  tissue,  filling 
the  large  hollow  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  skulL 
The  oil  contained  in  cells  in  this  great  cavity,  when 
refined,  yields  spermaceti,  and  the  thick  covering  of 
blubber,  which  everywhere  envelopes  the  body,  pro- 
duces the  valuable  sperm-oil  of  commerce.  The  food 
of  the  sperm  whale  consists  mainly  of  various  species  of 
cephalopods  (squid  and  cuttlefish),  but  they  also  eat 
fish  of  considerable  size.  The  substance  called  “ amber- 
gris,” formerly  used  in  medicine  and  now  in  perfumery, 
is  a concretion  formed  in  the  intestine  of  this  whale,  and 
is  found  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  seas  it  inhabits. 
Its  genuineness  is  proved  by  the  presence  of  the  horny 
beaks  of  the  cephalopods  on  which  the  whale  feeds. 

The  remaining  members  of  this  group  are  all  animals 
of  much  smaller  size  than  the  sperm  whale,  but  to 
several  of  them  the  name  of  “ whale  ” is  commonly 
applied.  The  hyperoodon,  sometimes  called  “ bottle* 
nose,”  a name  also  vaguely  given  to  several  species  of 
dolphin,  is  a regular  inhabitant  of  the  North  Atlanticf 
passing  the  summer  in  the  Spitzbergen  seas  and  going 
farther  south  in  winter.  It  is  allied  to  the  sperm 
whale,  and  resembles  it  in  possessing  a large  store  of 
oil  in  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  which  yields  sperma- 
ceti when  refined;  on  this  account,  and  also  for  the  sake 
of  the  blubber,  which  supplies  an  oil  almost  indis 
tinguishable  from  sperm  oil,  this  whale  has  been  the 
object  of  a regular  cnase  in  recent  years. 

The  other  cetaceans  of  this  group  are  generally  dis- 
tinguished as  narwhals,  grampuses,  killers,  bottlenoses, 
dolphins,  and  porpoises,  and  are  not  usually  called 
whales. 

Whale  Fisheries. — Commercially  these  may  be 
conveniently  classified  under  three  heads— the  British, 
the  American,  and  the  Norwegian.  The  implements 
used,  and  the  mode  of  capture  of  the  different  kinds  of 
whales,  being  for  the  most  part  the  same  in  all  cases, 
the  detailed  account  given  below  may  be  held  to  be  of 
general  application,  unless  the  contrary  is  expressly 
stated. 

The  whaler  is  a vessel  of  from  400  to  500  tons  gross 
register,  rigged  either  as  a ship  or  a barque,  and  pro- 
vided with  auxiliary  engines  of  some  seventy-five  horse- 
power. Built  after  the  strongest  fashion,  she  is  pro- 
tected along  the  water-line  by  an  additional  planking  of 
iron  bark,  an  Australian  wood  of  great  hardness;  the 
bows  are  strengthened  inside  by  beams  and  knees  and 
outside  by  plates  of  iron.  Underneath  the  hold-beams 
about  fifty  iron  tanks  are  fitted,  each  capable  of  con- 
taining 200  to  250  tons  of  oil ; above  the  hold-beams  a 
deck  is  laid,  engine  and  boiler  space  being  reserved  in 


W H A 


6334 

the  stern.  A vessel  of  this  description  carries  eight 
whale-boats,  and  is  manned  by  fifty  to  sixty  hands  all 
told.  The  whale-boat  is  twenty-seven  feet  in  length  and 
six  feet  in  breadth,  with  a depth  amidships  of  two  feet 
six  inches.  The  bow  is  covered  in  for  the  distance  of  a 
few  feet,  forming  a sort  of  platform,  fhrough  which 
there  project  two  wooden  posts,  that  farthest  forward 
being  called  the  “ gun-bollard  head,  ” on  which  the  har- 
poon gun  is  mounted,  while  round  the  other,  farther  aft, 
the  whale-line  is  run.  At  the  stem,  between  the  “ head 
boards,”  a pulley  is  sunk,  over  which  the  whale-line 
glides.  On  the  port  bow,  beside  the  gun-bollard  head, 
a small  tub  is  fitted,  into  which  is  coiled  that  part  of 
the  whale-line  known  as  the  “foregoer.”  The  after- 
part of  the  boat,  as  well  as  a part  amidships,  is  fitted  up 
for  the  reception  of  the  whale-line.  The  whale-boat  is 
manned  by  five  oarsmen  and  a boat-steerer.  The  bow 
oar  acts  as  harpooner  and  has  charge  of  the  boat;  the 
stroke  oar  is  “ line-manager  ” and  watches  the  whale- 
line while  it  is  running.  The  harpoon  gun,  now  almost 
universally  used,  measures  four  feet  six  inches  in  length 
and  weighs  seventy-five  pounds  ; the  barrel  is  three  feet 
long  with  one  and  a half  inches  bore  and  is  mounted  in 
a wooden  stock,  tapering  behind  into  a pistol  handle. 
The  weapon  is  fired  by  means  of  percussion  caps,  dog- 
head,  and  trigger-line,  the  nipples  being  protected  from 
sea  spray  by  a movable  brass  cover.  Mounted  in  a 
swivel  on  the  gun-bollard  head,  the  harpoon  gun  from 
its  elevated  position  commands  both  bows  as  well  as 
right  ahead ; and  with  a charge  of  eleven  drachms  of 
powder  it  projects  the  harpoon  with  force  and  precision 
to  a distance  of  twenty-five  yards.  Harpoons  are  of 
two  kinds,  known  respectively  as  gun  and  hand  har- 
poons ; the  former  are  used  as  weapons  of  attack,  the 
latter  to  assist  in  securing  a whale  that  is  already  har- 
pooned. The  gun  harpoon  measures  four  feet  in  length 
and  weighs  twelve  pounds.  The  “shank,”  or  that  part 
which  enters  the  gun,  is  perforated  throughout  its 
length  by  an  elongated  slit,  so  as  to  allow  the  “ shackle  ” 
connecting  the  harpoon  with  the  line  to  remain  outside 
the  mouth  of  the  gun  when  the  shank  is  inserted  in  the 
barrel.  When  the  gun  is  fired,  the  shackle  travels  along 
the  slit  until  it  is  brought  up  by  the  butt,  where  the 
two  rods  of  which  the  shank  is  composed  unite,  and  after 
that  the  line  is  drawn  out  by  the  harpoon.  The  head 
of  the  harpoon  is  triangular  and  flattened,  the  two  sides 
being  continued  backward  to  form  the  barbs,  which 
may  be  movable  or  fixed.  When  movable,  they  are 
attached  to  the  head  by  steel  pins,  and  previous  to  being 
fired,  fold  backward  and  lie  parallel  to  the  shank ; the 
weapon  having  pierced  a whale,  and  the  strain  on  the 
whale-line  causing  it  to  retract,  the  barbs  spread 
out  and  assume  a transverse  position,  so  as  greatly 
to  impede  the  withdrawal  of  the  instrument.  The 
hand  harpoon  is  a light  and  efficient  weapon, 
which  was  introduced  by  the  Americans,  by  whom  it  is 
known  as  a “toggle  iron.”  It  consists  of  a head  and 
shank  of  iron,  and  is  mounted  on  a wooden  stock,  by 
which  it  is  darted.  The  head,  a flattened  piece  of 
steel,  somewhat  triangular  in  form,  is  connected  with 
the  extremity  of  the  shank  by  a steel  pin,  on  which  it 
pivots  and  moves  freely.  Previous  to  use,  the  head 
folds  back  along  the  shank,  in  which  position  it  is  re- 
tained by  a wooden  pin.  After  the  weapon  has  been 
darted  into  a whale,  the  strain  on  the  line  breaks  the 
wooden  pin,  and  the  head  assumes  a position  at  right 
angles  to  the  shank,  somewhat  in  the  form  of  the  letter 
T,  and  becomes  transfixed  in  the  fibrous  tissue  under 
the  blubber.  The  shank  is  a rod  of  one-half  inch  iron, 
two  feet  six  inches  long,  expanding  at  its  upper  ex- 
tremity to  fertn  a socket  to  receive  the  wooden  stock. 
The  fitted  harpoon  measures  eiaffit  feet  in  length,  and. 


exclusive  of  the  line,  weighs  ten  pounds.  Expert  har. 
pooners  can  dart  the  weapon  about  five  yards  with  con- 
siderable force  and  accuracy.  Whale-line  is  three- 
stranded  rope,  two  and  three  quarter  inches  in  circum- 
ference, composed  of  the  finest  hemp,  thirty-two  yarns 
per  strand;  600  fathoms  are  coiled  into  each  whale-boat 
The  line  is  joined  to  the  harpoon  by  the  “ foregoer, k 
a piece  of  rope  somewhat  lighter  and  more  pliable  than 
whale-line.  The  foregoer  being  the  only  part  of  the 
line  drawn  out  by  the  harpoon  while  in  flight,  its 
length,  usually  from  ten  to  twelve  fathoms,  regulates 
the  distance  the  harpoon  may  be  fired.  The  7uhalc- 
lance  consists  of  a simple  rod  of  one-half  inch  iron,  six 
feet  long,  one  end  flattened  to  form  a small  lance- 
shaped point  with  cutting  edges,  the  other  expanding  to 
form  a socket  to  receive  a short  wooden  handle.  Gun 
lances,  bomb  lances,  and  exploding  harpoons  of  various 
forms  and  devices  have  from  time  to  time  been  intro- 
duced; but,  mainly  from  the  fact  that  in  recent  years 
the  difficulty  in  securing  a cargo  lies  not  so  much  in 
effecting  the  capture  of  the  animal  as  in  discovering  its 
whereabouts,  and  in  approaching  sufficiently  near  to 
permit  the  use  of  the  harpoon,  they  have  never  come 
into  general  use. 

Whether  the  ship  is  cruising  among  loose  ice  under 
canvas  or  lying  “ made  fast  ” to  a floe,  a careful  look-out 
is  kept  on  board  from  the  crow’s  nest  (a  barrel  lashed 
to  the  main-top-gallant  masthead)  as  well  as  from  the 
deck.  Immediately  on  a whale  being  seen,  boats  are 
manned  and  senfin  pursuit.  If  the  animal  is  feeding, 
which  it  generally  does  when  near  the  surface  by 
swimming  backwards  and  forwards  horizontally  round 
an  ellipse,  great  caution  is  necessary  to  prevent  its 
becoming  aware  of  the  approach  of  the  boats.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  whale  is  “spanning,”  i.e. , swimming 
in  a decided  direction  and  appearing  at  the  surface  at 
intervals  more  or  less  regular,  less  caution  is  observed. 
In  either  case  as  well  as  under  less  usual  circumstances 
the  whale  boat,  endeavoring  to  keep  out  of  the  angle  of 
vision  of  the  animal,  approaches  it  from  behind,  swiftly 
but  quietly;  the  harpooner  rises  to  his  gun  and  points 
it  at  the  animal’s  back,  withholding  his  fire,  however, 
until  within  as  short  a distance  as  possible.  On  being 
harpooned  the  Greenland  right  whale  usually  dives  per- 
pendicularly, remaining  under  water  about  forty 
minutes  and  drawing  out  some  600  to  700  fathoms  of 
line  before  it  returns  to  the  surface.  Whales  descend 
with  such  velocity  that  they  have  been  known  to  break 
their  upper  jaw  by  coming  into  violent  contact  with  the 
bottom  even  at  400  fathoms  of  water.  Before  the  ani- 
mal has  returned  to  the  surface  other  boats  have  arrived 
upon  the  scene,  and,  on  the  reappearance  of  the  whale, 
give  chase  and  attach  more  harpoons.  Again  the  whale 
dives,  but  soon  returns  to  the  surface,  still  more 
exhausted.  Whenever  its  motions  become  sufficiently 
slow  to  permit  the  approach  of  the  boats,  the  lance  is 
used,  a few  thrusts  in  the  region  of  the  heart  or  lungs 
being  speedily  fatal.  Quantities  of  blood  are  thrown 
up  by  the  spiracles;  the  animal  lashes  the  water  with  its 
fins,  and,  after  rushing  violently  through  the  water  in 
its  dying  agony,  rolls  over  on  its  side  and  lies  stiff  and 
rigid  at  the  surface.  Under  favorable  circumstances  the 
capture  of  a full-grown  whale  from  the  time  of  first 
harpooning  until  its  death  occupies  from  one  to 
one  and  a half  hours.  The  operation  of  flensing  is 
next  performed.  The  body  of  the  whale  is  lashed 
lengthwise  alongside  the  ship  with  its  under  surface 
above  water;  the  “ cant-purchase,”  a powerful  tackle, 
is  then  attached  to  the  commencement  of  a transverse 
slip  of  blubber  cut  at  the  neck,  known  as  the  “cant - 
piece.”  By  means  of  the  cant-purchase  the  body  is 
caused  to  rotate,  while  the  fat  is  removed  from  :he 


WH  A 


different  parts  as  they  appear  above  water  in  large 
“slips”  or  “blanket-pieces,”  each  a ton  or  more  in 
weight.  After  being  received  on  deck,  the  blubber  is 
cut  into  pieces  about  a foot  square  and  stowed  into  the 
“ ’tween-decks.”  The  whalebone  is  removed  from  each 
side  of  the  upper  jaw  as  it  appears  above  water  en  bloc. 
The  process  of  “ cutting-in  ” occupies  the  ship’s  com- 
pany about  three  hours.  The  only  subsequent  opera- 
tions are  the  cutting  up  of  the  blubber  into  small  pieces 
and  its  stowage  into  the  oil  tanks.  The  removal  of  the 
gum  from  the  whalebone,  the  separation  of  the  plates, 
and  their  stowage  in  the  ’tween  decks  are  operations 
performed  subsequently. 

The  American  whale  fisheries  embrace  the  Behring’s 
Strait  or  Arctic  fishery  and  the  sperm  whale  or  southern 
fishery.  As  already  mentioned  above,  the  object  of  this 
fishery  is  !:he  capture  of  Balcena  mysticetus.  In  this 
case,  however,  the  whales  are  mostly  sought,  not  among 
the  ice,  but  in  open  water,  the  vessels  used  being  less 
adapted  to  ice  navigation  than  those  of  the  British,  and 
nearly  all  are  propelled  by  sail  power  alone.  The  hand 
harpoon  is  preferred  and  bomb  lances  are  used  to  kill 
the  whales.  The  vessels  sail  mostly  from  San  Francisco 
in  March,  and  arrive  at  the  ice  edge  off  Cape  Navarin, 
where  the  fishing  is  first  prosecuted,  in  May.  The 
whales  disappear  during  summer,  but  return  in  the 
autumn,  when  the  “ fall  ” fishing  is  carried  on  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Point  Barrow;  between  seasons  the 
vessels  go  south  and  prosecute  the  sperm  w’haling. 
The  Behring  Strait  fishery  was  commenced  in  1848, 
and  in  the  three  following  years  250  ships  obtained 
cargoes.  In  1871  thirty-four  vessels  were  abandoned 
in  the  ice  off  Cape  Belcher,  the  crews  making  good 
their  escape  to  other  vessels;  again  in  1876  twelve 
vessels  experienced  a similar  fate. 

The  capture  of  the  sperm  whale  ( Physeter  macro - 
cepkalus ) is  prosecuted  throughout  the  tropical  seas  of 
the  globe.  The  distribution  of  the  animal  being,  how- 
ever, restricted  to  deep  water,  the  fishing  is  usually 
carried  on  at  a distance  from  land.  The  vessels  used 
are  generally  barques  of  about  300  tons,  carrying  five 
boats  and  manned  by  a crew  of  thirty  hands  all  told. 
The  vessels  have  no  particular  time  for  sailing  or  arriv- 
ing in  port;  the  duration  of  a voyage  is  generally  three 
years.  The  sperm  whale  is  killed  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  Greenland  right  whale;  the  use  of  the  hand  har- 
poon is,  however,  preferred;  and  the  whale-boats,  which 
are  not  required  to  withstand  contact  with  ice,  are  less 
strongly  built,  and  much  lighter  and  swifter  than  those 
used  in  the  northern  fisheries.  The  ordinary  sperm 
whale  yields  about  sixty  barrels  of  oil  (=  10  tons), 
although  large  males  are  occasionally  killed  which  yield 
a greater  quantity.  The  oil  is  boiled  at  sea;  hence  its 
freedom  from  smell  and  the  consequent  high  price 
which  it  commands  as  compared  with  that  of  the  bottle- 
nose  whale. 

Sperm  whale  fishing  seems  to  have  commenced  early 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  the  whaling  community  of 
Nantucket  embarking  in  the  industry  about  1712;  and 
in  1774,  before  the  commencement  of  the  War  of  In- 
dependence, a fleet  of  360  vessels  was  engaged  in  it. 
This  fishery  perhaps  reached  its  climax  in  1846,  when  it 
occupied  a total  of  735  vessels,  having  an  aggregate 
capacity  of  233,199  tons.  During  the  period  1877  to 
1886  inclusive,  the  average  annual  number  of  vessels 
employed  was  1 59,  their  average  annual  aggregate  bur- 
den being  35,713  tons.  The  average  annual  imports 
into  the  United  States  of  whaling  produce  were  as 
follows: — of  sperm  oil  31,824  barrels  ( = 5,304  tons),  of 
whale  oil  29,180  barrels  (=  4,863  tons),  of  whalebone 
325>559  pounds  (=»  145.  tons).  New  Bedford  and  Saa 
Francisco  are  the  principal  whaling-ports. 


6335 

WHALEBONE  is  the  inaccurate  name  under  which 
the  baleen  plates  of  the  right  whale  are  popularly 
known;  and  the  trade-name  of  whale-fin,  which  the 
substance  receives  in  commerce,  is  equally  misleading. 
Three  kinds  of  whalebone  are  recognized  by  traders — 
the  Greenland,  yielded  by  the  Greenland  whale,  Balcena 
mysticetus ; the  South  Sea,  the  produce  of  the  Antarctic 
black  whale,  B.  austral is ; and  the  Pacific  or  American, 
which  is  obtained  from  B.  japonica.  Of  these  the 
Greenland  whalebone  is  the  most  valuable.  It  formed 
the  only  staple  known  in  earlier  times,  when  the  north- 
ern whale  fishery  was  a great  and  productive  industry. 
This  whalebone  usually  comes  into  the  market  trimmed 
and  clean,  with  the  hairy  fringe  which  edges  the  plates 
removed.  To  prepare  whalebone  for  its  economic  ap- 
plications, the  blades  or  plates  are  boiled  for  about 
twelve  hours,  till  the  substance  is  quite  soft,  in  which 
state  it  is  cut  either  into  narrow  strips  or  into  small 
bristle-like  filaments,  according  to  the  use  to  which  it  iy 
to  be  devoted. 

Whalebone  possesses  a unique  combination  of  prop 
erties  which  render  it  peculiarly  and  almost  exclusively 
suitable  for  several  purposes.  It  is  light,  flexible, 
tough,  and  fibrous,  and  its  fibers  run  parallel  to  each 
other  without  intertwisting.  It  has  been  found  practi* 
cable  to  employ  flexible  steel  for  several  purposes  to 
which  whalebone  was  formerly  applied,  especially  in  the 
umbrella  and  corset  industries,  in  which  steel  is  now 
almost  exclusively  used.  Whalebone  is,  however,  still 
in  large  demand  among  dressmakers  and  milliners ; but 
it  is  principally  used  in  the  brush  trade. 

WHALE  OILS.  The  whale  or  train  (Germ., 
Thran ) oil  of  commerce  may  be  obtained  from  the 
blubber  of  any  species  of  whale  or  dolphin  (see  Whale 
Fisheries,  above).  The  only  whale  oil  that  is  other- 
wise commercially  distinguished  is  sperm  or  spermaceti 
oil,  yielded  by  the  sperm  whales.  Whale  oil  varies  in 
color  from  a bright  honey  yellow  to  a dark  brown,  ac. 
cording  to  the  condition  of  the  blubber  from  which  it 
has  been  extracted.  At  best  it  has  a rank  fishy  odor, 
and  the  darker  the  color  the  more'  disagreeable  the 
smell.  The  oil,  which  has  an  acid  reaction,  is  purified 
by  treatment  with  a solution  of  potash,  which  precipi- 
tates impurities  held  by  the  acid  of  the  oil.  Refined 
sperm  oil  is  a most  valuable  lubricant  for  small  and 
delicate  machinery. 

WHARTON,  Marquis  of.  Two  noblemen  with 
this  title,  father  and  son,  hold  a certain  place  in  English 
literary  history  as  subjects  of  satiric  portraiture. 

Thomas  Wharton,  a prominent  Whig  politician  at 
the  Revolution,  is  reputed  by  Doctor  Percy  to  have  been 
the  author  of  the  famous  political  ballad  Lilliburlero, 
which  “ sang  James  II.  out  of  three  kingdoms.”  Whar- 
ton was  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  Anne’s  reign,  and 
incurred  the  wrath  of  Swift,  who  attacked  him  as  Verres 
in  the  Examiner.  He  was  born  in  1640,  and  died  in 
I7I5- 

Philip  Wharton,  the  son  of  Thomas,  succeeded  to 
the  title  and  fortune  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  quickly 
earned  for  himself,  by  his  wild  and  profligate  frolics  and 
reckless  playingat  politics,  Pope’s  satire  of  him  as  “ the 
scorn  and  wonder  of  our  days  ” [Moral  Essays , i.  1 79). 
He  spent  his  large  estates  in  a few  years,  then  went 
abroad  and  gave  eccentric  support  to  the  Old  Pretender. 
He  was  born  in  1699,  and  died  in  1 731. 

WHATELY,  Richard,  archbishop  of  Dublin,  was 
bom  in  London  on  February  I,  1787.  After  attending 
a private  school  near  Bristol  (where  his  father  was  preb- 
endary), he  went  to  Oxford  in  1805  and  entered  Oriel 
College,  then  the  most  distinguished  in  the  university. 
Whately  took  a double  second-class  in  honors  in  1808, 
afterward  gaining  the  prize  for  the  English  essay,  and  m 


WH  E 


6336 

181 1 was  elected  fellow  of  Oriel.  He  continued  to  reside 
at  Oxford  as  a private  tutor,  and  in  1814  took  holy  orders. 
It  was  at  this  time  that  Whately  wrote  his  celebrated 
tract,  Historic  Doubts  relative  to  Napoleon  Bonaparte , 
a clever  jeu  d' esprit  directed  against  excessive  skepticism 
as  applied  to  the  Gospel  history.  In  1822  he  was  ap- 
pointed Bampton  lecturer.  The  lectures,  On  the  Use 
and  Abuse  of  Party  Spirit  in  Matters  of  Religion, 
were  published  in  the  same  year,  and  were  followed  by 
a volume  of  Sermons  in  1823.  In  August,  1823,  he 
removed  to  Hal^sworth  in  Suffolk,  a country  living  to 
which  he  had  been  presented.  Here  two  years  were 
spent  in  vigorous  parish  work,  but  when  he  was  ap- 
ointed  in  1825  to  the  principalship  of  St.  Alban  Hall, 
e returned  with  his  family  to  Oxford.  In  the  same 
year  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity.  At  St. 
Alban  Hall  Whately  found  much  to  reform,  and  he  left 
it  a different  place.  In  1825  he  published  a series  of 
Essays  on  Some  of  the  Peculiarities  of  the  Christian 
Religion,  followed  in  1828  by  a second  series  On  Some 
of  the  Difficulties  in  the  Writings  of  St.  Paul , and  in 
1830  by  a third  On  the  Errors  of  Romanism  Traced  to 
their  Origin  in  Human  Nature.  He  also  published  in 
1829  a volume  of  his  Halesworth  sermons,  under  the 
title  A View  of  the  Scripture  Revelations  concerning 
0 Future  State.  It  was  while  he  was  at  St.  Alban 
Hall  (1826)  that  the  work  appeared  which  is  perhaps 
most  closely  associated  with  his  name — his  treatise  on 
Logic,  originally  contributed  to  the  Encyclopcedia  Met - 
ropolitana.  By  this  work,  which  gave  a great  impetus 
to  the  study  of  logic  not  only  in  Oxford  but  throughout 
Great  Britain,  Whately  has  been  known  to  generation 
after  generation  of  students;  and,  though  it  is  no  longer 
so  much  in  use,  the  qualities  of  the  book  make  much 
of  it  as  admirable  now  as  when  it  was  written.  A 
similar  treatise  on  Rhetoric,  also  contributed  to  the  En- 
cyclopcedia, appeared  in  1828.  In  1829  Whately  was 
elected  to  the  professorship  of  political  economy  at 
Oxford  in  succession  to  Senior.  His  tenure  of  office 
was  cut  short  by  his  appointment  to  the  archbishopric 
of  Dublin  in  1831.  Whately’s  appointment  by  Lord 
Grey  to  the  see  of  Dublin  came  as  a great  surprise  to 
everybody,  for  though  a decided  Liberal,  Whately  had 
from  the  beginning  stood  aloof  from  all  political  par- 
ties, and  ecclesiastically  his  position  was  that  of  an 
Ishmaelite  fighting  for  his  own  hand. 

In  1837  he  wrote  his  well-known  handbook  of 
Christian  Evidences,  which  was  translated  during  his 
lifetime  into  more  than  a dozen  languages.  At  a later 
period  he  also  wrote,  in  a similar  form,  Easy  Lessons 
on  Reasoning,  on  Morals , on  Mind,  and  on  the  British 
Constitution.  He  also  edited  Bacon’s  Essays,  Paley’s 
Evidences,  and  Paley’s  Moral  Philosophy.  His  cher- 
ished scheme  of  unsectarian  religious  instruction  for 
Protestants  and  Catholics  alike  was  carried  out  for  a 
number  of  years  with  a measure  of  success,  a selection 
of  Scripture  lessons  and  of  Christian  evidences  by  the 
archbishop  himself  being  actually  used  in  the  model 
schools.  But  in  1852  the  scheme  broke  down  through 
the  opposition  of  the  new  Catholic  archbishop  of  Dub- 
lin, and  Whately  felt  himself  constrained  to  withdraw 
from  the  education  board.  This  was  felt  by  him  as  a 
grievous  disappointment.  From  the  beginning  Whately 
was  a keen -sighted  observer  of  the  condition  of  Ireland 
question,  and  gave  much  offense  by  openly  supporting 
the  State  endowment  of  the  Catholic  clergy  as  a 
measure  of  justice.  During  the  terrible  years  of  1846 
and  1847  the  archbishop  and  his  family  were  unwearied 
in  their  efforts  to  alleviate  the  miseries  of  the  people. 
He  died  October  8,  1863. 

WHEAT  ( Triticum ),  the  most  important  and  the 
most  generally  diffused  of  cereal  grasses,  is  an  annual 


plant,  witn  hollow,  erect,  knotted  stems,  and  p»oduces, 
in  addition  to  the  direct  developments  from  the  seedling 
plant,  secondary  roots  and  secondary  shoots  (tillers) 
from  the  base.  Its  leaves  have  each  a long  sheath  en- 
circling the  stem,  and  at  the  junction  of  the  blade  or 
“ flag  ” with  the  sheath  a small  whitish  outgrowth  or 
“ ligula.  ” The  inflorescence  or  ear  consists  of  a central 
stalk  bent  zigzag,  now  to  the  one  side,  now  to  the 
other,  thus  forming  a series  of  notches,  and  bear- 
ing a number  of  flattened  spikelets,  one  of  which 
grows  out  of.each  notch  and  has  its  inner  or  upper  face 
pressed  up  against  it.  At  the  base  of  each  spikelet  are 
two  empty  boat-shaped  glumes  or  “ chaff-scales,”  one  to 
the  right,  the  other  to  the  left,  and  then  a series  of 
flowers,  two  to  eight  in  number,  closely  crowded  to- 
gether; the  uppermost  are  abortive  or  sterile — indeed, 
in  some  varieties  only  one  or  two  of  the  flowers  are 
fertile.  Each  flower  consists  of  an  outer  or  lower 
glume,  called  the  flowering  glume,  of  the  same  shape  as 
the  empty  glume  and  terminating  in  a long,  or  it  may 
be  in  a short,  awn  or  “ beard.  ” 

On  the  other  side  of  the  flower  and  at  a slightly 
higher  level  is  the  “ palea,”  of  thinner  texture  than  the 
other  glumes,  with  infolded  margins  and  with  two  ribu 
or  veins.  These  several  glumes  are  closely  applied  onv 
to  the  other  so  as  to  conceal  and  protect  the  ovary,  and 
they  only  separate  to  allow  of  the  passage  of  the  empty 
anthers  after  fertilization.  Within  the  pale  are  two 
minute,  ovate,  pointed,  white  membranous  scales  called 
“ Iodides.”  These  contain  three  stamens  with  thread- 
like filaments  and  oblong,  two-lobed  anthers.  The 
stamens  are  placed  round  the  base  of  the  ovary,  which 
is  a rounded  or  oblong  body,  much  smaller  than  the 
glumes,  covered  with  down,  and  surmounted  by  two 
short  styles,  extending  into  feathery  brush-like  stigmas. 
The  ripe  fruit  or  grain,  sometimes  called  the  “berry,” 
the  matured  state  of  the  ovary  and  its  contents,  is  ob- 
long or  ovoid,  with  a longitudinal  furrow  on  one  side. 
The  ovary  adheres  firmly  to  the  seed  in  the  interior,  so 
that  on  examining  a longitudinal  section  of  the  grain 
by  the  microscope  the  outer  layer  is  seen  to  consist  of 
epidermal  cells,  of  which  the  uppermost  are  prolonged 
into  short  hairs  to  cover  the  apex  of  the  grain.  Two 
or  three  layers  of  cells  inside  the  epidermis  constitute 
the  tissue  of  the  ovary,  and  overlie  somewhat  similar 
layers  which  form  the  coats  of  the  seed.  Within  these 
last  is  a layer  of  square  cells  larger  and  more  regular  in 
form  than  those  on  each  side;  these  contain  the  gluten 
or  nitrogenous  matter  upon  which  so  much  of  the  nutri- 
tive value  of  the  seed  depends.  This  thin  layer  of 
gluten  cells  contains  the  albumen  or  perisperm,  which 
constitutes  the  great  mass  of  the  seed,  being  composed 
of  numerous  cells  of  irregular  form  and  size  filled  with 
starch  grains.  These  layers  of  cells  become  more  or 
less  dry  and  inseparable  one  from  another,  forming  the 
substance  known  as  “ bran.  ” At  the  lower  end  of  the 
albumen,  and  placed  obliquely,  is  the  minute  embryo- 
plant,  which  derives  its  nourishment  in  the  first  in- 
stance from  the  albumen;  this  is  destined  to  form  the 
future  plant. 

The  prevalent  opinion  among  botanists  is  that  the 
wheat  plant  is  nowhere  found  in  a wild  condition.  Re- 
cently, however,  M.  Fr£d£ric  Houssay  is  alleged  to 
have  discovered  the  plant  wild  in  the  mountains  to  the 
east  of  Kurdistan;  but  the  statement  requires  confirma- 
tion. 

The  classification  of  the  different  varieties  of  culti- 
vated wheat  has  occupied  the  attention  of  many  botan- 
ists and  agriculturists.  The  latest  and  fullest  account  is 
that  of  M.  Henry  de  Vilmorin  in  his  Les  Bles  Meilleurs 
(Paris,  1881).  A good  selection  of  seed,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  soil,  demands  intelligence  and  accu. 


WH  E 


late  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  farmer.  If  a good 
variety  be  grown  in  poor  soil,  the  result  will  be  unprofit- 
able, while  if  bad  wheat  be  grown  on  good  soil,  the 
result  may  be  nil.  In  botanical  collections  there  exist, 
it  is  stated,  herbarium  specimens  or  other  evidences  of 
plants  grown  in  Norway  as  far  north  as  latitude  65° 
(Schubeler),  in  Switzerland  at  an  elevation  of  1,200  feet 
above  the  valley  of  Zermatt  (or  6,500  feet  above  the 
sea),  near  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  as  well  as  in  Tenerifife, 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Abyssinia,  Rodriguez,  the 
Philippine*  Islands,  and  the  Malay  Archipelago.  These 
widely-separated  localities  show  the  great  area  over 
which  the  culture  is  possible,  and  illustrate  the  powers 
of  adaptation  of  the  plant.  The  requirements  of  the 
consumer  have  also  to  be  considered;  for  some  purposes 
the  soft  wheats,  with  their  large  relative  proportion  of 
starch,  are  the  best,  for  others  the  hard  wheats,  with 
their  larger  quantity  of  gluten.  With  the  modern 
processes  of  milling,  the  hard  wheats  are  preferred,  for 
they  make  the  best  flour;  and  in  North  America  the 
spring  wheats  n~e  harder  than  the  winter  wheats.  The 
soft  wheats  are  those  which  are  most  general  in  Euro- 
pean cultivation,  and,  as  a rule,  the  beardless  varieties, 
though  more  tender,  are  preferred.  The  bearded  vari- 
eties are  supposed  to  be  hardier;'  at  any  rate  they  defy 
the  ravages  of  predatory  birds  more  completely  than 
the  unarmed  varieties,  and  they  are  preferable  in  coun- 
tries liable  to  storms  of  wind,  as  less  likely  to  have  their 
seeds  detached.  Hard  wheats  are  specially  employed  in 
Italy  for  the  fabrication  of  macaroni.  Polish  wheat  is 
used  for  similar  purposes.  Spelt  wheats  are  grown  in 
the  colder  mountainous  districts  of  Europe;  their  flour 
is  very  fine,  and  is  used  especially  for  pastry-making; 
but,  owing  to  the  construction  of  the  grain,  it  requires 
special  machinery  for  grinding  (see  Flour). 

Wheat  begins  to  grow  at  a temperature  of  50  C.  (410 
Fahr. );  and,  when  the  aggregate  temperature,  as  repre- 
sented by  the  sum  of  the  daily  means,  has  mounted  up 
to  1 85°  Fahr.,  the  germ  begins  to  escape  from  the 
husk,  if  the  seed  be  not  deeply  buried;  but  if  it  is  deeply 
buried,  an  amount  of  heat  is  required  greater  in  pro- 
portion to  the  depth.  If  the  seed  lies  at  a depth  lower 
than  a foot  from  the  surface,  it  rarely  germinates.  The 
seedling  plant  ceases  to  grow  if  the  mean  temperature 
of  the  day  remains  below  420  Fahr  When  the  young 
plants  have  been  influenced  by  an  aggregate  temperature 
amounting  to  1,896°  Fahr.  from  the  period  when  sown, 
or  1,715°  from  the  period  of  germination,  branching  or 
“ tillering  ” goes  on  freely,  and  the  young  ears  are 
rormed.  Under  the  influence  of  a mean  temperature  of 
55°,  or  a little  above,  the  flowers  are  produced.  A 
still  higher  daily  mean  is  required  for  the  full  develop- 
ment and  ripening  of  the  grain.  The  figures  here  cited 
are  given  by  Risler  and  are  calculated  for  the  climate 
of  Paris;  but,  of  course,  the  same  principles  apply  in 
the  case  of  other  countries.  The  amount  of  light  and  of 
moisture  has  also  to  be  taken  into  account.  The  fact  that 
the  wheat  plant  requires  less  water  than  other  cereals,  and 
therefore  does  not  suffer  so  much  from  drought,  is  one 
of  great  importance  to  the  cultivator,  and  furnishes  one 
reason  for  the  greater  proportionate  culture  of  wheat  in 
the  eastern  than  in  the  western  counties  of  England. 

The  numerous  varieties  of  wheat  now  in  cultivation 
have  been  obtained  either  by  selection  or  by  cross- 
breeding. In  any  wheat-field  there  may  be  observed  on 
close  inspection  plants  differing  in  character  from  the 
majority.  If-  seeds  of  these  “sporting”  plants  be  taken 
and  grown  in  Another  season,  they  may  (or  may  not) 
reproduce  the  particular  variation.  If  they  do,  and  the 
same  process  of  selection  be  continued,  the  variation 
becomes  in  time  “ fixed,”  though  it  is  always  more  or  less 
Uable  to  revert  to  its  original  condition. 


6 33? 

The  production  of  wheat,  with  the  use  of  wheat 
bread,  has  increased  enormously  since  the  extension  of 
railways  has  made  possible  the  transportation  of  grain 
for  great  distances  by  land.  The  annual  crop  of  tht 
world  is  now  estimated  at  nearly  2,000,000,000  bushels. 
Of  late  years  the  increase  of  production  has  has  been 
most  notable  in  southern  Russia,  Australia,  India,  and 
North  America. 

Two  species  of  Cecidomyia  are  most  destructive  to 
wheat.  Cecidomyia  tritici , the  wheat  midge,  has  been 
known  in  Great  Britain  for  over  a century.  This  fly  is  a 
little  over  two  mm.  in  length,  of  an  orange  yellow  color, 
with  black  eyes;  the  female  is  provided  with  a long 
ovipositor,  by  means  of  which  it  deposits  ten  or  more 
eggs  in  the  ears  of  wheat.  The  larvae  hatch  out  in  about 
ten  days.  They  are  at  first  transparent,  but  become 
yellow,  and  their  color  gradually  deepens.  Most  of  the 
larvae  fall  off  the  plant  and  bury  themselves  in  the 
ground,  where  they  change  into  pupae;  some,  however, 
remain  in  the  ear  and  are  found  in  some  numbers  in 
chaff.  The  perfect  insect  emerges  from  the  pupa  in 
the  spring.  It  is  probable  that  more  than  one  brood  is 
produced  during  the  season.  The  damage  caused  to 
the  crop  is  due  to  the  larva  feeding  upon  the  soft  tissue 
of  the  ear  and  thus  causing  the  seed  to  be  imperfect; 
some  authorities  state  that  it  also  devours  the  pollen. 
Since  the  larvae  exist  in  chaff,  great  care  must  be  taken 
that  this  does  not  prove  a source  of  infection,  and  land 
which  has  been  badly  affected  must  be  plowed  deep, 
in  order  to  bury  them.  C.  destructor  is  well  known 
under  the  name  of  the  Hessian  fly.  It  was  first  noticed 
in  Great  Britain  during  the  summer  of  1886,  in  Hert- 
fordshire, and  within  a few  months  its  presence  was 
reported  throughout  the  eastern  half  of  England  and 
Scotland — a circumstance  which  led  some  authorities  to 
believe  that  it  had  existed  in  Great  Britain  for  some 
little  time;  there  has  been,  however,  no  definite  proof 
of  this.  The  fly  has  been  known  in  North  America  since 
1776,  where  it  has  done  very  extensive  damage,  espe- 
cially during  warm  moist  summers.  It  is  known  to  oc- 
cur throughout  central  Europe;  in  1879  it  made  its  ap- 
pearance in  Russia,  and  in  four  years  had  spread  over 
the  greater  part  of  that  country.  The  female  fly  is 
about  three  mm.  long,  brownish  in  color,  but  becoming 
black  in  the  thorax  and  head.  The  wings  are  fringed, 
rounded  at  their  ends,  and  the  third  nerve  is  branched. 
The  antennae  are  also  fringed  and  consist  of  two  globu- 
lar basal  joints,  and  fourteen  to  sixteen  smaller  joints, 
which  diminish  in  length  toward  the  ends.  The  male 
fly  is  smaller  than  the  female;  the  abdomen  terminates 
in  two  claspers.  The  female  lays  in  the  spring  forty  or 
more  eggs  upon  the  leaves  of  the  grain  plants — wheat, 
barley,  and  rye;  oats  are  not  affected.  The  larvae  are 
hatched  in  about  five  or  six  days,  and  make  their  way 
down  to  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  feeding  upon  the  sap 
which  is  passing  up  the  stem.  After  a few  weeks  they 
are  transformed  into  the  “ flax  seed  ” pupae,  which  are 
usually  found  just  above  the  second  joint  of  the  stem. 
From  these  pupae  the  autumn  brood  of  flies  emerge; 
these  lay  eggs,  and  their  larvae  tide  over  the  winter  in 
the  pupal  condition.  Sometimes  only  one  brood  is  pro- 
duced in  the  year.  The  injury  done  to  the  plant  b} 
the  larvae  living  upon  the  sap  usually  causes  the  infected 
plants  to  bend  over  just  above  the  second  joint;  this 
renders  them  easily  distinguishable  from  the  healthy 
plants.  The  numbers  of  this  most  injurious  insect  are 
fortunately  kept  down  to  a considerable  extent  by  para- 
sites. Five  species  of  Chalcidtdce  are  known  to  be 
parasitic  on  C.  destructor  in  America  and  six  in 
Russia. 

Another  beetle,  Calandra  granaria,  the  com  weevil, 
also  attacks  stored  grain.  The  eggs  are  deposited  i/ 


W H E 


6338 

the  grains  of  corn  and  the  larva  spends  its  life  therein, 
living  upon  the  substance  of  the  grain,  and  ultimately 
turning  to  a pupa.  It  leaves  the  grain  first  upon  attain- 
ing thf  mature  state. 

The  larvae  of  Elater  ( Agriotes ) lineatus  and  of  other 
species  of  this  genus  are  among  the  most  destructive  in- 
sects known  to  agriculturists.  They  are  commonly 
known  as  wire-worms  from  the  exceedingly  tough  char- 
acter of  their  skins.  The  mature  beetles  are  known  as 
skip-jacks,  from  the  power  they  possess  of  regaining 
their  normal  position  when  placed  on  their  back  by 
means  of  a loose  articulation  between  the  pro-thorax 
and  the  meso-thorax.  This,  when  put  in  action,  causes 
the  beetles  to  jump  into  the  air,  and  they  usually  fall  on 
their  feet.  The  wire-worms  have  a rather  flattened 
body,  yellowish  brown  in  color;  it  consists  of  twelve 
segments,  and  bears  three  pairs  of  legs.  The  larvae 
live  for  several  years,  and  then,  burying  themselves  deep 
in  the  earth,  emerge  as  the  perfect  insect  in  about  a 
fortnight.  The  beetles  pair  in  June,  and  the  female  de- 
posits her  eggs  upon  blades  of  grass  or  the  sheathing 
leaves  of  corn.  The  best  preventative  for  this  pest  is 
clean  farming  and  scarifying  the  land  after  harvest,  so 
as  to  kill  all  roots  which  might  serve  as  food  for  the 
wire- worms.  When  a crop  is  badly  attacked,  soot  or 
gas  lime  may  be  applied  and  the  land  well  rolled  to 
compress  the  earth.  The  numbers  of  the  larvae  are  to 
some  extent  kept  down  by  moles  and  insectivorous  birds. 

The  cockchafer,  Melolontha  vulgaris , is  injurious  to 
grain  crops,  in  both  its  mature  and  its  larval  condition. 
During  the  former  state  it  devours  the  leaves  of  wheat 
and  of  most  other  grasses,  trees,  and  shrubs.  The  larva, 
which  is  very  voracious,  lives  upon  roots.  This  larva  is 
very  thick  and  fleshy,  of  a whitish  hue,  with  three  pairs 
of  legs ; it  usually  lies  in  a curled-up  position.  The  lar- 
val condition  lasts  several  years ; but  ultimately  the 
larvae  become  pupae,  and  in  this  condition  live  through 
the  winter.  Much  may  be  done  to  prevent  the  spread 
of  this  pest  by  shaking  the  cockchafers  from  the  trees, 
among  the  leaves  of  which  they  hang,  and  destroying 
them.  They  are  eagerly  eaten  by  pigs  and  poultry. 

For  fungoid  diseases,  see  Fungus  and  Mildew. 

WHEATEAR,  is  a bird’s  name  perhaps  of  doubtful 
meaning,  though  Taylor,  the  “water  poet,”  (d.  1654), 
in  whose  writings  it  seems  first  to  occur,  and  Willughby, 
explain  it  (in  the  words  of  Ray,  the  latter’s  translator) 
as  given  “because  [in]  the  time  of  wheat  harvest  they 
wax  very  fat.”  It  would  seem  also  from  this  author  to 
have  been  originally  the  local  name  for  the  species  in 
Sussex,  England,  on  the  South  Downs  of  which  county 
its  capture  in  a very  simple  kind  of  trap  has  been  the 
occupation  of  many  generations  of  shepherds.  The 
Wheatear  has  a very  wide  range  throughout  the  Old 
World,  extending  in  summer  far  within  the  Arctic  Cir- 
cle, from  Norway  to  the  Lena  and  Yana  valleys,  while 
it  winters  in  Africa  beyond  the  Equator,  and  in  India. 
But  it  also  breeds  regularly  in  Greenland  and  in  some 
parts  of  North  America. 

More  than  sixty  other  species  more  or  less  allied  to 
the  Wheatear  have  been  described,  but  probably  so 
many  do  not  really  exist.  Some  eight  are  included  in 
the  European  fauna;  but  the  majority  are  inhabitants 
of  Africa.  Several  of  them  are  birds  of  the  desert ; and 
here  it  may  be  remarked  that,  while  most  of  these  ex- 
hibit the  sand-colored  tints  so  commonly  found  in  ani- 
mals of  like  habitat,  a few  assume  a black  plumage, 
which  is  equally  protective,  since  it  assimilates  them  to 
the  deep  shadows  cast  by  projecting  stones  and  other 
inequalities  of  the  surface. 

WHEATLEY,  Francis,  English  portrait  and  land- 
scape painter,  was  born  in  1747  at  Wild  Court,  Covent 
Garden,  London.  He  painted  several  subjects  for  Boy- 


dell’s  Shakespeare  Gallery , designed  illustration*  to 
Bell’s  edition  of  the  poets,  and  practiced  to  s^me 
small  extent  as  an  etcher  and  fnezzo tint-engraver.  It  is, 
however,  as  a painter,  in  both  oil  and  Water-color,  of 
landscapes  and  rustic  subjects  that  Wheatley  will  be 
most  favorably  remembered.  He  was  elected  an  asso- 
ciate of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1790,  and  an  academi- 
cian in  the  following  year.  He  died  on  June  28,  1801. 

WHEATON,  Henry,  lawyer  and  diplomatist,  was 
born  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  on  November  27,  1785.  He 
graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1802,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1805,  and,  after  two  years  study  abroad,  prac- 
ticed law  at  Providence  (1807-12)  and  at  New  York  city 
(1812-25).  He  was  a justice  of  the  Marine  Court  of 
the  city  of  New  York  from  1815  t0  1819,  and  reporter 
of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  from  1816  to  1827, 
aiding,  in  1825,  in  the  revision  of  the  laws  of  New 
York.  His  diplomatic  career  began  in  1825,  with  an 
appointment  to  Denmark  as  charge  d’affaires,  followed 
by  that  of  minister  to  Prussia,  1835  to  1845.  During 
this  period  he  had  published  a Digest  of  the  Law  of 
Maritime  Captures  (1815);  twelve  volumes  of  Supreme 
Court  Reports , and  a Digest;  a great  number  of  histori- 
cal articles,  and  some  collected  works;  Elements  of 
International  Law  (1836);  Histoire  du  Progres  du 
Droit  des  Gens  en  Europe  (1841),  translated  in  1845 
by  William  B.  Lawrence  as  a History  of  the  Law  of 
Nations  in  Europe  and  America;  and  the  Right  of 
Visitation  and  Search  (1842).  The  History  took  at 
once  the  rank  which  it  has  always  held,  that  of  the  lead- 
ing work  on  the  subject  of  which  it  treats.  The  publi- 
cation of  a second  translation  by  Dana  in  1866  led  to  a 
prolonged  lawsuit  between  him  and  Lawrence.  In  1846 
Wheaton,  who  was  more  than  sixty  years  of  age,  was 
requested  to  resign  by  the  new  president,  Polk,  who 
needed  his  place  for  another  appointment.  The  request 
provoked  general  condemnation;  but  Wheaton  resigned 
and  returned  to  the  United  States.  He  was  called  at 
once  to  Harvard  College  as  lecturer  on  international 
law;  but  he  died  at  Dorchester,  Mass.,  on  March  11, 
1848. 

WHEATSTONE,  Sir  Charles,  the  practical 
founder  of  modern  telegraphy,  was  born  at  Gloucester, 
England,  in  February,  1802,  his  father  being  a music- 
seller  in  that  city.  In  1806  the  family  removed  to  Lon- 
don. For  some  years  he  continued  making  experiments 
in  acoustics,  following  out  his  own  ideas  and  devising 
many  beautiful  and  ingenious  arrangements.  Of  these 
the  “ acoucryptophone  ” was  one  of  the  most  elegant — 
a light  box  shaped  like  an  ancient  lyre  and  suspended 
by  a metallic  wire  from  a piano  in  the  room  above. 
When  the  instrument  was  played,  the  vibrations  were 
transmitted  silently,  and  became  audible  in  the  lyre, 
which  thus  appeared  to  play  of  itself.  In  1823  pub- 
lished his  first  paper  New  Experiments  on  Sound  in 
Thomson’s  Annals  of  Philosophy.  By  1834  Wheat- 
stone’s originality  and  resource  in  experiment  were 
fully  recognized,  and  he  was  appointed  professor  of  ex- 
perimental philosophy  at  King’s  College,  London,  in 
that  year.  This  appointment  was  inaugurated  by  two 
events — a course  of  eight  lectures  on  sound,  which 
proved  no  success  and  was  not  repeated,  and  the  deter- 
mination by  means  of  a revolving  mirror  of  the  speed 
of  electric  discharge  in  conductors,  a piece  of  work 
leading  to  enormously  important  results.  The  great 
velocity  of  electrical  transmission  suggested  the  possi- 
bility of  utilizing  it  for  sending  messages;  and,  after 
many  experiments  and  the  practical  advice  and  business- 
like cooperation  of  Cooke,  a patent  for  an  electric  tele- 
graph was  taken  out  in  their  joint  names  in  1837. 
Wheatstone’s  early  training  in  making  musical  instru- 
ments now  bore  rich  fruit  in  the  continuous  designing  oi 


WHE-WHI 


new  Instruments  and  pieces  of  mechanism.  His  life  was 
uneventful  except  in  so  far  as  the  variety  of  his  work  lent 
it  color.  He  became  a fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
1837;  in  1847  he  married,  and  in  1868,  after  the  com- 
pletion of  his  masterpiece,  the  automatic  telegraph,  he 
was  knighted.  While  in  Paris  perfecting  a receiving  in- 
strument for  submarine  cables,  Sir  Charles  Wheat- 
stone caught  cold,  and  died  on  October  19,  1875. 

WHEELING,  a city  of  Ohio  county,  W.  Va., 
the  largest  and  most  important  in  the  State,  stands 
on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Ohio  and  on  an  island  in 
the  river,  in  what  is  popularly  known  as  the  “ Pan- 
Handle. ” The  main  portion  of  the  city  lies  in  the  bot- 
tom land,  40  to  50  feet  above  low  water  in  the  river, 
and,  on  an  average,  about  650  feet  above  the  sea.  Im- 
mediately east  of  it  the  bluffs  rise  to  a height  of  400  feet 
above  the  river.  The  island  portion  is  connected  with 
the  mainland  by  a fine  suspension  bridge,  1,010  feet 
long.  The  surrounding  country  is  quite  open  and  well 
cultivated,  being  timbered  only  on  the  hillsides;  cereals 
and  tobacco  are  the  principal  crops,  and  wool  is  largely 
grown.  Wheeling  has  railway  connections  eastward 
by  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  line  to  Baltimore  and  Wash- 
ington ; westward  by  the  same  line  and  by  the  Pitts- 
burgh, Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis ; northward  by  the 
Cleveland  and  Pittsburgh;  and  southward  by  the  Ohio 
River  railroad.  The  Ohio,  which  is  navigable  to 
Pittsburgh,  furnishes  another  means  of  communication. 
The  depth  of  water  in  front  of  the  city  ranges  from 
twenty  inches  at  the  lowest  stage  to  thirty  or  forty  feet 
during  floods,  while  the  width  of  the  river  varies  from 
100  to  1,000  feet.  The  principal  manufacturing  indus- 
tries are  those  of  iron  and  steel,  which  employ  some 
2,600  persons  or  about  one-twelfth  of  the  population. 
Wheeling  is  popularly  known  as  the  “nail  city”  from 
the  large  quantity  of  cut  nails  made  in  its  workshops. 
It  has  also  manufactories  of  glass  and  queensware,  wine 
(from  home  grown  grapes),  cigars  and  tobacco,  lanterns, 
and  leather,  as  well  as  breweries.  The  city  has  a large 
market  for  ginseng,  which  is  exported  almost  exclu- 
sively to  China.  The  population  of  Wheeling  in  1880 
amounted  to  30,737,  and  is  now  (1900)  38,878. 

The  first  settlement  (Fort  Fincastle)  on  the  present 
site  of  Wheeling  was  made  in  1769.  In  1776  its  name 
was  changed  to  Fort  Henry;  it  was  twice  besieged  by 
the  British  and  Indians,  in  1777  an(^  It  was  in- 

corporated as  a village  under  its  present  name  in  1 806, 
and  in  1836  it  received  a city  charter.  Upon  the  forma- 
tion of  the  State  of  West  Virginia  in  1863  Wheeling 
was  made  the  capital.  In  1870  this  dignity  was  con- 
ferred upon  Charleston;  in  1875  it  was  restored  to 
Wheeling,  but  lost  again  in  1885  to  Charleston. 

WHEWELL,  William,  philosopher  and  historian 
of  science,  was  born  on  May  24,  1794,  at  Lancaster, 
England.  He  was  educated  at  the  blue  school  and  the 
grammar  school  of  Lancaster,  and  afterward  at  Hever- 
sham  grammar  school,  where  he  obtained  the  exhibition 
which  enabled  him  to  enter  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
in  October,  1812.  For  the  remainder  of  his  life  his 
home  was  within  the  walls  of  Trinity.  He  graduated 
rs  second  wrangler  in  1816,  was  elected  fellow  in  1817, 
appointed  a mathematical  lecturer  in  the  following  year, 
and  in  due  course  became  one  of  the  college  tutors. 
From  1828  to  1832  he  held  the  professorship  of  miner- 
alogy and  from  1838  to  1855  that  of  moral  philosophy, 
or  (as  it  was  then  called)  moral  theology  and  casuistical 
divinity.  In  1841  he  was  appointed  master  of  the  col- 
lege on  the  resignation  of  Doctor  Wordsworth.  He 
died  on  March  6,  1866,  from  the  effects  of  a fall  from 
his  horse. 

WHEEL,  Breaking  on  the,  is  a very  barbarous 
mode  of  inflicting  the  punishment  of  death,  formerly  in 


6339 

use  in  F ranee  and  Germany,  where  the  criminal  was 
placed  on  a carriage  wheel)  with  arms  and  legs  ex- 
tended along  tile  spokes  and  the  wheel  being  'turned 
round,  the  executioner  fractured  his  limbs  by  successive 
blows  with  an  iron  bar,  which  were  repeated  until  death 
ensued.  There  was  considerable  variety  in  the  mode 
in  which  this  death  was  inflicted,  at  different  times  and 
in  different  places.  By  way  of  terminating  sooner  the 
sufferings  of  the  victim,  the  executioner  was  permitted 
to  deal  two  or  three  hard  blows  on  the  chest  or  stom- 
ach, known  as  coups  de  grace;  in  France,  at  least,  the 
sentence  contained  a provision  that  the  criminal  was  to 
be  strangled  after  the  first  or  second  blow.  Mercy  of 
this  kind,  however,  was  not  always  allowed  to  be  shown 
to  the  victim  of  the  wheel;  when  Patkui,  the  envoy  of 
Peter  the  Great,  was  put  to  death  on  the  wheel  by  the 
order  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  it  is  said  that  the 
officer  in  command  of  the  guard  was  cashiered  by  the 
Swedish  king  in  consequence  of  having  allowed  the 
head  to  be  struck  off  before  life  was  extinct  in  the  mangled, 
limbs.  The  punishment  of  the  wheel  was  abolished  in 
F ranee  at  the  Revolution  ; in  Germany  it  has  been  oc- 
casionally inflicted  in  the  present  century  on  persons 
convicted  of  treason  and  parricide. 

WHEEL  AND  AXLE,  the  second  of  the  me- 
chanical powers,  is  a modification  of  the  Lever,  (q.v.) 
Its  most  primitive  form  is  a cylindrical  axle  on 
which  a wheel,  concentric  with  the  axle,  is  firmly 
fastened.  When  employed  for  raising  heavy  weights, 
the  weight  is  attached  to  a rope  which  is  wound 
round  the  axle,  and  the  power  is  applied  either  to  a 
rope  wound  round  the  grooved  rim  of  the  wheel,  or 
to  a handle  fixed  at  right  angles  to  the  wheel’s  rim  (in 
the  latter  case  the  wheel  may  be  dispensed  with,  unless 
it  is  useful  as  a conservator  of  momentum,  and  an  ordi- 
nary winch  substituted).  The  wheel  and  axle  are  noth- 
ing more  than  a lever,  whose  extremities  are  not  points 
in  the  normal  form,  but  the  circumference  of  the  cir- 
cles. Accordingly  the  power  and  weights  are  not  at- 
tached to  particular  points  in  these  circumferences,  but 
to  cords  wound  round  them,  and  thus  the  imaginary 
simple  lever  (formed  by  joining  the  points  where  the 
cords  become  tangent  to  the  circles)  is  preserved  unal- 
tered in  position  and  magnitude. 

WHIG  PARTY,  The,  was  one  of  the  representative 
political  parties  of  the  United  States  fifty  years  ago, 
organized  upon  the  dissolution  of  the  Federal^party  in 
1812,  and  during  its  career  exerted  an  influence  so 
potent  and  widespread  as  to  leave  its  impress  upon 
succeeding  legislation  long  after  its  downfall  became  an 
accomplished  fact.  At  the  close  of  the  war  of  1812,  the 
subjects  of  internal  improvements  and  a protective  tariff 
became  the  leading  topics  of  political  discussion  at  the 
meetings  and  in  the  national  councils,  one  party  con- 
tending that  all  questions  relating  to  internal  improve- 
ments must  be  determined  by  local  legislation,  while 
others  insisted  to  the  contrary  ; in  other  words  that  it 
was  the  duty  of  the  general  government  to  furnish  such 
aid,  and  that  authority  in  the  premises  had  been  dele- 
gated by  the  States.  Precedent  favored  the  latter  con- 
clusions, and  when  the  leaders  of  the  “ liberal  party,”  as 
it  was  described,  organized,  they  adopted  the  name 
“ National  Republicans,”  subsequently  changing  it  to 
that  of  “ Whigs,”  the  opposing  party  adopting  the  name 
of  “ Democrat,”  by  which  it  has  since  been  known. 

These  questions  were  first  brought  prominently  be- 
fore the  people  during  the  campaign  which  resulted  in 
the  election  of  Andrew  Jackson  over  Henry  Clay.  The 
year  following,  as  will  be  remembered,  South  Carolina 
attempted  to  nullify  the  tariff  laws  of  the  United  States. 
The  attempt  was  suppressed,  but  it  resulted  in  bringing 
Clay,  the  leader  of  the  Whig  party,  to  the  front  with  a 


WHI 


6340 

compromise  making  a gradual  reduction  in  the  tariff, 
the  sapie  to  be  upon  all  duties  above  20  per  cent, 
ad  valorem,  one-tenth  of  the  excess  above  that  figure  to 
be  reduced  annually  for  the  ensuing  ten  years.  It  was 
passed  by  congress,  notwithstanding  the  opposition 
made  by  the  Whigs  under  Webster,  and  was  followed 
by  the  election  of  Martin  Van Buren  over  the  candidates 
of  the  Whig  party,  four  in  number.  In  1837  the  panic, 
attributed  to  the  tariff  reductions  made  by  Democrats, 
caused  a radical  change  in  public  sentiment,  to  which 
was  attributed  the  cause  of  Democratic  defeat,  and  the 
return  of  the  Whigs  to  power,  the  result  of  the  cam- 
aign  which  closed  with  the  election  of  the  ticket  headed 
y Harrison  and  Tyler. 

About  this  time  the  slavery  question  began  to  be  a 
source  of  heated  and  acrimonius  discussion  with  mem- 
bers of  all  parties.  In  1838  the  Democrats  of  the  House, 
aided  by  the  votes  of  southern  Whigs,  adopted  a rule 
providing  for  the  summary  disposition  of  appeals, 
petitions,  and  documentary  references  to  slavery,  by 
laying  them  on  the  table.  This  caused  inward  dissen- 
sions among  Whig  leaders,  and  as  a writer  on  the  sub- 
ject has  related,  “ tended  to  divide  and  demoralize  the 
Whig  party.  ” 

The  death  of  General  Harrison  and  the  consequent 
succession  of  John  Tyler  to  the  presidency  led  to  further 
complications,  including  the  resignation  of  members  of 
the  cabinet.  In  the  senate  Clay  became  the  leader  of 
the  party,  and  secured  the  passage  of  a general  bank- 
rupt act,  the  distribution  of  the  public  land,  the  tariff  of 
1842,  andother  measures  of  less  importance.  Hewasre- 
warded  by  the  nomination  to  the  presidency  in  1844,  but 
was  defeated,  owing,  it  was  said,  to  his  views  upon  the  an- 
nexation of  Texas,  as  expressed  in  a letter  to  the  South, 
written  shortly  after  the  action  of  the  nominating  conven- 
tion, making  him  its  candidate.  The  effect  of  this  letter  was 
dissatisfaction  among  northern  Whigs,  many  of  whom 
enlisted  in  the  ranks  of  the  Free-soil  party,  and  to  still 
further  antagonize  the  party  on  the  subject  of  slavery — 
the  southern  wing  insisting  upoa  the  legality  of  “ their 
Institution,”  while  the  northern  Whigs  were  divided  in 
sentiment,  part  of  them  indorsing  the  position  taken  by 
the  South,  and  others  insisting  to  the  contrary.  While 
the  war  with  Mexico  was  successful,  there  was  legisla- 
tion which  resulted  disastrously  to  democraticsupremacy. 
The  principal  feature  of  this  letter  was  the  essential 
modification  of  the  tariff  of  1842.  The  bill  passed  the 
house  by  a majority  of  nineteen  votes:  but  in  the  senate 
such  was  the  doubt  existing  as  to  the  expediency  of  the 
measure,  that  it  was  carried  only  by  the  casting  vote  of 
the  vice-president.  This,  together  with  the  extension 
of  slave  territory,  one  of  the  consequences  of  the  war 
for  the  annexation  of  Texas,  the  Oregon  question  and 
other  causes,  combined  to  change  the  political  com- 
plexion of  the  house,  and  that  branch  of  the  legislative 
department  was  once  more  restored  to  the  control  of 
the  Whig  party.  The  slavery  question  was  yet  para- 
mount, and  an  attempt  to  pass  what  is  known  as  the 
**  Wilmot  Proviso,”  a measure  intended  to  limit  its 
further  extension,  originating  with  David  Wilmot  of 
Pennsylvania,  was  defeated  by  a coalition  of  Democrats 
and  southern  Whigs. 

In  1848  Taylor  and  Fillmore  were  the  Whig  candi- 
dates for  president  and  vice-president,  respectively. 
The  campaign,  managed  in  part  by  William  H.  Seward, 
Horace  Greeley,  and  others  who  had  always  been  pro- 
nounced anti-slavery  agitators,  was  notable  because  it 
avoided  all  reference  to  that  subject.  T aylor  was  elected, 
but  party  dissensions  increased,  and  party  lines  were 
sternly  drawn.  Upon  the  death  of  President  Taylor, 
Vice-President  Fillmore  began  the  discharge  of  the 
executive  duties  with  what  was  alleged  as  a change  of 


policy,  manifested  by  approving  and  advocating  the 
“ Clay  Compromise,”  and  the  bills  included  therein, 
providing  for  the  return  to  their  owners  of  fugitive 
slaves,  for  the  admission  of  California,  and  the  organi- 
zation of  Utah  and  New  Mexico,  in  all  of  which  re- 
strictions against  the  extension  of  slavery  were  omitted; 
also  the  bill  prohibiting  the  slave  trade  in  the  District 
of  Columbia.  At  the  national  convention  of  the  Whig 
party,  which  assembled  at  Baltimore  in  1852,  Fillmore 
was  made  the  candidate  for  the  presidency  by  the  southern 
wing  of  the  party,  while  Gen.  Winfield  Scott  was  sup- 
ported by  representatives  of  the  same  party,  then  known 
as  “ anti-slavery  Whigs.  ” The  platform  formulated 
yielded  an  acknowledgment  of  the  justice  and  legality  of 
the  fugitive  slave  law,  and,  after  a prolonged  contest, 
General  Scott  was  nominated.  The  Democrats  presented 
Franklin  Pierce,  of  New  Hampshire,  as  their  presidential 
candidate,  and,  at  the  election  which  followed,  he  re- 
ceived a majority  of  the  electoral  votes.  This  closes 
the  history  of  the  Whig  party  in  the  United  States. 
The  anti-slavery  branch  of  the  party  afterward  affiliated 
with  the  Republican  organization  against  the  extension 
of  slavery,  while  the  pro-slavery  wing  of  the  party, 
except,  an  occasional  support  of  the  American  party, 
have  since  acted  with  the  Democrats. 

WHIG  AND  TORY.  Parliamentary  parties  came 
into  existence  in  England  as  soon  as  parliament  achieved 
or  aimed  at  predominance  in  the  state.  In  1641, 
shortly  after  the  meeting  of  the  Long  Parliament,  they 
were  divided  on  the  question  of  church  reform,  passing, 
as  soon  as  political  questions  were  involved,  into  Cava- 
liers and  Roundheads.  After  the  expulsion  of  the 
Cavaliers  in  1642  and  1643  the  Houses  were  divided 
into  a peace  party  and  a war  party,  and  these  in  1643 
took  the  shape  of  Presbyterians  and  Independents. 
After  the  Restoration  there  was  a country  party  and  a 
court  party,  and  to  these  the  names  of  Whig  and  Tory 
were  applied  in  1679,  in  the  heat  of  the  struggle  which 
preceded  the  meeting  of  the  first  short  parliament  of 
Charles  II.  The  words  were  nicknames  given  by  the 
opponents  of  each  party.  To  call  a man  a Whig  was 
to  compare  him  with  the  Presbyterian  rebels  of  the 
west  of  Scotland.  To  call  a man  a Tory  was  to  com- 
pare him  with  the  Papist  outlaws  of  Ireland.  In  fact, 
at  this  time  the  Whigs  were  maintainers  of  parliament- 
ary power  over  the  crown  and  of  toleration  for  Dis- 
senters, the  Tories  maintainers  of  the  hereditary  inde- 
feasible rights  of  the  wearer  of  the  crown  and  of  the 
refusal  of  toleration  to  Dissenters.  The  relation  be- 
tween the  parties  was  further  qualified  by  the  fact  that 
the  heir  to  the  crown  was  a Roman  Catholic,  whose 
claim  to  succeed  was  defended  by  the  Tories  and 
assailed  by  the  Whigs. 

The  persistency  of  the  names  of  the  two  parties  is 
mainly  owing  to  their  unmeaningness.  As  new  ques- 
tions arose,  the  names  of  the  old  parties  were  retained, 
though  the  objects  of  contention  were  no  longer  the 
same.  The  Revolution  of  1688-89  made  it  impossible 
for  the  Tories  to  retain  their  old  attitude  of  attachment 
to  the  hereditary  right  of  the  occupant  of  the  throne, 
with  the  exception  of  the  extreme  wing  of  the  party, 
which  remained  Jacobite. 

With  the  accession  of  George  III.  Toryism  took  a 
new  form.  The  struggle  about  the  Dissenters  was  now 
a thing  of  the  past,  and  the  king  was  accepted  as  a 
leader  in  carrying  on  the  attack  against  the  power  of 
the  great  Whig  families.  The  attack  was  easier  because 
the  Whig  families  had  split  into  factions.  For  some 
time  the  dividing  line  between  Whigs  and  Tories  was 
this:  the  Tories  asserted  that  the  king  had  aright  to 
choose  his  ministers  and  control  their  policy,  subject  to 
the  necessity  of  securing  a majority  of  the  House  of 


WHI 


Commons,  while  the  Whigs  thought  that  the  choice 
should  lie  with  leading  members  of  parliament,  and 
chat  the  king  should  have  no  controlling  power.  The 
Whig  view  appears  to  resemble  that  subsequently 
adopted;  but  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
the  corruption  which  prevailed  rendered  the  analogy 
worthless,  and  the  real  conflict  was  between  the  cor- 
rupt influence  of  th£  crown  and  the  influence  of  a 
clique  of  great  landowners  resting  on  their  possession 
of  electoral  power  through  the  rotten  boroughs. 

All  this  wais  changed  by  the  French  Revolution.  In 
opposition  to  the  new  democracy,  the  Tories  coalesced 
with  a section  of  the  Whig  families,  the  representatives 
of  which  entered  the  ministry  in  1794.  From  this  time 
till  1822  Toryism  was  synonymous  with  a desire  to  re- 
tain the  existing  state  of  things,  however  full  of  abuses 
it  might  be.  When  Canning  and  Peel  entered  the  min- 
istry, in  1822,  a gradual  change  took  place,  and  a tend- 
ency to  practical  reform  manifested  itself.  The  refusal 
of  Wellington  to  listen  to  any  proposal  for  altering  the 
constitution  of  the  House  of  Commons  threw  the  power 
once  more  into  the  hands  of  the  Whigs  in  1830. 
Shortly  afterward  the  name  Tory  gave  place  to  that  of 
Conservative,  though  of  late  years  there  has  been  an 
attempt  to  revert  to  it  by  those  Conservatives  who  wish 
to  assert  their  power  of  originating  a definite  policy, 
and  who  do  not  like  to  be  branded  with  a purely  nega- 
tive appellation.  The  name  of  Whig  on  the  other- 
hand  was  replaced  by  that  of  Liberal,  being  assigned 
for  some  time  to  the  less  progressive  portion  of  the 
party,  and  thus,  by  becoming  a term  of  reproach, 
threatening  entirely  to  disappear. 

WHIP-POOR-WILL,  a species  of  goatsucker,  a na- 
tive of  North  America  common  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
United  States.  It  receives  its  popular  name  from  the 
fancied  resemblance ' of  its  notes  to  the  words  of  whip- 
poor-will.  It  is  about  ten  inches  long,  the  plumage  like 
that  of  the  European  goatsucker,  much  mottled  and 
indistinctly  marked  with  small  transverse  bands,  the  top 
of  the  head  streaked  with  black,  a narrow  white  collar 
on  the  throat.  The  bristles  at  the  base  of  the  bill  are 
very  stiff,  and  more  than  an  inch  long.  The  bird  is 
seldom  seen  during  the  day,  but  seeks  its  food  by  night, 
catching  moths,  beetles,  and  other  insects  on  the  wing. 
Its  flight  is  near  the  ground,  zigzag  and  noiseless.  Its 
notes  are  heard  only  during  the  m'ght,  and  are  clear  and 
loud,  so  that  when  a few  birds  are  at  hand  the  noise  is 
such  that  those  unaccustomed  to  it  cannot  sleep.  In 
the  more  southern  parts  of  the  United  States  the  whip- 
poor-will  is  replaced  by  a larger  species,  the  chuck- 
will’s- widow,  on  the  upper  Missouri,  and  to  the  west  by 
a smaller  one  (C  or  A.  Nuttalii). 

WHIRLPOOL,  a hollow  in  running  water,  caused 
or  accompanied  by  a whirling  motion  which  attracts 
and  engulfs  floating  objects.  The  popular  conception 
of  a whirlpool  was  probably  based  on  the  ancient 
accounts  of  that  of  Charybdis,  strengthened  by  exagger- 
ated rumors  of  the  Malstrom  in  the  Lofoten  Islands, 
and,  in  Great  Britain,  at  least,  largely  consolidated  by 
the  legends  of  Corrievreckan. 

The  formation  of  whirlpools  is  a natural  result  of 
water  flowing  rapidly  in  an  irregular  channel ; it  takes 
place  in  all  rivers  and  in  every  tide-race  of  the  sea,  the 
depth,  diameter,  and  velocity  depending  on  accidental 
causes.  All  the  famous  whirlpools  are  situated  in 
channels  essentially  similar  in  configuration  and  in  tidal 
phenomena : their  vortices  are  produced  at  certain 
phases  of  the  tide  or  with  certain  directions  of  the 
wind;  and  they  are  all  dangerous  to  navigation,  but 
the  danger  is  due  to  the  cause  which  produces  the 
whirlpools — the  tidal  race — not  to  the  “ roaring  wells  ” 
themselves.  Whirlpools  in  a tidal  stream  are  not 


6341 

stationary,  but  travel  along  with  the  current,  filling  up 
and  again  forming  in  irregular  succession.  Small  boats 
have  repeatedly  been  drawn  into  these  vortices  in  the 
northern  fjords  and  capsized ; and  trading  steamers  in 
passing  through  a tide-way  are  violently  deflected  from 
their  course.  It  is  on  record  that  a seventy-four  gun 
ship  has  been  whirled  right  round  in  the  vortices  of  the 
Straits  of  Messina.  The  fishermen  of  the  Norwegian 
fjords  and  of  the  northern  island  groups — Lofoten, 
Faroe,  Shetland,  and  Orkney — still  believe  that,  if 
they  can  throw  a heavy  or  bulky  object  into  a whirl* 
pool,  it  will  close  up  without  harming  their  boats. 

Charybdis,  a whirlpool  famous  in  classical  literature, 
is  situated  in  the  Straits  of  Messina.  The  rise  of  tide 
at  Messina  does  not  exceed  one  foot,  but  the  current 
may  attain  the  velocity  of  nearly  six  miles  an  hour. 
Where  the  north-going  flood  tide  meets  the  south- 
running counter-current,  and  where  the  southerly  ebb 
meets  its  induced  northerly  stream,  great  eddies  or 
garofola  are  formed,  one  of  which  is  Charybdis.  These 
depend  very  much  on  the  wind  for  the  intensity  of  their 
phenomena. 

WHIRLWIND.  See  Meteorology. 

WHISKY,  or  Whiskey,  a spirit  distilled  for  drink- 
ing, which  originated,  at  least  so  far  as  regards  the 
name,  with  the  Celtic  inhabitants  of  Ireland  and  Scot- 
land; and  its  manufacture  and  use  still  continue  to  be 
closely  associated  with  these  two  countries.  Distilled 
spirit  first  became  popularly  known  as  aqua  vitae,  and  it 
was  originally  used  only  as  a powerful  medicinal  agent. 
It  was  not  till  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  that  it  came  into  use  in  Scotland  as  an  intoxi- 
cating beverage. 

It  is  not  easy  at  the  present  day  to  define  whisky. 
Originally  it  was  made  from  malted  barley,  the  fer- 
mented wort  from  which  was  distilled  in  the  common 
pot-still  (see  Distillation);  but  with  the  introduction 
of  the  Coffey  and  other  continuous  stills,  which  yield  a 
“ silent  ” or  flavorless  spirit,  it  has  become  possible  to 
prepare  alcoholic  liquor,  which  is  sold  as  whisky,  from 
any  cereal  grain,  malted  or  unmalted,  and  from  potato 
starch,  grape  sugar,  and  numerous  other  starch  and 
sugar-yielding  substances.  As  a rule,  however,  whisky 
is  made  from  grain,  and  by  preference  from  barley, 
malted  or  raw.  In  the  United  States,  whisky  is  distilled 
chiefly  from  corn  and  rye,  wheat  and  barley  malt  being 
used,  though  only  to  a limited  extent.  When  spirit  is 
distilled  as  whisky,  it  retains  the  natural  principles 
which  impart  an  agreeable  flavor  to  the  beverage;  for 
the  fusel  oil,  which  is  contained  in  alcohol,  and  is  acrid 
to  the  taste  and  stupefying  in  its  effects,  is  to  a great 
extent  extracted.  Whisky  is  greatly  improved  by  age; 
it  is  not  mellow,  nor  its  flavor  agreeable,  until  it  is 
several  years  old.  In  its  original  state  it  is  almost  col- 
orless, but  it  derives  a reddish  hue  from  the  wood  of  the 
barrels  into  which  it  is  drawn,  the  inner  surfaces  of 
which  are  usually  charred  to  facilitate  the  coloring. 

Distilled  spirits  in  the  United  States  are  the  principal 
and  an  increasing  source  of  internal  revenue.  In  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1887,  there  were  in  the 
United  States  969  grain  distilleries,  and  the  quantity  of 
spirits  distilled  in  that  year  (including  whisky,  alcohol, 
high- wines,  and  cologne  or  neutral  spirits,  and  exclud- 
ing fruit-brandy)  was  77,831,599  gallons.  The  stock  of 
spirits  remaining  in  bonded  warehouse  June  30, 1887,  was 
65,145,269  gallons.  The  total  revenue  from  the  manu- 
facture and  sale  of  distilled  spirits  for  the  fiscal  year  end- 
ing June  30,  1887,  was  $65,829,322. 

WHIST,  a game  at  cards.  The  etymology  of  the 
name  is  disputed;  probably  it  is  of  imitativj  origin,  from 
“ whist  ” (hist,  hush,  silence),  the  game  being  so  named 
because  of  the  silence  required  to  play  it  attentively. 


6342  W H I 


In  the  sixteenth  century  a card  game  called  triumph 
or  trump  (corrupted  from  “ triumph”)  was  commonly 
played  in  England.  A game  called  trionfi  is  men- 
tioned as  early  as  1526,  and  triumphus  Hispanicus  in 
1541.  La  txiomphe  occurs  in  the  list  of  games  played 
by  Gargantua  (Rabelais,  first  half  of  sixteenth  century). 
In  Florio’s  Worlde  of  Wordes  (1598)  trionfo  is  defined 
as  “ the  play  called  trump  or  ruff.”  It  is  probable  that 
the  game  referred  to  by  the  writers  quoted  is  la  triomphe 
of  the  early  editions  of  the  Academie  des  Jeux.  It  is 
important  to  note  that  this  game,  called  by  Cotton 
“French  ruff,”  is  similar  to  £cart£.  “ English  ruff-and- 
honors,”  also  described  by  Cotton,  is  similar  to  whist. 
If  we  admit  that  ruff  and  trump  are  convertible  terms, 
of  which  there  is  scarcely  a doubt,  the  game  of  trump 
was  the  precursor  of  whist.  A purely  English  origin 
may,  therefore,  be  claimed  for  trump  (not  la  triomphe). 

It  is  believed  that  the  earliest  mention  of  whist  is  by 
Taylor,  the  Water  Poet  {Motto,  1621).  He  spells  the 
word  “ whisk.”  The  earliest  known  use  of  the  present 
spelling  is  in  Hudibras , the  Second  Part  (spurious), 
1663.  The  word  is  then  spelled  indifferently  whisk  or 
whist  for  about  half  a century.  Cotton  (1674)  spells  it 
both  ways.  Seymour  {Court  Gamester,  1734)  has 
“whist,  vulgarly  called  whisk.”  The  points  of  the 
game  rose  from  nine  to  ten  (“  nine  in  all, ’’  Cotton,  1725 ; 
“ ten  in  all, ”» Seymour,  1734,  “ rectified  according  to  the 
present  standard  of  play”).  Simultaneously  with  this 
alteration,  or  closely  following  it,  the  entire  pack  of 
fifty-two  cards  was  used,  the  deuces  being  no  longer 
discarded.  This  improvement  introduces  the  odd  trick, 
an  element  of  great  interest  in  modern  whist.  Accord- 
ing to  Barrington,  whist  was  first  played  on  scientific 
principles  by  a party  of  gentlemen  who  frequented  the 
Crown  Coffee  House  in  Bedford  Row,  London,  about 
1728.  They  laid  down  the  following  rules: — “Lead 
from  the  strong  suit;  study  your  partner’s  hand;  and 
attend  to  the  score.”  Shortly  after  the  celebrated 
Edmond  Hoyle  {q-v. ) published  his  Short  Treatise 
(1743).  Ever  since  the  time  of  Hoyle,  the  game  has 
continued  to  increase  in  public  estimation. 

About  1804  the  points  of  the  game  were  cut  down 
from  ten  to  five.  Clay’s  account  of  this  change  is  that, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  Lord 
Peterborough  having  lost  a large  sum  of  money,  the 
players  proposed  to  make  the  game  five  up,  in  order  to 
give  the  loser  a chance  of  recovering  his  loss.  The  new 

fame,  short  whist,  was  found  to  be  so  lively  that  it  soon 
ecame  general,  and  eventually  superseded  the  long 
game.  The  new  game  necessarily  caused  a change  in 
the  style  of  play,  as  recorded  by  James  Clay  in  The 
Laws  of  Short  Whist , and  a Treatise  on  the  Game  (1864). 
That  distinguished  player  says  that,  when  he  first  re- 
membered whist,  its  celebrities  were  for  the  most  part 
those  who  had  been  educated  at  long  whist.  About 
1830  some  of  the  best  French  whist-players,  with  Des- 
chapelles  at  their  head,  modified  and  improved  the  old- 
fashioned  system.  They  were  but  little  influenced  by 
the  traditions  of  long  whist,  and  were  not  content  mere- 
ly to  imitate  the  English.  The  French  game  was  the 
scorn  and  horror  of  the  old  school,  who  vehemently 
condemned  its  rash  trump  leads.  Those  who  adopted 
the  practice  of  the  new  school  were,  however,  found  to 
be  winning  players.  By  way  of  example,  the  English 
player  of  the  old  school  never  thought  of  playing  to  win 
the  game  before  it  was  saved;  the  French  player  never 
thought  of  saving  the  game  until  he  saw  he  could  not 
win  it.  As  between  the  two  systems,  Clay  preferred  the 
rash  attack  to  the  cautious  defense,  and  recommended  a 
middle  course,  leaning  more  to  the  new  than  to  the  old 
doctrine. 

Doctor  Pole  ( Philosophy  of  Whist,  1883)  remarks 


that  the  long  experience  of  adepts  had  <ed  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  many  improvements  in  detail  since  the  time 
of  Hoyle,  but  that  nothing  had  been  done  to  reduce 
the  various  rules  of  the  game  to  a systematic  form  until 
between  1850  and  i860,  when  a knot  of  young  men 
proceeded  to  a thorough  investigation  of  whist,  and  in 
1862  one  of  the  members  of  that  “ little  whist  school  ” 
brought  out  a work  under  the  pseudonym  of  “ Caven- 
dish,” which  “gave  for  the  first*  time  the  rules  which 
constitute  the  art  of  whist-playing  according  to  the 
most  modern  form  of  the  game.”  The  little  school 
was  first  brought  prominently  into  notice  by  an  article 
on  whist  in  the  Quarterly  Review  of  January,  1871. 

A critical  examination  of  the  more  important  propos- 
als made  since  1862  may  here  be  appropriately  intro- 
duced. The  older  authorities  laid  down  the  rule;  dis- 
card from  the  weakest  suit.  It  was  shrewdly  noticed 
that,  when  command  of  trumps  was  shown  by  the  ad- 
versaries, the  rule  was  more  honored  in  the  breach  than 
in  the  observance,  the  reason  being  that,  when  the  at- 
tack was  adverse,  the  instinct  of  the  player  prompted 
him  to  guard  his  weak  suits.  Hence  the  rule  was  mod- 
ified, and  it  became  the  practice  to  discard  from  the  best 
protected  suit  when  the  command  of  trumps  is  with 
the  opponents.  There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  sound- 
ness of  this  modern  rule  of  play,  and  it  has  been  gen- 
erally accepted. 

Calling  for  trumps,  as  all  whist-players  know,  is 
effected  by  throwing  away  an  unnecessarily  high  card. 
When  the  lower  card  is  subsequently  played,  a royal 
invitation  is  given  to  the  partner  to  abandon  his  own 
game  and  to  lead  trumps,  there  being  great  strength  in 
the  caller’s  hand.  In  practice  it  was  found  for  various 
reasons  (for  which  manuals  must  be  consulted)  to  be 
highly  advantageous  for  the  caller’s  partner  to  be  able 
to  indicate  whether  he  also  had  numerical  strength  in 
trumps  {i.e.,  a minimum  of  four).  The  rule  was  event- 
ually adopted  that  the  caller’s  partner  with  at  least 
four  trumps  should,  if  he  had  an  opportunity,  call  in 
response,  by  also  throwing  away  an  unnecessarily  high 
card;  of  course,  if  he  had  the  opportunity,  and  refrained, 
he  had  less  than  four  trumps.  This  rule  of  play  was 
not  appreciated  at  the  time;  but  now  it  has  the  adher- 
ence of  all  thoughtful  players. 

Contemporaneously  with  calling  for  trumps,  the  lead 
of  the  penultimate  card  from  suits  of  five  or  mofe  cards 
was  strenuously  advocated  in  some  quarters,  and  a 0 
strenuously  opposed  in  others.  The  old  players  re- 
garded it  with  the  same  “ horror  ” as  they  had  formerly 
displayed  with  respect  to  the  French  school,  and  even 
went  so  far  as  to  stigmatize  it  as  a private  understanding 
and  as  cheating.  The  next  stock  objection  raised  was 
that  it  was  an  innovation.  These  feeble  argu  ments  were 
soon  disposed  of.  The  method  was  accessible  to  every 
one  through  the  medium  of  the  press,  and,  as  Clay 
{Short  Whist,  1864)  rightly  observes,  “ It  is  fair  to  give 
your  partner  any  intimation  which  could  be  given,  if  the 
cards  were  placed  on  the  table,  each  exactly  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  others,  bv  a machine,  the  players  being 
out  of  sight  and  hearing  each  of  the  others.  ” 

Meanwhile,  leads  from  high  cards,  having  regard  to 
the  number  held  in  the  suit,  had  not  escaped  attention. 
Thus,  from  suits  headed  by  ace,  queen,  knave,  it  had 
always  been  the  custom  to  lead  ace,  then  queen,  irre- 
spective of  number.  The  third  hand,  holding  king  and 
small  ones,  was  expected  to  pass  the  queen.  But,  if 
the  lead  was  from  five  cards  or  more,  and  the  third 
hand  held  king  and  two  small  ones,  this  play  often 
resulted  in  blocking  the  leader’s  strong  suit.  It  was, 
therefore  held,  after  some  discussion  and  tentative  play, 
that  with  more  than  four  of  the  suit  the  leader  should 
proceed  with  knave  after  ace,  in  order  to  invite  his  part 


WHI 


,*er  to  put  on  king,  if  it  remained  singly  guarded. 
From  this  it  follows  that  a similar  distinction  should  be 
drawn  as  to  the  second  lead  from  queen,  knave,  ten, 
according  to  the  number  of  accompanying  small  cards. 
If  the  lead  is  from  four  cards  only,  queen  should  be  led, 
then  knave;  if  from  more  than  four,  queen,  then  ten. 
These  innovations  were  introduced  about  1874-75.  I* 
will  be  observed  that  the  original  idea  in  choosing  a 
penultimate  or  antepenultimate  card  was  to  protect  the 
suit,  and  that  the  original  idea  in  choosing  the  higher  or 
lower  of  two  high  indifferent  cards  was  to  give  the 
partner  the  option  of  unblocking.  Behind  this  there 
was  seen  to  lie  the  collateral  advantage  of  showing 
number.  Hence  these  rules  of  play  were  frequently 
resorted  to  merely  for  the  purpose  of  telling  whether 
four  or  more  than  four  cards  of  the  suit  selected  to  lead 
from  were  present  in  the  hand  of  the  original  leader. 

So  far  the  indicated  method,  sound  enough  in  itself, 
amounted  only  to  the  enunciation  of  modified  rules  of 
play.  It  yet  remained  for  some  one  to  propound  a con- 
stant method  of  treating  all  leads,  and  to  classify  the 
isolated  rules  so  as  to  render  it  possible  to  lay  down 
general  principles.  This  was  accomplished  in  1883-84 
by  Nicholas  Browse  Trist  of  New  Orleans;  and  hence 
the  method  of  leading  reduced  to  form  by  him  is  known 
by  the  name  of  American  leads.  American  leads  pro- 
pose a systematic  course  of  play  when  opening  and  con- 
tinuing the  lead  from  the  strong  suit.  First,  with  re- 
gard to  a low  card  led.  When  you  open  a strong  suit 
with  a low  card,  lead  your  fourth  best.  When  opening 
a four-card  suit  with  a low  card,  the  lowest,  which  is 
the  fourth  best,  is  the  card  selected.  When  opening  a 
five-card  suit  with  a low  card,  the  penultimate  card  is 
selected.  Instead  of  calling  it  the  penultimate,  call  it 
the  fourth  best.  So  with  a six-card  suit;  but,  instead 
of  antepenultimate,  say  fourth  best.  And  so  on  with 
suits  of  more  than  six  cards;  disregard  all  the  small 
cards,  and  lead  the  fourth  best.  Secondly,  with  re- 
gard to  a high  card  led,  followed  by  a low  card.  When 
you  open  a strong  suit  with  a high  card  and  next  lead  a 
low  card,  lead  your  original  fourth  best.  The  former 
rule  was  to  proceed  with  the  lowest.  Thus,  from  ace, 
knave,  nine,  eight,  seven,  two,  the  leader  was  expected 
to  open  with  the  ace,  and  then  to  lead  the  two. 

An  American  leader  would  lead  ace,  then  eight. 
Thirdly,  with  regard  to  a high  card  led,  followed  by  a high 
card.  When  you  remain  with  two  high  indifferent  cards, 
lead  the  higher  if  you  opened  a suit  of  four,  the  lower,  if 
you  opened  a suit  of  five  or  more.  Examples  have  al- 
ready been  given  of  the  cases  of  ace,  queen,  knave,  etc., 
and  of  queen,  knave,  ten,  etc.  On  the  promulgation  of 
these  general  principles  another  pitched  battle  followed, 
which  raged  with  great  fury.  The  objections  urged 
against  American  leads  are  much  the  same  as  those 
against  the  penultimate,  viz. — (1)  that  they  complicate 
the  game,  (2)  that  they  seldom  affect  the  result,  (3)  that 
the  information  afforded,  may  be  of  more  use  to  the  op- 
ponents than  to  the  leader’s  partner.  The  complication 
argument  has  out  little  foundation  in  fact.  All  an 
American  leader  asks  his  partner  to  observe  is  that, 
when  he  originally  leads  a low  card,  he  holds  exactly 
three  cards  higher  than  the  one  led  ; when  he  originally 
leads  a high  card,  and  next  a low  one,  he  still  holds  ex- 
actly two  cards  higher  than  the  second  card  led;  and 
when  he  originally  leads  a high  card  and  follows  it  with 
a high  card,  he  indicates  in  many  cases,  to  those  who 
know  the  analysis  of  leads  (as  laid  down  in  whist  books), 
whether  the  strong  suit  consisted  originally  of  four  or  of 
more  than  four  cards.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  mod- 
erate players  may  lack  the  quick  perception  which  will 
enable  them  to  take  full  advantage  of  the  information 
afforded ; but  that  is  no  reason  why  better  players  should 


6343 

be  deprived  of  the  advantage,  and  it  is  no  reason  why 
the  moderate  player  should  not  learn  to  speak  the  lan- 
guage of  whist  intelligibly,  for  the  benefit  of  partners 
who  do  understand  it.  The  answer  to  the  effect-on-the- 
result  argument  is  that  American  leads  add  but  little 
which  is  new  to  the  game.  They  only  aim  at  consoli- 
dating the  received  practice,  and  at  extending  a law  of 
uniformity  to  cases  not  previously  provided  for.  The 
who-gets-the-best-of-the-information  argument  is  more 
difficult  to  meet.  Under  other  whist  conditions  expe- 
rience tdls  us  that  it  is  advantageous  in  the  long  run  to 
convey  information  of  strength,  notwithstanding  its 
publication  to  the  whole  table.  It  is  most  improbable, 
therefore,  that  a player  will  be  at  a disadvantage  by 
publishing  too  much  and  too  precise  information  as  to 
his  strength.  But  it  must  be  admitted  that  this  is  not 
necessarily  a sequitur;  long  experience  can  only  decide 
on  which  side  the  balance  of  advantage  lies.  Five 
years’  experience  is  hardly  enough.  But  it  may  be  re- 
marked that  no  instances  are  known  of  players  who, 
having  once  adopted  these  leads,  have  voluntarily  re- 
linquished them. 

WHISTON,  William,  English  divine  and  mathe- 
matician, was  born  on  December  9,  1667,  at  Norton  in 
Leicestershire,  England,  of  which  village  his  father  was 
rector.  His  Theory  of  the  Earth  (1696),  although  des- 
titute of  sound  scientific  foundation,  obtained  the  praise 
of  both  Newton  and  Locke,  the  latter  of  whom  justly 
classed  the  author  among  those  who,  if  \not  adding  much 
to  our  knowledge,  “ at  least  bring  some  new  things  to 
our  thoughts.”  For  several  years  Whiston  continued 
to  write  and  preach  both  on  mathematical  and  theolog- 
ical subjects  with  considerable  success;  but  his  study  of 
the  Apostolical  Constitutions  had  convinced  him  that 
Arianism  was  the  creed  of  the  primitive  church;  and 
with  him  to  form  an  opinion  and  to  publish  it  were 
things  almost  simultaneous.  His  heterodoxy  soon  be- 
came notorious,  and  in  1710  he  was  deprived  of  his 
professorship  and  expelled  the  university.  About  1747 
he  finally  left  the  communion  of  the  Church  of  England 
for  the  Baptist,  leaving  the  church  literally  as  well  as 
figuratively,  by  quitting  it  as  the  clergyman  began  to 
read  the  Athanasian  creed.  He  died  in  London  at  the 
house  of  his  son-in-law,  August  22,  1752. 

WHITBY,  a seaport  and  watering-place  in  the  North 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England.  The  chief  exports  are 
jet  ornaments  and  iron,  but  the  shipping  trade  is  on  the 
decline;  in  fact  the  town  is  being  gradually  transformed 
into  a fashionable  watering-place.  The  manufacture 
of  alum,  by  which  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  the  founda- 
tions of  its  prosperity  were  laid,  is  now  discontinued. 
The  introduction  of  iron  ship-building  has  also  affected 
an  industry  (the  building  of  wooden  ships)  for  which 
Whitby  was  at  one  time  famous;  it  was  here  that  the 
ships  for  Captain  Cook’s  voyages  were  built.  Whale- 
fishing, established  in  1753,  began  to  decline  in  1823, 
and  was  abandoned  in  1837.  The  only  manufacture 
that  maintains  its  importance  is  that  of  jet  ornaments, 
peculiar  to  the  town,  and  made  from  time  immemorial 
from  a variety  of  petrified  wood  found  toward  the 
bottom  of  the  Upper  Lias.  The  fishing  industry,  owing 
to  improved  railway  communications,  has  been  pro- 
gressive within  late  years.  In  1886  it  employed  231 
boats  of  1,830  tons.  Whitby  is  an  important  herring 
fishing  station.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary 
district  (area  2,000  acres)  was  17,086  in  1901. 

WHITE,  Gilbert,  the  natural  historian  of  Selborne, 
England,  was  born  on  July  18,  1720,  in  the  little  Hamp- 
shire village  which  his  writings  have  rendered  so 
familiar  to  all  lovers  of  either  books  or  nature.  He  was 
educated  at  Basingstoke  under  Warton,  father  of  the 
poet,  and  subsequently  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  where 


WHI 


6344 

he  obtained  a fellowship  (1744).  Entering  upon  a 
country  curacy  in  1753,  he  returned  to  Selborne  in  1755, 
where  he  seems  soon  to  have  discontinued  his  ministra- 
tions. He  obtained  a sinecure  living  from  his  college  in 
1758;  but  after  his  father’sdeatfi  in  the  same  year  became 
curate  of  the  neighboring  parish  of  Faringdon,  and  re- 
peatedly declined  valuable  livings  elsewhere,  until  1784, 
when  he  returned  to  the  curacy  of  Selborne,  and  there 
ministered  until  his  death  on  June  26,  1793.  He  was 
never  married. 

WHITE,  Joseph  Blanco,  author,  was  born  at 
Seville,  Spain,  on  July  11,  1775.  He  was  educated  for 
the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood;  but  after  his  ordination 
doubts  as  to  the  principles  of  Catholicism  led  him  to  re- 
move from  Spain  to  England  (1810),  where  he  ultimately 
entered  the  Established  Church,  having  studied  theology 
at  Oxford  and  made  the  friendship  of  Arnold,  Newman, 
and  Whately.  He  became  tutor  in  the  family  of  the 
last  named  when  he  was  made  archbishop  of  Dublin 
(1831).  While  in  this  position  he  embraced  Unitarian 
views;  and  he  found  an  asylum  among  the  Unitarians 
»f  Liverpool,  where  he  died  on  May  20,  1841. 

WHITE,  Robert,  English  engraver  and  draughts- 
man, was  born  in  London  in  1645.  Virtue  catalogued 
£75  portrait  engravings  by  White,  including  the  like- 
nesses of  many  of  the  most  celebrated  personages  of  his 
day;  and  nine  portraits  engraved  in  mezzotint  are  as- 
signed to  him  by  J.  Chaloner  -Smith.  White  died  at 
Bloomsbury,  London,  in  1704.  His  son  George  White, 
who  was  born  about  1671  and  died  about  1734,  is  also 
known  as  an  engraver  and  portrait-painter. 

WHITEBAIT,  the  vernacular  name  of  a small  Clu- 
peoid  fish  which  appears  in  large  shoals  in  the  estuary 
of  the  Thames  during  the  summer  months,  and  is  held 
in  great  esteem  as  a delicacy  for  the  table.  As  to  whether 
or  not  it  is  a distinct  form,  the  opinions  of  naturalists 
have  been  divided  ever  since  their  attention  was  directed 
to  the  question.  Pennant  and  Shaw  believed  it  to  be 
some  kind  of  Cyprinoid  fish,  similar  to  the  bleak,  while 
Donovan,  in  his  Natural  History  of  British  Fishes 
(1802-8),  misled  by  specimens  sent  to  him  as  whitebait, 
declared  it  to  be  the  young  of  the  shad.  In  1820  Yar- 
rell  proved  conclusively  that  Donovan’s  opinion  was 
founded  upon  an  error;  unfortunately,  he  contented 
himself  with  comparing  whitebait  with  the  shad  only, 
and  in  the  end  adopted  the  opinion  of  the  Thames  fish- 
ermen, whose  interest  it  was  to  represent  it  as  a distinct 
adult  form;  thus  the  whitebait  is  introduced  into  Yar- 
rell’s  History  of  British  Fishes  (1836)  as  Clupea  alba. 

Whitebait  fishing  in  the  Thames  lasts  from  the  end  of 
March  to  September.  The  majority  of  the  fish  caught 
at  the  beginning  of  spring  are  about  two  inches  long;  as 
the  season  advances  the  proportion  of  larger  specimens 
becomes  greater,  although  very  small  ones  occur  abund- 
antly throughout  the  season,  thus  apparently  confirm- 
ing the  opinion  of  those  who  maintain  that  the  herring 
is  in  its  spawning  not  bound  to  any  particular  month. 
Whitebait  are  caught  on  the  flood-tide  from  boats 
moored  in  from  three  to  five  fathoms  of  water. 

WHITEFIELD,  or  Stand,  a large  manufacturing 
village  of  Lancashire,  England.  It  possesses  a number 
of  fine  villas  inhabited  by  Manchester  merchants. 
There  are  coal  mines  in  the  neighborhood,  and  cotton- 
spinning and  hand  and  power  loom  weaving  are  carried 
on.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district 
(area  2,048  acres)  was  11,516  in  1901. 

WHITEFIELD,  George,  one  of  the  most  elo- 
quent of  pulpit  orators,  was  born  December  16,  1714, 
at  the  Bell  Inn,  Gloucester,  England,  of  which  his 
father  was  landlord.  In  1 733  he  entered  as  a servitor 
at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford.  There  he  came  under 
tile  influence  of  the  Methodists  (see  Wesley),  and 


entered  so  enthusiastically  into  their  practices  and 
habits  that  he  was  attacked  by  a severe  illness,  which 
compelled  him  to  return  to  his  native  town.  His  sin- 
cere and  enthusiastic  piety  attracted  the  notice  of 
Doctor  Benson,  bishop  of  Gloucester,  who  ordained  him 
deacon  J une  20,  1 730.  Having  in  the  following  week 
returned  to  Oxford  and  taken  his  degree,  he  began  an 
evangelizing  tour  in  Bath,  Bristol,  and  other  towns, 
his  eloquence  at  once  attracting  immense  multitudes. 
In  1736  he  was  invited  by  Wesley  to  go  out  as  a mis- 
sionary to  Georgia. 

On  December  28,  1737,  he  embarked  for  Georgia, 
which  he  reached  on  May  7,  1738.  After  three  months’ 
residence  there  he  returned  to  England  to  receive  priest’s 
orders,  and  to  raise  contributions  for  the  support  of  an 
orphanage.  He  was,  however,  coldly  received  by  the 
clergy  generally,  and  began  to  preach  in  the  open  air. 
At  Bristol  his  addresses  to  the  colliers  soon  attracted 
crowds,  which  were  latterly  estimated  to  exceed  20,000 
persons.  Whitefield’s  voice  was  so  powerful  that  it 
penetrated  to  the  utmost  limits  of  the  crowd.  His 
fervor  and  dramatic  action  held  them  spell-bound,  and 
his  homely  pathos  soon  broke  down  all  barriers  of 
resistance.  In  1738  an  account  of  Whitefield’s  voyage 
from  London  to  Georgia  was  published  without  his 
knowledge.  In  1739  he  published  his  Jotirnal  from  his 
arrival  in  Savannah  to  his  return  to  London,  and  also 
his  Journal  from  his  arrival  in  London  to  his  departure 
thence  on  his  way  to  Georgia.  He  again  embarked  for 
America  in  August,  1739,  and  remained  two  years, 
preaching  in  all  the  principal  towns.  While  there  he 
published  Three  Letters  from  Mr.  Whitefield , in  which 
he  referred  to  the  “ mystery  of  iniquity  ” in  Tillotson, 
and  asserted  that  that  divine  knew  no  more  of  Christ 
than  Mohammed  did. 

During  his  absence  from  England  Whitefield  found 
that  a divergence  of  doctrine  from  Calvinism  had  been 
introduced  by  Wesley;  and  notwithstanding  We.dey’s 
exhortations  to  brotherly  kindness  and  forbearance  he 
withdrew  from  the  Wesleyan  communion.  Thereupon 
his  friends  built  for  him  near  Wesley’s  church  a wooden 
structure,  which  was  named  the  Tabernacle.  After  a 
second  visit  to  Scotland,  June  to  October,  1742,  and  a 
tour  through  England  and  Wales,  1742-44,  he  embarked 
in  August,  1744,  for  America,  where  he  remained  till 
June,  1748.  On  his  return  to  London  he  found  his 
congregation  at  the  Tabernacle  dispersed;  and  his  cir- 
cumstances were  so  depressed  that  he  was  obliged  to 
sell  his  household  furniture  to  pay  his  orphan-house 
debts.  Having,  however,  made  the  acquaintance  of 
the  countess  of  Huntingdon,  he  soon  found  his  pecuni- 
ary affairs  on  a better  footing.  The  countess  appointed 
him  one  of  her  chaplains,  built  and  endowed  Calvinistic 
Methodist  chapels  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  and 
erested  a college  for  the  training  of  candidates  for  the 
ministry.  The  remainder  of  Whitefield’s  life  was  spent 
chiefly  in  evangelizing  tours  in.  Great  Britain,  Ireland, 
and  America.  He  died  September  30,  1770. 

WHITEFISH  is  a collective  name  applied  in  differ- 
ent countries  to  very  different  kinds  of  freshwater  fishes, 
which,  however,  have  this  in  common,  that  their  body 
is  covered  with  regularly  arranged  silvery  scales,  with- 
out spots  or  ornamental  colors.  Thus  the  numerous 
Europern  species  of  the  Cyprinoid  genus  Leuciscus  are 
frequently  comprised  under  the  name  of  “ Whitefish,” 
while  in  North  America  this  term  is  in  general  use  for 
the  various  species  of  the  Salmonoid  genus  Coregonus , 
which  abound  in  every  lake  and  river  of  Canada  and  the 
northern  parts  of  the  United  States. 

WHITEHAVEN,  a parliamentary  borough  of  Eng. 
land  and  the  principal  seaport  of  Cumberland,  is  situ- 
ated at  the  extremity  of  the  Solway  Firth,  facing  the 


w 

Irish  Sea,  41  miles  southwest  of  Carlisle  and  304  north- 
west of  London.  Iron  ship-building  is  carried  on. 
The  other  principal  industries  are  engineering,  brass- 
founding, boiler-making,  brick  and  earthenware  manu- 
facturing, and  dyeing.  There  are  two  large  collieries, 
one  extending  about  one  and  a half  miles  under  the  sea. 
Fishing  is  carried  on  to  a small  extent,  the  number  of 
boats  engaged  being  eighteen  of  441  tons.  The  popu- 
lation of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  679  acres)  is 

23,295. 

WHITEHALL,  a prosperous  town  and  favorite 
summer  resort  at  the  head  of  Lake  Champlain,  in 
Washington  county,  N.  Y.,  is  delightfully  located 
within  the  shadows  of  Skines  Mountain,  on  the  Sara- 
toga and  Champlain  Division  of  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson  Company’s  railway  line.  It  is  also  the  north- 
ern terminus  of  the  Champlain  canal,  and  is  connected 
with  the  leading  ports  on  the  lake  by  lines  of  steamers 
swift-running  and  elegantly  appointed.  In  addition  to 
being  the  largest  town  in  Washington  county,  White- 
hall is  quite  extensively  engaged  in  manufacturing  and 
in  the  lumber  industries,  also  in  the  construction  of 
vessels  and  row-boats.  To  these  should  be  added  boil- 
ers, wood  moldings,  flour,  cheese,  trolling-spoons, 
sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  turned  wood,  silk,  etc.,  in  all 
of  which  a large  trade  is  annually  reported.  The  town 
contains  two  national  banks,  two  weekly  papers,  six 
churches,  an  academy  and  high  school,  three  hotels, 
two  public  halls,  and  a large  number  of  stores,  and  is 
provided  with  all  the  conveniences  and  appointments 
usual  to  progressive  conditions.  The  population  in 
1900  was  4,377. 

WHITELOCKE,  Bolstrode,  son  of  Sir  James 
Whitelocke,  a justice  of  the  King’s  Bench,  was  born  at 
London,  on  August  2,  1605.  He  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners appointed  to  carry  the  terms  of  the  Parlia- 
ment to  Oxford  in  May,  1645,  and  drew  on  himself  sus- 
picions of  too  close  intercourse  with  the  king.  White- 
locke was  present  at  the  siege  of  Oxford  in  1646,  and 
was  on  excellent  terms  with  Fairfax  and  Cromwell. 
In  1648  he  was  named  a commissioner  of  the  greal  seal. 
He  was  much  troubled  at  the  attack  on  the  House  of 
Commons  by  Pride’s  “ purge,”  but  he  did  not  resign  his 
post.  He  refused  to  have  anything  to  do  with  the  king’s 
trial;  but  he  accepted  a commissionership  of  the  new 
great  seal  of  the  commonwealth  after  the  king’s  execu- 
tion. Both  before  the  trial  and  afterward  he  was  on 
intimate  terms  with  Cromwell. 

After  Cromwell’s  return  from  the  Scottish  war  in 
1651  Whitelocke  was  much  consulted  by  him;  but  he 

fave  offense  by  suggesting  a restoration  of  the  young 
ing.  After  the  dissolution  of  the  Long  Parliament  in 
1653  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Sweden,  as  he 
thought,  merely  to  get  him  out  of  the  way.  Return- 
ing in  July,  1654,  he  was  chosen  member  of  the  first 
parliament  of  the  Protectorate  by  the  county  of  Buck- 
ingham, and  he  again  became  a commissioner  of  the 
great  seal.  In  May,  1655,  after  the  dissolution  of  that 
arliament,  he  refused  to  execute  an  ordinance  made 
y the  Protector  and  council  only  for  the  reform  of 
Chancery,  and  was  consequently  dismissed  in  June,  but 
was  soon  afterward  appointed  commissioner  of  the 
treasury.  He  again  sat  for  Buckinghamshire  in  the 
second  Protectorate  parliament  in  1657. 

After  Cromwell’s  death  Whitelocke  rallied  to  his  son, 
and  in  January,  1659,  was  again  a commissioner  of  the 
great  seal.  After  Richard’s  fall  he  sat  in  the  council  of 
state,  and  when  the  Rump  was  turned  out  by  the  sol- 
diers he  accepted  an  appointment  to  the  army’s  commit- 
tee of  safety.  On  November  1st  he  became  keeper  of 
the  great  seal;  but  on  the  return  of  the  Rump  he 
thought  it  prudent  to  go  into  hiding.  Monk’s  arrival 


H I 6345 

delivered  him  from  his  fears*  tont,  when  the  Convention 
Parliament  was  chosen,  he,  characteristically  “ foresee- 
ing what  wouid  come  to  pass,  did  not  think  fit  to 
labor  to  be  a Parliament  man.”  Of  course  he  ac- 
cepted the  Restoration  and  was  included  in  the  Act  ol 
Oblivion.  He  died  at  his  seat  at  Chilton  in  Wiltshire 
in  1675. 

WHITE  SEA,  an  arm  or  great  bay  or  inlet  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  which  lies  between  Cape  Kanin  on  the 
Kaninskaia  Peninsula,  and  Cape  Sviatoi  on  the  Kola 
Peninsula,  and  penetrates  the  Russian  government  of 
Archangel  southward  to  latitude  64°  N.  At  its  en- 
trance between  Capes  Kanin  and  Sviatoi  it  is  100 
miles  broad;  and  after  penetrating  the  land  150  miles 
in  a southeasterly  direction,  it  narrows  to  a width  of 
35  miles;  but  after  sweeping  south  for  200  miles  it 
again  considerably  widens,  forming  in  the  northwest 
the  Gulf  of  Kandalak  and  in  the  south  and  southeast 
the  Gulfs  of  Onega  and  Archangel  or  Dwina.  This 
sea  covers  an  area  estimated  at  47,000  square  miles,  and 
the  .length  of  its  coast  line  is  over  1,000  miles.  The 
coasts  in  the  north  and  east  are  mountainous,  in  other 
places  they  are  mostly  low,  and  abound  in  lakes,  which 
communicate  with  the  sea  by  rivers.  The  greatest 
depth  of  the  White  Sea  is  1,133  feet.  From  the  mid- 
dle of  August  ice  forms  on  the  coasts,  sometimes  to  the 
width  of  thirty  miles,  and  is  not  melted  till  the  follow- 

m§WHITE  SULPHUR  SPRINGS,  a watering  place 
in  West  Virginia,  on  Howard  Creek,  225  miles  west 
of  Richmond.  Population  about  1,000.  It  has  hotel 
accommodations  for  1,500  guests.  The  rpring  is  in 
the  lowest  part  of  a beautiful  valley,  and  is  covered  by 
a dome  supported  by  twelve  Ionic  columns,  surmounted 
by  a statue  of  Hygeia.  It  is  considered  efficacious  in 
dyspepsia,  liver  diseases,  gout,  rheumatism,  and  dis- 
eases of  the  skin  and  kidneys.  The  Red,  Salt  and 
Blue  Sulphur  Springs,  at  a distance  of  twenty-three  or 
twenty-four  miles  from  the  above,  are  also  much  re- 
sorted to. 

WHITETHROAT,  a name  commonly  given  to  two 
species  of  little  birds,  one  of  which,  the  Motacilla 
sylvia  of  Linnseus  and  Sylvia  rufa  or  S.  cinerea  of 
some  recent  authors,  is  regarded  as  the  type,  not  only 
of  the  genus  Sylvia , but  of  the  so-called  Family  Sylviida 
(cf  Warbler). 

The  song  of  this  bird,  except  by  association  with  the 
season  at  which  it  is  uttered,  can  scarcely  be  called 
agreeable,  some  of  its  notes  being  very  harsh ; but  the 
performer  may  be  seen  to  be  always  in  earnest,  erecting 
the  feathers  of  his  crown,  puffing  out  thoseof  his  throat, 
shaking  his  wings,  and  making  other  rapid  movements 
expressive  of  his  feelings.  Occasionally  he  will  deliver 
his  song  as  he  flies  up  in  a peculiar  fashion,  describing 
small  circles  in  the  air,  stopping  with  a jerk,  and  then 
returning  to  the  spot  whence  he  arose. 

WHITFIELD,  John  Clarke,  organist  and  com- 
poser, was  born  at  Gloucester,  December  13,  1770. 
He  took  the  degree  of  Mus.Doc.  at  Cambridge  in  1799, 
and  in  1810  proceeded  to  the  same  grade  at  Oxford. 
In  1820  he  was  elected  organist  and  master  of  the 
choristers  at  Hereford  cathedral ; and  on  the  death  of 
Doctor  Haig  he  was  appointed  professor  of  music  at 
Cambridge.  Three  years  afterward  he  resigned  these 
appointments  in  consequence  of  an  attack  of  paralysis. 
He  died  at  Hereford,  February  22,  1836. 

WHITGIFT,  John,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was 
born  in  1530.  In  1549  he  matriculated  at  Queems  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  in  May,  1550,  he  migrated  to  Pem- 
broke Hall,  where  he  had  the  martyr  John  Bradford  for  a 
tutor.  On  May  31,  1555,  he  became  a fellow  of  Peter- 
house.  Having  taken  holy  orders  in  1560.  he  became  ii? 


6346  WHI- 

fhe  same  year  chaplain  to  Doctor  Cox,  bishop  of  Ely,  who 
collated  him  to  the  rectory  of  Teversham,  Cambridge- 
shire. In  1563  he  was  appointed  Lady  Margaret  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Cambridge,  and  his  lectures  gave 
Juch  satisfaction  to  the  authorities  that  on  July  5,  1566, 
they  considerably  augmented  his  stipend.  The  follow- 
ing year  he  was  appointed  regius  professor  of  divinity, 
and  also  became  master  of  Trinity.  He  had  a princi- 
pal share  in  compiling  the  statutes  of  the  university, 
which  passed  the  great  seal  on  September  25,  1570,  and 
in  November  following  he  was  chosen  vice-chancellor. 

In  August,  1583,  he  was  nominated  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  and  thus  was  largely  instrumental  in  giving 
its  special  complexion  to  the  church  of  the  Reformation. 
Although  he  wrote  a letter  to  Queen  Elizabeth  remon- 
strating against  the  alienation  of  church  property,  Whit- 
gift  always  retained  her  special  confidence.  Toward 
the  close  of  his  episcopate  he,  in  conjunction  with  the 
bishop  of  London  and  other  prelates,  drew  up  the  Cal- 
vinistic  instrument  known  as  the  Lambeth  Articles. 
They  were,  however,  not  accepted  by  the  church. 
Whitgift  attended  Elizabeth  on  her  deathbed,  and 
crowned  James  I.  He  was  present  at  the  Hampton 
Court  Conference  in  January,  1604,  and  died  at  Lambeth 
on  the  29th  of  the  following  February. 

WHITING,  a marine  fish  ( Gadus  merlangus\ 
abundant  on  the  shores  of  the  German  Ocean  and  all 
round  the  coasts  of  the  British  Islands.  It  is  distin- 
guished from  the  other  species  of  the  genus  Gadus  or 
Cod-fish  by  having  from  thirty-three  to  thirty-five  rays 
in  the  first  anal  nn,  and  by  lacking  the  barbel  on  the 
chin  (which  is  so  well  developed  in  the  common  cod-fish, 
whiting-pout,  etc.)  entirely,  or  possessing  only  a minute 
rudiment  of  it.  The  snout  is  long,  and  the  upper  jaw 
longer  than  the  lower.  A black  spot  at  the  root  of  the 
pectoral  fin  is  also  very  characteristic  of  this  species, 
and  but  rarely  absent.  The  whiting  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  food  fishes  of  northern  Europe,  and  is  caught 
throughout  the  year  by  hook  and  line  and  by  the  trawl. 
Its  usual  size  is  from  one  to  one  and  one-half  pounds,  but 
it  may  attain  to  twice  that  weight.  In  the  south  of 
Europe  it  is  replaced  by  an  allied  species,  Gadus  euxini% 
which,  however,  seems  to  be  limited  to  the  cold  waters 
of  the  Adriatic  and  Black  Seas. 

WHITLOW  is  a name  applied  loosely  to  any  inflam- 
mation involving  the  pulp  of  the  finger,  attended  by 
swelling  and  throbbing  pain.  In  the  simplest  form, 
apt  to  occur  in  sickly  children,  the  inflammation  results 
in  a whitish  vesicle  of  the  skin,  containing  watery  or 
bloody  fluid.  In  all  such  cases,  where  the  deeper  struct- 
ures are  not  implicated,  no  radical  local  treatment  is 
needed,  although  the  illness  is  an  indication  for  consti- 
tutional treatment.  The  affection  is  not  usually  spoken 
of  as  whitlow  unless  it  involves  the  deeper  structures  of 
the  last  joint  of  the  finger. 

The  general  treatment  of  all  whitlow  inflammations 
consists  at  the  outset  in  relief  of  a congested  state  of 
the  system,  where  such  exists,  by  a purge  and  by  a re- 
stricted diet,  in  applying  poultices  or  hot  compresses  to 
the  affected  finger,  and  in  carrying  the  arm  in  a sling. 
The  presence  of  matter  will  not  be  obvious  by  the 
ordinary  signs  of  a gathering;  attempts  to  let  out  the 
matter  by  anything  short  of  a free  and  deep  incision 
are  likely  to  fail  and  to  cause  the  loss  of  more  or  less 
of  the  bone. 

WHITSTABLE,  a watering-place  and  seaport  of 
Kent,  England,  is  situated  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Thames  estuary  and  on  the  South  Eastern  and  the  Lon- 
don, Chatham  and  Dover  railway  lines,  six  miles  north- 
northwest  of  Canterbury  and  sixty-two  south-southeast 
of  London.  It  consists  chiefly  of  one  main  street, 
about  a mile  in  length,  and  two  narrower  streets  par- 


- WHO 

allel  with  it,  built  on  an  embankment.  Whitstable  hat, 

been  famous  for  its  oyster  beds  from  time  immemorial. 
The  oysters  raised  there  greatly  excel  all  others  in  del- 
icacy  of  flavor,  and  to  economize  space  spat  from  other 
beds  is  brought  to  Whitstable  to  mature.  The  popu- 
lation of  the  township  and  parish  (3,601  acres)  was 
6,882  in  1901. 

WHITSUNDAY,  or  Pentecost,  the  fiftieth  day 
after  Easter  Sunday,  one  of  the  principal  feasts  of  the 
Christian  Church,  is  enumerated  among  these  along 
with  Easter  Sunday,  Good  Friday,  and  the  Sundays 
throughout  the  year  by  Origen.  The  origin  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  name  of  White  Sunday,  which  also  occurs 
in  Icelandic,  is  somewhat  obscure,  for  in  the  Roman 
Church  the  Dominica  in  Albis  (Low  Sunday),  so  called 
from  the  white  robes  then  worn  by  candidates  for  bap- 
tism, has  always  been  the  Sunday  immediately  follow- 
ing Easter. 

WHITTINGTON,  a town  of  Derbyshire,  England. 
The  principal  works  are  large  iron  factories.  The 
manufacture  of  stone  bottles  and  coarse  earthenware  is 
also  carried  on.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary 
district  (area  1,581  acres)  was  8,271  in  1901. 

WHITTINGTON,  Sir  Richard,  was  the  son  of 
Sir  William  de  Whittington  of  Pauntley,  Gloucester- 
shire, who  died  an  outlaw  in  1360.  His  mother  was 
Joan,  daughter  of  William  Mansell,  who  was  high- 
sheriff  of  Gloucestershire  in  1308,  Richard  Whitting- 
ton makes  his  first  appearance  in  1379,  when  he  con- 
tributed five  marks  to  a city  loan.  In  1392  he  was 
elected  alderman  and  sheriff  of  London,  being  at  that 
time  a member  of  the  Mercers’  Company.  He  was  ap- 
pointed or  elected  mayor  in  1397, 1398,  1406,  and  1419; 
and  in  1416  he  was  chosen  member  of  parliament  for 
London.  In  April,  1402,  he  supplied  cloth  of  gold  for 
the  marriage  of  the  king’s  daughter  Blanche  with  Louis, 
son  of  the  emperor  Rupert,  and  four  years  later  ( J uly, 
1406),  for  that  of  Philippa  and  Erik  VII.  of  Denmark. 
In  March,  1413,  the  king  repaid  him  a loan  of  $5,000, 
and  in  September,  141^,  he  was  granted  a lien  on  the 
customs  of  Boston,  Kmgston-on-Hull,  and  London,  in 
discharge  of  700  marks  lent  to  Henry  V.  (by  whom  he 
seems  to  have  been  knighted).  H e died  in  M arch,  1423. 

All  that  is  known  about  Whittington  has  been  care- 
fully collected  in  the  Rev.  Samuel  Lysons’  Model 
Merchant  of  the  Middle  Ages  (London,  i860),  from 
which  the  above  account  is  taken.  Lysons  argues  very 
strongly  in  favor  of  the  famous  story  of  “ Whittington 
and  his  Cat,”  and  rejects  the  rationalization  which  ex- 
plains the  legend  by  supposing  Whittington’s  fortunes 
to  have  been  made  in  the  voyages  of  a mediaeval  cat  or 
merchant  vessel.  Clouston  ( Popular  Tales  and  Fic- 
tions , London,  1807,  ii.  65-78)  traces  the  main  features 
of  the  story  in  the  folk-lore  of  Denmark,  Russia,  Nor- 
way, Brittany,  and  even  Persia.  It  was  current  in 
Italy  during  the  fifteenth  century,  but  its  earliest  ap- 
pearance seems  to  be  in  Abdullah’s  History  of  Persia , 
written  toward  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
This  writer  ascribes  the  occurrences  he  tells  of  to  the 
first  half  of  the  eleventh  centuiy.  Even  this,  in  Clous- 
ton’s  opinion,  is  not  the  original  form  of  the  story, 
which,  from  one  or  two  of  its  details,  he  suspects  to  be 
of  Buddhist  origin. 

WHITWORTH,  a manufacturing  village  of  Lanca- 
shire, England.  It  possesses  the  usual  characteristics  of 
the  cotton-manufacturing  districts.  Coal  mining  is  also 
carried  on  in  the  neighborhood.  The  urban  sanitary 
district,  which  includes  the  villages  of  Hallfold,  Facit, 
and  Leavingreave,  has  an  area  of  8,000  acres,  with  a 
population  of  11,892. 

WHOOPING-COUGH.  See  Hooping-Cough. 

WHORTLEBERRY,  a vernacular  name  corrupted 


WHY 

&om  the  Latin  myrtillus , under  which  appellation, 
according  to  Prior,  the  berries  of  the  common  myrtle 
were  employed  in  the  Middle  Ages  for  culinary  pur- 
poses. In  more  modern  times  the  term  has  been  applied 
to  various  species  of  Vaccinium , particularly  to  V. 
Myrtillus , also  known  as  the  bilberry.  The  berries  of 
.his  plant  have  a considerable  similarity  to  those  of  the 
myrtle.  Several  species  of  Vaccinium  occur  on  moor- 
lands throughout  the  northern  hemisphere.  They  are 
low  shrubs  allied  to  heaths,  usually  with  evergreen  leaves 
and  with  small  bell-shaped  or  urnshaped  flowers,  which 
have  an  inferior  ovary  surmounted  by  five  calyx  lobes. 
The  fruit  is  a globular  or  ovoid,  many-seeded  berry. 
WHYDAH. 

WICHITA,  one  of  the  largest,  most  important,  and 
enterprising  cities  of  Kansas,  and  the  capital  of  Sedg- 
wick cou*nty,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Arkan- 
sas river  at  the  mouth  of  the  Little  Arkansas.  In  its 
marvelous  growth  and  development,  more  particularly 
during  recent  years,  Wichita  has  kept  pace  with  the 
most  progressive  cities  of  the  West,  and  established  a 
precedent  for  enterprise  and  public  spirit,  that  commends 
itself  to  universal  favor  and  universal  emulation. 
Within  the  past  ten  years  it  has  emerged  from  a posi- 
tion of  comparative  obscurity  t«  one  of  conspicuous 
prominence  as  a railroad,  commercial,  financial,  and 
manufacturing  center,  with  equal  progress  made  in  the 
departments  of  morals,  education,  and  internal  improve- 
ments. Located  on  the  Chicago,  Kansas  City  and  Gal- 
veston division  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe, 
on  the  Carthage  and  Wichita  divisions  of  the  St.  Louis 
and  San  Francisco,  and  on  the  main  line  of  the  Ft.  Scott, 
Wichita  and  Western ; Wichita  and  Colorado;  Chicago 
Kansas  and  Nebraska,  and  Wichita  and  Western  rail- 
way systems,  the  city  enjoys  the  possession  of  trans- 
portation facilities  that  places  it  in  easy  communica- 
tion with  the  leading  business  centers  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  from  the  seaboard  to  the  Gulf.  It 
covers  an  area  of  many  square  miles,  the  limits  having 
been  repeatedly  extended,  and  the  improvements  made 
are  of  a character  both  rich  and  substantial,  and 
enlisting  the  admiration  of  all  beholders.  Among  the 
prominent  edifices  are  the  Sedgwick  county  court-house, 
completed  during  1890  at  a cost  of  $200,000,  the  city 
hall  erected  at  an  expense  of  $100,000,  Garfield  Uni- 
versity, Wichita  University,  Lewis  Academy,  the  Catho- 
lic colleges,  the  medical  college,  the  high  school,  the 
real  estate  exchange  and  board  of  trade,  Young  Men’s 
Christian  Association  building,  the  opera  houses,  etc., 
all  of  which  are  commodious  and  elegantly  appointed 
structures.  The  financial  interests  of  Wichita  are 
represented  by  five  State  and  three  national  banks,  with 
a total  cash  capital  and  surplus  of  $2,000,000,  and  the 
commercial  business  as  shown  by  the  bank  clearings  for 
1889,  the  same  being  $35,623,051,  was  the  largest  in 
the  State.  The  city,  in  addition  to  the  educatidnal  in- 
stitutions above  cited,  contains  eleven  graded  schools, 
employing  ninety-two  teachers  at  an  aggregate  monthly 
compensation  of  $5,874,  and  provides  a course  of  in- 
struction, including  music  and  drawing,  to  a school 
population  stated  in  round  numbers  at  8,500;  also 
thirty-one  churches,  two  daily  and  ten  weekly  papers, 
half  a dozen  hotels,  two  opera  houses,  two  or  more 
theaters,  a number  of  public  halls,  with  hundreds  of 
stores  and  miles  of  streets  in  the  residence  district,  upon 
which  neat,  tasty,  and  elegant  residences  have  been 
erected.  The  manufactures  embrace  car-works,  iron, 
stone,  cornice,  pressed  brick,  wire  cloth,  vinegar,  paint, 
bottling,  novelty,  tent  and  awning,  and  cooperage 
works,  machine  shops,  planing,  spice,  and  roller  flour 
mills,  book-binderies,  boot  and  snoe,  buggy  and  car- 
riage and  roofing  manufactories,  cracker,  extract,  soap. 


- W I C 6347 

shirt  and  underwear,  yeast,  candy,  pump,  paper-box, 
overall  and  shirt,  spring  bed,  washing  machine,  broom, 
sash  and  door,  stair,  trunk,  ice,  harness  and  saddle,  and 
cigar  factories.  The  packing  and  provision  business 
and  the  purchase  and  shipment  of  live-stock  are  also 
important  interests  at  Wichita,  the  stock-yards  on  the 
outskirts  of  the  city  being  among  the  largest  and  best 
equipped  west  of  Chicago. 

The  affairs  of  the  city  are  administered  by  a mayo* 
and  board  of  aldermen,  and  the  various  departments  oi 
police,  fire,  sewage,  etc. , are  presided  over  by  compe- 
tent officials.  The  principal  streets  are  paved  and 
drained,  there  being  sixty-four  miles  of  sewers;  the 
city  is  lighted  by  gas  and  electricity  and  supplied 
with  thirty  miles  of  electric  and  horse  railways.  Fo* 
the  purposes  of  taxation,  both  real  and  personal  prop- 
erty is  assessed  at  about  30  per  cent,  of  the  actual 
value,  upon  which  basis  the  valuation  of  the  property 
in  Wichita  for  1889  was  $11,335,337,  the  rate  for  the 
year  being  2.72^  per  $100,  claimed  to  be  the  lowest 
of  any  city  of  its  size  in  the  country.  The  growth 
of  Wichita  is  shown  by  the  following  statement  ol 
increase  in  population  since  1870 : In  1870,  50 ; 1875, 
2,432;  1880,5,482;  1885,16,019;  1889,  19,297,  and 
in  1900,  24,671. 

WICK,  a royal  and  parliamentary  burgh  and  seaport 
of  Scotland,  the  county  town  of  Caithness,  is  situated 
on  the  German  Ocean  at  the  head  of  Wick  Bay  and  at 
the  eastern  terminus  of  the  Sutherland  and  Caithness 
section  of  the  Highland  railway.  It  consists  of  the  old 
burgh  of  Wick  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river,  Louis- 
burgh,  a northern  continuation  of  Wick,  and  Pultney- 
town,  the  chief  seat  of  commerce  and  trade,  on  the 
south  side  of  the  river.  The  chief  exports  are  fish,  cat- 
tle, and  agricultural  produce,  and  the  imports  include 
coal,  wood,  and  provisions.  Steamers  from  Granton 
and  Aberdeen  to  Thurso,  the  Orkneys,  and  the  Shet- 
lands,  call  at  Wick  going  and  returning.  It  is,  however, 
chiefly  to  its  fisheries  that  the  town  owes  its  prosperity. 
For  many  years  it  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  herring- 
fishing on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland;  but  its  insufficient 
harbor  accommodation  has  greatly  hampered  its  prog- 
ress, and  both  Peterhead  and  Fraserburgh  more  than 
rival  it  as  fishing  ports.  The  population  of  its  ex- 
tended area  is  2,954. 

WICKLIFFE.  See  Wycliffe. 

WICKLOW,  a maritime  county  of  Ireland,  in  tho 
province  of  Leinster,  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  St. 
George’s  channel,  north  by  the  county  of  Dublin,  south 
by  Wexford,  and  west  by  Carlow  and  detached  portions 
of  Kildare.  The  area  is  500,178  acres  or  about  781 
square  miles.  The  coast  is  precipitous  and  picturesque, 
but  very  dangerous  of  approach  owing  to  sand-banks. 
There  are  no  inlets  that  can  be  properly  termed  bays. 
The  harbor  at  Wicklow  has  lately  been  improved;  but 
that  of  Arklow  is  suitable  only  for  small  vessels.  To 
the  north  of  the  t lwn  of  Wicklow  there  is  a remarka* 
ble  shingle  beach,  partly  piled  up  by  the  waves  and  cur- 
rents. The  central  portion  of  the  county  is  occupied 
by  a granite  mountair  range,  forming  one  of  the  four 
principal  mountain  groups  of  Ireland.  It  is  in  its  deep 
glens  that  much  of  the  peculiar  charm  of  Wicklow 
scenery  is  to  be  found,  the  frequently  rugged  natural 
features  contrasting  finely  with  the  rich  and  luxuriant 
foliage  of  the  extensive  woods  which  line  their  banks. 
Among  the  more  famous  of  these  glens  are  the  Dargle, 
Glencree,  Glen  of  the  Downs,  Devil’s  Glen,  Glenma- 
lure,  Glen  of  Ismail,  and  the  beautiful  vale  of  Ovoca. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Liffey,  on  the  northwestern 
border;  the  Vartry,  which  passes  through  Devil’s  Glex 
to  the  sea  north  of  Wicklow  Head;  the  Avonmore 
and  the  Avonbeg,  which  unite  at  the  “ meeting  of  the 


WID  — WIE 


6348 

waters  ” to  form  the  Ovoca,  which  is  afterward  joined 
by  the  Aughrim  and  falls  into  the  sea  at  Arklow ; and 
the  Slaney,  in  the  west  of  the  county,  passing  south- 
ward into  Carlow.  There  are  a number  of  small  but 
romantic  lakes  in  the  valleys,  the  principal  being 
Loughs  Dan,  Bray,  and  Tay  or  Luggelaw,  and  the 
loughs  of  Glendalough. 

Lead  is  mined  at  Lugganure  (near  Rathdrum),  the 
principal  lead  mine  in  Ireland.  In  1796  gold  was  dis- 
covered near  Croghan  Kinshela,  but  not  in  quantities  to 
render  working  remunerative.  Auriferous  silver  oc- 
curs in  the  slaty  strata.  There  are  important  copper 
mines  at  Ovoca,  where  sulphur  and  iron  are  also  dug. 
Slates  for  roofing  are  quarried  at  Dunganstown  and 
elsewhere.  Limestone,  limestone  gravel,  and  marl  are 
obtained  near  the  sea  and  in  the  river  valleys. 

According  to  the  latest  landowners’  return,  Wicklow 
Was  divided  among  1,041  proprieters,  possessing  497,- 
656  acres.  There  were  also  about  2,500  acres  of 
waste  land.  The  climate  near  the  sea  is  remarkably 
mild,  and  permits  the  myrtle  and  arbutus  to  grow.  The 
’and  in  the  lower  grounds  is  fertile ; and,  although  the 
greater  part  of  the  higher  districts  is  covered  with  heath 
and  turf,  it  affords  good  pasturage  for  sheep.  There  is 
a considerable  extent  of  natural  timber,  as  well  as  arti- 
ficial plantations.  Except  in  the  Ovoca  district,  where  the 
mining  industry  is  of  some  importance,  the  occupations 
are  chiefly  agricultural.  The  manufacture  of  flannel, 
which  formerly  gave  employment  to  a considerable  num- 
ber of  people,  is  now  in  a very  depressed  condition. 
Herring  and  round  fish  are  caught  off  the  coast,  but 
these  fisheries  are  much  neglected.  There  is,  however,  a 
rather  prosperous  oyster  fishery  at  Arklow.  Of  late  years 
the  harbor  at  Wicklow  has  been  improved,  the  bed  of 
the  river  deepened,  and  a steam-packet  pier  erected. 

According  to  De  Burgo’s  estimate,  the  population  of 
Wicklow  in  1760  amounted  1043,872;  the  parliamentary 
census  of  1812  placed  it  at  83,109 ; by  1821  it  had  in- 
:teasedto  1 10,767,  and  by  1841  to  126,143,  but  by  1861 
it  had  diminished  to  86,451,  by  1871  to  78,697,  and  by 
1901  to  60,679  (males  30,500,  females  30,179).  Roman 
Catholics  in  1881  numbered  79.9  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation, Protestant  Episcopalians  18.3  (an  unusually 
large  proportion  for  the  south  of  Ireland),  Presbyte- 
rians 0.4,  Methodists  1.0,  and  other  denominations  0.4. 
The  number  of  persons  who  could  read  and  write  num- 
bered 57.4  of  the  population,  able  to  read  only  12.8  per 
cent.,  illiterate  29.8.  There  were  none  who  could 
speak  Irish  only,  and  the  number  who  could  speak 
Irish  and  English  was  243.  Wicklow,  which  formerly 
returned  two  members  to  parliament,  was  in  1885 
formed  into  two  parliamentary  divisions,  an  eastern 
and  a western,  each  returning  one  member.  The  prin- 
cipal towns  are  part  of  Bray  (4,387),  a fashionable 
Watering-place,  the  other  part  (2,148)  being  in  Dublin; 
Wicklow  (3,391),  the  county  town;  and  Arklow  (4,777), 
a fishing-station  of  some  importance. 

WIDDIN,  or  Widin,  a fortified  town  of  Bulgaria, 
within  20  miles  of  the  Servian  frontier  and  about  130 
miles  southeast  of  Belgrade,  in  440  N.  latitude  and  22° 
50'  E.  longitude.  It  occupies  a strong  position  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Danube  over  against  the  Roumanian 
town  of  Kalafat,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a bridge 
of  boats  over  a mile  long.  Its  population  in  1900 
amounted  to  16,435.  The  citadel,  always  a formidable 
stronghold,  has  recently  been  strengthened  and  enlarged 
with  a double  line  of  ramparts  reaching  to  the  water’s 
edge,  while  on  the  land  side  the  approaches  are  naturally 
protected  by  the  extensive  marshy  tracts  formed  here 
by  a sharp  bend  of  the  Danube  from  the  east  to  the  south. 
The  old  town  within  these  lines  was  formerly  inhabited 
exclusively  by  Mohammedans,  and  still  presents  an 


Oriental  aspect,  with  its  mosques.,  minarets,  and  ovei 
1,700  stalls  lining  the  bazar  or  main  thoroughfare  of 
Plevna  Ulica.  There  are  a few  local  industries,  such 
as  the  making  of  gold  and  silver  filigree  work,  saddlery, 
beer,  flour,  and  cutlery,  besides  a brisk  river  trade, 
mainly  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews  and  Bulgarians.  Its 
name  figures  conspicuously  in  the  military  annals  of 
mediaeval  and  recent  times ; and  it  is  specially  memo- 
rable for  the  overthrow  of  the  Turks  by  the  imperial 
forces  in  1689,  and  for  th-  crushing  defeat  of  the 
hospodar,  Michael  Sustos,  by  Pasvan  Oglu  in  1801.  It 
was  again  the  scene  of  stirring  events  during  the  Russo- 
Turkish  wars  of  1854-55  and  1877-78,  and  successfully 
resisted  the  assaults  of  the  Servians  in  the  Servo-Bul- 
garian  war  of  1886-87. 

WIDNES,  a manufacturing  town  of  Lancashire, 
England,  is  situated  on  the  Mersey,  13  miles  south- 
east of  Liverpool  and  188  from  London.  Capacious 
private  docks  were  constructed  in  1866  and  extended 
in  1884.  The  Mersey  is  crossed  by  a wrought-iron 
bridge  1,000  feet  long  and  95  in  height,  completed  m 
1868,  and  having  two  lines  of  railway  and  a footpath. 
Widnes  is  one  of  the  principal  seats  of  the  alkali  and 
soap  manufacture,  and  has  also  grease-works  for  loco- 
motives and  wagons,  copper-works,  iron  foundries,  oil 
and  paint  works,  and  sail-cloth  manufactories.  In  1871 
the  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  3,339 
acres)  was  14,359;  in  1901  it  was  estimated  to  exceed 
38,000. 

WIELAND,  Christopher  Martin,  German  man 
of  letters,  was  born  on  September  5,  1733,  at  Ober- 
holzheim,  a Swabian  village  near  Biberach.  In  his 
fourteenth  year  he  was  sent  to  the  school  of  Kloste-r- 
bergen,  near  Magdeburg,  where  he  attracted  a good 
deal  of  attention,  not  only  by  his  knowledge  of  the  clas- 
sics and  of  French  and  English  literature,  but  by  his 
power  of  lucid  and  graceful  expression.  In  1750  he 
went  to  the  university  of  Tubingen,  nominally  for  the 
purpose  of  studying  law;  but  in  reality  he  devoted  his 
attention  wholly  to  literature.  At  Tubingen  he  wrote 
his  poem  on  the  Nature  of  Things,  and  in  1752  it  was 
published  anonymously.  Here  also  he  wrote  Anti- 
Ovid,  Lobgesang  auf  den  Friihling,  Moralische  Brief e 
and  Moralische  Erzahlungen.  In  1760  he  settled  at 
Biberach  as  director  of  the  chancery.  In  Don  Sylvio 
von  Rosalva  (1764),  a romance  intended  to  be  taken  as 
an  imitation  of  Don  Quixote,  he  gave  himself  the 
leasure  of  laughing  at  principles  and  sentiments  which 
e had  formerly  held  to  be  sacred.  This  work  was 
followed  by  Komische  Erzahlungen , and  at  Biberach 
he  devoted  much  time  to  the  study  of  Shakespeare,  and 
in  1 762-66  he  published,  in  eight  volumes,  translations 
of  twenty-two  of  Shakespeare’s  plays. 

In  1772  Wieland  settled  for  life  at  Weimar,  his  po- 
sition at  first  being  that  of  a tutor  to  the  two  sons  of 
the  dftchess  Anna  Amalia.  Here  he  founded  the 
monthly  periodical,  Der  Deutsche  Mercur , which  he 
edited  until  1796.  For  this  periodical  he  wrote  con- 
stantly, and,  considering  the  immense  number  of  his 
productions,  it  is  surprising  that  he  was  able  to  main- 
tain, on  the  whole,  so  high  a level  of  excellence.  By 
far  the  best  of  his  works  is  the  poem  Oberon,  the  only 
work  by  him  which  has  still  a wide  circle  of  readers  in 
Germany.  It  was  published  in  1780.  In  1797  Wie- 
land bought  Osmannstadt,  an  estate  near  Weimar,  and 
there  he  lived  for  some  years  with  his  large  family.  At 
Osmannstadt*  he  wrote  his  last  important  romance, 
Aristipp  und  einige  seiner  Zeitgenossen  (1S00-2).  I® 
1801  his  wife  died,  and  two  years  afterward  he  soldhia 
estate  and  returned  to  Weimar,  where  he  spent  his 
last  years  in  translating  and  annotating  the  Letters  of 
Cicero.  He  died  January  20,  1813. 


W I E - 

WIENER  NEUSTADT.  See  Neustadt. 

WIESBADEN,  capital  of  the  former  duchy  of 
Nassau  and  now  the  chief  town  of  a district  in  the 
province  of  Hesse-Nassau  in  Prussia,  disputes  with 
Baden-Baden  the  title  to  be  considered  the  most 
frequented  and  most  fashionable  watering-place  in 
Germany.  It  is  situated  in  a small  and  fertile  valley 
on  the  southwest  slopes  of  Mount  Taunus,  five  miles  to 
the  north  of  Mainz  and  three  miles  from  the  Rhine. 
The  town  is  neat  and  well  built,  with  broad  and  reg- 
ular streets.  Its  prosperity  is  entirely  owing  to  its  hot 
springs ; and  the  general  character  and  appearance  of 
the  place,  with  its  numerous  hotels,  lodging-houses, 
villas,  bath-houses,  promenades,  and  places  of  enter- 
tainment, are  dictated  by  the  requirements  of  the  visit- 
ors, who  number  annually  about  60,000.  The  town 
lies  320  feet  above  the  sea-level.  Its  climate  is  mild 
and  warm,  so  that  even  in  winter  it  is  frequented  by 
from  5,000  to  6,000  visitors.  The  population  in  1901 
was  86,086. 

Wiesbaden  is  one  of  the  oldest  watering-places  in 
Germany,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  capital  of  the 
Taunus  spas.  The  springs,  mentioned  by  Pliny  as 
Fontes  Mattiaci , were  known  to  the  Romans,  who 
appear  to  have  fortifiec  the  place.  Under  the  Caro- 
lingian  monarcns  it  was  the  site  of  a palace.  Otho  I. 
made  it  a town.  The  name  Wisibada  appears  in  830. 
Though  the  springs  never  passed  out  of  knowledge, 
they  did /lot  attain  their  greatest  repute  until  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  From  1771  till  1873  Wies- 
baden was  a notorious  gambling  resort;  but  in  the 
latter  year  publie  gambling  was  suppressed  by  the 
Prussian  government. 

WIFE.  See  Husband  and  Wife*  and  Women. 

WIG.  Artificial  hair  appears  to  have  been  worn 
from  very  ancient  times,  as  is  testified  by  well-made 
wigs  recovered  from  Egyptian  mummy  figures.  The 
full  and  flowing  locks  which  adorn  the  sculptured  re- 
liefs of  human  figures  found  at  Nineveh  also  suggest 
that  wigs  were  not  unknown  among  the  ancient  As- 
syrians. In  the  sixteenth  century  the  fashion  of  wear- 
ing false  hair  became  prevalent  among  ladies  in  Eu- 
rope. At  one  period  Elizabeth  of  England  was  pos- 
sessed of  no  fewer  than  eighty  attires  of  false  hair. 
Mary  of  Scotland  throughout  her  life  was  also  in  the 
habit  of  varying  the  attires  of  hair  she  wore;  and  much 
of  the  confusion  which  has  arisen  in  connection  with 
her  portraits  is  traceable  to  this  circumstance.  The 
periwig  of  the  sixteenth  century  was,  however,  merely 
false  hair  worn  like  and  sometimes  with  the  real  hair, 
as  an  adornment  or  to  supply  the  defects  of  nature.  It 
was  not  till  the  seventeenth  century  that  the  peruke  was 
worn  as  a distinctive  feature  of  costume;  as  such  it 
was  first  employed  by  Louis  XIII.  when  his  hair  failed. 
His  suocessor,  Louis  XIV.,  did  not  adopt  it  till  1673. 
In  the  meantime  it  had  been  freely  donned  by  courtiers 
and  gallants  of  the  era.  The  wearing  of  the  peruke 
became  general  in  the  days  of  Charles  II.  The  wig 
obtained  its  maximum  development  during  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne,  who  was  patroness  of  the  full-bottomed 
wig, — a huge  head-dress  which  covered  the  back  and 
shoulders  and  floated  down  over  the  chest.  Early  in 
the  reign  of  George  III.  the  general  fashion  of  wearing 
wigs  began  to  wane  and  gradually  died  out ; but  among 
professional  men  the  practice  continued  to  hold  its 
place,  and  it  was  by  slow  degrees  that  military  officers 
and  clergymen  gave  up  the  habit.  The  wig  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century  now  holds  its  place  only  on  the  judi- 
cial bench,  and  with  the  speaker  of  the  English  House 
of  Commons,  barristers  and  advocates;  but  even  on  the 
bench  its  use  is  being  threatened.  Wigs  of  course  con- 
tinue to  be  worn  by  many  to  make  up  for  natural  defi- 

398 


-WIG  6349 

ciencies;  and  on  the  stage  the  wig  is,  as  in  all  times,  aa 
indispensable  adjunct.  Many  of  the  modern  stage  wigs 
are  made  of  jute,  a fiber  which  lends  itself  to  marvel- 
ously perfect  imitations  of  human  hair, 

WIGAN,  a municipal  and  parliamentary  borough 
and  market  town  of  Lancashire,  England,  is  situated 
on  the  river  Douglas  and  on  the  main  line  of  the  Lon- 
don and  Northwestern  railway,  18  miles  west-north- 
west of  Manchester,  18  northeast  of  Liverpool,  and  195 
northwest  of  London.  The  town  owes  much  of  its 
prosperity  to  its  coal  mines,  which  afford  employment 
to  a large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  and  supply 
fuel  for  the  factory  furnaces.  Mills  for  making  hats 
were  established  at  Wigan  in  1482;  and  subsequently 
bell-founding  and  pottery-making  were  of  some  impor- 
tance. The  chief  industry  is  now  the  manufacture  of 
cotton  fabrics;  the  town  also  possesses  iron  forges,  iron 
and  brass  foundries,  oil  and  grease  works,  railway 
wagon  factories,  and  bolt,  screw,  and  nail  works. 
The  population  of  the  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  in  1901  was  estimated  at  60,774. 

WIGEON  (French  Vigeon , from  the  Latin  Vipio\ 
also  called  locally  “ Whewer  ” and  “ Whew  ” (names 
imitative  of  the  whistling  call-note  of  the  male),  the 
Anas  penelopc  of  Linn  reus  and  Mareca  penelope  of 
many  modern  ornithologists,  one  of  the  most  abundant 
species  of  ducks  throughout  trie  greater  part  of  Europe 
and  northern  Asia,  reaching  northern  Africa  and  India 
in  winter.  A good  many  pairs  breed  in  the  north  of 
Scotland ; but  the  nurseries  of  the  vast  numbers  which 
resort  in  autumn  to  the  waters  of  temperate  Europe 
are  in  Lapland  or  farther  to  the  eastward.  Compar- 
atively few  breed  in  Iceland. 

Intermediate  in  size  between  the  Teal  and  the  Mal- 
lard, and  less  showy  in  plumage  than  either,  the  drake 
Wigeon  is  a beautiful  bird,  with  the  greater  part  of  his 
bill  blue,  his  forehead  cream  color,  his  head  and  neck 
chestnut,  passing  into  pinkish  gray  below,  and  above 
into  lavender  gray,  which  last,  produced  by  the  trans- 
verse undulations  of  fine  black  and  white  lines,  extends 
over  the  back  and  upper  surface  of  the  wings,  except 
some  of  the  coverts,  which  are  conspicuously  white, 
and  shows  itself  again  on  the  flanks.  The  wings  are 
further  ornamented  by  a glossy  green  speculum  between 
two  black  bars;  the  tail  is  pointed  and  dark;  the  rest  of 
the  lower  parts  white.  The  female  has  the  incon- 
spicuous coloration  characteristic  of  her  sex  among 
most  of  the  Duck  tribe. 

The  Wigeon  occurs  occasionally  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  North  America,  and  not  uncommonly,  it  would 
seem,  on  the  Pribyloff  Islands  in  the  Pacific.  But  the 
New  World  has  two  allied  species  of  its  own.  One  of 
them,  M.  Americana , inhabiting  the  northern  part  of 
that  continent,  and  in  winter  reaching  Central  America 
and  the  West  Indian  islands  as  far  as  Trinidad,  wholly 
resembles  its  Old  World  congener  in  habits,  and  much 
in  appearance. 

WIGHT,  Isle  of,  a small  island  in  the  English 
Channel,  forms  a portion  of  the  county  of  Hampshire, 
and  is  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a narrow  strait, 
the  Solent  and  Spithead.  The  island  is,  roughly  speak- 
ing, diamond-shaped,  the  shorter  diameter,  from  north 
to  south,  measuring  thirteen  miles,  and  the  longer, 
from  east  to  west,  twenty-three  miles.  The  area  is  92,- 
931  acres,  or  about  145  square  miles.  The  most  prom- 
inent feature  in  its  physical  geography  is  a range  ot 
high  chalk  downs  running  from  east  to  west  across  the 
center  of  the  island,  and  terminating  in  the  Culver  and 
Freshwater  cliffs  respectively.  This  range  is  broken 
through  in  the  center  by  the  valley  of  the  Medina,  which 
flows  due  north  and  is  the  only  river  of  consequence  in 
the  island;  it  is  navigable  up  to  Newport  A second 


«3Jo  WIG- 

smaller  range  of  chalk  downs  occurs  in  the  south  near 
Ventnor.  Along  the  south  coast,  extending  from  St. 
Catherine  Point  to  Ventnor,  there  is  the  remarkable  dis- 
trict known  as  the  Undercliff,  celebrated  for  its  wild  and 
romantic  beauty  and  for  its  mild  climate.  It  is  sheltered 
from  the  north  by  a line  of  high  cliffs.  North  of  the 
central  chalk  range  the  country  is  for  the  most  part  flat 
and  well  wooded.  Parkhnrst  Forest  is  3,000  acres  in 
extent.  The  climate  is  mild  and  relaxing,  and  enjoys  the 
reputation  of  being  peculiarly  salubrious.  In  winter  and 
spring,  however,  the  east  winds  are  very  trying,  and  in 
summer  the  heat  is  at  times  very  great.  Partly  owing 
to  the  mildness  of  the  climate,  and  partly  to  the  beauty 
of  the  scenery,  the  island  has  long-been  a favorite  resort 
of  tourists,  and  within  recent  years  several  fashionable 
watering-places  have  sprung  up.  Of  these  the  principal 
are  Cowes,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Medina,  the  headquar- 
ters of  the  Royal  Yacht  Squadron,  Ryde  (11,461  inhab- 
itants), Bembridge,  Sandown,  Ventnor  (5,739),  Shanklin 
(1,780),  Freshwater  (2,809),  and  Yarmouth  (787). 
Newport  (9,357),  on  the  Medina,  is  the  capital  of  the 
island,  but  is  little  frequented  by  visitors.  Hitherto 
many  parts  of  the  island  have  been  more  or  less  inac- 
cessible owing  to  the  deficiency  of  railways;  but  it  is  being 
rapidly  opened  up,  and  a railway  is  now  in  course  of 
construction  between  Newport,  Carisbrooke,  Yarmouth, 
and  Freshwater.  There  are  few  industries  in  the  island. 
The  population  is  chiefly  agricultural,  a large  propor- 
tion of  the  land  being  devoted  to  sheep  grazing.  Fish- 
ing is  also  carried  on  to  a considerable  extent  on  the 
south  coast.  Episcopally  the  island  has  for  many  centu- 
ries belonged  to  the  see  of  Winchester.  In  1901  the 
population  was  93,633,  as  against  66,219  in  1871. 

WIGTOWN,  or  Wigton,  a maritime  county  in  the 
southwest  corner  of  Scotland,  forming  the  western  di- 
vision of  the  old  district  of  Galloway,  is  bounded  north 
by  the  Irish  Channel  and  Ayrshire,  east  by  Kirkcud- 
bright and  Wigtown  Bay,  south  by  the  Irish  Sea,  and 
west  by  the  Irish  Channel.  It  is  of  very  irregular 
form.  Its  greatest  breadth,  east  and  west,  is  about 
thirty  three  miles,  and  its  greatest  length,  noirth  and 
south,  about  twenty-six  miles.  The  area  is  310,742 
acres,  or  487  square  miles.  Pop.  (1901),  32,683. 

The  coast-line  has  a total  length  of  about  120  miles. 
On  the  eastern  boundary  the  estuary  of  the  Cree  ex- 
pands into  Wigtown  Bay.  Between  Wigtown  and 
Luce  Bays  is  the  peninsula  of  the  Machers,  of  which 
Burrow  Head  is  the  southern  extremity.  Luce  Bay 
has  a length  of  about  fifteen  miles  and  an  average 
breadth  of  twelve.  By  its  indentation  on  the  south  and 
that  of  Loch  Ryan  (about  nine  miles  long  and  nearly 
three  broad),  on  the  north  the  two-pronged  peninsula 
of  the  Rinns  is  formed,  of  which  the  Mull  of  Galloway, 
the  most  southerly  point  in  Scotland,  is  the  southern 
extremity,  and  Kirkcolm  Point  the  northern.  The 
coast  is  more  or  less  precipitous,  with  many  small  inlets, 
few  of  which,  on  account  f dangerous  hidden  rocks, 
afford  suitable  landing-places  for  . vessels.  Loch  Ryan 
forms,  however,  a splendid  natural  harbor,  of  which 
Stranraer  is  the  port.  Port  Patrick  on  the  Irish  Chan- 
nel is  the  nearest  port  in  Great  Britain  to  Ireland,  and 
seven  miles  to  the  south  is  Port  Logan.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  Port  William  on  its  eastern  shore,  Luce 
Bay  is  destitute  of  harbors. 

Although  the  rainfall  exceeds  the  average  in  Scotland, 
the  climate  is  not  specially  unfavorable  for  the  ripen- 
ing of  crops,  and  frosts  are  not  generally  of  long  con- 
tinuance. A considerable  portion  of  Wigtownshire 
consists  of  stony  moors,  which  have  insufficient  soil  to 
render  reclamation  possible.  According  to  the  Agri- 
cultural Returns  for  1887,  the  arable  area  was  147,063 
teres,  or  about  46  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  considerably 


-WIL 

above  the  average  for  even  the  lowland  counties  of 
Scotland.  The  area  under  grain  crops  was  37,392 
acres,  of  which  35,511  were  under  oats.  Although 
agriculture  is  the  main  industry,  there  is  a variety  of 
small  manufactures  in  the  towns,  including  a woolen 
factory  at  Kirkcowan,  engineering  and  locomotive 
works  at  Stranraer,  hand-loom  weaving  in  various 
places,  distilling,  tanning,  and  currying.  The  popula- 
tion is  40,000. 

In  point  of  density  Wigtown  stands  twenty-first 
among  the  counties  of  Scotland,  the  number  of  persons 
to  the  square  mile  being  sixty-seven.  The  proportion 
of  females  to  every  100  males  is  112.82,  the  largest 
proportion  of  any  county  with  the  exceptions  of  Orkney 
and  Shetland  and  Forfar.  The  county  has  three  royal 
burghs — Wigton  (1,789),  Stranraer  (3,455),  and  Whit- 
horn (1,643). 

WILBERFORCE,  Samuel,  bishop  of  Oxford  and 
afterward  of  Winchester,  was  the  third  son  of  William 
Wilberforce  (see  below),  and  was  born  near  London, 
on  September  7,  1805.  Until  he  entered  Oriel  College, 
Oxford,  in  1823,  he  was  educated  privately.  In  the 
“ United  Debating  Society,”  which  afterward  developed 
into  the  “ Union,”  Wilberforce  distinguished  himself 
as  a zealous  advocate  of  liberalism.  He  graduated  in 
1826;  and  the  summer  and  autumn  of  1827  were  spent 
in  a Continental  tour.  After  his  marriage  on  June  n, 
1828,  to  Emily  Sargent,  he  was,  in  December,  ordained 
and  appointed  curate-in-charge  at  Checkendpn,  near 
Henley-on-Thames.  In  1830  he  was  presented  by 
Bishop  Sumner  of  Winchester  to  the  rectory  of  Bright- 
stone  in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  Although  a High  Church- 
man, Wilberforce  held  aloof  from  the  Oxford  movement, 
and  in  1838  his  divergence  from  the  “ Tract  ” writers 
became  so  marked  that  J.  H.  Newman  declined  further 
contributions  from  him  to  the  British  Critic,  not  deem- 
ing it  advisable  that  they  should  longer  “ cooperate 
very  closely.”  In  1838  Wilberforce  published,  with 
his  elder  brother  Robert,  the  Life  of  his  father, 
and  two  years  later  his  father’s  Correspondence. 
In  1841  he  was  chosen  Bampton  lecturer.  In  1844 
appeared  his  History  of  the  American  Church.  In 
March  of  the  following  year  he  accepted  the  deanery 
of  Westminster,  and  in  October  the  bishopric  of  Oxford. 

The  publication  of  a papal  bull  in  1850  establishing  a 
Roman  hierarchy  in  England  brought  the  High  Church 
party,  of  whom  Wilberforce  was  the  most  prominent 
member,  into  temporary  disrepute.  The  secession  to 
the  Church  of  Rome  of  his  brother-in-law,  Archdeacon 
(now  Cardinal)  Manning,  and  afterward  of  his  two 
brothers,  brought  him  under  further  suspicion,  and  his 
revival  of  the  powers  of  convocation  lessened  his  influ- 
ence at  court;  but  his  unfailing  tact  and  wide  sym- 
pathies, his  marvelous  energy  in  church  organization, 
the  magnetism  of  his  personality,  and  his  eloquence, 
both  on  the  platform  and  in  the  pulpit,  gradually  won 
for  him  recognition  as  without  a rival  on  the  episcopal 
bench.  After  twenty-four  years’  labor  in  the  diocese  of 
Oxford,  he  was  named  by  Mr.  Gladstone  for  the  bishop- 
ric of  Winchester.  His  unremitting  labors  had,  how- 
ever, seriously  told  on  his  constitution,  and  the  change 
to  a new  diocese,  entailing  a repetition  of  the  work  of 
organization  which  he  had  completed  in  the  old  one, 
proved  too  much  for  his  health.  The  result  was  a 
severe  affection  of  the  heart,*  which  on  more  than  one 
occasion  threatened  to  prove  fatal.  He  was  killed  on 
July  19,  1873,  by  a fall  from  his  horse. 

WILBERFORCE,  William,  whose  name  is  chiefly 
associated  with  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  was 
born  at  Hull,  England,  on  August  24,  -1759.  In  1780 
he  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Commons  for  his  native 
town,  his  success  being  due  to  his  personal  popularity 


WIL 


and  his  lavish  expenditure.  In  the  autumn  of  1 783  lie 
set  out  with  Pitt  on  a tour  in  France;  and  after  his  re- 
turn his  eloquence  proved  of  great  assistance  to  Pitt  in 
his  struggle  against  the  majority  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. In  1784  Wilberforce  was  elected  for  both  Hull 
and  Yorkshire,  and  took  his  seat  for  the  latter  constitu- 
ency. A journey  to  Nice  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year, 
with  Dr.  Isaac  Milner,  led  to  his  conversion  to  Evan- 
gelical Christianity  and  the  adoption  of  more  serious 
views  of  life.  The  change  had  a marked  effect  on  his 
ublic  conduct.  In  the  beginning  of  1787  he  busied 
imself  with  the  establishment  of  a society  for  the  ref- 
ormation of  manners.  About  the  same  time  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Thomas  Clarkson,  and  began  the 
agitation  against  the  slave  trade.  Pitt  entered  heartily 
into  their  plans,  and  recommended  Wilberforce  to 
undertake  the  guidance  of  the  project,  as  a subject  suited 
to  his  character  and  talents.  While  Clarkson  con- 
ducted the  agitation  throughout  the  country,  Wilber- 
force took  every  opportunity  in  the  House  of  Commons 
of  exposing  the  evils  and  horrors  of  the  trade.  Not 
withstanding  his  unremitting  labors  in  educating  public 
opinion,  and  annual  motions  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
it  was  not  till  1807,  the  year  following  Pitt’s  death, 
that  the  first  great  step  toward  the  abolition  of  slavery 
was  accomplished.  When  the  anti-slavery  society  was 
formed  in  1823,  Wilberforce  and  Clarkson  became  vice- 
presidents  ; but  before  their  aim  was  accomplished 
Wilberforce  had  retired  from  public  life,  and  the  Eman- 
cipation Bill  was  not  passed  till  August,  1833,  a month 
after  his  death. 

WILDBAD,  a watering-place  in  the  northwest  of 
Wiirtemberg,  is  picturesquely  situated  in  the  romantic 
ineclad  gorge  of  the  Enz,  twenty-eight  miles  west  of 
tuttgart  and  fourteen  east  of  Baden-Baden.  Its 
thermal  alkaline  springs  have  a temperature  of  900- 
ioo°  Fahr.,  and  are  used  for  bathing  in  cases  of 
rheumatism,  gout,  neuralgia,  and  similar  ailments, 
the  population  of  the  town  is  3,514- 
WILDERNESS  CAMPAIGN,  The.  Ever  since  the 
battle  of  Gettysburg,  in  July,  1863,  the  two  armies — 
that  of  Northern  Virginia  and  that  of  the  Potomac — 
had  confronted  each  other,  but  no  operations  of  im- 
portance took  place  until  nearly  a year  later,  at  which 
time  began  that  celebrated  series  of  battles  which, 
commencing  with  the  battles  of  the  Wilderness  and 
Spottsylvania,  continued  for  a month,  ending  with  the 
second  Cold  Harbor,  and  have  passed  into  history 
as  the  Wilderness  campaign.  The  bloody  ferocity  of 
these  battles  and  the  singular  obstinacy  with  which 
every  foot  of  ground  fought  over  was  contested  go  to 
make  this  campaign  one  of  the  most  memorable  in  the 
annals  of  warfare.  Here  for  the  first  time  the  two 
great  captains  of  the  North  and  South  met  in  pitched 
battle,  and  here  it  was  that  the  trembling  balance  of 
fate  took  the  plunge  that  decided  finally  the  fate  of  the 
Confederacy  and  confirmed  and  followed  up  the  work 
begun  at  Gettysburg.  On  March  29,  1864,  General 
Grant  had  been  made  commander-in-chief  of  the  Union 
armies,  and,  having  placed  General  Sherman  in  com- 
mand in  the  further  South,  he  had  in  person  taken  the 
field  with  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  although  Gen. 
George  G.  Meade  yet  retained  the  nominal  command  of 
the  latter  organization.  Grant’s  plan  of  campaign  was 
different  to  any  hitherto  put  into  execution,  inasmuch 
as  it  was  proposed  by  him  to  move  all  of  the  Union 
armies  as  members  of  a common  whole,  thus  securing 
unity  of.  action  in  the  direction  of  one  ultimate  goal. 
This  goal  was  the  Confederate  capital,  toward  which 
the  army  of  the  Potomac  was  to  descend  from  the 
North,  while  the  army  of  the  further  South,  after  de- 
stroying all  possibility  of  attack  in  its  rear,  was  to  ad- 


6351 

vance  toward  the  same  city  from  the  South.  On  the 
morning  of  May  4,  1864,  the  army  of  the  Potomac 
began  the  initial  movement  of  this  programme,  while 
Butler  at  the  same  time  advanced  up  the  south  side  of 
the  James  river  from  Fort  Monroe  toward  Richmond, 
and  Sherman  started  on  his  march  from  Chattanooga  to 
Atlanta.  Leaving  these  two  latter  divisions  of  the 
army  to  their  own  proper  place  of  treatment,  we  will 
give  a brief  sketch  of  the  Wilderness  campaign  proper. 
Grant  began  his  movement  by«throwing  his  right  wing 
across  tfu  Rapidan  river,  on  the  north  bank  of  which 
his  army  had  lain,  while  Lee’s  army  was  on  the  opposite 
side,  in  a strong  position  at  Mine  Run.  This  move- 
ment on  the  part  of  Grant  met  with  no  opposition 
from  Lee,  and  the  former  general  drew  the  conclusion 
that  he  had  surprised  the  latter  by  his  movement ; but 
this  was  not  true.  General  Lee’s  intention  was  to 
draw  the  Federal  army  into  the  same  difficult  field  in 
which  Hooker  had  a year  before  met  with  so 
signal  a defeat.  Lee  was  .perfectly  familiar  with 
this  section  of  the  country,  and  he  hoped  to  so 
improve  this  knowledge  as  to  be  able  to  deal 
Grant  as  heavy  a blow  as  he  had  given  Hooker.  Grant’s 
forces  amounted  to  120,000  men,  while  those  of  Lee  are 
estimated,  by  different  authorities,  at  from  64,000  to 
80,000  (the  latter  estimate  being  General  Grant’s 
figures).  After  the  Federal  right  had  crossed  the  river 
that  wing  pushed  forward  into  the  heart  of  the  Wilder- 
ness— a desolate  region  filled  with  tangled  underbrush, 
and  scrub  oak  and  pine,  whose  impenetrable  thickets 
made  it  almost  impossible  for  an  army  to  enter — while 
the  left  wing  was  hurried  forward  to  Chancellorsville 
(the  scene  of  Hooker’s  defeat),  where  it  rested  for  the 
night.  Grant  then  intended,  if  possible,  to  flank  Lee, 
and,  by  gaining  Gordon'sville,  to  get  into  his  rear.  But 
Lee  was  fully  aware  of  the  advantages  of  the  Wildernes? 
for  defensive  operations,  and  resolved,  if  possible,  ta 
bring  on  a general  engagement  in  the  midst  of  this 
thicket.  Two  lines  of  advance  running  nearly  due  east 
and  west,  and  parallel  to  each  other,  were  open  to  Lee, 
and  along  these  roads  on  the  morning  of  the  5th  he 
promptly  advanced,  Ewell’s  division  taking  the  turnpike 
(or  nortHe^y)  road,  while  Hill’s  division  advanced  along 
the  Plank  Road  (the  southerly  thoroughfare).  Long- 
street’s  division  was,  during  the  first  day’s  battle,  left 
at  Gordonsville  to  cover  Lee’s  rear,  and  did  not  come 
up  in  time  to  take  part  in  the  first  of  the  fighting; 
Burnside’s  command  in  the  Northern  army  was  also  too 
late  in  arriving  to  take  part  in  the  first  day’s  fighting, 
he  having  been  left  on  the  Rappahannock  to  cover  the 
rear  of  the  Federal  army.  When  the  Union  forces  first 
struck  the  Confederates,  they  supposed  it  to  be  merely  a 
rear  guard  which  they  had  encountered,  and  that  tl\e 
army  of  Lee  was  in  retreat.  But  they  were  soon  con- 
vinced that  they  had  made  a mistake,  and  in  a few  mo- 
ments the  fighting  was  sharp  and  results  bloody. 
The  attack  was  begun  by  the  advance  of  Ayres  and 
Bartlett’s  brigades,  which  were  sent  to  the  right  and 
left  of  the  turnpike  road  to  disperse  whatever  force 
might  be  found  there.  The  Confederates  were  driven 
back;  but  the  situation  was  soon  changed  by  the  quick  ad- 
vance of  Stewart’s  brigade  of  Confederates,  and  shortly 
afterward  by  the  arrival  of  Rhodes’  division,  and  their 
attack  on  the  Federal  troops. 

The  effort  to  support  Ayres  and  Bartlett  proved 
abortive,  as  the  thickets  wrere  so  dense  that  before  aid 
could  arrive  they  had  been  driven  back  in  confusion. 
On  the  whole,  the  fighting  at  this  point  was  very  dis- 
astrous for  the  Federals;  McCandless’  brigade  alone 
losing  two  full  regiments  in  its  effort  to  escape  from  its 
entangled  position  on  the  right  of  the  Federal  advance 
column  for  the  Union  army  had  lost  3,000  mew, 


6352  W I L 


besides  several  guns,  while  the  Confederates  retained 
possession  of  the  contested  ground.  A little  after  i 
o’clock  the  sixth  corps,  whiih  had  been  sent  to  the  aid 
of  the  fifth,  was  struck  by  Ewell.  The  Confederates 
were  at  first  repulsed,  but  a terrific  charge  by  Rhodes’ 
men  drove  the  Federals  back;  the  Confederates  being 
afterward  in  turn  forced  back.  When  the  fight  for  the  day 
was  over  the  Union  troops  were  in  possession  of  the 
disputed  ground.  Meantime,  General  Grant  had  the 
conviction  carried  home  *o  him  that  General  Lee  meant 
to  fight  him  in  this  tangle  of  thickets,  and  he  now  be- 
gan to  make  his  preparations  for  such  a contingency. 
He  ordered  Hancock  to  the  assistance  of  Getty,  who 
was  holding  the  junction  of  the  Brock  road,  which  runs 
at  right  angles  with  the  turnpike.  Soon  after  Hancock 
arrived  here  he  was  ordered  to  attack  and  drive  back 
Hill,  but  this  he  failed  to  do,  the  men  fighting  at  close 
quarters,  and  at  night  each  army  drinking  from  the 
same  “ branch  ” or  brooklet,  so  close  were  their  posi- 
tions to  each  other.  This  ended  the  first  day’s  fighting 
in  the  Wilderness.  Early  the  next  day  the  fighting  was 
resumed,  Lee  commencing  the  attack,  at  about  4.30 
a.m.  In  the  meantime,  Burnside  and  Longstreet  had 
come  up  to  their  respective  armies,  and  the  lines  of 
battle  of  both  were  now  fully  formed.  Grant's  line  ex- 
tended over  a frontage  of  five  and  a half  miles  - from 
Todd’s  tavern  to  Germania  Ford,  Sedgwick  occupying 
the  right,  to  the  left  of  Sedgwick  in  regular  suc- 
cession being  Warren,  Burnside,  and  Hancock.  Lee’s 
firmy  was  disposed  of  as  it  was  the  preceding  day, 
with  the  exception  that  it  was  now  in  three  sections, 
Ewell  being  on  the  left,  Hill  in  the  center,  and  Long- 
street  on  the  right.  Lee  began  his  assault  by  attack- 
ing Sedgwick,  but  the  Confederates  were  easily 
repulsed,  and  Warren  and  Haticock  made  an  attack 
on  Hill.  For  a time  the  troops  of  Hill  gave  away 
under  ’ the  fierce  blows  falling  on  them,  but  , at 
the  critical  moment  Anderson’s  brigade  of  Hill’s  divis- 
ion was  thrown  forward,  and  Longstreet’ s troops  sud- 
denly coming  to  the  support  of  Hill’s  shattered  lines, 
the  tide  of  battle  was  turned  and  Hancock  .was  driven 
back.  At  the  most  critical  juncture  in  the  fight  General 
Longstreet  was  seriously  wounded  by  his  own  men,  and 
the  loss  of  time  occasioned  by  the  chanr  e of  officers 
necessary  after  this  unfortunate  occurrence  was  fatal  to 
the  Confederate  success.  Before  General  Lee  himself 
could  reach  the  scene  and  restore  order,  the  Federals 
had  regained  all  they  had  lost  by  the  attack  which 
Longstreet  had  made.  At  4 o’clock,  Lee,  in  person, 
led  Hill’s  and  Longstreet’s  men  to  an  assault  against  the 
enemy,  and,  for  a time,  the  Union  left  was  in  extreme 
danger.  But  a prompt  and  desperate  charge  made  by 
Qolonel  Hoffmann,  according  to  Hancock,  was  the 
turning  point  of  the  engagement,  and  saved  the  left 
wing  from  entire  destruction.  To  add  to  the  horror  of 
the  situation  the  woods  were  afire  from  the  burning 
powder  of  the  guns,  and  many  dead  and  wounded  were 
consumed  by  the  flames.  Nightfall  did  not  cause  the 
fighting  to  cease,  for,  just  at  sunset,  General  Lee  sent 
forward  a heavy  column,  led  by  General  Gordon,  against 
the  right  wing  of  the  Federal  army,  and  threw  it  into 
the  greatest  confusion.  Federal  reenforcements  were 
hurried  up,  however,  and  the  total  darkness  of  the 
night  put  an  end  to  the  fighting  of  the  second  day,  in 
which,  it  was  estimated,  the  Federals  had  lost  at  least 
15,000  men,  the  Confederates  about  10,000.  The  total 
losses  for  the  two  days  were  about  20,000  and  13,000 
respectively. 

On  the  morning  of  May  7th  it  was  apparent  that 
General  Lee  had  determined  to  assume  the  defensive 
and  let  Grant  attack  him.  This  Grant  at  once  began 
by  attempting  a flank  movement,  his  objective  point 


being  Spottsylvania  Court  House,  thirteen  miles  away. 
The  column  of  the  Federal  advance  along  the  Brock 
road  was  led  by  Warren’s  division,  and  after  considera- 
ble delay,  occasioned  by  its  own  cavalry,  which  ob- 
structed the  road,  the  Federal  advance  reached  a point 
two  or  three  miles  from  the  court  house.  No  serious 
fighting  had  taken  place,  and  the  Federal  commanders 
were  elated  with  the  idea  that  Lee  had  probably  been 
unaware  of  the  attempt  made  to  turn  his  flank;  but 
they  were  again  to  be  undeceived  in  a terrible  manner. 
No  sooner  had  the  head  of  the  Federal  column  arrived 
at  the  point  indicated  above  than  they  were  met  by  a 
terrific  fire,  and  forced  back,  each  successive  command 
as  it  came  up  sharing  the  same  fate.  The  attempt  to 
turn  Lee’s  flank  had  failed,  and  Grant  ordered  his  army 
to  strengthen  its  position  by  intrenchments.  All  of 
this  and  the  following  day  was  spent  in  maneuvers  on 
both  sides  for  positions,  Lee  always  barring  any  south- 
ward movement  on  the  part  of  Grant  by  throwing  his 
men  across  the  line  of  march.  , At  last,  on  the  10th, 
Grant  attacked.  The  first  fighting  began  with  one  of 
Hancock’s  divisions  which  had  crossed  the  Po  river,  and 
which  was  driven  back  with  heavy  loss.  Two  other  at- 
tacks had  been  made  that  day  on  Lee,  one  at  1 1 o’clock 
and  the  other  in  the  afternoon,  about  3.  At  last  at  5 
o’clock  the  main  attack  was  piade  by  Warren’s  and 
Hancock’s  men,  the  pqint  of  attack  being  K Laurel  Hill.” 
Flesh  and  blood  could  not  stand  the  terrible  reception 
the  Union  troops  met.  In  less  than  an  hour  over  7,000 
Federals  had  been  slain,  while  the  Confederates  had 
lost  but  600  or  700.  Another  assault  was  made, 
but  to  no  purpose.  Night  closed  on  the  scene,  and  the 
first  day’s  fighting  at  Spottsylvania  had  been  a decided 
Confederate  success.  General  Grant  was  not  disheart- 
ened by  the  result,  for  he  indited  that  evening  his  famous 
dispatch,  “ I propose  to  fight  it  out  on  this  line  if  it  takes 
all  summer.  ” The  next  day  was  spent  in  preparations 
for  another  battle.  Grant  had  received  information 
which  determined  him  to  attempt  the  surprise  of  Lee’s 
right  center.  Lee  had  weakened  this  point  in  order  to 
meet  a suspected  attempt  to  turn  his  flank.  In  the 
early  morning  of  the  12th,  under  cover  of  the  fog  that 
hung  over  the  woods,  Barlow’s  and  Birney’s  brigades 
made  a sudden  assault  on  the  Confederate  works,  sur- 
prising its  defenders  at  breakfast,  and  capturing  3,000 
prisoners.  Lee’s  army  was  thus  cut  in  two,  and  des- 
perate efforts  had  to  be  made  to  retrieve  the  disaster. 
Words  are  inadequate  to  describe  the  horrors  of  the 
“bloody  angle,”  as  the  salient  has  been  named.  The 
carnage  was  awful.  All  day  long  in  hand-to-hand  en- 
counter the  two  armies  strove  together,  but  when  the 
sun  went  down  the  Confederate  troops  had  not  regained 
their  works.  Darkness  put  an  end  to  the  fighting,  and 
thus  ended  the  battle  of  Spottsylvania — one  of  the 
bloodiest  ever  fought  in  all  time.  Up  to  this  time  the 
Union  army  had  lost  not  far  from  35,000  men  in  this 
campaign.  The  Confederate  loss  is  not  exactly  known, 
but  it  was  very  much  less.  It  was,  however,  more 
costly  to  them,  who  could  ill  afford  to  have  their  lines 
depleted.  Next  day  Lee  withdrew  into  an  inner  line  of 
intrenchments,  where  his  position  was  so  strong  that 
Grant  would  not  attack  him.  Thus  they  remained 
facing  each  other  until  the  20th,  when  Grant  withdrew 
his  troops  and  began  his  second  attempt  to  turn  Lee’s 
flank. 

In  the  meantime  Sheridan  had  made  his  dash  on 
Richmond,  and  had  met  the  Confederate  cavalry,  under 
Stuart,  at  Yellow  Tavern,  where  Stuart  was  killed; 
Sheridan  exploited  around  the  defenses  of  the  city,  but 
was  forced  to  retire,  finding  the  outworks  too  strong. 
Grant’s  object  was  at  once  known  to  Lee,  and  then 
began  that  race  for  position  which  has  become  so 


W I L 


brated  in  the  war  literature  of  the  country.  Lee  was 
successful,  and  when  Grant  arrived  at  Hanover  Junction 
on  May  23d,  he  found  Lee’s  army  between  him  and 
Richmond  in  a strong  position,  already  intrenched. 
The  position  of  Lee’s  army  was  impregnable.  Grant 
knew  it  would  be  madness  to  attempt  to  turn  his  position, 
so  after  a little  desultory  skirmishing  the  same  tactics 
as  before  were  resorted  to,  Grant  withdrawing  his  forces 
on  the  26th  and  again  attempting  to  flank  Lee.  Lee 
followed  Grant’s  movements  closely,  at  every  turn 
interposing  his  army  between  the  Federals  and  the  Con- 
federate capital.  Several  stands  were  made  by  both 
armies,  but  on  no  occasion  was  a pitched  battle  fought 
until  the  old  battle  fields  of  McClellan’s  campaign  of 
two  years  before  were  reached.  Here  the  Wilderness 
campaign  proper  ends,  as  the  battle  of  Cold  Harbor 
has  been  placed  by  war  historians  in  another  category. 
Soon  after  this  battle  the  Federal  army  having  described 
a semicircular  path  around  the  city  of  Richmond  during 
its  military  operations,  was  transferred  to  the  south 
bank  of  the  James  river,  and  the  siege  of  Petersburg— 
the  final  act  of  the  great  drama,  was  begun. 

No  characteristics  of  the  Wilderness  stand  out  with 
greater  prominence  than  do  the  heroism  and  deter- 
mination exhibited  by  both  armies.  Never  before  had 
Lee’s  ability  as  a tactician  and  strategist  had  greater 
demands  made. upon  it,  and  never  before  had  those 
demands  met  with  a fuller  response.  An  impartial 
judge  would  find  it  hard  to  award  the  palm  for  supe- 
riority to  either  army.  On  the  one  hand,  the  Federal 
army  was  at  a disadvantage  on  account  of  the  intricate 
nature  of  the  country,  and  on  the  other  the  Confederate 
forces  were  largely  outnumbered.  But  despite  all 
advantages  or  disadvantages,  no  men  in  any  circum- 
stances could  have  done  better  than  did  both  armies, 
and  the  claims  of  both  Lee  and  Grant  to  greatness,  even 
had  they  no  other  foundation,  would  find  a solid  basis 
in  the  conduct  by  each  of  this  one  campaign.  The 
severity  of  the  campaign  may  be  judged  from  the  fact 
that,  although  twenty- five  years  have  passed  away,  marks 
of  the  conflict  are  yet  fresh  all  over  the  country  in  which 
it  was  fought.  Many  years  will  elapse  before  the  scars 
of  war  will  heal;  and  the  wondering  plow-boy,  born  and 
grown  to  manhood  since  the  crack  of  the'  musketry  died 
away  among  these  gloomy  thickets,  will  for  years  to  come 
unearth  the  grinning  skull,  and  wonder  to  whom  it  once 
belonged — whether  the  man  it  once  was  part  of  wore 
the  blue  or  the  gray.  On  the  battlefields  several 
soldiers’  cemeteries  have  been  established,  but  thou- 
sands are  unburied,  and  lay  undisturbed,  as  they  have 
done  for  the  last  quarter  of  a century,  amidst  the  thicket 
that  once  gave  back  the  din  of  conflict  and  flamed  red 
and  bright  with  the  fire  of  battle. 

WILFRID,  archbishop  of  York  from  665  till  709, 
was  born  in  Northumbria  in  634.  He  was  already 
regarded  as  the  leading  exponent  of  the  Roman  dis- 
cipline in  England,  when  his  speech  at  the  council  of 
Whitby  determined  the  overthrow  of  the  Celtic  party 
(664).  About  a year  later  he  was  consecrated  to  the 
see  of  York  (not  in  England,  where  perhaps  he  could 
not  find  the  fitting  number  of  orthodox  prelates,  but  at 
Compiegne).  On  his  return  journey  he  narrowly  es- 
caped the  pagan  wreckers  of  Sussex,  and  only  reached 
his  own  country  to  find  he  had  been  supplanted  in  his 
see.  The  rest  of  his  life  is  a record  of  wandering  and 
misfortune.  Fpr  three  years  (665-668)  he  ruled  his 
monastery  at  Ripon  in  peace,  occasionally,  however, 
exercising  his  episcopal  functions  in  Mercia  and  Kent. 
On  Archbishop  Theodore’s  arrival  (668)  he  was  restored 
to  his  see,  but  only  to  be  driven  out  through  the 
anger  of  King  Egfrid’s  queen  (677).  He  died  at 
Qwndle  (Northamptonshire)  as  he  was  going  on  a visit 


6353 

to  Ceolred,  king  of  Mercia  (709).  He  was  buried  at 
Ripon,  whence,  according  to  Eadmer,  his  bones  were 
afterward  removed  to  Canterbury. 

WILHELMSHAVEN,  or  Wilhelmshafen,  the 
chief  naval  station  and  war  harbor  of  Germany  on  the 
North  Sea,  is  situated  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jahde,  3 
large  basin  united  with  the  sea  by  a channel  three  miles 
long.  The  ground  on  which  it  stands  was  purchased 
by  Prussia  fiom  the  duke  of  Oldenburg  in  1853,  and 
though  reckoned  a part  of  the  province  of  Hanover  is 
completely  surrounded  on  the  landward  side  by  Olden- 
burg territory.  Most  of  the  inhabitants,  who  number 
15,972,  are  connected  with  the  dockyard  and  fleet. 

The  original  harbor,  constructed  in  1855-69,  consists 
of  an  inner  and  outer  basin.  To  the  southeast  of  the 
inner  harbor,  which  is  used  by  war-vessels  not  in  active 
service,  a large  new  harbor  has  recently  been  constructed 
for  war-vessels  in  commission  and  for  commercial  pur- 
poses. The  entrance  to  both  the  old  and  the  new  har- 
bor  is  sheltered  by  long  and  massive  moles.  A torpedo 
harbor  has  also  been  formed.  The  inner  harbor  and  the 
adjacent  docks,  building-slips,  machine-shops,  etc.,  form 
the  government  dockyard,  which  is  inclosed  by  a lofty 
wall  with  fourteen  iron  gates.  The  whole  establish- 
ment is  defended  by  strong  fortifications. 

WILKES,  John,  the  champion  of  the  right  of  free 
representation  by  British  constituencies,  was  born  at 
Clerkenwell,  London,  October  17,  1727.  In  July,  1757, 
Wilkes  was  elected  for  Aylesbury,  and  for  this  constitu- 
ency he  was  again  returned  at  the  general  election  in 
March,  1761.  Pitt  was  his  leader  in  politics,  but  to 
Pitt  he  applied  in  vain  for  a seat  at  the  board  of  trade; 
nor  was  he  successful  in  his  other  applications  for  office. 
Stung  by  these  disappointments,  Wilkes  threw  himself 
into  bitter  opposition  to  Bute,  and  to  make  his  antag- 
onism more  effective,  established  a paper  called  7%e 
North  Briton , in  which  he  from  the  first  attacked  the 
Scotch  prime  minister  with  exceeding  bitterness,  and 
grew  bolder  as  it  proceeded  in  its  course.  One  of  its 
articles  ridiculed  Lord  Talbot,  the -steward  of  the  royal 
household,  and  a duel  was  the  result.  When  Bute  re- 
signed, the  issue  of  the  journal  was  suspended,  but 
when  the  royal  speech  framed  by  George  Grenville’s 
ministry  showed  that  the  change  was  one  of  men  only, 
not  of  measures,  a supplementary  number,  No.  45,  was 
published,  April  23,  1763,  containing  a caustic  criticism 
of  the  king’s  message  to  his  parliament.  Lord  Halifax, 
the  leading  secretary  of  state,  issued  a general  warrant 
“to  search  for  authors,  printers,  and  publishers,”  and 
to  bring  them  before  him  for  examination.  Wilkes 
was  arrested  and  thrown  into  the  Tower.  A week 
later,  however,  he  was  released  by  order  of  the  Court 
of  Common  Pleas,  on  the  ground  that  his  privilege  as  a 
member  of  parliament  afforded  him  immunity  from 
arrest.  General  warrants  were  afterward  declared  ille- 
gal, and  Halifax  himself,  after  a series  of  discreditable 
shifts,  was  cast  in  heavy  sums  on  actions  brought 
against  him  by  the  persons  whom  he  had  injured,  the 
total  expenses  incurred  by  the  ministry  in  these  lawless 
proceedings  amounting  to  at  least  $500,000.  So  far 
Wilkes  had  triumphed  over  his  enemies,  but  he  gave 
them  cause  for  rejoicing  by  an  indiscreet  reprint  of  the 
obnoxious  No.  45.  Immediately  on  the  meeting  of  the 
House  of  Commons  (November  15,  1 763)  proceedings 
were  taken  against  him.  Lord  North  moved  that  No. 
45  was  “a  false,  scandalous,  and  seditious  libel,”  and, 
as  the  motion  was  of  course  carried,  the  paper  was 
publicly  burnt  in  Cheapside  on  December  4th.  He  was 
expelled  from  the  House  of  Commons  on  January  19, 
1764,  and  on  February  21st  he  was  found  guilty  in  the 
King’s  Bench  of  reprinting  No.  45.  Wilke?  was  on 
these  dates  absent  from  England  Some  strong 


6354  W 

expressions  applied  to  him  by  Samuel  Martin,  an  ex- 
secretary of  the  treasury,  had  provoked  a duel  (Novem- 
ber 16,  1763),  in  which  Wilkes  was  severely  wounded. 
He  withdrew  to  Paris,  and  as  he  did  not  return  to 
England  to  receive  his  sentence  in  the  law  courts,  was 
pronounced  an  outlaw. 

For  several  years  Wilkes  remained  abroad.  In  March, 
1768,  he  returned  to  London  and  sued  the  king  for  par- 
don, but  in  vain.  His  next  step  was  to  offer  himself  as 
a candidate  for  the  representation  of  the  city  of  Lon- 
don, when  he  was  the  lowest  at  the  poll.  Undaunted 
by  this  defeat,  he  solicited  the  freeholders  of  Middlesex 
to  return  him  as  their  champion,  and  they  placed  him 
at  the  head  of  all  competitors.  He  appeared  before  the 
King’s  Bench,  and  on  a technical  point  procured  a re- 
versal of  his  outlawry;  but  the  original  verdict  was  main- 
tained, and  he  was  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for 
twenty-two  months  as  well  as  to  a fine  of  $5,000,  and 
he  was  further  ordered  to  produce  securities  for  good 
behavior  for  seven  years  after  his  liberation.  His  con- 
duct was  brought  before  the  House  of  Commons,  with 
the  result  that  he  was  expelled  from  the  House  on  Feb- 
ruary 3,  1769,  and  with  this  proceeding  there  began  a 
series  of  contests  between  the  ministry  and  the  electors 
of  Middlesex  without  parallel  in  English  history.  They 
promptly  reelected  him  (February  16th),  only  to  find 
him  pronounced  incapable  of  sitting  and  his  election 
void.  Again  they  returned  him  (March  16th)  and  again 
he  was  rejected.  A fourth  election  then  followed,  when 
Col.  Henry  Lawes  Luttrell,  with  all  the  influence  of  the 
court  and  the  Fox  family  in  his  favor,  obtained  but  296 
votes  to  1,143  given  for  Wilkes,  whereupon  the  House 
declared  that  Luttrell  had  been  duly  elected.  Through 
these  audacious  proceedings  a storm  of  fury  broke  out 
throughout  the  country.  In  the  cause  of  “ Wilkes  and 
liberty”  high  and  low  enlisted  themselves.  His  prison 
cell  was  thronged  daily  by  the  chief  of  the  Whigs,  and 
large  sums  of  money  were  subscribed  for  his  support. 
At  the  height  of  the  combat  in  January,  1769,  Wilkes 
was  elected  an  alderman  for  the  city  of  London;  in 
1771  he  served  as  sheriff  for  London  and  Middlesex,  and 
as  alderman  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  struggle  be- 
tween the  corporation  and  the  House  of  Commons,  by 
which  freedom  of  publication  of  the  parliamentary  de- 
bates was  obtained.  His  admirers  endeavored  in  1772 
to  procure  his  election  as  lord  mayor  of  London,  but  he 
was  set  aside  by  the  aldermen,  some  of  whom  were  al- 
lied with  the  ministry  of  Lord  North,  while  others,  as 
Oliver  and  Townshend,  leaned  to  the  Liberalism  of  Lord 
Shelburne.  In  1774,  however,  he  obtained  that  dig- 
nity, and  he  retained  his  seat  for  Middlesex  from  the 
dissolution  in  1774  until  1790.  He  moved  in  1776  for 
leave  to  bring  in  a bill  “ for  a just  and  equal  represen- 
tation of  the  people  of  England  in  parliament;”  but  at- 
tempts at  parliamentary  reform  were  premature  by  at 
least  half  a century.  After  several  failures  better  for- 
tune attended  his  efforts  in  another  direction,  for  in  1782 
all  the  declarations  and  orders  against  him  for  his  elec- 
tions in  Middlesex  were  ordered  to  be  expunged  from 
the  journals  of  the  House.  In  1779  Wilkes  was  elected 
chamberlain  of  the  city  by  a large  majority,  and  the 
office  hccame  his  freehold  for  life.  He  died  December 
20,  1797. 

WILKESBARRE,  the  county  seat  of  Luzerne 
county,  Penn.,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
north  branch  of  the  Susquehanna  river  in  the  Wyoming 
valley,  ninety-eight  miles  north-northwest  from  Phila- 
delphia. The  business  portion  lies  in  the  bottom 
lands,  while  the  residence  portions  have  extended  into 
the  adjacent  hilly  country.  It  is  entered  by  four  rail- 
ways— the  Central  of  New  Jersey,  that  of  the  Dela- 
ware and  Hudson  Canal  Company,  the  Lehigh  Valley, 


I L 

and  the  Pennsylvania.  The  city  is  irregularly  laid  out. 
The  population  in  1890  was  37,718,  and  in  1900 . was 
51,721.  Wilkesbarre  is  in  an  anthracite  mining 
district,  and  its  industries,  while  relating  in  general 
to  this  product,  include  also  important  manufac- 
tories of  lace,  wire,  and  cutlery,  and  numerous  machine 
shops. 

WILKIE,  Sir  David,  Scottish  subject-painter,  was 
born  November  18,  1785.  He  very  early  developed  a* 
extraordinary  love  for  art.  In  1799,  after  he  had  at- 
tended school  at  Pitlessie,  Kettle,  and  Cupar,  his  father 
reluctantly  yielded  to  his  desire  to  become  a painter ; 
and,  through  the  influence  of  the  earl  of  Leven,  Wilkie 
was  admitted  to  the  Trustees’  Academy  in  Edinburgh, 
and  began  the  study  of  art  under  John  Graham,  the  able 
teacher  of  the  school.  In  1804  Wilkie  returned  to 
Cults,  established  himself  in  the  manse,  and  commenced 
his  first  important  subject-picture,  Pitlessie  Fair , which 
includes  about  140  figures,  and  in  which  he  introduced 
portraits  of  his  neighbors  and  of  several  members  of  his 
family  circle. 

In  the  spring  of  1805  he  left  Scotland  for  London, 
carrying  with  him  his  Bounty-Money , or  the  Village 
Recruit,  which  he  soon  disposed  of  and  began  to  study 
in  the  schools  of  the  Royal  Academy.  The  Village 
Politicians  attracted  great  attention  when  exhibited  in 
the  Royal  Academy  of  1806,  and  was  followed  in  the 
succeeding  year  by  the  Blind  Fiddler.  He  wisely  re- 
turned to  genre-painting,  producing  the  Card-Players 
and  the  admirable  picture  of  the  Rent  Day , which  was 
composed  during  recovery  from  a fever  contracted  in 
1807,  while  on  a visit  to  his  native  village.  His  next 
great  work  was  the  Ale-House  Door , afterward  entitled 
the  Village  Festival  (now  in  the  National  Gallery), 
which  was  purchased  by  J.  J.  Angerstein  for  800  guin- 
eas. It  was  followed  in  1813  by  the  well-known  Blind 
Man's  Bujf , a commission  from  the  prince  regent,  to 
which  a companion  picture,  the  Penny  Wedding , was 
added  in  1818.  Meanwhile  Wilkie’s  eminent  success  in 
art  had  been  rewarded  by  professional  honors.  In  No- 
vember, 1809,  he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  when  he  had  hardly  attained  the  age  pre- 
scribed by  its  laws,  and  in  February,  1811,  he  became  a 
full  academician. 

In  1822  Wilkie  visited  Edinburgh,  in  order  to  select 
from  the  royal  progress  of  George  IV.  a fitting  subject  for 
a picture.  The  Reception  of  the  King  at  thfe  Entrance 
of  Holyrood  Palace  was  the  incident  ultimately  chosen. 
In  the  beginning  of  1830  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence  died, 
and  Wilkie  was  appointed  to  succeed  him  as  painter  in 
ordinary  to  the  king,  and  in  1836  he  received  the  honor  of 
knighthood.  The  main  figure-pictures  which  occupied 
him  until  the  end  were  Columbus  in  the  Convent  at  La 
Rabida,  1835  ; Napoleon  and  Pius  VII.  at  Fontaine- 
bleau , 1836  ; Sir  David  Baird  Discovering  the  Body  op 
Tippoo  Sahib , 1838;  The  Empress  Josephine  and  the 
Fortune-Teller ) 1838;  and  Queen  Victoria  Presiding 
at  her  First  Council,  1838.  He  died  at  sea  off  Gibral- 
tar on  the  morning  of  June  1,  1841. 

WILL,  or  Testament,  is  an  instrument  by  which 
a person  regulates  the  rights  of  others  over  his  property 
or  family  after  his  death.  For  the  devolution  of  prop- 
erty not  disposed  of  by  will,  see  Inheritance,  Intes- 
tacy. In  strictness  “ will”  is  a general  term,  while 
“testament”  applies  only  to  dispositions  of  personalty; 
but  this  distinction  is  seldom  observed.  Legal  systems 
which  are  based  upon  Roman  law,  such'as  those  of  Scot- 
land and  France,  allow  the  whole  property  to  be  alienated 
only  where  the  deceased  leaves  no  widow  or  near  rela- 
tives. In  F ranee  this  restriction  has  met  with  condemna- 
tion from  eminent  legal  and  economical  authorities. 

The  will,  if  not  purely  Roman  in  origin,  at  least  ovr* 


W I L 


to  Roman  law  its  complete  development — a development 
which  in  most  European  countries  was  greatly  aided  at  a 
later  period  by  ecclesiastics  versed  in  Roman  law.  In 
India,  according  to  the  better  opinion,  it  was  unknown 
before  the  English  conquest;  in  the  Mosaic  law  and  in 
ancient  Athens  the  will,  if  it  existed  at  all,  was  of  a very 
rudimentary  character.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the 
Leges  Barbarorum , where  they  are  unaffected  by  Ro- 
man law.  The  will  is,  on  the  other  hand,  recognized 
by  Rabbinical  and  Mohammedan  law.  The  early  Ro- 
man will,  as  Sir  H.  Maine  shows,  differed  from  the 
modern  will  in  most  important  respects.  It  was  at  first 
effectual  during  the  lifetime  of  the  person  who  made  it; 
it  was  made  in  public;  and  it  was  irrevocable.  Its  orig- 
inal object,  like  that  of  adoption,  was  to  secure  the 
perpetuation  of  the  family. 

Liberty  of  alienation  by  will  is  found  at  an  early 
period  in  England.  To  judge  from  the  words  of  a law 
of  Canute,  intestacy  appears  to  have  been  the  exception 
at  that  time.  How  far  the  liberty  extended  is  uncer- 
tain ; it  is  the  opinion  of  some  authorities  that  complete 
disposition  of  land  and  goods  was  allowed,  of  others 
that  limited  rights  of  wife  and  children  were  recognized. 

A will  may  be  void,  in  whole  or  in  part,  for  many 
reasons,  which  may  be  divided  into  two  great  classes, 
those  arising  from  external  circumstances  and  thos-e 
arising  from  the  will  itself.  The  main  examples  of  the 
former  class  are  revocation  by  burning,  tearing,  etc. , by 
a later  will,  or  by  marriage  of  the  testator,  incapacity  of 
the  testator  from  insanity,  infancy,  or  legal  disability 
(such  as  being  a convict),  undue  influence,  and  fraud, 
any  one  of  which  is  ground  for  the  court  to  refuse  or 
revoke  probate  of  a will  good  on  the  face  of  it,  or  de- 
clare a will  of  lands  void.  Undue  influence  is  a ground 
upon  which  frequent  attempts  are  made  to  set  aside  wills. 

By  the  constitutions  of  many  States  laws  giving 
effect  to  informal  or  invalid  wills  are  forbidden.  The 
age  of  testamentary  capacity  varies  very  much.  Eight- 
een is  a common  one.  Full  liberty  of  disposition  is  not 
universal.  Homesteads  generally,  and  dower  estates 
frequently,  are  not  devisable.  In  some  States  only  a 
disposable  portion  of  the  property  can  be  left,  so  that 
children  cannot  be  disinherited  without  good  cause, 
and  in  some,  children  omitted  in  a will  may  still  take 
their  share.  It  is  frequently  provided  that  a certain 
amount  must  be  left  to  the  widow.  Louisiana  follows 
French  law,  by  which  the  testator  can  under  no  circum- 
stances alienate  by  will  more  than  half  his  property  if  he 
leave  issue  or  ascendants.  In  some  States  a married 
woman  may  not  leave  more  than  half  her  property  away 
from  her  husband.  Some  require  the  husband’s  consent 
and  subscription  to  make  the  will  of  a married  woman 
valid.  Nuncupative  and  holograph  wills  are  in  use.  The 
former  are  confined  to  personalty,  and  must  generally 
be  reduced  to  writing  within  a short  time  after  the 
words  are  spoken.  In  Louisiana  there  is  a special  form 
of  will,  borrowed  from  Roman  law,  called  the  mystic 
or  sealed  will,  in  which  the  testator  declares  a sealed 
packet  to  be  his  will  before  witnesses.  The  number  of 
witnesses  necessary  for  the  validity  of  a will  of  any  kind 
is  usually  two,  sometimes  three.  Wills  of  soldiers  and 
sailors  are  privileged,  as  in  England.  Probate  is 
granted  sometimes  by  the  ordinary  chancery  or  com- 
mon law  courts,  more  frequently  by  courts  of  special 
jurisdiction,  such  as  the  Prerogative  Court  in  New 
Jersey,  the  Surrogate’s  Court  in  New  York. 

WILLENHALL,  a township  of  Staffordshire,  Eng- 
land, is  situated  in  the  neighborhood  of  extensive  coal 
and  iron  mines,  and  possesses  brass  and  iron  foundries, 
and  manufactories  of  various  kinds  of  ironware.  The 
population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  1,368 
acres)  was  18,067  in  1901. 


6355 

WILLESDEN,  a suburb  and  parish  of  London, 
England.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district 
(area  4,383  acres)  was  114,815  in  1901. 

WILLIAM  I.,  king  of  England,  surnamed  the  Con- 
queror, was  born  in  1027  or  1028.  He  was  the  bas- 
tard son  of  Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  and  Herleva, 
daughter  of  Fulbert,  a tanner  of  Falaise.  When  he 
was  about  seven  years  old  his  father,  intending  to  go  on 
pilgrimage  and  having  no  legitimate  sons,  proposed 
him  as  his  heir.  The  great  men  of  the  duchy  did  hom- 
age to  the  child,  and  a year  later  (1035)  his  father’s 
death  left  him  to  make  good  his  claim.  Anarchy  was 
the  natural  result  of  a minority.  William’s  life  was  on 
more  than  one  occasion  in  danger,  and  several  of  his 
guardians  perished  in  his  service.  At  the  earliest  possi- 
ble age  he  received  knighthood  from  the  hands  of 
Henry  I.  of  France,  and  speedily  began  to  show  signs 
of  his  capacity  for  government. 

In  1051  William  visited  England.  Two  years  later 
he  married  Matilda,  daughter  of  Baldwin,  earl  of 
Flanders,  and  a descendant  of  Alfred.  The  marriage 
had  been  forbidden  by  a council  at  Rheims  as  uncanon- 
ical,  and  was  opposed  by  Lanfranc,  prior  of  Bee.  This 
produced  a quarrel  between  Lanfranc  and  William,  who 
ravaged  the  lands  of  the  abbey  and  ordered  the  banish- 
ment of  its  prior.  Lanfranc,  however,  soon  came  to 
terms  with  the  duke,  and  engaged  to  obtain  a dispensa- 
tion from  Rome,  which,  however,  was  not  granted  till 
1059.  Strengthened  by  this  alliance  with  Flanders, 
William  showed  himself  more  than  a match  for  all  his 
enemies. 

It  was  apparently  in  the  year  1064  that  Harold,  then 
earl  of  Wessex,  visited  Normandy.  For  the  relations 
between  him  and  William,  which  grew  out  of  this  visit, 
see  England.  When  Harold  was  elected  and  crowned 
king  of  England  ( 1066),  William’s  first  step  was  to  send 
an  embassy  to  him  demanding  the  fulfillment  of  his 
promise.  The  purport  of  the  demand  is  as  uncertain  as 
that  of  the  pledge;  but,  whatever  it  was,  Harold  re- 
jected it.  The  duke  thereupon  summoned  a council  of 
his  supporters,  who  advised  him  to  call  together  an 
assembly  representing  the  whole  duchy.  This  assembly, 
a typical  feudal  parliament,  met  at  Lillebonne.  While 
acting  together  it  appears  to  have  opposed  the  scheme 
for  the  conquest  of  England  which  William  laid  before 
it,  but  its  members  were  won  over  singly.  He  then 
made  a compact  with  Tostig,  the  banished  brother  of 
Harold  ; he  came  to  terms  with  the  emperor  Henry ; 
he  conciliated  Philip,  king  of  France,  by  offering  to  hold 
England  as  his  vassal ; and — most  important  of  all — he 
obtained  the  sanction  of  Rome.  Pope  Alexander  II. 
not  only  issued  a bull  declaring  William  to  be  the  right- 
ful heir  to  the  throne,  but  sent  him  a ring  and  a banner 
as  symbols  that  the  blessing  of  heaven  was  on  his  claim. 
Embarking  at  St.  Valery,  William  landed  on  Septem- 
ber 28th  at  Pevensey.  The  battle  of  Senlac  or  Hastings 
(October  14,  1066)  was  a decisive  victory  for  the  duke 
of  Normandy  ; but  it  took  five  years  more  to  complete 
the  conquest  of  England. 

Early  in  1067  William  made  a progress  through  the 
eastern  and  central  parts  of  his  new  dominions.  All 
that  had  as  yet  submitted  to  him  was  comprised  in  the 
old  kingdoms  of  Wessex  and  East  Anglia,  and  a small 
portion  of  Mercia.  He  at  once  secured  his  hold  over 
these  districts  by  the  erection  of  fortresses  in  London, 
Norwich,  and  elsewhere.  He  received  homage  from 
the  great  men ; he  confiscated  the  lands  of  those  who 
had  resisted  him;  and,  while  keeping  a large  number  of 
manors  for  himself,  he  granted  others  to  his  followers. 
Even  those  who  had  not  resisted  were  regarded  as  hav- 
ing legally  forfeited  their  title  and  had  to  submit  to  a re- 
grant on  less  advantageous  terms.  In  March.  1067.  Will 


W I L 


6356 

iam  returned  to  Normandy,  taking  with  him  as  hos- 
tages the  earls  Eadwine,  Morkere,  and  Waltheof.  The 
revolts  which  broke  out  in  the  north  and  southwest 
compelled  him  to  return  to  England  in  December.  He 
at  once  entered  on  a vigorous  campaign  and  succeeded 
in  speedily  reducing  the  rebels.  In  one  district  only, 
the  fens  of  Cambridgeshire,  where  Hereward  still  held 
out,  the  spirit  of  resistance  survived.  In  April,  1071, 
William  arrived  at  Cambridge  and  commenced  a 
regular  blockade.  Advancing  cautiously  by  means  of  a 
causeway  through  the  fens,  he  entered  Ely  in  October, 
ancl  therewith  the  last  flicker  of  independence  died  out. 
The  conquest  of  England  was  completed. 

Thenceforward  such  trouble  as  William  met  with 
came,  not  from  the  English,  but  from  his  Norman 
vassals  or  his  own  family.  In  1073  the  citizens  of  Le 
Mans  took  advantage  of  his  absence  to  set  up  a “com- 
mune,” and  invited  Fulk  of  Anjou  to  protect  them. 
William  was  soon  in  the  field,  this  time  assisted  by 
English  troops.  He  harried  the  country,  recovered 
Le  Mans,  and  made  an  advantageous  peace  with  the 
count.  A year  later  a formidable  revolt  broke  out  in 
England.  William  returned  at  once  to  England  and 
put  down  the  insurrection.  This  was  the  last  instance 
of  opposition  to  William  in  England;  but  the  remaining 
ten  years  of  his  life  were  occupied  with  almost  con- 
tinuous troubles  on  the  Continent.  In  1076  he  was 
engaged  in  a war  with  Brittany.  Next  year  he  quar- 
reled with  his  son  Robert.  A rebellious  vassal,  Hubert 
of  Beaumont,  seems  to  have  held  him  at  bay  for  nearly 
three  years.  Rival  claims  to  Vexin,  a district  on  the 
eastern  frontier  of  Normandy,  involved  him  in  another 
war  with  France.  He  was  growing  old  and  weary, 
and.  as  he  lay  sick  at  Rouen  in  the  summer  of  1087, 
the  French  army  harried  his  territories  with  impunity. 
When  he  had  recovered  sufficiently  to  take  the  field,  he 
invaded  Vexin  and  burned  the  town  of  Mantes.  But 
his  horse,  plunging  in  the  burning  cinders,  inflicted  on 
him  an  internal  injury  which  proved  his  death-wound. 
He  was  carried  to  St.  Gervais,  where  on  September  9, 
1087,  he  died.  His  body  was  conveyed  to  Caen  and 
buried  in  the  great  minster  which  he  had  built. 

WILLIAM  II.,  king  of  England,  surnamed  Rufus, 
third  son  of  William  I.  and  Matilda,  was  born  in  1056. 
Little  is  known  of  his  youth,  except  that  in  the  quarrel 
between  the  Conqueror  and  Robert  he  remained  loyal 
to  his  father.  When  the  Conqueror  was  on  his  death- 
bed he  sent  William  to  England  with  a letter  to  Lan- 
franc,  requesting  the  archbishop  to  secure  his  election 
to  the  throne.  Accordingly  on  September  26,  1087, 
William  was  elected  and  crowned  at  Westminster.  His 
hr  ther  Robert,  to  whom  the  Conqueror  had  be- 
queathed the  duchy,  was  not  likely  to  give  up  his  claim 
to  the  larger  part  of  his  father’s  dominions  without  a 
struggle.  A general  revolt  in  his  favor  broke  out  in  the 
summer  of  1088.  With  the  aid  of  his  English  troops 
William  took  castle  after  castle,  repelled  an  attempted 
Ending  of  the  Norman  fleet,  and  forced  Odo  to  sur- 
render his  stronghold  of  Rochester.  The  rebellion 
being  thus  suppressed,  he  held  a great  council,  at  which, 
although  the  rebels  in  general  were  leniently  treated, 
many  confiscations  and  sentences  of  banishment  were 
pronounced.  Two  years  later  William  sent  an  army  to 
Normandy  (Easter  1090),  which,  under  the  misgovern- 
ment  of  Robert,  had  lapsed  into  a state  of  anarchy.  The 
re-conquest  of  the  duchy  by  England  was  bes^in  by  the 
capture  of  St.  Valery;  but  there  was  not  much  fighting, 
place  after  place  yielding  to  William’s  lieutenants  or  to 
English  gold. 

A peace  was  made  between  the  brothers  through 


When,  in  September,  1096,  Robert  set  off  for  the  cru- 
sade, William  took  possession  of  Normandy,  where  he 
soon  put  an  end  to  the  anarchy  which  had  resulted 
from  Robert’s  misrule,  and  he  held  the  country  till  his 
death.  Shortly  before  the  acquisition  of  Normandy 
William  had  subdued  a second  rebellion  in  England. 
The  last  three  years  of  the  eleventh  century  were 
much  occupied  by  tedious  wars  with  France,  and  ef- 
forts to  recover  Maine.  Strengthened  by  an  alliance 
with  the  duke  of  Aquitaine,  he  invaded  the  French  ter- 
ritory and  advanced  as  far  as  Pontoise.  But,  tiring  of 
the  fruitless  war,  he  made  a truce  with  Philip,  and  re- 
turned to  England  early  in  1099.  He  had  only  been 
there  a few  months  when  he  heard  that  Helias  de  la 
Fleche  was  attacking  his  castles  in  Maine,  and  had 
won  back  Le  Mans.  He  crossed  the  Channel  with 
great  speed,  and  a last  campaign  replaced  him  in  pos- 
session of  the  coveted  border-land.  But  he  took  no 
pains  to  secure  his  hold,  and  the  N^-nr.an  power  in 
Maine  fell  to  pieces  immediately  on  his  ueath. 

The  unscrupulous  tyranny  which  Rufus  displayed  in 
his  quarrel  with  Anselm,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
whose  possessions  he  held  after  forcing  him  to  abandon 
the  kingdom,  was  equally  characteristic  of  his  temporal 
government.  The  feudal  customs  of  aids,  reliefs, 
escheats,  etc.,  were  developed  into  a great  system  of 
extortion.  The  townsfolk  and  the  cultivators  of  the 
soil  were  weighed  down  by  heavy  taxes.  The  forest 
laws  were  carried  out  with  ruthless  severity.  On  the 
other  hand,  order  was  maintained,  and  the  tyranny  was 
to  a certain  extent  veiled  or  limited  by  the  frequent  use 
which  William  made  of  his  great  councils,  in  the  trials 
of  great  men  like  Odo,  in  the  declaration  of  war,  in  the 
settlement  of  disputes,  such  as  that  with  Anselm.  It  is 
clear  that  the  national  assembly  was  neither  extinct  nor 
inefficient  during  this  reign.  It  was  in  this  period,  too, 
that  the  office  of  justiciar  became  permanent  in  the 
person  of  William’s  chief  minister,  Ralph  Flambard, 
although  in  his  hands  its  powers  were  used  merely  in 
support  of  despotism. 

In  his  private  character  William  was  as  vicious  as  in 
his  public  capacity  he  was  tyrannical.  He  was  harsh 
and  violent,  extravagant  and  lustful,  regardless  of  God 
and  pitiless  to  man.  He  had  a strong  vein-'of  mockery 
and  sarcasm,  and  no  little  of  the  grim  Norman  humor. 
Almost  the  only  redeeming  feature  of  his  character  is  his 
chivalrous  observation  of  his  plighted  word ; but  for 
ordinary  promises  or  obligations  he  had  no  respect,  H e 
died  under  mysterious  circumstances  (alleged  to  have 
been  accidentally  shot  by  a courtier)  in  the  New  b orest, 
Hampshire,  on  August  2,  1100.  William  II.  was  not 
married;  he  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Henry. 

WILLIAM  III.,  king  of  England  and  prince  of 
Orange,  was  the  son  of  William  II.,  stadtholder  of  the 
United  Netherlands,  and  Mary,  daughter  of  Charles  I. 
of  England.  He  was  born  on  November  14,  1650.  His 
father  died  eight  days  before  his  birth,  whereupon  the 
states-general  abolished  the  office  of  stadtholder.  Ashe 
grew  up,  William  became  the  head  of  the  party,  at 
once  democratic  and  monarchical,  which  was  attached 
to  the  house  of  Orange.  But  all  power  was  concentrated 
in  the  hands  of  John  De  Witt  and  other  leaders  of  the 
rival  or  aristocratic  republican  party.  Hence  William 
learned  caution,  reserve,  insight  into  character,  and  the 
art  of  biding  his  time. 

When,  however,  France  and  England  declared  war 
upon  the  Netherlands  in  the  spring  of  1672,  the  rapid 
success  of  the  French  arms,  and  the  rejection  by  Louis 
of  the  terms  offered  by  the  Dutch  Government,  pn> 
duced  a revolution  in  favor  of  William.  A popular  ris- 
ing obliged  DeWitt  to  repeal  the  perpetual  edict  (which 
ratified  the  suppression  of  the  stadtholdership  in  1667), 


' w 

and  On  July  8,  1672,  the  Prince  of  Orange  was  declared 
by  the  states-general,  stadtholder,  captain-general,  and 
admiral  for  life.  The  revolution  was  followed  by  a riot 
in  which  John  and  Cornelius  De  Witt  lost  their  lives. 
There  appears  no  evidence  connecting  William  with  the 
attack  on  the  De  Witts;  but  he  made  no  attempt  to 
punish  it;  on  the  contrary,  he  rewarded  the  leaders. 
Then,  rejecting  the  outrageous  terms  offered  by  the  al- 
lies, he  placed  his  private  fortune  and  the  revenues  of 
his  offices  at  the  disposal  of  the  state,  and  declared  him- 
self ready  to  die  in  the  last  ditch.  In  order  to  check  the 
French  advance  the  sluices  were  opened  and  vast  tracts 
of  country  placed  under  water.  The  Dutch  fleet  pre- 
vented an  English  landing.  An  alliance  was  made  with 
the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  wdiose  forces  effected  a useful 
diversion  on  the  eastern  frontier.  Next  yedr  (1673) 
William  lost  Maestricht,  but  he  more  than  balanced  this 
disaster  by  treaties  with  Spain  and  the  empire.  The 
war  now  began  to  turn  in  his  favor.  Early  in  1674  the 
French  troops  evacuated  Holland,  and  in  February  of 
the  same  year  peace  was  made  with  England  in  the 
treaty  of  Westminster. 

For  the  next  two  years  the  war  dragged  on  without 
very  important  results.  William,  although  he  had 
saved  Holland,  could  not  prevent  France  from  winning 
places  at  the  expense  of  the  empire  and  Spain.  In 
April,  1677,  he  was  decisively  beaten  by  the  duke  of 
Orleans  near  St.  Omer.  A great  part  of  the  Spanish 
Netherlands  as  well  as  Franche  Comte  was  now  in  the 
hands  of  France.  These  advances  caused  much  alarm 
in  England ; and  the  prince  of  Orange  linked  himself 
closer  to  that  country  by  marrying  Mary,  elder  daughter 
of  James,  duke  of  York,  in  November,  1677.  Early 
next  year  William  signed  a treaty  of  alliance  with  Eng- 
land, the  object  of  which  was  to  compel  Louis  to  come 
to  terms.  The  duplicity  of  Charles  and  the  attitude  of 
the  country  party  in  England,  anxious  for  war  with 
France  but  unwilling  to  put  an  army  into  the  king’s 
hands,  prevented  this  arrangement  from  taking  effect. 
A fresh  treaty  was,  however,  made  between  the  two 
powers  (July),  and  the  pressure  thus  brought  to  bear 
upon  Louis  led  to  the  peace  of  Nimeguen  (August,  1678). 

Meanwhile,  as  heir  presumptive  to  the  English  throne, 
he  paid  close  attention  to  what  was  passing  in  England. 
He  sought  to  win  Charles  by  sheltering  the  duke  of 
Monmouth  during  the  exile  to  which  his  father  had  un- 
willingly condemned  him.  The  same  motives  led  him 
to  dismiss  the  duke  when  James  II.  succeeded  his 
brother,  and  to  discourage  the  attempt  which  Monmouth 
made  to  win  the  crown.  He  also  endeavored  to  stop 
Argyll  and  his  friends  when  they  were  setting  out  for 
England;  and  he  tried  to  dissuade  Monmouth  from  his 
rash  expedition,  and  to  induce  him  to  take  service 
against  the  Turks  in  Hungary,  and,  when  this  failed,  he 
sought,  with  as  little  success,  to  prevent  his  crossing  to 
England.  Throughout  the  whole  crisis  he  showed  a 
scrupulous  regard  for  the  interests  of  his  father-in-law, 
which  fortunately  coincided  with  his  own ; but  at  the 
same  time  he  astutely  avoided  any  step  which  would 
have  alienated  from  him  the  constitutional  party. 
When,  however,  James  II.  began  to  show  himself  in 
his  true  colors,  William  became  the  head  of  the  opposi- 
tion in  England. 

On  September  30th  he  issued  a declaration  in  which 
he  recapitulated  James’  unconstitutional  acts,  and  stated 
that  he  was  coming  to  England  in  order  to  secure  the 
assembling  of  a free  parliament,  by  whose  decision  he 
was  resolved  to  abide.  On  November  2d  he  sailed 
from  Holland,  and  three  days  later  landed  at  Torbay. 
At  first  only  few  persons  joined  him,  but  presently  the 
gentry  began  to  come  in.  James,  who  had  massed  his 
troops  at  Salisbury,  was  compelled  by  Wiflmn’s  ad- 


I L 6357 

vance  and  by  the  desertion  of  Churchill  and  others  to 
fall  back  upon  London.  Here  he  attempted  to  treat 
with  the  invader.  William,  anxious  to  avoid  all  appear- 
ance of  conquest,  consented  to  negotiate,  and  it  was 
agreed  that  a parliament  should  be  summoned,  both 
armies  meanwhile  holding  aloof.  James,  however, 
attempted  to  leave  the  country,  but  was  stopped  and 
returned  to  Whitehall.  For*  a moment  he  seemed  to 
contemplate  resistance,  but  William  now  insisted  on  his 
retiring  from  London.  His  final  flight  relieved  the 
prince  of  a great  difficulty.  On  December  19th  Will- 
iam arrived  in  London,  and  at  once  called  a meeting 
of  peers  and  others  who  had  sat  in  the  parliaments  of 
Charles  II.’s  reign.  By  their  advice  lie  summoned  a 
convention,  which  met  on  January  22,  1689,  and  set- 
tled the  crown  on  William  and  Mary,  who,  after  accept- 
ing the  Declaration  of  Rights,  were  on  February  13th 
proclaimed  king  and  queen. 

The  revolution  had  so  far  succeeded  beyond  expecta- 
tion; but  William’s  difficulties  had  only  begun.  For 
nearly  a year  and  a half  after  William’s  .acceptance 
of  the  crown  he  was  occupied  in  forming  the  coali- 
tion against  Louis  XIV.  known  as  the  Grand  Alliance. 
As  stadtholder  of  the  United  Netherlands,  William  had 
already  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  emperor.  In 
December  he  joined  the  league  as  king  of  England,  and 
in  1690  the  coalition  was  completed  by  the  adhesion  of 
Spain,  Brandenburg,  and  Savoy.  William  had  thus 
gained  his  first  great  object:  he  had  united  Europe 
against  the  Bourbon.  Meanwhile,  however,  his  arms 
had  made  little  progress  in  Scotland  and  Ireland. 
James  had  landed  in  Ireland  in  March,  1689,  and  nearly 
the  whole  island  was  in  his  hands.  The  relief  of  Lon- 
donderry (July)  and  the  battle  of  Newtown  Butler 
(August)  saved  the  north  for  William,  but  elsewhere 
Schomberg  could  make  no  way.  In  Scotland  the  con- 
vention had  offered  the  crown  to  William  and  Mary, 
but  in  the  battle  of  Killiecrankie  (July)  the  clans  under 
Dundee  had  routed  William’s  army.  The  convention, 
which  shortly  after  his  accession  had  been  turned  into 
a parliament,  met  for  its  second  session  in  the  autumn 
of  1689,  and  the  two  parties  quarreled  so  violently  over 
the  Corporation  and  Indemnity  Bills  that  William 
threatened  to  leave  the  country.  He  was  induced  by 
Nottingham  and  Shrewsbury  to  give  up  this  intention, 
but  in  January,  1690,  he  dissolved  the  parliament. 
William  put  an  end  to  the  quarrel  about  the  indemnity 
by  issuing  an  Act  of  Grace,  which  gave  an  almost  com- 
plete amnesty;  and,  after  placing  the  government  in 
the  hands  of  the  queen  and  a council  of  nine  persons, 
he  left  for  Ireland.  The  defeat  of  the  English  and 
Dutch  fleets  off  Beachy  Head  and  the  repulse  of  the 
allied  forces  at  Fleurus  (June  and  July,  1690)  were 
severe  blows  to  William’s  hopes;  but  the  former  led  to 
no  important  results  and  the  latter  was  more  than 
balanced  by  the  victory  which  William  won  at  the  battle 
of  the  Boyne  (July  i,  1690).  James  fled  from  the 
country,  and  William  entered  Dublin  in  triumph.  In 
September  he  returned  to  England,  leaving  Marl- 
borough to  conquer  the  south  of  Ireland  in  a short 
but  brilliant  campaign.  Meanwhile  the  resistance  in 
Scotland  had  collapsed,  and  Mackay  reduced  the  High- 
lands to  tranquillity.  In  1691  William  was  able  to  go 
abroad  and  to  take  the  command  in  Flanders,  where, 
however,  his  efforts  were  unsuccessful. 

But  the  fortune  of  war  went  against  William  on  the 
Continent.  He  could  not  save  Namur  from  the  French, 
and  he  was  severely  defeated  in  an  attempt  to  surprise  the 
duke  of  Luxembourg  at  Steenkerke  (August  4,  1692). 
Next  year  he  was  again  beaten  by  the  same  commandet 
at  Neerwinden  (July  19th).  The  battle  of  La  Hogue 
had  not  given  England  the  command  of  the  seas,  and 


W I L 


6358 

French  privateers  inflicted  great  damage  on  English 
trade.  In  June,  1693,  the  Smyrna  fleet  was  almost 
entirely  destroyed  off  Cape  St.  Vincent. 

In  spite  of  these  reverses,  William  struggled  on  with 
indomitable  courage,  and  he  was  well  supported  by  the 
country.  Parliament,  under  the  skillful  guidance  of 
Montague,  adopted  various  important  financial  measures 
to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  war.  The  land  tax  was  re- 
assessed, the  national  debt  created,  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land established,  and  the  coinage  renewed  (1693-95). 
In  1694  William  confirmed  the  parliamentary  system  by 
giving  histonsent,  though  an  unwilling  consent,  to  the 
Triennial  Act,  and  he  recognized  the  principles  of  min- 
isterial government  by  modifying  the  ministry,  until  in 
1696  it  was  in  thorough  harmony  with  the  parliament- 
ary majority.  In  1695  William  won  his  first  important 
success  on  the  Continent  by  recovering  Namur,  and, 
though  no  advance  was  made  by  the  allies  next  year, 
the  exhaustion  of  France  was  becoming  more  and  more 
evident.  At  length,  in  March,  1697,  a congress  met  at 
Ryswick,  and  in  September  peace  was  made.  Louis 
was  obliged  to  give  up  all  (with  the  exception  of  Stras- 
burg)  that  he  had  added  to  his  dominions  since  1678, 
and  he  recognized  William  as  king  of  England.  With 
the  conclusion  of  the  war  the  drqad  of  a standing  army 
revived  in  England,  and,  much  to  William’s  disgust,  a 
vote  of  parliament  reduced  the  military  force  to  10,000 
men,  although  the  question  of  the  Spanish  succession 
was  pending.  The  new  parliament  which  met  early  in 
1699  reduced  the  army  still  further,  and  resolved  that  it 
should  consist  solely  of  English  troops,  thus  compelling 
William  to  dismiss  his  favorite  Dutch  guards.  They 
went  on  to  institute  an  inquiry  into  the  manner  in 
which  the  forfeited  estates  in  Ireland  had  been  disposed 
of,  and  in  their  second  session  (November,  1699)  they 
passed  a bill  for  the  “resumption”  of  these  estates. 
William  died  on  March  8,  1 702,  from  the  consequences 
of  a fall  from  his  horse  on  February  20th. 

WILLIAM  IV.,  king  of  England,  was  the  third  son 
of  George  III.  He  was  born  at  Windsor,  August  21, 
3765.  When  he  was  fourteen  years  old  he  was  sent  to 
«ea  as  a midshipman  under  Admiral  Digby.  In  1789 
he  was  made  duke  of  Clarence.  He  took  his  seat  in 
the  House  of  Lords,  where  he  defended  the  extrava- 
gancies of  the  prince  of  Wales,  spoke  on  the  Divorce 
Bill,  vehemently  opposed  the  emancipation  of  slaves, 
and  defended  slavery  on  the  ground  of  his  experience 
in  the  West  Indies.  Meanwhile  he  formed  a connec- 
tion with  Mrs.  Jordan,  the  actress,  with  whom  he  lived 
on  terms  of  mutual  affection  and  fidelity  for  nearly 
twenty  years,  and  the  union  was  only  broken  off  event- 
ually for  political  reasons.  During  all  this  period  the 
prince  had  lived  in  comparative  obscurity.  The  death 
of  Princess  Charlotte  in  1817  brought  him  forward  as  in 
Iheline  of  succession  to  the  crown.  In  1818  he  married 
Adelaide  of  Saxe-Meiningen,  a lady  half  his  age,  with- 
out special  attractions,  but  of  a strong,  self-willed 
nature,  which  enabled  her  subsequently  to  obtain  great 
influence  over  her  husband.  On  the  death  of  the  duke 
of  York  in  1827  the  duke  of  Clarence  became  heir  to 
the  throne,  and  in  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  lord 
high  admiral. 

On  June  28,  1830,  the  death  of  George  IV.  placed 
him  on  the  throne.  During  the  first  two  years  of  his 
reign  England  underwent  an  agitation  more  violent 
than  any  from  which  it  had  suffered  since  1688.  Will- 
iam IV.  was  well-meaning  and  conscientious;  but, 
when  the  struggle  in  parliament  began,  his  disinclination 
to  take  up  a decided  attitude  soon  exposed  the  govern- 
ment to  difficulties.  The  first  Reform  Bill  was  intro- 
duced on  March  1,  1831;  the  second  reading  was  car- 
ried «n  March  2.1st  by  a majority  of  one,  Shortly 


afterward  the  government  were  beaten  in  committee, 
and  offered  to  resign.  The  king  declined  to  accept  their 
resignation,  but  at  the  same  time  was  unwilling  to  dis- 
solve, although  it  was  obvious  that  in  the  existing  par- 
liament a ministry  pledged  to  reform  could  not  retain 
office.  From  this  dilemma  William  was  rescued  by  the 
conduct  of  the  opposition,  which,  anxious  to  bring  on  a 
change  of  ministry,  moved  an  address  against  dissolu- 
tion. Regarding  this  as  an  attack  on  his  prerogative, 
William  at  once  dissolved  parliament  (April,  1831). 
The  elections  gave  the  ministry  an  overwhelming  ma- 
jority. The  second  Reform  Bill  was  brought  in  in 
June,  and  passed  its  third  reading  (September  21st)  by 
a majority  of  109.  A fortnight  later  (October  8th)  the 
Lords  threw  out  the  Bill  by  a majority  of  forty-one. 
For  an  account  of  the  subsequent  stages  of  the  strug. 
gle,  see  Grey. 

During  the  rest  of  his  reign  William  IV.  had  not  much 
opportunity  of  active  political  interference. 

In  May,  1837,  the  kingbegan  to  show  signs  of  debility, 
and  died  from  an  affection  of  the  heart  on  June  20th, 
leaving  behind  him  the  memory  of  a genial,  frank, 
warm-hearted  man,  but  a blundering,  though  well-in- 
tentioned prince.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  niece,  Vic- 
toria. 

WILLIAM,  surnamed  the  Lion,  king  of  Scotland 
from  1165  to  1214.  (See  Scotland). 

WILLIAM  IV.,  landgrave  of  Hesse,  well  known  as 
an  astronomer,  son  of  Philip  the  Magnanimous,  was 
born  at  Cassel  on  June  14,  1532.  During  his  father’s 
captivity  after  the  battle  of  Miihlberg  (1547)  he  carried 
on  the  government  in  his  name  for  five  years,  and  suc- 
ceeded him  on  his  .death  in  1567.  At  an  early  age  he 
became  interested  in  astronomy;  and  in  1561  he  built  an 
observatory  at  Cassel,  where  observations  were  regularly 
made,  first  by  himself,  afterward  by  Rothmann  and 
Biirgi.  The  last-named  was  not  only  a very  skillful  me- 
chanic (it  seems  probable  that  he  applied  the  pendulum 
to  clocks  long  before  Huygens  did)  but  an  original 
mathematician,  who  independently  invented  logarithms. 
William  died  on  August  25,  1592. 

WILLIAM,  surnamed  the  Silent,  prince  of  Orange, 
count  of  Nassau,  was  born  at  the  castle  of  Dillenburg 
in  Nassau  on  April  16,  1533.  Having  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  Charles  V.,  he  was  invested  by  the  emperor 
at  the  age  of  twenty-two  with  the  command  of  the 
army  on  the  French  frontier;  and  it  was  on  his  shoulder 
that  Charles  V.  leaned  when  in  1555,  in  the  presence  of 
a great  assembly  at  Brussels,  he  transferred  to  his  son 
Philip  the  sovereignty  of  the  Netherlands.  Orange  was 
also  selected  to  carry  the  - insignia  of  the  empire  to 
Ferdinand,  king  of  the  Romans,  when  Charles  resigned 
the  imperial  crown.  He  took  part  in  Philip  II. ’s  first 
war  with  France,  and  negotiated  the  preliminary  ar- 
rangements for  the  treaty  of  Cateau-Cambrdsis  (1559). 
He  was  one  of  the  hostages  sent  to  France  for  the  due 
execution  of  the  treaty,  and  during  his  stay  in  that 
country  Henry  II.,  who  entirely  misunderstood  his 
character,  revealed  to  him  a plan  for  the  massacre  of 
all  Protestants  in  France  and  the  Netherlands.  The 
prince  was  horrified  by  this  disclosure,  but  said  nothing; 
and  it  was  on  account  of  his  extraordinary  discretion  on 
this  occasion  that  he  received  the  surname  of  “ the 
Silent.”  The  epithet  is  apt  to  convey  a mistaken  im- 
pression as  to  his  general  character.  He  was  of  a 
frank,  open,  and  generous  nature,  without  a touch  of 
moroseness  in  the  ordinary  intercourse  of  life. 

The  persecution  of  the  Protestants  in  thft  Nether- 
lands, carried  on  with  such  reckless  ferocity  by  Cardinal 
Granvella,  led  Orange,  Egmont,  and  Horn,  the  most 
prominent  of  the  great  nobles,  to  protest  against  the 
violence  of  the  government;  and  in  1563  they  wrote  to 


WIL 


Philip  urging  him  to  withdraw  Granvella,  and  ceased 
to  attend  the  state  council.  In  the  following  year 
Granvella  was  displaced,  whereupon  they  resumed  their 
seats  at  the  council.  But  Philip,  who  had  been  long- 
ing for  an  excuse  to  crush  the  independent  spirits  of 
the  Netherlanders,  now  resolved  to  send  the  duke  of 
Alva  into  the  country,  with  a Spanish  force.  Orange, 
since  he  could  not  count  upon  the  hearty  support  of 
Egmont  or  Horn,  had  no  alternative  but  to  resign  his 
offices  and  withdraw  from  the  Netherlands  (1567)1 
ing  up  his  residence  at  Dillenburg. 

Orange  was  repeatedly  summoned  to  Brussels;  but 
he  declined  to  appear  before  the  Council  of  Disturb- 
ances, on  the  ground  that  it  had  no  jurisdiction  over 
an  independent  prince  and  a knight  of  the  order  of  the 
Fleece.  The  havoc  wrought  by  Alva  filled  him  with 
grief  and  anger;  and  in  1568  he  contrived  to  collect 
two  forces,  one  of  which,  commanded  by  his  brothers 
Louis  and  Adolphus,  gained  a victory  in  Groningen, 
where  Adolphus  fell.  Alva,  having  ordered  the  execu- 
tion of  Egmont  and  Horn,  advanced  against  Louis  and 
defeated  him  in  East  Friesland.  Orange  then  invaded 
Brabant,  but  could  neither  bring  Alva  to  a decisive 
engagement  nor  induce  the  people  to  rise  against  him. 
The  army  had  therefore  to  be  disbanded,  and  its  disap- 
pointed leader  joined  Wolfgang  of  Zweibriicken  in  an 
attempt  to  aid  the  Huguenots.  Acting  on  the  advice 
of  Coligny,  Orange  issued  letters  of  marque  to  seamen 
against  the  Spaniards;  and  for  years  the  “sea  beggars” 
harassed  the  enemy  along  the  coast,  and  often  did  no 
little  harm  to  their  own  countrymen.  In  1572  the 
revolt  against  Spain  was  so  far  successful  that  Orange 
resumed  the  functions  of  stadtholder  of  Holland  and 
Zealand,  a position  to  which  he  had  been  appointed  in 
'559  5 but  he  professed  to  rule  in  the  name  of  the  king, 
for  as  yet  the  people  had  no  wish  to  throw  off  their 
allegiance  to  the  Spanish  crown. 

On  July  15,  1572,  the  estates  of  Holland  met  at 
Dort,  and,  recognizing  Orange  as  the  legal  stadtholder 
of  Holland,  Zealand,  Friesland,  and  Utrecht,  voted  the 
sums  necessary  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war.  In 
August  he  crossed  the  Meuse  at  the  head  of  an  army, 
trusting  mainly  to  the  promised  cooperation  of  France. 
All  his  hopes,  however,  were  shattered  by  the  massacre 
of  St.  Bartholomew.  He  was  obliged  to  disband  his 
troops,  and  Mons  was  re-taken  by  the  Spaniards.  On 
April  14,  1574,  at  the  village  of  Mook,  near  Nimeguen, 
the  patriots  were  again  routed,  and  Orange’s  brothers, 
Louis  and  Henry,  slain.  But  many  fortified  places 
held  out,  and  on  October  3d,  Orange,  who  had  ordered 
the  country  to  be  inundated,  was  able  to  relieve  Leyden, 
which  had  for  months  been  defended  with  splendid 
bravery  and  self-sacrifice.  At  length  the  brutality  and 
despotism  of  the  Spaniards  were  so  fiercely  and  gener- 
ally resented  that  Orange  was  able  to  enter  upon  a 
series  of  negotiations,  which  resulted  on  November  8, 
1576,  in  the  pacification  of  Ghent,  signed  on  behalf  of 
nearly  all  the  provinces.  By  this  treaty  the  provinces 
bound  themselves  to  drive  the  Spaniards  from  the 
Netherlands,  to  convoke  the  states-general,  and  to 
establish  freedom  of  worship  both  for  Roman  Catholics 
and  for  Protestants.  Orange  retained  in  his  own  hands 
complete  control  over  the  movement  in  the  seven  north- 
ern provinces,  which  by  the  Union  of  Utrecht,  signed 
on  behalf  of  five  of  the  provinces  on  January  23,  1579, 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  commonwealth  of  the 
United  Netherlands.  Negotiations  for  the  conclusion 
of  peace  with  Spain  were  carried  on  for  some  time  in 
vain;  and  in  1580  Philip  issued  a ban  against  the  prince, 
and  set  a price  of  25,000  gold  crowns  upon  his  head. 
Orange  published  a vigorous  “ apology,”  and  on  July 
26,  1581  the  estates  of  the  United  Province*  formally 


6359 

renounced  their  allegiance  to  the  Spanish  crown.  An 
unsuccessful  attempt  on  the  life  of  Orange  was  made  in 
1 582.  But  on  J uly  10,  1584,  he  was  shot  dead  in  his  house 
at  Delft  by  Balthazar  Gerard,  who  seems  to  have  been  ac- 
tuated in  part  by  fanaticism,  in  part  by  the  hope  of  gain. 

WILLIAM  of  Holland,  second  count  of  the  name, 
was  born  about  1227,  succeeded  his  brother  Floris  IV. 
in  1235,  and  was  chosen  king  of  the  Romans  by  the  pa- 
pal party  in  1247.  See  Germany  and  Holland.  He 
died  on  January  28,  1256. 

WILLIAM  I.,  king  of  the  Netherlands  from  1815  to 
1840,  was  born  at  The  Hague  on  August  24,  1772, 
and  died  at  Berlin  on  November  7,  1843.  His  son, 
William  II.  (1792-1849),  reigned  from  1840,  and  was 
in  turn  succeeded  by  his  son,  William  III.  (bom  1817). 
(See  Holland.) 

WILLIAM,  archbishop  of  Tyre,  was  doubtless  a 
native  of  the  Holy  Land.  He  was  perhaps  born  about 
1137;  but  this  is  a mere  inference  from  his  own  state- 
ment. William  was  appointed  archdeacon  of  Tyre  at 
the  request  of  Amalric  on  August  3 1,  1167.  Atthetime 
of  the  disastrous  campaign  against  Damietta  (October- 
December,  1169)  he  had  to  take  refuge  at  Rome  from 
the  “ unmerited  anger  ” of  his  archbishop.  About  1 1 70 
he  was  appointed  tutor  to  Amalric’s  son  Baldwin,  after- 
ward Baldwin  IV.  A very  few  months  after  Baldwin’s 
accession,  William  was  made  chancellor  of  the  kingdom 
[c.  October,  1174),  and  less  than  a year  later  (June  13, 
11 75)  was  consecrated  archbisop  of  Tyre.  The  former 
office  he  still  held  in  1182.  He  belonged  to  the  com- 
mission which  negotiated  with  Philip  of  Flanders  in 
1177;  and  in  the  following  October  (1178)  he  was  one 
of  six  bishops  sent  to  represent  the  Latin  Church  of  the 
East  at  the  Lateran  Council  (March  19,  1179).  He  re- 
turned home  by  way  of  Constantinople,  where  he  stayed 
seven  months  (October,  1 179-Apri],  1 180)  with  Manuel. 
This  is  his  last  authentic  appearance  in  history ; but  we 
know  from  his  own  works  that  he  was  writing  his  His- 
tory in  1182,  and  that  it  breaks  off  abruptly  at  the  end 
of  1 1 83  or  the  beginning  of  1184.  Some  fifty  years  later 
his  first  continuator  accused  Heraclius,  patriarch  of 
Jerusalem,  of  having  procured  William’s  death  at  Rome. 

WILLIAM  of  Champeaux.  See  Scholasticism. 

WILLIAM  of  Lorris,  the  first  author  of  the  Ro- 
man de  la  Rose,  derives  his  surname  from  a small  town 
about  equi-distant  from  Montargis  and  Gien,  in*  the 
old  district  of  the  G&tinais,  and  in  the  present  department 
of  Loiret.  This  and  the  fact  of  his  authorship  may  be 
said  to  be  the  only  things  positively  known  about  him. 
The  rubric  of  the  poem,  where  his  own  part  finishes, 
attributes  Jean  de  Meung’s  continuation  to  a period 
forty  years  later  than  William’s  death,  and  the  conse- 
quent interruption  of  the  romance.  Arguing  backward, 
this  death  used  to  be  put  at  about  1260;  but  Jean  de 
Meung’s  own  work  has  recently  been  dated  earlier,  and 
so  the  composition  of  the  first  part  has  been  thrown 
back  to  a period  before  1240. 

WILLIAM  of  Malmesbury.  See  Malmesbury, 
William  of. 

WILLIAM  of  Newburgh,  born  about  1136,  was 
a canon  of  Newburgh  in  the  North  Riding  of  York- 
shire, and  author  of  a valuable  chronicle  of  English 
affairs  from  the  Norman  Conquest  to  1 197.  He  calls 
himself  Gulielmus  Parvus,  and  is  frequently  referred 
to  as  William  Petyt  or  Little.  His  work  ( Gulielmi 
Neubrigensis  Rerum  Anglicarum  Libri  V.)  was  edited 
by  Silvius  at  Antwerp  in  1567,  and  by  Hearne  at  Ox- 
ford in  1719;  the  latest  edition  is  that  by  H.  C.  Ham- 
ilton for  the  English  Historical  Society  ( Historia  Rerum 
Anglicarum  Willelmi  Parvi,  S.T.D. , Ordinis  Sancti 
Augustini  Canonici  Regularis  in  Coenobio  B.  Mariae  de 
Novoburgo  in  Agro  Eboracensih 


WIL 


6360 

WILLIAM  of  Occam.  See  Occam. 

WILLIAM  of  Wykeham,  bishop  of  Winchester 
and  chancellor  of  England,  was  born  in  1324  at  Wick- 
ham in  Hampshire.  When  he  was  twenty-two  years 
old  he  passed  into  the  service  of  Edingdon,  bishop  of 
Winchester.  In  1347  the  bishop  introduced  him  to  the 
king  as  a young  man  likely  to  be  useful  from  his.  skill 
in  architecture.  Edward  III.,  who  was  then  completing 
the  Round  Tower  at  Windsor,  made.him  his  chaplain. 
In  1356  he  was  appointed  surveyor  of  the  works  at 
Windsor,  and  a little  later  surveyor  and  warden  of 
several  other  castles.  In  1359  he  began  the  building  of 
the  great  quadrangle  to  the  east  of  the  keep  at  Windsor, 
a work  which  occupied  ten  years.  This  building  estab- 
lished his  fame  as  an  architect.  Two  years  after  its 
completion  he  was  employed  to  build  Queenborough 
Castle  (Kent).  Meanwhile  he  was  also  gaining  experi- 
ence in  affairs  of  state.  In  1360  he  must  have  been  a 
member  of  the  king’s,  council,  for  he  appears  as  a 
witness  to  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  of  Bretigny. 
In  1364  he  became  keeper  of  the  privy  seal.  In  1365 
he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  to  treat  for  peace  with 
Scotland.  And,  although  he  was  not  yet  in  holy 
orders,  he  was  loaded  by  the  king  with  preferments, 
one  of  which,  the  living  of  Pulham  in  Norfolk,  involved 
him  (about  1360)  in  a dispute  with  the  pope.  In  fact 
he  had  attained  to  such  eminence  that  Froissart  says, 
“ At  this  time  there  reigned  in  England  a priest  called 
Sir  William  de  Wiean,  so  much  in  favor  with  the  king 
that  by  him  everything  was  done.” 

Early  in  life  William  had  received  the  tonsure;  but  it 
was  not  till  1362  that  he  was  ordained  deacon  and  priest. 
In  1363  he  became  archdeacon  of  Northampton,  and 
provost  and  prebendary  of  Wells.  On  the  translation 
of  Bishop  Edingdon  in  this  year  from  Winchester  to 
Canterbury,  William  was  nominated  by  the  king  to  the 
vacant  bishopric ; but  the  pope  withheld  his  confirma- 
tion for  some  time,  and  it  was  not  till  October,  1367, 
that  William  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Winchester. 
A month  previously  he  had  been  made  chancellor  of 
England.  During  his  first  chancellorship,  the  war  with 
France  was  renewed  and  went  against  the  English. 
His  second  chancellorship  lasted  for  two  years,  and  was 
marked  by  efforts  on  his  part  to  reform  the  government 
and  place  it  on  a more  constitutional  basis.  After  he 
had  held  office  for  a year,  he  and  his  colleagues  in  the 
ministry  resigned  their  appointments,  and  challenged  a 
public  inquiry  into  their  conduct.  This  being  pro- 
nounced satisfactory,’  they  resumed  their  offices.  The 
chancellor  drew  up  rules  for  the  conduct  of  business  in 
the  council ; and  from  this  time  minutes  of  the  proceed- 
ings were  regularly  kept.  In  1391  he  resigned  the  great 
seal,  and  thenceforward  retired  from  public  life. 

It  is,  however,  as  the  founder  of  two  great  colleges 
that  William  is  principally  known  to  fame.  Immediately 
after  his  promotion  to  the  bishopric  of  Winchester  he 
appears  to  have  begun  to  carry  out  his  educational 
schemes.  Between  1369  and  1379  he  bought  the  land 
inclosed  in  the  northeastern  corner  of  the  city  walls  at 
Oxford,  on  which  New  College  now  stands.  Meanwhile 
he  was  taking  steps  to  establish  the  sister  foundation  at 
Winchester.  In  1378  he  obtained  a license  from  the 
pope  to  found  a college  there,  which  was  confirmed  by 
the  king  four  years  later.  The  ground  on  which  Win- 
chester College  stands  belonged  partly  to  the  bishop 
and  partly  to  other  proprietors,  from  whom  he  bought 
it.  In  1387  he  began  to  build,  and  the  buildings  were 
occupied  by  his  scholars  in  1393,  though  they  do  not 
appear  to  have  been  finished  till  1395.  When  his  two 
colleges  were  established  and  endowed,  he  provided 
them  with  statutes,  which  after  several  revisions,  took 
their  final  form  in  1400.  Nor  does  he  aDDear  to  have 


neglected  his  duties  as  a bishop.  He  visited  aftd  re- 
formed the  hospital  of  St.  Cross,  near  Winchester;  he 
corrected  the  abuses  which  had  crept  into  the  priory  of 
St.  Swithin,  and  he  rebuilt  or  transformed  the  nave  of 
Winchester  cathedral.  He  kept  a strict  watch  on  the 
clergy  under  his  charge,  endeavoring  to  insure  their 
efficiency  by  frequently  moving  them  from  one  living  to 
another,  and  he  promoted  the  material  prosperity  of  his 
diocese  by  repairs  of  bridges  and  roads.  In  the  rela- 
tions between  England  and  the  papacy  he  strongly  sup- 
ported the  nationalist  policy  of  Edward  III.  The 
Statutes  of  Provisors  and  Praemunire  met  with  his  full 
approval.  So  far  he  was  in  accord  with  Wycliffe,  but 
he  showed  no  sympathy  with  the  doctrinal  opinions  of 
the  reformer.  Bishop  Courtenay,  who  headed  the  at- 
tack on  Wycliffe,  was  a life-long  friend  of  the  bishop  of 
Winchester,  who  published  in  1382  the  inderdict  con- 
demning Wycliffe’s  heresies,  and  in  1392  sat  on  an  epis- 
copal commission  to  try  his  follower,  Henry  Crumpe. 
He  died  at  Waltham  on  September  27,  1404,  and  was 
buried  in  the  cathedral  of  Winchester.  , 

WILLIAMS,  John,  English  missionary,  was  born 
at  Tottenham,  near  London,  on  June  29,  1796.  He 
was  trained  as  an  ironmonger,  and  acquired  while  young 
considerable  experience  in  mechanical  work.  Having 
offered  himself  to  the  London  Missionary  Society,  he 
was  sent,  after  some  training,  in  1816,  to  the  South  Sea 
Islands  as  a missionary.  Williams  was  fairly  liberal  for 
his  age,  and  the  results  of  his  labors  among  the  Pacific 
Islands  were  essentially  beneficial.  He  traveled  un- 
ceasingly among  the  various  island  groups,  planting 
stations  and  settling  native  missionaries  whom  he  him- 
self had  trained.  Williams  returned  to  England  in 
1834  (having  previously  visited  New  South  Wales  in 
1821)  ; and  during  his  four  years’  stay  at  home  he  had 
the  New  Testament,  which  he  had  translated  into 
Rarotongan,  printed.  Returning  in  1838  to  the  Pacific, 
he  visited  the  stations  already  established  by  him,  as 
well  as  several  fresh  groups.  He  went  as  far  west  as 
the  New  Hebrides,  and,  while  visiting  Erromango,  one 
of  the  group,  for  the  first  time,  was  murdered  by  the 
natives,  November  20,  1839. 

WILLIAMS,  Roger,  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
colony  of  Rhode  Island,  North  America,  was  born 
of  either  Welsh  or  Cornish  parents,  but  this,  as  well 
as  the  date  of  his  birth,  has  been  the  subject  of 
dispute.  In  early  life  he  went  to  London,  where  his 
iskill  as  a reporter  commended  him  to  the  notice  of  Sir 
Edward  Coke,  who  sent  him  to  Sutton’s  Hospital 
(Charterhouse  school).  From  Charterhouse  he  went  to 
one  of  the  universities,  but  whether  to  Oxford  or  Cam- 
bridge there  is  no  direct  evidence  to  show.  The  register 
of  Jesus  College,  Oxford,  has  the  following  entry,  under 
date  April  30,  1624:  “ Rodericus  Williams,  filius  Guli- 
elmi  Williams,  de  Conwelgaio  Pleb.,  an.  Nat.  18.”  If 
this  entry  refers  to  the  founder  of  Rhode  Island  he  was 
of  Welsh  parentage,  and  born  about  1606.  As  Coke 
was  a Cambridge  student,  the  probability  is,  however, 
that  Williams  was  sent  there;  and  a Roger  Williams 
matriculated  at  Pembroke  College  of  that  university 
on  July  1,  1625,  and  took  his  B.A.  degree  in  January, 
1627.  This  Roger  Williams  was  the  second  son  of 
William  Williams,  and  was  baptized  at  Gwinsea,  Corn- 
wall, on  July  24,  1600,  a date  which  corresponds  with 
a statement  regarding  his  age  made  by  Williams  him- 
self. After  leaving  the  university  he  entered  on  the 
study  of  law;  but,  soon  forsaking  it  for  theology,  he  was 
admitted  into  holy  orders,  and  is  said  to  have  bad  a 
parochial  charge.  Op  account  of  his  Puritan  beliefs  he 
left  England  for  Massachusetts  Bay,  where  he  arrived 
in  the  beginning  of  1631.  He  accepted  an  invitation  to 
become  pastor  of  a church  at  Salem,  on  April  12,  1631, 


W I I 


the  same  day  that  the  magistrates  were  assembled  at 
Boston  to  express  disapproval  of  the  scheme.  To  es- 
cape persecution  he  went  to  Plymouth,  beyond  the  juris- 
diction of  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  became  assistant 
pastor  there;  but  in  the  autumn  of  1633  he  returned  to 
Salem  as  assistant  pastor,  succeeding  in  the  following 
year  as ; sole  pastor.  Chiefly  on  account  of  his  pro- 
nounced opinions  regarding  the  restricted  sphere  of  the 
civil  magistrate  in  religious  matters,  he  came  into  con- 
flict with  the  court  of  Massachusetts,  and,  being  ban- 
ished from  the  colony,  left  with  a few  sympathizers  in 
January,  1636,  for  Narragansett  Bay.  At  first  they  re- 
ceived a grant  of  land  from  an  Indian  chief,  which  is 
now  included  in  Seekonk,  Mass.,  and  began  to  build 
houses,  but  in  June  following,  he  and  five  others  em- 
barked in  a canoe  for  Rhode  Island,  and  founded  a 
settlement,  to  which  Williams,  in  remembrance  “ of 
God’s  providence  to  him  in  his  distress,”  gave  the  name 
of  Providence.  In  1639  he  was  publicly  immersed,  and 
became  pastor  of  the  first  Baptist  church  of  Providence. 
As  Massachusetts  now  began  to  claim  jurisdiction  over 
Narragansett  Bay,  Williams  proceeded,  in  June,  1643, 
to  England,  and  through  the  mediation  of  his  friend  Sir 
Henry  Vane,  whose  acquaintance  he  had  made  at  Massa- 
chusetts, obtained  an  independent  charter,  March  14, 
1644.  In  1649  he  was  chosen  deputy  president.  He 
again  visited  England  in  1651  to  obtain  a more  explicit 
charter,  and  remained  there  till  1654,  enjoying  the 
friendship  of  Milton,  Cromwell,  and  other  prominent 
Puritans.  On  his  return  to  the  colony,  in  1654,  he  was 
chosen  president  or  governor,  and  remained  in  office  till 
1658.  He  lived  to  the  age  of  eighty-four,  but  the  exact 
date  of  his  death  is  uncertain. 

WILLIAMSBURG,  a city  of  Virginia,  between  the 
York  and  James  rivers,  sixty  miles  southeast  of  Rich- 
mond, site  of  the  William  and  Mary  College,  and  of 
the  Eastern  State  Lunatic  Asylum.  Williamsburg  was 
founded  in  1632,  is  the  oldest  incorporated  town  in  the 
State,  and  was  the  colonial  and  State  capital  until  1799. 
A battle  was  fought  here  between  General  McClellan 
and  the  Confederates,  May  5,  1862.  Population  in  1900, 
2,044. 

WILLIAMSPORT,  the  county  seat  of  Lycoming 
county,  Penn.,  is  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  west 
branch  of  the  Susquehanna  river,  amid  the  hills  of 
the  Alleghany  plateau,  and  is  entered  by  four  railway 
lines  — the  Northern  Central,  the  Philadelphia  and  Erie, 
the  Philadelphia  and  Reading,  and.  the  Corning,  Cow- 
anesque  and  Antrim.  The  city  is  somewhat  irregularly 
laid  out,  and  the  streets  are  mainly  unpaved.  The 
population  in  iqoo  was  28,7.57.  Williamsport  owes  its 
importance  chiefly  to  its  large  lumber  industry.  The 
healthfulness  of  its  climate  and  the  beauty  of  the  sur- 
rounding scenery  have  made  it  a popular  summer  resort 
in  recent  years. 

WILLIBRORD,  St.,  the  apostle  of  the  Frisians,  was 
born  about  657.  In  his  thirty- third  year  (c.  690)  he 
started  with  twelve  companions  for  the  mouth  of  the 
Rhine.  These  districts  were  then  occupied  by  the 
Frisians  under  their  king  Rabbod  or  Radbod.  After  a 
time  he  found  in  Pippin,  the  mayor  of  the  palace,  a 
strong  supporter,  who.sent  him  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
consecrated  bishop  by  Pope  Sergius  on  St.  Cecilia’s  Day 
696.  Bede  says  that  when  he  returned  to  Frisia  his  see 
was  fixed  in  U trecht.  He  now  seems  to  have  spent  sev- 
eral years  in  founding  churches  and  in  the  work  of  con- 
version, till  his  success  tempted  him  to  pass  into  those 
parts  of  the  land  which  di^  not  own  the  Frankish  sway. 
Being  kindly  received  by  Radbod,  but  failing  to  convert 
aim,  he  passed  on  to  Denmark,  whence  he  carried  away 
hirty  boys  to  be  brought  up  among  the  Franks.  On 
iis  return  he  was  wrecked  on  the  holy  island  of  Fosite  1 


6361 

(Heligoland),  where  his  disregard  of  the  pagan  supersti 
tion  nearly  cost  him  his  life.  When  Pippin  died,  Will, 
ibrord  found  a supporter  in  his  son  Charles  Martel,  who, 
according  to  Alcuin’s  version  of  the  story,  established, 
the  bishop  in  Utrecht  upon  Radbod’s  death  (719).  At 
this  time  he  was  assisted  for  three  years  in  his  mis-, 
sionary  work  by  St.  Boniface  (719-722).  Of  the  later 
years  of  his  life  we  have  no  special  chronological  de- 
tails. The  day  of  his  death  was  November  6,  738,  and 
his  body  was  buried  in  the  monastery  of  Epternac,  which 
he  had  himself  founded. 

WILLIMANTIC,  a borough  in  the  town  of  Wind- 
ham, Windham  county,  Conn.,  is  situated  in  a broken, 
hilly  country,  on  the  Westfield  river  and  on  three  rail- 
way lines — the  New  York  and  New  England,  the  New 
York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford,  and  the  Central 
Vermont.  The  population  in  1900  was  8,937,  and  in 
.1890,  8,648.  The  industries  consist  chiefly  of  cotton 
manufactures,  in  which  the  town  has  acquired  great 
prominence,  owing  to  the  fine  water  power  afforded  by 
the  Westfield  river. 

WILLIS,  Nathaniel  Parker,  American  author, 
was  descended  from  George  Willis,  described  as  a 
“ Puritan  of  considerable  distinction,”  who  arrived  in 
New  England  about  1630  and  settled  in  Cambridge, 
Mass.  Nathaniel  Parker  was  the  eldest  son  and  sec- 
ond child  of  Nathaniel  Willis,  a newspaper  proprietor 
in  Boston,  and  was  born  in  Portland,  Me.,  January  20, 
1806.  After  attending  Boston  grammar  school  and  the 
academy  at  Andover,  he  entered  Yale  College  in  Oc- 
tober, 1823.  Although  he  did  not  specially  distinguish 
himself  as  a student,  university  life  had  considerable  in- 
fluence in  the  development  of  his  character,  and  fur- 
nished him  with  much  of  his  literary  material.  Imme- 
diately after  leaving  Yale  he  published,  in  1827,  a volume 
of  Poetical  Sketches , which  attracted  some  attention, 
although  the  critics  found  in  his  verses  more  to  blame 
than  to  praise.  It  was  followed  by  Fugitive  Poetry 
(1829)  and  Poems  (1831).  He  also  contributed  fre- 
quently to  magazines  and  periodicals.  In  1829  he  started 
the  American  Monthly  Magazine , which  was  continued 
from  April  of  that  year  to  August,  1831,  but  failed  to 
achieve  success.  On  its  discontinuance  he  went  to  Eu- 
rope as  foreign  editor  and  correspondent  of  the  New  York 
Mirror.  To  this  journal  he  contributed  a series  of  let- 
ters, which,  under  the  title  Penci lings  by  the  IVay , were 
published  at  London  in  1835,  and  in  Philadelphia, 
1836;  and  the  first  complete  edition  in  New  York,  1841. 
Their  vivid  and  rapid  sketches  of  scenes  and  modes  of 
life  in  the  Old  World  at  once  gained  them  a wide  pop- 
ularity; but  he  was  censured  by  some  critics  for  indis- 
cretion in  reporting  conversations  in  private  gatherings. 
Notwithstanding,  however,  the  small  affectations  and 
fopperies  which  were  his  besetting  weaknesses  as  a man 
as  well  as  an  author,  the  grace,  ease,  aud  artistic  finish 
of  his  style  won  general  recognition.  His  Slingsby 
Papers , containing  descriptions  of  American  life  and 
adventure,  republished  in  1836  under  the  title  Inklings 
of  Adventure , were  as  successful  in  England  as  were 
his  Pencilings  by  the  IP  ay  in  America.  He  also  pub- 
lished while  in  England  Melaine  and  Other  Poena 
(London,  1835;  New  York,  1837),  which  was  intro- 
duced by  a preface  by  Barry  Cornwall.  After  his  mar- 
riage to  Mary  Stace,  daughter  of  General  Stace  of 
Woolwich,  he  returned  to  America,  and  settled  at  a 
small  estate  on  Oswego  Creek,  just  above  its  junction 
with  the  Susquehanna.  Here  he  lived  off  and  on  from 
1837  to  1842  and  wrote  Letters  from  Under  a Bridgr 
(1840),  the  most  charming  of  all  his  works.  During  a 
short  visit  to  England  in  1839-40  he  published  Two 
Ways  of  Dying  for  a Husband.  Returning  to  New 
York,  he  established,  along  with  George  P„  Morris  v. 


W I L 


6362 

newspaper  entitled  the  Evening  Mirror.  On  the  death 
of  his  wife  in  1845  he  again  visited  England.  Returning 
to  America  in  the  spring  of  1846,  he  again  married,  and 
established  the  National  Press,  afterward  named  the 
Home  Journal . In  1845  he  published  Dashes  at  Life , 
in  1846  a collected  edition  of  his  Prose  and  Poetical 
Works , in  1849  Rural  Letters , and  in  1850  Life  Here 
and  There.  In  the  last  mentioned  year  he  settled  at 
Idlewild,  and  on  account  of  failing  health  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  chiefly  in  retirement.  Among  his 
later  works  were  Hurry  graphs,  1851;  Outdoors  at 
Idlewild,  1854;  Ragbag , 1855  ; Pearl  Fane , 1856;  and 
the  Convalescent , 1859.  He  died  Juty  2°>  1867,  and 
was  buried  in  Mount  Auburn,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

WILLIS,  Thomas,  English  physician,  was  born  at 
Great  Bedwin,  Wiltshire,  on  January  27,  1621.  He 
took  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  medicine  in  1646.  He 
rapidly  acquired  an  extensive  practice,  his  reputation 
and  skill  marking  him  out  as  one  of  the  first  physicians* 
of  his  time.  He  died  at  St.  Martin’s  on  November  11, 
1675,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

WILLMORE,  James  Tibbitts,  English  line  en- 
graver, was  born  at  Bristnall’s  End,  Handsworth,  near 
Birmingham,  on  September  15,  1800.  At  the  age  of 
fourteen  he  was  apprenticed  to  William  Radcliffe,  a 
Birmingham  engraver,  and  in  1823  he  went  to  London, 
and  was  employed  for  three  years  by  Charles  Heath. 
He  was  afterward  engaged  upon  the  plates  of  Brocke- 
don’s  Passes  of  the  Alps  and  Turner’s  England  and 
Wales.  He  engraved  after  Chalon,  Leitch,  Stanfield, 
Landseer,  Eastlake,  Creswick,  and  Ansdell,  and  espe- 
cially after  Turner,  from  whose  Alnwick  Castle  by  Moon- 
light, the  Old  Temeraire,  Mercury  and  Argus,  Ancient 
Rome , and  the  subjects  of  the  rivers  of  France  he  exe- 
cuted many  admirable  plates.  He  was  elected  an  as- 
sociate engraver  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1843.  hie 
died  March  12, 1863. 

WILLOW  ( Salix ),  a very  well  marked  genus  of 
plants  constituting,  with  the  Poplar  ( Populus ),  the 
order  Salicacece.  Willows  are  trees  or  shrubs,  varying 
in  stature  from  a few  inches  to  a hundred  feet,  and 
occurring  most  abundantly  in  cold  or  temperate  cli- 
mates, in  both  hemispheres,  and  generally  in  moist 
situations.  They  are  not  unrepresented  in  the  trop- 
ics, but  have  hitherto  not  been  discovered  in  Aus- 
tralia or  the  South  Sea  Islands.  Although  the  limita- 
tions of  the  genus  are  well  marked,  and  its  recognition 
in  consequence  easy,  it  is  otherwise  with  regard  to  the 
species.  The  greatest  difference  of  opinion  exists  among 
botanists  as  to  their  number  and  the  bounds  to  be  as- 
signed to  each.  The  cross-fertilization  that  takes  place 
between  the  species  of  course  intensifies  the  difficulty. 
Andersson,  a Swede,  spent  nearly  a quarter  of  a century 
in  their  investigation,  and  ultimately  published  a mono- 
graph which  is  the  standard  authority  on  the  subject. 
He  admits  about  100  species.  To  illustrate  the  great 
perplexity  surrounding  the  subject,  we  may  mention 
that  to  one  species,  S.  nigricans , 120  synonyms  have 
been  attached.  Some  of  these  are  doubtless  such  as  no 
botanist,  with  adequate  material  for  forming  an  opinion, 
would  accept;  but,  after  making  the  necessary  deduc- 
tions for  actual  mistakes  and  misstatements,  there  still 
remains  a large  number  upon  which  legitimate  differ- 
ences of  opinion  prevail.  Andersson  says  that  he  has 
rarely  seen  two  specimens  of  this  species  which  were 
alike  in  the  collective  characteristics  offered  by  the  stat- 
ure, foliage,  and  catkins.  No  better  example  could  be 
found  of  the  almost  limitless  variation  in  so-called 
species,  so  that  the  attempt  to  define  the  indefinable 
can  at  best  only  result  in  an  arbitrary  grouping. 

Few  genera  have  greater  claims  to  notice  from  an 
'tconomic  00W  of  view  As  timber  trees,  manv  of  the 


species  are  valuable  from  their  rapidity  of  growth,  and 
for  the  production  of  light,  durable  wood,  serviceable 
for  many  purposes.  Among  the  best  trees  of  this  kind 
are  S.  fragilis,  especially  the  variety  known  as  S. 
fragilis , var.  Russelliana , and  S.  alba , the  white 
or  Huntingdon  willow.  These  trees  are  usually  found 
growing  by  rivers’  banks  or  in  other  moist  situations, 
and  are  generally  pollarded  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
a crop  of  straight  poles.  This  plan  is,  however,  objec- 
tionable, as  inducing  decay  in  the  center  of  the  trunk. 
Where  poles  are  required,  it  is  better  to  treat  the  trees 
as  coppice,  and  to  cut  the  trunk  level  with  the  soil.  S. 
Caprcea , a hedgerow  tree,  generally  grows  in  drier  situ- 
ations. It  is  a useful  timber  tree,  and  its  wood,  like 
that  of  S.  alba,  is  prized  in  the  manufacture  of  char- 
coal. Its  catkins  are  collected  in  celebration  of  Palm 
Sunday,  the  gaily-colored  flowers  being  available  in 
early  spring,  when  other  decorations  of  the  kind  are 
scarce.  Certain  sorts  of  willow  are  largely  used  for 
basket-making  and  wicker  work.  The  species  employed 
for  this  purpose  are  mostly  of  shrubby  habit,  and  are 
known  under  the  collective  name  of  osiers.  The  best 
for  planting  is  the  bitter  osier,  S.  purpurea.  Planted 
on  rich,  well-drained  soil,  subject  to  occasional  im- 
mersion, this  willow  may  be  grown  profitably  for  bas- 
ket work.  It  is  also  well  adapted  for  forming  wind- 
breaks or  screens,  or  for  holding  the  banks  of  streams 
and  preventing  the  removal  of  the  soil  by  the  current. 
S.  viminalis  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  green  osiers,  suit- 
able for  hoops,  and  valuable  for  retaining  the  soil  on 
sloping  embankments.  S.  vitellina  yields  the  yellow 
osiers.  They  are  easily  propagated  by  truncheons  or 
cuttings,  inserted  in  a slanting  direction  into  the  soil  for 
a depth  of  eight  to  ten  inches.  Land  unsuitable  for 
root  or  grain  crops  can  be  utilized  for  the  growth  of 
osiers ; but,  as  in  the  case  of  all  other  plants,  good  cul- 
tivation, including  the  selection  of  sorts  appropriate  to 
the  locality,  drainage,  manure,  etc.,  insures  the  best  re- 
turn. S.  acuminata  and  other  species  do  well  by  the 
seaside,  and  are  serviceable  as  wind-screens,  nurse-trees, 
and  hedges.  S.  daphnoides , A.  repens,  and  other  dwarf 
kinds  are  useful  for  binding  heathy  or  sandy  soil.  In 
addition  to  their  use  for  timber  or  basket-making,  wil- 
lows contain  a large  quantity  of  tannin  in  their  bark. 
A bitter  principle  named  Salicin  ( q . v.)  is  also  extracted 
from  the  bark.  As  ornamental  trees,  some  willows 
also  take  a high  rank.  The  white  willow  is  a great  fa- 
vorite, while  the  drooping  habit  of  the  weeping  willow 
renders  it  very  attractive.  Though  named  S.  baby - 
lonica,  it  is  really  a native  of  China,  the  willow  of  the 
Euphrates  being  in  all  probability  Populus  eupliratica. 
S.  babylonica  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  Pope’s  willow, 
having  been  cultivated  by  that  poet,  and  as  Napoleon’s 
willow,  because  his  tomb  at  St.  Helena  is  overshadowed 
by  a tree  of  this  species,  from  which  many  offsets  exist,  or 
are  reputed  to  exist,  in  modern  gardens.  S.  regalis 
has  very  white,  silvery  leaves.  S.  rosmarini folia  is  re- 
markable for  its  very  narrow  leaves,  purplish  above, 
silvery  beneath. 

WILLUGHBY,  Francis,  English  ornithologist  and 
ichthyologist,  who  is  memorable  as  the  pupil,  friend, 
and  patron,  as  well  as  the  active  and  original  co-worker 
of  John  Ray,  and  hence  to  be  reckoned  as  one  of  the 
most  important  precursors  of  Linnaeus.  He  was  the 
son  of  Sir  Francis  Willughby,  and  was  born  in  1635. 
His  only  work  is  his  Ornithologia.  Willughby  died 
July  3,  1672. 

WILMINGTON,  the  largest  city  of  the  State  ol 
Delaware,  and  the  county  se&t  of  New  Castle  county, 
is  situated  between  Brandywine  and  Christiana  creeks 
and  on  the  Delaware  river.  The  site  is  low,  but 
with  sufficient  dope  to  afford  suitable  drainage.  The 


WIL 


m/rounding  country  is  fertile  and  well  cultivated. 
Wilmington  is  a railway  center  of  considerable  im- 
portance, being  entered  by  the  Philadelphia,  Wil- 
mington and  Baltimore,  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio, 
and  the  Wilmington  and  Northern  railways.  The 
Brandywine  and  Christiana  creeks  are  navigable  for 
large  vessels.  The  city  is  laid  out  quite  regularly. 
The  population  in  1900  was  76,508.  The  manufactories 
in  1900  gave  occupation  to  22,203  persons,  the  principal 
branches  being  the  manufacture  of  paper,  iron  and  steel, 
shipbuilding,  and  the  making  of  wagons  and  carriages, 
steam-engines,  bricks,  morocco  leather,  glass,  cotton,  etc. 
The  value  of  the  total  product  ( 1900)  was  #45,387,630. 

Wilmington  was  settled  by  Swedes  in  1638.  The 
settlement  was  conquered  by  the  Dutch,  who  in  turn 
handed  it  over  to  the  English.  It  was  chartered  as  a 
city  in  1832,  and  since  the  middle  of  the  century  has 
grown  rapidly. 

WILMINGTON,  the  county  seat  of  New  Hanover 
county,  N.  C.,  the  principal  seaport  and  the  largest 
city  of  the  State,  is  situated  on  the  east  bank  of 
Cape  Fear  river,  thirty  miles  from  the  ocean.  It 
has  railroad  communication  to  the  north,  south,  and 
west,  and  this,  together  with  its  maritime  position, 
makes  it  an  important  shipping  point.  The  principal 
objects  of  trade  are  lumber  (southern  pine),  naval 
stores,  and  cotton.  The  manufactures  include  fertilizers, 
creosote,  and  carpets  (made  from  pine  leaves).  The 
value  of  its  exports,  principally  cotton,  turpentine,  and 
rosin,  is  about  #10,000,000  annually.  The  city,  which  is 
in  the  main  regularly  laid  out,  had  in  1900  a population 
of  20,976,  of  whom  60  per  cent,  were  negroes. 

The  site  of  Wilmington  was  originally  occupied  by  a 
town  named  Newton,  laid  out  in  1730.  The  name  was 
changed  to  Wilmington  nine  years  later.  The  place 
was  incorporated  as  a city  in  1866.  During  the  Civil 
War  it  was  the  principal  port  of  entry  for  the  Con- 
federate blockade-runners. 

WILMOT,  John.  See  Rochester,  Earl  of. 
WILNO.  See  Vilna. 

WILSON,  Alexander,  “the  American  ornithol- 
ogist,” was  born  in  Paisley,  Scotland,  on  July  6,  1766. 
He  emigrated  to  America  in  1794.  After  a few  years  of 
weaving,  peddling,  and  desultory  observation,  he  be- 
came a village  schoolmaster,  and  in  1800  obtained  an 
appointment  near  Philadelphia,  where  he  formed  the 
acquaintance  of  Bartram,  the  naturalist,  from  whom 
he  received  much  instruction  and  encouragement.  Un- 
der his  influence  Wilson  commenced  to  draw  birds,  hav- 
ing conceived  the  idea  of  illustrating  the  ornithology  of 
the  United  States;  and  thenceforward  he  steadily  accu- 
mulated materials  and  made  many  expeditions.  In 
1806  he  obtained  the  assistant  editorship  of  Rees'  En - 
cyclopcedia , and  thus  acquired  more  means  and  leisure 
for  his  great  work,  the  first  volume  of  which  appeared 
in  the  autumn  of  1808,  after  which  he  spent  the  winter 
in  a journey  “in  search  of  birds  and  subscribers.”  By 
the  spring  of  1813  seven  volumes  had  appeared;  but 
the  arduous  expedition  of  that  summer,  in  search  of 
the  marine  waterfowl  to  which  the  remaining  volume 
was  to  be  devoted,  gave  a shock  to  his  already  impaired 
health,  and  soon  afterward  he  succumbed  to  dysentery 
after  a short  illness,  dying  at  Philadelphia  on  August 
23,  1813. 

WILSON,  Florence.  See  Volusenus. 

WILSON,  Henry,  vice-president  of  the  United 
States  from  1873  to  1875,  was  born  at  Farmington,  N. 
H.,  on  February  16,  1812.  His  proper  name  was  Jere- 
miah J.  Colbath.  His  parents  were  day-laborers  and 
very  poor.  At  ten  years  of  age  he  went  to  work  as  a 
farm  laborer.  The  boy  was  greedy  for  reading,  and 
before  the  end  of  his  apprenticeship  had  read  more  than 


6365 

a thousand  volumes.  At  the  age  of  twenty- one,  for 
some  unstated  reason,  he  had  his  name  changed  by  Act 
of  the  Legislature  to  that  of  Henry  Wilson.  Walking 
to  Natick,  Mass.,  he  learned  the  trade  of  shoemaker, 
and  by  it  supported  himself  through  the  Concord  acad- 
emy. After  successfully  establishing  himself  as  a shoe 
manufacturer,  he  became  a noted  public  speaker  in  sup- 
I port  of  Harrison  during  the  presidential  election  of 
1840.  For  the  next  ten  years  he  was  regularly  re- 
turned to  the  State  legislature.  In  1848  he  left  the  Whig 
party  and  became  a “Free  Soiler.  ” The  Free  Soil 
party  nominated  him  for  governor  of  the  State  in  1853, 
but  he  was  defeated.  In  1855  he  was  sent  to  the  United 
States  Senate  by  the  Free  Soil  and  Democratic  parties, 
and  remained  chere  by  reelections  until  1873.  When 
the  Civil  war  broke  out  he  found  a severe  test  awaiting 
him’.  He  had  been  deeply  interested  from  1840  until 
1850  in  the  militia  of  his  State,  and  had  risen  through 
its  grades  of  service  to  that  of  brigadier-general.  He 
was  now  made  chairman  of  the  military  committee,  and 
in  this  position  performed  most  laborious  and  impor- 
tant work  for  the  four  years  pf  the  war.  The  position 
offered  boundless  and  safe  opportunities  for  becoming 
wealthy.  But  so  far  was  Wilson  from  using  them  that 
he  died  poor,  owing  to  his  necessary  neglect  of  his  pri- 
vate affairs.  Sumner  says  that  in  1873  Wilson  was 
obliged  to  borrow  a hundred  dollars  from  him  to  meet 
the  expenses  of  his  inauguration  as  vice-president.  The 
Republicans  nominated  Wilson  for  the  vice-presidency 
in  1872,  and  he  was  elected;  but  he  died,  before  com- 
pleting his  term  of  service,  at  Washington  on  Novem- 
ber 22,  1875.  He  left  two  small  but  useful  works, 
Anti-Slavery  Measures  in  Congress  (Boston,  1864)  and 
Military  Measures  in  Congress  (Hartford,  1868),  and 
a larger  work  in  three  volumes,  The  Rise  and  Fall  of 
the  Slave  Power  in  America  (Boston,  1871-76).  His 
Life  has  been  witten  by  E.  Nason  and  by  J.  B.  Mann. 

WILSON,  Horace  Hayman,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  Orientalists  of  England,  was  born  in 
London  on  September  26,  1786.  He  was  educated 
for  the  medical  profession,  and  on  completing  his 
studies  went  out  to  India  in  1808  as  an  assistant-sur- 
geon on  the  Bengal  establishment  of  the  East  India 
Company.  In  1813  he  published  the  Sanskrit  text — with 
a graceful,  if  somewhat  free,  translation  in  English 
rhymed  verse — of  Kalidasa’s  charming  lyrical  poem,  the 
Meghadiita,  or  Cloud-Messenger.  He  then  undertook 
the  arduous  task  of  preparing  the  first  Sanskrit-Eng- 
lish  Dictionary  from  materials  compiled  by  native 
scholars  for  the  college  of  Fort  William,  supplemented 
by  his  own  researches.  The  work  appeared  in  1819, 
prefaced  with  an  excellent  general  survey  of  Sanskrit 
lexicology.  The  appearance  of  the  Dictionary  at  once 
placed  Wilson  in  the  first  rank  of  Sanskrit  scholars. 
In  1827  he  published  Select  Specimens  of  the  Theater 
of  the  Hindus.  His  interest  in  political  and  economic  af- 
fairs in  India  is  shown  by  his  Historical  Sketch  of  the 
First  Burmese  War , with  Documents , Political  and 
Geographical  (1827,  reprinted  in  London),  and  his  Re- 
view of  the  External  Commerce  of  Bengal  from  1813 
to  1828  (1830),  as  well  as  by  his  History  of  British 
India  from  1803  to  1835,  in  continuation  of  Mill’s  His- 
tory, 3 vols.  (1844-48),  and  largely  based  on  his  per- 
sonal impressions  and  recollections.  In  1832  the  uni- 
versity of  Oxford,  in  recognition  of  his  services  to 
Oriental  scholarship,  selected  Doctor  Wilson  to  be  the 
first  occupant  of  the  newly  founded  Boden  chair  of  Sans* 
krit.  Shortly  af ter  his  return  to  England  he  was  also  ap- 
pointed librarian  to  the  East  India  Company.  He  now 
found  himself  in  a position  singularly  favorable  to  learned 
research  and  literary  pursuits;  and  the  long  record  of  his 
subsequent  work  shows  that,  he  made  the  beat  of  hii 


opportunities.  He  immediately  joined  the  Royal  Asiatic 
Society,  and, succeeding Colebrooke  asdirector(in  1837), 
he  was  the  very  soul  of  the  society  up  to  the  time  of  his 
death,  scarcely  a number  of  its  journal  appeared  without 
some  interesting  contribution  from  his  pen.  His  death 
took  place  at  London,  May  8,  i860. 

WILSON,  John,  better  known  as  Christopher 
North  (the  pen-name  which  he  used  in  his  contribu- 
tions to  Blackwood's  Magazine ),  was  born  at  Paisley, 
Scotland,  on  May  18,  1785. 

In  June,  1803,  Wilson  was  entered  as  a gentleman 
commoner  at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  He  took  his 
degree  in  1807,  and  found  himself  at  twenty-two  his 
own  master.  On  May  n,  1811,  he  married  Jane 
Penny,  a Liverpool  girl  of  some  family  and  fortune. 
The  Isle  of  Palms , his  first  published  volume,  consist- 
ing of  poems,  was  issued  not  long  after  this.  Then 
came  the  event  which  definitely  made  a working  man  of 
letters  of  Wilson,  and  without  which  he  would  probably 
have  produced  a few  volumes  of  verse  and  nothing 
more.  His  whole  fortune,  or  at  least  the  major  part  of 
it,  was  lost  by  the  dishonest  speculation  of  an  uncle  in 
whose  hands,  with  no  doubt  rather  culpable  careless- 
ness, Wilson  had  left  it.  He  read  law  and  was  called  to 
the  Scotch  bar,  taking  plentiful  sporting  and  pedestrian 
excursions,  on  some  of  which  his  wife  accompanied  him, 
publishing  in  1816  a second  volume  of  poems  ( The  City 
of  the  Plague ),  and  generally  leading  a very  pleasant 
life,  if  not  such  an  entirely  independent  one  as  formerly. 
The  year  1817  was  the  turning  point  in  Wilson’s  life. 
The  growth  of  Blackwood' s Magazine , and  its  sudden 
transformation  into  an  organ  at  once  of  the  most  red- 
hot  Toryism  in  politics  and  of  the  wildest  irreverence 
toward  received  notions  in  literature  and  other  matters, 
took  place  in  the  same  year.  The  petard  of  the 
“ Chaldee  Manuscript  ” determined  the  character  of  the 
new  periodical,  and  Wilson’s  career  was  fixed.  He 
was  never  exactly  editor,  for  the  powers  of  “ Christo- 
pher North”  in  that  respect  were  a fantastic  imagina- 
tion; and  we  have  definite  and  authoritative  assertions, 
not  only  that  he  never  received  any  stipend  for  editing, 
but  that  the  publishers  always  retained  a certain  super- 
vision even  over  Wilson’s  own  contributions. 

The  first  result  of  this  new  business  on  Wilson’s 
general  mode  of  life  was  that  he  left  his  mother’s  house 
and  established  himself  (1819)  in  Ann  Street,  Edin- 
burgh, on  his  own  account  with  his  wife  and  family  of 
five  children.  The  second  was  much  more  unlooked 
for:  it  was  his  candidature  for  and  election  to  the  chair 
of  moral  philosophy  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh 
(1820).  To  speak  honestly,  his  qualifications  for  the 
post  were  almost  nil,  even  if  the  fact  that  the  best 
qualified  man  in  Great  Britain,  Sir  William  Hamilton, 
Was  also  a candidate,  be  left  out  of  the  question.  But, 
luckily  for  Wilson  and  for  letters,  the  matter  was  made 
a political  one;  the  Tories  still  had  a majority  in  the 
town  council;  he  was  powerfully  backed  up  by  friends, 
Scott  at  their  head;  and  his  adversaries  played  into  his 
hands  by  attacking,  not  his  competence  (which,  as  has 
been  said,  was  very  vulnerable),  but  his  moral  charac- 
ter, which  was  not  open  to  any  fair  reproach.  Y et  he 
made  a very  excellent  professor,  never  perhaps  attain- 
ing to  any  great  scientific  knowledge  in  his  subject  or 
power  of  expounding  it,  but  acting  on  generation  after 
generation  of  students  with  a stimulating  force  that  is 
far  more  valuable  than  the  most  exhaustive  knowledge 
of  a particular  topic.  His  duties  left  him  plenty  of 
time  for  magazine  work,  and  for  many  years  his  contri- 
butions to  Blackwood  were  extraordinarily  voluminous. 
Most  of  the  best  and  best-known  of  them  appeared  be- 
tween 1825  and  1835,  that  is,  between  the  departure  of 
Lockhart  for  London  in  the  former  year  and  the  death 


of  Blackwood  the  publisher  and  of  Mrs.  Wilson  irt  the 
latter. 

Late  in  1850  his  health  showed  definite  signs  of 
breaking  up;  and  in  the  next  year  a civil  list  pension  of 
$1,500  a year  was  conferred  on  him.  He  died  at  Edin- 
burgh on  April  3,  1854. 

WILSON,  Richard,  English  landscape  painter, 
was  born  at  Penegoes,  Montgomeryshire,  where  his 
father  was  a clergyman,  August  f,  1714.  During 
his  lifetime  his  landscapes  were  never  widely  popular  ; 
his  temper  was  consequently  embittered  by  neglect,  and 
so  impoverished  was  he  that  he  was  obliged  to  seclude 
himself  in  an  obscure,  half-furnished  room  in  Totten- 
ham Court  Road,  London.  In  1776,  however,  he 
obtained  the  post  of  librarian  to  the  Academy;  and  by 
the  death  of  a brother  he  acquired  a small  property 
near  Llanferras,  Denbighshire,  to  which  he  retired  to 
spend  his  last  days,  and  where  he  died  suddenly  in  May, 
1782.  After  his  death  his  fame  increased,  and  in  1814 
about  seventy  of  his  works  were  exhibited  in  the  British 
Institution.  The  National  Gallery,  London,  contains 
nine  of  his  landscapes. 

WILTS,  a southwestern  county  of  England,  is  bound- 
ed northwest  and  north  by  Gloucestershire,  east  by 
Berks  and  Hants,  south  by  Hants  and  Dorset,  and 
west  by  Somerset.  It  is  of  an  irregular  oval  form,  its 
greatest  length  from  north  to  south  being  fifty-fout 
miles  and  its  greatest  breadth  from  east  to  west  thirty- 
seven.  The  area  is  866,677  acres,  or  about  1,350  square 
miles. 

Agriculture . — According  to  returns  made  on  June 
4,  1899,  the  total  area  of  land  occupied  was  759,538 
acres,  of  which  646,653  were  rented  and  112,885  owned 
and  occupied;  759,412  acres,  or  about  seven-eighths  of 
the  whole  area,  were  under  cultivation.  Of  this  area 
395,010  acres  were  permanent  pasture,  a great  portion 
consisting  of  sheep-runs  on  the  Chalk  downs.  In  some 
places,  especially  in  Salisbury  Plain,  tillage  was  in 
former  years  extensively  introduced  in  the  Chalk  dis- 
tricts, but  much  of  this  has  again  reverted  to  pasture. 
There  were  174,876  acres  under  grain  crops,  99,388 
under  green  crops,  79,049  under  rotation  grasses,  and 
1 1,086  under  fallow.  In  northwest  Wilts  the  prevailing 
soil  is  a reddish  chalky  clay  resting  on  a subsoil  of 
broken  stones,  whilst  on  the  Chalk  formation  the  arable 
land  is  of  a lighter  character.  There  are  also  extensive 
tracts  of  richer  soil  well  adapted  for  wheat  and  beans. 
In  1887  wheat  occupied  67,357  acres,  barley  50,928,  oats 
44,047,  rye  1,728,  Deans  7,274,  and  peas  3,542.  The 
bulk  of  the  green  crops  are  grown  for  the  feeding  of  cat- 
tle and  sheep,  potatoes  occupying  only  3,339  acres  and 
carrots  23 7,  while  54,869  acres  were  under  turnips  and 
swedes,  5,673  mangold,  10,473  cabbage,  rape,  etc.,  and 
24,527  vetches,  etc.  The  total  area  under  nursery 
grounds  in  1887  was  91  acres,  while  market  gardens  oc- 
cupied 3,525,  and  orchards  3,346.  Woods  in  1881  oc- 
cupied 45,270  acres,  a great  part  being  comprised  in 
the  ancient  forests,  including  Cranbprne  Chase  and 
Savernake  Forest,  which  contain  some  remarkable  old 
oaks  and  beeches.  The  number  of  horses  in  1887  was 
23,616,  of  which  18,980  were  used  solely  for  purposes 
of  agriculture.  Cattle  numbered  106,020,  60,113  being 
cows  and  heifers  in  milk  or  in  calf.  Dairy  farming  is 
the  leading  industry  in  the  northwestern  districts, 
Wiltshire  being  famous  for  its  cheese.  Of  the  cattle, 
i5,5°5  were  two  years  and  above,  and  30,402  under 
two  years,  an  indication  that  comparatively  few  cattle 
are  kept  for  purposes  of  feeding.  Sheep  in  1887  num- 
bered 643,125,  and  pigs  66,422. 

Manufactures  and  Trade. — Wiltshire  has  long  been 
celebrated  for  its  cloths,  the  chief  seats  of  the  industry 
being  Bradford  and  Trowbridge,  while  among  other 


WIM- 

places  Melksham  and  Chippenham  are  perhaps  the 
most  important.  Wilton  is  still  celebrated  for  its  car- 
pets. Haircloth  weaving  and  the  manufacture  of 
cocoa-nut  fibers  are  carried  on  at  Melksham,  and 
there  are  silk  works  at  Chippenham,  Malmesbury, 
Mere,  and  Warminster.  Iron-smelting  from  the  mines 
of  the  neighborhood  is  carried  on  at  Westbury;  port- 
able engines  are  made  at  Devizes ; and  at  Swindon  are 
the  engineering  works  of  the  Great  Western  railway. 
Various  towns  are  associated  with  different  branches 
of  the  agricultural  trade:  Salisbury  and  Devizes  have 
important  corn  markets;  Chippenham,  besides  a trade 
in  cheese,  has  a condensed  milk  manufactory;  Wilton 
has  a large  sheep  fair;  and  Caine  is  the  center  of  the 
Wiltshire  bacon  trade. 

Administration  and  Population. — Wiltshire  com- 
prises twenty-nine  hundreds,  the  city  of  Salisbury  or 
New  Sarum  (population  14,792  in  1881),  and  the  munic- 
ipal boroughs  of  Caine  (2,474),  Chippenham  (1,352), 
Devizes  (6,645),  and  Marlborough  (3,343 ).  The 
county  has  one  court  of  quarter  sessions  and  is  divided 
into  fifteen  petty  sessional  divisions.  The  city  of  Salis- 
bury and  the  borough  of  Devizes  have  commissions  of 
the  peace  and  separate  courts  of  quarter  sessions,  and 
the  borough  of  Marlborough  has  a commission  of  the 
peace.  Previous  to  the  Act  of  1885  the  county  was  di- 
vided for  parliamentary  purposes  into  North  and  South 
Wilts,  each  returning  two  members,  and  included  the 
following  parlian  mtary  boroughs — Caine,  Chippen- 
ham, part  of  Cricklade,  Devizes,  Malmesbury,  Marl- 
borough, Salisbury  city,  part  of  Shaftesbury,  West- 
bury, and  Wilton.  All  these  returned  one  member 
each,  with  the  exception  of  Salisbury,  which  returned 
two;  by  the  Act  of  1885  they  were  all  merged  in  the 
county  divisions,  with  the  exception  of  Salisbury, 
which  was  deprived  of  one  member.  The  county  was 
reformed  into  five  parliamentary  divisions,  each  re- 
turning one  member — north  (Cricklade),  into  which 
the  Wiltshire  portion  of  Cricklade  is  merged;  north- 
west (Chippenham),  into  which  Chippenham  and 
Malmesbury  are  merged;  south  (Wilton),  into  which 
Wilton  is  merged;  east  (Devizes),  into  which  Devizes 
and  Marlborough  are  merged;  and  west  (Westbury), 
into  which  Westbury  is  merged  The  county  contains 
340  civil  parishes,  with  parts  of  seven  others.  It  is 
mostly  In  the  diocese  of  Salisbury.  From  183,820  in 
1801  the  population  by  1821  had  increased  to  219,574, 
and  by  1841  to  256,280,  and,  although  by  1861  it  had 
diminished  to  249,311,  by  1871  it  had  again  increased 
to  257,177;  in  1901  it  was  271,372,  of  whom  137, 521 
were  males  and  133,851  females.  The  number  of  per- 
sons to  an  acre  is  0.30  and  of  acres,  to  a person  3.35. 

WIMBLEDON,  a suburb  of  London,  in  the  county 
of  Surrey,  is  situated  o.n  the  London  and  South-West- 
ern railway,  seven  and  one-fourth  miles  southwest  of 
London.  The  old  village  of  Wimbledon  has  been 
greatly  extended  of  late  years,  the  district  being  now 
a favorite  residence  for  the  London  middle  classes. 
Wimbledon  Common,  to  the  northwest  of  the  village, 
was  the  meeting-place  of  the  rifle  association  from  its 
foundation  in  i860  till  1888.  At  its  southwestern 
extremity  are  the  outlines  of  a British  earthwork,  called 
Caesar’s  camp,  having  an  extreme  diameter  of  950  feet 
and  a diameter  with  a the  vallum  of  750  feet.  At 
Coombe’s  Hill  and  elsewhere,  British  relics  have  been 
found.  The  parish  church  of  St.  Mary  is  supposed  to 
date  from  Saxon  times ; but,  after  it  had  undergone 
various  restorations  and  reconstructions,  it  was  rebuilt 
in  1833  in  the  Perpendicular  style.  There  are  various 
other  churches  and  chapels,  all  modern.  A free  library 
was  established  in  1887.  The  benevolent  institutions 
mclude  nine  almshouses,  a cottage  hospital,  a convaies- 

399 


-WIN  636$ 

cent  hospital,  and  a hospital  for  infectious  diseases. 
The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area 
3,220  acres)  was  25,950  in  1901. 

WIM BORNE  MINSTER,  a market  town  of  Dorset, 
England,  is  situated  on  a gentle  slope  above  the  river 
Allen,  near  its  confluence  with  the  Stour,  and  on  the 
Great  Western  railway,  6 miles  north  of  Poole  and  114 
west-southwest  of  London.  The  town  depends  chiefly 
on  agriculture;  but  the  manufacture  of  hose  is  carried 
on  to  a small  extent,  and  there  are  also  coach-building 
works.  The  population  of  the  parish  of  Wimborne 
Minster  (area  11,966  acres)  was  5,390  in  1889. 

WINCHESTER,  a city,  and  a parliamentary  and 
municipal  borough  of  Hampshire,  England,  is  situated 
on  the  river  Itchen,  sixty-six  miles  southwest  of  London 
by  the  London  and  South-Western  railway.  Win- 
chester was  a town  of  much  importance  in  early  times, 
mainly  on  account  of  its  central  position  on  the  Roman 
high  roads  in  the  south  of  England.  Temples  to  Apollo 
and  Concord  stood  within  the  precincts  of  the  present 
cathedral  close ; but  in  the  third  century  the  place  is 
said  to  nave  become  one  of  the  chief  centers  of  the  early 
Celtic  Christians.  The  Saxon  invaders  at  the  end  of 
the  fifth  century  treated  the  Roman  name  Venta  as  if 
it  were  a feminine  substantive,  and,  transforming  it  into 
“ Winte,”  called  the  town  Winte-ceastery  “the  City  of 
the  Winte,”  hence  the  modern  name  Winchester. 
Throughout  the  Saxon  period  the  city  was  one  of  the 
highest  importance  : early  in  the  sixth  century  it  became 
the  capital  of  Wessex  ; and  the  kings  of  Wessex  were 
crowned  and  usually  buried  in  the  cathedral.  Even 
after  the  formation  of  the  united  kingdom  of  Anglia  by 
Egbert,  the  great  witan  was  still  held  in  Winchester. 
It  was  also  one  of  the  chief  centers  for  the  coining  of 
money  under  the  pre-Norman  kings:  in  the  time  of 
Athelstan  it  contained  six  mints,  while  London  possessed 
only  three.  Even  after  the  Norman  Conquest  many 
sovereigns  were  crowned  and  many  parliaments  held 
here  ; the  celebrated  Statutes  of  Winchester  were  passed 
in  a parliament  held  in  1285.  The  city  continued  to  be 
a favorite  royal  residence,  and  Henry  II.  rebuilt  the 
palace  on  a larger  scale.  This  same  king  gave  it  its  first 
regular  charter  of  incorporation  (1184).  In  the  Middle 
Ages  Winchester  was  famed  for  its  wool  trade  and 
textile  fabrics;  in  the  fourteenth  century  it  was  the  chief 
wool  market  of  England,  and  had  an  extensive  trade 
with  France,  Belgium,  and  Holland.  In  the  fifteenth 
century  its  prosperity  began  to  decline.  In  Cromwell’s 
time  the  city  suffered  severely  from  a siege,  during  which 
Winchester  Castle  was  dismantled.  Charles  II.  began 
to  build  a palace  on  the  site  of  this  fortress,  after  designs 
by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  but  the  death  of  the  king 
prevented  the  work  from  being  completed.  Its  cathe- 
dral, dating  from  1070,  is  the  building  of  principal 
interest. 

Winchester  College  was  built  from  1387  to  1393  by 
William  of  Wykeham,  (q.v. ) The  foundation  of  the 
school  consisted  of  a warden,  ten  fellows,  three  chap- 
lains, seventy  scholars,  and  sixteen  choristers.  Its 
fine  chapel,  hall,  cloister,  and  other  buildings  still  exist 
in  good  preservation. 

Winchester  suffered  greatly  in  the  plague  of  1666, 
and  its  population  was  much  reduced.  Atpresent  its 
prosperity  chiefly  depends  on  the  presence  of  the  cathe- 
dral, the  college,  and  its  barracks,  which  accommodate 
about  2,000  men.  The  city  has  several  good  schools 
and  the  usual  public  and  charitable  institutions.  From 
the  twenty-third  year  of  Edward  I.  it  returned  two 
members  to  parliament  until  1885,  when  it  lost  one 
member.  The  population  of  the  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  (area  1,032  acres)  was  16,366  in  1871 
and  27,780  in  1901. 


WIN 


6366 

WINCHESTER,  a city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Frederick  county,  Va.,  is  situated  in  the  Shenandoah 
valley,  about  700  feet  above  sea-level,  and  on  a branch 
of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad.  It  lies  about 
sixty-seven  miles  west-northwest  of  Washington.  The 
surrounding  country  is  rich  and  fertile,  devoted  to  agri- 
culture and  cattle-raising,  for  which  Winchester  serves 
as  a center  of  supply  and  distribution.  The  city  has 
manufactories  of  shoes,  furniture,  gloves,  etc.,  and 
some  iron  foundries  and  tanneries.  The  populatin' 
in  1880  was  4,958  (1,517  colored).  In  1900  it  was 
5,i6i. 

Winchester  was  laid  out  as  a town  in  1752,  and  in- 
corporated in  1779.  It  has  had  a very  slow  growth, 
and  during  the  Civil  war  it  suffered  severely  from  the 
armies  of  both  combatants. 

WINCHESTER,  the  capital  of  Clark  county,  Ky., 
and  one  of  the  many  beautiful  cities  to  be  found 
in  the  Blue  Grass  region,  a portion  of  the  State  famous 
the  world  over  for  its  fertile  and  highly  cultivated  farms, 
its  blooded  stock,  and  the  hospitality  of  its  inhabitants. 
The  city  is  located  on  the  Kentucky  Central  road, 
ninety-seven  miles  south  of  the  Ohio  river  and  a short 
distance  east  of  Lexington,  also  on  the  eastern  division 
of  the  Newport  News  and  Mississippi  Valley  railway, 
I20  miles  from  Huntington,  W.  Va.  The  city,  in 
addition  to  its  advantages  from  a business  point  of 
view,  is  oiv?  of  the  social  and  educational  centers  of 
Kentucky,  the  location  of  considerable  wealth  and  of 
other  features  in  harmony  with  the  high  character  for 
enterprise  and  liberality  enjoyed  by  the  citizens  and  resi- 
dents. It  contains  a court  house,  two  weekly  papers, 
and  three  banks,  with  a combined  capital  and  surplus 
amounting  to  $725,000.  The  educational  facilities  em- 
brace the  common  school  system  from  primary  to  high 
school  departments,  also  business  colleges  and  schools 
conducted  under  private  auspices,  together  with  two 
academies,  of  which  Winchester  is  the  site.  There  are 
five  churches,  three  hotels,  a number  of  stores,  public 
halls,  etc.,  planing  and  flour  mills,  furniture  factories, 
carriage  repositories,  electric  light  works,  and  other 
enterprises  of  a productive  character.  The  population 
was  2,500  in  1880,  but  was  estimated  in  1900,  at  5,964. 

WINCKELMANN,  Johann  Joachim,  historian  of 
ancient  art  and  the  founder  of  scientific  archaeology, 
was  born  at  Stewdal  in  the  Altmark  (Prussia),  on 
December  9,  1717. 

In  1755  Winckelmann  gave  the  first  indication  of  his 
genius  by  the  publication  of  his  Gedanken  iiber  die 
Nachahmung  der  griechischen  Werke  in  Malerei  und 
Bildkauerkunst.  This  was  followed  by  a pretended 
attack  on  the  work,  and  a defense  of  its  principles, 
nominally  by  an  impartial  critic.  One  good  result  of 
the  impression  the  Gedanken  produced  was  that  Augus- 
tus III.,  elector  of  Saxony  and  king  of  Poland,  was 
induced  to  grant  him  a pension  of  200  thalers,  that  he 
might  have  an  opportunity  of  prosecuting  his  studies  in 
Rome.  He  arrived  in  Rome  in  November,  1755,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  some  brief  intervals,  remained 
there  during  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  became  librarian 
to  Cardinal  Archinto,  and  also  received  much  kindness 
from  Cardinal  Passionei ; and  after  their  death  he  was 
received  as  librarian  and  as  a friend  into  the  house  of 
Cardinal  Albani,  who  was  forming  his  magnificent  col- 
lection in  his  villa  at  Porta  Salara.  In  1763,  while 
retaining  this  position,  Winckelmann  was  made  prefect 
of  antiquities. 

From  the  time  of  his  arrival  in  Rome  he  devoted  him- 
self earnestly,  at  first  with  the  aid  of  his  friend  Raphael 
Mengs,  to  the  study  of  Roman  antiquities,  and  he 
gradually  acquired  what  was  then  an  unrivaled  knowl- 
edge of  anient  art  In  1760  appeared  his  Description 


des  Pierres  Gravtes  du  Feu  Baron  de  Stosck.  He  pub- 
lished in  1762  Anmerkungen  iiber  die  Baukunst  dn 
Alien , including  an  account  of  the  temples  at  Paestum. 
In  1758  and  1762  Winckelmann  visited  Naples  for  the 
purpose  of  studying  the  treasures  excavated  at  Pompeii 
and  Herculaneum ; and  from  his  Sendsckreiben  von  den 
herculanischen  Entdeckungen  (1762)  and  his  Nachricht 
von  den  neuesten  herculanischen  Entdeckungen  ( 1 764) 
scholars  obtained  their  first  authentic  information  about 
those  groups  of  antiquities.  Winckelmann  again  visited 
Naples  in  1765  and  1767,  and  wrote  for  the  use  of  the 
electoral  prince  and  princess  of  Saxony  his  Brief e an 
Bianconi,  which  were  published,  eleven  years  after  his 
death,  in  the  Antologia  Peruana.  For  several  years 
his  energies  were  devoted  chiefly  to  the  preparation  of 
his  masterpiece,  the  Geschichte  der  Kunst  des  Alter - 
thums,  which  was  issued  in  1764. 

Winckelmann  contributed  various  admirable  essays 
to  the  Bibliothek  der  Schonen  Wissenschaften;  and  in 

1766  he  published  his  Versuch  einer  Allegorie,  which, 
although  containing  the  results  of  much  thought  and 
reading,  is  not  conceived  in  a thoroughly  critical  spirit. 
Of  far  greater  importance  was  the  splendid  work 
entitled  Monumenti  Antichi  Inediti  (1767-68),  prefaced 
by  a Trattato  Preliminare,  presenting  a general  sketch 
of  the  history  of  art. 

In  1768  Winckelmann  left  Rome  with  the  Italian 
sculptor  Cavaceppi,  intending  to  visit  Germany.  But 
he  went  no  farther  than  to  Vienna,  where  he  was 
received  with  honor  by  Maria  Theresa.  At  Trieste  on 
his  way  back  to  Italy  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  a 
man  called  Arcangeli,  to  whom  he  showed  some  gold 
coins  that  had  been  given  to  him  by  the  empress; 
Arcangeli’s  cupidity  was  excited,  and  during  the  night 
he  entered  Winckelmann’s  room,  and,  after  having 
tried  to  throttle  him,  stabbed  him  five  times.  Winckel- 
mann died  of  his  wounds  on  June  8,  1768.  His  mur- 
derer was  caught  and  executed. 

WIND.  See  Meteorology. 

WINDGALLS  are  puffy  swellings  about  the  joints 
of  animals,  particularly  of  horses,  corresponding  to  the 
ganglions  of  human  surgery,  and  result  from  irritation 
and  inflammation  being  set  up  within  the  delicate  syn- 
ovial cavities,  and  thus  secrete  the  usual  quantity  of 
thickened  synovia.  Rest,  moderate  work,  wet  band- 
ages, and  occasional  blisters  reduce  the  swellings,  but 
with  fast  road  work  they  are  apt  to  reappear,  especially 
with  old  horses. 

WINDHAM,  William,  English  politician,  was 
born  in  Golden  Square,  London,  on  May  3,  1750.  In 

1767  he  matriculated  as  gentleman  commoner  at  Uni- 
versity College,  Oxford,  where  he  remained  until  1771. 
He  never  took  the  degree  of  B.A.,  but  qualified  as 
M.A.  on  October  7,  1782,  and  received  the  degree  of 
D.C.L.  on  July  3,  1793.  His  maiden  speech  on  the 
political  platform  was  delivered  at  Norwich  on  January 
28,  1778,  when  he  vehemently  opposed  the  prosecution 
of  the  American  War.  On  his  return  to  England,  in 
1780,  he  contested  the  representation  of  the  city  of  Nor- 
wich, but  was  not  successful.  His  entrance  into  public 
life  took  place  in  April,  1783,  when  he  went  to  Ireland  as 
chief  secretary  to  Lord  Northington,  the  lord-lieuten- 
ant under  the  coalition  ministry  of  Fox  and  Lord 
North.  In  April,  1784,  he  again  contested  Norwich, 
and  was  returned  by  a majority  of  sixty-four  votes, 
thus  scoring  one  of  the  few  triumphs  attained  by  the 
adherents  of  the  coalition  cabinet.  This  seat  he 
retained  until  1802,  when  he  was  beaten  by  William 
Smith,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Nonconformists. 
The  place  of  secretary-at-war  was  conferred  upon  him 
in  July,  1794,  and  he  was  at  the  same  time  created  a 
privy  councilor  aad  admitted  to  a seat  in  the  cabinet 


W I N 


Windham  discharged  the  duties  of  his  office  with 
unflagging  zeal.  When  he  was  ousted  from  the  repre- 
sentation of  Norwich  (July,  1802),  a seat  for  the  pocket 
borough  of  St.  Mawes  in  Cornwall  was  found  for  him. 
He  declined  a place  in  Pitt’s  new  cabinet  (May,  1802) 
on  the  ground  that  the  exclusion  of  Fox,  who  had 
joined  with  them  in  opposition  to  the  weak  ministry  of 
Addington,  prevented  the  formation  of  an  administra- 
tion sufficiently  strong  in  parliament  and  the  country  to 
cope  with  the  dangers  which  threatened  the  safety  of 
the  nation,  and  he  offered  a general  opposition  to  the 
measures  wrhich  the  prime  minister  proposed.  He  died 
on  June  4,  1810,  and  was  buried  in  the  family  vault  at 
Felbrigg. 

WINDLASS  is  that  modification  of  a wheel  and 
axle  which  is  employed  in  raising  weights,  such  as 
bucketsful  of  water  from  a well,  coals  from  a pit,  etc. 
Its  simplest  form  is  that  of  an  axle  supported  by  pivots 
on  two  strong  upright  pieces,  and  pierced  near  one  end 
with  four  or  six  square  holes,  into  which  handles, 
known  as  handspikes,  are  inserted.  In  other  forms,  a 
winch  at  each  end  is  substituted  for  the  handspikes. 
If  the  weight  (say  a bucket  of  water)  is  to  be  lifted  a 
considerable  distance,  the  length  of  the  rope  which  at- 
taches it  to  the  axle  largely  increases  the  weight,  and 
thus  aids  the  power  when  descending,  and  Counteracts 
it  when  ascending.  This  difficulty  is  partly  got  over  by 
employing  a double  rope  with  two  buckets,  one  of 
which  ascends  while  the  other  descends;  but  this  modi- 
fication, though  partially  effective  for  the  end  in  view, 
lends  aid  to  the  power  when  aid  is  least,  and  hinders  it 
when  aid  is  most  required.  A more  efficacious  plan  is 
to  form  the  axle  not  cylindrical,  but  of  a barrel  shape, 
like  two  truncated  cones  placed  base  to  base,  and  to 
fasten  two  ropes,  one  to  each  end,  so  that  when  coiled 
up  round  the  barrel  they  approach  the  middle;  in  this 
case,  when  one  rope  is  fully  uncoiled  and  winding  up 
commences,  the  gross  weight,  which  is  then  at  its  maxi- 
mum, acts  as  a minimum  leverage  of  the  end,  and  as 
the  progress  in  winding  up  diminishes  the  weight,  its 
leverage  so  increases  that  the  momentum  is  preserved 
uniform.  On  the  other  hand,  the  empty  bucket,  when 
commencing  its  descent,  acts  as  its  greatest  leverage, 
and  as  the  unwinding  of  the  rope  adds  to  the  weight,  its 
leverage  becomes  smaller,  so  that  the  momentum  of  the 
descending  weight  always  remains  the  same,  and  thus 
the  strain  on  the  power  is  preserved  uniform.  The  ratio 
of  the  weight  to  the  power  it  is  sometimes  found  neces- 
sary to  increase  greatly,  but  with  the  ordinary  windlass 
this  could  only  be  effected  by  similarly  increasing  the 
ratio  between  the  leverage  of  the  handle  and  the  radius 
of  the  axle,  an  object  attained  by  the  great  increase  of 
the  former,  rendering  the  machine  too  cumbrous,  or  by 
greatly  diminishing  the  latter,  and  so  weakening  it.  The 
desired  result  is  attained,  however,  in  a manner  not  lia- 
ble to  these  objections,  by  the  use  of  the  differential 
axle,  an  axle  of  which  one-half  is  of  greater  diameter 
than  the  other,  and  the  single  rope,  after  being  coiled 
around  the  whole  axle  from  end  to  end,  is  fastened  at 
each  end  of  the  axle,  and  the  weight  is  hung  by  a pulley, 
which  is  supported  in  a bulge  in  the  center  of  the  rope. 
As  the  portion  of  the  rope  on  one-half  of  the  axle  is 
unwound,  that  on  the  other  half  is  wound  up;  but  since 
the  rates  of  winding  and  unwinding  are  different,  the 
bulge  of  the  rope  increases  when  the  rope  is  wound  on 
the  smaller  end  of  the  axle,  and  decreases  when  it  is 
wound  off  the  smaller  end.  The  more  nearly  equal  the 
two  radii  of  the  axle  are,  the  greater  is  the  weight  which 
can  be  raised  by  the  power. 

WINDMILL.  The  date  when  windmills  were  first 
erected  is  unknown;  but  they  were  certainly  used  in 
Europe  in  the  twelfth  century.  Of  late  they  have  gen- 


6367 

erally  been  replaced  by  steam  engines;  but  they  are  still 
extensively  employed  in  Holland  in  draining  the  polders 
and  grinding  trass.  In  America  they  are  largely  used; 
Wolff  states  that  in  some  cities  in  the  United  States 
over  5,000  windmills  are  manufacturer  annually.  In 
spite  of  the  competition  of  more  powerful  and  tractable 
motors,  windmills  may  often  be  used  with  success  and 
economy,  especially  in  new  countries  where  fuel  is 
scarce,  and  for  work  which  can  be  done  intermittently. 
The  Indian  Government  recently  made  inquiries  with  a 
view  to  using  windmills  for  irrigation,  and  a good  deal 
of  information  will  be  found  in  a report  by  Colonel 
Brownlow  in  the  Professional  Papers  on  Indian  En- 
gineering. A windmill  is  not  a very  powerful  motor, 
and  in  its  employment  its  power  is  variable  and  inter- 
mittent. In  good  situations  it  will  generally  work  for 
about  eight  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four  on  an  aver- 
age. Small  windmills  are  useful  on  farms  for  working 
machines  and  pumping,  in  brickfields  for  pumping,  and 
on  ships  for  clearing  out  bilge  water.  They  are  em- 
ployed for  drainage  purposes  in  Holland  and  Norfolk, 
and  for  mining  purposes  in  some  new  countries.  In 
America  they  are  used  to  pump  water  at  railway  sta- 
tions. Sir  W.  Thomson  has  proposed  to  utilize  them 
in  charging  electric  accumulators.  As  an  auxiliary  to  a 
steam  engine  they  are  sometimes  useful;  thus  at  Faver- 
sham  a 15 -horse-power  windmill  raised  in  ten  months 
21,000,000  gallons  of  water  from  a depth  of  109  feet, 
saving  100  tons  of  coal. 

In  all  the  older  windmills  a shaft,  called  the  wind 
shaft,  carried  four  to  six  arms  or  whips  on  which  long 
rectangular  narrow  sails  were  spread.  The  wind  shaft 
was  placed  at  an  inclination  of  io°  or  150  with  the 
horizontal,  to  enable  the  sails  to  clear  the  lower  part 
of  the  mill.  The  whip  carrying  the  sail  was  often 
thirty  to  forty  feet  in  length,  so  that  the  tips  of  the 
sails  described  a circle  sixty  to  eighty  feet  in  diameter. 
The  sails  were  rectangular,  five  to  six  feet  wide,  and 
occupying  five-sixths  of  the  length  of  the  whip.  A tri- 
angular leading  sail  was  sometimes  added.  Sometimes 
the  sails  consisted  of  a sail-cloth  spread  on  a frame- 
work; at  other  times  narrow  boards  were  used.  The 
oldest  mill  was  no  doubt  the  post  mill,  the  whole  struct- 
ure being  carried  on  a post ; to  bring  the  sails  to  face 
the  wind,  the  structure  was  turned  round  by  a long 
lever.  The  post  mill  was  succeeded  by  the  tower , 
smock , or  frock  mill,  in  which  the  mill  itself  consisted 
of  a stationary  tower,  and  the  wind  shaft  and  sails  were 
carried  in  a revolving  cap  rotating  on  the  top  of  the 
tower.  Meikle  introduced  in  1750  an  auxiliary  wind- 
mill or  fan,  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  principal  sails, 
for  automatically  turning  the  mill  face  to  the  wind. 
If  the  wind  shifts,  the  small  fan  begins  to  revolve,  and, 
acting  through  gearing,  rotates  the  cap  of  the  mill. 
Mills  are  exposed  to  great  danger  if  the  sails  are  not 
reefed  or  furled  in  high  winds,  and  the  reefing  serves 
also  to  prevent  the  speed  of  the  mill  becoming  excessive. 
In  1807  Sir  W.  Cubitt  introduced  automatic  reefing 
arrangements.  The  sails  were  made  of  thin  boards 
held  up  to  the  wind  by  a weight.  As  the  strength  of 
the  wind  increased,  the  boards  were  pressed  back  ana 
exposed  less  surface. 

American  windmills  generally  have  the  sails  arranged 
in  an  annulus  or  disk.  The  sails  consist  of  narrow 
boards  or  slats  arranged  radially,  each  board  inclined 
at  a constant  angle  of  weather;  and  the  impulse  of  the 
wind  on  these  inclined  surfaces  drives  the  mill.  . An 
American  mill  presents  a larger  surface  for  a given 
length  of  sail,  and  consequently  the  construction  is 
lighter.  To  turn  the  mill  face  to  the  wind,  a simple 
large  rudder  or  fish-tail  is  used,  projecting  backward  iu 
a plane  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  rotation  of  the 


W I N 


6368 

sails.  There  are  a great  variety  of  mills  in  America,  but 
those  most  commonly  used  are  of  two  types.  (1)  In 
those  which  have  side-vane  governor  wheels,  the  action 
equivalent  to  reefing  the  sails  is  effected  by  turning  the 
whole  wheel  formed  by  the  sails  oblique  to  the  wind,  so 
as  to  diminish  the  wind’s  action.  A side  vane  projects 
in  the  plane  of  rotation  of  the  wheel,  and  the  pressure 
of  the  wind  on  this  tends  to  turn  the  wheel  edgeways 
to  the  wind.  This  turning  force  is  counterbalanced  by 
a weight.  Hence  for  moderate  winds  the  wheel  is  held 
up  face  to  the  wind  ; for  stronger  winds  it  is  turned 
obliquely.  (2)  In  centrifugal  governor  mills,  the  slats 
forming  the  wheel  are  connected  together  in  sets  of  six 
or  eight,  each  set  being  fixed  on  a bar  at  about  the 
middle  of  its  length.  By  rotating  this  bar,  the  boards 
or  slats  are  brought  end  on  to  the  wind,  the  action  be- 
ing analogous  to  shutting  an  umbrella.  The  boards  are 
held  up  to  the  wind  by  a weight,  and  are  also  connected 
to  a centrifugal  governor.  If  the  speed  of  the  gov- 
ernor increases,  the  bails  fly  out  and  lift  the  weight ; at 
the  same  time  the  sails  are  partially  furled. 

WINDSOR,  a parliamentary  and  municipal  borough 
of  Berkshire,  England,  twenty-one  miles  from  London 
by  the  Great  Western  railway,  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Thames,  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  royal 
castle.  In  1871  the  population  of  the  municipal  borough 
was  11,769,  and  in  1901,  16,273;  that  of  the  parlia- 
mentary borough  (area,  3,253  acres)  in  the  same  year 
was  19,281  ana  22,082  respectively.  Of  this  last  total, 
3,464  were  in  Buckinghamshire,  into  which  county  the 
parliamentary  borough  of  Windsor  extends. 

The  town  was  formerly  celebrated  for  the  number  of 
its  unis,  of  which  “ The  Garter  ” and  “ The  White 
Hart  ” were  the  chief.  The  former  was  the  favorite 
inn  of  Shakespeare’s  “ Sir  John  Falstaff,”  and  is  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor. 

Windsor  Castle,  from  its  commanding  position,  its 
stately  group  of  ancient  buildings,  and  its  long  list  of 
historical  associations,  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent 
and  interesting  of  »^yal  palaces.  It  has  for  many  cent- 
uries been  the  chief  residence  of  the  English  sovereigns. 

WINDSOR,  a port  of  entry  and  flourishing  city  in 
the  county  of  Essex,  and  province  of  Ontario,  Canada, 
is  situated  on  the  Detroit  river  opposite  the  city  of  De- 
troit, Mich.,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a number  of 
ferries.  Windsor  is  the  western  terminus  of  the  Great 
Western  railroad  of  Canada,  and  the  Michigan  Central 
and  Grand  Trunk  roads  whiHa  also  enter  the  city  are 
included  upon  the  list  of  its  traffic  conveniences.  It 
is  admirably  located  for  business  purposes,  and  is  the 
trade  center  and  distributing  point  for  a large  area  of 
Canadian  territory,  highly  cultivated  and  correspond- 
ingly  productive.  The  city  is  well  built  and  neatly  laid 
out,  many  of  the  business  houses  and  private  residences 
attracting  by  reason  of  their  substantial  construction  and 
architectural  arrangements.  It  contains  three  banks, 
four  weekly  papers,  half  a dozen  churches,  a high 
school,  grammar  schools,  a convent,  seven  hotels,  an 
opera  house,  town  hall,  large  number  of  stores  and 
other  agencies  for  the  promotion  of  prosperity.  The 
lines  of  manufacture  are  many  and  varied,  being  made 
up  of  silverware,  fire-proof  roofing,  metal  fabrics, 
boilers  and  machinery,  sulky-harrows,  stained  glass, 
baths  and  heaters,  hardware  novelties,  paper  boxes, 
grocers’  specialties,  and  many  other  articles  of  value 
included  under  the  caption  of  “miscellanies.”  In  1890 
the  population  was  stated  at  10,322,  and  at  12,153  in  1901. 
WINDWARD  ISLANDS.  See  West  Indies. 

WINE.  The  word  “ wine  ” in  its  widest  sense  in- 
cludes all  alcoholic  beverages  derived  from  sacchariferous 
vegetable  juices  by  spontaneous  fermentation;  in  the 
narrower  sense  of  its  ordinary  acceptance,  it  designates 


the  fermented  product  of  grape  juice,  with  which  alone 
the  present  article  proposes  to  deal.  Wine-making  is 
an  easy  art  where  there  is  a sufficient  supply  of  per- 
fectly ripe  grapes.  In  Italy,  Spain,  Greece,  and  other 
countries  of  southern  Europe  nature  takes  care  of  this; 
in  the  more  northern  of  the  wine-producing  districts  of 
France,  and  especially  on  the  Rhine  in  Germany,  the 
culture  of  the  vine  means  hard  work  from  one  end  of 
the  year  to  the  other,  which  only  exceptionally  finds  its 
full  reward.  To  secure  the  highest  attainable  degree 
of  maturity  in  the  grapes,  the  vintage  on  the  Rhine  is 
postponed  until  the  grapes  aJmost  begin  to  wither,  and 
the  white  grapes  on  the  sunny  side  of  the  bunches  ex- 
hibit a yellowish  brown  (instead  of  a green)  color,  and 
show  signs  of  flaccidity.  In  the  best  vineyards  (where 
it  is  worth  the  trouble)  the  bunches  are  carefully  sorted, 
the  ripest  being  put  aside  and  pressed  by  themselves. 
In  some  places  even  the  individual  bunches  are  analyzed, 
and  the  best  berries  cut  out  with  a pair  of  scissors,  to 
be  used  by  themselves. 

If  the  production  of  red  wine  is  intended,  the  juice  is 
allowed  to  ferment  over  the  stalks  and  skins  until 
enough  alcohol  has  been  produced  to  enable  the  juice 
to  extract  the  pigment  from  the  skins.  After  that  juice 
and  residue  are  separated.  The  alcohol,  however,  ex- 
tracts other  things  besides  the  pigment,  especially  tannin, 
which  imparts  to  red  wines  their  characteristic  astrin 
gency.  The  must  (or  magma  of  crushed  grapes)  is  im- 
mediately conveyed  to  a cool  cellar,  the  temperature  of 
which  should  lie  between  90  and  120  C.,  and  is  placed 
in  large  tubs  or  vats  or  open  casks,  and  it  is  then  left  to 
itself.  Although  no  yeast  is  added  from  without,  vinous 
fermentation  sets  in  sooner  or  later,  and  after  some  four 
to  five  days  is  in  full  swing.  On  the  seventh  day,  as  a 
rule,  the  process  has  passed  its  climax,  and  after  ten  to 
fourteen  days  the  yeast-scum  on  the  surface  disappears 
and  the  liquid  clears  up.  It  jiow  constitutes  what  is 
called  Jungivein , which  still  contains  a considerable 
i mnant  of  unfermented  sugar.  This  young  wine  is 
drawn  off  into  large  casks  andplaced  in  cellars  having 
a temperature  of9°  to  120  C. ; there  it  is  left  for  some 
months,  generally  until  the  following  March.  The 
casks  are  filled  almost  to  the  bung-hole,  and  kept  full 
by  the  occasional  addition  of  wine,  the  small  bung-hole 
being  covered  so  as  to  provide  an  outlet  for  the  carbonic 
acid,  without  giving  any  greater  access  to  the  air  than 
is  absolutely  unavoidable,  to  prevent  acetous  fermenta- 
tion. During  this  period  the  small  remnant  of  sugar  in 
the  young  wine  gradually  ferments  away,  while  the  per- 
centage of  alcohol  undergoes  a corresponding  gradual 
increase.  As  this  after-fermentation  progresses  very 
slowly,  there  is  no  perceptible  increase  of  temperature 
in  the  liquid,  and  even  the  newly-formed  yeast  cells  re- 
main deposited  at  the  bottom  as  a precipitate.  On  it 
certain  components  of  the  must,  being  less  soluble  in 
(alcoholic)  wine  than  in  the  must,  separate  out,  as  for 
instance,  the  albuminoids  and,  most  markedly,  the  bi- 
tartrate  of  potash;  this  last  separates  out  conjointly 
with  tartrate  of  lime  and  coloring  matters,  as  a coherent 
crust  known  as  argol.  The  finished  young  wine  is 
drawn  off  clear  into  smaller  casks,  bunged  up  and  al- 
lowed to  mature.  It  is  during  this  period  that  the 
“ bloom  ” of  the  wine  develops,  probably  through  the 
very  slow  formation  of  ethers  from  the  alcohol  and  the 
acids  previously  produced,  or  from  traces  of  higher 
alcohols  by  oxidation.  How  long  a wine  should  be 
allowed  to  mature  depends  on  its  richness.  With  rela- 
tively poor  wines  a year’s  maturing  may  be  amply  suf- 
ficient; rich  wines  continue  improving  for  years. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  wine  becomes  viscous 
and  forms  threads  wnen  poured  from  the  bottle.  This 
mischief,  which  is  caused  by  the  development  of  a 


W I N 


foreign  ferment,  can  be  ctired  by  tbe  judicious  addition 
of  a solution  of  tannin,  which  precipitates  the  “ gum.” 
From  a similar  cause  comes  acetous  fermentation,  which 
always  takes  place  in  a moderate  degree,  but  may 
assume  undue  dimensions.  Red  wines  are  liable  to 
develop  a foreign  substance  which  imparts  to  them  a 
bitter  taste.  A wine  kept  in  a moldy  cask  assumes  of 
course  a moldy  taste  and  smell. 

Effervescing  or  sparkling  wines  are  largely  impreg- 
nated with  carbonic  acid  engendered  by  an  after-fer- 
mentation in  the  closed  bottle  by  means  of  added  sugar. 
The  art  originated  in  Champagne,  where  the  best 
sparkling  wines  are  produced,  and  whence  it  has 
spread  to  the  Rhine,  the  Moselle,  and  other  districts. 
The  natural  wine  of  Champagne  is  not  of  a very  high 
order;  yet  it  produces  the  best  champagne.  For 
champagne-making,  blue  grapes  are  preferred.  In 
eliminating  the  juice  excessive  pressure  is  avoided,  so 
as  to  keep  the  must  clear  of  particles  of  skin.  Cham- 
pagne-makers distinguish  three  grades  of  effervescence. 
In  mousseux  the  pressure  in  the  bottle  amounts  to  from 
four  to  four  and  one-half  atmospheres ; in  grand  mous- 
seux it  reaches  five  atmospheres ; and  less  than  four 
atmospheres’  pressure  constitutes  cremant  (from  la 
creme , “ cream  ”),  a wine  which  throws  up  a froth  but 
does  not  give  off  carbonic  acid  violently.  A champagne 
which  contains  relatively  little  sugar  is  called  “dry.” 
In  France  a sweet  wine  is  preferred.  The  intensely 
sweet  substance  called  “ saccharine  ” has  been  utilized 
for  producing  a sparkling  wine  which  is  both  sweet  and 
dry.  Cheap  champagnes  may  be  (and  we  believe  are) 
produced  by  simply  adding  sugar  and  some  flavoring 
matter  to  wine,  and  then  pumping  in  carbonic  acid  in 
the  soda-water  fashion. 

At  the  present  day  wine  is  practically  a European 
product,  although  a certain  quantity  is  made  in  the 
United  States,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in  Aus- 
tralia. The  principal  countries  in  Europe  where  the 
vine  is  grown  to  any  extent  are  France,  Spain,  Portugal, 
Austria-Hungary,  Italy,  Germany,  and  the  southern' 
portions  of  Russia  and  Greece ; but  in  the  first  six  alone 
is  wine  an  article  of  much  commercial  importance.  It 
was  only  by  degrees,  owing  partly  to  its  soil  and 
partly  to  the  aptitude  of  its  inhabitants,  that  France 
developed  the  position  which  it  now  holds  as  a wine- 
producing  country.  As  France  is  the  home  of  wine- 
growing, so  must  the  Medoc  district  in  its  turn  be  con- 
sidered the  very  heart  of  that  industry  in  France.  The 
great  variety  of  qualities  that  the  wines  of  M6doc 
possess,  has  necessitated  their  classification,  by  which 
they  have  been  divided  into  paysan,  artisan,  bourgeois, 
and  fine  growths,  the  last-named  being  subdivided  into 
five  categories,  and  known  as  the  “classed  growths.” 
This  classification  is  the  result  of  years  of  observation 
and  study,  going  back  to  the  eighteenth  century,  its 
present  form  being  the  result  of  a conference  of  brokers 
in  1855. 

The  average  yield  of  the  Gironde  during  the  ten 
years  1876-1886  amounted  to  1,435,863  hectoliters,  or 
about  31,589,000  gallons,  an  average  which  has  been 
placed  considerably  lower  than  that  of  the  preceding 
decade  by  the  small  yields  of  1881,  1882,  1884,  and  1885. 
In  each  of  the  prolific  years  of  1874  and  1875  the  pro- 
duction of  the  Gironde  exceeded  5,000,000  hectoliters, 
and  in  1869  it  reached  4,500,000.  The  principal  claret 
vintages  of  the  nineteenth  century  are  considered  to 
have  been  those  of  1815,  ’25*  ’28,  *31,  ’34,  ’41,  ’47,  ’48, 
’58,  ’64,  ’69,  ’70,  ’74,  and  ’75.  From  1875  t0  1882 
nothing  exceptional  was  produced. 

Sauterne,  or  what  is  known  as  the  white-wine-pro- 
ducing  district  of  M6doc,  lies  to  the  south  of  Bordeaux; 
and  to  those  who  are  only  familiar  with  the  Medoc 


6369 

vineyards  it  gives  the  impression  of  being  quite  a dis* 
tinct  country,  having  more  the  appearance  of  the  Rhine 
provinces  than  of  the  south  of  France.  The  Sauterne 
district  comprises  the  communes  of  Sauternes,  Bom* 
mes,  and  Barsac,  with  part  of  those  of  Preignac, 
Saint  Pierre-de-Mons,  and  Fargues.  The  finer  growths, 
like  the  red  wines  of  Medoc,  are  arranged  in  classes. 

The  prices  of  the  “ grand  ” Sauterne  wines  vary 
enormously  according  to  the  year,  and  the  quality  is 
also  very  various.  Between  1870  and  1885  the  first 
growths  have  ranged  from  $40  to  $300  per  hogshead. 
Chateau  Yquem  in  the  ordinary  way  fetches  from  one- 
fifth  to  one-fourth  more  than  the  other  first  growths, 
while  a rather  greater  difference  rules  between  the 
first  and  second  growths.  There  is,  however,  no  posi- 
tive rule  in  this  respect;  for  if,  as  occasionally  happens, 
a first  growth  is  vintaged  a little  too  late  and  does  not 
succeed  so  well  as  some  second  growths,  the  latter  will 
fetch  quite  as  high,  if  not  higher,  prices. 

Champagne  takes  its  name  from  the  old  province 
which  is  now  represented  by  the  departments  of  Marne, 
Haute-Marne,  Aube,  and  Ardennes.  It  is  from  the 
first  two  that  the  greater  portion  of  this  description  of 
wine  is  derived,  the  best  qualities  being  produced  in 
Marne.  The  vineyards  are  situated  on  the  banks  of 
the  river  in  the  neighborhood  of  fipernay,  and  extend 
from  the  right  bank  over  the  mountains  of  Rheims  to 
the  vicinity  of  that  city,  and  from  the  left  bank  to  the 
small  town  of  V ertus. 

The  sparkling  champagnes  are  made  from  both  white 
and  red  grapes,  carefully  pressed,  and  the  wine  is  of  an 
amber  color,  more  or  less  deep  according  to  vintage  and 
to  the  proportion  of  black  grapes  used.  The  grapes 
pressed  in  a large  pressoir , the  first  pressing  yielding  the 
best  quality,  while  the  second  and  third  are  proportion- 
ately inferior.  The  wine  from  the  first  pressing  is 
about  equal  in  quantity  to  that  of  the  other  two  com- 
bined. The  vintage  usually  takes  place  in  the  first 
week  in  October,  the  young  wines  being  left  to  fer- 
ment in  the  cask  until  the  winter,  when  the  first  rack- 
ing takes  place,  which  Qperation  is  repeated  a month 
later,  when  the  wines  are  fined  previously  to  being  put 
in  bottle.  The  wines  of  the  various  growths  are  mixed 
in  the  proportions  desired,  and  a certain  quantity  of 
old  wine  (preserved  in  cask)  is  added.  The  amount  of 
saccharine  in  the  wine  is  also  ascertained,  and  if 
deficient  the  requisite  quantity  in  the  form  of  refined 
candied  sugar  is  added  to  bring  it  to  the  necessary 
degree  for  producing  fermentation  in  the  bottle.  The 
bottles,  which  are  carefully  selected— those  showing 
flaws  being  rejected — have  sloping  shoulders,  in  order 
that  the  sediment  may  not  adhere  to  the  sides  in  the 
after-process.  The  wine,  after  being  corked,  is  secured 
by  an  iron  clip,  and  the  bottles  are  arranged  in  piles  in 
a horizontal  position,  in  which  they  remain  throughout 
the  summer  months.  During  this  time  the  carbonic 
acid  gas  is  generated,  as  is  also  a sediment,  which  falls 
to  the  side  of  the  bottle.  The  wines  are  then  stacked 
away  in  cellars  until  required  for  shipment.  Previous 
to  the  wine  being  prepared  for  this  purpose,  the  bottles 
are  placed  in  a slanting  position,  neck  downward,  in 
cranks  made  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  A,  and  are  daily 
shaken  very  slightly,  so  that  by  degrees  the  sediment 
falls  into  the  cork.  This  operation  is  very  delicate,  the 
slightest  twist  being  disastrous.  The  incline  is  grad- 
ually increased,  so  that  at  last  the  bottle  is  almost  per- 
pendicular— a process  which  generally  takes  from  three 
to  six  weeks.  With  the  sediment  thus  on  the  cork,  the 
iron  clip  is  removed,  when  the  force  of  the  wine  sends 
out  the  cork,  together  with  the  sediment.  The  wine  is 
now  subjected  to  dosage  or  liqueuring,  the  amount  of 
which  depends  upon  the  sweetness  required;  the  bottles 


W I N 


6570 

are  then  filled  up  with  wine,  corked,  and  wired  ready 
for  shipment.  The  liqueur  used  is  made  from  the  finest 
wine,  candied  sugar,  and  cognac.  The  principal 
centers  of  the  champagne  trade  are  Rheims  and  fiper- 
nay,  although  important  establishments  exist  at  Ay, 
Avize,  Chalons,  and  Dizy.  The  total  production  of 
Marne  averages  about  a million  hectoliters  annually. 
A large  proportion  of  this,  however,  is  unsuited  for 
making  champagne.  At  the  same  time  the  supply  is 
still  considerably  in  excess  of  the  demand,  the  stock  in 
merchant*’  cellars  in  the  district  having  amounted  in 
May,  1887,  to  upward  of  82,000,000  bottles,  while  at 
least  half  that  quantity  existed  in  cask,  the  total  stock 
thus  equaling  nearly  six  years’  requirements. 

Another  district  of  France  which  produces  large 
quantities  of  sparkling  white  wine,  is  that  of  Saumur,  in 
the  department  of  Maine-et -Loire.  These  wines  have 
been  known  for  centuries,  but  up  to  1834  were  only 
used  as  still  wines.  At  that  date  a successful  attempt 
was  made  to  convert  them  into  sparkling  wines,  after 
which  they  were  principally  used  to  supplement  the 
deficient  vintages  in  Champagne. 

Next  to  those  of  M6doc,  the  wines  of  Burgundy  are 
the  best  French  red  wines.  This  district  comprises  the 
departments  of  Cote-d’Or,  Yonne,  and  Saone-et-Loire, 
known  in  former  days  as  Upper  and  Lower  Burgundy. 
By  far  the  finest  qualities  are  grown  in  C6te  d’Or,  in 
the  two  communes  of  Nuits  and  Beaune. 

The  wines  of  Cote-d’Or  are  full  bodied  and  of  excel- 
lent color;  they  are  of  great  reputation  on  the  Continent, 
especially  in  Belgium.  In  Yonne,  lying  to  the  north- 
west of  Cote-d’Or,  a considerable  quantity  of  wine  is 
made,  both  red  and  white.  The  former  has  good  color 
and  body,  with  a fair  bouquet,  but  is  much  inferior  to 
the  wines  of  Burgundy  proper.  The  latter,  grown 
mostly  in  the  commune  of  Chablis,  is  of  fair  quality,  and 
is  generally  known  by  the  name  of  this  district.  Saone- 
et-Loire,  which  lies  to  the  south  of  Beaune,  produces 
the  wine  known  as  Macon,  grown  in  the  neighborhood 
of  that  town,  the  best  growths  being  those  of  Th6orine. 
The  wines  of  Macon  have  most,  of  the  Burgundy  charac- 
teristics, but  are  lighter  in  color  and  body,  and  lack 
much  of  their  bouquet  and  flavor. 

Red  and  white  wanes  are  produced  in  the  arrondisse- 
ment  of  Valence  in  the  department  of  Dr6me.  These 
wines  are  of  excellent  quality  and  improve  greatly  in 
bottle,  in  which  state  they  will  keep  for  many  years. 
The  white  wines  are  especially  choice,  and  have  a far 
greater  reputation  than  the  red.  They  are  soft  and 
rich,  and  are  said  to  have  no  analogy  to  any  other  white 
wine  known. 

The  departments  of  Charente  and  Charente-Infe- 
rieure  are  celebrated  on  account  of  the  brandy  distilled 
from  them.  This  industry  has  suffered  enormously  of 
late  years  from  the  ravages  of  the  Phylloxera , which 
has  destroyed  many  of  the  best  vineyards  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Cognac. 

Spain  is  second  only  in  reputation  to  France  among 
wine-growing  countries.  Its  white  wine,  known  as 
sherry,  first  brought  it  into  prominence;  and  the  red 
wines  of  Tarragona  and  Rioja  have  of  late  years  formed 
a great  feature  in  the  commerce  of  the  Peninsula.  The 
reduced  yield  of  the  French  vineyards,  especially  of  those 
producing  the  cheapest  wines,  owing  to  the  ravages 
of  the  Phylloxera , combined  with  an  increased  home 
consumption,  has  compelled  that  country  to  import 
large  quantities  of  wine  for  its  own  use,  and  Spain  has 
taken  a foremost  place  in  supplying  the  demand  which 
has  thus  sprung  up.  In  addition  to  this,  a considerable 
quantity  is  exported  to  other  countries,  in  the  shape  of 
Spanish  claret  and  port. 

Sherry,  so  called  from  the  town  of  Jerez  YXeres)  de  la 


Frontera,  the  headquarters  of  this  industry,  is  produced 
in  Andalusia,  in  the  area  included  between  San  Lucar 
in  the  north.  Port  St.  Mary  in  the  south,  and  Jerez  in 
the  east.  This  tract  of  country  contains  in  all  about 
25,000  acres  of  vine-growing  soil.  The  system  of  pre- 
paring sherry  is  different  from  that  followed  in  the  case 
of  most  other  wines.  In  France  every  small  grower 
can  make  his  few  hogsheads  of  wine,  and  when  these 
have  been  made  the  process  is  complete.  In  Jerez,  on 
the  contrary,  the  immense  establishments,  many  of 
them  owned  by  Englishmen,  purchase  the  grape  juice 
or  fruit  and  make  their  own  must.  The  wines,  which 
are  stored  in  bodegas  or  sheds  above  ground,  are  reared 
for  a number  of  years  as  soleras.  These  soleras  consist 
of  vats  of  various  characters  of  sherry,  the  style  of  which 
is  unvaryingly  kept  up,  and  whenever  a quantity  is  drawn 
off,  they  are  filled  up  with  wines  of  the  same  descrip- 
tion. Certain  quantities  taken  from  various  soleras  are 
blended  in  order  to  make  up  the  regular  marks,  by 
which  means  the  style  of  different  shipments  is  main- 
tained. 

The  generous,  full-flavored  wines  known  as  port  are 
the  produce  of  the  district  of  Alto  Douro  in  the  northeast 
of  Portugal,  which  begins  at  a point  on  the  river  Douro 
some  sixty  miles  above  Oporto,  whence  these  wines  are 
shipped.  The  whole  of  the  port-wine  district,  compris- 
ing a region  between  thirty  and  forty  miles  in  length 
with  a maximum  breadth  of  about  twelve,  is  rugged  and 
mountainous. 

The  method  of  cultivating  the  vine  in  Alto  Douro 
differs  considerably  from  those  employed  in  various  other 
parts  of  the  country,  where  the  vines  are  either  trained 
over  pollarded  trees  or  trellised  at  a certain  height  from 
the  ground,  or  where  they  are  planted  in  rows  and 
grown  like  bushes.  The  method  is  as  follows  : In 
November  or  December  trenches  are  dug,  three  feet  to 
three  feet  six  inches  deep,  according  as  the  soil  is  heavy 
or  light,  and  two  feet  broad,  in  which  vine  cuttings  are 
placed  at  a distance  of  three  feet  to  four  feet  six  inches 
apart  from  each  other.  The  trenches  are  then  partly 
filled  in,  in  order  that  the  vines  may  get  all  the  benefit 
of  the  rain-water  collecting  in  them.  During  the  first 
year  of  planting  great  care  is  taken  to  keep  down  all 
weeds  while  the  vines  are  shooting.  At  the  end  of 
two  years  the  /oung  vines,  if  they  have  come  on  well, 
can  be  grafted,  the  best  time  for  performing  this  opera- 
tion being  October  or  February  ; in  this  way  the  period 
of  production  is  hastened,  and  the  vineyard  will  yield  in 
four  instead  of  five  years’  time. 

The  vintage  in  Alto  Douro  generally  commences  late 
in  September.  The  grapes  are  cut  by  women  and  chil- 
dren, and  are  conveyed  in  large  baskets — twenty-two  of 
which  full  of  grapes  will  yield  a pipe  of  wine — by  Galle- 
gos to  the  place  where  the  wine  is  to  be  made.  Here 
they  are  emptied  into  large  stone  tanks,  two  feet  to  two 
feet  six  inches  in  depth,  each  holding  from  seven  to 
thirty  pipes,  of  wine.  Each  tank  is  fitted  with  a beam 
press,  except  where  the  modern  screw  press  has  taken 
its  place.  As  the  grapes  come  in,  the  stalks  are 
removed,  either  with  a kind  of  rake  or,  as  in  the  best 
managed  establishments,  with  machines  called  desinga- 
( adores , made  for  the  purpose.  The  white  grapes  are 
separated  from  the  red,  the  “white  port”  being  made 
from  the  former ; this  wine  was  formerly  much  appre- 
ciated in  England,  but  now  finds  its  chief  market  on  the 
Continent. 

The  wines  are  kept  in  casks  ranged  in  rows  of  two 
or  three  tiers;  in  some  establishments  large  vats,  hold- 
ing from  10  to  no  pipes,  are  also  used,  being  especially 
serviceable  for  blending  purposes.  The  amount  of 
wine  contained  at  the  present  day  in  these  lodges  is 
calculated  at  something  like  80,000  pipes,  the  gross 


WIN 


*alue  of  which  cannot  be  less  than  twelve  or  fifteen 
million  dollars. 

There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  vines  were  intro- 
duced into  Madeira  soon  after  the  discovery  of  the 
island.  But  it  was  not  till  some  200  years  later,  after 
the  marriage  of  the  infanta  Catherine  of  Portugal  with 
Charles  II.  of  England,  that  British  merchants  estab- 
lished themselves  at  Funchal,  from  which  point  the 
wine  trade  of  Madeira  commenced.  The  system  of  cul- 
tivation is  somewhat  peculiar.  The  vines  are  trained 
over  a lattice-work  of  cane,  about  four  feet  from  the 
ground,  supported  on  stakes,  thus  giving  room  for  the 
vine-dresser  to  pass  underneath  and  keep  the  ground 
clear  from  weeds.  This  system  of  keeping  the  ground 
clear  and  moist  has  much  to  do  with  the  excellent 
character  of  the  wine  produced.  An  English  acre  can 
yield  about  seven  pipes  (644  gallons),  but  the  average  is 
considerably  below  this  quantity.  The  vintage  com- 
mences as  a rule  about  the  last  week  in  August,  and  the 
grapes  are  all  pressed  before  the  October  rains  set  in. 
This  latter  operation  is  still  carried  out  in  the  primitive 
fashion,  the  fruit  being  thrown  into  large  presses  and 
trodden  with  the  naked  feet.  Madeira  wine  improves 
much  with  age,  and  is  occasionally  to  be  met  with  from 
50  to  100  years  old.  The  choicest  descriptions  are 
Malmsey,  Sercial,  Bual,  and  Tinta.  Of  the  other  wines 
the  choicest  are  found  on  the  south  side  of  the  island ; 
but  here  as  the  elevation  above  the  sea  increases,  the 
quality  falls  off.  The  grapes  from  which  Malmsey  is 
made  are  not  gathered  till  a month  later  than  those  for 
other  wines  of  a drier  character.  Sercial  is  also  a much- 
esteemed  wine ; it  is  said  to  combine  all  the  attributes 
of  a perfect  wine,  being  full-bodied  and  having  a rich 
aromatic  flavor  peculiar  to  itself.  The  grape  from  which 
it  is  produced  is  of  the  Riesling  variety,  and  is  supposed 
to  have  been  transplanted  from  the  banks  of  the  Rhine. 
Bual  is  a very  luscious  wine,  the  produce  of  a white 
grape.  Tinta,  on  the  other  hand,  is  obtained  from  a 
red  grape,  and  has  somewhat  of  the  character  and  ap- 
pearance of  the  wines  of  Burgundy,  whence  the  vines 
are  said  to  have  been  derived. 

In  point  of  quantity  of  production,  though  far  in- 
ferior in  quality,  Italy  ranks  ahead  of  Franoe.  The 
estimated  area  under  the  vine  is  in  excess  of  that  of 
France.  The  annual  yield  is  some  660,000,000  gallons, 
valued  at  about  $500,000,000.  Whereas  in  France 
and  Spain  the  acreage  under  the  vine  is  devoted  exclu- 
sively to  that  plant,  the  vine  in  Italy  is  grown  simultane- 
ously with  the  olive,  corn,  etc.  The  vines  are  simply 
trained  on  wires  at  some  distance  from  the  ground,  and 
are  frequently  allowed  to  run  from  tree  to  tree,  min- 
gling in  the  general  vegetation,  nature  doing  so  much 
for  the  vine-grower  that  he,  in  most  instances,  does 
but  little  to  assist  her.  The  vintage  usually  takes 
places  in  September  and  October. 

The  principal  wine  produced  in  Sicily  is  that  grown 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Marsala,  from  which  town  it 
takes  its  name.  The  character  of  the  wine  is  somewhat 
after  the  style  of  Madeira,  it  having  good  bouquet  and 
improving  with  age.  It  is  the  result  of  a mixture  of 
various  kinds  of  grapes  carefully  selected,  among  which 
are  included  the  usual  Madeira  varieties.  Thanks  to 
the  care  bestowed  upon  its  production,  Marsala  has  of 
late  years  acquired  considerable  reputation. 

Of  the  Austrian- Hungarian  empire,  Hungary,  from 
a viticultural  point  of  view,  forms  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant part.  The  quantity  of  wine  produced  in  that 
country  has  assumed  of  late  years  considerable  pro- 
portions, the  white  wines  being  both  greater  in  quan- 
tity and  of  better  description  than  the  red.  Inclusive 
of  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  it  is  estimated  that  there  are 
ic  Hungary  upward  of  1,000,000  acres  «af  vineland, 


6371 

producing  annually  some  250,000,000  gallons  of  wine, 
the  value  of  which  is  estimated  at  over  $90,000,000. 
The  wines  of  central  Hungary  are  strong,  and  include 
white  varieties  varying  in  color  from  a light  to  a deep 
yellow  tinge,  as  well  as  wines  of  considerable  depth  of 
color.  Those  of  the  south  of  Croatia  are  as  a rule  less 
strong,  but  are  for  the  most  part  of  a deep  color  and 
are  generally  known  as  black  wines.  The  produce  of 
Transylvania  ranks  extremely  high,  and  is  for  the  most 
part  white,  although  some  excellent  red  wines  are 
grown.  The  strength  of  Hungarian  wines  is  moderate, 
that  of  Tokay  being  from  about  20  to  25  per  cent,  of 
proof  spirit,  while  Carlowitz  averages  from  24  to  25. 
The  other  descriptions  generally  have  a less  alcoholic 
strength. 

Next  to  Hungary  the  principal  vine-growing  district 
of  the  empire  is  Dalmatia,  in  which  the  vine  culture  has 
of  late  increased  to  an  enormous  extent.  Fifty  years  ago 
the  vine  was  scarcely  grown,  except  in  the  islands  and  on 
the  sea-coast ; but  it  has  now  penetrated  into  the  inte- 
rior, and  occupies  about  one-twentieth  part  of  the  soil 
under  cultivation.  German  wines,  generically  spoken 
of  as  Hock  and  Moselle,  are  the  products  of  the 
most  northern  latitude  of  successful  vine-culture  in 
Europe.  To  this  circumstance  must  be  attributed 
the  fact  that  a greater  inequality  exists  in  the  different 
vintages  than  is  known  in  connection  with  the  wines  of 
any  other  country.  In  a successful  season,  when  the 
grapes  have  been  able  to  mature  thoroughly,  perhaps  no 
class  of  wine  shows  more  elegance  and  quality  than  do 
those  of  the  Rhine  provinces,  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  are  none  on  which  the  adverse  influence  of  cold 
and  wet  is  more  apparent.  The  principal  wine-produc- 
ing districts  of  Germany  are  Alsace-Lorraine,  Baden, 
Wiirtemberg,  the  Hessian  and  Bavarian  Palatinates, 
and  the  Rheingau,  the  total  annual  production  of  which 
is  about  80,000,000  gallons.  Of  these  the  first  three 
give  half  the  aggregate  yield ; but  their  wines  are  chiefly 
light  and  poor,  and  are  only  used  for  home  consumption. 
The  best  wines  of  Germany  are  grown  on  the  banks  of 
the  Rhine  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mainz : the  Rhein- 
gau, in  which  the  choicest  descriptions  are  grown,  lies 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  while  the  vineyards  of 
Hesse  lie  on  the  left.  Hochheimer  is  the  produce  of  a 
comparatively  small  district  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
Main,  several  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Rhine. 
The  name  (whence  Hock)  has  been  known  in  England 
for  upward  of  two  hundred  years,  and  no  doubt  orig- 
inally included  and  denoted  the  general  body  of  Rhine 
wines.'  The  wines  of  the  Moselle,  many  of  which  are 
shipped  as  sparkling  wines,  occupy  only  a secondary 
position,  although  in  favorable  seasons  they  are  charac- 
terized by  a light  pleasant  flavor  with  a marked  aroma. 
The  wines  of  Germany,  at  least  of  the  descriptions  ex- 
ported, are  mostly  white,  although  a small  quantity  of 
red  is  grown  in  the  Palatinate,  notably  at  Assmann- 
shausen,  which  resembles  Burgundy.  The  yield,  how- 
ever, is  comparatively  trifling.  A certain  quantity  of 
wine  is  made  in  the  southern  portions  of  Russia  and  in 
Greece ; but  the  quality  is  mostly  coarse  and  common, 
and  the  produce  is  almost  entirely  used  for  home  con- 
sumption. 

The  cultivation  of  the  vine  has  made  rapid  progress 
of  late  years  in  the  United  States,  and  American  wines 
are  steadily  taking  the  place  of  the  foreign  product. 
The  soil  and  climate  of  the  Pacific  coast  seem  best 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  vine,  and  wine-making 
appears  likely  to  become  one  of  the  leading  industries 
of  California,  where  the  vine  was  first  introduced  by  the 
Franciscan  fathers  about  the  year  1769.  The  variety 
of  grape  first  planted  in  that  region  was  known  as 
the  “ Mission  ” grape,  and  is  generally  supposed  to 


63  n w 

have  been  imported  from  Mexico.  Subsequently  the 
principal  varieties  of  French,  German,  and  Spanish 
vines  were  introduced  into  that  State,  and  have  all  been 
tried  with  more  or  less  success.  The  result  is  that  sev- 
eral descriptions  of  wine  are  now  made  in  California, 
resembling,  to  a certain  extent,  the  leading  European 
types,  although,  as  a rule,  of  a coarser  style — a defect, 
however,  which  is  disappearing  with  the  spread  of 
technical  knowledge.  Although  California  is  by  far  the 
largest  grape-growing  State  in  the  Union,  producing 
nearly  one-half  of  the  wines  made  in  the  United  States, 
yet  the  rate  of  increase  of  the  product  du  ring  the  past  five 
years  has  been  greatest  in  other  States.  In  Ohio,  upon  the 
shores  of  Lake  Erie  and  along  the  Ohio  river,  the  vine  is 
extensively  cultivated.  The  champagnes  and  clarets  made 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Sandusky  and  Cleveland,  and  the 
“ sparkling  Catawba  ” made  originally  by  Nicholas  Long- 
worth  of  Cincinnati,  are  produced  in  considerable  quan- 
tities. New  York,  Missouri,  Illinois,  and  Pennsylvania 
are  likewise  large  wine-producing  States,  the  largest 
wine-manufacturing  establishment  being  in  New  York 
State,  in  Steuben  county.  The  annual  yield  in  each  of 
these  States  ranges  now  (1890)  from  2,000,000  to 
4,000,000  gallons.  Wines  of  inferior  quality  are  made 
in  small  quantities  in  nearly  all  the  States.  In  the  East- 
ern and  Middle  States  the  principal  grapes  are  the 
Catawba  and  Ives  seedling,  while  in  the  south  the  Vir- 
ginia seedling  and  the  Scuppernong  grapes  are  the 
favorites.  The  wine-grapes  in  these  regions  resemble 
the  grapes  of  Germany  and  France,  containing  more 
acid  and  flavor,  while  those  grown  on  the  Pacific  coast 
are  of  a milder  and  sweeter  character,  resembling  the 
wines  of  Spain.  The  principal  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
the  cultivation  of  the  vine  in  the  United  States  are  mildew 
and  blight,  which  sometimes  destroy  the  entire  foliage 
of  the  vine,  and  the  grape  rot,  which  in  some  localities 
has  baffled  the  grower  and  caused  the  abandonment  of 
grape-culture.  The  ravages  of  the  Phylloxera  are 
likewise  encountered  in  certain  localities,  but  these  are 
not  so  extensive  in  the  United  States  as  in  France,  and 
indeed,  certain  varieties  of  the  vine  are  entirely  free 
from  them.  The  exports  of  American  wines,  though 
still  small,  are  rapidly  increasing.  The  imports  of  for- 
eign wines  have  steadily  decreased  during  the  past  fif- 
teen years.  The  total  annual  production  of  wine  in  the 
United  States  now  amounts  to  about  60,000,000  gallons. 

WINFIELD,  a growing  city  of  Kansas,  and  the 
capital  of  Cowley  county,  is  situated  on  Walnut 
river,  and  possesses  every  facility  for  the  development 
of  a prosperous  career.  It  is  on  the  Chicago,  Kansas 
City  and  Galveston  division  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka 
and  Santa  Fe,  and  on  the  Anthony  branch  of  the  St. 
Louis  and  San  Francisco  roads,  500  miles  from  St. 
Louis,  38  miles  from  Wichita  and  81  miles  west  of 
Independence.  The  surrounding  country  is  diversified 
uy  prairie  and  forests,  the  latter  consisting  of  hard  and 
soft-wood  timber,  while  the  soil  is  fertile  and  large 
crops  of  cereals  are  grown,  for  which  Winfield  is  the 
market  and  shipping  point.  The  city  is  the  location  of 
the  state  asylum  for  imbeciles,  an  important  institu- 
tion occupying  a commodious  structure,  also  for  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  College  of  the  Southwestern  Kansas 
Conference.  Fourbanks,  with  a combined  capital,  sur- 
plus,and  undivided  profits  amounting  to  $469,500^1*6  suc- 
cessfully conducted,  and  three  daily  and  three  weekly 
papers  are  issued.  The  city  also  contains  a court-house, 
half  a dozen  churches,  a high  school  and  graded  schools, 
two  opera  houses,  three  hotels,  several  public  halls,  a 
large  number  of  stores,  elevators,  warehouses,  etc., 
and  manufactures  of  lumber,  machinery,  iron-ware, 
ficur  and  other  commodities.  Gas  and  electric  lights 
are  used,  and  improvements  general  to  enterprising 


I N 

western  cities  are  completed  or  in  progress.  The  popu 
lation  in  1900  was  returned  at  5,554. 

WINKELRIED,  Arnold  von.  The  incident  with 
which  this  name  is  connected  is,  after  the  feat  of  Tell, 
the  best  known  and  most  popular  in  the  early  history 
of  the  Swiss  Confederation.  We  are  told  how,  at  a 
critical  moment  in  the  great  battle  of  Sempach,  when 
the  Swiss  had  failed  to  break  the  serried  ranks  of  the 
Austrian  knights,  a man  of  Unterwalden,  Arnold  von 
Winkelried  by  name,  came  to  the  rescue.  Commending 
his  wife  and  children  to  the  care  of  his  comrades,  he 
rushed  toward  the  Austrians,  gathered  a number  of 
their  spears  together  against  his  breast,  and  fell  pierced 
through  and  through,  having  opened  a way  into  the 
hostile  ranks  for  his  fellow  countrymen,  though  at  the 
price  of  his  own  life.  But  the  Tell  and  Winkelried 
stories  stand  m a very  different  position  when  looked 
at  in  the  dry  light  of  history,  for,  while  in  the  former 
case  imaginary  and  impossible  men  (bearing  now  and 
then  a real  historical  name)  do  imaginary  and  impossi- 
ble deeds  at  a very  uncertain  period,  in  the  latter  we 
have  some  solid  ground  to  rest  on,  and  Winkelried’s 
act  might  very  well  have  been  performed,  though,  as 
yet,  the  amount  of  genuine  and  early  evidence  in  sup- 
port of  it  is  very  far  from  being  sufficient. 

WINNIPEG,  capital  of  the  province  of  Manitoba, 
in  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  stands  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Red  river  and  the  Assiniboine,  in  4.90  56' N.  lati- 
tude and  970  7'  W.  longitude,  and  764  feet  above  the 
sea.  Its  name  is  taken  from  Lake  Winnipeg  (Ojibway, 
Win , “muddy,”  and  Nipi,  “water”).  The  waters  of 
the  Red  river  reach  the  lake  forty-five  miles  north  of 
the  city.  The  city  is  built  on  the  prairie;  a part  of  the 
site  was  swampy,  but  is  being  well  drained.  The  city 
includes  both  sides  of  the  Assiniboine,  but  on  the  east 
side  of  the  Red  river  there  is  an  independent  corpora- 
tion, the  town  of  St.  Boniface,  which  is  virtually  a 
suburb.  St.  Boniface,  with  1,449  inhabitants,  was 
first  settled  by  Lord  Selkirk’s  German  De  Meuron 
soldiers  in  1817.  The  growth  of  Winnipeg  has  been 
remarkable.  Living  on  its  site  in  1871  there  were  but 
241  souls.  As  Canadian  immigration  increased,  the 
village  grew,  and  in  1873  it"was  incorporated  as  a city, 
in  the  face  of  strenuous  opposition  by  the  H udson’s  Bay 
Company.  The  census  of  1901  gave  the  city  42,340  in- 
habitants. In  the  following  year  Winnipeg,  as  being 
the  central  point  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  railway, 
which  connects  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  be- 
came a place  of  great  prospective  importance.  An 
enormous  rise  in  values  took  place.  The  population 
of  the  city  doubled  in  a few  months,  and  the  wildest 
speculation  took  place.  This  inflation,  locally  known 
as  “the  boom,”  caused  much  damage,  and  in 
the  following  year  the  collapse  brought  down 
almost  all  the  business  men  of  the  city.  The  popu- 
lation diminished  very  rapidly,  but  has  risen  again, 
and  is  now  increasing.  The  census  of  1886  gave 
Winnipeg  20,238  inhabitants.  The  city  has  water, 
gas,  electricity,  and  ample  fire  protection,  and  archi- 
tecturally presents  a fine  appearance.  Main  street, 
which  is  132  feet  wide,  and  block-paved  for  a mile,  is 
stated  to  be  one  of  the  best  streets  in  Canada.  In 
education  Winnipeg  is  the  center  of  the  Canadian 
Northwest.  The  Winnipeg  public  and  secondary 
schools  compare  favorably  with  those  of  other  Canadian 
cities,  and  employ  fifty  teachers,  male  and  female.  .At 
Winnipeg  is  situated  the  provincial  university,  to  which 
are  affiliated  four  colleges — St.  Boniface  (Roman  Cath- 
olic), St.  John’s  (Church  of  England),  Manitoba 
(Presbyterian),  and  Manitoba  medical  college.  The 
university  has  been  voted  150,000  acres  of  wild  land  by 
the  Dominion  Government,  and  has  received  $85,oo<} 


WIN 


of  a legacy  from  a native  of  Rupert’s  Land.  There  are 
twenty-four  church  buildings  in  the  city  and  neighbor- 
hood. The  census  of  1901  gives  the  Manitoba  religious 
population  as  follows: — Church  of  England,  44,874; 
Presbyterians,  65,310;  Methodists,  49,909;  Roman  Cath- 
olics, 35,622.  The  societies  are  the  historical  and  scien- 
tific society,  and  St.  Andrew’s,  St.  George’s,  St.  Pat- 
rick’s, St.  Jean  Baptiste,  Scandinavian,  and  Hebrew 
national  societies.  Masonic,  oddfellows’,  and  temper- 
ance organizations  are  strong.  There  are  two  hos- 
pitals, besides  a children’s  home  and  maternity  hospital. 
The  finer  buildings  and  erections  are  the  city  hall,  post- 
office,  parliament  buildings,  governor’s  residence,  court- 
house, college  buildings,  Hudson’s  Bay  Company 
warehouse,  Westminster  block,  Cauchon  block,  and  the 
volunteer  monument  of  1886  on  the  City  Square. 

WINONA,  a leading  city  of  Minnesota  in  respect  to 
population,  wealth,  and  prominence,  also  the  capital  of 
Winona  county,  is  handsomely  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  in  the  midst  of  surround- 
ings as  picturesque  and  attractive  as  can  be  found  be- 
tween Itasca  and  the  Gulf.  It  possesses  unsurpassed 
traffic  accommodations,  consisting  of  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern,  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul,  Chi- 
cago, Burlington  and  Northern,  Green  Bay,  Wi- 
nona and  St.  Paid,  and  the  Winona  and  Southwestern 
railroads,  also  two  lines  of  steamers  making  almost 
daily  trips  between  St.  Louis  and  St.  Paul.  Contiguous 
to  the  latter  city,  also  to  La  Crosse,  Wis.,  and  but  a 
day’s  journey  from  Chicago,  Winona  has  become  the 
principal  exporting  point  for  grain  in  the  State,  and 
the  receiving  and  distributing  point  for  merchandise 
and  produce  for  a very  considerable  area  of  territory. 

Its  growth  has  has  been  gradual  but  permanent,  and 
the  aids  enlisted  in  the  promotion  of  the  city’s  develop- 
ment have  been  valuable  and  effective.  It  contains  two 
State,  two  national,  and  one  savings  bank,  one  daily,  one 
semi-weekly,  and  five  weekly  papers,  a court-house,  many 
handsome  residences,  fifteen  churches,  a high-school 
building,  a normal  school  edifice  which  cost  $145,000,  an 
opera  house,  the  Philharmonic,  Normal  and  other  halls, 
with  an  aggregate  capacity  to  seat  upward  of  5,000, 
several  fine  hotels  and  many  other  improvements,  includ- 
ing commodious  and  well  built  stores,  elevators,  ware- 
houses, etc.  The  manufactures  embrace  machinery, 
furnaces,  cornices,  hand  fire-engines,  agncultura'  imple- 
ments, carriages  and  wagons,  sole  leather,  soap  and  oil, 
lumber  and  salt,  sash  and  blinds,  boots  and  shoes,  arti- 
ficial stone,  brooms,  flour,  harness,  etc.  The  city  also 
contains  electrical  works  for  furnishing  motive  power  and 
for  lighting  purposes,  also  gas  works,  and  other  modern 
appliances,  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  times  in 
the  matter  of  rapid  transit,  production,  etc.  The  city 
was  surveyed  and  platted  in  1852.  By  i860  its  popula- 
tion had  increased  to  2,468,  to  7,200  in  1870,  to  10,208 
in  1880,  and  19,714  in  1900. 

WINSLOW,  Edward,  was  born  in  Worcestershire, 
England,  October  19,  1595.  He  became  a member  of 
Robinson’s  church  at  Leyden,  and  in  1620  joined  the 
Mayflower  company  of  pilgrims  with  his  wife  and 
brother,  being  one  of  the  party  which  discovered  Plym- 
outh Harbor.  His  wife  died  soon  after  their  arrival, 
and  his  marriage  with  Mrs.  Susanna  White  was  the  first 
marriage  in  Plymouth  colony.  He  was  chosen  a magis- 
trate in  1624,  and  governor  in  1633,  1636,  and  1644, 
when  Bradford,  the  usual  governor,  “by  importunity 
got  off.”  He  made  several  voyages  to  England  as  the 
colony’s  agent.  Returning  to  England  in  1649,  he 
remained  until  1655,  when  Cromwell  sent  him  on  a 
mission  to  the  West  Indies.  He  died  on  the  voyage, 
May  8,  1655. 

WINSTON,  a thriving  town  of  North  Carolina,  and 


6373 

capital  of  Forsyth  county,  is  eligibly  located  but  a 
short  distance  from  Salem,  in  the  same  county;  an  im- 
portant shipping  point  on  the  Northwestern  North 
Carolina  division  of  the  Richmond  and  Danville  railroad. 
The  town  is  prettily  laid  out  and  well  built,  owing  its 
chief  importance,  however,  to  the  very  extensive  opera- 
tions in  the  sale  of  raw  leaf  tobacco,  annually  conducted 
here,  as  also  its  manufacture.  In  the  latter  respect, 
Winston  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  centers  in  the 
State,  there  being  nearly  fifty  companies  thus  engaged, 
which  give  employment  to  thousands  of  hands,  and 
yearly  produce  tons  of  chewing  and  smoking  tobacco, 
that  finds  a market  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Other  in- 
dustries are  also  carried  on,  including  saw  and  grist 
mills,  tanneries,  granite  works,  electric  light  works, 
agricultural  implements,  and  furniture.  One  daily  and 
two  weekly  papers,  also  an  educational  journal  issued 
monthly,  are  published,  and  two  banks,  with  an  aggre- 
gate capital,  surplus,  and  undivided  profits  of  $525,000, 
are  in  successful  operation.  An  academy  affords  the 
means  of  instruction,  and  several  churches  are  well 
maintained,  while  hotels,  public  halls,  stores,  ware- 
houses, etc.,  furnish  accommodations  and  facilities  for 
business  transactions  and  other  purposes  incident  to  an 
enterprising  and  progressive  city.  The  population,  winch 
was  2,854  in  1880,  is  now  (1900)  10,008. 

WINTER,  Peter,  dramatic  composer,  was  born  at 
Mannheim  in  1754  (or,  according  to  other  accounts,  in 
1 758).  His  most  popular  work,  Das  unterbrochene 
Opferfest , was  produced  in  1796  in  Vienna,  where  in 
1 797-98  he  composed  Die  Pyramiden  von  Babylon  and 
Das  Labyrinth.  Five  years  later  he  visited  London, 
where  he  produced  Calypso  in  1803,  Proserpina  in 
1804,  and  Zaira  in  1805,  with  great  success.  His  last 
opera,  Sanger  und  Schneider,  was  produced  in  1820  at 
Munich,  where  he  died,  October  17,  1825.  Besides  his 
dramatic  works  he  composed  some  effective  sacred 
music,  including  twenty-six  masses. 

WIRELESS  TELEGRAPHY,  a system  of  transmit- 
ting messages,  without  the  use  of  wires,  between  points 
distant  one  from  another.  Although  it  is  popularly  sup- 
posed to  be  an  invention  of  recent  years,  there  is  a record 
dating  as  far  back  as  1746  when  Winckler  at  Leipsic, 
proved  conclusively  that  messages  could  be  transmitted  a 
few  feet  without  the  use  of  wires.  In  1747  Dr.  Watson 
provedthat.it  was  possible  to  transmit  electricity  through 
water  to  a distance  of  several  feet,  so  that  shocks  could 
be  felt  at  the  receiving  station,  the  experiment  being  tried 
across  the  River  Thames.  Later,  in  1748,  Benjamin 
Franklin  tried  a similar  experiment  on  the  River  Schuyl- 
kill with  some  measure  of  success.  In  1749  De  Luc 
transmitted  electricity  across  Lake  Geneva,  but  from 
that  time  until  early  in  the  19th  century  there  seem  to  be 
no  records  of  any  experiments  along  this  line  until  Pro- 
fessor Henry,  who  was  well  known  as  a leading  scientist 
of  his  day,  1838,  succeeded  in  transmitting  messages  a 
distance  of  18  feet,  from  one  room  to  another,  using  a 
coil  of  wire  with  a transmitter  in  one  room  and  another 
coil  with  a receiver  in  the  other  room. 

In  1842  Professor  Morse  laid  an  insulated  wire  under 
the  water  between  Governor’s  Island  and  Castle  Garden, 
New  York,  with  the  intention  of  proving  that  messages 
could  be  transmitted  in  that  way.  But  his  effort  was 
partially  a failure  owing  to  a vessel  carrying  away  his 
wire.  He  succeeded,  however,  on  December  16th  of  the 
same  year  in  telegraphing  80  feet  across  the  Potomac 
at  Washington  without  wires.  With  the  assistance  of 
his  two  associates,  Vail  and  Rogers,  the  following  year 
he  succeeded  in  telegraphing  without  wires  across  the 
Susquehanna  at  Havre  de  Grace,  a distance  of  one  mile. 
Although  this  fact  was  generally  known  to  the  electrical 
fraternity,  a patent  was  granted  to  Lindsay  in  England 
in  1854  covering  exactly  the  same  method.  In  1855  Pro- 
fessor Henry  again  succeeded  in  transmitting  some  dis 
tance  greater  than  his  experiment  of  1838,  and  in  1877 


W I R 


6374 

Elisha  Gray  sent  signals  from  one  end  to  the  other  of  the 
Western  Electric  Company’s  works  in  Chicago,  using  an 
apparatus  somewhat  similar  to  that  used  by  Professor 
Henry.  The  next  record  we  have  is  that  of  Professor  Dol- 
bear’s  experience  with  a disconnected  telephone  receiver 
which  he  had  invented  in  1881  and  exhibited  at  Paris  in 
1882.  He  removed  the  receiver  to  a distance  of  50  feet 
and  found  that  he  could  still  hear  plainly.  He  followed 
this  experiment  up  with  the  use  of  a perpendicular  wire 
such  as  Marconi  used  later,  raising  it  by  means  of  a kite 
to  a height  of  some  300  or  400  feet,  using  one  wire 
at  the  transmitting  station  and  the  other  at  the  receiving 
station.  At  the  transmitting  station  he  used  a large 
induction  coil  and  Morse  key,  similar  to  the  method 
used  by  Marconi,  at  the  receiving  station  he  used  his 
new  telephone  receiver,  one  side  of  it  being  connected 
to  the  wire  in  the  air  and  the  other  side  to  the  earth. 
He  succeeded  in  transmitting  messages  a distance  of 
over  half  a mile,  but  when  he  applied  for  a patent  in 
1882  he  was  told  by' the  examiner  at  Washington  that 
his  idea  was  contrary  to  science  and  would  not  work. 
However,  he  succeeded  in  getting  his  patent  in  1886, 
the  examiner  admitting  that  he  had  made  a mistake. 

The  next  record  of  moment  was  the  discovery  in'  1890 
by  Branly,  who,  taking  a glass  tube  and  filling  it  with 
metallic  filings,  and  then  connecting  each  end  of  the 
filings  to  a battery  and  telegraph  instrument,  found  that 
the  instrument  would  sound  whenever  it  was  brought 
into  proximity  to  an  induction  coil,  the  sparks  from 
which  were  made  to  pass  between  round  metallic 
balls.  This  was  the  earliest  form  of  coherer  and  was 
used  by  Marconi  later,  though  more  sensitively  con- 
structed. In  1901  an  apparatus  was  being  manufactured 
in  the  United  States  which  was  doing  good  work  and 
was  in  use  by  the  Signal  Corps  of  the  United  States 
Army  between  Washington  and  Fort  Meyer,  a distance  of 
about  five  miles.  Professor  Fessenden,  working  under 
the  supervision  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau  in 
April,  1902,  succeeded  in  sending  messages  over  200 
miles. 

Marconi  began  his  experiments  as  early  as  1895  on  his 
father’s  estate  in  Bologna,  Italy,  finding  it  possible  to 
transmit  without  wires  for  several  miles.  In  1896  he  went 
to  England  to  give  a test  of  his  capabilities  to  the  English 
government,  and  succeeded  in  sending  messages  nine 
miles  across  the  Bristol  Channel.  He  used  a 10-inch  in- 
duction coil,  somewhat  similar  to  the  familiar  shocking 
coil,  though  larger.  There  are  two  small  spheres,  about 
one  or  two  centimeters  apart,  connected  to  the  terminals 
of  the  secondary  winding.  The  spark  passes  between 
these  two  spheres  and  creates  the  oscillations  which  are 
necessary  for  the  transmission  of  the  signals.  When  long 
distances  are  to  be  covered,  a vertical  insulated  conductor, 
suspended  by  means  of  a mast,  is  attached  to  one 
sphere  and  the  other  sphere  is  connected  with  the  earth. 
By  the  pressing  of  an  ordinary  telegraphic  key  connect- 
ing a battery  with  the  coil,  the  current  from  the  battery  is 
allowed  to  actuate  the  induction  coil  which  charges  the 
vertical  conductor,  discharging  across  the  gap  and  sepa- 
rating the  two  spheres.  This  discharge  is  an  oscillating 
one,  the  insulated  conductor  becoming  a powerful  radiator 
of  electric  waves.  Thus,  by  pressing  the  key  for  long  or 
short  intervals,  it  is  possible  to  emit  a long  or  short  suc- 
cession of  waves,  which,  when  they  influence  the  receiver, 
reproduce  on  it  a long  or  short  effect,  according  to  their 
duration. 

The  sensitive  tube,  radio-conductor  or  coherer,  as  it  is 
differently  termed,  is  the  principal  point  in  the  receiver. 
This  small  glass  tube  is  about  four  centimeters  in  length, 
with  two  small  silver  plugs  tightly  fitted  into  it.  A small 
gap  separates  them,  which  is  filled  with  a mixture  of 
nickel  and  silver  filings.  The  resistance  of  this  gap  is 
too  high  to  allow  a current  to  pass  from  the  local  cell  un- 
der ordinary  conditions ; but,  under  the  influence  of 
electric  waves,  there  is  an  instant  cohesion  of  these  filings 
and  the  tube  becomes  a comparatively  good  conductor. 
Connected  to  this  tube  is  a cell  and  a relay,  The  cohe- 


sion of  the  filings  permits  the  current  from  the  cell  to 
pass  through  the  tube  and  actuate  the  relay.  This  ac- 
complished, it  becomes  a very  simple  matter  to  make  a 
bell  ring  or  work  an  ordinary  Morse  inkwriter. 

Unless  tapped  or  shaken  up,  these  filings  will  remain 
cohered,  and  this  difficulty  has  been  overcome  by  using 
an  automatic  tapper  or  discoherer,  somewhat  similar  to 
an  electric  bell  tapper,  minus  the  bell.  With  this  arrange- 
ment the  filings  are  easily  discohered  and  brought  to  a 
normal  condition,  and  are  once  more  ready  to  receive 
another  impulse.  Thi^  is  worked  by  the  relay  and  an- 
other local  battery. 

The  various  processes  are  easily  followed  from  now  on. 
The  vertical  conductor  or  resonator  which  is  connected 
to  the  sensitive  tube  at  the  receiving  station  is  acted  upon 
by  the  oscillations  which  are  started  by  the  transmitter 
at  the  distant  station.  At  the  same  time  the  filings  up 
the  tube  cohere  and  the  relay  is  actuated  by  the  local 
cell.  The  relay,  in  its  turn,  causes  a current  to  pass 
through  the  tapper  or  interrupter  from  the  larger  battery, 
and  also  through  the  electro-magnets  of  the  recording  in- 
strument. As  a result,  the  receiver  is  actuated  for  a time 
equal  to  that  during  which  the  key  is  pressed  at  the 
transmitting  station. 

With  the  apparatus  thus  explained,  and  a few  addi- 
tional important  details,  Marconi  has  worked  most  of 
his  experiments  and  established  numerous  important  in- 
stallations. 

During  the  short  time  that  has  elapsed  since  Marconi’s 
name  first  became  famous  in  connection  with  wireless 
telegraphy,  much  has  been  accomplished  through  severe 
tests  which  have  gone  to  prove  conclusively  that  wireless 
telegraphy  is  no  longer  a myth,  but  an  everyday  work- 
ing reality.  In  Italy,  after  several  successful  trials  of 
communicating  from  ship  to  ship,  his  system  was  adopted 
by  the  Italian  navy. 

By  means  of  kites  to  raise  and  suspend  the  vertical 
conductor  to  a considerable  altitude  between  Salisbury 
Plain  and  Bath,  the  system  successfully  covered  a distance 
of  34  miles.  Many  severe  tests  have  been  given, in  Eng* 
land  to  prove  the  practicability  of  the  system  as  proof 
against  weather  conditions,  and  after  an  experience  of 
some  two  or  three  years  it  is  conceded  that  such  instal- 
lations are  not  seriously  affected  by  climatic  changes. 

When  H.  R.  H..  The  Prince  of  Wales,  was  confined  to 
his  yacht,  the  “Osborne,”  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  Mr.  Mar- 
coni established  communication  between  Osborne  House 
and  the  yacht.  Despite  the  intervening  hills,  trees  and 
other  obstructions,  her  Royal  Majesty  was  able  to  com- 
municate with  the  Prince  at  short  intervals,  which  could 
not  have  been  possible  by  means  of  flags,  semaphore  or 
heliograph. 

One  of  the  most  useful  tests  to  which  it  has  yet  been 
put  is  the  establishment  of  a line  between  the  East  Good- 
win Lightship — the  outermost  lightship  guarding  the 
dangerous  Goodwin  Sands — with  the  South  Foreland 
Lighthouse,  a, distance  of  12  miles.  The  apparatus  worked 
satisfactorily  from  the  very  beginning  and  several  vessels 
stranded  on  the  sand  in  a fog  have  received  immediate 
assistance.  The  lightship  noted  their  signals  of  distress, 
and  by  means  of  wireless  telegraphy  indicated  the  exact 
location  where  help  was  required,  and  tugs  and  lifeboats 
were  sent  to  the  rescue. 

One  recent  installation  is  worth  mentioning,  that  con- 
necting the  South  Foreland  Lighthouse  and  Boulogne,  a 
distance  of  about  30  miles.  The  possibilities  and  im- 
portance of  the  uses  to  which  these  reflected  radiations 
can  be  adopted  are  enormous.  Not  only  may  ships  be 
warned  of  danger,  but  they  may  also  know  the  direction 
from  which  the  warning  comes. 

WISBY,  a picturesque  old  town  on  the  west  coast  of 
the  Swedish  Island  of  Gotland.  It  has  a considerable 
trade,  but  does  not  occupy  half  the  space  inclosed 
within  its  old  walls,  which,  with  their  towers,  still  sur- 
vive. In  1900  the  population  of  the  town  was  8,924. 

WISCONSIN,  one  of  the  northeastern  Central  States 
of  the  American  Union,  has  the  parallel  of  420  30'  N. 


WIS 


latitude  for  its  southern  limit,  Lake  Michigan  for  its 
border  on  the  east,  Lake  Superior  on  the  north,  and 
the  Mississippi  on  the  west.  Michigan  on  the  east, 
Minnesota  and  Iowa  on  the  west,  and  Illinois  on  the 
south  are  its  neighbor  States.  Its  area,  exclusive  of 
water  surface,  is  estimated  at  54,450  square  miles.  Its 
length  from  north  to  South  is  300  miles,  its  Breadth  250 
miles;  its  lake  shore  line  exceeds  500  miles.  Its  surface 
contours  are  gentle  and  pleasing.  The  lower  parts  of  the 
State  lie  about  600  feet  above  the  sea;  the  highest  sum- 
mits about  1,800  feet. 

Soils. — The  soils  of  the  State  are  varied.  Those  of 
the  drift-bearing  region  are  derived  from  the  hetero- 
geneous mixture  of  pre-glacial  soils  and  glacial  grindings, 
and  constitute  for  the  greater  part  loamy  clays  and 
sandy  loams  of  a high  degree  of  fertility  and  permanence. 
In  the  southwest  a considerable  portion  of  the  soils  are 
derived  from  the  decomposition  of  the  underlying  lime- 
stone, and  are  highly  fertile  and  easily  tilled.  In  the 
central  portion  there  is  a considerable  area  underlaid  by 
the  Potsdam  sandstone,  from  which  sandy  soils,  of 
relatively  low  fertility,  have  been  derived. 

Vegetation. — The  greater  part  of  the  State  was 
originally  covered  by  forest,  but  in  the  south  and  west 
considerable  areas  of  prairies  were  found  interspersed 
with  woodlands.  The  prevalent  trees  of  this  region  are 
th§  oaks,  poplars,  hickories,  and  their  usual  associates. 
Along  the  eastern  border  of  the  State,  except  at  the  very 
south,  is  an  extensive  tract  of  heavy  timber,  in  which 
maple,  elm,  ash,  and  their  usual  associates  predominate. 
Toward  the  north  the  pines,  hemlocks,  and  spruces 
come  in.  The  north  part  of  the  State  was  originally 
covered  by  an  almost  unbroken  forest,  composed  of 
groves  of  pine,  of  hard  wood,  and  of  a promiscuous 
mixture  of  species  embracing  both  conifers  and  deciduous 
trees.  This  constitutes  the  great  lumber  region  of 
Wisconsin. 

Population. — In  1900  Wisconsin  had  a population 
of  2,069,042.  The  accompanying  table  exhibits  the 
population  from  1850  to  1880. 


Population. 

Density 

Square 

Mile. 

Total. 

Males. 

Females. 

1850 

305,391 

164,716 

140,675 

5.61 

1 860 

775,88i 

407,449 

368,432 

14.25 

1870 

1,054,670 

544,886 

509,784 

*9-37 

1880 

1,3*5,497 

680,065 

635,428 

24.16 

The  Federal  census  of  1890  gave  the  number  as  1,693,- 
330.  The  Federal  census  of  1900  showed  2,057,911 
whites,  2,762  colored,  and  8,372  Indians.  The  foreign- 
born  population  numbered  515,971,  or  30.81  per  cent, 
of  the  whole,  of  whom  184,328  came  from  the  German 
■2 mpire,  66,284  from  the  Scandinavian  countries,  and 
78,057  from  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Cities. — In  1900  Milwaukee  had  a population  of  285,- 
315;  Oshkosh,  28,284;  La  Crosse,  28,895;  Eau  Claire, 
t.7,517;  Racine,  29,102;  Fond  du  Lac,  15,110;  Madison 
(the  State  capital),  19,164;  Sheboygan,  22,962;  Apple- 
ton,  15,085;  and  Janesville,  13,185. 

Climate. — Lying  between  42^°  and  470  N.  latitude, 
and  near  the  center  of  the  continent,  Wisconsin  has  a 
typical  temperate  continental  climate.  Its  summers 
are  warm,  and  diversified  by  short  rains  and  clear  skies ; 
its  winters  are  somewhat  severe  but  relatively  dry  and 
stimulating,  and  are  less  chilly  than  more  humid  atmos- 
pheres at  similar  or  even  higher  temperatures.  The 
average  rainfall  is  about  thirty  inches.  The  mean 
summer  temperature  varies  from  about  700  in  the  south 
to  about  6o°  m the  north ; the  mean  winter  temperature 


6375 

varies  from  about  25°  in  the  south  to  about  150  in  the 
extreme  north.  Tne  great  lakes  produce  a marked 
effect  on  the  seasonal  temperature  of  the  State,  elevating 
it  in  winter  and  depressing  it  in  summer,  so  that  the 
summer  isotherms  run  from  the  northwest  to  south- 
east, forced  south  by  the  cooling  influence  of  the  lakes ; 
while  those  of  the  winter  run  from  southwest  to  north- 
east, forced  north  by  their  warming  influence.  As  a 
result,  productions  requiring  a high  summer  temperature 
flourish  in  the  southwestern  and  central  portions  of  the 
State,  but  are  precarious  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lakes, 
while  fruits  and  crops  requiring  milder  winters  and  more 
equable  temperatures  can  be  produced  near  the  lakes, 
but  are  uncertain  away  from  them. 

Agriculture. — By  the  United  States  census  of  1900  Wis- 
consin had  169,795  farms,  embracing  19,862,727  acres,  of 
which  11,246,972  acres  were  improved  land.  Of  these 
farms  146,799  were  cultivated  by  the  owners,  and  22,996 
were  rented.  The  total  value  of  farm  property  was 
$811,712,319,  of  which  $686,147,660  represented  land  im- 
provements, $29,237,010  implements  and  machinery,  and 
$96,327,649  live  stock.  The  produce  of  crops  for  1899 
was  as  follows : Wheat,  9,005,170  bushels ; corn,  53»3°9>* 
810;  oats,  84,040,800;  barley,  18,699,690;  rye,  5,142,606; 
potatoes,  24,641,498 ; hay  and  forage,  3,667,212  tons ; to- 
bacco, 45,500,480  pounds. 

Manufactures,  etc. — Large  water-powers  are  found, 
chiefly  on  the  Fox,  Wisconsin,  and  Chippewa  rivers. 
In  1900,  the  date  of  the  last  State  census,  the  amount  of 
capital  used  in  manufacturing  was  over  $330,568,000; 
hands  employed,  152,700;  and  the  value  of  manufactured 
products,  $360,818,942.  The  total  wages  were  for  the 
year  nearly  seventy  million  dollars;  the  number  of  estab- 
lishments, 16,187,  the  assessed  value  of  real  estate,  $503,- 
690,767.  The  chief  industry  was  that  of  lumber  and 
timber  products,  the  year’s  yield  being  over  sixty-five 
million  dollars,  besides  a yield  from  paper  and  wood 
pulp  of  $10,895,576.  Flouring  and  grist  mill  products 
yielded  in  1900,  $26,327,942;  foundry  and  machine  shop 

Products,  $22,252,730;  and  leather  (tanned,  curried,  and 
nished),  $20,074,373.  Malt  liquors  yielded  $19,394*709; 
slaughtering  and  meat-packing,  $13,601,125;  and  the 
yield  from  the  industry  connected  with  cheese,  butter 
and  condensed  milk,  amounted  to  $20,120,147. 

Lumbering. — The  proximity  of  Wisconsin  to  the 
prairie  States  renders  its  lumbering  interests  especial 
important.  In  1900,  Wisconsin  had  a lumber  product 
valued  at  $57,635,816,  the  largest  product  of  all  the  states 
in  the  Union.  There  were  1,066  establishments,  employ- 
ing a capital  of  $77,366,223  and  21,701  hands,  whose 
wages  amounted  to  $9,480,011.  Operations  are  chiefly 
carried  on  along  the  Menomonie,  Peshtigo,  Oconto, 
Wolf,  Wisconsin,  Yellow,  Black,  Chippewa,  Red  Cedar, 
a"d  St.  Croix  rivers  ; but  the  rapid  increase  in  railroads 
has  opened  the  northern  forests  very  generally.  The 
lumber,  shingles,  and  lath  manufactured  amounted  to 
about  3,361,943,000  feet  in  190a 
Mines  and  Quarries. — In  1880  Wisconsin  ranked 
sixth  among  the  iron-producing  States,  but  since  then 
its  importance  has  increased.  The  most  extensive  iron 
deposits  occur  in  the  Huronian  formation  in  the  Me- 
nomonie region,  and  along  the  Montreal  river.  The 
Montreal  range,  divided  between  Wisconsin  and  Mich- 
igan, about  a dozen  miles  south  of  Lake  Superior,  has 
just  been  opened  up,  and  there  is  a rich  deposit  of 
Bessemer  ore.  The  lead  and  zinc  region  lies  in  the 
southwest  of  the  State  ; production  had  been  declining, 
but  recently  new  discoveries  have  revived  it.  There  is 
a rich  supply  of  building-stone ; limestone  quarries  are 
most  numerous,  but  the  red-brown  sandstone  of  Bay- 
field  county  and  the  granite  of  Marquette  county  ar« 
especially  valued- 


6376  W 

Fisheries. — The  whitefish  and  lake-trout  fishing  in- 
dustries of  Lake  Michigan  and  Lake  Superior  are 
extensive,  and  the  inland  lakes  and  streams  abound  in 
bass,  pike,  pickerel,  sturgeon,  and  brook-trout.  A 
State  fisheries  commission  annually  stocks  the  waters 
with  brook-trout,  whitefish,  and  pike. 

Railways  and  Canals. — There  were  in  Wisconsin  in 
June,  1900,  6, 566  miles  of  railway.  The  report  of  the 
State  Railroad  Commissioner  showed  that  the  cost  of 
construction  and  equipment  of  all  railroads  within  the 
State  was  $224,052,218.  Their  capital  stock  was  $1 12,- 
431, 124;  total  debt  $148, 216,3 1 1 ; gross  earnings  $26,451,- 
564;  operating  expenses  $16,737,745.  A canal  connects 
the  Fox  and  Wisconsin  rivers  at  Portage,  and  the 
Sturgeon  Bay  canal  unites  Green  Bay  and  Lake  Michigan. 

Administration , etc.  -The  State,  which  is  divided 
Into  sixty-eight  counties,  is  represented  in  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States  by  two  senators  and  nine  repre- 
sentatives. The  supreme  court  is  composed  of  a chief 
justice  and  four  associate  justices;  there  are  fourteen 
judicial  circuits,  each  with  a judge;  and  besides  these 
are  county  and  municipal  judges  and  justices  of  the 
peace.  The  State  legislature,  composed  of  the  senate 
(33  members)  and  the  assembly  (100  ipembers),  meets 
bienially. 

Charitable,  Reformatory , and  Penal  Institutions. — 
The  State  supports  two  hospitals  for  the  insane,  a 
school  for  the  deaf,  school  for  the  blind,  industrial 
school  for  boys,  industrial  school  for  girls,  State  prison 
school;  a school  for  dependent  children  has  just  been 
established.  The  State  board  of  control  and  the  board 
of  charities  and  reforms  have  charge  of  these  institutions. 

Education. — The  State  makes  liberal  provision  for 
its  public  schools;  it  sets  apart  as  a permanent  fund  the 
Federal  grant  of  section  16  in  each  township,  with  500,- 
000  acres  of  ’and,  and  5 per  cent,  of  the  proceeds  of  the 
sale  of  public  lands  in  the  State,  together  with  less  im- 
portant items.  This  school-fund  income  is  supple- 
mented by  a State  tax  of  one  mill  on  thf*  dollar;  the 
combined  amount  is  annually  apportioned  among  the 
counties,  towns,  villages,  and  cities  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  children  in  each  of  from  four  to  twenty  years 
of  age;  in  their  turn  the  counties  must  levy  upon  each 
town,  city,  and  village  a tax  equal  to  their  proportion 
of  the  combined  school  fund  and  State  mill  tax. 

In  1879  attendance  at  a public  or  private  school  for 
at  least  twelve  weeks  each  year  was  made  compulsory 
on  all  children  between  the  ages  of  seven  and  fifteen 
years.  Women  are  eligible  to  all  school  offices,  except 
that  of  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction.  In 
1890  there  are  145  free  high  schools,  receiving  special  aid 
from  the  State.  Provision  is  made  for  the  education  of 
teachers  by  the  five  normal  schools.  The  leading  de- 
nominational colleges  are  Beloit,  Ripon,  Racine,  Milton, 
and  Lawrence  university.  The  public  school  system  is 
crowned  by  the  State  university  at  Madison,  organized 
in  1848.  In  1900  the  school  population  between  4 and 
20  years  numbered  730,685;  between  7 and  14  years 
294,950;  enrolled  in  public  schools  550,342.  There 
were  2,338  male  and  9,649  female  teachers  employed. 
The  sum  devoted  to  public  instruction  in  the  year  was 
$5,258,463. 

The  State  historical  society  at 'Madison,  the  capital, 
has  a reference  library  of  125,000  volumes  and  pam- 
phlets, and  is  the  richest  in  the  nation  upon  the  history 
of  the  Mississippi  basin;  the  State  law  library  there  has 

25.000  volumes,  the  university  library  18,500,  and  the 
city  library  9,000.  Milwaukee  has  a public  library  of 

75.000  volumes. 

Antiquities  and  History. — The  State  is  noted  for  its 
exceptionally  large  number  of  animal  mounds,  the  work 
the  ‘‘  mound-builders.  ” They  are  found  along  the 


I s 

rivers  and  lake  banks,  and  are  from  2 to  6 feet  highi 
sometimes  200  feet  long;  remains  of  prehistoric  circum- 
vallations,  with  brick  baked  in  situ , have  been  found, 
and  the  largest  collection  of  prehistoric  copper  imple- 
ments has  been  made  in  this  State.  Wisconsin  was  the 
meeting  ground  of  the  Algonquin  and  Dakota  Indian 
tribes.  Its  water  system  connecting  the  Great  Lakes 
and  the  Mississippi  made  it  the  keystone  of  the  French 
possessions  in  Canada  and  Louisiana.  The  genesis  of 
Wisconsin  was  from  the  fur  trade.  French  explorers, 
ascending  the  Ottawa,  crossed  to  Lake  Huron,  whence 
they  easily  passed  through  the  Straits  of  Mackinaw  to 
Green  Bay,  thence  up  the  Fox  to  the  portage  between 
it  and  the  Wisconsin,  and  on  to  the  Mississippi.  In 
1634  an  agent  of  Champlain,  Jean  Nicolet,  first  of  re- 
corded white  men  to  reach  Wisconsin  soil,  ascended  the 
Fox  a considerable  distance.  In  1658-59  Radisson  and 
Groseilliers,  two  fur  traders  who  afterward  induced 
England  to  enter  the  Hudson  Bay  region,  passing  along 
the  south  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  struck  southward 
to  the  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi.  Radisson’s  journal 
describes  a great  river  visited  by  him,  which  was  prob- 
ably the  Mississippi.  In  1665  Father  Claude  Allouez 
founded  a Jesuit  mission  at  La  Pointe,  and  in  1669  the 
mission  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  on  the  shores  of  Green  Bay. 
Louis  Joliet,  leaving  Quebec  under  orders  to  discover 
the  South  Sea,  in  1673,  took  with  him  Father  Marquette 
from  Mackinaw,  and  reached  the  Mississippi  by  the 
diagonal  waterway  of  the  Fox  and  Wisconsin  rivers. 

In  1679  LaSalle,  accompanied  by  Father  Hennepin, 
passed  along  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Michigan  to  the 
Illinois,  and  in  the  next  year  Hennepin,  ascending  the 
Mississippi,  met  Du  Luth,  who  had  reached  it  by  way 
of  the  western  extremity  of  Lake  Superior.  Thus  were 
traced  out  the  bounds  and  principal  river-courses  of 
Wisconsin.  The  epoch  of  the  fur  trade  followed, 
during  which  stockade  posts  were  erected  at  various  key- 
points  on  the  trading  routes;  they  became  dependencies 
of  Mackinaw,  long  the  emporium  of  the  fur  trade.  In 
the  French  and  Indian  war  of  1755-60  Wisconsin  sav- 
ages served  under  Charles  de  Langlade  against  the 
English  at  Braddock’s  defeat  and  elsewhere.  Near  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  De  Langlade  and  his 
father  had  established  a trading  post  at  Green  Bay, 
which  afterward  became  a fixed  settlement;  at  the  close 
of  the  Revolutionary  war  Prairie  du  Chien,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Wisconsin,  grew  into  a like  settlement; 
and  toward  the  close  of  the  century  Milwaukee, 
La  Pointe,  and  Portage  became  permanent  trading 
posts.  The  British  garrison  that  was  sent  in  1761  to 
hold  Green  Bay  left  at  the  outbreak  of  Pontiac’s  war, 
and  did  not  return.  In  the  Revolutionary  war  Wiscon- 
sin Indians  under  De  Langlade  supported  the  British. 
England  having  retained  Mackinaw  despite  the  treaty  of 
1783,  American  domination  was  not  practically  felt 
by  the  Wisconsin  traders  until  after  the  war  of  1812. 
In  this  war  they  favored  Great  Britain,  and  in  1814  the 
latter  wrested  Prairie  du  Chien  from  an  American  de- 
tachment. But  the  formation  of  Astor’s  American 
Fur  Company  to  deal  in  this  region  was  folloAved  by  a 
United  States  law  excluding  English  traders,  winch  re- 
sulted in  an  increase  of  American  influence.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  the  United  States  placed  forts  at 
Green  Bay  and  Prairie  du  Chien.  By  the  ordinance  of 
1787  Wisconsin  had  been  a part  of  the  territory  north- 
west of  the  river  Ohio;  in  1800  it  was  included  in  In- 
diana Territory,  whence  in  1809  it  passed  to  Illinois 
Territory,  and  in  1818  to  Michigan  Territory.  In 
1825  the  lead-mines  in  southwestern  Wisconsin,  which 
had  been  known  from  the  earliest  days  of  French  ex- 
ploration, and  had  been  worked  by  the  Sacs  and  Foxes 
and  by  Winnebagoes,  attracted  a considerable  mining 


W I S- 

population.  Hostilities  with  the  Winnebagoes  fol- 
lowed, resulting  in  the  cession  by  the  latter  of  the  lead 
region,  and  the  erection  of  Fort  Winnebago  in  1828  at 
Portage.  In  1832  occurred  Black  Hawk’s  war,  occasioned 
by  the  refusal  of  a Sac  band  to  remove  beyond  the 
Mississippi  from  Illinois,  in  accordance  with  treaty 
stipulations.  Pursued  by  regulars  and  Illinois  militia 
to  the  head-waters  of  Rock  river,  the  band  fled  across 
southwestern  Wisconsin  to  the  Mississippi,  where  they 
were  nearly  exterminated.  This  expedition  disclosed 
the  rich  farming  lands  of  the  region.  In  1836  Wis- 
consin Territory  was  formed.  Before  this  the  fur  trade 
and  lead-mining  had  been  the  chief  factors  in  develop- 
ment, but  a wave  of  land  speculation  and  immigration 
reached  here  at  this  period.  In  1840  there  was  a popu- 
lation of  30,945,  more  than  double  that  of  four  years 
before.  On  August  9,  1846,  congress  authorized  Wis- 
consin to  form  a State  government.  The  constitution 
framed  in  1846  being  rejected  by  the  people,  a second 
one  was  ratified  in  1848,  and  Wisconsin  became  a State 
on  May  29th  of  that  year. 

At  an  early  period  the  State  adopted  the  policy  of 
attracting  immigration  by  cheap  lands,  a work  in  which 
the  railroads  have  greatly  aided,  with  the  result  that 
Wisconsin  has  the  remarkable  proportion  of  persons  of 
foreign  parentage  indicated  above.  There  are  whole 
communities  of  the  same  foreign  nationality,  such  as 
the  German  groups  along  the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan, 
the  Scandinavian  in  various  localities,  the  Swiss  colony 
of  New  Glarus,  the  Belgians  in  Door  county,  and  many 
others.  The  recent  development  of  lumbering  has 
rapidly  built  up  northern  Wisconsin,  a process  now 
being  accelerated  by  the  mining  interests  on  the 
Montreal  range.  Wisconsin  furnished  to  the  Union 
armies  in  the  Civil  war  over  91,000  men,  the  famous 
Iron  Brigade  being  chiefly  from  that  State. 

WISH  AW,  a police  burgh  of  Lanarkshire,  Scotland, 
and  an  important  mining  and  iron  town,  is  situated  on 
the  face  of  a hill,  a short  distance  south  of  the  South 
Calder  water,  and  on  the  Caledonian  railway,  twelve 
miles  east-southeast  of  Glasgow.  The  population  of 
Wishaw  according  to  its  old  limits  was  15,112  in  1901, 
of  which  1,829  belonged  to  Cambusnethan  and  2,330  to 
Craigneuk.  The  town  has  borne  in  succession  the  fol- 
lowing names:  New  Town  of  Cambusnethan,  New 
Town  of  Wishaw,  Wishawtown,  and  Wishaw. 

WISMAR,  the  second  commercial  town  and  seaport 
of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Germany,  is  situated  on  the 
Bay  of  Wismar,  one  of  the  best  harbors  on  the  Baltic, 
eighteen  miles  almost  due  north  of  Schwerin.  The 
chief  manufactures  of  Wismar  are  iron,  chicory,  cigars, 
roofing-felt,  asphalt,  etc.  Fishing  and  agriculture  are 
carried  on  by  the  inhabitants,  but  their  main  industry 
is  connected  with  shipping  and  trade.  The  leading  ex- 
ports are  gram,  oil-seeds,  butter,  and  cattle;  the  imports 
are  coal,  timber,  iron,  stoneware,  and  lime.  The 
harbor  is  deep  enough  to  admit  vessels  of  sixteen-feet 
draught.  The  population  was  18,011  in  1900. 

WITCHCRAFT.  This  subject  has  already  been 
considered  in  its  general  aspects  under  Astrology, 
Demonology,  Divination,  Magic,  and  Spiritual- 
ism. In  this  place  what  will  be  mainly  attempted  will 
be  to  illustrate  the  position  assumed  by  the  law  toward 
a crime  which  was  regarded  for  centuries  not  only  as 
possible,  but  also  as  specially  noxious.  It  is  a long 
interval  from  the  Twelve  Tables  to  the  Bill  of  Rights, 
but  the  lawyers  of  the  latter  age  accepted  the  existence 
of  witchcraft  with  a faith  almost  as  unquestioning  as 
those  of  the  former,  and  comparatively  few  were  they, 
whether  lawyers  or  laymen,  who  in  the  interval  dared 
to  raise  their  voices  against  the  prevailing  superstition. 

In  Roman  law  it  was  provided  by  the  Twelve  Tables 


-WIT  6377 

that  no  one  should  remove  his  neighbor’s  crops  to 
another  field  by  incantation  or  conjure  away  his  corn. 
At  a later  date  the  Lex  Cornelia  de  Sicariis  et  Veneficu 
was  extended  by  decree  of  the  senate  to  cases  of  offer- 
ing sacrifice  to  injure  a neighbor.  Exercise  of  magical 
and  diabolical  arts  rendered  the  magicians  themselves 
liable  to  be  burned  alive,  and  those  who  consulted  them 
to  crucifixion.  Even  the  possession  of  magical  books 
was  criminal.  To  administer  a love  potion,  even 
though  harmless,  was  punished  by  labor  in  the  mines, 
or  relegation  and  fine  in  the  case  of  persons  of  rank. 
The  trial  of  Apuleius  (g.v.)  for  magic  in  150  A.D.  is 
the  most  familiar  instance  occurring  under  Roman  law. 

The  church  followed  and  amplified  Roman  law.  The 
graver  forms  of  witchcraft  constituted  Heresy  (y.z/.), 
and  jurisdiction  over  such  offenses  was  claimed  by  the 
church  courts  to  a comparatively  late  date.  The 
earliest  ecclesiastical  decree  appears  to  have  been  that 
of  Ancyra,  315  a.d.,  condemning  soothsayers  to  five 
years’  penance.  In  canon  law  the  Decretum  subjected 
them  to  excommunication  as  idolaters  and  enemies  of 
Christ,  and  the  bishop  was  to  take  all  means  in  his 
power  to  put  down  the  practice  of  divination. 

In  England,  as  in  other  countries,  ecclesiastical  law 
claimed  cognizance  of  witchcraft  as  a crime  against 
God.  The  Penitentials  of  Archbishops  Theodore  and 
Egbert  and  the  Confessional  of  Egbert  are  full  of  con- 
demnations of  magic  divinations,  diabolical  incantations, 
love-philters,  etc.  An  exception  is  made  in  favor  of  in- 
cantation by  a priest  by  means  of  the  Lord’s  prayer  or 
the  creed.  The  practice  of  magic  by  women  is  set  out 
in  the  same  document  with  minute  and  disgusting  detail. 
After  the  conquest,  commissions  were  from  time  to 
time  issued  empowering  bishops  to  search  for  sorcerers. 
A form  of  such  a commission  to  the  bishop  of  Lincoln 
in  1406  is  given  by  Rymer.  The  ecclesiastical  courts 
punished  by  penance  and  fine  up  to  1542.  For  graver 
punishments  the  secular  power  acted  as  executive. 
Many  persons  guilty  of  sorcery  were,  according  to  Sir 
Edward  Coke,  burned  by  the  king’s  writ  de  hceretico 
comburendo  after  condemnation  in  the  ecclesiastical 
courts.  The  secular  courts  dealt  with  witchcraft  from 
a very  early  period.  It  was  an  indictable  offense  at 
common  law  and  later  by  statute,  though  apparently 
not  a felony  until  the  Act  of  Henry  VIII.  The  earliest 
trial  recorded  in  England  was  in  a secular  court.  In 
1324  several  persons  were  appealed  before  the  coroners 
of  the  king’s  household,  and  the  record,  certifying 
acquittal  by  a jury,  was  then  brought  up  by  writ  of 
certiorari. 

Trials  for  witchcraft  in  England  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  proportionately  as  numerous  or  to  have  been  ac- 
companied with  such  circumstances  of  cruelty  as  those 
in  most  other  countries.  This  may  be  accounted  for 
partly  by  the  diminishing  authority  of  the  church  courts, 
partly  by  the  absence  of  Torture  ( q.v . ) as  a recognized 
means  of  procedure,  though  no  doubt  it  was  too  often 
used  in  an  informal  manner.  The  pricking  of  the  body 
of  an  alleged  witch  by  Hopkins,  the  witch-finder,  and 
similar  wretches  in  order  to  find  the  insensible  spot  or 
devil’s  mark,  the  proof  by  water  (a  popular  survival  of 
the  old  water  ordeal),  and  similar  proceedings,  if  not 
judicial  torture,  at  least  caused  as  much  pain  to  the  vic- 
tims. Charges  of  witchcraft  seem  to  have  been  made 
with  great  frequency  against  persons  of  rank  during  the 
wars  of  the  Roses  for  political  purposes.  Trials  in 
England  were  most  numerous  during  the  seventeenth 
century.  In  the  case  of  the  Lancashire  witches  in  1634 
seventeen  persons  were  condemned  on  the  evidence  of 
one  boy.  In  the  period  from  1645  to  1647  between  two 
and  three  hundred  are  said  to  have  been  indicted  in  Suf- 
folk and  Essex  alone,  of  whom  more  than  hfllf  werecon* 


6378  W 

victed.  The  most  interesting  trial  is  that  of  the  Suffolk 
witches,  because  Sir  Matthew  Hale  was  the  judge  and 
Sir  Thomas  Brown  was  the  medical  expert  witness.  In 
many  of  these  trials  the  accused  confessed  before  execu- 
tion. The  reasons  which  urged  them  to  confess  not 
only  impossibilities,  but  impossibilities  of  the  most  re- 
volting kind,  are  not  very  easy  to  discover.  In  some 
cases,  no  doubt,  the  object  was  to  escape  the  misery  of 
life  as  a reputed  witch. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  feel- 
ing toward  witchcraft  began  to  change.  The  last  trial 
in  England  was  that  of  Jane  Wenham  in  1712,  con- 
victed at  Hertford,  but  not  executed. 

The  earliest  execution  in  New  England  is  said  to  have 
been  in  1648.  In  the  abstract  of  the  laws  of  New  Eng- 
land printed  in  1655  appear  these  articles:  “ III. 
Witchcraft,  which  is  fellowship  by  covenant  with  a 
familiar  spirit,  to  be  punished  with  death.  IV.  Con- 
suiters  with  witches  not  to  be  tolerated,  but  either  to 
be  cut  off  by  death  or  banishment  or  other  suitable 
punishment.”  The  fanatical  outbreak  at  Salem  in 
1691-92  is  one  of  the  most  striking  incidents  in  the 
history  of  New  England.  Nineteen  persons  were  exe- 
cuted for  witchcraft,  among  whom  was  Giles  Cory,  the 
only  person  who  ever  perished  by  the  peine  forte  et 
dure  in  America  (see  Torture).  In  1692  fifty  were 
tried,  but  only  three  convicted,  and  they  received  the 
governor’s  pardon.  For  these  proceedings  the  writing 
and  preaching  of  Cotton  Mather  were  largely  responsi- 
ble. The  States  have  now  their  own  legislation  against 
pretended  supernatural  powers.  Provisions  similar  to 
those  of  the  English  Vagrant  Act  are  common. 
WITENAGEMOT.  See  England. 

WITHER,  George,  appears  in  the  Dunciad  as 
“ steeping  among  the  dull  of  ancient  days,  safe  where  no 
critics  damn.”  Wither’s  life  was  full  of  adventure. 
Born  June  n,  1588,  the  son  of  a Hampshire  gentleman, 
educated  at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford*  he  entered  at 
Lincoln’s  Inn,  conceived  an  ardent  passion  for  poetry, 
put  forward  as  a satirist  in  1613  with  Abuses  Stript  and 
Whipt , and  was  promptly  lodged  in  the  Marshalsea. 
It  was  the  year  of  the  Essex  divorce  case,  when  so  plain 
a satirist,  though  he  whipt  abuses  in  the  abstract,  might 
easily  have  given  offense.  In  prison  he  wrote  The 
Shepherd's  Hunting , the  fourth  eclogue  of  which  con- 
tains his  memorable  praise  of  poetry.  Wither’s  Motto 
was  published  in  1618;  Fair  Virtue,  or  The  Mistress 
of  Philarete , the  longest,  freshest,  and  most  captivat- 
ing lover’s  panegyric  in  the  language,  in  1622.  Besides 
the  poems  above  mentioned,  which  are  the  basis  of 
Lamb’s  admiration,  and  his  curious  Emblems,  published 
in  1635,  Wither,  a man  of  most  radiant  energy  and  elo- 
quence, wrote  a host  of  satirical  and  polemical  tracts, 
for  which  readers  may  be  referred  to  the  Bibliographer. 
The  famous  song  “ Shall  I,  wasting  in  despair,”  occurs 
in  The  Mistress  of  Philarete.  He  died  in  London,  May 
2,  1667. 

WITHINGTON,  a township  of  Lancashire,  Eng- 
land, four  miles  south  of  Manchester,  of  which  it  is 
practically  a suburb.  The  urban  sanitary  district  in- 
cludes part  of  the  parish  of  Withington,  and  three 
other  parishes  (area,  5,728  acres),  the  population  being 
10,099  *n  1871,  and  17,109  in  1881.  The  population  of 
the  Withington  portion  (area,  2,229  acres)  in  1871.  was 
4,863,  and  in  1901  it  was  11,328. 

WITNESS,  in  law,  is  a person  who  gives  or  might 
pjve  evidence  in  a court  of  justice.  The  law  of  witnesses 
is  on  the  one  hand  a branch  of  the  law  of  Evidence 
(y.v.),  and  on  the  other  is  closely  connected  with  the 
Jury  for  the  jurors  were  originally  chosen  for 

their  knowledge  or  presumed  knowledge  of  the  facts  in 
dispute.  The  part  of  the  Scotch  juror’s  oath  “ and  no 


I T 

truth  conceal  ” is  an  obvious  survival  of  the  time 
when  the  juror  was  a witness.  It  is  only  by  gradual 
steps  that  the  law  has  reached  its  present  stage  in  the 
United  Kingdom  and  the  United  States.  At  present 
the  disabilities  of  witnesses  are  few;  almost  everyone  is 
a capable  witness,  and  the  main  question  has  become 
one  of  credibility  rather  than  of  capability.  It  was  far 
otherwise  in  Roman  and  ecclesiastical  law,  and  in  the 
older  law  of  England  and  Scotland.  A reference  to 
Torture  will  show  that  in  Roman  and  mediaeval  law 
the  testimony  of  many  persons  was  not  admissible  with- 
out the  application  of  torture.  At  the  same  time  a 
large  body  of  possible  witnesses  was  excluded  for  reasons 
which  have  now  ceased  to  be  considered  expedient,  and 
was  subject  to  rules  which  have  long  become  obsolete. 
In  Roman  law  witnesses  must  be  idonei,  or  duly  quali- 
fied. Minors,  certain  heretics,  infamous  persons  (such 
as  women  convicted  of  adultery),  and  those  interested  in 
the  result  of  the  trial  were  inadmissible.  . Parents  and 
children  could  not  testify  against  one  another,  nor  could 
slaves  against  their  masters,  or  those  at  enmity  with  the 
party  against  whom  their  evidence  was  offered.  Women 
and  slaves  were  under  a disability  to  be  witnesses  to  a 
will.  The  canon  law  extended  the  disability  to  testify 
to  an  excommunicated  person,  and  to  a layman  in  a 
criminal  charge  against  a clerk,  unless  he  were  actually 
the  prosecutor.  In  the  days  of  trial  by  battle  a party 
could  render  a witness  against  him  incompetent  by  chal- 
lenging and  defeating  him  in  the  judicial  combat. 

The  modern  law  of  witnesses  has  been  already  treated 
to  a considerable  extent  under  Evidence.  Those  wit- 
nesses whose  evidence  is  not  received  may  be  divided 
into  incompetent  and  privileged — classes  which  must 
be  carefully  distinguished.  The  evidence  of  the  former 
is  wholly  inadmissible;  that  of  the  latter  is  admissible 
if  they  waive  their  privilege.  The  only  privileged  wit- 
nesses practically  now  recognized  are  high  officers  of 
state,  executive  or  judicial,  and  members  of  the  legal 
profession,  who  need  not  divulge  what  has  been  dis- 
closed to  them  in  professional  confidence.  Clergy  and 
medical  men  are  not  privileged,  though  attempts  have 
sometimes  been  made  to  protect  disclosures  to  them, 
especially  to  priests  in  the  confessional.  Any  witness 
is  privileged  from  answering  questions  the  answers  to 
which  might  expose  him  to  penalty  or  forfeiture  or  to  a 
charge  of  adultery. 

WITSIUS,  Hermann,  Dutch  theologian,  was  born 
February  12,  1636,  at  Enckhuysen,  North  Holland, 
studied  at  Utrecht,  Leyden,  and  Groningen,  and  was 
ordained  to  the  ministry  in  1657.  In  1675  he  became 
professor  of  divinity  at  Franeker,  and  in  1680  he  was 
translated  to  a corresponding  chair  at  Utrecht.  In  1685 
he  acted  as  chaplain  to  the  Dutch  embassy  sent  to  Lon- 
don to  congratulate  James  II.  on  his  accession.  In 
1698  he  succeeded  Spanheim  at  Leyden,  where  he  died 
on  October  22,  1708. 

WITT.  See  DeWitt. 

WITTEN,  a rapidly  growing  town  of  Westphalia, 
Prussia,  is  favorably  situated  among  the  coalfields  of  the 
Ruhr,  fourteen  miles  east  of  Essen  and  fifteen  miles 
northeast  of  Elberfeld.  The  coal-mines  in  the  neigh- 
borhood provide  abundant  fuel  for  large  cast-steel 
works,  iron  foundries,  railway  workshops,  machinery 
and  boiler  works,  glass-works,  distilleries,  and  other 
industrial  establishments.  In  1843  the  population  was 
3,444;  in  1901  it  was  28,903. 

WITTENBERG,  now  an  unimportant  manufactur- 
ing town  in  the  province  of  Saxony,  Prussia,  is  situated 
fifty-five  miles  to  the  southwest  of  Berlin,  on  the  Elbe. 
Wittenberg  is  interesting  chiefly  on  account  of  its  close 
connection  with  Luther  and  the  dawn  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. Part  of  the  Augustinian  memaatery  in  whiclr 


WLO- 

Luther  dwelt,  at  first  as  a monk,  and  in  later  life  as 
owner,  with  his  wife  and  family,  is  still  preserved,  and 
has  been  fitted  up  as  a “Luther  museum.”  The  Augus- 
teum,  built  in  1564-83'  on  the  site  of  the  monastery,  is 
now  a clerical  seminary.  The  Schlosskirche,  to  the  doors 
of  which  Luther  nailed  his  famous  ninety-five  theses  in 
1517,  dated  originally  from  1490-99;  it  was,  however, 
seriously  damaged  by  fire  during  the  bombardment  of 
1760,  and  has  practically  been  rebuilt.  The  old  wood- 
en doors,  burnt  in  1 760,  are  replaced  by  bronze  doors, 
bearing  the  Latin  text  of  the  theses.  In  the  interior 
of  the  church  are  the  tombs  of  Luther,  Melanchthon, 
and  the  electors,  Frederick  the  Wise  and  John  the  Con- 
stant. The  parish  church,  in  which  Luther  often 
preached,  was  built  in  the  fourteenth  century,  but  has 
been  much  altered  since  Luther’s  time.  The  present 
infantry  barracks  were  at  one  time  occupied  by  the 
university  of  Wittenberg,  founded  in  1502,  but  incor- 
porated with  the  university  of  Halle  in  1817.  Luther 
was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  here  in  1508; 
and  the  new  university  rapidly  acquired  a considerable 
reputation  from  its  connection  with  the  early  Reform- 
ers. Shakespeare  makes  “ Hamlet”  and  * Horatio”study 
at  Wittenberg.  The  ancient  electoral  palace  is  another 
of  the  buildings  that  suffered  severely  in  1760;  it  now 
contains  archives.  Melanchthon’s  house  and  the  house 
of  Lucas  Cranach  the  Elder  (1472-1553),  who  was 
burgomaster  of  Wittenberg,  are  also  pointed  out. 
Statues  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon  embellish  the  t©wn. 
The  spot,  outside  the  Elster  Gate,  where  Luther 
publicly  burned  the  papal  bull  in  1520  is  marked  by  an 
oak  tree.  Woolen  and  linen-weaving,  stocking-making, 
leather-working,  distilling,  and  brewing  are  carried  on 
in  Wittenberg.  The  formerly  considerable  manufact- 
ure of  the  heavier  kinds  of  cloth  has  died  out.  The 
population  in  1901  was  18,856. 

WLOCLAWEK,  or  Vlotslavsk,  a district  town  of 
the  government  of  Warsaw,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Vistula,  which  is  crossed  by  an  iron  bridge,  118  miles 
by  rail  to  the  northwest  of  Warsaw.  Its  population  has 
rapidly  increased  of  late,  and  now  amounts  to  22,600. 
Its  merchants  carry  on  an  active  trade  in  grain.  It  has 
a fine  cathedral,  dating  from  the  fourteenth  century. 

WOBURN,  a town  of  Middlesex  county,  Mass., 
lies  about  ten  miles  somewhat  west  of  north  from 
Boston;  it  comprises  within  its  limits  four  villages  of 
greater  or  less  size,  besides  a small  rural  population. 
The  town  contains  seventy-five,  miles  of  streets.  The 
population  in  1900  was  14,254,  about  three-tenths  of 
foreign  birth.  The  industries,  which  are  largely  manu- 
facturing, are  connected  chiefly  with  the  tanning  of 
leather  and  the  making  of  boots  and  shoes. 

Woburn  is  one  of  the  older  towns  of  Massachusetts, 
having  been  settled  in  1642.  Its  growth,  however,  was 
slow,  and  it  is  only  in  recent  years  that  it  has  attained 
to  importance. 

WOELFL,  Joseph,  pianist  and  composer,  was  born 
in  1772  at  Salzburg,  where  he  studied  music  under 
Leopold  Mozart  and  Michael  Haydn.  After  a short 
residence  at  Warsaw  he  produced  his  first  opera,  Der 
Hollenberg , with  some  success  at  Vienna,  where  it  was 
soon  followed  by  Das  schone  Milchmadchen  and  some 
other  dramatic  pieces.  These,  however,  have  been  long 
forgotten,  and  his  fame  now  rests  upon  his  compositions 
for  the  pianoforte,  and  the  skill  with  which  he  is  said  to 
have  met  their  formidable  demands  upon  his  power  as 
an  executant.  Woelfl  died  in  Great  Marylebone  street, 
London,  May  21,  1812.  Some  stories  once  current 
concerning  his  ruin  by  a card-sharper  and  death  upon  a 
heap  of  straw  are  proved  to  have  been  utterly  without 
foundation. 

WOHLER,  Friedrich,  chemist,  wm  bom  on  July 


■WOL  6379 

31,  1800,  in  Eschersheim,  near  Frankfort -on-the  Main. 
He  studied  medicine  at  Marburg  and  Heidelberg,  grad- 
uating in  that  faculty  at  the  latter  university.  Having, 
on  the  advicf  of  Leopd  1 Gmelin,  decided  upon  devot- 
ing himself  (henceforth  to  chemistry,  he  completed  his 
chemical  education  at  itockholm,  under  Berzelius,  in 
whose  laboratory  he  worked  for  a considerable  time, 
and  with . whom,  during  his  subsequent  life,  he  main- 
tained the  most  friendly  relations.  While  in  Sweden 
he  took  part  in  a scientific  expedition  through  Norway, 
which  made  him  acquainted  with  the  brothers  Brong- 
niart  and  with  Humphrey  Davy. 

After  his  return  from  Sweden  in  1825,  accepted  a 
call  to  Berlin  as  teacher  of  chemistry  in  the  then  newly- 
erected  “ gewerbschule,”  and  remained  there  until  1832, 
when  family  affairs  caused  him  to  take  up  his  abode  in 
Cassel.  In  1836  Wohler  became  professor  of  chemis- 
try in  the  medical  faculty  of  the  university  of  Gottin- 
gen, which  office,  in  nis  case,  was  combined  with  that 
of  inspector-general  of  pharmacy  for  Hanover.  He 
held  his  chair  till  his  death,  which  occurred  after  a 
short  illness,  on  September  23,  1882. 

WOHLGEMUTH,  Michael,  an  able  painter  of 
the  school  of  Franconia,  of  which  Nuremberg,  where 
he  was  born  in  1434,  was  the  chief  artistic  center.  The 
importance  of  Wohlgemuth  as  an  artist  rests,  not  only 
on  his  own  individual  paintings,  but  also  on  the  fact 
that  he  was  the  head  of  a large  workshop,  in  which 
many  different  branches  of  the  fine  arts  were  carried  on. 
In  this  atelier  not  only  large  altar-pieces  and  other 
sacred  paintings  were  executed,  but  also  elaborate 
retables  in  carved  wood,  consisting  of  crowded  subjects 
in  high  relief,  richly  decorated  with  gold  and  color, 
such  as  pleased  the  rather  doubtful  Teutonic  taste  of 
that  time.  The  earliest  known  work  by  Wohlgemuth 
is  a retable  consisting  of  four  panels,  dated  1465,  now 
in  the  Munich  gallery,  a decorative  work  of  much 
beauty.  In  1479  he  painted  the  retable  of  the  high 
altar  in  the  church  of  St.  Mary  at  Zwickau,  which  still 
exists,  receiving  for  it  the  large  sum  of  1,400  gulden. 
One  of  his  finest  and  largest  works  is  the  great  retable 
painted  for  the  church  of  the  Austin  friars  at  Nurem- 
berg, now  moved  into  the  museum.  As  a portrait- 
painter  he  enjoyed  much  repute,  and  some  of  his  works 
of  this  class  are  very  admirable  for  their  realistic  vigor 
and  minute  finish.  Outside  Germany  Wohlgemuth’s 
paintings  are  scarce ; the  Royal  Institution  at  Liver- 
pool possesses  two  good  examples — Pilate  Washing 
his  Hands , and  The  Deposition  from  the  Cross , parts 
probably  of  a large  altarpiece.  One  of  his  latest  paint* 
ings  is  the  retable  at  Schwabach,  executed  in  1508,  the 
contract  for  which  still  exists.  He  died  at  Nuremberg 
in  1519. 

WOLCOT,  John,  painter  and  satirist  under  thf 
pseudonym  of  Peter  Pindar,  was  son  of  Alexander 
Wolcot,  surgeon  at  Dodbrooke,  adjoining  Kingsbridge, 
in  Devonshire,  and  was  baptized  there  May  9,  1738. 
He  was  educated  at  Kingsbridge  free  school  under  John. 
Morris,  at  the  Bodmin  grammar  school,  and  in  France, 
and  as  the  result  of  this  training  was  well  acquainted 
with  Greek  and  Latin,  and  spoke  French  with  facility. 
His  first  effusion,  on  the  recovery  of  the  elder  Pitt  from 
gout,  is  said  to  have  appeared  in  Martin's  Magazine , 
about  1756,  when  he  was  resident  at  Fowey,  and  he  dic- 
tated verses  until  within  a few  days  of  his  death. 
George  III.  was  his  favorite  subject  of  ridicule,  and  his 
peculiarities  were  described  or  distorted  in  The  Lousiad, 
Peeps  at  St.  James' y The  Royal  Visit  to  Exeter.  Two 
of  Wolcot’s  happiest  satires  on  the  “ farmer  king”  de- 
picted the  royal  survey  of  Whitbread’s  brewery  and  the 
king’s  wonder  how  the  apples  got  into  the  apple  dump- 
lings. The  most  entertaining  biography  which  tnr 


WO  L 


6380 

English  language  has  yet  produced  was  ridiculed  in  An 
Epistle  to  James  Boswell , and  in  a piece  on  the  rival 
biographers,  happily  called  Bozzy  and  Piozzi.  The 
leading  man  of  science  and  the  adventurous  traveler  fell 
under  his  lash — the  former  in  Sir  Joseph  Banks  and 
the  Emperor  of  Morocco , and  the  latter  in  a Compliment- 
ary Epistle  to  James  Bruce.  When  Wolcot  came  to 
London  with  his  rough  artistic  genius  from  the  west  his 
hand  was  directed  against  the  painters  of  the'day  who 
had  already  established  their  reputation,  and  his  Lyric 
Odes  to  the  Academicians  often  turned  their  modes  of 
painting  into  a jest  with  marvelous  effect.  Wolcot  was 
himself  no  mean  artist,  and  in  1797  there  was  published 
Six  Picturesque  Views  from  Paintings  by  Peter  Pindar, 
engraved  by  Aiken.  His  satires  are  said  to  have  exer- 
cised such  an  effect  on  public  opinion  that  the  ministers 
pressed  upon  him  a government  pension,  on  condition 
that  he  refrained  from  any  further  attacks  on  the  king’s 
peculiarities;  but  it  is  also  asserted  that  he  speedily 
declined  to  accept  it  any  longer,  and  that  he  even  re- 
turned the  moneys  which  he  had  received.  Like  many 
another  ridiculer  of  the  idiosyncracies  of  others  he  was 
himself  very  susceptible  to  criticism,  and  for  some  attacks 
made  on  him  by  Gifford,  the  editor  of  the  Quarterly 
Review , he  attempted  to  belabor  his  satirical  opponent 
in  Wright’s  shop  in  Piccadilly,  but  Gifford  was  too 
quick  for  him,  and  Wolcot  was  soundly  thrashed.  He 
died  at  Latham  Place,  Somer’s  Town,  London,  Jan- 
uary 14,  1819,  and  seven  days  later  was  buried  near 
Samuel  Butler,  the  author  of  Hudibras , in  the  vestry 
vault  in  the  churchyard  of  St.  Paul’s,  Covent  Garden. 

WOLF.  The  zoological  position  and  general 
characteristics  of  the  wolf  ( Canis  lupus ) are  described  in 
the  article  Mammalia,  where  the  difficulties  that  natu- 
ralists meet  with  in  separating  and  defining  the  numerous 
variations  of  the  animals  called  wolves,  dogs,  jackals, 
and  foxes  are  shown.  The  true  wolves  are  (excluding 
some  varieties  of  the  domestic  dog)  the  largest  mem- 
bers of  the  genus,  and  have  a wide  geographical  range, 
extending  over  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  North  America  from  Greenland  to  Mexico,  but 
they  are  not  found  in  South  America  or  Africa,  being 
replaced  in  both  of  these  continents  by  various  species 
of  jackals  and  foxes.  As  might  be  expected  from  this 
extensive  range,  and  the  varied  character  of  the  climatic 
conditions  of  the  countries  they  inhabit,  they  present 
great  diversities  of  size,  length  and  thickness  of  fur,  and 
coloration,  although  resembling  each  other  in  all  impor- 
tant structural  characteristics.  These  differences  have 
given  rise  to  a supposed  multiplicity  of  species,  expressed 
by  the  names  C.  lupus , C.  lycaon  (Central  Europe),  C. 
laniger  and  C.  niger  (Tibet),  C.  pallipes  (India),  C. 
occidentalism  C.  nubilis , C.  mexicanus , etc.,  of  North 
America,  but  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  these  ought 
to  be  distinguished  as  other  than  local  varieties.  In 
North  America  there  is  a second  distinct  smaller  species, 
called  the  coyote  or  prairie  wolf  (Canis  latrans),  and 
perhaps  the  Japanese  wolf  (C.  hodophylax ) may  also  be 
distinct,  although,  except  for  its  smaller  size  and  shorter 
legs,  it  is  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  common 
species.  Though  generally  distributed  throughout  the 
Indian  peninsula,  the  wolf  is  not  found  in  Ceylon  nor 
in  Burmah  and  Siam.  Its  habits  are  similar  every- 
where, and  it  is  still,  and  has  been  from  time  imme- 
morial, especially  known  to  man  in  all  the  countries  it 
inhabits  as  the  devastator  of  his  flocks  of  sheep. 
Wolves  do  not  catch  their  prey  by  lying  in  ambush,  or 
stealing  up  close  to  it,  and  making  a sudden  spring  as 
the  cat  tribe  do,  but  by  fairly  running  it  down  in  open 
chase,  which  their  speed  and  remarkable  endurance 
enable  them  to  do,  and  usually,  except  during  summer, 
when  the  young  families  of  cubs  are  being  separately 


provided  for  by  their  parents,  they  assemble  in  tr06p& 
or  packs,  and  by  their  combined  and  persevering  efforts 
are  able  to  overpower  and  kill  even  such  great  animals 
as  the  American  bison.  It  is  singular  that  such  closely 
allied  species  as  the  domestic  dog  and  the  Arctic  fox 
are  among  the  favorite  prey  of  wolves,  and,  as  is  wel' 
known,  children  and  even  full-grown  people  are  q,o: 
infrequently  the  objects  of  their  attack  when  pressed  by 
hunger.  Notwithstanding  the  proverbial  ferocity  k>f 
the  wolf  in  a wild  state,  many  instances  are  recorded  of 
animals  taken  when  quite  young  becoming  perfectly 
tame  and  attached  to  the  person  who  has  brought  them 
up,  when  they  exhibit  many  of  the  ways  of  a dog. 
They  can,  however,  rarely  be  trusted  by  strangers. 

WOLF,  Friedrich  August,  was  born  in  1759  ar 
Hainrode,  a little  village  not  far  from  Nordhausen,  in 
the  province  of  Hanover.  After  two  years  of  solitary 
study,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  Wolf  went  to  the  univer- 
sity of  Gottingen.  During  the  years  1779-83  Wolf  was 
a schoolmaster,  first  at  Ilfeld,  then  at  Osterode.  His 
success  as  a teacher  was  striking,  and  he  found  time  to 
publish  an  edition  of  the  Symposium , which  excited 
notice,  and  led  to  his  promotion  to  a chair  in  the  Prus- 
sian university  of  Halle,  where  (in  1783-1807).  by  the 
force  of  his  will  and  the  enlightened  aid  of  the  ministers 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  he  was  able  to  carry  out  his 
long  cherished  ideas,  and  found  the  science  of  philology. 
Wolf  defined  it  to  be  “ knowledge  of  human  nature  as 
exhibited  in  antiquity.”  The  matter  of  such  a science, 
he  held,  must  be  sought  in  the  history  and  education  of 
some  highly  cultivated  nation,  to  be  studied  in  written 
remains,  works  of  art,  and  whatever  else  bears  the 
stamp  of  national  thought  or  skill.  It  has  therefore  to 
do  with  both  history  and  language,  but  primarily  as  a 
science  of  interpretation , in  which  historical  facts  and 
linguistic  facts  take  their  place  in  an  organic  whole. 

Wolf’s  writings  make  little  show  in  a library,  and 
were  always  subordinate  to  his  teaching.  During  his 
time  at  Halle  he  published  his  commentary  on  the 
Leptines  (1789) — which  suggested  to  his  pupil,  Aug. 
Boeckh,  the  Public  Economy  of  Athens — and  a little 
later  the  Prolegomena  to  Homer  (1795).  The  Halle 
professorship  ^nded  tragically,  and  with  it  the  happy 
and  productive  period  of  Wolf’s  life.  He  was  swept 
away,  and  his  university  with  him,  by  the  deluge  of  the 
French  invasion.  A painful  gloom  oppressed  his 
remaining  years  (1807-24),  which  he  spent  at  Berlin. 
H is  most  finished  work,  the  Darstellung der  Alterthum- 
swissenschaft , though  published  at  Berlin  (1807),  be- 
longs essentially  to  the  Halle  time.  At  length  his 
health  gave  way.  He  was  advised- to  try  the  south  of 
France.  He  got  as  far  as  Marseilles,  and  was  laid  in 
the  classic  soil  of  that  ancient  Hellenic  city  in  1824. 

WOLFE,  Charles,  author  of  The  Buriat  of  Sir 
John  Moore , born  in  Dublin  in  1791,  was  an  Irish 
clergyman,  curate  of  Ballyclog,  in  Tyrone,  and  after- 
ward of  Donoughmore.  The  poem  seems  to  have  been 
written  when  Wolfe  was  still  a student  in  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  and  it  originally  appeared  in  an  Irish 
newspaper  (the  Newry  Telegraph ) in  1817.  Wolfe 
died  of  consumption  at  Cork  in  1823,  at  the  early  age 
of  thirty-two. 

WOLFE,  James,  the  hero  of  Quebec,  was  the  son  of 
Lieut. -Gen.  Edward  Wolf,  and  was  born  in  the  vicar- 
age of  Westerham,  Kent,  on  January  2,  1 727.  Obtain- 
ing a commission  as  ensign  in  the  12th  regiment  of  foot 
in  1741,  he  embarkedfor  Flanders  May  10th  of  the  fol- 
lowing year,  and  during  the  campaign  of  1 743,  in  which 
he  acted  as  adjutant,  he  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Det- 
tingen.  Having  exhibited,  in  addition  to  high  courage, 
a t are  talent  for  command,  he  received  while  yet  a youth 
a commission,  June  3,  1744,  as  captain  in  the  4th  or 


WOL 


king's  regiment  of  foot,  and  shortly  afterward  was  made 
brigade-major.  In  this  capacity  he  took  part  in  the  sup- 
pression of  the  rebellion  of  1745,  being  present  both  at 
Falkirk  and  at  Culloden.  In  January,  1747,  he  sailed  for 
the  Continent,  and  for  his  valor  at  the  battle  of  Lawfeldt, 
July  2d,  he  received  the  public  thanks  of  the  comman- 
der-in-chief, the  duke  of  Cumberland.  January  5,  1749, 
he  was  gazetted  major  of  the  20th  regiment,  and  in 
the  following  year  he  became  lieutenant-colonel.  In  the 
luckless  Rochefort  expedition  he  was  quartermaster- 
general,  and  by  his  dashing  gallantry  attracted  the 
special  notice  of  Pitt.  When,  therefore,  it  was  decided 
in  1758  to  send  an  expedition  to  Cape  Breton  under 
Amherst,  Wolfe  was  appointed  by  Pitt  brigadier-general. 
Wolfe  eagerly  urged  an  attack  on  Quebec,  expressing 
his  determination  to  leave  the  service  if  nothing  further 
was  to  de  done.  Pitt  not  only  acted  on  his  advice,  but 
selected  him  as  the  leader  of  the  difficult  and  almost 
chimerical  enterprise.  Quebec,  besides  being  strongly 
fortified,  was  occupied  by  forces  which  greatly  outnum- 
bered those  placed  at  Wolfe’s  disposal. 

After  bombarding  the  city  from  the  heights  of  Point 
Levi,  Wolfe  made  an  attempt,  June  29,  1759,  to  attack 
Montcalm’s  camp  in  front,  but  his  instructions  were  not 
carried  out  with  sufficient  accuracy,  and  foreseeing  that 
irretrievable  disaster  was  imminent  he  found  it  neces- 
sary after  the  attack  had  begun  to  recall  his  troops  and 
retire.  As  the  enemy  were  now  on  their  guard  against 
a second  attack  of  a similar  kind,  Wolfe  saw  that  the 
problem  must  be  solved  by  some  other  method,  and 
after  some  time  spent  in  careful  consideration  he  hit 
upon  a still  more  daring  plan.  In  the  evening  of  Sep- 
tember 12th,  with  5,000  men  he  silently  descended  the 
St.  Lawrence  in  boats,  and,  scaling  the  heights  of 
Abraham  in  the  darkness,  drew  up  his  forces  on  the 
plains  so  as  to  cut  off  Montcalm’s  supplies.  The  audac- 
ity of  the  movement  was  too  much  for  Montcalm’s 
patience.  But  the  genius  of  Wolfe  was  equal  to  the 
occasion.  With  calm  self-possession  he  forbade  a 
single  shot  to  be  fired  till  the  enemy  were  within  thirty 
yards.  The  crushing  volleys  with  which  they  were 
then  met,  followed  by  an  impetuous  attack  with  the 
bayonet,  was  decisive  of  the  action.  While  leading  a 
charge  at  the  head  of  the  Louisburg  grenadiers,  Wolfe 
had  one  of  his  wrists  shattered  by  a shot,  but  wrapping 
a handkerchief  round  it  he  kept  on.  Another  shot 
struck  him,  and  he  still  advanced,  when  a third  lodged 
in  his  breast.  While  he  was  lying  in  a swoon  some  one 
near  him  exclaimed,  “They  run;  see  how  they  run!” 

“ Who  run?  ” demanded  Wolfe,  like  one  roused  from 
sleep.  “ The  enemy,”  was  the  answer;  “ they  give  way 
everywhere.”  Wolfe  then  signified  that  a regiment 
should  be  sent  down  to  Charles  river  to  cut  oft  their 
retreat,  and,  on  learning  that  his  orders  had  been 
obeyed,  he  turned  on  his  side,  and  murmured  as  his 
last  words,  “Now  God  be  praised,  I will  die  in  peace.” 
Montcalm,  the  French  commander,  was  mortally 
wounded  in  the  same  action,  and  died  soon  afterward. 
By  the  surrender  of  Quebec  Canada  was  lost  to  the 
French. 

WOLFENBt)TTEL,  a small  town  in  the  duchy  of 
Brunswick,  is  situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Oker,  seven 
miles  to  the  south  of  Brunswick.  It  contains  various 
minor  tribunals,  some  schools,  and  a small  garrison  ; 
and  it  carries  on  a few  unimportant  manufactures,  (ma- 
chinery, copper  goods,  linen,  cork,  preserves,  etc.)  In 
1901  the  population  of  Wolfenbuttel,  including  the 
suburbs  of  Auguststadt  and  Juliusstadt,  was  16,455. 
The  “ Wolfenbiittel  Fragments  ” are  alluded  to  under 
Lessing;  see  also  Reimarus. 

WOLFF,  Caspar  Friedrich,  who  is  justly  reck- 
oned the  founder  of  modern  embryology,  was  born  at 

400 


6381 

Berlin  in  1733,  and  studied  anatomy  and  physiology 
under  Meckel,  and  later  at  Halle,  where  he  graduated 
in  medicine  in  1759,  his  thesis  being  his  famou  s Thecria 
Generatioizis.  After  serving  as  a surgeon  in  the  Seven 
Years’  War,  he  wished  to  lecture  on  anatomy  and.  physb 
ology  in  Berlin  ; but  being  refused  permission  he  ac- 
cepted a call  from  the  empress  Catherine  to  become 
professor  of  those  subjects  at  the  academy  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  acted  in  this  capacity  until  his  death  in  1794. 

WOLFF,  Christian,  is  an  important  figure  in  the 
history  of  philosophy,  and  his  life  has  more  dramatic 
interest  than  is  usually  the  case  with  an  academic 
teacher.  He  was  the  son  of  a tanner,  and  was  born  at 
Breslau,  January24,  1679.  Wolff  received  a gymnasium 
training  in  Breslau,  whence  he  proceeded  in  1699  to  the 
university  of  Jena.  Mathematics  and  physics  formed 
at  first  his  chief  attraction,  to  which  he  soon  added 
philosophy.  He  studied  the  Cartesian  philosophy  as 
well  as  the  works  of  Grotius  and  Pufendorf,  but  was 
chiefly  influenced  by  Tschirnhausen’s  Medicina  Mentis . 
In  1703  he  qualified  as  privat  docent  in  the  university 
of  Leipsic,  where  he  lectured  till  1706,  when  he  was 
called  as  professor  of  mathematics  to  Halle.  Halle  was 
the  headquarters  of  Pietism,  which,  after  a long  strug- 
gle against  the  rigidity  of  the  older  Lutheran  dogmatism, 
had  itself  assumed  the  characteristics  of  a new  ortho- 
doxy. Personal  grounds  accentuated  the  bitterness. 
Strife  broke  out  openly  in  1721,  when  Wolff,  on  the 
occasion  of  laying  down  the  office  of  pro-rector,  deliv- 
ered an  oration  “On  the  Moral  Philosophy  of  the 
Chinese,”  in  which  he  praised  the  purity  of  the  moral 
precepts  of  Confucius,  pointing  to  them  as  an  evidence 
of  the  power  of  human  reason  to  attain  by  its  own 
efforts  to  moral  truth.  The  attacks  and  accusations  in 
connection  with  this  address  were  unsuccessful  at  the 
time,  but  Wolff  continued  to  give  offense  to  his  col- 
leagues, and  to  Lange  in  particular,  by  his  action  in  the 
filling  up  of  university  chairs,  and  in  1723  a disappointed 
pupil,  a docent  in  the  same  university,  published  a hos- 
tile criticism  upon  Wolff’s  system,  at  the  instigation,  if 
is  said,  of  Lange. 

On  November  13,  1723,  a cabinet  order  arrived  in 
Halle  deposing  Wolff  from  his  office,  and  commanding 
him  to  leave  Halle  and  quit  Prussian  territory  vvithim 
forty-eight  hours  on  pain  of  a halter.  The  same  day 
Wolff  passed  into  Saxony,  and  presently  proceeded  to 
Marburg,  to  which  university  he  had  received  a call  be- 
fore this  crisis.  The  landgrave  of  Hesse  received  him 
with  every  mark  of  distinction,  and  the  circumstances 
of  his  expulsion  drew  universal  attention  to  his 
philosophy.  The  seventeen  years  which  Wolff  spent 
at  Marburg  witnessed  the  publication  of  his  chief 
works,  and  the  rise  of  his  philosophy  to  almost  undis- 
puted sway  throughout  Germany.  His  earlier  treatises 
were,  like  his  lectures,  composed  in  German — a trea- 
tise on  logic,  called  Verniinftige  Gedanken  von  den 
Kraften  des  menschlichen  Verstandes  (1712);  a meta- 
physic, Verniinftige  Gedanken  von  Gott , der  Welt,  und 
der  Seele  des  Menschen , auch  aller  Dinge  iiberhaupt 
(1719);  treatises  on  ethics  and  politics  with  similar  titles 
(1721);  three  on  the  philosophy  of  nature  (1723-4-5), 
followed  by  an  encyclopaedic  review  of  his  system  in 
1726.  Meanwhile,  after  some  years  the  king  of  Prus- 
sia made  overtures  to  Wolff  to  return,  and  in  1739,  by 
the  irony  of  events,  a cabinet  order  prescribed  the 
study  of  the  Wolffian  philosophy  to  all  candidates  for 
ecclesiastical  preferment.  In  1740  Frederick  William 
died  suddenly,  and  one  of  the  first  acts  of  his  succes- 
sor, Frederick  the  Great,  was  to  recall  Wolff  to  HaHe 
on  the  most  flattering  and  advantageous  terms.  His 
entry  into  Halle,  December  6,  1740,  partook  of  the 
nature  of  a triumphal  procession.  In  1743  he  beernae 


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W O L 


chancellor  of  the  university,  and  in  1745  he  received 
the  title  of  “ freiherr  ” from  the  elector  of  Bavaria. 
But,  though  he  was  thus  loaded  with  honors,  and  his 
philosophy  everywhere  triumphant,  he  found  that  he 
. had  outlived  his  power  of  attracting  the  academic 
^outh.  He  died  April  9,  1754,  in  the  seventy-sixth 
year  of  his  age,  fourteen  years  aftev  his  return  to 
Halle. 

WOLF-FISH.  See  Sea-Wolf: 

WOLFRAM  VON  ESCHENBACH,  mediaeval  Ger- 
man poet,  lived  in  the  latter  par*  of  the  twelfth  and 
the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Little  is 
known  about  the  facts  of  his  life,  and  such  knowledge 
as  we  possess  is  derived  wholly  from  his  own  writings. 
He  belonged  to  a pooj?  but  noble  family.  He  speaks 
of  himself  as  a Bavarian,  and  refers  to  the  count  of 
Wertheim  as  his  feudal  lord.  His  home  was  the  castle 
of  Eschenbach  (near  Ansbach),  and  in  the  churchyard 
at  Eschenbach  what  was  said  to  be  his  grave  was  shown 
as  late  as  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
He  spent  some  time  at  the  court  of  Hermann,  land- 
grave of  Thuringia,  where  he  met  Walther  von  der 
Vogelweide,  to  whom  he  makes  two  references  in  his 
works.  Wolfram  survived  Hermann,  who  died  in  1216. 
His  greatest  work  is  Parzival , an  epic  poem  completed 
between  1205  and  1215.  It  combines  the  story  of  the 
Holy  Grail  with  incidents  from  the  legends  of  southern 
France  about  the  old  princes  of  Anjou,  and  from  the 
legendary  history  of  Arthur  and  the  Knights  of  the 
Round  Table.  Besides  his  chief  work  and  various  lyrics 
he  composed  two  epic  fragments,  Titurel,  and  VVille- 
halm , the  former  before  Parzival , the  latter  after. 
Titurel,  a love-tale,  belongs  to  the  same  cycle  of  legends 
as  the  story  of  Parzival,  and,  so  far  as  form  is  con- 
cerned, it  is  the  brightest  and  most  artistic  of  Wolf- 
ram’s works.  Willehalm  presents  the  legendary  history 
of  St.  Williapi  of  Orange,  a contemporary  of  Charle- 
magne. The  so-called  third  part  of  this  poem  was  con- 
tinued by  Ulrich  von  Turheim  about  1250,  the  first  part 
by  Ulrich  von  dem  Tiirlin  between  1252  and  1278. 

WOLLASTON,  William,  English  philosophical 
writer,  was  born  at  Coton-Clanford  in  Staffordshire, 
March,  1659.  was  educated  under  disadvantages 

both  at  school  and  at  the  university,  but  left  his  college 
in  September,  1681.  He  then  became  assistant-master 
of  the  Birmingham  grammar  school,  and  in  that 
position  took  holy  orders.  In  1688  an  uncle  unexpect- 
edly left  him  an  ample  fortune,  on  which  he  retired, 
moving  to  London,  where  he  married  a lady  of  fortune, 
and  devoted  himself  to  his  domestic  duties  and  the  pur- 
suit of  learning  and  philosophy.  The  substance  of 
his  thinking  he  embodied,  toward  the  end  of  his  life,  in 
the  one  book  by  which  he  is  now  remembered,  The 
Religion  of  Nature  Delineated , the  first  edition  of 
which  was  privately  printed  in  17 22,  and  the  second, 
revised,  in  1724.  He  died  in  October  of  the  same  year. 

WOLLASTON,  William  Hyde,  chemist  and  nat- 
ural philosopher,  was  born  at  East  Dereham,  in  Nor- 
folk, on  August  6,  1766.  Wollaston  studied  at  Caius 
College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  remained  a fellow 
until  his  death.  He  took  the  degree  of  M.B.  in  1787, 
and  that  of  M.D.  six  years  later,  and  commenced  to 
practice  medicine  in  1789  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds.  He 
devoted  attention  to  the  affairs  of  the  Royal  Society, 
of  which  he  was  elected  a fellow  in  1793,  and  made  sec- 
retary in  1806.  For  many  years  he  was  a vice-president, 
but  did  not  care  to  enter  in  competition  with  Sir 
Humphrey  Davy  when  the  latter  was  elected  president 
in  1820.  Toward  the  close  of  1828  he  felt  the  ap- 
proach of  his  fatal  malady — a tumor  in  the  brain — and 
(ievoted  his  last  days  to  a careful  revisal  of  his  unpub- 
lished researches  and  industrial  processes,  dictating  sev- 


eral papers  on  these  subjects,  which  were  afterward 
published  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions.  On  De- 
cember 22,  1828,  he  died,  as  he  had  lived,  self-possessed, 
stern,  and  silent. 

WOLLIN,  an  island  belonging  to  Prussia,  is  the 
more  easterly  of  the  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Oder, 
which  separate  the  Stettiner  Haff  from  the  Baltic  Sea. 
It  is  divided  from  the  mainland  on  the  east  by  the 
Dievenovv,  and  from  Usedom  on  the  west  by  the  Swine. 
It  is  roughly  triangular  in  shape,  and  has  an  area  of 
ninety  square  miles.  Heath  and  sand  alternate  with 
swamps,  lakes,  and  forest  on  its  surface,  which  is  quite 
flat,  except  toward  the  southwest,  where  the  low  hills 
of  Lebbin  rise.  The  coast  is  fenced  with  dunes  and 
shifting  sand-hills.  Cattle-rearing  and  fishing  are  the 
chief  resources  of  the  inhabitants,  who  number  about 
14,000.  Misdroy,  on  the  northwest  coast,  is  a favorite 
sea-bathing  resort,  and  some  of  the  other  villages,  as 
Ostswine,  opposite  Swinemunde,  Pritter,  famous  for  its • 
eels,  and  Lebbin,  are  also  visited  in  summer. 

WOLLSTONECRAFT,  Mary.  See  Godwin, 
Mary  W.,  and  Shelley,  Mary  W. 

WOLSEY,  Thomas,  cardinal,  was  born  at  Ipswich 
in  March,  1471.  though  contemporary  evidence  would 
place  it  some  years  later.  His  education  began  doubt- 
less at  the  grammar  school  of  his  native  town,  where 
he  showed  himself  an  apt  scholar.  That  reputation  was 
fully  sustained  when  he  passed  to  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  for  he  took  his  B.A.  degree  at  the  early  age  of 
fifteen,  whence  he  was  known  as  “the  boy  bachelor.” 
He  became  M.A.  with  such  credit  and  distinction  that 
he  had  conferred  upon  him  a fellowship  and  the  master- 
ship of  the  grammar  school  attached  to  his  college, 
of  which  last  in  1498  we  find  him  bursar.  From  arts 
he  went  on  to  the  study  of  divinity,  in  which  the  un- 
friendly Polydore  Virgil  is  compelled  to  admit  he  was 
“ not  unlearned,”  but  of  which  he  did  not  become  bach- 
elor till  1510.  Among  Wolsey’s  pupils  at  Magdalen 
school  were  three  sons  of  the  marquis  of  Dorset.  So  well 
was  the  marquis  satisfied  with  the  progress  of  his  children 
that  he  invited  Wolsey  to  spend  with  him  the  Christmas 
holidays  of  what  must  have  been  the  year  1499.  When 
Wolsey  returned  to  Oxford  it  was  with  the  presentation 
to  the  quiet  Somerset  parish  of  Lymington.  In  the 
October  following  he  was  inducted.  He  had  not  been 
long  placed  when  a neighboring  squire,  Sir  Amias 
Paulet,  put  him  in  the  stocks.  The  cause  of  this  indig- 
nity is  not  clear;  but  it  was  remembered  and  resented 
with  all  the  keenness  attaching  to  an  injustice  suffered. 
In  September,  1501,  Dorset  died,  and  that  event  finally 
decided  Wolsey  to  quit  Lymington.  Paulet’s  proceed- 
ing had  not  affected  Wolsey’s  character,  for  he  now 
became  one  of  the  private  chaplains  of  Henry  Dean, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury.  But  any  hopes  he  may  have 
founded  on  this  appointment  were  soon  blighted  by  the 
death  of  Dean  in  February,  1503.  Through  Bray, 
probably,  Wolsey  next  obtained  a chaplaincy  with  an- 
other favorite  agent  of  Henry’s,  Sir  Richard  Nanfan, 
deputy-lieutenant  of  Calais.  Wolsey  became  chaplain 
to  Henry  VII.  himself,  and  when,  in  1506,  Sir  Richard 
died,  Wolsey  was  one  of  his  executors.  On  February 
2,  1509,  Wolsey,  who  by  this  time  held  several  minor 
preferments,  was  collated  to  the  deanery  of  Lincoln. 
Within  three  months  Henry  died  and  his  son  came  to 
the  throne.  Already  had  Wolsey  ingratiated  himself 
with  the  young  Henry,  and  almost  at  once  commenced 
his  unprecedentedly  rapid  rise  to  power. 

On  November  20,  15 1 1,  his  signature  as  a privy 
councilor  first  occurs.  Fox  had  long  been  anxious  to 
withdraw  from  political  life,  and  he  now  gradually 
shifted  his  state  duties  onto  the  willing,  able,  and 
younger  shoulders  of  Wolsey.  Nor  was  Wolsey’s  op* 


WGL 


* 


p^. -unity  of  distinguishing  himself  long  in  coming.  An 
expedition  against  Guienne  in  1512  had  effected  nothing 
and  returned  in  disgrace.  This  only  roused  Henry’s 
pride  and  persistence,  and  he  resolved  to  invade  France 
from  the  north  in  the  following  year.  The  organization 
of  the  necessary  force  he  committed  to  Wolsey. 
Churchman  though  he  was,  Wolsey  succeeded  to  admi- 
ration. Wolsey’s  favor  with  Henry  was  confirmed. 
Rewards  came  thick  and  fast.  On  the  capture  of 
Tournai,  Henry  named  Wolsey  to  the  bishopric  of  that 
see,  which  just  then  fell  .vacant;  but  the  English  nomi- 
nation was  never  ratified  by  the  pope.  In  the  succeed- 
ing January  (1514)  the  see  of  Lincoln  lost  its  episcopal 
head,  and  next  month  the  new  pope,  Leo  X.,  confirmed 
Wolsey’s  appointment  to  it.  The  preferment  proved 
but  temporary;  for  in  July  Cardinal  Bainbridge,  arch- 
bishop of  York,  was  poisoned  at  Rome,  and  on  August 
5th  Wolsey  was  raised  to  his  place.  Two  days  later 
Wolsey  brought  to  a triumphant  termination  his  first 
great  effort  in  diplomacy,  and  made  with  Louis  XII. 
of  France  a treaty  which  really  undid  the  notorious 
league  of  Cambrai,  defeated  Ferdinand  of  Spain  with 
his  own  weapons,  and  left  England,  for  the  moment, 
the  first  power  in  Europe.  Wolsey  thereby  began  a 
new  era  in  English  politics. 

The  year  1515  brought  him  two  new  honors.  For 
years  Warham,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  had  desired 
to  be  released  from  the  lord  chancellorship,  and  Henry 
had  repeatedly  urged  Wolsey  to  accept  it.  Wolsey 
naturally  shrank  from  adding  to  his  already  arduous 
duties;  but  both  Warham  and  the  king  became  so 
urgent  that  he  at  last  yielded.  By  patent  dated  Decem- 
ber 2 1 st  he  assumed  the  post,  and  at  once  threw  him- 
self into  its  work  with  his  accustomed  vigor,  dispensing 
justice  and  introducing  reforms  with  fearless  impartial- 
ity. The  second  dignity,  the  cardinalate,  was  obtained 
through  the  active  intervention  of  Henry  himself,  and 
only  by  the  most  threatening  arguments  did  the  king 
overcome  the  fears  and  reluctance  of  Leo.  On  Septem- 
ber 10th  Wolsey  was  elected  cardinal  sole.  The  bearer 
of  the  red  hat  and  ring  arrived  in  London  in  November, 
and  on  Sunday  the  18th  Wolsey  was  installed -amidst 
all  the  ceremonial  magnificence  which  he  valued  not 
only  for  his  own  sake  but  for  his  king’s.  Next  year, 
1519,  Wolsey  was  appointed  sole  legate  for  a year,  and, 
finally,  in  1524,  following  several  extensions,  he  became 
legate  for  life,  after  receiving  unusual  powers.  In  1518 
he  received  the  see  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  commendam , 
which  in  1523  he  resigned  for  Durham,  replaced  in  turn 
by  Fox’s  bishopric  of  Winchester  in  1529.  At  the  con- 
clusion of  the  Calais  conference  in  1521,  Henry  recom- 
pensed him  with  the  rich  abbacy  of  St.  Albans,  held, 
like  the  episcopates,  in  commendam : He  was  prime 
minister  of  Henry,  and  in  his  income  as  in  his  master’s, 
there  was  no  distinction  between  public  and  private 
money.  Vast  sums  were  used  in  founding  his  college 
at  Ipswich  and  Cardinal  College  at  Oxford,  now  known 
as  Christ  Church,  which  formed  but  part  of  a splendid 
scheme  of  national  education,  a scheme  ultimately 
ruined  by  the  greed  of  the  king. 

Wolsey’s  favor  with  the  king  had  been  founded  on 
success,  and  it  fell  by  failure.  Suddenly  across  his  min- 
ister’s diplomatics  Henry  dragged  the  question  of  the 
divorce,  and  everything  had  to  be  sacrificed  to  its 
accomplishment.  Seeing  too  clearly  how  much,  both 
personal  and  national,  depended  on  attaining  Henry’s 
desire,  Wolsey  strove  his  very  uttermost  to  further  a 
design  to  which  he  was  himself  opposed,  stooping  to 
the  most  discreditable  and  unworthy  means.  But  the 
decision  lay  with  Pope  Clement,  who  was  in  the  power 
of  Charles  V.,  Catherine’s  nephew,  and  all  Wolsey’s 
efforts  were  in  vain.  Vain,  too,  were  all  attempts  to 


6383 

intimidate  Catherine  herself.  A collusive  suit  was 
begun  belore  Wolsey  by  which  she  was  to  be  con 
demnecl  unheard;  - she  got  word  of  it  and  thwarted  the 
plan  by  demanding  counsel.  A commission  was  ob- 
tained from  the  pope  for  Campeggio  and  Wolsey  to  try 
the  cause  in  England  (1529);  she  appeared  before  the 
legatine  court  at  Blackfriars  only  to  appeal  to  Rome, 
and  thither  under  imperial  pressure  Clement  revoked 
the  case.  It  was  plain  Wolsey  had  failed,  and  all 
Henry’s  wrath  burst  out  against  his  too  faithful  servant. 
He  pointedly  employed  a secretary,  and  Wolsey’s  occu- 
pation was  gone.  On  September  20th  Henry  parted 
from  Wolsey  without  any  sign  of  displeasure,  but  they 
parted  for  the  last  time.  Anne  Boleyn  and  her  uncle 
Norfolk  were  Wolsey’s  bitter  foes.  By  Anne’s  sway 
over  rfenry  Wolsey  was  kept  from  the  royal  presence 
while  Norfolk  plotted  his  ruin.  On  October  17th,  at  the 
king’s  command,  Wolsey  delivered  up  the  great  seal  to 
Norfolk  and  the  base,  ungrateful  Suffolk.  He  was  de- 
prived of  his  dignities,  his  goods  were  confiscated,  and 
surrendering  York  Place,  he  retired  to  Esher.  The 
Court  of  King’s  Bench  found  him  guilty  in  a praemunire, 
and  sentenced  him  to  imprisonment,  while  a bill  pre- 
cluding his  restoration  to  power  or  dignities  reached 
the  Commons.  The  bill  was  dropped,  but  not  till  Feb- 
ruary, 1530,  did  Henry  grant  him  a full  pardon  and 
restore  him  to  the  archbishopric  of  York,  on  condition 
that  he  resigned  Winchester  and  St.  Albans.  Dread- 
ing his  proximity  to  the  king,  his  enemies  procured  his 
banishment  into  his  diocese.  Thither  he  went  in  April, 
and  won  the  hearts  of  the  people  hy  his  simplicity  of 
life  and  graciousness  of  manner.  His  foes  were 
alarmed;  his  death  alone  could  quiet  their  fears.  He 
was  preparing  to  be  installed  archbishop  on  Monday, 
November  7th,  when  on  the  4th  he  was  arrested,  at 
Cawood  Castle  by  the  earl  of  Northumberland  for  high 
treason.  On  the  way  south,  at  Sheffield  Park,  Not- 
tinghamshire, he  was  met  by  Sir  William  Kingston, 
keeper  of  the  Tower,  and  at  last  Wolsey  knew  his 
doom.  Long  years  of  toil,  anxiety,  and  the  ceaseless 
vexations  of  his  cruel  enemies  had  shattered  his  health. 
Nevertheless  he  set  out,  and  by  three  stages  reached 
Leicester  abbey  on  Saturday,  the  26th.  “ Father 

abbott,”  he  said,  as  the  convent  with  its  head  came  out 
to  receive  him,  “ I am  come  hither  to  leave  my  bones 
among  you.”  He  felt  that  he  was  dying.  Kingston 
assisted  him  upstairs,  and  he  at  once  went  to  bed. 
Vomiting  and  faintings  came  on,  and  he  rapidly  sank. 
At  eight  o’clock  on  the  morning  of  the  29th,  he 
died;  and  within  twenty-four  hours  was  buried  in  a rude 
coffin  all  that  remained  of  the  genius  who  made  possi- 
ble the  glories  oC  Elizabeth  and  the  British  empire  of 
to-day. 

WOLVERHAMPTON,  a municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  and  market-town  of  Staffordshire, 
England,  one  of  the  principal  seats  of  the  hardware 
manufacture  in  the  Midlands,  is  situated  on  an  eminenci 
commanding  an  extensive  view  toward  Wales,  on  the 
Birmingham  and  Liverpool,  the  Staffordshire  and 
Worcestershire,  and  the  Wyrley  and  Essington  canalsr 
and  on  the  London  and  North-Western,  the  Midland, 
and  the  Great  Western  railways,  13  miles  north- 
west of  Birmingham,  16  south  of  Stafford,  and  126 
from  London.  • The  principal  streets  diverge  from 
Queen  Square,  and  are  for  the  most  part  regular  and 
well  built,  with  numerous  handsome  shops.  Toward 
the  west  there  are  pleasant  suburbs  pf  villas,  the 
country  being  rich  and  well  wooded.  Slreet  improve' 
ments  have  been  carried  out  on  a large  scale  within 
recent  years.  Main  drainage  works  on  a thorougl 
method  have  also  been  completed,  and  a large  fartt- 
purchased  for  the  utilization  of  the  sewage.  TV? 


WOM 


6384 

water- works,  opened  in  1847,  belong  to  the  corpora- 
tion. The  water  is  supplied  from  springs  in  the  Red 
Sandstone  by  wells  sunk  to  a great  depth.  The  old 
race-course,  fifty  acres  in  extent,  has  been  laid  out  as  a 
public  park;  and  a new  race-course  was  opened  in  1887. 
The  population  of  the  municipal  borough  and  urban 
sanitary  district  (area  3,396  acres)  in  1901  is  94,179. 

Situated  in  a district  abounding  in  coal  and  ironstone, 
Wolverhampton  has  become  famous  for  the  manufact- 
ure both  of  the  heavier  and  the  smaller  kinds  of  iron- 
wares, although  in  the  finer  class  of  metal  manufactures 
for  which  the  neighboring  town  of  Birmingham  is  fa- 
mous it  has  little  or  no  share.  It  possesses  large  smelting 
furnaces,  and  iron  and  brass  foundries,  but  is  specially 
occupied  in  the  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  iron  imple- 
ments, tools,  and  domestic  requisites,  including  locks 
and  fastenings,  hinges  and  nails,  kitchen  furniture, 
gardeners’,  wrights’,  and  smiths’  tools  and  implements, 
tinplate  goods,  and  every  variety  of  japanned  ware,  of 
which  it  may  be  regarded  as  the  principal  seat.  There 
are  also  extensive  clay-retort  works,  chemical  works, 
grease  works,  dyeworks,  varnish  works,  coach  wrorks, 
corn  and  saw  mills,  cooperages,  ropew'alks,  makings, 
and  breweries. 

WOMB,  The,  professionally  known  as  the  uterus, 
is  a flattened  pear-shaped  organ.  It  consists  of  a body 
$1),  a base  or  fundus  (2),  a neck  or  cervix  (3),  and  a 
mouth  or  os  uteri  (4).  It  lies  in  the  line  of  the  axis  of 
the  outlet  of  the  pelvis,  with  base  directed  upward  and 
forward,  and  the  neck  directed  slightly  backward.  In 
the  unimpregnated  condition,  wffiich  we  are  now  con- 
sidering, it  is  about  three  inches  in  length,  two  in 
breadth,  and  one  in  thickness,  and  weighs  about  an 
ounce  and  a half.  On  laying  it  open,  or  exploring  its 
interior  by  the  introduction  of  an  instrument  through 
the  os  uteri , its  cavity  is  found  to  be  very  narrow,  and 
to  contain  a little  mucus.  Its  w7alls  are  nearly  half  an 
inch  thick,  and  are  mainly  composed  of  muscle-cells, 
and  fibers  running  irregularly  in  all  directions  except 
round  the  os,  where  they  make  a partial  sphincter. 

This  muscular  coat,  which  constitutes  the  bulk  of  the 
organ,  is  covered  externally  with  a serous  coat,  derived 
from  the  peritoneum,  and  is  lined  internally  by  a mucous 
coat,  continuous  with  that  of  the  canal  called  the  vagina, 
by  which  the  interior  of  the  womb  communicates  with 
the  outer  surface  of  the  body.  This  mucous  coat 
abounds  in  small  mucous  follicles,  and  is  provided  with 
ciliated  epithelium.  The  neck  or  cervix  of  the  womb 
is  distinguished  from  the  body  by  a well  marked  con- 
striction. The  mouth,  or  os,  projects  slightly  into  the 
vagina.  This  opening  is  nearly  round  in  the  virgin, 
and  transverse  after  parturition.  It  is  of  considerable 
size,  and  is  named  the  orificium  uteri  externum;  it  leads 
into  a narrow  canal  which  terminates  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  cervix  in  a smaller  opening,  the  orificium 
internum,  beyond  which  is  the  shallow  triangular 
cavity  of  the  womb,  of  which  it  forms  the  lower  angle, 
while  the  tw7o  upper  angles,  which  are  funnel-shaped, 
constitute  the  beginning  of  the  Fallopian  tubes,  whose 
apertures  are  so  small  as  only  to  admit  the  passage  of  a 
fine  bristle.  The  blood  vessels  and  nerves  enlarge  in  a 
v ery  remarkable  way  during  pregnancy,  so  as  to  adapt 
themselves  to  the  increased  w7ants  of  the  organ,  which, 
at  the  ninth  month  of  utero-gesfcation,  weighs  from  two 
to  four  pounds. 

The  term  appendages  to  the  uterus  is  given  to  the 
Fallopian  tubes  and  ovaries,  which  are  inclosed  by  the 
lateral  folds  of  the  peritoneum  called  the  broad  liga- 
ments. The  womb  is  suspended  in  the  pelvic  cavity  in 
such  a way  as,  by  its  mobility,  to  escape  rude  shocks 
from  without  or  disturbance  from  the  varying  condi- 
of  the  surrounding  viscera,  while  at  the  same  time 


to  allow  of  its  vastly  increasing  in  bulk  with  compare 
tively  little  discomfort  when  pregnancy  occurs.  This  is 
effected  by  several  duplicatures  of  peritoneum,  contain- 
ing variable  quantities  of  fibrous  and  muscular  tissue, 
and  known  from  their  form  or  connection  as  the  broad, 
the  round,  the  utero-sacral,  and  the  utero-vesical  liga- 
ments. The  uterus  is  an  organ  peculiar  to  the  mam- 
malia, and  in  comparatively  few7  of  them  (excepting  the 
apes  and  cgeiroptera)  is  it  of  the  simple  oval  or  triangu- 
lar form  which  we  have  described.  It  is  two-horned  in 
the  ruminantia,  pachydermata,  solipedia,  and  cetacea; 
and  it  is  said  to  be  divided  where  it  has  only  a very  short 
body,  as  in  most  of  the  carnivora  and  edentata,  and 
some  rodentia,  which  speedily  divides  both  externally 
and  internally,  and  is  continuous  with  the  oviducts  or 
Fallopian  tubes.  The  uterus  is  actually  double  in  some 
of  the  edentata,  and  in  most  of  the  rodentia,  including 
the  mouse  and  hare,  in  which  each  Fallopian  tube 
passes  into  an  intestiniform  uterus,  which  has  two  com- 
pletely distinct  openings  lying  near  to  each  other  wdthin 
the  vagina.  In  the  marsupiata  and  monotremata,  the 
modifications  of  this  organ  are  still  more  singular.  It 
is  impossible  to  do  more  than  name  the  chief  offices  or 
functions  of  the  womb.  They  may  be  divided  into 
those  which  relate  to  (1)  menstruation,  (2)  insemination, 
(3)  gestation,  and  (4)  parturition. 

WOMB,  Diseases  and  Derangements  of  the. 
In  this  article  we  shall  not  include  the  pregnant  or 
puerperal  state,  some  of  which,  as  Phlegmasia  Dolens 
and  Puerperal  fever,  have  been  noticed  in  special  arti- 
cles. Many  of  the  diseases,  how  ever,  which  we  shall 
have  occasion  to  notice,  may  be  traced  to  pregnancy, 
miscarriage,  or  severe  delivery  that  had  occurred  months 
previously.  A common  result  of  inflammation  which 
often  succeeds  miscarriage,  or  a bad  delivery,  is  to  check 
that  process  of  involution,  by  w'hich  the  womb  ought  ta 
be  restored  in  a few  w^eeks  to  the  size  and  condition  in 
which  it  existed  previous  to  the  occurrence  of  preg- 
nancy.  How  inflammation  acts,  interrupting  these 
processes,  is  not  easily  explained ; but  after  it  has  passed 
away  its  effects  may  remain  in  the  enlarged  size  and 
altered  structure  of  the  womb;  changes  which  render 
it  likely  to  suffer  from  the  alternation  of  activity  and 
repose  to  which  the  female  generative  system  is  liable. 
In  this  condition  the  enlarged  and  heavy  uterus  is 
likely  to  become  prolapsed,  or  to  become  a seat  of  per- 
manent congestion  or  chronic  inflammation,  and  excess- 
ive menstruation  and  a feeling  of  weight  in  the  pelvis 
are  almost  always  present.  Besides  this  form  of  en- 
largement there  is  a far  less  common  form,  in  which  the 
enlargement  of  the  womb  takes  place  independently  of 
previous  pregnancy,  and  is  the  result  of  true  hypertrophy. 
The  symptoms  are,  a sense  of  weight  in  the  pelvis,  pain, 
usually  of  a burning  character;  hemorrhages  gradually 
come  on,  and  force  themselves  by  their  slow  ly  increas- 
ing severity  on  the  patient’s  notice.  The  treatment  is 
much  the  same  in  both  these  forms  of  enlargement,  viz. , 
the  recumbent  position  .on  a hair  or  spring  mattress, 
attention  to  the  bowels,  and  local  leeching  every  two 
weeks,  to  be  continued  for  several  months,  together 
with  the  careful  use  of  iron,  associated  with  small  doses 
of  iodide  of  potassium.  Temporary  separation  from 
the  husband’s  bed  should  also  be  insisted  upon.  There 
is  a form  of  hypertrophy  which  is  confined  to  the  neck 
of  the  womb,  which  occasions  great  discomfort  to  the 
patient,  and  acts  as  a mechanical  impediment  to  sexual 
union.  In  these  cases  no  relief  can  be  afforded  except 
by  surgical  operations.  From  these  results  of  simple 
errors  of  nutrition  leading  to  increased  grow'th  of  the 
organ,  we  pass  on  to  the  debatable  and  much-trodden 
ground  of  inflammation  of  the  womb.  Acute  inflam- 
mation of  the  unimpregnated  womb  may  arise  from 


WOM 


an  unaccustomed  and  excessive  intercourse,  sudden 
suppression  of  menstrual  discharge,  the  extension  of 
gonorrheal  inflammation,  etc.  But  as  it  is  compara- 
tively rare,  and  seldom  dangerous  to  life,  we  shall  at 
once  pass  on  to  an  affection  which  by  most  practition- 
ers is  regarded  as  one  of  the  commonest  to  which 
woman  is  liable,  viz.,  chronic  inflammation  and  ulcer- 
ation of  the  neck  of  the  womb.  It  is  not  forty 
years  ago  since  a French  physician,  M.  Recainier,  in- 
vented an  instrument — the  speculum — for  the  appli- 
cation of  local  remedies  to  the  neck  of  the  womb  in 
cancer ; but  the  light  which  this  instrument  threw  upon 
uterine  conditions  generally,  led,  among  other  results, 
to  the  conclusion,  that  leucorrhoeal  discharge  (popularly 
known  as  the  whites)  were  often  derived  from,  and 
associated  with,  various  morbid  appearances  in  the 
mouth  of  the  womb,  and  could  often  be  removed  by 
remedies  directed  to  that  part.  Almost  since  the 
speculum  began  to  get  in  general  use,  a large  number  of 
old  fashioned  practitioners  raised  a cry  against  its 
employment,  on  the  grounds  of  indelicacy,  its  inutility, 
etc.,  and  denied  the  very  existence  of  various  morbid 
conditions  which  the  employers  of  the  instrument  de- 
clared they  saw  with  its  use.  Hence  two  parties  have 
arisen,  one  who  believe  in  the  speculum  and  it«  revela- 
tions, and  another  who  reject  the  recent  modes  of  in- 
vestigation of  uterine  diseases,  who  take  small  account 
of  new  facts  regarding  local  diseases  which  have  been 
revealed,  and  who  regard  uterine  diseases  as  resulting 
from  constitutional  derangements,  and  who,  therefore, 
trust  to  general  treatment.  Now,  although  the  view 
that  the  local  disease  is  everything,  may  not  be  univer- 
sally true,  the  opposite  view  is  certainly  untenable;  and 
Doctor  West  and  other  writers  on  this  subject  have 
pointed  out  that  there  are  reasons  why  the  womb  should 
more  frequently  than  perhaps  any  other  organ  be  the 
seat  of  certain  forms  of  local  ailments,  and  should  conse- 
quently require  the  frequent  employment  of  local  treat- 
ment. It  would  be  out  of  place,  in  these  pages,  to 
describe  the  characters  of  ulcerations  and  abrasions  of  the 
womb,  which  are  so  frequently  revealed  by  the  speculum, 
or  to  enter  into  detail  regarding  the  pathological 
importance  attached  by  some  writers  to  them.  The 
conclusion  which  Doctor  West  draws  from  a prolonged 
investigation  of  this  subject,  is  that  the  condition  of  so- 
called  ulceration  or  abrasion  of  the  os  uteri  is  far  from 
infrequent,  even  in  cases  where  no  uterine  symptoms 
were  complained  of  during  life ; but  that  it  is  usually 
associated  with  other  important  affections  of  the  uterus, 
such  as  may  be  supposed  to  be  the  effects  of  inflam- 
matory action  ; and  further,  that  such  affections  do 
not  seem  to  be  readily  excited  by  causes  acting  on 
the  neck  of  the  womb  either  when  displaced  or 
when  the  organ  is  in  its  natural  position.  Since 
uterine  pain,  disordered  menstruation,  and  leucor- 
rhoeal discharge  — symptoms  usually  associated  with 
the  ulceration  of  mouth  of  the  womb — are  met  by  im- 
partial observers  almost  as  frequently  without  as  with 
ulceration,  it  may  be  fairly  inferred  that  this  ulceration 
is  neither  a cause  of  uterine  disease,  nor  a safe  index  of 
its  progress ; and  although  the  local  application  of  caus- 
tic to  the  os  uteri  is  doubtless  often  successful  in  restor- 
ing the  patient  to  health,  it  must  not  be  considered  as  a 
general  rule  that  the  attempt,  by  local  remedies,  to  re- 
move this  condition  is  the  one  all-important  point  in  the 
treatment  of  uterine  disease.  There  is  no  doubt  that  in 
the  great  majority  of  cases  (excepting  a few  of  the  more 
severe  ones)  temporary  separation  from  the  husband’s  bed, 
the  recumbent  position  (which  facilitates  the  return  of 
blood  from  the  womb  and  adjacent  parts)  due  attention 
to  the  diet  and  digestive  organs,  and  the  use  of  injections 
®f  nitrate  of  silver,  which  may  be  applied  by  the  patient. 


6385 

are  sufficient  in  a few  weeks  to  effect  a cure.  Chronic 
uterine  inflammation  of  a more  general  nature  (as  of  the 
interior  or  the  body  of  the  womb)  with  very  similar 
symptoms,  is  by  no  means  rare.  If  the  disease  is  met 
with  in  acute  form,  leeches  should  be  applied  to  the 
womb  itself  j in  the  chronic  form,  which  is  generally 
observed,  the  pain  in  the  back  is  best  relieved  by  croton 
oil  liniment,  composed  of  one  part  of  croton  oil,  and  ten 
of  camphor  liniment,  which  should  be  applied  (without 
rubbing  it  in)  with  a sponge  twice  a day  on  the  back,  at 
the  seat  of  the  pain.  The  irritability  of  the  bladder, 
which  is  a common  symptom,  is  usually  associated  with 
abundant  phosphatic  deposits  in  the  urine. 

The  same  general  rules  as  to  diet,  etc.,  which  have 
been  given,  must  be  attended  to.  Under  the  best  man- 
agement a tendency  to  relapse  is  liable  to  occur  at  each 
monthly  period,  and  after  several  such  relapses  the 
womb  is  found  (on  surgical  examination)  to  be  enlarged 
and  hardened  and  less  movable  than  natural.  This  condi- 
tion is  best  removed  by  the  careful  and  prolonged  usage  ol 
bichloride  of  mercury  in  small  doses,  which,  as  it  is  a deadly 
poison,  must  only  be  taken  upon  medical  advice;  but 
the  pain  in  the  groin  which  usually  accompanies  this 
change  may  be  relieved  or  removed  by  application  of  a 
small  blister.  The  profuse  discharge,  both  menstrual 
and  leucorrhoeal,  is  best  relieved  by  chalybeate  prepara- 
tions. A hip-bath,  containing  a gallon  of  water  to 
every  half  pound  of  alum,  is  also  very  useful  as  an 
astringent.  It  should  be  taken  in  the  morning 
before  dressing,  and  the  patient  should  remain 
in  it  at  least  half  an  hour.  For  the  first  time  or 
two,  the  water  may  have  the  chill  taken  off.  The 
same  importance  is  not  attached  to  vaginal  injections 
as  when  it  was  believed  that  the  vagina  (and  not  the 
womb)  was  the  main  source  of  leucorrheal  discharge. 
It  is  usually  hemorrhage  or  inability  to  void  the  urine  that 
first  directs  the  attention  of  the  patient  to  her  malady 
Its  tendency  to  excite  abortion  often  leads  the  physi- 
cian to  suspect  its  presence.  Although  as  we  have 
mentioned  before  this  affection  is  little  amenable 
to  treatment,  a woman  with  these  symptoms  should  at 
once  consult  a physician  (if  possible  the  physician 
accoucher  of  a large  hospital)  who,  by  his  advice  as  to 
general  management  of  the  case,  especially  during  the 
menstrual  period,  may  do  much  to  palliate  her  sufferings. 
Iodine,  bromide,  and  certain  mineral  waters  contain- 
ing these  elements  and  mercury  have  been  vaunted  as 
specifics,  but  nothing  positive  can  be  said  regarding 
their  successful  action  ; and  certain  surgical  operations 
have  been  recommended  which  are  accompanied  with 
so  much  danger  to  the  patient  that  it  i3  needless  to  refer 
to  them.  Although  the  action  of  medicine  on  these 
growths  is  uncertain,  nature  in  this,  as  in  many  other 
cases,  strives  to  complete  a cure.  For  example,  if  a 
tumor  is  pediculated,  and  lies  in  the  uterine  cavity,  the 
pedicle  may  finally  give  way,  and  the  tumor  may  be  ex- 
pelled, or  certain  changes  may  take  place  in  the  interior 
of  the  womb  leading  either  to  its  disintegration  01 
elimination,  or  into  its  conversion  to  a chalky  mass, 
which,  though  not  eliminated,  induces  no  local  disturb- 
ances. These  spontaneous  cures  are  by  no  means  rare, 
although  we  can  hardly  lead  the  patient  to  expect  them 
in  any  special  case.  We  shall  conclude  with  a few 
words  on  a disease  which  is  more  painful  and  hopeless 
than  all  the  disorders  to  which  humanity  is  liable — 
cancer  of  the  womb.  It  is  a disease  of  which  the  lead- 
ing features  are  thus  graphically — we  may  almost  say 
painfully — described  by  Doctor  West:  Pain,  often  ex- 
ceeding in  intensity  all  that  can  be  imagined  as  the 
most  intolerable,  attended  by  accidents  which  render 
the  sufferer  most  loathsome  to  herself  and  those  whom 
strong  affection  still  gathers  round  her  bed  ; the  genera? 


W O M 


6386 


health  broken  down  by  the  action  of  the  same  poison 
as  produced  the  local  suffering,  and  all  tending  surely, 
swiftly,  to  a fatal  issue  which  skill  cannot  avert,  from 
which  it  can  scarcely  take  away  its  bitterest  anguish. 
Th6  three  most  constant  symptoms  are  pain,  hemorrhage 
and  discharge.  From  an  examination  of  132  cases  by 
Doctor  West,  the  first  symptom  was  found  to  have  been, 
In  58  instances,  or  43.9  per  cent.,  hemorrhage  without 
pain. 

In  26  instances,  or  19.6  per  cent.,  pain  of  various  kinds. 
“ 18  “ 136  “ hemorrhage  with  pain. 

“18  “ 13.6  “ leucorrhoea  and  other 

discharge  without  pain. 

In  12  instances,  or  10.3  per  cent.,  pain  and  discharge, 
sometimes  offensive. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into  further  details  regard- 
ing the  symptoms  of  this  disease,  as  cases  of  this  na- 
ture must  always  be  under  medical  attendance,  and  for 
the  same  reason  we  need  only  say  regarding  the  treat- 
ment, that  it  is  divisible  into  the  palliative  and  the  cura- 
tive, the  former  being  directed  to  the  three  great  symp- 
toms of  the  cancerous  cachexia  (or  constitution),  while 
in  the  latter  are  included  the  operation  of  extirpating 
the  whole  womb,  or  removing  the  neck  of  the  womb  by 
ligature  or  excision.  It  is  difficult  to  speak  with  ac- 
curacy regarding  the  frequency  of  this  disease.  An  ap- 
proximate estimate  may  be  formed  from  the  fact  that 
m 1877,  the  mortality  from  cancer  in  England  amounted 
to  3,823  males,  and  8,038  females;  the  excess  in  the 
latter  case  amounting  to  4,215  must  be  due  to  cancer  in 
the  womb  or  breast1;  according  to  Tanchou,  a French 
pathologist,  cancer  of  the  womb  is  more  frequent  than 
that  of  the  female  breast  in  the  rate  of  26  to  10. 
Hence  the  yearly  deaths  from  uterine  cancer  in  Eng- 
land amount  to  about  2,972.  The  last  named  writer 
calculated,  from  ten  years  observation  of  the  French 
records  of  mortality,  that  this  disease  causes  16  per  1000 
of  female  deaths.  The  disease  is  very  rare  before  the 
twenty-fifth  year  and  by  far  the  most  common  appear- 
ance of  it  is  between  the  ages  of  forty  and  fifty-six  years. 
Its  average  duration  is  sixteen  to  seventeen  months,  but 
it  may  prove  fatal  in  three  or  four  months.  For  further 
information  on  this  subject  generally  the  reader  is  refer- 
red to  the  standard  works  of  Churchill,  Lever,  Simpson, 
West,  etc. 

WOMBAT.  The  animals  which  have  received  this 
name  belong  to  the  Marsupial  family  Phascolomyidez 
(see  Mammalia).  They  have  the  following  dental 
formula : i -f,  c §,  p m \ = § ; total,  24.  All  the 
teeth  are  of  continuous  growth,  having  persistent  pulps. 
The  incisors  are  large  and  scalpriform,  much  as  in  Ro- 
dents. The  body  is  broad  and  depressed,  the  neck 
short,  the  head  large  and  flat,  the  eyes  small.  The  tail 
is  rudimentary,  hidden  in  the  fur.  The  limbs  are  equal, 
stout,  and  short.  The  feet  have  broad,  naked,  tubercu- 
lated  soles ; the  fore-feet  with  five  distinct  toes,  each 
furnished  with  a long,  strong,  and  slightly  curved  nail, 
the  first  and  fifth  considerably  shorter  thai  the  other 
three.  The  hind  feet  have  a very  short  nailless  Lnlux; 
the  second,  third,  and  fourth  toes  partially  unit  ?o  ■ / in- 
tegument, of  nearly  equal  length  ; the  fifth  distinct  and 
rather  shorter;  these  four  are  provided  with  long  and 
curved  nails. 

There  are  two  distinct  forms  of  wombat : 

(1)  Phascolomys  proper.  Fur  rough  and  coarse. 
Ears  short  and  rounded.  Muffle  naked.  Post-orbi- 
tal process  of  the  frontal  bone  obsolete.  Ribs  fifteen 
pairs.  Vertebrae:  C 7,  D 15,  L 4,  S 4,  C 10-12. 
The  wombat  of  Tasmania  and  the  islands  of  Bass’ 
Straits  ( P . ur sinus'),  and  the  closely  similar  buf  larger 
animal  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  mainland  ot  Aus- 
tralia (/>.  platyrhinus ) belong  to  this  form. 


(2)  Lasiorhinus.  Fur  smooth  and  silky.  Earl 
large  and  more  pointed.  Muffle  hairy.  Frontal 
region  of  skull  broader  than  in  the  other  section,  with 
well-marked  postorbital  processes.  Ribs  thirteen. 
Vertebrae : C 7,1)  13,  L 6,  S 4,  C 15-16.  One  species, 
P.  latifrons , the  Hairy-Nosed  Wombat  of  Southern 
Australia. 

WOMB  WELL,  a township  of  England,  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  Manchester,  Sheffield,  and 
Lincolnshire  railway,  4^  miles  southeast  of  Barnsley, 
7 northwest  of  Rotherham,  and  184  from  London  by 
rail.  The  church  of  St.  Mary  is  an  ancient  structure, 
enlarged  and  altered  in  1835.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  employed  in  the  extensive  collieries.  The  pop- 
ulation of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  3,851  acres) 
in  1901  was  10,500. 

WOMEN,  Law  relating  to.  The  law  as  it  re- 
lates to  women  has  been  gradual  in  its  operation,  but 
its  tendency  has  been  almost  uniformly  in  one  direction. 
Disabilities  of  women,  married  or  unmarried,  have  been 
one  after  another  removed,  until  at  the  present  day,  in 
most  civilized  countries,  the  legal  position  of  women 
differs  little  from  that  of  men  as  far  as  regards  private 
rights/  Much  of  the  law  relating  to  married  women 
has  beefi  already  dealt  with  under  the  heads  of  Adul- 
tery, Bigamy,  Divorce,  Marriage,  Husband  and 
Wife,  and  Settlement,  the  last  two  especially  deal- 
ing with  the  rights  of  property. 

The  dependent  position  of  women  in  early  law  is 
proved  by  the  evidence  of  most  ancient  systems  which 
have  in  whole  or  in  part  descended  to  us.  In  the 
Mosaic  law  divorce  was  a privilege  of  the  husband 
only;  the  vow  of  a woman  might  be  disallowed  by  her 
father  or  husband,  and  daughters  could  inherit  only  in 
the  absence  of  sons,  and  then  they  must  marry  in  their 
tribe.  The  guilt  or  innocence  of  a wife  accused  of 
adultery  might  be  tried  by  the  ordeal  of  the  bitter 
water.  In  India  subjection  was  a cardinal  principle. 
Women  in  Hindu  law  had  only  limited  rights  of 
inheritance,  and  were  disqualified  as  witnesses.  In 
Roman  law  a woman  was,  ev?n  in  historic  times,  com- 
pletely dependent.  If  married,  she  and  her  property 
passed  into  the  power  of  her  husband  ; if  unmarried, 
she  was  (unless  a vestal  virgin)  under  the  perpetual 
tutelage  of  her  father  during  his  life,  and  after  his  death 
of  her  agnates — that  is,  those  of  her  kinsmen  by  blood 
or  adoption  who  would  have  been  under  the  power  of 
the  common  ancestor  had  he  lived.  The  wife  was  the 
purchased  property  of  her  husband,  and,  like  a slave, 
acquired  only  for  his  benefit.  A woman  could  not  ex- 
ercise any  civil  or  public  office.  In  succession  ab  in- 
testate) to  immovable  property,  Roman  law  did  not,  as 
does  English,  recognize  any  privilege  of  males  over 
females.  Legal  disabilities  were  gradually  mitigated 
by  the  influence  of  fictions,  the  praetorian  equity,  and 
legislation. 

The  canon  law,  looking  with  disfavor  on  the  female 
independence  prevailing  in  the  later  Roman  law, 
tended  rather  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  Decretum 
specially  inculcated  subjection  of  the  wife  to  the  husband, 
and  obedience  to  his  will  in  all  things.  The  chief  dik 
ierences  between  canon  and  Roman  law  were  in  the 
] a ' v of  marriage,  especially  in  the  introduction  of 
publicity  and  of  the  formalities  of  the  ring  and  the 
kiss.  A promise  of  marriage  was  so  sacred  that  it 
made  a subsequent  marriage  with  another  person  void. 
Spiritual  cognation  was  a bar  to  marriage.  The 
sentence  of  the  church  was  made  necessary  for  divorce. 

By  Magna  Charta  a woman  could  not  appeal  any  one 
for  murder  except  that  of  her  husband.  She  was  not 
admitted  as  1 witness  L rro/e  the  status  of  a man  cm 
fib  cuestion  .rising  whetm.  he  were  free  or  a villein. 


woo 


6387 


She  could  not  appoint  a testamentary  guardian,  and 
could  only  be  a guardian  even  of  her  own  children  to 
a limited  extent.  Her  will  was  revoked  by  marriage, 
that  of  a man  only  by  marriage  and  the  subsequent 
birth  of  a child  (see  Will).  Burning  was  the  punish- 
ment specially  appropriated  to  women  convicted  of 
treason  or  witchcraft. 

The  present  position  of  women  in  English  law  may 
be  treated,  for  purposes  of  convenience,  under  several 
heads.  Sex  alone,  as  will  appear,  does  not  determine 
the  law:  sex  and  marriage  together  must  often  be  taken 
into  consideration. 

A woman  may  fill  some  of  the  highest  positions  in 
the  State.  She  may  be  a queen,  a regent,  or  a peeress 
in  her  own  right.  A queen  regnant  has  as  full  rights 
as  a king.  A peeress  is  entitled  to  be  tried  like  a peer 
by  the  House  of  Lords  or  the  court  of  the  lord  high 
steward  (see  Trial),  and  has  a seat  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  but  no  right  of  speaking  or  voting.  Other  pub- 
lic offices  which  a woman  can  fill  are  those  of  overseer, 
guardian  of  the  poor,  churchwarden,  and  sexton.  She 
may  also,  if  married,  be  one  of  a jury  of  matrons  impan- 
eled to  determine  the  question  of  pregnancy  of  a widow 
on  a writ  de  ventre  inspiciendo  or  of  a female  prisoner, 
but  she  cannot  serve  on  an  ordinary  jury.  If  unmarried 
or  a widow,  she  can  vote  in  municipal,  school  board, 
local  government,  poor  law,  and  other  elections  of  a 
local  character,  and  can  be  a member  (whether  married 
or  not)  of  a school  board,  but  apparently  not  an  over- 
seer or  guardian  if  married  and  living  with  her  husband. 
She  cannot  be  registered  as  a voter  or  vote  at  a parlia- 
mentary election  or  be  elected  a member  of  parliament. 
The  question  of  granting  the  parliamentary  franchise  to 
women  was  first  brought  before  the  House  of  Commons 
by  John  Stuart  Mill  in  1867,  as  an  amendment  to  the 
Representation  of  the  People  bill  of  that  year,  and  has 
uniformly  been  rejected  on  that  and  several  subsequent 
occasions.  At  present  the  Isle  of  Man  is  the  only  part 
of  the  United  Kingdom  where  such  a right  exists.  It 
was  there  c<  -needed  in  1882  to  unmarried  women  with 
sufficient  property  qualification.  The  only  one  of  the 
learned  professions  open  to  women  in  England  is  the 
medical.  Special  regulations  are  made  by  the  Factories 
and  Mines  Acts  as  to  the  employment  of  women  and  girls 
in  factories  and  mines.  Under  no  circumstances  is  a 
woman  allowed  to  work  underground.  The  Shop 
Hours  Regulation  Act,  1886  (a  temporary  provision), 
forbids  the  employment  in  shops  of  girls  under  eighteen 
for  more  than  seventy-four  hours  in  a week.  A married 
woman  may,  since  the  Married  Women’s  Property  Act, 
1882,  carry  on  a trade  separately  from  her  husband,  and 
in  such  case  is  liable  to  be  made  a bankrupt.  She  may 
apparently  be  a partner  of  her  husband,  and  may  lend 
him  money,  but  in  this  case  her  claim  to  a dividend  on 
his  bankruptcy  is  postponed  to  that  of  other  creditors. 
The  principal  disabilities  under  which  women  are  now 
placed  may  perhaps  be  classed  under  the  head  of  family 
rights,  viz.,  exclusion  of  female  heirs  from  intestate 
succession  to  real  estate,  unless  in  absence  of  a male 
heir  (see  Inheritance,  Primogeniture),  and  the 
obtaining  of  Divorce  ( q.v .)  by  a husband  for  the 
adultery  of  his  wife,  while  the  wife  can  only  obtain  it 
for  adultery  coupled  with  some  further  cause;  such  a., 
cruelty  or  desertion. 

There  are  some  offenses  which  can  be  committed  only 
by  women,  others  which  can  be  committed  only  against 
them.  Among  the  former  are  concealment- of  birth  (in 
ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a hundred),  the  now  obsolete 
offense  of  being  a common  scold,  and  prostitution  and 
kindred  offenses.  Where  a married  woman  commits  a 
crime  in  company  with  her  husband,  she  is  generally  pre- 
vnmed  to  have  acted  by  his  coercion,  and  so  to  be  enti- 


tled to  acquittal  Formerly  a wife  could  not  steal  her 
husband’s  property,  but  since  the  Married  Women’s 
Property  Act  this  has  become  possible.  The  evidence 
of  a wife  is  not  usually  receivable  for  or  against  her  hus- 
band (see  Witness).  She  does  not  become  an  accessory 
after  the  fact  by  receiving  and  harboring  her  husband 
after  he  has  committed  a felony;  the  husband,  however., 
is  not  equally  privileged  if  the  offense  be  committed  by 
the  wife.  Adultery  is  now  no  crime,  England  being 
almost  the  only  country  where  such  is  the  case. 

The  offenses  which  can  be  committed  only  against 
women  are  chiefly  those  against  decency,  such  as  rape, 
procurement,  and  similar  crimes,  in  which  a considerable 
change  in  the  law  in  the  direction  of  increased  protec- 
tion to  women  was  made  by  the  Criminal  Law  Amend 
ment  Act,  1885. 

The  Acts  of  Congress  contain  little  affecting  the  sub- 
ject. Any  woman  married  to  a citizen  of  the  United 
States  who  might  herself  be  lawfully  naturalized  is  to  be 
deemed  a citizen.  Women  are  allowed  as  clerks  its 
government  departments,  and  may  be  employed  as 
nurses  and  hospital  matrons  in  the  army,  The  right  ol4 
voting  for  congress  or  for  the  State  legislature  is  still 
denied  in  the  country  as  a whole,  in  spite  of  the  strong 
attempts  which  have  been  made  by  the  advocates  ol 
female  suffrage.  The  right,  however,  exists  to  a limited 
extent.  In  Washington,  Wyoming,  and  Utah  women 
vote,  and  in  the  constitutions  of  some  States,  such  as 
Colorado  and  Wisconsin,  it  is  provided  that  the  right  oi 
suffrage  may  be  extended  to  women  by  a majority  oS 
electors  at  a general  election.  The  constitutions  oil 
most  States  confine  the  franchise  to  male  electors,,  The 
admission  of  women  to  the  school  franchise  is,  however, 
largely  increasing,  and  had  in  1887  been  adopted  by 
fourteen  State!  In  a limited  number  of  States  the  pro- 
fessions (except  the  military)  are  open  to  women. 
Where  the  legal  profession  is  not  so  open,  a refusal  by 
a State  court  to  grant  a license  to  practice  law  is  nc 
breach  of  the  Federal  constitution  (see  Privilege),,  In 
most  States  the  policy  adopted  in  England  by  the, 
Married  Women’s  Property  Act  is  the  rule,  and  there 
is  in  general  no  distinction  of  sex  in  succession  to  real 
estate.  For  the  testamentary  rights  of  married  women 
see  Will.  In  some  of  the  State  universities  women, 
are  admitted  to  full  privileges  of  instruction  and  gradua 
tion;  in  others,  such  as  the  university  of  Pennsylvania 
they  are  admitted  to  instruction  and  examination,  bu>; 
not  to  graduation.  The  law  in  some  cases  gives  women, 
remedies  for  tort  which  are  unknown  in  England.  Foe 
instance,  by  the  law  of  some  States  a woman  may  bring 
an  action  of  Seduction  (?.v.)  in  her  own  name,  and 
may  recover  damages  for  slander  imputing  unchastity, 
without  proof  of  special  damage,  which  cannot  be  done 
in  England.  The  criminal  law  is  also  more  extensive- 
In  the  New  England  and  some  of  the  other  States  mere 
fornication  is  punishable  as  a crime.  Adultery  is  crim 
inal  by  the  law  of  most  States. 

WOOD.  See  Botany,  Building,  Forests, 
Strength  of  Materials;  also  Fir,  Oak,  Pine 
Teak,  etc. 

WOOD,  Anthony  A,  antiquary,  was  the  fourth  soi 
of  Thomas  Wood  (1580-1643),  B.C.L.  of  Oxford, 
where  Anthony  was  born  December  17,  1632.  He  war. 
sent  to  New  College  school  in  that  city  in  1641,  and  a» 
the  age  of  twelve  was  removed  to  the  free  grammar 
school  at  Thame,  where  his  studies  were  interrupted  by 
civil  war  skirmishes.  He  was  then  placed  under  the 
tuition  of  his  brother  Edward  (1627-55),  of  Trinity  Col 
lege.  He  was  entered  at  Merton  College  in  1647,  ana 
made  postmaster.  In  1652  “ he  began  to  exercise  his 
natural  and  insatiable  genie  he  had  to  musick^’and  was 
examined  for  the  degree  of  He  was  *cJmbtetS 


woo 


6388 

M.A.  in  1655,  and  in  the  following  year  published  a vol- 
ume of  sermons  of  his  late  brother  Edward.  Dugdale’s 
Warwickshire  came  into  his  hands,  and  he  describes 
how  “his  tender  affections  and  insatiable  desire  of 
knowledge  were  ravished  and  melted  downe  by  the  read- 
ing of  that  book.  ” He  steadily  investigated  the  muni- 
ments of  all  the  colleges,  and  in  1667  made  his  first 
journey  to  London,  where  he  visited  Dugdale,  who  in- 
troduced him  into  the  Cottonian  library,  and  Prynne 
showed  him  the  same  civility  for  the  Tower  records. 
On  October  22,  1669,  he  was  sent  for  by  the  delegates 
of  the  press,  “ that  whereas  he  had  taken  a great  deal  of 
paines  in  writing  the  Hist,  and  Ant  iq.  of  the  Universitie 
gf  Gxon,  they  would  for  his  paines  give  him  an  100  li, 
for  his  copie,  conditionally,  that  he  would  suffer  the 
book  to  be  translated  into  Latine."  He  accepted  the 
offer  and  set  to  work  to  prepare  his  English  MS.  for 
the  translators,  Richard  Peers  and  Richard  Reeve,  both 
appointed  by  Doctor  Fell,  dean  of  Christ  Church,  who 
undertook  the  expense  of  printing. 

In  1674  appeared  His  tor  ia  et  Antiquitales  Universt’ 
tatis  Oxoniensis , handsomely  printed  “e  Theatro  Shel- 
doniano,”  in  two  folio  volumes,  the  first  devoted  to  the 
university  in  general  and  the  second  to  the  colleges. 
In  1678  the  university  registers  which  had  been 
in  his  custody  for  eighteen  years  were  removed,  as  it 
was  feared  that  he  would  be  implicated  in  the  Popish 
Plot,  To  relieve  himself  from  suspicion  he  took  the 
oaths  of  supremacy  and  allegiance.  During  this  time 
he  had  been  gradually  completiug  his  great  work,  which 
was  produced  by  a London  publisher  in  1691-92,  two 
vols.  folio,  A thence  Oxonienses : an  Exact  History  of 
all  the  Writers  and  Bishops  who  have  had  their  Edu- 
cation in  the  University  of  Oxford  from  fjoo  to  i6go, 
to  which  are  added  the  Fasti,  or  Annals  for  the  said 
time , On  July  29,  1693,  he  was  condemned  in  the 
vice-chancellor’s  court  for  certain  libels  against  the  late 
earl  of  Clarendon,  fined,  banished  from  the  university 
until  he  recanted,  and  the  book  burned.  Wood  was  at- 
tacked by  Bishop  Burnet  in  a Letter  to  the  Bishop  of 
Lichfield  and  Coventry,  1693,  and  defended  by  his 
nephew.  Dr.  Thomas  Wood,  in  a Vindication  of  the 
Historiographer , to  which  is  added  the  Historiograph - 
ds  Answer,  1693,  reproduced  in  the  subsequent  edi- 
tions of  the  Athence.  The  nephew  also  defended  his 
ancle  in  An  Appendix  to  the  Life  of  Bishop  Seth  Ward , 
3697,  On  October  9,  1695,, Wood  had  an  interview 
with  the  earl  of  Clarendon,  but  was  not  able  to  get  his  fine 
remitted.  After  a short  illness  he  died,  November  28, 
1695,  in  his  sixty-third  year,  and  was  buried  in  the  ante- 
chapel  of  St.  John  Baptist  (Merton  College),  in  Oxford, 
where  he  superintended  the  digging  of  his  own  grave 
but  a few  days  before. 

WOOD,  Mrs.  Henry,  novelist,  was  born  January 
17,  1814.  She  first  came  before  the  public  in  her  own 
name  as  the  author  of  a temperance  tale  (Danesbuiy 
House ),  which  had  gained  the  prize  of  $500  offered  by 
the  Scottish  Temperance  League.  This  was  in  i860; 
but  it  appears  from  the  memoirs  published  in  1887 
that  “ for  many  years”  before  this  she  had  been  a regu- 
lar contributor  of  stories  anonymously,  month  after 
month,  to  Mr.  Harrison  Ainsworth’s  magazines,  Bent- 
ley’s Miscellany , and  Colburn’s  New  Monthly.  Danes - 
bury  House  was  very  favorably  reviewed,  her  genuine 
gifts  as  a story-teller  making  themselves  apparent  in 
spite  of  the  didactic  purpose  of  the  tale;  but  Mrs. 
Wood’s  first  great  success  was  made  in  the  following 
year  with  East  Lynne , one  of  the  most  popular  novels 
of  the  century.  The  praise  of  the  critics  continued 
throughout  the  next  half-dozen  of  her  novels,  which 
followed  one  another  with  great  rapidity:  The  Chan - 
nings  and  Mrs.  Halliburton's  Trebles,  in  1862;  Ver- 


neds  Pride , and  The  Shadow  of  Asklydyat,  m 1863, 
Lord  Oakburn’s  Daughters,  Oswald  Cray , and  Trev 
lyn  Hold , in  1864.  These  works  were  held  to  confirm 
the  promise  of  East  Lynne , and  The  Shadow  oj 
Ashlydyat  was  pronounced  to  be  (as  it  is  still  generally 
considered)  the  best  of  them  all  She  became  owner 
of  the  Argosy  in  1867,  anc^  her  stories  quickly  raised 
it  to  an  enormous  circulation.  She  had  a certain 
triumph  over  her  critics  with  the  Johnny  Ludlow  tales, 
an  imitation  of  Miss  Milford’s  Tales  of  onr  Village , 
Mrs.  Wood’s  name  was  not  put  to  them  as  they 
appeared  in  the  Argosy , and  when  the  first  series  was 
collected  and  published  separately  in  1874  they  excited 
among  reviewers  an  approach  to  the  enthusiasm  with 
which  her  first  efforts  had  been  welcomed.  Her  death 
took  place  February  10,  1887,  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
three.  She  was  active  in  her  work  till  the  very  last, 
and  left  several  completed  stories,  short  and  tong,  ready 
for  publication. 

WOOD-CARVING.  In  most  countries,  during 
the  early  development  of  the  plastic  art,  sculpture  in 
wood  took  a very  important  position,  and  was  much 
used  for  statues  on  a large  scale,  as  well  as  for  small 
works  decorated  with  surface  carving.  On  the  whole, 
wood  is  much  more  suitable  for  carving  in  slight  relief 
than  for  sculpture  in  the  round,  and  its  special  structure, 
with  bundles  of  long  fibers,  strong  in  one  direction  and 
weak  in  another,  make  it  very  necessary  for  the  carver 
to  suit  his  design  to  the  exigencies  of  the  material. 

Some  woods,  such  as  pear,  lime,  and  more  especially 
box,  are  comparatively  free  from  any  distinct  grain,  and 
may  be  carved  almost  like  marble,  but  these  woods  are 
only  to  be  had  in  small  pieces,  and  from  their  want  of 
fiber  are  structurally  weak,  and  are  therefore  only  avail- 
able for  decorative  purposes  on  a small  scale.  It  is  this 
absence  of  grain  which  makes  boxwood  the  material 
selected  for  engraving  on  wood,  a form  of  wood-carving 
in  which  the  artist  needs  to  be  as  little  as  possible 
hampered  by  the  structure  of  his  material.  One  ob- 
jection to  using  wood  for  life-sized  or  colossal  sculpture 
Is  that  large  blocks  are  very  liable  to  crack  and  split 
from  end  to  end,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  parts  near 
the  surface  dry  and  shrink  more  rapidly  than  the  core. 
For  this  reason  the  mediaeval  carvers  usually  hollowed 
out  their  wooden  statues  from  the  back,  so  as  to  equalize 
the  shrinkage  and  prevent  splitting.  In  all  cases  wood 
for  carving  should  be  very  well  seasoned,  and  it  is 
especially  necessary  to  get  rid  of  the  natural  sap,  which 
causes  rot  if  it  is  not  dried  out.  It  is  usual  to  soak 
newly  cut  timber  in  running  water,  so  that  the  sap  may 
be  washed  away;  it  is  then  comparatively  easy  to  dry 
out  the  water  which  has  soaked  into  the  pores  of  the 
wood  and  taken  the  place  of  the  sap. 

Egyptian. — One  of  the  most  remarkable  examples  of 
ancient  Egyptian  art,  dating  probably  from  nearly  4,000 
years  B.C.,  is  a life-sized  portrait  statue  of  a stout,  elderly 
man,  now  in  the  Boulak  museum.  This  is  carved  out 
of  a solid  block  of  sycamore  wood,  except  that  the  right 
arm  is  worked  separately  and  attached  by  a mortise  and 
tenon;  the  eyes  are  formed  by  inlaid  bits  of  shell  and 
crystal,  and  the  whole  is  a most  wonderful  piece  of  life- 
like realism  (see  fig.  1).  After  the  early  dynasties  in 
Egypt,  wood  does  not  seem  to  have  been  used  for  sculp- 
ture on  a large  scale,  although  it  was  very  commonly 
employed  for  mummy  cases  or  coffins,  one  end  carved 
with  a human  face  and  the  rest  almost  plain,  except  foi 
its  elaborate  painted  ornaments  in  gold  and  colors,  ap- 
plied on  a thin  coat  of  stucco  laid  evenly  over  the  wood. 
A large  number  of  smaller  examples  of  Egyptian  wood- 
carving  exist  in  various  museums,  such  as  furniture 
boxes,  implements  for  the  toilet,  and  the  like,  frequently 
decorated  with  slight  surface  reliefs  of  animals  or  plants- 


WOOD  CARVING. 


WOOD  CARVING. 


Fio.  7.~«Carved  Panel  from  the  Front  of  the  Stalls  in  Ulm  Cathedral. 


woo 


and  graceful  patterns  formed  of  the  lotus  or  papyrus 
flower  treated  with  great  decorative  skill. 

Greek. — It  is  probable  that  the  earliest  examples  of 
the  plastic  art  among  the  Hellenic  race  were  the  rude 
wooden  images  of*  the  gods  (%oara),  of  which  many 
examples  were  preserved  down  to  late  historic  times. 
The  Palladium,  or  sacred  figure  of  Pallas,  which  was 
guarded  by  the  vestal  virgins  in  Rome,  and  which  was 
fabled  to  have  been  brought  by  /Eneas  from  the  burn- 
ing Troy,  was  one  of  these  wooden  E,oava( see  Vesta). 
A wooden  figure  of  the  Armed  Aphrodite  at  Cythera  is 
mentioned  by  Pausanias.  Of  the  same  kind  was  the 
wooden  statue  of  Hermes  in  the  shrine  of  Athene  Polias 
on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  said  to  have  been  the  offer- 
ing of  Cecrops;  and  the  figure  of  Athene  Polias  itself 
was  an  ancient  wooden  | oar  or . Another  very  ancient 
statue,  carved  out  of  cedar  wood,  was  the  statue  of 
Apollo  in  his  temple,  dedicated  428  B.C.,  in  the  Campus 
Martiusof  Rome;  this  statue  was  called  Apollo  Sosianus, 
from  Sosius,  the  prefect  of  Syria,  who  presented  it  to  the 
temple.  Pausanias  mentions  another  early  wooden 
statue  of  Argos — that  of  Zeus  Larissaus,  which  was 
remarkable  for  having  three  eyes.  A very  elaborate 
example  of  cedar-wood  carving  enriched  with  gold  and 
ivory  is  described  by  Pausanias.  This  was  a coffer 
dedicated  at  Olympia  by  the  children  of  Cypselus, 
tyrant  of  Corinth  in  the  seventh  century  B.C.  It  was 
decorated  with  bands  in  relief,  with  scenes  from  the 
lives  of  various  gods  and  heroes.  A cedar  box,  with 
two  carved  dogs  attached  to  it,  was  found  at  Mycenae 
by  Doctor  Schliemann,  and  is  now  in  the  museum  at 
Athens.  During  the  most  flourishing  period  of  Greek 
art,  wood  was  sometimes  used  for  important  plastic 
purposes,  as,  for  example,  the  colossal  statue  of  Athene 
at  Plataea,  carved  by  Phidias.  The  figure  was  of  gilt 
or  plated  wood,  with  the  exception  of  the  nude  parts — 
the  face,  hands,  and  feet — which  were  of  Pentelic  marble. 

Roman. — Of  the  wood-carving  of  the  Roman  period 
almost  no  important  examples  now  exist;  but  the  carved 
panels  of  the  main  doors  of  S.  Sabina  on  the  Aventine 
Hill  are  very  interesting  specimens  of  wooden  relief- 
sculpture  of  early  Christian  times,  dating,  as  the  cos- 
tumes show,  from  the  fifth  century. 

Mediceval. — The  most  remarkable  examples  of  early 
mediaeval  wood-carving  are  the  doorways  of  wooden 
churches  of  Scandinavia  and  Denmark,  dating  from  the 
ninth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  These  are  master- 
pieces of  wood-carving,  designed  and  executed  with  the 
most  perfect  sense  of  the  necessities  of  the  material. 
Fig.  2 shows  part  of  the  architrave  of  a door  from 
Aal  church,  Norway,  dating  from  the  twelfth  century. 

English. — For  various  ecclesiastical  purposes  a large 
amount  of  important  sculpture  in  wood  was  produced 
in  Britain  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  At  the  time  of 
the  Reformation  every  church  had  its  rood-screen,  sur- 
mounted by  a large  crucifix  between  two  standing 
figures  of  St.  Mary  and  St.  John.  These  were  of  wood, 
except  perhaps  in  some  of  the  richest  cathedral  or  abbey 
churches,  which  occasionally  had  the  rood  made  of  sil- 
ver. A very  large  number  of  churches  also  had 
retables  over  the  various  altars,  with  reliefs  carved  in 
wood  and  decorated  with  gold  and  colors.  Many 
examples  of  this  class  still  exist  in  Germany  and  Spain, 
but  almost  all  the  English  examples  perished  under  the 
iconoclasm  of  the  Reformation. 

Another  important  class  of  wood-carving  was  that  of 
large  recumbent  effigies  from  tombs,  of  which  a good 
many  examples  still  exist.  One  of  the  earliest  is  that 
of  Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  in  Gloucester  cathedral, 
illustrated  in  Sculpture.  It  is  a work  of  the  twelfth 
century,  but  was  broken  to  pieces,  and  is  now  much  re- 
stored. Like  most  wooden  sculpture  in  England,  it  is 


6389 

carved  out  of  oak.  The  finest  example  of  English  wood 
sculpture  is  a life-sized  effigy  in  the  south  choir  aisle  of 
Abergavenny  church,  that  of  the  young  knight  George 
De  Cantelupe  (died  1273).  The  ^ace  a portrait  of 
very  high  plastic  merit,  and  the  whole  treatment  of  the 
figure,  with  the  graceful  drapery  of  its  tunic,  and  its 
carefully  carved  armor,  is  very  remarkable  as  an  exam- 
ple of  the  very  high  level  of  excellence  that  was  reached 
by  the  English  contemporaries  of  Niccola  Pisano. 

The  church  of  Abergavenny  also  contains  a colossal 
recumbent  figure  of  J esse,  which  formed  the  lower  part  of 
what  was  called  a “ Jesse  tree.”  Out  of  the  recumbent 
figure  grew  a great  tree,  on  the  branches  of  which  were 
figures  of  the  illustrious  descendants  of  Jesse’s  line. 
Merely  the  stump  of  this  tree  now  remains.  The  exist  * 
ing  figure  of  Jesse,  which  is  ten  feet  long,  is  cut  out  ol 
a solid  block  of  oak;  a figure  of  an  angel  at  the  head  is 
worked  out  of  the  same  piece  of  wood. 

Another  very  important  application  of  wood-carving 
was  for  the  decoration  of  the  church  stalls,  screens,  and 
roofs,  which  in  the  fifteenth  century  in  England  reached 
so  high  a pitch  of  splendor.  The  development  of 
architectural  wood-carving  was  much  slower  than  that 
of  sculpture  in  stone.  During  the  “ Early  English  ” 
period,  wood-work  was  rather  heavy  in  style  and  coarse 
in  detail;  in  “ Decorated  ” times  wood-work  of  much 
beauty  and  richness  was  produced,  but  forms  more 
suitable  to  stone  were  still  used,  and  it  was  not  till  the 
later  “ Perpendicular  ” period  in  the  fifteenth  century 
that  the  wood  carvers  of  England  learned  to  perfectly 
adapt  their  designs  to  the  nature  of  their  material. 

The  rich  oak  work  of  England  was  no  exception  to 
the  universal  application  of  colored  decoration,  and 
nearly  every  screen,  roof,  or  choir-stall  was  covered 
with  minute  painting  in  gold  and  colors.  Many  of  the 
Norfolk  screens  still  have  much  of  their  painted  orna- 
ment in  good  preservation;  and  additional  richness  was 
gained  by  the  groundwork  of  delicately  molded  stucco. 
The  very  rich  and  graceful  “ watching  gallery  ” in  the 
abbey  church  of  St.  Albans  is  now  bare  of  any  color- 
ing, though  it  was  once  a very  brilliant  example  of  poly- 
chromatic decoration.  Great  richness  of  carving  is 
lavished  on  the  church  roofs  especially  of  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk.  Carved  bosses  cover  the  intersections  of  the 
molded  timbers,  some  with  bunches  of  delicate  foliage, 
others  carved  into  figures  of  angels  with  outspread 
wings.  These  magnificent  roofs,  which  are  peculiar  to 
England,  and  even  to  certain  districts  such  as  East 
Anglia,  are  among  the  most  perfect  artistic  productions 
of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Devonshire,  and  other  counties  are 
still  rich  in  elaborate  chancel  screens,  carved  with  deli- 
cate foliage,  especially  in  the  hollows  of  the  cornice, 
and  light  open  cresting  or  “ brattishing  ” along  the  top. 
In  some  cases  the  carver  took  his  design  from  contem- 
porary engravings  by  some  distinguished  German  or 
Flemish  artist,  such  as  Schongauer  or  Albert  Diner. 
One  of  these  in  the  chapel  of  Henry  VII.  at  West- 
minster, representing  The  Golden  Age,  is  a work  of 
wonderful  beauty  and  delicacy  of  touch.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century  a very  realistic  style  of 
wood-carving  came  into  use,  in  which  great  technical 
skill  was  displayed  but  little  real  artistic  "feeling.  Grin- 
ling Gibbons  (1648-1721)  and  his  pupils  produced  the 
most  elaborate  works  of  this  class,  such  as  wreaths, 
scrolls,  and  friezes  carved  in  high  relief,  or  in  the 
round,  with  fruit  and  flowers,  modeled  and  carved  with 
wonderful  imitative  skill,  but  weak  in  true  decorative 
effect.  The  stalls  and  screens  in  St.  Paul’s  Cathedral 
are  some  of  Gibbons’  best  works,  and  a great  deal  of 
his  realistic  carving  still  exists  at  Oxford  in  Trinity  Col- 
lege, at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  at  Chatsworth,  a* 


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Petwortli,  and  in  many  of  the  great  country  houses  of 
that  time.  Since  then  wood-carving  has  not  taken  an 
important  position  among  the  lesser  arts  of  the  country. 

Italian. — During  the  mediaeval  period,  wood  was 
often  used  by  the  greatest  sculptors  of  Italy,  especially 
for  crucifixes  and  statues  of  saints  for  ecclesiastical  pur- 
poses. Fig.  3 shows  a magnificent  example  of  the 
school  of  Nino  Pisano,  dating  from  about  the  middle  of 
the  fourteenth  century.  It  is  a colossal  figure  of  the 
Angel  of  the  Annunciation,  said  to  have  once  belonged 
to  Pisa  cathedral,  and  now  one  of  the  chief  treasures  of 
the  South  Kensington  Museum.  Many  fine  roods  or 
crucifixes  of  life  size  still  exist  in  the  churches  of  Italy. 
One  attributed  to  Donatello  is  preserved  at  Florence, 
in  the  church  of  S.  Croce;  another  by  Brunelleschi  still 
exists.  Toward  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
especially  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth,  wood-carving 
of  the  most  elaborate  and  magnificent  sort  was  largely 
used  to  decorate  church  stalls,  wall-paneling,  doors  and 
the  like.  A very  important  school  of  this  branch  of 
art  was  founded  by  Raphael,  whose  designs  were  used 
or  adapted  by  a large  number  of  very  skillful  wood- 
carvers.  The  shutters  of  “ Raphael’s  Stanze  ” in  the 
Vatican  and  the  choir  stalls  of  the  church  of  S.  Pietro  de’ 
Cassinesi  at  Perugia  are  among  the  most  beautiful 
examples  of  this  class  of  carving.  The  work  is  in  slight 
relief,  carved  in  walnut  with  the  graceful  arabesque 
patterns  which  Raphael  developed  out  of  the  newly  dis- 
covered remains  of  ancient  Roman  wall-painting  from 
the  palace  of  Nero  and  other  places.  Fig.  4 shows  a 
panel  with  carving  of  this  school,  which  is  always  re- 
markable for  its  high  finish  and  delicate  cameo-like 
execution. 

Spanish. — Spain  during  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries  was  specially  remarkable  for  the  production 
of  large  and  elaborate  retables,  carved  with  statues  and 
reliefs,  very  like  those  of  contemporary  Germany. 
Alonso  Cano  and  other  sculptors  frequently  used  wood 
for  large  statuary,  which  was  painted  in  a very  realistic 
way  with  the  most  startling  life-like  effect. 

Danish. — Denmark  also  possessed  a school  of  able 
wood-carvers,  who  imitated  the  great  altarpieces  of 
Germany.  A very  large  and  well-carved  example  still 
exists  in  the  metropolitan  cathedral  of  Roskilde. 

French. — In  France  during  the  mediaeval  period 
wooden  sculpture  was  produced  which  was  very  similar 
in  character  to  that  of  England,  and  was  decorated 
with  similar  coloring.  Many  of  the  French  cathedral 
and  abbey  choir  stalls  are  works  of  the  utmost  magnifi- 
cence. Those  at  Amiens  are  specially  remarkable. 
Fig.  5 shows  an  example  of  the  delicate  tracery  work 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  In  the  sixteenth  century 
many  wood-carvers  in  France  imitated  the  rich  and 
delicate  work  of  the  Raphaelesque  school  in  Italy,  and 
much  wood-work  of  great  refinement  was  produced, 

• ery  different  from  the  coarsely  effective  work  of  Eliza- 
bethan and  Jacobean  England.  In  the  eighteenth 
century  large  sums  were  spent  on  elaborate  wooden 
paneling. 

German. — In  Germany,  during  the  fifteenth  century, 
wood  was  used  for  the  most  important  sculpturesque 
purposes,  such  as  large  triptychs  or  retables  made  up 
of  many  reliefs,  with  sacred  subjects,  and  statues  of 
saints — the  whole  framed  and  canopied  with  rich  Gothic 
“ tabernacle  work.”  (See  Sculpture.)  Fig.  6 shows  a 
fine  example  of  one  of  these  retables,  said  to  be  the 
work  of  Veit  Stoss,  now  in  the  South  Kensington 
Museum. 

Fig.  7 shows  a fine  example  of  the  treatment  of  a 
large  panel  in  the  front  of  the  stalls  at  Ulm  cathedral, 
oarved  in  unusually  high  relief  with  bold  conventional 
foliage,  full  of  spirit  and  vigorous  beauty.  These 


splendid  stalls  were  executed  in  1468  by  Jorg  Syrlin. 
During  this  period  the  wood-carving  of  Germany  occu- 
pied a foremost  position  in  the  world,  and  in  many 
places,  such  as  Nuremberg  and  parts  of  Bavaria,  great 
technical  skill  has  survived  down  to  the  present  time. 

Switzerland  and  Tyrol  have  also  been  for  long  cele- 
brated for  delicate  wood-carving  on  a small  scale.  The 
cleverly  executed  figures  of  peasants  and  of  animals, 
especially  the  chamois,  are  widely  popular,  and  their 
production  gives  occupation  to  a large  class  of  able 
artisans,  who,  however,  rarely  rise  to  the  level  of  origi- 
nal artists,  though  they  attain  a fairly  high  average  of 
excellence. 

Mohammedan. — Nothing  can  exceed  the  skill  with 
which  the  Moslem  wood-carvers  of  Persia,  Syria, 
Egypt,  and  Spain  designed  and  executed  the  richest 
paneling  and  other  decorations  for  wall-lining,  ceilings, 
pulpits,  and  all  kinds  of  fittings  and  furniture.  The 
mosques  and  private  houses  of  Cairo,  Damascus,  and 
other  Oriental  cities  are  full  of  the  most  elaborate  and 
minutely  delicate  wood-work.  A favorite  style  of  orna- 
ment was  to  cover  the  surface  with  very  intricate  inter- 
lacing patterns,  formed  by  delicately  molded  ribs. 
Carved  ivory  was  also  often  used  for  the  filling  in  of  the 
flat  spaces.  Fig.  8 shows  a fine  example  of  this  sort  of 
work,  dating  from  the  fourteenth  century — part  of  a 
wall-lining  in  the  Alhambra. 

In  the  early  mediaeval  period  very  elaborate  wood- 
work for  screens  and  other  fittings  was  produced  for  the 
Coptic  churches  of  Egypt  by  native  Christian  workmen; 
some  of  these  had  small  panels  carved  in  a hard  dark 
wood,  with  saints  and  Bible  subjects  in  low  relief,  very 
Byzantine  in  style.  The  British  Museum  possesses 
some  fine  examples  of  this  carved  work  from  a church 
in  Old  Cairo.  These  early  wood  fittings  are  now 
rapidly  disappearing. 

Asiatic. — In  India,  wood-carving  of  the  most  magnifi- 
cent kind  has  been  constantly  produced  for  many 
centuries.  The  ancient  Hindu  temples  were  decorated 
with  doors,  ceilings,  and  other  fittings,  carved  in  sandal 
and  other  woods,  with  patterns  of  extreme  richness  and 
minute  elaboration.  The  doors  of  the  temple  at  Som 
nauth,  on  the  northwest  coast  of  India,  were  especially 
famed  for  their  magnificence,  and  were  very  highly 
valued  as  sacred  relics.  In  1024  they  were  carried  off 
to  Ghuznee  by  the  Moslem  conqueror  Sultan  Mahmoud, 
and  are  now  lying  in  the  fort  at  Agra.  In  China  and 
Japan  the  wood-carvers  are  absolutely  unrivaled  in 
technical  skill;  grotesque  and  imitative  work  of  the  most 
wonderful  perfection  is  produced,  and  some  of  the  wood- 
carvings  of  these  countries  are  really  beautiful  as  works 
of  art,  especially  when  the  carver  copies  the  lotus  lily  or 
other  aquatic  plants.  In  many  cases,  however,  as  in 
the  other  arts  of  Japan  and  China,  extreme  ugliness  of 
design  is  combined  with  the  most  perfect  execution  and 
exquisite  finish,  and  the  carvers  have  very  little  notion 
of  the  really  decorative  treatment  of  surface  reliefs. 

Wood-  Carving  of  Savage  Races.  — Many  savage  races, 
such  as  the  Maoris  and  Polynesians,  are  very  skillful  in 
the  decorative  treatment  of  wood  in  slight  relief.  Intri- 
cate geometrical  designs  of  much  beauty  and  suita- 
bility to  the  material  are  used  to  decorate  canoes,  pad- 
dles, and  the  beams  of  huts.  Great  richness  of  effect 
is  often  produced  by  the  smallest  possible  amount  of 
cutting  into  the  surface  of  the  wood.  The  wooden 
architecture  of  the  Maoris  is  sometimes  decorated  in 
the  most  lavish  way.  The  main  uprights  of  the  walls 
are  carved  into  grotesque  semi-human  monsters,  en- 
riched with  painting  and  inlay  of  iridescent  shell,  which 
show  much  imaginative  power.  Other  beams  are  carved 
with  series  of  spirals,  bearing  much  resemblance  to  the 
very  early  sculptured  ornaments  of  Mycenae.  Tiryns. 


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and  other  Hellenic  cities— one  of  the  many  examples 
which  show  that  very  similar  stages  of  artistic  develop- 
ment are  passed  through  by  men  of  the  most  different 
races  and  age. 

In  modern  Europe  decorative  wood-carving  shares 
the  general  low  level  of  the  lesser  arts.  The  com- 
mercial spirit  of  the  age,  and  the  general  desire  to  pro- 
duce the  utmost  display  with  the  smallest  cost  and  labor, 
have  reduced  the  art  of  wood-carving  to  a very  low  state. 

WOOD-CHARCOAL  is  the  most  important  al- 
though not  the  purest  kind  of  charcoal.  Wood  con- 
sists of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  the  last  two  be- 
ing in  the  proportion  to  form  water.  When  heated  in 
the  open  air  it  burns  completely  away,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a small  white  ash;  but  if  the  supply  of  air  be 
limited,  only  the  more  volatile  matters  burn  away,  and 
most  of  the  carbon  remains.  This  is  the  process  of 
charcoal  burning  in  countries  where  wood  is  abundant, 
as,  for  example,  in  the  Harz  mountains.  A number  of 
billets  of  wood  are  built  up  vertically  in  two  or  three 
rows  into  a large  conical  heap,  which  is  covered  over 
with  turf  or  moistened  charcoal  ash,  holes  being  left 
at  the  bottom  for  the  air  to  get  in.  A hollow  space  is 
also  left  in  the  middle  of  the  heap,  to  serve  for  a flue 
for  gaseous  matters  which  are  evolved.  The  heap  is  set 
on  fire  by  throwing  burning  pieces  of  wood  into  the 
central  opening,  near  the  top  of  which  a kind  of  grate 
made  of  billets  of  wood  is  placed,  to  prevent  the  burning 
fuel  from  falling  at  once  to  the  bottom.  The  com- 
bustion then  gradually  proceeds  from  the  top  to  the 
bottom,  and  from  the  center  to  the  outside  of  the  heap; 
and  as  the  central  portions  burn  away,  fresh  wood  is 
continually  thrown  on  top,  so  as  to  keep  the  heap  quite 
full.  The  appearance  of  the  smoke  shows  how  the  com- 
bustion is ’proceeding;  when  it  is  going  on  properly  the 
smoke  is  thick  and  white;  if  it  becomes  thin,  and  espe- 
cially if  a blue  flame  appears,  it  is  the  sign  that  the  wood 
is  burning  away  too  fast,  and  the  combustion  must  then 
be  checked,  by  partially  stopping  up  the  holes  at  the  bot- 
tom, or  by  heaping  fresh  ashes  on  the  top  and  sides,  and 
pressing  them  down  well,  so  as  to  diminish  the  draught. 
As  soon  as  the  combustion  is  completed  the  heap  is 
completely  covered  with  turf  or  ashes,  and  left  to  cool 
for  two  or  three  days.  It  is  then  taken  to  pieces,  and 
the  portions  still  hot  are  cooled  by  throwing  water  or 
sand  upon  them.  One  hundred  parts  of  wood  yield  on 
the  average  from  61  to  65  parts  by  measure,  or  24  parts 
by  weight  of  charcoal.  The  charcoal  thus  prepared  is 
best  suited  for  fuel.  A large  quantity  of  charcoal  is 
obtained  in  the  dry  distillation  of  wood  in  cast-iron  cyl- 
inders, for  the  preparation  of  crude  acetic  acid.  The 
charcoal  thus  prepared  is  preferable  for  making  gun- 
powder, but  is  inferior  for  other  purposes.  A peculiar 
kind  of  charcoal  of  a reddish  brown  color,  and  hence 
termed  charbon-roitx,  is  prepared  in  France  for  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder  for  sporting  purposes,  by 
subjecting  wood  in  iron  cylinders  to  the  action  of  super- 
heated steam  under  a pressure  of  two  atmospheres. 
Powder  made  with  this  charcoal  absorbs  moisture  more 
rapidly  than  ordinary  gunpowder.  The  general  prop- 
erties of  wood  charcoal  are,  that  it  is  black  and  brittle, 
and  retains  the  form  of  the  wood  from  which  it  was  de- 
rived; it  is  insoluble  in  water,  infusible  and  non-volatile 
in  the  most  intense  heat. 

WOODCHUCK,  The.  The  Arctomys  monax , dis- 
covered by  Linnaeus,  is  well  known  in  North  America, 
where  it  is  described  under  various  names,  the  most 
general  of  which  are  Marmot,  Ground  Hog,  and  Sif- 
fieur . It  frequents  Canada  and  the  M iddle  and  Western 
States,  and  is  to  be  found  in  Maryland  and  other  of 
the  border  States.  It  is  of  somewhat  larger  dimensions 
than  the  European  Marmot,  but  0?  ungraceful  propor- 


6391 

tions.  Its  temper  is  vicious,  and  it  will  offer  a vigorous 
defense  when  attacked,  often  putting  an  ordinary  sized 
dog  to  flight.  The  animal  is  covered  with  a coarse 
brown  fur,  of  little  value,  and  its  body  sends  forth  an 
offensive  odor,  on  account  of  which  and  the  coarseness 
of  its  flesh,  it  is  unpalatable,  and  rarely  eaten  by  any 
except  Indians.  It  lives  on  clover,  vegetables,  esculents, 
etc.,  but  continues  to  increase  and  multiply  notwith- 
standing the  war  waged  by  farmers  and  gardeners  for 
its  extermination.  They  live  in  holes  m the  ground, 
from  which  they  rarely  wander  to  any  considerable  dis- 
tance, and  are  inclined  to  exist  in  families.  In  the 
colder  portions  of  the  North,  they  remain  torpid  during 
the  winter  season.  The  creature  is  chiefly  known  in 
connection  with  “Ground  Hog  day,”  when  it  is  sup- 
posed to  emerge  from  its  hole  at  noon.  If  it  can  see  its 
shadow  in  the  sun  it  returns  to  its  hole  to  sleep  an  ad- 
ditional six  weeks;  if,  however,  the  day  is  stormy  and 
the  sun  obscured,  it  is  an  indication  that  spring  is  at 
hand.  When  fat,  the  creature  is  killed  for  its  oil,  an 
article  in  demand  by  farmers  for  various  purposes. 
Sometimes  the  skin  is  tanned,  and  the  white  leather 
, thus  made  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  whip 
lashes.  The  skins  are  also  sewn  together  for  coats  and 
robes,  but  the  products  are  not  in  much  demand,  being 
but  indifferent  protectors  against  the  weather. 

WOODCOCK  (A.-S.,  Wude-coccs  Wudu-coc , and 
Wudii-smfe ),  a bird  as  much  extolled  for  the  table,  on 
account  of  its  flavor,  as  by  the  sportsman,  who  thinks 
himself  lucky  when  he  has  laid  one  low. 

The  woodcock  is  the  Scolopax  ntsticula  of  ornithol- 
ogy, and  is  well  enough  known  to  need  no  minute 
description.  Its  long  bill,  short  legs,  and  large  eyes— 
suggestive  of  its  nocturnal  or  crepuscular  habits — have 
over  and  over  again  been  the  subject  of  remark,  while 
its  mottled  plumage  of  black,  chestnut,  and  umber- 
brown,  ashy-gray,  buff,  and  shining  white — the  last 
being  confined  to  the  tip  of  the  lower  side  of  the  tail 
quills,  but  the  rest  intermixed  for  the  most  part  in 
beautiful  combination — could  not  be  adequately  de- 
scribed within  the  present  allotted  space.  It  may  suffice 
here  to  say  that  ornithologists  are  practically  unanimous 
in  declaring  against  the  existence  of  two  “species”  or 
even  “ races,”  and  moreover  in  agreeing  that  the  sex  of 
the  bird  cannot  be  determined  from  its  plumage,  though 
there  are  a few  who  believe  that  the  young  of  the  year 
can  be  discriminated  from  the  adults  by  having  the  outer 
web  of  the  first  quill-feather  in  the  wing  marked  with 
angular  notches  of  a light  color,  while  the  old  birds 
have  no  trace  of  this  “ Vandyke  ” ornament.  Careful 
dissections,  weighings,  and  measurings  seem  to  show 
that  the  male  varies  most  in  size;  on  an  average  he 
is  slightly  heavier  than  the  female,  yet  some  of  the 
lightest  birds  have  proved  to  be  cocks. 

Though  there  are  probably  few  if  any  counties  in  the 
United  Kingdom  in  which  the  woodcock  does  not  al- 
most yearly  breed,  especially  since  a “ close  time”  has 
been  afforded  by  the  legislature  for  the  protection  of 
the  species,  there  can  be  no  douht  that  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  those  shot  in  the  British  Islands  have 
come  from  abroad — mostly,  it  is  presumed,  from  Scan- 
dinavia. These  arrive  on  the  east  coast  in  autumn— 
generally  about  the  middle  of  October — often  in  an  ex- 
hausted and  impoverished  state.  Their  future  destina- 
tion seems  to  be  greatly  influenced  by  the  state  of  the 
weather.  If  cold  or  frost  stops  their  supply  of  food  on 
the  eastern  side  of  Great  Britain,  they  press  onward 
and,  letting  alone  Ireland,  into  which  the  immigrant 
stream  is  pretty  constant,  often  crowd  into  the  extreme 
south-west,  as  Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  and  to  the 
Isles  of  Scilly,  while  not  a few  betake  themselves  to  the 
unknown  ocean,  finding  there  doubtless  a watery  gravet 

iae  iraae  fs 


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6392 

though  instances  are  on  record  of  examples  having  suc- 
cessfully crossed  the  Atlantic  and  reached  Newfound- 
land, New  Jersey,  and  Virginia. 

The  woodcock  inhabits  suitable  localities  across  the 
northern  part  of  the  Old  World,  from  Ireland  to  Japan, 
migrating  southward  toward  autumn.  As  a species  it  is 
said  to  be  resident  in  the  Azores  and  other  Atlantic  Isl- 
ands; but  if  is  not  known  to  penetrate  very  far  into 
Africa  during  the  winter,  though  in  many  parts  of  In- 
dia it  is  abundant  during  the  cold  weather,  and  reaches 
even  Ceylon  and  Tenassenm.  The  popular  belief  that 
Woodcocks  live  “ by  suction”  is  perhaps  hardly  yet  ex- 
ploded; but  those  who  have  observed  them  in  confine- 
ment know  that  they  have  an  almost  insatiable  appetite 
for  earthworms,  which  the  birds  seek  by  probing  soft 
ground  with  their  highly  sensitive  and  flexible  bill. 
This  fact  seems  to  have  been  first  placed  on  record  by 
Howies,  who  noticed  it  in  the  royal  aviary  at  San  Ilde- 
fonso  in  Spain,  and  it  has  been  corroborated  by  other 
observers,  and  especially  by  Montagu,- who  discovered 
that  bread  and  milk  made  an  excellent  substitute  for 
their  ordinary  food. 

The  eastern  part  of  North  America  possesses  a 
Woodcock,  much  smaller  than,  though  generally  (and 
especially  in  habits)  similar  to,  that  of  the  Old  Con- 
tinent. It  is  the  Scolopcix  minor  of  most  authors;  but, 
chiefly  on  account  of  its  having  the  outer  three  prima- 
ries remarkably  attenuated,  it  has  been  placed  in  a 
separate  genus,  Philohela.  In  Java  is'  found  a distinct 
and  curiously  colored  species. 

WOOD-ENGRAVING.  See  Engraving. 

WOODPECKER,  a bird  that  pecks  or  picks  holes  in 
wood,  and  from  this  habit  is  commonly  reputed  to  have 
its  name.  More  than  300  species  of  Woodpecker  have 
been  described,  and  they  have  been  very  variously 
grouped  by  systematists,  but  ail  admit  that  they  form  a 
very  natural  Family  Picidce , which  belongs  to  they  order 
Picarice.  Professor  Huxley  would  separate  the  Wood- 
peckers still  more  under  the  name  of  CeleomorpJnz , and 
Professor  Parker  would  raise  them  still  higher  as  San- 
rognathce , They  are  generally  of  bright,  particolored 
plumage,  in  which  black,  white,  brown,  olive,  green, 
yellow,  orange,  or  scarlet— the  last  commonly  visible 
on  some  part  of  the  head — mingled  in  varying  propor- 
tions, and  most  often  strongly  contrasted  with  one 
another,  appear;  while  the  less  conspicuous  markings 
take  the  form  of  bars,  spangles,  tear  drops,  arrow- 
heads, or  scales.  Woodpeckers  inhabit  most  parts  of 
the  world,  with  the  exception  of  Madagascar  and  the 
Australian  region,  save  Celebes  and  Flores;  but  no 
number  of  the  group  is  known  to  have  occurred  in 

Egypt-  T t 

In  North  America  this  species  is  replaced  by  Picus 
pileatus , there  generally  known  as  the  Logcock,  an 
equally  fine  species,  but  variegated  with  white;  and 
further  to  the  southward  occur  two  that  are  finer  still, 
P.  principalis , the  Ivory-billed  Woodpecker,  and  P. 
imperialis.  The  Picimr  indeed  flourish  in  the  New 
World,  nearly  one-half  of  the  described  species  being 
American,  but  out  of  the  large  number  that  inhabit 
Canada  and  the  United  States  there  is  here  room  to 
mention  only  a few. 

First  of  these  is  the  Californian  Woodpecker,  Mel- 
anerpes  formicivorus , which  has  been  said  to  display  an 
amount  of  providence  beyond  almost  any  other  bird  in 
the  number  of  acorns  which  it  collects,  and  fixes  tightly 
in  holes  which  it  purposely  makes  in  the  bark  of  trees, 
and  thus  “ a large  pine  forty  or  fifty  feet  high  will  pre- 
sent the  appearance  of  being  closely  studded  with  brass 
nails,  the  heads  only  being  visible.”  An  extraordinary 
thing  is  that  this  is  not  done  to  furnish  food  in  winter, 
tVip  species  migrates,  and  after  journeying  a thou- 


sand miles  or  more  only  returns  in  spring  to  the  forests 
where  its  supplies  are  laid  up.  It  has  been  asserted 
that  the  acorns  thus  stored  are  always  those  which  con- 
tain  a maggot,  and,  being  fitted  into  the  sockets  pre- 
pared for  them  cup-end  foremost,  the  inclosed  insects 
are  unable  to  escape,  as  they  otherwise  would,  and  are 
thus  ready  for  consumption  by  the  birds  on  their  return 
from  the  south.  But  mis  statement  has  again  been  con- 
tradicted, and  moreover  it  is  alleged  that  these  Wood- 
peckers follow  their  instinct  so  blindly  that  “ they  do 
not  distinguish  between  an  acorn  and  a pebble,”  so  that 
they  “ fill  up  the  holes  they  have  drilled  with  so  much 
labor,  not  only  with  acorns  but  occasionally  with 
stones.” 

The  next  North- American  form  deserving  notice  is 
the  genus  Co/aptcs,  represented  in  the  north  and  east  by 
C.  auratus,  the  Golden-winged  Woodpecker  or  Flicker, 
in  most  parts  of  the  country  a familiar  bird,  but  in  the 
south  and  west  replaced  by  the  allied  C.  Mexicanus , 
easily  distinguishable  among  other  characteristics  by 
having  the  shafts  of  its  quills  red  instead  of  yellow.  It 
is  curious,  however,  that,  in  the  valleys  of  the  upper 
Missouri  and  Yellowstone  rivers,  where  the  range  of 
the  two  kinds  overlaps,  birds  are  found  presenting  an 
extraordinary  mixture  of  the  otherwise  distinctive  feat- 
ures of  each,  and  these  birds  have  been  described  as 
hybrids. 

WOODSTOCK,  an  ancient  corporate  market-town 
of  Oxfordshire,  England,  about  eight  miles  northwest 
of  Oxford.  The  church  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene,  in 
New  Woodstock,  is  of  Norman  date,  but  has  been 
greatly  altered  by  restoration,  and  now  has  Decorated 
chancel  with  Perpendicular  additions,  clerestoried  nave, 
Decorated  north  aisle  and  Early  English  south  aisle, 
retaining  a portion  of  the  Norman  doorway,  Perpen- 
dicular west  porch,  and  Perpendicular  west  tower. 
The  church  contains  many  interesting  monuments. 
The  population  of  the  parliamentary  borough  (area 
20,804  acres)  was  10,033  in  I9°I- 

The  old  manor  house  of  Woodstock,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  built  upon  the  site  of  a Roman 
villa,  was  at  an  early  period  a royal  residence.  Here 
Alfred  the  Great  is  said  to  have  resided  while  translating 
Boetius.  At  a witenagemot  held  at  Woodstock  by 
King  Ethelred,  a code  of  laws  was  published  for  the 
government  of  the  Anglo  Saxon  kingdom.  Henry  I. 
made  Woodstock  a favorite  residence,  and  formed  a 
zoological  garden  there.  Woodstock  was  the  scene  of 
Henry  II. ’s  courtship  of  Rosamond  / Clifford,  and  his 
frequent  visits  to  the  place  led  to  the  building  of  the 
nucleus  of  the  town  of  New  Woodstock.  Queen  Eliza- 
beth was  a prisoner  at  Woodstock  from  May,  1554,  till 
May,  1555,  and  after  her  accession  to  the  throne  visited 
it  in  1566  and  again  in  1575.  During  the  Civil  war  it 
was  the  scene  of  frequent  military  operations,  and  after 
a siege  it  surrendered  to  the  parliament  April  20,  1646. 
After  the  battle  of  Blenheim  the  manor  of  Woodstock 
was  by  Act  3 and  4 of  Queen  Anne,  chap.  4,  bestowed 
in  perpetuity  on  John,  duke  of  Marlborough.  Blenheim 
palace,  built  by  the  duke  from  the  designs  of  Sir  John 
Vanbrugh,  was  completed  in  1715.  In  1 723  the 
manor  house  was  destroyed  and  the  site  leveled. 

WOODSTOCK,  a town,  port  of  entry,  and  the  cap- 
ital of  Oxford  county,  province  of  Ontario,  Canada,  is 
situated  on  the  river  Thames  and  Cedar  creek,  and  on 
the  Great  Western  railway,  eighty  miles  southwest  of 
Toronto.  The  trade  is  of  growing  importance.  There  is 
good  water  power,  and  the  town  possesses  several  corn- 
mills,  and  a woolen  factory.  Its  healthy  situation  and 
the  beauty  of  the  neighboring  scenery  attract  a numbei 
of  summer  visitors.  The  population  (1901)  was  8,833. 

WOOD-WORK.  See  Building. 


woo 


WOOL  AND  WOOLEN  MANUFACTURES. 
Wool  is  a modified  form  of  hair  distinguished  by  its 
slender,  soft,  and  wavy  or  curly  structure,  and  by  the 
highly  imbricated  or  serrated  surface  of  its  filaments. 
The  numerous  varieties  of  the  sheep  are  the  most  char- 
acteristic, as  they  are  also  by  far  the  most  important, 
producers  of  wool;  but  the  sheep  is  by  no  means  the 
only  animal  which  yields  wool  employed  for  industrial 
purposes.  The  alpaca  and  other  allied  fibers  obtained 
from  the  alpaca  and  its  congeners  in  South  America  (see 
Alpaca  and  Llama),  the  mohair  yielded  by  the  Angora 
goat  (Mohair),  and  the  soft  woolly  hair  of  the  camel  are 
all  wools  of  much  industrial  importance,  while  the  most 
costly  wool  in  the  world  is  that  yielded  by  the  Cashmere 
goat  of  the  Himalayan  Mountains.  At  what  point  in- 
deed it  can  be  said  that  an  animal  fiber  ceases  to  be 
hair  and  becomes  wool  it  is  impossible  to  determine, 
because  in  every  characteristic  the  one  class,  by  imper- 
ceptible gradations,  merges  into  the  other;  so  that  a 
continuous  chain  can  be  formed  from  the  finest  and 
softest  merino  to  the  rigid  bristles  of  the  wild  boar. 

Next  to  cotton,  wool  is  the  most  important  of  all 
textile  fibers  used  by  mankind.  From  the  ease  with 
which  it  may  be  made  into  thread,  and  owing  to  the 
comfort  derived  from  clothing  of  woolen  texture,  it 
naturally  would  be  the  textile  first  used  by  mankind  for 
clothing.  The  testimony  of  all  ancient  records  goes  to 
prove  the  high  antiquity  of  woolen  textures  and  the 
early  importance  of  the  sheep. 

Among  the  arts  of  civilized  life  which  the  British  Isles 
owe  to  the  Romans,  not  the  least  important  was  the 
spinning  and  weaving  of  wool.  The  sheep  certainly 
was  a domestic  animal  in  England  long  before  the 
period  of  the  Roman  occupation;  and  it  is  most  probable 
that  such  use  was  made  of  sheep  skins  and  of  wool  as 
was  common  among  uncivilized  races.  The  reputation 
which  English  wool  at  this  early  period  established 
was  maintained  throughout  mediaeval  times;  and  the 
fiber  was  in  great  demand  in  the  Low  Countries  and 
other  continental  centers  where  skill  in  manufacture 
was  highly  developed.  There  are  many  allusions  to 
woolen  manufactures  in  England  in  early  times;  but 
altogether  the  native  industry  could  not  rival  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  continent,  although  the  troubles  in  various 
industrial  centers,  from  time  to  time,  caused  skilled 
workers  in  wool  to  seek  an  asylum  in  England.  In 
the  time  of  William  the  Conquerer  Flemish  weavers 
settled  under  the  protection  of  the  queen  at  Carlisle,  but 
subsequently  they  were  removed  to  Pembrokeshire. 
At  various  periods  in  the  reigns  of  succeeding  monarchs 
further  immigrations  of  skilled  Flemish  weavers  oc- 
curred, and  they  were  planted  at  different  places 
throughout  the  country.  The  cloth  fair  in  the  church 
yard  of  the  priory  of  St.  Bartholomew  was  instituted  by 
Henry  II.;  guilds  of  weavers  were  established;  and  the 
exclusive  privilege  of  exporting  woolen  cloth  was 
granted  to  the  city  of  London.  Edward  III.  made 
special  efforts  to  encourage  woolen  industries  according 
to  the  manner  in  which  it  was  supposed  in  mediaeval 
times  that  trade  could  be  best  encouraged.  He  brought 
weavers,  dyers,  and  fullers  from  Flanders;  he  himself 
wore  Flemish  cloth;  and  to  stimulate  native  industry  he 
prohibited  under  pain  of  life  and  limb  the  exportation  of 
English  wool. 

The  customs  duties  levied  on  the  export  of  wool  were 
an  important  source  of  the  royal  revenue,  and  Ed- 
ward III. ’s  attempt  to  stop  the  trade  appears  to  have 
been  an  honest  though  misguided  attempt  to  foster  na- 
tive manufactures.  His  prohibitory  law  was,  however, 
found  to  be  unworkable,  and  the  utmost  that  both  he 
and  his  successors  were  able  to  effect  was  to  hamper  | 
the  export  trade  by  vexatious  restrictions  and  to  en-  j 


6393 

courage  much  “ running”  or  smuggling  of  wool.  Leg- 
islation of  this  kind  prevailed  till  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
when  the  free  exportation  of  English  wool  was  per- 
mitted; and  Smith,  in  his  Memoirs  of  Wool , points  out 
that  it  was  during  this  reign  that  the  manufacture  made 
the  most  rapid  progress  in  the  country.  In  1660  the 
absolute  prohibition  of  the  export  of  wool  was  again 
decreed,  and  it  was  not  till  1825  that  this  prohibitory 
law  was  finally  repealed.  The  prohibition  appears  to 
have  been  based  on  the  mistaken  notion  that  England 
possessed  a monopoly  of  the  finest  kinds  of  wool,  and 
that  by  withholding  it  from  foreign  competitors  the 
home  manufacturers  would  command  the  markets  of  the 
world.  The  results  of  the  prohibitory  law  were  ex- 
ceedingly detrimental;  the  production  of  wool  far  ex- 
ceeded the  consumption;  the  price  of  the  raw  material 
fell;  wool  “ running  ” or  smuggling  became  an  organized 
traffic;  and  the  whole  industry  became  disarranged. 
Extraordinary  expedients  were  resorted  to  for  stimu- 
lating the  demand  for  woolen  manufactures,  among 
which  was  an  act  passed  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  de- 
creeing that  all  dead  bodies  should  be  buried  in  woolen 
shrouds — an  enactment  which  remained  on  the  Statute 
Book,  if  not  in  force,  for  a period  of  120  years.  On 
the  opening  up  of  the  colonies,  every  effort  was  made 
to  encourage  the  use  of  English  cloth,  and  the  manu- 
facture was  discouraged  and  even  prohibited  in  Ireland. 

Until  the  development  of  the  cotton  trade,  toward  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  woolen  industries 
were,  beyond  comparison,  the  most  important  sources 
of  wealth  in  England.  What  the  actual  value  of  the 
trade  at  an  early  period  was  it  is  impossible  to  ascer- 
tain, and  the  estimates  of  wool  production  and  the 
value  of  the  manufactures  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  vary  widely. 

Sheep  were  introduced  at  Jamestown  in  Virginia  in 
1609;  and  in  1633  the  animals  were  first  brought  to 
Boston.  Ten  years  later  a fulling  mill  was  erected  at 
Rowley,  Mass.,  “by  Mr.  Rowley’s  people,  who  were 
the  first  that  set  upon  making  cloth  in  this  western 
world.”  The  factory  woolen  industry  was,  however, 
not  established  till  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  it  is  recorded  that  the  first  carding  machine  put  in 
operation  in  the  United  States  was  constructed  in  1794 
under  the  supervision  of  John  and  Arthur  Schofield. 

The  bulk  of  the  wool  of  commerce  comes  into  the 
market  in  the  form  of  fleece  wool,  the  product  of  a 
single  year’s  growth,  cut  from  the  body  of  the  living 
animal.  The  first  and  finest  clip,  called  lamb’s  wool, 
may  be  taken  from  the  young  sheep  at  about  the  age  of 
eight  months.  When  the  animal  is  not  shorn  till  it 
attains  the  age  of  twelve  or  fourteen  months  the  wool  is 
known  as  hogg  or  hogget,  and  it,  like  lambs’  wool,  is 
fine  and  tapers  into  long  thin  ends.  All  subsequently 
cut  fleeces  are  known  as  wether  wool,  and  possess 
relatively  somewhat  less  value  than  the  first  clip.  Fleece 
wool  as  it  comes  into  the  market  is  either  “in  the 
grease,”  that  is,  unwashed,  and  with  all  the  dirt  which 
gathers  to  the  surface  of  the  greasy  wool  present ; or  it 
is  received  as  “ washed  ” wool,  the  washing  being  done 
as  a preliminary  to  the  sheep-shearing.  Skin  wool  is 
that  which  is  obtained  from  sheep  which  either  die  or 
are  killed.  Such  wool  is  always  of  inferior  value  and 
much  impregnated  with  lime  from  the  steeping  pits  in 
the  tan-yard  in  which  the  skins  are  first  treated  to  soften 
and  swell  the  skin  for  facilitating  the  easy  separation  of 
the  wool  from  it. 

The  wool  market  is  supplied  from  almost  every 
quarter  of  the  globe,  and  the  qualities  and  varieties  of 
the  article  are  exceedingly  numerous.  The  range  of 
woolen  and  worsted  manufactures  is  also  very  wide,  and 
the  raw  material  suitable  for  one  section  of  the  trade  is 


woe 


6394 

not  at  all  fitted  to  supply  other  sections.  Much  more 
than  is  the  case  in  any  other  textile  industry  we  have  in 
the  woolen  trades  practically  a series  of  separate  and. 
distinct  industries,  each  with  its  own  appropriate  class 
of  raw  materials.  The  main  distinctions  are — ( 1 ) carding 
wools,  in  which  felting  properties  are  desirable;  (2) 
combing  wools,  requiring  length  of  staple  and  brightness 
of  fiber,  for  hard-spun  non-felting  worsteds  ; and  (3) 
carpet  and  knitting  wools,  in  which  long  and  strong  if 
somewhat  coarse  staple  are  the  essential  qualities. 
Breeding,  climate,  and  food  are  the  main  factors  in 
. developing  and  rearing  special  races  of  sheep  in  which 
the  qualities  essential  for  producing  the  raw  materials 
of  any  of  these  sections  of  industry  are  secured. 

For  centuries  the  finer  wools  used  for  cloth-making 
throughout  Europe  were  obtained  from  Spain,  which 
was  the  home  of  the  famous  merino  breed  developed 
from  races  of  sheep  originally  introduced  into  the  Pe- 
ninsula by'  the  Romans.-  Till  early  in  the  present  century 
the  superiority  of  Spanish  merinoes  remained  unchal- 
lenged, but  the  Peninsular  war  and  its  attendant  evils 
produced  a depreciation  of  quality  concurrently  with 
the  introduction  of  Saxon  and  Silesian  wools,  which 
suddenly  supplanted  the  product  of  Spain,  and  hold  the 
first  place  down  to  the  present  day.  The  Spanish 
merino  sheep  was  introduced  into  Saxony  by  the  elector 
in  1765,  and  by  judicious  crossing  with  the  best 
native  race  developed  the  famous  electoral  breed. 
Merinoes  were  carried  to  Hungary  in  1775,  and  to 
France  in  1776,  and  in  1786  Daubenton  took  them  to 
Rambouillet,  whence  a famous  race  developed.  In 
1802  the  first  merinoes  known  to  have  left  pure  descend- 
ants were  brought  to  the  United  States,  and  in  1809-10 
an  importation  (4,000)  of  merino / sheep  was  made. 
The  introduction  of  merino  blood  has  also  largely 
modified  certain  of  the  breeds  of  English  sheep,  and 
from  them,  crossed  with  the  English  breeds,  Sbuth- 
downs  and  Leicesters,  have  sprung  the  vast  flocks  of 
sheep  in  the  various  Australasian  colonies,  which  now 
bid  fair  to  supply  the  whole  world  with  wools  of  the 
merino  class,  and  of  the  very  highest  quality.  The 
weight  of  a fleece  of  wool  of  the  various  breeds  of  sheep 
ranges  from  under  two  pounds  in  the  case  of  the  small 
Shetland  breeds  up  to  eight  or  nine  pounds  for  the  large 
merinoes  and  other  heavy  races,  and  in  exceptional  cases 
a heavy  ram’s  fleece  may  reach  so  much  as  fifteen 
pounds;  but,  taken  all  over,  a sheep  may  be  reckoned 
to  yield  on  an  average  five  pounds  of  wool  in  a year. 

Where  there  is  abundance  of  water  and  other  con- 
veniences it  is  the  practice  to  wash  or  half- wash  sheep 
previous  to  shearing,  and  such  wool  comes  into  the 
market  as  washed  or  half- washed  fleece.  The  surface 
of  a fleece  has  usually  a thick  coating  of  dirt  adhering  to 
it,  and  in  the  cases  of  merino  breeds  the  fleece  surface 
is  firmly  caked  together  into  large  solid  masses,  from 
the  adhesion  of  dirt  to  the  wool  constantly  moist  with 
the  exudation  from  the  skin  of  the  greasy  yolk  or 
“suint,”  so  that  in  an  unwashed  fleece  nearly  30  per 
cent,  of  weight  may  represent  dirt,  andaboutq-O  per  cent, 
thegreasy  suint  which  lubricates  the  wool,  while  the  pure 
wool  is  not  more  than  one-third  part  of  the  whole.  The 
yolk  forms  a protective  covering  to  the  sheep,  render- 
ing the  fleece  impervious  to  moisture,  and  while  left  in 
the  wool  also  preserves  it  soft,  pliant,  and  silky  to  touch. 
Wool,  however,  which  is  merely  washed  in  the  rough- 
and-ready  manner  described  below  still  retains  great 
and  variable  quantities  of  suint,  etc.  Where  running 
streams  exist,  the  sheep  are  penned  by  the  side  of  the 
water,  and  taken  one  by  one  and  held  in  the  stream 
while  they  are  washed,  one  man  holding  and  the  other 
washing.  The  operation  is  objectionable  in  many  ways, 
as  it  pollutes  the  stream,  and  it  dissinat.es  mean 


amount  of  potash  salts,  valuable  for  manure  or  for 
other  chemical  purposes.  Sheep  washing  appliances 
are  now  largely  employed,  the  arrangement  consisting 
of  a pen  into  which  the  sheep  are  driven  and  subjected 
to  a strong  spray  of  water  either  hot  or  cold,  which 
soaks  the  fleece  and  softens  the  dirt.  This  done,  they 
are  caused  to  swim  along  a tank  which  narrows  toward 
the  exit,  and  just  as  they  pass  out  of  the  pen  they  are 
caught  and  subjected  to  a strong  douche  of  pure  water. 
After  a few  days  the  wool  of  a washed  sheep  is  suffi- 
ciently dry  for  shearing  or  clipping.  A skillful  shep- 
herd will  clip  the  fleece  from  a sheep  in  one  unbroken 
continuous  sheet,  retaining  the  form  and  relative  posi- 
tions of  the  mass  almost  as  if  the  creature  had  been 
skinned.  In  this  unbroken  condition  each  fleece  is 
rolled  up  by  itself,  which  greatly  facilitates  the  sorting 
or  stapling  which  all  wool  undergoes  for  the  separa- 
tion of  the  several  qualities  which  make  up  the  fleece. 
Sorting  or  stapling  was  formerly  a distinct  industry, 
and  to  some  extent  it  is  so  still,  though  frequently 
the  work  is  done  on  the  premises  of  the  spinners.  Card- 
ing wools  are  separated  and  classed  differently  from 
combing  wools,  and  in  dealing  with  fleeces  from  differ- 
ent races  the  classification  of  the  sorter  varies. 

Felt  is  a. kind  of  cloth  made  without  spinning  or 
weaving,  but  simply  by  the  mutual  adhesion  of  the  im- 
bricated fibers.  The  peculiar  quality  is  most  distinctly 
developed  in  the  short  or  carding  wools,  but  all  wool, 
in  common  with  mohair,  alpaca,  vicugna,  and  camel’s 
hair,  possesses  it.  Felting  properties  are  also  found  in 
the  hair  of  other  animals;  the  rabbit,  especially,  supplies 
the  finer  felts  used  for  hat  making,  while  the  beaver 
hat,  which  is  the  ancestor  of  the  modern  dress  hat,  was 
a felt  of  beaver  hair.  Felted  cloth  is  made  by  the  com- 
bined influence  of  heat,  moisture,  and  pressure  or  rub- 
bing on  a uniformly  spread-out  mass  of  woolen  fibers. 
The  wool  is  scribbled  or  carded  out  into  a uniform  lap 
of  extreme  thinness,  but  of  a length  and  breadth  suffi- 
cient for  the  size  of  the  cloth  to  be  made.  A series 
of  these  carded  laps  are  superimposed  on  eabh  other 
till  the  requisite  thickness  of  material  is  attained,  and 
generally  the  two  external  laps  are  made  of  material 
superior  to  the  body.  The  lap  so  prepared  is  passed 
on  between  a series  of  pairs  of  rollers,  which  press 
against  each  other  partly  immersed  in  a trough  of 
water,  the  upper  rollers  being  solid  an,d  heavy,  while 
those  under  are  hollow  and  heated  by  steam.  To  the 
upper  rollers  a gentle  reciprocating  motion  is  communi- 
cated, so  that  the  material  is  felted  as  it  passes  on. 
When  duly  condensed,  the  cloth,  of  leathery  consist 
ence,  is  dyed,  printed,  dressed,  and  finished,  when 
required,  like  ordinary  woolen  cloths.  Felt  has  exten- 
sive applications,  there  being  made  from  it  druggets, 
carpets,  table-covers,  horse-cloths,  etc.;  the  coarser 
varieties  are  used  for  boiler-covering  and  other  mechan- 
ical purposes. 

It  becomes  necessary  here  to  indicate  the  specific 
distinction  of  woolen  and  worsted  yarns  and  cloth.  In 
a general  way  it  may  be  said  that  woolen  yarns  are 
those  made  from  short  wools  possessed  of  high  felting 
qualities,  which  are  prepared  by  a process  of  carding, 
whereby  the  fibers  are  as  far  as  possible  crossed  and 
interlocked  with  each  other,  and  that  these  cardings, 
though  hard  spun  on  the  mule  frame,  form  a light 
fluffy  yarn,  which  suits  the  material  when  woven  into 
cloth  for  being  brought  into  the  semi-felted  condition 
by  milling,  which  is  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of 
woolen  cloth.  On  the  other  hand,  worsted  yarns  are 
generally  made  from  the  long  lustrous  varieties  of  wool; 
the  fibers  are  so  combed  as  to  bring  them  as  far  as  pos- 
sible to  lie  parallel  to  each  other;  the  spinning  is  done 
on  the  throstle  frame,  and  the  yarn  is  spun  into  a com- 


woo 


pact,  smooth,  and  level  thread,  which,  when  woven 
into  cloth,  is  not  milled  or  felted. 

If  we  adhere  to  the  definition  of  worsted  yarn  which 
distinguishes  it  as  being  made  from  wool  fibers  brought 
as  far  as  possible  into  a level  parallel  condition,  we  shall 
have  to  do  only  with  two  methods  of  manufacture — (i) 
of  yarn  from  long  wool  by  the  method  of  drawing, 
gilling,  and  combing,  and  (2)  of  yarn  from  medium  and 
short  staple  wools,  which  are  at  first  carded  and  afterward 
combed.  But  there  is  commonly  added  a third  class  of 
worsted  yarns,  worsted  only  in  the  sense  that  they  are 
not  meant  for  felting.  These  are  carpet  yarns  and 
lightly  twisted  knitting  yarns,  which,  being  meant  to  be 
full  and  open  in  structure,  are  prepared  for  spinning  by 
carding  alone,  precisely  as  in  making  woolen  yarns. 

The  primitive  method  of  wool-combing,  and  the  sim- 
ple implements  employed  till  comparatively  recent  days, 
when  the  ingenious  machinery  now  used  was  invented, 
will  serve  to  illustrate  the  problem  of  preparing  long 
wool  for  spinning.  The  hand  combs  employed  were 
studded  with  two — sometimes  three — rows  of  long, 
smooth,  rounded,  and  sharp-pointed  steel  spikes.  The 
operative  was  provided  with  a pair  of  these  combs.  He 
had  a comb-post  to  which  he  could  attach  them,  and  a 
comb-pot  or  small  stove  in  which  he  heated  the  teeth  of 
his  combs  and  the  wool  which  he  worked.  The  teeth 
of  one  comb  being  duly  heated  he  fixed  it  in  the  comb- 
post,  and  taking  a quantity  of  wool  previously  oiled  he 
dashed  it  in  portions  into  the  teeth  of  the  comb  and 
drew  it  through,  leaving  a portion  locked  in  the  spikes, 
and  this  operation  he  continued  till  the  comb  was  well 
filled  with  wool.  Then  he  placed  it  in  the  comb-pot  to 
heat  up,  while  he  similarly  proceeded  to  fill  the  teeth  of 
the  second  comb,  which  in  the  meantime  had  been  heat- 
ing. With  both  filled  and  duly  heated,  he  took  one 
comb  in  his  left  hand,  laying  it  in  his  lap  teeth  upward, 
and  with  the  other  in  his  right  he  proceeded  to  comb 
out  the  locks,  beginning  first  at  the  tips  and  working 
gradually  in  as  the  fibers  were  smoothed  and  opened 
out.  In  the  end  the  combs  were  worked  with  teeth 
close  up  to  each  other  and  through  the  entire  mass,  the 
noils  or  short  fiber  being  thus  entirely  combed  out, 
excepting  a small  quantity  left  in  the  teeth  which  could 
not  be  reached  by  the  opposing  combs. 

The  range  and  variety  of  cloths  and  other  textures 
made  from  wool  are  exceedingly  great.  Under  the 
heading  of  cloth  manufactures,  there  may  be  enumer- 
ated, of  piled  cloths,  broad-cloth,  doeskins,  cassimeres, 
meltons,  beavers,  and  friezes.  Of  cloths  milled  and 
cropped  bare  there  are  Venetians,  sataras,  and  diagonals, 
which  differ  in  the  arrangements  of  warp  and  weft  in 
the  weaving.  Tweeds,  which  form  an  important  item, 
are  cloths  only  slightly  felted,  raised  dry,  cropped,  and 
pressed.  The  variety  of  worsted  cloths  is  still  greater, 
embracing  says,  serges,  sateens,  reps,  merinoes,  mousse- 
laines-de-laine,  tartans,  camlets,  Russell  cords,  coburgs, 
lastings,  delaines,  and  Orleans  cloth.  Hosiery  forms  a 
manufacture  apart,  as  do  also  the  processes  of  making 
carpets,  blankets,  flannels,  shawls,  rugs  and  wrappers, 
curtain-cloths,  and  alpaca  and  mohair  textures.  Wher- 
ever civilized  mankind  dwell  there  is  found  wool  pro- 
duction, with  more  or  less  of  woolen  manufacture. 
This  fact  notwithstanding,  the  cultivation  of  wool  tends 
to  become  increasingly  associated  with  special  localities, 
and  from  age  to  age  different  regions  enter  into  compe- 
tition as  sources  of  wool,  and  the  great  sources  of 
supply  correspondingly  change  their  positions. 

WOOLLETT,  William,  engraver,  was  born  at 
Maidstone,  of  a family  which  came  originally  from  Hol- 
land, on  August  15,  1735.  He  was  apprenticed  to 
Tohn  Tinney,  an  engraver  in  Fleet  street,  London,  and 
he  also  studied  in  the  St.  Martin’s  Lane  academy.  His 


6395 

first  important  plate  was  from  the  Niobe  of  Richard 
Wilson,  published  by  Bojdell  in  1761,  which  was  fol- 
lowed in  1763  by  a companion  engravmg  from  the 
Phaethon  of  the  same  painter.  After  West  he  engraved 
his  fine  plate  of  the  Battle  of  La  Hogue  (1781)  and  the 
Death  of  General  Wolfe  (1776),  which  is  usually  con- 
sidered Woollett’s  masteruiece.  In  1775  he  was  ap- 
pointed engraver-in-ordinary  to  Gecrge  III.;  and  he 
was  a member  of  the  Incorporated  Society  of  Artists,  of 
which  for  several  years  he  acted  as  secretary.  He  died 
in  London  May  23,  1785. 

WOOLSORTER’S  DISEASE  (Anthrax,  An- 

THR  AC/EMI  A,  CHARBON,  Ol'  MALIGNANT  PUSTULE)  is 
the  term  applied  to  a virulent  acute  malady  occasionally 
occurring  in  workers  in  the  wool  or  hair,  as  well  as  in 
those  handling  the  carcasses,  of  animals,  chiefly  sheep 
and  oxen,  which  had  been  effected  with  splenic  fever. 
The  disease,  as  it  is  seen  in  animals,  has  been  described 
in  the  article  Murrain,  (q.v. ) The  present  notice  re- 
fers only  to  the  malady  in  man. 

For  many  years  cases  of  sudden  death  had  been  ob- 
served to  occur  from  time  to  time  among  healthy  men 
engaged  in  woolen  manufactories,  particularly  in  the 
work  of  sorting  or  combing  wool.  In  some  instances 
death  appeared  to  be  due  to  the  dii  ect  inoculation  of 
some  poisonous  material  into  the  body,  for  a form  of 
malignant  pustule  was  observed  upon  the  skin;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  in  not  a few  cases  without  any  external 
manifestation,  symptoms  of  blood-poisoning,  often 
proving  rapidly  fatal,  suggested  the  probability  of  other 
channels  for  the  introduction  of  the  disease. 

Two  well-marked  forms  of  this  disease  are  recognized, 
external  anthrax  and  internal  anthrax.  In  external 
anthrax  the  infecting  agent  is  accidentally  inoculated 
into  some  portion  of  skin,  the  seat  of  a slight  abrasion, 
often  the  hand,  arm,  or  face.  A minute  swelling  soon 
appears  at  the  part,  and  develops  into  a vesicle  contain- 
ing serum  or  bloody  matter,  and  varying  in  size,  but 
seldom  larger  than  a shilling.  This  vesicle  speedily 
bursts,  and  leaves  an  ulcerated  or  sloughing  surface, 
round  about  which  are  numerous  smaller  vesicles  which 
undergo  similar  changes,  and  the  whole  affected  part 
becomes  hard  and  tender,  while  the  surrounding  surface 
participates  in  the  inflammatory  action,  and  the  neigh- 
boring lymphatic  glands  are  also  inflamed.  This  con- 
dition, termed  malignant  pustule,  is  frequently  ac- 
companied with  severe  constitutional  disturbance,  in 
the  form  of  fever,  delirium,  perspirations,  together  with 
great  prostration  and  a tendency  to  death  from  septi- 
caemia, although  on  the  other  hand  recovery  is  not  un- 
common. It  was  repeatedly  found  that  the  matter 
taken  from  the  vesicle  during  the  progress  of  the  dis- 
ease, as  well  as  the  blood  in  the  body  after  death,  con- 
tained the  bacillus  anthracis,  and  when  inoculated  into 
small  animals  produced  rapid  death,  with  all  the 
symptoms  and  post-mortem  appearances  characteristic 
of  splenic  fever. 

WOOLSTON,  Thomas,  English  deist,  born  at 
Northampton  in  1669,  was  the  son  of  a “reputable 
tradesman,”  entered  Sidney  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1685,  studied  theology,  and  was  made  a fellow  of  his 
college.  Whiston  states  that  he  “was  in  his  younger 
days  a clergyman  of  very  good  reputation,  a scholar, 
and  well  esteemed  as  a preacher,  charitable  to  the  poor, 
and  beloved  by  all  good  men  that  knew  him.”  After  a 
time,  by  the  study  of  Origen,  he  became  possessed,  to 
fanaticism  bordering  on  insanity,  with  the  notion  of  the 
importance  of  an  allegorical  interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  advocated  its  use  in  the  defense  of  Christian- 
ity both  in  his  sermons  and  in  his  first  book,  The  Old 
Apology  for  the  Truth  of  the  Christian  Religion 
against  the  Jews  and  Gentiles  Revived  (1705)* 


6396  woo- 

denied  absolutely  the  proof  from  miracles,  called  ip 
question  the  fact  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ  and  other 
miracles  of  the  New  Testament,  and  maintained  that 
they  must  be  interpreted  allegorically,  or  as  types  of 
spiritual  things.  Two  years  later  he  commenced  a 
series  of  Discourses  on  the  same  subject.  The  publi- 
cation of  the  Moderator  drew  upon  him  a prosecution 
by  the  attorney-general  in  1726  for  blasphemy  and  pro- 
faneness, which  was  suspended  in  consequence  of  VVhis- 
ton’s  inteixession.  But  the  appearance  of  the  first  four 
of  his  Discourses  caused  the  renewal  of  the  prosecution, 
and  on  March  4,  1729,  the  trial  ended  in  his  being 
found  guilty  of  the  alleged  crime.  He  died  in  prison 
January  21,  1731. 

WOOLWICH,  a parliamentary  borough  and  garrison 
town  of  Kent,  England,  is  situated  chiefly  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Thames,  on  the  declivity  of  Shooter’s  Hill, 
which  slopes  downward  to  the  river,  ten  miles*  from 
•Charing  Cross  by  rail  and  twelve  by  steamer.  The  town 
is  irregularly  built,  with  narrow  streets,  and,  for  the 
most  part,  mean-looking  houses.  The  spacious  level  at 
the  summit  of  the  hill  is  known  as  Woolwich  Common. 
The  feature  of  Woolwich  is  the  Royal  Arsenal,  at  which 
the  number  of  men  usually  employed  is  about  10,000. 
The  population  of  the  entire  parish  of  Woolwich  (area 
1,126  acres)  in  1901  was  46,665.  The  population  of  the 
district  now  included  in  the  parliamentary  borough, 
which  comprises  the  parishes  of  Woolwich,  Eltham,  and 
Plumstead,  was  74,963  in  1889. 

WOONSOCKET,  a town  of  Providence  county, 
R.  I.,  on  the  Blackstone  river,  sixteen  miles  from 
Providence,  and  thirty-seven  miles  from  Boston.  The 
surrounding  country,  which  is  fertile,  is  devoted  to 
market-gardening  and  dairying.  The  population, 
28,204  in  1900,  was  nearly  half  of  foreign  birth,  a fact 
explained  by  its  extensive  manufactures.  The  principal 
industries  are  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  woolen 
goods;  of  the  latter  Woonsocket  produces  more  than 
any  other  city  in  the  United  States,  while  in  the  former 
industry  it  is  excelled  by  few.  Its  importance  as  a 
manufacturing  town  is  due  to  the  magnificent  water- 
power within  its  limits. 

WOOSTER,  a city  of  Ohio,  in  the  center  of  a rich 
agricultural  country,  and  the  capital  of  Wayne  county, 
is  situated  upon  Killbuck  creek  and  the  Pittsburgh, 
Ft.  Wayne ' and  Chicago  railway,  55  miles  south 
of  Cleveland,  nearly  half  way  between  Massillon 
and  Mansfield,  and  333  miles  east  of  Chicago.  It 
occupies  a considerable  elevation,  commanding  an 
admirable  view  of  the  beautiful  scenery,  of  which  the 
city  is  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  and  is  well  laid  out  and 
handsomely  built.  It  is  also  contiguous  to  productive 
mines  of  bituminous  coal  and  quarries  of  limestone,  suf- 
ficiently developed  to  indicate  their  superior  quality  and 
inexhaustible  quantity.  Among  the  lines  of  industrial 
endeavor  successfully  carried  on  in  the  city  are  manu- 
factures of  engines  and  machinery,  plows,  reapers  and 
mowers,  burial  cases,  paints  and  varnish,  harness  and 
saddles,  highwines,  tiles,  furniture,  novelties,  lumber, 
sash,  doors,  and  blinds.  Commercially  the  city  is 
equally  well  provided,  and  two  banks  represent  the 
financial  interests.  The  city  contains,  in  addition,  six 
weekly  papers,  two  monthly  periodicals,  fourteen 
churches,  acourt  house,  high  and  graded  schools,  also  the 
Wooster  university,  an  institution  founded  in  1870  un- 
der Presbyterian  auspices  and  now  having  an  able  faculty 
and  a large  attendance  of  students,  five  hotels,  an  opera 
house,  academy  of  music  and  number  of  public  halls, 
together  with  gas  and  electric  light  works,  stores,  etc. , 
and  many  attractive  orivate  residences.  The  city’s  pop- 
ulation of  1900  was  6,063. 

WORCESTER,  a midland  county  of  England,  of 


-WOE 

a very  irregular  shape,  and  of  cunous  arrangement. 
Some  of  its  parishes  are  detached  from  the  county, 
while  portions  of  other  counties  extend  within  its 
boundaries.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Stafford- 
shire, east  byWarwickshire,  south  by  Gloucestershire, 
west  by  Herefordshire,  and  northwest  by  Shropshire. 
The  greatest  length  from  north  to  south  is  thirty-four 
miles,  and  its  breadth  thirty  miles.  The  area  is  472,453 
acres,  or  about  738  square  miles. 

The  surface  consists  of  very  fine  and  picturesque 
hills  and  well-watered  and  fruitful  valleys,  and  the 
county  is  certainly  one  of  the  fairest  and  most  pictur- 
esque in  England.  Its  finest  hills  are  the  well-known 
Malvern  Hills  on  its  southwest  border,  the  Abberley 
Hills  running  north  from  them,  the  Lickey  and  Clent 
Hills  in  the  east,  and  in  the  south  the  Bredon  Hills, 
which  are  a continuation  of  the  Cotswolds.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  Severn,  which  is  navigable,  and  runs 
through  the  county  from  north  to  south;  the  Stour, 
which  joins  the  Severn  at  Stourport ; the  Teme,  which 
enters  the  county  at  Tenbury,  receives  the  Kyre  and  the 
Leigh,  and  falls  into  the  Severn  below  Worcester ; and 
the  Warwickshire  Avon,  which  joins  the  Severn  at 
Tewkesbury.  The  valley  of  the  Severn  is  appro- 
priately named  the  Vale  of  Worcester,  and  that  of  the 
Avon  the  Vale  of  Evesham,  the  latter  being  generally 
considered  one  of  the  loveliest  valleys  in  England. 
The  rivers  are  well  stocked  with  fish,  salmon,  trout,  gray- 
ling, shad,  and  lampreys  being  found  in  most  of  them. 

The  climate  is  generally  equable  and  healthy,  and  is 
very  favorable  to  the  cultivation  of  fruit,  vegetables,  and 
hops,  for  which  Worcestershire  has  long  held  a high  repu- 
tation, the  red  marls  and  the  rich  loams  which  are  so 
prevalent  being  good  both  for  market  gardens  and  till- 
age. Its  agricultural  productions  consist  principally  of 
wheat,  barley,  beans,  fruit,  and  hops,  in  tne  cultivation 
of  which  great  care  and  skill  are  employed.  The  large 
and  well-stocked  orchards,  the  picturesque  hop  fields, 
and  the  wonderfully  productive  market  gardens  are  the 
pride  of  the  county,  and  form  the  most  attractive  ob- 
jects to  all  visitors.  According  to  the  agricultural  re- 
turns for  1887,  the  area  under  cultivation  was  401,936 
acres.  Population  of  the  county  (1901),  358,356. 

Agriculture  in  its  various  branches  is  the  principal  in- 
dustry of  the  county.  Its  mineral  wealth  consists  of 
coal,  iron,  and  salt ; and  a considerable  number  of  peo- 
ple find  employment  in  the  quarries  of  limestone  around 
Pershore  and  Evesham,  and  at  other  quarries  of  free- 
stone and  flagstone.  There  is  not  much  mining  in  the 
county ; the  largest  number  of • artisans  are  employed 
in  the  various  hardware  trades.  Glass  is  largely  pro- 
duced at  Dudley  and  Stourbridge.  Worcester  is  fa- 
mous for  its  porcelain,  its  gloves,  and  its  coach- building, 
and  Kidderminster  for  its  carpets.  The  salt  w orks  at 
Droitwich  are  as  old  as  the  Roman  occupation,  and 
there  are  others  at  Stoke.  There  are  a large  variety  of 
other  trades,  including  crate  making,  coke  burning,  al- 
kali, vinegar,  and  vitriol  u'orks,  button  making,  leather 
staining,  paper  making,  and  tanning.  The  shire  con- 
tains 243  civil  parishes,  and  is  mostly  in  the  diocese  of 
Worcester,  but  partly  in  that  of  Hereford.  The  princi- 
pal places  besides  the  city  of  Worcester  are  Bewdley 
(population  3,088  in  1901),  Bromsgrove  (12,813),  Droit- 
wich (3,761),  Dudley  (48,809),  Evesham  (5,112),  Hale- 
sowen (7,763),  Kidderminster  (30,270),  Oldbury  (25,841), 
Redditch  (10,961),  Stourbridge  (ii,757)*  and  Tenbury 
(2,083). 

Worcester,  an  episcopal  city,  municipal  and  par- 
liamentary borough,  the  capital  of  the  above  county, 
and  a county  of  itself,  is  situated  on  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  Severn,  120  miles  from  London  by  rail,  and  e 
little  over  26  from  Birmingham. 


W O R 


The  principal  building  and  chief  glory  of  the  city  is 
the  cathedral.  The  see  was  founded  by  the  advice  of 
Archbishop  Theodore  in  673,  though,  owing  to  opposi- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  bishop  of  Lichfield,  it  was  not 
finally  established  till  780.  The  building  is  cruciform, 
and  is  without  transept  aisles,  but  has  secondary  tran- 
septs to  the  choir. 

The  population  of  the  city  and  municipal  borough 
(area  1,263  acres)  in  1901  was  46,623.  The  population 
of  the  parliamentary  borough  (area  3,266  acres)  in  1901 
was  50,354. 

WORCESTER,  a city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Worcester  county,  Mass.,  thirty-nine  miles  west  of 
Boston.  Besides  the  closely-built  portion,  the  city  in- 
cludes a large  suburban  district,  which  contains  four- 
teen villages  of  various  sizes.  The  closely-built  portion 
is  very  irregularly  laid  out,  conforming  in  some  degree 
to  the  slope  of  the  ground.  There  are  197  miles  of 
streets,  very  little  of  which  is  paved.  The  public  parks 
have  an  aggregate  area  of  thirty-five  acres.  The  popu- 
lation in  1900  was  118,421  (30,182,  or  24  per  cent,  of 
foreign  birth).  The  population  of  colored  people  was 
very  small.  The  manufacturing  industries  are  very 
large  and  varied;  prominent  among  them  are  the  manu- 
factures of  iron  and  steel;  foundry  and  machine  shop 
products  and  tools,  and  second  to  these  the  manufacture 
of  boots  and  shoes. 

WORCESTER,  Florence  of.  Seevol.  iv.,  p.  2476. 

WORDSWORTH,  William,  the  poet,  was  born  at 
Cockermouth,  on  the  Derwent,  in  Cumberland,  April 
7,  1770.  At  the  age  of  eight  Wordsworth  was  sent  to 
school  at  Hawkshead,  in  the  Esthwaite  valley  in  Lan- 
cashire. His  father  died  while  he  was  there,  and  at  the 
age  of  seventeen  he  was  sent  by  his  uncle  to  St.  John’s 
College,  Cambridge.  He  did  not  distinguish  himself  in 
the  studies  of  the  university,  and  for  some  time  after 
taking  his  degree  of  B.A.,  which  he  did  in  January, 
1791,  he  showed  what  seemed  to  his  relatives  a most 
perverse  reluctance  to  adopt  any  regular  profession. 
In  November  of  1791  he  crossed  to  France,  ostensibly 
to  learn  the  language,  made  the  acquaintance  of  revolu- 
tionaries, sympathized  with  them  vehemently,  and  was 
within  an  ace  of  throwing  in  his  lot  with  the  Brissotins. 
When  it  came  to  this,  his  relatives  cut  off  his  supplies, 
and  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  London  toward  the 
close  of  1792.  At  this  stage,  at  the  age  of  twenty-four, 
Wordsworth  seemed  to  his  friends  a very  hopeless  and 
impracticable  young  man. 

In  June,  1797,  he  received  a visit  from  Coleridge,  who 
had  read  his  first  publication,  and  seen  in  it,  what  none 
of  the  public  critics  had  discerned,  the  advent  of  an 
“original  poetic  genius.”  It  would  be  impossible  to 
exaggerate  the  importance  for  Wordsworth  of  the  ar- 
rival of  this  enthusiastic  Columbus. 

The  Lyrical  Ballads  were  the  poetic  fruits  of  their 
companionship.  Out  of  their  frequent  discussions  of 
the  relative  value  of  common  life  and  supernatural  in- 
cidents as  themes  for  imaginative  treatment  grew  the 
idea  of  writing  a volume  together,  composed  of  poems 
of  the  two  kinds.  Coleridge  was  to  take  the  super- 
natural; and,  as  his  industry  was  not  equal  to  his 
friend’s,  this  kind  was  represented  by  the  Ancieitt 
Mariner  alone.  Among  Wordsworth’s  contributions 
were  The  Female  Vagrant,  We  are  Seven,  Complaint 
of  a Forsaken  Indian  Woman , The  Last  of  the  Flock, 
The  Idiot  Boy , The  Mad  Mother  (“  Her  eyes  are  wild  ”), 
The  Thorn,  Goody  Blake  and  Harry  Gill,  The  Reverie 
of  Poor  Susan,  Simon  Lee,  Expostulation  and  Reply, 
The  Tables  Turned,  Lines  left  upon  a Yew-tree  Seat, 
An  Old  Man  Traveling  (“Animal  Tranquility  and 
Decay”),  Lines  above  Titern  Abbey.  The  volume 
was  published  by  Cottle  of  Bristol  in  September,  1798. 

401 


6397 

His  first  great  sonnet,  the  Lines  on  Westminster 
Bridge,  was  composed  on  the  roof  of  the  Dover  coach; 
the  first  of  the  splendid  series  “dedicated  to  national 
independence  and  liberty,”  the  most  generally  impress- 
ive and  universally  intelligible  of  his  poems,  Fair  Star 
of  Evening,  Once  did  she  Hold  the  Gorgeous  East  in 
Fee,  Toussaint,  Milton,  thou  shouldst  be  living  at  this 
Hour , It  is  not  to  be  Thought  of  that  the  Flood,  When 
I have  Borne  in  Memory  what  has  Tamed,  were  all 
written  in  the  course  of  the  tour,  or  in  London  in  the 
month  after  his  return.  A tour  in  Scotland  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  1803,  yielded  the  Highland  Girl  and  The 
Solitary  Reaper.  Soon  after  his  return  he  resumed  The 
Prelude;  and  The  Affliction  of  Margaret  and  the  Ode 
to  Duty,  his  greatest  poems  in  two  different  veins,  were 
coincident  with  the  exaltation  of  spirit  due  to  the  tri- 
umphant and  successful  prosecution  of  the  long-delayed 
work.  The  excitement  of  preparing  for  publication  al- 
ways had  a rousing  effect  upon  him;  the  preparation  for 
the  edition  of  1807  resulted  in  the  completion  of  the  ode 
on  the  Intimations  of  Immortality , the  sonnets  The 
World  is  too  much  with  us,  Methought  I saw  the  Foot- 
steps of  a Throne,  Two  V oices  are  there,  and  Lady,  the 
Songs  of  Spring  were  in  the  Grove,  and  the  Song  at  the 
Feast  of  Brougham  Castle.  After  1807  there  is  a marked 
falling  off  in  the  quality,  though  not  in  the  quantity,  of 
Wordsworth’s  poetic  work.  It  is  significant  of  the  com- 
paratively sober  and  laborious  spirit  in  which  he  wrote 
The  Excursion  that  its  progress  was  accompanied  by 
none  of  those  casual  sallies  of  exulting  and  exuberant 
power  that  mark  the  period  of  the  happier  Prelude. 
The  completion  of  The  Excursion  was  signalized  by  the 
production  of  Laodamia.  The  chorus  of  adverse  criti- 
cism with  which  it  was  received  inspired  him  in  the 
noble  sonnet  to  Haydon — High  is  our  Calling, 
Friend.  He  rarely  or  never  again  touched  the  same 
lofty  height. 

For  five  years  after  the  condemnation  of  The  Excur- 
sion, Wordsworth  published  almost  nothing  that  had 
not  been  composed  before.  The  chief  exception  is  the 
Thanksgiving  Ode  of  1816.  He  was  occupied  mainly 
in  the  task  of  putting  his  work  and  his  aims  more  fully 
before  the  world,  maintaining  his  position  with  dignity 
and  unflinching  courage,  so  far  unmoved  by  criticism 
that  he  would  not  alter  h'is  course  one  jot  for  the  sake 
of  public  favor.  In  1815  he  published  a new  edition  of 
his  poems,  in  the  arrangement  according  to  faculties 
and  feelings  in  which  they  have  since  stood;  and  he 
sought  to  explain  his  purposes  more  completely  than 
before,  in  an  essay  on  Poetry  as  a Study.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  persuaded  to  publish  The  White  Doe  of 
Rylstone,  written  mainly  eight  years  before.  Two 
other  poems,  with  which  Wordsworth  made  another 
appeal,  were  not  more  successful.  Peter  Bell,  written 
in  1798,  was  published  in  1819;  and  at  the  instigation  of 
Charles  Lamb  it  was  followed  by  The  Wagoner , written 
in  1S05.  Both  were  mercilessly  ridiculed  and  parodied. 

W ordswor  th  was  appointed  poet-laureate  on  the  death 
of  Southey  in  1843.  His  only  official  composition  was 
an  ode  on  the  installation  of  the  Prince  Consort  as  chan- 
cellor of  Cambridge  University  in  1847.  This  was  his 
last  writing  in  verse.  He  died  at  Rydal  Mount  after  a 
short  illness,  on  April  23,  1850,  and  was  buried  in  Gras- 
mere churchyard. 

WORKINGTON,  a seaport  and  market-town  of 
Cumberland,  Eng.,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Derwent, 
where  it  enters  the  Solway  Firth,  and  on  several  branch 
railway  lines,  thirty-four  miles  southwest  of  Carlisle  and 

1 1 miles  from  London  by  rail.  The  Derwent  is  crossed 

y a stone  bridge  of  three  arches  erected  in  1841.  The 
ancient  parish  church  of  St.  Michael  was  rebuilt  in  1770, 
and,  this  building  having  been  destroyed  by  fire  in  1887, 


WO  R 


6398 

another  has  been  erected.  The  other  public  buildings 
are  the  jubilee  hall,  the  assembly  rooms,  the  temperance 
hall,  the  mechanics’  institute,  the  infirmary,  the  new 
covered  market,  the  custom-house,  and  the  bonded 
warehouses.  Near  the  town  is  Workington  Hall,  the 
seat  of  the  ancient  lords  of  the  manor,  a quadrilateral 
castellated  structure  in  great  part  modern,  but  still  re- 
taining some  of  the  ancient  rooms,  including  that  in 
which  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  is  said  to  have  slept  when 
she  esc&ped  to  England  after  the  battle  of  Langside  in 
May,  1560.  The  harbor" is  remarkably  safe,  and  has  a 
breakwater  600  feet  in  length.  The  Lonsdale  dock, 
four  and  one-half  acres  in  extent,  was  opened  in  1862. 

In  the  neighborhood  there  are  large  collieries,  but  the 
chief  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  by 
the  Bessemer  and  Siemens  process.  There  are  large 
blast-furnaces,  engineering  works,  and  bolt  and  rivet 
and  tinplate  works.  Iron  shipbuilding  is  also  carried 
on.  The  population  in  1901  was  16,371. 

WORLD’S  COLUMBIAN  EXPOSITION.  It 
is  impracticable  in  these  pages  to  do  more  than 
barely  outline  the  event  which  has  just  passed  into 
history  by  the  title  here  given.  The  project  of  hold- 
ing  a great  International  Exposition  in  celebration  of 
the  quadro-centennial  of  the  discovery  of  America  was 
first  seriously  entertained  in  the  summer  of  1889.  It 
speedily  gained  popular  approval,  and  when  the  ques- 
tion of  the  Fair’s  location  came  to  be  discussed,  Chi- 
cago, the  second  city  in  the  United  States,  urged  her 
claims  with  characteristic  force  and  energy,  and  ulti- 
mately triumphed. 

An  act  of  Congress  providing  for  the  fair  was  ap- 
proved by  President  Harrison,  April  25,  1890.  A 
feature  of  this  act  deserving  of  particular  attention,  in 
view  of  its  unprecedented  nature,  and  its  great  pro- 
gressive significance  was  the  authorization  of  the  ap- 
pointment of  a board  of  lady  managers  of  the  World’s 
Columbian  Exposition,  this  being  the  first  official  rec- 
ognition ever  accorded  the  sex  by  the  government  of 
the  United  States. 

The  whole  world  was  promptly  invited,  through 
the  customary  official  channels,  to  participate  in  the 
celebration.  The  invitation  was  immediately  accepted 
by  France,  Great  Britain,  Germany,  Spain,  Japan, 
China,  Mexico,  Peru,  Honduras,  Salvador,  Costa 
Rica,  Colombia,  Cuba,  Guatemala,  Jamaica,  Nicara- 
gua, Chili,  San  Domingo,  Turkey,  Ecuador  and  Den- 
mark, while  a tardier  but  not  less  cordial  acceptance 
came  from  Russia,  Egypt,  Morocco,  Venezuela,  Bra- 
zil, Hayti,  Argentine  Republic  and  several  others. 

Starting  with  a proposed  expenditure  of  $5,000,000, 
the  financial  managers  of  the  Exposition  soon  found 
themselves  confronted  with  the  necessity  for  raising 
a very  much  larger  sum.  In  May,  1890,  it  was  voted 
to  double  the  amount  of  capital  stock.  A million 
shares  of  $10  were  issued  and  of  these  588,520  were 
subscribed  for,  chiefly  in  Chicago,  the  payment  being 
made  in  six  installments.  The  city  of  Chicago  itself 
issued  $5,000,000  of  bonds  to  help.  In  1892  Con- 
gress appropriated  $2,500,000  more  in  souvenir  half 
dollars,  of  which  over  a million  were  sold  at  a profit 
of  100  per  cent,  and  many  at  fancy  prices.  Up  to 
March  31,  1893,  the  World’s  Fair,  as  it  was  popularly 
termed,  had  received  in  all  $17,496,432,  but  still  sev- 
eral millions  were  needed  and  raised  before  the  gi- 
gantic enterprise  was  finished. 

On  behalf  of  the  U.  S.  government  the  ruling  body 
was  a National  Commission,  which  held  its  first  meet- 
ing in  Chicago  in  Tune,  1890,  and  elected  as  its  presi- 
dent Thomas  W.  Palmer  of  Michigan.  The  local  in- 
terests and  the  Exposition  Co.  were  represented  by 
a Board  of  Directors,  of  which  Lyman  J.  Gage  of  Chi- 


cago was  president.  M rs.  Potter  Palmer,  of  the  same 
city,  was  the  presiding  spirit  of  the  Board  of  Lady 
Managers.  In  September,  1890,  Col.  George  R. 
Davis  was  elected  Director  General. 

Legislative  action  having  been  effected  at  Spring- 
field,  Jackson  Park,  with  the  Midway  Plaisance,  be- 
came eligible  for  Fair  purposes,  and  ground  was 
broken  for  the  first  building  on  July  2,  1891.  The 
construction  of  a sea  wall,  pier,  and  lagoons  was 
pressed  by  night  and  day,  the  entire  area  w as  drained 
and  sodded,  and  by  the  fall  of  1892  the  unsightly 
swamp  had  been  metamorphosed  into  a garden.  Mon- 
day, May  1,  1893,  President  Cleveland  touched  the 
golden  key  which  set  in  motion  the  machinery,  and 
the  historic  exhibit  was  declared  open  in  the  presence 
of  hundreds  of  thousands. 

The  building  devoted  to  the  display  of  manufactures 
and  liberal  arts  is  the  largest  ever  put  under  roof.  It 
occupies  a commanding  position  on  the  lake  shore, 
with  the  lagoon  to  the  west,  and  covers  an  area  of  thirty 
and  one-half  acres.  In  form  it  is  a rectangle,  its  cen- 
tral hall  being  surrounded  by  a nave  and  two  vast 
aisles  with  galleries.  The  great  central  hall  occupies 
a clear  space  of  1,280  by  380  feet,  and  its  roof  rises  to 
a height  of  245%  feet.  The  entire  380  feet  space  is 
covered  by  a single  arched  span,  without  a supporting 
column,  being  by  many  feet  the  largest  in  the  world. 
The  center  of  the  roof  is  carried  on  twenty-two  steel 
arches,  each  weighing  125  tons,  and  more  than  5,000 
tons  of  steel  were  used  in  the  construction  of  this 
building.  This  tremendous  structure  is  of  the  Corin- 
thian style  of  architecture  and  of  a severely  classic 
model. 

The  Administration  Building,  with  its  splendid 
dome  120  feet  in  diameter  and  220  high,  "is  uni- 
versally considered  as  the  gem  of  the  Exposition 
palaces.  Its  style  is  that  of  the  French  Renaissance, 
the  first  story  in  Doric  and  second  in  the  Ionic  style, 
and  it  consists  of  four  splendid  pavilions  connected 
by  the  great  gilded  dome  and  entered  by  four  arches. 
The  dome  is  decorated  in  the  most  elaborate  manner, 
the  principal  subject  being  “ The  Glorification  of  the 
Arts,”  in  which  Apollo  is  shown  on  his  throne  crown- 
ing the  Arts  as  they  approach  from  either  side. 

The  Electrical  Building,  lying  between  the  great 
quadrangle  amd  the  lagoon,  is  345  by  700  feet,  and 
consists  of  a longitudinal  nave  crossed  in  the  center 
by  a transept.  The  second  story  is  composed  of  a 
series  of  galleries  connected  across  the  nave  by  two 
bridges,  access  to  which  is  had  by  four  grand  stair- 
cases. This  building  is  in  the  Corinthian  style,  with 
a splendid  portico,  and  is  elaborately  decorated. 

The  Fine  Arts  Building,  with  its  annexes,  forming 
three  great  sections,  is  beautifully  located  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  park,  and  facing  the  northern 
basin,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  terraces.  It  isi 
Grecian  Ionic  in  style,  and  is  surmounted  by  a dome 
123  feet  in  height,  from  which  rises  a colossal  statue 
of  “ Winged  Victory.” 

The  Transportation  Building,  conspicuous  for  its 
golden  door  and  elaborate  exterior  decoration,  over- 
looks “Wooded  Island”  and  forms  one  of  the  group 
of  buildings  composing  what  is  known  as  the  north- 
ern architectural  court.  The  interior  consists  of  a 
broad  nave  and  isles,  after  the  style  of  a Roman  Basil- 
ica. The  main  building  is  960  feet  by  250  feet,  and 
there  is  a one-story  annex,  covering  nine  acres,  in 
which  the  more  bulky  exhibits  are  shown. 

The  Fisheries  .Building  has  proved  one  of  the  most 
popular  attractions  of  the  Exposition.  It  is  an  elab- 
orate structure  of  Spanish  Romanesque  and  the  exte- 
rior decorations  are  of  unique  character,  the  medal- 


W O R 


iions,  capitals,  brackets,  and  cornices  representing 
fish  and  sea  forms  of  all  varieties. 

The  Mines  and  Mining  Building,  adjoining  the 
Electricity  Building  and  looking  northward  on  the  mid- 
dle lakes  and  the  island,  is  a severely  simple  structure 
of  commanding  appearance  and  great  beauty.  The 
two  principal  fronts  have  enormous  arched  entrances, 
richly  embellished  with  sculptural  decorations  em- 
blematic of  mining  and  the  allied  industries. 

Machinery  Hall  measures  850  by  500  feet  and  is  lo- 
cated in  the  south  end  of  the  park,  midway  between 
the  lake  shore  and  the  western  boundary  of  the  park. 
It  is  of  classical  design  and  is  enriched  with  numer- 
ous colonnades.  Its  annex,  covering  nearly  five  acres, 
renders  the  Machinery  Building  the  second  largest  on 
the  ground. 

The  Woman’s  Building,  which  was  designed  by  a 
woman,  is  a plain  structure  in  the  style  of  the  Italian 
renaissance,  and  is  about  400  by  200  feet.  It  is  situ- 
ated in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  park,  and  consists 
of  a center  pavilion  flanked  by  corner  pavilions,  con- 
nected by  Open  arcades  on  the  first  story. 

The  Horticultural  Building  is  1,000  feet  long,  with 
an  extreme  width  of  250  feet,  and  is  roofed  by  a crys- 
tal dome  187  feet  in  diameter  and  1 13  feet  high,  under 
which  the  large  palms  and  tree  ferns  are  shown. 

The  Agricultural  Building  is  among  the  largest  and 
certainly  one  of  the  finest  on  the  grounds.  It  is 
in  the  classic  renaissance  style,  500x800  feet  in  dimen- 
sions, and  lies  to  the  south  of  the  main  lagoon,  look- 
ing out  on  the  harbor  to  the  east. 

The  Government  Building  in  which  Federal  exhibits 
are  shown  is  of  classic  style,  much  resembling  the 
National  Museum  at  Washington,  D.  C.  The  exhib- 
its in  this  building  proved  a great  attraction  and  it 
was  crowded  with  visitors  every  day. 

The  Forestry  Building  was  a complement  to  the 
Fisheries  Building  and  of  equally  unique  design.  On 
the  lake  shore  were  the  Dairy  and  Shoe  and  Leather 
Buildings,  and  in  close  proximity  to  the  Agricultural 
Building  was  the  large  amphitheater  devoted  to  live- 
stock exhibits  and  the  many  acres  of  sheds  in  which 
the  prize  swine  and  sheep  were  housed. 

The  Manufactures  and  Liberal  Arts  Building  cost 
$1,727,431;  Machinery  Hall,  $1,173,897;  Adminis- 
tration Building,  $450,000;  Agricultural,  $658,000; 
Fine  Arts  Galleries,  $737,000;  Electricity,  $423,000; 
Mines  and  Mining,  $266,000;  Fisheries,  $207,000; 
Horticultural,  $298,000;  Transportation,  $483,- 
000;  Woman’s  Building,  $135,000.  It  cost  $448,000  for 
the  electric  light  plant;  $236,000  for  sculpture  and 
statuary;  $293,000  for  water  and  sewer  pipe;  and 
$321,000  for  the  piers  and  breakwater.  More  than 
10,000  persons  found  regular  employment  on  the  Fair 
grounds  at  good  wages. 

The  States  of  the  Federal  Union  contributing  the 
finest  buildings  were  Illinois,  New  York,  Pennsylva- 
nia, Indiana,  Washington,  Minnesota,  the  two  Da- 
kotas, Colorado,  California,  Michigan,  Massachusetts, 
Kansas,  Kentucky,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  Mis- 
souri, Maine,  Maryland,  Iowa,  Ohio,  New  Jersey, 
Texas,  Vermont,  West  Virginia,  and  Wisconsin. 
Virginia  had  a duplication  of  Mount  Vernon  and 
Utah’s  was  a characteristic  building.  The  structures 
of  the  foreign  nations  were  extremely  varied,  beauti- 
ful and  characteristic.  Great  Britain  laid  out  $ 1 25 , 000 
on  Victoria  House,  and  the  great  German  Building 
cost  $150,000.  Of  the  United  States,  Pennsylvania 
paid  $90,000  for  its  building,  and  West  Virginia  $20,- 
000.  The  building  of  the  Federal  Government,  with 
its  exhibits  and  the  auxiliary  stations,  involved  an 
outlay  of  $1,025, 00a 


6399 

The  history  of  the  Fair  was  a succession  of  triumphs. 
On  Dedication  day  the  largest  crowd  ever  assembled 
inside  a roofed  building  thronged  the  Manufactures 
and  Liberal  Arts  Building.  Representatives  of  all 
countries  and  of  every  State  and  Territory,  diplomats, 
the  clergy,  and  the  army  and  navy  gathered  to  witness 
the  dedicatory  services,  and  the  pageant  was  indeed  a 
marvelous  one.  It  was  exceeded,  however,  on  May  1, 
1893,  when  100,000  citizens  thronged  the  plaza  in  front 
of  the  Administration  Building  to  hear  the  President 
of  the  United  States  formally  declare  the  Fair  open. 
Unlike  all  previous  exhibitions,  theWorld’s  Columbian 
Exposition  opened  on  the  day  appointed. 

The  setting  apart  of  special  days  for  the  different 
States  and  for  the  foreign  countries,  which  have  so 
largely  contributed  to  the  population  of  Chicago  and 
the  Northwest,  was  a most  valuable  idea.  It  created 
a generous  rivalry  between  the  States  and  culminated 
on  Chicago  day  in  the  greatest  gathering  of  humanity 
ever  brought  together  for  any  purpose.  The  daily  at- 
tendance at  the  Fair,  aside  from  special  days,  ranged 
from  10,99110305,961.  The  great  and  unapproachable 
gathering  of  October  9 (Chicago  Day),  amounted  to 
716,881  visitors.  The  Exposition  was  closed  October 
3L  1893. 

No  account  of  the  great  Exposition  would  be  com- 
plete without  a reference  to  the  Midway  Plaisance, 
with  its  hundreds  of  attractions,  constituting  perhaps 
the  most  attractive  feature  of  the  Fair.  The  Ferris 
wheel,  the  reproduction  of  a street  in  Cairo,  with  its 
camels,  donkeys,  and  Bedouins,  its  shops  and  stores, 
its  theaters  and  other  shows;  “Old  Vienna”;  the 
Irish  Villages  and  Blarney  and  Donegal  Castles ; the 
Beauty  Show,  and  the  Javanese  Village,  constituted  a 
Fair  in  themselves  and  were  the  most  extensively  pat- 
ronized of  all  branches  of  the  great  Fair.  By  day  and 
night,  on  week  days  and  Sundays,  the  plaisance  was 
the  resort  of  crowds  reaching  up  into  the  hundreds  of 
thousands. 

The  Fair  was  a valuable  educator  for  Chicago  and 
the  country  at  large.  It  familiarized  the  people  with 
all  that  is  best  in  art  and  newest  in  invention,  and 
brought  before  their  eyes  the  priceless  treasures  of 
antiquity  and  the  latest  triumphs  of  modern  science. 
It  widened  the  sympathies  and  quickened  the  artistic 
instincts  of  every  man,  woman,  and  child  who  was 
privileged  to  gaze  upon  it,  and  its  lessons  will  be 
impressed  upon  their  minds  for  all  time.  As  an  edu- 
cator of  the  people  no  such  force  has  hitherto  made 
itself  manifest  in  this  nineteenth  century  of  human 
progress. 

WORM.  This  word  has  no  definite  significance  in 
modern  zoological  classification ; it  is  constantly  ap- 
plied to  several  phyla  of  the  animal  kingdom,  which 
have  for  the  most  part  no  special  relations  to  each 
other.  By  Linnaeus  the  Latin  equivalent  “Vermes  ” 
was  applied  to  the  modern  divisions  of  Mollusca, 
Coelentera,  Protozoa,  Tunicata,  and  Echinodermata, 
as  well  as  to  those  animals  which  are  in  many  current 
text-books  of  zoology  grouped  together  under  the 
same  name. 

WORMS,  one  of  the  oldest,  and  from  a historical 
point  of  view  one  of  the  most  interesting  cities  in  Ger- 
many, is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  in  the 
grand-duchy.  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  twenty-five  miles 
south  of  Mainz  and  twenty  miles  northwest  of  Heidel- 
berg. The  town  is  irregularly  built,  and  some  of  the 
old  walls  and  towers  still  remain,  but  its  general  aspect 
is  modern  and  commercial.  Worms  formerly  contained 
many  ecclesiastical  buildings,  now  represented  by  eight 
churches,  two  of  which,  however,  are  no  longer  used 
for  divine  service.  The  principal  church  and  chief 


WOR-WRA 


6400 

building  is  the  spacious  Romanesque  cathedral,  which 
ranks  beside  the  cathedrals  of  Spires  and  Mainz  among 
the  famous  ecclesiastical  edifices  of  the  Rhine. 

The  trade  and  industry  of  Worms  are  important. 
The  leading  resource  of  the  inhabitants  is  wine-growing. 
The  manufacture  of  patent  leather  employs  3,000  hands. 
Machinery,  chicory,  slates,  etc.,  are  also  produced. 
Worms  possesses  a river-harbor,  and  carries  on  some 
trade  by  water.  The  population  is  21,903,  of  whom 
about  one-third  are  Roman  Catholic.  In  its  prosper- 
ous days  Worms  is  estimated  to  have  had  70,000  inhab- 
itants/ Pop.  (1900),  40,705. 

WORSBROUGH,  a township  in  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire,  Eng.,  nine  miles  northwest  of  Rother- 
ham and  three  south  of  Barnsley.  The  church  of  St. 
Mary,  an  interesting  structure  with  remains  of  Norman 
work,  but  chiefly  in  the  Transition  Early  English  style, 
underwent  restoration  in  1864.  It  contains  some  old 
monuments  and  brasses.  There  are  extensive  collieries 
and  gunpowder  mills  in  the  neighborhood,  and  the 
township  possesses  iron  and  steel  works  and  corn-mills. 
The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (3,779 
acres)  was  10,443  in  1901. 

WORSTED:  See  Wool. 

WORTHING,  a watering-place  of  Sussex,  Eng., 
sixty-one  miles  south  of  London  and  ten  and  a half 
west  of  Brighton.  On  account  of  its  sheltered  situation 
at  the  foot  of  the  South  Downs  it  has  some  reputation 
as  a health-resort  for  pulmonary  complaints.  There  is 
a marine  parade  one  and  a quarter  miles  in  length,  a 
long  range  of  firm  sands,  and  an  iron  promenade  pier, 
960  feet  in  length,  constructed  in  1882.  A public  park, 
twenty-one  acres  in  extent,  was  opened  in  1881.  The 
population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (979  acres)  was 
10,976  in  1889. 

WOTTON,  Sir  Henry,  was  born  in  1568.  Henry, 
the  youngest  of  four  sons,  was  sent  to  school  at  Win- 
chester, and  thence  to  Oxford  (New  College  and  after- 
ward Queen’s).  On  the  fall  of  Essex  he  made  his  es- 
cape from  England  and  took  refuge  at  Florence,  where 
he  employed  his  leisure  in  writing  a sketch  of  “ the 
state  of  Christendom.”  While  he  was  at  Florence  the 
grand-duke  discovered  a plot  against  King  James,  and 
Wotton  was  sent  to  Scotland  with  the  information. 
King  James  was  so  charmed  with  the  emissary  that  on 
his  accession  to  the  English  throne  he  at  once  offered 
Wotton  ambassadorial  employment.  After  twenty 
years  of  diplomatic  service  he  obtained  the  post  of  prov- 
ost of  Eton  in  1624.  Two  of  his  witticisms  are  im- 
mortal— his  definition  of  an  ambassador  as  “ an  honest 
man  sent  to  lie  abroad  for  the  good  of  his  country,” 
and  his  advice  to  a young  diplomatist  to  tell  the  truth, 
and  so  puzzle  and  confound  his  adversaries.  He  died 
in  1639. 

WOTTON,  William,  is  now  remembered  chiefly 
for  his  part  in  the  famous  Battle  of  the  Books , but  to 
his  own  generation  his  Reflections  tipon  Ancient  and 
Modern  Learning  was  only  one  of  many  proofs  of  his 
extraordinary  amount  and  variety  of  scholarship.  Born 
in  1666,  the  son  of  an  English  clergyman,  rector  of 
Wrentham,  in  Suffolk,  he  was  one  of  the  wonders  of 
his  age  in  precocity.  He  could  translate  from  several 
languages  at  the  age  of  five.  He 'died  in  1726. 

WOUNDS  may  be  defined  to  be  divisions  of  soft 
parts  produced  by  external  mechanical  force.  They 
are  divided:  first  into  open  and  subcutaneous  wounds, 
the  former  including  those  in  which  the  outer  portion 
of  the  wound  is  almost  or  quite  as  extensive  as  the 
deeper  part;  and  the  latter,  all  those  in  which  the  outer 
part  of  the  wound  is  very  much  smaller  than  the  deeper 
part.  These  wounds  (especially  those  of  the  first  kind) 
may  be  further  divided  into  (1)  incised  wounds,  such  as 


cuts  or  incisions,  including  those  which  remove  a por- 
tion  of  the  body;  (2)  punctured  wounds,  such  as  stabs; 
(3)  contused  wounds,  in  which  the  divided  parts  are 
bruised  or  crushed;  (4)  lacerated  wounds,  in  which  there 
is  tearing  of  the  tissues;  (5)  poisoned  wounds,  in  which 
some  poison  or  venom  is  inserted;  and  to  these  may  be 
added,  as  a special  variety,  (6)  gunshot  wounds.  Sim- 
ple open  incised  wounds  may  be  more  fully  noticed  than 
any  of  the  others,  because  they  have  been  most  fully 
studied,  and  in  their  surgical  relations  are  the  most  im- 
portant. In  a clean  cut,  whether  accidentally  made  or 
in -a  surgical  operation,  three  things  are  chiefly  to  be 
observed,  viz.,  the  opening  or  gaping  by  the  retraction 
of  their  edges,  the  bleeding  and  the  pain.  The  gaping 
of  a wound  is  caused  by  the  retraction  of  the  various 
tissues  which  are  divided.  Of  the  various  tissues  the 
skin  exhibits  the  greatest  degree  of  retraction,  and  then 
(in  the  order  in  which  they  stand)  elastic  tissue,  cellular 
or  connective  tissue,  arteries,  muscles,  fibrous  tissues, 
nerves  and  cartilages.  In  addition  to  the  immediate 
gaping  of  fresh  wounds,  many  wounds,  if  they  be  not 
prevented,  will  continue  to  retract  for  a long  time. 
For  example,  in  stumps  that  heal  slowly,  the  limb  ter- 
minates in  a cone,  in  consequence  of  the  prolonged  re- 
traction of  the  muscles.  The  bleeding  from  an  incised 
wound  depends  chiefly  on  the  number  and  size  of  the 
divided  vessels,  and  their  connection  with  the  surround- 
ing parts,  but  to  a certain  extent  on  the  previous  con- 
dition of  the  wounded  part,  or  on  the  peculiar  constitu- 
tion of  the  patient.  Gradually,  with  or  without  help, 
the  vessels  cease  to  bleed;  and  then,  if  the  wound  be 
left  open,  there  is  an  oozing  of  blood  tinged  with  serous 
fluid,  succeeded  gradually  by  a paler  fluid,  which  col- 
lects like  a whitish  film  on  the  surface,  and  contains  an 
abundance  of  white  or  colorless  blood-cells,  imbedded 
in  a fibrinous  (and  therefore  spontaneous  coagulating) 
fluid.  The  nature  of  the  pain  cannot  be  made  clear  by 
any  description  to  those  who  have  not  felt  it;  and  it  is 
more  than  probable  that  a similar  wound  inflicted  on 
two  or  three  persons  would  occasion  different  degrees 
of  pain  in  each.  The  healing  of  open  incised  wounds 
may  be  accomplished,  according  to  the  high  surgical  au- 
thority from  whom  we  already  have  quoted,  in  five  dif- 
ferent ways,  if  we  include  those  in  which  the  process  is 
assisted  by  treatment — viz.,  (1)  by  immediate  union,  or 
(in  surgical  language)  by  union  by  the  first  intention; 
(2)  by  primary  adhesion,  or  union  by  adhesive  inflamma- 
tion; (3)  by  granulation,  or  by  the  second  intention;  (4) 
by  secondary  adhesion,  or  the  third  intention,  i.e.  by 
union  of  granulations;  and  (5)  by  scarring  under  a scab, 
the  so  called  sub-cutaneous  cicatrization. 

WOUWERMAN,  Philip,  a Dutch  painter  of  bat- 
tle and  hunting  scenes,  was  born  at  Haarlem  in  May, 
1619.  He  received  the  elements  of  his  art  instruction 
from  his  father,  Paul  Joosten  Wouwerman,  a historical 
painter  of  moderate  ability,  and  he  then  studied  under 
Jan  Wynants,  and  for  a short  time  under  Evert  Decker. 
Returning  to  Haarlem,  he  became  a member  of  its  guild 
of  painters  in  1640.  In  that  city  he  seems  to  have  led 
the  rest  of  his  singularly  productive  life,  and  there  he 
died  in  May,  1668. 

WRASSE.  This  name  is  applied  to  the  fishes  of  the 
family  Labridce  generally.  They  are  without  exception 
inhabitants  of  the  sea,  very  abundant  in  the  tropical 
zone,  less  so  in  the  temperate,  and  disappearing  alto- 
gether on  the  confines  of  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  Cir- 
cles. Their  body  is  generally  compressed,  like  that  of 
a carp,  covered  with  smooth  (cycloid)  scales;  they 
possess  one  dorsal  fin  only,  the  anterior  portion  of 
which  consists  of  numerous  spines.  Many  wrasses  are 
readily  recognized  by  their  thick  lips,  the  inside  ot 
which  is  sometimes  curiously  folded,  a peculiarity 


WRE 


which  has  given  to  them  the  German  name  of  “ lip-  I 
fishes.”  The  dentition  of  their  jaws  consists  of  strong 
conical  teeth,  of  which  some  in  front,  and  often  one  at 
the  hinder  end  of  the  upper  jaw,  are  larger  than  the  | 
others.  But  the  principal  organs  with  which  they  crush 
shell-fish,,  crustaceans,  and  other  hard  substances  are 
the  solid  and  strongly-toothed  pharyngeal  bones,  of 
which  the  lower  are  coalesced  into  a single  flat  tri 
angular  plate.  The  majority  of  wrasses  are  beautifully 
colored,  exhibiting  extraordinarily  varied  patterns  of 
permanent  pigmentary  colors,  as  well  as  evanescept  re- 
flections of  the  scales. 

WRECK  (in  Low  Latin  wreccum  or  warectum  maris) 
is  a ship  or  goods  cast  on  land  by  the  sea  in  tidal  waters. 
While  still  at  sea  such  ship  or  goods  do  not  constitute 
wreck  but  derelict,  which  includes  flotsam,  jetsam,  and 
lagan  (see  Flotsam).  Theft  from  a wreck  was  regarded 
as  aggravated  by  the  helpless  position  of  the  owner, 
and  the  thief  was  liable  for  fourfold  the  loss  if  an  action 
was  brought  against  him  within  a year,  after  that  time 
for  the  loss  simply.  Plunderers  of  wreck,  and  exhibitors 
of  false  lights,  were  also  punished  criminally. 

In  the  United  States  legislation  as  to  disposition  of 
wrecked  property  is  generally  in  favor  of  the  owner  on 
his  claim  being  made  within  a limited  time.  As  to  the 
acts  of  Congress  on  the  subject,  the  secretary  of  the 
treasury  is  empowered  to  make  contracts  and  provisions 
for  the  preservation,  sale,  or  collection  of  wrecked  prop- 
erty, Revised  Statutes  § 3,755,  and  may  issue  a register 
for  a foreign  vessel  wrecked  in  the  United  States  and 
purchased  and  repaired  by  a citizen  of  the  United  States, 
^4,136.  Special  provisions  are  made  as  to  wreck  in 
Florida,  §§  4,239-4,241.  Plundering  wreck,  or  im- 
peding the  escape  of  a shipwrecked  person,  or  showing 
false  or  extinguishing  true  lights  in  order  to  cause  wreck 
are  punishable  offenses,  § 5,358.  Wreck  is  not  confined, 
as  in  England,  to  loss  on  tidal  waters,  but  extends  to 
that  happening  on  the  great  freshwater  lakes  and 
rivers. 

WREDE,  Karl  Philipp,  Prince  of,  a Bavarian 
field  marshal,  was  born  at  Heidelburg  April  29,  1768. 
He  early  obtained  official  employment,  and  in  1792  was 
assessor  to  the  high  court  of  Heidelburg;  in  1793  was 
elected  civil  commissary  in  the  Palatinate,  and  in  this 
latter  capacity  accompanied  for  five  years  the  armies  of 
Wurmser,  Duke  Albert,  and  Archduke  Charles,  in  Italy 
and  Germany  ; and  frequently  took  a direct  share  in 
military  -operations.  In  1799  his  military  career  may 
be  said  to  have  commenced  by  his  leading  a body  of 
Bavarian  volunteers  to  meet  the  Archduke  Charles,  and 
for  his  distinguished  conduct  in  that  campaign  he 
obtained  on  May  15,  1800,  the  grade  of  major-general. 
After  the  peace  of  1800  he  devoted  much  time  and  labor 
to  the  organization  of  the  Bavarian  army.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  campaigns  against  the  Austrians, 
Prussians,  and  Russians  until  1813.  But,  after  the 
retreat  from  Russia,  offended  at  some  real  or  fancied 
insult  which  had  been  offered  to  him,  he  returned  to 
Munich,  joined  the  anti-French  party,  which  was  headed 
by  the  queen  and  crown  prince,  and,  though  his  intrigues 
were  put  to  a stop  by  the  victories  of  Lutzen  and  Baut- 
zen, he  soon  after  succeeded  in  bringing  about  the  treaty 
of  October  8,  1813,  by  which  Bavaria  joined  the  coali- 
tion against  France,  and  before  the  end  of  the  same 
month  was  at  the  head  of  70,000  men.  Attacked  by 
Napoleon  with  an  inferior  force,  he  was,  after  a bloody 
and  protracted  contest,  defeated  at  Hanau.  He  was 
chosen  soon  after  to  command  the  fourth  corps  of 
Schwarzenberg’sarmy,  and,  though  unsuccessful  in  most 
of  his  petty  conflicts,  contributed  considerably  to  the 
successful  advance  on  Paris.  His  services  were  rewarded 
by  the  dignities  of  field-marshal  and  prince,  and  by  the  gift 


64OI 

| of  the  Dominion  of  Ellingen.  On  die  brief  renewal  of  the 
contest  during  the  “ Hundred  Days  ” he  was  preparing  to 
invade  Lorraine,  when  the  battle  of  Waterloo  put  an 
end  to  the  strife.  After  this  period  he  was  employed 
on  many  important  missions,  and  was  charged  with  the 
pacification  of  Rhenish  Bavaria  during  the  revolution  of 
1830.  He  died  at  Ellingen,  December  12,  1838. 

WREN  (Anglo-Saxon  IVrceitna  and  Wrenne,  Ice- 
landic Rindill ),  a well-known  little  brown  bird  that 
braves  the  winter  of  the  British  Islands  and  even  that 
of  the  European  Continent,  and,  except  in  the  hardest 
of  frosts,  will  daily  sing  its  spirit-stirring  strain.  It  is 
the  Motacilla  or  Sylvia  troglodytes  of  the  earlier  sys- 
tematists,  and  the  Troglodytes  parvulus , enropccus , or 
vulgaris  of  most  later  writers.  The  name  Wren  is  im- 
properly applied  to  several  American  members  of  the 
family  troglodytes , no  fewer  than  sixty  of  these  allied 
species  being  given  by  one  writer. 

The  Wren  hardly  needs  description  here,  and  its 
domed  nest,  apparently  so  needlessly  large  for  the  size 
of  the  bird,  is  a well-known  object,  for  it  is  built  witp 
uncommon  care,  and  often  (though  certainly  not  always) 
in  such  a fashion  as  to  assimilate  its  exterior  to  its  sur- 
roundings, and  so  to  escape  observation.  Very  curious, 
too,  is  the  equally  unaccountable  fact  that  near  any  oc- 
cupied nest  may  generally  be  found  another  nest,  or 
more  than  one,  of  imperfect  construction.  The  wide- 
spread belief  concerning  these  unfinished  fabrics  is  im- 
plied by  their  common  name  of  “ cocks’  nests,”  but  evi- 
dence to  that  effect  is  not  forthcoming.  The  range  of 
the  Wren  in  Europe  is  very  extensive,  though  it  seems 
to  stop  short  of  the  Arctic  Circle ; but  it  occurs  in 
Algeria,  Madeira,  and,  according  to  Bolle,  in  the  Cana- 
ries. It  also  inhabits  Palestine. 

WREN,  Sir  Christopher,  was  born  at  East  Knoyle, 
Wiltshire,  England,  in  1631;  he  entered  at  Wadham 
College,  Oxford,  in  1646,  took  his  degree  in  1650,  and 
in  1653  was  made  a fellow  of  All  Souls.  While  at  Ox- 
ford, Wren  distinguished  himself  in  geometry  and  ap- 
plied mathematics;  in  1657  he  became  professor  of  as- 
tronomy at  Gresham  College,  and  in  1660  was  elected 
Savilian  professor  of  astronomy  at  Oxford.  It  is,  how- 
ever, as  an  architect  that  Wren  is  best  known,  and  the 
great  fire  of  London,  by  its  destruction  of  the  cathedral 
and  nearly  all  the  city  churches,  gave  Wren  a scope  for 
his  talent  such  as  probably  no  architect  has  ever  had  to 
the  same  extent.  Just  before  the  fire,  Wren  was  asked 
by  Charles  II.  to  prepare  a scheme  for  the  restoration 
of  the  old  St.  Paul’s.  In  May,  1666,  Wren  submitted 
his  report  and  design  for  this  work;  the  old  cathedral 
was  in  a very  ruinous  state,  and  Wren  proposed  to  re- 
model the  greater  part.  According  to  this  scheme, 
only  the  old  choir  was  left;  the  nave  and  transepts  were 
to  be  rebuilt  after  the  classical  style,  with  a lofty  dome 
at  the  crossing — not  unlike  the  plan  which  was  eventu- 
ally  carried  out. 

In  September  of  the  same  year  (1666)  the  fire  occurred, 
and  the  old  St.  Paul’s  was  completely  gutted,  though 
the  greater  part  of  its  walls  still  remained  standing. 
From  1668  to  1670  attempts  were  being  made  by  the 
chapter  to  restore  the  ruined  building;  but  Dean  San- 
croft  was  anxious  to  have  the  cathedral  wholly  rebuilt, 
and  in  1668  he  had  asked  Wren  to  prepare  a design  for 
a wholly  new  church.  This  first  design,  the  model 
for  which  is  preserved  in  the  South  Kensington  Mu- 
seum, is  very  inferior  to  what  Wren  afterward  devised. 
The  present  very  graceful  dome  and  the  drum  on 
which  it  stands,  masterpieces  of  graceful  line  and  har- 
monious proportion,  were  very  important  alterations 
from  the  earlier  scheme.  As  a scientific  engineer  and 
practical  architect,  Wren  was  perhaps  more  remarkable 
than  as  an  artistic  designer.  The  construction  of  the 


6402 


WRE- 

wooden  external  dome,  and  the  support  of  the  stone 
lantern  by  an  inner  cone  of  brickwork,  quite  independ- 
ent of  either  the  external  or  internal  dome,  are  wonder- 
ful examples  of  Wren’s  constructive  ingenuity.  The 
first  stone  of  the  new  St.  Paul’s  was  laid  on  June  21, 
1675;  the  choir  was  opened  for  use  December  2,  1697; 
and  the  last  stone  of  the  cathedral  was  set  in  1710. 
After  the  destruction  of  the  city  of  London,  Wren 
was  employed  to  make  designs  for  rebuilding  its  fifty 
burnt  churches,  and  he  also  prepared  a scheme  for  laying 
out  the  whole  city  on  a new  plan,  with  a series  of  wide 
streets  radiating  from  a central  space.  Difficulties  aris- 
ing from  the  various  ownerships  of  the  ground  prevented 
the  accomplishment  of  this  scheme. 

Among  Wren’s  city  churches  the  most  noteworthy  are 
St.  Michael’s,  CornhilljSt.  Bride’s  and  St.  Mary  le  Bow, 
Fleet  Street,  the  latter  remarkable  for.its  graceful  spire  ; 
and  St.  Stephen’s,  Walbrook,  with  a plain  exterior,  but 
very  elaborate  and  graceful  interior.  In  the  design  of 
spires,  Wren  showed  much  taste  and  wonderful  power  of 
invention.  The  western  towers  of  Westminster  Abbey 
are  usually  attributed  to  Wren,  but  they  were  not 
carried  out  till  1735-45,  many  years  after  Wren’s  death, 
and  there  is  no  reason  to  think  that  his  design  was  used. 
Wren  (D.C.L.  from  1660)  was  knighted  in  1673,  and  was 
elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1681.  He  was 
in  parliament  for  many  years,  representing  Plympton 
from  1685,  Windsor  from  1689,  anc^  Weymouth  from 
1700.  He  occupied  the  post  of  surveyor  of  the  royal 
works  for  fifty  years,  but  by  a shameful  cabal  was  dis- 
missed from  this  office  a few  years  before  his  death.  He 
died  in  1 723,  and  was  buried  under  the  choir  of  St.  Paul’s; 
on  a tablet  over  the  inner  north  doorway  is  the  well- 
known  epitaph,  “ Si  monumentum  requiris,  circumspice.” 

WRESTLING  and  BOXING.  Wrestling  is  the 
art  of  forcing  an  antagonist  to  the  ground  without  re- 
sorting to  blows  or  kicks.  It  is  a trial  of  strength  and 
skill  between  two  opponents  standing  face  to  face,  who 
strive  to  throw  one  another.  As  a gymnastic  exercise 
It  was  greatly  encouraged  among  the  ancient  Greeks, 
and  the  highest  honors  and  rewards  were  bestowed  on 
the  victors  at  tfte  Olympic,  Isthmian,  Nemean,  and 
Dther  games.  It  was  also  cultivated  by  the  Romans, 
.hough  their  tastes  inclined  to  more  savage  and  brutal- 
izing exhibitions  than  that  of  wrestling.  It  was  not 
unknown  in  Egypt  and  at  Nineveh,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  sculptures  in  the  British  Museum.  At  the 
same  time  it  differed  very  much  in  its  ancient  form'from 
the  wrestling  of  to-day;  the  wrestlers  of  old  being  wont  to 
compete  almost  if  not  quite  nude,  their  bodies  besmeared 
zvith  oil  or  some  other  kind  of  greaseby  way  of  making 
their  muscles  supple;  but,  as  this  practice  rendered  it 
/ery  difficult  to  get  fair  hold  of  one  another,  the 
wrestlers  were  accustomed  to  use  sand  on  their  hands, 
jr  even  to  roll  in  the  dust  of  the  arena  as  a corrective. 
In  their  contests  they  took  hold  of  each  other  by  the 
arms,  drew  forward,  pushed  backward,  used  many  con- 
tortions of  the  body,  interlocked  their  limbs,  seized  one 
another  by  the  neck,  throttled,  lifted  each  other  off  the 
ground,  and  butted  like  rams,  though  the  chief  point  of 
their  art  was  to  become  master  of  their  opponent’s 
legs,  when  a fall  was  the  immediate  result.  In  England 
the  pastime  has  been  popular  from  an  early  period, 
more  especially  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  four  English  systems  of  wrestling  include  those 
af  (1)  Cornwall  and  Devon,  (2)  Lancashire,  (3)  Catch 
hold,  first  down  to  lose,  and  (4)  Cumberland  and  West- 
moreland. The  Cornwall  and  Devon  men  compete  in 
strong  loose  linen  jackets,  catching  hold  above  the  waist 
or  of  any  portion  of  the  jacket  Kicking,  which  used 
to  be  a prominent  feature  of  the  west-country  style,  is 
tioW  forbidden,  and  the  men  wrestle  in  their  stockinged 


W R T 

feet.  In  order  to  be  fairly  thrown,  two  shoulders  and 
one  hip  must  be  on  the  ground,  or  two  hips  and  one 
shoulder,  and  a man  must  be  thrown  flat  on  his  back 
before  any  other  portion  of  his  body  touches  the  earth 
ere  a decision  can  be  given  against  him.  Formerly  each 
county  wrestled  under  different  rules,  but  the  systems 
are  now  amalgamated,  and  are  classed  as  one  and  the 
same.  In  Lancashire  the  wrestlers  compete  in  their 
stockinged  feet,  but  are  allowed  to  catch  hold  of  any  por- 
tion of  the  body.  This  is  the  most  barbarous  of  all  the 
English  systems,  and  includes  the  objectionable  battling 
on  the  ground  which  is  the  fatal  characteristic  of  the 
French  method.  Tripping,  however,  is  not  forbidden, 
and  a fall  is  sometimes  secured  without  a resort  to  scram- 
bling tactics,  which  is  impossible  under  French  rule. 
The  “ catch  hold,  first  down  to  lose  ” style  of  wrestling 
is  of  recent  origin,  and  promises  to  become  popular. 

Boxing,  though  perhaps  hardly  as  popular  as  wrestling, 
is  closely  identified  with  it  in  the  gymnasium,  if  not 
outside  it.  Its  present  comparative  popularity  is  princi- 
pally due  to  the  efforts  of  the  late  Mr.  John  G.  Chambers, 
who,  in  1866,  founded  the  Amateur  Athletic  Club,  and, 
in  conjunction  with  the  marquis  of  Queensberry,  drew 
up  a code  of  rules  (known  as  the  Queensberry  rules), 
which  regulate  the  principal  glove  contests. 

WREXHAM,  a market-town  and  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough  of  Denbighshire,  North  Wales, 
eleven  miles  south-southwest  of  Chester,  and  201  miles 
from  London  by  rail.  Wrexham  church,  dedicated  to 
St. Giles,  contains  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  century  work, 
but  was  in  great  part  reconstructed  at  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  Tower,  erected  between 
1506  and  1520,  has  been  styled  “ one  of  the  seven  won- 
ders of  Wales.”  The  church  was  restored  in  1867.  It 
contains  a large  number  of  monuments.  The  bells, 
ten  in  number,  are  the  most  famous  in  the  principality. 
The  population  of  the  parliamentary  borough  (1,791 
acres)  in  1901  was  17,000. 

WRIGHT,  Joseph,  subject,  landscape,  and  portrait 
painter,  was  born  at  Derby,  England,  on  September  3, 
1734.  During  his  early  years  he  manifested  an  aptitude 
for  mechanical  pursuits,  and  also  for  music,  but  he 
finally-  resolved  to  become  a painter,  and  in  1751  he 
went  to  London  and  for  two  years  studied  under 
Thomas  Hudson,  the  master  of  Reynolds.  Returning 
to  Derby  he  practiced  portrait  painting,  and  varied  his 
work  in  portraiture  by  the  productions  of  the  subjects 
seen  under  artificial  light,  with  which  his  name  is  chiefly 
associated,  and  by  landscape  painting.  He  married  in 
1773,  and  at  the  end  of  that  year  he  visited  Italy,  where 
he  remained  till  1775.  While  at  Naples  he  witnessed 
an  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  which  under  various  treatment 
formed  the  subject  of  many  of  his  subsequent  pictures. 
On  his  return  from  Italy  he  established  himself  at  Bath 
as  a portrait-painter;  but  meeting  with  little  encourage- 
ment he  returned  to  Derby,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life.  He  was  a frequent  contributor  to  the  exhibi- 
tions of  the  Society  of  Artists,  and  to  those  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  of  which  he  was  elected  an  associate 
in  1781  and  a full  member  in  1784.  He,  however, 
declined  the  latter  honor  on  account  of  a slight  which 
he  believed  that  he  had  received,  and  severed  his  official 
connection  with  the  Academy,  though  he  continued  to 
contribute  to  the  exhibitions  from  1783  till  1794.  He 
died  at  Derby  on  August  29,  1797. 

WRIGHT,  Silas,  was  born  at  Amherst,  Mass., 
May  24,  1795.  He  graduated  at  Middlebury  Col 
lege,  Vt.,  in  1815,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1819. 
and  began  practice  at  Canton,  in  northern  New 
York.  From  the  first  he  showed  those  characteristics 
which  finally  made  him  a representative  American 
Democratic  leader.  In  his  professional  work  he  was 


W R T 


a type  of  thq  lawyer  of  the  old  school — shrewd,  skillful, 
rigidly  jilst,  and  controlled  by  the  belief  that  his  pro- 
fession was  a public  trust,  and  that  judicial  qualities 
must  mingle  with  those  of  the  advocate.  He  seems 
never  to  have  sought  an  office,  and  never  to  have  felt  at 
liberty  to  refuse  one,  even  that  of  village  postmaster,  if 
he  could  possibly  serve.  He  was  appointed  surrogate 
in  1820,  and  was  elected  successively  to  the  State  senate 
in  1823,  to  the  house  of  representatives  in  1827-29, 
comptroller  of  the  State  1829-33,  United  States  senator 
!833-44,and  governor  of  New  York  1844-46.  During 
his  public  life  he  had  become  a leader  of  the  Democratic 
party  of  New  York,  Van  Buren  being  his  closest  as- 
sociate. When  the  national  Democratic  party,  in  1844, 
nominated  and  elected  Polk  to  the  presidency,  instead 
of  Van  Buren,  Wright  and  the  State  organization  took 
an  attitude  of  armed  neutrality  toward  the  new  admin- 
istration. Renominated  for  governor  in  1846,  Wright 
was  defeated,  and  the  result  was  ascribed  to  the  hos- 
tility of  the  Polk  administration.  The  death  of  the 
defeated  candidate,  at  Canton,  August  27,  1847,  gave  in- 
tense bitterness  to  New  York  politics  for  several  years  ; 
and  his  faction,  in  1848,  succeeded  in  defeating  their 
national  party’s  candidates  in  the  presidential  election. 

WRIGHT,  Thomas,  antiquary,  was  born  at  Lud- 
low, in  Shropshire,  England,  April  21,  1810,  and  was 
descended  from  a Quaker  family  formerly  living  at  Brad- 
ford, in  Yorkshire.  He  was  educated  at  the  old  gram- 
mar school  at  Ludlow,  and  afterward  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  in  1834.  While 
at  Cambridge,  he  contributed  to  the  Gentleman' s Maga- 
zine and  other  periodicals,  and  in  1835  went  to  London 
to  devote  himself  to  a literary  career.  His  first  sepa- 
rate work  was  Early  English  Poetry  in  Black  Letter , 
with  Prefaces  and  Notes , 1836,  4 vols.  i2mo,  which 
was  followed  during  the  next  forty  years  by  a very  ex- 
tensive series  of  publications,  many  of  lasting  value. 
He  helped  to  found  the  British  Archaeological  Associa- 
tion, and  the  Percy,  Camden,  and  Shakespeare  societies. 
In  1842  he  was  elected  corresponding  member  of  the 
Academie  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles  Lettres  of  Paris, 
and  was  a fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  as  well  as 
member  of  many  other  learned  British  and  foreign 
bodies.  In  1859  he  superintended  the  excavations  of  the 
Roman  city  of  Uriconium,  near  Shrewsbury,  of  which 
he  issued  a description.  He  died  at  Chelsea,  December 
23,  1877,  in  his  sixty-seventh  year. 

WRIT,  in  law,  is  a formal  commission  from  the  su- 
preme executive  officer  to  an  inferior  executive  officer, 
or  to  a private  person,  enjoining  some  act  or  omission. 
The  word  represents  the  Latin  brruis  or  breve  (both 
forms  are  found,  the  latter  more  commonly),  so  called, 
according  to  Bracton,  from  its  shortly  expressing  the 
intention  of  the  framer.  Writs  in  United  States  courts 
are  by  Act  of  Congress  to  be  tested  in  the  name  of  the 
chief  justice  of  the  United  States.  By  State  laws,  writs 
are  generally  bound  to  be  in  the  name  of  the  people  of 
the  State,  in  the  English  language,  and  tested  in  the 
name  of  a judge.  Writs  of  error  have  been  the  subject 
of  much  legislation  in  the  United  States,  and  by  the 
States.  In  New  York,  writs  of  error  and  of  ne  exeat 
have  been  abolished.  Writs  as  parts  of  real  actions 
have  been  generally  superseded,  but  in  Massachusetts  a 
writ  of  entry  on  disseisin  is  still  a mode  of  trying  title. 
Writs  of  dower  and  of  estrepement  are  still  in  use  in 
some  States.  By  the  law  of  some  States,  e.g .,  New 
Jersey,  writs  of  election  are  issued  to  supply  casually 
occurring  vacancies  in  the  legislature. 

WRITERS’  CRAMP,  or  “Scrivener’s  Palsy,”  is 
a peculiar  kind  of  local  spasm,  in  which  every  attempt 
to  write  instantly  calls  forth  uncontrollable  movements 
in  the  thumb,  the  index,  and  middle  finger,  so  that  the 


6403 

pen  starts  up  and  down  on  the  paper,  and  instead  of 
legible  handwriting  a mere  scrawl  results.  The  more 
the  patient  persists  in  his  attempt,  the  more  the  dif- 
ficulty of  using  his  pen  increases,  and  to  the  visible 
contractions  of  the  muscles  of  the  thumb,  contractions 
of  the  forearm,  and  even  of  the  upper  arm,  are  often 
superadded.  Abnormal  sensations,  especially  of  a 
sense  of  weight  and  constriction  of  the  hand,  or  of 
pain  extending  up  the  upper  arm  to  the  back,  are  oc- 
casionally present.  It  is  diagnostic  to  these  attacks 
that  they  are  instantly  arrested  when  the  individual 
ceases  writing,  and  that  the  hand  is  capable  of  every 
other  combination  of  movements  and  exertions.  The 
disease  is  chiefly  confined  to  middle  age,  and  scarcely 
ever  occurs  in  women;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  an 
occupation  entailing  much  writing  predisposes  to  it,  and 
the  quality  of  the  paper  or  pen  have  nothing  to  do  with  it. 

WRITING  MACHINES.  Machines  and  ap- 
pliances of  various  kinds  are  in  common  use  to  facili- 
tate the  process  of  writing,  and  to  produce  copies  of 
writings  already  made  with  the  pen.  Such  facsimile 
writings  are  obtained  by  numerous  devices,  all  of  which, 
however,  come  under  the  heads  (1)  of  manifolding,  (2) 
of  processes  analogous  in  principle  to  lithography,  and 
(3)  of  stenciling.  The  simplest  form  of  manifold  writ- 
ing is  by  sheets  of  paper  prepared  with  lamp-black, 
being  interleaved  Ipetween  the  sheets  of  white  paper  on 
which  the  impressions  are  to  be  taken,  and  writing  over 
the  whole  with  a stylus  or  other  sharp-pointed  instru- 
ment. By  this  means  a considerable  number  of  copies 
can  be  made  at  one  time,  and  the  method  is  in  general 
use  among  newspaper  writers  and  telegraphists  in  the 
production  of  what  is  technically  known  as  “ flimsy,” 
where  several  copies  of  the  same  matter  are  required. 
Of  processes  analogous  to  lithography,  the  best  known 
is  the  “hektograph”  method,  in  which  the  writing  is 
done  in  the  first  instance  on  paper  with  aniline  ink,  and 
then  a transfer  is  made  to  a gelatine  composition  which 
gives  off  a considerable  number  of  impressions.  In 
principle  the  autocopyist  is  like  the  hektograph,  but  in 
this  apparatus  the  writing  is  done  with  a special  ink, 
which  is  transferred  to  a prepared  and  properly 
stretched  sheet  of  parchment.  From  this  parchment 
copies  are  obtained  precisely  as  from  a lithographic 
stone  on  which  a transfer  has  been  impressed.  Of  the 
apparatus  worked  in  the  stencil  method,  the  cyclostyle 
has  been  most  extensively  adopted.  This  machine 
consists  of  a frame  of  sufficient  size  containing  a plate 
of  tin  on  which  the  paper  from  which  the  impression  is 
to  be  taken  is  rested.  The  paper  is  prepared  in  a par- 
ticular way,  and  the  “ pen  ” with  which  the  writing  is 
done  consists  of  an  ordinary  wooden  holder,  at  the  end 
of  which  is  fixed  on  a pivot  a minute  wheel.  The  edge 
of  the  wheel  is  studded  with  fine  points,  which,  as  it  re- 
volves and  turns  in  the  direction  of  the  writing,  pierce 
the  paper,  thus  making  a perfect  stencil.  The  ink  is 
passed  over  the  top  of  this  stencil  by  means  of  a roller, 
and  the  impression  is  left  on  a sheet  of  ordinary  paper 
placed  beneath.  Another  form  of  stencil  reproduction 
is  the  mimeograph,  in  which  a prepared  gelatinized 
sheet  is  rested  on  a corrugated  steel  plate  ; the  words 
to  be  copied  are  then  traced  with  a sharp  stylus;  the 
paper  is  then  inked  through  the  stencil  with  a thick, 
viscid  ink,  and  any  number  of  impressions  can  be  taken 
by  pressing  the  stencil  over  sheets  of  thin,  ink-absorbing 
paper,  and  running  a roller  charged  with  ink  backward 
and  forward  over  the  stencil.  Similar  to  this  machine 
is  the  “ cyclostyle.  ” 

The  principal  substitute  for  the  pen,  however,  ir  he 
machine  now  generally  known  as  the  type-writer,  which 
in  its  present  form  dates  only  from  1873,  t>ut  **  h?s 
since  that  time  come  into  extensive  use,  especially  in 


WRY  — W U R 


6404 

America,  the  country  of  its  origin.  The  success  of  this  ! 
machine  has  induced  many  inventors  to  enter  the  field, 
and  now  three  principal  classes  of  type-writers  are  more 
or  less  in  use.  These  are  type-bar  machines,  cylinder 
machines,  and  wheel  machines.  The  Remington  is  the 
type  and  original  of  all  type-bar  machines,  which  are  so 
called  because  the  steel  types  are  fixed  at  the  extremity 
of  a bar  or  rod  of  iron.  These  bars  are,  in  the  Reming- 
ton, arranged  in  a circle  around  a common  center,  and 
by  striking  the  key  of  any  particular  letter,  a lever  is 
moved  which  raises  the  type-bar,  and  causes  the  type 
at  its  point  to  strike  on  an  inked  ribbon,  and  impresses 
the  letter  on  the  paper,  which  lies  against  an  india- 
rubber  roller.  The  type-bars  are  so  hinged  that  all  the 
types  as  they  are  struck  hit  precisely  the  same  spot,  so 
that  were  the  paper  to  remain  stationary  the  impres- 
sions of  all  the  types  struck  would  be  superimposed  on 
each  other;  but,  by  an  automatic  mechanism,  the  cylin- 
der with  the  paper  moves  a space  to  the  left  after  the 
impression  of  each  type,  and  the  depression  of  a wooden 
bar  similarly  moves  the  cylinder  a space  after  each  word 
without  impressing  any  sign.  In  the  form  of  the  Rem- 
ington machine  most  used,  each  type  bar  carries  two 
types,  capital  and  lower  case,  or  other  duplicate  signs, 
the  one  a little  behind  the  other,  and  when  a capital 
letter  is  to  be  printed,  the  depression  of  a key  shifts  the 
position  of  the  cylinder  so  as  to  bring  the  second  type 
in  contact  with  the  ink  ribbon.  In  this  way  from  one 
set  of  keys  two  sets  of  type  can  be  with  facility  acted 
upon.  With  practice,  an  average  writing  speed  of  fifty 
words  per  minute  can  easily  be  attained  on  a type- 
writer, and  very  expert  writers  have  been  able  to  keep 
up  a speed  of  from  80  to  100  words  for  a short  time. 
It  is  safe  to  say  that  type-writing  can  be  ordinarily  done 
at  about  three  times  the  speed  of  ordinary  handwriting. 
In  the  cylindrical  machines  the  letters  and  signs  are  all 
upon  a cylinder  or  “ sleeve,”  and  the  striking  of  a key 
roduces  a combined  lateral  and  rotary  motion  for 
ringing  the  proper  type  to  the  common  printing  point. 
Thus,  for  every  separate  impression  the  entire  cylinder 
has  ordinarily  to  make  two  movements  of  variable 
length,  and  the  instrument  is  noisy  in  operation,  and 
does  not  possess  the  rapid  direct  action  of  the  type-bar 
machines. 

WRYNECK  (Germ.  Wendehals,  Dutch  Draciihal- 
zen,  French  Torcol),  a bird  so  called  from  its  wonder- 
ful way  of  writhing  its  head  and  neck,  especially  when 
captured,  as  it  may  easily  be,  on  its  nest  in  a hollow 
tree.  The  lynx  torquilla  of  ornithology,  it  is  a regu- 
lar summer  visitant  to  most  parts  of  Europe,  generally 
arriving  a few  days  before  the  Cuckoo,  and  it  is  in 
many  countries  known  by  some  name  associating  it 
with  that  well-known  bird — as  in  England  “ Cuckoo’s 
leader  ” and  “ Cuckoo’s  mate  ” — but  occasionally  it  is 
called  “ Snake-bird,”  not  only  from  the  undulatory  mo- 
tions just  mentioned,  but  from  the  violent  hissing 
with  which  it  seeks  to  repel  an  intruder  from  its  hole. 

WUDWAN,  a town  in  India,  in  the  peninsula  of 
Kattywar,  province  of  Guzerat,  105  miles  west-by- 
north from  Baroda.  It  is  situated  on  a small  river, 
which  falls  into  the  great  salt  marsh,  the  Runn  of 
Cutch.  Population,  32,000.  The  surrounding  district 
is  in  a high  state  of  cultivation,  and  is  celebrated  for 
the  excellence  of  the  cotton  which  it  produces. 

WUHU,  or  Woo- H 00,  a district  city  in  the  province 
of  Gan-hwuy,  China,  is  situated  about  a mile  from  the 
south  bank  of  the  Yang-tsze  Kiang  river,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  a straggling  suburb.  By  the  treaty  of 
1858  it  was  marked  out  as  one  of  the  treaty  ports,  but 
it  was  not  opened  to  trade  until  1877.  At  first  its  com- 
mercial progress  was  very  slow,  the  neighborhood  of 
the  older  ports  of  Kew-keang  and  Chin-keang  militating 


[ against  its  success;  but  of  late  years  there  has  been  a 
1 distinct  improvement  in  the  trade  of  the  port.  The 
principal  exports  are  rice  and  silk  piece  goods,  while 
next  in  importance  come  feathers,  hides,  nutgalls,  and 
tea.  For  the  production  of  feathers  large  quantities  of 
ducks  are  reared  in  the  surrounding  districts.  Of  im- 
ports, opium  is  a considerable  item.  Pop.  (1900),  92,230. 

WUN,  a British  district  in  the  chief  commissionership 
of  Berar,  containing  an  area  of  3,907  square  miles.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  north  and  west  by  Amraoti  and  Basim 
districts,  on  the  south  by  the  Nizam’s  Dominions,  and 
on  the  east  by  Wardha  and  Chdndd  districts  of  the 
Central  Provinces.  Wun  is  a wild,  hilly  country  inter- 
sected by  offshoots  from  the  Ajanta  chain  of  mountains. 
For  the  most  part  the  hills  in  the  district  are  bare,  or 
clothed  only  with  dwarf  teak  or  small  jungle;  but  on  the 
heights  near  Wun  town  the  bamboo  grows  abundantly, 
and  elsewhere  small  bamboos  are  found  in  the  ravines. 
The  Wardha  and  Paingangd,  which  bound  the  district 
on  the  east  and  south,  unite  at  its  southeast  corner. 
The  Paingangd  carries  off  nearly  all  the  drainage  of  the 
district.  Wiin  is  rich  in  coal  and  iron  ores. 

The  population  in  1901  was  392,102  (males  201,491, 
females  190,611);  Hindus  numbered  335,787,  Moham- 
medans 17,031,  Christians  127,  and  aboriginals  37,252. 
Wun,  the  chief  town  of  the  district  (population  4,207), 
has  some  fine  temples. 

WURTEMBERG,  or  WBrttemberg,  a European 
kingdom,  forms  a tolerably  compact  mass  in  the  south- 
west angle  of  the  German  empire,  of  which  it  is  the 
third  factor  in  point  of  area  and  the  fourth  in  point  of 
population.  In  the  south  it  is  cleft  by  the  long  narrow 
territory  of  Hohenzollern,  belonging  to  Prussia ; and  it 
incloses  six  small  enclaves  of  Baden  and  Hohenzollern, 
while  it  owns  seven  small  exclaves  within  the  limits  of 
these  two  states.  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to 
south  is  140  miles;  its  greatest  breadth  is  100  miles; 
its  boundaries,  almost  entirely  arbitrary,  have  a circuit 
of  1, 1 16  miles;  and  its  total  area  is  7,531  square  miles, 
or  about  one  twenty-eighth  of  the  entire  empire.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  east  by  Bavaria,  and  on  the  other  three 
sides  by  Baden,  with  the  exception  of  a short  distance 
on  the  south,  where  it  touches  Hohenzollern  and  the 
Lake  of  Constance.  For  administrative  purposes  the 
country  is  divided  into  the  four  circles  (“kreise”)  of 
the  Neckar  in  the  northwest,  the  Jagst  in  the  northeast, 
the  Black  Forest  in  the  southwest,  and  the  Danube  in 
the  southeast. 

Wiirtemberg  forms  part  of  the  South-German  table- 
land, and  is  hilly  rather  than  mountainous.  In  fact  the 
undulating  fertile  terraces  of  Upper  and  Lower  Swabia 
may  be  taken  as  the  characteristic  parts  of  this  agricult- 
ural country.  The  usual  estimates  return  one-fourth 
of  the  entire  surface  as  “plain,”  less  than  one-third 
as  “mountainous;”  and  nearly  one-half  as  “hilly.” 
The  chief  mountains  are  the  Black  Forest  on  the 
west,  the  Swabian  Jura  or  Rauhe  Alb,  stretching  across 
the  middle  of  the  country  from  southwest  to  northeast, 
and  the  Adelegg  Mountains  in  the  extreme  southeast, 
adjoining  the  Algau  Alps  in  Bavaria.  The  Rauhe  Alb 
or  Alp  slopes  gradually  down  into  the  plateau  on  its 
south  side,  but  on  the  north  it  is  sometimes  rugged  and 
steep,  and  has  its  line  broken  by  isolated  projecting 
hills.  The  highest  summits  are  in  the  southwest,  viz. , 
the  Lemberg  (3,326  feet),  Ober-Hohenberg  (3,312  feet), 
and  Plettenberg  (3,293  feet). 

About  70  per  cent,  of  Wiirtemberg  belongs  to 
the  basin  of  the  Rhine,  and  about  30  per  cent,  to 
that  of  the  Danube.  The  principal  river  is  the  Neckar, 
which  flows  northward  for  186  miles  through  the  coun- 
try to  join  the  Rhine,  and  with  its  tributaries  drains 
57  per  cent,  of  the  kingdom.  On  the  west  it  receives 


W U R 


6405 


the  Enz,  swelled  by  the  Nagold,  and  on  the  east  the 
Fils,  Rems,  Murr,  Kocher,  and  Jagst.  The  Danube  flows 
from  east  to  west  across  the  south  half  of  Wiirtemberg, 
a distance  of  sixty-five  miles,  a small  section  of  which  is 
in  Hohenzollern.  Just  above  Ulm  it  is  joined  by  the 
Iller,  which  forms  the  boundary  between  Bavaria  and 
Wiirtemberg  for  about  thirty-five  miles.  The  Tauber 
in  the  northeast  joins  the  Main;  the  Argen  and  Schussen 
in  the  south  enter  the  lake  of  Constance.  The  lakes  of 
Wiirtemberg  with  the  exception  of  those  in  the  Black 
Forest,  all  lie  south  of  the  Danube.  The  largest  is  the 
Federsee  (640  acres)  near  Buchau. 

The  climate  is  temperate — colder  among  the  mount- 
tains  in  the  south  than  in  the  north.  The  mean  tem- 
perature varies  at  different  points  from  430  to  500  F. 
The  abundant  forests  induce  much  rain,  most  of  which 
falls  in  summer.  The  soil  is  on  the  whole  fertile  and 
well  cultivated;  and  for  many  centuries  agriculture  was 
almost  the  only  resource  of  the  inhabitants.  Middle  and 
Lower  Swabia  are  the  most  fertile  districts.  The  re- 
moval of  burdens  and  restrictions  in  1848  and  1849,  and 
intelligent  state-aid,  combined  with  the  formation  of 
agricultural  societies,  have  encouraged  farming,  but  the 
practice  of  parceling  the  land  in  minute  patches  among 
the  members  of  the  communities  still  retards  progress. 

Salt  and  iron  are  the  only  minerals  of  industrial  im- 
portance found  in  Wiirtemberg,  and  both  are  worked 
almost  entirely  by  government.  There  are  five  govern- 
ment salt-works  (the  chief  of  which  are  Friedrichshall 
and  Wilhelmsgliick),  employing  together  425  hands. 
The  iron  industry  is  of  great  antiquity,  though  it  is 
much  hampered  by  the  entire  absence  of  coal  mines 
in  Wiirtemberg.  The  chief  fuel  used  in  smeltiftg  the 
iron  is  wood  or  charcoal.  Iron  is  mined  at  Neuenburg, 
Freudenstetten,  and,  to  a very  limited  extent,  in  the 
Black  Forest.  The  locomotive  engines  of  Esslingen 
enjoy  a wide  reputation;  and  agricultural  and  other 
machinery,  boilers,  and  tools  of  various  kinds  are  also 
manufactured  and  exported  by  various  towns.  The 
organs  of  Ludwigsburg  are  well-known;  bell  founding 
is  carried  on  at  Stuttgart,  Reutlingen,  and  Cannstatt; 
beetroot  sugar  and  beer  are  considerable  items  in  the 
list  of  annual  produce — wine  has  been  already  men- 
tioned. The  manufacture  of  chemicals  at  Stuttgart, 
Heilbronn,  etc.,  is  important. 

Trade  has  prospered  since  Wiirtemberg  joined  the 
North  German  Customs  Union  in  1834.  The  leading 
trading  towns  are  Heilbronn,  Stuttgart,  Ulm,  and 
Friedrichshafen.  Cattle,  horses,  sheep,  agricultural 
produce,  timber,  salt,  and  various  manufactured  goods 
are  the  chief  exports;  coal,  hops,  steel  goods  of  various 
kinds,  eggs,  and  poultry  are  among  the  chief  imports. 
The  book-trade  of  Stuttgart  is  very  extensive;  that 
town  has  been  called  the  Leipsic  of  southern  Germany. 

In  1900  1,193  miles  of  railway  were  open  for  traffic  in 
Wiirtemberg.  With  the  insignificant  exception  of  two 
private  lines,  together  no  more  than  thirty-one  miles  long, 
all  the  railways  are  in  the  hands  of  the  state.  The 
Neckar,  the  Schussen,  and  the  Lake  of  Constance  are 
all  navigable  for  boats;  the  Danube  begins  to  be  navi- 
gable at  Ulm.  The  roads  of  Wiirtemberg  are  fairly 
good;  the  oldest  are  Roman.  Wiirtemberg,  like  Ba- 
varia, retained  the  control  of  its  own  postal  and  tele- 
graph system  on  the  foundation  of  the  new  German 
empire.  In  1901  the  population  of  Wiirtemberg  was 
2,169,434,  or  one  twenty-third  of  the  total  population 
of  Germany  on  one  twenty-eighth  of  its  area.  The  aver- 
age per  square  mile  is  264.9.  There  are  15  towns  with 
more  than  10,000  inhabitants,  viz.,  Stuttgart  (176,705), 
Ulm  (42,985),  Heilbronn  (37,891),  Esslingen  (27,325)* 
Cannstatt  or  Canstatt  (26,497),  Reutlingen  (21,494), 
Ludwigsburg  (19,436),  Gmiind  (18,699),  Tubingen 


(15,339),  Goppingen  (19,384),  and  Ravensburg  (13,- 
453).  About  two-thirds  of  the  population  are  Protest- 
ants. In  1900,  when  the  total  population  was  2,169,434, 
there  were  1,497,349  Protestants,  649,876  Roman 
Catholics,  11,859  Jews,  9,845  of  other  Christian  sects, 
and  505  “others.”  Wiirtemberg  is  a constitutional  mon- 
archy and  a member  of  the  German  empire,  with  four 
votes  in  the  federal  council  and  seventeen  in  the  imperial 
diet.  The  constitution  rests  on  a law  of  1819,  amended 
in  1868  and  1874.  The  crown  is  hereditary,  and  conveys 
the  simple  title  of  king  of  Wiirtemberg. 

WURTZ,  Charles  Adolphe,  chemist,  was  born  at 
Strasburg  on  November  26,  1817.  Wurtz  was  edu- 
cated first  at  Wolfisheim  and  afterward  at  the  Protestant 
gymnasium  of  Strasburg.  There  he  obtained  several 
prizes.  He  took  special  interest  in  those  studies  which 
bore  upon  nature;  in  1828  he  took  part  in  a botanical 
class  with  excursions,  which  developed  his  taste  for 
natural  science.  In  1839  he  was  appointed  superin- 
tendent of  practical  chemistry  in  the  faculty  of  medicine 
under  Professor  Cailliot.  He  graduated  as  M.D., 
August  13,  1843,  the  title  of  his  thesis  being  “ On 
Albumin  and  Fibrin.”  He  then  went  for  a year  to 
Giessen,  to  study  under  Liebig.  There  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  H^^mann,  Strecker,  and  Kopp.  On 
leaving  Giessen  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  worked  in 
Dumas’  private  laboratory,  and  in  1845  was  appointed 
assistant  to  Dumas  in  the  £cole  de  Medecine.  In  1847, 
on  his  presentation  of  a thesis  On  Pyrogenic  Bodies,” 
he  was  appointed  “professor  aggrege,”  and  in  1849  he 
gave  the  lectures  on  organic  chemistry  in  place  of 
Dumas.  His  laboratory  in  the  £cole  Pratique  de  la 
Faculte  de  Medecine  was  very  inconvenient  and  ill  fitted 
up;  he  therefore,  in  1850,  along  with  Dollfus  and  Ver- 
deil,  who  had  just  returned  to  Paris  from  Giessen, 
opened  a private  laboratory  in  the  Rue  Garanciere. 

In  1853  Dumas  resigned  the  chair  of  organic  chem- 
istry in  the  faculty  of  medicine;  at  the  same  time  the 
chair  of  mineral  chemistry  and  toxicology  became 
vacant  by  the  death  of  Orfila;  the  two  chairs  were 
united,  and  Wurtz  was  appointed  to  the  post  thus 
constituted.  In  1866  he  was  made  dean  of  the  faculty 
of  medicine,  and  used  his  influence  for  the  rearrange- 
ment and  reconstruction  of  the  buildings  devoted  to 
scientific  teaching.  In  1874  he  persuaded  the  govern- 
ment to  found  a chair  of  organic  chemistry  at  the 
Sorbonne,  and  resigned  his  office  of  dean,  retaining  the 
title  of  honorary  dean.  At  the  Sorbonne  he  had  a 
smaller  but  better  prepared  audience  than  at  the  ficole 
de  Medecine.  He  was  appointed  senator  in  1881.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Chemical  Society  of 
Paris,  of  which  he  was  the  first  secretary,  and  was 
three  times  president.  He  was  elected  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1867,  in  succession  to  Pelouze. 
He  was  vice-president  in  1880  and  president  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  He  died,  after  a short  illness,  May  12, 
1884.  Wurtz  was  an  honorary  member  of  nearly  every 
scientific  society  in  Europe.  In  1878  he  gave  the  Fara- 
day lecture  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  London,  and  in 
1881  was  awarded  the  Copley  medal  by  the  Royal 
Society  of  London. 

WtjRZBURG,  orWiRZBERG,  the  fourth  largest  town 
in  Bavaria,  and  the  chief  town  of  the  district  of  Lower 
Franconia  in  the  northwest  of  that  kingdom,  is  situated 
on  both  sides  of  the  Main,  sixty  miles  southeast  of  Frank- 
fort. An  ancient  stone  bridge,  650  feet  long,  and 
adorned  with  statues  of  saints,  connects  the  two  parts 
of  the  town.  A university  was  founded  at  Wurzburg 
in  1403,  but  only  existed  for  a few  years.  The  present 
university  was  founded  by  Bishop  Julius  in  1582. 
Owing  to  its  connection  with  the  large  hospital,  its 
laboratories,  and  its  rich  anatomical  collections,  the 


64o6  W Y A - 

medical  faculty  speedily  became  famous,  and  has  re- 
mained the  most  important  faculty  at  Wurzburg  ever 
since.  The  other  educational  establishments  of  Wurz- 
burg are  numerous;  among  them  is  a music  institute, 
which  gives  instruction  gratis  in  vocal  and  instrumental 
music. 

Wurzburg  is  surrounded  by  vineyards,  which  yield 
some  of  the  best  wines  in  Germany;  it  also  carries  on 
the  manufacture  of  beer,  leather,  tobacco,  and  railway 
carriages.  The  population  of  Wurzburg  (1901)  was 
75,497,  of  whom  9,000  are  Protestants. 

WYANDOTTE,  formerly  a city  and  the  county 
seat  of  Wyandotte  county,  Kan.,  is  situated  upon 
the  west  bank  of  the  Missouri  river  and  north  bank 
of  the  Kansas  river,  in  eastern  Kansas,  immediately 
adjoining  the  State  line,  and  separated  by  it  from 
Kansas  City,  Mo.  The  surrounding  country  is  a fertile 
and  highly  cultivated  prairie.  The  city  is  intersected 
bv  several  railroads,  most  of  which  are  branches  of 
the  Missouri  Pacific  system.  Population  (1900)  of 
township,  3,343. 

WYAT,  Sir  Thomas,  is  an  impoMant  figure  his- 
torically in  English  literature,  although  his  poetry  does 
not  rank  very  high  in  intrinsic  value.  He  was  un- 
doubtedly the  leader,  the  first  in  point  of  time,  and  the 
acknowledged  master  of  “ the  company  of  courtly 
makers”  who,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  under 
Italian  influence,  transformed  the  character  of  English 
poetry.  Surrey  is  usually  associated  with  Wyat  in 
this  leadership,  and  his  influence  was  probably  greater, 
as  his  verse  was  superior  in  fluency,  dexterity,  and  force. 
But  the  priority,  the  actual  lead,  undoubtedly  belongs 
to  Wyat,  who  was  Surrey’s  senior  by  fourteen  years, 
and  was  celebrated  by  the  younger  poet  with  all  the 
homage  of  an  enthusiastic  disciple.  It  is  to  Wyat  that 
the  praise  rightfully  belongs  of  being  the  first  writer  of 
sonnets  in  English.  He  is  also  the  first  writer  of  satires 
in  the  classical  form. 

Wyat  was  born  in  1503,  and  we  have  no  record  of 
him  between  his  taking  his  bachelor’s  degree  at  Cam- 
bridge at  the  age  of  fifteen  and  his  being  sworn  a mem- 
ber of  the  privy  council  at  the  age  of  thirty,  except  that 
he  took  part  in  the  tournament  at  a great  feast  held  by 
the  king  at  Greenwich  in  1525.  He  was  knighted  in 
1 536,  and  twice  sent  as  ambassador  to  the  emperor,  a 
strong  proof  of  his  repute  as  a statesman  and  diplo- 
matist. He  died  in  1542. 

WYATT,  James,  a popular  architect,  born  in  Staf- 
fordshire in  1743,  who  lived  at  a time  when  architectural 
taste  was  at  its  lowest  ebb.  He  spent  some  time  in 
Rome  making  measured  drawings  of  the  classical  re- 
mains, and  on  his  return  to  England  became  one  of  the 
most  successful  architects  of  his  time,  and  eventually 
was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Academy.  On  the 
death  of  Sir  William  Chambers  in  1796,  Wyatt  was  ap- 
pointed surveyor  to  the  Board  of  Works.  His  chief 
works  were  a number  of  buildings  at  Kew  for  George  III. 
He  was  killed  by  a fall  from  his  carriage  in  1813. 

WYATT,  Richard  John,  an  English  sculptor  of 
great  eminence,  was  born  in  Oxford  street,  London,  on 
May  3,  1795.  He  belonged  to  a collateral  branch  of 
the  family  which  made  the  name  of  Wyatt  famous  dur- 
ing two  centuries  in  connection  with  architecture  and 
sculpture,  sharing  their  descent  from  a stock  of  yeomen 
long  settled  at  Weeford,  in  Staffordshire.  Having  the 
bias  of  his  family  toward  art,  he  became  an  articled 
pupil  of  Charles  Rossi,  R.A.,  sculptor,  and  afterward  a 
student  of  the  Royal  Academy,  whose  medal  was  twice 
awarded  to  him  during  his  pupilage.  He  afterward 
passed  some  time  in  Paris,  studying  under  Bosio;  and 
from  Paris,  in  1821,  he  went  to  Rome,  and  entered  the 
studio  of  Canova,  where  he  had  Gibson  for  a fellow 


- W Y C 

pupil.  The  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  in  Rome, 
m complete  devotion  to  the  prosecution  of  his  art;  and 
he  died  at  Rome  on  May  29,  1850.  His  youth  had 
shown  great  promise,  in  the  estimation  of  painters  like 
Lawrence  and  sculptors  like  Canova;  and  the  works 
which  he  produced  in  rapid  succession  early  placed  him 
in  the  front  ranks  of  English  sculptors.  Several  of  his 
works  were  shown  at  the  great  exhibition  of  1851,  and 
the  medal  for  sculpture  was  awarded  to  him,  though  he 
had  died  in  the  previous  year. 

WYATT,  Sir  Matthew  Digby,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish architect  and  writer  on  art,  was  born  in  1820  at 
Rowde,  near  Devizes,  Wilts.  After  his  apprenticeship 
and  studying  for  some  time  at  the  Royal  Academy,  he, 
in  1844,  went  to  the  Continent  and  made  a diligent 
study  of  the  architecture  of  Italy,  France,  and  Germany. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1846,  and  in  1848  published 
Geometrical  Mosaics  of  the  Middle  Ages.  He  not  only 
studied  decorative  art  in  his  own  profession,  but  also  in 
its  various  applications.  In  1849  he  made  a report  to 
the  Society  of  Arts  on  the  Paris  Exposition  of  In- 
dustry ; and  soon  after,  as  secretary  to  the  royal  com- 
missioners, took  an  important  part  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  1851  exhibition.  He  took  a similar  interest  in 
the  Sydenham  Crystal  Palace.  In  1856  he  was  ap- 
ointed  architect  to  the  East  India  Company,  for  whom 
e designed  several  important  public  works — bridges, 
barracks,  and  hospitals.  In  1865  he  was  made  honor- 
ary member  of  several  foreign  academies,  and  in  1866 
received  the  royal  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Institute  of 
British  Architects.  He  was  knighted  in  1869,  and  in 
the  same  year  was  chosen  Slade  professor  of  fine  arts  at 
Cambridge.  His  chief  art  publications  are,  Metal  Work 
and  its  Artistic  Design,  1852;  Industrial  Arts  of 
the  Nineteenth  Century,  1853;  Art  Treasures  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  1857 ; Fine  Arts,  1870;  Architect's 
Handbook  in  Spain,  1872.  He  died  in  May,  1877. 

WYCHERLEY,  William,  the  typical  “ Restoration 
dramatist,”  and  one  of  the  greatest  masters  of  the 
comedy  of  repartee,  was  born  about  1640  at  Clive,  near 
Shrewsbury,  England.  Like  Vanbrugh,  Wycherley 
spent  his  early  years  in  France.  Though  a man  of 
far  more  intellectual  power  than  is  generally  supposed, 
he  was  a fine  gentleman  first,  and  a responsible  being 
afterward.  As  a fellow-commoner  of  Queen’s  College, 
Oxford,  Wycherley  only  lived  (according  to  Wood)  in  the 
provost’s  lodgings,  being  entered  in  the  public  library 
under  the  title  of  “ Philosophise  Studiosus  ” in  July, 
1660.  And  he  does  not  seem  to  have  matriculated  or 
to  have  taken  a degree.  Pleasure  and  the  stage  were 
alone  open  to  him,  and  in  1672  was  produced,  at  the 
Theater  Royal,  Love  in  a Wood. 

Whether  Wycherley’s  experiences  as  a naval  officer, 
which  he  alludes  to  in  his  lines  “ On  a Sea  Fight  which 
the  Author  was  in  betwixt  the  English  and  the  Dutch,” 
occurred  before  or  after  the  production  of  Love  in  a 
Wood  is  a point  upon  which  opinions  differ,  but  on  the 
whole  we  are  inclined  to  agree  with  Macaulay,  against 
Leigh  Hunt,  that  these  experiences  took  place  not  only 
after  the  production  of  Love  in  a Wood  but  after  the 
production  of  The  Gentleman  Dancing  Master,  in 
1673.  This  second  comedy  is  inferior  to  Love  in  a Wood. 

It  is,  however,  on  his  last  two  comedies — The  Country 
Wife  and  The  Plain  Dealer — that  must  rest  Wycher- 
ley’s fame  as  a master  of  that  comedy  of  repartee  which, 
inaugurated  by  Etheredge,  and  afterward  brought  to 
perfection  by  Congreve  and  Vanbrugh,  supplanted  the 
humoristic  comedy  of  the  Elizabethans,  The  Country 
Wife,  produced  in  1675,  is  so  full  of  wit,  ingenuity, 
animal  spirits,  and  conventional  humor  that,  had  it  not 
been  for  its  motive — a motive  which  in  any  healthy  state 
of  society  must  always  be  as  repulsive  to  the  most  lax  as 


W Y 

to  the  most  moral  reader — it  would  probably  have  sur- 
vived as  long  as  the  acted  drama  remained  a literary 
form  in  England. 

It  was  after  the  success  of  The  Plain  Dealer  that  the 
turning-point  came  in  Wycherley’s  career.  The  great 
dream  of  all  the  men  about  town  in  Charles’  time,  as 
Wycherley’s  plays  all  show,  was  to  marry  a widow, 
young  and  handsome,  a peer’s  daughter  if  possible — 
but  in  any  event  rich,  and  spend  her  money  upon  wine 
and  women.  While  talking  to  a friend  in  a bookseller’s 
shop  at  Tunbridge,  Wycherley  heard  The  Plain  Dealer 
asked  for  by  a lady  who,  in  the  person  ol  the  countess 
of  Drogheda,  answered  all  the  requirements.  An  in- 
troduction ensued,  then  love-making,  then  marriage — a 
secret  marriage,  for,  fearing  to  lose  the  king’s  patronage 
and  the  income  therefrom,  Wycherley  still  thought  it 
politic  to  pass  as  a bachelor;  but  the  news  of  his  mar- 
riage oozed  out — it  reached  the  royal  ears.  Wycherley 
lost  the  appointment  that  was  so  nearly  within  his  grasp 
— lost  indeed  the  royal  favor  forever;  and  the  result  of 
his  marrying  the  rich,  beautiful,  and  titled  widow  was 
that  the  poet  was  thrown  into  the  Fleet  prison.  There 
he  languished  for  seven  years,  being  finally  released  by 
the  liberality  of  James  II. — a liberality  which,  incredi- 
ble as  it  seems,  is  too  well  authenticated  to  be  chal- 
lenged. James  had  been  so  much  gratified  by  seeing 
The  Plain  Dealer  acted  that,  finding  a parallel  between 
Manly’s  “manliness”  and  his  own,  such  as  no  spectator 
had  before  discovered,  he  paid  off  Wycherley’s  execution 
creditor.  Other  debts  still  troubled  Wycherley,  how- 
ever, and  he  never  was  released  from  his  embarrass- 
ments, not  even  after  succeeding  to  a life  estate  in  the 
family  property. 

Wycherley  wrote  verses,  and,  when  quite  an  old  man, 
prepared  them  for  the  press  by  the  aid  of  Alexander 
Pope,  then  not  much  more  than  a boy.  But,  notwith- 
standing all  Pope’s  tinkering,  they  remain  contempti- 
ble. He  died  in  December,  1715,  and  was  buried  in  the 
vault  of  the  church  in  Covent  Garden. 

WYCLIFFE,  or  Wyclif,  John,  was  born,  accord- 
ing to  Leland,  our  single  authority  on  the  point,  at 
Ipreswel  (evidently  the  place  now  called  Hipswell),  a 
mile  from  Richmond,  in  Yorkshire.  The-  date  may 
have  been  somewhere  about  1320.  It  has  been  gener- 
ally believed,  and  was  in  fact  believed  not  many  years 
after  his  death,  that  he  was  a fellow  of  Merton  College 
in  1356;  but  in  all  probability  this  identification  rests 
upon  a confusion  with  another  and  contemporary  John 
Wycliffe.  That  the  future  reformer  was  a fellow  of 
Balliol  College  is  implied  in  the  fact  that  some  time 
after  1356,  but  before  the  summer  of  1360,  he  was 
elected  master  of  the  college.  This  office  he  held  but 
a short  time.  So  soon  as  1361  he  accepted  a college 
living,  that  of  Fillingham  in  Lincolnshire,  and  probably 
left  Oxford  for  some  time.  A certain  amount  of  resi- 
dence at  Oxford  was  necessary  if  he  was  now  proceeding 
to  a degree  in  divinity,  and  still  more  if,  as  is  gener- 
ally understood,  he  is  the  same  person  with  the  John 
Wycliffe  who  was  appointed,  December,  1365,  to  the 
Wardenship  of  Canterbury  Hall,  a house  which  Arch- 
bishop Islip  had  lately  founded  for  a mixed  body  of 
monks  and  secular  clergymen,  and  then,  changing  his 
mind,  had  filled  exclusively  with  the  latter.  His  suc- 
cessor, Archbishop  Langham,  in  1367,  reversed  the 
arrangement,  expelled  Wycliffe  and  his  colleagues,  and 
substituted  monks.  Wycliffe  appealed  to  Rome  and 
lost  his  case,  13/0.  There  seems  no  reason  to  dispute 
the  legality  of  the  action  either  of  Archbishop  Langham 
or  of  the  cardinal  who  tried  the  appeal  at  Viterbo  ; but 
Wycliffe  no  doubt  felt  himself  hardly  used,  and  (if  he 
be  rightly  identified  with  the  reformer)  the  experience 
may  have  confirmed  him  in  some  of  the  opinions  which 


r C 6407 

are  characteristic  of  his  subsequent  career,  and  which 
have  been  attributed,  but  only  on  the  authority  of  a 
bitter  opponent,  Thomas  Netter  of  Walden,  to  dis- 
appointment at  not  receiving  the  bishopric  of  Worcester 
(perhaps  at  its  voidance  in  1368).  But  the  doubt  as  to 
the  identification  in  the  one  case,  and  the  suspicion 
attaching  to  the  evidence  in  tne  other,  may  disincline 
us  to  reason  about  the  motives  which  directed  Wycliffe 
on  to  the  path  of  reform. 

Some  time  after  his  return  Wycliffe  was  given  the  pre- 
bend of  Aust  in  the  collegiate  church  of  Westbury-on- 
Trim,  which  he  held  but  a short  time,  the  confirmation 
of  his  appointment  (November  6,  1375)  being  followed 
within  a fortnight  by  the  grant  of  the  benefice  to 
another  person.  Henceforth  he  lived  mainly  at  Lutter- 
worth and  Oxford,  making,  however,  frequent,  and  as  it 
seems,  prolonged  visits  to  London  from  time  to  time. 
He  assumed  the  position  of  a popular  preacher  there, 
and  delighted  an  audience  already  sufficiently  disaffected 
toward  the  rich  and  powerful  clergy.  He  was  also 
closely  allied  with  John  of  Gaunt,  who  welcomed  him 
as  an  instrument  toward  his  design  of  humbling  the 
church.  For  some  years  he  was  suffered  to  spread  his 
doctrines  without  hindrance.  The  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, Simon  Sudbury,  had  no  mind  to  proceed 
against  him  until  at  length  the  pressure  of  the  bishops 
compelled  him  to  summon  the  dangerous  preacher  to 
appear  before  the  bishop  of  London  and  answer  certain 
charges  laid  against  him.  The  nature  of  these  accusa- 
tions is  not  stated,  but  their  purport  can  hardly  be 
doubtful.  On  February  19,  1377,  Wycliffe  made  his  ap- 
pearance at  St.  Paul’s.  He  was  accompanied  by  the 
duke  of  Lancaster,  by  Lord  Percy,  the  marshal  of 
England,  and  by  four  doctors  of  the  four  mendicant 
orders.  The  trial,  however,  came  to  nothing;  for, 
before  Wycliffe  could  open  his  mouth,  the  court  was 
broken  up  by  a rude  brawl  between  his  protectors  and 
Bishop  Courtenay,  ending  in  a general  riot  of  the  citi- 
zens of  London,  who  were  so  much  enraged  by  the  in- 
sult to  their  bishop  in  his  own  cathedral  church — coming 
as  this  did  at  the  same  time  as  a serious  attempt  at  an  in- 
vasion by  the  duke  in  parliament  of  their  civic  liberties 
— that  they  would  have  sacked  his  palace  of  the  Savoy 
had  not  Courtenay  himself  intervened. 

Wycliffe  had  escaped  for  the  time,  but  his  enemies 
did  not  rely  solely  on  their  own  weapons.  Probably 
before  this  they  had  set  their  case  before  the  pope ; and 
toward  the  end  of  May  five  bulls  were  issued  by  Greg- 
ory XI.,  who  had  just  returned  to  Rome  from  Avig- 
non, condemning  eighteen  (or  in  other  copies  nineteen) 
“conclusions”  drawn  from  Wycliffe’s  writings.  All  the 
articles  but  one  are  taken  from  his  .first  book  De  Civili 
Dominio , the  recent  publication  of  which  shows  the 
charges  to  be  honestly  made  and  the  quotations  to  be 
entirely  free  froip  any  suspicion  of  unfairness.  The 
execution  of  the  papal  bulls  was  impeded  by  three  sepa- 
rate causes — the  king’s  death  on  June  21st;  the  tardy 
action  of  the  bishops,  who  enjoined  the  university  to 
make  a report,  instead  of  simply  sending  Wycliffe  to 
them ; and  the  unwillingness  of  the  university  to  admit 
external  authority,  and,  above  all,  the  pope’s  right  to 
order  the  imprisonment  of  any  man  in  England.  The 
convocation,  indeed,  as  the  St.  Albans  chronicler  states 
with  lamentation,  made  serious  objections  to  receiving 
the  bull  at  all;  and  in  the  end  it  merely  directed  Wy- 
cliffe to  keep  within  his  lodgings  at  Black  Hall  for  a 
time. 

The  year  1378  forms  a turning  point  in  Wycliffe’s  ca- 
reer. The  schism  in  the  papacy  caused  by  the  election 
in  September  of  Clement  VII.  in  opposition  to  Urban 
VI.  slowly  decided  Wycliffe  toward  a more  revolution- 
ary attitude  with  respect  to  the  Roman  see,  a power 


W Y C 


W Y O 


5408 

which  he  now  convinced  himself  was  at  the  root  of  the 
disorders  of  the  church.  He  set  on  foot  an  active 
propaganda,  choosing  the  two  special  means  of  sending 
forth  his  “poor”  or  “simple  priests to  preach  pure 
doctrine  throughout  the  country,  and  of  making  the 
first  complete  English  version  of  the  Bible.  This  latter 
work  was  mainly  executed  by  Wycliffe  himself,  but  his 
friend  Nicholas  Hereford  did  part  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Afterward  the  whole  was  revised  by  John  Pur- 
vey, who  assisted  Wycliffe  in  his  parish  duty  at  Lutter- 
worth, and  finished  his  edition  probably  not  long  after 
the  reformer’s  death.  Most  existing  copies  are  of  the 
latter  redaction,  which  is  printed  in  parallel  columns 
with  the  older  one  in  the  great  edition  of  the  version 
edited  by  J.  Forshall  and  Sir  F.  Madden  (Oxford,  1851). 
Wycliffe’s  translation  of  the  Bible,  and  still  more  his 
numerous  English  sermons  and  tracts,  establish  his  now 
undisputed  position  as  the  founder  of  English  prose 
writing. 

In  spite  of  a paralytic  seizure  which  came  upon  him 
in  1382  or  early  in  1383,  he  continued  his  labors.  In 
2384  it  is  stated  that  he  was  cited  by  pope  Urban  VI. 
to  appear  before  him  at  Rome;  but  to  Rome  he  never 
went.  On  December  28th  of  this  year,  while  he  was 
hearing  mass  in  his  own  church,  he  received  a final 
stroke,  from  the  effects  of  which  he  died  on  the  New 
Year’s  eve.  He  was  buried  at  Lutterworth;  but  by  a 
decree  of  the  council  of  Constance,  May  4,  1415,  his 
remains  were  ordered  to  be  dug  up  and  burned,  an  or- 
der which  was  carried  out  by  Bishop  Fleming  in  1428. 

WYCOMBE,  High  Wycombe,  or  Chipping  Wy- 
combe, a municipal  borough  and  market-town  of  Bucks, 
England,  twenty-nine  miles  west-northwest  of  London, 
twenty-five  southeast  of  Oxford,  and  ten  north  of 
Maidenhead.  Notwithstanding  many  additions  to  the 
town  within  recent  years,  it  still  retains  many  evidences 
of  antiquity,  including  several  mediaeval  buildings. 
The  parish  church  of  All  Saints,  the  largest  in  the 
county,  was  i-ebuilt  in  1273  by  the  abbess  and  nuns  of 
Godstowe.  The  borough,  which  is  divided  into  three 
wards,  is  governed  by  a mayor,  six  aldermen,  and  eight- 
een councilors.  The  population  of  the  municipal  bor- 
ough in  1881  was  10,618.  The  population  of  the  parlia- 
mentary borough  (area  6,395  acres),  which  existed  till 
1885,  was  13,154  in  1881. 

WYKEHAM,  William  de,  was  born  at  Wikeham 
in  Hampshire,  in  1324.  He  was  educated  at  Win- 
chester. On  October  8,  1366,  by  the  king’s  recom- 
mendation, he  was  elected  bishop  of  Winchester.  He 
was  consecrated  October  10th  of  the  year  following. 
Meanwhile  he  had  been  appointed  lord  high  chancellor 
of  England;  in  which  office  he  was  confirmed  Sep- 
tember 17,  1367.  He  resigned  on  March  14,  1371,  on 
a petition  being  presented  to  the  king  against  the 
government  remaining  too  long  in  the  hands  of  men 
connected  with  the  church.  He  now  devoted  himself 
to  various  objects  of  lasting  usefulness.  His  prepara- 
tory school  at  Winchester  was  opened  for  teaching 
in  1373;  but  the  building  of  the  college  was  not  begun 
till  1387.  It  was  finished  in  1393.  In  the  college 
which  he  instituted  at  Oxford,  teaching  had  also  begun 
in  1373;  but  the  building  of  “St.  Mary’s  College  of 
Winchester  in  Oxford  ” was  not  begun  till  1380;  it  was 
finished  in  1393.  He  began  the  rebuilding  of  Win- 
chester Cathedral  in  1395,  and  just  lived  to  see  it 
finished.  Meanwhile  he  had  become  the  object  of  the 
resentment  of  the  duke  of  Lancaster  and  party,  at  whose 
instance  he  was  indicted  for  pecuniary  defalcation,  and 
other  crimes  alleged  to  have  been  committed  by  him  as 
keeper  of  the  privy  seal  and  lord  chancellor.  He 
was  heard  in  1376,  before  a commission  of  peers, 
bishops,  and  privy  councilors,  declared  guilty,  and  a 


severe  sentence  was  passed  upon  him.  It  was,  however, 
ultimately  commuted  into  a fine,  which  was  remitted 
on  the  accession  of  Richard  II.  in  1377.  He  was  one 
of  the  council  of  fourteen  appointed  to  the  king  in  1386, 
and  in  May,  1389,  he  was  again  made  lord  chancellor. 
He  continued  in  office  till  September  27,  1391,  when  he 
resigned;  and  from  this  date  he  appears  to  have  taken 
little  active  part  in  public  affairs.  He  was  present  in 
the  parliament  held  on  September  30,  1399,  when 
Richard  II.  was  deposed.  Fie  was  also  present  in  the 
first  parliament  of  Henry  IV.  He  died  at  South 
Waltham,  September  27,  1404.  Wykeham  was  one  of 
the  most  munificent  benefactors  of  the  English  church; 
but  he  was  not  a fanatic.  He  loved  learning,  order, 
civilization,  and  purity  of  manners;  and  as  bishop  of 
Winchester  signalized  himself  by  his  rigorous  reformation 
of  ecclesiastical  abuses;  but  he  had  not  the  slightest 
tendency  toward  Protestantism,  affording,  in  this  respect, 
a most  striking  contrast  to  his  great  contemporary 
Wicliff  (q.v.). 

WYNTOUN,  Andrew  of,  a Scottish  monk  who 
flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was 
the  author  of  the  Orygynale  Cronykil  of  Scotland. 
The  chronicle,  which  is  in  verse  and  has  some  historical 
value  from  the  use  made  in  it  of  the  St.  Andrew’s  reg- 
isters, is  called  “ original  ” because  it  begins  with  the 
beginning  of  the  world,  the  second  chapter  giving  an 
account  of  the  creation  of  man.  The  history  of  Scot- 
land is  brought  down  to  the  death  of  Robert  III.  in  1406. 
Of  the  chronicler  himself  nothing  is  known  except  what 
he  tells  us  in  his  prologue,  namely,  that  he  was  a canon 
regular  of  St.  Andrew’s,  and  prior  of  Serf’s  Inch  in 
Lochleven.  The  chronicle  has  been  twice  carefully 
edited  and  annotated,  by  Macpherson  in  1795,  and  by 
David  Lamg  in  1872-79. 

WYOMING,  admitted  in  July,  1890,  as  a State,  is 
nearly  rectangular  in  shape,  having  as  its  boundaries  the 
41st  and  45th  parallels  of  N.  latitude  and  the  27th  and 
34th  meridians  west  of  Washington.  South  of  it  are 
Colorado  and  Utah;  on  the  west,  Utah,  Idaho,  and  Mon- 
tana; on  the  north,  Montana,  and  on  the  east,  Dakota 
and  Nebraska.  The  area  is  97,890  square  miles. 

The  surface  is  greatly  diversified.  Its  mean  elevation 
is  not  less  than  6,400  feet.  The  lowest  portions  of  the 
State  are  along  the  northern  and  eastern  borders,  where 
in  several  places  the  surface  is  less  than  5,000  feet  above 
sea-level,  while  its  highest  points  exceed  i3,ooofeet.  By 
far  the  greater  part  consists  of  high  plains,  which  are 
broken  by  numerous  mountain  ranges  and  ridges,  which 
form  parts  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  system.  On  the 
south  it  consists  of  three  members,  the  Laramie  range, 
which  is  crossed  by  the  Union  Pacific  railroad  at  Sher- 
man, and  the  Medicine  Bow  and  Park  ranges,  which 
separate  branches  of  the  North  Platte  river.  The  ill- 
defined  summit  of  this  plateau  forms  the  parting  be- 
tween the  waters  of  the  Missouri  and  Colorado.  East- 
ward this  plateau  slopes  to  the  Great  Plains,  and  west- 
ward to  the  Green  river  basin.  The  Union  Pacific 
railroad  traverses  it,  and  therefore  the  traveler  upon  this 
road  sees  little  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  except  at  a dis- 
tance. Farther  north  the  mountains  rise  again  from 
this  plateau  in  several  ranges. 

The  drainage  system  of  Wyoming  is  somewhat  com- 
plex. While  the  mountainous  regions  are  well  watered 
by  numerous  streams,  the  broad  valleys  and  the  plains 
are  poorly  supplied  with  streams.  Many  of  those 
which  flow  full  in  the  mountains  during  the  entire  year 
run  dry  in  summer  upon  the  plains.  None  of  the 
streams  are  navigable.  Of  this  area  the  North  Platte 
drains  the  southern  portion  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
system,  together  with  a large  part  of  the  plains  lying 
north  and  east  of  it.  Farther  northward  and  eastward 


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the  plains  are  drained  by  the  Cheyenne  river.  The 
eastern  face  of  the  Big  Horn  mountains  is  drained  by 
the  Powder  and  Tongue  rivers,  while  from  its  western 
slopes,  and  from  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Wind  river 
and  Absaroka  ranges,  the  Wind  river,  known  lower 
down  in  its  course  as  the  Big  Horn,  collects  the  waters. 
The  Yellowstone,  heading  in  the  confused  mass  of 
mountains  about  the  north  end  of  the  Wind  river 
range,  flows  northward  through  a beautiful  lake,  drain- 
ing the  west  slope  of  the  Absaroka  range.  The  Snake 
or  “ Mad”  river  of  the  early  explorers,  heading  in  the 
same  mass  of  mountains,  flows  soutliwestward  to  seek  an 
exit  from  them,  while  the  Green,  whose  sources  are  in 
the  same  elevated  country,  drains  the  west  slope  of  the 
Wind  river  range,  and  flows  southward  through  the 
broad  sage-covered  expanse  known  as  the  Green  river 
basin.  In  the  southwest  corner  of  the  State  is  a small 
area  drained  by  means  of  Bear  river  into  Great  Salt  Lake. 

The  geological  structure  of  Wyoming  is  even  more 
complicated  than  its  surface  features.  In  the  north- 
western corner  is  an  area  in  which  volcanic  action,  as 
represented  in  hot  springs  and  geysers,  is  still  alive, 
while  the  evidences  of  volcanic  action  upon  a tremendous 
scale,  in  recent  geological  time,  are  seen  in  the  form  of 
sheets  of  lava  and  volcanic  breccia,  which  are  spread 
over  the  land,  and  from  which  mountain  ranges  have 
been  carved.  Most  of  this  region  is  comprised  in  the 
Yellowstone  National  Park  ( q.v .),  which  has  been 
set  apart  from  settlement  by  the  general  government. 
Many  of  the  mountain  slopes  show  a succession  of  the 
stratified  formations,  from  the  Triassic  downward 
through  the  series.  The  plains  region  is  mainly  floored  by 
Tertiary  and  Cretaceous  formations,  as  is  also  the  case 
with  the  higher  plateaus  and  with  the  Green  river  basin. 

The  larger  quadrupeds,  which  were  formerly  very 
abundant,  and  which  are  now  not  infrequently  to  be 
met  with,  are  the  grizzly,  black,  and  cinnamon  bears, 
the  North  American  panther,  the  elk,  the  moose,  two 
or  three  species  of  deer,  and  the  antelope.  Upon  the 
plains  are  seen  the  gray  wolf  and  the  coyote,  the  jack 
rabbit,  the  prairie  dog,  and  the  gopher.  The  buffalo, 
which  was  formerly  extremely  abundant  upon  the  plains, 
is  now  practically  extinct. 

The  eastern  plains  are  mainly  grass-covered,  but  as 
one  goes  westward  the  grass  gradually  disappears,  and 
gives  place  to  artemisia  and  greasewood.  Forests  are 
confined  almost  entirely  to  the  mountains,  although  the 
high  plains  in  the  Y ellowstone  Park  are  covered  with 
timber.  The  forests  are  composed  of  quaking  aspen 
upon  the  lower  slopes,  succeeded  at  greater  elevations  by 
pines  and  spruces,  the  upper  limit  of  timber  in  the  State 
being  about  10,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

Wyoming  has;  in  common  with  most  of  the  western 
States,  an  arid  climate.  In  the  arable  regions  the  rain- 
fall is  nowhere  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  agriculture, 
and  irrigation  is  universally  practiced.  The  rainfall 
ranges  in  this  part  of  the  State  from  eight  to  fifteen 
inches,  being  greater  in  the  eastern  part  and  diminishing 
westward.  Upon  the  mountains  it  probably  reaches,  if 
it  does  not  exceed,  thirty  inches  annually. 

The  temperature  ranges  with  the  elevation.  Upon  the 
plains  and  plateaus  and  in  the  valleys  (this  comprising 
nearly  all  the  habitable  parts  of  Wyoming),  the  annual 
temperature  is  between  400  and  50°  F.  U pon  the  mount- 
ains it  diminishes  until,  at  an  altitude  of  10,000  feet,  it 
reaches  approximately  the  freezing  point. 

At  the  1880  census  the  then  Territory  contained 
20,789  inhabitants.  In  1870  there  were  only  9,118, 
showing  an  increase  of  128  per  cent.  The  popula- 
tion as  a State,  as  shown  by  the  census  of  1900,  was 
92,531.  As  in  all  frontier  communities,  a large  propor- 
tion consists  of  adult  males. 


6409 

The  industries  of  Wyoming  mainly  relate  to  the  rais- 
ing of  cattle  and  to  mining.  The  former  industry  is  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  inhabitants  very  large,  and 
has  been  until  recently  extremely  profitable.  The  rais- 
ing of  cattle  is  carried  on  at  slight  expense,  the  cattle 
being  allowed  to  range  freely  over  the  plains,  and  little 
provision  is  made  for  feeding  and  shelter,  even  in  win- 
ter^ as  the  loss  from  exposure  and  starvation  is  not  suffi- 
ciently great  to  warrant  the  additional  expense.  In  1900 
the  number  of  cattle  was  returned  as  687,284,  and  sheep 
as  3,327,185.*  In  1900  the  industrial  establishments  1334 
in  number)  had  a combined  capital  of  $2,411,435;  the 
value  of  the  products  for  the  year  was  $4,301,240. 

Mines  of  gold  and  silver  have  been  worked  to  a 
limited  extent  near  the  east  base  of  the  Wind  River 
range  and  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State, 
and  also  at  the  extreme  south,  in  the  Park  range,  but 
the  production  is  insignificant.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
coal  mines  of  Wyoming  are  very  valuable;  they  are 
mainly  situated  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State,  at 
Carbon,  Rock  Spring,  Almy,  and  Twin  Creek,  on  or 
near  the  Union  Pacific  railroad.  The  production  in 
1900  was  4,129,265  tons. 

WYON,  Thomas,  was  born  at  Birmingham  in  1792. 
He  was  apprenticed  to  his  father,  the  chief  engraver  of 
His  Majesty’s  seals,  and  studied  in  the  schools  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  London,  where  he  gained  silver  medals 
in  both  the  antique  and  the  life  class;  he  also  obtained 
a gold  medal  from  the  Society  of  Arts.  He  was  ap- 
pointed probationary  engraver  to  the  mint  in  1811,  and 
soon  after  engraved  his  medal  commemorative  of  the 
peace,  and  his  Manchester  Pitt  medal.  In  1815  he  was 
appointed  chief  engraver  to  the  mint;  but  he  died  at 
Hastings  on  September  22,  1817. 

WYON,  William,  cousin  of  Thomas  Wyon,  was 
born  at  Birmingham  in  1795.  In  1809  he  was  ap- 
prenticed to  his  father,  a die-sinker.  Removing  to 
London,  he  studied  the  works  of  Flaxman,  attended 
the  schools  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  gained  a gold 
medal  from  the  Society  of  Arts  for  a copy  of  the  head 
of  Ceres,  and  a second  for  an  original  group.  In  1816 
he  was  appointed  assistant  engraver  to  the  mint,  and,  in 
1828,  chief  engraver;  in  1831  he  was  elected  associate, 
and,  in  1838,  full  member  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He 
executed  coinages  for  George  IV.,  William  IV.,  and 
Queen  Victoria,  the  Peninsular,  Trafalgar,  and  Cabul 
medals,  the  William  IV.  coronation  medal,  and  others. 
He  died  at  Brighton  on  October  29,  1851. 

WYTTENBACH,  Daniel  Albert,  a famous  class- 
ical scholar,  was  born  at  Bern,  Switzerland,  in  1746. 
About  1775,  on  the  advice  of  Ruhnken,  Wyttenbach 
began  the  issue  of  his  Bibliotheca  Critica , which  ap- 
peared at  intervals  for  the  next  thirty  years.  The 
methods  of  criticism  employed  were  in  the  main  those 
established  by  Hemsterhuis,  and  carried  on  by  Valcke- 
naer  and  Ruhnken,  and  the  publication  met  with  accept- 
ance from  the  learned  all  over  Europe.  In  1787  began 
the  internal  commotions  in  Holland,  afterward  to  be 
aggravated  by  foreign  interference.  Scarcely  during 
the  remaining  thirty-three  years  of  Wyttenbach’s  life 
was  there  a moment  of  peace  in  the  land.  Wyttenbach 
received  repeated  invitations  to  leave  Amsterdam,  which 
were  refused.  One  came  from  his  native  city  Bern, 
another  from  Leyden.  But  he  only  left  Amsterdam  in 
1799,  when  on  Ruhnken’s  death  he  succeeded  him  at 
Leyden.  Even  then  his  chief  object  in  removing  was  to 
facilitate  an  arrangement  by  which  the  necessities  of  his 
old  master’s  family  might  be  relieved.  His  removal 
came  too  late  in  life,  and  he  was  never  so  happy  at 
Leyden  as  he  had  been  at  Amsterdam.  Wyttenbach 
died  of  apoplexy  in  1820,  and  was  buried  in  the  garde 
of  his  country  house  near  Amsterdam. 


X. 


X represents  the  Phoenician  letter  Samekh.  This 
form  is  familiar  to  Greek  students,  because  it  be- 
longed to  the  alphabet  that  superseded  the  alphabet  of 
the  Eubcean  type  which  wras  first  in  use  at  Athens  and 
passed  in  Italy  into  the  form  X,  which  survives  with  us. 
The  history  of  the  symbol  in  Italy,  is  not,  however, 
perfectly  clear.  The  name  (ksi)  is  clearly  Greek,  not, 
like  the  names  of  the  letters  in  general,  borrowed  from 
the  Phoenician.  It  is  obviously  modeled  upon  Psi, 
just  as  Psi  was  itself  modeled  upon  Pi.  The  value  of 
the  sound  in  Phoenician  was  probably  a strong  sibilant, 
with  a weak  guttural  preceding. 

But  this  same  symbol  X had  another  very  different 
value  in  Greek  from  ks,  and  by  this  value,  i.e .,  a gut- 
tural aspirate,  kh  or  r/z,  it  is  familiar  to  Greek  students 
under  the  name  Chi.  This  value  is  confined  to  alpha- 
bets of  the  Ionian  type. 

There  is  nothing  noteworthy  in  the  history  of  x in 
English.  In  French,  when  medial,  it  has  generally 
passed  into  ss,  as  in  laisser  (from  laxare)\  and  it  has 
the  same  sound,  even  when  written,  as  in  soixante.  It 
is  frequently  found  at  the  end  of  words  owing  to  a mis- 
writing, the  contraction  for  final  us  having  been  con- 
founded with  it,  as  in  the  plurals  yeux,animaux , etc  , 
where  the  u has  been  added  again,  also  in  ipoux  (espon- 
sns),  faux  (falsus),  roux  (russus),  etc.  Not  unnaturally 
the  x has  been  substituted  still  further,  as  in  prix;  in 
other  cases,  like  croix,  we  have  probably  a learned  imi- 
tation of  the  Latin.  Italian  also  substitues  ss  for  v,  as 
in  massimo  for  rnaximus , hissnria , etc. 

XALAPA.  See  Jalapa. 

XANTHUS,  an  ancient  city  of  Lycia  ( q.v .j,  on  tiie 
river  Xanthus,  about  eight  miles  above  its  mouth.  It 
is  chiefly  memorable  in  history  for  its  two  sieges,  and 
the  desperate  but  unavailing  resistance  made  on  both 
occasions.  The  first  siege  was  by  the  Persian  general 
Harpagus,  when  the  acropolis  was  burned  and  the  in- 
habitants, with  all  their  possessions,  perished.  The 
city  was  afterward  rebuilt;  and  in  42  b.c.  it  was 
besieged  by  the  Romans  under  Brutus.  It  was  taken 
by  storm  and  set  on  fire;  and  the  inhabitants,  refusing 
to  surrender,  all  perished  in  the  flames.  During  its 
prosperity,  Xanthus  contained  many  fine  temples  and 
other  buildings. 

XAVIER,  Francisco,  surnamed  the  “ Apostle  of  the 
Indies, was  the  youngest  son  of  Juan  de  Jasso,  privy 
councilor  to  fean  d’Albret,  king  of  Navarre,  and  his 
wife  Maria  Azpilcueta  Xavier,  sole  heiress'  of  two  noble 
Navarrese  families.  He  was  born  at  his  mother’s  castle 
of  Xavero  or  Xavier,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees  and 
close  to  the  little  town  of  Sanguesa,  on  April  7,  1506, 
according  to  a family  register,  though  his  earlier  biog- 
raphers fix  his  birth  in  1497.  His  father  sent  him,  in 
1524,  to  the  university  of  Paris,  then  much  frequented 
by  Spaniards,  where  he  entered  the  College  of  St.  Bar- 
bara, and  made  such  rapid  progress  that  he  was  appointed 
in  1528  lecturer  in  Aristotelian  philosophy  at  the  College 
de  Beauvais.  In  1530  he  took  his  degree  as  master  of 
arts.  The  same  year  which  saw  his  nomination  as  lect- 
iirer  at  the  university  saw  also  the  arrival  there  of  the 
Sian  who  was  to  mold  his  destiny  and  that  of  his 


chamber-mate  Pierre  le  Fevre,  namely,  Ignatius 
Loyola,  even  then  meditating  the  foundation  of  his  cel- 
ebrated institute  (see  Jesuits).  Ignatius  speedily 
recognized  in  Xavier  the  qualities  which  made  him  the 
first  missionary  of  his  time — and  set  himself  to  win  him 
as  an  associate  in  his  vast  enterprise.  Xavier  was  one 
of  the  little  band  of  seven  persons,  including  Loyola 
himself,  who  took  the  original  Jesuit  vows  and  founded 
the  company,  on  August  15,  1534,  in  the  crypt  of  Notre 
Damede  Montmartre.  They  continued  in  Paris  for  two 
years  longer,  though  there  is  some  uncertainty  whether 
Xavier  retained  his  chair;  but  on  November  15,  1536, 
they  started  for  Italy,  to  concert  with  Ignatius 
(then  in  Spain,  but  purposing  to  join  them)  plans  for 
a mission  to  convert  the  Moslems  of  Palestine. 
About  1537,  after  a journey  a'ttended  with  much 
fatigue  and  some  danger,  owing  to  the  disturbed 
posture  of  political  affairs,  they  arrived  in  Venice,  where 
they  found  Ignatius  awaiting  them.  Xavier  devoted 
himself  to  the  care  of  the  patients  in  the  hospital  for 
incurables,  and  then  he  set  out  with  eight  companions 
for  Rome,  where  Pope  Paul  III.  received  them  favor- 
ably, sanctioned  their  enterprise,  and  gave  them  facilities 
for  obtaining  ordination!  Returning  to  Venice,  Xavier 
was  ordained  priest  on  Midsummer  Day,  1537  5 but  the 
outbreak  of  war  between  Venice  and  Turkey  put  an  end 
to  the  Palestine  expedition.  Hereupon  the  companions 
agreed  to  disperse  for  a twelve-month’s  home  mission 
work  in  the  Italian  cities,  and  Bobadilla  and  Xavier 
betook  themselves,  first  to  Monselice,  thence  to  Bologna, 
where  they  remained  till  summoned  to  Rome  by  Ignatius 
at  the  close  of  1538,  to  consider  his  plans  for  erecting 
the  company  into  a religious  order,  with  a formal  con- 
stitution under  papal  sanction.  The  draft  rules  were 
signed  by  the  whole  number  on  April  1,5,  1539,  though 
it  was  not  till  1540  that  the  pope’s  confirmation  was 
given,  nor  was  it  published  till  1541.  While  the  re- 
maining members  dispersed  anew  for  work  in  various 
parts  of  Italy,  Ignatius  retained  Xavier  at  Rome  as 
secretary  to  the  new  institute.  Meanwhile  John  III., 
king  of  Portugal,  had  resolved  on  sending  a mission  to 
his  East  Indian  dominions,  and,  at  the  instance  of  his 
minister  Govea,  applied  through  his  envoy  Pedro  de 
Mascarenhas  to  the  pope  for  six  Jesuits  to  undertake  the 
task.  Ignatius  could  spare  but  two,  and  chose  Rodri- 
guez and  Bobadilla  for  the  purpose  ; and  the  former  set 
out  at  once  for  Lisbon  to  confer  with  the  king.  Boba- 
dilla, sent  for  to  Rome,  arrived  there  just  before  Masca- 
renhas was  about  to  depart,  but  fell  too  ill  to  respond  to 
the  call  made  on  him.  Hereupon  Ignatius  on  March  15, 
1540,  told  Xavier  to  leave  Rome  the  next  day  with 
Mascarenhas,  in  order  to  join  Rodriguez  in  the  Indian 
mission. 

On  April  7,  1541,  his  thirty-fifth  birthday,  he  sailed 
from  Lisbon  with  Martin  Alphonso  de  Souza,  governor 
of  India,  and,  refusing  all  accommodations  for  the 
voyage  offered  him,  except  a few  books  and  some 
clothing,  lived  among  the  common  sailors  on  board, 
ministering  to  their  religious  and  temporal  needs, 
especially  during  an  outbreak  of  scurvy.  After  five 
months"  voyage  the  ship  reached  Mozambique,  where 


XEN— XIM 


the  captain  resolved  to  winter,  and  Xavier  was  pros- 
trated with  a severe  attack  of  fever.  When  the  voyage 
was  resumed  the  ship  touched  at  the  Mohammedan 
town  of  Melinde,  whose  sultan  told  Xavier  of  the 
marked  decline  of  Islam.  But  neither  there  nor  at  the 
island  of  Socotra,  the  next  point  of  arrival,  where 
Christianity  was  equally  declining,  was  the  missionary 
able  to  remain  long  enough  to  attempt  any  work;  and 
he  finally  reached  Goa  on  May  6,  1542.  He  spent  five 
months  actively  employed  in  Goa,  where  ne  is  stated  to 
have  effected  much  reformation  in  morals,  and  then 
turned  his  attention  to  the  fishery  coast,  extending  from 
Cape  Comorin  to  the  Paumbum  Pass,  where  he  had 
heard  that  the  Paravas,  a tribe  engaged  in  the  pearl 
fishery,  had  elapsed  into  heathenism  after  having  pro- 
fessed Christianity.  He  labored  assiduously  among 
them  for  fifteen  months,  and  at  the  end  of  1543  re- 
turned to  Goa  to  procure  colleagues  for  the  mission. 
Travancore  was  his  next  field  of  action,  and  there  he  is 
said  to  have  succeeded  in  founding  no  fewer  than  forty- 
five  Christian  settlements,  each  with  numerous  con- 
verts. His  next  sphere  of  active  work  was  Malacca, 
which  he  reached  on  September  25, 1545,  and  where  he 
remained  another  four  months,  but  had  comparatively 
little  success,  and  abandoned  it  at  last  as  wholly  in- 
tractable. While  there  he  addressed  a letter  to  King 
John  of  Portugal,  urging  him  to  set  up  the  Inquisition 
m Goa  to  repress  Judaism,  and  was  readily  listened  to, 
although  the  actual  erection  of  the  tribunal  did  not 
take  place  till  1560,  eight  years  after  his  own  death, 
which  occurred  in  December,  1552. 

XENIA,  the  county  seat  of  Greene  county,  Ohio,  is 
situated  in  the  midst  of  a rich  agricultural  region,  and 
on  the  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis,  and  the 
Dayton,  Fort  Wayne  and  Chicago  railways.  It  is 
one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Ohio,  having  been  laid  out  in 
1803.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Xenia 
college  (1850),  a Presbyterian  theological  seminary 
(1794),  and  Wilberforce  university  (1863),  this  last  de- 
signed for  the  education  of  colored  youth  of  both  sexes. 
The  population  in  1900  was  8,696. 

XENOCRATES  of  Chalcedon,  scholarch  or  rector 
of  the  Academy  from  339  to  314  B.c. , was  born  in  396. 
Removing  to  Athens  in  early  youth,  he  became  the 
pupil  of  the  Socratic  ^Eschines,  but  joined  himself  to 
Plato,  whom  he  attended  to  Sicily  in  361.  Upon  his 
master’s  death  (347  B.c.),  in  company  with  Aristotle  he 
paid  a visit  to  Hermias  at  Atarneus.  In  339,  Aristotle 
being  then  in  Macedonia,  Xenocrates  succeeded  Speu- 
sippus  in  the  presidency  of  the  school,  defeating  his 
competitors  Menedemus  and  Heracleidesby  a few  votes. 
On  three  occasions  he  was  member  of  an  Athenian 
legation,  once  to  Philip,  twice  to  Antipater.  Soon 
after  the  death  of  Demosthenes  in  322,  resenting  the 
Macedonian  influence  then  dominant  at  Athens, 
Xenocrates  declined  the  citizenship  offered  to  him  at 
the  instance  of  Phocion,  and,  being  unable  to  pay  the 
rax  levied  upon  resident  aliens,  was,  it  is  said,  sold,  or 
on  the  point  of  being  sold,  into  slavery.  He  died  in 
n 4,  and  was  succeeded  as  scholarch  by  Polemon,  whom 
he  had  reclaimed  from  a life  of  profligacy. 

XENOPHANES  of  Colophon,  the  reputed  founder 
of  the  Eleatic  school  of  philosophy,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  born  in  the  third  or  fourth  decade  of  the  sixth 
century  B.  c.  An  exile  from  his  Ionian  home,  he  resided 
for  a time  in  Sicily,  at  Zancle  and  at  Catana,  and  after- 
ward established  himself  in  southern  Italy,  at  Elea,  a 
Phocsean  colony  founded  in  the  sixty-first  Olympiad 
(536—533).  In  one  of  the  extant  fragments  he  speaks 
of  himself  as  having  begun  his  wanderings  sixty-seven 
/ears  before,  when  he  was  twenty-five  years  of  age,  so 
that  he  was  nol  less  than  ninety-two  when  he  died 


64I! 

His  teaching  found  expression  in  poems,  which  ht 
recited  rhapsodically  in  the  course  of  nis  travels. 

XENOPHON,  Greek  historian  and  essayist,  was 
born  at  Athens  about  430  B.c.  He  was  a citizen  of 
good  position,  belonging  to  the  order  of  the  knights. 
Early  in  life  he  came  under  the  influence  of  Socrates. 
In  401  B.C. , being  invited  by  his  friend  Proxenus  to  join 
the  expedition  of  the  younger  Cyrus  against  his  brother, 
Artaxerxes  II.  of  Persia,  he  jumped  at  the  offer,  for  he 
was  a needy  man,  and  his  prospects  at  home  may  not 
have  been  yery  good,  as  the  knights  were  at  this  time 
out  of  favor  from  having  supported  the  Thirty  Tyrants. 
At  the  suggestion  of  Socrates  Xenophon  went  to  Delphi 
to  consult  the  oracle;  but  his  mind  was  already  made 
up,  and  he  at  once  crossed  to  Asia,  to  Sardis,  the  place 
of  rendezvous.  He  joined  neither  as  officer  nor  as  sol 
dier;  he  went  simply  to  see  new  countries  and  peoples 
out  of  a spirit  of  curiosity  and  love  of  excitement.  Of 
the  expedition  itself  he  has  given  a full  and  detailec 
account  in  his  Anabasis , or  the  “ Up-Country  March.5 
(See  Persia.)  After  i.he  battle  of  Cunaxa  the  officer, 
in  command  of  the  Greeks  were  treacherously  murderea 
by  the  Persian  satrap  Tissaphernes,  with  whom  they 
were  negotiating  an  armistice  with  a view  to  a safe  re- 
turn. The  army  was  now  in  the  heart  of  an  unknown 
country  more  than  a thousand  miles  from  home,  and  in 
the  presence  of  a troublesome  enemy.  It  was  decided 
to  march  northward  up  the  Tigris  valley  and  make  fot 
the  shores  of  the  Euxine,  on  which  there  were  several 
Greek  colonies.  Xenophon  became  the  leading  spirit  oi 
the  army;  he  was  elected  an  officer,  and  he  it  was  who 
mainly  directed  the  retreat.  To  his  skill,  good  temper, 
and  firmness  the  Greeks  seem  to  have  largely  owed 
their  safety.  After  a five  months’  march  they  reached 
Trapezus  (Trebizond)  on  the  Black  Sea  (February, 
400  b.c. ),  having  given  splendid  proof  of  what  Greek 
discipline  and  spirit  could  accomplish. 

On  his  return  to  Greece  Xenophon  served  under 
Agesilaus,  king  of  Sparta,  which  state  was  at  this  time 
at  the  head  of  the  Greek  world.  With  his  native 
Athens  and  its  general  policy  and  institutions  he  was 
not  in  sympathy.  At  Coronea  he  fought  with  the 
Spartans  against  the  Athenians  and  Thebans,  for  which 
his  fellow-citizens  decreed  his  banishment.  The  exile 
found  a home  at  Scillus  in  Elis,  about  two  miles  from 
Olympia;  there  he  settled  down  to  indulge  his  tastes  for 
sport  and  for  literature.  It  was  probably  at  Scillus 
that  he  wrote  most  of  his  books;  ..here  too  he  built  and 
endowed  a temple  to  Artemis,  modeled  on  the  great 
temple  at  Ephesus.  After  Sparta’s  great  defeat  at 
Leuctra  in  371  B.C.,  which  fatally  shattered  its  ascend- 
ancy, Xenophon  was  driven  from  his  home  by  the  people 
of  Elis.  Meantime  Sparta  and  Athens  had  become 
allies,  and  the  Athenians  repealed  the  decree  which  had 
condemned  Xenophon  to  exile.  There  is,  however,  no 
evidence  that  he  ever  returned  to  his  native  city.  Ac- 
cording to  the  not  very  trustworthy  authority  of  his  biog- 
rapher (Diogenes  Laertius),  he  made  his  home  at 
Corinth.  He  was  still  living  in  357  B.C. ; but  how  much 
longer  he  lived  we  have  no  means  of  knowing. 
XENOPHON  of  Ephesus.  See  Romance. 
XERF.S.  See  Jerez  de  la  Frontera  and  Wine. 

XERXES  (Old  Persian  Khshaydrskd ; in  the  book 
of  Esther,  Ahasuerus),  the  name  of  two  Achaemenian 
kings  of  Persia.  Xerxes  I.,  son  of  Darius  Hystaspis 
and  of  Atossa,  daughter  of  Cyrus,  reigned  from  485 
to  464  B.C.,  and  is  famous  for  his  unsuccessful  expedi- 
tion against  Greece  (480  b.c.);  see  Persia.  Xerxes  II., 
the  son  of  Artaxerxes  I.  and  grandson  of  Xerxes  IM 
came  to  the  throne  in  424  and  was  murdered  by  his 
brother  Seeydianus  after  a reign  of  a month  and  a hali 
XIMENES,  See  Timenes. 


The  history  of  this  symbol  has  already  been  given 
I . under  U.  The  three  symbols  U*  V,  Y are  only 
differentiations  of  one  original  form. 

The  sound  of  y in  Greek  was  that  of  French  u in 
Mune”  and  German  n in  “libel.”  In  Boeotian  and 
Laconian  Greek  the  old  z/-sound  was  retained;  but  it 
was  represented  by  oi\  a digraph  which  had  also  the 
value  of  u in  other  dialects  where  it  arose  from  phonetic 
change,  e.g , in  rods  (for  r ovZ).  There  is  no  doubt 
that  y {i.e.,  u)  was  a sound  of  Early  English  (or  Anglo- 
Saxon),  as  of  the  other  Teutonic  languages,  m words 
like  ‘ fyr  ” (fire),  “ synn  ” (sin) ; it  was  the  “ umlaut  ” of 
v-.  especially  when  followed  in  the  next  syllable  by  i or 
t,  so  “burg”  has  for  gen.  and  dat.  “ byrig,”  orig. 
“ burges,”  “burge.”  Thus  in  the  middle  of  a word  y 
lost  its  special  value ; on  the  other  hand,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a word  it  easily  passed  into  the  consonant  y,  the 
value  which  it  has  regularly  in  modern  English.  This 
explains  the  fact  that  the  English  language  had  no 
symbol  for  the  sound  of  French  u when  this  sound  was 
re-introduced  into  England  after  the  Norman  Conquest. 
Accordingly  the  French  symbol  as  well  as  the  sound 
was  taken  : it  is  found  in  words  like  “muse,”  “lute,” 
sounded  as  “myyz,”  “lyyte.”  The  yy  gradually  de- 
veloped into  the  in  sound  with  which  we  are  familiar 
in  “ miuz,”  “ liut  ”;  but  the  spelling  remained  unchanged. 

YACHOW-FU,  a prefectural  city  in  the  Chinese 
province  of  Sze-ch’uen,  is  situated  in  30°4/  N.  latitude  and 
1030  4#  E.  longitude,  and  is  a place  of  some  antiquity  and 
note,  being  first  mentioned  in  history  during  the  Chow 
dynasty  (i  122-255  B.c.)  It  is  prettily  placed  in  a valley 
surrounded  by  an  amphitheatre  of  hills,  on  the  banks  of 
the  river  Ya.  The  town  is  large,  populous,  and  busy, 
and  owes  its  importance  to  the  fact  that  it  stands  at  the 
parting  of  the  tea  and  tobacco  trade  route  to  Tibet  via 
Tatsien-lu  and  the  cotton  trade  route  to  western  Yun- 
nan via  Ningyuen-Fu.  Yachow-Fu  is  the  seat  also  of 
a considerable  silk  manufacture;  and  in  its  immediate 
neighborhood  there  exist  both  coal  and  iron.  The  city 
wall  measures  two  miles  in  circumference,  and  is  pierced 
by  four  gates.  The  population  is  estimated  at  about 
40,000. 

YACHTING  is  the  sport  of  racing  in  yachts  and 
boats  with  sails  for  money  or  plate,  and  also  the  pastime 
of  cruising  for  pleasure  in  sailing  or  steam  vessels. 
The  history  of  yachting  is  the  history  of  yacht-racing, 
inasmuch  as  competition  improved  yachts  just  as  horse- 
racing improved  horses.  It  dates  from  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century;  for,  although  there  were  sail- 
ing yachts  long  before,  they  were  but  few. 

The  first  authentic  record  of  a sailing  club  is  in  1720, 
when  the  Cork  Harbor  Water  Club,  now  known  as  the 
Royal  Cork  Yacht  Club,  was  established  in  Ireland,  but 
the  yachts  were  small.  From  the  middle  to  the  end  of 
file  eighteenth  century  yachting  developed  very  slowly: 


although  matches  were  sailed  at  Cowes  as  far  back  at 
1780,  very  few  yachts  of  any  size,  say  thirty  five  tons, 
existed  in  1800  there  or  elsewhere.  In  1812  the  Royal 
Yacht  Squadron  was  established  by  fifty  yacht-owners  at 
Cowes  and  was  called  the  Yacht  Club,  altered  to  the 
Royal  Yacht  Club  in  1820;  but  no  regular  regatta  was 
held  there  until  some  years  later.  The  yachts  of  the 
time  were  built  of  heavy  materials,  like  the  revenue  cut- 
ters, full  in  the  fore  body  and  fine  aft;  but  it  was  soon 
discovered  that  their  timbers  and  scantlings  were  unnec- 
essarily strong,  and  they  were  made  much  lighter.  It 
was  also  found  that  the  single- masted  cutter  was  more 
weatherly  than  the  brigs  and  schooners  of  the  time,  and 
the  former  rig  was  adopted  for  racing,  and,  as  there  was 
no  time  allowance  for  difference  of  size,  they  were  all 
built  of  considerable  dimensions. 

In  1848,  after  J.  Scott  Russell  had  repeatedly  drawn 
attention  to  the  unwisdom  of  constructing  sailing  ves- 
sels on  the  “cod’s  head  and  mackerel  tail ’’plan,  and 
had  enunciated  his  wave-line  theory,  Mare  built  at 
Blackwall  an  entirely  new  type  of  vessel,  with  a long 
hollow  bow  and  a short  after  body  of  considerable  full- 
ness. This  was  the  iron  cutter  Mosquito , of  59  feet 
2 inches  water  line,  15  feet  3 inches  beam,  and  measur- 
ing 50  tons.  Prejudice  against  the  new  type  of  yacht 
being  as  strong  as  against  the  introduction  of  steam, 
there  were  no  vessels  built  like  the  Mosquito,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Volante , 59  tons,  by  Harvey  of 
Wivenhoe,  until  the  eyes  of  English  yachtsmen  were 
opened  by  the  Americans  three  years  later.  About 
this  period  yacht-racing  had  been  gradually  coming 
into  favor  in  this  country,  the  first  yacht  club  being 
founded  at  New  York  in  1844  by  nine  yacht  owners; 
and  in  1846  the  first  match  between-yachts  in  the  States 
was  sailed,  25  miles  to  windward  and  back  from  Sandy 
Hook  lightship,  between  J.  C.  Stevens’  new  center- 
board  sloop  Maria , 170  tons,  100  feet  water  line,  and 
26  feet  8 inches  beam,  with  a draught  of  5 feet  3 inches 
of  water,  and  the  Coquette , schooner,  74  tons,  belong, 
ing  to  J.  H.  Perkins,  the  latter  winning;  but  the 
appearance  of  the  Maria,  which  had  a clipper  or 
schooner  bow,  like  that  of  the  newest  racing  cutters  of 
1887-1888,  did  much  for  yachting  in  America.  Stevens 
then  commissioned  George  Steers  of  New  York, 
builder  of  the  crack  pilot  schooners,  to  construct  a 
racing  schooner  to  visit  England  in  the  year  of  the 
great  exhibition,  and  the  result  was  the  America  of  170 
tons.  She  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  the  summer  of  1851, 
but  failed  to  compete  for  the  queen’s  cup  at  Cowes  in 
August,  although  the  club  for  that  occasion  threw  the 
the  prize  open  to  all  the  world,  as  her  owner  declined 
to  concede  the  usual  time  allowance  for  difference  of 
size.  The  members  of  the  Yacht  Squadron,  not  wish- 
I ing  to  risk  the  reproach  of  denying  the  stranger  a fair 
I race,  decided  that  their  match  for  a cup  given  by  the 


YAK 


dub,  to  be  sailed  round  the  Isle  of  Wight  later  on  in 
the  same  month,  should  be  without  any  time  allowance. 
The  America,  thus  exceptionally  treated,  entered  and 
competed  against  fifteen  other  vessels.  The  three  most 
dangerous  competitors  being  put  out  through  accidents, 
the  America  passed  the  winning  post  18  minutes  ahead 
of  the  47-ton  cutter  Aurora,  and  won  the  cup;  but, 
even  if  the  time  allowance  had  not  been  waived,  the 
American  schooner  yacht  would  still  have  won  by 
fully  a couple  of  minutes. 

The  prize  was  given  to  the  New  York  Yacht  Club 
and  constituted  a challenge  cup,  called  the  America 
cup,  for  the  yachts  of  all  nations,  by  the  deed  of  gift  of 
the  owners  of  the  winner.  Not  only  was  the  America 
as  great  a departure  from  the  conventional  British  type 
of  yacht  as  the  Mosquito,  but  the  set  of  her  sails  was  a 
decided  novelty.  In  England  it  had  been  the  practice 
to  make  them  baggy,  whereas  those  of  the  America 
were  flat,  which  told  materially  in  working  to  wind- 
ward. The  revolution  in  yacht  designing  and  canvas- 
ing  was  complete,  and  the  bows  of  existing  cutters  were 
lengthened,  that  of  the  Arrozv  among  others.  The 
Alarm  was  also  lengthened  and  turned  into  a schooner 
of  248  tons,  and  the  Wildfire , cutter,  59  tons,  was  like- 
wise converted.  Indeed  there  was  a complete  craze  for 
schooners,  the  Flying  Cloud,  Gloriana , Lalla  Rookh, 
Albertine , Aline,  Egeria,  Pantomime,  and  others  being 
built  between  1852  and  1865,  during  which  period  the 
center  board,  or  sliding  keel,  was  applied  to  schooners 
as  well  as  sloops  in  America.  The  national  or  cutter 
rig  was  nevertheless  not  neglected  in  England,  for 
Hatcher  of  Southampton  built  the  35-ton  cutter  Glance 
—the  pioneer  of  the  subsequent  40-tonners — in  1855, 
and  the  Va?npire — the  pioneer  of  the  20-tonners — in 
1857,  in  which  year  Weld  also  had  the  Lulworth , an 
82-ton  cutter  of  comparatively  shallow  draught,  con- 
structed at  Lymington.  At  this  time,  too,  there  came 
into  existence  a group  of  cutters,  called  the  “flying 
fifties  ” from  their  tonnage,  taking  after  the  Mosquito , 
as  their  pioneer;  such  were  the  Extravaganza,  Atidax, 
and  Vanguard.  In  1866  a large  cutter  was  constructed 
on  the  Clyde  called  the  Condor,  135  tons,  followed  by 
the  still  larger  Ounara , 163  tons,  in  1867.  In  1868  the 
Cambria  schooner  was  built  by  Ratsey  at  Cowes  for 
Ashbury  of  Brighton,  and,  having  proved  a successful 
match-sailer,  was  taken  to  the  United  States  in  1870  to 
compete  for  the  America  cup,  but  was  badly  beaten, 
as  was  also  the  Livonia  in  1871. 

The  decade  between  1870  and  1880  may  be  termed 
the  Golden  Age  of  yachting,  inasmuch  as  the  racing 
fleet  had  some  very  notable  additions  made  to  it,  of 
which  it  will  suffice  to  mention  the  schooners  Gwen - 
dolin , Cetonia , Corinne , Miranda , and  Waterwitch; 
the  large  cutters  Kriemhilda,  Vol  ait  Vent , Formosa, 
Samcena,  and  Vanduara;  the  40-tonners  Foxhound, 
Myosotis,  and  ATorman;  the  20-tonners  Vanessa,  (Hatch- 
er’s master-piece).  Quickstep , Enriqueta,  Louise,  and 
Freda ; and  the  yawls  Florinda,  Corisande,  Jullanar, 
and  Latona.  Lead,  the  use  of  which  commenced  n 1846, 
was  entirely  used  for  ballast  after  1870  and  placed  on 
thp  keel  outside. 

In  1884  two  large  80- ton  cutters  of  the  above 
*ype  were  built  for  racing,  viz.,  the  Genesta  on  the 
Clyde  and  the  Lrex  at  Southampton.  Having  been 
successful  in  her  first  season,  the  former  went  to  the 
United  States  in  1885  in  quest  of  the  America  cup  ; but 
she  was  beaten  by  a new  yacht,  called  the  Puritan , 
built  for  the  purpose  of  defending  it,  with  a moderate 
draught  of  eight  feet  three  inches  of  water,  considerable 
beam,. and  a deep  center-board.  The  defeat  of  the  Ge- 
nesta is  not  surprising  when  it  is  recollected  that  she 
drew  thirteen  feet  of  water,  had  a displacement  or 


6413 

weight  of  141,  as  against  the  Puritan's  106  tons,  and  a 
sail  area  of  7,887  square  feet  to  the  American’s  7,982 — 
a greater  mass  with  less  driving  power  ; but  she  did  ne$ 
leave  the  States  empty-handed,  as  she  won  and  brought 
back  the  Cape  May  and  Brenton  Reef  challenge  cups, 
though  they  were  wrested  from  her  by  the  Lrex  in  the 
following  year.  The  same  thing  happened  to  the  Gala * 
tea,  which  was  beaten  by  the  Mayflower  in  1886.  In 
1887  a new  cutter,  called  the  Thistle,  was  built  on  the 
Clyde  to  try  to  win  back  the  America  cup;  but,  although 
built  very  differently  from  the  Genesta  and  Galatea , i.e., 
of  a much  ‘greater  width  than  modern  English  racing 
yachts  generally,  the  Thistle,  when  matched  with  the 
new  center-board  Volunteer,  had  no  better  fortune  than 
her  predecessors.  These  new  American  racing  vessels 
are  something  very  different  from  the  old  flat-bottomed 
sloop  Maria,  with  one  head-sail  and  a trivial  draught 
of  water,  inasmuch  as  they  are  lead-ballasted  cutters 
with  two  head-sails  and  a draught  of  nearly  ten  feet  of 
water,  with  the  additional  advantage  of  a center-board 
descending  as  much  as  eight  or  ten  feet  below  the  keel. 
In  this  connection  it  is  noteworthy  that  a prize,  won  by 
a fixed-keel  schooner  should  be  defended  by  a center 
board  craft  with  a single  mast. 

From  1887  an  entirely  new  system  of  measurement 
for  competitive  sailing  has  been  adopted  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  the  old  plan  of  measuring  the  hull  having 
given  way  to  the  more  rational  one  of  taking  the  length 
on  the  water-line  and  the  sail  area  of  the  vessel,  as  the 
factors  for  rating.  This  leaves  naval  architects  free  to 
adopt  a long  and  narrow  or  a short  and  “ beamy  ” hull 

Y AKo  This  animal  is  the  Bos  grunniens  of  Linnaeus 
and  all  subsequent  zoologists,  so  called  on  account  of 
the  pig-like  grunting  sound  it  makes.  It  is  structurally 
more  closely  allied  to  the  common  ox  than  to  the  bison, 
with  which  group  of  the  Bovidce  it  has  been  sometimes 
erroneously  associated.  It  is  only  found  in  the  lofty 
p.uteau  of  Asia  between  the  Altai  Mountains  and  the 
Himalayas,  and  occurs  both  wild  and  as  the  ordinary 
domestic  animal  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  region,  sup- 
plying milk,  food,  and  raiment,  as  well  as  being  used 
as  a beast  of  burden.  The  wild  yaks  inhabit  the  most 
inaccessible  parts  of  the  mountains,  ranging  up  to  an 
elevation  of  20,000  feet— higher,  it  is  said,  than  any 
other  animal — delighting  in  extreme  cold,  and  find* 
ing  their  sustenance  in  the  coarse,  wiry  grass  which  is 
almost  the  only  vegetable  production  of  those  desolate 
regions.  They  cannot  live  to  the  south  of  the  Hima 
layas  beyond  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  snow. 
Their  size  is  that  of  a small  ox.  The  horns  aredong, 
nearly  cylindrical,  smooth,  and  pointed  at  the  ends, 
and  with  a peculiar  and  characteristic  curve,  being  di- 
rected at  first  outward,  then  upward,  forward,  and  in- 
ward, and  finally  a little  backward.  Some  of  the  do- 
mestic yaks  arehornless.  Their  most  remarkable  external 
characteristic  is  the  excessive  growth  and  peculiar  distri- 
bution of  the  hairy  covering.  The  upper  parts  of  the 
body  and  sides  are  clothed  with  a thick,  soft,  woolly 
hair,  more  fully  developed  along  the  middle  of  the  back, 
especially  on  the  shoulders,  where  it  forms  a great 
bunch;  on  the  sides  it  is  comparatively  short.  From 
the  upper  parts  of  the  limbs  and  the  whole  of  the  lowei 
surface  of  the  body  a thick  growth  of  long,  straight 
pendent  hair  descends,  in  old  animals  sweeping  the 
ground  and  almost  concealing  the  somewhat  short  legs. 
The  tail  is  profusely  covered  with  a thick  mass  of  such 
hairs.  The  calves  are  at  first  covered  only  with  a soft, 
shortish  woolly  hair,  of  nearly  uniform  length  all  over. 
Domestic  yaks  vary  considerably  in  size  and  appear- 
ance according  to  their  treatment  and  the  purpose  far 
which  they  are  bred.  The  finest  are  those  used  for 
carrying  the  native  chiefs.  Those  employed  for  plow 


YAK-YAN 


S414 

4ng  are  very  inferior-looking  animals.  They  vary  also 
in  color.  The  wild  animals  are  nearly  uniformly  black; 
the  domestic  yaks  are  often  quite  white.  It  is  not  un- 
common to  see  the  long  hair  on  the  ridge  of  the  back, 
that  on  the  tail,  and  the  long  flowing  hair  of  the  under 
parts  white,  while  all  the  rest  of  the  animal  is  black. 
The  tails  of  the  domestic  yaks  are  used  as  ornamental 
standards  by  the  Tartars,  and  are  largely  imported  into 
India  as  chowries  or  fly-flaps. 

YAKUTSK,  a province  of  Eastern  Siberia,  which 
includes  nearly  the  whole  of  the  basin  of  the  Lena,  and 
covers  an  area  of  1,533,397  square  miles  (nearly  one- 
third  of  Siberia  and  almost  one-fifth  of  the  entire  Rus- 
sian empire).  It  has  the  Arctic  Ocean  on  the  north, 
Yeniseisk  on  the  west,  Irkutsk,  Transbaikalia  and 
Amur  on  the  south,  and  is  separated  from  the  Pacific 
(Sea  of  Okhotsk)  only  by  the  narrow  Maritime  Province. 
A line  drawn  southwest  and  northeast,  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Vitim  toward  that  of  the  Aldan,  separates  the 
mountain  tracts  from  the  elevated  plains  (from  1,500  to 
2,000  feet)  which  fringe  the  highlands  all  the  way  from 
the  upptr  Lena  to  Verkhne-Kolymsk,  and  probably  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Kolyma.  Immense  and  sometimes  • 
marshy  meadows  extend  over  those  plains  in  the  south- 
west; farther  north  mosses  and  lichens  are  the  prevalent 
vegetation.  The  surface  is  much  furrowed  by  rivers  and 
diversified  by  several  mountain  chains  (Verkhoyansk, 
Tas-karyktakh,  Kolymsk,  and  Alezeya). 

The  Arctic  coast  is  indented  by  several  bays — Bork- 
haya  and  Yana  to  the  east  of  the  wide  Lena  delta,  and 
Omulyakh,  Kolyma  andTchaunskaya  still  farther  to  the 
east.  Islands  have  been  explored  as  far  as  78°  N.  lati- 
tude. These  fall  into  three  groups,  the  Lyakhovskiye, 
the  Anjou  or  New  Siberian,  and  the  De  Long  Islands. 
The  Medvyezhie  (Bear)  Islands  off  the  Kolyma  and  the 
two  Ayun  Islands  in  Tchaunskaya  Bay  are  merely  lit- 
toral. WrangelVLand  seems  to  be  the  outer  island  of 
a great  and  as  yet  unknown  archipelago.  The  entire 
coast  of  Yakutsk  is  full  of  memorials  of  the  courageous 
explorations  made  in  1735-41  by  Minin,  Laptefif  and 
Prontchischeffin  small  boats,  without  any  of  the  modern 
appliances  for  Arctic  explorations,  and  Tchaunskaya 
Bay  recalls  the  loss  of  Shalauroff’s  expedition.  The 
prospects  of  regular  navigation  recently  raised  by  Nor- 
denskjold’s  bold  circumnavigation  of  Asia  seem  un- 
likely to  be  fully  realized,  the  ice  apparently  having 
never  again  been  in  so  favorable  a condition  as  in  1878- 
79.  Every  year,  however,  a narrow  passage  close  by 
the  coast  is  left  almost  free  of  ice,  enabling  a ship  or 
two  to  reach  the  estuary  of  the  Yenisei,  or  even  the 
delta  of  the  Lena. 

The  great  artery  of  Yakutsk,  the  Lena,  rises  on  the 
western  slope  of  the  Baikal  Mountains,  its  sources 
being  separated  only  by  a narrow  ridge  from  the  great 
Siberian  Lake.  It  soon  issues  from  the  mountain 
valleys,  and  flows  over  the  elevated  plains,  where  it  has 
carved  a deep  channel  between  horizontal  layers  of  Old 
Red  Sandstone,  and  further  on  of  contorted  beds  of 
limestone. 

Though  there  are  spots  in  the  North  American 
archipelago  and  in  northern  Greenland  where  the  cold 
is  as  intense  as  at  Yakutsk,  no  region  can  be  named 
which  has  such  extremes  of  cold  and  heat  or  winter 
temperatures  so  low,  so  long  continued,  or  spread  over 
so  immense  an  area.  Verkhoyansk  on  the  Yana  (67° 
34'  N.  latitude,  and  1340  20'  E.  longitude)  is,  in  respect 
of  cold,  the  pole  of  the  Old  World;  nowhere,  even  in 
Siberia,  do  we  find  such  low  winter  temperatures;  from 
whatever  quarter  the  wind  may  blow  it  cannot  fail  to 
bring  a warmer  temperature  to  Verkhoyansk. 

In  spite  of  the  rigors  of  its  climate,  the  province  of 
Yakutsk  had  261,731  inhabitants  in  1898,  and  the  popu- 


lation is  supposed  to  be  increasing  notwithstanding  the 

infectious  diseases  which  sometimes  sweep  away  whole 
villages.  The  Russians  constitute  but  a trifling  element 
in  the  population;  and  their  villages,  numbering  scarcely 
twenty,  are  chiefly  peopled  by  exiled  Nonconformists, 
belonging  to  the  sects  reputed  “dangerous.”  In  1889 
there  were  5,400  exiles  living  in  the  towns  or  settled  in 
the  Yakut  encampments,  5,300  peasants  (also  formerly 
exiles),  1,890  military,  and  4,100  artisans,  merchants, 
and  officials.  The  remainder  were  chiefly  Yakuts  (21 1,- 
900),  and  partly  Tunguses  (10,400),  with  a few  Yuka- 
ghirs,  Lamuts,  and  Tchuktchis.  The  Yakuts  belong  to 
the  Turkish  stem  and  speak  a dialect  of  Turkish,  with 
an  admixture  of  Mongolian  words.  They  call  them- 
selves Sokha  (pi.  Sokhalar),  their  present  name  having 
been  borrowed  by  the  Russians  from  the  Tunguses,  who 
call  them  Yeko  or  Yekot.  Most  probably  they  formerly 
inhabited  southern  Siberia,  and  especially  the  upper 
Yenisei,  where  a Tartar  stem  calling  itself  Sakha  still 
remains  in  Minusinsk.  They  are  middle-sized,  have 
dark  and  rather  narrow  eyes,  a broad  flat  nose,  thick 
black  hair,  and  almost  no  beard.  On  the  whole  they 
are  healthy  and  reach  an  advanced  age,  are  very  labor- 
ious and  enterprising,  and  display  in  schools  much  more 
intelligence  than  the  Tunguses  or  Buriats. 

The  province  is  divided  into  five  districts,  the  chief 
towns  of  which  are — Yakutsk  (see  below),  Sredne- 
Kolymsk  (560),  Olekminsk  (500),  Verkhoyansk  (290), 
and  Viluisk  (390).  Except  Yakutsk,  these  “towns”  are 
but  miserable  villages. 

Yakutsk,  capital  of  the  above  province,  situated 
in  62°  2'  N.  latitude  and  1290  44/  E.  longitude;  1,800 
miles  to  the  northeast  of  Irkutsk,  was  founded  by 
Cossacks  in  1622.  The  population  was  about  7,290  in 
1898. 

YAM,  a term  usually  applied  to  the  tubers  of  various 
species  of  Dioscorea.  D.  sativa  and  D.  alata  are  the 
species  most  widely  diffused  in  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
countries.  D.  aculeata , grown  in  India,  Cochin  China, 
and  the  South  Sea  Islands,  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best 
varieties.  D.  japonic  a,  the  Chinese  yam,  is  hardy  in 
Great  Britain,  but  the  great  depth  to  which  its  enor- 
mous tubers  descend  renders  its  cultivation  unprofitable; 
the  tubers  of  D.  alata  sometimes  attain  a weight  of  100 
pounds.  Most  of  the  yams  contain  an  acrid  principle, 
which  is  dissipated  in  cooking.  The  only  European 
Dioscorea  is  that  known  as  D.  pyrenaica , found  in  1845 
in  the  Pyrenees,  a remarkable  instance  of  a species 
growing  at  a long  distance  from  all  its  congeners.  True 
yams  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  sweet  potato, 
Convolvulus  Batatas , as  they  sometimes  are  in  London 
markets.  The  common  black  briony  ( Tamus  communis ) 
of  hedges  in  England  is  closely  allied  to  the  yams  of  the 
tropics,  and  has  a similar  root-stock,  which  is  reputed 
to  be  poisonous. 

YAMBO,  or  Yembo,  more  properly  Yanbo‘,  a town 
of  Arabia  on  the  Red  Sea,  in  240  4'  N.  latitude. 
Having  the  best  harbor  on  this  coast,  it  has  taken  the 
place  of  Al-Jar  (which  lay  to  the  south  and  is  now 
ruined)  as  the  port  of  Medina,  and  is  visited  by  steam- 
ships in  connection  with  the  pilgrim  traffic  and  for  the 
import  of  grain.  The  town  is  surrounded  by  dilapidated 
walls,  and  the  fixed  population  probably  does  not  exceed 
4,000  (Von  Maltzan). 

YANAON,  a French  settlement  in  India,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Godavari  on  the  Orissa  coast,  in  the 
Godavari  district,  Madras  pres;dency.  It  is  situated  in 
160  44'  10"  N.  latitude  and  82°  12'  5"  E.  longitude, 
and  has  an  area  of  2,258  acres  and  a population  of 
4,759  in  1901. 

YANG-CHOW  FU,  or  Hang-chow  Foo,  a pre* 
fectural  city  in  the  Chinese  province  of  Kiang-su.  is 


YAN- 

situated  on  the  Grand  Canal  in  320  21*  N.  latitude  and 
119°  15'  E.  longitude.  The  population  of  the  city 
and  suburbs  is  estimated  at  about  360,000. 

YANG-TSE  KIANG,  or  Yang-tsze  Keang.  See 
China. 

YANINA.  See  Janina. 

YANKEE;  YANKEE  DOODLE.  Yankee,  the 
popular  name  for  a New  Englander  in  America,  and  in 
Great  • Britain  often  applied  indiscriminately  to  the 
whole  population  of  the  United  States,  was  in  its 
origin  a corruption  of  the  word  English  as  pronounced 
by  the  Indians  (Yenghies,  Yankees,  Yanghies).  It 
seems  to  have  been  first  applied  about  1775  by  the 
British  soldiers  as  a term  of  reproach  to  the  New  Eng- 
landers, who  themselves  afterward  adopted  it.  Since 
the  war  of  Secession  the  southern  population  have  ap- 
plied it  to  the  northern  people  generally. 

The  air  known  as  Yankee  Doodle  was  originally 
Nankee  Doodle , and  is  as  old  as  the  time  of  Cromwell. 

It  was  known  in  New  England  before  the  revolution; 
it  is  said  to  have  been  played  by  the  English  troops  in 
derisive  allusion  to  the  then  popular  nickname  of  the 
New  Englanders;  and  afterward  the  New  England- 
ers, saying  that  the  British  troops  had  been  made  to 
dance  to  Yankee  Doodle , adopted  the  air.  The  citizens 
of  the  United  States  do  not  now  recognize  Yankee 
Doodle,  but  Hail  Columbia  as  their  national  air. 

YANKTON,  the  capital  of  Yankton  county,  S.  Dak., 
and  one  of  the  most  enterprising  and  promising 
cities  in  the  new  State,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Missouri  river  near  its  junction  with  the  Dakota 
river,  and  up  to  1883  was  the  capital  of  Dakota  Terri- 
tory. For  many  years  Yankton  has  been  the  depot  of 
supplies  for  the  military  posts  and  Indian  agencies  of  the 
upper  Missouri  country,  and  prior  to  the  advent  of 
railroads  was  the  terminus  and  headquarters  for  a large 
number  of  stage  lines  and  overland  transportation  com- 
panies. The  city  is  located  on  the  North  Iowa  division 
of  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  and  on  the  Chicago  and 
Omaha  short  line  division  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
and  St.  Paul  roads,  579  miles  from  Chicago,  140  miles 
from  Omaha,  and  60  miles  from  Sioux  City.-  Lines  of 
steamers  also  ply  between  Yankton  and  all  points  on  the 
Missouri  river  from  St.  Louis  to  Fort  Benton.  The 
city  occupies  an  elevated  plateau,  and  with  the  advant- 
ages and  facilities  for  rapid  transit  above  designated, 
together  with  other  equally  important  factors  promotive 
of  a city’s  progress,  Yankton  has  become  a leading 
trade  center  and  shipping  point  in  southeastern  Dakota. 
The  city  contains  one  daily  and  five  weekly  papers,  also 
one  monthly  publication,  five  banks,  a court-house  and 
jail,  a full  complement  of  religious  organizations  and  a 
number  of  church  edifices,  a high-school  building, 
graded  schools,  business  colleges,  being  also  the  location 
of  Yankton  college  and  the  site  of  the  State  insane 
asylum;  six  hotels,  five  public  halls,  a large  number  of 
handsomely  designed  and  finished  private  residences,  gas 
and  electric-light  works,  woolen  mills,  iron  works,  pack- 
ing houses,  lumber  and  planing  mills,  cement  mills,  lin- 
seed-oil  mills,  pressed  brick  works,  etc.  The  population 
of  the  city  was  3,431  in  1880,  and  in  1900  was  returned 
at  4,125. 

YARKAND,  or  Yarkend,  the  chief  town  of  the 
principal  oasis  of  East  Turkestan,  is  situated  on  the  Yar- 
kand-Dana,  in  38°  25'  N.  latitude  and  770  16'  E.  longi- 
tude, at  an  altitude  of  about  4,100  feet  above  sea-level. 
The  settlements  of  the  Yarkand  oasis  occupy  the  south- 
western corner  of  East  Turkestan,  and  are  scattered 
along  the  numerous  rivers  which  issue  from  the  steep 
slopes  of  the  Pamir  in  the  west,  and  the  Karakorum 
and  Kuen-Lun  Mountains  in  the  south. 

The  town  of  Yarkand,  which  has  a population  of 


-YAR  6415 

about  60,000,  is  very  favorably  situated  on  the  river  of 
the  same  name,  five  days’  journey  southeast  from  Kash- 
gar. It  is  surrounded  by  a thick  earthen  wall,  nearly 
four  miles  long,  with  towers  in  tlie  Chinese  style  of 
architecture,  and  is  well  watered  by  numberless  canals, 
which  are  drawn  from  the  river  and,  after  having  irri, 
gated  the  rich  gardens  of  the  city,  lead  to  cisterns  in 
which  water  is  collected  for  the  winter.  The  square 
fortress  of  Yanghishar,  which  was  built  by  the  Chinese, 
stands  within  four  hundred  yards  of  the  walls  of  the 
town.  The  ten  mosques  and  madrasas  of  Yarkand, 
although  much  poorer  than  those  of  Bokhara  or  Samar- 
cand,  enjoy  a wide  renown  in  the  Moslem  world.  There 
is  a brisk  tuade,  especially  in  horses,  cotton,  leather- 
ware,  and  all  kinds  of  imported  manufactured  goods. 

YARMOUTH,  or  Great  Yarmouth,  a municipal 
and  parliamentary  borough,  seaport,  watering-place, 
and  important  fishing  station  of  England.  It  stands  on 
the  Great  Eastern  and  the  Eastern  and  Midland  rail* 
way  lines,  20  miles  east  of  Norwich  and  122  northeast  o! 
London.  The  old  town  of  Great  Yarmouth  was  built 
chiefly  along  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Yare,  but  within 
recent  years  the  town  has  extended  beyond  its  ancient 
walls,  of  which  some  remains  still  exist,  to  the  seashore, 
where  there  are  a marine  drive  and  three  piers — two  of 
them  700  feet  long.  The  principal  features  of  Yarmouth 
are  the  north  and  south  quays.  The  market  place 
Yarmouth  is  one  of  the  most  spacious  in  the  kingdom, 
its  area  being  about  three  acres.  The  old  town  of 
Great  Yarmouth  is  connected  with  Little  Yarmouth  by 
a bridge  across  the  Yare  of  stone  and  iron,  erected  in 
1854.  The  Bure  is  crossed  by  a suspension  bridge. 
Among  the  charitable  and  benevolent  institutions  are 
the  royal  naval  lunatic  asylum,  originally  founded  as  a 
lunatic  hospital  in  1 8 1 t ; the  sailors’ home  (1859),  the 
boys’  home  (1870),  the  Walrond  memorial  smack-boys’ 
home  (1875),  the  fishermen’s  hospital  (1702),  and 
Warne’s  and  various  minor  charities. 

Yarmouth  Roads,  except  in  the  east  or  northeast 
winds,  afford  excellent  anchorage.  The  present  channel 
to  the  quays  was  made  in  1567  by  Joost  Jansen,  a 
Netherlands  engineer.  It  affords  a depth  of  water  at  the 
bar  of  twelve  feet,  and  at  high  water  of  eighteen  to 
twenty  feet.  The  town  owes  its  origin  to  the  fisheries, 
and  is  now  one  of  the  chief  fishing  stations  on  the  east 
coast  of  England,  being  especially  famed  for  its  herring 
and  mackerel  fisheries,  while  cod  and  other  white  fish 
are  also  caught  in  great  quantities.  The  number  of 
boats  registered  under  the  Fisheries  Act  in  December, 
1886,  was  439,  employing  from  4,500  to  6,100  men  and 
boys.  The  boats  engaged  in  fishing  are  mostly  trawling 
smacks.  The  curing  of  fish  is  an  important  industry, 
Yarmouth  bloaters  being  celebrated  throughout  the 
kingdom.  A great  stimulus  was  given  to  the  fishing 
trade  by  the  erection  of  a fish  wharf  in  1869,  having  a 
length  of  2,257  feet.  There  is  a considerable  inland  trade 
on  the  rivers  by  means  of  lighters  and  wherries.  Ship- 
building and  boat-building  are  carried  on  chiefly  in  con- 
nection with  the  fisheries,  the  number  built  in  1886 
being  eleven  of  781  tons.  There  are  also  rope,  twine, 
and  trawl-net  manufactories,  silk-crape  works,  and  ex- 
tensive makings.  Yarmouth  is  frequented  in  summer  ai 
a seaside  resort.  It  is  governed  by  a mayor,  twelve 
aldermen,  and  thirty-six  councilors.  The  corporation 
act  as  the  urban  sanitary  authority.  Water  is  obtained 
from  one  of  the  “ broads  ” at  Ormesby.  The  population 
of  the  municipal  borough  (area  3,568  acres)  was  about 
51,250  (1901). 

YARMOUTH,  the  county  seat  of  Yarmouth  county 
in  the  province  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  a port  of  entry,  i$ 
situated  at  the  entrance  to  the  Bay  of  Fundy  200  miles 
southwest  of  Halifax  and  90  miles  from  St.  Johns 


YAR 


6416 

N.  B.  It  is  the  southern  terminus  of  the  Western 
Counties  railway,  by  which  the  city  is  connected  with 
Digby,  67  miles  distant,  also  with  Halifax  and  with 
points  in  New  Brunswick.  The  country  surrounding  is 
fertile  and  productive,  and  the  fishing  interest  employs 
a large  amount  of  capital  and  a correspondingly  large 
force  of  men.  Y armouth  is  the  receiving  and  distributing 
point  for  agriculture  and  fishing.  In  addition  to  these, 
Yarmouth  is  the  base  of  operations  for  considerable 
manufacturing,  consisting  of  woolens,  cotton  duck, 
organs,  lumber,  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  carriages, 
leather,  iron  and  brass  goods,  patent  medicines,  etc., 
besides  which  it  is  provided  with  gas  and  electric  light 
works.  Two  papers,  semi- weekly  and  weekly,  are 
published  in  the  city,  and  three  banks  are  in  operation 
there,  while  the  churches,  schools,  hotels  and  places  of 
public  resort  are  numerous,  and  occupy  handsome  and 
well-appointed  structures,  the  Yarmouth  Female  Semi- 
nary building  being  one  of  the  largest  and  finest  edifices 
in  the  province.  Shipbuilding  is  also  carried  on  ex- 
tensively. The  city  is  steadily  growing  and  extending 
its  influence  throughout  Nova  Scotia  and  the  adjoining 
territory.  The  population  in  1901  was  estimated  at 
6,430. 

YARN  consists  of  any  textile  fiber  prepared  by  the 
process  of  spinning  for  being  woven  into  cloth.  It  is 
only  in  a few  minor  and  exceptional  cases,  such  as  the 
weaving  of  hair-cloth  or  of  wire,  that  there  is  any  mak- 
ing of  woven  fabrics  without  the  previous  spinning  of 
yarn.  As  weaving  can  be  shown  to  be  among  the 
earliest  and  most  universal  of  the  industries  of  mankind, 
the  process  of  spinning  yarn,  which  of  necessity  ac- 
companies or  rather  precedes  weaving,  can  be  claimed 
as  one  of  the  primal  employments  of  the  race.  There 
is  ample  evidence  obtainable,  not  only  of  the  great 
antiquity,  but  also  of  the  wide — almost  universal — 
diffusion  of  the  art  of  spinning.  Throughout  all  the 
changes  and  developments  of  modern  yarn-spinning  the 
rotating  spindle  continues  to  be  the  essential  implement, 
and  all  the  improvements  which  have  been  effected  have 
had  for  their  object — (1)  the  providing  of  mechanical 
means  of  rotating  the  spindle,  (2)  an  automatic  method 
of  drawing  out  and  attenuating  the  fiber,  and  (3)  de- 
vices for  working  a large  group  of  spindles  together. 
The  first  improvement  on  the  simple  spindle  consisted  in 
mounting  it  horizontally  in  bearings,  and  giving  it  a rota- 
tory motion  by  a band  from  a large  wheel,  passing  round 
3.  small  pulley  or  “ wharve  ” fixed  on  the  spindle  itself. 
No  strict  record  of  the  dates  at  which  various  develop- 
ments of  the  art  of  spinning  took  place  are  to  be  found, 
and  it  is  certain  that  many  appliances  were  long  known 
and  to  some  extent  used  before  their  adoption  became 
eneral.  Thus  it  is  quite  clear  that  the  flier,  which  is 
tted  around  modern  spindles  for  twisting  the  yarn 
before  it  is  wound  on  the  bobbin,  was  known  to  Leo- 
nardo da  Vinci  and  probably  invented  by  him.  In  hand- 
spinning the  further  application  of  the  treadle  motion} 
with  connecting-rod  and  crank-axle  to  drive  the  little 
wheel  with  the  feet  alone,  was  the  final  development. 
By  this  agency  both  hands  of  the  spinner  were  free, 
continuous  and  uniform  motion  was  secured,  and  the 
spinner  could  work  two  spindles  simultaneously,  the  one 
with  the  right  and  the  other  with  the  left  hand.  It  was 
in  this  condition  that  the  most  advanced  form  of  yarn- 
making was  carried  on  in  the  eighteenth  century,  when 
•a  great  series  of  inventions  revolutionized  the  entire 
range  of  textile  industries  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
gigantic  factory  system  of  spinning  and  weaving  which 
now  prevails. 

The  problem  which  lay  before  inventors  was  to  bring 
tangled  masses  of  fibrous  material  into  parallel  order, 
md  to  draw  out  and  twist  these  fibers  into  uniform 


strands  by  automatic  means,  without  the  continuous 
application  of  intelligent  attention.  The  first  stage  in 
the  evolution  of  mechanical  spinning  was  effected  under 
the  patent  of  Louis  Paul  in  1738,  in  which  there  was 
clearly  described  and  foreshadow  ed  what  is  now  one  of 
the  most  important  features  of  spinning  machinery — the 
drawing  rollers.  Next,  to  James  Hargreaves  of  Black- 
burn is  due  the  first  conception  of  the  famous  spinning- 
jenny,  which  he  devised  about  1767  and  patented  in  1770. 
In  his  specification  Plargreaves  describes  his  invention  as 
a machine  or  engine  to  be  managed  by  one  person  only, 
and  that  the  wheel  or  engine  will  spin,  draw,  and  twist  six- 
teen or  more  threads  at  one  time  by  a turn  or  motion  of 
one  hand  and  a draw  of  the  other.  At  the  same  time  the 
humble  barber  of  Preston,  Richard  Arkwright,  wa; 
busily  engaged  in  developing  the  important  series  of 
inventions  and  adaptations  which  resulted  in  the  modern 
throstle  spinning-frame.  Arkwright’s  principal  patents 
were  secured  in  1769  and  1775  ; and  in  the  latter  year 
Samuel  Crompton  of  Bolton  brought  before  the  world 
his  mule  spinning-frame,  in  which  the  drawing  rollers  of 
Paul  and  Arkwright  were  with  happy  effect  applied  to 
the  jenny  of  Hargreaves.  These  inventions  are  at  the 
foundation  of  all  modern  systems  of  yarn-spinning. 

YAROSLAVL,  a government  of  central  Russia, 
separated  from  Moscow  by  narrow  strips  of  Vladimir 
and  Tver  on  the  south,  and  having  Tver  and  Novgorod 
on  the  west,  Vologda  on  the  north,  and  Kostroma  on 
the  east,  is  one  of  the  smallest,  but  at  the  same  time 
one  of  the  most  populous  and  industrial  governments 
of  Great  Russia.  It  has  an  area  of  13,751  square 
miles,  and  the  population  was  1,072,478  in  1898.  The 
climate  is  as  continental  as  that  of  middle  Russia 
generally.  The  average  temperature  at  Yaroslavl  is 
36.7°  Fahr.  (January  6.5°,  July  61. 50);  the  prevailing 
southwestern  and  western  winds  render  it  moister  than 
in  central  Russia;  and  the  average  number  of  days  with 
rain  or  snow  is  114.  The  rivers  remain  frozen  from 
1 18  to  183  days  every  year.  The  population  is  thor- 
oughly Great  Russian.  The  aboriginal  Meryas  have 
been  completely  Russified;  and  traces  of  the  Karelians, 
who  immigrated  in  the  seventeenth  century,  can  only 
be  discovered  in  the  names  and  features  of  some  inhab- 
itants on  the  Siti  river.  There  are,  moreover,  some 
1,000  Tartars,  2,100  Jews,  and  about  500  Gipsies. 
Leaving  out  of  account  some  2,700  Catholics  and  Prot- 
estants, the  population  belongs  to  the  Greek  Orthodox 
Church  or  is  Raskolnik. 

Although  Yaroslavl  is  one  of  the  chief  manufacturing 
governments  of  the  empire,  its  inhabitants  have  by  no 
means  abandoned  agriculture,  27  per  cent,  of  the  total 
area  being  under  crops  (36  per  cent,  under  forests  and 
8 per  cent  r.ntillable);  on  the  lands  of  the  peasantry  the 
percentage  is  still  greater  (from  46  to  58  percent.)  Rye, 
oats,  and  barley,  with  some  wheat  and  peas,  are  the  chief 
crops,  and  in  good  seasons  Yaroslavl  has  even  a surplus 
of  grain,  which  is  either  sent  to  the  distilleries  or  ex- 
ported. Nearly  40,000  hundredweights  of  flax  are 
cropped  every  year.  Market  gardening  is  largely  en- 
gaged in,  and  the  Yaroslavl  gardeners  have  a wide  re- 
pute throughout  Russia.  Chicory,  sweet  peas,  cucum- 
bers, apples,  and  berries  are  exported.  Although  there 
is  no  want  of  meadows,  cattle-breeding  is  not  greatly 
developed.  One-third  of  the  peasant  households  had  no 
horses.  Cheese-making  on  the  cooperative  principle 
has  spread  extensively  of  late,  owing  to  the  efforts  of 
the  zemstvo.  Domestic  trades  are  carried  on  in  great 
variety  in  the  villages,  including  the  making  of  linen 
cloth,  boots,  gloves,  sheepskins,  knitted  wares,  cloths, 
felts,  all  kinds  of  wooden  wares,  pottery,  and  a variety 
of  metallic  goods.  The  total  production  is  very  con- 
siderable, although  no  details  are  available.  The  manu- 


YAR- 

factures  are  growing  rapidly.  Cotton  and  linen  are  the 
chief  items;  "flour-mills,  distilleries,  and  tobacco  works 
come  next;  and  these  are  followed  by  chemical  works 
and  workshops  for  machinery,  metallic  wares,  and  so 
on,  which  are  rapidly  developing.  The  trade  of  the 
government  is  very  active  both  on  the  Volga  and  on  the 
two  railway  lines,  one  of  which  connects  Rybinsk  with 
the  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow  line,  and  the  other  con- 
nects Yaroslavl  with  Moscow  and  Vologda.  Rybinsk 
and  Yaroslavl  are  the  chief  commercial  centers,  but 
Rostoff,  Mologa,  Romanoff,  and  Poshekhonie  also  carry 
on  an  active  trade  in  grain,  timber,  and  manufactured 
wares.  The  total  merchandise  shipped  or  discharged 
to  and  from  the  towns  and  villages  of  Yaroslavl  is  esti- 
mated at  1,600,000  tons  annually,  one-half  by  rail. 

Yaroslavl,  capital  of  the  above  government, 
stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Volga,  at  its  junction 
with  the  Kotorost,  173  miles  by  rail  to  the  northeast  of 
Moscow,  and  had  a population  of  70,610  inhabitants  in 
1898;  but  this  number  is  temporarily  much  increased 
during  the  period  of  navigation.  The  trade,  especially 
that  in  grain,  is  very  active,  and  accounts  for  one-quarter 
of  the  whole  traffic  of  the  government.  The  Yaroslavl 
merchants  also  carry  on  a large  import  trade  in  manu- 
factured goods  and  groceries. 

YARRELL,  William,  one  of  the  most  popular  of 
British  naturalists;  was  born  at  Westminster  in  June, 
1784.  In  1824  he  became  a fellow  of  the  Linnean 
Society,  and  was  a diligent  contributor  to  their  Trans- 
actions; and  he  was  one  of  the  earliest  members  of  the 
Zoological  Society.  The  greater  part  of  his  leisure 
toward  the  end  of  his  life  was  devoted  to  his  two  great 
works,  The  History  of  British  Fishes  (2  vols.,  1836), 
and  The  History  of  British  Birds  (2  vols.,  1843).  In 
1856  he  had  an  attack  of  paralysis,  of  which  he  died  at 
Yarmouth  on  September  1st  of  the  same  year. 

YAWS  is  the  name  in  use  in  the  British  West  Indies 
and  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa  for  a peculiar  disease 
of  the  skin  in  Negroes. 

The  general  course  of  the  disease  is  as  follows.  Pre- 
vious to  the  eruption  there  may  or  may  not  be  any  dis- 
order of  health ; in  children  (who  form  a large  part  of 
the  subjects  of  yaws)  there  will  probably  be  rheumatic 
pains  in  the  limbs  and  joints,  with  languor,  debility, 
and  upset  of  the  digestion  ; in  adults  of  ordinary  vigor 
the  eruption  is  often  the  first  sign,  and  it  is  attended 
with  few  or  no  constitutional  troubles.  The  erup- 
tion begins  as  small  pimples  like  a pin’s  head,  smooth 
and  nearly  level  with  the  surface  ; they  have  a little 
whitish  speck  on  their  tops,  grow  rapidly,  and  reach  the 
size  of  a sixpence  or  a shilling.  The  pustules  then 
break,  and  a thick  viscid  ichor  exudes  and  dries  upon 
them  as  a whitish  slough,  and  around  their  base  as  a 
yellowish  brown  crust.  Beneath  the  whitish  slough  is 
the  raspberry  excrescence  or  yaw  proper,  a reddish 
fungous  growth  with  a nodular  surface.  The  favorite 
seats  of  the  eruption  are  the  forehead,  face,  neck,  arm- 
pits,  groin,  genitals,  perinseum,  and  buttocks.  Hairs 
at  the  seat  of  a yaw  turn  white.  In  young  children  or 
infants  the  corners  of  the  mouth  ulcerate,  as  in  syphilis, 
and  the  perineal  excrescences  resemble  condylomata. 
The  pustules  and  excrescences  do  not  all  arise  in  one 
crop : some  are  found  mature  while  others  are  only 
starting.  If  the  patient  be  of  sound  constitution  and 
good  reaction,  the  yaws  may  reach  the  full  size  of  a 
mulberry  in  a month,  in  which  case  they  will  probably 
be  few ; but  in  persons  of  poor  health  they  may  take 
three  months  to  attain  the  size  of  a wood-strawberry, 
in  which  case  they  will  be  numerous  inversely  to  their 
size.  Six  weeks  is  the  average  time  in  a good  case, 
from  the  first  of  the  eruption  to  the  fall  of  the  excres- 
cences ; in  such  regular  cases  a scar  remains,  it  may  be 


-YEI  641? 

for  many  months,  darkei  than  the  rest  of  the  (Negro) 
skin.  But  the  disease  is  often  a much  more  tedious 
affair,  the  more  protracted  type  having  become  common 
in  the  West  Indies  of  recent  years.  In  such  cases  the 
eruption  comes  out  by  degrees  and  as  if  with  difficulty, 
crop  after  crop;  foul,  excavating,  and  corroding  ulcers 
may  remain,  or  a limb  may  be  in  part  seamed  and  muti- 
lated by  the  scars  of  old  ulceration.  The  scars  after 
ulceration  are  not  so  dark  as  the  skin  around. 

YAZD,  or  Yezd,  a city  of  Persia,  capital  of  the  dis« 
Lrict  of  Yazd,  province  of  Farsistan,  in  31°  50'  N.  lati- 
tude and  540  25'  E.  longitude.  Yazd  stands  on  a flat, 
sandy  plain,  about  fifty  miles  broad  and  en  :ircled  by  an 
amphitheatre  of  picturesque  hills,  on  the  high  road 
between  Ispahan  and  Karman,  190  miles  southeast  of 
the  former  and  220  northwest  of  the  latter  place.  The 
exports  are  chiefly  sugar,  silks,  opium  (4,000  chests  in 
a single  year  to  China),  cordage,  cotton,  felts,  and  cop- 
per ; the  imports  wheat,  rice,  cotton  goods,  and  henna. 
This  henna,  together  with  rang  for  dyeing  the  hair,  is 
brought  from  the  Minab  and  Bandar-Abbas  districts  to 
be  ground  and  prepared  for  the  Persian  market.  From 
the  neighboring  villages  and  the  remote  province 
of  Ghilan  comes  the  raw  material  for  the  silk- 
looms.  Pop.  (1900),  55,000. 

YAZOO,  a river  of  Mississippi,  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  Tallahatchie  and  Yallobusha,  runs  south  and 
south-by-west  in  a very  serpentine  course,  in  a deep, 
narrow,  sluggish  channel,  between  fertile  cotton  planta- 
tions, and  empties  into  the  Mississippi  river,  twelve 
miles  above  Vicksburg;  it  is  290  miles  long,  and  naviga- 
ble at  all  seasons. 

YAZOO  CITY,  capital  of  Yazoo  county,  Miss., 
is  situated  on  the  Yazoo  river,  forty-eight  miles  north- 
east of  Vicksburg.  It  is  an  important  shipping  point 
for  cotton  and  has  a population  (1900)  of  4,944- 

YEADON,  a manufacturing  town  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  is  situated  on  a hill  north  of 
Airedale,  about  one  and  one-half  miles  from  Guiseley 
station  on  the  Midland  railway  and  eight  and  one-half 
miles  northwest  of  Leeds.  Yeadon  ischieflyof  modern 
growth,  although  wool-combing  and  cloth  manufacture 
were  carried  on  to  some  extent  before  the  establishment 
of  the  first  woolen  mill  in  1831.  Since  1850  the  town 
has  made  rapid  progress,  and  now  possesses  several 
mills,  in  which  woolen  cloths  are  manufactured,  espe- 
cially materials  for  ladies’  jackets,  ulsters,  mantles,  etc. 
The  township  was  formed  out  of  Guiseley  in  1845. 
The  local  board  of  health  was  established  in  1863.  Thf' 
population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  1,723 
acres)  was  5,246  in  1871  and  7,850  in  1901. 

YEAR.  See  Calendar. 

YEAST,  an  insoluble  substance  forming  an  essential 
component  of  all  sacchariferous  juices  when  in  the  state 
of  vinous  fermentation.  This  subject  is  pretty  fully 
dealt  with  under  Fermentation;  one  important  ap- 
plication of  yeast,  however,  viz.,  that  which  it  finds  in 
the  baker’s  trade,  is  there  only  referred  to.  To  pro- 
duce a spongy  loaf,  the  dough,  before  being  made  into 
loaves,  is  mixed  with  a ferment  which,  if  allowed  to  act 
for  a sufficient  time  before  baking,  produces  alcohol  arid 
carbonic  acid  from  a small  portion  of  the  actual  or 
potential  sugar  present;  and  the  carbonic  acid,  being 
liberated  from  within  the  dough,-  causes  it  to  “rise.” 
In  former  times  leaven  used  to  be  employed  exclusively. 
For  higher  classes  of  bakery  yeast  is  now  preferred. 
YEDO.  See  Tokio. 

YEISK,  a district  town  of  the  Russian  province  of 
Kuban  (Caucasus),  was  founded  in  1848,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Yeia,  on  a narrow  sandbank  which  separates  the 
shallow  Bay  of  Yeisk  from  the  Sea  of  Azofif,  108  miles 
to  the  southwest  of  Rostofjf-on-the-Don.  Notwithstand. 


Y E K — Y E L 


6418 

ing  its  shallow  roadstead,  which  has  a depth  of  fourteen 
feet  only  at  two  miles  from  the  shore,  Yeisk  has  grown 
with  great  rapidity,  and  in  1898  had  35,446  inhabitants. 
Grain,  linseed,  and  wool  are  exported  to  a considerable 
extent. 

YEKATERINBURG.  For  this  and  similar  forms 
of  Russian  town-names,  see  Ekaterinburg,  etc. 

YELETS,  a district  town  of  the  Russian  govern- 
ment of  Orel,  121  miles  by  rail  to  the  east  of  Orel,  stands 
on  the  great  trunk  railway  which  connects  Riga  with 
Tsaritsyn  on  the  lower  Volga.  Owing  to  its  advanta- 
geous position  Yelets,  which  had  been  for  a long  time 
an  important  entrepot  for  the  grain  trade,  has  rapidly 
grown  of  late,  and  in  1898  had  37,455  inhabitants. 

YELIZAVETGRAD.  See  Elizabethgrad. 
YELIZAVETPOL.  See  Elizabethpol. 

YELLOW  FEVER  is  a typhus-like  fever  of  certain 
ports,  or  of  ships  hailing  from  them.  It  differs  from  all 
other  existing  types  of  fevers  and  infections. 

An  attack  of  yellow  fever  may  follow  definite  exposure 
(such  as  landing  at  an  endemic  port)  within  a few  hours, 
as  in  corresponding  cases  of  cholera;  but  the  outbreak 
of  symptoms  is  more  often  delayed  for  a few  days,  the 
limit  of  “ incubation  ” being  about  eight.  The  few 
hours’  languor,  chilliness,  headache,  and  muscular  pains, 
which  might  be  the  precursors  of  any  febrile  attack,  are 
followed  by  a peculiar  look  of  the  eyes  and  face,  which 
is  characteristic:  the  face  is  flushed,  and  the  eyes  suffused 
at  first  and  then  congested  or  ferrety,  the  nostrils  and 
lips  red,  and  the  tongue  scarlet — these  being  the  most 
obvious  signs  of  universal  congestion  of  the  skin,  mucous 
membranes,  and  organs.  Meanwhile  the  temperature 
has  risen  to  fever  heat,  and  may  reach  a very  high  figure 
(maximum  of  no0  Fahr.,  it  is  said);  the  pulse  is  quick, 
strong,  and  full,  but  may  not  keep  up  in  these  characters 
with  the  high  temperature  throughout.  There  are  all 
the  usual  accompaniments  of  high  fever,  including  hot 
skin,  failure  of  appetite,  thirst,  nausea,  restlessness,  and 
delirium  (which  may  or  may  not  be  violent);  albumen 
will  nearly  always  be  found  in  the  urine.  The  fever  is 
a continued  one  so  long  as  it  lasts;  but  the  febrile  excite- 
ment comes  to  an  end  after  two  or  three  days.  In  a 
certain  class  of  ambulatory  or  masked  cases  the  febrile 
reaction  may  never  come  out,  and  the  shock  of  the 
infection  after  a brief  interval  may  lead  unexpectedly 
and  directly  to  prostration  and  death.  The  cessation  of 
the  paroxysm  makes  the  stadium , or  lull,  characteristic 
of  yellow  fever.  The  hitherto  militant  or  violent  symp- 
toms cease,  and  prostration  or  collapse  ensues.  The 
internal  heat  falls  below  the  normal;  the  action  of  the 
heart  (pulse)  becomes  slow  and  feeble,  the  skin  cold 
and  of  a lemon-yellow  tint,  the  act  of  vomiting  effortless, 
like  that  of  an  infant,  the  first  vomit  being  clear  fluid, 
but  afterwards  black  from  an  admixture  of  blood.  It  is 
at  this  period  that  the  prospect  of  recovery  or  of  a fatal 
issue  declares  itself.  The  prostration  following  the 
paroxysm  of  fever  may  be  no  more  than  the  weakness 
:>f  commencing  recovery,  with  copious  flow  of  urine, 
which  even  then  is  very  dark  colored  from  the  presence 
of  blood.  The  prostration  will  be  all  the  more  profound 
according  to  the  height  reached  by  the  temperature  dur- 
ing the  acute  paroxysm.  Much  blood  in  the  vomit  and 
in  the  stools,  together  with  all  other  haemorrhagic  signs, 
is  of  evil  omen.  Constant  hiccough,  with  loud  cries  or 
Wailing,  is  a certain  sign  of  deaj;h,  which  may  also  be 
nshered  in  by  suppression  of  urine,  coma,  and  convul- 
sions, or  by  fainting  from  failure  at  the  heart.  The 
roportion  of  recoveries  is  usually  less  than  one-half ; 
ut  it  has  been  now  and  then  very  large  (as  in  the  New 
Orleans  epidemic  of  1878).  Convalescence  is  on  the 
whole  rapid,  but,  if  some  old  disease,  such  as  ague, 
bas  been  lighted  up,  or  abscesses  induced,  it  may  go 


on  slowly  for  months.  One  attack  of  yellow  lever  co<* 
fers  a high  degree  of  immunity  from  a second. 

The  treatment  of  yellow  ^ever  has  been  one  of  the 
classical  subjects  of  controversy.  In  the  Philadelphia 
epidemics  of  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  Rush 
gained  much  credit  for  his  incessant  labors  in  bleeding 
the  victims  during  the  violence  of  the  paroxysm.  Al- 
though blood-letting  to  relieve  the  congestions  has  been 
given  up,  experience  still  favors  the  resort  to  vigorous 
measures  at  the  outset.  The  following  practice  was 
adopted  with  much  success  by  Dr.  Joseph  Jones  during 
the  epidemic  of  1878,  at  New  Orleans — an  emetic  of 
.pecacuanha  followed  by  a powder  of  calomel  (ten  to 
twenty  grains),  with  as  much  quinine  added  (the  latter 
ingredient  of  doubtful  utility),  and  that  again  followed 
by  a full  dose  of  castor  oil.  Beyond  that  heroic  medi- 
cation at  the  outset  of  the  febrile  paroxysm,  the  treat- 
ment was  directed  to  assisting  the  action  of  the  skin  and 
kidneys,  by  keeping  the  temperature  of  the  room  uni- 
form, by  mustard  foot-baths,  and  by  copious  draughts 
of  lemonade  or  other  aerated  water,  or  of  barley  water. 
The  diet  indicated  is  fever  diet:  i. e. , it  should  exclude 
solid  food.  For  such  symptoms  as  tenderness  over  the 
stomach  a mustard  poultice  is  applied;  for  diminished 
secretion  of  urine  dry  cupping  over  the  loins.  When 
the  lull  occurs,  the  patient  should  on  no  account  be 
allowed  to  get  up,  as  sudden  failure  of  the  heart  is  apt  to 
follow  exertion.  Iced  champagne  and  beef-tea  are 
found  to  be  the  best  supports  for  this  stage.  The  only 
thing  to  do  when  black  vomit  threatens,  is  to  give  the 
patient  ice  to  suck,  or  (more  questionably)  to  place  an 
fee  bag  on  the  abdomen.  When  the  stage  of  prostration 
assumes  a “ typhoid  ” character,  an  enema  of  ice  cold 
water,  with  a little  turpentine  in  it,  helps  to  get  rid  of 
the  flatus  and  stimulate  the  kidneys.  Recovery  is  in 
all  cases  more  probable  where  there  is  abundant  cubic 
space  and  good  ventilation. 

In  the  harbors  of  the  American  colonies  (United 
States)  the  history  of  yellow  fever  has  been  as  follows. 
It  begins  to  be  heard  of  at  Charleston  in  1693,  and  at 
Philadelphia  the  same  year.  The  South  Carolina  port 
has  the  fullest  record  of  it,  next  in  order  in  the  earlier 
period  being  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  Norfolk 
(Va.)  Toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
orts  of  New  England,  as  far  north  as  New  Hampshire, 
ave  visitations,  and  it  begins  to  be  quite  common  at 
Baltimore,  Wilmington,  Savannah,  and  New  Orleans. 
At  a still  later  period  (within  the  nineteenth  century) 
we  find  the  center  of  incidence  shifting  so  as  to  include 
Mobile,  Memphis,  Natchez,  St.  Francisville,  and  Baton 
Rouge;  and  in  the  most  recent  periods  outbreaks  are 
recorded  at  Galveston  and  other  ports  of  Texas,  and  at 
Pensacola,  Vicksburg,  and  Key  West.  The  Atlantic 
ports  gradually  lost  it  and  the  Gulf  ports  took  up  the 
inheritance,  several  of  them  keeping  it  still.  Some  of 
the  epidemics  were  very  disastrous,  one  of  the  Phila- 
delphia outbreaks  corresponding  to  the  pestilence  which 
figures  in  the  last  section  of  Longfellow’s  Evangeline: 
“ Wealth  had  no  power  to  bribe,  nor  beauty  to  charm 
the  oppressor.”  In  the  New  Orleans  epidemic  of  1878 
the  deaths  numbered  4,056.  The  American  ports  men- 
tioned have  been  only  its  principal  seats,  many  other 
smaller  harbors  having  had  outbreaks  now  and  then, 
such  as  New  Haven  (Conn.),  Providence  (R.  I.), 
Swedesborough  (N.  J.).  Alexandria  (Va. ),  Augusta 
(Ga.),  St.  Augustine  (Fla.),  Opelousas  (La.),  and 
Houston  (Tex.) 

Along  with  the  harbors  and  anchorages  of  the  West 
Indies  and  Spanish  Main,  the  three  chief  harbors  of 
Guiana  (Cayenne,  Surinam,  and  Demerara)  have  had 
an  equal  share,  and  for  almost  the  same  period.  But 
fcr  Brazilian  ports  there  is  no  record  of  yellow  fever 


Y E L 


until  1849,  when  it  appeared  for  the  first  time  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Bahia,  and  other  places.  These  ports  became 
endemic  seats  of  the  infection  from  that  year,  and  are 
now  more  distinctively  the  headquarters  of  the  disease 
than  its  old  West  Indian  and  Mexican  Gulf  centers. 
Monte  Video  had  a disastrous  epidemic  in  1857,  and 
Buenos  Ayres  a visitation  in  1858;  but  the  shipping 
places  of  the  river  Plate  are  not  in  the  same  class  of 
endemic  foci  as  the  harbors  of  Brazil. 

There  have  been  a few  epidemics  at  trading  places  on 
the  west  coast  of  Africa,  most  of  them  subsequent  to 
1820,  and  all  of  them  confined  generally  to  white  resi- 
dents. During  the  great  period  of  yellow  fever  (1793- 
1805),  and  for  some  years  afterward,  the  disease  found 
its  way  time  after  time  to  various  ports  of  Spain.  Cadiz, 
indeed,  suffered  five  epidemics  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
Malaga  one,  and  Lisbon  one;  but  from  1800  down  to 
1821  the  disease  assumed  much  more  alarming  propor- 
tions, Cadiz  being  still  its  chief  seat,  while  Seville, 
Malaga,  Cartagena,  Barcelona,  Palma,  Gibraltar,  and 
other  shipping  places  suffered  severely,  as  well  as  some 
of  the  country  districts  nearest  to  the  ports.  These 
Spanish  outbreaks  were  clearly  connected  with  the  arri- 
vals of  ships,  but  for  the  most  part  there  had  not  been 
cases  of  yellow  fever  on  board  the  ships.  The  last 
severe  epidemic  on  Spanish  soil  was  at  Barcelona  in  the 
summer  of  1821,  when  5,000  persons  died.  The  most 
recent  disastrous  epidemic  in  Europe  was  at  Lisbon  in 
1857,  when  upward  of  6,000  died  in  a few  weeks. 

YELLOW  RIVER.  See  China. 

YELLOWSTONE  NATIONAL  PARK,  an  area 
situated  mainly  in  northwestern  Wyoming,  which 
has  been  withdrawn  from  settlement  by  the  United 
States  Government  and  dedicated  to  the  purposes  of  a 
public  park.  It  is  a region  of  hot  springs  and  geysers, 
mountains  and  canons,  lakes  and  waterfalls.  While  it 
is  almost  entirely  comprised  in  Wyoming,  a narrow  strip 
two  miles  wide  projects  on  the  north  into  Montana,  and 
on  the  west  a strip  about  five  miles  in  width  projects  into 
the  same  State  and  into  Idaho.  Its  boundaries,  which 
were  defined  at  a time  when  the  country  \yas  little 
known,  are  as  follows:  The  northern  boundary  is  a 
parallel  of  latitude  running  through  the  mouth  of  Gar- 
diner river,  a branch  of  the  Yellowstone,  two  miles 
north  of  450  N.  The  eastern  boundary  is  a meridian 
ten  miles  east  of  the  most  easterly  point  of  Yellowstone 
Lake,  which  places  it  almost  on  the  noth  meridian. 
The  southern  boundary  is  a parallel  ten  miles  south  of 
the  most  southerly  portion  of  the  same  body  of  water,  in 
latitude  440  io'  N.  The  western  boundary  is  a meridian 
fifteen  miles  west  of  the  most  westerly  portion  of  Madi- 
son (now  Shoshone)  Lake,  this  meridian  being  approxi- 
mately that  of  1 n°  6'.  The  Park  is,  therefore,  very 
nearly  a rectangle  in  shape,  its  length  north  and  south 
being  61.8  miles  and  its  breadth  53.6.  Its  area  is 
3,312  square  miles. 

Its  surface  is  mainly  an  undulating  plateau,  with  a 
mean  elevation  above  the  sea  of  about  8,000  feet,  upon 
the  surface  of  which  the  minor  streams  flow,  while  the 
larger  ones  have  cut  canons  for  themselves,  several  of 
them  being  of  great  depth.  The  eastern  portion,  how- 
ever, is  occupied  by  an  extremely  rugged  mountain 
chain,  known  as  the  Absaroka  Range,  peaks  of  which 
rise  to  heights  exceeding  1 1,000  feet.  These  mountains, 
which  separate  the  waters  of  the  Yellowstone  from  those 
of  the  Big  Horn,  are  unsurpassed  in  the  United  States 
for  sublimity  and  grandeur  of  scenery.  The  Gallatin 
Range,  which  separates  the  Yellowstone  from  the  Galla- 
tin river,  enters  the  Park  near  the  northwestern  corner 
and  extends  southward  some  twenty  miles  within  it. 

The  Park  has  an  abundant  rainfall,  and  its  streams 
numerous  and  bold-  It  contains  many  beautiful 


6419 

lakes  and  ponds.  Within  its  area  are  the  sources  of  the 
Yellowstone  and  the  Madison,  which  go  to  make  up  the 
Missouri,  and  of  the  Snake,  one  of  the  forks  of  the 
Columbia.  This  last  stream,  which  drains  the  south- 
western part,  takes  its  rise  in  several  branches,  among 
them  being  Lewis  Fork,  which  has  its  origin  in  the 
beautiful  Shoshone  Lake,  and  Heart  river,  which  rise:- 
in  Heart  Lake,  under  the  shadow  of  Mount  Sheridan. 
The  Yellowstone  drains  the  eastern  part.  Rising  just 
bqyond  its  southern  limits,  it  flows  into  and  through 
Yellowstone  Lake,  a magnificent  sheet  of  water,  of  very 
irregular  shape,  having  an  area  of  150  square  miles.  A 
few  miles  below  the  lake,  the  river,  after  a succession  of 
rapids,  leaps  over  a cliff,  making  the  Upper  Fall,  1 12  feet 
in  height.  Half  a mile  lower  down  it  rolls  over  the  Lower 
Fall,  which  has  a clear  descent  of  300  feet.  The  river  at 
this  point  carries,  at  the  average  stage  of  water,  about 
1,200  cubic  feet  per  second.  With  this  fall  .the  river 
enters  the  Grand  Canon,  which  in  many  scenic  effect? 
has  not  its  equal  on  the  globe.  Its  depth  is  not  great, 
at  least  as  compared  with  the  canons  upon  the  Colo- 
rado river  system,  ranging  from  600  feet  at  its  head  to 
1,200  near  the  middle,  where  it  passes  the  Washburne 
Mountains.  Its  length  to  the  mouth  of  Lamar  river  is 
twenty-four  miles.  It  is  cut  in  a volcanic  plateau,  and 
its  ragged  broken  walls,  which  are  inclined  at  very  steep 
angles,  are  of  a barbaric  richness  of  coloring  that  al- 
most defies  description.  Reds,  yellows,  and  purples 
predominate,  and  are  set  off  very  effectively  against  the 
dark  green  of  the  forests  upon  the  plateau,  and  the 
white  foam  of  the  rushing  river  which  fills  the  bottom 
of  the  chasm.  Near  the  foot  of  the  Grand  Canon, 
Tower  creek,  which  drains  the  concavity  of  the  horse- 
shoe formed  by  the  Washburne  Mountains,  enters  the 
Yellowstone.  Just  above  its  mouth  this  stream  makes 
a beautiful  fall  of  132  feet  into  the  gorge  in  which  it 
joins  the  river.  A few  miles  farther  down,  the  Yellow- 
stone is  joined  by  an  eastern  branch,  Lamar  river, 
which  drains  a large  part  of  the  Absaroka  Range.  Then 
it  enters  the  Third  Canon,  from  which  it  emerges  at  the 
mouth  of  Gardiner  river.  The  latter  stream  drains  an 
area  of  elevated  land  by  means  of  its  three  forks,  and 
upon  each  of  them  occurs  a fine  fall  in  its  descent  to- 
ward the  Y ellowstone.  The  Madison  rises  in  the  western 
part  of  the  Park  and  flqws  in  a generally  northward  and 
westward  course  out  of  the  park.  Its  waters  are  mainly 
collected  from  the  rainfall  upon  the  plateaus,  and  from  the 
hot  springs  and  geysers,  most  of  which  are  within  its 
drainage  area.  Upon  this  river  and  its  affluents  are 
several  fine  falls.  Indeed,  all  the  streams  of  this  region 
show  evidence,  in  the  character  of  their  courses,  of  a 
recent  change  of  level  in  the  surface  of  the  country. 

The  native  fauna  is  abundant  and  varied.  The  policy 
of  the  government,  which  protects  game  within  this 
reservation,  has  induced  it  to  take  shelter  here  against 
the  sportsman  and  pot-hunter,  so  that  elk,  deer,  ante- 
lope, mountain  sheep,  bear,  and  numerous  smaller  game 
animals  are  very  abundant  and  tame.  The  only  herd  of 
wild  bisons  left  in  the  United  States  is  upon  this  reser- 
vation ; and  in  some  parts  moose  are  occasionally  seen. 

The  flora  is  very  varied.  With  the  exception  of  a few 
limited  areas  in  the  northern  part,  the  region  is  covered 
with  forests,  generally  so  dense  that  landmarks  are  in- 
visible and  the  traveler  is  forced  to  guide  himself  by 
the  sun  or  by  compass.  The  trees  are  mainly  the 
Douglas  spruce  and  the  yellow  pine,  and  are  not  of 
large  size  or  great  commercial  value. 

The  park  is  accessible  by  means  of  the  Northern 
Pacific  railroad,  by  a branch  which  extends  up  the 
valley  of  the  Yellowstone  within  a few  miles  of  the 
northern  boundary;  and  with  this  a line  of  stage  coaches 
is  connected- 


YEL-YEN 


6420 

The  most  stringent  laws  nave  been  c acted  in  regard  I 
to  the  killing  of  game,  the  starting  of  forest  hires,  and 
the  removal  of  the  deposits  of  the  springs. 

Although  exploring  parties  had  at  various  times 
passed  on  all  sides  of  this  strange  region,  its  wonders 
remained  undiscovered  until  so  late  a period  as  1870. 
This  fact  is  all  the  more  remarkable  because  at  that 
time  the  frontier  of  settlement  was  in  the  Gallatin  val- 
ley, not  a hundred  miles  from  the  great  geyser  region. 
Some  rumors  of  hot  springs  and  geysers*  coming  from 
stray  trappers  and  Indians,  had  been  received,  however, 
and  these  were  sufficient  to  start  a party  from  the  Mon- 
tana settlements  in  1870,  to  investigate  the  strange 
tales.  The  discoveries  made  by  this,  the  Washburne 
party,  induced  Dr.  F.  V.  Hayden,  then  in  charge  of  a 
government  survey,  to  turn  his  explorations  in  this  di- 
rection. The  reports  brought  back  by  him  induced 
Congress  to  reserve  this  area  from  settlement,  which  was 
done  in  the  spring  of  1872.  In  that  year  further  explora- 
tions were  made,  and  in  subsequent  years  army  expedi- 
tions carried  the  work  of  exploration  still  farther.  In 
1878  a map  of  the  park,  based  upon  triangulation,  was 
drawn  up  by  the  Hayden  survey,  and  in  1883-85  a more 
detailed  map  was  made  by  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  and  a systematic  study  of  its  geological  phe- 
nomena was  instituted. 

YELLOW-TAIL.  This  name  is  given  by  seafaring 
men  to  a variety  of  marine  fishes;  chiefly  of  the  family 
of  Horse-Mackerels,  which  have  this  in  common,  that 
they  are  edible  and  have  a yellow  caudal  fin.  As  the 
latter  peculiarity,  which  has  found  expression  in  the 
specific  names  of  ehrysurus , xanthurusy  etc.,  of  system- 
atic ichthyology,  is  not  confined  to  that  family,  very 
different  kinds  of  fishes  bear  the  same  name;  thus,  for 
instance,  the  fishermen  of  the  United  States  apply  it  to 
species  of  the  Meagre  family  ( Scicenidcc ) and  to  others. 
Economically  the  most  important  kinds  of  these  fishes, 
the  yellow-tail  of  the  south  Atlantic  and  the  southern 
Indo-Pacific  ocean,  are  species  of  the  genera  Seriola , 
SeriolickthyS)  and  Micropteryx , some  of  which,  like 
Seriola  lalandii  and  S.  gigas , attain  to  the  size  of  a 
cod  or  a coal-fish,  and  are  preserved  in  a similar  manner 
either  salted  or  dried.  They  abound  in  many  localities,' 
and  are  valued  as  food  fish  everywhere. 

YEMEN,  in  Arabia,  literally  the  land  “on  the  right 
hand  M of  one  who  faces  east,  meant  originally  all  the 
land  southward  from  Syria  (Sham).  In  its  narrowest 
limitation  Yemen  comprises,  not  the  whole  south  of  the 
peninsula,  but  only  the  southwest  as  far  as  Hadramaut, 
which  was  viewed  as  a dependency  of  Yemen.  The 
physical  conformation  of  the  southwestern  portion  of 
the  peninsula  differs  greatly  from  that  of  Arabia  proper, 
being  similar  to  that  of  Ethiopia.  A range  of  mount- 
ains, which  rises  into  peaks  of  considerable  elevation, 
and  descends  with  a steep  slope  toward  the  shore  of  the 
Red  Sea,  stretches  from  the  southern  extremity  north- 
ward as  far  as  Taif.  This  range  is  pierced  by  several 
streams  and  wadies,  which  flow  into  the  Red  Sea. 

The  accounts  of  the  wealth  of  the  Sabaeans,  brought 
back  by  traders  and  travelers,  excited  the  cupidity  of 
*ome,  and  Augustus  intrusted  ^Elius  Gallus  with  an 
expedition  to  South  Arabia,  of  which  we  have  an 
authentic  account  in  Strabo.  Nautical  improvements, 
and  the  discovery  that  the  southwest  monsoon  (Hippa- 
lus)  gave  sure  navigation  at  certain  seasons,  increased 
the  connection  of  the  west  with  South  Arabia,  but  also 
wrought  such  a change  in  the  trade  as  involved  a revo- 
lution in  the  state  of  that  country. 

. Sabaean  colonies  in  Africa  have  been  already  men- 
tioned. That  Abyssinia  was  peopled  from  South  Ara- 
bia is  proved  by  its  language  and  writing;  but  the 
difference  between  the  two  languages  is  such  as  to  im* 


ply  that  the  settlement  was  very  early  and  that  there  were 
many  centuries  of  separation,  during  which  the  Abys- 
sinians  were  exposed  to  foreign  influences.  New  colo- 
nies, however,  seem  to  have  followed  from  time  to  time, 
and  some  parts  of  the  African  coast  were  under  the 
suzerainty  of  the  Sabaean  kings  as  late  as  the  Sabaeo- 
Himyaritic  period;  the  district  of  Azania  was  held  for 
the  Sabaean  monarch  by  the  governor  of  Maphoritis 
(Ma'afir),  and  was  exploited  by  a Sabaean  company. 

With  the  exception  of  what  the  South-Arabian 
Hamdam  relates  of  his  own  observation  or  from  authen- 
tic tradition,  the  Mohammedan  Arabic  accounts  of  South 
Arabia  and  Sabaea  are  of  little  worth. 

YENISEI.  See  Siberia  and  Yeniseisk. 

YENISEISK,  a province  of  Eastern  Siberia,  which 
extends  from  the  Chinese  frontier  to  the  shores  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  with  an  area  of  992,870  square 
miles — as  large  as  one-half  of  European  Russia — • 
has  Tobolsk  and  Tomsk  on  the  west,  Yakutsk  and 
Irkutsk  on  the  east,  northwestern  Mongolia  on  the 
south,  and  the  Arctic  Ocean  on  the  north.  Its  southern 
extremity  being  in  510  45'  N.  latitude  and  its  northern 
(Cape  Tcheluskin)  in  770  38',  it  combines  a great 
variety  of  orographical  types,  from  the  Sayan  alpine 
regions  in  the  south  to  the  tundras  of  the  Arctic 
littoral. 

Yeniseisk  is  exceedingly  rich  in  all  kinds  of  metals 
and  minerals.  Gold  dust  appears  in  three  different 
regions — the  northern  Yeniseisk  Taiga,  where  100,740 
ounces  of  gold  were  extracted  in  1884;  the  region  of  the 
Kuznetskiy  Alatau  and  its  spurs,  with  the  basins  of  the 
Tuba,  Sisim,  and  Black  and  White  Yus  (25,860  ounces 
in  1884);  and  the  upper  parts  .of  the  tributaries  of  the 
Kan  and  Agul  (12,540  ounces),  where  the  gold-washings 
merge  into  those  ■ff  the  Nijne-Udinsk  district  of  Irkutsk. 
Silver  ore  is  found  at  several  places  in  the  basin  of  the 
Abakan,  but  the  mines  have  been  abandoned.  Iron 
ore  occurs  almost  everywhere  in  south  Yeniseisk,  but 
there  is  only  one  iron- work  on  the  Abakan  (25,000 
hundredweights  in  1884).  Salt  lakes  are  very  common, 
and  about  50,000  hundredweights  of  salt  are  extracted 
every  year.  The  whole  of  Yeniseisk  is  watered  by 
the  Yenisei  and  its  affluents. 

The  climate,  though  very  severe  throughout,  offers, 
as  might  be  expected,  great  varieties.  The  Minusinsk 
steppes  have  a dry  and  relatively  mild  climate,  so  that 
they  are  sometimes  called  the  Italy  of  Siberia.  At 
Krasnoyarsk  (550  1'  N.  latitude)  the  climate  is  more 
severe,  and  the  winds  are  exceedingly  disagreeable. 
The  yearly  fall  of  snow  is  so  small  that  the  winds  blow 
it  away  in  ttie  neighborhood  of  the  town;  hence  a 
circuit  has  to  be  made  by  the  convoys  of  sledges  to  avoid 
it,  or  the  sledges  changed  for  wheeled  carriages. 
Yeniseisk  (58°  27'  N.  latitude)  has  an  average  temper- 
ature below  freezing-point,  and  at  Turukhansk  the 
coldest  month  (February)  has  an  average  temperature 
of — 24°  Fahr.  On  the  Taimyr  peninsula  the  average 
summer  temperature  hardly  reaches  450. 

The  highlands  of  Sayan  and  Alatau  are  thickly 
clothed  with  forests  of  cedar,  pitch-pine,  larch,  elder, 
and  birch,  with  a rich  undergrowth  of  rhododendrons, 
Berberis,  and  Ribes\  the  Scotch  fir  appears  only  in  the 
lower  and  drier  parts  of  the  valleys.  The  summits  and 
slopes  of  the  mountains  are  strewn  with  debris  and 
bowlders,  and  thickly  sheeted  with  lichens  and  mosses; 
but  there  are  also  patches  of  meadow  land  covered  with 
flowers,  most  of  which  are  known  in  Europe.  Still,  the 
flora  is  poor  as  a rule. 

The  steppes  of  the  upper  Yenisei  have  been  inhabited 
from  a very  remote  antiquity,  and  numberless  kurgans, 
graves,  rock  inscriptions,  and  smelting  furnaces  of  the 
successive  inhabitants  are  scattered  all  over  the  prairies 


Y E O — Y O K 


of  Abakan  and  Minusinsk.  The  present  population 
exhibits  traces  of  all  these  predecessors  (see  Siberia 
and  Tartars).  Numerous  survivals  of  Turkish  and 
Samoyedic  stems  are  found  in  the  steppe  land  and  in 
the  Sayans;  but  some  of  them  are  greatly  reduced  in 
numbers  (only  a few  hundreds).  The  Kaibals,  the 
Katcha  Tartars,  the  Sagais,  the  Kyzyl  and  Milet  Tar- 
tars, and  the  Kamasins  have  settlements  of  their  own, 
and  maintain  their  national  features;  but  the  Kara- 
gasses,  the  Kotts,  and  the  Arintses  have  almost  entirely 
disappeared,  and  are  represented  only  by  a few  families 
in  the  spurs  of  the  Sayans.  The  Tunguses  are  scattered 
in  the  least  accessible  tracts,  and  may  number  about 
2,000,  or  less.  Several  hundreds  of  Yakuts  inhabit  the 
• Turukhansk  district;  and  in  the  tundras  between  the 
Taz  and  the  Yenisei  there  are  a few  hundred  Ostiaks 
(o.v.)  and  Yuraks  of  the  Samoyedic  stem.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  population,  which  numbered  in  all  559,- 
902  in  1898,  consists  of  Russians^partly  exiles,  but 
mostly  voluntary  settlers.  Nearly  50,000  belong  to 
the  unfortunate  category  of  “ settled  ” exiles.  The 
“ indigenes  ” — Tartars,  Tunguses.,  Ostiaks,  etc. — num- 
ber about  50,000. 

The  manufactures  of  Yeniseisk  are  hardly  worth 
mentioning,  all  capital  being  engaged  in  gold- washing 
or  in  commerce.  The  chief  trade  is  in  furs  (exported), 
and  in  groceries  and  manufactured  goods  (imported). 
The  gold-fields  of  the  Yeniseisk  Taiga  are  supplied 
with  grain  and  cattle  by  river  from  the  Minusinsk  region, 
and  with  salt,  spirits,  and  iron  by  the  Angara.  At- 
tempts have  recently  been  made  to  stimulate  the  trade 
in  tea  with  northwest  Mongolia. 

Yeniseisk  is  divided  into  tive  districts,  the  chief  towns 
of  which  are  Krasnoyarsk  ( g.v.)t  the  capital,  which 
had  20,155  inhabitants  in  1898;  Atchinsk  (7,190)  and 
Kansk  (4,050),  two  small  towns  on  the  great  Siberian 
highway,  of  which  the  latter  is  an  entrepot  for  the  gold- 
mines; Minusinsk  (8,270)  on  the  Tuba,  close  by  its 
junction  with  the  Yenisei,  which  has  now  a small  but 
excellent  natural  history  and  ethnographical  museum; 
and  Yeniseisk  (7,050),  the  chief  entrepot  for  the  gold- 
mines, having  a public  library  and  a natural  history 
museum,  created  of  late  by  exiles.  Turukhansk  (139) 
is  the  chief  town  of  a vast  “ region  ” (krai). 

YEOLA,  a municipal  town  of  India,  in  the  Nasik 
district,  Bombay  presidency,  with  a population  (1901) 
of  17,685  (males  8,975,  females  8,710).  It  is  situated  in 
20°  4*  io'*  N.  latitude  and  74°  30*  30"  E.  longitude, 
forty-four  miles  east  of  Nasik  town,  thirteen  miles 
south  of  Mhnwar  station  on  the  northeast  line  of  the 
Great  Indian  Peninsular  railway,  and  nearly  twelve 
miles  from  the  frontier  of  the  Nizam’s  dominions. 
Yeola  is  a flourishing  commercial  town,  trading  in  silk 
and  cotton  goods,  which  it  weaves,  and  in  gold-twist, 
wnich  it  also  manufactures. 

YEOMANRY  CAVALRY.  See  Volunteers. 

YEOVIL,  a market  town  and  municipal  borough  of 
Somerset,  England,  is  situated  on  the  river  Yeo  or  Ivel, 
which  here  separates  Somerset  from  Dorset,  and  on 
branch  lines  of  the  London  and  South-Western  and  the 
Great  Western  railways,  40  miles  south  of  Bristol  and 
124  west-southwest  of  London.  The  staple  industry  is 
the  manufacture  of  gloves,  for  which  the  town  has  long 
been  celebrated.  Brewing  and  brickmaking  are  also 
carried  on.  The  agricultural  trade  of  Yeovil  is  of  some 
importance,  large  grain  markets  and  cattle  and  horse 
fairs  being  held.  The  population  of  the  municipal 
borough  and  urban  sanitary  district  (area  about  700 
.acres)  in  1871  was  8,527,  and  in  1901  it  was  10,479. 

YEW,  This  tree  (Taxus)  belongs  to  a genus  of 
Conifer ce  in  which  the  ordinarily  woody  cone  is  repre- 
sented Dy  a fleshy  cup  surrounding  a single  seed. 


6421 

Usually  it  forms  a low-growing  tree  of  very  diverse 
habit,  but  generally  with  dense  spreading  branches, 
thickly  covered  with  very  dark  green  linear  leaves, 
which  are  given  off  from  all  sides  of  the  branch,  but 
which,  owing  to  a twist  in  the  base  of  the  leaf,  become 
arranged  in  a single  series  on  each  side  of  it. 

The  poisonous  properties,  referred  to  by  classical 
writers  such  as  Caesar,  Virgil,  and  Livy,  reside  chiefly 
if  not  entirely  in  the  foliage.  This,  if  eaten  by  horses 
or  cattle,  especially  when  it  has  been  cut  and  thrown 
in  heaps  so  as  to  undergo  a process  of"  fermentation,  is 
very  injurious.  The  leaves  have  also  been  used  for 
various  medicinal  purposes,  but  are  seldom  employed 
now.  The  succulent  portion  of  the  yew  berry  is  quite 
harmless;  but  it  is  probable  that  some  noxious  prin- 
ciple is  contained  in  the  seed.  As,  however,  it  is  hard 
and  disagreeable  to  the  taste,  the  danger  from  this 
source  is  not  great.  As  a timber  tree  the  yew  is  used 
for  cabinet-work,  axle-trees,  bows,  and  the  like,  where 
strength  and  durability  are  required. 

The  yew  occurs  wild  over  a very  large  area  of  the 
northern  hemisphere.  In  northeastern  America  and  in 
Japan  trees  are  found  of  a character  so  similar  that  by 
some  botanists  they  are  all  ranged  under  one  species. 
The  varieties  grown  in  Great  Britain  are  very  numerous, 
one  of  the  most  striking  being  that  known  as  the  Irish 
yew,  a shrub  with  the  pyramidal  or  columnar  habit  ol 
a cypress,  in  which  the  leaves  spread  from  all  sides  of 
the  branches,  not  being  twisted,  as  they  usually  are, 
out  of  their  original  position.  I11  the  ordinary  yew  the 
main  branches  spread  more  or  less  horizontally,  and  the 
leaves  are  so  arranged  as  to  be  conveniently  exposed  to 
the  influence  of  the  light ; but  in  the  variety  in  question 
the  branches  are  mostly  vertical,  and  the  leaves  assume 
a direction  in  accordance  with  the  ascending  direction 
of  the  branches. 

The  yew  is  a favorite  evergreen  tree,  either  for  plant 
ing  separately  or  for  hedges,  for  which  its  dense  foliage 
renders  it  well  suited.  The  wood  is  very  hard,  close- 
grained,  and  of  a deep  red  brown  color  internally.  Its 
younger  branches,  owing  to  their  toughness,  wen 
formerly  used  for  bows. 

YEZD.  See  Yazd. 

YEZO.  See  Japan. 

YOH-CHOW  FU,  a prefectual  city  in  the  Chinese 
province  of  Hoo-nan  south  of  the  lakes  ”},  stands  on 
high  ground  on  the  east  side  of  the  outlet  of  Tung-ting 
Lake,  in  29°  18'  N.  latitude,  and  113°  2'  E.  longitude. 
Situated  between  Tung-ting  Lake  and  the  Yang-tze- 
kiang,  Yoh-chow  Fu  forms  a depot  for  the  native 
products  of  the  province  which  are  destined  for  export, 
and  for  foreign  goods  on  their  way  inland.  The  city  is 
4,250  Chinese  miles  from  Peking,  and  contains  a popu- 
lation of  about  60,000. 

YOKOHAMA,  situated  in  35°  26'  53"  N.  latitude, 
and  139°  38/  39'*  E.  longitude,  is  the  most  important  of 
the  five  ports  in  Japan  open  by  treaty  to  foreign  com- 
merce and  residence,  both  on  account  of  its  proximity 
to  Tokio,  the  capital,  and  of  the  extent  of  its  trade.  It 
stands  on  a plain,  extending  along  the  Bay  of  Tokio, 
and  shut  in  by  hills,  one  of  which,  toward  the  southeast, 
terminates  in  a promontory  called  Honmokumisaki.  Its 
area  extends  over  .873  of  a square  mile,  of  which  .26 
is  occupied  by  the  foreign  settlement.  The  climate  is 
variable,  the  range  in  temperature  being  from  95°  to  43° 
Fahr.,  and  the  mean  temperature  57.  70.  In  1859,  when 
the  neighboring  town  of  Kanagawa  was  opened  to 
foreigners  under  the  treaty  with  the  United  States, 
Yokohama  was  an  insignificant  fishing  village;  and, 
notwithstanding  the  protests  of  the  foreign  representa- 
tives, the  Japanese  government  shortly  afterward  chose 
the  latter  place  as  the  settlement  instead  of  Kanagawa. 


6422  YOK 

The  town  has  since  increased  so  rapidly  that,  in  1898,  [ 
the  population  was  193,762  (3,904  foreigners,  including 
2,573  Chinese,  256  Americans,  and  625  British).  The 
Japanese  government  has  constructed  various  public 
buildings,  a granite  breakwater,  and  a causeway  two 
miles  long,  connecting  the  town  with  Kanagawa. 
Waterworks  on  the  most  improved  principle  have  been 
completed  recently,  the  water  being  supplied  from  the 
Sagamigawa.  The  foreign  settlement  consists  of  well- 
constructed  streets  with  business  establishments.  The 
wealthier  portion  of  the  foreigners  reside,  however,  on 
a hilly  locality  to  the  south  of  the  town,  called  the  Bluff. 
The  land  occupied  by  foreigners  has  been  leased  to  them 
by  the  Japanese  government,  20  per  cent,  of  the  annual 
rent  being  set  aside  for  municipal  expenses. 

YOKOSUKA,  a seaport  and  naval  station  of  Japan, 
is  situated  in  the  province  of  Sagami  and  on  the  Bay  of 
Tokio,  twelve  miles  south  of  Yokohama.  The  popula- 
tion was  5,800  in  1898. 

YONKERS,  a city  of  Westchester  county,  N.  Y., 
is  situated  upon  the  east  bank  of  the  Hudson  river, 
about  eighteen  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  on  the  New 
York  Central  and  Hudson  River  and  the  New  York 
City  and  Northern  railroads.  The  site  is  very  hilly, 
consisting  of  ridges  forming  terraces  parallel  to  the 
river.  The  city  had  in  1880  a population  of 
^.892  (12,733  *n  1876)  and  of  32,033  in  1890.  Yonkers 
has  important  manufacturing  industries,  principally 
of  carpets,  hats,  silk,  brass  goods,  elevators  (lifts), 
steam  engines,  and  machinery;  but  it  is  chiefly  as 
a residence  suburb,  being  within  an  hour  of  the  business 
center  of  the  metropolis,  that  it  has  acquired  its  popula- 
tion and  importance. 

Yonkers  was  settled  by  the  Dutch  of  New  Amster- 
dam about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
was  held  as  a manor  until  1779.  In  1788  it  was  or- 
ganized as  a township,  and  in  1872  it  received  a city 
charter. 

YONNE,  a department  of  central  France,  was 
formed  in  1 790  partly  from  the  province  of  Champagne 
proper  (with  its  dependencies,  S6nonais  and  Tonner- 
rois),  partly  from  Burgundy  proper  (with  its  dependen- 
cies, the  county  of  Auxerre  and  Avallonnais),  and 
partly  from  Gatinais  (Orleanais  and  Ile-de-France).  It 
lies  between  470  18'  and  48°  25'  N.  latitude  and  20  50'  and 
40  20;  E.  longitude,  and  is  bounded  by  Aube  on  the  north- 
east. Cote-d’Or  on  the  east,  Nievre  on  the  south,  Loiret 
on  the  west,  and  Seine-et- Marne  on  the  northwest. 

Of  a total  area  of  1,835,475  acres,  1,125,412  acres  are 
arable,  426,757  are  under  wood,  91,309  under  vines, 
79,366  under  grass,  and  39,316  are  returned  as  occupied 
by  heaths,  pasture  lands,  and  marshes.  The  live  stock 
in  1880  included  41,295  horses,  1,280  mules,  8,438 
asses,  126,636  cattle,  238,522  sheep  of  native  and  58,416 
of  superior  breed  (wool-clip  in  1880,  566  tons),  30,561 
igs,  and  6,516  goats.  There  were  also  21,411  bee- 
ives  (61  tons  of  honey).  Oxen  are  fattened  and  the 
well-known  St.  Florentin  cheeses  made.  The  wines  of 
Tonnerre  and  Auxerrois  are  the  finest  red  wines  of 
Lower  Burgundy,  and  those  of  Chablis  are  the  finest 
white.  The  principal  crops  in  1884  were — wine  22,- 
486,420  gallons  (average  of  ten  preceding  years  28,607,- 
370  gallons),  wheat  .5,500,000  bushels,  meslin  192,600, 
rye  680,625,  barley  948,750,  oats  4,677,750,  buckwheat 
35,200,  potatoes  3,410,088,  beetroot  for  fodder  25,060 
tons,  hops  79  tons,  colza  seed  206,  hemp  seed  138, 
hemp  99,  linseed  40,  flax  22,  tobacco  33,  hay  386,650, 
clover  34,245,  lucerne  30,189,  and  sainfoin  6,297  tons. 
The  forests  consist  of  oak,  beech,  elm,  hornbeam,  ash, 
and  birch,  and  re-plantations  are  being  made  with  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  pine  and  with  larch;  chestnut  trees  are 
not  uncommon.  In  1880  700  tons  of  peat  were  ex- 


-YO  R 

| tracted;  and  there  are  fine  quarries  of  Oolitic  limestone, 
and  of  cement,  ocher,  fossil,  phosphates,  china  clay, 
and  chalk.  The  chief  industrial  establishments  are  tan- 
neries, forges,  paper-mills,  saw-mills,  and  breweries;  files 
and  other  articles  of  steel,  boots  and  shoes,  hosiery, 
and  champagne  are  also  manufactured.  Cereals,  wines, 
firewood,  charcoal,  ocher,  and  bark  are  exported; 
southern  wines  and  building  materials  are  among  the 
imports.  There  are  286  miles  of  railway,  318  of  na- 
tional and  6,755  of  other  roads,  and  205  of  waterway 
The  population  was  357,029  in  1881,  and  316,047  in 
1901.  About  217,000  are  engaged  in  agricultural  pur- 
suits. The  department  constitutes  the  archiepiscopal 
diocese  of  Sens,  has  its  court  of  appeal  at  Paris,  its 
academy  at  Dijon,  and  belongs  to  the  district  of  Or- 
leans army  corps.  It  is  divided  for  administrative  pur- 
poses into  five  arrondissements.  Places  of  note  are  the 
chef-lieu  Auxerre  (18,754  inhabitants  in  1901),  the  pict- 
uresque Avallon  (5,768),  Joigny  (6,189),  famous  for  its 
wines,  and  Tonnerre  (4,650),  for  its  wines  and  building 
stones. 

YORK,  a cathedral  city  and  archbishop’s  see,  the 
county  town  of  Yorkshire,  a county  in  itself,  and  a 
municipal  and  parliamentary  borough,  situated  on  the 
river  Ouse  at  its  junction  with  the  Foss,  and  on  the 
main  joint  line  of  the  North  Eastern  and  Great  North- 
ern railways,  188  miles  north  of  London.  While  the 
special  feature  of  York  is  the  cathedral,  the  city 
generally  has  an  antique  appearance,  with  narrow  pict- 
uresque streets,  the  remains  of  ancient  walls,  and  many 
churches  and  other  buildings  of  considerable  architect- 
ural interest. 

In  modern  times  York  has  ceased  to  retain  its  com- 
mercial importance;  but  it  possesses  several  iron  found- 
ries, railway  engineering  works,  a large  glass  factory, 
breweries,  flour-mills,  tanneries,  glove  manufactories, 
and  confectionery  and  other  minor  establishments. 
Within  its  municipal  limits  the  city  of  York  constitutes 
a separate  division  of  the  county  of  York;  the  municipal 
city  and  the  ainsty  are  for  parliamentary  purposes  in- 
cluded in  the  North  Riding,  for  registration  purposes  in 
the  East  Riding,  and  for  all  other  purposes  in  the  West 
Riding.  The  parliamentary  city  of  York,  which  for- 
merly extended  beyond  the  municipal  limits,  is  partly  in 
the  North  and  partly  in  the  East  Riding.  The  corpor- 
ation consists  of  a lord  mayor,  twelve  aldermen,  and 
thirty-six  councilors.  The  city  returns  two  members 
to  parliament.  In  1884  the  boundaries  of  the  city  were 
extended  to  include  the  townships  of  Holgate  and  St. 
Olave,  and  part  of  the  townships  of  Clifton,  Dring- 
houses,  Fulford,  Heworth,  and  Middlethorpe.  The 
population  of  the  municipal  borough  (area  1,979  acres) 
was  43,796  in  1871  and  49,530  in  1881,  and  that  of  the 
narliamen^arv  borough  (area  2,789  acres)  50,765  in  1871 
and  60,343  in  1881.  The  new  area  is  about  3,721  acres, 
with  a population  estimated  at  77,793  in  1901. 

YORK,  the  capital  of  York  county,  Neb.,  and  the 
center  of  a section  of  country  that  has  experienced  an 
almost  phenomenal  growth,  is  situated  on  a branch  of 
the  Big  Blue  river,  and  on  the  Burlington  and  Missouri 
River  road,  at  its  junction  with  the  St.  Joseph  and  Grand 
Island  and  the  Fremont,  Elkhorn  and  Missouri  Valley 
railways.  It  is  about  fifty  miles  west  of  Lincoln,  the 
capital  of  the  State,  in  the  midst  of  a highly  cultivated 
agricultural  region,  and  is  a thriving  and  prospering 
business  city.  Three  weekly  papers  and  two  monthly 
periodicals  are  regularly  published,  and  one  State  and 
two  national  banks  are  operated.  It  has  also  several 
churches,  an  academy  and  high-school,  court-house,  six 
hotels,  an  opera  house,  two -public  halls,  many  stores, 
and  is  the  location  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  college 
of  Nebraska.  Butter  and  cheese  are  extensively  manu- 


Y O R 


factured  for  eastern  depots  of  supply,  and  other  lines  of 
productive  industry  add  to  the  prominence  and  impor- 
tance the  place  has  acquired.  Among  the  leading  of 
these  are  lumber,  sash  and  blinds,  fruit  and  vegetable 
canning,  wire  fences,  agricultural  implements,  brooms, 
foundry  and  machine  work,  including  engines,  boilers, 
etc.  The  city  is  lighted  by  gas  and  electricity,  and  an 
efficient  system  of  street  railways  is  employed.  The 
population  in  1900  was  5,132. 

YORK,  Henry  Benedict  Mary,  Duke  of,  cardinal 
ind  bishop  of  Frascati,  the  last  male  descendant  of  the 
royal  House  of  Stuart,  was  the  second  son  of  James  III. 
ol  England,  commonly  known  as  the  Pretender.  He  was 
born  at  Rome,  March26,  1725;  and  after  the  failure  of  the 
attempt  of  his  elder  brother,  Charles  Edward,  in  1745, 
resolved  to  enter  the  church.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
tonsure  and  minor  orders  by  Benedict  XIV.,  and  cre- 
ated cardinal  in  1747.  Clement  XIII.  consecrated  him 
bishop  of  Corinth,  in  partibus  infidelium , and  after- 
ward of  the  suburban  see  of  Frascati,  where  he  took  up 
his  residence.  He  also,  enjoyed,  through  the  favor  of 
the  crown  of  France,  the  revenues  of  two  abbeys,  which 
he  held  in  commendam , as  well  as  a pension  from  the 
Spanish  court;  and  the  liberal  charity  with  which  he 
dispensed  his  income  among  the  poor,  and  for  the  other 
charitable  and  religious  necessities  of  his  diocese,  en- 
deared him  to  his  flock.  These  resources  were  lost  at 
the  Revolution;  but,  nevertheless,  in  the  distresses  of 
the  Holy  See  which  ensued,  Cardinal  York  sold  his 
family  jewels  for  the  purpose  of  relieving  Pius  VI.  in 
his  necessities. 

On  the  occupation  of  Rome,  he  withdrew  to  Venice; 
but  he  returned  in  1801,  on  the  restoration  of  the  papal 
authority  under  Pius  VII.  George  III.  having  become 
aware  of  the  failure  of  his  former  means  of  income 
granted  him  a pension  of  $20,000  a year,  which  he  ac- 
cepted and  enjoyed  until  his  death.  He  was  appointed 
by  Pius  VII.  dean  of  the  Sacred  College,  and  held  sev- 
eral other  dignities,  and  was  much  respected,  as  well 
by  the  Italians  as  by  foreigners  visiting  Rome.  He 
died  at  Frascati,  July  17,  1817,  at  the  advanced  age  of 
ninety-two. 

YORK,  a borough  and  the  county  seat  of  York 
county,  Penn.,  is  situated  upon  Codorus  creek,  a branch 
of  the  Susquehanna  river,  and  upon  three  railway  lines 
— the  Pennsylvania,  the  Northern  Central,  and  the 
Peachbottom.  The  surrounding  country  is  undulating 
and  is  devoted  to  agriculture.  The  city  is  regularly 
laid  out,  with  streets  running  diagonally  to  the  cardinal 
points.  It  contains  some  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  paper-mills,  car -shops,  etc.  The  population 
in  1900  was  33,708. 

The  settlement  of  York  dates  from  1741.  For  nearly 
a year  (1777-78)  it  was  the  place  of  meeting  of  the  Conti- 
nental Congress. 

YORK,  House  of.  Richard,  duke  of  York,  who 
claimed  the  crown  of  England  in  opposition  to  Henry 
VI.,  though  he  never  succeeded  to  the  throne  himself, 
was,  nevertheless,  the  founder  of  a royal  line.  It  may 
be  said,  indeed,  that  his  claim,  at  the  time  it  was  ad- 
vanced, was  rightly  barred  by  prescription,  the  House 
of  Lancaster  having  then  occupied  the  throne  for  three 
generations,  and  that  it  was  really  owing  to  the  mis- 
government  of  Margaret  of  Anjou  and  her  favorites  that 
it  was  advanced  at  all.  Yet  it  was  founded  upon  strict 
principles  of  lineal  descent,  and  was  certainly  a strong 
one,  if  it  could  only  be  maintained  that  hereditary  right 
did  not  suffer  from  interruption;  for  the  duke  was 
descended  from  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence,  the  third  son 
of  Edward  III.,  while  the  House  of  Lancaster  came  of 
John  of  Gaunt,  a younger  brother  of  Lionel.  The 
House  of  Lancaster,  therefore,  had  been  clearly  in 


6423 

wrongful  possession  of  the  throne,  and  Richard,  duke  of 
York,  claimed  it  as  the  true  heir.  One  thing  which 
might  possibly  have  been  considered  an  element  of 
weakness  in  his  claim  was  that  it  was  derived  through 
females — an  objection  actually  brought  against  it  by 
Chief- Justice  Fortescue.  For  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence, 
left  only  a daughter,  Philippa,  who  married  Edmund 
Mortimer,  third  earl  of  March;  and  the  male  line  of  the 
Mortimers  also  failed  on  the  death  of  Edmund,  the  fifth 
earl,  whose  sister,  and  ultimately  his  sole  heir,  Anne, 
married  Richard,  earl  of  Cambridge,  and  became  by 
him  the  duke  of  York’s  mother.  But  a succession 
through  females  could  not  reasonably  have  been  objected 
to  after  Edward  III.’s  claim  to  the  crown  of  France; 
and,  apart  from  strict  legality,  the  duke’s  claim  was 
probably  supported  in  the  popular  estimation  by  the  fact 
that  he  was  descended  from  Edward  III.  through  his 
father  no  less  than  through  his  mother.  For  his  father, 
Richard,  earl  of  Cambridge,  was  the  grandson  of  Ed- 
mund, duke  of  York,  fifth  son  of  Edward  III.;  and 
he  himself  was  the  direct  lineal  heir  of  this  Edmund, 
just  as  much  as  he  was  of  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence. 
His  claim  was  also  favored  by  the  accumulation  of 
hereditary  titles  and  estates.  The  earldom  of  Ulster, 
the  old  inheritance  of  the  De  Burghs,  had  descended  to 
him  from  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence;  the  earldom  of 
March  came  from  the  Mortimers,  and  the  dukedom  of 
York  and  the  earldom  of  Cambridge  from  his  paternal 
ancestry.  And  in  addition  to  all  this  his  own  marriage 
with  Cecily  Neville,  though  she  was  but  the  youngest 
daughter  of  Ralph,  first  earl  of  Westmoreland,  allied 
him  to  a powerful  family  in  the  north  of  England,  to 
whose  support  both  he  and  his  son  were  greatly  indebted. 

The  reasons  why  the  claims  of  the  line  of  Clarence 
had  been  so  long  forborne  are  not  difficult  to  explain. 
Roger  Mortimer,  fourth  earl  of  March,  was  actually 
designated  by  Richard  II.  as  his  successor;  but  he  died 
the  year  before  Richard  was  dethroned,  and  his  son 
Edmund,  the  fifth  earl,  was  but  a child  at  Henry  IV.’s 
usurpation.  Henry  took -care  to  secure  his  person;  but 
the  claims  of  the  family  troubled  the  whole  of  his  own 
and  the  beginning  of  his  son’s  reign.  It  was  an  uncle 
of  this  Edmund  who  took  part  with  Owen  Glendower 
and  the  Percies;  and  for  advocating  the  cause  of  Ed- 
mund Archbishop  Scrope  was  put  to  death.  And  it  was 
to  put  the  crown  on  Edmund’s  head  that  his  brother-in- 
law,  Richard,  earl  of  Cambridge,  conspired  against  Henry 
V.  soon  after  his  accession.  But  this  was  the  last  attempt 
made  in  favor  of  the  family  for  a long  time.  The  plof 
was  detected,  being  revealed,  it  is  said,  by  the  earl  0? 
March  himself,  who  does  not  appear  to  have  given  it  any 
encouragement;  the  earl  of  Cambridge  was  beheaded. 
The  popularity  gained  by  Henry  V.  in  his  French  cam- 
paigns secured  the  weak  title  of  the  House  of  Lancaster 
against  further  attack  for  forty  years. 

Richard,  duke  of  York,  seems  to  have  taken  warning 
by  his  father’s  fate;  but,  after  seeking  for  many  years  to 
correct  by  other  means  the  deplorable  weakness  of 
Henry  VI. ’s  government,  he  first  took  up  arms  against 
the  ill  advisers  who  were  his  own  personal  enemies,  and 
at  length  claimed  the  crown  in  parliament  as  his  right. 
The  Lords,  or  such  of  them  as  did  not  purposely  stay 
away  from  the  House,  admitted  that  his  claim  was  un- 
impeachable, but  suggested  as  a compromise  that  Henry 
should  retain  the  crown  for  life,  and  the  duke  and  his 
heirs  succeed  after  Henry’s  death.  This  was  accepted 
by  the  duke  and  an  Act  to  that  effect  received  Henry’s 
own  assent.  But  the  Act  was  repudiated  by  Margaret 
of  Anjou  and  her  followers,  and  the  duke  was  slain  at 
Wakefield  fighting  against  them.  In  little  more  than 
two  months,  however,  his  son  was  proclaimed  king  at 
London  by  the  title  of  Edward  IV.,  and  the  bloody  vie- 


Y OR 


6424 

tory  of  Towlon  immediately  alter  drove  his  enemies  into 
exile  and  paved  the  way  for  his  coronation. 

We  need  not  follow  the  vicissitudes  of  Edward’s 
reign,  of  which  a brief  account  will  be  found  under 
Edward  IV.  After  his  recovery  of  the  throne  in  1471 
he  had  little  more  to  fear  from  the  rivalry  of  the  House 
of  Lancaster.  But  the  seeds  of  distrust  had  already 
been  sown  among  the  members  of  his  own  family,  and  in 
*478  his  brother  Clarence  was  put  to  death — secretly 
indeed,  within  the  Tower,  but  still  by  his  authority  and 
that  of  parliament — as  a traitor.  In  1483  Edward  him- 
self died;  and  his  eldest  son,  Edward  V.,  after  a nomi- 
nal reign  of  two  months  and  a half,  was  put  aside  by  his 
Uncle,  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  who  became  Richard  III., 
and  then  caused  him  and  his  brother  Richard,  duke  of 
York,  to  be  murdered.  But  in  little  more  than  two 
years  the  usurper  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Bosworth  by 
the  earl  of  Richmond,  who,  being  then  proclaimed  king 
■as  Henry  VII.,  shortly  afterward  fulfilled  his  pledge  to 
marry  the  eldest  daughter  of  Edward  IV.,  and  so  unite 
the  Houses  of  York  and  Lancaster. 

Here  the  dynastic  history  of  the  House  of  York  ends, 
for  its  claims  were  henceforth  merged  in  those  of  the 
House  of  Tudor.  But  the  family  history  has  still  much 
to  do  with  the  story  of  those  reigns. 

YORKSHIRE,  a northern  county  of  England,  is 
bounded  east  by  the  North  Sea,  north  by  Durham  (the 
boundary  line  being  formed  by  the  Tees),  south  by  Lin- 
coln, Nottingham,  Derby,  and  Chester,  and  west  by  Lan- 
caster and  Westmorland.  It  is  much  the  largest  county 
in  England,  being  more  than  double  the  size  of  Lin- 
colnshire, which  ranks  next  to  it.  The  area  is  3,882,85 1 
acres,  or  nearly  6,067  square  miles,  almost  one-eighth 
of  the  surface  of  England.  Of  the  total  area  750,828 
acres  or  aoout  1,173  square  miles  are  in  the  East 
Riding,  1,361,664  acres  or  about  2,127^  square  miles 
in  the  North  Riding,  and  1,768,380  acres  or  about 
2,763  square  miles  in  the  West  Riding.  The  city  of 
York,  which  forms  an  administrative  division  separate 
from  the  Ridings,  embraces  an  area  of  1,979  acres  or 
about  three  square  miles. 

The  coast  is  nob  deeply  indented  at  any  part,  the 
inlets  scarcely  deserving  the  name  of  bays.  Except  in 
the  Holderness  region,  the  shore  as  far  north  as  Salt- 
burn  is  bold  and  rocky,  and  presents  a great  variety  of 
picturesque  cliff  scenery,  while  below  the  cliffs  there  are 
in  many  cases  long  stretches  of  beautiful  sands. 

Yorkshire  is  famed  for  the  beauty  of  its  river  scenery, 
in  which  respect  it  is  scarcely  surpassed  by  Scotland. 
The  great  majority  of  the  rivers  issue  from  the  higher 
western  regions  and  flow  eastward. 

The  county  is  almost  destitute  of  lakes,  the  only 
sheets  of  water  of  size  sufficient  to  lay  claim  to  that 
(title  being  Semmer  Water  at  the  upper  end  of  Wensley- 
dale,  Malham  Tarn  at  the  head  of  Airedale,  and 
Hornsea  Mere  near  the  sea-coast  at  Hornsea. 

One  of  the  chief  sources  of  the  mineral  wealth  of 
Yorkshire  is  the  coalfield  in  the  West  Riding,  the  most 
valuable  seams  being  the  Silkstone,  which  is  bituminous 
and  of  the  very  highest  reputation  as  a house  coal,  and 
the  Barnsley  thick  coal,  the  great  seam  of  the  York- 
shire coalfield,  which  is  of  special  value,  on  account  of 
its  semi-anthracitic  quality,  for  use  in  iron-smelting  and 
in  engine  furnaces.  The  average  yearly  production  of 
the  Yorkshire  coalfield  is  nearly  20,000,000  tons,  the 
number  of  persons  employed  above  and  below  ground 
at  the  coal-pits  being  over  60,000.  Associated  with  the 
Upper  Coal  Measures  there  is  a valuable  iron  ore, 
occurring  in  the  form  of  nodules.  Large  quantities  of 
fire-clay  are  also  raised,  as  well  as  of  gannister  and 
oil-shale.  Yorkshire  is  noted  for  the  number  of  its 
mineral  springs  chiefly  sulphurous  and  chalybeate,  the 


principal,  besides  those  at  Harrogate,  being  Askern, 
Aldfield,  Boston  Spa,  Croft,  Filey,  Guisbrough,  Hovingc 
ham,  and  Scarborough. 

Agriculture. — The  hilly  country  in  the  west  of  York- 
shire, embracing  the  northwestern  corner  of  the  North 
Riding  and  a great  part  of  the  West  Riding,  is  chiefly 
pasture  land,  sheep  being  grazed  on  the  higher  grounds 
and  cattle  on  the  rich  pastures  where  the  limestone  rock 
prevails.  The  Vale  of  York,  with  an  area  of  about 
1 ,000  square  miles,  includes  much  fertile  land  occupied  by 
all  kinds  of  crops.  The  Chalk  downs  by  careful  cultiva- 
tion now  form  one  of  the  best  soils  for  grain  crops,  the 
rotation  being  grasses,  wheat,  turnips,  and  barley.  The 
till  or  bowlder  clay  of  Holderness  is  the  richest  soil  in 
Yorkshire.  A great  part  of  the  land  in  this  district 
has  been  reclaimed  from  the  sea,  from  20,000  to  30,000 
acres  being  protected  by  embankments.  The  Vale  of 
Cleveland  in  the  North  Riding  is  well  cultivated,  the 
higher  grounds  in  the  district  being  chiefly  pastoral. 
The  smallest  proportional  area  under  cultivation  is  in 
the  North  Riding,  860,820  acres  out  of  1,361,664  in 
1887,  while  in  the  East  Riding  there  were  666,291  acres 
out  of  804,798,  and  in  the  West  Riding  1,210,639  acres 
out  of  1,716,389.  The  proportion  of  permanent  pas- 
ture is  largest  in  the  West  Riding,  803,514  acres  or 
about  two-thirds  of  the  area  under  cultivation,  while  in 
North  Riding  it  was  488,958  acres  or  rather  more  than 
one-half,  and  in  the  East  Riding  only  191,519  acres  or 
considerably  less  than  a third.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
area  under  grain  crops  in  the  West  Riding  was  208,890 
acres,  in  the  North  Riding  197,846  acres,  and  in  the 
East  Riding  254,162  acres. 

Manufactures  and  Trade. — For  many  years  an  ex- 
tensive district  in  the  West  Riding  has  been  famed  for 
its  woolen  and  worsted  manufactures.  The  early  devel- 
opment of  the  industry  was  due  partly  to  the  abundance 
of  water  power  supplied  by  the  numerous  streams  in  the 
valleys  by  which  the  district  is  indented;  and  in  recent 
times  the  happy  accident  of  the  proximity  of  coal  and 
iron  has  enabled  the  industry  to  keep  pace  with  modern 
requirements.  The  West  Riding  is  now  the  chief  seat 
of  the  woolen  manufacture  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  has  almost  a monopoly  in  the  manufacture  of 
worsted  cloths.  In  this  industry  nearly  all  the  important 
towns  in  the  Riding  are  engaged,  Leeds  having  for  its 
specialty  almost  every  variety  of  woolen  and  worsted 
cloth,  Bradford  yarns  and  mixed  worsted  goods,  Dews- 
bury, Batley,  and  the  neighboring  districts  shoddy, 
Huddersfield  both  plain  goods  and  fancy  trouserings  and 
coatings,  and  Halifax,  to  the  neighborhood  of  which  the 
cotton  industry  of  Lancashire  has  also  penetrated, 
worsted  and  carpets.  Next  to  the  woolen  industry 
comes  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  machinery  and 
implements  of  every  variety,  Leeds  being  one  of  the 
principal  seats  of  all  kinds  of  mechanical  engineering, 
and  Sheffield  of  iron  work  and  cutlery.  For  the  minor 
manufactures  in  the  district,  and  for  more  specific 
details,  reference  must  be  made  to  the  separate  articles 
on  the  different  towns.  Until  comparatively  recently 
agriculture  was  the  chief  calling  of  the  North  Riding; 
but  the  discovery  of  iron  ore  in  the  Cleveland  region  has 
led  to  the  formation  of  another  great  manufacturing 
center,  mainly  devoted  to  the  production  of  pig-iron, 
the  manufacturing  of  steel  by  the  basic  process,  and  iron 
shipbuilding.  The  industrial  activity  of  the  East  Riding 
is  mostly  centered  in  Hull,  the  chief  port  of  the  county, 
although  the  Lancashire  ports  must  be  regarded  as  the 
principal  ports  for  the  trade,  especially  of  the  West 
Riding.  In  the  North  Riding  Middlesbrough  is  rising 
into  importance  as  a shipping  port,  and  Whitby,  though’ 
not  progressing  as  a port,  has  a considerable  coasting 
trade.  The  fishing  industry,  which  is  of  minor  impor- 


V O R — Y O S 


tance,  is  catfied  on  at  Hull,  Filey,  Whitby,  and  Scar- 
borough, and  a considerable  number  of  villages. 

Administration  and  Population. — Yorkshire  has 
from  an  early  period  been  divided  into  three  ridings, 
each  of  which  has  a lord  lieutenant.  The  East  Riding 
has  a separate  court  of  quarter  sessions  and  a commis- 
sion of  the  peace.  The  city  of  York  within  the  munic- 
ipal limits  constitutes  a separate  division  of  the  councy. 
The  municipal  city  and  the  ainsty  are  for  parliamentary 
purposes  included  in  the  North  Riding,  for  registration 
purposes  in  the  East  Riding,  and  for  all  other  purposes 
in  the  West  Riding.  The  parliamentary  city  of  York, 
which  formerly  extended  beyond  the  municipal  limits, 
is  partly  in  the  North  and  partly  in  the  East  Riding. 
The  following  table  gives  the  population  of  the  county 
and  of  the  three  ridings  in  1801,  1821, 1871,  and  1901:— 


1801. 

1821. 

1871. 

1901. 

East  Riding 

*39-433 

190,449 

268,4 66 

I45A94 

North  Riding  (with 
the  municipal  city 
of  York) 

155, 5°6 

183,381 

346,518 

285,671 

West  Riding 

363>953 

799,357 

1,821,371 

1,460,861 

Yorkshire 

658,892 

i,i73,iS7 

2,436,355 

1,891,726 

YORUBA,  or  Yariba,  a country  of  West  Africa, 
occupying  the  eastern  half  of  the  Slave  Coast  region  in 
6°-9°  N.  latitude  and  3°-7°  E.  longitude.  Taken  in 
its  widest  sense,  so  as  to  include  the  whole  domain  of 
the  Yoruba  race  and  speech,  the  Yoruba  country 
stretches  from  the  Bight  of  Benin  northward  in  the  di- 
rection of  tbe  unexplored  region  of  Borgu,  and  from 
the  ill-defined  eastern  frontier  of  Dahomey  to  the  Niger 
and  its  delta,  which  inclose  it  on  the  northeast,  east, 
and  southeast.  Within  these  limits  it  covers  an  area  of 
at  least  40,000  square  miles,  with  a population  roughly 
estimated  at  over  2,000,000. 

Notwithstanding  their  political  feuds,  the  Y oruba  peo- 
ple are  distinguished  above  all  the  surrounding  races 
for  their  generally  peaceful  disposition,  love  of  indus- 
try, friendliness,  and  hospitality  toward  strangers. 
Physically  they  resemble  closely  their  Ewe  and  Da- 
homey neighbors,  but  are  of  somewhat  lighter  com- 
plexion, taller,  and  of  less  pronounced  Negro  features. 
Their  superior  intelligence  is  shown  in  their  greater  sus- 
ceptibility to  Christian  and  Mohammedan  influences, 
their  capacity  for  trade,  and  their  remarkable  progress 
in  the  industrial  arts.  Although  the  bulk  of  the  nation 
is  still  pagan,  Islam  has  made  great  advancement  since 
the  cessation  of  the  Fulah  wars,  while  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic  missions  have  been  at  work  for  many 
years  at  Abeokuta,  Oyo,  Ibadan,  and  other  large  towns. 
Samuel  Crowther,  the  first  Negro  bishop,  who  was  dis- 
tinguished as  an  explorer,  geographer,  and  linguist,  was 
a native  of  Yoruba,  rescued  by  the  English  from  slavery 
and  educated  at  Sierra  Leone. 

Although  agriculture  is  the  chief  industry,  such  use- 
ful arts  as  pottery,  weaving,  tanning,  dyeing,  and  forg- 
ing are  practiced  in  all  the  towns.  The  people  make 
their  own  agricultural  implements,  extract  a palatable 
wine  from  the  Raphia  vinifera , and  weave  a stout  cot- 
ton fabric,  which  was  formerly  exported  to  Brazil,  but 
which  can  now  scarcely  stand  the  competition  of  cheaper 
Manchester  goods  even  in  the  home  market.  But  as 
builders  the  Yorubas  know  no  rivals  in  Negroland. 
The  Jiouses  of  the  chiefs,  often  containing  as  many  as 
fifty  rooms,  are  constructed  with  rare  skill,  and  taste- 
fully decorated  with  carvings  representing  symbolic  de- 
vices, fabulous  animals,  and  even  scenes  of  war  or  the 
chase. 

Before  the  introduction  of  letters  the  Yorubas  are 
said  to  have  employed  knotted  strings,  like  the  Peruvian 


25 

quipus,  for  recording  events  of  historic  intete.  t : lieu 
language,  which  has  been  reduced  to  writing  ana  care 
fully  studied  by  Crowther,  Bouche,  Bowen,  and  other 
missionaries,  is  spoken  with  considerable  uniformity 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  Yoruba  domain,  and  has 
even  penetrated  with  the  enterprising  native  traders  as 
far  east  as  Kano  in  the  Haussa  country  beyond  the  Ni- 
ger. The  best  known  dialectic  varieties  are  those  of 
Egba,  Jebu,  Ondo,  Ife,  hlorin,  and  Oyo  (Yoruba  proper 
called  also  Nago);  but  the  discrepancies  are  slight, 
whil$  the  divergence  from  the  conterminous  linguistic 
groups  (Ewe  in  the  west  Ibo,  Nupe,  and  others  in  the 
east)  appears  to  be  fundamental. 

YOSEMITE  VALLEY  AND  FALLS.  At  a dis- 
tance of  140  miles  as  the  crow  flies,  but  220  by  the 
usual  route  in  an  easterly  direction  from  San  Francisco, 
the  traveler  gains  entrance  To  the  Y’osemite  Valley,  a 
stretch  of  scenery  the  most  varied,  the  grandest,  and 
most  magnificent  in  the  world.  At  an  early  day  it  was 
the  retreat  of  Indians,  and  its  discovery  was  the  result 
of  a “ chase  ” undertaken  by  a company  of  national 
soldiers  in  pursuit  of  a predatory  band  of  aborigines. 
The  latter  were  traced  to  the  Yosemite,  whence  they 
disappeared,  and  the  troopers  yielded  the  object  of  their 
campaign  to  feelings  of  admiration  which  the  exquisite 
scenery  inspired.  This  was  during  the  fifties,  but  as 
reports  of  this  revelation  of  nature  became  part  of  the 
history  of  the  Pacific  slope,  tourists  and  travelers  jour- 
neyed thitherward  to  learn  if  all  that  had  been  told 
them  concerning  the  valley  and  its  beauties  was  true. 
The  Yosemite  Valley  is  situated *in  Mariposa  county. 
Cal.,  on  the  direct  route  of  the  Merced  river,  to  the 
west  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains.  It  is  eight  miles 
in  length,  from  half  to  three  quarters  of  a mile  in 
width,  and  is  inclosed  by  stupendous  walls  of  granite, 
rising  to  a height  of  from  three  to  six  thousand  feet. 
The  interior  of  the  valley  has  been  described  as  a “ car- 
pet of  flowers;”  of  flowers  that  dot  the  landscape  with 
colors  of  never-ending  fascination,  and  shed  their  fra- 
grance out  on  every  passing  breeze.  Purling  brooks 
spring  from  their  shady  hiding  places,  and  go  loitering 
along,  murmuring  sweet  music  as  they  flow,  on  every 
hand  waterfalls  bubble  from  unseen  sources  in  the  mount- 
ain sides  and  sparkle  in  the  sun -light  as  they  mingle  with 
the  verdure  of  the  valley,  while  merry  birds,  hidden 
amid  the  foliage  of  trees,  pour  out  their  sweetest  notes 
and  baptize  the  world  with  melody. 

Upon  entering  the  narrow  limits  of  the  valley  the  eye 
is  first  attracted  to  “ Sentinel  Rock,”  2,270  feet  high, 
standing  alone.  In  sight  of  this  is  “El  Capitan,”  rising 
erpendicularly  3,300  feet  from  base  to  summit,  and 
y many  regarded  as  the  most  prominent  attraction  of 
the  valley.  “ Cathedral  Rock  ” obscures  from  view  the 
“ Spires,”  a pair  of  granite  columns  suggestive  of  Gre- 
cian art,  and  below  “Cathedral  Rock,”  “Bridal  Veil 
Falls,”  from  a height  of  900  feet  scatters  its  spray  in 
volume  so  thin  and  intangible  that  the  outlines  of  the 
peaks  in  the  distance  are  revealed  to  view.  Opposite 
these,  falls  known  by  the  romantic  name  “ Virgin’s 
Tears,”  descend  from  a precipice  1,000  feet  above  the 
valley,  and  opposite  the  latter  are  the  “ Three  Brothers,” 
the  loftiest  of  this  “ Triple  Alliance  ” being  3,830  feet, 
while  beyond  are,  “Clouds’  Rest  ” and  the  “North  ” 
and  “ South  Dome.”  “ Yosemite  Falls,”  dropping  2,660 
feet  are  opposite  Sentinel  Rock.  They  consist  of  a 
number  of  falls,  the  first  being  1,500  feet  high,  and  the 
last  400  feet  in  the  clear.  The  total  descent  from  their 
summit  is  stated  to  represent  a distance  of  more  than 
half  a mile.  The  falls  of  Yosemite  are  said  to  be  the 
loftiest  in  the  world,  in  comparison  with  which  the 
height  of  all  other  known  falls,  save  perhaps  Niagara, 
sinks  into  insignificance,  qs  also  does  the  amount  of 


YOU 


6^26 

water  which  passes  over  their  summit  There  are  many 
other  wonderfully  attractive  features  that  challenge  ad- 
miration, including  “ Indian  Canon,”  “ Teneya  Canon,” 
“ The  Royal  Arches,”  “ Mirror  Lake,”  “ Nevada  Falls,” 
together  with  numberless  gorges  and  canons,  to  which 
no  names  have  yet  been  given  and  whose  mysteries 
have  never  yet  been  explored. 

At  a distance  of  about  two  miles  above  Yosemite 
Falls  the  valley  separates,  and  two  routes  pursue  their 
way — one  of  these  rushes  through  the  canon  which 
furnishes  the  bed  of  the  Merced  river,  terminating  in  a 
fall  of  400  feet,  known  as  Vernal  Fall,  beyond  which  it 
continues  in  the  forms  of  cascades  and  cataracts,  until 
it  reaches  the  Cap  of  Liberty,  a peak  2,000  feet  high, 
and  materially  contributing  to  the  general  scenic  effects. 
The  remaining  stream  is  of  lesser  size  and  traverses 
South  Fork  Canon  to  Illilouet  Fall,  said  to  be  600 
feet  high. 

The  valley  is  the  property  of  the  State  of  California, 
it  having  been  donated  to  that  commonwealth  by  an  act 
of  Congress  in  1864,  upon  the  condition  that  it  should 
be  preserved  for  “public  use,  resort,  and  recreation,” 
and  “ inalienable  for  all  time.”  The  Mariposa  forest  of 
trees  was  granted  to  the  same  State  by  the  same  con- 
gressional enactment  upon  the  same  conditions.  In  ac- 
cordance with  the  provisions  of  the  act  the  Yosemite  is 
under  the  superintendency  of  a government  official.  He 
resides  in  the  valley  during  the  tourist  season,  and  has 
exclusive  jurisdiction  over  its  maintenance  as  also  over 
the  various  agencies  connected  with  its  management. 
A number  of  improvements  have  been  completed  since 
it  was  opened  to  the  public,  consisting  of  hotels,  post- 
office,  church,  cottages,  stables,  etc.,  but  so  constructed 
as  to  in  no  way  obstruct  or  interfere  with  the  beauty  of 
the  scenery  and  its  surroundings.  The  proper  season 
to  visit  the  valley  is  during  the  months  of  May,  June, 
July,  August,  and  September,  and  the  most  desirable 
localities  from  which  to  view  the  scenery  to  its  best  ad- 
vantage are  Inspiration  Point  at  the  valley  entrance, 
Morans  Point  opposite  the  mouth  of  Teneya  Canon, 
and  Glacier  Point,  an  elevation  3,000  feet  high,  east  of 
Morans  Point. 

The  causes  of  this  remarkable  development  of  nature 
have  been  the  subject  of  speculative  inquiry  and  scien- 
tific investigation  for  more  than  a quarter  of  a century. 
The  problem,  however,  has  not  been  solved  to  the  sat- 
isfaction of  any  who  have  sought  to  formulate  conclu- 
sions in  the  premises.  By  some  it  is  thought  to  have 
been  due  to  “ glacial  action,”  while  others  insist  that  it 
is  the  result  of  a series  of  seismic  disturbances,  which 
have  also  left  their  effects  throughout  the  Sierras.  How- 
ever correct  either  of  such  opinions  may  be,  the  valley 
will  always  remain  an  object  of  special  interest  and  ad- 
miration to  scientists  and  laymen. 

YOUGHAL,  a seaport,  borough,  and  market  town, 
in  the  county  of  Cork,  Ireland,  is  situated  on  the  west 
side  of  the  estuary  of  the  Blackwater,  and  on  the  Cork 
and  Youghal  branch  of  the  Great  Southern  and  West- 
ern railway,  157  miles  southwest  of  Dublin  and  28 
east  of  Cork.  The  principal  exports  are  grain  and 
other  agricultural  produce;  the  imports  are  coal,  culm, 
timber,  and  slate.  Coarse  earthenware  and  bricks 
are  manufactured.  There  is  a salmon  fishery  in  the 
Blackwater.  Youghal  is  of  some  repute  as  a watering- 
place.  The  population  of  the  town  (area  345  acres)  in 
1871  was  6,081,  and  in  1901  it  was  5,326. 

YOUNG,  Arthur,  writer  on  agriculture  and  social 
economy,  the  third  son  of  Rev.  Arthur  Young,  rector 
of  Bedingfield,  in  Suffolk,  was  born  on  September  7, 
1741.  He  gave  early  evidence  of  literary  inclinations 
by  publishing,  when  only  seventeen  years  old , a pamph- 
let On  the  War  in  North  America  and  by  beginning  a 


periodical  work,  entitled  The  Universal  Museum , 
which,  however,  was  soon  dropped  by  the  advice  of 
Dr.  Samuel  Johnson. 

After  his  father’s  death  in  1 759,  his  mother  gave  him 
the  direction  of  Bradfield  Hall;  and  in  1767  he  undertook 
on  his  own  account  the  management  of  a farm  in  Essex. 
Possessing  no  practical  acquaintance  with  agriculture, 
but  being  active-minded  and  of  an  inquiring  turn,  he  en- 
gaged in  experiments  of  various  kinds,  and  embodied  the 
results  of  them  in  A Course  of  Experimental  Agricult- 
ure, which  appeared  in  1770.  He  had  already  com- 
menced a series  of  journeys  through  different  parts  of 
England  and  Wales,  and  gave  an  account  of  his  observa- 
tions in  books  which  appeared  from  1768  to  1770 — A 
Six  Weeks'  Tour  through  the  Southern  Counties  of 
England  and  Wales , A Six  months'  Tour  through  the 
North  of  England , and  the  Farmer’s  Tour  through  the 
East  of  England. 

In  1768  he  published  the  Farmer's  Letters  to  the 
People  of  England , in  1771  the  Farmer's  Calendar , 
which  has  gone  through  a great  number  of  editions,  and 
in  1774  his  Political  Arithmetic , which  was  soon  trans- 
lated into  several  foreign  languages.  In  1784  he  com- 
menced the  publication  of  the  Annals  of  Agriculture , 
which  was  continued  for  forty-five  volumes;  this  work 
had  contributions  from  many  authors,  among  whom 
was  George  III.,  writing  under  the  nom  de plume  of 
Ralph  Robinson.  Young’s  first  visit  to  France  was 
made  in  1787.  The  Travels  in  France  appeared  in  two 
volumes  4to  in  1792.  On  his  return  home  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  then 
just  formed  under  the  presidency  of  Sir  John  Sinclair. 
In  this  capacity  he  gave  the  most  valuable  assistance  in 
the  collection  and  preparation  of  agricultural  surveys  of 
the  English  counties.  In  1 765  he  had  married  a Miss 
Allen;  but  the  union  is  said  not  to  have  been  a very 
happy  one,  though  he  was  of  domestic  habits  and  a most 
affectionate  father.  His  sight  failed  and  he  submitted 
to  an  operation  for  cataract,  which  proved  unsuccessful. 
He  suffered  also  in  his  last  years  from  stone.  He  died 
in  February,  1820. 

YOUNG,  Edward,  author  of  Night  Thoughts , was 
born  at  Upham,  near  Winchester,  in  1681.  The 
minute  facts  of  his  life  are  to  be  found  in  the  biog- 
raphy contributed  to  Johnson’s  Lives  of  the  Poets  by 
Herbert  Croft.  The  son  of  the  dean  of  Sarum,  edu- 
cated at  Winchester  and  Oxford  (New  College  and 
Corpus),  Young  obtained  a law  fellowship  at  All  Souls 
in  1708.  He  seems  to  have  been  for  a time  in  the 
family  of  the  earl  of  Exeter  as  tutor  ; but  the  notorious 
marquis  of  Wharton  (see  Wharton)  took  a fancy  to 
him,  bribed  him  away  from  this  post  with  liberal 
promises  of  maintenance  and  patronage,  settled  two 
annuities  on  him,  and  tried  to  get  him  into  parliament. 
Meantime  Young  began  to  publish  and  to  dedicate,  the 
poems  and  the  dedications  taken  together  ( The  Last 
Day , 1713,  and  The  Force  of  Religion , 1714)  showing 
the  simple  mixture  of  piety  and  worldliness  that  is  one 
of  the  notes  of  his  character.  He  essayed  tragedy, 
writing  at  mid-day  with  closed  shutters,  by  the  light  of 
a candle  fixed  in  a human  skull.  Busiris  was  per- 
formed at  Drury  Lane  in  1719,  The  Revenge  in 
1721.  The  Night  Thoughts  were  published  in  separate 
“Nights”  between  1742  and  1744.  In  the  preface 
Young  said  that  “ the  occasion  of  this  poem  was  real, 
not  fictitious,  and  that  the  facts  mentioned  did  natu- 
rally force  these  moral  reflections  on  the?  mind  of  the 
writer.  ” Croft  has  shown  that  this  statement,  though 
justifiable  in  the  main,  has  to  be  taken  with  some  quali- 
fications, and  that  a common  belief  that  Lorenzo  was 
meant  for  the  author’s  own  son  was  undoubtedly  a mis- 
take. Still,  it  is  true  that  Y oung’s  wife,  her  daughter. 


you  6427 


and  her  daughter’s  husband  died  in  rapid  succession, 
and  the  poem — a great  work  in  spite  of  all  its  inequali- 
ties— was,  like  In  Memoriam , the  expression  of  a real 
sorrow  and  search  for  consolation.  Young  continued 
to  write  occasionally  even  after  he  had  passed  his 
eightieth  year.  His  death  took  place  on  April  12,  1765. 

YOUNG,  Thomas,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  fig- 
ures alike  in  literature  and  science  in  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century  in  Great  Britain.  He  belonged 
to  a Quaker  family  of  Milverton,  Somerset,  and  was 
the  youngest  of  ten  children,  having  been  born  on  J une 
13,  1773.  His  precocity,  especially  in  the  acquirement 
of  languages,  was  remarkable.  His  thirst  for  knowl- 
edge was  unlimited  in  its  range.  He  was  not  content 
with  languages,  mathematics,  and  physical  science ; 
natural  science,  medicine,  and  even  ancient  philosophy 
were  eagerly  studied  by  him,  and  he  was  passionately 
devoted  to  athletic  exercises.  His  medical  studies 
were  pursued  successively  in  London,  Edinburgh,  Got- 
tingen, and  finally  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  took  his  doctor’s  degree.  The  death  of  a 
maternal  uncle  put  him  in  a position  of  comfortable  in- 
dependence, and  he  did  not  heartily  enter  upon  prac- 
tice. He  was  secured  in  1802  by  the  Royal  Institution, 
as  a colleague  of  Davy  and  professor  of  natural  phi- 
losophy. Here  his  special  talents  found  ample  occupa- 
tion, and  the  chief  result  was  the  publication  in  1807  of 
his  celebrated  Course  of  Lectures  on  Natural  Phi- 
losophy’,  a work  which  is  even  now  regarded  as  a valu- 
able authority.  His  death,  on  May  10,  1829,  was 
probobly  hastened  by  the  extraordinary  amount  and 
variety  of  the  labors  he  undertook,  and  the  self-sacri- 
ficing zeal  with  which  he  devoted  himself  to  them. 

YOUNGSTOWN,  the  capital  of  Mahoning  county, 
Ohio,  and  one  of  the  most  important  manufacturing 
centers  in  the  State,  is  situated  on  the  Mahoning  river 
sixty-five  miles  from  Cleveland,  and  sixty-eight  miles 
from  Pittsburgh,  Penn.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a 
region  of  country  possessing  mineral  resources  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  iron  ore  and  bituminous  coal  in  almost 
unlimited  quantities,  its  railroad  facilities  are  unsur- 
passed in  number  and  efficiency  by  those  of  any  city  of 
equal  size  in  Ohio,  and  the  line  of  metal  industries  in 
successful  operation  is  varied  and  numerous.  The  city 
is  located  on  the  New  York,  Lake  Erie  and  Western, 
Pittsburgh  and  Lake  Erie,  Pittsburgh  and  Western, 
Pittsburgh,  Ft.  Wayne  and  Chicago,  and  Lake  Shore 
and  Michigan  Southern  railways,  by  which  and  their 
several  branches  direct  communication  is  afforded  with 
all  portions  of  the  country.  The  city  is  handsomely 
built,  containing  a court  house,  a jail,  an  opera  house, 
theater,  and  number  of  public  halls,  a high  school, 
college,  and  graded  schools,  twenty  churches,  and  very 
many  ornate  and  elegant  private  residences.  There 
are  one  savings,  one  private,  and  four  national  banks 
with  a total  capital,  surplus  and  undivided  profits 
approximating  $1,800,000;  three  daily  and  three  weekly 
papers,  besides  a monthly  magazine,  are  published,  and 
other  evidences  of  the  enterprise  and  public  spirit  of 
the  inhabitants  are  everywhere  apparent.  Youngstown 
also  contains  seven  foundries,  five  rolling  mills,  several 
furnaces,  boiler  and  tube  works,  brass  and  electric  light 
works,  etc.,  the  output  including  pig  and  hoop  iron, 
engines  and  machinery,  metal  finishings,  etc.  In  addi- 
tion to  these,  the  manufactures  embrace  gunpowder, 
cars,  bridge  materials,  stoves  and  furnaces,  stamped 
and  japanned  tinware,  lumber,  carriages,  wall  brackets 
and  moldings,  patent  medicines,  refined  petroleum, 
spices,  soap,  brooms,  and  other  articles.  Gas  and 
electric  lights  are  employed,  as  also  other  agencies  for 
the  promotion  of  prosperity  in  the  various  municipal 
departments  and  private  enterprises.  The  city’s  popu- 


lation for  1.900  was  returned  at  44,885,  being  an  increase 
of  11,665  over  that  of  1890. 

YOUNG  MEN’S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATION, 
The.  An  organization  of  men,  and  latterly  <o&  women 
established  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  evangelical 
work  and  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  to  all,  in  the  home 
and  fields  throughout  the  United  States  and  in  many 
portions  of  Europe  and  the  East.  Active  membership 
is  held  only  by  members  of  evangelical  churches:  asso- 
ciate and  honorary  members  are,  however,  admitted,  but 
prohibited  from  holding  office  and  from  voting  upon 
constitutional  questions.  The  first  of  these  associa- 
tions was  formed  during  1845  in  London.  Six  years 
later  a Young  Men’s  Christian  Association  was  estab- 
lished in  Boston,  and  subsequently  in  Montreal,  Buffalo, 
and  New  York  city,  respectively.  Since  that  date  they 
have  been  organized  in  nearly  every  city,  town,  and  vil- 
lage of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  many  of  them 
occupying  buildings  of  the  most  substantial  character, 
and  owning  real  estate  and  personal  property  represent- 
ing hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  in  value.  The  ob- 
jects of  the  association,  in  addition  to  those  stated,  are 
the  improvement  of  young  men,  by  the  conversion  of 
their  souls  and  the  consecration  of  their  lives  to  the  love 
and  service  of  Jesus  Christ,  to  unite  Christians  of  the 
various  churches  in  this  and  other  work  that  will  be 
promoted  by  united  action,  to  carry  the  gospel  among 
the  railroad  and  other  employes  of  the  country,  to 
unite  college  students  for  active  Christian  work,  coop- 
erate with  foreign  Christian  young  men  for  th£  salvation 
of  their  fellows,  bring  together  in  sympathy  and  com- 
panionship for  Christian  work  the  young  men  of  every 
section  of  the  country  and  Canada,  secure  the  services  of, 
and  financial  aid  from,  Christian  laymen  in  spreading  the 
gospel,  and  generally  to  promote  the  common  cause  an</ 
extend  religion  among  all  orders  and  conditions  of  men. 

In  pursuit  of  the  accomplishment  of  these  objects,  the 
association  has  founded  missions,  secured  positions  for 
young  men,  strangers  and  penniless  in  cities  and  in  the 
country,  acted  in  capacities  of  nurses  and  humanitarians, 
secured  legislation  against  the  publication  and  circulation 
of  obscene  literature,  officiated  as  almoners  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  funds,  food,  and  clothing  among  the  deserv- 
ing poor,  established  schools,  libraries,  and  lectures,  and 
exerted  a powerful  influence  for  the  general  good. 

Many  of  the  associations  have  become  incorporated 
under  the  laws  of  the  several  States  wherein  they  are 
domiciled,  and  are  clothed  with  powers  and  privileges 
of  corporate  bodies.  In  1883  the  international  com- 
mittee, composed  of  twenty-seven  members,  was  in- 
corporated under  the  laws  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
and  in  1888  delegates  from  the  United  States  were  in 
attendance  upon  the  international  convention  held  at 
Stockholm,  Sweden.  The  headquarters  of  the  cen- 
tral  international  committee  are  at  Geneva,  Switz- 
erland, and  the  committee  is  composed  of  repre- 
sentatives from  America,  Australia,  Austria,  Hungary, 
Belgium,  Denmark,  England,  France,  Germany,  Italy, 
Netherlands,  Norway,  Russia,  Spain,  Sweden,  and 
Switzerland. 

From  the  last  annual  report,  dated  1889,  it  appears 
that  there  is  a total  of  3,788  associations  in  the  world, 
of  which  1, 194  were  in  the  United  States,  79  in  Canada, 
and  11  in  South  America,  Mexico,  etc.  The  aggregate 
membership  of  the  association  is  stated  at  195,500; 
they  occupy  173  buildings  of  their  own,  valued  at 
$7,500,000,  and  have  a total  net  property  of  over 
$9,500,000,  including  522  libraries  containing  384,000 
volumes.  They  employ  875  general  secretaries  and 
other  paid  officials,  and  expended  during  the  year,  for 
current  expenses,  local,  State,  and  national,  $1,600,000. 
The  Young  Women’s  Christian  Associations  in  the  world 


Y PR  — Y u c 


6428 

number  1,500,  with  a total  membership  of  10,000, 
The  office  of  the  international  committee  of  the  Women’s 
Association  is  at  Chicago,  111. 

YPRES  (Flem.  Yperen)%  a town  of  Belgium,  capital 
of  an  arrondissement  in  the  province  of  West  Flanders, 
stands  in  a fertile  plain  on  the  Yperlee,  twenty-one 
miles  north-northwest  of  Lille.  In  the  fourteenth 
■century  it  is  said  to  have  contained  200,000  inhabitants; 
and  it  was  long  famous  for  its  woolen  and  linen  manu- 
factures,, though  the  once  current  derivation  of  the 
word  “ diaper  ” from  the  'name  of  this  town  can  no 
Songer  be  maintained.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
;hose  of  linen  thread  and  lace  and  of  woolen  and  linen 
doth  , dyeing,  bleaching,  and  tanning  are  also  carried 
on.  The  population  in  1901  was  18,515. 

YPSILANTI,  a handsome  city  of  Michigan,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Huron  river  in  Washtenaw  county,  and 
has  enjoyed  a steady  growth  and  substantial  prosperity 
from  its  organization.  -It  is  also  located  on  the  Michi- 
gan Central  and  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern 
railways,  and  is  prominent  as  an  educational  and  trade 
center,  being  also  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Ann 
Arbor,  *he  location  of  the  State  University.  Consider- 
able manufacturing  is  carried  on  and  a large  number  of 
expert  operatives  are  constantly  employed.  The  city 
contains  ten  churches,  a public  library,  a high-school 
and  graded  schools,  and  is  the  site  of  the  Michigan 
State  normal  school,  with  a faculty  of  fourteen  precept- 
ors and  from  325  to  350  students.  Three  weekly 
papers  and  a monthly  magazine  are  published,  and  two 
banks  are  conducted.  The  improvements  in  the  city 
include,  in  addition  to  the  above,  an  opera  house,  pub- 
lic halls,  four  hotels,  and  many  private  residences  of 
graceful  appearance  and  pleasant  surroundings.  The 
productive  industries  include  manufactures  of  mill 
machinery,  agricultural  implements,  windmills,  buggy 
gearing,  gasoline  furnaces,  silk,  woolen,  cotton,  and 
lisle  thread  goods,  rubber  pumps,  paper  and  paper 
boxes,  lumber,  carriages,  tables,  cigar  boxes,  flour, 
etc.  The  population  of  the  city,  4,984  in  t 880,  was 
increased  to  7,378  in  1900. 

YRIARTE.  See  Iriarte. 

YTTRIUM,  the  name  of  a rare  element  which  in  its 
character  is  closely  allied  to,  and  in  nature  is  always 
associated  with,  cerium  lanthanum,  didymiurp,  and  erb- 
ium.  (See  Lanthanum.) 

Metallic  yttrium  is  obtained  by  reducing  the  chloride 
with  potassium;  but  this  operation  has  never  been 
carried  out  with  pure  chloride.  Yttria,  Y20;}1  is  a 
yellowish  white  powder,  which  at  high  temperatures 
radiates  out  a most  brilliant  white  light.  It  is  soluble, 
slowly  but  completely,  in  mineral  acids.  It  is  recog- 
nized most  surely  by  its  very  characteristic  spark  spec- 
trum. Solutions  of  yttria  salts  in  their  behavior  to  re- 
agents are  not  unlike  those  of  zirconia.  The  atomic 
weight  of  yttrium,  according  to  the  latest  researches,  is 
89.02,  if  O mb  16. 

YUCATAN,  a peninsular  region  of  Central  America, 
forming  the  southeastern  extremity  of  Mexico,  of  which, 
since  1861,  it  constitutes  the  two  confederate  States  of 
Campeche  (Campeachy)  in  the  west  and  Yucatan  in  the 
east  At  its  neck  the  peninsula  is  conterminous  on  the 
southeast  with  British  Honduras,  on  the  southwest  with 
the  State  of  Tabasco  (Mexico),  and  on  the  south  with 
the  republic  of  Guatemala,  the  boundaries  toward  these 
territories  being  largely  of  a purely  conventional  char- 
acter. From  this  base  the  land  projects  in  a compact 
ractangular  mass  between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  west  and  east,  for  280  miles  northward, 
across  nearly  four  degrees  of  latitude  (180  to  210  40  N. ) 
and  three  of  longitude  (87^  30'  to  90°  30'  W A to  within 
ni»k«  of  Cuna,  Horn  which  It  is  ^pAiated  by  the 


Yucatan  Channel.  It  has  a mean  breadth  of  abous 
200  miles,  a coast-line  of  700  miles,  and  a total  aic&  of 
55,400  square  miles,  with  a population  in  1882  of 
393,000  (Yucatan,  35,203  square  miles,  population  [1900] 
312,264;  Campeche,  18,087  square  miles,  population 
84,281). 

There  are  no  elevations  sufficiently  high  to  inter- 
cept the  moisture- bearing  clouds  from  the  Atlantic, 
while  those  from  the  Pacific  are  cut  off  by  the  Sieira 
Madre-  Hence  the  climate  is  necessarily  dry,  with  a 
deficient  and  uncertain  rainfall,  especially  in  the  central 
and  northern  districts.  Here  also  the  tropical  heats 
are  intensified  by  the  neighborhood  of  the  Gulf  Stream, 
which  in  its  passage  through  the  Yucatan  Channel  flows 
much  nearer  to  the  coast  of  the  peninsula  than  to  that 
of  Cuba.  Still,  the  climate,  although  “hot  of  the 
hottest  ” (Ober),  with  a temperature  ranging  from  750 
to  Fahr.  in  the  shade,  is  comparatively  healthy, 
owing  to  its  great  dryness  and  to  the  cool  breezes  which 
prevail  night  and  day  throughout  a great  part  of  the  year. 

All  the  northern  districts,  as  well  as  the  greater  part 
of  the  Sierra  Alta,  are  destitute  of  large  trees;  but  the 
coast  lands  on  both  sides  toward  Tabasco  and  British 
Honduras  enjoy  a sufficient  rainfall  to  support  large 
forest  growths,  including  the  mahogany  tree,  several 
valuable  cabinet  woods,  vanilla,  logwood,  and  other 
dyewoods.  Logwood  forests  fringe  all  the  lagoons  and 
many  parts  of  the  seaboard,  which  are  flooded  during 
the  rainy  season.  The  chief  cultivated  plants  are  maize, 
the  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  cotton,  coffee,  and  especially 
henequen,  the  so-called  Yucatan  hemp  or  Sisal  hemp, 
which,  however,  is  not  a hemp  at  all,  but  a true  fiber- 
It  is  yielded  by  Agave  sisalensis , which  grows  every- 
where, and  is  used  chiefly  for  the  manufacture  of  coarse 
sackcloth,  cordage,  and  hammocks.  The  yearly  maize 
crop  is  estimated  to  be  worth  over  $5,000,000,  and  the 
whole  of  the  agricultural  produce  about  $10,000,000. 
But  a comparatively  small  area  is  under  tillage,  owing 
largely  to  the  prevailing  system  of  vast  haciendas  (es- 
tates), which  the  owners  have  neither  the  necessary 
capital  nor  the  energy  to  administer.  Hence  symptoms 
of  decay  are  everywhere  visible;  the  whole  country  ir 
“mainly  a wilderness”  (Ober);  and  there  is  probably 
much  less  land  under  cultivation  than  at  the  time  of 
the  Spanish  conquest. 

Of  the  state  of  Yucatan  the  capital  is  Merida  (37,000 
inhabitants),  which  is  connected  with  its  port  of  Pro- 
greso, on  the  northwest  coast,  by  a railway  twenty-five 
miles  long,  the  only  line  in  the  country.  The  state  of 
Campeche  has  for  its  capital  the  town  and  seaport  of 
the  same  name  (18,087),  on  the  west  coast.  Other  towns 
in  the  peninsula  are  Tikul,  Ixmal,  and  Valladolid  in 
Yucatan,  and  the  port  of  El  Carmen  on  an  island  in 
Lake  Terminos  in  Campeche.  According  to  the  official 
returns,  there  are  at  present  (1900)  in  Yucatan  alto- 
gether 7 “cities,”  13  towns,  and  143  villages,  besides  15 
abandoned  settlements  and  333  haciendas.  But  scarcely 
any  of  these  places  have  as  many  as  10,000  inhabitants, 
while  the  population  of  the  great  majority  falls  below 
I,ooo. 

Yucatan  is  still  almost  entirely  inhabited  by  the 
same  Maya  race  that  was  found  in  possession  of  the 
land  at  the  time  of  discovery.  About  five-sixths  of  the 
population  are  of  nearly  pure  Maya  stock  and  speech, 
the  Spanish  and  mestizo  elements  being  mostly  confined 
to  the  large  towns.  The  mestizos  are  said  to  be  the 
handsomest  on  the  continent,  while  the  full-blood  natives 
are  perhaps  the  least  characteristic  of  all  the  aboriginal 

opulations.  They  have  the  coarse  black  and  straight 

air,  the  arched  no«e,  and  the  reddish-brown  complex- 
ion common  to  most  of  the  primitive  inhabitants  oi 
America.  But  they  cap  be  readily  distinguished  from 


YUC- 

til  of  them  by  their  regular  features,  low  cheek-bones, 
small  mouth  and  ears,  straight  jaws,  frank  expression 
and  a certain  air  of  refinement  betraying  descent  from 
a highly  cultured  people.  “ It  would  be  difficult,  ” says 
Charnay,  “ to  find  among  the  rural  classes  of  Europe 
men  of  a better  build,  or  with  more  intelligence  and 
open  countenances.  ” Although  generally  peaceful, 
patient  under  oppression,  and  even  somewhat  indolent, 
their  history  since  the  conquest  (1547),  has  not  been 
wholly  uneventful.  After  more  than  two  centuries  of 
passive  resistance,  there  was  a general  revolt  in  1761, 
brought  about  by  the  intolerable  misrule  of  the  Spanish 
administration.  The  declaration  of  independence  ( 1821) 
was  followed  in  1824  by  the  union  with  the  Mexican 
confederacy,  which  continued  without  interruption  till 
1840.  In  that  year  an  independent  republic  was  set  up 
in  Yucatan,  which,  however,  was  suppressed  in  1843. 
Then  came  the  general  uprising  of  the  natives  in  1846, 
when  Mexico  was  engaged  in  a disastrous  war  with  the 
United  States.  To  quell  the  revolt,  the  ruling  classes 
were  obliged  to  call  in  the  aid  of  the  Mexicans  (1847-53) 
whereby  the  peninsula  again  lost  its  autonomy,  and  was 
divided  (1861)  into  the  two  federal  states  of  Yucatan  and 
Campeche.  But  the  rebellion  was  not  entirely  sup- 
pressed, and  many  of  the  natives,  withdrawing  eastward 
to  the  coast-lands  beyond  the  Sierra  Alta,  have  hitherto 
defied  all  the  efforts  of  the  authorities  to  reduce  them. 

YUCCA,  a genus  of  the  order  Liliacea:,  the  species 
of  which  are  remarkable  for  their  stately  appearance 
and  generally  magnificent  inflorescence.  They  occur  in 

403 


- Y V E 6429 

greatest  frequency  in  Mexico  and  the  southwestern  States 
of  the  American  Union,  extending  also  into  Central 
America,  and  occurring  in  such  numbers  in  some  places 
as  to  form  “ straggling  forests.  ” 

A coarse  fiber  is  obtained  by  the  Mexicans  from  the 
stem  and  foliage,  which  they  utilize  for  cordage.  The 
succulent  fruits,  which  resemble  small  bananas,  are 
cooked  as  an  article  of  diet;  and  the  roots  contain  a 
saponaceous  matter  used  instead  of  soap. 

Y UN-NAN.  See  China. 

YUN-NAN  FU,  the  capital  of  the  Chinese  province 
of  Yun-nan,  is  situated  in  25°6'  N.  latitude  and  1020  52" 
E.  longitude.  Yun-nan  Fu  has  a prosperous  and  busy 
aspect;  the  shops  are  large  and  well  supplied  with  native 
silken  goods,  saddlery,  etc.,  while  English  cotton,  Rus- 
sian cloths,  and  raw  cotton  from  Burmah  constitute  the 
main  foreign  merchandise.  Employment  for  large 
numbers  of  workpeople  is  found  in  the  copper  factories. 
A local  mint  at  Yun-nan  Fu  issued  annually  101,000,- 
000  cash  before  the  outbreak  of  the  rebellion  in  1855. 
The  population  of  the  city  is  estimated  at  about  200,000. 

YVETOT,  a town  in  France,  chef-lieu  of  an  arrron- 
dissement  in  the  department  of  Seine-Inferieure,  stands 
on  the  plateau  of  Caux,  twenty-four  miles  northwest  of 
Rouen,  on  the  railway  to  Havre,  and  is  chiefly  k^own 
from  Beranger’s  famous  song.  Calicoes,  ticking,  Sia- 
mese, rouennerie  cotton,  reps,  and  handkerchiefs  are 
made  here,  as  in  most  places  in  the  department,  and  a 
trade  is  carried  on  in  wool.’  The  population  was  8,333 
in  1901. 


2 the  last  letter  of  oar  alphabet,  has  fallen  away  from 
, its  old  place  in  the  Phoenician  and  Greek  alpha- 
bets. In  these  it  stood  seventh,  probably  with  the 
value  of  dz  or  zd.  In  shape  it  was  X in  all  the  older 
writings  both  of  the  Ionian  and  Euboean  type.  Later 
it  became  2.  as  we  have  it,  by  a natural  and  convenient 
change.  But  X is  the  older  Italian,  as  well  as  the  Greek 
form  ; it  remained  so  in  Oscan ; in  Etruscan  and  Um- 
briaf  the  cross  strokes  were  brought  near  together,  but 
the  upright  line  remained.  The  Latin  alphabet,  how- 
ever, dropped  the  symbol,  having  apparently  no  need 
of  :’t.  It  appears  on  an  old  coin  of  Cosa,  unless  the 
letter  there  be  only  a modified  s.  Later,  in  the  first 
century  b.c.,  the  letter  in  the  form  2 was  re-intro- 
duced, where  we  have  it,  to  represent  more  accurately 
the  sound  of  2 in  words  borrowed  from  the  Greek,  in 
which  alone  it  appears ; ss  (or  initial  s)  had  previously 
been  employed  for  this  purpose.  The  original  place  of 
the  letter  had  been  occupied  in  the  meantime  by  G,  the 
Latin  modified  form  of  C (see  under  G),  so  2 had  to 
take  the  lowest  place  together  with  Y,  which  had  been 
also  borrowed  from  Greece  for  a similar  purpose. 

The  exact  value  of  zeta  in  Greek  has  been  much  dis- 
cussed. That  it  is  a double  sound — not  French  2 (the 
voiced  sibilant  corresponding  to  the  voiceless  s) — seems 
clear  from  Aristotle’s  statement  that  £,  ib,  and  C were 
all  6vficpooviai.  and  fro'm  its  power  of  lengthening  a 
revious  short  vowel  in  scanning.  The  arguments, 
owever,  for  the  dz  or  zd  value  are  about  evenly  bal- 
anced, and  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  may  have  had 
both.  In  Latin  the  value  was  doubtless  that  of  the 
Greek  2. 

In  Old  English  2 hardly  occurs;  when  it  does  it  is  in 
borrowed  names  with  the  value  of  ts,  as  in  Betzaida, 
Zabulon.  It  was  introduced  in  order  to  represent 
French  2 in  words  borrowed  from  France,  as  zeal, , zone. 
But  it  is  used  in  only  a very  small  number  of  the  words 
where  the  sound  occurs;  we  still  adhere  to  the  usage  of 
our  forefathers  and  employ  s for  the  j-sound  and  the 
2-sound  alike,  indeed  rather  inclining  to  use  s for  2,  and 
to  differentiate  s by  doubling  the  symbol;  compare  his 
( i.e .,  hiz)  and  hiss  (i.e.,  his).  In  German  2 represents 
ts,  the  sound  into  which  Teutonic  t passed  in  High 
German — e.g.,  in  herz , our  “heart.”  It  was  also  used 
formerly,  either  alone  or  in  combination  with  s,  to 
denote  the  voiceless  sibilant  when  final;  thus  the  con- 
junction dass,  which  is  nothing  but  the  neuter  pronoun 
das,  was  formerly  written  daz,  and  is  sometimes  even 
now  written  dasz.  In  French  the  Latin  2 became  the 
voiced  sibilant;  and  a similar  process  has  taken  place  in 
modern  Greek.  In  French,  however,  the  final  sound 
must  once  have  been  stronger — e.g. , in  fils  (filius),  later 
ftz , and  still  later  fis  (as  it  is  still  pronounced),  which 
passed  into  England  in  the  form  Fitz  in  proper  names. 
Still  plainer  is  the  evidence  of  verbal  forms  like  avez *= 
avets  = habetis. 


For  the  history  of  the  English  variant  < for  z,  see 
article  Y. 

ZAANDAM,  Zaanreoam,  or  Saardam,  a village 
of  Holland,  in  the  province  of  North  Holland,  five 
miles  by  rail  to  the  northwest  of  Amsterdam,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Zaan  with  the  Y.  Peter  the  Great  of 
Russia  wrought  at  Zaandam  as  a ship-carpenter  for  a 
short  time  in  1697,  and  the  hut  in  which  he  is  said  to 
have  lived  is  still  shown  and  much  visited.  Some  ship- 
building is  still  carried  on.  The  population  in  1889 
was  14,351. 

ZACATECAS,  a city  of  Mexico,  capital  of  the  state 
of  the  same  name,  lies  340  miles  by  rail  northwest  of 
Mexico,  in  22°46/  N.  latitude  and  1020  \V.  longitude. 
Zacatecas,  which  has  a population  of  40.000,  is  the 
center  of  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  productive  silver- 
mining districts  in  the  republic,  and  the  town  itself 
stands  on  the  rich  vein  discovered  here  by  Juan  de 
Tolosa  in  1546.  Since  the  completion  of  the  Central 
Mexican  railway  to  this  place  in  1884  ii  has  increased 
in  population  and  prosperity. 

The  state  of  Zacatecas  lies  between  Coahuila  and 
Jalisco  north  and  south  respectively,  and  is  elsewhere 
conterminous  w:th  Guanajuato,  Durango,  and  San  Luis 
Potosi.  It  has  an  area  of  24,757  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  462,886,  of  whom  a preponderating  pro- 
portion are  Indians  or  mestizos.  It  stands  at  a mean 
altitude  of  over  7,000  feet  above  sea-level,  and  is 
traversed  by  the  Mazapil,  Norillos,  Guadaloupe,  and 
other  metalliferous  ranges,  this  state  ranking  among  the 
first  in  the  republic  for  mineral  wealth.  Next  to  the 
Veta  Madre  of  Guanajuato  and  the  famous  Comstock 
lode,  Nevada,  the  Veta  Grande  of  Zacatecas  is  held  to 
be  the  most  remarkable  silver  vein  in  North  America. 
The  chief  mining  districts  are  Zacatecas,  Espiritu 
Santo,  Chapala,  Los  Arcos,  Norias,  Ipala,  Santa  Lucia. 
Naranjal,  and  Santo  Martino;  and  in  1886  about  324 
mines  were  open  (21  gold,  67  gold  and  silver,  167  silver 
alone,  15  copper,  37  lead,  and  16  quicksilver).  Besides 
its  minerals  the  state  possesses  considerable  agricultural 
resources,  the  southeastern  parts  especially  being  very 
fertile  and  well  watered  by  the  rivers  Tlaltenango  and 
Juchipila.  Maize,  wheat,  fruits — such  as  peaches,  apri- 
cots, grapes — and  all  kinds  of  vegetables  are  extensively 
cultivated,  the  annual  maize  crop  being  valued  at  over 
$5,000,000,  wheat  at  about  $1,000,000,  and  the  remain- 
ing crops  at  about  $3,000,000.  Even  in  the  bleak  and 
arid  northern  districts  there  are  some  extensive  grazing 
grounds,  where  cattle,  horses,  mules,  sheep,  and  goats 
thrive  well.  Some  of  the  slopes  are  well  timbered,  the 
chief  species  being  the  mountain  cedar,  oak,  elm,  ash, 
and  cotton-wood.  Besides  the  capital,  the  chief  mining 
towns  are  Fresnillo  (population  15,000),  Garcia  (8,000), 
Villanueva  (7,000),  Linos  (7,000),  Sombrereta  (6,000), 
and  Nieves  (3,000). 

ZACH,  Franz  Xaver,  Baron  von.  astronomer  was 


Z AC—Z AM 


born  at  Pesth  in  June,  1754.  He  served  for  some  time 
in  the  Austrian  army,  and  afterward  lived  in  London 
from  1783  to  1786  as  tutor  in  the  house  of  the  Saxon 
minister,  Count  Briihl.  In  1786  he  was  appointed  by 
Ernest  II.  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  director  of  a new 
observatory  on  the  Seeberg  at  Gotha,  which  was  finished 
in  1791.  From  1806  Zach  accompanied  the  duke’s 
widow  on  her  travels  in  the  south  of  Europe.  He  died 
in  Paris  on  September  2,  1832. 

ZACHARIAE  VON  LINGENTHAL,  KarlSalo- 
mo,  German  jurist,  was  born  on  September  14,  1769,  at 
Meissen  in  Saxony.  In  1807  he  went  to  Heidelberg, 
then  beginning  its  period  of  splendor  as  a school  of  law. 
There,  resisting  many  calls  to  Gottingen,  Berlin,  and 
other  universities,  he  remained  until  his  death.  In 
1820  he  was  elected  representative  of  the  university 
in  the  first  Baden  chamber,  and  four  years  later  was 
made  a member  of  the  second.  From  1825  to  1829  he 
devoted  much  time  to  political  affairs  and  to  the  prepar- 
ation of  a code.  In  1842  he  was  ennobled  with  the 
title  of  Von  Lingenthal.  To  the  last  days  of  his  life  he 
toiled  with  the  ardor  of  a young  student.  He  died  on 
March  27,  1843,  leaving  a son  who  has  worthily  con- 
tinued bis  father’s  labors  in  jurisprudence. 

ZACHARIAS,  St.,  pope  from  741  to  752,  was  a 
'Greek  by  birth,  and  appears  to  have  been  on  intimate 
terms  with  Gregory  III.,  whom  he  succeeded  (Novem- 
ber, 741).  He  died  March  14,  752,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Stephen  II. 

ZAIRE,  or  Congo,  designations  of  the  river  now 
generally  known  under  the  latter  name.  This  river 
system  occupies  a large  part  of  equatorial  Africa— 
1,540,000  square  miles  according  to  a probable  estimate; 
and  in  the  length  of  its  course  (some  2,900  miles)  and 
the  volume  of  its  discharge  (1,500,000  or  at  least  1,200,- 
000  cubic  feet  per  second)  the  river  ranks  among  the 
most  important  in  the  world.  The  history  of  the  ex- 
ploration of  the  Congo  basin  is  a matter  of  yesterday 
and  to-day;  and  in  several  directions  the  exact  limits, 
with  the  relations  of  the  affluents  to  the  system,  have 
still  to  be  determined.  The  mouth  of  the  river  lies  on 
the  west  coast  of  the  continent  in  6°  S.  latitude  and  120 
25'  E.  longitude.  The  head-waters  of  its  most  eastern 
stream  (Malagarazi)  rise  only  370  miles  from  the  Indian 
Ocean.  The  course  of  the  main  river  describes  a vast 
bow,  the  central  portion  of  which  lies  as  far  north  as  2° 
N.  latitude. 

The  exploration  of  the  Congo  system  has  been  accom- 
panied and  followed  by  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
political  movements  of  modern  times.  On  September 
15,  1876,  the  International  African  Association  was  con- 
stituted, under  the  presidency  of  Leopold  II.,  king  of 
the  Belgians,  for  the  purpose  of  devising  the  best  means 
of  opening  up  equatorial  Africa  to  civilization.  Later 
(on  November  25,  1878),  was  founded  under  the  same 
auspices  a Comite  d’fitudes  du  Haut  Congo,  which  after- 
ward became  known  as  the  International  Association  of 
the  Congo.  It  was  as  an  agent  of  this  association  that 
Mr.  Stanley  undertook  his  epoch-making  ascent  of  the 
river  in  1879.  September  the  first  permanent  station 
of  the  association  was  founded  at  Vivi;  in  December  the 
second  at  Jangila;  and  in  May,  1881,  the  third  at  Man- 
yanga.  The  association  was  recognized  as  an  independ- 
ent territorial  government  by  the  United  States  in 
April,  1884,  and  by  Germany  in  November  of  the  same 
year.  An  international  conference  for  the  regulation  of 
the  relations  of  the  new  state  and  the  various  European 
Governments  was  held  at  Berlin  under  the  presidency  of 
Prince  Bismarck  (November  15,  1884-February  26, 
1885).  The  permanent  neutrality  of  the  Congo  State 
territory,  freedom  of  commerce  in  the  Congo  basin,  and 
the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  were  among  the  main 


Mil 

points  established  by  the  plenipotentiaries.  In  the  close 
of  1884  and  the  early  part  of  1885  the  association  was 
recognized  by  England  (December  16,  1884),  Italy, 
Austria-Hungary,  the  Netherlands,  France,  etc.  In 
April,  1885,  the  Belgian  chamber  of  representatives 
authorized  King  Leopold  to  become  sovereign  of  the 
new  state — the  union  between  Belgium  and  the  Congo  to 
be  purely  personal.  The  total  area  of  the  Independent 
State  of  the  Congo,  as  it  is  officially  designated,  is  esti- 
mated at  807^125  square  miles,  and  its  population  may 
be  about  40,000,000.  It  has  a very  limited  coast-line, 
being  hemmed  in  by  French  territory  on  the  north  and 
by  Portuguese  territory  on  the  south.  The  southern 
limit  is  a conventional  line  from  Nokki  (on  the  south 
bank  of  the  river  below  Vivi)  across  the  continent  to 
Langi  Lake;  the  northern  limit  follows  the  fourth  para! • 
lel‘of  N.  latitude  from  170  to  300  E.  longitude.  French 
territory  occupies  all  the  north  bank  of  the  river  from 
Ngombi  (15  E.  longitude)  up  to  Lukolela.  In  1888  the 
state  maintained  146  white  officials,  and  had  a force  ol 
upward  of  1,000  native  soldiers  (Zanzibaris,  Haussas, 
and  Bangalas).  It  has  four  steamers  on  the  lower 
Congo  and  five  on  the  upper.  The  value  of  the  com- 
merce is  as  yet  only  $2,800,060,  the  principal  exports 
being  india-rubber,  ivory,  coffee,  palm  nuts  and  oil, 
copal,  and  wax.  As  to  the  possibility  of  developing  the 
country  into  a great  consumer  of  European  goods,  there 
has  been  much  and  bitter  discussion;  at  the  present  stage 
it  is  admitted  that  it  has  no  native  product  of  value  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  pay  for  a large  importation.  The 
river,  however,  has  recently  been  proved  navigable  for 
sea-going  vessels  as  far  as  the  capital,  Boma,  and  no 
serious  difficulties  have  been  met  by  the  engineers  en- 
gaged in  surveying  a railroad  from  the  lower  Congo  up 
to  Stanley  Pool. 

ZAMBESI,  the  most  important  river  on  the  East 
Coast  of  Africa,  and  the  fourth  largest  on  the  conti- 
nent, drains  during  its  course  of  about  1,200  miles  an 
area  of  600,000  square  miles.  Its  head-streams,  which 
have  not  yet  been  fully  explored,  are  the  Leeambye  or 
Iambaji,  rising  in  Cazembe’s  country;  the  Lungebungo, 
which  descends  from  the  M ossamba  Mountains;  and  the 
Leeba  river,  from  the  marshy  Lake  Dilolo  (4,740  feet), 
situated  between  io°  and  120  S.  latitude  and  220  and 
23°  E.  longitude.  These  three  rivers,  reenforced  by  the 
Nhengo,  unite  to  form  the  upper  Zambesi  (Leeambye), 
which  flows  at  first  southward  and  slightly  eastward 
through  the  Barotse  valley,  then  turns  prominently  to 
the  east  near  its  junction  with  the  Chobe  (Chuando  or 
Linianti),  and  passes  over  the  Victoria  Falls.  Thence, 
as  the  middle  reach  of  the  Zambesi,  the  river  sweeps 
northeast  towards  Zumbo  and  the  Kebrabassa  rapids 
above  Tete,  and  finally  forms  the  lower  Zambesi,  which 
curves  southward  until  it  reaches  the  Indian  Ocean  at 
180  50'  S.  latitude.  Fed  chiefly  from  the  highland 
country  which  stretches  from  Lake  Nyassa  to  inner 
Angola,  its  chief  tributaries  are  the  Loangwa  and  the 
Shire,  the  last  an  important  river  draining  out  of  Lake 
Nyassa,  and  which  in  the  dry  season  contains  probably 
as  great  a volume  of  water  as  the  Zambesi,  and  is 
much  more  navigable.  Except  for  an  interruption  ol 
seventy  miles  at  the  Murchison  cataracts,  the  Shir6  is 
open  throughout  its  entire  length  to  the  lake. 

On  the  whole  the  Zambesi  has  a gentle  current,  and 
flows  through  a succession  of  wide  fertile  valleys  and 
richly  wooded  plains;  but  owing  to  the  terrace-like 
structure  of  the  continent,  the  course  of  the  river  is  in- 
terrupted from  point  to  point  by  cataracts  and  rapids. 
These  form  serious,  and  in  some  cases  insurmountable, 
hindrances  to  navigation. 

ZAMORA,  an  inland  province  of  Spain,  one  of  the 


three  into  which  the  former  province  of  Leon  has  since 
1833  been  divided,  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  Tras-os- 
Montes  (Portugal)  and  Orense,  on  the  north  by  Leon, 
on  the  east  by  Valladolid,  and  on  the  south  by  Sala- 
manca; its  area  is  4,135  square  miles.  There  are  eight 
partidos  judiciales  and  300  ayuntamientos;  besides  Za- 
mora (see  below),  the  capital,  there  is  only  one  town, 
the  historic  city  of  Toro  (7,754),  with  a population  ex- 
ceeding 5,000.  The  total  population  of  the  province  in 
1897  was  275,354. 

Zamora,  capital  of  the  above  province,  is  situated 
2,000  feet  above  sea-level,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Douro  (here  crossed  by  a bridge  of  seventeen  pointed 
arches)  a little  below  its  junction  with  the  Valderaduey, 
fifty-seven  miles  by  rail  west  by  north  from  Medina  del 
Campo  and  182  miles  northwest  from  Madrid.  The 
population  in  1897  was  16,632. 

ZANESVILLE,  the  capital  of  Muskingum  county, 
Ohio,  is  the  site  of  one  of  the  earliest  settlements  made 
in  the  Northwestern  Territory.  In  1804  if  became 
the  capital  of  that  portion  of  the  present  State,  and  the 
State  legislature  convened  therefrom  1810  to  1812.  In 
1855  the  present  city  was  incorporated.  It  is  situated 
on  both  banks  of  the  Muskingum  river  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Licking,  and  has  been  for  years  a prominent  point 
on  the  national  road.  It  is  the  only  interior  town  in 
the  State  upon  a navigable  river,  making  the  city  acces- 
sible by  steamers  from  cities  on  the  Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi; also  from  the  east  and  west  by  a perfect  system 
of  railways  which  embraces  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati 
and  St.  Louis;  Bellaire,  Zanesville  and  Cincinnati; 
Columbus  and  Eastern;  Zanesville  and  Ohio  River; 
Cleveland  and  Canton;  Cincinnati  and  Muskingum 
Valley;  Baltimore  and  Ohio;  and  Cleveland,  Akron  and 
Columbus;  and  is  connected  with  Lake  Erie  by  the  Ohio 
canal.  The  city  is  noted  for  its  beauty  of  location  and 
handsome  surroundings,  as  also  for  the  intelligence  and 
enterprise  of  the  inhabitants,  which  find  expression  in 
the  improvements  both  of  a public  and  private  character 
almost  constantly  in  progress.  It  is  170  miles  northeast 
of  Cincinnati,  fifty-nine  miles  east  of  Columbus,  and 
seventy-eight  miles  west  of  Bellaire.  It  contains  a 
court-house,  city  hall,  twenty  churches,  a high  school, 
one  savings,  two  private,  and  two  national  banks,  one 
bi-weekly,  six  weekly,  and  three  daily  papers,  besides 
two  monthly  magazines,  an  opera-house,  a music  hall; 
also  several  public  halls,  hotels,  and  many  stores. 
The  prosperity  of  Zanesville  is  materially  promoted  by 
the  extensive  line  of  manufactures  there  conducted,  in- 
cluding steam  engines,  boilers,  stoves,  hardware 
Specialties,  files,  wire  fencing,  twine  and  cordage,  saw- 
mill machinery,  brass  works,  plows  and  agricultural 
implements,  glue,  woolen  and  cotton  goods,  paper, 
paints,  soap,  paper  boxes,  pottery,  and  other  articles  of 
necessity  and  luxury.  The  city  is  connected  by  bridges 
with  Putnam  and  West  Zanesville  suburbs  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river,  and  is  provided  with  all  the 
latest  improvements  in  the  way  of  electric  lights,  street 
railways,  etc.  The  population  in  1900  was  23,538. 

ZANTE,  the  ancient  Zacynthus,  an  island  of 
Greece,  one  of  the  Ionian  group,  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  in 
37°  40'  N.  latitude  and  210  E.  longitude,  is  25  miles 
long,  about  12  broad,  and  64  miles  round,  with  an  area 
of  277  square  miles,  and  a population  in  1897  of  45,032. 
Zante  lies  eight  miles  south  of  Cephalonia,  for  rung 
with  it,  Leucas,  and  Ithaca  a crescent- shaped  insular 
group,  which  represents  the  crests  of  a submerged 
limestone  ridge  facing  the  Gulf  of  Patras. 

The  island  enjoys  a healthy  climate ; and,  although 
there  are  no  perennial  streams,  an  abundant  supply  of 
good  water  is  obtained  from  the  numerous  springs, 
occurring  especially  in  the  eastern  and  central  dis- 


tricts. But  earthquakes  are  frequent  and  at  times 
disastrous, 

Zante,  capital  of  the  island,  is  a considerable  seaport 
on  the  east  side,  with  a population  of  16,250.  It 
occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Zacynthus,  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  Zacynthus,  son  of  a legendary 
Arcadian  chief,  Dardanus,  to  whom  was  also  attributed 
the  neighboring  citadel  of  Psophis.  But  of  this  as  well 
as  of  the  temple  of  Diana  that  formerly  crowned  the 
summit  of  Mount  Scopus,  no  vestiges  can  now  be  dis- 
covered. Traditionally  the  island  formed  part  of  the 
territory  of  Ulysses,  king  of  Ithaca,  and  at  one  time  it 
appears  to  have  also  received  a colony  of  Achaeans  from 
Peloponnesus.  Later  it  joined  the  Athenian  hegemony ; 
but  after  the  fall  of  Athens  the  democratic  party  was 
replaced  by  an  oligarchy,  which  ruled  in  the  interests  of 
Sparta.  Under  the  Romans,  Zacynthus  was  included  in 
the  province  of  Epirus,  and  passed  in  mediaeval  times 
successively  from  Byzantium  to  the  Normans  (eleventh 
century),  the  Orsini,  counts  of  Cephalonia  (after  the 
fourth  crusade),  and  the  Tocco  family,  who  held  it  with 
Cephalonia  as  vassals  of  the  Neapolitan  Angevine 
dynasty.  In  the  fifteenth  century  it  was  occupied  by 
the  Venetians,  and  was  held  by  them  till  the  fall  of  the 
republic  in  1797.  Wrested  in  1799  by  the  Russians 
from  the  French,  it  was  soon  after  seized  by  the  Eng- 
lish, and  i»  1815  constituted  with  the  other  Ionian 
Islands  a “ septinsular  republic  ” under  British  protec- 
tion, till  the  union  with  Greece  in  1864. 

ZANZIBAR,  or  more  correctly,  Zanguebar,  a sul- 
tanate of  east  central  Africa,  which  till  recently  com- 
prised the  four  islands  of  Zanzibar,  Pemba,  Lamu,  and 
Mafia  (Monfia),  together  with  the  adjacent  seaboard 
from  about  30  N.  to  io°  S.  latitude,  with  undefined 
limits  toward  the  interior.  But  by  the  Anglo-German 
convention,  signed  in  London  on  October  29,  1886,  the 
territory  on  the  mainland  was  restricted  to  the  strip  of 
coast  lands  ten  nautical  miles  broad,  stretching  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Miningani  river  at  the  bay  of  Tunghi,  just 
south  of  Cape  Delgado,  northward  to  Kipini  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Tana,  together  with  the  isolated  stations 
of  Kisimayu  (Kismayu),  Brava,  Merka,  and  Magdoshu 
(Magtdoxo)on  the  Somal  coast,  each  with  a land  circuit 
of  ten  nautical  miles,  and  Warsheikh  on  the  same  coast, 
with  aland  circuit  of  five  nautical  miles.  Since  then, 
however,  further  changes  have  taken  place.  The  sul- 
tan’s officers  have  been  replaced  in  the  seaports  of  Dar- 
es-Salaam  and  P^ngani  on  the  Zanzibar  coast  proper 
by  commissioners  of  the  German  East  African  Associa- 
tion, to  whom  the  customs  of  those  places  have  been 
farmed;  the  port  of  Tunghi  below  Cape  Delgado  has  been 
claimed  and  forcibly  occupied  (1887)  by  the  Portuguese; 
the  island  of  Pemba  appears  to  have  been  ceded  (May, 
1888)  to  the  recently  chartered  British  East  African 
Company;  lastly,  the  station  of  Kisimayu  on  the  Somal 
coast  is  claimed  (June,  1888)  by  Italy  in  reparation  of  an 
affront  offered  to  the  Italian  consul  at  Zanzibar.  But, 
as  defined  by  the  above-mentioned  convention,  the  re- 
duced dominions  of  the  sultan  have  areas  (in  square 
miles)  and  estimated  populations  (1897)  as  under: — 


Area. 

Popula- 

tion. 

640 

380 

200 

1^0)000 

(i  ((  JVl3.fi  21 

(^0,000 

7,000 

“ “ Lamu 

5° 

20,000 

500,000 

Zanzibar  coastlands ..•••#•••••••••••••••••• 

6,000 

150 

Stations  on  Somal  coast 

8,000 

7,420 

735.000 

The  political  and  commercial,  as  well  as  the  geo 


ZAR 


graphical,  center  of  the  state  is  the  fertile  and  densely 
peopled  island  of  Zanzibar,  which  lies  at  a mean  dis- 
tance of  twenty  miles  from  the  Swahili  coast,  between 
50  40'  and  6°  30'  S.  latitude. 

Mafia  itself  is  low  and  fertile,  and  extensively  planted 
with  cocoa-nut  palms.  It  is  continued  southward  by 
an  extensive  reef,  on  which  stands  the  chief  village, 
Chobe,  the  residence  of  the  governor  and  of  a few  Arab 
and  Hindu  (Banyan)  traders.  Chobe  stands  on  a shal- 
low creek  inaccessible  to  shipping. 

Zanzibar,  the  Unguya  of  the  natives,  is  not  exclusively 
of  coralline  formation,  but  also  presents  several  heights 
of  a reddish  ferruginous  clay,  rising  in  gentle  slopes 
above  the  central  plains.  In  the  south  these  heights 
nowhere  exceed  400  or  450  feet ; but  on  the  northwest 
coast  they  develop  a chain  of  hills  disposed  parallel  to 
the  shore  and  attaining  an  elevation  of  a little  over 
1,000  feet.  The  forests  by  which  the  island  was  formerly 
covered  have  mostly  disappeared,  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  rich  soil  is  carefully  cultivated,  yielding  two 
annual  crops  of  grain,  and  four  of  manioc,  the  staple 
food  of  the  people.  There  are  extensive  cocoa-nut 
groves,  and  from  India  and  Malaysia  have  been  intro- 
duced the  mangosteen,  guava,  durian,  cinnamon,  nut- 
meg, and  cloves,  all  of  which  thrive  well.  The  soil 
seems  specially  suited  for  the  clove,  which,  although 
nearly  destroyed  by  the  terrific  cyclone  of  1872,  has 
already  recovered  from  that  disaster,  and  the  annual 
export  of  this  spice  now  exceeds  $50,000  in  value. 
Although  the  fauna  is  almost  exclusively  continental, 
Zanzibar  till  recently  possessed  a distinct  variety  of 
Colobus  ( C.  kirkii ),  which  appears  to  be  now  extinct. 
Some  years  ago  a hippopotamus  visited  the  island  from 
the  mainland;  but  no  carnivora  are  now  found  larger 
than  the  serval  and  wild  cat. 

The  neighboring  island  of  Pemba,  intersected  by  50 
S.  latitude,  is  even  more  fertile,  but  much  less  cultivated, 
than  Zanzibar.  From  the  luxuriant  vegetation  which 
everywhere  clothes  the  cliffs  to  their  summits  it  takes 
the  name  of  the  “Green.”  The  land  is  exclusively 
owned  by  great  Arab  proprietors,  who  work  their  plan- 
tations with  scarcely  disguised  slave  labor  and  export 
considerable  quantities  of  cloves,  which  here  also  find  a 
congenial  home.  The  capital,  Shaki-Shaki,  which  lies 
at  the  head  of  a shallow  creek  on  the  west  side,  is  inac- 
cessible to  shipping.  But  at  Kishi-Kashi,  at  the  north- 
west extremity,  there  is  a deep  and  well-sheltered  har- 
bor, though  of  somewhat  difficult  approach.  Here 
resides  the  chief  of  the  Arab  landed  aristocracy,  who 
has  hitherto  been  more  of  a vassal  than  a subject  of  the 
sultan,  and  whose  allegiance  has  lately  been  transferred 
to  the  British  East  African  Association. 

Lamu  also,  the  fourth  member  of  the  sultan’s  former 
insular  possessions,  has  ceased  to  fly  the  Zanzibar  flag. 
It  is  a small  flat  island  lying  close  to  the  mainland  above 
the  mouth  of  the  Ozi  branch  of  the  Tana  delta,  and  ap- 
pears to  be  now  incorporated  in  the  adjacent  German 
territory  of  Vitu  land.  Lamu,  its  capital,  with  a reported 
population  of  15,000,  has  a fine  harbor,  formed  by  a 
long  deep  channel  separating  it  from  the  neighboring 
island  of  Manda. 

The  Zanzibar  seaboard  (now  generally  known  as  the 
Swahili  coast)  is  a low-lying,  swampy  and  alluvial  region, 
rising  gently  from  the  sea  toward  the  first  terraced 
escarpments  of  the  continental  plateau.  Owing  to  the 
numerous  streams  reaching  the  coast  along  this  seaboard 
— Rovuma,  Ukeredi,  Umbi-Kuru,  Rufiji,  Rufu,  Wami, 
Umba,  and  others — a great  part  of  the  surface  consists 
of  rich  alluvial  soil,  densely  covered  with  a tropical 
vegetation.  Here  the  warm  currents  setting  landward 
from  the  Indian  Ocean  bring  both  moisture  and  heat,  so 
that  this  coast  has  a higher  temperature  and  heavier 


*H3o 

rainfall  than  the  Atlantic  seaboard  under  the  same 
parallels  of  latitude.  Thanks  to  these  conditions, 
while  the  climate  is  oppressive  and  malarious,  the 
vegetation  is  extremely  luxuriant,  assuming  about  the 
marshy  deltas  the  aspect  of  an  impenetrable  jungle  of 
mangroves,  reeds,  and  tall  grasses,  growing  to  a height 
of  twelve  or  fourteen  feet. 

Besides  Dar-es-Salaam  and  Pangani,  surrendered  to 
the  Germans,  the  chief  stations  and  seaports,  going 
northward,  are  Lindi,  Kilwa  (Quiloa),  Bagamoyo, 
Mombasa  (Mombas),  and  Malindi  (Melinda).  Of  these 
Bagamoyo  is  at  present  the  most  important,  as 
the  starting-point  of  travelers  and  traders  for  the 
interior.  Here  are  also  the  headquarters  of  the  French 
Roman  Catholic  missions  in  east  equatorial  Africa,  with 
training  schools,  extensive  plantations,  and  gardens  of 
acclimatization.  Kilwa,  Mombasa,  and  Malindi,  great 
and  flourishing  emporiums  under  the  Zenj  empire,  are 
now  almost  abandoned.  This  remark  applies  also  to 
Magdoshu,  the  chief  isolated  station  on  the  Somal 
coast  belonging  to  Zanzibar. 

Zanzibar,  capital  of  the  island  and  state  of  the 
same  name,  is  the  largest  city  on  the  African  seaboard 
next  to  Alexandria  and  Tunis.  It  lies  in  sheltered 
waters,  from  thirty  to  forty  feet  deep,  on  the  west  side 
of  the  island,  in  6°  io'  S.  latitude,  about  twenty-five 
miles  northeast  of  Bagamoyo,  its  port  on  the  mainland. 
It  comprises  two  distinct  quarters — Shangani,  the  center 
of  trade  and  residence  of  the  sultan,  and  the  eastern 
suburb,  occupied  by  the  lowest  classes  (fishermen,  por- 
ters, slaves,  etc.),  with  a total  joint  population  estimated 
in  1897  at  about  60,000. 

ZARA  (Slav.  Zadar),  an  Austrian  seaport,  the  capital 
of  Dalmatia,  and  the  seat  of  a Roman  Catholic  arch- 
bishop and  of  a Greek  bishop,  lies  on  the  Adriatic,  130 
miles  southeast  of  Trieste,  opposite  the  islands  of 
Ugliano  and  Pasman,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
narrow  Channel  of  Zara.  The  harbor,  to  the  northeast 
of  the  town,  is  safe  and  spacious,  and  it  is  annually  en- 
tered by  about  1,200  vessels,  of  185,000  tons,  mainly 
engaged  in  the  coasting  trade.  The  chief  industry  is  the 
preparation  of  maraschino,  made  from  the  marasco,  or 
wild  cherry,  which  covers  the  hills  of  Dalmatia.  About 
340,000  bottles  of  this  liqueur  are  exported  annually. 
Glass-making  and  fishing  are  also  carried  on.  The 
population  of  the  town  in  1898  was  13,861,  of  the  com- 
mune 24,536.  Almost  all  of  these  are  of  Italian  de- 
scent, and  Italian  is  practically  the  only  language 
SDoken  in  the  town. 

ZARAGOZA,  or  Saragossa,  an  inland  province  of 
Spain,  one  of  the  three  into  which  Aragon  is  now 
divided,  is  bounded  on  the  northeast  and  east  by  Huesca, 
Lerida,  and  Tarragona,  on  the  south  by  Teruel  and 
Guadalajara,  and  on  the  west  by  Soria  and  Navarre; 
the  area  is  6,607  square  miles.  The  soil  is  in  its  level 
portions  comparatively  fertile,  the  chief  productions 
being  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  hemp,  flax,  oil,  and  wine. 
Silkworms  are  bred;  and  on  the  higher  grounds  sheep 
are  reared.  There  are  considerable  forests  on  the  lower 
mountain  slopes.  Zaragoza  has  no  manufactures  of 
importance.  There  are  13  partidos  judiciales,  and  312 
ayuntamientos ; of  these  only  Calatayud  (11,512)  and 
Zaragoza  (see  below)  have  more  than  10,000  inhabit- 
ants. The  total  population  of  the  province  in  1897  was 
413,480. 

Zaragoza,  capital  of  the  above  province,  formerly 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Aragon,  lies  at  a height  of 
600  feet  above  sea  level,  on  a rich  plain  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Ebro,  just  above  its  confluence  with  the 
Huerva,  212  miles  by  rail  to  the  northeast  of  Madrid. 
The  chief  manufactures  of  Zaragoza  are  silk,  woolen 
cloth,  leather,  saltpeter,  soap,  and  chocolate;  and  there 


6434  2 A R - 

is  considerable  trade  in  agricultural  produce,  and  in 
wine  and  spirits.  The  population  of  the  town  in  1898 
was  98,188. 

ZARLINO,  Gioseffe  or  Giuseppe,  musical  theorist, 
surnamed  from  his  birthplace,  Zarlinus  Clodiensis, 
was  born  at  Chioggia,  Venetia,  in  1517.  He  died  at 
Venice  on  February  14,  1590. 

ZEA.  See  Ceos. 

ZEALAND,  or  Sjaelland,  the  largest  and  most 
easterly  island  of  Denmark  ( q.v .),  is  separated  from 
Fiinen  on  the  west  by  the  Great  Belt  and  from  Sweden 
on  the  east  by  the  Sound;  its  greatest  length  from 
north  to  south  is  81  miles,  its  breadth  65,  and  its 
area  2,636  square  miles.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  pro- 
duces grain,  especially  rye  and  barley,  in  great  abun- 
dance, as  well  as  potatoes  and  other  vegetables,  and 
fruit.  Agriculture  and  cattle-raising,  along  with  some 
fishing,  are  the  leading  occupations  of  the  inhabitants ; 
linen  is  almost  the  only  article  of  domestic  industry. 
The  population  in  1899  was  610,000.  The  principal 
towns,  besides  Copenhagen  (q.v.),  the  capital  (378,- 
235),  are  Roeskilde  (5,893),  formerly  the  capital  and 
still  the  see  of  the  primate ; Elsinore  (8,978);  Slagelse 
(6,076),  a great  agricultural  center;  Sorb  (1,464),  for- 
merly the  seat  of  a university  and  still  educationally 
important;  and  Korsor  (3,954),  the  port  for  mail 
steamers  to  the  mainland,  connected  by  rail  with  Sorb, 
Roeskilde,  and  Copenhagen. 

ZEALAND,  the  most  westerly  province  of  Holland, 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  South  Holland,  on  the  east 
by  North  Brabant  and  Belgium,  on  the  southeast  and 
south  by  Belgium,  and  on  the  west  by  the  North  Sea. 
Its  area  is  689  square  miles,  the  greater  part  of  which  con- 
sists of  the  islands  Schouwen,  Duiveland,  St.  Philipsland, 
Tholen,  North,  South,  and  East  Beveland,  Wolfaarts- 
dyk,  and  Walcheren.  The  greater  part  of  the  surface 
is  below  sea-level.  The  westward  coasts  of  Schouwen 
and  Walcheren  are  partly  sheltered  by  dunes;  but  the 
province  is  mainly  dependent  for  protection  from  the 
sea  on  its  artificial  dykes,  which  have  a total  length  of 
300  miles.  The  soil  consists  of  a fertile  sea  clay  which 
specially  favors  the  production  of  wheat ; much  rye  is 
also  cultivated,  as  well  as  barley  (for  malting),  beans 
and  peas,  flax,  and  madder.  Cattle  and  swine  are 
reared,  and  dairy  produce  is  largely  exported  ; but  the 
sheep  of  the  province  are  small  and  their  wool  indiffer- 
ent. The  industries  (linen,  yarn -spinning,  distilling, 
brewing,  salt-refining,  shipbuilding)  are  comparatively 
unimportant.  The  inhabitants,  who  still  retain  many 
quaint  and  archaic  peculiarities  of  manner  and  dress, 
speak  the  variety  of  Dutch  known  as  Low  Frankish. 
The  capital  is  Middelburg  (population  18,378  in  1901), 
in  Walcheren,  where  also  is  Flushing  (14,005).  The 
total  population  of  the  province  in  1901  was  217,329. 

ZEBRA.  In  the  article  Horse  the  general  zoological 
and  anatomical  characteristics  of  the  genus  Equus , and 
its  relationship  to  other  animals,  were  fully  described. 
Among  the  existing  species  mention  was  made  of  certain 
forms  distinguished  from  the  rest  by  the  peculiar  color- 
ation, being  marked  by  conspicuous  dark  stripes  on  a 
lighter  ground,  and  by  their  exclusively  African  habitat. 
These  are  the  Quagga,  and  two,  if  not  three,  distinct 
species  to  which  the  name  zebra  is  commonly  applied. 
The  animal  o'  this  group  which  was  first  known  to 
Europeans,  ana  was  formerly  considered  the  most  com- 
mon, is  the  True  Zebra  (Equus  zebra  Linn.),  sometimes 
called  the  Mountain  Zebra.  It  inhabits  the  mountain- 
ous regions  of  the  Cape  Colony;  but  now,  owing  to  the 
advances  of  civilized  man  into  its  somewhat  restricted 
range,  it  has  become  very  scarce,  and  is  even,  like  its 
ally  the  quagga,  threatened  with  extermination  at  no 
distant  date.  The  second  species,  Burchell’s  Zebra 


-ZEC 

(Equus  burchelli,  Gray),  still  roams  in  large  herds  ovei 
the  plains  to  the  north  of  the  Orange  river,  but  in  yearly 
diminishing  numbers.  Both  species  are  subject  to  con- 
siderable  individual  variations  in  marking,  but  the  fol- 
lowing are  the  principal  characteristics  by  which  they 
can  be  distinguished. 

Equus  zebra  is  the  smaller  of  the  two  (about  four  feet 
high  at  the  shoulders),  and  has  longer  ears,  a tail  more 
scantily  clothed  with  hair,  and  a shorter  mane.  The 
general  ground  color  is  white,  and  the  stripes  are  black; 
the  lower  part  of  the  face  is  bright  brown.  With  the 
exception  of  the  abdomen  and  the  inside  of  the  thighs, 
the  whole  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  stripes,  the 
legs  having  narrow  transverse  bars  reaching  quite  to  the 
hoofs,  and  the  base  of  the  tail  being  also  barred.  The 
outsides  of  the  ears  have  a white  tip  and  a broad  black 
mark  occupying  the  greater  part  of  the  surface,  but  are 
white  at  the  base.  Perhaps  the  most  constant  and 
obvious  distinction  between  this  species  and  the  next  is 
the  arrangement  of  the  stripes  on  the  hinder  part  of  the 
back,  where  there  are  a number  of  short  transverse 
bands  reaching  to  the  median  longitudinal  dorsal  stripe, 
and  unconnected  with  the  uppermost  of  the  broad 
stripes  which  pass  obliquely  across  the  haunch  from  the 
flanks  toward  the  root  of  the  tail.  There  is  often  a 
median  longitudinal  stripe  under  the  chest. 

Equus  burchelli  is  a rhther  larger  and  more  robust 
animal,  with  smaller  ears,  a longer  mane,  and  fuller 
tail.  The  general  ground  color  of  the  body  is  pale 
yellowish  brown,  the  limbs  nearly  white,  the  stripes 
dark  brown  or  black.  In  the  typical  form  they  do  not 
extend  on  to  the  limbs  or  the  tail;  but  there  is  a great 
variation  in  this  respect,  even  in  animals  of  the  same 
herd,  some  being  striped  quite  down  to  the  hoofs  (this 
form  has  been  named  E.  chapnanni).  There  is  a 
strongly  marked  median  longitudinal  ventral  black 
stripe,  to  which  the  lower  ends  of  the  transverse  side 
stripes  are  usually  united,  but  the  dorsal  stripe  (also 
strongly  marked)  is  completely  isolated  in  its  posterior 
half,  and  the  uppermost  of  the  broad  haunch  stripes 
runs  nearly  parallel  to  it.  A much  larger  proportion  of 
the  ears  is  white  than  in  the  other  species.  In  the  middle 
of  the  wide  intervals  between  the  broad  black  stripes  of 
the  flanks  and  haunches,  fainter  stripes  are  generally  seen. 

Equus  grevyi. — Under  this  name  a zebra  has  lately 
been  described  which  was  sent  in  1882  to  Paris  from 
the  Galla  country,  lying  to  the  south  of  Abyssinia,  the 
most  northern  locality  in  which  zebras  have  hitherto  been 
met  with.  In  most  of  its  characteristics  it  resembles 
E.  zebra , but  the  stripes  are  finer  and  more  numerous 
than  in  the  typical  examples  of  that  species,  and  it  has 
a strong,  black,  and  isolated  dorsal  stripe. 

ZEBULUN  (pfenp,  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of 

Israel,  derived,  according  to  Gen.  xxx.  20,  from  the 
sixth  son  of  Leah.  The  verse  offers  two  etymologies 
of  the  name,  from  the  roots  ZBD,  “ give,”  and  ZBL, 
“inhabit.”  The  form  Zaf5ov\oor  (LXX.),  with  6 in 
the  last  syllable,  agrees  with  the  vocalization  of  the 
adjective  “ Zebulonite.  ” The  country  of  Zeb- 

ulun  lay  in  the  fertile  hilly  country  to  the  north  of  the 
plain  of  Jezreel,  which  forms  the  first  step  toward  the 
mountains  of  Asher  and  Naphtali,  and  included  the 
goodly  upland  plain  of  Battauf. 

ZECHARIAH,  son  of  Berechiah,  son  of  Iddo,  or 
by  contraction  son  of  Iddo,  appeared  as  a prophet  in 
Jerusalem  along  with  Haggai  (q.v.),  in  the  second 
year  of  Darius  Hystaspes  (520  B.C.),  to  warn  and 
encourage  the  Jews  to  address  themselves  at  length  to 
the  restoration  of  the  temple,  which,  since  their  return 
from  exile  eighteen  years  before,  had  lain  unaccom- 


ZE1— ZEN 


plished,  less  through  want  of  zeal  than  through  the 
pressure  of  unfavorable  circumstances.  Supported  by 
the  prophets,  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua  set  about  the 
work,  and  the  elders  of  Judah  built  and  the  work  went 
forward  (Ezra  v.  I.  seq.,  vi.  14).  The  first  eight  chapters 
of  the  book  of  Zechariah  exactly  fit  into  this  historical 
setting.  They  are  divided  by  precise  chronological 
headings  into  three  sections — ( a ) chap.  i.  1-6,  in  the 
eighth  month  of  the  second  year  of  Darius;  (If)  chap.  i. 
7-vi.  15,  on  the  twenty-fourth  day  of  the  eleventh 
month  of  the  same  year;  (r)  chap,  vii.-viii.,  on  the 
fourth  day  of  the  ninth  month  of  the  fourth  year  of 
Darius.  The  first  section  is  a preface  containing 
exhortation  in  general  terms.  The  main  section  is  the 
second,  containing  a series  of  night  visions,  the  signifi- 
cant features  of  which  are  pointed  out  by  an  angel  who 
stands  by  the  prophet  and  answers  h;s  questions. 

How  so  late  a piece  was  admitted  among  the  pro- 
phetic writings  while  Daniel,  written  about  the  same 
time,  is  placed  only  among  the  hagiographa,  is  a ques- 
tion not  yet  answered.  We  know  too  little  about  the 
history  of  the  canon.  A similar  case  is  that  of  Isa. 
xxiv.-xxvii.  But  it  is  not  less  difficult  to  explain  how 
a prophecy  of  the  eighth  century  could  have  turned  up 
in  post-exile  times  and  been  appended  to  the  book  of 
Zechariah. 

ZEITZ,  an  ancient  manufacturing  town  in  the  ex- 
treme south  of  the  province  of  Saxony,  Prussia,  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  a hill  on  the  White  Elster, 
twenty-two  miles  south-southwest  of  Leipsic  and  twenty- 
nine  south-southeast  of  Halle.  Zeitz  has  manufactures 
of  cottons  and  woolens,  machinery,  waxcloth,  musical 
instruments,  vinegar,  cigars,  etc.;  and  wood-carving,  dye- 
ing, and  calico-printing  are  carried  on.  In  the  neigh- 
borhood there  are  considerable  deposits  of  lignite,  and 
mineral-oil  works.  In  1901  the  population  was  26,261. 

ZELLE,  or  more  usually  Celle,  an  industrial  and 
commercial  town  in  the  district  of  Liineburg  in  Prussia, 
is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  navigable  Aller,  near 
its  junction  with  the  Fuse,  and  the  Lachte,  twenty-three 
miles  to  the  northeast  of  Hanover.  The  industries  of 
the  place  include  the  manufacture  of  woolen  yarn, 
cigars,  glue,  printers’  ink,  philosophical  instruments, 
stoves,  bricks,  etc. ; and  it  carries  on  trade  in  wood, 
wool,  honey,  wax,  cranberries,  and  other  articles. 
Nursery-gardening  flourishes  in  the  fertile  environs, 
where  there  are  also  a large  paper-mill  and  a govern- 
ment stud  farm.  The  population  in  1900  was  23,782, 
almost  entirely  Protestant. 

ZEND-AVESTA,  the  original  document  of  the  re- 
ligion of  Zoroaster  (q.v.),  and  still  used  by  the  Par- 
sees  ( q.v .),  as  their  bible  and  prayer-book.  The  name 
“Zend-Avesta”  has  been  current  in  Europe  since  the 
time  of  Anquetil  Duperron  (c.  1771),  but  the  Parsees 
themselves  called  it  simply  Avesta,  Zend  (z.<?.,  “ interpre- 
tation ”)  being  specially  employed  to  denote  the  trans- 
lation and  exposition  of  a great  part  of  the  Avesta  which 
exists  in  Pahlavi,  (q.v.)  Text  and  translation  are 
often  spoken  of  together  in  Pahlavi  books  as  Avistakva 
Zand  (“  Avesta  and  Zend”),  whence  (through  a misun- 
derstanding) our  word  Zend-Avesta.  The. origin  and 
meaning  of  the  word  “ Avesta  ” (or  in  its  older  form 
Avistak)  are  alike  obscure;  it  cannot  be  traced  further 
back  than  the  Sasanian  period.  The  language  of  the 
Avesta  is  still  frequently  called  Zend;  but,  as  already 
implied,  this  is  a mistake.  We  possess  no  other  docu- 
ment written  in  it,  and  on  this  account  modern  Parsee 
scholars,  as  well  as  the  older  Pahlavi  books,  speak  of 
the  language  and  the  writing  indifferently  as  Avesta. 
As  the  original  home  of  the  language  can  only  be 
very  doubtfully  conjectured,  we  shall  do  well  to  follow 
the  usage  sanctioned  bv  old  custom  and  apply  the 


6435 

word  to  both.  Although  the  Avesta  is  a work  of  but 
moderate  compass  (comparable,  say,  to  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey  taken  together),  there  nevertheless  exists  no 
single  MS.  which  gives  it  in  its  entirety.  This  circum- 
stance alone  is  enough  to  reveal  the  true  nature  of 
the  book;  it  is  a composite  whole,  a collection  of  writ- 
ings as  the  Old  Testament  is.  It  consists  of  the  last 
remains  of  the  extensive  sacred  literature  in  which  the 
Zoroastrian  faith  was  formerly  set  forth. 

In  its  present  form,  however,  the  Avesta  is  only  a 
fragmentary  remnant  of  the  old  priestly  literature  of 
Zoroastrianism,  a fact  confessed  by  the  learned  tradition 
of  the  Parsees  themselves,  according  to  which  the  num- 
ber of  Yashts  was  originally  thirty.  The  truth  is  that 
we  possess  but  a trifling  portion  of  a very  much  larger 
original  Avesta,  if  we  are  to  believe  native  tradition, 
carrying  us  back  to  the  Sasanian  period,  which  tells  of 
an  original  Avesta  in  twenty-one  books  called  nasks  or 
nosks , as  to  the  names,  contents,  and  chapters  of  which 
we  have  several  more  or  less  detailed  accounts,  particu 
larly  in  the  Pahlavi  Dinkard  and  in  the  Rivayats.  The 
large  part  perished  under  the  devastating  wave  of  perse- 
cution which  broke  over  Iran  with  the  Mohammedan 
invasion,  or  under  the  still  more  fatal  influences  of  the 
apathy  and  forgetfulness  of  its  proper  guardians.  The 
understanding  of  the  older  Avesta  texts  was  far  from 
perfect  even  at  the  time  when  they  were  being  edited 
and  revised.  The  need  for  a translation  and  interpreta- 
tion  became  evident;  and  under  the  later  Sasanians  the 
majority  of  the  books,  if  not  the  whole  of  them,  were 
rendered  into  the  current  Pahlavi.  A thorough  use  of 
this  translation  will  not  be  possible  until  we  have  it  in 
good  critical  editions,  and  acquaintance  with  its  language 
ceases  to  be  the  monopoly  of  a few  privileged  individ- 
uals. For  the  interpretation  of  the  older  texts  it  is  of 
great  value.  The  Parsee  priest  Neryosangh  subsequently 
translated  a portion  of  the  Pahlavi  version  into  Sanskrit. 

ZENO,  emperor  of  the  East  from  474  to  491,  was  ar 
I saurian  of  noble  birth,  and  originally  bore  the  name  o' 
Trascalissseus,  which  he  exchanged  for  that  of  Zeno  or 
his  marriage  with  Ariadne,  daughter  of  Leo  I. , in  468. 
Of  his  early  life  nothing  is  known;  after  his  marriage, 
(which  was  designed  by  Leo  to  secure  the  Isaurian  sup- 
port against  his  ambitious  minister  Aspar)  he  became 
patrician  and  commander  of  the  imperial  guard  and  of 
the  armies  in  the  East.  While  on  a campaign  in  Thract 
he  narrowly  escaped  assassination;  and  on  his  return  to 
the  capital  he  avenged  himself  by  compassing  the  mur- 
der of  Aspar,  who  had  instigated  the  attempt.  In  474 
Leo  I.  died  after  appointingas  his  successor  Leo  the  son 
of  Zeno  and  Ariadne;  Zeno,  however,  with  the  help  of 
his  mother-in-law  Verina,  succeeded  in  getting  himself 
crowned  also,  and  on  the  death  of  his  son  before  the  end 
of  the  year  became  sole  emperor. 

ZENO  of  Citium.  See  Stoics. 

ZENO  of  Elea,  son  of  Teleutagoras,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  born  toward  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury B.C.  The  pupil  and  the  friend  of  Parmenides,  he 
sought  to  recommend  his  master’s  doctrine  of  the  ex- 
istence of  the  One  by  controverting  the  popular  belief 
in  the  existence  of  the  Many.  In  virtue  of  this 
method  of  indirect  argumentation  he  is  regarded  as  the 
inventor  of  “dialectic,”  that  is  to  say,  disputation  hav- 
ing for  its  end  not  victory  but  the  discovery  or  the 
transmission  of  truth.  He  is  said  to  have  been  con- 
cerned in  a plot  against  a tyrant,  and  on  its  detection  to 
have  borne  with  exemplary  constancy  the  tortures  to 
which  he  was  subjected;  but  authorities  differ  both  as 
to  the  name  and  the  residence  of  the  tyrant  and  as  to 
the  circumstances  and  the  issue  of  the  enterprise. 

In  Plato’s  Parmenides , Socrates,  “ then  very  young,” 
meets  Parmenides,  “ an  old  man  some  sixty-five  year* 


ZEN-ZF.R 


6436 

of  age,”  and  Zeno,  “ a man  of  about  forty,  tall  and  per- 
sonable,” and  engages  them  in  philosophical  discussion. 
But  it  may  be  doubted  whether  such  a meeting  was 
chronologically  possible.  Plato’s  account  of  Zeno’s 
teaching  is,  however,  presumably  as  accurate  as  it  is 
precise.  In  reply  to  those  who  thought  that  Parmen- 
ides’ theory  of  the  existence  of  the  One  involved  in- 
consistencies and  absurdities,  Zeno  tried  to  show  that 
the  assumption  of  the  existence  of  the  Many  carried 
with  it  inconsistencies  and  absurdities  grosser  and  more 
numerous.  In  early  youth  he  collected  his  arguments 
in  a book,  which,  according  to  Plato,  was  put  into  cir- 
culation withou  his  knowledge. 

In  all  probability  Zeno  did  not  observe  that  in  his 
controversial  defense  of  Eleaticism  he  was  interpreting 
Parmenides’  teaching  anew.  But  so  it  was.  For,  while 
Parmenides  had  recognized,  together  with  the  One, 
which  is,  and  is  the  object  of  knowledge,  a Many,  which 
is  not,  and  therefore  is  not  known,  but  nevertheless 
becomes,  and  is  the  object  of  opinion,  Zeno  plainly 
affirmed  that  plurality,  becoming,  and  opinion  are  one 
and  all  inconceivable.  In  a word,  the  fundamental 
dogma,  “The  Ent  is,  the  Non-ent  is  not,”  which  with 
Parmenides  had  been  an  assertion  of  the  necessity  of 
distinguishing  between  the  Ent,  which  is,  and  the  Non- 
ent,  which  is  not,  but  becomes,  was  with  Zeno  a decla- 
ration of  the  Non-ent’s  absolute  nullity.  Thus,  just  as 
Empedocles  developed  Parmenides’  theory  of  the  Many 
to  the  neglect  of  his  theory  of  the  One,  so  Zeno  devel- 
oped the  theory  of  the  One  to  the  neglect  of  the  theory 
of  the  Many.  With  the  severance  of  its  two  members 
Eleaticism  proper,  the  Eleaticism  of  Parmenides,  ceased 
to  exist. 

The  first  effect  of  Zeno’s  teaching  was  to  complete  the 
discomfiture  of  philosophy.  For  the  paradox  of  predi- 
cation, which  he  had  used  to  disprove  the  existence  of 
plurality,  was  virtually  a denial  of  all  speech  and  all 
thought,  and  thus  led  to  a more  comprehensive  skepti- 
cism than  that  which  sprang  from  the  contemporary 
theories  of  sensation.  Nevertheless,  he  left  an  enduring 
mark  upon  Greek  speculation,  inasmuch  as  he  not  only 
recognized  the  need  of  a logic,  and  grappled,  however 
unsuccessfully,  with  one  of  the  most  obvious  of  logical 
problems,  but  also  by  the  invention  of  dialectic  pro- 
vided a new  and  powerful  instrument  against  the  time 
when  the  One  and  the  Many  should  be  reunited  in  the 
philosophy  of  Plato. 

ZENOBIA.  See  Palmyra. 

ZENTA,  a market  town  of  Hungary  in  the  county 
of  Bacs-Bodrog,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Theiss, 
twenty  miles  south  of  Szegedin,  is  historically  known 
for  the  decisive  victory  won  in  its  vicinity  by  Prince 
Eugene  over  the  Turks  in  1696.  The  population,  which 
is  purely  agricultural,  numbered  18,500  in  1900. 

ZEPHANIAH  ( Sophonias  ~2oq)via$,  Heb. 

“whom  Jehovah  hides”  or  “protects;”  compare  the 

Phoenician  man’s  or  woman’s  name  C.I.S. , 

No.  207,  Euting,  Pun.  Steine , p.  16),  son  of  Cushi,  the 
ninth,  according  to  the  order  of  his  book,  among  the 
twelve  minor  prophets,  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Josiah 
of  Judah,  and  apparently  before  the  great  reformation 
in  the  eighteenth  year  of  that  king,  (621  B.c.)  For  va- 
rious forms  of  idolatry  put  down  in  that  year  are  spoken 
of  by  Zephaniah  as  still  prevalent  in  Judah  (chap.  i.  4 
seq.) , and  are  specified  in  such  a connection  as  to  imply 
that  they  were  not  the  secret  sins  of  individuals,  but 
held  the  first  place  among  the  national  backslidings  that 
could,  as  the  prophet  teaches,  be  removed  only  by  a 
sweeping  judgment  on  the  state.  Of  the  person  of 
Zephaniah  nothing  is  known;  but  it  has  been  con- 
jectured that  his  great-great-grandfather,  Hezekiah 


(chap.  i.  1),  is  the  king  of  that  name,  and  if  so  he  be- 
longed to  the  highest  class  of  Judaean  society. 

The  genuineness  and  integrity  of  the  short  prophecy 
ascribed  to  Zephaniah  do  not  seem  to  be  open  to  reason- 
able doubt.  Stade  raises  a question  about  chap,  iii., 
and  if  this  were  a distinct  oracle  there  would  be  no 
cogent  reason  to  ascribe  it  to  the  author  of  the  two 
chapters  that  precede;  for  the  book  of  the  minor 
prophets  is  made  up  of  a number  of  short  pieces,  some 
bearing  a name  and  some  anonymous,  and  it  is  only  old 
usage  that  ascribes  the  anonymous  pieces  to  the  last 
preceding  prophet  whose  name  is  prefixed  to  his 
prophecy.  But,  though  the  sequence  of  thought  in  the 
book  of  Zephaniah  is  not  so  smooth  as  a Western  reader 
may  desire,  a single  leading  motive  runs  through  the 
whole,  and  the  first  two  chapters  would  be  incomplete 
without  the  third,  which,  moreover,  is  certainly  prerexilic 
(verses  1-4),  and  presents  specific  points  of  contact 
with  what  precedes  as  well  a general  agreement  in  style 
and  idea. 

ZEPHYRINUS,  St.,  bishop  of  Rome  from  about 
202  to  August  26,  217,  succeeded  Victor  I.  He  is 
described  as  a man  of  little  intelligence  or  strength  of 
character,  and  the  somewhat  important  controversies 
on  doctrine  and  discipline  that  marked  his  pontificate 
are  more  appropriately  associated  with  the  name  of 
Hippolytus  {q.v. ) and  of  Calixtus,  his  principal  ad- 
viser and  afterward  his  successor. 

ZEPHYRUS,  the  west  wind,  brother  of  Boreas,  the 
north  wind,  was  the  son  of  the  Titan  Astrasus  and  Eos, 
the  dawn,  and  had  his  palace  in  Thrace.  He  was 
married  to  Chloris,  the  goddess  of  flowers,  by  whom 
he  had  a son,  Carpus;  by  the  harpy  Podarge  he  was 
also  the  father  of  Xanthus  and  Balius,  the  horses  of 
Achilles. 

ZERAFSHAN,  an  independent  “circle”  or  prov- 
ince of  Russian  Turkestan,  includes  the  valley  of  the 
river  Zerafshan  from  its  sources  to  Katty- Kurgan,  as 
well  as  the  mountains  which  bound  the  valley  to  the 
north  and  south.  It  is  the  Sogdiana  (q.v.)  of  the 
ancients,  famed  for  its' fertility,  which  is  due  to  the 
waters  of  the  Polytimetus.  The  present  Russian  prow 
ince  of  Zerafshan,  which  is  densely  peopled  along  the 
course  of  the  river,  has  a length  of  nearly  250  miles 
from  west  to  east,  a width  of  from  50  to  100  miles,  and 
an  area  of  19,665  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
west  by  Bokhara,  on  the  north  by  the  Ivizilkum  Desert 
of  Syr-Daria  and  the  Russian  province  of  Ferghana, 
on  the  east  by  the  Alai  plateau,  on  the  south  by  the 
vassal  khanates  of  Bokhara — Karategin,  Hissar,  Shahr- 
i-Syabs,  and  Karshi. 

The  population  of  Zerafshan  was  reckoned  at  351,900 
in  1898.  The  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  are  Uzbegs  and 
Tajiks,  the  remainder  consisting  of  a few  thousand 
Persians,  Hindus,  and  Jews  respectively  ; the  Russians 
are  mainly  military,  civil  functionaries,  merchants,  and 
a few  peasant  settlers.  Wheat,  barley,  rice,  and  other 
cereals,  as  also  lucerne,  are  widely  cultivated,  and  the 
gardens  of  Zerafshan  are  beautiful.  A variety  of  petty 
trades  are  carried  on  in  the  towns  and  villages. 

ZERBST,  a manufacturing  town  in  the  duchy  of 
Anhalt,  Germany,  is  situated  on  the  Nuthe,  eleven 
miles  northwest  of  Dessau  and  twenty-one  southeast  of 
Magdeburg.  Gold  and  silver  articles,  silk,  plush,  cloth, 
leather,  soap,  starch,  chemicals,  and  carriages  are  among 
the  chief  manufactures.  Iron-founding  is  carried  on; 
and  several  breweries  are  engaged  in  the  preparation  of 
Zerbster  bitter  beer,  which  enjoys  considerable  repute. 
Market-gardening  is  also  a profitable  industry  in  Zerbst. 
The  population  was  17,094  in  1900.  Zerbst  is  an  an- 
cient town,  mentioned  in  949.  In  1307  it  came  into 
the  possession  of  the  Anhalt  family,  and  from  1603  till 


ZEU  — Z T N 


1793  was  the  capital  of  the  collateral  branch  of  Anhalt- 
Zerbst.  In  1793  it  passed  to  Anhalt-Dessau. 

ZEUS,  the  chief  deity  of  ancient  Greek  religion, 
bears  a name  which  almost  certainly  means  “sky.” 
His  title  is  identified  by  etymologists  with  Sanscrit 
Dyaus'i  the  “bright  one,”  “sky,”  though  his  legend 
and  place  in  religion  are  not  closely  akin  to  those  of  the 
Vedic  deity. 

Coming  to  historical  and  documentary  evidence,  our 
earliest  knowledge  of  Zeus  is  derived  from  the  Homeric 
and  Hesiodic  poems.  It  is  very  probable  that  in  the 
legend  and  ritual  of  remote  towns  and  temples  in 
Greece,  we  have  traces  of  a conception  of  Zeus  much 
older  than  that  which  meets  us  in  Homer.  But  Homer 
and  Hesiod  are  the  most  ancient  literary  testimonies; 
next  to  these  come  the  speculations  of  the  early  philos- 
ophers and  the  writings  of  the  lyric  poets,  Pindar,  He- 
rodotus, and  the  tragedians.  Finally,  we  have  the  Zeus 
of  the  philosophers  of  the  central  period — Plato  and 
Aristotle — and  the  Zeus  of  the  later  philosophic  periods 
down  to  the  prevalence  of  Christianity.  The  poet  rep- 
resents him  as  anthropomorphic — a powerful,  humor- 
ous, amorous  ruler,  sometimes  troubled  by  disputes 
among  his  younger  brethren — Hades  and  Poseidon — 
his  wife,  and  his  children.  His  claim  to  supreme 
authority  is  based  on  primogeniture,  whereas  in  Hesiod 
Zeus  is  the  successful  youngest  son  of  Cronus.  Both 
poets  agree  that  he  has  overthrown  the  paternal  dynasty, 
and  established  his  own  power  after  violent  struggles. 
While  among  the  gods  Zeus  is  a father,  brother,  and 
emperor,  Homeric  men  sometimes  use  his  name  as  we 
might  use  that  of  God,  in  a religious  rather  than  a myth- 
ological sense.  In  Homer  Zeus  does  not  assume  the 
form  of  the  lower  animals,  and  in  the  strange  passage 
where  he  recounts  his  loves,  the  Leporello  of  his  own 
Don  Juan,  he  says  nothing  of  those  well-known  dis- 
guises. In  Hesiod  the  old  wild  tales  revive,  and  we 
learn,  for  example,  that  Zeus  swallowed  his  own  wife, 
Metis,  after  inducing  her  to  take  the  shape  of  a fly, 
just  as  Puss-in-Boots  got  rid  of  the  ogre  who  turned 
himself  into  a mouse.  In  Hesiod,  too,  we  have  the 
tale  of  Prometheus  and  Pandora,  a tale  which  afforded 
such  an  admirable  theme  for  moral  handling  by  ZEschy- 
lus.  Zeus  tempted  Epimetheus  by  the  aid  of  the 
woman  Pandora;  hence  came  death  into  the  world  and 
all  our  woe.  Then  Prometheus  pitied  and  aided  men, 
whom  Zeus  had  intended  to  destroy,  and  the  hero  w^as 
fixed  to  a rock  in  Caucasus  by  order  of  the  god. 

The  Zeus  of  pure  religion  and  of  speculation  is  very 
different  from  the  Zeus  of  ritual  and  of  local  myth.  To 
ritual,  and  to  the  local  myths  treasured  by  priests, 
which  often  tried  to  explain  the  ritual,  we  owe  the  un- 
becoming anecdotes  of  Zeus  as  the  god  who,  in  the  form 
of  ant,  snake,  bull,  eagle,  and  so  forth,  made  love  to  the 
daughters  of  men.  We  must  regard  Zeus  as  an  extremely 
difficult  complex,  .1  which  elemental  myths,  myths 
of  savage  fancy,  myths  of  perverted  history,  theories 
of  early  natural  philosophy,  and  the  ideas  of  pantheistic 
speculation  are  all  confusedly  mingled.  He  is  the  sum 
of  the  religious  thought  of  Hellas,  formed  in  the  num- 
berless ages  between  savagery  and  complete  civilization. 
He  received  human  sacrifices  even  after  the  Christian 
era;  yet  long  before  it  he  all  but  corresponded  to  the 
Unknown  Substance  of  Spencerian  philosophy.  A 
summary  of  the  Zeus  myths  will  be  found  in  Dr. 
William  Smith’s  Dictionary  of  Classical  Mythology. 
For  a comparison  between  the  character  and  attributes 
of  Jupiter  and  Zeus,  see  the  article  Jupiter. 

ZEUXIS,  a Greek  painter,  who  flourished  about 
420-390  B.C.,  and  described  himself  as  a native  of 
Heraclea,  meaning  probably  the  town  in  Magna  Graecia. 
To  this  neighborhood  seem  to  point  the  facts  of  his 


6437 

having  painted  a figure  of  Helena  for  a temple  in  Cro- 
ton, of  his  presenting  a picture  of  Alcmena  to  the  peo- 
ple of  Agrigentum,  and  of  his  having  been,  in  one 
account,  a pupil  of  Damophilus  of  Himera  in  Sicily, 
the  other  statement  being  that  he  was  a pupil  of  Neseus 
of  Thasos.  Afterward  he  appears  to  have  resided  in 
Ephesus.  In  ancient  records  we  are  told  that  Zeuxis, 
following  the  initiative  of  Apollodorus,  had  introduced 
into  the  art  of  painting  a method  of  representing  his  fig- 
ures in  light  and  shadow,  as  opposed  to  the  oldei 
method  of  outline,  with  large  flat  masses  of  color  for 
draperies,  and  other  details,  such  as  had  been  practiced 
by  Polygnotus  and  others  of  the  great  fresco  painters. 
The  new  method  led  to  smaller  compositions,  and  often 
to  pictures  consisting  of  only  a single  figure,  on  which 
it  was  the  more  easy  for  the  painter  to  demonstrate  the 
combined  effect  of  the  various  means  by  which  he  ob- 
tained perfect  roundness  of  form.  The  effect  would  ap- 
pear strongly  realistic,  as  compared  with  the  older 
method,  and  to  this  was  probably  due  the  origin  of 
such  stories  as  the  contest  in  which  Zeuxis  painted  a 
bunch  of  grapes  so  like  reality  that  birds  flew  toward  it, 
while  Parrhasius  painted  a curtain  which  even  Zeuxis 
mistook  for  real. 

ZHITOMIR,  or  Jitomir,  a town  of  western 
Russia,  capital  of  the  government  of  Volhynia,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Tetereff  river,  646  miles  to  the  southwest  of 
Moscow.  The  railway  which  connects  Riga  and  Kon- 
igsberg  with  Odessa  via  Berditcheff,  passes  within  twenty- 
seven  miles  of  the  old  Lithuanian  city.  Its  population 
reached  65,452  in  1898 — Jews  constituting  more  than 
one-third  of  the  total.  Two  large  printing  offices  in 
Zhitomir  issue  nearly  one-half  of  all  the  Hebrew  books 
printed  in  Russia.  The  Jewish  merchants  carry  on  a con- 
siderable export  trade  in  the  agricultural  produce  of  the 
plains  surrounding  the  city,  as  also  in  timber  and 
wooden  wares  from  the  forests  to  the  north. 

ZIMMERMANN,  Johann  Georg,  Ritter  von,  a 
Swiss  philosophical  writer  and  physician,  was  born  at 
Brugg,  in  the  canton  of  Aargau,  on  December  8,  1728. 
He  studied  at  Gottingen,  where  he  took  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  medicine.  Afterward  he  practiced  as  a phy- 
sician in  his  native  place,  and  here  he  wrote  Ueber  die 
Einsamkeit  (1755)  and  Vom  Nationalstolz  (1758). 
Another  book  by  him,  written  at  Brugg,  Von  der  Erf  ah* 
rang  in  der  Arzneiwissenschaft  (1764),  also  attracted 
much  attention.  He  attended  Frederick  the  Great 
during  that  monarch’s  last  illness,  and  afterward  issued 
various  books  about  him,  of  which  the  chief  were  Ueber 
Frederich  den  Grossen  and  meine  Unterredung  mit 
Him  kitrz  vor  seinem  Tode  (1788)  and  Fragmente  iiber 
Friedrich  den  Grossen  (1790).  Zimmermann  died  at 
Hanover,  October  7,  1795. 

ZINC,  the  name  both  of  an  important  useful  metal 
and  of  the  element  of  which  the  metal  consists.  Zinc 
as  a component  of  brass  had  currency  in  metallurgy  long 
before  it  became  known  as  an  individual  metal.  In 
1597  Libavius  described  a “ peculiar  kind  of  tin  ” which 
was  prepared  in  India,  and  of  which  a friend  had  given 
him  a quantity.  From  his  account  it  is  quite  clear  that 
that  metal  was  zinc,  but  he  did  not  recognize  it  as  the 
metal  of  calamine.  It  is  not  known  to  whom  the  dis- 
covery of  isolated  ziilc  is  due;  but  we  do  know  that 
the  art  of  zinc-smelting  was  practiced  in  England  from 
about  1730.  The  first  Continental  zinc-works  were 
erected  at  Liege  in  1807.  The  atomic  weight  of  zinc 
is  65.37  (the  mean  of  the  results  obtained  by  Marignac 
and  Baubigny),  0=  16. 

Zinc  Ores. — The  following  may  be  named  as  im- 
portant: 

(1)  Red  Zinc  Ore  (impure  ZnO)  occurs  in  quartz-like 
crystals,  but  more  frequently  presents  itself  in  large- 


Z I N 


6438 

grained  and  lamellar  masses.  Color,  hyacinth-red  to 
brown.  Luster,  adamantine. 

(2)  Franklinite . — The  zinc  averages  about  10  per  cent. 
It  crystallizes  in  regular  octahedra,  with  rounded-off  edges 
and  angles.  Sp.  gr.  5.1.  Color,  black;  streak,  reddish- 
brown.  Luster,  sub-metallic.  This  and  the  preceding 
occur  in  association  with  each  other  and  other  things  in 
New  Jersey. 

(3)  Calamine. — The  pure  mineral  (zinc  spar)  forms 
well-defined,  though  small,  rhombohedra.  It  is  found 
in  association  with  silicates  of  zinc,  zinc-blende,  and  lead 
ores,  chiefly  in  limestone  and  dolomitic  strata,  at  the 
Kelmisberg  or  Vieille  Montagne  in  Belgium,  in  Derby- 
shire and  Northumberland,  and  in  Silesia.  Irregular 
deposits  occur  near  Santander  and  Cartagena  in  Spain, 
and  in  Sardinia. 

(4)  Electric  Calamine , the  German  Kieselzinkerz , is 
also  called  hemimorphite  on  account  of  the  marked 
hemimorphism  in  its  (ortho-rhombic)  crystals.  It 
occurs  with  willemite  and  calamine  at  the  Altenberg 
near  Aix-la-Chapelle,  with  blende  and  lead  ore  at  Raibel 
and  Bleiberg  in  Carinthia,  near  Iserlohn  in  Westphalia, 
at  Matlock  in  Derbyshire,  near  Tarnowitz  in  Silesia,  at 
Olbucs,  Rezbanya  in  Hungary,  and  Nertchinsk  in 
Siberia.  American  sources  are  at  Phoenixville  and 
Friedensville  in  Pennsylvania  and  in  the  Austin  mine  in 
Virginia. 

(5)  Willemite , anhydrous,  occurs  in  New  Jersey  and 
elsewhere;  it  is  a comparatively  rare  ore. 

(6)  Zinc-Blende , or  shortly  Blende  (ZnS). — The  five 
ores  mentioned  above,  as  indeed  all  oxidized  zinc  ores, 
having  become  scarce,  most  of  the  zinc  which  now 
occurs  in  commerce  is  derived  from  zinc-blende.  This 
ore  crystallizes  in  combinations  of  the  two  tetrahedra 
ind  other  forms  of  the  regular  system.  The  finest 
crystals  are  found  in  Franklin,  N.  J.,  and  in  the  Penas 
de  Europa,  Asturias  (Spain),  in  which  liquid  inclosures 
are  often  met  with.  The  darker  varieties,  which  always 
include  more  or  less  of  foreign  sulphides,  are  found  in  a 

reat  number  of  places.  To  English  miners  blende  is 

nown  as  ‘black  Jack,”  to  the  South  Americans  as 
“chumbe.”  The  principal  American  deposits  are  in 
Missouri. 

Metallurgy. — Oxide  of  zinc,  like  most  heavy  metallic 
oxides,  is  easily  reduced  to  the  metallic  state  bv  heating 
it  to  redness  with  charcoal;  but,  as  zinc  has  the  excep- 
tional property  of  being  readily  volatile  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  its  reduction,  the  operation  must  be  carried  out 
in  some  kind  of  retort,  and  the  zinc  be  recovered  as  a 
distillate.  Zinc-blende,  however,  being  sulphide  of 
zinc,  is  not  directly  reducible  by  charcoal;  but  it  is  easy 
to  convert  it  into  oxide  by  roasting;  the  sulphur  goes 
off  as  sulphurous  acid,  while  the  zinc  remains  in  the 
(infusible)  form  of  oxide  ZnO.  If  the  zinc  is  present  as 
blende,  this  operation  offers  considerable  difficulties,  be- 
cause in  the  roasting  process  the  sulphide  of  zinc  passes 
in  the  first  instance  into  sulphate,  which  demands  a high 
temperature  for  its  conversion  into  oxide. 

Properties  of  Pure  Zinc. — Zinc,  a bluish- white  metal, 
fuses  at  41 5°  C.  and  under  ordinary  atmospheric  press- 
ure boils  at  10400  C.  (Deville  and  Troost).  The  molten 
metal  on  cooling  deposits  crystals,  and  at  last  freezes 
into  a compact  crystalline  solid,  which  may  be  brittle  or 
ductile  according  to  circumstances.  According  to  Bol- 
ley,  if  zinc  be  cast  into  a mold  at  a red  heat,  the  ingot 
produced  is  laminar  and  brittle ; if  cast  at  just  the  fusing- 
point,  it  is  granular  and  sufficiently  ductile  to  be  rolled 
into  sheet  at  the  ordinary  temperature.  According  to 
some  authorities,  pure  zinc  always  yields  ductile  ingots. 
Commercial  “ spelter  ” always  breaks  under  the  hammer; 
but  at  ioo°  to  1500  C.  it  is  susceptible  of  being  rolled 
out  into  even  a very  thin  sheet.  Such  a sheet,  if  once 


produced,  remains  flexible  when  cold.  At  about  200° 
C.,  again,  the  metal  becomes  so  brittle  that  it  can  be 
pounded  in  a mortar.  The  specific  gravity  of  zinc  can* 
not  be  expected  to  be  perfectly  constant ; according  to 
Karsten,  that  of  pure  ingot  is  6.915,  and  rises  to  7.19 1 
after  rolling.  The  coefficient  of  linear  expansion  is 
0.002,905  for  ioo°  from  o°  upward  (Fizeau).  The 
specific  heat  is  0.093,93  (Schuller  and  Wartha).  It  is 
pretty  soft,  and  clogs  the  file.  If  zinc  be  heated  up  to 
near  its  boiling-point,  it  catches  fire  and  burns  with  a 
brilliant  light  into  its  powdery  white  oxide,  which  forms 
a reek  in  the  air  ( lana  philosophical).  Boiling  water 
attacks  it  appreciably,  but  no  more,  with  evolution  of 
hydrogen  and  formation  of  hydroxide,  Zn(OH)2.  A rod 
of  perfectly  pure  zinc,  when  immersed  in  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  is  so  very  slowly  attacked  that  there  is  no  visible 
evolution  of  gas;  but,  if  a piece  of  platinum  or  other 
less  basilous  metal  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  zinc, 
it  dissolves  readily,  with  evolution  of  hydrogen  and 
formation  of  sulphate.  The  ordinary  impure  metal 
dissolves  at  once,  the  more  readily  the  less  pure  it  is. 
Cold  dilute  nitric  acid  dissolves  zinc  as  nitrate,  with 
evolution  of  nitrous  oxide,  N20,  and  formation  of  ni- 
trate of  ammonia.  At  higher  temperatures,  or  with 
stronger  acid,  nitric  oxide,  NO,  is  produced  besides  or 
instead  of  nitrous. 

Oxide  of  Zinct  ZnO. — There  is  only  this  one  oxide. 
It  is  prepared  chiefly  in  two  ways — (1)  by  burning  the 
metal,  a method  now  being  carried  out  industrially,  the 
zinc  vapor  being  sometimes  produced  extempore  from  a 
mixture  of  roasted  ore  and  carbon,  and  (2)  by  heating 
the  basic  carbonate.  Oxide  of  zinc  is  insoluble  in  water, 
and  does  not  combine  directly  with  it;  it  dissolves 
readily  in  all  aqueous  acids,  with  formation  of  “ zinc 
salts.”  It  also  dissolves  in  aqueous  caustic  alkalies,  in- 
cluding ammonia,  forming  “ zincates  ” (e.g. , ZnO.  KHO). 
Oxide  of  zinc  is  used  in  the  arts  as  a white  pigment.  It 
is  used  also  in  medicine,  chiefly  externally. 

The  hydratey  Zn(OH)2,  is  prepared  by  precipitating 
a solution  of  any  zinc  salt  with  caustic  potash.  The  al- 
kali must  be  free  from  carbonate  and  an  excess  of  it  must 
be  avoided,  otherwise  the  hydrate  re-dissolves.  It  is  a 
white  powder,  and  is  insoluble  in  water.  To  acids  and 
to  alkalies  it  behaves  like  the  oxide,  but  dissolves  more 
readily. 

The  basic  carbonate , ZnCOg.xZnfOH)^  where  x is 
variable,  is  prepared  by  precipitation  of  a solution  of 
the  sulphate  or  chloride  with  carbonate  of  soda. 

The  sulphate , ZnS04  + 7H20,  white  vitriol,  is  pre- 
pared by  dissolving  the  ordinary  metal  in  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid.  An  impure  form  of  the  salt  is  prepared 
by  roasting  zinc-blende  at  a low  temperature.  Sulphate 
of  zinc  is  used  in  medicine,  chiefly  externally.  In  the 
arts  it  is  employed  in  the  preparation  of  varnishes,  and 
as  a mordant  for  the  production  of  colors  on  calico. 

The  chloride , ZnCl2,  is  produced  by  heating  the  metal 
in  dry  chlorine  gas,  when  it  distills  over  as  a white 
translucent  mass,  easily  fusible,  and  boiling  sufficiently 
low  to  be  distillable  from  out  a retort  of  hard  Bohemian 
glass.  A concentrated  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc  con- 
verts starch,  cellulose,  and  a great  many  other  organic 
bodies  into  soluble  compounds;  hence  the  application  of 
the  fused  salt  as  a caustic  in  surgery,  and  the  impossibil- 
ity of  filtering  a strong  ZnCl2  lye  through  paper.  At  a 
boiling  neat  chloride  of  zinc  dissolves  in  any  proportion 
of  water,  and  highly  concentrated  solutions,  of  course, 
boil  at  high  temperatures;  hence  they  afford  a convenient 
medium  tor  the  maintenance  of  high  temperatures. 

OxkL  of  zinc  unites  with  the  chloride  in  a great  nnm- 
ber  of  proportions,  forming  oxy-chlorides.  For  othe? 
zinc  compounds,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  handbooks 
of  chemistry. 


Z I N — Z I R 6439 


Analysis. — From  neutral  solutions  of  its  salts  zinc  is 
precipitated  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen  as  sulphide  ZnS 
—-a  white  precipitate,  soluble,  but  by  no  means  readily, 
in  dilute  mineral  acids,  but  insoluble  in  acetic  acid.  The 
precipitate,  when  roasted  at  the  end  of  an  asbestos  stick 
over  a “ bunsen,”  passes  into  oxide,  which  is  yellow  in  the 
heat,  and  white  after  cooling;  and,  if  it  be  moistened 
with  cobalt  solution  and  reheated,  it  exhibits  a green 
color  after  cooling.  By  these  tests  the  precipitate  is 
easily  identified  with  certainty.  For  further  information, 
see  handbooks  of  analysis. 

Z1NCKEN,  cr  Zinken,  the  German  name  of  a 
family  of  wind  instruments  now  obsolete,  known  in 
Italy  as  cornetti,  in  France  as  comets  a bouquin , and 
in  England  as  “ cornets,”  but  differing  entirely  from  the 
modern  cornets  a pistons ; these  last  will  also  be  noticed 
here,  as  bearing  the  same  name. 

The  old  cornets  were  of  two  kinds — the  straight  and 
the  curved.  The  straight  (Germ,  gerade  Zinc  ken, 
stick  Zi?icken  ; Ital.  cornetti  diritti , cornetti  muti)  were 
usually  made  with  the  mouthpiece  (a  cupped  mouth- 
piece analogous  to  that  of  the  trumpet)  forming  part  of 
the  tube.  The  curved  (Germ,  krumme  Zincken  ; Ital. 
cornetti  curvi)  are  formed  of  two  pieces  of  wood  of 
different  lengths,  each  having  half  the  channel  in  which 
the  column  of  air  is  to  vibrate  hollowed  out,  the 
diameter  increasing  from  the  mouthpiece  toward  the 
lower  end.  The  two  pieces  of  wood,  when  thus  pre- 
pared, are  joined  together  with  glue ; they  are  then 
finished  off  so  as  to  form  a pipe  with  eight  sides,  and 
are  finally  covered  with  leather.  The  mouthpieces  are 
made  of  wood,  horn,  or  ivory,  and  are  fixed  by  a tenon 
to  the  upper  extremity  of  the  pipe.  The  primitive 
instrument  was  an  animal’s  horn.  Pipes  of  such  small 
length  give  only,  besides  the  first  or  fundamental,  the 
second  and  sometimes  the  third  note  of  the  harmonic 
series.  The  serpent  is  another  instrument  of  the  cornet 
family,  though  not  usually  classed  with  it.  Its  con- 
struction and  its  acoustic  principle  are  the  same  as 
those  of  the  old  cornet.  It  is,  properly  speaking,  an 
enlarged  cornet  with  one  hole  less,  that  which  is  stopped 
with  the  thumb.  The  mouthpiece  is  fixed  to  the  instru- 
ment by  means  of  a long  brass  crook. 

Cornet,  Cornet  a Pistons. — At  present  the  names  of 
cornet,  cornet  a pistons,  and  cornopean  are  given  to  an 
instrument  that  has  no  analogy  whatever  to  the  mediae- 
val cornet.  It  is  a transformation  of  the  old  post  horn, 
with  a shorter  tube  than  that  of  the  trumpet,  and  im- 
proved to  such  a degree  that  its  quality  of  tone  is  inter- 
mediate between  the  brightness  of  the  trumpet  and  the 
softness  of  the  fliigel-horn  bugle  with  pistons.  The  ex- 
tent of  the  modern  cornet  without  pistons  is  comprised 
within  the  second  and  eighth  of  the  harmonic  scale. 
It  was  introduced  into  Great  Britain  and  France  about 
1830.  There  were  at  first  only  two  pistons — that  of  the 
whole  tone  and  that  of  the  half  tone — from  which  there 
naturally  resulted  gaps  in  the  chromatic  scale  of  the 
instrument.  The  history  of  the  cornet  is  that  of  the 
improvement  brought  about  by  pistons  apart  from  their 
successive  transformations,  and  it  has  remained  to  the 
present  time  what  it  was  when  first  invented.  The 
great  favor  the  cornet  meets  with  is  due  to  the  facility 
with  which  it  speaks,  to  the  little  fatigue  it  causes,  and 
to  the  simplicity  of  its  mechanism. 

ZINZENDORF,  Nicolaus  Ludwig,  Count  of 
Zinzendorf  and  Pottendorf,  religious  reformer, 
descended  from  an  ancient  family  belonging  to  Lower 
Austria,  was  born  May  26,  1700,  at  Dresden.  His 
school  days  were  spent  at  the  psedagogium  at  Halle 
amid  Pietist  surroundings,  and  in  1716  he  went  to  the 
university  of  Wittenberg,  to  study  law  and  fit  himself 
for  a diplomatic  career.  Three  years  later  he  was  sent 


to  travel  in  Holland,  in  France,  and  in  various  parts  of 
Germany.  These  two  years  of  wandering  were  em- 
ployed by  him  in  making  the  personal  acquaintance  of 
men  distinguished  for  practical  piety  and  belonging  to 
a variety  of  churches.  On  his  return  he  resolved  to 
settle  down  as  a Christian  landowner,  spending  his  life 
on  behalf  of  a pious  tenantry.  He  bought  Berthelsdorf 
from  his  grandmother,  married  Erdmute  Dorothea, 
sister  of  Count  Henry  of  Reuss,  and  began  living  on 
his  estate.  His  intention  was  to  carry  out  into  practice 
the  pietist  ideas  of  Spener.  He  did  not  mean  to  found 
a new  church  or  religious  organization  distinct  from  the 
Lutheranism  of  the  land.  He  meant  to  create  a Chris- 
tian association,  the  members  of  which,  by  preaching, 
by  tract  and  book  distribution,  and  by  practical  benevo- 
lence, might  awaken  the  somewhat  torpid  religion  of  the 
Lutheran  Church. 

He  was  able  to  establish  a common  order  of  worship 
in  1727,  and  soon  afterward  a common  organization, 
which  has  been  described  in  the  article  Moravian 
Brethren.  He  traveled  widely  in  its  interests, 
visiting  America  in  .741-42  and  spending  a long  time 
in  London  in  1750.  Missionary  colonies  had  by  this 
time  been  settled  in  the  West  Indies  (1732),  in  Green- 
land (1733),  among  the  North  American  Indians 
( 1 735)5  an^  before  Zinzendorf ’s  death  the  Brethren 
had  sent  from  Herrnhut  missionary  colonies  to  Livonia 
and  the  northern  shores  of  the  Baltic,  to  the  slaves  of 
North  Carolina,  to  Surinam,  to  the  Negro  slaves  in 
several  parts  of  South  America,  to  Travancore  in  the 
East  Indies,  to  the  Copts  in  Egypt,  and  to  the  west 
coast  of  South  Africa.  In  1752  Zinzendorf  lost  his  only 
son*  Christian  Renatus,  whom  he  had  hoped  to  make 
his  successor;  and  four  years  later  he  lost  his  wife 
Erdmute.  He  remained  a widower  for  one  year,  and 
then  (June,  1757)  contracted  a second  marriage  with 
Anna  Nitschmann,  on  the  ground  that  a man  in  his 
official  position  ought  to  be  married.  Three  years 
later,  overcome  with  his  labors,  he  fell  ill  and  died  (on 
May  9th),  leaving  John  de  Wattewille,  who  had  married 
his  eldest  daughter  Benigna,  to  take  his  place  at  the 
head  of  the  community. 

ZION.  See  Jerusalem  and  Temple. 

ZIRCONIUM,  a rare  element,  closely  allied  to  tita- 
nium. Klaproth  in  1789  analyzed  zircon  and  found  it  to 
contain  a new  earth,  which  he  called  “zirconia.”  Zir- 
con is  essentially  a silicate  of  zirconia  ZrO 2 Si02.  For 
the  extraction  from  it  of  zirconia  the  mineral  is  first  of 
all  heated  and  quenched  in  water  to  render  it  brittle, 
and  then  reduced  to  a fine  powder,  which  is  fused  up 
with  three  to  four  parts  of  acid  fluoride  of  potassium  at 
a gentle  heat  in  a platinum  crucible.  When  the  mass 
fuses  tranquilly  and  all  the  water  is  expelled,  the  platin  um 
crucible  is  placed  in  a Hessian  crucible;  the  two  cruci- 
bles are  then  covered  and  kept  for  two  hours  at  the 
highest  temperature  producible  by  means  of  a wind 
furnace.  The  porcelain-like  fuse  is  powdered,  boiled  in 
water,  and  acidified  with  hydrofluoric  acid,  and  the  resid- 
ual fluosilicate  of  potassium  is  filtered  off.  The  filtrate 
on  cooling  deposits  crystals  of  fluozirconate  of  potassium, 
ZrF6K2,  which  are  purified  by  re-crystallization  from 
hot  water.  The  double  fluoride  is  decomposed  with 
hot,  concentrated  sulphuric  acid;  the  mixed  sulphate  is 
dissolved  in  water;  and  the  zirconia  is  precipitated  with 
ammonia  in  the  cold.  The  precipitate,  being  difficult 
to  wash,  is  (after  a preliminary  washing)  re-dissolved  in 
hydrochloric  acid  and  re-precipitated  with  ammonia. 
Zirconia,  when  heated  to  whiteness,  remains  unfused,  and 
radiates  out  abundance  of  white  light.  This  property 
has  been  utilized  for  the  construction  of  a new  kind  of 
gas  lamp,  in  which  a colorless  flame,  produced  by  the 
combustion  of  a mixture  of  gas  and  air,  serves  to  heat 


Z I T Z O D 


6440 

a hollow  cylinder  of  zirconia  suspended  over  it  by  means 
of  platinum  gauze.  Zirconia,  like  oxide  of  tin  and 
oxide  of  titanium,  unites  not  only  with  acids,  but  also 
with  basic  oxides. 

Zirconic  chloride,  ZrCl4,  is  prepared  by  igniting  a 
mixture  of  zirconia  and  charcoal  in  a current  of  chlorine, 
as  a white  sublimate.  It  has  the  exact  vapor-density 
corresponding  to  the  formula.  It  dissolves  in  water 
with  evolution  of  heat. 

Metallic  zirconium  is  obtainable  by  heating  the  double 
fluoride  of  zirconium  and  potassium  with  metallic 
potassium,  as  an  iron-gray  powder.  Troost  produced 
crystallized  zirconium  by  fusing  the  double  fluoride  with 
aluminium  in  a graphite  crucible  at  the  temperature  of 
melting  iron,  and  extracting  the  aluminium  from  the 
fuse  with  hydrochloric  acid.  The  crystals  look  like 
antimony,  and  are  brittle;  their  specific  gravity  is  4.15. 
The  powdery  metal  burns  readily  in  air;  the  crystalline 
metal  requires  to  be  Heated  in  an  oxyhydrogen  flame  if 
it  is  to  catch  fire.  Mineral  acids  generally  attack  the 
crystallized  metal  very  little  even  in  the  heat;  aqua  regia, 
however,  dissolves  it  readily,  and  so  does  hydrofluoric 
acid.  The  spark  spectrum  of  zirconium  is  characterized 
by  five  lines,  whose  wave-lengths  are  as  follows:  6,127 
in  the  red,  and  4,815,  4,771,  4,738,  4,709,  and  4,686  in 
the  blue.  The  atomic  weight  is  not  known  exactly; 
according  to  Marignac  and  Deville,  it  lies  near  90,  if 
O = 16. 

ZITHER,  the  cithern,  the  modern  representative  of 
the  ancient  cithara,  is  a popular  and  common  instrument 
in  Tyrol,  and  of  late  years  has  become  more  widely 
known.  It  is  a flat,  stringed  instrument,  having  a 
wooden  frame  and  flat  sounding  board,  with  bi*ass 
strings.  When  to  be  used  it  is  placed  on  a table  or  on 
the  knees,  and  the  strings  are  played  with  the  right  hand, 
the  thumb  being  armed  with  a metallic  plectrum  to 
bring  out  the  melody  more  prominently.  Latterly  a 
good  deal  of  music  has  been  composed  expressly  for  the 
zither,  the  tone  of  which  is  clear,  keen,  but  melodious. 

ZITTAU,  the  center  of  the  Saxon  linen  trade  and 
the  most  populous  town  in  the  district  of  Bautzen,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Saxony,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Mandau,  near  its  confluence  with  the  Neisse,  twenty- 
five  miles  southeast  of  Bautzen  and  forty-eight  east- 
southeast  of  Dresden.  Zittau  is  well  equipped  with 
schools,  including  a gymnasium  (founded' in  1586)  and  a 
commercial  school,  both  accommodated  in  the  Johan- 
neum,  and  several  technical  institutions.  The  leading 
branch  of  industry  is  linen  and  damask  weaving;  but 
woolen  stuffs,  trimmings,  etc.,  are  also  produced  in  the 
factories  of  the  town,  and  in  the  surrounding  weaving 
villages,  thirty-seven  of  which,  with  70,000  inhabitants, 
are  included  in  the  municipal  jurisdiction.  The  town, 
which  is  one  of  the  best  endowed  in  Saxony,  also  owns 
valuable  forests  on  the  mountains  of  Upper  Lusatia. 
There  are  various  steam  mills,  iron  foundries,  brick 
fields,  and  potteries  near  the  town,  and  extensive  de- 
posits of  lignite,  employing  over  1,000  hands.  Zittau  is 
situated  near  the  border  of  Bohemia,  with  which  it  car- 
ries on  some  trade.  In  1900  the  population  was  26,215. 

Z1ZKA,  or  Ziska,  John,  leader  of  the  Hussites 
(f.z/.)  from  1419,  was  born  at  Trocznow  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Budweis  in  Bohemia  about  the  year  1360. 
In  1410  he  fought  as  a volunteer,  on  the  losing  side,  in 
the  great  battle  of  Griinwald,  near  Tannenberg  in 
Prussia.  He  afterward  took  part  in  the  Hungarian 
wars  against  the  Turks,  and  is  also  said  to  have  fought 
on  the  English  side  in  the  battle  of  Agincourt.  In  the 
discontents  which  followed  the  martyrdom  of  Huss  and 
Jerome  in  Bohemia  he  sidied  with  the  liberal  party.  At 
an  early  period  of  the  war — at  the  siege  of  Raby  in 
*421 — Zizka,  who  from  boyhood  had  been  blind  of  an 


eye,  completely  lost  his  sight;  but  his  strength  of  will 
enabled  him  almost  wholly  to  overcome  this  formidable 
disadvantage,  and  continued  to  mark  him  out  as  Jhe 
leader  in  the  cause  he  had  espoused,  until  his  death, 
which  was  caused  by  an  infectious  disorder  while  he 
was  besieging  Przidislaw,  October  11,  1424. 

ZLATOUST,  in  the  Russian  government  of  Ufa,  is 
one  of  the  chief  towns  and  iron-works  of  the  Urals.  .It 
is  situated  on  the  Ai,  a tributary  of  the  Ufa,  in  a pictur- 
esque valley  of  middle  Urals,  at  a height  of  1,200  feet 
above  sea-level.  The  270  miles  which  stretch  between 
Zlatoust  and  Ufa  in  the  west  is  covered  by  rail,  while  a 
branch  line  is  projected  to  connect  it  with  Ekaterinburg 
in  the  north.  Its  merchants  carry  on  a brisk  trade  in 
agricultural  produce  and  cattle,  as  well  as  in  manu- 
factured wares,  imported  for  the  use  of  the  mining  vil- 
lages of  the  neighborhood.  The  Ai  and  several  ponds 
supply  the  crown  iron- works  with  motive  power,  and 
in  1884  the  iron  furnaces  of  Zlatoust  yielded  90,800 
hundredweights  of  pig-iron,  which  were  used  almost 
entirely  for  the  manufacture  of  swords,  bayonets,  and 
artillery  munition.  The  population  of  Zlatoust  in  1898 
was  23,000. 

ZNAIM,  or  Znaym  (Czech  Znojmo ),  an  interesting 
old  town  of  Moravia,  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Thaya,  forty-five  miles  north-northwest  of 
Vienna.  The  town  is  well  equipped  with  technical  and 
other  schools,  and  carries  on  manufactures  of  earthen- 
wafre,  leather,  chocolate,  vinegar,  and  other  articles. 
Large  quantities  of  cucumbers,  grain,  and  wine  are  pro- 
duced in  the  fertile  environs.  In  1890  the  population, 
chiefly  of  German  origin,  was  12,254. 

ZODIAC  (6  £,GQ$iaMoS kvkXoS,  from  Co odiov,  “ a lit- 
tle animal”),  an  imaginary  zone  of  the  heavens  within 
which  lie  the  paths  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  principal 
planets.  It  is  bounded  by  two  circles  equidistant  from 
the  ecliptic,  about  eighteen  degrees  apart;  and  it  is  divided 
into  twelve  signs,  and  marked  by  twelve  constellations. 
The  signs — the  Greek  8oo8eKarrj/j.6fna — are  geomet- 
rical divisions  thirty  degrees  in  extent,  counted  from  the 
spring  equinox  in  the  direction  of  the  sun’s  progress 
through  them.  The  whole  series  accordingly  shifts 
westward  through  the  effect  of  precession  by  about  one 
degree  in  seventy-two  years.  At  the  moment  of  cross 
ing  the  equator  toward  the  north  the  sun  is  said  to  be  at 
the  first  point  of  Aries;  some  thirty  days  later  it  enters 
Taurus,  and  so  on  through  Gemini,  Cancer,  Leo,  Virgo, 
Libra,  Scorpio,  Sagittarius,  Capricornus.  Aquarius,  and 
Pisces  (see  Astronomy). 

So  far  as  positive  records  go,  Aries  was  always  the 
first  sign.  But  the  arrangement  is,  on  the  face  of  it,  a 
comparatively  modern  one.  None  of  the  brighter  stars 
of  the  constellation  could  be  said  even  roughly  to  mark 
the  equinox  much  before  1800  B.c. ; during  a long 
stretch  of  previous  time  the  leading  position  belonged 
to  the  stars  of  Taurus.  Numerous  indications  accord- 
ingly point  to  a corresponding  primitive  zodiac. 

In  the  Chaldsean  signs  fragments  of  several  distinct 
strata  of  thought  appear  to  be  embedded.  From  one 
point  of  view,  they  shadow  out  the  great  epic  of  the 
destinies  of  the  human  race;  again,  the  universal  solar 
myth  claims  a share  in  them;  hoary  traditions  were 
brought  into  ex  post  facto  connection  with  them ; or 
they  served  to  commemorate  simple  meteorological  and 
astronomical  facts. 

The  first  Babylonian  month  Nisan,  dedicated  to  Anu 
and  Bel,  was  that  of  “ sacrifice,”  and  its  association  with 
the  Ram  as  the  chief  primitive  object  of  sacrifice  is 
thus  intelligible.  The  human  race  was  supposed  to 
have  come  into  being  under  Taurus.  The  solar  inter- 
pretation of  the  sign  goes  back  to  the  far-off  time  when 
the  year  began  with  Taurus,  and  the  sun  was  conceived 


Z O D 


6441 


of  as  a bull  entering  upon  the  great  furrow  of  heaven 
as  he  plowed  his  way  among  the  stars.  The  appropri- 
ate symbol  of  the  third  sign  was  at  first  indifferently  a 
pile  of  bricks  or  two  male  children,  always  on  early  mon- 
uments placed  feet  to  feet.  The  retrograde  movement  of 
a crab  typified,  by  an  easy  association  of  ideas,  the  retreat 
of  the  sun  from  his  farthest  northern  excursion,  and  Cancer 
was  constituted  the  sign  of  the  summer  solstice.  The 
Lion,  as  the  symbol  of  fire,  represented  the  culmination 
of  the  solar  heat.  In  the  sixth  month,  the  descent 
of  Ishtar  to  Hades  in  search  of  her  lost  husband  Tam- 
muz  was  celebrated,  and  the  sign  of  the  Virgin  had 
thus  a purely  mythological  signification. 

The  history  of  the  seventh  sign  is  somewhat  compli- 
cated. The  earlier  Greek  writers — Eudoxus  Eratos- 
thenes, Hipparchus — knew  of  only  eleven  zodiacal 
symbols,  but  made  one  do  double  duty,  extending 
the  Scorpion  across  the  seventh  and  eighth  divisions. 
The  Balance,  obviously  indicating  the  equality  of  day 
and  night,  is  first  mentioned  as  the  sign  of  the  au- 
tumnal equinox  by  Geminus  and  Varro,  and  obtained, 
through  Sosigenes  of  Alexandria,  official  recognition  in 
the  Julian  calendar.  No  representation  of  the  seventh 
sign  has  yet  been  discovered  on  any  Euphratean  monu- 
ment; but  it  is  noticeable  that  the  eighth  is  frequently 
doubled,  and  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  seeing  in  the  pair  of 
zodiacal  scorpions  carved  on  Assyrian  cylinders  the  pro- 
totype of  the  Greek  scorpion  and  claws. 

The  definitive  decline  of  the  sun’s  power  after  the 
autumnal  equinox  was  typified  by  placing  a scorpion  as 
the  symbol  of  darkness  in  the  eighth  sign.  Sagittarius, 
figured  later  as  a Centaur,  stood  for  the  Babylonian 
Mars.  Capricornus,  the  sign  of  the  winter  solstice,  is 
plausibly  connected  with  the  caprine  nurse  of  the 
young  solar  god  in  Oriental  legends,  of  which  that  of 
Zeus  and  Amalthea  is  a variant.  The  fish-tailed  Goat 
of  the  zodiac  presents  a close  analrgy  with  the  Mexican 
calendar  sign  Cipactli,  a kind  of  marine  monster  re- 
sembling a norwhal.  Aquarius  is  a still  more  exclu- 
sively meteorological  sign  than  Leo.  The  eleventh 
month  was  known  in  Euphratean  regions  as  that  of 
“ want  and  rain.”  It  was  represented  in  zodiacal  sym- 
bolism by  the  god  Ramman,  crowned  with  a tiara  and 
pouring  water  from  a vase,  or  more  generally  by  the 
vase  and  water  without  the  god.  The  resumption  of 
agricultural  labors  after  the  deluge  was  commemorated 
in  the  twelfth  month,  and  a mystical  association  of  the 
fishes,  which  were  its  sign,  with  the  life  after  death  is 
evident  in  a monument  of  Assyrian  origin  described  by 
M.  Clermont-Ganneau,  showing  a corpse  guarded  by  a 
pair  of  fish-gods. 

The  cyclical  meaning  of  the  succession  of  zodiacal 
signs,  though  now  obscured  by  interpolations  and  sub- 
stitutions, was  probably  once  clear  and  entire.  It  is 
curiously  reflected  in  the  adventures  of  the  Babylonian 
Hercules,  the  solar  hero  Izdubar.  Izdubar’s  conquest 
of  the  winged  bull  Heabani  was'  placed  under  Taurus; 
his  slaying  of  the  tyrant  Houmbaba  (the  prototype  of 
Geryon)  in  the  fifth  month  typified  the  victory  of  light 
over  darkness,  represented  in  plastic  art  by  the  group 
of  a lion  killing  a bull,  which  is  the  form  ordinarily 
given  to  the  sign  Leo  on  Ninevite  cylinders.  The 
wooing  of  Ishtar  by  the  hero  of  the  epic  falls  under 
Virgo,  and  his  encounter  with  two  scorpion  men, 
guardians  of  the  rising  and  the  setting  sun,  under 
Scorpio.  The  eleventh  tablet  narrates  the  deluge;  the 
twelfth  associates  the  apotheosis  of  Heabani  (the 
Babylonian  Chiron)  with  the  zodiacal  emblems  of  the 
resurrection.  In  the  formation  of  the  constellations 
of  the  zodiac  very  little  regard  was  paid  to  stellar  con- 
figurations. The  Chaldseans  chose  three  stars  in  each 
sign  to  be  the  “ councilor  gods  ” of  the  planets.  These 


were  called  by  the  Greeks  “decaris,”  because  ten  de- 
grees of  the  ecliptic  and  ten  days  of  the  year  were  pre- 
sided over  by  each. 

The  Egyptians  adopted  from  the  Greeks,  with  con- 
siderable modifications  of  its  attendant  symbolism,  the 
twelve-fold  division  of  the  zodiac.  Aries  became  the 
Fleece;  two  Sprouting  Plants,  typifying  equality  or 
resemblance,  stood  for  Gemini;  Cancer  was  re-named 
Scaralxeus;  Leo  was  converted,  from  the  ax-like  con- 
figuration of  its  chief  stars,  into  the  Knife;  Libra  into 
the  Mountain  of  the  Sun.  Serpent  was  the  Egyptian 
equivalent  of  Scorpio;  the  Arrow  only  of  Sagittarius 
was  retained;  Capricornus  became  “ Life,”  or  a Mirror 
as  an  image  of  life;  Aquarius  survived  as  Water;  Taurus, 
Virgo,  and  Pisces  remained  unchanged. 

Early  Zoroastrian  writings,  though  impregnated  with 
star- worship,  show  no  traces  of  an  attempt  to  organize 
the  heavenly  array.  In  the  Bundehish , however  (ninth 
century),  the  twelve  “ Akhtars,”  designated  by  the  same 
names  as  our  signs,  lead  the  army  of  Ormuzd,  while 
the  seven  “ Awakhtars  ” or  planets^  (including  a meteor 
and  a comet)  fight  for  Ahriman.  Aryabhata,  about  the 
beginning  of  our  era,  reckoned  by  the  same  signs  as 
Hipparchus.  They  were  transmitted  from  India  by 
Buddhist  missionaries  to  China,  but  remained  in  abey- 
ance until  the  Jesuit  reform  of  Chinese  astronomy  in 
the  seventeenth  centuiy.  The  characteristic  Chinese 
mode  of  dividing  the  “ yellow  road  ” of  the  sun  was  by 
the  twelve  “ cyclical  animals  ” — Rat,  Ox,  Tiger,  Hare, 
Dragon  or  Crocodile,  Serpent,  Horse,  Sheep,  Monkey, 
Hen,  Dog,  Pig.  The  opening  sign  corresponds  to  oui 
Aquarius.  But  here  the  agreement  ceases.  For  the 
Chinese  series  has  the  strange  peculiarity  of  proceed- 
ing in  a retrograde  direction  or  against  the  course  of 
the  sun.  Thus,  the  second  sign  (of  the  Ox)  occupies 
the  position  of  Capricorn,  the  third  that  of  Sagittarius, 
and  so  on.  The  Chinese  circle  of  the  “animals” 
obtained  early  a wide  diffusion.  It  was  adopted  by 
Tartars,  Turks,  and  Mongols,  in  Tibet  and  Tong-king, 
Japan  and  Corea.  A large  detachment  of  the  “ cyclical 
'animals”  even  found  its  way  to  the  New  World. 
Seven  of  the  twenty  days  constituting  the  Aztec  month 
bore  names  evidently  borrowed  from  those  of  the 
Chinese  horary  signs.  The  Hare  (or  Rabbit),  Monkey, 
Dog,  and  Serpent  reappeared  without  change;  for  the 
Tiger,  Crocodile,  and  Hen,  unknown  in  America,  the 
Ocelot,  Lizard,  and  Eagle  were  substituted  as  analo- 
gous. The  Aztec  calendar  dated  from  the  seventh  cent- 
ury; but  the  zodiacal  tradition  embodied  by  it  was 
doubtless  much  more  ancient. 

The  synodical  revolution  of  the  moon  laid  down  the 
lines  of  the  solar,  its  siderial  revolution  those  of  the 
lunar  zodiac.  The  first  was  a circlet  of  “full  moons;” 
the  second  marked  the  diurnal  stages  of  the  lunar  prog- 
ress round  the  sky,  from  and  back  again  to  any 
selected  star.  The  moon  was  the  earliest  “ measurer  ” 
both  of  time  and  space;  but  its  services  can  scarcely 
have  been  rendered  available  until  stellar  “ milestones  ” 
were  established  at  suitable  points  along  its  path.  Such 
were  the  Hindu  nakshatras,  a word  originally  signifying 
stars  in  general,  but  appropriated  to  designate  certain 
small  stellar  groups  marking  the  divisions  of  the  lunar 
track.  They  exhibit  in  an  exaggerated  form  the  irregu- 
larities of  distribution  visible  in  our  zodiacal  constella- 
tions, and  present  the  further  anomaly  of  being 
frequently  reckoned  as  twenty-eight  in  number,  while 
the  ecliptical  arcs  they  characterize  are  invaribly  twenty- 
seven.  The  notion  of  a twenty-seven  fold  division  ol 
the  zodiac  was  deeply  rooted  in  Hindu  tradition.  The 
number  and  the  name  were  in  early  times  almost  synon- 
ymous. Thus,  a nakshatra-mala  denoted  a necklace 
of  twenty-seven  pearls.  Everything  points  to  a native 


Z O D 


6442 

origin  for  the  system  of  nakshatras . Some  were  named 
after  exclusively  Vedic  deities;  they  formed  the  basis  of 
the  sacrificial  calendar  of  the  Brahmans;  the  old  Indian 
names  of  the  months  were  derived  from  them;  their  ex- 
istence was  presupposed  in  the  entire  structure  of 
Hindu  ritual  and  science.  They  do  not,  however, 
obtain  full  recognition  in  Sanskrit  literature  until  the 
Brahmana  period  (seventh  or  eighth  century  B.c.)  The 
Rig-  Veda  contains  only  one  allusion  to  them,  where  it  is 
said  that  “ Soma  is  placed  in  the  lap  of  the  nakshatras;” 
and  this  is  in  a part  including  later  interpolations.  Posi- 
tive proof  of  the  high  antiquity  of  tne  Hindu  lunar 
zodiac  is  nevetherless  afforded  by  the  undoubted  fact  that 
the  primitive  series  opened  with  Krittika  (the  Pleiades) 
4 s the  sign  of  the  vernal  equinox. 

The  nomenclature  of  the  Hindu  signs  of  the  zodiac, 
save  as  regards  a few  standard  asterisms,  such  as 
A9vini  and  Krittika,  was  far  from  uniform.  Remin- 
iscences of  the  Greek  signs  of  Gemini,  Leo,  Libra, 
Sagittarius,  Capricornus,  and  Pisces  are  obvious  sever- 
ally in  the  Hindu  Two  Faces,  Lion’s  Tail,  Beam  of  a 
Balance,  Arrow,  Gazelle’s  Head  (figured  as  a marine 
nondescript),  and  Fish,  Mexican  loans  are  more 
remarkable.  They  were  apparently  direct  as  well  as 
indirect.  The  ^ ztec  calendar  includes  nakshatra  titles 
borrowed,  not  cnly  through  the  medium  of  the  Tartar 
zodiac,  but  likewise  straight  from  the  Indian  scheme, 
apart  from  any  known  intervention.  Relationship 
of  a more  intimate  kind  connects  the  Hindu  lunar 
mansions  with  those  of  the  Arabs  and  Chinese.  The 
resemblance  between  the  three  systems  is  indeed  so 
close  that  it  has  been  assumed,  almost  as  axiomatic, 
that  they  must  have  been  framed  from  a single  model; 
and  the  question  of  their  origin  has  been  debated  with 
all  the  resources  of  varied  erudition  by  scholars  such  as 
Biot,  Weber,  Whitney,  and  Max  Muller.  As  the  up 
shot  of  the  controversy  it  appears  nevertheless  to  have 
become  tolerably  clear  that  the  nakshatras  were  both 
native  to  India,  and  the  sieu  to  China,  but  that  the 
manazil  were  mainly  of  Indian  derivation. 

The  safest  general  conclusions  regarding  this  disputed' 
subject  appear  to  be  that  the  sieu%  distinctively  and  un- 
varyingly Chinese,  cannot  properly  be  described  as  divis- 
ions of  a lunar  zodiac,  that  the  nakshatras , though  of 
purely  Indian  origin,  became  modified  by  the  successive 
adoption  of  Greek  and  Chinese  rectifications  and  sup- 
posed improvements;  while  the  mandzil  constituted  a 
frankly  eclectic  system,  in  which  elements  from  all 
quarters  were  combined.  It  was  adopted  by  Turks, 
Tartars,  and  Persians,  and  forms  part  of  the  astronomi- 
cal paraphernalia  of  the  Bundehish.  The  sietit  on  the 
other  hand,  were  early  naturalized  in  Japan. 

The  refined  system  of  astrological  prediction  based 
upon  the  solar  zodiac  was  invented  in  Chaldsea,  obtained 
a second  home  and  added  elaborations  in  Egypt,  and 
spread  irresistibly  westward  about  the  beginning  of  our 
era.  For  genethliacal  purposes  the  signs  were  divided 
into  six  solar  and  six  lunar,  the  former  counted  onward 
from  Leo,  the  “house”  of  the  sun,  the  latter  backward 
from  the  moon’s  domicile  in  Cancer.  The  influence  of 
the  signs,  though  secondary,  was  hence  overmastering; 
Julian  called  them  6sgw  dwa/uei?,  and  they  were  the 
objects  of  a corresponding  veneration.  Cities  and  king- 
doms were  allotted  to  their  several  patronage  on  a sys- 
tem fully  expounded  by  Manilius:  Syria  was  assigned 
to  Aries,  and  Syrian  coins  frequently  bear  the  effigy  of 
a ram;  Scythia  and  Arabia  fell  to  Taurus,  India  to 
Gemini.  Palmyra,  judging  from  numismatic  evidence, 
claimed  the  favor  of  Libra,  Zeugma  that  of  Capricorn; 
Leo  protected  Miletus,  Sagittarius  Singara.  The  “ power 
of  the  signs'”  was  similarly  distributed  among  the  parts 
fjf  the  human  body. 


In  Egypt  celestial  influences  were  considered  as 
emanating  mainly  from  the  thirty-six  “ decans  ” of  the 
signs.  They  were  called  the  “ media  of  the  whole 
circle  of  the  zodiac;”  each  ten -day  period  of  the 
Egyptian  year  was  consecrated  to  the  decanal  god 
whose  section  of  the  ecliptic  rose  at  its  commence- 
ment; the  body  was  correspondingly  apportioned,  and 
disease  was  cured  by  invoking  the  zodiacal  regent  of 
the  part  affected . 

Probably  the  most  ancient  zodiacal  representation  in 
existence  is  a fragment  of  a Chaldoean  planisphere  in 
the  British  Museum,  once  inscribed  with  the  names  of 
the  twelve  months  and  their  governing  signs.  Two 
only  now  remain.  A zodiac  on  the  “ astrological  altar 
of  Gabies”  in  the  Louvre  illustrates  the  apportionment 
of  the  signs  among  the  inmates  of  the  Roman  Pan- 
theon; and  they  occur  as  a classical  reminiscence  in  the 
mosaic  pavements  of  San  Miniato  and  the  baptistery  at 
Florence,  the  cathedral  of  Lyons,  and  the  crypt  of  San 
Savino  at  Piacenza.  Zodiacal  symbolism  became  con- 
spicuous in  mediaeval  art. 

It  is  curious  to  find  the  same  sequence  of  symbols 
employed  for  the  same  decorative  purposes  in  India  as 
in  Europe.  A perLct  set  of  signs  was  copied  in  1764 
from  a pagoda  at  Verdapettah  near  Cape  Comorin,  and 
one  equally  complete  existed  at  the  same  period  on  the 
ceiling  of  a temple  near  Mindurah. 

The  hieroglyphs  representing  the  signs  of  the  zodiac 
in  astronomical  works  are  of  late  introduction.  They 
are  found  in  manuscripts  of  about  the  tenth  century, 
but  in  carvings  not  until  the  fifteenth  or  sixteenth. 
Their  origin  is  unknown;  but  some,  if  not  all  of  them, 
have  antique  associations.  The  hieroglyph  of  Leo,  for 
instance,  occurs  among  the  symbols  of  the  Mithraic 
worship. 

ZODIACAL  LIGHT.  The  zodiacal  light  is  usually 
described  as  a cone  or  lenticularly- shaped  glow  of  neb- 
ulous light,  seen  after  sunset  or  before  sunrise,  extend- 
ing upward  from  the  position  of  the  sun  nearly  in  the 
direction  of  the  ecliptic  or  of  the  sun’s  equator.  This 
description,  though  fairly  correct  for  the  higher  latitudes, 
does  not  represent  accurately  what  is  seen  in  the  tropics, 
where  the  light  is  often  a very  conspicuous  object. 
There,  if  an  observer  on  a clear,  moonless  night 
watches  the  western  sky  from  soon  after  sunset  till  the 
last  trace  of  twilight  has  disappeared,  he  will  notice  that 
the  twilight  seems  to  linger  longer  near  where  the  sun 
sank  below  the  horizon,  and  that  gradually  a nebulous 
whitish  band  of  light,  broad  toward  the  horizon  and 
narrowing  first  rapidly  and  then  more  slowly  upward, 
begins  to  stand  out  clearly  from  the  vanishing  twilight, 
which  spreads  along  a much  wider  and  nearly  horizon- 
tally-topped arc  of  the  horizon.  This  is  the  zodiacal  light. 

Among  the  Moslems,  to  whom  it  is  important  on  rit- 
ual grounds  to  determine  accurately  the  moment  of  day- 
break, at  which  during  Ramadan  the  daily  fast  begins, 
the  morning  zodiacal  light  appears  to  have  been  ob- 
served from  an  early  period,  and  is  known  as  the  “ false 
dawn  ” or  the  “ wolf’s  tail  ” (Redhouse,  in  Journ.  R.  A. 
S.,  July,  1878).  But  in  Christian  Europe  it  seems  to 
have  been  first  observed  by  Kepler,  who  described  its 
appearance  with  considerable  accuracy  and  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  it  was  the  atmosphere  of  the  sun. 
Descartes  wrote  about  it  in  1630  and  Childrey  in  1659; 
but  the  attention  of  astronomers  was  first  prominently 
called  to  it  by  Dominic  Cassini,  who  first  saw  it  March 
18,  1683.  It  is  to  him  that  it  owes  the  name  which  it 
now  bears. 

Extent. — The  way  in  which  the  light  fades  off  grad- 
ually toward  the  boundaries  makes  it  extremely  difficult 
to  determine  accurately  the  true  position  of  the  light 
j or  its  extent.  Various  observations  show  that  at  times 


ZO  HU 

rjae  base,  at  an  elongation  of  about  20°,  may  have  a 
width  of  fron  250  to  30°,  while  at  an  elongation  of 
6o°  the  breadth  is  frequently  as  much  as  200,  but 
usually  much  less.  The  distance  of  the  vertex  from 
the  sun  frequently  exceeds  900,  and  Mr.  Liais  and 
others  have  recorded  cases  when  the  light  has  been 
traced  completely  round  from  the  western  to  the  eastern 
horizon.  A lengthened  series  of  observations  was 
made  on  the  zodiacal  light  by  the  Rev.  G.  Jones,  chap- 
lain  of  the  United  States  steam  frigate  Mississippi , in 
the  China  and  Japan  Seas  in  1855.  He  charted  the 
apparent  position  of  the  cone  of  light  on  a large  num- 
ber of  nights  and  mornings,  and  came  to  the  somewhat 
startling  conclusion  that  his  observations  could  be  ex- 
plained only  by  supposing  the  existence  of  a nebulous 
ring  round  the  earth  within  the  orbit  of  the  moon.  He 
recorded  that  twice  near  23°  28'  N.  latitude,  with  the 
sun  at  the  opposite  solstice,  he  had  seen  “ the  extraor- 
dinary spectacle  of  the  zodiacal  light,  simultaneously 
at  both  the  east  and  west  horizons  from  11  to  1 o’clock 
for  several  nights  in  succession.  ” On  reading  this  state- 
ment, Baron  Humboldt  communicated  to  the  Monatsber- 
ichte  d.  kon.  preuss . A had.  d.  IViss.  some  unpublished 
observations  of  his  own  on  a similar  phenomenon. 

Position . — The  exact  position  of  the  axis  of  the 
zodiacal  light  relatively  to  the  ecliptic  has  not  yet  been 
satisfactorily  fixed.  Most  observers  have  tried  to  fix 
its  position  by  tracing  its  outline  on  a star  chart,  while 
Prof.  C.  Piazzi  Smyth  employed  two  sights  mounted 
equatorially.  But  even  by  these  means  no  great  ac- 
curacy can  be  attained,  for  the  limits  of  the  light  can 
be  traced  only  when  the  eye  is  quite  unfatigued  and 
when  the  light  is  looked  at  with  averted  vision.  The 
difficulty  experienced  is  well  illustrated  by  the  wide 
divergencies  between  the  results  of  different  observers 
—divergencies  not  only  in  the  extent  of  the  light,  which 
would  be  quite  natural,  but  even  in  the  direction  of  the 
axis  of  the  cone. 

The  Moon's  Zodiacal  Light. — Several  observers  have 
recorded  observations  which  appeared  to  show  that  the 
moon  produced  an  appearance  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  zodiacal  light.  Piazzi  Smyth,  however,  when  ob- 
serving on  the  Peak  of  Teneriffe,  saw  this  appearance 
and  showed  by  actual  measurement  that  the  glow  seen 
before  moonrise  does  not  lie  near  the  ecliptic,  but  is 
nearly  vertical,  and  is  due  simply  to  refraction  in  the 
earth’s  atmosphere.  This  explanation  will  hardly  account 
for  an  interesting  observation  made  by  Mr.  L.  Trouvelot, 
which  if  repeated  would  require  to  be  very  carefully  in- 
vestigated. The  whole 'of  the  circumstances  led  Mr. 
Trouvelot  to  conclude  that  this  light  and  the  zodiacal 
light  were  phenomena  of  the  same  order,  while  this  and 
other  observations,  he  considered,  rendered  it  probable 
that  there  was  some  connection  between  the  zodiacal 
light  and  auroras. 

Physical  Constitution. — -Many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  light  was  to  any 
extent  polarized,  but  with  questionable  results  until 
Prof.  A.  W.  Wright  attacked  the  problem,  using  a 
polariscope  specially  designed  for  studying  very  faint 
lights.  With  this  he  was  enabled  to  determine  with 
certainty  that  the  light  was  partially  polarized  in  a plane 
passing  through  the  sun,  and  that  the  amount  of  polar- 
ization was  most  probably  as  much  as  15  per  cent.,  but 
less  than  20  per  cent.  Many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  observe  the  spectrum.  In  1867  Angstrom,  observ- 
ing at  Upsala  in  March,  obtained  the  bright  aurora  line 
(W.  L.  5,567),  and  concluded  that  in  the  zodiacal  light 
there  was  the  same  material  as  is  found  in  the  aurora 
and  in  the  solar  corona,  and  probably  through  all  space. 
The  most  satisfactory  observations  hitherto  published 
seem  to  be  those  of  Prof.  Piazzi  Smyth  and  Prof.  A. 


-ZOL  644$ 

W.  Wright  Both  used  spectroscopes  specially  de- 
signed for  the  examination  of  faint  lights,  and  their  re- 
sults agree  completely  with  each  other.  Professor  Smyth 
made  his  observations  at  Palermo  and  found  a faint 
continuous  spectrum  extending  from  about  W.  L.  5,550 
to  W.  L.  5,000  (British  inches  scale),  with  a maximum 
brightness  at  about  W.  L.  5,350.  Professor  Wright’s 
conclusion  was  that  the  spectrum  differs  from  that  of 
sunlight  only  in  intensity. 

The  discussion  of  the  real  cause  of  the  zodiacal  light 
is  rendered.'  very  difficult  by  the  want  of  agreement  in 
the  observations  that  have  been  made  upon  it,  and  by 
the  existence  of  a small  number  of  apparently  trust- 
worthy observations  of  a very  abnormal  extension  of 
the  light,  as  detailed  above ; but  certain  conclusion* 
may  be  safely  arrived  at.  The  theory  that  it  is  due  t© 
a ring  of  small  bodies  surrounding  the  earth  seems  to 
be  entirely  negatived.  There  can  be  very  little  doubt 
that  we  must  look  for  the  cause  of  the  light  to  the  exist- 
ence of  a mass  of  small  bodies  moving  in  orbits  round 
the  sun,  and  that,  as  shown  by  the  polarization  and 
the  spectrum,  the  light  is  chiefly,  if  not  entirely,  re- 
flected sunlight. 

Doctor  Huggins,  while  holding  that  the  corona  is 
most  probably  due  to  the  ceaseless  outflow  of  extremely 
minute  particles  from  the  sun,  thinks  it  not  improbable 
that  the  zodiacal  light  may  be  in  some  way  connected 
with  this  outflow.  Doctor  Siemens,  when  discussing 
his  theory  of  the  conservation  of  solar  energy,  sought 
for  an  explanation  of  the  zodiacal  light  in  the  dust 
which  he  supposed  to  be  ejected  from  equatorial  regions, 
rendered  luminous  partly  by  reflected  sunlight,  partly 
by  phosphorescence,  and  partly  by  electrical  action. 

With  the  increasing  number  of  observatories  at  high 
altitudes  it  may  fairly  be  hoped  that  before  long  astrono- 
mers will  be  put  in  possession  of  such  definite  measure- 
ments as  will  enable  some  at  least  of  the  points  still 
under  discussion  to  be  finally  settled,  and  that  far  more 
accurate  observations  will  soon  be  available  on  which  to 
construct  a satisfactory  theory. 

ZOHAR.  See  Kabbalah. 

ZOLLNER,  Johann  Carl  Friedrich,  astronomer 
and  physicist,  was  born  at  Berlin,  November  8,  1834. 
From  1872  he  held  the  chair  of  astrophysics  at  Leipsic 
university.  He  is  the  author  of  numerous  papers  on 
photometry  and  spectrum  analysis  in  Poggendorff's  An - 
nalen  and  Berithte  der  k.  sachsischen  Gesellschaft  det 
Wissenschaften , of  two  works  on  astronomical  photom- 
etry {Grundziige  einer  allgemeinen  Photometric  des 
Himmels , Berlin,  1861,  and  Photo?netrische  Unter* 
suchungen , Leipsic,  1865),  and  of  a very  strange  book, 
Ueberdie  Naturder  Come  ten  (Leipsic,  1872).  He  died 
at  Leipsic,  April  25,  1882. 

ZOLLVEREIN  (Ger.,  meaning <c  customs-union  ”)  a 
union  of  different  independent  states,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Prussia,  so  as  to  enable  them,  in  their  commercial, 
relations  with  other  countries  to  act  as  one  state. 
When,  after  the  war  of  liberation  in  1815,  the  political 
union,  destroyed  by  the  downfall  of  the  “ holy  Roman 
Empire,”  had  been  restored  to  certain  degree  in  the 
German  “ Bund”  (see  Germany),  internal  commerce  was 
felt  to  be  trammeled  and  depressed  by  the  collection  c \ 
revenue  at  the  frontiers  of  every  petty  state;  nor  was  it 
possible,  without  united  action,  to  carry  out  the  policy 
in  regard  to  foreign  commerce  which  might  be  thought 
best  for  protecting  and  developing  the  native  trade  and 
manufactures.  'The  first  suggestion  of  such  a union 
came  from  Prussia;  but  it  took  many  years  before  an 
actual  beginning  was  made,  and  still  longer  before  it 
reached  its  ultimate  extent,  as  the  plan  was  opposed  for 
a long  time  by  the  jealousies  rind  special  interests  ol 
many  of  the  states. 


6444  ZOM- 

From  1819  to  11828  only  some  of  the  minor  princi- 
palities inclosed  within  the  Prussian  territories  had  been 
got  to  conform  to  the  Prussian  commercial  system;  but 
in  1828  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  in  1831  Hesse-Cassel, 
gave  in.  This  was  followed,  in  1833,  by  the  accession 
of  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  the 
principality  of  the  same  name,  Schwarzburg,  and  Reuss; 
and  in  1835-36,  by  that  of  Baden,  Nassau,  and  Frank- 
fort on  the  Main.  The  adhesion  of  Hanover  did  not 
take  place  till  1851,  of  Oldenburg  till  1852.  When  in 
1868  Lubeck  and  the  two  duchies  of  Mecklenburg  had 
joined  the  Zollverein,  its  territory  extended  over  the 
whole  of  what  subsequently  became  the  German  Empire, 
with  the  exception  of  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  a small 
part  of  Baden  near  Schaffhausen.  The  Reichs’land  of 
Alsace-Lorraine  was  incorporated  in  1871.  The  im- 
perial constitution  of  April  16,  1871,  recognizes  and 
ratifies  the  privilege  of  the  free  ports,  so  to  remain 
until  “ they  themselves  demand  admittance  within  the 
common  customs-boundary.” 

The  principle  of  the  Zollverein’s  action  was  this:  The 
whole  territory  embraced  by  the  Union  formed  com- 
mercially (in  regard  at  least,  to  countries  beyond  its  lim- 
its) one  state.  The  duties  on  exports,  imports,  and 
through  transports  were  collected  at  all  the  frontiers  of 
the  Union,  according  to  a uniform  tariff  (subject  to  some 
concessions,  made  on  special  grourds,  to  individual 
states);  and  the  proceeds,  after  paying  the  expenses  of 
collection,  were  divided  among  the  members  of  the 
Union  in  proportion  to  their  several  populations.  In 
regard  to  the  internal  trade  of  the  Union,  as  the  duties 
on  articles  manufactured  for  home  consumption  were 
different  in  the  different  states,  a complicated  system 
of  drawbacks  came  into  play,  in  order  to  put  the  com- 
merce of  all  on  an  equal  footing. 

The  treaty  of  Union  was  agreed  upon  for  a definite 
period  of  years,  and  was  renewed  from  time  to  time;  as 
in  1842,  1853,  1865,  1867.  In  the  latter  year  much  was 
done  to  simplify  the  relations  of  the  various  states  to 
one  another  in  respect  of  internal  trade,  and  the  admin- 
istration of  the  Zollverem  was  so  modified  as  to  give 
to  the  various  members  of  the  Union  votes  in  its  council 
and  parliament  proportionate  to  the  number  of  inhabi- 
tants in  each  state.  Since  the  establishment  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire,  the  Zollverein  has  no  longer  a separate 
constitution  of  its  Dwn.  The  council  (representing  gov- 
ernments) is  merged  in  the  Federal  Council  of  the  Em- 
pire; its  parliament  (representing  populations)  in  the 
Reichstag.  Affairs  are  managed  on  the  principles 
adopted  by  the  Zollverein  in  1867,  by  permanent  com- 
mittees of  the  Federal  Council,  viz.:  those  for  customs 
and  taxes,  for  trade  and  commerce,  and  for  finance. 

ZOMBOR,  a royal  free  city  of  Flungary,  the  capital 
of  the  county  of  Bacs-Bodrog,  lies  about  120  miles  south 
of  Budapest  in  a fertile  plain,  on  the  Francis  canal  that 
connects  the  Danube  and  the  Theiss.  The  town  has 
gome  fine  streets  and  squares,  and  several  handsome 
buildings,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  county 
and  town  halls,  the  theater,  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
and  Greek  churches.  Zombor  is  a station  on  the  Alfold- 
Fiume  railway  and  the  center  of  the  grain  and  cattle 
trade  of  an  extensive  area.  The  population  numbered 
24,693  in  1880  and  about  35,000  in  1900. 

ZONARAS,  Johannes,  historian  and  theologian, 
flourished  at  Constantinople  in  the  twelfth  century. 
Under  Alexius  I.  Comnenus  he  held  the  offices  of  com- 
mander of  the  bodyguard  and  private  secretary  to  the 
emperor,  but  in  the  succeeding  reign  he  retired  to  Mount 
Athos,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  writing 
his  books.  He  is  said  to  have  lived  to  the  age  of  eighty- 
eight. 

ZOOLOGY.  The  branch  oi  science  to  which  the 


-ZOO 

name  zoology  is  strictly  applicable  may  be  defined  a? 
that  portion  of  biology  which  relates  to  animals,  as 
distinguished  from  that  portion  which  is  concerned  with 
plants. 

The  history  of  zoology  as  a science  is  the  history  of 
the  great  biological  doctrine  of  the  evolution  of  living 
things  by  the  natural  selection  of  varieties  in  the  strug- 
gle for  existence — since  that  doctrine  is  the  one  medium 
whereby  all  the  phenomena  of  life,  whether  of  form  or 
function,  are  rendered  capable  of  explanation  by  the 
laws  of  physics  and  chemistry,  and  so  made  the  subject- 
matter  of  a true  science  or  study  of  causes. 

History . — The  early  collectors  of  natural  curiosities 
were  the  founders  of  zoological  science,  and  to  this  day 
the  naturalist-traveler  and  his  correlative,  the  museum 
curator  and  systematise  play  a most  important  part  in 
the  progress  of  zoology.  Anatomy  and  the  study  of 
animal  mechanism,  animal  physics,  and  animal  chem- 
istry, all  of  which  form  part  of  a true  zoology,  have 
been  excluded  from  the  usual  definition  of  the  word  by 
the  mere  accident  that  the  zoologist  of  the  last  three 
centuries  has  had  his  museum  but  has  not  had  his  gar- 
den of  living  specimens  as  the  botanist  has  had,  and 
while  the  zoologist  has  thus  for  a long  time  been  de- 
prived of  the  means  of  anatomical  and  physiological 
study — only  supplied  within  the  past  century  by  the 
method  of  preserving  animal  bodies  in  alcohol — the 
demands  of  medicine  for  a knowledge  of  the  structure 
of  the  human  animal  have  in  the  meantime  brought  into 
existence  a separate  and  special  study  of  human  anat- 
omy and  physiology. 

Whatever  may  be  the  history  of  the  word  “ physi- 
ology,” the  true  history  of  zoology  as  a science  lies 
>wit'hin  the  last  three  centuries ; and,  while  the  theories 
and  fables  which  were  current  in  earlier  times  in  regard 
to  animal  life  and  the  various  kinds  of  animals  form  an 
important  subject  of  study  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  history  of  the  development  of  the  human  mind,  they 
really  have  no  bearing  upon  the  history  of  scientific 
zoology. 

The  first  founded  of  surviving  European  academies, 
the  Academia  Naturse  Curiosorum  (1651),  especially 
confined  itself  to  the  description  and  illustration  of  the 
structure  of  plants  and  animals.  Eleven  years  later 
(1662)  the  Royal  Society  of  London  was  incorporated 
by  royal  charter,  having  existed  without  a name  or 
fixed  organization  for  seventeen  years  previously  (from 
1645).  A little  later  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris 
was  established  by  Louis  XIV.  The  influence  of  these 
great  academies  of  the  seventeenth  century  on  the  prog- 
ress of  zoology  was  precisely  to  effect  that  bringing  to- 
gether of  the  museum  men  and  the  physicians  or 
anatomists  which  was  needed  for  further  development. 
While  the  race  of  collectors  and  systematizes  culmi- 
nated in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  in 
Linnaeus,  a new  type  of  student  made  its  appearance  in 
such  men  as  John  Hunter  and  other  anatomists,  who, 
not  satisfied  with  the  superficial  observations  of  the 
popular  “ zoologists,”  set  themselves  to  work  to  exam- 
ine anatomically  the  whole  animal  kingdom,  and  to 
classify  its  members  by  aid  of  the  results  of  such 
profound  study. 

It  was  not  until  the  nineteenth  century  that  the  micro- 
scope, early  applied  by  Leeuwenhoek,  Malpighi,  Hook, 
and  Swammerdam  to  the  study  of  animal  structure, 
was  perfected  as  an  instrument,  and  accomplished  for 
zoology  its  final  and  most  important  service,  and  led  to 
a full  comprehension  of  the  great  doctrine  of  cell- 
structure  and  the  establishment  of  the  facts — (1)  that 
all  organisms  are  either  single  corpuscles  (so-called 
cells)  of  living  material  (microscopic  animalcules,  etc. ) 
or  are  built  up  of  an  immense  number  of  such  units;  (2) 


zoo 


6445 


that  all  organisms  begin  their  individual  existence  as  a 
single  unit  or  corpuscle  of  living  substance,  and  (3)  that 
the  life  of  a multicellular  organism  is  the  sum  of  the 
activities  of  the  corpuscular  units  of  which  it  consists, 
and  that  the  processes  of  life  must  be  studied  in  and 
their  explanation  obtained  from  an  understanding  of 
the  chemical  and  physical  changes  which  go  on  in  each 
individual  corpuscle  or  unit  of  living  material  or  proto- 
plasm (cell-theory  of  Schwann).  But  it  was  reserved 
for  Charles  Darwin,  in  the  year  1859,  to  place  the 
whole  theory  of  organic  evolution  on  a new  footing, 
and  by  his  discovery  of  a mechanical  cause  actually 
existing  and  demonstrable,  by  which  organic  evolution 
must  be  brought  about  to  entirely  change  the  attitude 
in  regard  to  it  of  even  the  most  rigid  exponents  of  the 
scientific  method.  Since  its  first  publication  in  1859, 
the  history  of  Darwin’s  theory  has  been  one  of  contin- 
uous and  decisive  conquest,  so  that  at  the  present  day 
it  is  universally  accepted  as  the  central,  all-embracing 
doctrine  of  zoological  and  botanical  science. 

Darwin  succeeded  in  establishing  the  doctrine  of 
organic  evolution  by  the  introduction  into  the  web  of 
the  zoological  and  botanical  sciences  of  a new  science. 
This  branch  of  biological  science  may  be  called  threm- 
matology (Bpejujua,  “a  thing  bred”).  Darwin’s  intro- 
duction of  thremmatology  into  the  domain  of  scientific 
biology  was  accompanied  by  a new  and  special  develop- 
ment of  a branch  of  study  which  had  previously  been 
known  as  teleology,  the  study  of  the  adaptation  of  or- 
ganic structures  to  the  service  of  the  organisms  in  which 
they  occur.  -Teleology  in  this  form  of  the  doctrine  of 
design  was  never  very  deeply  rooted  among  scientific  anat- 
omists andsystematists.  It  was  considered  permissible  to 
speculate  somewhat  vaguely  on  the  subject  of  the  utility 
of  this  or  that  startling  variety  of  structure;  but  few  at- 
tempts, though  some  of  great  importance,  were  made  to 
systematically  explain  by  observation  and  experiment  the 
adaptation  of  organic  structures  to  particular  purposes  in 
the  case  of  the  lower  animals  and  plants.  Teleology  had, 
however,  an  important  part  in  the  development  of  what 
is  called  physiology,  viz.,  the  knowledge  of  the  mechan- 
ism, the  physical  and  chemical  properties,  of  the  parts 
of  the  body  of  man  and  the  higher  animals  allied  to  him. 

The  old  doctrine  of  types  which  was  used  by  the 
philosophically-minded  zoologists  (and  botanists)  of  the 
first  half  of  the  century  as  a ready  means  of  explaining 
the  failures  and  difficulties  of  the  doctrine  of  design,  fell 
into  its  proper  place  under  the  new  dispensation. 

Thus  not  only  did  Darwin’s  theory  give  a new  basis 
to  the  stqdy  of  organic  structure,  but,  while  rendering 
the  general  theory  of  organic  evolution  equally  ac- 
ceptable and  necessary,  it  explained  the  existence  of 
low  and  simple  forms  of  life  as  survivals  of  the  earliest 
ancestry  of  more  highly  complex  forms,  and  revealed 
the  classifications  of  the  systematist  as  unconscious  at- 
tempts to  construct  the  genealogical  tree  or  pedigree 
of  plants  and  animals. 

Nature  and  Scope  of  Zoology. — The  brief  his- 
torical outline  above  given  is  sufficient  to  justify  us  in 
rejecting,  for  the  purposes  of  an  adequate  appreciation 
of  the  history  and  scope  of  zoology,  that  simple  division 
of  the  science  into  morphology  and  physiology  which  is 
a favorite  one  at  the  present  day. 

A more  instructive  subdivision  of  the  science  of  ani- 
mal biology  or  zoologv  is  one  which  shall  correspond 
to  the  separate  currents  of  thought  and  mental  preoc- 
cupation which  have  been  historically  manifested  in 
western  Europe  in  the  gradual  evolution  of  what  is  to- 
day the  great  river  of  zoological  doctrine  to  which  they 
have  all  been  rendered  contributory. 

We  accordingly  recognize  the  following  five  branches 
of  zoological  study: — 

404 


1.  Morphography. — The  work  of  the  collector  and 
systematist:  exemplified  by  Linnse-us  and  his  pre- 
decessors, by  Cuvier,  Agassiz,  Haeckel. 

2.  Bionomics. — The  lore  of  the  farmer,  gardener, 
sportsman,  fancier,  and  field-naturalist,  including 
thremmatology,  or  the  science  of  breeding,  and  the 
allied  teleology,  or  science  of  organic  adapta 
tions:  exemplified  by  the  patriarch  Jacob,  the 
poet  Virgil,  Sprengel,  Kirby  and  Spence,  Wal- 
lace, and  Darwin. 

3.  Zoo-JDynam ics,  Zoo-Physics , Zoo- Chemistry. — 
The  pursuit  of  the  learned  physician — anatomy 
and  physiology:  exemplified  by  Harvey,  Haller, 
Hunter,  Johann  Muller. 

4.  Plasmology. — The  study  of  the  ultimate  corpuscles 
of  living  matter,  their  structure,  development, 
and  properties,  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope:  ex- 
emplified by  Malpighi,  Hook,  Schwann,  Kowa- 
lewsky. 

5.  Philosophical  Zoology. — General  conceptions  with 
regard  to  the  relations  of  living  things  (especially 
animals)  to  the  universe,  to  man,  and  to  the 
Creator,  their  origin  and  significance:  exemplified 
in  the  writings  of  the  philosophers  of  classical 
antiquity,  and  of  Linnaeus,  Goethe,  Lamarck, 
Cuvier,  Lyell,  H.  Spencer,  and  Darwin. 

Morphography. — Under  this  head  we  include  the 
systematic  exploration  and  tabulation  of  the  facts  in- 
volved in  the  recognition  of  all  the  recent  and  extinct 
kinds  of  animals  and  their  distribution  in  space  and 
time.  (1)  The  museum-makers  of  old  days  and  their 
modern  representatives  the  curators  and  describers  of 
zoological  collections,  (2)  early  explorers  and  modern 
naturalist- travelers  and  writers  on  zoo-geography,  and 
(3)  collectors  of  fossils  and  palaeontologists  are  the  chief 
varieties  of  zoological  workers  coming  under  this  head. 
The  real  dawn  of  zoology  after  the  legendary  period  of 
the  Middle  Ages  is  connected  with  the  name  of  an 
Englishman,  Wotton,  born  at  Oxford  in  1492,  who 
practiced  as  a physician  in  London  and  died  in  1555. 
He  published  a treatise  De  Differentiis  Animalium  at 
Paris  in  1552.  In  many  respects  Wotton  was  simply 
an  exponent  of  Aristotle,  whose  teaching,  with  various 
fanciful  additions,  constituted  the  real  basis  of  zoological 
knowledge  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  Wotton 
follows  Aristotle  in  the  division  of  animals  into  the 
Encema  and  the  Ancema,  and  in  fact  in  the  recognition 
of  all  the  groups  above  given,  adding  only  one  large 
group  to  those  recognized  by  Aristotle  under  the 
Ancema , namely,  the  group  of  Zodphyta , in  which 
Wotton  includes  the  Holothurice , Star- Fishes,  Medusee , 
Sea- Anemones,  and  Sponges.  Wotton  divides  the 
viviparous  quadrupeds  into  the  many-toed,  double- 
hoofed,  and  single-hoofed.  By  the  introduction  of  a 
method  of  classification  which  was  due  to  the  superficial 
Pliny — viz.,  one  depending,  not  on  structure,  but  on  the 
medium  inhabited  by  an  animal,  whether  earth,  air,  01 
water — Wotton  is  led  to  associate  Fishes  and  Whales  as 
aquatic  animals. 

Conrad  Gesner  (1516-1565),  who  was  a physician  and 
held  professorial  chairs  in  various  Swiss  cities,  is  the 
most  voluminous  and  instructive  of  these  earliest  writers 
on  systematic  zoology,  and  was  so  highly  esteemed  that 
his  Historia  Animalium  was  republished  a hundred, 
years  after  his  death.  His  great  work  appeared  in 
successive  parts — e.g. , Vivipara,  Ovipara,  Aves , Pisces , 
Serpentes  et  Scorpio — and  contains  descriptions  and 
illustrations  of  a large  number  of  animal  forms  with 
reference  to  the  lands  inhabited  by  them.  The  explo- 
ration of  parts  of  the  New  World  next  brought  to  hand 
descriptions  and  specimens  of  many  novel  forms  ol  * 
animal  life,  and,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth 


zoo 


6446 

century  and  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth,  that 
careful  study  by  “ specialists  ” of  the  structure  and  life- 
hu>iory  of  particular  groups  of  animals  was  commenced, 
wxiich,  directed  at  first  to  common  and  familar  kinds, 
was  gradually  extended  until  it  formed  a sufficient  body 
of  knowledge  to  serve  as  an  anatomical  basis  for  class- 
ification. This  minuter  study  had  two  origins,  one  in 
the  researches  of  the  medical  anatomists,  such  as 
Fabricius  (1537-1619),  Severinus  (1580-1656),  Harvey 
(1578-1657),  and  Tyson  (1649-1708),  the  other  in  the 
careful  work  of  the  entomologists  and  first  microscopists, 
such  as  Malpighi  (1628-1694),  Swammerdam  (1637- 
i6bo),  and  Hook  (1635-1702). 

The  most  prominent  name  between  that  of  Gesner 
and  Linnaeus  in  the  history  of  systematic  zoology  is 
that  of  John  Ray  (< q.v .)  Associated  with  Ray  in  his 
work,  and  more  especially  occupied  with  the  study  of 
the  Worms  and  Mollusca,  was  Martin  Lister  (1638- 
1712),  who  is  celebrated  also  as  the  author  of  the  first 
geological  map.  After  Ray’s  death  in  London  in  1705 
the  progress  of  anatomical  knowledge,  and  of  the  dis- 
covery and  illustration  of  new  forms  of  animal  life  from 
distant  lands,  continued  with  increasing  vigor.  Two 
years  after  Ray’s  death  Carl  Linn^us  (q.v.)  was  born. 
Unlike  Jacob  Theodore  Klein  (1685-1759),  whose 
carelul  treatises  on  various  groups  of  plants  and  animals 
were  published  during  the  period  between  Ray  and 
Linnaeus,  the  latter  had  his  career  marked  out  for  him 
m a university,  that  of  Upsala,  where  he  was  first  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  and  subsequently  in  natural  history. 
Linnaeus  taught  zoology  and  botany  as  branches  of 
knowledge  to  be  studied  for  their  own  intrinsic  interest. 
His  great  work,  the  Systema  Natures , ran  through 
twelve  editions  during  his  lifetime  (first  edition  1735, 
tweffith  1768).  He  adopted  Ray’s  conception  of  species, 
but  he  made  species  a practical  reality  by  insisting  that 
every  species  shall  have  a double  Latin  name — the  first 
half  to  be  the  name  of  the  genus  common  to  several 
species,  and  the  second  half  to  be  the  specific  name. 
Previously  to  Linnaeus  long,  many- worded  names  had 
been  used,  sometimes  with  one  additional  adjective, 
sometimes  with  another,  so  that  no  true  names  were 
fixed  and  accepted.  Linnaeus  by  his  binomial  system 
made  it  possible  to  write  and  speak  with  accuracy 
of  any  given  species  of  plant  or  animal.  He  was,  in 
fact,  the  Adam  of  zoological  science.  He  proceeded 
further  to  introduce  into  his  enumeration  of  animals 
and  plants  a series  of  groups,  viz.,  genus,  order,  class, 
which  he  compared  to  the  subdivisions  of  an  army  or 
the  subdivisions  of  a territory,  the  greater  containing 
several  of  the  less,  as  follows: — - 

Class.  Order.  Genus.  Species.  Variety. 

Genus  sum-  Genus  inter-  Genus  proxi-  Species.  Individuum. 
mum.  medium.  mum. 

Provincia.  Territorium.  Paroecia.  Pagus.  Domicilium. 
Legio.  Cohors.  Manipulus.  Contuber-  Miles. 

mum. 

Between  Linnaeus  and  Cuvier  there  are  no  very  great 
names;  but  under  the  stimulus  given  by  the  admirable 
method  and  system  of  Linnaeus,  observation  and  descrip- 
tion of  new  forms  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  both 
recent  and  fossil,  accumulated.  The  effect  of  the  Lin- 
naean  system  upon  the  general  conceptions  of  zoologists 
was  no  less  marked  than  were  its  results  in  the  way  of 
stimulating  the  accumulation  of  accurately  observed 
details.  Lamarck  (q.v.)  represents  most  completely, 
both  by  his  development  theory  (to  be  further  men- 
tioned below)  and  by  his  scheme  of  classification,  the 
high-water  mark  of  the  popular  but  fallacious  concep- 
tion of  a scala  natures.  We  have  mentioned  Lamarck 
before  his  great  contemporary  Cuvier  because,  in  spite 
of  his  valuable  philosophical  doctrine  of  development, 
he  was,  as  compared  with  Cuvier  and  estimated  as  a 


systematic  zoologist,  a mere  enlargement  and  logical 
outcome  of  Linnaeus. 

The  distinctive  merit  of  Cuvier  (q.v.)  is  that  he 
started  a new  view  as  to  the  relationships  of  animals, 
which  he  may  be  said  in  a large  measure  to  have  demon- 
strated as  true  by  his  own  anatomical  researches.  He 
opposed  the  scala  natures  theory,  and  recognized  four 
distinct  and  divergent  branches  or  embranchemens, 
as  he  called  them,  in  each  of  which  he  ar- 
ranged a certain  number  of  the  Linnsean  classes, 
or  similar  classes.  The  embranchemens  were  char- 
acterized each  by  a different  type  of  anatomical  structure. 
The  leading  idea  of  Cuvier,  his  four  embranchemens , 
was  confirmed  by  the  Russo-German  naturalist  Von 
Baer  (1792-1876),  who  adopted  Cuvier’s  divisions, 
speaking  of  them  as  the  peripheric,  the  longitudinal,  the 
massive,  and  the  vertebrate  types  of  structure.  Von 
Baer,  however,  has  another  place  in  the  history  of  zool- 
ogy, being  the  first  and  most  striking  figure  in  the  in- 
troduction of  embryology  into  the  consideration  of  the 
relations  of  animals  to  one  another.  Cuvier  may  be 
regarded  as  the  zoologist  by  whom  anatomy  was  made 
the  one  important  guide  to  the  understanding  of  the 
relations  of  animals.  Lamarck  accepted  the  develop- 
ment theory  fully,  and  pushed  his  speculations  far  be- 
yond the  realm  of  fact.  The  more  cautious  Cuvier 
adopted  a view  of  the  relationships  of  animals  which, 
while  denying  genetic  connection  as  the  explanation, 
recognized  an  essential  identity  of  structure  throughout 
whole  groups  of  animals.  C.  F.  Wolff,  Goethe,  and 
Oken  share  the  credit  of  having  initiated  these  views, 
in  regard  especially  to  the  structure  of  flowering  plants 
and  the  Vertebrate  skull. 

Richard  Owen,  may  be  regarded  as  the  foremost  of 
Cuvier’s  disciples.  Owen  not  only  occupied  himself 
with  the  dissection  of  rare  animals,  such  as  the  Pearly 
Nautilus,  Lingula , Limulus , Protopterus,  Apteryx,  etc., 
and  with  the  description  and  reconstruction  of  extinct 
Reptiles,  Birds,  and  Mammals — following  the  Cuvierian 
tradition — but  gave  precision  and  currency  to  the  mor- 
phological doctrines  which  had  taken  their  rise  in  the 
beginning  of  the  century  by  the  introduction  of  two 
terms,  “homology”  and  “analogy.”  Analogous  struc- 
tures in  any  two  animals  compared  were  by  Owen  defined 
as  structures  performing  similar  functions,  but  not 
necessarily  derived  from  the  modification  of  one  and  the 
same  part  in  the  “ plan  ” or  “ archetype  ” according  to 
which  the  two  animals  compared  were  supposed  to  be 
constructed.  Homologous  structures  were  such  as, 
though  greatly  differing  in  appearance  and  detail  from 
one  another,  and  though  performing  widely  different 
functions,  yet  were  capable  of  being  shown  by  adequate 
study  of  a series  of  intermediate  forms  to  be  derived 
from  one  and  the  same  part  or  organ  of  the  “ plan-form  ” 
or  “ archetype.  ” Owen’s  definition  of  analogous  struct- 
ures holds  good  at  the  present  day.  His  homologous 
structures  are  now  spoken  of  as  “ homogenetic  ” struct- 
ures, the  idea  of  community  of  representation  in  an 
archetype  giving  place  to  community  of  derivation  from 
a single  representative  structure  present  in  a common 
ancestor.  Darwinian  morphology  has  further  rendered 
necessary  the  introduction  of  the  terms  “ homoplasy  ” 
and  “ homoplastic  ” to  express  that  close  agreement  in 
form  which  may  be  attained  in  the  course  of  evolutional 
changes  by  organs  or  parts  in  two  animals  which  have 
been  subjected  to  similar  molding  conditions  of  the 
environment,  but  have  no  genetic  community  of  origin, 
to  account  for  their  close  similarity  in  form  and  struct- 
ure. The  real  center  of  progress  of  systematic  zoology 
was  no  longer  in  F ranee  nor  with  the  disciples  of  Cuvier 
in  England,  but  after  his  death  moved  to  Germany. 

We  have  already  mentioned  Von  Baer  in  this  con- 


zoo 


nection,  and  given  a passing  reference  to  Johann 
Muller  (y.t'J,  the  greatest  of  all  investigators  of 
animal  structure  in  the  present  century.  Muller  (1801- 
1^58)  was  in  Germany  the  successor  of  Rathke  (1793- 
1860)  and  of  Meckel  (1781-1833)  as  the  leader  of 
anatomical  investigation ; but  his  true  greatness  can 
only  be  estimated  by  a consideration  of  the  fact  that  he 
was  a great  teacher  not  only  of  human  and  comparative 
anatomy  and  zoology  but  also  of  physiology,  and  that 
nearly  all  the  most  distinguished  German  zoologists  and 
physiologists  of  the  period  1850  to  1870  were  his  pupils 
and  acknowledged  his  leadership.  The  most  striking 
feature  about  Johann  Muller’s  work,  apart  from  the 
comprehensiveness  of  his  point  of  view,  in  which  he 
added  to  the  anatomical  and  morphological  ideas  of 
Cuvier  a consideration  of  physiology,  embryology,  and 
microscopic  structure,  was  the  extraordinary  accuracy, 
facility,  and  completeness  of  his  recorded  observations. 

A name  which  is  apt  to  be  forgotten  in  the  period 
between  Cuvier  and  Darwin,  because  its  possessor  occu- 
pied an  isolated  position  in  England  and  was  not  borne 
up  by  any  great  school  or  university,  is  that  of  John 
Vaughan  Thompson,  who  was  an  army  surgeon,  and 
when  past  the  age  of  forty,  being  district  medical  in- 
spector at  Cork  (1830),  took  to  the  study  of  marine 
Invertebrata  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope.  Thompson 
made  three  great  discoveries.  He  showed  that  the  organ- 
isms like  Flustra  are  not  hydroid  Polyps,  but  of  a more 
complex  structure  resembling  Molluscs,  and  he  gave 
them  the  name  Polyzoa.  He  discovered  the  Pentacrinus 
europceus , and  showed  that  it  was  the  larval  form  of  the 
Feather-Star  Antedon  ( Comatula ).  He  upset  Cuvier’s 
retention  of  the  Cirripedes  among  Mollusca , and  his 
subsequent  treatment  of  them  as  an  isolated  class,  by 
showing  that  they  began  life  as  free-swimming  Crusta- 
cea identical  with  the  young  forms  of  other  Crustacea. 

It  is  impossible  to  enumerate  or  to  give  due  consider- 
ation to  all  the  names  in  the  army  of  anatomical  and 
embryological  students  of  the  middle  third  of  this  cen- 
tury whose  labors  bore  fruit  in  the  modification  of  zool- 
ogical theories  and  in  the  building  up  of  a true  classifi- 
cation of  animals.  Their  results  are  best  summed  up  in 
the  three  schemes  of  classification  which  follow  below — 
those  of  Rudolph  Leuckart  (b.  1823),  Henri  Milne- 
Edwards  (1800-1884),  and  T.  H.  Huxley  (b.  1825),  all 
of  whom  individually  contributed  very  greatly  by  their 
special  discoveries  and  researches  to  the  increase  of  exact 
knowledge. 

We  now  arrive  at  the  period  when  the  doctrine  of 
organic  evolution  was  established  by  Darwin.  Many 
zoologists — prominent  among  them  in  Great  Britain 
being  Huxley — had  been  repelled  by  the  airy  fancies 
and  assumptions  of  the  “philosophical”  morpholo- 
gists. From  time  to  time  efforts  were  made  by  those 
who  believed  that  the  Creator  must  have  followed 
a symmetrical  system  in  his  production  of  animals  to 
force  one  or  other  artificial,  neatly  balanced  scheme  of 
classification  upon  the  zoological  world.  The  last  of 
these  was  that  of  Louis  Agassiz  ( Essay  on  Classifica- 
tion , 1859),  who,  while  surveying  all  previous  classifi- 
cations, propounded  a scheme  of  his  own,  in  which,  as 
well  as  in  the  criticisms  he  applies  to  other  systems,  the 
leading  notion  is  that  sub-kingdoms,  classes,  orders, 
and  families  have  a real  existence,  and  that  it  is  possible 
to  ascertain  and  distinguish  characteristics  which  are  of 
class  value,  others  which  are  only  of  ordinal  value,  and 
so  on,  so  that  the  classes  of  on  sub-kingdom  should  on 
paper,  and  in  nature  actually  do,  correspond  in  relative 
value  to  those  of  another  sub-kingdom,  and  the  orders 
of  any  one  class  similarly  should  be  so  taken  ^s  to  be  of 
equal  value  with  those  of  another  class,  and  have  been 
actually  so  created.  The  whole  position  was  changed 


6447 

by  the  acquiescence,  which  became  universal,  in  the 
doctrine  of  Darwin.  That  doctrine  took  some  few 
years  fco  produce  its  effect,  but  it  became  evident  at 
once  to  those  who  accepted  Darwinism  that  the  natural 
classification  of  animals,  after  which  collectors  and 
anatomists,  morphologists,  philosophers,  and  embry- 
ologists had  been  so  long  striving,  was  nothing  more 
nor  less  than  a genealogical  tree,  with  breaks  and  gaps 
of  various  extent  in  its  record. 

The  first  naturalist  to  put  into  practical  form  the 
consequences  of  the  new  theory,  in  so  far  as  it  affected 
zoological  classification,  was  Ernst  Haeckel  of  Jena 
(b.  1834),  who  in  1866,  seven  years  after  the  publication 
of  Darwin’s  Origin  of  Species,  published  his  suggestive 
Generelle  Morphologie.  Haeckel  introduced  into  classi- 
fication a number  of  terms  intended  to  indicate  the 
branchings  of  a genealogical  tree.  The  whole  “ system  ” 
or  scheme  of  classification  was  termed  a genealogical 
tree  ( Stammbaum );  the  main  branches  were  termed 
“ phyla,”  their  branchings  “ sub-phyla  ” ; the  great 
branches  of  the  sub-phyla  were  termed  “ cladi,”  and  the 
“cladi”  divided  into  “classes,”  these  into  sub-classes, 
these  into  legions,  legions  into  orders,  orders  into  sub- 
orders, sub-orders  into  tribes,  tribes  into  families,  fami- 
lies into  genera,  genera  into  species.  Haeckel’s  classi- 
fication of  1866  was  naturally  enough  only  a first 
attempt.  In  the  edition  of  the  Natiirliche  Schopfungs- 
geschichte,  published  in  1868,  he  made  a great  advance 
in  his  genealogical  classification,  since  he  now  introduced 
the  results  of  the  extraordinary  activity  in  the  study  of 
embryology  which  followed  on  the  publication  of  the 
Origin  of  Species.  The  pre-Darwinian  systematists 
since  the  time  of  Von  Baer  had  attached  very  great  im- 
portance to  embryological  facts,  holding  that  the  stages 
in  an  animal’s  development  were  often  more  significant 
of  its  true  affinities  than  its  adult  structure.  Von  Baer 
had  gained  unanimous  support  for  his  dictum.  But  it 
was  only  after  Darwin  that  the  cell-theory  of  Schwann 
was  extended  to  the  embryology  of  the  animal  kingdom 
generally,  and  that  the  knowledge  of  the  development 
of  an  animal  became  a knowledge  of  the  way  in  which 
the  millions  of  cells  of  which  its  body  is  composed  take 
their  origin  by  fission  from  a smaller  number  of  cells, 
and  these  at  last  from  the  single  egg-cell.  Kolliker, 
Remak,  and  others  had  laid  the  foundations  of  this 
knowledge  in  isolated  examples;  but  it  was  Kowalewsky, 
by  his  accounts  of  the  development  of  Ascidians  and  of 
Amphioxus  (1866),  who  really  made  zoologists  see  that  a 
strict  and  complete  cellular  embryology  of  animals  was 
as  necessary  and  feasible  a factor  in  the  comprehension 
of  their  relationships  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  century 
the  coarse  anatomy  had  been  shown  to  be  by  Cuvier. 

One  result  of  the  introduction  of  the  new  conceptions 
dating  from  Darwin  has  been  a healthy  reaction  from 
that  attitude  of  mind  which  led  to  the  regarding  of  th< 
classes  and  orders  recognized  by  authoritative  zoologists 
as  sacred  institutions  which  were  beyond  the  criticism  of 
ordinary  men.  To  deny  the  Linnsean,  or  later  the 
Cuvierian,  classes  was  very  much  like  denying  the 
Mosaic  cosmogony.  At  the  present  time  systematic 
zoology  is  entirely  free  from  any  such  prejudices,  and 
the  Linnaean  taint  which  is  apparent  even  in  Haeckel 
and  Gegenbaur  may  be  considered  as  finally  expunged. 

We  have  now  traced  the  history  of  the  morph ography 
of  animals  so  as  to  show  that  increasingly  in  successive 
epochs  independent  branches  of  knowledge  have  been 
brought  to  bear  on  the  consideration  of  the  main  prob- 
lem. Before  glancing  at  the  history  of  the  remaining 
branches  of  zoological  science,  which  have  had  an  in- 
dependent history  while  ultimately  contributory  to 
taxonomy  and  morphography,  it  may  be  briefly  pointed 
out  that  the  accumulation  of  knowledge  with  regard  to 


zoo 


6448 

the  distribution  of  animal  forms  on  the  earth’s  surface 
and  in  the  seas  has  progressed  simultaneously  with  the 
discrimination  of  the  mere  forms  of  the  species  them- 
selves. Alfred  Russell  Wallace  stands  prominently 
forward  as  a naturalist-traveler  who,  by  his  observations, 
chiefly  on  Lepidopterous  Insects,  in  both  South  Amer- 
ica and  the  Malay  Archipelago,  was  led  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  a production  of  new  species  is  actually  going 
on,  and  that,  too,  by  means  of  a process  of  natural 
selection  of  favorable  variations.  The  facts  of  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  animals  were  systematized, 
and  great  zoo-geographical  provinces  first  clearly  recog- 
nized, by  P.  L.  Sclater  in  1857.  The  application  of 
the  Darwinian  theory  to  the  facts  tabulated  by  Sclater, 
has  led  to  a full  explanation  of  the  migrations  of  terres- 
trial animals,  and  has  furnished  a striking  corrobora- 
tion of  the  sufficiency  of  the  doctrine  of  organic  evolu- 
tion, as  reformed  by  Darwin,  to  account  for  all  the 
phenomena  of  zoology. 

The  study  of  the  marine  fauna  by  means  of  the 
dredge  and  trawl  had  been  enthusiastically  prosecuted 
by  British,  French,  and  Scandinavian  naturalists  in  the 
two  decades  before  Darwin’s  book.  The  post-Dar- 
winian developments  of  this  line  of  inquiry  have  been 
two.  In  the  first  place,  dredging  and  trawling  have 
been  extended  by  the  aid  of  steamships  of  the  Norwe- 
gian, British,  American,  French,  and  Italian  navies  into 

K eater  depths  than  were  previously  supposed  to  contain 
ing  things.  New  species  and  genera,  and  a vast  ex- 
tension of  knowledge  as  to  distribution,  have  been  the 
outcome  of  these  expeditions,  connected  with  the 
names  of  G.  O.  Sars  and  Daniellsen  in  Norway,  of 
Alex.  Agassiz  in  America,  and  of  Carpenter  and  Wyville 
Thomson  in  Great  Britain.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that 
the  practical  demand  for  sounding  the  Atlantic  in  con- 
nection with  the  laying  of  the  first  deep-sea  telegraph- 
cable  is  what  led  to  these  explorations,  the  first  recogni- 
tion of  life  at  these  great  depths  in  the  ocean  being  due  to 
Doctor  Wallich,  who  accompanied  a sounding  expedition 
in  1 860  to  the  North  Atlantic,  and  to  Professor  Fleeming 
Jenkin,  who  in  the  same  year  acted  as  engineer  in  rais- 
ing the  submarine  cable  between  Sardinia  and  Africa, 
upon  which  living  corals  were  found.  In  the  second 
place,  the  study  of  marine  zoology  has,  since  the  publi- 
cation of  the  Origin  of  Species , been  found  to  require 
more  complete  arrangements. 

Seaside  laboratories  have  come  into  existence;  the 
first  was  founded  in  France  by  Coste  (1859)  at  Concar- 
neau  (Brittany),  again  with  the  practical  end  in  view, 
viz.,  the  study  of  food-fishes  with  an  aim  to  pisciculture. 
The  largest  and  best  supported  pecuniarily  is  that 
founded  at  Naples  by  Anton  Dohrn  in  1872;  others 
exist  at  Trieste, Villefranche,  Cette,  and  at  New  Haven 
and  Beaufort  in  the  United  States,  while  a large  labora- 
tory, on  a scale  to  compare  with  that  at  Naples,  has 
been  opened  at  Plymouth  by  the  Marine  Biological 
Association  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

Another  result  of  the  stimulus  given  to  zoological 
research  by  Darwin’s  work  is  the  undertaking  of  voy- 
ages to  distant  lands  by  skilled  anatomists  for  the  pur- 
pose of  studying  on  the  spot,  and  with  all  the  advan- 
tages of  abundant  and  living  material;  the  structure, 
and  especially  the  embryology,  of  rare  and  exception- 
ally interesting  forms  of  animal  life.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  voyages  has  been  that  of  W.  H.  Cald- 
well, of  Cambridge,  to  Australia  (1885-86)  for  the  pur- 
pose of  studying  the  embryology  of  the  Monotrema  and 
of  Ceratodus,  the  fish-like  Dipnoon , which  has  resulted 
in  the  discovery  that  the  Monotrema  are  oviparous. 
Similarly  Adam  Sedgwick  proceeded  to  the  Cape  in 
order  to  study  Peripatus , Bateson  to  the  coast  of 
Maryland  to  study  Ba la n oglossus,  and  the  brothers 


Sarassin  to  Ceylon  to  investigate  the  embryology  of  the 

Coecilia. 

Zoo-Mechanics,  Zoo-Physics,  Zoo-Chemistry.— 
The  development  of  that  knowledge  of  the  structure  of 
the  human  body,  and  of  the  chemical  and  physical  pro- 
cesses going  on  in  it,  which  is  necessary  for  the  pur- 
poses of  the  medical  art,  forms  a distinct  history,  which 
has  both  influenced  and  been  influenced  by  that  of 
other  branches  of  zoology. 

Physiological  anatomy  or  anatomical  physiology  has 
its  beginnings  in  Aristotle  and  other  observers  of  an- 
tiquity. The  later  Graeco-Roman  and  the  Arabian 
physicians  carried  on  the  traditional  knowledge  and 
added  to  it.  Galen  dominated  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
modern  development  begins  with  Harvey  and  with  the 
Italian  school  in  which  he  studied.  The  history  of  the 
discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  and  of  the  con- 
troversies connected  with  it  gives  an  interesting  and 
sufficient  presentation  of  the  anatomico-physiological 
knowledge  of  the  period  (see  Harvey).  The  founda- 
tion of  the  scientific  academies  and  the  records  of  their 
publications  furnish  thenceforward  a picture  of  the  prog- 
ress in  this  study. 

Marcello  Malpighi  (1628-1694)  and  Anton  van  Leeu- 
wenhoek (1632-1723)  were  the  first  to  introduce  the 
microscope  into  anatomical  research.  Leeuwenhoek 
discovered  the  red  blood  corpuscles  of  Vertebrates,  saw 
the  circulation  in  the  capillaries  of  the  Frog’s  foot,  de- 
scribed the  fibrillar  structure  and  cross-striping  of 
muscular  fiber,  the  tubular  structure  of  dentine,  the 
scales  of  the  epidermis,  the  fibers  of  the  lens,  and  the 
spermatozoa,  these  last  having  been  independently  dis- 
covered at  Leyden  in  1677  by  Ludwig  Ham  of  Stettin. 
The  spermatozoa  were  regarded  by  the  “ animalculists  ” 
as  the  fully  formed  but  minute  young  which  had  to  be 
received  in  the  egg,  in  order  to  be  nourished  and 
increase  in  size,  and  were  hailed  as  a decisive  blow  to 
Harvey’s  doctrine  of  epigenesis  and  his  dictum  “ omne 
vivum  ex  ovo.  ” Albrecht  von  Haller  was  the  champion 
of  the  so-called  “ evolutionists  ” in  the  eighteenth 
century,  better  called  “ prseformationists.  ” Haller 
wrote,  “ There  is  no  such  thing  as  development ! No 
part  of  the  animal  body  is  made  before  another;  all  are 
simultaneously  created.  ” A corollary  of  this  doctrine 
was  that  the  germ  contains  the  germs  of  the  next  gen- 
eration, and  these  of  the  next,  and  so  ad  infinitum. 
It  was  calculated  that  Eve  at  her  creation  thus  contained 
within  her  200,000,000,000  of  human  germs.  This  was 
the  view  of  the  ovists,”  who  regarded  the  egg  as  the 
true  germ,  while  the  “animalculists,”  who  regarded  the 
spermatozoon  as  the  essential  germ,  would  have  sub- 
stituted Adam  for  Eve  in  the  above  calculation. 

Albrecht  von  Haller  (1708-17 77)  was  the  first  to 
apply  experimental  methods  to  the  determination  of  the 
functions  of  the  various  organs  made  known  by  anato- 
mists, and  from  him  we  may  trace  a bifurcation  in  the 
tendencies  of  medical  men  who  occupied  themselves 
with  thj  study  of  the  structure  and  functions  of  the 
animal  organism.  John  Hunter  (1728-1793)  is  the  most 
striking  figure  of  this  epoch  in  the  relation  of  medicine 
to  general  zoological  progress.  The  preservation  of  his 
museum  in  Lincoln’s  Inn  Fields,  London,  by  the  com- 
bined action  of  the  state  and  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons,  is  an  abiding  record  of  the  historical  prog- 
ress o)  biological  science.  Hunter  collected,  dissected, 
am.  described  not  only  higher  but  lower  animals,  with 
the  view  of  arriving  at  a knowledge  of  the  function  of 
organs  by  the  most  extensive  and  systematic  survey  of 
their  modifications  in  all  kinds  of  animals.  His  purpose 
was  that  *of  the  physiologist  and  medical  man,  but  he 
made  great  contributions  to  the  general  knowledge  of 
animal  structure.  The  same  class  of  investigations, 


zoo 


when  taken  up  by  Cuvier  from  the  point  of  view  of  sys- 
tematic zoology  and  morphology,  led  to  a reconstruc- 
tion of  classification,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  anatom- 
ical zoology. 

The  great  progress  of  chemistry  at  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
was  followed  by  an  application  of  chemical  laws  and 
chemical  methods  to  the  study  of  animal  life.  The 
purely  anatomical  side  of  physiological  progress  is 
marked  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  by  the 
work  of  Bichat  (1771-1802),  who  distinguished  by  naked- 
eye  characteristics  the  different  structural  materials  of 
which  the  organsof  manand  the  higher  animals  are  built, 
and  thus  founded  in  first  outline  the  science  of  histology. 
To  a considerable  extent  the  chemical  composition  and 
properties  of  the  tissues,  and  the  chemical  nature  of  the 
various  changes  of  life  and  of  putrefaction  after  death, 
had  been  investigated,  but  one  step  was  yet  to  be  taken 
which  brings  the  study  of  ultimate  structure,  chemical 
activity,  form,  and  the  formation  of  form  to  a single 
focus.  This  was  taken  by  Theodore  Schwann  (1810- 
1881),  who  in  1839  published  his  epoch-making  cell- 
theory.  The  cell-theory  for  which  he  is  famous  is  this, 
that  the  substance  of  the  individual  cell  is  the  seat  of 
those  chemical  processes  which  seen  en  masse  we  call 
life,  and  the  differences  in  the  properties  of  the  differ- 
ent tissues  and  organs  of  animals  and  plants  depend  on 
a difference  in  the  chemical  and  physical  activity  of  the 
constituent  cells,  resulting  in  a difference  in  the  form  of 
the  cells  and  in  a concomitant  difference  of  activity. 
Schwann  thus  pointed  to  the  microscopic  cell-unit  as 
the  thing  to  be  studied  in  order  to  arrive  at  a true  knowl- 
edge of  the  processes  of  life  and  the  significance  of 
form.  He  spent  a large  part  of  the  next  forty  years  in 
an  attempt  to  penetrate  further  into  the  structure  of 
cell-substance;  he  hoped  to  be  able  to  find  in  cell-sub- 
stance ultimate  visible  molecules,  a knowledge  of  the  ar- 
rangement and  characteristics  of  which  would  explain 
the  varying  properties  of  protoplasm. 

From  Schwann’s  time  onward  the  cell  became  more 
and  more  the  point  of  observation  and  experiment  in 
the  progress  of  both  morph ography  and  physiology.  It 
was  soon  shown,  chiefly  through  Kolliker  and  Remak, 
that  all  cells  originate  by  fission  from  preexisting  cells 
— a fact  unknown  to  Schwann — and  the  doctrine 
“omnis  cellul-ae  cellula”  was  established.  It  was  also 
demonstrated  that  the  Mammalian  egg  discovered  by 
Von  Baer  was  a typical  nucleated  cell,  and  that  all 
animals,  and  plants  also,  take  their  origin  from  an  egg, 
which  is  in  essence  and  in  fact  a single  nucleated  cell. 
The  doctrine  of  Harvey,  “ omne  vivum  ex  ovo,”  thus 
received  ite  most  ample  justification. 

The  knowledge  of  the  anatomical  facts  of  cellular  de- 
velopment and  cellular  structure  necessarily  gave  im- 
mensely increased  precision  to  the  notion  of  gradation 
of  structure  in  the  animal  series  from  simple  to  com- 
plex, and  rendered  Darwin’s  doctrine  the  more  readily 
accepted. 

Similarly  cellular  physiology,  by  establishing  the  con- 
ception of  a simple  optically  homogeneous  cell-substance 
as  the  seat  of  the  activities  which  we  call  “life,”  ren- 
dered it  possible  to  accept  the  suggestion  of  a simple 
“ substance  of  life  ” which  might  have  been  evolved  from 
simpler  non-living  matter  by  natural  processes  depend- 
ing on  physical  and  chemical  laws.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  Darwin  himself  appears  not  to  have  been  influenced 
directly  by  any  such  physiological  or  chemico-physical 
doctrine  as  to  “ protoplasm  ” or  cell-substance.  Proto- 
plasm was  applied  by  Von  Mohl  and  by  Max  Schultze 
to  the  slimy  substance  of  the  cell,  including  therein 
both  the  general  thinner  material  and  the  nucleus.  It 
is,  as  Roscoe  remarked  at  Manchester  {Brit.  Ass.  Ad - 


6449 

dress , 1887),  a structure  and  not  a chemical  body, 
Nevertheless  gradually  physiologists  have  come  to  use 
the  word  “ protoplasm  ” for  one  of  the  chemical  sub- 
stances of  which  Schultze’s  protoplasm  is  a structural 
mixture — namely,  that  highest  point  in  the  chemical 
elaboration  of  the  molecule  which  is  attained  within 
the  protoplasm,  and  up  to  which  some  of  the  chemical 
bodies  present  are  tending,  while  others  are  degradation 
products  resulting  from  a downward  metamorphosis  of 
portions  of  it. 

General  Tendency  of  Zoology  since  Darwin. 
— The  serious  and  broadly-based  study  of  bionomics 
which  was  introduced  by  Darwin,  and  in  his  hands  gave 
rise  to  the  doctrine  of  natural  selection,  by  which  the 
hypothesis  of  the  origin  of  species  by  gradual  trans- 
mutation in  the  natural  process  of  descent  from  ances- 
tral forms  was  established  as  a scientific  doctrine,  can 
hardly  be  said  to  have  had  any  history. 

The  full  influence  of  Darwin’s  work  upon  the  progress 
and  direction  of  zoological  study  has  not  yet  been  seen. 
The  immediate  result  has  been  a reconstruction  of  the 
classification  of  animals  upon  a genealogical  basis,  and 
an  investigation  of  the  individual  development  of 
animals  in  relation  to  the  steps  of  their  gradual  building 
up  by  cell-division,  with  a view  to  obtaining  evidence  of 
their  genetic  relationships.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
studies  which  occupied  Darwin  himself  so  largely  sub- 
sequently to  the  publication  of  the  Origin  of  Species , 
viz.,  the  explanation  of  animal  (and  vegetable)  mechan- 
ism, coloring,  habits,  etc.,  as  advantageous  to  the 
species  or  to  its  ancestors — in  fact,  the  new  teleology — 
has  not  yet  been  so  vigorously  pursued  as  it  must  be 
hereafter.  The  most  important  work  in  this  direction 
has  been  done  by  Fritz  Muller  (Fur  Dai~win),  by  Her- 
man Muller  ( Fertilization  of  Plants  by  Insects ),  and  by 
August  Weismann  (memoirs  translated  by  Meldola). 
More  has  been  done  with  plants  than  with  animals  in 
this  way  since  Darwin,  probably  owing  to  the  same 
cause  which  has,  ever  since  the  revival  of  learning, 
given  botany  a real  advantage  over  zoology,  namely, 
the  existence  of  “physick”  gardens,  now  become 
“ botanical  ” gardens,  and  the  greater  ease  of  manage- 
ment, experiment,  and  observation  in  the  case  of  plants 
than  in  that  of  animals.  It  is  true  that  zoological 
gardens  have  existed  for  the  last  fifty  years  in  all  large 
European  cities,  but  these  have  always  been  conducted 
with  a view  to  popular  exhibition ; and,  even  where 
scientific  influences  have  been  brought  to  bear  on  their 
management,  they  have  been  those  of  the  morphog- 
rapher  and  systematist  rather  than  of  the  bionomist. 

If  we  turn  to  the  other  branch  of  bionomics,  that 
concerned  with  the  laws  of  variation  and  heredity  (threm- 
matology), we  find  that  since  Darwin,  and  independ- 
ently of  his  own  work,  there  has  been  a more  obvious 
progress  than  in  teleology.  This  is  not  the  fitting  place 
in  which  to  give  a sketch  of  the  doctrines  and  hy- 
potheses of  thremmatology.  They  may  be  gathered 
from  Darwin’s  writings,  more  especially  the  Origin  of 
Species  and  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication. 
They  relate  to  the  causes  of  variation  in  animals  and 
plants,  the  laws  of  the  transmission  of  parental  charac- 
teristics, the  share  of  each  parent  in  the  production  ol 
the  characteristics  of  the  offspring,  atavism,  and  the  rela- 
tions o.f  young  to  parents  as  to  number,  sex,  nourish- 
ment, and  protection. 

An  important  development  of  Darwin’s  conclusions 
is  actually  in  progress  and  deserves  special  notice  here, 
as  it  is  the  most  distinct  advance  in  the  department  ol 
bionomics  since  Darwin’s  own  writings,  and  at  the  same 
time  touches  questions  of  fundamental  interest.  The 
matter  strictly  relates  to  the  consideration  of  the  “ causes 
of  variation,”  and  is  as  follows- 


ZOR 


0450 

The  fact  of  variation  is  a familiar  one.  No  two 
animals,  even  of  the  same  brood,  are  alike:  while  ex- 
hibiting a close  similarity  to  their  parents,  they  yet  pre- 
sent differences,  sometimes  very  marked  differences, 
from  their  parents  and  from  one  another.  Lamarck 
had  put  forward  the  hypothesis  that  structural  altera- 
tions acquired  by  a parent  in  the  course  of  its  life  are 
transmitted  to  the  offspring.  In  its  turn,  being  operated 
upon  by  the  conditions  of  life,  it  would  acquire  a greater 
development  of  the  same  modification,  which  it  would 
in  turn  transmit  to  its  offspring.  The  familiar  illustra- 
tion of  Lamarck’s  hypothesis  is  that  of  the  giraffe, 
whose  long  neck  might,  he  suggested,  have  been  ac- 
quired by  the  efforts  of  a primitively  short-necked  race 
of  herbivores,  who  stretched  their  necks  to  reach  the 
foliage  of  trees  in  a land  where  grass  was  deficient,  the 
effort  producing  a distinct  elongation  in  the  neck  of 
each  generation,  which  was  then  transmitted  to  the  next. 
Darwin’s  great  merit  was  that  he  excluded  from  his 
theory  of  development  any  necessary  assumption  of  the 
transmission  of  acquired  characteristics.  He  pointed  to 
the  admitted  fact  of  congenital  variation,  and  he  showed 
that  these  variations  to  all  intents  and  purposes  have 
nothing  to  do  with  any  characteristics  acquired  by  the  pa- 
rents, but  are  arbitrary  and,  so  to  speak,  non-significant. 

The  new  attitude  which  has  been  taken  since  Darwin 
on  this  question  is  to  ask  for  evidence  of  this  asserted 
transmission  of  acquired  characteristics.  It  is  held  that 
the  Darwinian  doctrine  of  selection  of  fortuitous  con- 
genital variations  is  sufficient  to  account  for  all  cases, 
that  the  Lamarckian  hypothesis  of  transmission  of  ac- 
quired characteristics  is  not  supported  by  experimental 
evidence,  and  that  the  latter  should  therefore  be  dismissed. 
The  one  fact  which  the  Lamarckians  can  produce  in 
their  favor  is  the  account  of  experiments  by  Brown- 
Sequard,  in  which  he  produced  epilepsy  in  guinea-pigs 
by  section  of  the  large  nerves  or  spinal  cord,  and  in 
the  course  of  which  he  was  led  to  believe  that  in  a few 
rare  instances  the  artificially  produced  epilepsy  was  trans- 
mitted. This  instance  does  not  stand  the  test  of  criti- 
cism. It  is  not  clear  whether  the  guinea-pigs  operated 
upon  had  or  had  not  already  a constitutional  tendency 
to  epilepsy,  and  it  is  not  clear  in  what  proportion  of 
cases  the  supposed  transmission  took  place,  and  whether 
any  other  disease  accompanied  it.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  vast  number  of  experiments  in  the  cropping  of  the 
tails  and  ears  of  domestic  animals,  as  well  as  of  similar 
operations  on  man,  are  attended  with  negative  results. 

The  relation  of  Darwinism  to  general  philosophy  and 
of  the  history  of  zoology  to  philosophical  doctrines  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  chapters  which  might  be 
written  on  the  subject  of  this  article.  It  belongs,  how- 
ever, rather  to  the  history  of  philosophy  than  to  that  of 
zoology.  So  far  as  philosophy  affected  the  study  of 
zoology  in  the  beginning  of  the  modern  period,  its  in- 
fluence was  felt  in  the  general  acceptance  of  what  has 
been  called  the  Miltonic  cosmogony.  It  was  not  until 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  Schelling  (as 
quoted  above)  conceived  that  unity  of  nat#e  and  gen- 
eral law  of  development  which  is  now  called  the  doctrine 
of  evolution. 

In  England  Erasmus  Darwin  ( Zoonomia , published 
in  1794-96),  in  France  Lamarck  ( Philosophic  Zodlogique , 
1809)  and  Geoffroy  Saint- Hilaire  ( Principes  de  Philo- 
sophic Zoologiqiie,  1830),  and  in  Germany  Oken  (Lehr- 
bnch  der  Na tur-Ph ilosoph ie,  1809-11),  Goethe  (Zur 
Natur  Wissensch .,  Stuttgart,  1817),  and  Treviranus 
{Biologic,  1802-5)  were  the  authors  of  more  or  less  com- 
plete systems  of  a philosophy  of  nature  in  which  living 
things  were  regarded  as  the  outcome  of  natural  law, 
that  is,  of  the  same  general  processes  which  had  pro- 
duced the  inanimate  universe* 


Darwin,  by  his  discovery  of  the  mechanical  principle 
of  organic  evolution,  namely,  the  survival  of  the  fittest 
in  the  struggle  for  existence,  completed  the  doctrine  of 
evolution,  and  gave  it  that  unity  and  authority  which 
was  necessary  in  order  that  it  should  reform  the  whole 
range  of  philosophy.  The  detailed  consequences  of 
that  new  departure  in  philosophy  have  yet  to  be  worked 
out.  Its  most  important  initial  conception  is  the  deriva- 
tion of  man  by  natural  processes  from  ape-like  ancestors, 
and  the  consequent  derivation  of  his  mental  and  moral 
qualities  by  the  operation  of  the  struggle  for  existence 
and  natural  selection  from  the  mental  and  moral 
qualities  of  animals.  Not  the  least  important  of  the 
studies  thus  initiated  is  that  of  the  evolution  of  philos- 
ophy itself.  Zoology  thus  finally  arrives  through 
Darwin  at  its  crowning  development;  it  touches  and 
may  even  be  said  to  comprise  the  history  of  man, 
sociology,  and  psychology. 

ZOROASTER,  one  of  the  great  teachers  of  the 
East,  the  founder  of  what  was  the  national  religion  of 
the  Perso-Iranian  people  from  the  time  of  the  Achse- 
menidae  to  the  close  of  the  Sasanian  period.  The 
name  {ZaopodGrprjS)  is  the  Greek  form  of  the  old 
Iranian  Zarathushtra  and  the  new  Persian  Zardusht; 
it  seems  to  mean  “ possessor  of  old  camels.  ” Zoroaster 
was  already  famous  in  classical  antiquity  as  the  founder 
of  the  widely  renowned  wisdom  of  the  Magi.  The 
later  Greek  writers  place  him  with  almost  one  consent 
in  the  east  of  Iran,  and  more  particularly  in  Bactria. 

Ancient  writers  differ  greatly  as  to  Zoroaster’s  date. 
Ctesias,  as  we  have  seen,  makes  him  a contemporary  of 
Semiramis.  Hermippus  of  Smyrna  places  him  5,000 
years  before  the  Trojan  War,  Xanthus  6,000  years  be- 
fore Xerxes.  Aristotle  assigned  him  a similar  antiquity. 
Agathias  remarks  (ii.  24)  with  perfect  truth  that  it  is  no 
longer  possible  to  determine  with  any  certainty  when  he 
lived  and  legislated.  “ The  Persians,”  he  adds,  “ say 
that  Zoroaster  lived  under  Hystaspes.  But,  whatever 
may  have  been  his  date^he  was  their  teacher  and  in- 
structor in  the  Magian  religion.  ” All  classical  antiquity, 
however,  without  a dissentient  voice,  speaks  of  Zoroaster 
as  a historical  person. 

As  to  the  birthplace  of  Zoroaster,  the  Avesta  is 
silent.  In  later  tradition  two  places  contended  for  this 
honor:  the  older  and  more  widely  spread  story  made 
him  a native  of  Rai  (Rhagae)  in  Media,  another  of 
Shiz,  the  capital  of  Atropatene,  also  in  Media.  It  is 
hard  to  decide  whether  both  traditions  rest  merely 
upon  priestly  pretensions  of  a later  date  or  whether 
one  of  them  is  not  perhaps  authentic.  However  this 
may  be,  the  activity  of  Zoroaster  as  a teacher  is  cer- 
tainly to  be  placed  in  the  east  of  Iran.  He  taught  un- 
der the  reign  of  a ruler  named  Vishtaspa,  with  whom 
and  with  whose  court  he  stood  in  close  and  friendly  re- 
lations. 

Among  the  grandees  of  the  court  of  Vishtaspa  men- 
tion is  made  of  two  brothers  Frashaoshtra  and 
Jamaspa;  the  latter,  according  to  the  later  legend,  was 
the  minister  of  Vishtaspa.  Zoroaster  was  nearly  re- 
lated to  both;  his  wife  Hvovi  seems  to  have  been  their 
sister,  and  the  husband  of  her  daughter,  Pourucista, 
was  a son  of  Jamaspa.  His  first  disciple,  Maid- 
hybimaongha,  was  a relation;  his  father  was,  according 
to  the  later  Avesta,  Pourushaspa,  his  great-grandfather 
Haecataspa,  and  the  ancester  of  the  whole  family 
Spitama,  for  which  reason  Zarathushtra  usually  bears 
this  surname.  His  sons  and  daughters  are  repeatedly 
spoken  of.  His  death  is,  for  reasons  easily  intelligible, 
nowhere  mentioned  in  the  Avesta;  in  the  Shdh-Ndma 
he  is  said  to  have  been  murdered  at  the  altar  by  the 
Turanians  in  the  storming  of  Balkh. 

It  was  a new  religion  that  Zoroaster  taught.  Usually 


ZO  R 


he  is  spoken  of  as  a reformer  of  the  old  Iranian  faith. 
The  most  striking  difference  between  Zoroaster’s  doc- 
trine of  God  and  the  old  religion  of  India  lies  in  this, 
that,  while  in  the  Avesta  the  evil  spirits  are  called  daeva 
(Modern  Persian  div),  the  Aryans  of  India,  on  the  other 
hand,  in  common  with  the  Italians,  Celts,  and  Letts, 
gave  the  name  of  dev  a to  their  good  spirits,  the  spirits 
of  light.  An  alternative  designation  for  deity  in  the 
Rig-  Veda  is  as  lira.  In  the  more  recent  hymns  of  the 
Rig-  Veda  and  in  later  India,  on  the  other  hand,  only 
evil  spirits  are  understood  by  asurds , while  in  Iran  the 
corresponding  word  ahura  was,  and  ever  has  continued 
to  be,  the  designation  of  God  the  Lord,  especially  of 
'he  supreme  God,  with  the  epithet  of  Mazdao  (the 
Wise).  The  difference  proceeded  from  an  old  distinc- 
tion between  the  ideas  deva  and  asitra.  Asura  is  ethic- 
ally the  higher  conception,  deva  the  lower;  deva  is  the 
vulgar  notion  of  God,  asura  is  theosophic.  The  super- 
sensuous  figure  of  Varuna  is  the  type  of  an  asura,  the 
sensuous  figure  of  Indra  the  type  of  a deva.  The 
asuras  thus  come  to  form  a distinct  group  of  celes- 
tial beings  mentioned  along  with  the  devas  ( A.-V. , io, 
io,  26) : they  became  in  rank  inferior  to  the  devas 
(A.-V.,  6,  86,  3)  and  receive  the  designation  of  asurd 
adevds — asuras  that  are  no  devas ; and  from  this  it  is 
but  a short  step  to  the  “ asuras  that  are  opposed  to  the 
gods.  ” The  old  contrast  between  asura  and  deva  was 
wrought  out  and  accentuated  quite  differently  on  Iranian 
soil.  While  in  India  the  entire  revolution  took  place  in  a 
bloodless  manner  wholly  within  the  realm  of  i^eas,  the  old 
antithesis  led  to  an  open  quarrel  among  the  Aryans  of 
Iran.  In  the  background  of  the  picture  of  Zoroaster’s 
times  set  before  us  in  the  Gathas  we  see  the  people  divided 
between  two  opposing  and  hostile  cults,  the  watchwords 
of  which  are  ahura  on  the  one  hand  and  daeva  on  the  other. 

It  is  to  this  period  of  religious  ferment  that  Zoroaster’s 
appearance  on  the  scene  belongs.  It  is  not  he  who  has 
evoked  this  religious  conflict  of  parties,  as  the  common 
assumption  is,  and  just  as  little  is  it  he  who  in  Ahura 
with  the  epithet  of  Mazdao  offers  a new  god  to  his 
people.  He  strikes  decisively  into  the  existing  struggle, 
mounts  to  the  position  of  spiritual  leader  of  the  ahura 
party  and  makes  the  battle  a victory. 

Zoroastrian  Doctrine. — The  fundamental  idea  of 
the  Zoroastrian  creed  is  dualistic.  At  the  beginning  of 
things  there  existed  two  spirits — Ahuro  Mazdao  (Ormuzd) 
and  Angro  Mainyush  (Ahriman) — who  represented  good 
and  evil  ( Yasna , 30,  3).  The  existence  of  evil  in  the 
world  is  thus  presupposed  from  all  eternity.  Both 
spirits  possess  creative  power,  which  manifests  itself  m 
the  one  positively,  and  in  the  other  negatively.  Ormuzd 
is  light  and  life  and  all  that  is  pure  and  good — in  the 
ethical  world  law,  order,  and  truth ; his  antithesis  is 
darkness,  filth,  death,  all  that  is  evil  in  the  world,  law- 
lessness, and  lies.  As  soon  as  the  two  at  first  absolutely 
separate  spirits  (comp.  Bundahish , 1,  4)  encounter  one 
another,  their  creative  activity  and  at  the  same  time  their 
permanent  conflict  begin.  The  history  of  this  conflict 
is  the  history  of  the  world.  The  field  of  battle  is  the 
present  world.  In  the  center  of  battle  is  man ; his  soul 
is  the  object  of  the  Avar.  Man  is  a creation  of  Ormuzd, 
who  therefore  has  the  right  to  call  him  to  account.  But 
Ormuzd  coated  him  free  in  his  determinations  and  in 
his  action^  flhereforehe  is  accessible  to  the  influences  of 
the  evil  powers.  Man  takes  part  in  this  conflict  by  all 
his  life  and  activity  in  the  world.  By  a true  confession 
of  faith,  by  every  good  deed,  by  continually  keeping 
pure  his  body  and  his  soul,  he  impairs  the  power  of 
Satan  and  strengthens  the  might  of  goodness,  and 
establishes  a claim  for  reward  upon  Ormuzd;  by  a false 
confession,  by  every  evil  deed  and  defilement,  he  increases 
the  evil  and  renders  service  to  Satan, 


6451 

The  life  of  man  falls  into  two  parts-  its  earthly  por« 
tion  and  that  which  is  lived  beyond  the  grave.  The  lot 
assigned  to  him  after  death  is  the  result  and  conse- 
quence of  his  life  upon  earth.  No  religion  has  so  clearly 
grasped  the  ideas  of  guilt  and  of  merit.  On  the  works 
of  men  here  below  a strict  reckoning  will  be  held  in 
heaven.  All  thoughts,  words,  and  deeds  of  each  are 
entered  in  the  book  as  separate  items  (ddthra,  Y.,  31, 
14  ; Vend.,  19,  27),  all  the  evil  works  as  debts  ( ishudo ). 
Wicked  actions  cannot  be  undone,  but  in  the  heavenly 
account  can  be  counterbalanced  by  a surplus  of  good 
works.  It  is  only  in  this  sense  that  an  evil  deed  can  be 
atoned  for  by  a good  one.  Of  a remission  of  sins  the 
doctrine  of  Zoroaster  knows  nothing.  After  death  the 
soul  arrives  at  the  cinvato  peretush  or  accountant’s 
bridge  over  which  lies  the  way  to  heaven.  Here  the 
statement  of  his  life  account  is  made  out.  If  he  has  a 
balance  of  good  works  in  his  favor,  he  passes  forthwith 
,nto  paradise  (Garo  demdna)  and  the  blessed  life.  If 
his  evil  works  outweigh  his  good  he  falis  finally  under 
the  power  of  Satan,  and  the  pains  of  hell  are  his  portion 
forever.  Should  the  evil  and  the  good  be  equally 
balanced,  the  soul  passes  into  an  intermediate  stage  of 
existence  (the  Hamestakans  of  the  Pahlavi  books)  and 
his  final  lot  is  not  decided  until  the  last  judgment. 

But  man  has  been  smitten  with  blindness  and  igno- 
rance : he  knows  neither  the  eternal  law  nor  the  things 
which  await  him  after  death.  He  allows  himself  only 
too  easily  to  be  ensnared  by  the  craft  of  the  evil  powers 
who  seek  to  ruin  his  future  existence.  He  worships 
and  serves  false  gods,  being  unable  to  distinguish  be- 
tween truth  and  lies.  Therefore  it  is  that  Ormuzd  in 
his  grace  determined  to  open  the  eyes  of  mankind  by 
sending  a prophet  to  lead  them  by  the  right  way,  the 
way  of  salvation.  According  to  later  legend  ( Vd. , 2,  1), 
Ormuzd  at  first  wished  to  intrust  this  task  to  Yima 
(Jemshid),  the  ideal  of  an  Iranian  king.  But  Yima,  the 
secular  man,  felt  himself  unfitted  for  it  and  declined  it. 
He  contented  himself  therefore  with  establishing  in  his 
paradise  (vara)  a heavenly  kingdom  in  miniature,  to 
serve  at  the  same  time  as  a pattern  for  the  heavenly 
kingdom  that  was  to  come.  Zoroaster  at  last,  as  being 
a spiritual  man,  was  found  fit  for  the  mission.  Zoro- 
aster experienced  within  himself  the  inward  call  to 
seek  the  amelioration  of  mankind  and  their  deliverance 
from  everlasting  ruin,  and  regarded  this  inward  ini' 
pulse,  intensified  as  it  was  by  means  of  dreams  and 
visions,  as  being  the  call  addressed  to  him  by  God 
Himself.  Like  Mohammed  after  him  he  often  speaks 
of  his  conversations  with  God. 

Zoroaster’s  teachings  show  him  to  have  been  a man  of 
a highly  speculative  turn,  faithful,  however,  with  all  his 
originality,  to  the  Iranian  national  character.  With 
zeal  for  the  faith,  and  boldness  and  energy,  he  combined 
diplomatic  skill  in  his  dealings  with  his  exalted  protect- 
ors. His  thinking  is  consecutive,  self-restrained,  prac, 
tical,  devoid  on  the  whole  of  all  that  might  be  called 
fantastic  and  excessive.  His  form  of  expression  is 
tangible  and  concrete.  His  system  is  constructed  on  a 
clearly  conceived  plan. 

History  and  Later  Development  of  Zoroastrianism.-— 
For  the  great  mass  of  the  people  Zoroaster’s  doctrine 
was  too  abstract  and  spiritualistic.  The  religion  of 
Zoroaster,  broadly  speaking,  never  spread  beyond  the 
limits  of  Iran,  although  some  isolated  Turanian  stems 
can  be  reckoned  among  those  who  profess  it.  From  the 
east  it  doubtless  passed  in  the  first  instance  into  Media 
and  thence  into  Persia  proper  (comp.  Persia).  In  the 
Persians  of  Herodotus’  time  we  still  see  the  new  prose- 
lytes who  have  Indeed  accepted  the  creed,  but  not  yet 
without  reserve  all  the  religious  usages  which  aocnmnarsv 
it  anO  of  alt  tbos*  wtVrtl*  run  compt^i-fc’y  tu »*»*** 


6452  zos~ 

to  sacred  and  immemorial  traditions  ©f  their  time- 
honored  customs. 

After  the  fall  of  the  Achaemenidae  (331  b.c.)  Zoroast- 
rianism lost  greatly  in  power  and  dignity.  It  was  sub- 
sequently rehabilitated,  however,  by  the  Sasanians, 
under  whom  it  reached  its  highest  prosperity.  Pro- 
tected by  this  dynasty,  the  priesthood  developed  into  a 
completely  organized  state  church,  which  was  able  to 
employ  the  power  of  the  state  in  enforcing  strict  com- 
pliance with  the  religious  law-book  hitherto  enjoined  by 
their  unaided  efforts  only.  The  formation  of  sects  was 
at  this  period  not  infrequent  (comp.  ManicH/EISM). 
The  Mohammedan  invasion  (636),  with  the  terrible 
persecutions  of  the  following  centuries,  was  the  death- 
blow of  Zoroastrianism.  In  Persia  itself  only  a few 
followers  of  Zorbaster  are  now  found  (in  Kirman  and 
Tazd).  The  Parsees  (q.v.)  in  and  around  Bombay 
wold  by  Zoroaster  as  their  prophet  and  by  the  ancient 
religious  usages,  but  their  doctrine  has  reached  the  stage 
of  a pure  monotheism. 

ZOSIMUS,  a Greek  historical  writer,  held  public 
office  at  Constantinople  some  time  in  the  first  half  of 
the  fifth  century.  His  History , which  is  mainly  a com- 
ilation  from  previous  authors,  consists  of  six  books:  the 
rst  sketches  very  briefly  the  history  of  the  early  em- 
perors from  Augustus  to  Diocletian  (305);  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth  deal  more  copiously  with  the  period 
from  the  accession  of  Constantius  and  Galerius  to  the 
death  of  Theodosius;  the  fifth  and  sixth  cover  the 
period  between  395  and  410.  The  work  is  apparently 
unfinished.  The  style  is  characterized  by  Photius  as 
concise,  clear,  and  pure.  The  historian’s  object  was  to 
account  for  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire  from  the 
pagan  point  of  view,  and  in  this  undertaking  he  has  at 
various  points  treated  the  Christians  with  some  unfair- 
ness. 

ZOSIMUS,  bishop  of  Rome  from  March  18,  417,  to 
December  25,  418,  succeeded  Innocent  I.,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  Boniface  I.  He  took  a decided  part  in  the 
protracted  dispute  in  Gaul  as  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
see  of  Arles  over  that  of  Vienne,  giving  energetic  decis- 
ions in  favor  of  the  former,  but  without  settling  the 
controversy. 

ZOSTEROPS,  originally  the  scientific  name  of  a 
genus  of  birds  founded  by  Vigors  and  Horsfield  on  an 
Australian  species  called  by  them  Z.  dorsalis , but  sub- 
sequently shown  to  be  identical  with  the  Certhia  ccern- 
lescens , and  also  with  the  Sylvia  lateralis , previously 
described  by  Latham.  Latterly  the  name  has  been 
Anglicized,  and  applied  to  a great  number  of  species 
of  little  birds  which  inhabit  for  the  most  part  the  tropical 
districts  of  the  Old  World,  from  Africa  to  most  of  the 
islands  in  the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans,  and  northward 
in  Asia  through  India  and  China  to  Amurland  and  Ja- 
pan. The  birds  of  this  group  are  mostly  of  unpretending 
appearance,  the  plumage  above  being  generally 'either 
mouse-colored  or  greenish  olive;  but  some  are  sufficiently 
varied  by  the  white  or  bright  yellow  of  their  throat, 
breast,  or  lower  parts,  and  several  have  the  flanks  of  a 
more  or  less  lively  bay.  First  described  from  New 
South  Wales,  where  it  is  very  plentiful,  it  had  been  long 
known  to  inhabit  all  the  eastern  part  of  Australia.  In 
1856  it  was  noticed  by  naturalists  as  occurring  in  the 
South  Island  of  New  Zealand,  when  it  became  known 
to  the  Maories  by  a name  signifying  “ Stranger,”  and  to 
the  English  settlers  as  the  “ Blight-bird,”  from  its  clear- 
ing the  fruit-trees  of  a blight  by  which  they  had  lately 
been  affected.  It  soon  after  appeared  in  the  North 
Island,  where  it  speedily  became  common,  and  it  has 
thence  not  only  spread  to  the  Chatham  Islands,  but  has 
been  met  with  in  considerable  numbers  ^00  miles  from 
tend,  though  in  search  of  new  countries  to  colonize. 


-zou 

Yet  this  author  believes  it  to  be  indigenous  to  the  west 
coast  of  the  South  Island,  and  Sir  James  Hector  joins 
in  that  opinion.  It  is  known  to  propagate  at  a high 
rate  of  increase,  and  at  times  numbers  have  been  found 
dead,  apparently  for  want  of  food.  In  any’ case  it  is 
obvious  that  this  Zosterops  must  be  a comparatively 
modern  settler  in  New  Zealand. 

All  the  species  of  Zosterops  are  sociable,  consorting 
in  large  flocks,  which  only  separate  on  the  approach  of 
the  pairing  season.  They  build  nests,  described  as 
being  variously  placed — sometimes  suspended  from  a 
horizontal  fork  and  sometimes  fixed  in  an  upright  crotch 
— and  lay  (so  far  as  is  known)  pale  blue,  spotless  eggs, 
thereby  differing  wholly  from  several  of  the  groups  of 
birds  to  which  they  have  been  thought  allied.  Though 
mainly  insectivorous,  the  birds  of  this  genus  will  eat 
fruits  of  various  kinds  and  in  such  quantities  as  to  be  at 
times  injurious. 

The  affinities  of  the  genus  Zosterops  are  by  no  means 
dear.  Placed  by  some  writers,  if  not  systematists,  with 
the  Paridce  (cf.  Titmouse),  by  others  among  the  Meli- 
phagidce  (cf  Honey-Eat  er),  and  again  by  others  with 
the  Nectariniida  (cf.  Sunbird),  the  structure  of  the 
tongue,  as  shown  by  Doctor  Gadow  (Proc.  Zool.  Society f 
1883,  pp.  63,  68,  pi.  xvi.  fig.  2),  entirely  removes  it  from 
the  first  and  third,  and  from  most  of  the  forms  generally 
included  among  the  second.  On  the  whole  it  seems 
safest  to  regard  the  genus,  at  least  provisionally,  as  the 
type  of  a distinct  Family — Zoster opidce — as  Families’ 
go  among  Passerine  birds;  but,  whether  the  Australian 
genera  Melithreptus  and  Plectrorhamphus  (otherwise 
Plectrorhyncha')  should  be  included  under  that  heading, 
as  has  been  done,  remains  to  be  proved,  and  in  the 
meanwhile  may  be  reasonably  doubted. 

ZOUCH,  Richard,  a distinguished  writer  on  civil 
and  international  law,  was  born  at  Anstey,  Wiltshire, 
about  the  year  1590.  He  was  educated  at  Winchester 
and  afterward  at  Oxford,  where  he  became  a fellow  of 
New  College  in  1609.  In  1613  he  published  a poem 
entitled  The  Dove,  or  Passages  of  Cosmography.  He 
was  admitted  at  Doctor’s  Commons  in  January,  1618, 
commenced  LL.D.  in  April,  1619,  and  was  appointed 
regius  professor  of  law  at  Oxford  in  1620.  In  1625  he 
became  principal  of  St.  Alban  Hall  and  chancellor  of 
the  diocese  of  Oxford.  In  1641  he  was  madejudge  of 
the  High  Court  of  Admiralty.  Under  the  Common- 
wealth, having  submitted  to  the  parliamentary  visitors, 
he  retained  his  university  appointments,  though  not  his 
judgeship;  this  last  he  resumed  at  the  Restoration, 
dying  soon  afterward  at  his  apartments  in  Doctor’s 
Commons,  London,  March  1,  1661. 

ZOUAVES  (Arab,  Zwawa),  a body  of  troops  in  the 
French  army  which  derives  its  name  from  a tribe  of 
Kabyles  inhabiting  the  mountain  of  Jurjura,  in  the  Al- 
gerian province  of  Constantine.  Long  previous  to  the 
invasion  of  Algiers  by  the  French,  these  Kabyles  had 
been  employed  as  hired  mercenaries  in  the  service  of 
the  rulers  of  Tripoli,  Tunis,  and  Algiers,  and,  after  the 
conquest  of  the  last  named  country  in  1830,  the  French, 
in  the  hope  of  establishing  a friendly  feeling  between 
the  natives  and  their  conquerors,  took  the  late  dey’s 
mercenaries  into  their  services,  giving  them  a new  or- 
ganization. Accordingly,  General  Clausel  created,  in 
1830,  two  battalions  of  zouaves,  in  which  each  com- 
pany consisted  of  French  and  Kabyles  in  certain  pro- 
portions, officers,  subalterns,  and  soldiers  being  selected 
from  either  race.  The  zouaves,  though  retaining  their 
Moorish  dress,  were  armed  and  disciplined  after  the 
European  fashion,  and  the  battalions  were  recruited 
by  voluntary  enlistment.  As  it  was  soon  found,  how- 
ever, that  the  system  of  commingling  the  two  races  did 
not  effect  the  object  intended,  the  French  and  Kabyles 


Z S C — 

were  formed  into  separate  companies,  and  in  1837  they 
were  divided  into  three  battalions,  and  put  under  the 
command  of  a colonel.  Their  first  colonel  was  La- 
moriciere,  who  mainly  effected  their  reorganization,  and 
under  whom,  as  well  as  his  successor,  Cavaignac  (y.  v. ), 
they  distinguished  themselves  in  many  a bloody  conflict 
with  the  Arabs  of  the  south. 

Gradually,  however,  the  native  element  was  elimi- 
nated, and,  since  1S40,  they  may  be  considered  as 
French  troops  in  a Moorish  dress.  In  1852-1855  their 
numbers  were  greatly  augmented,  and  they  now  amount 
to  upward  of  10,000  men,  divided  into  four  regiments 
of  four  battalions  each.  They  are  recruited  from  vet- 
erans of  the  ordinary  infantry  regiments,  who  are  dis- 
tinguished for  their  fine  “ physique  ” and  tried  courage 
and  hardihood ; clad  in  a loose  jacket  and  waistcoat  of 
dark  blue  cloth  ornamented  with  yellow  braid,  loose 
madder-colored  trousers,  brown  cloak,  madder-colored 
fez  cap  with  a yellow  tassel,  surrounded  by  a green  tur- 
ban, a light  blue  sash  of  wool,  yellow  leather  leggings, 
and  white  gaiters;  and  armed  with  a carbine  and 
sword  bayonet.  The  uniform  of  the  officers  and  sub- 
alterns is  the  same  as  that  of  the  hussars.  When  the 
French  and  the  African  elements  of  the  original  zouave 
battalions  were  separated,  the  Africans  were  constituted 
into  a separate  body,  under  the  name  of  Algerian 
Tirailleurs,  a force  still  recruited  in  Algiers  to  form  a 
part  (three  regiments)  of  the  regular  French  army. 
They  are  better  known  as  the  Turcos. 

ZSCHOKKE,  Johann  Heinrich  Daniel,  German 
author,  was  born  at  Magdeburg  March  22,  1771.  He 
was  educated  at  the  cloister  school  of  his  native  place 
and  at  the  gymnasium  of  Altstadt.  He  created  much 
sensation  by  two  extravagant  plays,  Aballino , der  grosse 
Bandit  (1794),  and  Julius  von  Sassen  (1796),  the  suc- 
cess of  which  shows  how  urgent  was  the  need  for  the 
elevating  influence  of  the  dramatic  writings  of  Goethe 
and  Schiller.  The  Prussian  Government  having  de- 
clined to  make  him  a full  professor,  Zschokke  in  1795, 
after  some  time  spent  in  travel,  settled  in  the  Grisons, 
where,  in  association  with  the  burgomaster  Tscharner, 
he  conducted  an  educational  institution  in  the  castle  of 
Reichenau.  The  political  disturbances  compelled  him 
to  close  his  institution;  but,  being  a man  of  great  re- 
source and  energy,  he  was  able,  during  the  revolution- 
ary period  which  now  began  in  Switzerland,  to  enter 
upon  a new  and  more  important  career.  He  was  sent 
as  a deputy  to  Aarau,  where  he  was  made  head  of  the 
educational  department.  Afterward  he  was  sent  as 
government  commissioner  to  Unterwalden,  and  his 
authority  was  ultimately  extended  over  the  cantons  of 
U.ri,  Schwyz  and  Zug.  In  1800  he  reorganized  the 
institutions  of  the  Italian  cantons,  and  then  he  became 
lieutenant-governor  of  the  canton  of  Basel.  In  1801 
he  attracted  attention  by  his  Geschichte  vom  Kampfe 
und  Untergange  der  schweizerischen  Berg-und  Wald- 
Contone.  Through  his  Schweizerbote , the  publication 
of  which  began  in  1804,  he  exercised  a wholesome  in- 
fluence on  public  affairs;  and  the  like  may  be  said  of 
his  Miscellen  der  neuesten  Welikunde , issued  from  1807 
to  1813.  In  1811  he  also  started  a monthly  periodical, 
the  Erheiter  ungen.  He  wrote  various  historical  works, 
the  most  important  of  which  is  Des  Schweizerlandes 
Geschichte  fur  das  Sclvweizervolk , published  in  1822. 
He  was  also  the  author  of  Bilder  aus  der  Schweiz,  and 
of  a series  of  popular  tales  which  greatly  extended  his 
reputation — Der  Creole , Alamontade , Jonathan  Frock , 
Das  Goldmacherdorf,  and  Meister  Jordan.  Zschokke 
was  not  a great  original  writer,  but  he  secured  for  him- 
self an  eminent  place  in  the  literature  of  his  time  by  his 
enthusiasm  for  modern  ideas  in  politics  and  religion,  by 
the  found,  practical  judgment  displayed  in  his  works, 


ZUG  6453 

and  by  the  energy  and  lucidity  of  his  style.  He  died 
June  27,  1848. 

ZUCCARO,  or  Zucchero,  the  name  of  two  Italian 
painters. 

I.  Taddeo  Zuccaro,  one  of  the  most  popular  paint- 
ers of  the  so-called  Roman  mannerist  school,  was  the 
son  of  an  almost  unknown  painter  at  St.  Angelo  in 
Vado,  called  Ottaviano  Zuccaro,  where  he  was  born  in 
1529.  His  first  start  in  life,  while  only  seventeen  years 
old,  was  due  to  a pupil  of  Correggio,  named  Danieleda 
Parma.  Taddeo  returned  to  Rome  in  1548,  and  began 
his  career  as  a fresco  painter  by  executing  a series  of 
scenes  in  monochrome  from  the  life  of  Furius  Camillus 
on  the  front  of  the  palace  of  a wealthy  Roman  named 
Jacopo  Mattei.  From  that  time  his  success  was  assured, 
and  for  the  rest  of  his  short  life  he  was  largely  employed 
by  the  popes  Julius  III.  and  Paul  IV.,  by  Della  Rovere, 
duke  of  Urbino,  and  by  other  rich  patrons  of  atf  in 
Rome  and  elsewhere.  His  best  frescoes  were  a his- 
torical series  painted  on  the  walls  of  a new  palace  at 
Caprarola,  built  for  Cardinal  Alessandro  Farnese,  for 
which  Taddeo  also  designed  a great  quantity  of  rich 
decorations  in  stucco  relief  after  the  style  of  Giulio 
Romano  and  other  pupils  of  Raphael.  Taddeo  Zuccaro 
died  in  Rome  in  1560;  he  is  buried  in  the  Pantheon, 
not  far  from  Raphael. 

II.  Federico  Zuccaro,  the  younger  brother  and 
pupil  of  Taddeo,  was  born  in  1543.  In  1550  he  was 
placed  under  his  brother’s  charge  in  Rome,  and  during 
his  lifetime  worked  as  his  assistant;  he  completed  the 
Caprarola  frescoes,  which  were  unfinished  when  Taddeo 
died  in  1 566. 

Federigo  was  recalled  to  Rome  by  Gregory  XIII.  to 
continue  in  the  Pauline  chapel  of  the  Vatican  the  scheme 
of  decoration  which  had  been  begun  by  Michelangelo 
during  his  failing  years.  In  1574  Federigo  passed 
over  to  England,  where  his  fame  was  already  known, 
so  that  he  at  once  received  a large  number  of  com- 
missions to  paint  the  portraits  of  various  distinguished 
persons,  among  them  Queen  Elizabeth,  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots,  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  Sir  Francis  Walsingham, 
Lord  High  Admiral  Howard,  and  others.  After  a 
short  exile  Federigo  was  recalled  to  Rome  to  finish  his 
work  on  the  vault  of  the  Pauline  chapel.  In  1585  he 
was  invited  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain  to  decorate  the 
new  Escorial  at  a yearly  salary  of  2,000  crowns.  He 
accepted  this  offer,  and  worked  at  the  Escorial  from 
January,  1586,  to  the  end  of  1588,  when  he  returned  to 
Rome.  He  there  founded,  in  1595,  under  a charter 
confirmed  by  Sixtus  V.,  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke,  of 
which  he  was  the  first  president. 

Federigo  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a cavalier e not 
long  before  his  death,  which  took  place  at  Ancona 
in  1609. 

ZUG,  a canton  of  Switzerland,  ranking  as  eighth  in 
the  Confederation.  It  includes  the  districts  round  the 
Lake  of  Egeri  and  on  both  shores  of  the  northern  half 
of  die  Lake  of  Zug,  and  is  the  smallest  undivided  can- 
ton both  in  area  and  in  population.  Its  total  area  is 
92.3  square  miles,  75  of  which  are  classed  as  productive 
(forests  12.5),  while  of  the  rest  13  are  covered  with 
lakes.  The  highest  point  in  the  canton  is  the  Wildspitz 
(5,191  feet),  tne  culminating  peak  of  the  Rossberg 
ridge.  The  population  was  25,093  in  1900,  an  increase 
of  2,072  on  that  of  1888,  the  numbers  of  men  and  women 
being  nearly  equal.  German  is  the  native  tongue  of 
22,592,  ancl  21,734  are  Roman  Catholics.  The  capital 
is  Zug  (4,924  inhabitants  in  1880);  Baar  has  a popula- 
tion of  3,896.  The  territory  of  Zug  is  very  fertile  and 
the  population  mainly  agricultural.  Cattle  and  fruit 
are  among  the  chief  articles  of  export,  much  cider  and 
“ Jdrschwasser  ” being  manufactured.  The  town  of  Zug 


Z U L 


6454 

is  connected  by  railway  with  Lucern»  and  Zurich,  and  a 
railway  is  planned  to  A*th,  which  will  connect  Zug  di- 
rectly with  the  St.  Gotthard  line.  On  July  5,  1887,  a 
landslip  carried  the  houses  of  a small  portion  of  the  capi- 
tal, as  in  1435,  into  the  lake. 

ZULLA,  as  Salt  writes  the  name,  or  ZOla  (Thulla, 
Dola),  as  it  is  also  written,  is  a village  near  the  head  of 
Annesley  Bay  on  the  African  coast  of  the  Red  Sea.  It 
derives  its  only  interest  from  ruins  in  its  vicinity  which 
are  generally  supposed  to  mark  the  site  of  the  ancient 
emporium  of  Adulis  (VA SovXiS,  ’AdovAev),  the  port  of 
Axum  and  chief  outlet  in  the  early  centuries  of  our  era 
for  the  ivory,  hides,  slaves,  and  other  exports  of  the 
interior.  Cosmas  Indicopleustes  saw  here  an  inscrip- 
tion of  Ptolemy  Euergetes  (247-222  B.C.);  and  hence, 
as  the  earliest  mention  of  Adulis  is  found  in  the  geog- 
raphers of  the  first  century  after  Christ,  it  is  con- 
jectured that  the  town  must  have  previously  existed 
under  another  name  and  may  have  been  the  Berenice 
Panchrysus  of  the  Ptolemies.  An  Italian  protectorate 
over  the  district  of  Zulla  was  proclaimed  in  1888. 

ZULULAND,  a territory  of  South  Africa,  lying  to 
the  north  of  the  colony  of  Natal,  with  a coast-line  of 
about  130  miles.  It  is  occupied  chiefly  by  Zulu  tribes; 
but  since  its  conquest  by  England  in  1879  a Boer  repub- 
lic, known  as  the  New  Republic,  has  been  carved  out 
of  it,  which  extends  into  the  center  of  the  country  from 
the  Transvaal  on  its  northwest,  and  comprises  an  area 
equal  to  nearly  one-half  of  the  remaining  portion  of 
Zululand.  It  is  bounded  on  the  southwest  by  the 
Tugela,  Buffalo,  and  Blood  rivers,  the  last-named  being 
one  of  the  borders  of  the  Transvaal  Republic. 

Zululand  presents  very  varied  physical  features:  undu- 
lating country  covered  with  mimosa  “ bush,”  in  some 
parts  very  densely,  alternates  with  wild  and  fantasti- 
cally broken  scenery,  and  thickly-wooded  precipices  and 
ravines,  and  these  again  with  grass-clad  hills.  Two  con- 
siderable forests  exist  in  the  country — one,  the  Ingome 
Forest,  lying  in  northern  Zululand,  just  within  the  ter- 
ritory recently  ceded  to  the  Boers,  the  other  upon  the 
Natal  border.  These  produce  the  varieties  of  timber 
mentioned  under  Natal.  The  mineral  resources  of  the 
country  have  yet  to  be  investigated,  but  gold  has  been 
recently  found  in  the  Reserve.  The  rivers,  like  those  in 
Natal,  are  rapid  streams  of  small  volume,  running  over 
rocky  beds;  the  Tugela  river  is  the  most  considerable. 
The  climate  differs  but  little  from  that  of  Natal.  The 
country,  is  very  healthy  for  the  most  part;  but  horse  sick- 
ness prevails  in  the  valleys  in  the  hot  season,  and  the 
swampy  neighborhood  of  St.  Lucia  Bay,  a lagoon  lying 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Umfolosi  river,  is  uninhabitable. 
Like  the  Natal  natives,  the  Zulus  cultivate  the  ground 
very  superficially,  planting  maize,  gourds  of  several 
kinds,  and  a grain  from  which  a light  beer  is  prepared. 
Cattle,  the  sole  wealth  of  the  people,  were  at  one  time 
very  numerous  in  the  country,  and  also  goats.  A few 
of  the  chiefs  use  horses. 

Language. — With  the  exception  of  the  tongues 
spoken  by  the  Hottentot-Bushman  tribes  of  the  south- 
west, the  languages  of  Africa  from  about  five  degrees 
north  of  the  equator  southward  are  now  recognized  as 
forming  one  great  family,  for  which  the  designation 
Bantu  has  been  adopted,  the  word  abantu  in  Zulu  and 
other  members  of  the  group  denoting  “people.”  The 
Zulu  tongue,  as  that  of  a conquering  and  superior  race, 
extends  beyond  the  river  Zambesi,  and  is  often  under- 
stood even  where  another  language  is  the  vernacular. 
In  the  kingdoms  of  Lobengula  and  Umzila  it  is  the 
language  of  the  ruling  classes. 

The  pedigree  and  affinity  of  the  Zulus,  that  is,  the 
northern  branch  of  the  Zulu-Kaffre  group,  are  given 
under  Kaffraria.  Here  it  will  suffice  to  add  that 


since  the  establishment  of  the  Zulu  military  ascendancy 
early  in  the  nineteenth  century  various  Zulu  hordes 
have  successively  invaded  and  overrun  a great  part  of 
southeast  Africa,  as  far  as  and  even  beyond  the  Lake 
Nyassa  district.  Throughout  these  regions  they  are 
variously  known  as  Ma-Zitu,  Ma-Ravi,  Ma-Ngone 
(Urngone),  Matebele  (Ama-Ndebeli),  Ma-Viti,  and 
Aba-Zanzi.  Such  is  the  terror  inspired  by  these  fierce 
warriors  that  many  of  the  conquered  tribes,  such  as  the 
Wa-Nindi  of  Mozambique,  have  adopted  the  very  name 
of  their  conquerors  or  oppressors.  Hence  the  impres- 
sion that  the  true  Zulus  are  far  more  numerous  north  of 
the  Limpopo  than  has  ever  been  the  case.  In  most 
places  they  have  already  become  extinct  or  absorbed  in 
the  surrounding  populations.  But  they  still  hold  their 
ground  as  the  ruling  element  in  the  region  between  the 
Limpopo  and  the  lower  Zambesi,  which  from  them 
takes  the  name  of  Matebeleland,  and  which,  like  Zulu- 
land itself,  has  recently  become  a British  protectorate. 

Laws  and  Customs. — The  Zulus  possess  an  elaborate 
system  of  laws  regulating  the  inheritance  of  personal 
property  (which  consists  chiefly  of  cattle),  the  com- 
plexity arising  from  the  practice  of  polygamy  and  the 
exchange  of  cattle  made  upon  marriage.  The  kraal  is 
under  the  immediate  rule  of  its  headman,  who  is  a 
patriarch  responsible  for  the  good  behavior  of  all  its 
members.  Over  the  headman,  whose  authority  may 
extend  to  more  than  one  kraal,  is  the  tribal  chief. 
Several  of  the  Zulu  customs  resemble  those  of  the  Jews, 
such  as  the  Feast  of  First  Fruits,  held  upon  the  ripening 
of  the  maize,  when  the  whole  nation  gathers  at  the 
king’s  kraal,  and  the  custom  of  raising  up  seed  to  a 
deceased  brother.  By  the  custom  of  ukuhlonipa  a 
woman  carefully  avoids  the  utterance  of  any  word 
which  occurs  in  the  names  of  the  principal  members  of 
her  husband’s  family:  e.g .,  if  she  have  a brother-in-law 
named  uNkomo,  she  would  not  use  the  Zulu  for  “ cow,” 
incomo , but  would  invent  some  other  word  for  it.  The 
employment  of  “witch  doctors”  for  “smelling  out” 
criminals  or  abatagati  (usually  translated  “ wizards,” 
but  meaning  evildoers  of  any  kind,  such  as  poisoners)  is 
still  common  in  Zululand,  as  in  neighboring  countries, 
although  it  was  discouraged  by  Cetshwayo,  who  estab- 
lished “ kraals  of  refuge  ” for  the  reception  of  persons 
rescued  by  him  from  condemnation  as  abatagati. 

Population. — No  means  exist  for  estimating  the 
present  population  of  Zululand.  The  country  was  at 
the  time  of  the  late  war  regarded  as  less  densely  in- 
habited than  the  colony  of  Natal.  The  Zulu  army  was 
estimated  to  contain  twenty-three  regiments,  of  40,400 
men  in  all,  and,  although  the  enrollment  was  voluntary, 
it  may  be  assumed  that  it  comprised  nearly  all  the  able- 
bodied  men  of  the  nation.  In  addition  to  the  heavy 
mortality  sustained  by  the  Zulus  in  the  war  many  lives 
have  been  lost  in  subsequent  conflicts  in  which  they 
have  engaged  among  themselves. 

History. — The  earliest  record  of  contact  between 
Europeans  and  the  Zulu  race  is  probably  the  account  of 
the  wreck  of  the  Doddington  in  1756.  The  survivors 
met  with  hospitable  treatment  at  the  hands  of  the 
natives  of  Natal,  and  afterward  proceeded  up  the  coast 
to  St.  Lucia  Bay,  where  they  landed. 

In  1780  the  Zulu  tribe  inhabited  the  valley  of  the 
White  Umfolosi  river  under  the  chieftainship  of  Senzan- 
gakona.  At  that  time  the  Zulus  numbered  some  few 
thousands  only,  being  subject  to  the  paramount  chiet 
Dingiswayo,  who  ruled  over  the  mTetwa  tribe,  which 
inhabited  the  country  to  the  northeast  of  the  Tugela. 
Dingiswayo  is  represented  as  having  been  very  much  in 
advance  of  other  chiefs  in  those- parts  in  enlightenment 
and  intelligence.  He  opened  up  a trade  with  the  Portu- 
J guese,  bartering  ivorv  and  oxen  for  beads  and  bra.**, 


Z U R 


He  was  also  very  warlike,  and  introduced  a strict  mili- 
tary organization  among  his  people,  by  means  of  which 
he  obtained  the  ascendancy  over  neighboring  tribes, 
including  Jhat  of  the  Zulus.  Upon  the  death  of  Sen- 
zangakona  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  he 
was  succeeded  by  a son  named  Tshaka,  who  had  served 
as  an  officer  in  the  army  of  Dingiswayo,  whose  favor  he 
won  through  his  force  of  character  and  talents.  Dingis- 
wayo having  been  killed  in  battle,  the  mTetwa  tribe 
sought  the  protection  of  Tshaka,  who  lost  no  time  in 
further  developing  the  new  military  organization,  and 
very  soon  became  master  of  nearly  the  whole  of  south- 
eastern Africa  from  the  Limpopo  to  Cape  Colony,  in- 
cluding the  settlement  of  Natal,  Basutoland,  a large 
part  of  the  Orange  Free  State,  and  the  Transvaal  Re- 
public. He  overran  the  district  of  Natal  with  his  armies 
in  1820;  but  crowds  of  the  northern  tribes  driven  before 
his  onslaught  passed  through  the  country  about  1812. 

In  1825  an  English  naval  officer,  Lieutenant  Farewell, 
visited  Tshaka  with  the  object  of  obtaining  leave  to 
establish  a settlement  in  what  is  now  the  district  of 
Natal.  He  found  the  king  at  Umgungindhlovu,  “sur- 
rounded by  a large  number  of  chiefs,  and  about  8,000  or 
9,000  armed  men,  observing  a state  and  ceremony  in 
our  introduction  that  we  little  expected.”  The  king 
showed  his  visitor  much  friendliness,  making  him  a 
grant  of  land  in  that  neighborhood.  Lieutenant  Fare- 
well took  formal  possession  of  the  territory  he  had  re- 
ceived, which  he  described  as  nearly  depopulated  and 
not  containing  more  than  300  or  400  inhabitants,  August 
27,  1825.  The  Zulu  monarch,  being  anxious  to  open  a 
political  connection  with  the  Cape  and  English  Govern- 
ments, intrusted  in  1828  one  of  his  principal  chiefs, 
Sotobi,  and  a companion,  to  the  care  of  Lieutenant  King, 
to  be  conducted  on  an  embassage  to  Cape  Town,  Sotobi 
being  commissioned  to  proceed  co  the  king  of  England. 
From  causes  which  are  not  now  certainly  known  these 
people  were  not  allowed  to  proceed  beyond  Port  Eliza- 
beth, and  were  soon  sent  back  to  Zululand.  On  Sep- 
tember 23,  1828,  Tshaka  was  murdered  by  his  brother, 
Mhlangana,  and  a few  days  afterward  Mhlangana  was 
killed  by  another  brother,  Dingane. 

In  1840  the  Boers  agreed  to  support  Dingane’s 
brother  mPande  in  rebellion  against  him.  The  move- 
ment was  completely  successful,  several  of  Dingane’s 
regiments  going  over  to  mPande.  Dingane  passed  into 
Swaziland  in  advance  of  his  retreating  forces,  and  was 
there  murdered,  while  mPande  was  crowned  king  of 
Zululand  by  the  Boers,  who  received  in  exchange  for 
their  services  the  much-coveted  district  of  Natal.  In 
1856  a civil  war  broke  out  between  two  of  mPande’s 
sons,  Cetshwayo  and  Umbulazi,  who  were  rival  claim- 
ants for  the  succession.  A bloody  battle  was  fought 
between  them  on  the  banks  of  theTugela  in  December, 
1856,  in  which  Umbulazi  and  many  of  his  followers 
were  slain.  The  Zulu  country  continued,  however,  ex- 
cited and  disturbed,  until  the  government  of  Natal  in 
1861  obtained  the  formal  nomination  of  a successor  to 
mPande;  and  Cetshwayo  was  appointed.  In  1873  the 
Zulu  nation  appealed  to  the  Natal  Government  to  pre- 
side over  the  installation  of  Cetshwayo  as  king;  and  this 
request  was  acceded  to.  In  1854  the  native  population 
in  Natal  was  reckoned  at  from  100,000  to  120,000.  By 
1873,  owing  largely  to  the  influx  of  refugees  from  Zulu- 
land, it  had  risen  to  282,783;  but  five  years  later  it  had 
not  increased  to  more  than  290,035,  some  hundreds  of 
heads  of  families  having  returned  to  Zululand. 

The  incroachments  of  the  Transvaal  Boers  upon  the 
borders  of  Zululand  having  for  many  years  exposed  the 
British  Government  to  urgent  appeals  on  the  part  of 
the  Zulus  for  its  intervention,  a second  attempt  was 
made  by  the  government  of  Natal,  and  this  time  with,. 


645s 

success,  to  induce  the  Boers  to  submit  the  boundary 
disputes  between  them  and  their  neighbors  to  arbitra- 
tion. A commission  was  appointed,  composed  of  three 
British  officers,  who  in  June,  1878,  pronounced  a 
decision  substantially  in  favor  of  the  Zulus.  The  in- 
vasion of  Zululand  took  place  in  January,  1879,  and  the 
war  was  ended  by  the  capture  of  the  king  at  the  end  of 
August.  Cetshwayo  having  been  conveyed  to  Cape 
Town,  the  Zulu  country  was  portioned  out  among 
eleven  Zulu  chiefs,  a white  adventurer,  and  a Basuto 
chief  who  had  done  good  service  in  the  war.  This  ar- 
rangement was  productive  of  much  bloodshed  and  dis- 
turbance, and  in  1882  the  British  Government  determined 
to  restore  Cetshwayo  again  to  power.  In  the  meantime, 
however,  the  deepest  blood  feuds  had  been  engendered 
between  the  chiefs  Zibebu  and  Hamu  on  the  one  side 
and  the  neighboring  tribes  who  supported  the  ex-king 
and  his  family  on  the  other.  Zibebu,  having  created  a 
formidable  force  of  well-armed  and  trained  warriors, 
was  left  in  independence  on  the  borders  of  Cetshwayo’s 
territory,  while  the  latter  was  restrained  by  the  condi- 
tions of  his  restoration  from  any  military  enterprise  or 
defensive  measures.  A collision  very  soon  took  place; 
but  in  the  conflicts  that  followed,  Zibebu’s  forces  were 
victorious,  and  on  July  22,  1883,  led  by  a troop  of 
mounted  whites,  he  made  a sudden  descent  upon 
Cetshwayo’s  kraal  at  Ulundi,  which  he  destroyed, 
massacreing  such  of  the  inmates  of  both  sexes  as  could 
not  save  themselves  by  flight.  The  king  escaped, 
though  wounded,  into  the  Reserve,  which  had  been 
placed  under  British  rule;  there  he  died  in  1884.  He 
left  a son,  Dinuzulu,  who  sought  the  assistance  of  some 
of  the  Transvaal  Boers  against  Zibebu,  whom  he  de- 
feated and  drove  into  the  Reserve.  These  Boers,  not  a 
large  number,  claimed  as  a stipulated  reward  for  their 
services  the  cession  of  the  greater  part,  and  the  more 
valuable  part,  of  central  Zululand.  The  government  of 
Natal  has  recently  attempted  to  mediate  on  behalf  of 
the  Zulus  and  has  accepted  on  their  behalf,  in  spite  of 
their  protests,  a line  which  roughly  divides  central 
Zululand  into  two  equal  portions.  Of  these,  until  lately 
(1902),  the  northwestern  has  been  created  into  a quasi- 
independent Boer  state  already  mentioned.  The  rest  of 
central  Zululand  is  administered,  with  the  Reserve,  as  a 
British  protectorate.  Area  of  the  province,  10,450  sq.  m. 

ZURBARAN,  Francisco,  a distinguished  Spanish 
painter,  was  born  at  Fuente  de  Cantos  in  Estremadura 
November  7,  1598.  In  mere  childhood  he  set  about 
imitating  objects  with  charcoal;  and  his  father  was 
quick-witted  and  long-headed  enough  to  take  him  off, 
still  extremely  young,  to  the  school  of  Juan  de  Roelas 
in  Seville.  Francisco  soon  became  the  best  pupil  in 
the  studio  of  Roelas,  surpassing  the  master  himself; 
and  before  leaving  him  he  had  achieved  a solid  reputa- 
tion, though  Seville  was  then  full  of  able  painters.  His 
subjects  were  mostly  of  a severe  and  ascetic  kind. — - 
religious  vigils,  the  flesh  chastised  into  subjection  to  the 
spirit — the  compositions  seldom  thronged,  and  often 
reduced  to  a single  figure.  Toward  1630  he  was  ap- 
pointed painter  to  Philip  IV.;  and  there  is  a story  that 
on  one  occasion  the  sovereign  laid  his  hand  on  the 
artist’s  shoulder,  saying,  “ Painter  to  the  king,  king  of 
painters.”  It  was  only  late  in  life  that  Zurbaran  made 
a prolonged  stay  in  Madrid,  Seville  being  the  chief 
scene  of  his  operations.  He  died  in  1662  in  Madrid. 

ZURICH  (German  Ziirich),  a canton  in  Switzerland, 
ranking  as  the  first  in  dignity.  It  is  of  very  irregular 
shape,  consisting  simply  of  the  conquests  made,  by  the 
city.  It  extends  from  the  Lake  of  Zurich  to  the  Rhine, 
taking  in  the  district  of  Eglisau  on  the  right  bank  of 
that  river.  Its  total  area  is  665.9  square  miles,  of 
which  610.6  are  classified  as  fertile  (woods  covering 


6456  ZTJ7- 

186  and  Tines  21.5).  OF  45.2  square  miles  of  non-fertile 
land,  26.2  are  covered  by  the  lake.  The  highest  point 
in  the  ca*iton  is  the  Schnebelhorn  (4,250  feet)  in  the 
southeast  corner.  The  population  in  1900  was  431,- 
036  (an  increase  of  93,853  since  1888),  and  in  1887  was 
estimated  to  be  339,163.  In  1880  there  were  313,762 
German-speaking  and  283,134  Protestant  inhabitants. 
The  number  of  Roman  Catholics  nearly  doubled  from 
1870  to  1880  (17,942  and  30,298).  Besides  Zurich 
(see  below),  the  capital,  the  only  other  town  of  any 
size  in  the  canton  is  Winterthur,  ( q.v .)  The  land  is 
very  highly  cultivated  and  is  held  by  no  less  than 
36,000  proprietors.  The  canton  is  well  supplied  with 
railways,  the  first  line  of  any  length  in  Switzerland 
being  that  from  Zurich  to  Baden  in  Aargau  (opened 
1847).  The  line  from  Zurich  to  the  summit  of  the 
Uetliberg  (2,861  feet)  was  made  in  1875. 

Zurich,  chief  city  of  the  above  canton,  and  until 
1848  practically  the  capital  of  the  Swiss  confederation, 
is  beautifully  situated,  at  a height  of  1,506  feet,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Limmat  where  it  issues  from  the  Lake  of 
Zurich,  and  on  the  river  Sihl,  which  joins  the  Limmat 

}‘ust  above  the  north  end  of  the  lake.  That  part  which 
ies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Limmat  is  known  as  the 
Large  Town,  that  on  the  left  as  the  Little  Town.  The 
central  portion — the  “city” — is  governed  by  an  execu- 
tive of  seven  members  and  a town  council  of  sixty, 
both  elected  by  the  citizens,  and  in  1887  had  27,638 
inhabitants.  The  nine  outlying  townships  or  “ gemein- 
den  ” have  each  a separate  organization,  distinct  from 
that  of  the  city,  and  in  1887  had  60,836  inhabitants,  of 
whom  18,527  were  in  Aussersihl  and  10,883  in  Riesbach. 
The  total  population  of  the  town  and  its  suburbs  was 
thus  152,942  in  1901.  These  are  nearly  all  Protestants 
and  German-speaking.  The  number  of  Roman  Cath- 
olics has  doubled  in  the  last  ten  years;  they  are  mainly 
resident  in  Aussersihl,  the  workmen’s  quarter,  where 
also  many  Italian-speaking  persons  dwell.  There  are 
in  Zurich  about  7,000  Old  Catholics. 

It  is  the  intellectual  capital  of  German-speaking 
Switzerland,  and  has  been  called  “ Athens  on  the  Lim- 
mat.” Cotton-spinning  and  the  manufacture  of  ma- 
chinery are  two  of  the  leading  industries,  but  by  far  the 
most  important  of  all  is  the  silk  trade.  The  value  of 
the  silk  annually  exported  (mainly  to  France,  the  United 
States,  and  England)  is  estimated  at  $14,580,000  to 
$16,665,000.  The  trade  employs  about  20,000  hand 
looms  and  4,500  steam-power  looms;  but  the  number 
of  the  former  is  diminishing,  while  that  of  the  latter  is 
increasing.  Poor  wine  is  also  made.  Zurich  is  the 
banking  center  of  Switzerland.  There  are  a large 
number  of  educational  establishments,  public  and 
private.  Besides  the  excellent  primary  and  secondary 
schools,  there  are  the  cantonal  school,  including  a 
gymnasium  and  a technical  side  (opened  1842),  and  a 
high  school  for  girls  (opened  1875).  The  cantonal 
university  and  the  Federal  polytechnic  school  are  housed 
in  the  same  building,  but  have  no  other  connection. 
The  university  was  founded  in  1832-33;  in  1901  it  had 
180  professors  and  703  matriculated  students,  besides  65 
persons  attending  special  courses  of  lectures.  The 
polytechnic  school,  founded  in  1854,  includes  six  main 
sections  (industrial  chemistry,  mechanics,  engineering, 
training  of  scientific  and  mathematical  teachers,  archi- 
tecture, forestry  and  agriculture),  and  a general  philo- 
sophical, mathematical,  and  literary  department.  The 
numbers  of  students  in  the  first  three  sections  were,  in 
1885,  122,  97,  and  90 — in  all  the  six  412,  of  whom  192 
were  foreigners;  there  were  about  54  professors.  The 
polytechnic  school  has  good  collections  of  botanical 
specimens  and  of  engravings.  Near  it  is  the  observatory 
(1,542  feet).  There  are  also  in  Zurich  many  institutions 


-ZWT 

for  special  branches  of  education — e.g.y  veterinary, 
surgery,  music,  industrial  art,  silk-weaving,  etc. 

ZUTPHEN,  a fortified  town  of  Holland,  in  the  prov- 
ince  of  Guelderland,  twenty  miles  by  rail  south  from 
Deventer,  stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Yssel,  at  its 
junction  with  the  Berkel.  The  place  has  an  active 
trade,  especially  in  grain  and  in  the  timber  floated  down 
from  the  Black  Forest  by  the  Rhine  and  the  Yssel;  the 
industries  include  tanning,  weaving,  and  oil  and  paper 
manufactures.  The  population  in  1887  was  16,357. 
Some  two  and  one-half  miles  to  the  north  of  the  town 
is  the  agricultural  colony  of  Nederlandsch-Mettray, 
founded  by  a private  benefactor  for  the  education  of 
poor  and  friendless  boys  in  1851.  and  since  that  date 
largely  extended. 

ZWEIBRUCKEN.  See  Deux  Ponts. 

ZWICKAU,  one  of  the  busiest  towns  in  the  indus- 
trial district  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  to  which  it  gives 
its  name,  is  situated  in  a pleasant  valley  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Zwickauer  Mulde,  forty-one  miles  south  of 
Leipsic.  The  river  is  here  crossed  by  four  bridges,  two 
of  which  are  of  iron.  The  railway  station,  which,  with 
its  dependencies,  covers  eighty-one  acres,  is  said  to  be 
one  of  the  largest  in  Germany.  The  Chateau  of  Oster- 
stein  (1581-91)  is  now  a penitentiary.  The  manufact- 
ures of  Zwickau  are  both  extensive  and  varied;  they  in- 
elude  machinery,  chemicals,  porcelain,  paper,  glass, 
dyestuffs,  tinware,  stockings,  and  curtains.  There  are 
also  steam  saw-mills,  brickfields,  iron  foundries,  and 
breweries.  Though  no  longer  so  important  as  when  it 
lay  on  the  chief  trade  route  from  .Saxony  to  Bohemia 
and  the  Danube,  Zwickau  still  carries  on  considerable 
commerce  in  grain,  linen,  and  coal.  The  mainstay  of 
the  industrial  prosperity  of  the  town  is  the  adjacent 
coalfield,  which  in  1885  employed  10,000  hands  and 
yielded  coal  to  the  value  of  $4,274,500.  In  1900  the 
population  was  55,829;  in  1834  it  was  6,701. 

ZWINGLI,  Huldreich,  Swiss  Reformer,  was  born 
January  I,  1484,  at  Wildhaus,  at  the  head  of  the  Tog- 
genburg  valley,  in  the  canton  of  St.  Gall,  Switzerland. 

When  twenty-two  years  of  age  Zwingli  was  ordained 
by  the  bishop  of  Constance.  He  preached  his  first 
sermon  at  Rapperswyl,  and  said  his  first  mass  among 
his  own  people  at  Wildhaus.  He  was  appointed  (1506) 
to  the  parish  of  Glarus,  where  he  had  leisure  for  study 
and  began  to  read  extensively  and  carefully  in  prepara- 
tion  for  future  work.  In  1516  Zwingli  was  transferred 
to  Einsiedeln.  It  was  then,  and  is  still,  resorted  to  by 
thousands  of  pilgrims  yearly,  who  come  to  visit  tht 
famous  image  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  which  has  been 
preserved  there  for  at  least  a thousand  years.  Zwingli 
denounced  the  superstition  of  pilgrimages.  His  sermons 
made  a great  sensation  and  attracted  attention  in  Rome. 
Soon  afterward  he  was  elected,  after  some  opposition, 
to  be  preacher  in  the  cathedral  at  Zurich,  and  accepted 
the  office  (1518),  having  first  obtained  a pledge  that  his 
liberty  to  preach  the  truth  should  not  be  interfered  with. 

In  the  beginning  of  1519  he  began  a series  of  dis- 
courses on  the  New  Testament  Scriptures — on  St. 
Matthew’s  Gospel,  on.  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and 
on  the  Pauline  Epistles.  The  sermons,  preached  “ in 
simple  Swiss  language,”  had  a great  effect.  The 
Reformation  in  Zurich  was  begun.  The  council  of  the 
canton  was  on  Zwingli’s  side  and  protected  their 
preacher.  He  began  to  preach  against  fasting  and 
other  Roman  practices;  some  of  his  followers  put  his 
precepts  in  practice  and  ate  flesh  in  Lent.  The  bishop 
of  Constance  accused  them  before  the  council  of 
Zurich.  Zwingli  was  heard  in  their  defense,  and  the 
accusation  was  abandoned.  The  victory  on  the  sub- 
ject of  fasting  was  followed  by  an  attack  on  the  doc- 
trine of  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy.  Pope  Adrian  VI 


ZWO-ZYM  6457 


interfered,  and  asked  the  Zurichers  to  abandon  Zwingli. 
The  reformer  persuaded  the  council  to  allow  a public 
disputation,  which  was  held  in  1523.  Zwingli  produced 
sixty-seven  theses,  containing  a summary  of  his  doc- 
trinal views,  and  argued  in  their  favor  with  such  power 
that  the  council  upheld  the  Reformer  and  separated  the 
canton  from  the  bishopric  of  Constance.  The  reforma- 
tion, thus  legally  established,  went  forward  rapidly. 

The  progress  of  the  Reformation  in  Zurich  attracted 
the  attention  of  all  Switzerland,  and  the  Confederation 
became  divided  into  two  parties.  The  Reformers  found 
numerous  supporters  in  the  larger  towns  of  Basel,  Bern, 
and  Schaffhausen,  and  in  the  country  districts  of  Glarus, 
Appenzell,  and  the  Grisons.  The  five  forest  cantons 
— Lucerne,  Zug,  Schwyz,  Uri,  and  Unterwalden — re- 
mained solidly  opposed  to  all  reforms.  The  two  parties 
henceforward  faced  each  other  in  Switzerland.  It  so 
happened  that  those  cantons  which  remained  firmly 
attached  to  Roman  Catholicism  were  the  least  powerful, 
and  yet  from  historical  position  and  the  long  custom  of 
the  Confederacy  had  the  largest  legal  influence  in  the 
country.  They  dreaded  the  Reformation.  They  per- 
secuted inquirers  after  truth,  and  imprisoned,  beheaded, 
and  burned  the  followers  of  Zwingli,  when  they  caught 
them  within  their  borders.  Zwingli  alone  among  Prot- 
estant leaders,  saw  that  the  religious  and  the  political 
questions  could  not  be  decided  separately,  but  were  for 
practical  statesmanship  one  and  the  same  problem. 
His  policy  was  to  reorganize  the  Swiss  constitution  on 
the  principles  of  representative  democracy.  His  coun- 
sels were  overruled.  Bern  was  anxious  to  treat  the  re- 
ligious question  separately,  and  to  negotiate  for  religious 
toleration,  leaving  the  political  future  to  take  care  of 
itself.  The  course  of  history  has  fully  justified  Zwingli. 
At  length  the  storm  burst.  The  forest  eantons  ad- 
vanced (1531)  secretly  and  rapidly  on  Zurich,  with  the 
intention  of  overcoming  the  Protestant  cantons  one  by 
jne.  The  Zurichers  met  their  foes  at  Cappel,  were  out- 


numbered, and  were  defeated.  Zwingli,  who  had  ac- 
companied the  troops  as  field  chaplain,  had  received  two 
wounds  on  the  thigh  when  a blow  on  the  head  knocked 
him  senseless.  After  the  retreat  of  the  Zurichers,  when 
the  victors  examined  the  field,  Zwingli  was  found  to  be 
still  living.  He  was  not  recognized,  and  was  asked  if 
he  wished  a priest ; when  he  refused,  a captain  standing 
near  gave  him  a death-stroke  on  the  neck,  October 
n,  I53I- 

ZWOLLE,  a fortified  town  of  Holland,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Overyssel,  fifty-five  miles  by  rail  to  the 
northeast  of  Utrecht,  stands  on  the  Zwarte  Water,  a 
right-hand  tributary  of  the  Yssel,  a little  above  its 
junction  with  that  river.  On  the  side  of  the  town  next 
the  railway  station  is  the  Sassen-poort,  an  old  Gothic 
gateway  of  brick ; but  the  town  has  few  other  historical 
monuments  of  interest.  The  large  Gothic  church  of 
St.  Michael  in  the  market  place,  begun  in  1406,  con- 
tains a fine  organ  and  a richly  carved  pulpit.  The  town 
has  a considerable  trade  by  water,  and  among  its  more 
important  industries  are  shipbuilding,  cotton  manufact- 
ure, dyeing  and  bleaching,  tanning,  rope-making,  and 
salt-making.  The  population  in  1901  was  30,848. 

ZYMOTIC  DISEASES  ferment),  a term  in 

medicine  applied  by  some  authorities  to  the  class  of 
acute  infectious  maladies.  As  originally  employed  by 
Doctor  Farr  of  the  British  registrar-general’s  depart- 
ment, the  term  included  the  diseases  which  were  “ epi- 
demic, endemic,  and  contagious,”  and  owed  their  origin 
to  the  presence  of  some  iTVirbific  principle  in  the  system 
acting  in  a manner  analogous  to,  although  not  identical 
with,  the  process  of  fermentation.  A very  large  num- 
ber of  diseases  were  accordingly  included  under  this 
designation.  The  term,  however,  has  come  to  be  re- 
stricted in  medical  nomenclature  to  the  chief  fevers  and 
contagious  diseases,  (e.g.,  typhus  and  typhoid  fevers, 
smallpox,  scarlet  fever,  measles,  erysipelas,  cholera, 
whooping-cough,  diphtheria,  etc.) 


AMERICANIZED 

ENCYCLOPEDIA  BRITANNICA. 

* 

BIOGRAPHICAL  SUPPLEMENT. 


VOLUME  X. 


ABB- 

A BBAS  PASHA  II.,  reigning  viceroy  or  khedive  of 
Egypt;  born  July  14,  1874;  succeeded  his  father, 
Mohammed  Tewfik  Pasha,  on  the  latter’s  death,  Janu- 
ary 7,  1892.  Nominally  dependent  on  the  sultan  of  Tur- 
key, and  really  subject  to  English  control,  Abbas  Pasha 
has  shown  a disposition  unfriendly  to  the  English, 
and  in  April,  1894,  appointed  a new  ministry  of  anti- 
English  sympathies.  He  married  one  of  his  slaves 
in  1895. 

ABBOT,  Ezra,  born  in  Jackson,  Me.,  April  28, 
1819;  died  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  March  21,  1884. 
He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  in  1840,  and  in  1856  became 
assistant  librarian  at  Harvard,  to  which  he  left  a 
library  of  5,000  volumes.  His  works  include  New 
Discussions  of  the  Trinity , Literature  of  the  Doctrine 
of  a Future  Life  and  The  Authorship  of  the  Fourth 
Gospel. 

ABBOTT,  Emma,  American  operatic  artist  of  great 
popularity,  born  in  Chicago,  in  1850,  died  in  Salt 
Lake  City,  January  5,  1891.  Her  success  was  un- 
broken, and  she  left  a fortune  of  $500,000. 

ABBOTT,  John  S.  C.,  pastor  and  author,  born  in 
Brunswick,  Me.,  September  18,  1805;  died  June  17, 
1877.  He  was  the  author  of  many  popular  historical 
works,  notably  The  History  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte , 
Napoleon  at  St.  Helena , The  History  of  Napoleon  I LI., 
and  a History  of  the  Civil  War  in  America. 

ABBOTT,  Lyman,  clergyman,  born  in  Roxbury, 
Mass.,  December  18,  1835;  third  son  of  Jacob  Abbott, 
the  author,  and  nephew  of  John  S.  C.  Abbott.  He 
graduated  at  the  university  of  the  City  of  New  York, 
in  1853;  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1856,  but  abandoned  law  for  theology  and  was  ordained 
in  the  Congregational  church  in  i860,  preaching  for 
five  years  in  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  and  was  secretary  of 
the  American  Union  (Freedmen’s)  Commission,  1865- 
68.  Mr.  Abbott  has  done  much  literary  and  editorial 
work,  has  edited  the  Christian  Union  since  Mr.  Beech- 
er’s retirement,  bas  written  a Life  of  Henry  Ward 
Beecher  (1883),  and  in  January,  1889,  succeeded  him 
in  the  pastorate  of  Plymouth  church,  Brooklyn. 

ABDUL  HAMID  II.,  sultan  of  Turkey,  born  Sep- 


- A D A 

tember  22,  1842 ; succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1876. 
He  is  a Turk,  and  a Mussulman  of  the  old  school,  and 
is  opposed  to  English  interference  in  Turkish  affairs. 

ABDUR  RAHMAN  KHAN,  Ameer  of  Afghanistan, 
established  on  the  throne  July  22,  1880,  by  the  aid  of 
British  arms  and  influence  which  were  hostile  to  his 
cousin,  Shere  Ali,  the  rightful  heir.  In  1889  he  sup- 
pressed an  insurrection  in  Turkestan  with  great 
severity.  He  died  Oct.  1,  1901. 

ABERDEEN,  Earl  of,  John  Campbell  Hamil- 
ton-Gordon, governor-general  of  Canada,  ap- 
pointed in  1893.  He  was  born  in  1847  and  succeeded 
to  the  title  as  seventh  earl  in  1870.  Lady  Aberdeen, 
when  the  earl  was  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  1886-93, 
took  a great  interest  in  the  Irish  peasantry,  opening 
schools  for  their  instruction,  and  to  introduce  their 
manufactures  established  an  “ Irish  Village  ” at  the 
Columbian  World’s  Fair  in  Chicago,  in  1893. 

ADAMS,  Charles  Francis,  diplomatist,  born  in 
Boston,  August  18,  1807;  died  there  November  21, 
1886.  He  spent  his  early  years  in  Russia  and  England, 
where  his  father,  John  Quincy  Adams,  was  United 
States  minister ; graduated  at  Harvard,  1825  ; studied 
law  in  Daniel  Webster’s  office  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1828.  From  1831  to  1836  Mr.  Adams 
served  in  the  Massachusetts  legislature  as  a Whig, 
but  after  this  adopted  the  tenets  of  the  Free-soil 
party.  In  1848  this  party,  in  convention  at  Buffalo, 
nominated  Mr.  Adams  for  vice-president  of  the  United 
States,  with  Martin  Van  Buren  for  president.  In 
1858  Mr.  Adams  was  elected  to  congress  from  the 
third  district  of  Massachusetts  as  a Republican,  and 
in  i860  he  was  reelected.  In  1861,  he  was  sent 
as  minister  to  England,  where  he  remained  seven 
years.  During  this  period  he  had  a more  difficult  task 
to  fulfil  than  that  which  fell  to  the  lot  of  his  father  when 
filling  the  same  position  fifty  years  before.  The  Trent 
affair  and  Alabama  question  were  among  those  which 
he  had  to  face,  and  his  firmness  and  self-control  in  these 
trying  times  were  admirably  displayed.  In  1872  the 
Liberal  Republicans  considered  his  name  as  a candidate 
for  the  presidency,  but  the  barren  honor  fell  to  Horace 


6460  A D A - 

Greeley.  He  was  an  arbitrator  of  the  Alabama  claims 
1871-1872,  and  was  president  of  the  board  of  overseers 
of  Harvard  college  for  several  years. 

ADAMS,  Charles  Francis,  Jr.,  second  son  of  the 
foregoing,  was  born  in  Boston,  May  27,  1835;  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  in  1856,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1858.  He  entered  the  volunteer  army  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  war  and  was  mustered  out  in  July,  1865,  as 
brevet  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  In  1869  he  was 
appointed  on  the  board  of  railroad  commissioners  for 
Massachusetts  ; in  1879  became  arbitrator  for  northern 
railroads,  and  in  1884  was  elected  president  of  the 
Union  Pacific  railroad.  He  has  published  Chapters  of 
Erie  and  Other  Essays , and  numerous  other  works. 
His  elder  brother,  John  Quincy,  born  September  22, 
1833,  served  in  the  Massachusetts  legislature,  and  in 
1867  and  1871  unsuccessfully  contested  the  guberna- 
torial chair  as  a Democrat.  He  died  August  14,  1894. 
A younger  brother,  Henry  Brooks,  born  February 
16,  1838,  was  from  1870  to  1877  assistant  professor  of 
history  at  Harvard,  and  has  written  several  historical 
works,  including  a history  of  the  administrations  of 
Thomas  Jefferson,  in  several  volumes. 

ADAMS,  Charles  Kendall,  born  in  Derby,  Vt., 
January  24,  1835,  graduated  at  the  University  of  Mich- 
igan in  1861,  became  professor  of  history  there  in 
1868,  president  of  Cornell  university,  1885,  and  of  Wis- 
consin university,  1892.  He  is  the  author  of  Democ- 
racy and  Monarchy  in  France  ( 1874  ),  and  of  A Man- 
ual of  Historical  Literature  (1882).  Died  July  26,  1902. 

ADAMS,  George  Everett,  born  at  Keene,  N.  H., 
June  8,  1840;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  i860.  He  be- 
came a lawyer  in  Chicago,  and  was  elected  State  sen- 
ator in  1880.  He  was  elected  to  congress  in  1882,  and 
was  three  times  reelected,  representing  the  fourth  Illi- 
nois district  as  a Republican  until  March,  1891. 

ADAMS,  John  Couch,  born  in  Cornwall,  England, 
in  1817,  and  educated  at  Cambridge,  England.  He 
took  up  the  study  of  astronomy,  and  shares  with  Le- 
verrier  the  credit  of  discovering  the  planet  Neptune. 
He  became  president  of  the  Astronomical  Society  in 
1851  and  professor  of  astronomy  at  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity in  1858,  holding  the  chair  many  years.  He 
died  June  21,  1892. 

ADAMS,  William  Taylor  (Oliver  Optic),  author, 
born  in  Medway,  Mass.,  July  30,  1822;  has  written 
over  100  volumes  of  stories  for  boys,  and  has  contrib- 
uted extensively  to  magazines.  Died  March,  1897. 

ADLER,  Felix,  born  in  Germany,  August  13,  1851, 
the  son  of  a Jewish  rabbi;  graduated  at  Columbia 
college  in  1870,  and  studied  at  Berlin  and  Heidelberg. 
He  was  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Oriental  literature 
at  Cornell  1874-76,  and  in  1876  founded,  and  still  leads, 
the  Society  of  Ethical  Culture,  in  New  York  city. 

AGASSIZ,  Alexander,  son  of  Louis  Agassiz,  the 
great  naturalist,  was  born  in  Neuchatel,  Switzerland, 
December  1 7,  1835.  He  was  educated  in  Europe,  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1849,  and  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1855.  He  became  connected  with  the  California 
Coast  Survey,  and  was  associated  with  his  father  in  the 
museum  of  zoology  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  From  1866 
to  1869,  he  was  superintendent  of  the  Calumet  and 
Hecla  copper  mines,  Lake  Superior,  and  amassed  great 
wealth,  which  he  bestowed  in  princely  fashion  on  Har- 
vard. He  was  curator  of  the  museum  in  Cambridge 
from  1874  to  1885,  and  has  been  a fellow  and  overseer 
of  Harvard.  Professor  Agassiz  is  a member  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences  and  of  numerous  other 
scientific  societies  in  this  country  and  Europe.  He  is 
considered  one  of  the  greatest  living  authorities  on 
marine  zoology. 

AGNEW,  D.  Hayes,  surgeon,  born  in  Lancaster 


-A  L C 

county,  Penn.,  in  1818;  graduated  in  medicine  at  the 
university  of  Pennsylvania,  in  Philadelphia.  He  ac- 
quired a high  reputation  as  an  anatomist  and  operating 
surgeon,  in  1870  he  became  professor  of  operative  sur- 
gery in  his  university,  and  in  1871  was  called  to  the 
chair  of  the  principles  and  practices  of  surgery.  He 
became  widely  known  through  his  treatment  of  Presi- 
dent Garfield’s  wound.  Doctor  Agnew  also  wrote 
Practical  Anatomy  (1856),  The  Principles  and  Prac- 
tices of  Surgery  (3  vols.,  1878-83),  etc.  He  died  March 
22,  1892. 

AIMARD,  Gustave,  born  in  France,  September  13, 
1818;  spent  many  years  among  the  Indians  on  the 
frontier,  and  wrote  a number  of  romances  of  adven- 
ture based  on  his  experiences.  He  died  April  30,  1883. 

AINSWORTH, William  Harrison,  novelist,  born 
in  Manchester,  England,  in  1805  ; died  January  3,  1882. 
His  works,  mostly  Af  a semi-historical  character,  have 
been  translated  into  French,  German,  Spanish  and 
Russian.  The  best-known  of  his  novels  are : The 
Tower  of  London , The  Constable  of  the  Tower , Rook- 
wood , and  Jack  Sheppard. 

AIRY,  Sir  George  Biddell,  astronomer  torn  in 
England,  June  27, -1801;  was  appointed  astronomer 
royal  in  1835,  and  resigned  that  post  in  1881  on  a pen- 
sion. During  that  period  he  had  charge  of  the  Na- 
tional Observatory  at  Greenwich,  and  published  exten- 
sive observations  on  astronomical  subjects.  He  be- 
came a fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1836,  and  was  its 
president  from  1871  to  1873.  He  died  January  2,  1892. 

ALBANI,  Mme.  (Marie  Emma  Lajeunesse),  was 
born  near  Montreal,  Canada,  in  1851.  Her  parents  re- 
moved in  1864  to  Albany,  N.  Y.,  where  she  sang  in 
the  Catholic  cathedral,  and  attracted  so  much  atten- 
tion that  funds  were  procured  to  send  her  to  Europe  to 
complete  her  musical  education.  She  made  her  debut 
in  1870  at  Messina,  Sicily,  and  adopted  the  stage  name 
of  Albani,  in  remembrance  of  the  city  where  she  had 
received  her  first  encouragement.  Mme.  Albani,  who 
in  1878  married  Mr.  Ernest  Gye,  the  operatic  impres- 
sario,  has  sung  in  opera  in  London,  Florence,  St. 
Petersburg,  and  all  the  principal  cities  of  this  country. 
In  December,  1889,  she  took  part  in  the  historic  oper- 
atic season  at  the  Chicago  Auditorium. 

ALBERT  EDWARD,  Prince  of  Wales,  eldest  son 
of  Queen  Victoria  (now  Edward  VII,  King  of  Eng- 
land), was  born  November  9,  1841,  and  married  in 
March,  1863,  the  Princess  Alexandra  of  Denmark, 
daughter  of  Christain  IX.  By  her  he  had  two  sons 
and  three  daughters.  The  Prince  of  Wales  visited  the 
United  States  in  i860.  His  eldest  son,  Albert  Victor 
Christian  Edward,  was  born  in  January,  1864  and  died 
January  14,  1892,  six  weeks  after  his  betrothal  to  the 
Princess  Mary  of  Teck.  That  Princess  married  July 
6,  1893,  George,  Duke  of  York,  second  son  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  and  heir  presumptive  of  the  throne. 
To  them  a son,  Edward,  was  born  June  23,  1894. 

ALBERT,  king  of  Saxony,  was  born  April  23,  1828, 
and  succeeded  to  the  throne  Ocotber  29,  1873.  In 
1853  he  married  Caroline,  Princess  Vasa,  of  Sweden. 
He  supported  Prussia  in  the  war  with  France,  1870-71, 
and  died  June  19,  1902. 

ALCOTT,  Amos  Bronson,  born  in  Wolcott,  Conn., 
Nov.  29,  1799,  died  March  4,  1888 ; teacher,  writer, 
founder  of  the  Concord  School  of  Philosophy  and  ad- 
vocate on  the  lecture  platform  of  reform  ideas  in  theo- 
logy, education  and  social  institutions.  In  1842  he 
visited  England  to  confer  with  other  educational  and 
social  reformers.  On  his  return  to  America  he  at  first 
went  to  Boston,  but  soon  was  again  settled  in  Concord. 
Of  late  years  Mr.  Alcott  led  the  life  of  a philosopher, 
conversing  and  lecturing  on  a wide  range  of  practical 


ALC- 

questions.  Among  his  publications  are : Tablets 
( 1868)  ; Concord  Days  (1872)  ; Table  Talk  (1877) ; and 
Sonnets  and  Canzonets  (1877),  besides  other  papers 
contributed  to  periodicals. 

ALCOTT,  Louisa  May,  author,  born  in  German- 
town, Penn.,  November  29,  1832,  died  March  6,  1888. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Amos  Bronson  Alcott. 
Thoreau  taught  her  for  a short  time,  but  most  of  her 
education  was  supplied  by  her  father.  For  a number 
of  years  she  wrote  for  periodicals,  while  she  was  occu- 
pied as  a school-teacher.  In  1862  she  went  as  a volun- 
teer nurse  in  military  hospitals.  In  1866  Miss  Alcott 
visited  Europe,  and  on  her  return  in  1867  wrote  Little 
Women , a book  that  at  once  established  her  popular- 
ity as  a writer.  Its  sale  within  five  years  amounted  to 
87,000  copies.  Some  of  her  other  publications  have 
been  almost  equally  popular. 

ALDRICH,  Nelson  Wilmarth,  born  in  Foster, 
R.  I.,  November  6,  1841 ; served  in  the  State  general 
assembly  in  1875-76,  in  the  latter  year  was  speaker  of 
the  House  of  Representatives,  and  was  elected  to  con- 
gress in  1878  and  1880.  In  1881  he  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  as  a Republican  to  succeed  Gen- 
eral Burnside,  and  was  reelected  in  1886  and  in  1893. 

ALDRICH,  Thomas  Bailey,  poet  and  prose  writer, 
was  born  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  in  1836.  He  began 
life  in  a merchant’s  office  in  New  York,  but  soon 
abandoned  commerce  for  literature.  He  contributed 
frequently  to  Putnam’s  Magazine,  the  Knickerbocker , 
and  other  periodicals,  and,  in  1856,  joined  the  staff  of 
the  New  York  Evening  Mirror.  From  1870  to  1874 
he  edited  Every  Saturday,  and  in  March,  1881,  became 
the  editor  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly , to  which  he  had 
long  contributed.  Mr.  Aldrich  has  written  several 
notable  novels  and  romances,  and  is  the  author  of 
much  beautiful  poetry. 

ALDRIDGE,  Ira,  a negro  actor,  born  at  Belair, 
Md.,  in  1804;  died  in  Lodez,  Poland,  August  7,  1867. 
As  a boy  he  was  educated  for  the  ministry,  but  his 
tastes  were  dramatic.  Showing  marked  ability  in  an 
amateur  theatrical  company  his  father’s  friends  sent 
him  to  London  to  complete  his  studies.  Instead  he 
went  on  the  stage,  scoringa  success  at  the  Royalty  thea- 
ter as  * ‘ Othello,  the  Moor  of  V enice.  ’ ’ Later  he  played 
“ Othello  ” to  the  “ Iago  ” of  Edmund  Kean;  in  1833 
appeared  at  Covent  Garden  theater  in  London,  and 
in  1848  at  the  Surrey  theater.  From  1852  he  played 
for  three  years  in  Germany,  and  in  1857  visited  Swe- 
den. He  received  a number  of  medals,  and  decorations. 

ALEXANDER  I.,  King  of  Servia,  born  August  14, 
1876,  son  of  ex-King  Milan,  who  abdicated  March  6, 
1889,  and  Queen  Natalie.  Left  at  that  time  under  a 
regency  until  eighteen  years  of  age,  King  Alexander 
dismissed  the  regency  April  13,  1893,  reigning  in  his 
own  right. 

ALEXANDER  II.,  emperor  of  Russia,  born  April 
29,  1818;  married  in  1841,  the  Princess  Marie  of 
Hesse.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Nicholas,  March  2, 
1855,  while  the  Crimean  war  was  in  progress,  and 
made  peace  with  England  and  France.  In  1861  he 
emancipated  the  serfs,  giving  freedom  to  23,000,000 
people.  He  made  war  against  the  Turks  in  1877-78, 
and  took  the  field  in  person.  On  March  13,  1881,  he 
was  killed  by  a dynamite  bomb  thrown  by  Nihilists. 

ALEXANDER  III.,  emperor  of  Russia,  second  son 
of  Alexander  II.,  was  born  March  10  (February  26, 
O.  S.),  1845,  and  was  married  in  1866  to  Maria  Sophia 
Frederika  Dagmar,  daughter  of  Christian  IX.  of  Den- 
mark, who  had  been  betrothed  to  his  older  brother, 
the  czarewitch,  who  died  in  1865.  Alexander  partic- 
ipated in  the  Turkish  war  ot  1877-78,  and  ascended 
the  throne  March  13,  1881,  on  the  assassination  of  his 


-ALL  6461 

father.  He  was  not  crowned  until  May,  1883,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  threats  of  the  Nihilist  conspirators, 
and  his  life  was  several  times  attempted  afterward,  but 
he  died  a natural  death,  November  I,  1894. 

ALEXANDER,  Archibald,  born  in  Virginia,  April 
17,  1772;  died  October  22,  1851.  He  became  a Pres- 
byterian minister,  and  in  1812  head  of  the  theological 
seminary  at  Princeton.  He  wrote  extensively  for  the 
Princeton  Review,  and  published  several  theological 
treatises. 

ALEXANDER,  Stephen,  astronomer,  born  in 
Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  September  1, 1806 ; died  at  Prince- 
ton, N.  J.,  June  25,  1883.  From  1845  to  1878  he  occu- 
pied in  turn  the  professorships  of  mathematics  and  of 
astronomy  and  mechanics  at  Princeton.  In  i860  he 
conducted  an  expedition  to  Labrador  for  the  purpose 
of  observing  a solar  eclipse. 

ALEXANDER,  William,  called  “ Lord  Stirling,” 
soldier,  born  in  New  York  city,  1726;  died  in  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  January  15,  1783.  He  became  aide-de-camp  to 
Governor  Shirley.  In  1757  he  prosecuted  his  claim 
to  the  earldom  of  Stirling  before  the  British  House  of 
Lords,  but  without  success.  In  1761  he  married  the 
daughter  of  Philip  Livingston.  Soon  afterward,  Alex- 
ander became  surveyor-general  and  member  of  the 
provincial  council.  At  the  beginning  of  the  revolu- 
tion he  assumed  the  cause  of  the  patriots  in  October, 
1775,  as  colonel  of  the  battalion  of  East  Jersey.  Soon 
afterward  he  captured  an  armed  British  transport,  for 
which  exploit  congress,  in  March  1776,  appointed  him 
. brigadier-general.  At  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  Au- 
gust 26, 1776,  his  brigade 'was  nearly  destroyed,  and  he 
himself  taken  prisoner.  Within  the  same  year  he  was 
exchanged,  and  in  February,  1777,  was  promoted  a 
major-general.  When  Gen.  Charles  Lee  marched  to 
Philadelphia,  in  December,  1776,  Alexander  remained 
in  command  at  New  York.  At  Trenton,  N.  J.,  he 
captured  a Hessian  regiment.  On  June  24,  1777,  at 
Metuchen,  his  division  was  defeated,  and  he  lost  two 
guns  and  150  men.  He  fought  creditably  at  Brandy- 
wine, Germantown,  and  Monmouth.  In  1779  he  sur- 
prised a British  force  at  Paulus  Hook,  N.  J.  In  1781 
he  was  in  command  at  Albany.  Alexander  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  King’s  college  ("now  Columbia), 
and  became  its  first  governor. 

ALFONSO  XII.,  king  of  Spain,  son  of  Isabella  II., 
was  born  November  28,  1857,  went  into  exile  with  his 
mother  in  1868,  and  became  king  January  15,  1875. 
In  1878  he  married  his  cousin  Mercedes  d’Orleans, 
who  died  the  same  year,  and,  in  1879,  he  married  the 
Arch-duchess  Maria  Christina,  of  Austria.  At  his 
death,  November  25,  1885,  he  left  one  daughter,  Mer- 
cedes, who  was  styled  queen,  under  the  regency  of  her 
mother.  But  on  May  17,  1886,  a posthumous  child 
was  born,  who  became  titular  king  of  Spain,  with  the 
title  of  Alfonso  XIII.  The  regency  ceased  in  1902. 

ALGER,  Horatio,  author,  born  in  Mass.,  Jan.  13, 
1834  ; graduated  at  Harvard  in  1852,  and,  in  1864,  became 
pastor  of  a Unitarian  church  in  Brewster,  Mass.  He 
has  written  books  for  boys.  Died  July,  1899. 

ALGER,  Russell  Alexander,  born  in  Lafayette, 
Ohio,  February  27,  1836;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1859.  He  entered  the  volunteer  service  as  captain  in 
the  2d  Michigan  cavalry  in  1861,  and  came  out  as  brevet 
major-general,  having  greatly  distinguished  himself  at 
Gettysburg  and  in  the  Shenandoah  valley.  After  the 
war  he  was  engaged  in  the  lumber  business  in  Detroit, 
where  he  amassed  a large  fortune.  In  1884  he  was 
elected  on  the  Republican  ticket  as  governor  of  Michi- 
gan, and  served  for  two  years.  From  1897  to  1899  he 
was  U.  S.  Secretary  of  War. 

ALLAN,  George  William,  born  in  Toronto,  Jan- 


6462  ALL- 

ua.ry  9,  1822;  graduated  at  Upper  Canada  college  in 
1839,  and  died  July  24,  1901.  In  1855  he  was  elected 
mayor  of  his  native  city,  and  from  1858  until  the  Con- 
federation, sat  in  the  Legislative  Council  for  York 
division.  In  1867  he  was  elected  to  the  Senate,  and  in 
1876  became  chancellor  of  Trinity  college. 

ALLAN,  Sir  Hugh,  born  in  Scotland,  September 
29,  1810;  died  in  Edinburgh,  December  8,  1882.  In 
1824  he  came  to  Canada,  entered  the  shipping  business, 
and  established  the  Allan  line  of  ocean  steamers.  He 
was  a director  of  several  banks  and  public  companies, 
and  was  knighted  in  1871. 

ALLEN,  Ethan,  soldier,  born  in  Litchfield,  Conn., 
January  10,  1 73 7;  died  in  Burlington,  Vt.,  February  13, 
1789.  About  1763  he  removed  to  near  Bennington, 
Vt.  The  governor  of  New  York  claimed  jurisdiction 
over  the  Green  Mountain  territory,  and  a dispute  arose 
as  to  ownership ; in  1764,  the  king,  who  had  been  ap- 
pealed to,  decided  in  favor  of  the  claim  of  New  York. 
Attempts  were  made  to  eject  the  settlers  under  the 
New  Hampshire  grants,  which  were  resisted;  in  1770 
Allen  was  chosen  to  plead  the  cause  of  the  New  Hamp- 
shire settlers  at  Albany,  N.  Y.  The  decision  of  the 
courts  was  finally  adverse.  Soon  afterward  Allen  was 
made  colonel  of  the  ‘ ‘Green  Mountain  Boys,  ” who  sided 
with  the  New  Hampshire  grantees,  and  expelled  the 
New  York  settlers.  In  1774  Governor  Tryon,  of  New 
York,  issued  a proclamation  offering  £150  reward  for 
the  capture  of  Allen,  and  £50  each  for  the  other  ring- 
leaders. Allen  retaliated  by  offering  a reward  for  the 
capture  of  Tryon.  In  1775,  when  the  news  of  the  battle 
of  Lexington  spread  throughout  New  England,  the  con- 
dition of  Fort  Ticonderoga  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  patriots ; it  was  well  supplied  with  military  stores, 
but  only  feebly  garrisoned.  Allen  and  Benedict  Arnold 
both  were  eager  to  obtain  commissions,  means  and 
volunteers  for  an  expedition  to  affect  its  capture.  Ar- 
nold was  commissioned  colonel  by  Massachusetts ; but 
as  the  “Green  Mountain  Boys,”  with  Allen,  their 
leader,  had  reached  Lake  George  before  Arnold  over- 
took them,  they  were  not  disposed  at  such  a time  to 
receive  a new  commander.  Early  on  May  10th,  when 
only  eighty-three  of  his  men  had  as  yet  crossed  the  lake, 
Allen  rushed  into  the  fort  and  summoned  the  astonished 
commander  to  surrender  “In  the  name  of  the  Great 
Jehovah  and  the  Continental  Congress  ! ” The  garri- 
son consisted  of  only  fifty  men  ; but  the  fort  contained 
a large  amount  of  artillery  and  arms.  On  June  24th 
Arnold  resigned,  after  having  taken  an  active  partin  the 
operations  of  this  adventure.  Allen  went  to  Philadel- 
phia, where  he  received  the  thanks  of  congress  for  his 
services.  Later  in  the  same  year  he  was  sent  by  Gen. 
Philip  Schuyler  on  a secret  mission  to  Canada  to  learn 
the  views  of  the  Canadians  as  to  emancipation.  On  his 
way  to  join  General  Montgomery’s  expedition  he  was 
led  to  take  part  in  a rash  adventure  at  Montreal  on 
September  25th,  when  his  little  band  was  captured,  and 
himself  sent  as  prisoner  to  England.  He  was  soon  re- 
turned to  this  country,  where,  at  first,  he  was  confined 
in  prison-ships  and  jails,  but  later  allowed  partial  lib- 
erty on  parole.  In  1779  Allen  published  a Narrative 
of  his  treatment  while  a British  prisoner.  Its  style  is 
a compound  of  local  barbarisms,  Scripture,  physiology 
and  Oriental  wildness.  After  Burgoyne’s  surrender  at 
Saratoga,  congress  secured  Allen’s  release  on  May  3, 
1778.  In  1777  Vermonthad  declared  its  independence, 
and  sought  to  join  the  other  colonies  on  equal  terms. 
This  proposition  was  opposed  by  New  York.  Allen, 
on  obtaining  his  freedom,  was  appointed  major-general 
of  the  Vermont  militia,  and  sent  as  an  agent  to  congress 
to  secure  the  admission  of  Vermont  to  the  Confedera- 
tion. Congress,  for  a long  time,  hesitated,  and  the 


-AMP 

British  commanders  endeavored  to  persuade  Allen  and 
his  companions  to  restore  the  authority  of  the  crown, 
suggesting  that  Vermont  should  become  an  independ- 
ent British  province.  In  1782  Vermont  sent  these  let- 
ters to  the  president  of  congress,  and  at  the  close  of 
the  war  was  a part  of  the  Union,  although  not  recog- 
nized as  a State  until  1791.  Allen  published  in  1784 
Reason  the  Only  Oracle  of  Man;  or,  a Compendious 
System  of  Natural  Religion,  the  earliest  American  work 
opposed  to  Christianity. 

ALLIBONE,  Samuel  Austin,  author,  born  in 
Philadelphia  April  17,  1816;  died  September  13,  1889. 
He  published  a Dictionary  of  Authors,  Poetical  Quota- 
tions, Chaucer  to  Tennyson,  Prose  Quotations,  Socrates 
to  Macaulay ; and  many  other  works  of  reference. 

ALLISON,  William  B.,  born  in  Wayne  county,  O., 
March  2,  1829,  studied  law  and  practiced  in  Ohio  until 
1857,  when  he  removed  to  Dubuque,  la.  He  served 
in  Congress  as  a Republican  from  December  7,  1863, 
till  March  3,  1871.  In  1873  he  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate,  and  reelected  in  1878,  1884  and  1890. 

ALMA-TADEMA,  Laurence,  painter,  born  in 
West  Friesland,  June  8,  1836;  settled  in  England  in 
1870,  became  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  Jan- 
uary 26,  1876,  and  an  academician  June  19,  1879.  His 
pictures  are  of  the  classical  type,  illustrative  of  ancient 
Greek,  Roman  and  Egyptian  subjects,  and  are  marked 
by  the  closest  attention  to  detail.  A special  exhibition 
ofTadema’s  pictures  was  given  at  the  Grosvenor  Gal- 
lery, London,  in  1883.  He  is  an  honorary  member  of 
the  Royal  Academies  of  Madrid,  Vienna,  Naples  and 
Stockholm,  and  has  several  foreign  decorations.  His 
The  Sculpture  Gallery,  A Dedication  to  Bacchus,  and 
other  works,  were  exhibited  at  the  Columbian  Fair  in 
1893. 

ALTGELD,  John  P., lawyer  and  Governor  of  Illinois, 
born  in  Germany,  December  30,  1847;  brought  to  Ohio 
two  years  later;  entered  the  Union  army  in  1864; 
elected  Judge  of  the  Superior  Court  in  Cook  county, 
Illinois  in  1886  and  Governor  in  November,  1892,  as 
a Democrat.  Governor  Altgeld  has  published  two 
volumes  of  essays  on  Live  Questions,  of  broad  views  on 
social  matters,  and  attracted  national  attention  in  1893 
by  pardoning  the  Chicago  anarchists  and  in  July,  1894, 
by  his  bitter  public  criticism  of  President  Cleveland 
for  ordering  out  federal  troops  to  suppress  the  great 
railroad  strike  in  Chicago.  Died  March  12,  1902. 

AMADEUS,  duke  of  Aosta,  son  of  Victor  Emman- 
uel, king  of  Italy,  born  May  30,  1845  ; died  January 
1 7,  1890.  In  N ovember,  1870,  he  was  invited  to  accept 
the  crown  of  Spain,  and  accepted  the  offer  December  4 
following.  His  brief  reign  was  marked  by  numerous 
insurrections  and  attempts  to  assassinate  him,  and  on 
February  11,  1873,  he  abdicated  and  returned  to  Italy. 

AMES,  Oakes,  born  in  Easton,  Mass.,  January  10, 
1804;  died  May  8,  1873.  He  served  in  Congress  from 
1862  to  1873  as  representative  of  the  second  Massa- 
chusetts district.  The  firm  with  which  he  was  con- 
nected was  interested  in  contracts  for  building  the 
Union  Pacific  railroad,  and  his  connection  with  the 
Credit  Mobilier  of  America  led  to  a congressional  in- 
vestigation and  the  censure  of  Mr.  Ames,  who  with- 
drew from  political  life.  His  son,  Oliver,  was  gover- 
nor of  Massachusetts,  1886-88. 

AMPUDIA,  Pedro  de,  Mexican  soldier,  was  ap- 
pointed general  by  President  Santa  Anna  in  1840;  in 
December,  1842,  he  commanded  the  land  forces  in  the 
siege  of  Campeachy,  Yucatan.  Soon  afterward  Am- 
pudia  was  dismissed  from  command  for  practicing  mil- 
itary barbarities.  Later  he  was  in  command  of  Mon- 
terey, where,  September  24,  1846,  he  surrendered  to 
General  Taylor  of  the  United  States  forces. 


AND 


ANDERSEN,  Hans  Christian,  born  in  the  island 
of  Fiinen,  Denmark,  April  2,  1805  ; died  August  4, 
1875.  His  parents  were  very  poor,  but  his  precocious 
genius  attracted  the  attention  of  wealthy  patrons,  who 
gave  him  an  education.  His  first  successful  romance, 
The  Improvisator e,  was  published  in  1834,  and  for  more 
than  thirty  years  he  continued  to  charm  the  young,  and 
delight  adults  with  his  fairy  tales  and  descriptive  writ- 
ings. His  works  have  been  translated  into  almost  every 
language,  and  his  quaint  humor,  deep  pathos,  and 
wealth  of  imagination  mark  him  as  the  prince  of  story- 
tellers. 

ANDERSON,  Galusha,  born  in  Bergen,  N.  Y., 
March  7,  1832  ; educated  for  the  Baptist  ministry,  held 
pastorates  in  Brooklyn  and  Chicago,  and  from  1878  to 
1885  was  president  of  the  Chicago  university. 

ANDERSON,  Mary,  actress,  born  in  Sacramento, 
Cal.,  July  28,  1859.  She -was  taken  while  an  infant  to 
Louisville,  Ky. , where  her  father  died  when  she  was 
four  years  old.  She  was  educated  at  the  Ursuline  con- 
vent of  that  city,  and  began  to  study  for  the  stage  at 
the  age  of  thirteen.  On  November  27,  1875,  she  made 
her  first  appearance  in  Louisville,  as  “ Juliet,” in  Shake- 
speare’s Romeo  and  Juliet , with  much  success.  In 
February,  1876,  she  reappeared  at  the  same  place,  and 
in  the  same  character,  which  was  followed  by  “ Bianca”  in 
Fazio , “ Evadne”  in  the  drama  of  the  same  name,  and 
“Julia”  in  the  Hunchback.  In  March  she  played 
“ Pauline”  in  The  Lady  of  Lyons  at  St.  Louis,  and“  Meg 
Merrilies”  in  Guy  Mannering  at  New  Orleans.  On  Sep- 
tember nth  of  the  same  year  she  appeared  in  San  Fran- 
cisco as  “ Parthenia”  in  Ingomar,  and  on  January  5, 1877, 
was  seen  for  the  first  time  as  “ Lady  Macbeth  ” at  the 
National  theater  in  Washington.  She  began  playing  in 
New  York  ort  N ovember  1 6, 1876,  a round  of  her  principal 
characters  during  a six  weeks’  engagement.  In  1877 
and  1878  most  of  her  time  was  occupied  in  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  Boston,  and  other  Eastern  cities,  where 
she  met  with  distinguished  success,  and  constantly  im- 
proved in  her  art.  In  1879  Miss  Anderson  visited 
Europe  for  study  and  recreation.  On  her  return  home 
she  added  to  her  repertory  of  characters  “ Galatea,”  in 
Mr.  Gilbert’s  adaptation  of  Pygmalion  and  Galatea. 
On  September  1,  1883,  she  made  her  debut  in  London, 
at  the  Lyceum  theater,  as  “ Parthenia,”  followed  by 
“Pauline ’’and  “ Galatea,”  and  immediately  became  a 
great  favorite.  During  a later  engagement  she  produced 
the  Winters  Tale , which  ran  through  an  entire  season, 
and  thereafter  transferred  the  play,  including  scenery, 
property  and  actors,  to  this  country,  with  equal  success. 
Miss  Anderson,  who  has  not  recently  appeared  on  the 
stage,  was  married  at  Hampstead,  England,  June  18, 
1890,  to  Mr.  Navarro,  son  of  a wealthy  Spanish  resident 
of  New  York  city. 

ANDERSON,  Robert,  soldier,  born  near  Louis- 
ville, Ky.,  June  14,  1805  ; died  in  Nice,  France,  October 
27,  1871.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United  States  mili- 
tary academy  in  1825,  and  served  in  the  Black  Hawk 
war  of  1832.  Later  he  became  instructor  of  artillery  at 
West  Point,  served  in  the  Seminole  war,  and  in  1838  was 
assistant  adjutant-general  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Win- 
field Scott.  In  the  Mexican  war  he  served  as  captain, 
and  in  the  battle  of  Molino  del  Rey  was  wounded.  In 
1857  he  was  promoted  major  of  artillery,  and  on  No- 
vember 15,  i860,  was  ordered  to  assume  command  of 
Fort  Moultrie.  When  the  political  troubles  began  in 
South  Carolina.  Major  Anderson  called  on  the  National 
government  for  reenforcements.  As  none  were  fur- 
nished, and  South  Carolina  had  passed  the  ordinance  of 
secession,  he  transferred  his  command  of  eighty-three 
men  to  Fort  Sumter,  for  better  defense,  leaving  the  guns 
at  For*-  «oiked.  and  their  carriages  burnt.  On 


6463 

April  13,  1861,  Fort  Sumter  was  surrendered  to  the 
South  Carolinians,  after  having  endured  a destructive 
bombardment ; its  guns  were  dismounted,  its  gates  and 
quarters  set  on  fire,  and  its  defenders  entirely  exhausted. 
After  the  capitulation  Major  Anderson  sailed  for  New 
York  city,  and  soon  afterward  the  President  and  Secre- 
tary of  War  presented  to  him  and  to  the  officers  and 
men  under  his  command  the  thanks  of  the  nation  for 
their,  courage  and  patriotic  conduct.  In  May  he  was 
appointed  brigadier-general,  and  assigned  to  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Cumberland,  where  he  organized  the  volun- 
teer regiments  of  Kentucky.  On  October  27,  1863,  he 
retired  from  active  service,  and  in  1868  went  to  Europe. 
He  translated  several  military  text-books  from  the 
French,  and  adapted  them  to  the  American  service. 

ANDRASSY,  Julius,  Count,  born  at  Zemplin, 
Hungary,  March  8,  1823  ; entered  the  Hungarian  Diet 
in  1847,  took  a prominent  part  in  the  abortive  revolu- 
tion of  1848,  and  was  condemned  to  death  in  contuma- 
cium.  He  remained  in  exile  until  1857,  when  he  was 
amnestied  and  reentered  political  life.  In  ten  years’ 
time  he  became  prime  minister  of  Hungary,  and  in  1871 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  for  Austro- Hungary.  He 
took  part  in  the  Berlin  Congress  of  1878,  and  retired 
from  public  life  in  the  following  year.  He  died  Feb- 
ruary 18,  1890. 

ANDREW,  John  Albion,  born  in  Albion,  Me., 
May  31,  1818;  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  October  30, 
1867.  He  was  graduated  at  Bowdoin,  studied  law  at 
Boston,  and  was  admitted  to  practice.  He  became 
prominent  as  an  anti-slavery  man,  and  was  elected  to 
the  legislature  in  1858.  In  i860  he  was  a delegate  to 
the  Republican  convention  at  Chicago  which  nomi- 
nated Abraham  Lincoln  for  president,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  elected  governor  of  Massachusetts.  To  this 
office  he  was  annually  reelected  until  1866,  when  he 
declined  the  nomination.  In  January,  1861,  as  soon  as 
he  was  inaugurated,  he  began  to  prepare  for  the  possi- 
bility of  war  by  reorganizing  the  militia  and  calling  on 
the  governors  of  the  other  New  England  States  to  do 
likewise.  Within  a week  after  the  president’s  procla- 
mation of  April  15,  1861,  he  had  dispatched  five  regi- 
ments of  infantry,  a battalion  of  riflemen,  and  a battery 
of  artillery  to  Washington.  In  September,  1862,  he 
attended  the  convention  of  the  governors  of  the  loyal 
States  at  Altoona,  Penn. , and  drew  up  the  address  they 
presented  to  the  president.  In  January,  1863,  he  ob- 
tained permission  from  the  war  department  to  enlist 
negro  troops. 

ANDREWS,  Stephen  Pearl,  author,  born  in 
Templeton,  Mass.,  March  22,  1812;  died  in  New  York 
city,  May  21,  1886.  He  studied  at  Amherst,  removed 
to  New  Orleans,  La.,  and  became  a lawyer,  and  in  1839 
went  to  Texas.  In  1843  Andrews  went  to  England  to 
raise  money  with  the  aid  of  the  British  anti-slavery 
society  and  prominent  emancipationists  to  purchase 
the  freedom  of  the  Texan  slaves,  and  render  it  a free 
State.  In  this  enterprise  he  was  unsuccessful,  and  re- 
turned home,  settling  in  Boston,  Mass.,  where  he  be- 
came a leader  in  the  anti-slavery  movement.  In  1847 
he  removed  to  New  York  city,  where  he  published  a 
series  of  phonographic  instruction  books.  He  was  an 
accomplished  linguist,  a close  student  and  restless 
worker.  He  also  evolved  a scientific  universal  language 
called  “ Alwato  ; ” in  this  he  conversed  and  corresponded 
with  several  of  his  pupils,  and  was  preparing  a diction- 
ary of  it  at  the  time  of  his  death.  The  attempt  was  a 
kind  of  forerunner  of  the  present  Volapuk. 

ANDROS,  Sir  Edmund,  colonial-governor,  born 
in  London,  England,  December  6, 1637;  died  there  Feb- 
ruary 24,  1714.  In  1672  he  was  appointed  major  under 
Prince  Rupert,  and  in  1674  he  succeeded  Ms  father  oc 


6464  AND- 

bailiff  of  the  island  of  Guernsey ; a few  months  later  he 
was  made  governor  of  N ew  Y ork.  Andros  was  familiar 
with  the  French  and  Dutch  languages,  and  devoted  to 
his  patron  the  duke  of  York.  To  further  the  duke’s  in- 
terest he  endeavored  to  extend  the  limits  of  the  duke’s 
province  to  the  Connecticut  river  on  one  side  and  to  the 
Delaware  on  the  other;  he  also  endeavored  to  detach  the 
five  tribes  of  Mohawk  Indians  from  the  French  influ- 
ence. In  1678  he  visited  England,  where  he  was 
knighted  by  Charles  II.  When  James  II.  became  king 
an  attempt  was  made  to  consolidate  the  New  England 
colonies  into  one  royal  province,  and  Andros  was  ap- 
pointed governor-general.  In  December,  1686,  he  ar- 
rived at  Boston  and  began  his  administration  with  a set 
of  new  laws  and  regulations.  Connecticut  refused  to 
surrender  its  charter  to  the  new  governor,  and  in  Octo- 
ber, 1687,  he  marched  to  Hartford  with  a body  of  sixty 
soldiers,  to  enforce  his  command.  He  was  unsuccess- 
ful in  obtaining  the  delivery  of  the  charter,  which  was 
carried  away  from  the  meeting  of  the  assembly,  and  hid- 
den in  the  famous  “ Charter  Oak”  tree  of  that  city. 
Some  months  later  New  York  and  New  Jersey  were 
added  to  his  jurisdiction,  when  he  appointed  Francis 
Nicholson  lieutenant-governor  of  New  York.  Soon 
afterward  the  operations  against  the  French  in  Maine 
brought  on  a war  with  the  Penobscot  Indians — for  which 
the  people  were  additionally  taxed.  On  April  18,  1689, 
the  magistrates  removed  by  Andros  published  a proc- 
lamation denouncing  his  tyranny,  and  appointed  Simon 
Bradstreet  governor.  Andros  and  some  of  his  subordi- 
nates were  arrested  and  imprisoned,  and  agents  were  sent 
to  King  William  to  request  the  restoration  of  the  former 
charter.'  Andros  several  times  attempted  to  escape  from 
confinement,  and  in  July  was  sent  to  England,  where  a 
formal  complaint  was  made  against  him;  but  he  was  dis- 
charged without  trial.  In  1692  he  was  made  governor  of 
Virginia.  Here  he  became  popular  with  the  planters, 
to  whom  he  recommended  the  introduction  of  manu- 
factures and  the  cultivation  of  cotton.  Andros  had 
brought  with  him  the  charter  of  William  and  Mary  col- 
lege, and  took  measures  for  the  preservation  of  docu- 
ments relating  to  the  early  history  of  Virginia.  Later 
he  got  into  difficulties  with  Doctor  Blair,  the  founder  of 
the  college,  through  whose  influence  Andros  was  re- 
called to  England  in  1698.  From  1703  to  1706  he  was 
governor  of  the  island  of  Guernsey. 

ANDROS,  Thomas,  born  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  in 
1759,  was  for  forty  years  a preacher  at  Berkeley,  Mass. 
Notwithstanding  his  clerical  function  he  joined  the 
Continental  army  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
battles  of  Long  Island  and  White  Plains.  He  was 
afterwards  captured  by  the  English  and  'confined  in 
a prison-ship,  from  which  he  made  his  escape.  He 
died  in  1845. 

ANGELL,  James  Burrill,  bora  in  Rhode  Island, 
January  7,  1829,  graduated  at  Brown  university  in 
1849,  and  four  years  later  became  professor  of  modern 
languages  and  literature  in  the  same  university.  In 
i860  he  became  editor  of  the  Providence  Journal , in 
1866  president  of  the  university  of  Vermont,  and  in 
1871  president  of  the  university  of  Michigan;  the  latter 
office  he  still  holds.  He  was  minister  to  China  in 
1880-81,  and  minister  to  Turkey  in  1897-98. 

ANGUS,  Joseph,  D.D.,  was  born  January  16,  1816, 
at  Bolam,  Northumberland,  England,  and  educated  at 
King’s  College,  Stepney  College,  and  Edinburgh, 
where  he  graduated  in  1836,  taking  the  first  prizes  in 
nearly  all  his  classes.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of 
the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  in  1840,  and  president 
of  Stepney  College  in  1849.  Dr.  Angus,  who  was  for 
several  years  English  examiner  to  the  University  of 


- A RG 

London,  and  to  the  Indian  Civil  Service,  is  the  author 

of  the  Handbook  of  the  Bible , Handbook  of  the  English 
Tongue , English  Literature,  Christ  our  Life , and 
several  other  works.  He  has  also  edited  Butler’s 
Analogy  and  Sermons,  with  notes,  and  Dr.  Wayland’s 
Moral  Science.  He  was  a member  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment Company  for  the  revision  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
for  ten  years  a member  of  the  London  School  Board. 
In  recent  years  the  college  at  Regent’s  Park  has  made 
provisions  for  largely  extending  its  work  ; and  the 
sum  of  $150,000  has  just  been  contributed  to  it  through 
Dr.  Angus,  for  increasing  its  efficiency.  Special  chairs 
are  founded,  and  lectureships  have  been  established. 

ANNANDALE,  Thomas,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  was  born  at 
Newcastle-on-Tyne,  Eng.,  February  2,  1838,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  Newcastle  Infirmary  and  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  He  became  private  assistant  to  the  late 
Professor  Syme,  demonstrator  of  anatomy  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  and  surgeon  and  lecturer  on 
surgery  to  the  Edinburgh  Royal  Infirmary.  His  high 
reputation  as  a practical  and  operating  surgeon  and 
teacher  of  surgery  led  to  his  appointment  in  October, 
1877,  as  regius  professor  of  clinical  surgery  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh.  He  is  the  author  of  The 
Malformations,  Diseases , and  Injuries  of  the  Fingers 
and  Toes,  and  their  Surgical  Treatment,  1865,  being 
the  Jacksonian  prize  essay  of  the  Royal  College  of  Sur- 
geons of  London  for  1864;  Abstracts  of  Surgical 
Principles,  1868-70,  second  ' edition,  1876;  Clinical 
Surgical  Lectures,  1874-75,  reported  in  the  Medical 
Times  and  British  Medical  Journal ; On  the  Patho- 
logy and  Operative  Treatment  of  Hip  Disease,  1876  ; 
and  numerous  contributions  to  professional  periodicals. 

ANTHONY,  Henry  Bowen,  born  in  Coventry, 
R.  I.,  April,  1815;  died  September  2,  1884.  He  gradu- 
ated in  1833  at  Brown  university,  and  edited  the  Prov- 
idence Journal  from  1838  to  1859.  From  1849  to 
1851  he  was  governor  of  Rhode  Island,  and  in  1859  was 
elected  as  a Republican  to  the  United  States  Senate. 
He  was  four  times  reelected  to  the  Senate,  and  in  1863, 
1869,  and  1871  was  chosen  president  pro  tern,  of  that 
body. 

ANTHONY,  Susan  B.,  bora  in  South  Adams, 
Mass.,  February  15,  1820,  became  well  known  as  an 
anti-slavery  and  total-abstinence  orator  and  as  an  ad- 
vocate of  female  suffrage. 

ARABI  PASHA,  Ahmed  el,  was  born  of  peas- 
ant parents  in  Lower  Egypt,  about  1837,  entered  the 
Khedive’s  army,  and  by  1876  had  risen  to  be  a lieuten- 
ant-colonel. In  1881  he  placed  himself  at  the  head  of 
a body  of  discontented  soldiers  and  effected  a forcible 
change  in  the  government.  He  led  the  movement 
against  the  Anglo-French  control  of  Egypt,  and  forti- 
fied Alexandria,  while  the  Khedive  fled.  The  English 
fleet  bombarded  Alexandria  July  11,  1882,  in  revenge 
for  certain  alleged  massacres  of  Europeans  by  natives. 
On  September  13,  the  earthworks  at  Tel-el-Kebir  were 
taken  by  the  English,  who  had  ascertained,  by  bribing 
native  officers,  that  no  defense  could  be  made.  Arabi 
was  captured  at  Cairo,  tried  for  treason,  and  sentenced 
to  death,  but  this  was  changed  to  exile,  and  the  native 
chief  was  sent  to  Ceylon,  where  he  remains  in  honora- 
ble captivity. 

ARGYLL,  George  Camp»ell,  Duke  of,  born  in 
1823,  succeeded  as  eighth  duke  in  1847,  and  died 
April  24,  1900.  Nominally  a Liberal,  he  broke 

with  Mr.  Gladstone  over  the  Irish  land  act.  He  has 
written  The  Reign  of  Law  and  other  treatises.  His 
oldest  son,  known  as  the  Marquis  of  Lome,  married 
the  Princess  Louise,  daughter  of  Queen  Victoria,  and 
from  1 878  to  1883  was  governor-general  of  Canada. 


A R I - 

ARISTA,  Mariano,  Mexican  general,  born  in  the 
state  of  San  Luis  Potosi,  July  26,  1802;  died  on  board 
the  British  steamer  Tagus,  August  7,  1855.  He  be- 
came distinguished  in  the  war  that  established  Mexican 
independence,  made  his  way  as  a successful  military 
leader,  and  in  1836  became  second  in  command  to  Gen- 
eral Santa  Anna.  He  commanded  at  Palo  Alto  and 
Resaca  de  la  Palma  in  the  war  between  Mexico  and  the 
United  States.  After  the  declaration  of  peace,  he  was 
appointed  in  June,  1848,  minister  of  war.  In  1850 
General  Arista  became  president  of  Mexico,  which  office 
he  resigned  January  6,  1853,  to  retire  to  his  plantation. 
Soon  afterward  Arista  was  banished,  and  died  in  exile. 
In  1881  his  remains  were  sent,  to  M-exico.  During  the 
war  with  this  country  he  bore  the  character  of  unusual 
urbanity,  in  contrast  with  the  other  Mexican  military 
commanders. 

ARMITAGE,  Edward,  an  English  historical 
painter  and  member  of  the  Royal  academy,  was  born 
in  London  in  1817.  He  is  best  known  in  this  country 
by  his  allegorical  picture  of  Britannia  and  Columbia 
relieving  Chicago.  He  died  May  24,  1896. 

ARMSTRONG,  John,  soldier,  born  in  Carlisle,  Pa., 
November  25,  1758  ; died  in  Red  Hook,  N.  Y.,  April  1, 
1843.  In  1775,  while  a student  at  Princeton,  he 
enlisted  in  a Pennsylvania  regiment,  and  in  a short  time 
was  appointed  aide  to  Gen.  Hugh  Mercer.  After  the 
death  of  the  latter  he  became  aide  to  General  Gates, 
with  the  rank  of  major,  serving  in  the  campaign 
against  Burgoyne  and  in  the  South.  At  the  close  of  the 
war  of  the  revolution,  when  a portion  of  the  army  lay 
at  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  there  was  much  discontent  among 
the  soldiery,  and  a memorial  was  sent  to  congress  on 
their  behalf,  but  as  the  government  could  raise  little 
revenue,  it  rendered  little  satisfaction.  On  March  10, 
1783,  an  anonymous  notice  was  circulated  among  the 
officers,  calling  a meeting  to  consider  their  grievances, 
urging  the  troops  to  lay  down  their  arms  unless  their 
demands  were  conceded,  and  complaining  of  the  neglect 
of  congress  to  give  proper  attention  to  their  former 
memorial.  This  paper  is  known  as  the  “Newburg 
Memorial ; ” in  later  years  Major  Armstrong  confessed 
its  authorship.  Washington  issued  general  orders 
rebuking  these  “ disorderly  proceedings,”  and  called  a 
meeting  for  the  15th,  when  he  protested  against  the 
treasonable  course  advocated  in  the  address,  urged  the 
officers  to  wait  patiently  for  the  action  of  congress,  and 
pledged  his  efforts  to  secure  for  them  the  reward  of 
their  services.  When  the  army  disbanded  Armstrong 
returned  to  Carlisle,  and  soon  afterward  was  made 
secretary  of  state,  and  later  adjutant-general  of  Penn- 
sylvania. In  1784  he  was  engaged  in  the  proceedings 
to  eject  the  settlers  in  Wyoming  valley,  who  claimed 
the  land  under  a grant  from  Connecticut.  In  1789 
Armstrong  married  a sister  of  Robert  R.  Livingston, 
of  New  York,  removed  to  that  State,  and  settled  on  a 
farm  in  the  old  Livingston  manor.  Here,  for  several 
years,  he  became  engaged  in  agriculture.  In  1800,  he 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  and  in  1804 
was  appointed  minister  to  France;  later  he  became 
minister  to  Spain.  In  1810  he  returned  to  New  York. 
During  the  war  of  1812  he  was  made  brigadier-gen- 
eral, and  in  1813  was  appointed  secretary  of  war. 
During  his  tenure  of  office  the  city  of  Washington  was 
captured  and  burnt,  and,  as  he  was  commonly  blamed 
for  this  disgrace,  he  resigned  in  September,  1814.  He 
published  a History  of  the  War  of  1812,  a Review  of 
Gen.  Wilkinson1  s Memoirs , and  some  treatises  on 
farming  and  gardening. 

ARNOLD,  Arthur,  an  English  editor  and  states- 
man, brother  of  Sir  Edwin  Arnold,  was  born  May  28, 
1833.  He  edited  the  London  Pfihot  a liberal  news- 


-ARN  6465 

paper,  became  connected  with  the  London  Telegraph , 
and  entered  parliament  in  1S80.  He  has  written  From 
the  Levant , and  other  books  of  travels,  and  has  also 
published  two  novels. 

ARNOLD,  Benedict,  born  in  Norwich,  Conn., 
January  14,  1 741 ; died  in  London,  England,  June  14, 
1801.  He  hadfa  common  school  education,  with  some 
knowledge  of  the  higher  branches.  At  first  he  was  an 
apprentice  in  a drug  store  in  his  native  place;  afterward 
he  went  to.  New  Haven  and  successfully  conducted  a 
book  and  drug  store,  extending  his  connections  to 
Canada  and  the  West  Indies.  He  made  a business 
visit  to  Honduras,  where  he  fought  a duel  with  an  English 
sea  captain,  provoked  by  the  captain’s  severe  reflections 
on  the  natives  of  New  England.  On  February  27, 
1767,  he  married  Miss  Margaret  Mansfield,  by  whom 
he  had  three  sons.  At  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Lex- 
ington Arnold  was  captain  of  the  governor’s  guards, 
nearly  all  of  whom  volunteered  to  join  in  the  fight  at 
Boston.  Soon  afterward  he  was  sent  by  Massachusetts 
to  lead  an  expedition  for  the  capture  of  Crown  Point 
and  Ticonderoga,  and  on  his  way  thither  met  Col. 
Ethan  Allen  with  a company  of  soldiers  devoted  to  the 
same  purpose.  Allen  took  the  lead,  to  which  he  was 
entitled,  and  captured  Ticonderoga  on  May  10,  1775. 
Four  days  later  Arnold  captured  St.  John’s.  On 
September  1 ith  of  the  same  year  Washington  dispatched 
Colonel  Arnold  with  1,100  men  through  the  wilderness 
of  Maine,  to  assist  in  capturing  Quebec.  After  endur- 
ing incessant  hardships  Arnold  and  his  men  arrived 
opposite  Quebec,  and  on  December  13th  climbed  to 
the  Plains  of  Abraham.  On  December  31st  he  was 
joined  by  the  corps  under  the  command  of  General 
Montgomery,  and  a combined  attack  was  made  on  the 
city.  The  American  army  was  defeated,  Montgomery 
killed,  and  Arnold’s  leg  seriously  fractured.  For  his 
gallantry  and  skill  congress  promoted  him  to  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general.  On  October  11,  1776,  he  fought  a 
naval  battle  with  a superior  force  of  the  British  under 
Sir  Guy  Carleton,  during  which  he  ran  his  own 
vessel  ashore,  burnt  her,  and  with  his  other  ships 
and  men  safely  retreated  to  Ticonderoga.  On  Febru- 
ary 19,  1777,  congress  appointed  five  major-gen- 
erals for  the  army,  none  of  whom  had  signalized 
themselves  as  soldiers,  and  all  of  whom  were 
juniors  of  Arnold.  The  latter  was  stung  by  this 
injustice,  and  Washington  wrote  to  assure  him  that  he 
would  endeavor  to  remedy  “ the  error.”  In  April,  1777, 
he  learned  of  the  invasion  of  Connecticut  by  Governor 
Try  on,  of  New  York,  when  he  at  once  gathered  about 
500  volunteers,  and  made  a heroic  resistance  at  Ridge- 
field, during  which  several  horses  were  killed  under  him, 
and  a bullet  went  through  his  coat.  On  presenting  his 
claims  for  advancement  in  rank,  congress  voted  him  a 
horse  and  thanks,  but  did  not  accede  to  his  request 
for  promotion.  He  then  forwarded  to  that  body  his 
resignation,  which  was  not  accepted.  At  that  time 
General  Burgoyne  was  advancing  from  Canada  with  his 
British  troops,  apparently  carrying  all  before  him,  and 
Washington  urged  congress  to  send  Arnold  north,  at 
once,  to  stay  the  enemy’s  advance.  Arnold  consented 
to  serve  anew,  saying  he  would  “trust  to  the  justice  of 
his  claims  for  future  reparation.  ” He  joined  the  army 
of  Gen.  Philip  Schuyler,  and  volunteered  to  lead  an 
expedition  to  relieve  Fort  Stanwix,  then  besieged  by  a 
force  of  British  and  Indians,  under  St.  Leger.  This 
done,  he  returned  to  the  main  army,  and  in  the  first 
battle  of  Bemis  Pleights,  October  19,  1777,  commanded 
the  left  wing  of  the  army.  At  that  time  differences 
arose  between  General  Gates  and  General  Arnold,  and 
the  latter  asked  and  obtained  permission  from  Gates  to 
join  Washington.  He  did  not  le5»'"*5«.  however, and  was 


A RN  — A RT 


6466 

not  restored  to  his  command.  During  the  battle  of 
October  7th,  without  authority,  he  led  several  attacks 
against  the  enemy  at  the  head  of  the  troops  he  lately 
commanded,  during  which  his  horse  was  shot  under 
him,  and  a musket-ball  shattered  his  thigh.  Congress 
now  sent,  through  General  Washington,  his  commis- 
sion as  major-general,  antedating  it  so  as  *to  confer  the 
rank  to  which  he  was  justly  entitled.  In  June,  1778, 
he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  Philadelphia. 
Here  he  became  involved  in  quarrels  with  President 
Joseph  Reed  and  the  authorities  of  Pennsylvania.  Their 
charges  subjected  him  to  trial  by  court-martial.  He  was 
acquitted  of  intentional  wrong-doing,  but  on  some 
charges  his  conduct  was  declared  “ imprudent  and  im- 
proper;” the  sentence  was  that  he  should  receive  a rep- 
rimand from  the  commander-in-chief.  Washington  dis- 
charged this  duty  with  consideration,  and  assured  him  of 
his  continued  esteem  and  the  high  estimate  he  placed 
on  his  services.  Arnold’s  first  wife  had  died  during  his 
campaign  in  Canada;  in  Philadelphia  he  married  Miss 
Margaret  Shippen,  a daughter  of  Chief  Justice  Shippen 
of  Pennsylvania.  Through  this  marriage  he  was  brought 
into  companionship  with  several  distinguished  Tory 
families,  and  a treacherous  correspondence  was  opened 
with  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  On  July  31, 1780,  Arnold  visi- 
ted the  camp  of  Washington,  and  was  tendered  the  com- 
mand of  the  left  wing  of  the  army.  But  he  declined 
on  the  pretense  of  inability  to  perform  service  in  the 
field,  as  he  had  not  recovered  from  the  wound  received 
at  Saratoga.  Instead  he  desired  the  command  at  West 
Point,  on  which  he  entered  in  August,  1780.  His  quar- 
ters were  at  the  country-seat  of  Col.  Beverly  Robinson, 
a Virginia  Loyalist,  and  a friend  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton. 
When  Arnold’s  treachery  had  become  manifest  through 
the  capture  of  Major  Andre,  he  found  a refuge  among 
the  British  in  New  York  city,  and  was  compensated 
for  his  treason  with  a British  brigadier-general’s  com- 
mission and  a small  sum  of  money.  Early  in  1781, 
acting  as  a loyalist,  he  led  a raid  into  Virginia,  and  in 
September  of  that  year  made  an  attack  on  New  Lon- 
don. In  the  following  winter  he  and  his  wife  went  to 
London;  in  1787  he  settled  in  St.  John,  New  Bruns- 
wick, where  he  and  two  of  his  sons  founded  a mercan- 
tile business.  In  1791  he  permanently  retired  to  Lon- 
don. In  1797  the  British  Government  gave  him  a 
grant  of  13,400  acres  of  land  in  Canada.  By  his  second 
wife  he  left  four  sons  and  one  daughter.  All  his  sons  re- 
ceived commissions  in  the  British  army,  one  of  them 
rose  to  distinction.  His  Life  has  been  written  by 
Jared  Sparks  and  by  Isaac  N.  Arnold  ( Chicago,  1880). 
The  latter  tried,  not  so  much  to  extenuate  Benedict 
Arnold’s  treason,  but  by  bringing  out  in  high  relief  his 
distinguished  early  services  to  show  the  better  side  of 
his  character.  But  Arnold  was  despised  even  by  the 
British,  who  would  have  profited  had  his  treason  been 
successful,  and  died  in  obscurity. 

ARNOLD,  Edwin,  Sir,  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished living  English  poets  and  scholars,  was  born 
June  10,  1832.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  where 
he  carried  off  the  Newdigate  prize  in  1852  with  his 
oem,  The  Feast  of  Belshazzar.  From  1857  to  1861 
e was  principal  of  the  Sanscrit  College  at  Poonah,  and 
held  a fellowship  in  the  university  of  Bombay.  In  1862 
he  became  connected  with  the  editorial  staff  of  the  Lon- 
don Daily  Telegraph.  In  this  capacity  he  sent  George 
Smith  to  Assyria,  and  cooperated  with  the  New  York 
Herald  in  sending  Stanley  on  his  first  African  expedi- 
tion. Sir  Edwin  Arnold  has  published  many  translations 
of  the  Sanscrit  sacred  books,  and  in  1878  gave  to  the 
world  his  magnificent  poem,  The  Light  oj  Asia.  He 
is  a Companion  of  the  Star  of  India,  and  of  the  Order 
of  the  White  Elephant  of  Siam. 


ARNOLD,  Isaac  Newton,  bom  in  Oswego 
county,  N.  Y.,  November  30,  1815;  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1835,  and  in  the  following  year  removed  to 
Chicago,  of  which,  in  1837,  he  became  the  first  city 
clerk.  In  1842-43  he  was  a member  of  the  Illinois 
legislature,  and  again  in  1856.  In  i860  he  was  elected 
to  congress  as  a Republican  and  served  until  1865,  when 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  auditors  of  the  treasury. 
In  1867  he  published  The  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln , 
and  in  1880  The  Life  of  Benedict  Arnold.  He  was  for 
several  years  president  of  the  Chicago  Historical  So- 
ciety, and  published  pamphlets  on  the  early  history  of 
Illinois.  Mr.  Arnold  died  April  24,  1884. 

ARNOLD,  Matthew,  eldest  son  of  Dr.  Thomas 
Arnold,  headmaster  of  Rugby,  was  born  at  Laleham, 
England,  December  24,  1822,  and  died  April  15,  1888. 
He  was  educated  at  Rugby  and  Oxford,  became  a fellow 
of  Oriel  college  in  1845,  and  was  elected  professor  of 
poetry  at  Oxford  in  1857.  He  wrote  numerous  essays 
on  art  and  literature  and  held  the  highest  rank  as  a 
critic.  Edinburgh  and  Oxford  both  gave  him  the  de- 
gree of  doctor  of  laws. 

ARTHUR,  Chester  Alan,  twenty-first  president 
of  the  United  States,  born  in  Fairfield,  Vt.,  October  5, 
1830;  died  in  New  York  city,  November  18, 1886.  His 
father,  Rev.  William  Arthur,  D.D.,  was  a Protestant 
Irishman,  who  was  graduated  at  Belfast  college  and 
came  to  the  United  States  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  Here 
he  became  a Baptist  minister,  published  a work  on 
Family  Names , and  during  several  years  edited  a 
journal  called  The  Antiquarian.  His  son,  the  future 
president,  was  educated  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  entered 
Union  college  in  1845,  and  was  graduated  in  1848. 
Soon  afterward  he  began  the  study  of  law  in  Lansing- 
burg,  N.  Y.,  and  having  saved  $500  by  teaching  school, 
he  went  to  New  York  city  to  enter  the  law  office  of  E. 
D.  Culver.  In  1853  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and 
became  junior  partner  of  the  firm  of  Culver,  Parker  and 
Arthur.  This  firm  attained  much  notoriety  as  legal 
champions  of  the  negro  race,  and,  in  1856,  succeeded  in 
obtaining  for  them  the  right  to  ride  in  public  convey- 
ances. Until  that  time  Mr.  Arthur  belonged  to  the 
Whig  party,  but  when  the  Republican  party  was  formed 
he  was  active  in  giving  it  local  organization.  In  i860, 
when  Edwin  D.  Morgan  was  reelected  governor,  he  ap- 
pointed Mr.  Arthur  engineer-in-chief  on  his  staff.  In 
1861  he  was  ordered  to  open  a branch  quartermaster’s 
department  in  New  York  city;  soon  afterward  he  had 
charge  of  preparing  and  equipping  the  soldiers  of  the 
State,  until  the  termination  of  the  civil  war.  In  Janu- 
ary, 1862,  he  made  a report  to  the  legislature  on  the 
defense  of  New  York  harbor  and  of  the  inland  border. 
In  February,  1862,  he  was  appointed  inspector-general, 
when  he  visited  the  New  York  regiments  in  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac.  In  June,  1862,  he  served  as  secretary 
at  the  meeting  of  the  loyal  governors  held  in  New  York 
city.  Later  he  became  quartermaster,  and  as  such  was 
efficient  in  raising  the  quota  of  his  State.  In  December 
1863,  when  Horatio  Seymour  became  governor  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  the  Democrats  were  in  the  ascend- 
ancy, and  Mr.  Arthur  returned  to  the  practice  of  law. 
Meanwhile  he  had  acquired  the  title  of  general  without 
having  done  any  service  in  the  field.  He  then  became 
chairman  of  the  Republican  State  executive  committee 
of  New  York,  and,  in  1868,  favored  the  nomination  of 
General  Grant  for  the  presidency.  On  November  20, 
1871,  he  was  appointed  collector  of  the  port  of  New 
York.  When  his  first  term  had  expired  he  was  re- 
nominated and  confirmed  for  a second  term.  In  1878 
he  was  removed  from  this  office,  and  in  1879  elected 
chairman  of  the  Republican  State  committee.  In  J une, 
1880,  at  the  Republican  National  convention,  held  in 


A RT- 

Chicago,  General  Garfield  was  nominated  for  the  pres- 
idency, and  it  was  deemed  advisable  that  the  second 
nominee  should  be  taken  from  the  Empire  State.  The 
New  York  delegation  recommended  General  Arthur, 
and  he  was  nominated.  In  November  he  was  elected 
vice-president,  and  in  March,  i88i,took  his  seat  On 
July  2,  1881,  President  Garfield  was  shot,  and  lingered 
for  eighty  days  on  his  bed.  When  his  death  was  an- 
nounced General  Arthur  took  the  oath  of  office  priv- 
ately in  New  York  city;  thereafter  he  proceeded  to 
Washington,  where  he  was  inaugurated  on  September 
22d.  On  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office  his  name 
was  presented  at  the  Republican  presidential  conven- 
tion held  at  Chicago,  June  3,  1884;  but  he  failed  of  a 
nomination.  On  October  29,  1859,  General  Arthur 
married  Miss  Ellen  Louise  Herndon,  of  Fredericks- 
burg, Va. 

ARTHUR,  Timothy  S.,  born  in  Orange  county, 
N.  Y.,  in  1809;  died  March  6,  1885.  He  wrote  popu- 
lar tales  of  a domestic  character,  and  founded  Arthur's 
Ho7ne  Magazine. 

ASBJORNSEN,  Peter  Christen,  born  at  Christi- 
ania, Norway,  January  15,  1812;  died  January  6,  1885. 
He  published  several  collections  of  folk-lore,  and 
wrote  extensively  on  natural  history. 

ASBURY,  Francis,  M.  E.  bishop,  born  in  Hands- 
worth,  England,  August  20,  1 745 ; died  in  Spottsyl- 
vania,  Va.,  March  31,  1816.  He  was  the  first  bishop 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  ordained  in  this  coun- 
try. In  England,  at  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  a local 
preacher,  and  at  twenty-two  an  itinerant.  Three  years 
later  he  became  a missionary  to  this  country  and  sailed 
for  Philadelphia,  where  he  arrived  October  27,  1 771  - 
In  the  following  year  he  was  made  general  assistant 
to  John  Wesley.  The  political  disturbances  through- 
out the  land  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  greatly 
hindered  his  efforts  but  he  persevered  and  was  unani- 
mously elected  bishop  by  the  Methodist  ministers,  and 
consecrated  December  20,  1784,  with  a fixed  salary  of 
$64  per  year.  All  donations  Bishop  Asbury  assigned 
to  his  fellow  laborers ; the  horses  and  carriage  used 
in  his  journeyings  were  given  by  his  friends.  His 
annual  travels  extended  from  Canada  to  the  Mississippi 
river,  where  he  was  engaged  distributing  Bibles  and 
religious  tracts.  He  was  never  married. 

ASTOR,  William  Waldorf,  born  at  New  York  in 
1848,  great  grandson  of  John  Jacob  Astor  and  posses- 
sor of  vast  wealth.  Dabbling  in  law  and  politics  he 
was  appointed  United  States  minister  to  Italy  in  1882, 
and  while  there  wrote  Valentino , a romance.  Going 
to  England  in  1892  he  purchased  the  ducal  estate  of 
Cliveden,  bought  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette  and  Budget , in 
which  he  infused  some  American  enterprise,  and  in 
1893  founded  the  Pall  Mall  Magazine. 

ATKINSON,  Edward,  was  born  at  Brookline, 
Mass.,  February  10,  1827.  He  has  written  extensively 
on  economic  subjects,  and  is  considered  a high  au- 
thority on  questions  of  this  character. 


BABCOCK,  Orville  E.,  born  in  Franklin,  Vt.,  De- 
cember 25,  1835;  died  in  Florida,  June  2,  1884. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point,  served  during  the  whole 
of  the  civil  war,  was  promoted  colonel  in  the  regular 
army,  and  acted  as  aid-de-camp  to  General  Grant. 
After  the  latter  was  inaugurated  president,  Colonel 
Babcock  acted  as  his  secretary,  and,  in  1871,  was  ap- 
pointed superintendent  of  buildings  in  the  District  of 
Columbia.  In  1876  he  was  indicted  by  the  Federal 
Grand  Jury  at  St.  Louis  for  complicity  in  the  whisky- 
ring frauds,  but  was  acquitted. 


- B A C 6467 

AUERBACH,  Berthold,  German  novelist,  born 
February  28,  1812,  in  the  Black  Forest  district  of  Wiir- 
temberg;  died  February  8,  1882,  at  Cannes.  He  was 
of  Jewish  parentage,  and  wrote  biographies  of  Spinoza 
and  other  worthies  of  his  race.  He  is  chiefly  known 
by  his  romances  and  stories  of  peasant  life,  many  of 
which  have  been  translated  into  English. 

AUGUR,  Christopher  Colon,  born  in  New  York 
in  1821,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1843,  served  in  the 
Mexican  war  and  on  the  frontier,  and  was  commis- 
sioned brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  November, 
1861.  He  fought  at  Cedar  Mountain,  and  commanded 
at  the  siege  of  Port  Hudson,  and  on  March  13,  1865, 
received  the  brevet  of  major  general  for  distinguished 
services  in  the  field.  Subsequently  he  had  command 
of  various  departments,  and  in  1885  was  retired  under 
the  rule.  He  died  Jan.  16,  1898. 

AUMALE,  Due  d’  (Henri  d’  Orleans),  fourth  son 
of  Louis  Philippe,  king  of  the  French,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1822.  He  served  with  the  French  army  in 
Algiers,  and  defeated  Abd-el-Kader.  In  1848  he  went 
into  exile  with  his  father  and  family,  and  resided  in  Eng- 
land until  the  revolution  of  September,  1870.  In  1861 
he  challenged  Prince  Napoleon,  but  the  latter  refused 
to  fight.  In  1871  he  returned  to  France,  and  was  elected 
to  the  National  Assembly  and  the  Council  General.  In 
December,  1871,  he  was  chosen  a member  of  the  Acad- 
emy. He  resumed  his  position  in  the  army  and  pre- 
sided at  the  court-martial  on  Marshal  Bazaine.  In  1887 
he  was  banished  from  France,  with  other  dynastic  pre- 
tenders, but  the  decree  was  revoked.  Died  May  7, 1897. 

AVERILL,  William  Woods,  soldier,  born  in  Cam- 
eron, N.  Y.,  November  5,  1832.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  military  academy  in  June,  1855,  and 
assigned  to  the  cavalry  service,  and,  until  1857,  served 
in  garrison  at  Carlisle,  Penn.  Later  he  was  ordered 
to  the  frontier  to  fight  the  Indians.  In  one  of  these 
conflicts  he  was  wounded,  and  placed  on  sick  leave  un- 
til the  beginning  of  the  civil  war  in  1861.  He  renewed 
active  service  as  first  lieutenant  of  mounted  riflemen, 
and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run.  On  August 
23d  Averill  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  3d  Pennsyl- 
vania cavalry,  and  commanded  the  cavalry  defenses  in 
front  of  Washington,  continuing  his  connection  with 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  until  March,  1863.  At  that 
time  he  began  a series  of  notable  cavalry  raids  in  Vir- 
ginia, that  included  the  battle  of  Kelley’s  Ford,  fought 
on  March  18th.  On  August  26-27  he  engaged  the  en- 
emy near  White  Sulphur  Springs,  but  was  repulsed. 
Later  he  had  sundry  skirmishes  with  the  Confederates 
with  varying  success,  but  met  with  no  disaster.  He 
had  been  brevetted  until  he  attained  the  rank  of  brevet 
major-general.  On  May  18,  1865,  he  resigned.  From 
1866  to  1869  he  was  United  States  consul-general  in 
the  British  Provinces  of  North  America,  and  later  be- 
came president  of  a manufacturing  company.  Pie  died 
February  3,  1900. 


BACON,  Delia,  born  in  Ohio,  February  2,  1811; 
died  September  2,  1859.  She  was  a talented  but  erratic 
woman,  who  sought  to  prove  that  Francis  Bacon,  Lord 
Verulam,  was  the  author  of  the  Shakespearean  plays. 

BACON,  Leonard,  born  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  Febru- 
ary 19,  1802;  died  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  December 
24,  1881.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1820,  and  in  1825  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  First  Congregational  church  of 
New  Haven,  which  pastorate  he  held  until  his  death. 
Fronr  1866  to  1871  he  was  professor  of  didactic  theology 
in  Yale.  Doctor  Bacon  edited  The  Christian  Spectator 


B AC  — P AL 


6468 

wrote  for  the  New  Englander , and  founded  and  edited 
the  Independent  (1847-63).  He  was  an  ardent  oppo- 
nent of  slavery,  and  a strong  supporter  of  the  Union. 

BACON,  Leonard  Woolsey,  clergyman,  son  of  the 
foregoing,  was  born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  January  1, 
1830.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1850,  and  studied  the- 
ology at  Andover  and  medicine  at  Yale.  He  served  as 
pastor  of  several  churches  in  New  York  and  Connecti- 
cut, and  has  contributed  largely  to  the  religious  press. 

BADEAU,  Adam,  born  in  New  York,  December 
29,  1831.  He  served  on  General  Grant’s  staff  and  re- 
tired with  a brigadier-general’s  brevet  in  the  regular 
army.  From  1869  to  1881  he  was  successively  secre- 
tary of  legation  and  consul-general  at  London,  and  in 
i877~ 78  accompanied  General  Grant  on  his  trip  round 
the  world.  Appointed  United  States  minister  to  Brus- 
sels in  1875,  and  to  Copenhagen  in  1881,  he  declined 
both  positions.  He  published  Military  History  of 
Ulysses  S.  Grant  (3  vols.  1867-81)  and  Grant  in  Peace 
(1886).  He  died  March  20,  1895. 

BAGEHOT,  Walter,  born  in  England,  February 
3,  1826;  died  there  March  24,  1877.  For  seventeen 
years  he  edited  the  London  Economist.  He  was  a 
recognized  authority  on  economic  questions,  and  wrote 
The  English  Constitution,  a text-book,  and  many  trea- 
tises on  banking,  the  coinage,  and  the  history  of  the 
money  market. 

BAILEY,  James  Montgomery,  born  in  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  September  25,  1841 ; edited  the  Danbury  News , 
to  which  he  contributed  humorous  articles  which  for  a 
time  had  great  vogue.  He  died  March  4,  1894. 

BAINBRIDGE,  William,  born  in  Princeton,  N. 
J.,  May  7,  1774;  died  in  Philadelphia,  July  28,  1833. 
His  father  was  a physician  in  New  York  city.  When 
eighteen  years  of  age  he  was  mate,  and  at  nineteen 
became  captain  of  a merchant  vessel.  When  the 
United  States  navy  was  reorganized  in  1798,  he  was 
appointed  lieutenant-commandant.  In  May,  1800,  he 
Commanded  the  frigate  George  Washington  which  car- 
ried to  Algiers  the  commercial  tribute  then  levied  by 
the  Dey  of  that  country ; and  afterward  reluctantly  con- 
sented to  be  employed  by  that  ruler  to  convey  an 
Algerine  embassy  to  Constantinople.  In  1801  Bain- 
bridge  was  captain  of  the  Essex,  which  cruised  in  the 
Mediterranean.  In  1803,  in  the  United  States  war 
with  Tripoli,  he  commanded  the  frigate  Philadelphia 
under  Commodore  Preble,  and  while  chasing  a block- 
ade-runner his  vessel  grounded  on  a reef  and  was 
scuttled  and  surrendered.  % The  captain  and  his  three 
hundred  and  fifteen  men  were  kept  as  prisoners  until 
the  peace  in  June,  1805.  For  some  years  afterward  he 
ivas  connected  with  merchant  vessels.  In  1811,  when 
war  with  Great  Britain  became  imminent,  he  hastened 
home  from  St.  Petersburg  to  offer  his  services  to  the 
government.  In  October,  1812,  he  sailed  from  Boston 
in  command  of  a squadron  comprising  the  Constitution, 
Essex  and  Hornet.  On  December  26th  off  the  coast  of 
Brazil,  he  captured  the  British  frigate  Java,  of  forty- 
nine  guns,  for  which  achievement  congress  distributed 
among  the  crew  $50,000  as  prize-money,  voted  the 
commodore  a gold  medal,  and  to  each  of  his  officers  a 
silver  one.  In  1815  Bainbridge  commanded  the  Medi- 
terranean squadron.  He  was  afterward  president  of 
the  board  of  navy  commissioners.  In  the  duel  between 
Barron  and  Decatur,  he  acted  as  second  to  the  latter. 

BAIRD,  Henry  Carey,  born  near  Philadelphia, 
September  10,  1825,  became  a publisher,  and  has  writ- 
ten extensively  on  economic  subjects  and  the  currency. 
In  1875  he  joined  the  Greenback  party. 

BAIRD,  Spencer  Fullerton,  born  at  Reading, 
Penq.,  February  3,  1823;  became  assistant  secretary 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institute  in  1850,  and  in  1878,  on 


the  death  of  Prof.  Joseph  Henry,  was  appointed  sec- 
retary. In  1871  he  was  appointed  commissioner  of 
fish  and  fisheries.  He  was  a member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences,  an  honorary  member  of  many 
foreign  scientific  societies,  fellow  and  secretary  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science, 
and  a writer  on  natural  history.  He  died  Aug.  19,  1887. 

BAKER,  Sir  Samuel  White,  born  in  London, 
England,  June  8,  1821.  He  organized  a colony  in 
Ceylon,  built  the  first  Turkish  railway,  and  in  1861 
began  the  series  of  African  explorations  which  have 
made  him  famous.  In  1864,  in  company  with  his  wife, 
he  discovered  the  Lake  Albert  Nyanza,  the  source  of 
the  White  Nile.  In  1869  he  undertook  a mission  for 
the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade  in  equatorial  Africa. 
He  was  knighted  in  1866,  and  was  a fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  of  the  geographical  societies  of  London  and 
Paris,  and  a member  of  the  French  Legion  of  Honor. 
His  devoted  and  intrepid  wife,  Lady  Baker,  accom- 
panied him  through  all  his  dangers  and  trials,  and  has 
written  accounts  of  their  travels  and  adventures.  He 
died  December  30,  1893. 

BAKUNIN,  Michael,  the  founder  of  Nihilism,  was 
born  of  a noble  Russian  family  in  1814,  joined  the 
army,  but  resigned  in  two  years,  and  became  associ- 
ated with  a band  of  students  who  studied  German  phi- 
losophy. Among  these  were  Herzen,  Turgenieff,  the 
novelist,  and  Belinski.  He  went  to  Berlin  in  1841, 
was  expelled  from  that  city  and  from  various  conti- 
nental capitals  as  a revolutionist  and  firebrand,  and  in 
1848  participated  in  the  Dresden  insurrection.  Cap- 
tured by  the  Saxon  troops,  he  was  sentenced  to  death, 
but  the  penalty  was  commuted.  He  spent  eight  years 
in  prisons  in  Austria  and  Russia,  was  banished  to  Si- 
beria in  1856,  and  escaped  from  there  in  an  American 
vessel.  Arriving  in  London  he  joined  the  staff  of  Her- 
zen’s revolutionary  organ,  the  Kolokol , but  his  ideas 
were  too  far  advanced  for  his  associates  and  he  quar- 
reled with  Karl  Marx,  and  was  denounced  by  Mazzini. 
He  went  to  Switzerland,  where  he  preached  Nihilism, 
and  died  suddenly  at  Berne  in  the  summer  of  1878. 

BALCH,  George  B.,  born  in  Tennessee,  January  3, 
1821;  entered  the  navy  in  1837;  was  many  years  on 
foreign  service  and  participated  in  the  attack  on  Vera 
Cruz.  He  served  in  the  South  Atlantic  squadron  dur- 
ing the  civil  war  and  commanded  the  Pawnee.  He  be- 
came commodore  August,  1872,  rear-admiral  June, 
1878,  and  was  superintendent  of  the  naval  academy 
until  1879.  In  January,  1883,  he  was  retired. 

BALFOUR,  Arthur  James,  born  in  1848 ; entered 
the  House  of  Commons  in  1874,  as  a Conservative, 
joined  the  “fourth  party”  under  the  leadership  of  Lord 
Randolph  Churchill,  accepted  office  under  Lord  Salis- 
bury (his  uncle)  in  1885,  and  from  1887  to  1891  was  chief 
secretary  for  Ireland.  He  then  became  leader  of  the 
Conservatives  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  in  1902 
became  prime-minister. 

BALFOUR,  John  Hutton,  a distinguished  bota- 
nist, and  writer  on  botany,  born  at  Edinburgh,  Septem- 
ber 15, 1808;  died  February  11,  1884.  He  established 
the  Botanical  Society  of  Edinburgh,  was  professor  of 
botany  in  Glasgow  university,  queen’s  botanist  for 
Scotland,  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  dean  of  the 
medical  faculty  of  the  university  of  Edinburgh. 

BALL,  Thomas,  sculptor,  was  born  in  Charlestown, 
Mass.,  in  June,  18J9.  He  studied  in  Europe,  and  in 
1865  settled  in  Florence.  Among  his  works  are  the 
Webster  statue  in  Central  Park,  New  York,  and  the 
Emancipation  group  at  Washington,  D.  C.  He  ex- 
hibited at  the  World’s  Fair  of  1893,  Christ  and  the  Little 
Child  (marble),  a colossal  statue  of  Washington , in 
bronze,  and  other  works. 


BA  L- 

BALMACEDA,  Jos£  Manuel,  born  in  1840,  in 
Chili,  entered  Congress  in  1868,  became  leader  of  the 
Liberal  Party,  and,  in  1886,  President  of  the  Republic 
for  five  years.  His  veto  in  January,  1891,  of  a bill  for 
municipal  control  of  elections  caused  a revolt  of  Con- 
gress and  the  navy.  Balmaceda  took  command  of  the 
army,  but  was  defeated  after  a bloody  war  and  killed 
himself,  September  19,  1891,  to  avoid  capture. 

BANCROFT,  George,  historian,  born  in  Worces- 
ter, Mass.,  October  3,  1800.  In  1817  he  was  graduated 
at  Harvard,  and  in  1818  went  to  Germany,  to  continue 
his  studies  at  Gottingen,  wherein  1820  he  received  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy.  After  several  years’ 
travel  in  Great  Britain  and  Central  Europe,  he  Returned 
to  the  United  States,  and  in  1822  served  as  tutor  of 
Greek  at  Harvard.  At  that  time  he  was  being  prepared 
for  the  ministry,  but  soon  afterward  turned  his  attention 
to  letters.  In  1823  he  published  a volume  of  poems,  and 
began  contributing  to  the  North  American  and  Ameri- 
can Quarterly  reviews  translations  from  the  German 
poets,  and  original  articles.  Later,  in  connection  with 
Dr.  J.  G.  Cogswell,  he  opened  the  Round  Hill  school 
in  Northampton,  Mass.,  of  which  the  historian  Motley 
was  a pupil.  At  that  time  he  translated  some  of 
Heeren’s  works  from  the  German,  folio  wed  in  1834, 1837 
and  1840,  by  the  first  three  volumes  of  his  History  of  the 
United  States.  An  active  advocate  of  the  principles  of 
the  Democratic  party,  he  frequently  spoke  on  the  stump 
and  in  the  lecture  room.  In  January,  1838,  President 
Van  Buren  appointed  him  collector  of  the  port  of  Bos- 
ton, which  office  he  held  for  three  years.  In  1844  he 
was  nominated  for  governor  of  Massachusetts  by  the 
Democrats,  but  not  elected.  In  March,  1845,  Presi- 
dent Polk  called  him  to  a seat  in  his  cabinet  as  secretary 
of  the  navy,  which  he  occupied  until  September,  1846. 
He  resigned  to  accept  the  appointment  of  minister  pleni- 
potentiary to  Great  Britain,  where  he  remained  until  the 
summer  of  1849.  In  England  and  France  the  public 
archives  and  many  private  collections  of  important  state 
papers  were  open  to  his  investigation.  When  Mr.  Ban- 
croft returned  to  the  United  States  he  chose  New  York 
city  for  his  home,  and  resumed  work  on  his  important 
History  of  the  United  States.  In  1852,  1853,  and  1854 
were  published  volumes  4,  5,  and  6.  Before  he  went  to 
Europe  he  had  made  several  public  addresses,  and  deliv- 
ered eulogies  on  our  distinguished  dead ; on  his  return 
from  abroad  these  were  continued,  together  with  occa- 
sional lectures  on  subjects  of  interest  to  the  nation.  In 
April,  1865,  he  deliveredin  New  York  city,  at  the  obse- 
quies of  President  Lincoln,  a eulogy  on  the  departed, 
and  in  February  following  he  pronounced  an  oration  on 
the  life  and  services  of  that  distinguished  man.  In 
1858  appeared  the  7th  volume  of  his  History,  followed 
in  i860  by  the  8th  volume ; volume  9 was  issued  in 
1866.  In  1867  Mr.  Bancroft  was  appointed  minister  to 
Berlin,  where  he  was  continued  seven  years.  In  1874 
he  returned  and  made  his  home  in  Washington  ; during 
the  same  year  he  published  the  10th  volume  of  his  His- 
tory. From  that  time  until  1881  he  was  engaged  on 
his  History  of  the  Formation  of  the  Constitution , which 
was  published  early  in  1882.  Later  he  was  occupied 
with  a thorough  revision  of  his  History  of  the  United 
States.  He  died  January  17,  1891. 

BAN  CROFT,  Hubert  Howe,  bornat  Greenville,  O. , 
in  1832  ; went  to  California  in  1852,  and  engaged  in  the 
publishing  business.  He  acquired  a magnificentlibrary, 
principally  of  books  relating  to  the  history  of  the  Pa- 
cific coast,  and  in  1875  published  in  five  octavo  volumes 
his  work  on  The  Native  Races  of  the  Pacific  States. 
He  has  written  with  the  aid  of  a large  corps  of  assist- 
ants a History  of  the  Pacific  States , thirty-nine  volumes, 
and  a pretentious  History  of  the  World's  Fair. 


— BAR  6469 

BANKS,  Nathaniel  Prentiss,  born  in  Waltham, 
Mass.,  January  30,  1816.  He  received  an  ordinary 
school  education,  worked  in  a cotton  factory,  of  which 
his  father  was  superintendent,  and  learned  the  trade  of 
machinist.  Afterward  he  lectured,  became  editor  of 
the  local  paper  of  his  native  place,  studied  law,  and  in 
1849  was  chosen  to  represent  his  native  town  in  the  leg- 
islature of  Massachusetts.  Mr.  Banks  advocated  a coa- 
lition of  the  Democrats  and  the  new  Republican  party, 
and  was  elected  speaker  of  the  state  assembly  in  1851, 
and  reelected  in  1852.  In  1853  he  became  chairman  of 
the  Massachusetts  constitutional  convention,  and  in 
1853  was  sent  to  Congress  as  a Coalition  Democrat. 
Duringhis  term  he  identified  himself  with  the  American 
or  Know-Nothing  party,  and  was  reelected  to  Congress. 
Later  he  was  speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 
Soon  afterward  the  American  party  broke  up,  and  Mr. 
Banks  was  again  elected  to  the  thirty-fifth  Congress  by 
a large  majority.  He  served  until  December  4,  1857, 
when  he  was  elected  governor  of  Massachusetts.  In 
1858  and  1859  he  was  reelected  to  that  office.  In 
i860  he  became  president  of  the  Illinois  Central  rail- 
road. A year  later,  when  the  civil  war  began,  Mr. 
Banks  was  commissioned  major-general  of  volunteers 
and  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  fifth  corps  in  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac.  Before  this  he  had  some  ex- 
perience in  the  State  militia.  His  first  military  effort 
was  made  at  the  battle  of  Winchester,  March  23,  1862. 
In  April  and  May  he  was  left  with  8,000  men,  to  guard 
the  Shenandoah,  where  he  was  attacked  by  the  forces 
of  “ Stonewall  ” Jackson.  General  Banks  and  his  men 
escaped  with  some  difficulty,  and  on  May  26th  crossed 
the  Potomac  at  Front  Royal.  On  June  27,  1862,  Gen- 
eral Pope  was  placed  in  command  of  the  Army  of 
Virginia,  and  early  in  August  concentrated  his  forces 
near  Culpepper  Court  House.  On  August  9th,  the 
corps  of  General  Banks  was  ordered  to  the  front,  when 
the  battle  of  Cedar  Mountain  was  fought,  which  lasted 
into  the  night  without  any  decided  result.  Later  Gen- 
eral Banks  was  placed  in  command  of  the  defenses  of 
Washington,  while  preparations  were  being  secretly 
made  to  send  a strong  expedition  by  sea  to  New  Or 
leans.  He  was  assigned  to  command  this  expedition, 
which  sailed  from  New  York  in  November  and  Decem- 
ber. On  reaching  New  Orleans  he  succeeded  Gen.  B. 
F.  Butler  in  command.  In  July  the  news  of  the  sur 
render  of  Vicksburg  was  received,  and  on  the  9th  oi 
that  month  the  garrison  of  Port  Hudson,  6,000  in  num- 
ber capitulated  to  General  Banks.  After  some  unim- 
portant engagements  during  the  year  1863,  in  May, 
1864,  he  was  relieved  of  his  command,  resigned  his 
commission,  and  returned  to  his  native  State,  where 
he  was  biennially  elected  to  Congress  as  a Republican 
until  1877,  failing  only  in  1872.  General  Banks  was 
long  chairman  of  the  committee  on  foreign  relations. 
He  afterward  served  as  United  States  marshal  for 
Massachusetts,  and  was  again  elected  to  Congress  in 
1888.  He  died  Sept.  I,  1894. 

BARATIERI,  Oreste,  Lieutenant  General,  civil 
and  military  governor  of  Eritrea,  the  Italian  colony  in 
Abyssinia,  was  born  in  1841  in  Condino,  and  fought 
with  Garibaldi  in  Sicily  in  i860.  Appointed  governoi 
of  Eritrea  in  1892,  he  restored  order,  and  in  July,  1894, 
avenged  an  attack  made  by  the  Dervishes  on  Agoldat, 
in  his  absence  in  November,  1893,  by  marching  on  their 
citadel  at  Kassala,  routing  them  and  taking  possession 
of  their  stores.  In  November,  he  suppressed  a rebellion 
of  10,000  Abyssinians  and  strengthened  the  Italian  pro- 
tectorate. Died  Aug.  8,  1901. 

BARLOW,  Samuel  Latham  Mitchell,  born  in 
Granville,  Mass.,  June  5,  1826;  died  in  Glen  Cove, 
L.  I.,  July  10,  1889.  His  father  was  a physician — 


BAR 


6470 

Samuel  Bancroft  Barlow,  who  married  a descendant  of 
Capt.  Joe  Wadsworth  of  Charter  Oak  fame.  At  the 
age  of  fourteen  years  he  entered  a law  office.  After 
studying  seven  years  he  set  up  in  business  for  himself, 
and  in  1852  became  connected  with  several  partners.  A 
trip  to  Europe  in  behalf  of  an  Illinois  railway  in  the 
year  the  firm  was  started  brought  him  $50,000.  An- 
other in  the  interests  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  brought 
an  equal  sum.  The  act  by  which  he  gained  his  widest 
fame  was  the  lawsuit  which  expelled  Jay  Gould  from 
the  control  of  the  Erie  railway  after  the  death  of  James 
Fisk,  Jr.  The  English  and  other  ill-used  stockholders 
of  the  railroad  had  long  been  looking  for  an  opportunity 
to  oust  the  manipulators  into  whose  hands  the  property 
had  fallen.  Fisk  had  been  a hard  fighter,  and  lavished 
the  money  he  had  made  in  keeping  the  Erie  in  his 
power.  He  and  Gould  employed  distinguished  counsel, 
who  kept  the  two  impregnably  intrenched.  An  effort 
to  end  this  was  made  when  Fisk  was  shot.  Thereafter 
a suit  was  begun  against  Gould  for  $10,000,000.  He 
retained  able  counsel  to  defend  him,  but  after  several 
weeks  of  consultation  and  negotiation  he  was  advised 
to  compromise,  which  he  did,  paying  the  large  sum  of 
$9,000,000  in  full  settlement.  Mr.  Barlow  was  elected 
one  of  the  directors  of  the  road  under  the  new  manage- 
ment, and  was  retained  as  its  private  counsel  at  a salary 
of  $25,000  a year.  Mr.  Barlow  was  a Democrat  in 
politics,  and  during  and  before  the  war  was  an  apologist 
for  slavery.  He  never  held  any  political  office. 

BARNEY,  Joshua,  naval  officer,  born  in  Baltimore, 
Md.,  July  6,  1759;  died  in  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  December  1, 
1818.  He  attended  school  till  he  was  ten  years  old,  and 
at  the  age  of  thirteen  became  seaman’s  apprentice  on  a 
small  brig  commanded  by  his  brother-in-law,  in  the 
Liverpool  trade.  Here  he  remained  three  years.  When 
the  American  Revolution  began  Barney  was  appointed 
master’s  mate  of  the  sloop  Hornet , fitted  out  in  Balti- 
more, and  in  November,  1 775,  joined  Commodore  Hop- 
kins’ squadron  at  Philadelphia.  After  the  fleet  had  cap- 
tured New  Providence  and  the  Bahamas,  it  returned  to 
Philadelphia,  and  Barney,  transferred  to  the  sloop  Wasp , 
was  soon  afterward  promoted  to  a lieutenancy;  later  he 
was  transferred  to  the  frigate  Virginia  as  first  officer. 
In  attempting  to  pass  the  mouth  of  the  Chesapeake  the 
Vessel  ran  aground  and  was  captured.  After  five  months’ 
confinement  in  a prison-ship  in  New  York,  he  was  ex- 
changed, and  again  captured,  when  he  was  sent  for  im- 
prisonment to  England,  but  escaped  in  the  undress 
uniform  of  a British  officer.  Eventually  he  found  his 
way  back  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  ship  Hyder  Ali.  While  conveying  a fleet 
of  merchantmen  down  the  Delaware  river  he  captured 
the  British  ship  General  Monk , after  an  engagement  of 
twenty-six  minutes.  Though  only  twenty-three  years  of 
age,  he  was  promoted  by  congress  to  the  rank  of  com- 
modore, and  received  from  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  a 
gold-hilted  sword.  Later  he  went  on  a secret  mission 
to  the  West  Indies,  and  also  was  sent  to  France  with 
dispatches  from  our  government.  In  1795  he  entered 
the  French  navy,  and  was  placed  in  command  at  the 
West  Indies  to  protect  French  commerce  from  British 
cruisers.  In  1802  he  resigned  and  returned  to  Baltimore. 
In  the  war  of  1812  Barney  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  gunboat  flotilla,  organized  for  the  defense  of 
Chesapeake  bay.  On  August  26,  1814,  at  the  battle  of 
Bladensburg  he  did  all  the  fighting  of  that  day.  Here 
he  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner,  exchanged  six 
weeks  later,  and  at  once  resumed  his  command.  For 
his  services  at  this  battle  the  city  of  Washington  voted 
him  an  elegant  sword.  In  1817  President  Monroe  ap- 
pointed him  naval  officer  of  the  port  of  Baltimore. 
BARNUM,  Phineas  Taylor,  showman,  born  in 


Bethel,  Conn.,  July  5,  1810.  m 1829  he  established 
and  edited  a country  newspaper,  The  Herald  of  Freedom, 
and  was  imprisoned  sixty  days  for  libel.  In  1834  he 
removed  to  New  York  city.  At  Philadelphia  he 
saw  on  exhibition  an  old  negro  slave  woman, 
called  Joyce  Heth,  and  advertised  as  the  nurse  of 
George  Washington,  one  hundred  and  sixty-one  years 
old.  For  one  thousand  dollars  Barnum  bought  the 
right  to  exhibit  her,  advertised  her  extensively,  and 
realized  a large  profit.  Barnum  traveled  through  the 
Southern  States  exhibiting  several  small  shows.  In 
1841  he  bought  Scudder’s  American  Museum  on  credit, 
for  he  was  without  means,  and  by  shrewd  management 
was  enabled  to  pay  for  it  within  a year.  The  museum 
became  “ Barnum’s,  ” and  was  a favorite  family  resort 
for  many  years.  In  1842  he  brought  forward  Charles 
S.  Stratton,  of  Bridgeport,  Conn. , a dwarf,  whom  he 
named  Gen.  Tom  Thumb,  and  exhibited  in  this  country 
and  Europe  with  great  success.  In  1849  he  engaged 
Miss  Jenny  Lind  to  sing  in  the  United  States  for  150 
nights  at  the  rate  of  $1,000  per  night,  together  with  a 
concert  company  to  assist  her.  This  venture  returned 
the  showman  a large  profit,  resulting  from  the  most 
audacious  puffing  and  advertising  scheme  on  record. 
On  the  conclusion  of  several  smaller  enterprises, 
Barnum,  in  1855,  retired  to  Bridgeport,  Conn.  Here 
he  entered  into  several  vast  local  and  business  schemes 
that  eventually  absorbed  his  fortune.  However,  in 
the  days  of  his  prosperity  he  took  the  precaution 
to  settle  an  ample  fortune  on  his  wife.  He  again  went 
to  England  with  “Tom  Thumb,”  returning  in  1857. 
On  his  return  he  once  more  took  charge  of  the  old 
museum,  until  it  was  burned  on  July  13,  1865;  another 
museum,  in  a different  locality,  was  quickly  extemporized, 
but  that  also  was  burned  after  short  duration.  In  1871 
he  established  a traveling  menagerie  and  circus,  which 
has  attracted  much  patronage.  Barnum  has  been  a 
member  of  the  Connecticut  legislature,  and  mayor  of 
Bridgeport.  He  has  also  delivered  numerous  lectures 
on  temperance  and  the  practical  affairs  of  life.  Among 
the  volumes  published  by  him  are  : his  Autobiography 
and  Humbugs.  He  died  in  April,  1891. 

BARNUM,  William  H.,born  in  Connecticut,  Sep- 
tember 17,  1818;  died  April  30,  1889.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Connecticut  legislature  in  1852,  and  was  in  con- 
gress from  1866  until  1876,  when  he  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  for  the  term  ending  March  4,  1879. 
At  his  death  he  was  chairman  of  the  Democratic 
national  committee. 

BARRETT,  Lawrence,  actor,  born  in  Paterson, 
N.  J.,  April  4,  1838.  He  made  his  debut  at  Detroit, 
Mich.,  in  1853,  as  “ Murad,”  in  the  drama  of  the  French 
Spy.  After  playing  a number  of  small  parts  he  became 
connected  with  the  theater  in  Pittsburg,  Pa.  This  was 
followed  by  stock  engagements  in  St.  Louis,  Chicago, 
and  other  cities;  in  1856  he  appeared  at  Burton’s  thea- 
ter in  New  York  city,  as  “Sir  Thomas  Clifford,”  in 
The  Hunchback.  In  1857  and  part  of  1858  he  contin- 
ued at  the  same  place,  and  in  1858  he  went  to  Boston, 
where  for  some  time  he  was  connected  with  the  stock 
companies  of  the  Boston  Museum  and  Howard  Athe- 
naeum. In  1861,  at  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war,  Mr. 
Barrett  for  a time  served  as  captain  of  a company  of 
Massachusetts  infantry.  Retiring  from  the  army,  he 
again  acted  in  Washington,  Philadelphia,  and  New 
York  city.  In  the  last  named  place  he  was  advanced  to 
performing  “Othello”  to  the  “Iago”  of  Mr.  Edwin 
Booth.  From  New  York  he  went  to  New  Orleans, 
where  he  became  associate  manager  of  the  Varieties 
theater,  and  assumed  the  leading  parts  in  Shakespeare’s 
plays.  In  1867  he  first  appeared  as  a star  actor  in  San 
Francisco,  and  became  co-manager  of  the  California 


BAR 


theater,  remaining  until  1870.  Returning  to  New  York 
city  at  the  end  of  that  year,  he  played  with  Mr.  Booth 
in  alternate  parts  at  Booth’s  theater.  In  1871  and  part 
of  1872  he  again  managed  the  Varieties  theater  in  New 
Orleans,  and  in  December  of  the  last  named  year  again 
played  in  company  with  Mr.  Booth  in  New  York  city. 
During  1873-74  he  starred  in  the  large  cities  of  the 
Union,  and  in  1875  renewed  his  connection  with  Mr. 
Booth  in  New  York  city,  when  his  performance  of 
“Cassius  ” in  Shakespeare’s  Julius  Ccesar was  deserv- 
edly admired.  Later  he  appeared  at  other  New  York 
theaters  in  various  dramatic  and  tragic  characters,  not- 
ably in  King  Lear , Yorick's  Love , and  Boker’s  Fran- 
cesca da  Rimini,  which  were  repeated  in  other  cities. 
For  some  years  he  traveled  through  the  United  States, 
in  company  with  Mr.  Booth,  giving  performances  that 
proved  exceedingly  profitable.  Mr.  Barrett  visited 
Europe  several  times.  He  died  March  20,  1891. 

BARRETT,  Wilson,  a popular  English  melodra- 
matic actor,  was  born  in  Essex,  February  18,  1846,  went 
on  the  stage  in  1864,  made  his  London  debut  in  1876  in 
Jane  Shore , and  later  at  the  PHncess  Theater,  of  which 
he  is  lessee,  produced  The  Lights  O'  London,  The  Silver 
King  a.n<\.  other  marked  successes.  He  has  made  sev- 
eral American  tours,  appearing  in  Othello , Hamlet, 
Claudian,  and,  in  1895,  in  his  dramatization  of  Hall 
Caine’s  powerful  novel,  The  Manxman. 

BARRIOS,  Justo  Rufino,  lawyer,  soldier  and 
statesman,  born  in  San  Lorenzo,  Guatemala,  July  17, 
1835  ; died  in  Chalchuapa,  April  2,  1885.  In  1867  he 
took  part  in  the  revolutionary  struggles  in  his  country 
and  in  May,  1871,  rebelled  against  Cerna  and  dissolved 
his  government.  General  Granados  became  president, 
and  Barrios  continued  at  the  head  of  the  army,  suppres- 
sing several  revolutions,  until  he  was  elected  president 
in  1873.  He  decreed  freedom  of  the  press  and  suppressed 
the  religious  orders.  Early  in  his  term  new  dis- 
turbances began ; but  they  were  of  short  duration. 
Peace  continued  until  1876,  when  the  States  of  Salva- 
dore  and  Honduras  united  with  the  reactionary  party 
of  Guatemala.  Barrios  made  a valiant  defense,  and 
the  national  assembly  approved  of  all  his  acts.  In 
1879  a liberal  constitution  was  promulgated,  and  on 
March  1,  1880,  General  Barrios  was  again  elected  presi- 
dent for  the  term  of  six  years.  He  traveled  through 
the  United  States  and  Europe  during  part  of  his  term 
of  office,  and  returned  to  his  own  country  in  1884.  On 
February  28,  1885,  after  consultation  with  the  presi- 
dents of  Salvador  and  Honduras,  he  published  a proc- 
lamation intended  to  effect  the  union  of  all  the  Central 
American  republics  as  one  state,  but  Mexican  cabals 
and  double  dealing  on  the  part  of  the  president  of  Sal- 
vador frustrated  this  purpose  and  led  to  renewed  war- 
fare. During  an  attack  made  by  Barrios  on  the  forces 
of  Salvador,  he  was  fatally  wounded  by  a bullet,  and 
also  had  a son  killed  by  his  side.  After  his  death  his 
widow  retired  to  New  York  city,  and  a son  entered  the 
United  States  military  academy  at  West  Point. 

BARRON,  James,  naval  officer,  born  in  Virginia, 
1769;  died  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  April  21,  1851.  As  a boy 
he  entered  the  United  States  service,  was  made  lieu- 
tenant in  the  navy  in  1798,  captain  in  1799,  and  made 
commodore,  in  command  of  the  Chesapeake , in  June, 
1807.  On  June  27th  he  sailed  in  this  vessel  of  thirty- 
eight  guns  from  Washington  navy-yard,  with  the  in- 
tention of  drilling  his  men  on  the  ocean.  Hardly  out 
of  sight  of  land  his  ship  was  met  by  the  British  frigate 
Leopard,  of  fifty  guns,  whose  captain  demanded  the  sur- 
render of  several  alleged  British  deserters  from  among 
the  American  crew.  To  this  demand  Barron  demurred, 
and  the  Leopard  opened  fire,  killing  three  and  wound- 
ing eighteen  of  the  Chesapeake' s men.  Thereupon  the 


6471 

American  ensign  was  hauled  down,  and  after  a confer- 
ence the  alleged  deserters  were  carried  away  on  the 
British  vessel.  The  British  Government  promptly  re- 
pudiated the  action  of  the  captain  of  the  Leopard,  the 
alleged  “ deserters  ” were  restored  on  board  the  Chesa- 
peake, and  a monetary  indemnity  paid  to  our  govern- 
ment. Commodore  Barron  thereafter  was  tried  by 
court-martial  and  suspended  from  rank  and  pay  for  five 
years.  On  the  expiration  of  this  term  he  was  refused 
an  active  command,  and  kept  only  on  shore  duty.  In 
1820  Commodore  Decatur,  having  severely  reflected  on 
his  conduct  at  sea,  was  challenged  by  Barron  to  fight  a 
duel,  in  which  Decatur  was  killed,  and  Barron  severely 
wounded.  In  succession  Barron  became  senior  officer 
of  the  United  States  navy  in  1839. 

BARRY,  John,  naval  officer,  born  in  Ireland  in 
1745;  died  in  Philadelphia,  September  13,  1803.  He 
was  early  apprenticed  to  seamanship,  and  became  mas- 
ter of  a trading  vessel.  At  the  beginning  of  the  revo- 
lution he  offered  his  services  to  this  country,  and  in 
February,  1776,  became  commander  of  the  Lexington, 
with  which  he  captured  the  British  tender  Edward. 
From  this  cruiser  he  was  transferred  to  the  command 
of  the  frigate  Effingham.  In  the  winter  of  1776-7,  af- 
ter the  close  of  navigation,  he  assisted  at  the  battle  of 
Trenton  with  some  heavy  artillery.  In  1777,  with 
four  boats,  Barry  captured  a British  war  schooner  in 
the  Delaware  river.  For  a short  time  he  acted  as  aide 
to  General  Cadwalader.  In  1778  he  commanded  the 
Raleigh,  which  was  pursued  and  driven  on  shore  by  a 
British  squadron.  Later  he  was  transferred  to  the  Al- 
liance, and  in  a severe  engagement  captured  the  Ata- 
lanta  and  the  Trepassy.  At  this  time  he  was  wounded. 
In  1794,  when  our  new  navy  was  organized,  he  was 
senior  officer,  with  the  rank  of  commodore. 

BARTHOLDI,  Fr£d£ric  Auguste,  born  in  Col- 
mar, Alsace,  April  2,  1834.  He  studied  painting  in 
Paris  under  Ary  Scheffer,  but  afterward  devoted  him- 
self to  sculpture,  and  he  has  executed  a number  of  works 
in  marble  and  bronze.  Among  these  are  Francesca  da 
Rimini  (1852) ; a Fountain  in  honor  of  Martin  Schon- 
gauer,  painter  and  engraver  (1863);  and  a Fountain  sur- 
mounted by  a statue  of  General  Rapp,  both  in  Colmar ; 
The  Lion  of  Belfort,  commemorative  of  the  defense  of 
that  city  during  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  in  which  Bar- 
tholdi served  with  distinction  under  Garibaldi;  La  Lyre 
cheza  les  Barberes,  group  in  bronze;  La  Genie  dans  les 
Grippes  de  la  Misere,  in  plaster ; Les  Loisirs  de  la  Paix , 
in  plaster;  Jeune  Vigneron  Alsacien,  in  broi;ze;  La 
Malediction  de  V Alsace,  in  bronze  and  marble;  Les 
Quatre  Etapes  de  la  Vie  Chrietienne,  and  a bronze 
statue  of  Lafayette,  made  in  1872,  and  placed  in  Union 
Square,  New  York  city,  in  1876.  For  his  works  sent 
to  the  Centennial  exhibition  in  Philadelphia  in  1876,  to 
which  he  was  a commissioner  from  France,  Bartholdi 
received  a bronze  medal.  He  was  decorated  with  the 
cross  of  the  Legion*of  Honor  in  1865.  His  greatest 
work  is  the  colossal  statue  of  Liberty  Enlightening  the 
World,  which  was  cast  at  a cost  of  more  than  1,000,000 
francs,  raised  by  the  French  Government  at  the  insti- 
gation of  the  “French  American  Union,”  formed  in 
1874,  including  Laboulaye,  De  Rochambeau,  De  Les- 
seps,  Henri  Martin,  Waddington,  and  Bartholdi,  and 
given  to  the  American  republic  as  an  expression  of  the 
fraternal  feeling  of  France.  The  statue  was  formally 
deliveredto  the  American  minister  in  Paris  July  4,  1880, 
the  event  being  celebrated  by  a banquet.  Bedloe’s 
island  in  New  York  harbor  was  selected  for  its  site,  and 
about  $300,000  was  raised  in  the  United  States  for  the 
building  of  the  pedestal.  In  October,  1886,  the  statue 
was  presented  to  the  American  people  as  the  joint  gift 
of  the  French  and  American  nations.  It  is  151  feet  and 


B A R — B A Y 


6472 

i inch  high,  and  the  top  of  the  torch  is  305  feet  and  11 
inches  from  the  low-water  mark.  It  is  the  largest  work 
of  the  kind  ever  completed,  being  many  times  the  size  of 
the  Colossus  of  Rhodes.  See  Bartholdi  and  the  Great 
Statue  (New  York,  1886). 

BARTON,  Clara,  philanthropist,  born  in  Oxford, 
Mass.,  about  1826.  She  first  went  to  school  in  Clinton, 
N.  Y.;  afterward  she  became  a teacher  and  founded  a 
free  school  in  Bordentown,  N.  J.  In  1854  Miss  Bar- 
ton became  clerk  in  the  United  States  patent  office.  When 
the  civil  war  began  she  devoted  herself  to  the  care  of 
wounded  soldiers  on-  the  battle  field;  and  in  1864  had 
charge  of  the  hospitals  at  the  front  of  the  Army  of  the 
James.  In  1865  she  visited  Andersonville,  Ga.,  to 
mark  the  graves  of  the  Union  soldiery.  In  1866  and 
1867  she  gave  lectures  on  her  experiences  during  the 
war,  and  visited  Europe  to  recuperate  her  health.  Dur- 
ing the  war  between  Germany  and  France  she  volun- 
teered in  humane  and  hospital  service,  for  which  she 
was  decorated  with  the  golden  cross  of  Baden  and  the 
iron  cross  of  Germany.  In  1881,  on  the  organization 
of  the  American  Red  Cross  Society,  she  became  its 
president,  and  in  1884  she  represented  our  government 
at  the  Red  Cross  conference  in  Geneva,  Switzerland. 
In  1883  she  became  superintendent  of  the  reformatory 
prison  for  women  in  Sherborn,  Mass.  She  was  also 
delegate  to  the  international  peace  convention  at  Geneva, 
in  1884,  and  a special  commissioner  for  foreign  exhibits 
at  the  New  Orleans  exhibition.  In  1883  the  United 
States  Senate  committee  on  foreign  relations  requested 
her  to  prepare  a History  of  the  Red  Cross,  which  was 
published  at  the  government  printing  office,  Wash- 
ington. 

BARTRAM,  John,  botanist,  born' in  Chester  coun- 
ty, Penn.,  March  23,  1699;  died  in  Kingsess- 

ing,  Penn.,  Septembei  22,  1777.  He  was  a grand- 
son of  John  Bartram,  who  came  to  this  country  with 
William  Penn  in  1682,  and  was  a member  of  the 
Society  of  Friends.  After  studying  medicine  and  sur- 
gery, he  became  interested  in  the  study  of  plants.  He 
was  the  first  to  form  a botanic  garden  for  American 
plants,  and  gave  several  acres  of  his  farm  on  the  Schuyl- 
kill, near  Philadelphia,  for  that  purpose.  The  garden 
still  remains  ; although  in  a neglected  state  it  contains 
some  fine  old  trees.  In  1743  Mr.  Bartram  went  on 
his  first  extensive  botanical  expedition,  joining  a mis- 
sion to  the  Six  Nations  of  Indians  at  Onondaga,  and 
afterward  traveling  to  Oswego,  and  to  the  partly  ex- 
plored shores  of  Lake  Ontario.  He  returned  to  Phila- 
delphia with  many  specimens,  and  published  his  Obsei~v- 
ations  on  the  Inhabitants , Climate,  Soil , etc.,  from 
Pennsylvania  to  Onondaga , Oswego,  and  the  Lake 
Ontario,  etc.  (London,  1751).  In  1765-6,  he  made  a 
second  expedition  from  Charleston,  S.  C.,  to  East 
Florida,  and  carefully  explored  the  St.  John’s  river, 
where  he  collected  many  curious  plants  then  unknown, 
and  made  an  accurate  map  of  the  ’river  and  adjacent 
country,  afterward  published  by  the  board  of  trade  of 
England.  His  Journal  of  Travels  was  published  in 
An  Account  of  East  Florida  (London,  1766).  Mr. 
Bartram  contributed  several  papers  to  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,  was  a member  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  other  foreign  societies,  and  was  appointed 
“American  botanist  to  his  majesty  George  III.”  He 
was  intimate  with  Franklin,  and  corresponded  with 
many  leading  foreign  botanists,  who,  in  return  for  valu- 
able specimens  and  data,  supplied  him  with  books  and 
apparatus.  Mr.  Bartram  supported  his  family  by  farm- 
ing, and  quarried  and  shaped  the  stones  for  the  quaint 
house  on  the  Schuylkill,  which  he  built  with  his  own 
hands,  and  which  is  still  standing.  See  Memoirs  of 
John  Bartram,  by  William  Bartram;  and  Memorials  of 


John  Bartram  and  Henry  Marshall,  by  William  Dar- 
lington (Philadelphia,  1849). 

BARTRAM,  William,  botanist,  son  of  John  Bar- 
tram, born  in  Kingsessing,  Pa.,  February  9,  1730;  died 
there  July  22,  1823.  He  engaged  in  business  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  afterward  in  North  Carolina.  In  1765  he 
accompanied  his  father  to  Florida,  and  remained  on  the 
St.  John’s  river  for  several  years  cultivating  indigo.  In 
1771  he  returned  to  his  father’s  home  and  devoted  his 
attention  to  botany,  a love  for  which  he  had  inherited. 
From  1773  till  1778  he  traveled  through  the  Carolinas, 
Georgia  and  Florida  to  examine  their  natural  products, 
and  he  made  many  drawings  of  the  specimens  which  he 
collected.  In  1782  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
botany  in  the  university  of  Pennsylvania,  which  post 
he  declined  on  account  of  impaired  vision.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  American  Philosophical  society,  and, 
in  addition  to  his  botanical  labors,  prepared  a complete 
table  of  American  birds.  He  possessed  a talent  for 
drawing,  and  made  the  illustrations  of  Barton’s 
Elements  of  Botany,  thus  being  the  first  to  make  known 
many  curious  and  beautiful  plants  of  North  America. 

BATES,  Edward,  statesman,  born  in  Virginia 
September  4,  1792;  died  March  25,  1869.  He  became 
a lawyer  and  was  two  years  attorney-general  of 
Missouri.  In  1827-28  he  served  a term  in  congress. 
In  the  National  Republican  convention  of  i860  he 
received  forty-eight  votes  on  the  first  ballot,  but  with- 
drew in  favor  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  who  afterward  made 
him  attorney-general  of  the  United  States. 

BAYARD,  James  Asheton,  statesman,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  28,  1767;  died  in  Wilmington, 
Del.,  August  6,  1815.  He  was  descended  from  a Hu- 
guenot family  of  France  which  fled  to  Holland,  and  set- 
tled in  Manhattan  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Nicholas 
Bayard,  who  arrived  there  in  1647,  was  a nephew  of  Gov. 
Peter  Stuyvesant.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  Dr. 
James  Asheton  Bayard,  June  8,  1770,  James  A.  was 
adopted  by  his  uncle,  Col.  John  Bayard,  a patriot. 
After  graduation  at  Princeton  in  1784,  he  studied  law 
in  Philadelphia  under  Gen.  Joseph  Reed  and  Jared  In- 
gersoll,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1787,  and  settled  in 
Wilmington,  Del.  He  was  sent  to  England  in  1795,  as 
American  agent  in  ship  cases  growing  out  of  the  “ Or- 
ders in  Council,”  and  in  1796  was  elected  to  congress 
as  a Federalist.  He  was  appointed  minister  to  France 
by  President  John  Adams,  before  the  new  administra- 
tion of  1801,  and  although  confirmed  by  the  Senate,  he 
declined  the  office.  In  the  eighth  congress  (December 
7,  1801),  he  opposed  the  judiciary  bill  enacted  by  Fed- 
eral votes  in  the  preceding  session.  His  service  ex- 
tended from  May  15,  1797,  till  March  3,  1803,  and  in 
1804  he  was  made  United  States  senator,  as  the  suc- 
cessor of  William  H.  Wells,  who  resigned.  He  served 
from  January  15,  1805,  till  March  3,  1813,  and  opposed 
the  declaration  of  war  against  Great  Britain  in  1812.  In 
1813  President  Madison  appointed  him  a commissioner 
with  Albert  Gallatin  (rejected  by  the  Senate),  and  John 
Quincy  Adams,  to  negotiate  a peace  with  Great  Britain 
through  the  mediation  of  Russia.  He  left  Philadelphia 
May  8,  1813,  and  met  Mr.  Adams  in  St.  Petersburg  in 
July.  This  mission  was  not  successful,  and  he  went  to 
Holland,  and  took  a prominent  part  in  the  negotiations 
resulting  in  the  treaty  of  peace  signed  in  Ghent, 
December  24,  1814.  He  was  appointed  United  States 
minister  to  Russia,  but  declined  the  office,  and  returned 
to  Wilmington  on  June  15,  1814,  where  he  died  two 
months  later.  His  speech  on  the  foreign  intercourse 
bill  was  published  in  1798,  and  the  speech  on  the  repeal 
of  the  judiciary  in  a volume  of  speeches  (1802.)  His 
two  sons,  Richard  Henry,  and  James  A.,  were  also  sue* 
cessively  senators  from  Delaware. 


BAY 

BAYARD,  Nicholas,  born  in  Alphen,  Holland,  in 
1644;  died  in  New  York  city  in  1707.  His  widowed 
mother  was  a sister  of  Governor  Stuyvesant,  and  with 
her  he  came  to  this  country  in  1647.  A'be  old  Bayard 
grounds  and  mansion  in  New  York- city  were  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Bowery,  and  included  the  territory 
now  occupied  by  La  Fayette  Place,  Astor  Place,  and 
beyond;  originally  it  comprised  about  two  hundred 
acres.  In  1664  Nicholas  became  clerk  of  the  common 
council,  thereafter  was  private  secretary  to  Governor 
Stuyvesant,  and  also  surveyor  of  the  province.  In  1664 
he  married  Judith  Verlet,  who,  in  1062,  had  been  im- 
prisoned as  a witch  by  the  Puritans  of  Hartford,  Conn. 
After  the  re-conquest  of  New  York  by  Holland,  in 
1672,  Nicholas  Bayard  again  was  appointed  secretary 
of  the  province.  In  1685,  when  great  Britain  had  re- 
gained the  province  and  Dongan  was  made  governor, 
Bayard  was  mayor  of  New  York  city,  and  a member  of 
the  governor’s  council. 

BAYARD,  Thomas  Francis,  son  of  James  A.  Bay- 
ard, was  born  in  Wilmington,  Del.,  October  29,  1828. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1851,  and  was  appointed 
United  States  district- attorney  for  Delaware.  He 
practiced  law  in  Philadelphia,  and  in  1869  he  became 
United  States  senator  from  his  native  state,  was  re- 
elected in  1875  and  1881,  and  resigned  in  March,  1885, 
to  become  secretary  of  state  in  Mr.  Cleveland’s  cabinet, 
which  office  he  held  until  March  4,  1889.  He  has  sev- 
eral times  been  proposed  as  a presidential  candidate, 
and  at  the  Democratic  National  convention  at  Cincin- 
nati, in  1880,  received  1 53/^  votes  on  the  first  ballot. 
Mr.  Bayard  was  a member  of  the  electoral  commission 
of  1876.  In  March,  1893,  he  was  sent  by  President 
Cleveland  as  ambassador  to  England,  being  the  first 
American  ambassador  ever  appointed. 

BAYLEY,  James  Roosevelt,  born  in  New  York 
city,  August  23,  1814;  died  October  3,  1877.  He  was 
educated  for  the  Episcopal  ministry,  and  in  1840-41 
held  a rectorship  in  Harlem,  N.  Y.  In  1842  he  be- 
came a Roman  Catholic,  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood 
in  1844,  and  nine  years  later  became  first  bishop  of 
Newark,  N.  J.  In  1869  he  took  part  in  the  delibera- 
tions of  the  Ecumenical  Council  at  the  Vatican  and  in 
1872  he  was  raised  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Balti- 
more. 

BAZAINE,  Francois  Achille,  bom  at  Versailles, 
near  Paris,  France,  February  13,  1811;  died  September 
23,  1888,  at  Madrid.  He  enlisted  in  the  French  army 
in  1831,  served  eight  years  in  Algeria,  and  returned  to 
France  a captain.  In  1848  he  became  lieutenant-col- 
onel, and  in  1854,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean  war, 
was  given  a brigade.  He  distinguished  himself  during 
the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  and  was  appointed  governor  of 
that  city  after  its  evacuation  by  the  Russians.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1855,  he  was  made  general  of  division  and 
commanded  the  expedition  against  Kinburn.  His  next 
active  service  was  in  Mexico,  where  he  fought  his  way 
from  Vera  Cru*.  to  the  capital,  drove  Juarez  to  the  fron- 
tier, and  captured  the  fort  of  Oajaca.  In  1864  he  was 
made  a marshal  of  France,  with  a seat  in  the  Senate, 
which  he  took  on  his  return  in  1867.  He  was  given 
command  of  the  third  army  corps,  and  in  October,  1869, 
became  commander  of  the  Imperial  Guard,  the  flower 
of  the  French  army. 

On  August  9,  1870,  Bazaine  took  command  at  Metz 
of  the  third  corps.  Political  reasons  and  the  interfer- 
ence of  Napoleon  III.,  who  feared  the  effect  of  a re- 
treat upon  the  populace  of  Paris,  were  permitted  by 
Bazaine  to  overcome  his  military  judgment.  Instead  of 
falling  back  to  effect  a junction  with  MacMahon,  he  de- 
layed until  Prince  Frederick  Charles  of  Prussia  came 
ap.  Defeated  in  the  sanguinary  battles  of  Mars-le- 


- B E A 6473 

Tour  (August  1 6th)  and  Gravelotte  (August  18th),  he 
fell  back  on  Metz,  the  strongest  fortified  town  in 
Europe.  He  had  173,000  men  under  his  command, 
but,  aside  from  some  abortive  sorties,  in  which  he  lost 
thousands  of  men,  he  did  nothing.  Meantime  Sedan 
had  fallen  and  Napoleon  III.  was  a prisoner.  Bazaine, 
who  seems  to  have  considered  himself  as  a marshal  of 
the  empire  rather  than  a soldier  of  France,  entered 
into  negotiations  with  the  German  commanders,  and  on 
October  27th,  surrendered  his  entire  army  as  prisoners 
of  war.  This  opened  the  way  for  the  Germans  to 
march  to  Paris  and  destroyed  all  hope  of  victory  for 
France.  Bazaine  joined  the  ex-Emperor  at  Wilhelms- 
hohe,  but  on  his  return  to  France,  at  the  close  of  the 
war,  he  was  arrested  and  tried  by  a court-martial,  of 
which  the  Due  d’Aumale  was  president.  Bazaine  was 
unanimously  pronounced  guilty  of  having  surrendered 
his  army  without  doing  all  that  duty  and  honor  re- 
quired, and  was  sentenced  to  military  degradation  and 
death.  His  old  companion  in  arms,  Marshal  Mc- 
Mahon, was  then  president  of  the  republic,  and  com- 
muted the  sentence  to  twenty  years’  imprisonment. 
Bazaine  was  sent  to  the  Isle  St.  Marguerite,  but  on 
August  9,  1874,  escaped  by  the  collusion  of  his  jailers. 
He  lived  afterward  in  Italy,  Switzerland  and  Spain, 
and  died  in  poverty  and  misery  at  Madrid. 

BEACONSFIELD,  Earl  of  (Benjamin  Disraeli), 
was  born  in  London,  England,  December- 21,  1804.  His 
father,  Isaac  Disraeli,  was  a Jew  of  the  Sephardim  and 
the  author  of  Curiosities  of  Literature  and  other  works. 
The  boy  was  articled  to  a law  firm,  but  abandoned  this 
for  literature,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  produced 
Vivian  Grey , a work  which  brought  him  into  imme- 
diate notice.  He  spent  several  years  in  continental 
travel,  and  in  1832  offered  himself  as  a candidate  for 
Parliament.  He  was  four  times  defeated,  his  political 
ideas  at  that  time  being  of  a radical,  if  not  revolutionary, 
character;  but  he  soon  became  a Tory,  and  as  such  was 
returned  to  Parliament  for  Maidstone  in  1837.  His 
first  speech  in  the  House  of  Commons  was  a high-flown 
farrago  of  nonsense,  to  which  the  members  refused  to 
listen.  At  this  time  Disraeli  affected  the  extravagant 
in  dress  and  language,  and  was  considered  the  leader  of 
the  “dandies”  or  “Young  England”  party.  In  1839 
he  married  an  elderly  widow,  possessed  of  a large 
fortune,  abandoned  his  eccentric  mannerisms  and  entered 
upon  the  upward  course  which  was  to  lead  him  to  the 
premiership.  Before  he  had  been  ten  years  in  parlia- 
ment he  had  conquered  ridicule  and  dislike,  and  had 
made  himself  at  once  respected  and  feared.  During 
this  period  he  issued,  in  rapid  succession,  several  ro- 
mances, of  which  Coningsby , Sybil , Tancred , Conta - 
rini  Fleming,  Henrietta  Temple  and  The  Young  Duke 
are  the  best  known. 

Mr.  Disraeli  made  a great  reputation  as  a par- 
liamentary debater  by  his  speeches  in  opposition  to  Sir 
Robert  Peel’s  free-trade  measures,  and  on  the  death  of 
Lord  George  Bentinck,  in  September,  1848,  he  became 
the  leader  in  the  House  of  Commons  of  the  Tory- 
Protectionist  party.  They  had  the  wealth,  and  he  pos- 
sessed the  brains,  and,  although  they  both  hated  and 
distrusted  him,  they  could  not  afford  to  lose  his  sar- 
castic oratory  and  his  keen  political  prescience.  In 
March,  1852,  he  obtained  his  first  cabinet  appointment, 
that  of  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  (finance  minister) 
in  the  Derby  ministry.  This  government  was  out- 
voted in  December  following,  and  Disraeli  remained  in 
opposition  for  six  years.  In  1847  he  had  become 
member  for  Buckinghamshire,  for  which  he  sat  until 
1876,  when  he  was  elevated  to  the  peerage.  On  the 
defeat  of  Lord  Palmerston  over  the  conspiracy  act  in 
1858,  Disraeli  again  became  chancellor  of  the  ex- 


B E A 


6474 

chequer,  with  Earl  Derby  ass  prime  minister.  In  order 
to  “dish  the  Whigs,”  he  proposed  a bill  for  electoral 
reform,  but  the  measure,  which  was  much  more 
ingenious  than  useful,  was  rejected,  and  the  ministry 
resigned  in  June,  1859.  Seven-  years  of  a Liberal 
administration  followed.  In  June,  1866,  Lord  John 
Russell  was  beaten  over  another  reform  bill,  and 
Disraeli  for  the  third  time  became  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer.  In  a few  months  he  had  converted  his 
party  to  the  necessity  of  electoral  reform,  and  had 
introduced  and  carried  a bill  for  a more  radical  exten- 
sion of  the  franchise  than  had  been  proposed  by  the 
Liberals  and  fought  to  the  death  by  Disraeli  and  the 
Tory  squires.  In  February,  1868,  Lord  Derby  resigned 
and  Disraeli  succeeded  him  as  prime  minister.  Two 
months  later  Mr.  Gladstone  introduced  his  famous  reso- 
lutions for  the  disestablishment  and  disendowment  of 
the  state  church  in  Ireland.  The  government  was  de- 
feated twice,  parliament  was  dissolved  in  July,  and  as 
a result  of  the  general  election  which  followed  in 
November,  Mr.  Disraeli  resigned  without  meeting 
parliament.  From  that  time,  until  January,  1874,  when 
Mr.  Gladstone  dissolved  the  first  reform  parliament, 
Mr.  Disraeli  remained  in  the  cold  shade  of  opposition. 
In  1870  he  broke  his  long  silence  as  an  author  by  the 
publication  of  Lothair , a work  which,  from  the  fame  of 
its  author,  attracted  an  amount  of  interest  not  justified 
by  its  intrinsic  merits.  Ten  years  later  he  gave  to  the 
world  Endymion , a romance  in  his  earlier  style.  In 

1872  he  lost  his  wife,  to  whom,  notwithstanding  the 
disparity  in  their  ages,  he  was  devotedly  attached.  In 

1873  he  was  elected  lord  rector  of  Glasgow  university. 

In  the  early  part  of  1874  parliament  met  with  a large 

Conservative  majority  in  place,  and  Mr.  Disraeli  began 
his  final  and  longest  lease  of  power.  On  August  11, 
1876,  finding  himself  no  longer  equal  to  the  toils  of 
House  of  Commons  life,  he  made  his  last  speech/  in 
that  assembly,  and  next  day  the  prime  minister  was 
known  as  the  Earl  of  Beaconsfield.  He  had  refused 
the  title  before,  but  his  wife  had  been  made  a countess 
in  her  own  right.  During  his  last  administration, 
backed  by  a powerful  and  compact  Conservative 
majority,  Lord  Beaconsfield  lost  no  opportunity  of  cul- 
tivating the  spirit  of  what  the  French  call  Chauvinism , 
for  which  the  English  equivalent  is  “ Jingoism.”  By  a 
vigorous  foreign  policy,  or  in  other  words,  by  an  inter- 
ference in  every  European  diplomatic  squabble,  and  a 
blustering  assertion  of  England’s  power,  he  sought  to 
divert  the  attention  of  the  English  people  from  the 
neglect  or  postponement  of  needed  reforms,  and  the 
continuance  of  time-honored  abuses.  His  sensational 
pilgrimage  to  Berlin,  from  which  he  returned  claiming 
to  bring  “ Peace  with  Honor,”  offset  in  the  vulgar 
mind  the  costly  and  unnecessary  wars  in  Afghanistan 
and  South  Africa.  But  when  in  1880  the  people  got  a 
chance  to  speak,  their  verdict  was  one  of  absolute  con- 
demnation, and  Mr.  Gladstone  came  back  to  power 
with  a Liberal  majority  of  150.  The  occupation  of 
Cyprus  and  the  presentation  to  Queen  Victoria  of  the 
tinsel  crown  of  empress  of  India  could  not  suffice  to 
outweigh  the  evils  of  a trade  destroyed  and  a treasury 
emptied,  discontent  at  home  and  distrust  abroad.  Earl 
Beaconsfield  spoke  but  a few  times  in  the  House  of 
Lords  after  this.  In  March  following  he  was  seized 
with  combined  gout  and  pneumonia,  and  on  April  19, 
1881,  he  died.  Although  of  Hebrew  extraction,  he  was 
baptized  in  the  Church  of  England,  and  his  remains 
were  laid  to  rest  in  the  parish  church  of  Hughenden, 
Buckinghamshire. 

BEARD,  George  Miller,  born  at  Montville, 
Conn.,  May  8,  1839;  died  in  New  York,  January  23, 
1883.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1862,  and  took  his 


degree  of  M.D.  four  years  later.  Doctor  Beard  devoted 
himself  to  the  treatment  of  diseases  of  the  nervous 
system,  and  wrote  extensively  on  the  medical  use  of 
electricity  and  other  branches  of  medical  science. 

BEARD,  William  Holbrook,  painter,  born  in 
Painesville,  Ohio,  April  13,  1825.  He  began  his  career 
as  a portrait  painter  about  1841,  and  after  traveling  for 
several  years  settled  in  Buffalo  in  1850,  remaining  there 
until  1857,  when  he  went  to  Eu-rope  and  studied  in 
Diisseldorf,  Switzerland,  Italy  and  France.  In  i860  he 
established  himself  in  New  York  city,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  Academy  in  1862.  He  has  painted 
some  genre  and  allegorical  pictures,  but  has  devoted 
himself  almost  exclusively  to  the  painting  of  animals, 
making  them  the  actors  in  humorous  and  satirical  situ- 
tions.  He  died  Feb.  20,  1900. 

BEAUREGARD,  Pierre  Gustave  Toutant  de, 
soldier,  born  near  New  Orleans,  La.,  May  28,  1818.  After 
graduation  at  the  United  States  military  academy  in 
1 838,  he  was  made  second  lieutenant  in  the  engineer  corps, 
and  remained  at  West  Point  as  instructor  of  engineer- 
ing and  artillery  for  a few  months.  He  was  then  sent 
to  Newport,  R.  I.,  where  he  assisted  in  the  construction 
of  Fort  Adams.  In  1840  he  was  sent  to  New  Orleans 
to  take  charge  of  the  Louisiana  fortifications,  and  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war  with  Mexico  constructed  the  de- 
fenses of  Tampico.  He  served  with  distinction,  and  at 
the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz  March  9-29,  1847,  located  three 
of  the  five  batteries  which  reduced  that  city.  He  par- 
ticipated in  the  battles  of  Cerro  Gordo  August  17-18; 
Contreras,  August  19-20;  Chapultepec,  September  13th; 
and  Mexico,  September  13-14,  where  he  was  wounded. 
He  was  brevetted  captain  for  gallantry  at  Contreras,  and 
major  for  bravery  and  valuable  service  at  Chapultepec, 
where  he  led  the  division  which  stormed  the  heights. 
Alter  the  Mexican  war  he  commanded  the  fortifications 
of  Louisiana,  and  in  1851  superintended  the  building  of 
the  United  States  custom  house,  marine  hospital  and  the 
repairs  of  the  public  buildings  in  New  Orleans.  He  was 
appointed  captain  March  3,  1853,  assigned  to  engineer 
duty  along  the  gulf  coast,  andsuperintendedtheconstruc- 
tionof  fortifications  in  the  harbor  of  Mobile,  the  Missis- 
sippi river  and  Lake  Pontchartrain.  In  i860  he  became 
superintendent  of  the  United  States  military  academy. 
West  Point,  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  but  resigned  on 
February  20,  1861,  to  join  the  Southern  Confederacy. 
He  was  appointed  brigadier-general,  and  given  command 
of  the  defenses  of  Charleston,  S.  C. , and  ordered  to  lay 
siege  to  Fort  Sumter,  April  12-14,  1861.  After  a 
cannonade  of  several  hours,  during  which  no  lives  were 
lost,  Major  Anderson,  the  Federal  commander,  marched 
out  with  the  honors  of  war.  Beauregard  was  then 
ordered  to  Richmond  to  organize  the  Confederate  Army 
of  the  Potomac,  and  was  practically  in  command  at  the 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21st,  after  which  he  was  given 
the  rank  of  general.  In  January,  1862,  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  department  of  the  Mississippi,  and  went 
to  Nashville,  Tenn.,  to  strengthen  its  defenses.  On 
March  5th  he  assumed  command  of  the  Confederate 
forces  in  the  Mississippi  valley,  with  headquarters  at 
Jackson.  After  the  death  of  Gen.  A.  S.  Johnston  at 
Shiloh,  April  6,  1862,  he  took  command  of  the  Confed- 
erate army,  but  on  April  7th,  General  Grant's  reen- 
forced ranks  compelled  him  to  fall  back  to  Corinth, 
Miss.,  where  he  destroyed  the  Union  stores,  and  re- 
treated along  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railroad.  After 
this  campaign  General  Beauregard’s  health  failed,  and 
he  was  given  leave  of  absence  until  August,  1862,  and 
again  assigned  to  Charleston,  which  he  defended  from 
September,  1862,  till  April,  1864,  when  he  went  to 
Petersburg,  Va.  In  May,  1864,  he  reenforced  General 
Lee  and  defeated  Gen.  B.  F.  Butler  at  Drury’s  Bluff, 


BEA- 

May  16,  1864.  In  November,  1864,  he  was  assigned  to 
the  military  division  of  the  South,  and  at  the  close  of 
the  war  joined  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston  and  surrendered  to 
Gen.  W.  T.  Sherman  at  Greensboro,  N.  C.,  in  April, 
1865.  From  that  year  he  was  president  of  the  New 
Orleans  and  Jackson  railroad  company  until  1870  ; was 
Adjutant-general  of  Louisiana  in  1878  and  until  his 
death  February  20,  1893,  was  a manager  of  the  Louis- 
iana state  lottery.  He  was  the  last  surviving  full  gen- 
eral of  the  Confederacy. 

BEAVER,  James  A.,  born  in  Perry  county,  Pa., 
Oct.  21,  1837,  practiced  law,  and,  in  1861,  joined  the 
volunteer  army  as  a second  lieutenant.  He  was 
wounded  at  Chancellorsville,  being  by  that  time  a 
colonel,  and  lost  a leg  at  Petersburg.  He  was  elected 
governor  of  Pennsylvania  as  a Republican  in  1887. 

BEBEL,  August,  German  socialist  leader,  born  in 
1840  at  Cologne,  a turner  by  trade,  at  first  opposed 
socialist  ideas  but  in  1869  became  their  active  propagan- 
dist, and  was  imprisoned  for  “spreading  opinions 
dangerous  to  the  State,”  and  again  in  1872  for  criticis- 
ing the  emperor.  On  his  release  he  was  elected  to  the 
reichstag  where  he  has  since  sat  as  a frank  exponent 
of  socialistic  doctrines.  He  has  written  Christianity 
and  Socialism  and  JVomen  in  the  Past  and  Present  and 
Future.  * 

BECK,  Theodore  Romeyn,  physician,  born  in 
Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  April  11,  1791;  died  in  Utica,  N. 
Y.,  November  18,  1855.  He  began  to  practice  in  Al- 
bany in  1811,  was  principal  of  the  Albany  Academy, 
1817-48,  and  held  professorships  also  in  the  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons  of  Western  New  York,  at 
Fairfield  college  and  in  the  Albany  Medical  college. 
He  became  a manager  of  the  state  lunatic  asylum,  and 
in  1854,  president  of  the  board  of  managers.  From 
1849  to  1853,  he  edited  the  American  Journal  of  In- 
sanity. He  contributed  various  articles  to  scientific 
journals.  His  work,  the  Elements  of  Medical  Juris- 
prudence, has  been  renewed  in  ten  editions. 

BEECHER,  Henry  Ward,  born  in  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  June  24,  1813;  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  March 
8,  1887.  He  was  the  fourth  surviving  son  of  the  Rev. 
Lyman  Beecher,  and  was  of  New  England  ancestry. 
He  graduated  at  Amherst  in  1834,  became  pastor  of  a 
Presbyterian  church  at  Lawrenceburg,  Ind.,  in  1837, 
and  from  1839  to  1847  had  charge  of  a church  at  In- 
dianapolis. On  October  16,  1847,  he  became  the  first 

{>astor  of  the  Plymouth  Congregational  church,  Brook- 
yn,  N.  Y.,  and  held  this  position  until  his  death. 

His  sermons  formed  a weekly  publication  called  The 
Plymouth  Pulpit.  He  joined  the  Republican  party 
in  1856,  and  in  addition  to  political  sermons  delivered 
from  his  pulpit,  he  addressed  political  meetings  and  took 
an  active  part  in  the  canvass,  speaking  throughout  the 
North  and  supporting  his  party  with  his  pen.  He  was 
active  during  the  anti-slavery  conflict,  and  in  1863  vis- 
ited Europe  and  addressed  large  audiences  in  Great  Brit- 
ain on  the  subject  of  the  civil  war.  In  April,  1865,  he 
delivered  an  address  at  Fort  Sumter,  on  the  anniversary 
of  its  fall.  In  1874  Mr.  Beecher’s  former  associate  and 
successor  in  the  editorship  of  the  Independent,  Mr. 
Tilton,  charged  him  with  criminality  with  Mrs.  Tilton, 
and  a committee  from  the  Plymouth  congregation  re- 
ported the  charges  to  be  without  foundation.  Mr.  Tilton 
instituted  a civil  suit  against  Mr.  Beecher,  laying  his 
damages  at  $100,000.  The  trial  lasted  six  months,  and 
the  jury,  after  being  locked  up  for  a week,  could  not 
agree  on  a verdict.  Mr.  Beecher  was  of  strong  physique, 
stout,  florid  and  energetic.  In  1884  he  supported  the 
Democratic  candidate  for  president,  and  thereby 
estranged  a number  of  his  political  friends.  In  1836 
Mr.  Beecher  was  editor  of  the  Cincinnati  Journal , a ; 


-BEL  6475 

religious  weekly,  and  during  his  residence  in  Indianap- 
olis he  edited  The  Farmer  and  Gardener,  his  contribu- 
tions being  published  as  Plain  and  Pleasant  Talks  about 
Fruits,  Flowers  and  Farming  (New  York,  1859).  For 
nearly  twenty  years  he  was  an  editorial  contributor  of 
the  Independent,  of  which  he  was  founder  and  editor 
in  1861-3,  and  in  1870  became  editor  of  the  Christian 
Union. 

BEECHER,  Lyman,  clergyman,  born  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  October  2,  1775;  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
anuary  10,  1863.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  in  179*7, 
aving  studied  theology  in  addition  to  the  general 
course.  In  September,  1798,  he  was  licensed  to 
preach,  and  filled  acceptably  the  pastorate  of  the 
Presbyterian  church  in  East  Hampton,  L.  I.,  where  he 
remained  until  1810,  and  during  that  time  married 
Roxana  Foote.  A sernjon  on  dueling,  suggested  by 
the  duel  between  Alexander  Hamilton  and  Aaron  Burr 
(1806),  made  a great  impression,  and  he  soon  became 
one  of  the  best  known  preachers  of  New  England.  In 
1810  he  was  made  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church 
in  Litchfield,  Conn.,  where  he  remained  until  1826, 
when  he  became  pastor  of  the  Hanover  Street  church, 
Boston,  and  held  this  place  until  1832.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  religious  controversy  which  arose 
at  this  period,  upholding  the  Puritan  doctrine,  while 
Doctor  Channing  presented  the  Unitarian  views  to  the 
people  of  Boston.  From  1832  till  1851  Mr.  Beecher  was 
president  of  the  Lane  Theological  seminary,  Wal- 
nut Hills,  Cincinnati,  in  which  he  was  professor  of 
theology,  and  in  1832-42  was  pastor  of  the  Second 
Presbyterian  church  of  Cincinnati.  In  1833  he  deliv- 
ered an  address  before  the  abolition  convention  in  Phil- 
adelphia, which  caused  great  excitement  in  his  seminary 
and  incited  a mob.  In  1835  Mr.  Beecher  was  arraigned 
and  tried  for  hypocrisy  and  heresy  by  the  sterner  Cal- 
vinists. He  defended  himself  and  was  acquitted  by  the 
general  assembly,  and  on  the  division  of  the  Presbyterian 
church  into  two  factions  in  1836-8,  he  joined  the  new 
school.  Resigning  from  Lane  seminary  in  1851  he 
returned  to  Boston  and  spent  his  time  in  publishingand 
revising  his  works.  During  his  last  ten  years  he  lived 
with  his  son,  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  in  Brooklyn. 
From  1815  till  1851  no  preacher  in  America  had  greater 
influence  than  Lyman  Beecher.  He  was  married  three 
times,  and  his  five  sons,  William  Henry,  Edward 
George,  Henry  Ward,  Charles  and  Thomas  Kinnicut, 
became  Congregational  clergymen. 

BELFORD,  Charles,  journalist,  born  in  Cork, 
Ireland.  April  15,  1837.  He  received  a university 
education.  It  had  been  decided  that  he  should  adopt 
the  profession  of  a draughtsman;  but  his  father  and 
family  emigrating  to  Canada  in  1856,  that  decision  was 
abandoned.  He  became  one  of  the  editorial  staff  of  the 
Toronto  Leader , then  a prominent  Conservative  daily, 
and  on  the  retirement  of  Mr.  Lindsay,  Mr.  Belford 
was  at  once  promoted  to  the  chief  editorial  chair,  which 
he  occupied  until  late  in  the  year  1871,  when  he  was 
induced  to  take  charge  of  the  Mail,  anew  Conservative 
daily,  the  first  number  of  which  was  issued  on  March 
30,1872.  For  six  years  he  labored  with  unflagging 
fidelity,  but  the  overwrought  frame  yielded  beneath  the 
undue  pressure,  and,  though  he  had  not  yet  reached 
the  prime  of  life  he  was  a confirmed  invalid.  In  1879 
he  accepted  the  position  of  secretary  to  the  Dominion 
board  of  appraisers  at  Ottawa.  Although  Mr.  Bel- 
ford was  never  a violent  party  man,  he  was  a fearless 
opponent.  He  was  a stanch  supporter  of  the  crown 
and  constitution.  He  detested  all  shams,  and  was 
always  opposed  to  government  interfering  in  any  way 
with  the  rights  of  private  citizens.  His  chivalry  and 
love  of  truth  commanded  the  esteem  and  admiration 


6476  BEL- 

of  even  his  political  antagonists.  In  religion  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Church  of  the  Disciples.  So  high  an 
opinion  had  President  Garfield  of  his  ability  and 
integrity,  that  he  sought  to  induce  him  to  leave  Can- 
ada and  take  charge  of  a prominent  New  York  daily 
paper.  He  was  one  of  the  editorial  commissioners  on 
confederation,  was  president  of  the  Canadian  Literary 
Association,  and  the  originator  of  the  national  pro- 
tection policy  cry,  which  carried  the  Conservative  party 
to  victory.  In  his  triumphs  he  was  generous,  and  in  his 
reverses  proud.  Notwithstanding  his  constant  arduous 
labors,  the  Canadian  Eclectic  Monthly  and  the  Canadian 
Belford's  Magazine  had  the  benefit  of  his  clear  head  and 
fostering  care.  He  died  December  19,  1881,  in  the 
forty-fifth  year  of  his  age.  The  only  remaining  mem- 
bers of  his  family  are  his  two  brothers,  Mr.  Alex- 
ander Belford,  of  the  firm  of  Belford-Clarke  Com- 
any,  Chicago,  and  Mr.  Robert  Belford,  now  of  the 
tate  of  California. 

BELL,  Alexander  Graham,  inventor,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  March  3,  1847 ; came  to  the 
United  States  in  1872.  He  introduced  into  this  coun- 
try the  system  of  instruction  for  deaf  mutes  invented 
by  his  father,  Alexander  Melville  Bell.  But  he  is  best 
known  by  his  discoveries  in  connection  with  the  trans- 
mission of  sound.  The  first  public  exhibition  of  his 
telephone  was  given  at  Philadelphia  in  1876,  and  he  has 
since  made  many  improvements  in  it.  He  is  a member 
of  several  scientific  societies,  and  has  written  exten- 
sively on  electricity. 

BELL,  John,  born  near  Nashville,  Tenn.,  February 
18,  1797;  died  at  Cumberland  Ironworks,  Tenn.,  Sep- 
tember 10,  1869.  He  was  graduated  at  Cumberland 
college  (now  the  university  of  Nashville)  in  1814,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1816,  and  in  1817  was  elected  to 
the  State  Senate.  In  1827  he  was  elected  to  congress 
as  a Whig,  serving  until  1841,  and  winning  reputation 
as  a debater.  He  changed  his  views  as  to  free  trade 
and  became  an  ardent  supporter  of  the  protective  tariff, 
and  was  active  in  procuring  the  improvement  of  the 
rivers  and  harbors  by  the  national  government.  He 
supported  General  Jackson  as  candidate  for  the  presi- 
dency in  1832.  Although  in  favor  of  a United  States 
bank,  he  voted  against  the  renewal  of  its  charter,  and  his 
protest  against  President  Jackson’s  removal  of  the 
deposits  led  to  his  withdrawal  from  the  Democratic 
party.  In  1834  he  was  elected  speaker  of  the  House  of 
Representatives.  During  his  term  in  congress,  he 
favored  the  reception  of  petitions  for  the  abolition  of 
slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  in  1838  voted 
against  the  “ gag  ” resolutions  of  Mr.  Atherton,  which 
required  such  petitions  to  be  received  without  debate. 
In  1841  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  war  by  Presi- 
dent Harrison,  but  resigned  from  his  post  at  an  early 
date,  owing  to  Mr.  Tyler’s  separation  from  the  Whig 
party,  and  retired  to  private  life.  He  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1847,  and  reelected  in  1853,  serv' 
ing  until  1859.  During  these  terms  he  opposed  the  Texas 
annexation  policy,  advocated  Henry  Clay’s  compromise 
of  1850,  voted  against  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill  of 
1850,  and  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  com- 
promise and  the  admission  of  Kansas  under  the  Lecomp- 
ton  constitution.  Mr.  Bell  was  nominated  for  president, 
with  Edward  Everett  for  vice-president,  by  a convention 
of  the  “Constitutional  Union”  in  i860,  when  secession 
was  threatened  by  the  Southern  States,  and  he  received 
the  electoral  votes  of  Tennessee,  Virginia  and  Ken- 
tucky, and  also  a large  vote  from  several  other  Southern 
States.  On  April  18, 1861,  he,  with  seven  other  citizens 
of  Tennessee,  issued  an  address  recommending  his 
State  to  preserve  an  armed  neutrality,  and  on  April  23, 
1861,  he  delivered  a.n  address  Nashville  m support  of  I 


-BEN 

the  Southern  policy.  Mr.  Bell  did  not  serve  in  the 
civil  war. 

BELLAMY,  Edward,  born  in  Massachusetts,  March 
26,  1850;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1871.  He  was 
connected  with  the  Springfield,  Mass.,  and  New  York 
press,  and  in  1888  published  Looking  Backward , a 
Utopian  dream  of  perfected  socialism.  Died  May,  1898. 

BELLOWS,  Albert  F.,  painter,  born  in  Milford, 
Mass.,  November  29,  1829;  died  November  24,  1883. 
He  studied  in  Europe,  and  excelled  in  water-colors.  He 
became  a member  of  the  National  Academy  in  1861, 
and  in  1868  was  made  honorary  member  of  the  Royal 
Belgian  Society  of  water-color  artists. 

BELLOWS,  Henry  Whitney,  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  June  11,  1814;  diedin  New  York  city,  January  30, 
1882.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1832,  and  at 
the  Divinity  School,  Cambridge,  after  which  he  was 
made  pastor  of  the  First  Unitarian  church  of  New 
York  city,  January  2,  1839.  Front  1861  till  1878  he  was 
president  of  the  United  States  Sanitary  Commission.  He 
delivered  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  oration  at  Harvard  in  1853, 
an  address  in  support  of  the  drama  in  1857,  and  Lowell 
lectures  on  the  treatment  of  social  diseases.  He  visited 
Europe  in  1848,  1867-8  and  1872,  and  California  in 
1872.  In  1846  he  founded  a weekly  paper.  The  Chris- 
tian Inquirer , of  which  he  was  the  chier  Writer  until 
1850,  and  he  was  associate  editor  of  the  Christian  Ex- 
aminer and  the  Liberal  Christian.  Harvard  gave  him 
the  degree  of  D.D.  in  1854. 

BELMONT,  August,  born  in  Germany  in  1816, 
settled  in  New  York  in  1837,  and  from  1844  t°  1850 
was  Austrian  consul-general  in  that  city.  From  185410 
1858  he  was  United  States  minister  to  the  Hague,  and 
on  his  return  to  New  York  engaged  in  banking  there. 
He  took  a prominent  part  in  politics,  and  was  chair- 
man of  the  Democratic  national  committee.  He  died 
November  24,  1890.  His  son,  Perry  Belmont,  born  in 
New  York  in  1851,  served  three  terms  in  congress 
(1881-87)  as  a Democrat. 

BENEDEK,  Ludwig  von,  born  in  Hungary  in 
1804,  entered  the  Austrian  service,  fought  in  the  Italian 
war,  1848-49,  and  defeated  the  Hungarian  patriots  in 
1849.  In  June,  1866,  he  commanded  the  entire  Aus- 
trian force  of  200,000  men,  and  on  July  3d  of  that  year 
was  completely  overwhelmed  by  the  Prussians  at  Sad- 
owa,  losing  40,000  men  and  100  cannon.  He  died 
April  27,  1881. 

BENEDETTI,  Vincent,  born  in  Corsica  in  1815,  was 
French  minister  at  Turin  1861-62,  and  at  Berlin  1864-70. 
It  was  he  who,  by  insisting,  under  the  orders  of  Napo- 
leon III.,  that  the  king  of  Prussia  should  give  pledges 
in  regard  to  the  candidacy  of  Prince  Leopold  of  Ho- 
henzollern  for  the  Spanish  throne,  caused  the  rupture 
of  diplomatic  relations  and  precipitated  the  war  of 
1870-71.  He  died  March  28,  1900. 

BENEDICT,  Sir  Julius,  musical  composer,  born  in 
Stuttgart,  Germany,  November  27,  1804;  died  in  London 
June  5,  1885.  He  visited  the  United  States  with  Jenny 
Lind  in  1850.  Among  his  works  are  the  oratorio,  St. 
Peter , the  operas  The  Gypsy's  Warning,  The  Cru- 
saders, and  The  Brides  of  Venice;  and  the  cantatas,  The 
Lily  of  Killarney , Undine , and  Cceur  de  Lion. 

BENJAMIN,  Judah  Philip,  lawyer,  born  in  St. 
Croix,  W.  I.,  August  11,  1811;  died  in  Paris,  France, 
May  8,  1884.  He  was  of  Jewish  parentage.  He  re- 
moved with  his  family  to  Savannah,  Ga.  He  studied  at 
Yale,  and  read  law  in  New  Orleans,  where  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834,  and  became  a member  of 
the  firm  of  Slidell,  Benjamin  & Conrad.  In  1845  he  was 
a member  of  the  convention  to  revise  the  State  constitu- 
tion. In  1852  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate 
I as  a Whig,  but  during  the  anti-slavery  agitation  becam* 


BEN-BER 


a.  Democrat,  and  was  reelected  to  the  Senate  in  1857, 
but  withdrew  with  John  Slidell  at  the  secession  of 
Louisiana.  During  his  term  he  advocated  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  bill  of  1854,  but  afterward  insisted  that  the 
principle  of  popular  sovereignty  had  been  definitely  set 
aside  by  the  decision  in  the  Dred-Scott  case,  which  he 
wished  accepted  as  conclusive.  In  February,  1861,  he 
was  appointed  attorney-general  of  the  provisional  gov- 
ernment of  the  Confederate  States,  but  resigned  this 
office,  and  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  by  Jefferson 
Davis,  which  office  he  held  until  the  Confederacy  was 
broken.  He  fled  from  Richmond  to  the  Bahamas,  and 
thence  to  Liverpool  in  September,  1865.  He  studied 
English  law,  entering  Lincoln  Inn  in  1866,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  the  following  summer.  He  was 
promoted  Queen’s  counsel  in  June,  1872,  and  acquired 
an  extensive  practice. 

BENJAMIN,  Park,  born  in  Demerara,  ^August 
13,  1809;  died  in  New  York  city,  September  12,  1864. 
He  studied  at  Harvard  and  Trinity  and  practiced  law  in 
Boston.  He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  New 
England  Magazine,  and  the  American  Monthly 
Magazine , and  edited  the  New  Yorker  and  other  pe- 
riodicals. His  son  of  the  same  name,  born  in  New  York, 
May  11,  1849,  was  associate  editor  of  the  Scientific 
American  from  1872  to  1878. 

BENNETT,  James  Gordon,  Jr.,  born  in  New  York 
city,  May  10,  1841  ; was  the  only  son  of  the  founder 
of  the  New  York  Herald , and  is  the  sole  proprietor  of 
that  paper. 

BENSON,  Edward  White,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, was  born  in  Birmingham,  England,  in  1829, 
and  took  the  highest  classical  honors  at  Cambridge  in 
1852.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1857,  became  head- 
master of  Wellington  college  in  1858,  and  was  conse- 
crated Bishop  of  Truro,  April  25,  1877.  In  1882,  he  be- 
came archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  died  Oct.  11,  1896. 

BENTON,  Thomas  Hart,  statesman,  born  near 
Hillsborough,  N.  C.,  March  14,  1782;  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  April  10,  1858.  His  father,  Col.  Jesse 
Benton,  a lawyer  of  North  Carolina,  and  private  secre- 
tary to  Governor  Tryon,  died  when  Thomas  was  eight 
years  of  age.  The  latter  was  partly  educated  at  the 
University  of  North  Carolina,  but  removed  with  his 
mother,  Ann  Gooch,  of  Virginia,  to  Tennessee. 
Thomas  studied  law  with  St.  George  Tucker,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  of  Nashville  in  1811,  and  acquired  a 
large  practice.  Elected  to  the  legislature,  he  procured 
the  passage  of  a law  for  the  reform  of  the  judicial  system 
of  the  State,  and  another  which  gave  the  right  of  trial  by 
jury  to  slaves.  In  1810  he  entered  the  United  States 
army,  and  in  1812  was  Jackson’s  aide-de-camp.  Subse- 
quently he  had  a quarrel  with  Andrew  Jackson,  which 
resulted  in  a personal  combat  with  knives  and  pistols, 
and  a long  and  bitter  feud.  He  also  raised  a regiment  of 
which  he  was  appointed  colonel,  and  when  this  was  dis- 
banded in  1813  he  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  by  Presi- 
dent Madison,  and  started  for  Canada,  but  peace  was  de- 
clared and  he  resigned  his  commission.  In  1815  he 
moved  to  St.  Louis,  where  he  practiced  law  and  founded 
The  Missouri  Inquirer,  a journal  of  strong  pro-slavery 
proclivities,  and  became  involved  in  several  duels,  in  one 
of  which  he  killed  a Mr.  Lucas.  He  advocated  the  ad- 
mission of  Missouri  as  a slave  State,  and  when  it  was 
included  in  the  Union  in  1820,  he  was  chosen  to  the 
United  States  Senate,  where  he  served  for  thirty  years. 
He  secured  a reform  in  the  disposition  of  the  government 
lands  to  settlers;  advocated  new  land  laws  in  1824,  1826 
and  1828;  caused  the  adoption  of  a bill  throwing  the 
mineral  and  saline  lands  of  Missouri  open  for  occupancy; 
secured  the  repeal  of  the  salt  tax,  1829-30;  was  an  advo- 
cate of  a railroad  to  the  Pacific;  favored  the  opening  of 
36— J 


6 47? 

trade  with  New  Mexico;  encouraged  the  establishment 
of  military  stations  in  Missouri;  gave  attention  to  post- 
roads, and,  during  the  political  agitation  caused  by  Presi- 
dent Jackson’s  determination  to  overthrow  the  United 
States  Bank,  and  to  place  the  currency  on  a metallic 
basis,  he  advocated  that  measure,  and  received  the  name 
of  “ Old  Bullion.  ” Colonel  Benton  moved  the  famous 
“ expunging  resolutions  ” in  1837,  which  struck  from  the 
journal  of  the  Senate  a vote  of  censure  against  General 
Jackson  at  the  time  of  his  assumption  of  power  during 
the  battle  of  New  Orleans.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
the  discussions  in  regard  to  the  Oregon  boundary,  the 
annexation  of  Texas,  and  other  important  subjects,  and 
during  the  Mexican  war  he  was  useful  to  the  government. 
He  opposed  Henry  Clay’s  compromise  measures  in  1850, 
and  his  struggle  against  J.  C.  Calhoun’s  resolutions  cost 
him  his  seat  in  the  Senate.  In  1852  he  was  elected  to  the 
House  of  Representatives,  where  he  opposed  the  policyof 
President  Pierce,  and  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  and  in 
1854  was  defeated  for  congress  by  a coalition  of  his 
former  political  opponents.  In  1856  he  was  defeated  as 
Democratic  candidate  for  governor  of  Missouri.  He 
then  retired  from  public  life,  and  devoted  himself  to  com- 
pleting his  Thirty  Years'  View,  or  a History  of  the 
Working  of  the  A jn  eric  an  Government  from  1820  to 
1850  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1854-6).  His  daughter,  Jes- 
sie, married  Gen.  John  C.  Fremont. 

BERESFORD,  William  Charles  De  La  Poer, 
commonly  called  Lord  Charles  Beresford,  born  in  Ire- 
land, February  10,  1846.  He  entered  the  British  navy 
when  a boy,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  bombard- 
ment of  Alexandria,  in  July,  1S82,  and  in  the  Khartoum 
expedition  three  years  later.  He  was  a member  ot 
parliament,  and  served  a term  at  the  Admiralty  Board, 
but  resigned  in  1889  to  accept  a naval  command. 

BERGH,  Henry,  founder  of  the  American  Society 
for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals  ; born  in  New 
York  city  in  1823.  His  family,  of  German  origin, 
cajne  to  America  about  1740,  and  settled  near  Staats- 
burg,  on  the  Hudson,  and  his  father,  Christian,  was  a 
shipbuilder  in  the  service  of  the  government.  After 
studying  at  Columbia  college,  he  went  to  Europe, 
where  he  spent  twelve  years,  traveled  extensively  in  the 
East,  and  in  1862  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
American  legation  in  St.  Petersburg,  but  resigned 
owing  to  the  severity  of  the  climate.  In  1874  he  re- 
turned to  this  country,  and  resolved  to  devote  his  time 
to  the  protection  of  animals.  The  first  American 
society  of  the  class  was  incorporated,  with  Mr.  Bergh 
as  its  president,  on  April  10,  1866.  In  1871,  a French- 
man, Louis  Bonard,  left  $150,000  to  the  society,  and 
it  removed  to  the  corner  of  Fourth  avenue  and  Twenty- 
second,  New  York  city.  The  association  has  a large 
and  influential  membership,  and  in  New  York  city  its 
officers  are  constituted  special  policemen,  with  author- 
ity to  arrest  any  person  found  practicing  cruelty  to 
animals.  In  the  face  of  ridicule  and  opposition,  Mr. 
Bergh  created  a reform  recognized  as  one  of  the  benefi- 
cent movements  ot  the  age.  In  1886  thirty-nine 
states  of  the  Union,  Brazil,  and  the  Argentine  Re- 
public had  adopted  the  original  laws  passed  for  him 
by  the  legislature  of  New  York.  Mr.  Bergh  received 
no  salary  for  his  services.  He  invented  artificial 
pigeons  for  the  sportsman’s  gun,  and  procured  an  am- 
bulance for  removing  injured  animals  from  the  street. 
In  1874  he  rescued  a little  girl  from  brutal  treatment, # 
which  led  to  the  founding  of  a Society  for  the  Preven- 
tion of  Cruelty  to  Children.  Mr.  Bergh  wrote  several 
tales,  sketches  and  plays.  He  died  March  12,  1888. 

BERKELEY,  Sir  William,  colonial  governor  of 
Virginia,  born  in  London,  England,  about  1610;  died 
July  13,  1677.  His  father  was  Sir  Maurice  Berkeley. 


BER-BID 


6478 

After  his  graduation  at  Oxford,  in  1629,  he  traveled 
extensively  on  the  continent,  and  in  1630  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  of  Canada.  He  was 
sent  as  governor  to  Virginia  in  1641.  When  Cromwell 
attained  to  the  control  of  the  British  Government, 
Governor  Berkeley  offered  an  asylum  in  Virginia  to 
loyalist  gentlemen.  When  the  new  parliament  sent  to 
Virginia  several  ships  of  war  to  enforce  his  recall,  he 
was  compelled  to  resign.  On  the  death  of  Samuel 
Mathews,  the  governor  who  had  succeeded  him, 
Berkeley  was  temporarily  elected  governor,  and  received 
his  commission  from  Charles  II.  after  the  restoration. 
Several  harsh  measures  adopted  by  him  caused  consider- 
able dissatisfaction  among  the  colonists,  particularly  so 
his  faithlessness  and  obstinacy  in  dealing  with  Indians. 
In  1665  the  demanded  his  return;  neveitheless 

Berkeley  continued  his  authority  in  Virginia  for  eleven 
years  longer.  He  was  no  friend  of  educating  the  masses, 
and  acted  the  part  of  an  intolerant  sectarian  religionist. 
In  1676  he  was  peremptorily  recalled  to  England.  He 
wrote  The  Lost  Lady,  a tragic-comedy  (London,  1638); 
also  A Description  of  Virginia  (1663). 

BERNHARDT,  Sara,  actress,  born  in  Paris  of  Jew- 
ish parents,  October  22,  1844.  She  studied  at  the  Paris 
Conservatoire,  and  at  first  played  burlesque  parts,  but  in 
1867  began  her  career  as  an  exponent  of  the  classical 
dran  a.  She  has  played  engagements  in  tms  country 
and  in  England,  was  a Societaire  of  the  Theatre 
Fn^ais  in  Paris,  and  is  pronounced  by  competent 
judges ' 9 be  the  equal  of  Rachel  at  her  best.  In  1882  she 
marriej  a Greek  actor  named  Jacques  Damala,  who 
died  Av  gust  18,  1889. 

BERT,  Paul,  born  in  France,  October  19,  1833  ; 
studied  chemistry  and  became  professor  of  physiology  in 
the  faculty  of  sciences  at  Paris.  He  was  president  of  the 
Society  of  Biology,  and  in  1882  was  elected  a member  of 
rive  Academy  of  Sciences.  His  published  contributions 
on  anatomy,  physiology  and  other  scientific  branches 
are  of  great  value.  An  ardent  Republican,  he  entered 
political  life  at  the  September  (1870)  revolution,  and  from 
1874  to  1881  was  a member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
In  November  1881,  he  became  minister  of  worship  and 
public  instruction,  and  in  this  capacity  incurred  the  en- 
mity of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  by  his  efforts  to  secu- 
larize education.  He  was  sent  to  Tonkin  to  take  charge 
cf  French  interests  there,  and  died  of  malaria  a few 
months  later,  in  1886. 

BERTHELOT,  Pierre  Eugene,  chemist,  born  in 
Paris,  October  25,  1827;  became  in  1864,  professor  of 
organic  chemistry  in  the  College  de  France,  and  has 
published  valuable  scientific  works. 

BESANT,  Annie  (nee  Wood),  born  in  London, 
October  1,  1847,  married  in  1867,  divorced  in  1873, 
in  1874  a Secularist  and  in  1883  a socialist — in  1889 
discarded  free  thought  for  theosophy  and  since 
Mme.  Blavatsky’s  death  has  been  the  leader  of  the 
theosophists.  She  lectured  in  the  United  States  in 
1892,  published  her  autobiography,  Through  Storms  to 
Peace , in  1893  and  in  1894  visited  India,  the  birth  place 
of  theosophy. 

BESANT,  Walter,  a voluminous  and  popular  nov- 
elist, born  in  Portsmouth,  England,  in  1838,  wrote 
novels  and  plays  conjointly  with  the  late  J.  Rice,  and 
has  since  written  All  Sorts  and  Conditions  of  Men , 
which  inspired  the  establishment  of  the  People’s  Palace, 
London ; The  Ivory  Gate  (1892),  The  Rebel  Queen  (1893), 
and  many  other  novels,  besides  A History  of  London 
(1893).  He  took  part  in  the  Congress  of  Authors  at 
the  World’s  Fair  in  Chicago  in  1893.  Died  June  1901. 

BESSEMER,  Sir  Henry,  inventor  ot  the  Bessemer 
process  of  making  steel  from  iron,  which  reduced  the 
cost  from  $250  to  $50  a ton  and  revolutionized  the  iron 


and  steel  industry  in  the  United  States  as  well  as  in 
England,  was  born  at  Charlton,  Herts,  1813,  and  was  a 
prolific  inventor,  discovering  the  process  noted  above 
in  1856.  He  was  knighted  in  1879. 

BETHUNE,  George  Washington,  born  in  New 
York  city  in  March,  1805;  died  in  Florence,  Italy,  April 
27,  1862.  Ordained  a Presbyterian  minister  in  1825, 
he  united  with  the  Dutch  Reformed  church  in  1826  and 
preached  at  Utica,  Philadelphia  and  Brooklyn,  until 
1859,  when  he  went  to  Italy  for  his  health.  In  i860  he 
returned  home  and  became  associate-pastor  of  a New 
York  church,  but,  his  health  again  failing,  he  returned 
to  Italy  where  he  died  of  apoplexy.  He  was  an  ac- 
complished literary  worker  and  eloquent  orator. 

BEUST,  Friedrich  Ferdinand,  Baron  von, 
born  at  Dresden,  Saxony,  in  1809;  became  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  in  February,  1849.  Transferring  his 
allegiance  to  Austria,  he  became  in  1866  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  and  prime  minister  of  the  Austrian  em- 
pire. He  was  a protestant,  opposed  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic hierarchy,  abolished  the  concordat,  made  all  forms 
of  religious  belief  equal  before  the  law,  and  admitted  the 
Jews  to  all  civil  rights.  In  1871  he  resigned  the  chan- 
cellorship of  the  empire  of  Austro- Hungary,  and  became 
minister  to  England.  In  1878  he  was  transferred  to 
Paris,  and  he  died  October  24,  1886. 

BIDDLE,  James,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  in 
1783;  died  there  October  1,  1848.  After  receiving  his 
education  at  the  university  of  Pennsylvania,  he  entered 
the  navy  as  a midshipman  in  February,  1800;  served  in 
the  war  with  Tripoli;  was  captured  in  the  frigate 
Philadelphia , and  confined  for  four  months.  During 
the  war  of  1812  he  was  first  lieutenant  of  the  IVasp, 
and  led  in  the  action  against  the  Frolic , which  he  com- 
manded after  its  capture.  Both  vessels  were  taken  by 
the  British  ship,  Poictiers , and  conveyed  to  the  Ber- 
mudas. After  his  exchange,  in  March,  1813,  Mr. 
Biddle  was  given  command  of  a flotilla  of  gunboats  on 
the  Delaware,  and  transferred  to  the  Hornet , in  Decatur’s 
squadron,  blockaded  at  New  London,  Conn.  He 
escaped  and  captured  the  Penguin  off  the  island  Tristan 
d’Acunha,  on  March,  1813,  for  which  congress  gave 
him  a gold  medal.  In  February,  1815,  he  was  made 
captain.  During  his  command  of  the  Mediterranean 
squadron,  1831,  he  negotiated  a commercial  treaty  with 
Turkey,  and  in  1845  was  engaged  in  diplomatic  service 
in  China. 

BIDDLE,  Nicholas,  naval  officer,  born  in  Phila- 
delphia September  10,  1750;  killed  in  action  near  the 
West  Indies,  March  7,  1778.  He  entered  the  British 
navy  as  midshipman  in  1770,  but  absconded,  and  ship- 
ping as  a seaman  sailed  under  Nelson  in  the  Carcass  in 
the  exploring  expedition  of  Captain  Phipps  (Lord  Mus- 
grave).  At  the  beginning  of  the  War  of  Independence 
he  returned  to  Philadelphia,  was  made  captain  of  the 
brig  Andrew  Doria,  with  fourteen  guns  and  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  men;  served  in  Commodore  Hopkins’ 
attack  on  New  Providence,  and  cruised  off  Newfound- 
land, here  he  captured  two  transports  from  Scotland, 
bringing  400  troops  to  America,  and  other  prizes.  In 
February,  1777,  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
Randolph , a frigate  of  thirty-two  guns,  and  carried  four 
valuable  prizes  to  Charleston.  Soon  afterward  he  was 
made  commander  of  a small  squadron  and  cruised  in 
the  West  Indies,  where  he  encountered  the  Yannouth, 
a British  frigate  of  sixty-four  guns,  and  was  wounded 
in  the  action.  During  the  engagement  the  magazine 
of  Commodore  Biddle’s  vessel  exploded,  and  he  and 
his  crew  were  blown  up.  Only  four  of  the  three  hun- 
dred and  fifteen  men  escaped. 

BIDDLE,  Nicholas,  banker,  born  in  Philadelphia 
January  8,  1786;  died  there  February  27,  1844-  He 


B I E 

studied  law,  became  secretary  to  James  Monroe,  who 
was  then  minister  to  England,  and  was  elected  to  the 
legislature  of  Pennsylvania  in  1810.  In  1819  he  be- 
came a director,  and  four  years  later  was  made  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  bank.  He  held  the  lat- 
ter post  until  1839,  and  had  a protracted  fight  with 
General  Jackson  over  the  withdrawal  of  the  govern- 
ment deposits  in  1833.  The  failure  of  the  bank  in  1841 
left  him  poor.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Girard 
college. 

BIENVILLE,  Jean  Baptiste  le  Moyne,  Sieur 
DE,  governor  of  Louisiana,  born  in  Montreal,  Canada, 
February  23,  1680;  died  in  France  in  1768.  He  was  a 
son  of  Charles  le  Moyne,  baron  of  Longeuil,  whose 
family  was  prominent  in  Canada,  served  in  the  navy 
under  his  brother  Iberville,  and  was  wounded  in  an  en- 
gagement in  which  three  English  men-of-war  were  de- 
feated by  the  French  ship  Pelican , of  forty-two  guns. 
He  also  accompanied  Iberville,  who  was  commissioned 
by  the  French  Government  to  explore  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  and  erect  a fort  there.  They  settled  at 
Biloxi,  December  7,  1699,  and  Bienville  explored  the 
country  and  erected  a fort  fifty-four  miles  above  the 
mouth  of  the  river  in  January,  1700.  On  the  death  of 
a brother,  San  voile,  in  1701,  he  became  director  of  the 
colony,  and  removed  its  capital  to  Mobile,  but  was  ac- 
cused of  misconduct,  and  discharged  from  his  office  in 
1707.  He  held  this  office  for  a time  longer  on  account 
of  the  death  of  the  new  governor  on  his  way  from 
France,  and  when  Lamotte  Cardillac  was  made  governor 
he  was  appointed  lieutenant-governor.  A new  colony 
having  been  formed  by  Law’s  Mississippi  company, 
Bienville  was  made  its  governor,  and  in  March,  1718,  he 
founded  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  and  placed  his  brother 
Chatauguay  in  command  of  Pensacola,  which  he  wrested 
from  the  Spaniards.  He  transferred  the  capital  of 
Louisiana  to  New  Orleans  in  1723,  and  in  January, 
1724,  was  called  to  France.  He  was  removed  from  his 
post  on  August  9,  1726,  but  in  1733  he  was  again  made 
governor  of  Louisiana,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-gen- 
eral. In  1736,  1739,  and  1740,  he  made  unsuccessful 
expeditions  against  the  Chickasaw  Indians,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  was  removed,  and  he  returned  to 
France  in  1743.  He  published  a code  which  regulated 
the  condition  of  slaves,  prohibited  every  religion  except 
the  Roman  Catholic,  and  banished  Jews  from  the  colony; 
this  remained  in  force  until  Louisiana  was  purchased  by 
the  United  States. 

BIERSTADT,  Albert,  painter,  born  in  Diissel- 
dorf,  Germany,  January  7,  1830;  came  to  America 
when  a child.  He  studied  art  in  Europe,  but  chose 
California  and  Colorado  as  the  field  for  his  work.  His 
specialty  is  mountain  scenery,  and  he  painted  Laramie 
Peak,  Lander’s  Peak,  Mt.  Hood,  and  other  peaks  of 
the  Rockies  and  the  Sierra  Nevada.  He  is  a member 
of  the  National  Academy  and  of  the  St.  Petersburg 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  and  has  been  honored  by  vari- 
ous foreign  governments.  Died  Feb.  18,  1902. 

BIGELOW,  John,  journalist,  born  in  Malden, 
N.  Y.,  November  25,  1817;  became  part  owner  of  the 
New  York  Evening  Post  in  1849,  and  managed  that 
paper  until  1861.  In  the  last-named  year  he  was  sent 
to  Paris  as  counsel,  and  from  1865  to  1867,  was  United 
States  minister  there.  In  1867-68  he  went  over  to  the 
Democratic  party,  and  was  elected  secretary  of  state  of 
New  York.  Mr.  Bigelow  has  written  lives  of  Fremont 
and  William  Cullen  Bryant,  and  has  edited  Franklin’s 
autobiography  and  Tilden’s  speeches. 

BIGGAR,  Joseph,  born  at  Belfast  in  1828;  was 
elected  to  parliament  from  Cavan  as  a Home  Ruler  in 
1874,  and  became  known  as  the  champion  obstruction- 
ist of  the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  twice  pros- 


- B I R 6479 

ecuted  for  sedition  and  conspiracy,  but  both  juries 
disagreed.  He  died  February  19, 1890. 

BINGHAM,  John  A.,  lawyer,  born  in  Mercer,  Penn., 
in  1815  ; became  a lawyer,  and  was  elected  to  congress 
from  Ohio  as  a Republican  in  1854.  He  sat  in  the 
House  from  1855  to  1863,  then  became  judge-advocate 
in  the  army,  and  in  1864  solicitor  of  the  Court  of 
Claims.  As  special  judge-advocate  he  took  part  in  the 
trial  of  Lincoln’s  assassins.  He  returned  to  congress 
in  1865,  and  sat  until  1873.  an(*  was  one  °*  t^le  man' 
agers  of  the  impeachment  proceedings  against  Andrew 
Johnson.  For  twelve  years  from  May.  1873,  Mr*  Bing- 
ham was  U.  S.  minister  to  Japan.  Died  March  19,  1900. 

BINNEY,  Horace,  lawyer,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Penn.,  January  4,  1780;  died  there  August  12,  1875. 
After  graduating  at  Harvard  in  1 797,  he  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1800.  He  soon  became 
a leader  in  cases  before  the  higher  courts  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  practiced  also  in  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court.  He  opposed  President  Jackson’s  administra- 
tion, and  was  elected  to  congress  in  1833,  serving  one 
term,  and  he  was  a trustee  in  closing  the  affairs  of  the 
United  States  Bank,  in  which  he  had  been  a director. 
His  most  important  case  was  the  defense  of  Philadel- 
phia in  1843  before  the  United  States  Supreme  Court, 
against  the  heirs  of  Stephen  Girard  ( Vidal  v.  the  Mayor 
of  Philadelphia ).  His  argument  is  exhaustive  and 
final,  and  is  an  authority  on  the  law  of  charitable  uses. 
After  this  brilliant  triumph  he  retired  from  practice  in 
the  courts.  He  refused  a nomination  to  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  offered  by  President  Tyler,  and 
declined  many  judicial  posts.  Mr.  Binney  in  early  life 
contributed  to  Dennie’s  Port-Folio , and  published  Re- 
ports op  Cases  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  Pennsylvania 
from  17QQ  to  1814;  The  Leaders  of  the  Old  Bar  of  Phil- 
adelphia (Philadelphia,  1859);  An  Inquiry  into  the  For- 
mation of  Washington' s Farexvell  Address,  opposing 
the  claim  made  for  Alexander  Hamilton  as  its  author 
(1859);  The  Privilege  of  the  Writ  of  Habeas  Corpus 
Under  the  Constitution , maintaining  the  president’s 
power  to  suspend  the  writ  without  the  authority  previ- 
ously given  from  congress  (1862),  and  elaborated  in 
1865;  many  addresses  and  legal  pamphlets;  and  eulo- 
giums  of  Chief  Justice  Tilghman  (1827);  of  Chief  Jus- 
tice Marshall  (1836);  and  of  Hon.  John  Sergeant  (1852). 
His  son  Horace  (1809-1870)  was  a lawyer  of  ability 
and  a prominent  citizen  of  Philadelphia. 

BIRNEY,  James  Gillespie,  abolitionist,  born  in 
Danville,  Ky.,  February  4,  1792;  died  in  Perth  Amboy, 
N.  J.,  November  25,  1857.  After  graduation  at  Prince- 
ton, in  1812,  he  studied  law  in  Philadelphia  with  A.  J. 
Dallas,  and  removed  to  Kentucky,  where  he  served  in 
the  legislature.  He  removed  to  Huntsville,  Ala.,  in 
1825,  practiced  law,  became  district  attorney,  was  elected 
to  the  legislature,  and  aided  in  organizing  a branch  of 
the  Colonization  Society  in  1833.  In  1834  he  returned 
to  Kentucky,  and  was  made  a professor  in  the  university 
of  Danville.  He  was  made  president  of  the  Coloniza- 
tion Society,  which  he  organized  in  Kentucky,  and 
published  a letter  advocating  the  emancipation  of  slaves, 
setting  an  example  by  freeing  his  own.  Mr.  Birney 
could  not  get  his  anti-slavery  writings  printed 
in  Kentucky,  and  he  therefore  removed  to  Cin- 
cinnati, where  he  published  The  Philanthropist , 
one  of  the  earliest  anti-slavery  organs.  The  of- 
fice from  which  this  was  issued  was  frequently 
assailed  and  partially  destroyed  by  mobs.  In  1836  he 
removed  to  New  York,  having  been  made  secretary 
of  the  American  Anti-Slavery  Society,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  the  work.  He  was  a founder  of  the  Liberal 
party,  which  nominated  him  for  the  presidency  in  1840, 
when  he  was  in  England.  In  1842  he  removed  to  Sagi- 


6480  BIS  — 

naw,  Mich.,  and  two  years  later  was  again  nominated 
for  the  presidency,  receiving  more  than  62,000  votes  in 
thirteen  States.  This  deprived  Henry  Clay  of  the  elect- 
oral vote  of  Michigan,  and  secured  the  election  of  James 
K.  Polk.  After  a severe  fall  from  his  horse  Mr.  Birney 
retired  from  public  life. 

BISMARCK-SCHON  HAUSEN,  Otto  Eduard 
Leopold,  prince,  was  born  at  Schonhausen  in  Bran- 
denburg, April  1,  1815.  He  is  of  good  family,  his 
father  being  a Junker,  or  landed  proprietor,  and 
descended  from  a noble  house.  He  was  educated  at 
Berlin,  Gottingen,  and  Eldena,  and,  although  one  of 
the  wildest  of  students,  passed  a successful  examination. 
Having  served  a year  in  a volunteer  regiment,  he  settled 
on  the  family  estate,  and  in  1847  was  elected  to  the 
first  Landtag  of  the  kingdom  of  Prussia.  He  was  a 
strong  royalist  and  bitter  opponent  of  the  revolutionary 
methods  proposed  in  1848.  In  1847  he  married  the 
daughter  of  a Pomeranian  proprietor  named  Putt- 
kamer,  by  whom  he  had  two  sons  and  one  daughter. 
In  1848  he  was  rejected  at  the  polls,  but  a year  later 
became  a member  of  the  Landtag  which  met  at  Berlin, 
and  in  1851  represented  Prussia  in  the  Federal  Diet. 
In  1859  he  became  minister  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  on 
May  26,  1862,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Paris.  On 
September  24  of  the  same  year  he  was  recalled  and  ap- 
pointed minister  of  state  and  president  of  the  council. 

The  Chambers  refused  to  vote  his  budget  or  to  adopt 
his  propositions  for  military  reorganization,  and  Bis- 
marck prorogued  them,  and  governed  without  a parlia- 
ment for  five  sessions.  He  permitted  Austria  to  take 
part  in  the  attack  on  Schleswig-Holstein  and  secured  the 
Elbe  Duchies  for  Prussia  out  of  the  spoils.  On  May 
7,  1866,  a half-crazed  youth  known  as  Ferdinand  Cohen, 
or  Blind,  made  a daring  but  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
assassinate  Bismarck,  in  Unter  den  Linden,  Berlin,  and 
his  life  was  again  attempted  in  1874  by  an  ultramon- 
tane tinsmith.  In  1866  occurred  the  war  with  Austria, 
and  the  reorganization  of  the  North  Germanic  Confed- 
eration under  the  leadership  of  Prussia.  Through  all 
the  tortuous  mazes  of  diplomacy  and  intrigue,  and  in 
the  teeth  of  formidable  opposition  in  parliament,  Bis- 
marck kept  steadily  in  view  his  great  aim  of  the  unity 
and  aggrandizement  of  Germany.  Austria  having  been 
deprived  of  the  Southern  German  States,  it  only  re- 
mained to  deal  with  France.  The  ill-starred  Napoleon 
under  the  domination  of  an  ambitious  woman  and  a 
fanatical  priesthood,  furnished  the  necessary  pretext  for 
one  of  the  bloodiest  wars  of  modern  times,  and  when 
peace  was  finally  signed  at  Versailles,  Bismarck’s  sover- 
eign had  become  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  Otto  von 
Bismarck  was  the  most  powerful  man  in  Europe.  He 
was  created  a prince,  presented  with  an  estate,  and 
made  chancellor  of  the  newly  constituted  German 
empire. 

For  two  decades  German  history  was  largely 
the  history  of  Bismarck.  Over  and  over  again,  when 
his  schemes  were  opposed  in  parliament  or  by  the 
underground  intrigues  of  courtiers  he  threatened  to 
resign,  but  he  remained  until  1890  the  actual  governor 
of  Germany.  The  old  King  William, whom  Bismarck, 
with  the  help  of  Von  Moltke’s  military  genius,  raised 
to  the  rank  of  emperor,  passed  away,  followed  in  a few 
months  by  his  son,  but  still  the  Iron  Chancellor  kept 
his  place  in  the  counsels  of  the  third  emperor  of  recon- 
structed Germany.  Under  his  guidance  that  country 
has  become  a colonizing  power  as  well  as  the  arbiter  of 
peace  or  war  in  Europe.  He  sternly  repressed  the 
socialists,  even  at  the  sacrifice  of  constitutional  liberty, 
and  carried  out  his  policy  with  respect  to  the  army  in 
spite  of  the  protests  and  obstructive  measures  of  the 
Opposition.  Only  in  his  attempt  to  enforce  the  laws 


BL  A 

against  the  Catholics  did  he  fail  to  carry  out  his  views 
in  their  entirety.  The  forceful  young  emperor,  resent- 
ing his  chancellor’s  determination  to  dictate  the  policy 
of  the  empire  compelled  him  to  resign,  March  17,  1890, 
after  numerous  ruptures,  and  for  several' years  Prince 
Bismarck  was  a bitter  critic  of  the  imperial  policy,  but 
was  publicly  reconciled  to  the  emperor  in  1894.  His 
80th  birthday  in  1895,  was  celebrated  as  a great  na- 
tional event,  Emperor  William  II.  participating.  Prin- 
cess Bismarck  died  Nov.  27,  1894.  Died  July  30,  1898. 

BISSELL,  William  H.,  lawyer,  born  near  Coopers- 
town,  N.  Y.,  April  25,  1811 ; died  March  18,1860.  He 
served  in  the  Mexican  war,  was  in  congress  as  a Demo- 
crat, 1849-55,  but  left  the  party  over  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  bill,  and  was  elected  governor  of  Illinois  as  a 
Republican  in  1856.  He  was  reelected  and  died  in 
office.  During  the  discussions  on  the  Missouri  com- 
promise in  congress,  Jefferson  Davis  took  exception  to 
a statement  made  by  Mr._  Bissell  about  the  actions  of 
certain  Southern  soldiers  in  the  Mexican  war.  Davis 
challenged  Bissell,  but,  when  the  latter  promptly  ac- 
cepted and  named  muskets  at  short  range  as  the  weap- 
ons, Mr.  Davis  backed  down. 

BJORNSON,  Bjornstjerne,  poet  and  novelist, 
was  born  in  northern  Norway,  December  8,  1832.  He 
received  some  education  at  the  university  of  Christiania, 
wrote  a drama,  and  began  his  literary  labors  in  Copen- 
hagen. He  has  written  several  romantic  plays,  based 
on  the  Norse  Sagas,  and  as  a folk-lorist  and  popular 
novelist  stands  in  the  front  rank  of  Scandinavian  litera- 
ture. 

BLACK  HAWK,  a chief  of  the  Sac  and  Fox  tribes 
of  Indians,  born  in  Kaskaskia,  111.,  in  1767;  died  on 
the  river  Des  Moines,  October  3,  1838.  At  an  early  age 
he  became  a trusted  brave  and  a successful  chieftain  in 
conducting  sorties  against  the  Osage  and  Cherokee 
tribes.  In  1788  he  was  grand-chieftain  of  the  Sacs.  In 
1804  the  Sacs  and  Foxes,  for  an  annuity  of  $1,000, 
agreed  to  cede  to  the  United  States  lands  extending 
about  700  miles  along  the  Mississippi  river.  This  con- 
tract Black  Hawk  repudiated,  averring  that  the  chiefs 
had  been  made  drunk  before  they  signed  the  documents. 
During  the  war  of  1812  Black  Hawk,  moved  by  Elsk- 
watawa,  the  Shawnee  prophet,  and  tempted  by  British 
agents  with  the  title  of  general,  joined  the  enemy  with 
about  500  warriors;  but  the  Indians  soon  retired  from 
British  service.  In  1816,  at  St.  Louis,  Black  Hawk  was 
induced  to  sign  the  repudiated  treaty  of  1804.  In  1823 
most  of  the  Sacs  and  Foxes,  under  the  leadership  of 
Keokuk,  removed  to  their  reservation  beyond  the  Mis- 
sissippi river;  but  Black  Hawk,  with  part  of  the  tribe,  re- 
fused to  emigrate,  although  most  of  the  chiefs  had  signed 
a treaty  by  which  the  Indian  lands  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi river  became  the  property  of  the  whites.  When 
the  plantings  of  his  people  were  destroyed  and  their 
lands  became  seized  by  white  settlers  the  Indians  threat- 
ened revenge.  On  June  25,  1831,  General  Gaines,  at  the 
head  of  a force  of  militia,  drove  the  Indians  from  their 
settlements.  Early  in  1832  Black  Hawk,  with  a band 
of  Indians,  crossed  the  Mississippi  river,  when  they 
began  to  destroy  the  whites;  but,  after  several  encoun- 
ters', the  Indians  were  defeated  and  Black  Hawk  himself 
and  his  two  sons  became  captives.  The  three  were 
confined  in  Fortress  Monroe  until  June  5,  1833.  Later 
Black  Hawk  was  deposed  from  leadership,  and  Keokuk 
became  grand-chief  of  the  Sacs  and  Foxes,  3,000  of 
whom  were  settled  near  Fort  Des  Moines.  A Life  of 
Black  Hawk , by  J.  B.  Patterson,  was  published  in 
1834 ; also  one  by  W.  J.  Snelling,  and  another  by  Ben- 
jamin Drake. 

BLACK,  Jeremiah  Sullivan,  born  in  Somerset 
county,  Penn.,  January  10,  1810;  died  in  York,  Penn., 


BL  A 


August  19,  1883.  He  was  of  Scotch-Irish  ancestry  and 
his  grandfather  James  came  from  Ireland  and  settled  in 
Somerset  county,  Penn.  After  receiving  a good  edu- 
cation, Jeremiah  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1831,  made  prosecuting  attorney  of  Somerset  county 
and  attained  eminence.  In  1842  he  was  raised  to  the 
bench  and  made  president  judge  of  his  district,  and  in 
1851  became  chief  justice.  He  was  reelected  in  1854 
for  a term  of  fifteen  years,  but  in  1857  was  called  to  the 
cabmet  by  President  Buchanan  as  attorney  general. 
Whde  serving  in  this  capacity  he  at  the  time  of 
secession  declared,  in  answer  to  the  president’s  request 
for  an  opinion,  it  was  the  duty  of  the  Union  to  put 
down  insurrection.  He  succeeded  General  Cass  as 
secretary  of  state  in  December,  i860,  and  held  this 
place  until  the  close  of  James  Buchanan’s  administra- 
tion. He  was  appointed  a judge  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  but  his  nomination  was  not  confirmed  by  the 
Senate,  and  he  then  became  reporter  of  that  court  for  a 
short  time,  after  which  he  returned  to  the  practice  of 
his  profession  in  York. 

BLACK,  W iLLiAfti,  novelist,  born  at  Glasgow, 
Scotland,  November  11,  1841.  He  began  his  literary 
life  by  writing  for  newspapers  and  magazines  in  Lon- 
don, became  editor  of  the  London  Review , and  assistant 
editor  of  the  Daily  News,  served  as  a war  correspondent 
in  1866,  and  visited  this  country.  His  novels  contain 
graphic  descriptions  of  scenery  and  yachting  life,  and 
are  widely  popular.  Among  the  best  known  are  A 
Princess  of  Thule,  Madcap  Violet,  White  Wing's,  In 
Far  Lochaber  (1893)  and  Donald  Ross  and  The  New 
Prince  Fortunatus  (1894.)  Died  Dec.  10,  1898. 

BLACKBURN,  Joseph  Clay  Styles,  born  in 
Woodford  county,  Ky.,  October  1,  1838;  practiced  law 
in  Chicago  1858-60.  He  entered  the  Confederate  army 
in  1861,  and  served  through  the  Civil  War.  In  1871  and 
1873  he  was  elected  to  the  Kentucky  legislature,  and  in 
1875  entered  congress  as  a Democrat;  was  reelected  up 
to  1882;  in  March,  1885,  became  United  States  senator, 
and  was  reelected  for  the  term  ending  March,  1897. 

BLACKIE,  John  Stuart,  born  in  Glasgow,  Scot- 
land, in  July,  1809;  was  educated  at  Aberdeen  and 
Edinburgh,  and  studied  later  at  Berlin,  Rome,  and  Got- 
tingen. He  devoted  himself  to  literature,  and,  in  1834, 
published  a translation  in  verse  of  Goethe’s  Faust.  Made 
professor  of  Latin  literature  in  Aberdeen,  1841,  he  was 
transferred,  in  1852,  to  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
- where,  for  thirty  years  he  was  professor  of  Greek. 
He  was  an  ardent  advocate  of  Scotch  nationality,  and 
did  more  than  any  other  writer  to  preserve  Gaelic  lit- 
erature, in  letter  and  spirit.  He  died  March  2,  1895. 

BLACKMORE,  Richard  Doddridge,  born  in 
Berkshire,  Eng.,  in  1825;  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1847, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar.  Of  his  novels,  which  have 
become  popular  both  in  the  United  States  and  inJEng- 
land,  the  best  is  Lorna  Doone,  a story  of  Devonshire 
life.  He  published  Perlycross  in  1894.  Died  Jan.,  1900. 

BLACKWELL,  Elizabeth,  born  in  Bristol,  Eng., 
in  1821;  came  to  the  United  States  when  a child,  and 
was  the  first  woman  to  attain  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  this 
country.  She  practiced  medicine  for  many  years,  or- 
ganized a woman’s  medical  college  in  New  York,  andhas 
written  on  the  Laws  of  Life  and  the  education  of  children. 

BLAINE,  James  Gillespie,  statesman,  born  in  West 
Brownville,  Washington  county,  Pa.,  January  31,  1830. 
His  great-grandfather,  Ephraim  L.  Blaine,  was  colonel 
of  the  Pennsylvania  line,  and  a commissary  general  in 
the  Revolutionary  army.  After  receiving  an  education 
in  Lancaster,  Blaine  was  graduated  at  Washington  col- 
lege, Pa.,  in  1847,  and  afterward  became  a professor  in 
the  Western  Military  Institute,  Georgetown,  Ky.  After 
two  years  he  returned  to  Pennsylvania,  studied  law,  was 


6481 

admitted  to  tne  bar,  but  did  not  practice,  and  became  a 
teacher  in  the  Institution  for  the  Blind  in  Philadelphia. 
In  1854  he  removed  to  Augusta,  Me.,  entering  jour- 
nalism as  the  editor  of  the  Kennebec  Journal.  On 
the  formation  of  the  Republican  party  in  1855  he  became 
noted  as  a public  speaker,  and  in  1858  was  made  chair- 
man of  the  State  committee,  a post  which  he  held  for 
twenty  years.  From  1858  to  1862  he  served  in  the  State 
legislature,  and  was  for  two  years  speaker.  In  1857 
he  removed  to  Portland,  Me.,  to  edit  the  Advertiser, 
and  in  1862  entered  congress,  where  he  served  for 
eighteen  years.  He  achieved  a reputation  as  a ready 
debater,  his  alert  perceptions,  unfailing  memory  and 
accurate  knowledge  of  political  history  giving  him  great 
advantages.  After  the  death  of  Thaddeus  Stevens  he 
became  the  leader  of  the  Republican  party.  In  all  im- 
portant matters  regarding  reconstruction  after  the  civil 
war,  he  had  a very  prominent  share.  Mr.  Blaine  was 
chosen  speaker  of  the  House  in  1869,  and  twice  reelected, 
serving  until  March,  1875.  He  was  a candidate  for  presi- 
dent in  1876,  at  the  convention  in  Cincinnati,  and  received 
the  highest  number  of  votes  on  every  ballot,  except  the 
last,  which  gave  the  nomination  to  Rutherford  B.  Hayes. 
In  1876  he  was  appointed  to  the  United  States  Senate,  to 
fill  a vacancy,  and  in  the  Republican  presidential  con 
vention  held  in  Chicago  in  1880  he  was  again  a candidate. 
When  General  Garfield  became  president,  Mr.  Blaine  was 
made  secretary  of  state,  and  while  the  president  lingered 
on  his  deathbed,  he  was  the  executive  head  of  the  gov- 
ernment. On  December  19,  1881,  Mr.  Blaine  retired 
from  the  cabinet,  and  was  thus,  for  the  first  time  in  twenty- 
three  years,  out  of  public  life.  In  1884  he  was  Repub- 
lican candidate  for  president,  and  took  the  stump  in  Ohio, 
Indiana,  New  York  and  other  States,  giving  a series  of 
speeches,  in  which  he  upheld  protection  to  American  in- 
dustry, and  deepened  the  opinion  regarding  his  powers. 
After  his  defeat  by  Grover  Cleveland,  he  retired  to  his 
home  in  Augusta.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  Maine 
canvass  in  1886,  opening  it  on  August  24th,  in  a speech 
devoted  to  the  fisheries,  tariff  and  third  party  prohibi- 
tion movement.  In  1887-8  he  traveled  in  Europe,  and 
in  1889  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  in  President 
Harrison’s  cabinet.  Mr.  Blaine  was  the  author  of  Twenty 
Years  of  Congress  (2  vols.,  Norwich,  Conn.,  1884-6). 
In  June  1892  Mr.  Blaine  resigned  the  office  of  secre- 
tary of  state  to  seek  the  Republican  nomination  for 
President  but  was  defeated.  He  died  at  Washington, 
January  27,  1893. 

BLAIR,  Austin,  born  in  Tompkins  county,  N.  Y., 
February  8,  1818,  removed  to  Michigan  in  1839,  studied 
law  and  became  county  clerk,  member  of  the  legislature 
(1846),  and  prosecuting  attorney  of  Jackson  county 
(1852-54).  From  1854  to  1856  he  served  in  the  State 
senate  and  in  1861  was  elected  governor.  He  filled  this 
office  during  the  war  and  lent  efficient  aid  to  the  Union 
cause.  From  1866  to  1872  Mr.  Blair  served  in  con- 
gress as  a Republican  and  in  1873  he  resumed  the 
practice  of  law  in  Jackson,  Mich.,  where  he  died  Au- 
gust 7,  1894. 

BLAIR,  Francis  Preston,  born  in  Virginia,  April 
12,  1791;  died  October  18,  1876.  Originally  a Henry 
Clay  Whig,  he  became  editor  of  the  Washington  Globe, 
the  organ  of  Jacksonian  Democracy  (1829-45),  and  in 
1856  was  active  in  the  organization  of  the  Republican 
party,  and  presided  over  the  Pittsburg  convention  which 
nominated  Fremont.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  in  th» 
Chicago  convention  of  i860,  which  nominated  Lincoln. 
In  1864  he  had  interviews  with  Jefferson  Davis  in  the 
hope  of  affecting  a peace,  but  the  negotiations  had  no 
satisfactory  result.  He  opposed  the  reconstruction 
measures  after  Lincoln’s  death,  and  acted  with  the 
Democratic  party. 


B L A 


6482 

BLAIR,  Francis  Preston,  son  ot  the  foregoing, 
born  in  Lexington,  Ky.,  February  19,  1821;  died  July 
8,  1875.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  became  a free- 
soiler,  edited  the  Missouri  Democrat , and  from  1852  to 
1856  sat  in  the  legislature  of  Missouri.  In  1856  he 
joined  the  Republican  party,  and  was  elected  to  con- 
gress. Defeated  in  1858,  he  was  reelected  in  i860  and 
1862.  It  is  claimed,  by  his  instrumentality,  Missouri 
and  Kentucky  were  saved  to  the  Union.  He  entered 
the  volunteer  army  as  a colonel,  became  major-general 
November  29,  1862,  and  resigned  his  seat  in  congress 
in  1863.  He  commanded  a division  at  Vicksburg,  fought 
at  Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge,  and  at  the 
head  of  the  seventeenth  army  corps  marched  with  Sher- 
man to  the  sea.  Andrew  Johnson  nominated  him  min- 
ister to  Austria,  but  the  Senate  refused  to  confirm  the 
appointment.  He  opposed  reconstruction,  andreturned 
to  the  Democratic  party.  In  1868  he  was  on  the  presi- 
dential ticket  with  Horatio  Seymour,  and  was  defeated. 
In  1871  he  reentered  the  State  legislature,  and  was  then 
elected  to  fill  a vacancy  in  the  United  States  Senate.  In 
1873  he  was  defeated  for  reelection,  and  became  State 
superintendent  of  insurance. 

BLAIR,  Henry  William,  born  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, December  6,  1834;  served  in  the  civil  war,  and 
from  1866  to  1868  in  the  State  House  of  Representa- 
tives and  Senate.  He  was  in  congress  from  1875  to 
1879,  in  the  latter  year  became  United  States  senator 
and  was  reelected  in  1885.  He  is  a strong  advocate  of 
prohibition  and  female  suffrage.  In  1891  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  China,  but  the  Chinese  government 
refused  to  receive  him  because  of  his  record  as  an  op- 
ponent of  Ctnnese  immigration.  He  was  elected  in 
November,  1802,  to  the  53rd  congress. 

B.LAiR,  John  Insley,  born  in  New  Jersey,  Au- 
gust 22,  1802;  organized  the  Lackawanna  Iron  and  Coal 
Company,  built  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  and  West- 
ern ranroad,  organized  the  railroad  system  of  Iowa,  and 
constructed  2,000  miles  of  railroad  in  that  State  and  Ne- 
braska. He  was  one  of  the  original  directors  of  the 
Un.on  Pacific,  was  president  of  three  railroads  and  a 
director  of  twenty.  Mr.  Biair  was  a strong  Republican 
but  tailed  to  become  governor  of  his  State  in  1868. 

BLaIR,  Montgomery,  son  of  Francis  P.  Blair,  Sr., 
born  in  Kentucky,  May  10,  1813;  died  July  27,  1883. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1835,  and  served  in  the 
Seminole  war.  Admitted  to  the  bar  in  St.  Louis  in 
1839,  he  became  United  States  district-attorney,  and  in 
1842  mayor  of  that  city.  He  held  various  judicial  of- 
fices in  Missouri,  and,  after  1852,  in  Maryland;  left  the 
Democratic  party;  was  of  counsel  for  the  plaintiff  in  the 
Dred  Scott  case,  and  presiaed  over  the  Maryland  Re- 
publican convention  in  i860.  From  March,  1861,  to 
September  23,  he  was  postmaster-general,  but  after- 
ward acted  with  the  Democratic  party. 

BLAKE,  Edward,  born  in  Adelaide,  Ontario,  in 
1833;  graduated  at  the  university  of  Toronto,  where  he 
won  many  prizes,  and  of  which  he  was  elected  chancellor 
in  1876.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1856,  and  was 
made  queen’s  counsel  in  1864.  In  1867  he  was  elected 
to  the  Ontario  parliament,  and  in  1871  became  premier 
of  Ontario.  He  was  attorney-general  of  Canada  in 
1873-74,  and  in  1878  became  leader  of  the  Liberal  Oppo- 
sition in  the  Dominion  parliament.  Irish  by  parentage 
and  an  ardent  Home  Ruler,  Mr.  Blake  waselectedto  the 
British  House  of  Commons  as  an  anti-Parnellite,  in  1892. 

BLAKE,  Lillie  Devereux,  author  and  woman’s 
suffrage  advocate,  was  born  in  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  August 
12,  1835.  She  was  married  in  1855  to  F.  G.  Q.  Um- 
sted,  who  died  in  1859,  and  in  1865  to  Grenfell  Blake. 
She  is  piesident  of  the  New  York  Woman’s  Suffrage 
Association. 


BLAKELEY,  JOHNSTON,  naval  officer,  born  near 
Seaford,  Ireland,  in  October,  1781,  was  lost  at  sea  in 
1814.  He  came  to  this  country  with  his  father  when  he 
was  a small  child,  and  settled  in  Wilmington,  N.  C.  In 
February,  1800,  Blakeley  obtained  the  appointment  of 
midshipman  in  the  United  States  navy;  on  February  10, 
1807,  was  made  lieutenant,  and  in  1813  became  com- 
mander of  the  brig  Enterprise , employed  in  protecting 
our  coasting  trade.  On  July  24,  1813,  he  became  mas- 
ter-commander, and  in  August  assumed  command  of 
the  sloop  of  war  Wasp.  On  May  I,  1814,  he  sailed 
from  Portsmouth  N.  H.,  on  a cruise,  and  on  June  28, 
captured  the  British  brig  Reindeer.  Blakeley  saw  fit  to 
burn  his  prize  at  sea,  and  Congress  awarded  him  a gold 
medal  in  recognition  of  his  exploit.  On  September  1, 
he  destroyed  the  brig  Avon,  and  a few  days  later  two 
other  vessels  were  captured  and  scuttled;  on  September 
21,  he  also  took  the  brig  Atlanta,  which  was  sent  to 
Savannah.  For  these  gallant  services  Blakeley  was 
made  captain  the  same  year.  His  vessel,  the  Wasp, 
was  last  seen  and  spoken  at  sea  on  October  9.  Prob- 
ably she  foundered  in  a gale. 

BLANC,  Louis,  born  at  Madrid,  October  29,  1811, 
of  French  parentage,  became  a journalist  and  author  in 
Paris,  and  wrote  the  Histoire  de  Dix  Ans  (1830  to  1840), 
and  the  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Frangaise.  In  1848 
he  became  a member  of  the  provisional  government, 
was  instrumental  in  abolishing  the  death  penalty,  and 
organized  the  system  of  national  workshops,  which 
proved  such  a disastrous  failure.  He  fled  to  Belgium 
after  the  riots  of  June,  1848,  and  lived  there  and  in 
England  until  the  establishment  of  the  republic  in 
September,  1870.  He  resided  in  Paris  during  both 
sieges;  was  elected  to  the  National  Assembly,  and  led  the 
Extreme  Left  or  Radical  party.  He  died  Dec.  6,  1882. 

BLANCHARD,  Edward  Laman,  born  in  London, 
England,  December  11,  1820;  edited  Chambers ’ Jour- 
nal, and  wrote  for  many  years  for  the  Daily  Telegraph. 
He  also  wrote  the  novels  Temple  Bar  and  The  Man 
Without  a Destiny,  and  many  farces,  extravaganzas  and 
fairy  tales.  He  died  September  5,  1889. 

BLAND,  Richard  Parks,  born  in  Hartford,  Ky., 
August  19,  1835;  studied  law,  spent  some  years  in 
Nevada  mining,  and  in  1865  removed  to  Missouri, 
where  he  practiced  his  profession.  In  1872  he  was 
elected  to  congress  as  a Democrat  and  was  reelected 
every  term  until  1894.  Pie  introduced  in  the  44th 
congress  his  well-known  silver  bill,  providing  for  the 
coinage  of  not  less  than  two  million  dollars  of  412^ 
grains  each  every  month,  and  making  such  coins  a legal 
tender.  He  was  Chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Cpin- 
age  of  the  53rd  Congress. 

BLANQUI,  Louis  Auguste,  born  at  Nice  in  1805; 
took  part  in  scores  of  political  plots  and  insurrections 
under  Louis  Ph.llippe,  spent  many  years  in  prison,  and 
was  condemned  to  death  more  than  once.  He  returned 
to  France  in  1870,  participated  in  the  communist  revolt, 
was  elected  to  the  chamoer  and  antagonized  the  repub- 
lic as  he  had  the  monarchy  and  empire.  He  died  Jan- 
uary 1,  1881,  and  was  buried  in  Pere  la  Chaise. 

BLATCIIFORD,  Samuel,  born  in  New  York 
March  9,  1820;  graduated  at  Columbia  in  1837,  and  in 
1842  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  was  law  partner 
of  William  H.  Seward,  in  1867  became  United  States 
district  judge  for  Southern  New  York,  and  in  March, 
1882,  associate  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States.  He  died  July  7,  1893. 

BLAVATSKY,  Helene  Petrovna,  born  in  Russia 
in  1831 ; spent  several  years  in  India  studying  Buddhism, 
and  in  1875  introduced  in  New  York  a system  of 
theosophy,  which  has  some  devout  adherents.  She  died 
in  May,  1891. 


BLE-BON 


BLENNERHASSETT,  Harman,  scholar,  born  in 
Hampshire,  England,  October  8,  1764;  died  on  the 
island  of  Guernsey,  February  1,  1831.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Westminster  school,  London,  and  at  Trinity 
college,  Dublin;  later  he  studied  law,  and  in  1790  re- 
ceived the  degrees  of  B.A.  and  LL.B.  After  spend- 
ing several  years  in  European  travel,  he  was  married 
to  Miss  Agnew,  daughter  of  the  governor  of  the  Isle  of 
Man,  sold  his  property,  and  in  1797  sailed  for  New 
York  city.  A year  later  Blennerhassett  purchased 
Backus  island  in  the  Ohio  river,  which  thereafter  be- 
came known  by  his  name,  improved  the  grounds,  and 
erected  a handsome  villa  that  was  stocked  with  a library, 
works  of  art,  and  scientific  apparatus  of  various  kinds. 
In  1805  Aaron  Burr,  on  his  way  down  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  rivers,  visited  him  and  succeeded  in  inter- 
esting Blennerhassett  in  his  schemes.  He  published  a 
number  of  communications  in  the  Ohio  Gazette , advo- 
cating the  plans  of  Burr,  and  contributed  considerable 
money  for  boats,  arms,  provisions,  etc.,  with  which  to 
begin  the  enterprise.  Soon  afterward  President  Jeffer- 
son issued  a proclamation  against  the  scheme,  and 
Blennerhassett,  fearing  arrest,  left  the  island  to*join 
Burr  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cumberland  river.  Simul- 
taneously his  island  was  overrun  by  a party  of  militia 
under  Colonel  Phelps,  who  wrecklessly  damaged  house 
and  property.  On  the  failure  of  Burr’s  scheme, 
Blennerhassett  was  arrested,  but  discharged;  on  his 
way  home  he  was  again  arrested,  and  imprisoned. 
From  Lexington,  Ky.,  he  was  taken  to  Richmond,  Va., 
for  trial.  As  the  government  failed  to  make  out  a case 
against  Burr,  he  was  discharged  in  1807.  Meanwhile 
his  estate  had  been  seized  by  his  creditors,  and  his 
mansion  was  used  as  a storehouse ; shortly  afterward 
the  dwelling  was  burned  to  the  ground.  Blennerhassett 
then  went  to  Natchez,  Miss.,  where  he  bought  1,000 
acres  of  cotton  lands  near  Port  Gibson,  Miss.  This 
venture,  with  several  others,  proved  unsuccessful,  and 
in  the  war  of  1812  his  means  were  further  diminished. 
In  1819  he  removed  to  Montreal,  where  he  vainly  en- 
deavored to  acquire  a legal  practice.  In  1822  he  sailed 
for  Ireland,  and  after  many  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
gain  a livelihood,  he  retired  into  neglect  and  obscurity 
on  the  island  of  Guernsey. 

BLIND,  Karl,  born  at  Mannheim,  September  4, 
1826;  studied  at  Heidelberg  and  Bonn,  and  was  expelled 
from  Germany  in  1848  for  participating  in  a republican 
rising.  Later,  in  Baden,  he  joined  in  another  plot  and 
was  condemned  to  eight  years’  imprisonment.  A sub- 
sequent revolution  set  him  free  and  he  went  as  envoy  to 
Paris.  Thence  he  was  expelled,  lived  three  years  in 
Belgium,  and  being  compelled  to  leave  that  country, 
established  himself  in  1852  in  London,  where  he  has 
since  resided.  He  has  contributed  extensively  to  maga- 
zines and  reviews,  and  for  many  years  was  prominent 
in  the  International,  a socialistic  organization. 

BLISS,  Philip  Paul,  born  in  Pennsylvania,  July  9, 
1838;  killed  in  a railway  accident  near  Ashtabula,  Ohio, 
December  29,  1876.  In  company  with  the  evangelist 
Dwight  L.  Moody  he  held  mission  services  in  all  parts 
of  the  United  States,  leading  in  the  singing  of  hymns 
of  his  own  composition.  “ Hold  the  Fort  ” is  the  best 
known  of  these. 

BLODGETT,  Henry  Williams,  born  in  Amherst, 
Mass.,  July  21,  1821;  studied  law  in  Chicago,  was  elected 
to  the  Illinois  legislature  as  an  anti-slavery  Republican 
in  1852,  and  in  1853  became  State  senator.  He  was  a 
prominent  railroad  lawyer,  and  became  president  of  the 
Chicago  and  Milwaukee  railroad.  In  1870  he  was  ap- 
pointed United  States  district  judge  for  the  northern  dis- 
trict of  Illinois,  resigning  in  1892  to  become  counsel  for 
the  United  States  before  the  Bering  Sea  commission. 


6483 

BLODGETT,  Rufus,  born  in  Dorchester,  N.  H., 
October  9,  1834;  became  a banker  and  railroad  super- 
intendent, and  in  1887  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate  from  New  Jersey. 

BLONDIN,  Emile  G.,  born  in  France,  1830; 
achieved  notoriety  by  crossing  the  Niagara  river  on  a 
tight-rope,  and  for  many  years  gave  exhibitions  of  that 
character.  Died  Feb.  22,  1897. 

BLOOMER,  Amelia  Jenks,  born  in  Homer,  N.  Y., 
May  27,  1818.  She  advocated  temperance  and  woman’s 
suffrage,  and  in  1856  introduced  a dress  for  women, 
consisting  of  a short  skirt  and  full  trousers,  which  was 
mercilessly  ridiculed  as  the  “Bloomer  costume.”  She 
died  in  Council  Bluffs,  Iowa,  December  29,  1894,  having 
lived  long  enough  to  see  bloomers  generally  adopted  in 
that  year  by  women  bicycle  riders. 

BOARDMAN,  George  Dana,  born  in  Burmah, 
August  18,  1828,  a Baptist  clergyman  in  Rochester,  N. 
Y. , and  in  Philadelphia,  who  was  prominent  in  the  abo- 
lition movement  and  wrote  many  reviews  and  essays. 

BOARDMAN,  Henry  Augustus,  born  at  Troy,- 
N.  Y.,  January  9,  1808;  died  in  Philadelphia,  June  15, 
1880.  He  was  ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry 
November  8,  1833,  held  a pastorate  for  forty-five  years, 
and  was  leader  of  the  old  school  branch.  He  published 
fourteen  volumes  on  religious  subjects. 

BOKER,  George  Henry,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
October  6,  1823;  died  January  2,  1890.  He  published 
several  volumes  of  poems,  notably  war  songs,  and  was 
the  author  of  the  tragedies  of  Calaynos,  Anne  Boleyn, 
and  Francesca  da  Rimini.  In  1862  he  assisted  in  the 
formation  of  the  Union  club  at  Philadelphia,  and  later 
of  the  Union  league,  of  which  in  1878  he  was  elected 
president.  In  1872  he  became  United  States  minister 
at  Constantinople;  in  1876  was  sent  to  St.  Petersburg 
and  remained  there  two  years.  His  last  literary  work, 
a volume  of  sonnets,  appeared  in  1886. 

BONAPARTE,  Elizabeth  Patterson,  born  in 
Baltimore,  Md.,  February  6,  1785;  died  there,  April  4, 
1879.  Her  father,  William  Patterson,  emigrated  from 
Ulster,  Ireland,  to  this  country.  At  a ball  in  Balti- 
more, she  was  introduced  to  Jerome  Bonaparte,  a youth 
of  nineteen,  brother  of  Napoleon,  who  had  been  serv- 
ing in  the  French  navy  in  the  West  Indies.  He  made 
a proposal  of  marriage  which  she  accepted,  and  her 
father  opposed.  The  contract  was  drawn  up  by 
Alexander  J.  Dallas,  and  the  marriage  ceremony  per- 
formed by  Archbishop  Carroll,  in  Baltimore,  December 
24,  1803.  Napoleon,  was  deeply  enraged  at  the  mar- 
riage and  undertook  to  declare  it  null  and  void,  excluded 
J erome  from  his  dynasty,  and  threatened  him  with  impris- 
onment unless  he  consented  to-  repudiate  his  wife.  In 
1805  J erome  and  Elizabeth  embarked  for  Europe  and  ar- 
rived in  Lisbon,  April  2,  1805.  She  was  not  permitted  to 
land,  and  leaving  her,  J erome  met  N apoleon  at  Alessand- 
ria. The  emperor  remained  obdurate,  but  declared  that  if 
Miss  Patterson  would  return  to  the  United  States  and  re- 
sume her  own  name  he  would  give  her  a pension  of  60,000 
francs.  In  the  meantime  her  vessel  went  to  Amster- 
dam, but  was  prevented  from  landing,  and  Mme.  Bona- 
parte sought  refuge  in  England,  where  her  son,  Jerome 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  was  born  at  Camberwell,  near 
London,  July  7,  1805.  Convinced  that  her  husband  was 
about  to  yield  to  a divorce,  Mme.  Bonaparte  returned 
to  Baltimore.  Napoleon  applied  to  Pope  Pius  VII.  to 
annul  the  marriage,  but  he  refused,  and  it  was  dissolved 
by  the  imperial  council  of  state.  Jerome  was  created 
prince  of  the  empire,  was  promoted  admiral,  and  subse- 
quently received  the  rank  of  general.  In  1806  he  was 
made  successor  to  the  imperial  throne  in  the  event  of 
Napoleon  leaving  no  heir,  and  in  1807  was  made  kino  of 
Westphalia.  On  August  12,  1807,  he  married  Catherine 


BON-  £ O O 


6484 

Frederica,  princess  of  Wiirtemberg.  By  this  marriage 
he  had  three  children.  Mme.  Bonaparte,  although  ob- 
taining a divorce  in  the  Maryland  courts,  employed 
every  means  to  maintain  the  legality  of  her  marriage, 
and  the  legitimacy  of  her  son,  but  Jerome  appealed  to 
the  council  of  state  to  forbid  Jerome  “ Patterson  ” from 
calling  himself  Jerome  Bonaparte.  Her  last  effort  was 
in  i860,  after  the  death  of  Jerome,  when  the  eloquent 
Berryer  pleaded  her  cause.  Mme.  Bonaparte  visited 
Europe  after  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon  at  Waterloo, 
spending  the  rest  of  1815  in  England  and  Paris.  Louis 
XVIII.  invited  her  to  court,  the  Duke  of  Wellington  ad- 
mired her,  and  Talleyrand  praised  her  wit.  In  1816  she 
returned  to  Baltimore;  went  to  Europe  in  1819,  and  visit- 
ed the  Princess  Borghese  (Pauline  Bonaparte)  in  Rome, 
by  whom  she  was  kindly  received.  Once  again  she  saw 
her  husband  in  Florence,  in  1822,  walking  with  his  sec- 
ond wife.  She  left  a fortune  of  $1,500,000  to  her  grand- 
sons, Jerome  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  a gallant  French 
soldier,  who  died  at  Beverly,  Mass.,  September  3,  1893, 
and  Charles  Joseph  Bonaparte,  a lawyer  in  Baltimore. 

BONAPARTE,  Lucien,  cardinal,  is  a descendant 
of  Lucien  Bonaparte,  brother  of  Napoleon  I.,  and  was 
born  in  1828,  and  became  cardinal  in  1868. 

BONHEUR,  Rosa,  born  in  Bordeaux,  France, 
March  22,  1822  ; became  a painter  of  animals,  and  ex- 
hibited for  the  first  time  publicly  in  1841.  In  1855  she 
produced  her  magnificent  Horse  Fair,  which  was  exhib- 
ited in  England  and  this  country,  and  has  been  often 
engraved.  Many  of  her  paintings  are  in  the  Luxem- 
bourg, and  examples  of  her  work  are  to  be  found  in 
most  public  collections.  Her  studio  and  residence  at 
Fontainebleau  were  spared  in  1870  by  the  German 
troops  under  direct  command  of  the  (then)  crown 
prince  of  Prussia.  She  died  May  25,  1899. 

BONNER,  Robert,  born  near  Londonderry,  Ireland, 
April  28,  1824;  came  to  the  United  States  when  a boy, 
and  died  July  6,  1899.  In  1844  he  went  to  New  York, 
and  in  1851  purchased  the  New  York  Ledger,  which  he 
built  up  to  a great  circulation.  He  had  a fondness  for 
fast  horses,  although  he  would  not  let  them  race,  and 
owned  Maud  S.  and  Dexter. 

BOONE,  Daniel,  pioneer,  born  in  Bucks  county, 
Penn.,  February  11,  1735  ; died  in  Charette,  Mo.,  Sep- 
tember 26, 1820.  His  grandfather,  George  Boone,  em- 
igrated from  Exeter,  England,  to  Bucks  county,  Penn., 
where  he  joined  the  Society  of  Friends ; and  his  father, 
Squire  Boone,  removed  to  Holman’s  Ford,  on  the  Yad- 
kin, S.  C.,  about  1748.  He  was  a natural  hunter,  and 
was  equal  to  any  Indian  in  tracing  a scent.  Inspired  by 
John  Finlay’s  accounts  of  the  wilds  of  what  is  now  Ken- 
tucky, he  set  out  to  explore  that  country  with  a party  of 
six,  May  1,  1769.  He  was  captured  by  Indians,  but 
escaped  twice,  and  returned  to  his  home  in  March,  1771. 
In  1773  he  started  for  Kentucky  with  six  families,  in- 
cluding his  own,  but  was  forced  to  stop  at  the  Clinch 
river.  Having  assisted  the  State  surveyors,  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  Lord  Dunmore,  captain  in  command  of  the 
garrison  to  resist  the  hostile  Indians,  and  he  erected  a 
fort  at  Boonesborough,  where  he  settled  with  his  family. 
In  December,  1 777,  he  went  on  an  expedition  to  the  cel- 
ebrated Blue  Licks  to  procure  salt  for  the  garrison,  but 
on  his  return  he  was  captured  by  the  Indians.  He  and 
his  party  were  taken  to  Detroit.  His  men  were  given 
to  the  British  commander,  but  Boone  was  retained,  and 
adopted  into  the  family  of  Blackfish,  a Shawanese  chief. 
He  discovered  that  the  Indians,  who  treatedhim  kindly, 
intended  to  attack  Boonesborough,  and  he  resolved  to 
warn  his  comrades.  He  was  chased  by  450  Indians, 
and  arrived  at  his  fort  after  a journey  of  160  miles  in  four 
days,  during  which  time  he  had  but  one  meal.  He  re- 
pulsed the  attack  of  450  men  with  only  fifty,  after  a 


itege  of  unparalleled  hardships,  and  was  rewarded  with 
<-  majors  commission  from  Virginia.  In  1778  he  went 
.0  North  Carolina,  where  his  family  had  returned  dur- 
ing.his  captivity,  brought  them  back  to  Boonesborough, 
and  became  lieutenant-colonel  of  Lincoln  county,  one 
of  the  three  divisions  of  Kentucky  territory.  Excited 
by  the  increasing  number  of  the  whites,  the  Indians  at- 
tacked the  settlements,  and  on  August  19,  1782,  Boone 
fought  a battle  with  400  Indians  at  Blue  Licks,  where 
one  of  his  sons  was  killed.  On  the  survey  of  Kentucky, 
after  its  admission  to  the  Union,  February  4,  1791,  the 
title  to  Boone’s  land  was  disputed,  and  while  he  was  in 
Virginia  arranging  his  affairs  a large  sum  of  money  was 
stolen  from  him.  The  case  was  decided  against  him, 
and  having  lost  his  property  he  visited  his  birthplace  in 
1790,  and  settled  at  Point  Pleasant,  on  the  Kanawha 
river,  now  in  West  Virginia.  In  1795  he  removed  to 
Missouri,  then  a Spanish  possession,  and  from  1795  till 
1804  lived  in  the  Femme  Osage  district,  of  which  he 
was  made  commandant,  and  received  a grant  of  8,000 
acres.  He  also  lost  this  after  the  United  States  acquired 
the  land  through  Napoleon,  who  had  obtained  posses- 
sion of  the  Spanish  grant.  Appeal  to  the  legislature  of 
Kentucky,  and  to  Congress,  confirmed  his  title  to  a 
tract  of  850  acres,  in  consideration  of  his  public  serv- 
ices. The  charm  of  the  hunter’s  life  hovered  around 
him,  and  in  his  eighty-second  year  he  went  on  an  expe- 
dition to  the  mouth  of  the  Kansas  river.  He  was  bet- 
ter adapted  for  single  adventure  than  for  commanding 
an  expedition.  An  original  portrait  by  Chester  Hard- 
ing (1820)  is  in  the  State  House  of  Kentucky.  John 
Filson  wrote  an  account  of  Boone’s  adventures  as  re- 
lated by  himself  (1784),  reprinted  in  Finlay’s  Descrip- 
tion of  the  Western  Territory  (1793). 

BOOTPI,  Edwin  Thomas,  actor,  born  in  Belair, 
Md.,  November  13,  1833,  died  June  7,  1893.  The  son  of 
Junius  Brutus  Booth,  in  his  early  years  he  traveled  with 
his  father,  and,  in  one  of  his  tours  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance at  the  Boston  museum,  as  “Tressel”  in  Rich- 
ard III.,  September  10,  1849.  He  first  appeared  in 
New  York,  at  the  National  theater,  as  “Wilford”  in 
the  Iron  Chest,  September  27,  1850,  and  at  the  same 
theater  in  1851,  took  his  father’s  place  as  “Richard 
III.,”  when  the  elder  tragedian  became  suddenly  ill. 
In  1852  he  went  to  California,  and  thence  to  Australia. 
In  1856  he  appeared  in  the  principal  southern  cities  of 
the  United  States  and  in  1857,  played  “Sir  Giles 
Overreach,”  in  A New  Way  to  Pay  Old  Debts,  and  his 
great  success  on  this  occasion  is  regarded  as  the  turning- 
point  in  his  career,  which  had  been  one  of  vicissitude  and 
lofty  endeavor.  In  the  summer  of  1857  he  had  a most 
successful  season  in  New  York,  and  became  noted  for 
his  Shakespearean  characters,  especially  “Iago”  and 
“Hamlet.”  In  1861  he  went  to  England,  where  he 
played,  and  also  starred  on  the  continent.  On  his  re- 
turn to  New  York  in  1864  he  began  a series  of  Shakes- 
pearean revivals  at  the  Winter  Garden  theater,  where 
he  acted  “ Hamlet  ” for  loo  consecutive  nights.  From 
1863  till  1870  Booth  was  associated  with  John  S.  Clarke 
in  the  management  of  the  Walnut  Street  theater,  Phila- 
delphia, and  after  the  destruction  of  his  own  theater  by 
fire  in  1867,  he  built  a splendid  building  on  twenty- 
third  street  and  Sixth  avenue,  New  York,  which  he 
opened  with  Romeo  and  Juliet , February  3,  1869.  Mr. 
Booth  married,  in  i860,  Miss  Mary  Devlin,  who  died 
in  1863,  leaving  one  daughter,  Edwina.  On  June  7, 
1869,  he  was  married  to  Mary,  adopted  daughter  of 
James  H.  McVicker,  of  Chicago.  She  died  in  1881, 
leaving  no  children.  Booth’s  theater  had  a career  of 
thirteen  years,  closing  in  May,  1882,  after  which  it  was 
torn  down  and  a block  of  buildings  erected  on  the  site. 
Booth  remained  its  manager  until  1874.  He  gathered. 


BOO— BOR 


a good  stock  company,  and  gave  most  elaborate  reviv- 
als of  Shakespeare’s  plays,  and  many  other  attractions 
of  artistic  merit.  In  1876  he  made  a tour  through  the 
South,  and  in  1880,  and  again  in  1882,  visited  Great 
Britain,  playing  with»great  success  in  London.  In  1882 
he  appeared  in  Germany,  and  was  received  with  enthus- 
iasm. Since  1883  he  has  engaged  in  starring  tours  in 
America.  No  actor  has  played  “ Hamlet  ” so  often, 
nor  over  so  wide  a range  of  territory.  His  name  is  in- 
separably associated^  with  the  character,  and  the  ideal 
face,  manner,  and  “ pale  cast  of  thought  ” of  “ Hamlet,” 
is  to  most  Americans  realized  in  that  of  Edwin  Booth. 
His  acting  is  highly  intellectual,  intense  and  refined, 
and  he  is  graceful  in  speech  and  movement.  He  has 
played  many  parts,  but  his  repertory  now  consists  of 
“Hamlet,”  “Macbeth,”  “King  Lear,”  Othello,” 
“Iago,”  “Wolsey,”  “Richard  III.,”  “Richard  II.,” 
“Shylock,”  “Benedict,”  “Petruchio,”  “Richelieu,” 
“ Brutus,”  “ Ruy  Bias,”  “Don  Caesar  de  Bazan,”  and 
“Bertruccio  ”in  the  Fool's  Revenge , by  Tom  Taylor. 
Mr.  Booth  has  published  an  acting  edition  of  these 
plays,  with  an  introduction  by  William  Winter.  (15 
vols. , Boston,  1877-78.) 

BOOTH,  Junius^ Brutus,  bom  in  London,  Eng* 
land,  May  1,  1796;  died  November  3, 1852.  His  father 
was  a barrister,  ,and  Junius  Brutus  was  the  eldest  son. 
He  received  a good  education,  studied  various  depart- 
ments of  art,  and  was  commissioned  as  a midshipman 
in  the  British  navy.  After  several  trials  as  an  amateur 
actor,  he  made  an  engagement  to  play  subordinate  parts 
at  the  theater  in  Peckham,  and  in  1814  appeared  as  a 
member  of  an  English  company  of  comedians  traveling 
through  Holland  and  Belgium.  In  1815  he  performed 
in  the  Worthing  and  Brighton  theaters.  On  February 
17,  1817,  he  made  his  ddbut  at  Covent  Garden  theater, 
London,  where  as  “ Richard  III.,”  he  appeared  several 
times  with  great  success.  A little  later  Booth  went  to 
Drury  Lane  theater,  where  he  appeared  in  conjunction 
with  Edmund  Kean.  Disagreement  and  professional 
jealousies  soon  prevented  Booth’s  continuing  at  this 
theater,  and  he  returned  to  Covent  Garden.  In  July, 
1818,  he  performed  in  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh;  later  he 
traveled  through  the  provinces,  performed  the  part  of 
“ Shylock,”  at  Covent  Garden  theater,  and  in  the  win* 
ter  was  engaged  at  the  Coburg  theater.  In  April, 
1820,  Booth  appeared  anew  at  Covent  Garden,  aod  in 
August  performed  at  Drury  Lane  in  connection  with 
Kean,  sustaining  the  parts  of  “ Iago,”  “ Edgar,”  and 
“ Pierre.”  In  the  winter  of  that  year  he  acted  “ Cas- 
sius,” “Lear,”  and  other  parts  at  Drury  Lane.  In 
January,  1821,  Booth  married  Miss  Holmes,  and  after 
their  wedding  tour  the  couple  landed  at  Madeira,  and 
from  thence  sailed  for  Norfolk,  Va.,  where  they  arrived 
June  30,  1821.  A week  later  Booth  appeared  at  the 
Richmond  theater ; this  was  followed  by  engagements 
in  other  cities.  At  that  time  he  entertained  the  chimer- 
ical notion  of  becoming  a light-house  keeper.  On 
October  5th,  he  made  his  first  appearance  in  New  York 
city,  at  the  Park  Theater.  In  1822  he  bought  a wild 
tract  of  land  about  twenty-five  miles  from  Baltimore, 
where  he  engaged  in  farming  with  the  assistance  of 
several  slaves.  It  remained  his  retreat  during  life  when 
he  was  not  professionally  engaged.  In  1825  he  again 
visited  London.  On  his  return  to  America  he  opened 
at  the  Park  Theater,  New  York,  March  24,  1827.  In 
1828  he  became  lessee  of  the  Camp  Street  Theater, 
New  Orleans,  where,  among  others,  he  studied  French 
parts,  and  personated  several  characters  in  French 
dramas.  In  September,  1831,  he  performed  in  New 
York  city  in  connection  with  Forrest.  A little  later  he 
became  lessee  of  theAdelphi  Theater  inBaltimore,  where 
he  appeared  in  several  new  parts.  In  January,  1832, 


6485 

Booth  produced  at  the  Chestnut  Street  theater  in  Phil- 
adelphia, a new  play,  Sertorius , written  by  David  Paul 
Brown,  of  Philadelphia.  Soon  afterward  the  death  ol 
two  of  his  children  impaired  his  reason;  after  his  recov- 
ery he  acted  at  the  Bowery  theater  in  New  York  city, 
and  later  appeared  in  New  Orleans,  Mobile,  and  other 
places  with  his  usual  success.  As  he  grew  older  his 
insane  turns  were  aggravated  by  occasional  intemper- 
ance, which  rendered  him  troublesome  to  managers  and 
unreliable  with  the  public.  In  1836  he  went  to  Europe 
with  his  family  and  performed  in  London  and  Birming- 
ham. After  a brief  term  he  returned  to  the  United 
States  and  made  his  usual  professional  round  through- 
out the  country.  It  was  in  this  year  that  the  bridge  of 
his  nose  was  broken,  and  the  former  beauty  of  his  voice 
became  impaired.  During  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life 
he  spent  much  time  on  his  farm,  making  occasional 
visits  to  Boston,  New  York  and  New  Orleans,  and 
often  capriciously  playing  in  out-of-the-way  places.  In 
1852  he  went  to  California,  and  from  there  visited  New 
Orleans,  where  he  played  a week’s  engagement.  Dur- 
ing his  passage  homeward  he  became  sick  from  expo- 
sure, and  died  for  lack  of  medical  care. 

BOOTH,  John  Wilkes,  born  in  Belair,  Md.,  in 
1838;  died  near  Bowling  Green,  Va.,  April  26,  1865. 
He  was  a son  of  Junius  Brutus  Booth,  and  brother  of 
Edwin  Booth.  As  an  actor  he  never  rose  to  distinction. 
He  inherited  from  his  father  a touch  of  insanity  that 
rendered  his  life  erratic.  During  the  civil  war  his 
sympathies  were  for  negro  slavery,  and  early  in  1865  he 
formed  a conspiracy  with  others  to  murder  President 
Lincoln  and  the  principal  officers  of  the  government. 
On  the  evening  of  April  15th  he  entered  Ford’s  theater, 
in  Washington,  where  the  president  was  sitting  in  a 
private  box,  and  shot  him.  He  shouted  “ Sic  semper 
tyranms ,”  leaped  on  the  stage  below,  breaking  his  leg  in 
the  effort,  and  in  the  confusion  escaped  through  a back 
door,  mounted  a horse  that  was  held  in  waiting,  and 
fled  to  Virginia.  Here  he  was  concealed  for  a time  by 
Southern  sympathizers;  but,  on  being  discovered  in  a 
barn,  he  refused  to  surrender,  and  was  shot. 

BOOTH,  William,  born  at  Nottingham,  England, 
April  10,  1829;  became  a Methodist  minister  in  1850, 
but  withdrew  from  that  communion  in  1861.  Seven 
years  later  he  organized  the  Salvation  Army,  a religious 
propaganda  of  a semi-military  character,  of  which  he 
is  styled  “General.”  Devoted  to  evangelization 
among  the  lower  classes  and  in  the  slums  of  large 
cities,  the  Salvation  Army  has  done  great  good  in 
England,  the  United  States,  France  and  India.  Gen- 
eral Booth  is  a man  of  powerful  individuality,  and  his 
book  Darkest  England,  which  in  1891  called  atten- 
tion to  the  condition  of  the  lower  classes  in  cities^ 
created  a profound  impression  and  led  to  the  subscrip- 
tion of  $1,000,000  for  his  schemes  of  amelioration. 
Charges  that  he  diverted  the  money  to  personal  ends 
were  made  and  refuted  in  1893.  His  wife,  sons  and 
daughters  are  all  prominent  in  the  work.  He  visited 
the  United  States  in  1894. 

BORDEN,  Gail,  inventor,  born  in  Norwich,  N.  Y., 
November  6,  1801;  died  in  Borden,  Texas,  January 
1 1,  1874.  In  early  life  a teacher  and  surveyor  in  Miss- 
issippi and  Texas,  in  1835  he  published  the  Telegraph 
and  Texas  Land  Register  at  San  Felipe.  When  the 
republic  of  Texas  was  established  became  the  first  col- 
lector of  the  port  of  Galveston,  in  1837.  A land  agent 
for  a time,  in  1849  he  produced  “ pemmican”  and  the 
“meat-biscuit.”  The  latter  gained  him  a medal  at 
the  World’s  Fair  in  London,  and  he  was  chosen  an 
honorary  member  of  the  London  Society  of  Arts. 
Unsuccessful,  pecuniarily,  with  his  biscuit,  he  lost  his 
entire  means.  In  1853  he  applied  for  a patent  for 


6486  B O T — B O W 


not  receive  it  until  1856.  Soon  afterward  the  New  York 
condensed  milk  company  was  formed,  and  its  works  were 
established  at  Brewster’s  Station,  N.  Y.,  and  Elgin, 
111.  This  enterprise  resulted  in  an  immense  success, 
and  enriched  the  inventor.  Some  time  later  Mr.  Bor- 
den established  an  extract-of-beef  factory  at  Borden, 
Texas,  and  also  produced  condensed  preparations  of 
tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  various  kinds  of  fruit. 

BOTETOURT,  Norborne  Berkeley,  born  in 
England  in  1738;  died  in  Williamsburg,  Va.,  October 
15,  1770.  In  1761  he  was  colonel  of  militia,  and  be- 
came a peer  in  1 764.  After  losingmost  of  his  means  at 
the  gaming-table  he  soughta  government  appointment. 
In  July,  1768,  he  became  governor  of  Virginia,  succeed- 
ing Mr.  Jeffrey  Amherst.  In  November,  1768,  he 
arrived  on  the  James  river.  In  May,  1769,  the  Vir- 
ginia assembly  complained  of  parliamentary  taxation, 
and  of  sending  accused  persons  to  England  for  trial;  in 
reply  Lord  Botetourt  dissolved  the  legislature.  On  the 
next  day  the  people  met  in  convention  at  the  Raleigh 
tavern,  and  passed  resolutions  against  the  use  of  any 
merchandise  imported  from  Great  Britain.  However, 
the  trouble  between  the  governor  and  the  people  grad- 
ually subsided,  and  Lord  Botetourt  represented  to  his 
friend,  Lord  Hillsborough,  that  the  colonists  would 
stand  by  the  mother  country  on  requisitions,  but  would 
not  assent  to  parliamentary  taxation.  Lord  Hills- 
borough having  failed  to  fulfill  his  promise  of  repeal. 
Lord  Botetourt  asked  to  be  relieved,  and  soon  died. 

BOUCICAULT,  Dion,  born  in  Dublin,  December 
20,  1822;  produced  at  the  age  of  nineteen  a five-act 
comedy  called  London  Assurance , the  brightest  play  of 
its  time.  He  first  appeared  as  an  actor  in  London,  in 
1852,  and  some  years  later  married  Agnes  Robertson, 
an  actress.  The  two  acted  together  for  years  and  Mr. 
Boucicault  managed  theaters  in  New  York  and  else- 
where. He  wrote  a large  number  of  Irish  plays,  of 
which  the  Colleen  Bawn  and  The  Shaughraun  are  the 
best  known,  many  sensational  dramas,  such  as  The 
Long  Strike , Flying  Scud , After  Dark , and  Formosa , 
dramatized  Dickens  and  Thackeray,  and  adapted  scores 
of  plays  from  the  French.  He  died  Sept.  18,  1890. 

BOUDINOT,  Elias,  patriot  and  philanthropist, 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  May  24,  1740;  died  in 
Burlington,  N.  J.,  October  4,  1821.  He  practiced  law 
in  New  Jersey  until  the  Revolution,  became  com- 
missary-general of  prisoners  and  delegate  to  congress 
from  New  Jersey  in  1777,  and  president  of  congress  in 
1782,  as  such  signing  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Great 
Britain.  He  served  in  congress  from  1789^  1795  and 
was  then  director  of  the  mint  in  Philadelphia,  until 
1805.  He  was  a trustee  of  Princeton  andfirst  president 
of  the  American  Bible  society,  to  which  he  gave  $10,000. 

BOUGHTON,  George  H.,  artist,  born  in  Norfolk, 
England,  in  1834;  came  to  the  United  States  when  a 
child  and  studied  in  Paris  and  London.  At  the  Co- 
lumbian World’s  Fair  he  exhibited  An  English  Spring 
Day , Dancing  Down  the  Hay , Winter  Sunrise  and 
Love  in  Winter. 

BOUGUEREAU,  William  Adolphe,  a French  art- 
ist, best  known  from  his  beautiful  figures  from  the 
nude,  was  born  at  La  Rochelle,  November  30,  1825, 
gained  the  Grand  Prix  de  Rome  in  1850  and  has  painted 
many  well-known  pictures,  among  them  'The  Bather 
(1870),  Nymphs  and  Satyrs  (1873),  Holy  Family 
(1875)  and  Triumph  of  Venus  { 1879).  Later  pictures, 
exhibited  at  the  Columbian  Fair  in  1893,  were:  The 
Women  at  the  Tomb , Our  Lady  of  the  Angels  and  The 
Wasp's  Nests. 

BOULANGER, George  Ernest  Jean  Marie,  born 
at  Rennes,  France,  in  1837;  was  educated  at  the 
military  school  of  St.  Cyr.  He  served  in  Algeria, 


[ Italy,  and  Cochin  China,  fought  under  the  republic 
during  the  Franco- Prussian  war,  and  became  brigade- 
I general  in  1880.  He  afterward  commanded  in  Tunis, 
but  was  recalled,  and  from  January,  1886,  to  May, 
1887,  was  minister  of  war.  In  this  capacity  he  was 
active  in  procuring  the  expulsion  of  the  Orleans  princes 
from  the  army  and  from  France.  Becoming  imbued 
with  the  idea  that  he  was  to  be  the  “ savior  of  France,” 

1 General  Boulanger  permitted  his  political  aspirations 
to  outweigh  his  sense  of  military  duty,  and  he  was 
deprived  of  his  command  for  disobedience.  He  suc- 
cessfully contested  several  seats  in  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  and  on  January  27,  1889,  was  elected  deputy 
for  Paris  by  a very  large  vote.  Two  months  later  the 
government,  claiming  to  have  evidence  of  his  intended 
treason,  began  a prosecution,  and  Boulanger  fled  to 
Brussels,  and  thence  to  the  Isle  of  Jersey.  He  was  con  r 
1 victed  in  his  absence,  and  sank  into  insignificance.  It 
; was  shown  that  he  had  made  an  arrangement  with  the 
i Orleans  Princes  and  had  received  vast  sums  of  money 
to  advance  their  cause  and  his  own.  On  September 
30,  1891,  he  shot  himself  on  the  grave  of  his  mistress 
at  Brussels. 

BOUTWELL,  George  Sewall,  born  in  Brookline, 
Mass.,  January  28,  1818.  In  1842  he  was  elected  as  a 
Democrat  to  the  State  legislature,  where  he  sat  until 
1851,  running  in  the  meantime  on  several  occasions  for 
congressman  and  governor,  and  each  time  sustaining 
defeat.  In  1851  and  again  in  1852  he  was  elected 
governor  on  the  Free  Soil  ticket,  and  after  the  repeal  of 
the  Missouri  compromise  he  joined  the  Republican 
party.  In  1862  he  organized  the  Internal  Revenue 
department,  of  which  he  was  first  commissioner.  In 
March,  1863,  he  became  member  of  congress  and  was 
twice  reelected.  He  was  chairman  of  the  committee  to 
report  articles  of  impeachment  against  Andrew  John- 
son, and  one  of  the  seven  managers  of  the  trial.  In 
March,  1869,  he  became  secretary  of  the  treasury  in 
Grant’s  cabinet,  which  office  he  held  until  March,  1873, 
when  he  was  chosen  United  States  senator  to  fill  the 
vacancy  caused  by  the  election  of  Henry  Wilson  to  the 
vice-presidency.  Mr.  Boutwell,  who  is  a lawyer  by 
profession,  afterward  practiced  in  Washington  D.  C., 
and  in  1877  codified  and  edited  the  statutes  at  large. 

BOWDOIN,  James,  statesman,  born  in  Boston, 
August  8,  1727;  died  there  November  6,  1790.  He 
was  a grandson  of  Pierre  Baudouin,  a French  Hugue- 
not, who  came  to  Portland,  Me.,  in  1687,  and  went  to 
Boston  in  1690.  James  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1745,  and  two  years  later,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  he 
came  (into  possession  of  a fortune.  He  early  manifested 
a scientific  tendency  of  mind,  and  corresponded  on  sev- 
eral subjects  with  Benjamin  Franklin.  From  1753  until 
1756  he  was  a member  of  the  general  court  of  Massa^ 
chusetts,  and  at  the  end  of  that  year  he  became  coun- 
cillor. As  such  he  opposed  the  governor’s  decrees,  and 
when,  in  1767,  he  was  again  chosen  for  the  same  office, 
he  was  negatived  by  Governor  Bernard ; the  Bostonians 
thereafter  elected  him  to  the  assembly.  In  1770  the 
newly-appointed  governor,  Hutchinson,  permitted  him 
to  sit  among  the  council.  In  1774  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Continental  Congress;  in  1775  he  be- 
came president  of  the  Massachusetts  council,  and  in 
1 779  presided  over  the  State  constitutional  convention. 
In  1785  he  became  governor  of  the  State  of  Massa- 
chusetts, continued  as  such  in  1786,  and  during  his  term 
of  office  crushed  out  Shay’s  rebellion.  In  1786  he  was 
succeeded  as  gpvernor  by  John  Hancock;  in  1787  he 
became  a member  of  the  convention  that  framed  the 
Federal  constitution.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  and 
became  the  president  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Sciences,  and  also  a founder  of  the  Massachusetts 


BOW- 

Humane  Society.  In  1779  lie  was  made  a fellow  of 
Harvard,  was  a fellow  of  the  Royal  societies  of  London 
and  Edinburgh,  and  was  given  the  degree  of  LL.D.  by 
the  university  of  Edinburgh.  His  publications  include  a 
poetical  paraphrase  of  Dodsley’s  Economy  of  Human 
Life  (1759),  an  Address  delivered  before  the  American 
academy  ( 1 780),  and  sundry  minor  productions.  Bow- 
doin  college  was  named  for  him. 

BOWELL,  Mackenzie,  Canadian  minister  of  trade 
and  commerce,  who  suggested  and  promoted  the  Inter- 
colonial Conference  of  delegates  from  all  British  colo- 
nies held  in  Ottawa  in  July,  1894.  He  was  born  in 
Suffolk,  England,  December27, 1823,  emigrated  to  Can- 
ada and  entered  Parliament  in  1867  as  a Conservative. 

BOWEN,  Francis,  born  in  Charlestown,  Mass., 
September  8,  1811 ; graduated  at  Harvard  in  1833,  and, 
in  1843,  became  editor  and  proprietor  of  the  North 
American  Review , which  he  conducted  until  1853.  In 
that  year  he  became  Alford  professor  at  Harvard,  and 
wrote  extensively  on  political  economy,  philosophy,  and 
constitutional  questions.  He  died  January  22,  1890. 

BOWIE,  James,  born  in  Georgia  in  1790;  killed  at 
the  Alamo,  March  6,  1836.  He  was  notorious  as  a 
duelist,  and,  in  1827,  was  engaged  in  a melee  at 
Natchez,  in  which  six  men  were  killed,  and  fifteen 
wounded.  The  knife  with  which  he  killed  his  oppo- 
nent on  this  occasion  was  fashioned  from  a black- 
smith’s file,  and  was  the  original  bowie-knife. 

BOWLES,  Samuel,  journalist,  born  in  Springfield, 
Mass.,  February  9,  1826;  died  there  January  16,  1878. 
F rom  his  boyhoodhe  was  connected  with  the  Springfield 
Republican,  and  made  that  paper  a power  in  politics. 

BOWMAN,  Thomas,  D.D.,  born  in  Pennsylvania, 
July  15,  1817;  entered  the  Methodist  ministry  in  1839, 
became  president  of  Asbury  university  in  1858,  and  was 
chosen  bishop  in  May,  1872. 

BOYD,  Andrew  K.  H.,  born  in  Ayrshire,  Scot- 
land, in  1825 ; obtained  high  honors  at  the  university 
of  Glasgow,  and  held  pastorates  in  Edinburgh,  St. 
Andrews,  and  other  towns.  He  wrote  in  Fraser's 
Magazine  over  the  signature  of  “A.  K.  H.  B.”  and 
published  The  Recreations  of  a Country  Parson  and 
other  essays.  He  died  March  1,  1899. 

BOYDEN,  Seth,  inventor,  born  in  Foxborough, 
Mass.,  November  17,  1788;  died  in  Middleville,  N.  J., 
March  31, 1870.  His  early  life  was  spent  on  his  father’s 
farm;  later  he  engaged  with  a blacksmith.  Subse- 
quently he  improved  a machine  for  leather-splitting. 
In  i8i3heandhisbrotherestablished  a leather-splitting 
business  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  and  in  1819  made  improved 
patent  leather,  which  he  sold  until  1831.  From  1831 
until  1835  he  engaged  in  producing  malleable  iron  cast- 
ings, andbecame  interested  in  steam-engines,  for  which 
he  invented  several  important  improvements.  In  1849 
he  disposed  of  his  many  inventions  and  went  to  Cali- 
fornia, where  he  was  unsuccessful  in  his  projects.  Two 
years  afterward  he  returned  to  the  East,  and  turned  his 
attention  to  agriculture.  Here  he  produced  a variety 
of  strawberries  unequaled  in  size  and  flavor.  He  pat- 
ented a hat-body  doming  machine. 

BOYESEN,  Hjalmar  Hjorth,  born  in  Norway, 
September  23,  1848 ; came  to  the  United  States  in  1869. 
He  was  professor  of  languages  at  Urbana  university, 
Ohio,  from  1874  to  1880,  then  professor  of  German  at 
Cornell,  and  since  that  time  has  filled  a similar  post  at 
Columbia  college,  New  York.  He  has  published  Gun- 
nar  and  other  novels,  Idyls  of  Norway , and  many 
translations  from  the  Scandinavian.  Died  Oct.  4, 1895. 

BRABOURNE,  Lord  (Edward  Knatchbull- 
Hugessen),  born  in  England,  April  29,  1829;  sat  in 
the  House  of  Commons  as  a Liberal  from  1857  until 
1880.  During  this  time  he  held  several  under-secre- 


— B R A 6487 

taryships  and  became  a privy  councilor.  Mr.  Gladstone 
gave  him  a peerage  in  1880,  but  in  1885  he  went  over 
bodily  to  the  Conservatives.  He  wrote  some  delight- 
ful fairy  stories.  He  died  February  6,  1893. 

BRADDOCK,  Edward,  British  soldier,  born  in 
Perthshire,  Scotland,  about  1695;  died  near  Pittsburg, 
Penn.,  July  13,  1755.  He  was  the  son  °f  Maj.-Gen. 
Edward  Braddock,  who  was  retired  from  the  British 
army  in  1715.  He  entered  the  Coldstream  Guards, 
October  11,  1710,  and  was  made  lieutenant  in  1716. 
After  more  than  forty  years  of  service  he  was  made 
major-general,  March  29,  1754,  and  in  September,  com- 
mander of  all  his  majesty’s  troops  in  America.  He 
arrived  at  Hampton,  Penn.,  February  20,  1755,  an<^  de- 
barked  at  Alexandria,  where  he  met  the  Virginia  levies, 
and  on  April  24th  reached  Frederick,  Md.,  when  he 
was  forced  to  wait  for  wagons  to  transport  his  stores. 
He  was  joined  there  by  Washington,  whom  he  invited 
to  be  his  aide-de-camp,  and  Benjamin  Franklin,  then 
postmaster-general  of  the  colonies.  He  scorned  the 
advice  of  Franklin  regarding  danger  from  the  ambus- 
cades of  the  Indians,  saying:  “These  savages  may, 
indeed,  be  a formidable  enemy  to  raw  American  military, 
but  upon  the  king’s  regular  and  disciplined  troops,  sir, 
it  is  impossible  that  they  should  make  an  impression.” 
He  set  out  for  Fort  Cumberland,  where  all  the  forces 
were  to  assemble,  and  on  June  7th  they  started  by  the 
path  marked  out  by  Washington  two  years  earlier. 
Braddock’sarmy  consisted  of  1,000  regulars,  thirty  sail- 
ors, 1,200  provincials,  and  a few  friendly  Indians,  and 
on  July  9th  the  advance  division  under  Colonel  Gates 
(afterward  General  Gates)  was  attacked  by  a band  of 
French  and  Indians.  Frightened  by  the  war-whoop, 
which  they  heard  for  the  first  time,  the  British  fell  back 
in  confusion,  and  Braddock  tried  to  rally  them  against 
their  invisible  foes.  Familiar  with  Indian  warfare,  the 
Virginians  separated,  and  sought  shelter  behind  rocks 
and  trees,  but  Braddock,  dispensing  with  the  “ military 
instruction  of  a Virginia  colonel,  ” named  George  Wash- 
ington, kept  his  men  drawn  up  in  platoons,  and  they 
fired  at  random  into  the  forest,  killing  many  of  the 
Americans,  and  falling  themselves  with  great  rapidity. 
Braddock’s  personal  bravery  was  conspicuous.  Five 
horses  were  killed  under  him,  and  he  was  mortally 
wounded  and  borne  from  the  field  to  die.  The  battle 
ended  in  a rout,  and  of  1,460  men,  including  eighty-nine 
commissioned  officers,  who  had  entered  the  field,  827 
were  killed  or  wounded.  Of  Braddock’s  aides  Wash- 
ington alone  escaped,  and  he  covered  the  retreat. 

BRADDON,  Mary  Elizabeth  (Mrs.  John  Max- 
well), born  in  London  in  1837 ; has  written  over  seventy 
novels,  among  which  are  Lady  Audley' s Secret,  Aurora 
Floyd,  John  Marchmont' s Legacy , Henry  Dunbar,  and 
Ishmael.  For  several  years  she  edited  Belgravia,  a 
London  magazine  in  which  many  of  her  novels  first 
appeared. 

BRADFORD,  William,  painter,  born  in  New  Bed- 
ford, Mass.,  in  1827.  He  was  intended  for  a mercantile 
life,  but  became  interested  in  painting,  and  resolved  to 
make  ithis  profession.  His  principal  works  are  marine 
pieces  and  sketches  of  Arctic  scenery,  and  to  obtain 
material  for  these  he  made  several  voyages  to  Labrador 
and  Melville  Bay.  He  died  April  25,  1892. 

BRADLAUGH,  Charles,  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land, September  28,  1833 ; enlisted  as  a private  soldier 
in  the  Seventh  Dragoons,  and  in  1853  became  a 
solicitor’s  clerk.  Fie  was  the  leader  of  the  Secularist 
party  in  England,  a Republican,  and  held  Malthusian 
doctrines.  He  wrote  for  many  years  over  the  signature 
of  “Iconoclast,”  published  The  Impeachment  of  the 
House  of  Brunswick  and  other  attacks  on  royalty  and 
aristocracy,  and  for  many  years  edited  the  National 


BRA 


6488 

Reformer.  He  was  prosecuted  on  account  of  the  latter 
publication,  and  for  publishing,  in  connection  with 
Mrs.  Annie  Besant,  a work  called  Fruits  of  Phi- 
losophy, but  the  judgments  against  him  were  quashed 
by  the  Court  of  Appeal.  Four  times  he  contested 
the  borough  of  Northampton,  as  a Radical,  and  in 
1880  was  elected.  He  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  al- 
legiance, and  was  over  and  over  again  expelled  from  the 
House  of  Commons.  His  constituency  reelected  him 
every  time,  and  in  1885  to°h  his  seat.  The  pro- 
longed fight  resulted  in  the  passage  of  an  affirmation 
bill.  Mr.  Bradlaugh,  who  was  an  orator  of  the  highest 
grade,  had  an  enormous  influence  with  the  masses  of 
the  English  people.  He  waged  perpetual  war  against 
sinecures  and  pensions,  and  stood  at  the  head  of  the 
English  Radical  party.  In  1889  he  was  compelled  to 
take  a voyage  to  India  for  his  health,  and  on  January 
30.  1891,  he  died. 

BRADLEY,  Edward,  known  in  literature  as  “ Cuth- 
bert  Bede,”  was  born  in  England  in  1827,  and  died  De- 
cember 12,  1889.  He  is  best  known  by  his  first  novel, 
The  Adventures  of  Verdant  Green , an  amusing  but 
overdrawn  picture  of  the  life  of  an  Oxford  undergradu- 
ate. He  died  Dec.  12,  1889. 

BRAL^LEY,  Joseph  P.,  born  in  Berne,  N.  Y., 
March  14,  1813;  graduated  at  Rutgers  college  in  1836, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1839.  He  practiced  as 
a railroad  and  insurance  lawyer,  and  on  March  21, 1870, 
was  called  to  the  supreme  bench  of  the  United  States. 
In  early  days  he  was  a Whig  in  politics,  became  a Re- 
publican about  1856,  and  contested  the  sixth  congres- 
sional district  of  New  Jersey  unsuccessfully  in  1862. 
Justice  Bradley  was  a member  of  the  Hayes-Tilden 
electoral  commission.  He  died  January  22,  1892. 

BRADSTREET,  Anne,  poet,  born  in  Northampton, 
England,  about  1612;  died  September  16,  1672.  She 
was  a daughter  of  Gov.  Thomas  Dudley,  and  was  mar- 
ried to  Gov.  Bradstreet  in  1628.  Her  complete  works, 
prose  and  verse,  have  been  published  in  Charlestown, 
Mass.,  1868.  In  1666  a fire  destroyed  her  entire  library. 
Her  verses,  are  founded  on  good  English  models,  but 
lack  originality,  ease  and  novelty. 

BRADSTREET,  Simon,  born  in  Horbling,  England, 
in  March,  1603;  died  in  Salem,  Mass.,  March  27,  1697. 
He  was  educated  at  Emanuel  college,  Cambridge,  and 
emigrated  in  1630.  He  was  chosen  assistant  judge  of 
the  court  to  be  established  in  Massachusetts,  and  later 
was  appointed  secretary  and  agent  of  the  colony,  and 
commissioner  of  the  united  colonies.  He  became  one 
of  the  founders  of  Cambridge  and  of  Andover,  himself 
residing  at  Salem,  Ipswich,  and  Boston.  In  1653  he 
opposed  the  proposed  making  of  war  on  the  Hollanders 
of  New  York  and  the  eastern  tribe  of  Indians.  In  1660 
he  went  to  England  on  the  restoration  of  King  Charles 
II.,  and  acted  as  agent  for  the  colony.  From  1630  un- 
til 1679  he  served  as  assistant,  and  from  1679  until  1686 
he  was  governor  of  the  colony.  He  was  opposed  to 
the  severe  measures  of  Governor  Andros,  after  whose 
imprisonment  he  again  became  governor,  and  continued 
in  office  until  1692.  When  Sir  William  Phipps  arrived 
with  a new  charter  he  became  first  councilor. 

BRAGG,  Braxton,  soldier,  born  in  Warren  county, 
N.  C.,  March  22,  1817;  died  in  Galveston,  Texas,  Sep- 
tember 27,  1876.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  military  academy  in  1837,  appointed  second  lieu- 
tenant of  the  third  artillery,  and  served  against  the  Sem- 
inoles  in  Florida.  In  1843-4  he  was  stationed  in  Fort 
Moultrie,  in  Charleston  harbor,  after  which  he  was  sent 
to  Texas.  In  May,  1846,  he  wasbrevetted  captain  for 
gallant  conduct  in  defending  Fort  Brown,  Texas,  and  in 
June  was  made  captain.  He  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  was  brevetted  major  for  gallantry  at  Monterey, 


September  21-23,  1846,  and  lieutenant-colonel  foi 
gallantry  at  Buena  Vista  in  1847.  Subsequently  he  was 
on  frontier  duty  at  Jefferson  Barracks,  Mo.,  Fort  Gib- 
son, and  Washita,  and  in  1856  resigned  from  the  army 
and  engaged  in  planting  in  Louisiana.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  civil  war  he  was  appointed  brigadier-general  in 
the  Confederate  army,  and  placed  in  command  at  Pen. 
sacola,  Fla.  In  February,  1862,  he  became  major- 
general  in  command  of  the  second  division  of  the  Con- 
federate army.  At  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April  6-7, 
1862,  he  commanded  the  entire  Southern  forces  after 
the  death  of  Gen.  A.  S.  Johnston.  After  the  evacu- 
ation of  Corinth  he  succeeded  General  Beauregard  in 
command  of  the  department.  In  August,  1862,  he 
marched  into  Kentucky  with  45,000  men,  and  capt- 
ured Munfordville,  Ky. , but  declined  to  fight  with 
Buell,  who  recaptured  that  town.  After  the  battle  of 
Perryville,  October  8th,  he  retreated  to  Tennessee.  He 
was  removed  from  his  command,  and  placed  under 
arrest,  but  was  restored  to  his  division,  and  fought  with 
Rosecrans  at  Stone  River,  at  Murfreesboro.,  December 
31,  1862,  and  January  2,  1863,  and  was  defeated.  He 
encountered  Rosecrans  again  at  Chickamauga,  Septem 
ber  19-20,  1863,  and  was  victorious.  General  Granl 
defeated  him  at  Chattanooga,  November  23-25,  1863, 
and  in  December  General  Bragg  was  relieved  from  com- 
mand at  his  own  request.  He  was  called  to  Richmond 
to  act  as  military  adviser  to  Jefferson  Davis,  with  whom 
he  was  a favorite.  In  1864  he  led  a small  force  from 
North  Carolina  to  Georgia  to  operate  against  General 
Sherman,  but  was  unsuccessful.  After  the  war  he  passed 
his  life  in  retirement,  but  at  one  time  he  was  chief 
engineer  for  the  State  of  Alabama,  and  he  superintended 
the  improvements  in  Mobile  bay.  His  brother  Thomas 
(1810-1872),  was  governor  of  North  Carolina  in  1854- 
58,  United  States  senator  in  1859,  and  attorney-general 
of  the  Confederacy  1861-63. 

BRAGG,  Edward  S.,  born  in  Unadilla,  N.  Y., 
February  20,  1827;  removed  to  Fonddu  Lac,  Wis.,  in 
1849,  practiced  law  there,  and  in  1854  became  district 
attorney.  He  was  commissioned  captain  May  5,  1861, 
fought  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  came  out  cf 
the  war  a brigadier-general.  Bragg’s  “ Iron  Brigade  ” 
will  be  long  remembered.  General  Bragg,  who  is  as  good 
a talker  as  he  showed  himself  a fighter,  was  always  a 
Democrat,  and  in  1877  served  a term  in  the  Wisconsin 
legislature.  He  served  in  congress,  1877-83,  and  was 
elected  in  1884,  but  resigned  to  become  minister  to 
Mexico,  through  President  Cleveland’s  first  term. 

BRAINARD,  Daniel,  born  in  Oneida  county,  N. 
Y.,  May  15,  1812;  died  in  Chicago,  October  10,  1866. 
He  was  surgeon  of  the  marine  hospital  in  Chicago, 
and  for  twenty-three  years  occupied  the  chair  of  sur- 
gery at  Rush  Medical  college,  which  he  assisted  in 
founding. 

BRANT,  Joseph,  Indian  chief,  born  in  Ohio  about 
1742;  died  at  Lake  Ontario  November  24,  1807.  It  is 
thought  that  he  was  a grandson  of  one  of  the  five 
Indian  kings,  who  visited  England  in  1711,  and  are  men- 
tioned by  Addison  in  the  Spectator.  At  the  age  of  thir- 
teen he  accompanied  his  two  elder  brothers,  who.  under 
the  Mohawk  king  Hendrick,  participated  in  Sir  William 
Johnson’s  campaign  against  the  French  at  Lake  George. 
He  was  sent  to  the  Rev.  Eleazar  Wheelock’s  Indian 
school  at  Lebanon,  Conn.,  became  interpreter  to  a mis- 
sionary in  1772,  and  was  frequently  employed  by  Sir 
William  Johnson  as  an  agent  among  various  tribes. 
On  the  death  of  Sir  William,  he  became  secretary  to  his 
son-in-law,  Col.  Guy  Johnson.  During  the  revolution 
the  Mohawks  adhered  to  the  British,  and  Brant  went  to 
England,  where  he  had  access  to  the  nobility,  and  ^his 
portrait  was  painted  by  Romney  for  the  Earl  of  War- 


B R A — B R I 


wick.  In  1776  he  returned  to  Canada,  and  received  a 
commission  in  the  British  army,  in  which  he  attained 
the  rank  of  colonel,  but  was  always  known  as  captain. 
He  participated  in  the  battle  of  Oriskany,  August  6, 
1777,  one  of  the  bloodiest  engagements  of  the  war,  and 
led  the  Indians  in  many  raids  on  the  borders  of  New 
York;  but  he  was  not  present  at  the  massacre  of 
Wyoming  as  has  been  supposed.  In  revenge  for  the 
destruction  of  Newtown  (near  Elmira)  by  General  Sul- 
livan in  1779,  Brant  laid  waste  the  Mohawk  valley  with 
300  Indians  and  Tories.  After  the  war  the  Six  Nations 
found  that  they  had  no  mention  in>  the  treaty,  and 
Brant  asked  for  a tract  of  land  on  the  north  shore  of 
Lake-  Erie,  which  was  granted.  Here  he  labored  for 
the  improvement  of  his  people,  and  tried  to  form  a 
confederacy  of  tribes  in  Western  Canada,  but  failed. 
He  visited  England  again  in  1785,  raised  funds  to  build 
a church,  and  received  compensation  to  repair  the 
losses  his  nation  had  incurred  in  supporting  the  English. 
He  held  that  his  people  had  a right  to  tlje  territory 
northwest  of  the  Ohio.  In  1791  he  was  present  at  the 
defeat  of  Gen.  Arthur  St.  Clair  on  the  Miami  river.  In 
his  late  years  he  was  troubled  with  efforts  made  to  drive 
the  Mohawks  from  their  settlement,  and  by  conspiracies, 
in  which  Red  Jacket  was  conspicuous.  Later  he  visited 
the  United  States,  but  those  who  had  suffered  from  his 
raids  feared  and  hated  him,  and  his  life  was  often 
threatened.  His  youngest  son,  John,  became  a chief, 
and  took  part  in  the  War  of  1812.  See  Life  of  Joseph 
Brant , by  W.  L.  Stone. 

BRASSEY,  Thomas,  Lord,  born  in  England  in 
1836;  was  elected  to  parliament  as  a Liberal  in  1865, 
and  held  various  offices  in  the  Admiralty.  He  is  a son  of 
Thomas  Brassey,  a railroad  contractor,  who  began  life 
as  a laborer  and  amassed  an  immense  fortune.  Lord 
Brassey  is  an  enthusiastic  yachtsman,  and,  accompanied 
by  his  wife,  made  a voyage  around  the  world  in  his  own 
yacht,  the  Sunbeam , in  1876-77.  Lady  Brassey,  who 
died  at  sea,  September  14,  1887,  wrote  an  account  of 
the  voyage. 

BRAZZA,  Pierre  Savorgnan  de,  born  in  Rome 
in  1852;  explored  the  Congo  region  in  1876-78,  made 
another  journey  through  Central  Africa  in  1883,  and  be- 
came governor  of  the  French  possessions  there  in  1886. 

BRECKENRIDCfE,  Clifton  R.,  cotton  planter, 
congressman  and  diplomat,  born  in  Lexington,  Ky., 
November  22,  1846,  served  in  the  Confederate  army, 
settled  in  Arkansas  in  1870,  and  sat  in  the  48th  to  the  53rd 
congresses,  resigning  in  1894  to  accept  the  appoint- 
ment of  minister  to  Russia,  succeeding  Andrew  D. 
White,  resigned. 

BRECKENRIDGE,  John  Cabell,  vice-president 
of  the  United  States,  born  near  Lexington,  Ky.,  Jan- 
uary 21,  1821;  died  May  17,  1875.  He  practiced  law, 
served  in  the  war  with  Mexico  as  major  of  a volunteer 
regiment,  was  elected  to  the  Kentucky  legislature,  and 
to  congress  in  1851  as  a Democrat.  In  1856  he  was 
elected  vice:president,  and  in  i860  was  nominated  for 
president  by  the  extreme  Southern  Democrats,  who 
withdrew  from  the  national  convention  that  was  held 
in  Charleston,  S.  C.  Pie  received  the  electoral  vote  of 
the  slave  States,  except  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee 
and  Missouri,  but  was  defeated  by  Abraham  Lincoln. 
In  1861  he  took  his  seat  in  the  United  States  Senate  as 
successor  to  John  J.  Crittenden,  but  was  expelled  De- 
cember 4,  1861,  on  account  of  his  political  opinions,  and 
went  south  to  enter  the  Confederate  army,  in  which  he 
was  appointed  a brigadier-general.  He  was  appointed 
a major-general  on  August  5,  1862,  and  commanded 
the  Confederate  reserve  at  Shiloh,  April  6,  1862.  He 
commanded  the  right  wing  of  Gen.  Braxton  Bragg’s  re- 
serve at  Murfreesborough  December  31,  1862;  served 


6489 

at  Chickamauga  and  Chattanooga,  1863;  defeated  Gen. 
Franz  Sigel  at  Newmarket,  Va.,  May  13,  1864;  joined 
General  Lee’s  army,  and  served  at  Cold  Harbor,  June 

3,  1864;  served  under  Gen.  Jubal  Early  in  his  advance 
on  Washington,  and  shared  in  his  defeat  by  Sheridan 
near  Winchester,  Va.,  September,  1864.  From  Jan- 
uary till  April,  1865,  he  was  secretary  of  war  in  Jeffer- 
son Davis’  Cabinet,  and  after  the  downfall  of  the  Con- 
federacy he  went  to  Europe  by  way  of  Cuba.  He  re- 
turned to  Kentucky  in  1868,  and  devoted  himself  to  his 
profession. 

BREESE,  Sidney,  jurist,  born  at  Whiteboro,  N.  Y., 
July  15,  1800;  died  June  27,  1878.  He  served  in  the 
Black  Hawk  war  and  held  various  judicial  offices  in 
Illinois  until  elected  United  States  senator,  as  a Demo- 
crat, in  1843.  He  was  speaker  of  the  Illinois  House  of 
Representatives  in  1850,  became  circuit  judge  in  1855, 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  in  1857  and  chief  justice 
in  1873. 

BRENTANO,  Lorenz,  born  in  Baden,  November 

4,  1813  ; died  in  1891.  He  was  a member  of  the  Frank- 
fort parliament  in  1848,  and  president  of  the  provisional 
government  of  Baden  in  1849.  On  its  overthrow  he 
fled  to  America,  and  in  1859  came  to  Chicago.  He  was 
elected  to  the  legislature  in  1862,  was  United  States  con- 
sul at  Dresden,  1872-76,  and  sat  in  congress,  1877-79. 

BRETON,  Jules  Adolphe,  well  known  French 
painter  of  peasant  life,  born  in  1827,  first  took  his  sub- 
jects from  the  French  revolutionary  period,  but  soon 
found  his  metier . He  is  l'epresented  in  the  Luxem- 
bourg by  La  Benediction  des  Bles  (1857),  Le  Rappel  des 
Glaneuses  (1859),  and  Le  Soir  (1861).  His  well  known 
Young  Girls  Going  to  the  Procession , Breton  Woman, 
and  The  Pardon  of  Kergoat , were  exhibited  in  the 
World’s  Fair  of  1893.  He  is  also  known  as  a poet. 

BREWER,  David  Josiah,  born  in  Asia  Minor, 
June  20,  1837;  son  of  an  American  missionary.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1856,  studied  law  with  his  uncle, 
David  Dudley  Field,  graduated  at  Albany  law  school 
in  1858,  and  practiced  in  Leavenworth,  Kan.,  where  in 
1862  he  was  elected  probate  judge,  and  in  1864  judge  of 
the  first  judicial  district  of  Kansas.  In  1870  he  became 
associate  justice  of  the  State  Supreme  Court,  was  re- 
elected in  1876,  and  again  in  1882,  and  resigned  in 
1884,  to  become  United  States  circuit  judge  for  the 
eighth  circuit.  On  Dec.  4,  1889,  President  Harrison 
nominated  him  associate  justice  of  the  United  States  Su- 
preme Court, in  succession  to  the  late  Stanley  Matthews. 

BREWSTER,  Benjamin  Harris,  born  in  Salem 
county,  New  Jersey,  October  13,  1816;  graduated  at 
Princeton  in  1834,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1838. 
From  1867  to  1869  he  was  attorney-general  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  from  December  19,  1881  to  March  4,  1885, 
was  attorney-general  of  the  United  States.  He  died 
April  4,  1888. 

BRIDGMAN,  Frederick  Arthur,  painter,  born 
in  Tuskeegee,  Ala.,  November  10,  1847.  His  parents 
were  from  Massachusetts.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  re- 
moved to  New  York,  and  became  an  apprentice  to  the 
American  Bank  Note  Company,  where  he  remained  two 
years,  studying  meanwhile  at  the  Brooklyn  Art  School 
and  the  Academy  of  Design,  New  York.  In  1866  he 
went  to  Paris  and  entered  the  studio  of  Gerome.  He 
also  studied  in  the  ficole  des  Beaux  Arts,  and  traveled 
in  Brittany,  Algiers  and  Egypt.  He  has  contributed 
almost  yearly  to  the  French  Salon,  and  his  Funeral  of 
a Mummy  (1878)  was  awarded  a medal  of  the  second 
class  at  the  Paris  international  exhibition  of  that  year. 
At  the  same  time  he  was  decorated  with  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  In  1875  he  was  made  an  associate  of  the 
National  Academy,  New  York,  and  a member  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Design  in'  1881.  His  works  in- 


B R I 


6490 

elude:  Jen  Breton  (1868)  The  Breton  Children  in  Car- 
nival Time  (1869),  The  American  Circus  in  Brittany 
(1870),  A Moorish  Interior  (1876),  Procession  of  the 
Bull  Apis,  in  the  Corcoran  Art  Gallery,  Washington 
(1879)  and  My  Last  Price  (1884).  Mr.  Bridgman  came  to 
America  in  1880,  and  exhibited  his  works  in  New  York. 
At  the  Columbian  World’s  Fair  of  1893,  in  Chicago 
he  exhibited  Passage  of  the  Red  Sea ; Women  at  the 
Mosque,  A Igiers;  Day  Dreams ; A Hot  Day  at  Mus- 
tapha , Algiers,  and  other  paintings  in  oil.  He  has  his 
studio  in  Paris. 

BRIDGMAN,  Laura  Dewey,  blind  and  deaf  mute, 
born  in  Hanover,  N.  H.,  December  21,  1829;  died 
May  24,  1889.  At  the  age  of  two  a severe  illness 
deprived  her  of  sight,  hearing  and  speech.  Her  senses 
of  smell  and  taste  were  also  impaired.  She  was 
placed  in  the  Perkins  institution  for  the  blind,  Bos- 
ton, at  the  age  of  eight,  and  the  superintendent,  Dr. 
Samuel  G.  Howe,  undertook  her  education.  The  first 
step  was  made  by  giving  her  some  familiar  object  with 
its  name  in  raised  letters,  and  teaching  her  at  the  same 
time  the  qualities  of  that  article  and  its  use  or  relation 
to  other  things.  She  was  also  taught  to  spell  by  means 
of  movable  types.  She  made  rapid  progress,  and  in  the 
course  of  time  acquired  a knowledge  of  geography,  arith- 
metic, learned  to  do  household  work  and  also  to  sew, 
both  by  hand  and  on  the  machine.  After  receiving  her 
education,  Miss  Bridgman  taught  in  the  Perkins  institu- 
tion. It  is  thought  that  her  facility  in  learning  was  due 
toher  havinghad  the  possession  ofher  senses  for  twenty- 
six  months,  although  at  that  time  she  was  unable  to  use 
them  intelligently,  and  unable  to  remember  anything  at 
that  period.  Her  moral  sense  was  well  developed,  and 
she  was  a member  of  the  Baptist  church.  In  1873  Doctor 
Howe  wrote:  “ She  enjoys  life  quite  as  much,  probably 
more,  than  most  persons  do.  She  reads  whatever  book 
she  finds  in  raised  print,  especially  the  Bible.  She 
makes  much  of  her  own  clothing,  and  can  run  a sewing- 
machine.  She  seems  happiest  when  she  can  find  some 
person  who  knows  the  finger  alphabet,  and  can  sit  and 
gossip  with  her  about  acquaintances,  the  news,  and  gen- 
eral matters.”  See  Life  and  Education  of  Laura 
Dewey  Bridgman  by  her  instructor,  Mary  S.  Lamson 
(Boston,  1878). 

BRIGHT,  JesseD.,  born  in  Chenango  county,  N.  Y., 
December  18,  1812;  died  May  20,  1875.  He  removed 
to  Indiana,  practiced  law  there,  sat  in  the  legislature  in 
1836,  and  in  1841  was  elected  lieutenant-governor  of  the 
State.  In  1845  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate  as  a Democrat,  and  sat  until  February  5,  1862, 
when  he  was  expelled  for  disloyalty.  In  1866  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Kentucky  legislature. 

BRIGHT,  John,  born  near  Rochdale,  England,  No- 
vember 16,  1811;  of  Quaker  parentage.  His  first  ap- 
pearance in  national  politics  was  in  1839,  when,  with 
Richard  Cobden,  he  founded  the  anti-corn-law  league. 
In  1843  he  entered  parliament,  where  he  sat,  with  the 
exception  of  a brief  period  during  the  Crimean  war,  for 
forty-five  years.  Mr.  Bright  was  prominent  in  the  free- 
trade  movement,  was  an  active  member  of  the  Peace 
society,  and  until  near  the  close  of  his  career  an  enthu- 
siastic advocate  of  electoral  reform  and  economy  in  public 
affairs.  Possessed  of  a voice  which  rang  like  a silver 
bell,  and  of  a diction  sublime  in  its  simplicity  and  Anglo- 
Saxon  directness,  he  became  one  of  the  foremost  orators 
in  a House  of  Commons  which  numbered  Gladstone  and 
Disraeli  among  its  members.  After  the  passage  pf  the 
reform  bill  of  1867,  he  entered  Mr.  Gladstone’s  cabinet, 
from  which  he  retired  in  1870  on  account  of  ill-health. 
He  held  office  again  in  1873  and  in  1881-82,  but  retired 
in  the  latter  year  as  he  disapproved  of  the  English  policy 
in  Egypt.  In  1886  he  broke  away  from  the  traditions 


•BRO 

of  half  a century  to  oppose  the  liberal  policy  of  home 
rule  for  Ireland,  and  he  died  March  27,  1889. 

BRIGHT,  Richard,  born  in  Bristol,  England,  in 
1789  ; became  a leading  physician,  and  was  the  first  to 
describe  a disease  of  the  kidneys  since  known  by  his 
name.  He  died  December  16,  1858. 

BRIGNOLI,  Pasquale,  born  in  Italy  in  1824;  died 
in  New  York  city  October  30,  1884.  He  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1855  and  for  nearly  thirty  years  his 
magnificent  tenor  voice  was  heard  in  opera  and  con- 
cert music  in  this  country  and  in  Europe. 

BRINTON,  Daniel  Garrison,  born  in  Chester 
county,  Penn..  May  13,  1837;  became  a division  sur- 
geon during  the  war,  and  in  1884  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  ethnology  and  archgeology  in  the  Philadel- 
phia Academy  of  Natural  Sciences.  He  has  written 
on  aboriginal  myths  and  anthropology.  Died  July,  1899. 

BRISBIN,  James  S.,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1838; 
entered  the  volunteer  service  as  a private  in  1861,  and 
came  out  major-general  of  volunteers  and  brevet  colonel 
in  the  regular  army.  He  was  transferred  to  the  cavalry 
and  was  promoted  colonel  of  the  first  cavalry  in  August, 
1889.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  January  14,  1892. 

BRISTOW,  Benjamin  H.,  born  in  Todd  county, 
Ky.,  June  20,  1832;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1853, 
joined  the  Union  army  and  was  wounded  at  Shiloh; 
served  in  the  Kentucky  Senate  1863-1865,  was  United 
States  district-attorney  at  Louisville,  1865-1870,  and 
became  solicitor-general  of  the  United  States  in 
October,  1870.  In  1872  he  resigned,  and  in  December, 
1873,  was  nominated  for  attorney-general,  but  not 
confirmed.  From  June,  1874,  to  June,  1876,  he  was 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  and  was  active  in  the  prose- 
cution of  the  whisky  ring.  At  the  Cincinnati  Repub- 
lican convention  of  1876,  he  received  113  votes  on  the 
first  ballot  for  president,  but  failed  to  get  the  nomina- 
tion. In  1876  he  returned  to  his  law  practice  in  New 
York  city,  and  died  June  22,  1896. 

BROCK,  Sir  Isaac,  soldier,  born  in  the  island  of 
Guernsey,  October  6,  1769;  killed  in  battle  at  Queens- 
ton,  Canada,  October  13,  1812.  At  fifteen  years  of 
age  he  was  an  ensign  in  the  British  army,  became  lieu- 
tenant in  1790,  served  in  the  West  Indies  until  1793, 
later  rose  to  be  lieutenant-colonel,  was  with  the  expedi- 
tion in  Holland  in  1799,  and  at  the  battle  of  Copen- 
hagen, and  other  operations  in  the  Baltic  in  1801.  In 
1802  he  went  to  Canada,  where  in  1803  he  suppressed  a 
troublesome  conspiracy.  In  1805  he  visited  England, 
but  in  the  year  following  returned  to  his  regiment.  In 
1810  he  commanded  the  troops  in  Upper  Canada,  and 
became  lieutenant-governor  of  that  province.  When 
war  was  declared  between  this  country  and  Great  Brit- 
ain, General  Brock  moved  his  command  to  Detroit, 
where,  on  August  16,  1812,  he  captured  General  Hull 
with  his  entire  army.  Meanwhile  a United  States  force 
of  6,000  men  was  gathered  on  the  frontier  of  Niagara. 
These  were  attacked  by  General  Brock,  who  fell  at  the 
head  of  his  troops. 

BRODERICK,  David  C.,  born  in  Washington,  D. 
C.,  February  4,  1820;  killed  in  a duel  in  California, 
September  16,  1859.  went  to  the  Pacific  slope  in 
1849,  became  State  senator  the  next  year,  and  in  1856 
was  elected  United  States  senator.  Originally  a Demo- 
crat, he  broke  with  that  party  over  the  slavery  question 
in  1858.  He  got  into  a difficulty  with  David  S.  Terry, 
then  chief  justice  of  the  State  Supreme  Court,  who  chal- 
lenged him,  and  Broderick  fell  at  the  first  fire.  Terry 
made  an  assault  upon  Justice  Field  of  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court  in  1889,  and  was  shot  dead  by  a United 
States  marshal  named  Nagle. 

BROGLIE,  Charles  Jacques  Victor,  Due  de, 
born  in  Paris  June  13,  1821 ; became  a member  of  the 


B R O 


French  Academy  in  1862,  and  was  elected  to  the  As- 
sembly in  1862.  Under  the  republic  he  was,  in  1872, 
minister  to  England  for  a short  time,  returned  to  lead 
the  opposition  to  the  Thiers  government,  and  became 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  under  MacMahon,  1873-74. 
He  was  elected  senator  in  1876;  became  president  of  the 
council  and  minister  of  justice  in  the  Conservative  cab- 
inet in  1877,  and  did  all  in  his  power  to  secure  the  re- 
turn of  Orleanist  deputies  at  the  election  of  that  year. 
An  overwhelming  Republican  majority  in  the  Chamber 
drove  him  from  power.  He  has  written  some  import- 
ant historical  essays.  He  died  Jan.  19,  1901. 

BROOKS,  Charles  Timothy,  author,  born  in 
Salem,  Mass.,  June  20,  1813;  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1832  and  became  a Unitarian  minister.  He  translated 
Schiller’s  William  Tell,  the  first  part  of  Goethe’s 
Faust,  and  several  works  of  Jean  Paul  Richter.  He 
died  June  14,  1883. 

BROOKS,  James,  born  in  Portland,  Me.,  November 
10,  1810;  died  April  30,  1873.  He  was,  in  1832,  the 
first  Washington  correspondent  of  a daily  paper,  founded 
the  New  York  Express  in  1836  and  served  many  terms 
in  congress. 

BROOKS,  Phillips,  D.D.,  one  of  the  first  of  pulpit 
orators,  was  born  in  Boston,  December  13,  1835,  and 
died  there  January  23,  1893.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1855,  and  became  an  Episcopalian  clergyman,  first 
in  Philadelphia  and  later  at  Trinity  Church  Boston. 
He  was,  in  1874,  the  first  American  clergyman  to  preach 
in  Westminster  Abbey.  In  1891  he  became  fifth 
bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Massachusetts. 

BROOKS,  Preston  S.,  born  in  South  Carolina  in 
1819;  died  in  January,  1857.  He  became  a member  of 
congress  in  1853,  and  attained  an  unenviable  notoriety 
in  May,  1856,  by  making  a ferocious  assault  upon 
Charles  Sumner  in  the  United  States  Senate  chamber. 

BROUGHTON,  Rhoda,  born  in  Wales,  November 
29,  1840;  has  written  many  novels  of  which  Cometh  Up 
as  a Flower,  and  Not  Wisely,  but  Too  Well,  are  the 
best  known. 

BROWN,  Benjamin  Gratz,  born  in  Lexington, 
Ky.,  May  28,  1826;  died  in  1885.  He  was  a member 
of  the  Missouri  legislature  (1852-1858);  from  1863  to 
1867  was  United  States  senator  from  Missouri,  and  in 
1870  was  elected  governor  of  the  State.  In  1872  he  ran 
on  the  Greeley  ticket  for  the  vice-presidency. 

BROWN,  George,  born  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 
November  29,  1818;  died  May  9,  1880,  in  Toronto, 
Canada.  He  was  educated  in  Scotland,  came  to  New 
York  in  1838,  and  published  there  the  British  Chronicle. 
In  1843  he  went  to  Canada  and  founded  the  Toronto 
Globe  in  1844.  He  was  a strong  Liberal,  entered  the 
Dominion  parliament  in  1851,  and  the  Senate  in  1873, 
and  in  1874  negotiated  a reciprocity  treaty  with  the 
United  States,  which  fell  through.  He  was  killed  by  a 
discharged  employe. 

BROWN,  Henry  Billings,  Associate  Justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  South 
Lee,  Mass.,  March  2, 1836;  admitted  to  the  Michigan  bar 
in  i860;  appointed  Assistant  United  States  Attorney  by 
President  Lincoln;  and  appointed  Judge  of  the  State 
Circuit  Court  of  Wayne  County.  He  returned  to  active 
practice  until  1875,  when  President  Grant  appointed  him 
District  Judge  for  the  Eastern  District  of  Michigan. 
On  December  23,  1890,  he  was  appointed  Associate 
Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  to  succeed  Justice  Samuel 
F.  Miller. 

BROWN,  Henry  Kirke,  sculptor,  born  in  Leyden, 
Mass.,  February  24,  1814;  died  in  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  July 
10,  1886.  At  an  early  age  he  showed  a talent  for  paint- 
ing and  sculpture,  studied  in  Boston  and  Cincinnati,  and 
in  1842  went  to  Italy,  remaining  there  until  1846. 


6491 

In  this  time  he  modeled  a Ruth,  a Rebecca , a David,  which 
was  destroyed,  and  a boy  and  a dog  now  owned  by  the 
New  York  Historical  society.  He  returned  to  New 
York  and  opened  a studio,  where  the. first  bronze-cast- 
ing was  done  in  this  city.  In  1850  he  removed  to 
Brooklyn,  and  for  two  years  was  engaged  with  the  statue 
of  De  Witt  Clinton  for  Greenwood  cemetery.  This  was 
the  first  bronze  statue  cast  in  America.  In  1857  he  was 
invited  by  South  Carolina  to  make  the  pediment  for  the 
State-house  in 'Columbia.  It  represented  a colossal 
figure  of  South  Carolina,  with  Justice  and  Liberty  at 
either  side,  and  industries  represented  by  negro  slaves 
at  work  in  the  cotton  and  rice  plantations.  This  work, 
nearly  finished,  was  destroyed  by  Sherman’s  soldiers 
in  1865.  Mr.  Brown’s  principal  statues  are : Dr. 
George  W.  Bethune,  in  Packer  Institute,  Brooklyn 
(1865);  Abraham  Lincolnin,  Prospect  park,  Brooklyn 
(1866)  ; Gen.  Nathanael  Greene,  for  the  State  of  Rhode 
Island,  presented  to  the  National  Gallery  in  the  capi- 
tol,  Washington  (1867)  ; Abraham  Lincoln , Union 
Square,  New  York;  Equestrian  Statue  of  General  Scott, 
Scott  Circle,  Washington  (1872)  ; Gen.  George  Clinton, 
presented  by  the  State  of  New  York  to  the  United 
States  Government  (1873);  Gen.  Philip  Kearny,  in 
Newark,  N.  J.  ; Richard  Stockton,  for  New  Jersey 
( 1874J;  an  Equestrian  Statue  of  Gen.  Nathanael  Greene, 
for  the  United  States  Government  (1875-6J;  and 
Resrirrection  (T877J. 

BROWN,  Joseph  Emerson,  born  in  Pickens  coun- 
ty, S.  C.,  April  15,  1821;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1846,  and 
became  a lawyer  in  ^Georgia.  He  was  elected  to  the 
State  Senate  in  1849,  became  judge  in  1855,  and  was 
governor  of  Georgia  from  1857101865.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  civil  war  Governor  Brown,  who  was  an 
active  secessionist,  seized  the  U nited  States  forts  and  the 
arsenal  at  Augusta,  Ga.  After  the  war  he  advised  his 
State  to  accept  the  terms  of  reconstruction  offered,  and 
for  a time  he  acted  with  the  Republican  party.  He  was 
defeated  for  United  States  senator  in  1868,  and  was  ap- 
pointed chief  justice  of  the  State  Supreme  Court  in  the 
,same  year.  In  1872  he  again  joined  the  Democratic 
party  during  the  Greeley  campaign;  in  1880  was  elected 
United  States  senator  for  the  unexpired  term  of  General 
Gordon,  and  was  reelected  in  1884  for  the  term  ending 
March  3,  1891.  He  died  November  30,  1894. 

BROWNING,  Robert,  poet,  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land, May  7,  1812;  died  at  Venice,  December  12,  1889. 
He  studied  at  the  University  college,  London,  but  left 
without  taking  a degree.  At  nineteen  years  of  age  he 
wrote  Pauline,  and  in  1835  produced  Paracelsus,  a 
much  greater  work.  Sordello  appeared  in  1840,  and  then 
followed  a series  of  plays,  tragic  and  otherwise.  On 
September  12,  1846,  Browning  married  Elizabeth  Bar- 
rett, who  died  in  1861.  The  wedded  poets  made  their 
home  at  Florence,  where  Mr.  Browning  wrote  Aden 
and  Women,  The  Ring  and  the  Book,  and  other  works. 
His  style  is  involved,  and  to  the  ordinary  mind  obscure, 
but,  while  his  poems  have  been  attacked  on  this  ground, 
half  the  literary  world  stands  ready  to  pronounce  them 
the  most  powerful  works  of  the  century. 

BROWNLOW,  William  G.,  born  in  Virginia,  Au- 
gust 29,  1805  ; died  April  29,  1877.  He  became  a 
Methodist  preacher,  and  afterward  edited  various 
newspapers  in  Tennessee.  He  became  governor  of 
that  State  in  1864,  served  two  terms,  and  was  in  1869 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate.  “Parson  Brown- 
low,”  as  he  was  called,  edited  the  Knoxville  Whig  un- 
til it  was  suppressed  by  the  Confederacy,  and  was 
always  loyal  to  the  Union  cause. 

BROWN-SEQUARD,  Edouard,  physician,  born 
in  the  Mauritius  in  1818;  graduated  in  medicine  at 
Paris  in  1840.  Plis  father  was  an  American  sea-cap- 


BRO-BUC 


6492 

tain,  his  mother  a French  woman.  He  was  a professor 
in  the  medical  department  of  Harvard  university,  1864- 
68,  and  was  connected  with  the  Virginia  Medical  col- 
iege.  In  January,  1869,  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
pathology  in  the  School  of  Medicine  at  Paris,  in  1873 
established  a medical  journal  in  New  York,  and  in 
August,  1878,  succeeded  Claud  Bernard  as  professor  of 
medicine  in  the  College  of  France.  He  has  written 
hundreds  of  scientific  papers,  and  in  1889  made  public 
the  results  of  some  experiments  which  he  had  made 
on  human  subjects  with  subcutaneous  injections  of  an 
infusion  prepared  from  the  testes  of  animals.  The 
effect  of  this  treatment  was  claimed  to  be  powerfully 
tonic  and  stimulant  but  faith  in  its  effect  was  killed  by 
the  death  of  the  experimenter,  April  2,  1894. 

BROWNSON,  Orestes  Augustus,  clergyman, 
born  in  Stockbridge,  Vt.,  September  16,  1803;  died  in 
Detroit,  Mich.,  April  17,  1876.  He  was  educated  at 
Ballston,  N.  Y.,  where  he  joined  the  Presbyterian 
church  in  1822,  but  changed  his  views  and  became 
a Universalist  in  1825.  He  conducted  the  Gospel 
Advocate , the  organ  of  the  latter  church,  and  was  after- 
ward editor  of  the  Philanthropist.  Making  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Robert  Owen,  he  adopted  his  ideas  of 
socialism,  and  in  1828  tried  to  form  in  New  York  a 
workingman’s  party.  He  was  drawn  to  the  Unitarians 
by  Doctor  Channing,  and  in  1832  became  pastor  of  a 
congregation  of  this  denomination.  In  1836  he  formed 
in  Boston  a society  for  Christian  union  and  progress,  of 
which  he  had  charge  until  1843.  In  1838  he  established 
the  Boston  Quarterly  Review , of  which  he  was  the 
proprietor  and  almost  sole  writer.  This  was  afterward 
merged  into  the  Democratic  Review  of  New  York.  In 
1844  he  became  a Roman  Catholic,  and  afterward 
remained  a layman  in  that  faith.  Subsequently  he 
founded  Brownson1 s Quarterly  Review , in  which  his 
ideas  of  theology  were  discussed.  This  was  the  first 
American  periodical  reprinted  in  England,  where  it  had 
a circulation  among  Roman  Catholics.  Mr.  Brownson 
was  offered  a chair  in  the  new  Catholic  university  of 
Dublin,  but  he  declined  this  post.  In  1873  he  re- 
vived his  review  for  a time. 

BRUCE,  Blanche  K.,  born  a slave  in  Virginia, 
March  1,  1841 ; came  North  during  the  civil  war,  and 
studied  at  Oberlin.  In  March,  1875,  he  became  United 
States  senator  from  Mississippi,  and  on  May  19,  1881, 
was  appointed  register  of  the  treasury  by  President 
Garfield. 

BRUSH,  Charles  Francis,  inventor,  born  in  Ohio, 
March  17,  1849;  graduated  at  the  university  of  Mich- 
igan in  1869.  He  became  an  analytical  chemist,  and  in 
1875  turned  his  attention  to  electric  lighting.  He  in- 
vented a dynamo  and  an  electric  lamp,  which  were 
successfully  introduced  in  1876,  and  he  has  more  than 
fifty  patents  relating  to  these  inventions. 

BRYAN,  Thomas  B.,  first  vice-president  of  the 
World’s  Columbian  Exposition,  was  born  at  Alexan- 
dria, Va.,  December  22,  -1828,  settled  in  Chicago  in 
1852,  practicing  law,  was  president  of  the  Northwest- 
ern Fair  for  the  relief  of  the  soldiers  of  the  Union  in 
1865  and  was  prominent  in  securing  the  Fair  for  Chi- 
cago and  active  in  promoting  its  interests  abroad. 

BRYANT,  William  Cullen,  poet,  born  in  Cum- 
mington,  Mass.,  November  3,  1794;  died  in  New  York 
city,  June  12,  1878.  His  earliest  poetic  efforts  date 
from  his  eighth  year.  One,  on  the  advance  of  knowl- 
edge, was  published  in  the  Hampshire  Gazette  in  1805. 
In  his  thirteenth  year  he  wrote  a satire  on  President 
Jefferson’s  embargo  on  American  shipping,  published 
under  the  title  of  The  Embargo;  or  Sketches  of  the  Times 
(Boston,  1808).  He  studied  at  New  Brookfield  and 
Plainfield,  Mass.,  and  at  Williams  college,  but  left 


school  to  begin  the  study  of  law.  At  this  period, 
Bryant  being  in  his  eighteenth  year,  his  best  poem, 
Thanatopsis , was  written,  and  was  found  by  his  tather 
after  he  had  left  Cummington  to  begin  his  law  studies. 
It  was  first  published  in  the  North.  American  Review 
(September,  1817).  Admitted  to  the  bar  in  Plymouth, 
he  practiced  in  Plainfield,  near  Cummington,  and  moved 
to  Great  Barrington,  in  Berkshire,  where  he  met  Miss 
Frances  Fairchild,  whom  he  married  in  1821.  In  1825 
he  abandoned  the  legal  profession,  went  to  New  York 
and  assumed  the  editorship  of  the  New  York  Review , 
afterward  merged  into  the  New  York  Literary  Gazette. 
This  again  became  the  United  States  Literary  Gazette , 
and  afterward  the  United  States  Review.  In  the  mean- 
time Mr.  Bryant  had  taken  a temporary  place  on  the 
staff  of  the  Evening  Post  of  New  York,  and  was  also 
associated  with  Robert  C.  Sands  and  G.  C.  Verplanck  in 
the  editorship  of  an  annual  called  The  Talisman.  On 
the  death  of  William  Coleman,  the  proprietor  of  the 
Evening  Post , in  1829,  Mr.  Bryant  became  editor- 
in-chief  and  part  proprietor  of  that  journal.  His 
sympathy  was  with  the  Democratic  party  and  his  sup- 
port of  General  Jackson  during  the  National  bank  war- 
fare affected  the  prosperity  of  his  paper.  In  1834  he 
went  to  Europe,  but  was  speedily  recalled,  owing 
to  the  illness  of  his  assistant,  Mr.  William  Leggett, 
and  the  losing  fortunes  of  the  Evening  Post.  He  op- 
posed the  annexation  of  Texas  and  the  war  with  Mexico; 
aided  in  founding  the  Free  Soil  party  in  1848, 
and  in  1856  took  an  active  part  in  the  formation 
of  the  Republican  party.  In  i860  he  was  a 
presidential  elector  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  Dur- 
ing the  war  he  supported  the  cause  of  the 
Union  and  was  an  advocate  of  the  emancipation  of 
slaves.  He  contributed  several  series  of  letters  to  his 
newspaper  on  his  travels ; visited  Cuba  three  times ; 
Europe,  six  times,  once  including  a trip  to  the  East, 
and  traveled  widely  through  this  country.  These  let- 
ters were  published  as  Letters  of  a Traveler  (New  York, 
1850).  Mr.  Bryant  possessed  facility  of  speech  and 
delivered  many  public  addresses.  He  spoke  at  the  ban- 
quet to  Kossuth,  in  1851;  at  the  Burns  centennial,  in 
1859;  at  the  Schiller  festivities,  in  1859;  at  those  of 
Goethe,  in  1875  and  at  the  dedication  in  Central  Park, 
New  York  of  the  statues  of  Morse  ( 1871),  of  Shakespeare 
(1872),  Scott  ( 1872),  and  Halleck  (1874).  These  Ora- 
tions and  Addresses  were  published  in  book  form  (1873). 
In  1870  and  1872  he  published  translations  of  the  Iliad 
and  Odyssey.  His  last  public  address  was  delivered  on 
May  28,  1878,  at  the  unveiling  of  the  statue  of  Mazzini, 
in  Central  Park,  where  he  was  overcome  by  heat,  and 
injured  by  a fall  from  which  he  never  recovered.  He 
was  buried  at  his  country-seat  in  Roslyn,  L.  I. 

BRYCE,  James,  distinguished  author  and  member 
of  Parliament  for  Aberdeen,  was  born  in  Belfast,  Ire- 
land, in  1838,  educated  at  Glasgow  and  Oxford,  and 
entered  Parliament  in  1880.  He  is  an  advanced  Liberal 
and  deeply  interested  in  Irish  questions.  He  was  a 
member  of  Gladstone’s  fourth  cabinet,  1892-94,  and  of 
Lord  Roseberry’s  cabinet  and  appointed  President  of 
the  Board  of  Trade  in  May,  1894.  His  critical  and 
scholarly  work,  The  American  Commonwealth  (1889, 
revised  ed.  1895),  the  result  of  twenty  years’  study 
of  American  institutions,  is  a standard  authority. 

BUCHANAN,  Robert  William,  poet  and  author, 
born  in  England  in  August,  1841,  and  died  on  the  10th 
of  June,  1901.  He  was  for  many  years  a writer  for  the 
Contemporary  Review , has  published  several  novels  and 
some  good  poetry  and  plays. 

BUCK,  Dudley,  musical  composer,  born  in  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  March  10,  1839.  He  studied  in  Leipzig, 
Dresden,  and  Paris,  settled  in  Chicago  for  several 


BUC- 

years,  then  became  organist  of  Boston  Music  Hall, 
and  afterward  of  Trinity  church,  Boston.  He  wrote  a 
cantata,  which  was  performed  under  the  direction  of 
Theodore  Thomas  at  the  inauguration  of  the  Centen- 
nial exhibition  of  1876,  and  is  the  author  of  some  pop- 
ular operettas  and  several  compositions  for  the  organ. 

BUCKALEW,  Charles  R.,  born  in  Pennsylvania, 
December  28,  1821;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1843, 
and  became  prosecuting  attorney  of  Columbia  county 
in  1845.  He  was  in  the  State  Senate  from  1850  to  1856, 
and  in  1858-61  was  United  States  minister  to  Ecuador. 
In  1863  he  became  United  States  senator,  and  in  1869  re- 
turned to  the  State  Senate.  He  was  a prominent  mem- 
ber of  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1872;  in  1886 
was  elected  to  congress  and  reelected  in  1888  as  a 
Democrat. 

BUCKLAND,  Francis  T.,born  in  England,  Decem- 
ber 17,1826;  died  December  19, 1880.  He  wrote  several 
valuable  works  on  ichthyology  and  natural  history. 

BUCKLE,  George  Earle,  born  June  10, 1854;  won 
the  Newdigate  prize  at  Oxford,  1875,  and  graduated  B.  A. 
in  1876,  and  M.A.  in  1879.  He  was  a fellow  of  All 
Soul’s  College,  1877-85,  and  in  1884  became  editor 
of  the  London  Times. 

BUCKNER,  Simon  Bolivar,  born  in  Hart  county, 
Ky.,  April  1,  1823;  was  educated  at  West  Point,  and 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Mexican  war.  He  joined 
the  Confederacy  in  August,  1861,  and  surrendered  Fort 
Donelson,  February  16,  1862.  He  afterward  com- 
manded a division  at  Chattanooga,  and  an  army  corps 
at  Chickamauga.  On  May  26,  1865,  he  surrendered  the 
last  army  corps  of  the  Confederates  to  General  Canby 
of  the  Federal  army. 

BUELL,  Don  Carlos,  born  near  Marietta,  Ohio, 
March  23,  1818.  After  graduation  at  the  United  States 
military  academy  in  1841,  he  became  first  lieutenant, 
3d  infantry,  June  18,  1846,  and  won  the  brevet  of 
captain  at  Monterey,  and  that  of  major  at  Contreras  and 
Churubusco,  where  he  was  wounded.  In  1848-9  he 
was  assistant  adjutant-general  at  Washington,  and  until 
1861  was  at  the  headquarters  of  various  departments. 
On  May  11,  1861,  he  was  made  a lieutenant-colonel  and 
appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  May  17,  1861. 
After  organizing  troops  in  Washington  he  was  assigned 
to  a division  in  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  which  became 
noted  for  its  discipline.  He  succeeded  Gen.  W.  T. 
Sherman  in  the  department  of  the  Cumberland,  which  was 
reorganized  as  that  of  the  Ohio.  On  March  21, 1862,  he 
was  made  major-general  of  volunteers,  and  his  depart- 
ment united  with  that  of  the  Mississippi,  commanded  by 
Major-general  Halleck.  By  the  aid  of  his  division, 
which  arrived  at  Shiloh  April  6th,  the  Confederates, 
under  General  Beauregard,  were  driven  to  Corinth.  On 
June  12,  1862,  he  assumed  command  of  the  district  of 
Ohio.  Owing  to  Gen.  Braxton  Bragg’s  advance  into 
Kentucky,  he  was  obliged  to  evacuate  Central  Tennes- 
see, and  to  retreat  to  Louisville,  where  his  army  arrived 
September  24th,  in  great  excitement,  for  it  was  feared  that 
Bragg  would  reach  there  first.  On  September  30th,  by 
order  from  Washington,  General  Buell  gave  up  his  com- 
mand to  Gen.  G.  H.  Thomas;  but  he  was  restored  on 
the  same  day.  Part  of  his  army  fought  the  Confederates 
at  Perryville,  October  8th,  but  were  defeated.  A court- 
martial  was  held  and  Buell  was  acquitted.  Andrew 
Johnson,  then  military  governor  of  Tennessee,  pro- 
tested against  his  ever  holding  duty  in  that  State,  and 
he  was  transferred  to  the  department  of  the  Gulf.  He 
declined  this  command,  and  resigned  June  1,  1864.  He 
was  mustered  out  of  the  volunteer  service  May  23,  1864. 
In  1865  he  became  president  of  the  Green  River  iron- 
works of  Kentucky,  and  subsequently  held  the  post  of 
pension  agent  at  Louisville,  Ky.  Died  Nov.  19,  1899. 
37-J 


-BUR  6493 

BULL,  Ole  Bornemann,  violinist,  born  at  Bergen, 
Norway,  February  5,  1810;  died  August  18,  1880.  He 
made  many  tours  through  the  United  States  and  gained 
and  lost  several  fortunes.  In  1870  he  married  a Ger- 
man lady  in  Wisconsin. 

BULOW,  Hans  Guido,  von,  pianist,  born  in  Dres- 
den, Saxony,  January  8,  1830;  studied  under  Liszt,  and 
married  his  daughter,  who  afterward  got  a divorce  from 
Von  Biilow  and  married  Richard  Wagner.  Biilow  gave 
concerts  in  the  United  States  and  almost  all  European 
countries,  and  wrote  several  musical  compositions. 
He  died  February  13,  1894. 

BUNSEN,  Robert  Wilhelm,  born  in  Gottingen, 
March  31,  1811.  He  graduated  at  the  university  of  his 
native  city  in  1831,  and  filled  the  chair  of  chemistry 
successively  at  Marburg,  Breslau  and  Heidelberg.  He 
invented  the  magnesium  light,  and  discovered  a new 
antidote  for  arsenical  poisoning.  But  his  greatest 
scientific  work  was  in  connection  with  the  spectroscope 
and  the  introduction  of  the  spectrum  into  chemical 
analysis. 

BURDETT-COUTTS,  Baroness,  youngest  daugh- 
ter of  Sir  Francis  Burdett,  born  in  England,  April  25, 
1814.  In  1837  she  came  into  possession  of  an  enormous 
fortune,  and  for  nearly  fifty  years  her  name  was  identi- 
fied with  charitable  movements  of  every  kind.  As  a 
slight  recognition  of  her  good  deeds,  Queen  Victoria 
made  her  a baroness  in  1871.  In  1882  she  married 
J.  Ashmead  Bartlett,  a man  less  than  half  her  age,  who 
assumed  her  name  and  is  now  a member  of  Parliament. 

BURDETTE,  Robert  J.,  humorist,  born  at  Greens- 
borough,  Pa.,  July  30,  1844,  served  in  the  war  and  made 
a national  reputation  by  his  humorous  sketches  on  the 
Burlington  Havukeye.  He  has  delivered  lectures  and 
recently  became  a Baptist  clergyman. 

BURKE,  Thomas  N.  (Father  Tom),  born  in  Gal- 
way, September  8,  1830;  died  in  Dublin,  July  2,  1883. 
He  became  a Dominican  friar,  and  in  1881  lectured 
through  the  United  States  in  answer  to  J.  A.  Froude’s 
attacks  on  Ireland. 

BURLINGAME,  Anson,  born  in  New  Berlin,  N. 
Y.,  November  14,  1820;  died  February  23,  1870.  He 
graduated  in  law  at  Harvard  in  1846,  became  a State 
senator  in  Massachusetts  in  1853,  entered  congress  in 
1854,  and  sat  until  March,  1861.  He  was  challenged 
in  1856  by  Preston  S.  Brooks,  whose  brutal  assault  upon 
Charles  Sumner  he  had  denounced  in  fitting  terms,  but 
the  duel  did  not  come  off.  In  March,  1861,  Burlin- 
game was  nominated  minister  to  Austria,  but  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  empire  refused  to  receive  him.  He  was 
then  sent  as  United  States  minister  to  China,  and  when 
he  was  recalled,  in  1867,  the  Chinese  government  en- 
gaged his  services  as  their  diplomatic  representative 
in  Europe  and  the  United  States.  He  negotiated,  in 
1868,  the  treaty  known  by  his  name,  by  which  China 
subscribed  to  the  principles  of  international  law. 

BURNABY,  Frederick,  born  in  England,  March 
3,  1842  ; killed  in  battle  at  Abu  Klea,  Nubia,  January 
17,  1885.  He  was  a distinguished  soldier  and  a great 
traveler,  and  wrote  A Ride  to  Khiva , On  Horseback 
through  Asia  Minor , and  A Ride  Across  the  Channel , 
the  latter  being  a description  of  a balloon  voyage. 

BURN  AND,  Francis  Cowley,  born  in  England  in 
1837 ; educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity  college,  Cambridge, 
and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1862.  In  1880  he  became 
editor  of  the  London  Punch , to  which  he  had  con- 
tributed for  several  years.  He  has  written  many  bur- 
lesques, of  which  Ixion  and  Black-Eyed  Susan  were 
very  successful. 

BURNE-JONES.  Sir  Edward,  born  Birmingham, 
England,  August  28,  1833  ; is  an  associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  pre-Raphaelite 


BUR 


6494 

school  of  painters,  and  a brilliant  colorist.  The 
Mirror  of  Venus  (1877),  Le  Chant  a ’ Amour  (i8j8), 
and  The  Brazen  Tower  are  among  his  best  paint- 
ings. He  died  June  17,  1898. 

BURNETT,  Frances  Eliza  Hodgson,  novelist, 
born  in  Manchester,  England,  November  24,  1849.  She 
came  to  this  country  in  1865,  and  in  1873  married  Dr. 

5.  M.  Burnett.  Her  best-known  works  are  That  Lass 
o'  Lowrie's  (1876),  Haworth ’s  ( 1878J,  A Fair  Barbarian 
(1881),  Little  Lord  Fauntleroy , which  was  successfully 
dramatized,  The  One  L Knew  the  Best  of  All  ( 18939, 
and  Piccino  Cl  894). 

BURNHAM,  Daniel  Hudson,  architect,  born  in 
Henderson,  N.  Y.,  September  4,  1846,  came  to  Chi- 
cago in  1855,  studied  architecture  and  began  its  prac- 
tice in  1871.  In  October,  1890,  he  was  appointed 
chief  of  construction  and  supervising  architect  of  the 
World’s  Columbian  Exposition,  and  to  him  belonged 
much  of  the  credit  for  the  magnificence  of  the  general 
plan,  the  beauty  of  the  different  Exposition  buildings 
and  the  rapidity  with  which  they  were  erected. 

BURNHAM,  Shelbourne  W.,  born  in  1840.  For 
many  years  a shorthand  reporter  in  Chicago,  he  de- 
voted his  leisure  to  astronomy,  making  a special  study 
of  double  stars,  and  when  the  Lick  observatory  in  Cal- 
ifornia was  erected  took  charge  of  it.  He  became  direc- 
tor of  the  Yerkes  observatory,  Lake  Geneva,  111.,  1895. 

BURNS,  John,  was  born  in  1858  at  Vauxhall,  Eng- 
land ; when  ten  years  of  age  went  to  work  at  a candle 
factory  and  then  became  an  engineer’s  apprentice.  He 
first  attracted  public  attention  by  his  speeches  on  So- 
cialism ; played  a leading  part  in  the  unemployed  agita- 
tion of  1886,  and  was  imprisoned  for  resisting  the  police. 
He  was  twice  elected  a member  of  the  London  County 
Council  for  Battersea,  and  in  July  1892  was  elected  to 
the  House  of  Commons.  He  won  the  great  victory  of 
the  dock  laborers  in  1889,  and  in  all  labor  questions  is 
an  authority.  Late  in  1894  he  visited  the  United  States, 
addressing  labor  unions  and  socialists  and  making  him- 
self unpopular  by  his  frank  criticisms  of  American  ways 
and  institutions. 

BURNSIDE,  Ambrose  Everett,  soldier,  born  in 
a log  cabin  at  Liberty,  Ind.,  May  23,  1824;  died  in 
Bristol,  R.  I.,  September  3,  1881.  He  was  first  a tailor 
but  went  to  West  Point,  graduated  in  1847,  and  served 
in  Mexico.  He  took  a Rhode  Island  regiment  to  Wash- 
ington in  1861,  commanded  a brigade  at  Bull  Run,  July 
21,  1861,  and  later,  General  Hunter’s  division.  August 

6,  he  was  made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  organ- 
ized a “ coast  division,”  and  on  February  5,  1862,  cap- 
tured the  Confederate  garrison  of2,50omenon  Roanoke 
Island.  The  surrender  of  Forts  Macon  and  Beaufort 
followed.  Burnside  was  then  transferred  to  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  with  his  old  division  reorganized  as 
the  ninth  corps.  He  was  twice  offered  the.  chief  com- 
mand and  declined.  He  was  sent  with  command  of 
the  first  and  ninth  corps  to  meet  General  Lee  at  Sharps- 
burg,  and  encountered  the  Confederate  force  at  South 
Mountain,  September  14,  1862.  His  force,  the  ninth 
corps,  held,  with  great  loss  of  life,  the  stone  bridge 
at  Antietam,  September  17,  1862,  which  was  the  im- 
portant post  of  that  battle.  On  November  10th,  after 
General  McClellan  had  been  relieved,  Burnside  re- 
luctantly took  the  command.  He  was  superseded  by 
Major-General  Hooker,  and  transferred  to  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Ohio,  with  headquarters  in  Cincinnati, 
where,  forced  to  take  measures  against  the  Southern 
sympathizers,  he  issued  the  famous  order  defining  trea- 
sonable offenses  and  declaring  that  they  would  not  be 
tolerated.  Numerous  arrests  followed.  In  August, 
1863,  he  crossed  the  Cumberland  mountains  to  Knox- 
ville, where  he  lay  fortified  for  a siege.  Relieved  from 


duty  by  the  approach  of  General  Sherman  he  devoted 
himself  to  recruiting  and  reorganizing  the  ninth  corps. 
He  resumed  command  in  April,  1864,  at  Annapolis, 
with  nearly  20,000  men,  and  was  again  attached  to  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac  under  General  Grant.  He  led 
his  force  at  the  Wilderness,  Cold  Harbor,  and  Peters- 
burg, and  suffered  severe  defeats.  General  Meade 
brought  charges  of  disobedience  against  General  Burn- 
side and  ordered  a court-martial,  which  found  him 
“answerable  for  the  want  of  success.”  Burnside 
asserted  that  his  plans  of  assault  were  always  interfered 
with.  He  resigned  from  the  army  on  April  15,  1865, 
and  became  at  once  identified  with  railroad  construction 
and  management.  He  was  elected  governor  of  Rhode 
Island  in  1866,  1867,  and  1868,  but  declined  a reelec- 
tion, and  devoted  himself  to  railroad  interests.  He 
went  to  Europe  during  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  and 
was  called  upon  to  act  as  envoy  between  the  two  forces 
endeavoring  to  negotiate  peace.  Returning  to  this 
country  in  1875  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate  from  Rhode  Island  and  was  reelected  in  1880. 
In  1852  he  married  Mary  Richmond,  the  daughter  of 
Nathaniel  Bishop,  of  Providence,  R.  I.  See  Life  and 
Public  Services  of  Ambrose  E.  Burnside , by  Ben  Per- 
ley  Poore.  (Providence,  1882.) 

BURR,  Aaron,  born  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  February  6, 
1756;  died  on  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  September  14, 
1836.  His  father,  Aaron,  was  a clergyman,  and  his 
grandfather  was  Jonathan  Edwards.  Left  orphan  at  an 
early  age,  Aaron  and  his  sister  Sarah  were  brought  up 
in  the  family  of  their  uncle,  the  Rev.  Timothy  Edwards, 
of  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.  In  1769  Burr  entered  Prince- 
ton, and  was  graduated  in  1772.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  Revolution  he  joined  the  patriot  army  near  Boston, 
and  enlisted  as  a private.  He  accompanied  Benedict 
Arnold  to  Quebec,  and  returned  with  the  rank  of 
major  and  a brilliant  reputation.  Washington  invited 
him  to  remain  at  his  headquarters  in  New  York,  but 
Burr  was  dissatisfied  and  left  him  to  become  aide  to 
General  Putnam.  This  was  the  cause  of  a break  in 
Washington’s  friendship ; Burr  affected  to  despise  the 
military  ability  of  the  commander-in-chief,  and  Wash- 
ington’s impressions  of  Burr  ripened  into  distrust.  In 
July,  1 777,  Burr  became  lieutenant-colonel,  with  the 
command  of  his  regiment,  and  joined  the  main  army 
when  it  was  about  to  go  into  winter  quarters  at  Valley 
Forge.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  head  of  a 
brigade  in  the  battle  of  Monmouth,  June  28,  1778,  and 
in  the  following  winter  guarded  the  American  lines  in 
Westchester  county  above  New  York  city.  For  a short 
time  he  commanded  at  West  Point,  but  in  March, 
1779,  resigned  on  account  of  impaired  health.  He  then 
studied  law  with  Judge  Patterson  of  New  Jersey,  and 
afterward  with  Thomas  Smith  of  Haverstraw,  N.  Y., 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Albany  in  1782.  In 
July  of  that  year  he  married  Theodosia,  widow  of 
Augustine  Prevost,  a British  officer,  and  when  the 
Americans  regained  possession  of  New  York  city,  set- 
tled at  Richmond  Hill.  In  1784  he  was  a member  of 
the  State  assembly,  and  in  1789  was  appointed  attorney- 
general  of  New  York,  which  office  he  held  two  years. 
After  the  adoption  of  the  constitution  in  1788,  he 
was  a candidate  of  the  Anti-Federal  party,  and  his  polit- 
ical influence  steadily  increased.  He  gathered  many  am- 
bitious young  men  around  him  as  satellites,  and 
they  were  known  as  “Burr’s  Little  Band.”  In 
1791  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate 
over  General  Philip  Schuyler,  and  served  for  six 
years,  acting  with  the  Republican  party,  as  the  Anti- 
Federalists  were  called.  In  1797  the  Federal  party 
gained  control  again,  and  Burr  was  made  a member  of 
the  New  York  assembly.  He  threw  himself  with  great 


BUR- 

tt al  into  the  presidential  contest  of  1800,  and  his  talent 
for  political  manipulation  came  into  full  play.  The 
Republicans  were  victorious,  but  there  was  a tie  be- 
tween the  highest  candidates  and  Bulrr,  who  had  been 
supported  for  the  vice-presidency,  began  intriguing  to 
supplant  Jefferson  for  the  higher  office,  but  was  de- 
feated in  the  House  of  Representatives  and  loudly  con- 
demned for  his  cool  and  daring  plot.  Toward  the  close  of 
his  service  as  vice-president  he  endeavored  to  recover 
popularity,  and  forced  himself  as  a candidate  for  gov- 
ernor of  New  York,  but  was  defeated  through  the  influ- 
ence of  Alexander  Hamilton.  They  had  long  been 
rivals,  and  Hamilton’s  opinions  regarding  Burr  having 
appeared  anonymously  in  the  newspapers,  the  latter 
seized  upon  this  for  a challenge.  His  opponent  en- 
deavored to  avoid  extremities,  but  finally  accepted,  and 
they  met  on  the  bank  of  the  Hudson  at  Weehawken,  N. 
J.,  on  July  7,  1804.  Hamilton  fell  at  the  first  fire.  The 
tragedy  caused  great  excitement,  and  Burr  fled  to  South 
Carolina  and  took  refuge  with  his  daughter,  Theodosia, 
who  had  married  Joseph  Alston,  afterward  governor  of 
that  State.  Later  he  returned  to  Washington,  and  com- 
pleted his  service  as  vice-president.  His  political  pros- 
ects now  destroyed  and  his  fortune  dissipated,  in  1805 
e turned  his  attention  to  the  great  west,  and  on  his 
way  down  the  Ohio  fell  in  with  Harman  Blennerhassett, 
who  was  moved  by  Burr’s  talk  of  empire,  and  readily 
entered  into  his  schemes  for  mutual  aggrandizement. 
Burr  returned  to  Washington,  and  once  again  sought 
some  appointment,  but,  failing,  entered  more  earnestly 
into  his  western  project.  His  scheme  of  “ Filibuster- 
ism  ” was  to  form  a body  of  men  and  conquer  Texas,  and 
perhaps  Mexico,  and  to  establish  a republic  of  which  he 
was  to  be  the  head.  His  adherents  were  adventurous 
young  men  of  the  east  and  hardy  western  pioneers. 
Blennerhassett’s  island  was  made  their  rendezvous, 
while  Burr  traveled  through  Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 
He  bought  a vast  tract  of  land  on  the  Washita  river  for 
which  $40,000  was  paid.  At  last  Gen.  James  Wilkin- 
son, a veteran  of  the  Revolution,  then  stationed  at  New 
Orleans  as  a senior  officer,  who  had  promised  Burr  his 
assistance  and  carried  on  a cipher  correspondence  with 
him  regarding  his  enterprise,  informed  the  president  of 
Burr’s  purposes.  President  Jefferson  then  issued  a 
proclamation,  October  27,  1806,  warning  the  people  to 
withdraw  from  the  project.  On  January  14,  1807,  Burr 
was  arrested  in  the  Mississippi  territory,  escaped,  was 
rearrested  in  Alabama,  and  taken  to  Richmond,  where 
he  was  imprisoned.  His  trial,  beginning  May  22,  1807, 
lasted  for  six  months.  The  counsel  was  of  distinguished 
lawyers,  including  William  Wirt,  who  delivered  one  of 
his  finest  speeches  for  the  prosecution,  and  Luther  Mar- 
tin, Edmund  Randolph,  and  Burr  himself  for  the  de- 
fense. At  length  he  was  acquitted,  and  afterward  went 
to  Baltimore.  He  sailed  for  England  under  an  assumed 
name  and  there  made  efforts  to  procure  the  aid  of  Euro- 
pean governments  to  establish  his  empire  in  Mexico. 
Expelled  from  England  he  then  went  to  Sweden, 
thence  to  Germany  and  Paris.  In  the  latter  city  he  was 
kept  under  government  surveillance  andrefusedpermis- 
sion  to  return  to  the  U nited  States.  At  last  he  secured 
a passport  and  sailed  from  Amsterdam,  but  his  ship  was 
captured  by  a British  frigate  and  carried  to  Yarmouth. 
He  finally  escaped  from  London,  where  he  had  lived  in 
poverty  for  five  months,  and  arrived  penniless  in  Boston 
in  May,  1812,  under  the  name  of  Arnot.  Hesettledin 
New  York  and  practiced  law  with  brightening  fortune, 
but  in  1813  he  met  with  a great  affliction.  His  daughter 
Theodosia,  one  of  the  most  accomplished  of  American 
women,  was  lost  at  sea  while  traveling  from  Charleston 
to  New  York  to  visit  her  father.  At  the  age  of  seventy- 
eight  Burr  married  Madame  Jumel,  the  widow  of  a 


-BUT  6495 

F rench  merchant.  They  were  finally  separated,  though 
not  divorced. 

BURRITT,  Elihu,  born  in  New  Britain,  Conn., 
December  8,  1810;  died  there  March  6,  1879.  He  be- 
gan life  as  a blacksmith,  but  studied  mathematics  and 
languages  and  became  familiar  with  classic  literature 
and  many  modern  tongues.  He  was  a great  traveler, 
and  wrote  accounts  of  his  journeys.  From  1865  to 
1870  he  was  United  States  consul  at  Birmingham. 

BURROUGHS,  John,  author,  born  in  Roxbury, 
N.  Y.,  April  3,  1837;  has  written  extensively  on  natural 
history. 

BURROWS,  Julius  C.,  born  in  Erie  county,  Penn., 
January  9,  1837;  served  in  the  Union  army  1862-64, 
and  after  the  war  became  prosecuting  attorney  of  Kala- 
mazoo county,  Mich.  In  1875-76  he  served  in  congress 
as  a Republican,  and  again  from  1879  to  1881.  He  rep- 
resented the  fourth  Michigan  district  from  1884  until 
his  election  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1895. 

BURTON,  Sir  Richard  Francis,  born  in  Ireland 
in  1821,  entered  the  Indian  army  and  served  nineteen 
years.  He  acquired  a familiarity  with  nearly  all  the 
Oriental  languages,  and,  disguised  as  a pilgrim  (Hadji), 
visited  Mecca  and  Medina  in  1853.  He  served  with 
credit  in  the  Crimea,  and  from  1856  to  1859  was 
engaged  in  Central  African  explorations.  Subsequently 
he  was  English  consul  at  Damascus  and  Trieste.  He 
wrote  more  than  thirty  volumes  of  travels,  and,  in  1885- 
1888,  published  a literal  translation  of  the  Arabian 
Nights , of  which  only  a limited  number  of  copies  were 
issued.  His  wife,  Lady  Burton,  accompanied  him  in 
many  of  his  expeditions.  She  ha*  written  some  books 
of  travel,  and  published  an  expurgated  edition  of  the 
Arabian  Nights.  Sir  Richard  died  October  20,  1890. 

BURTON,  William  Evans,  actor,  born  in  London, 
England,  September  24,  1804;  died  in  New  York, 
February  10,  i860  He  began  his  theatrical  career  in 
England,  and  in  1834  came  to  the  United  States  and 
appeared  in  standard  comedies  in  Philadelphia  and  New 
York.  In  1848  he  became  manager  of  the  theater  in 
Chambers  street,  where  his  stock  companies  included 
all  the  leading  actors  of  the  time.  Burton’s  “Falstaff,” 
his  “Aminadab  Sleek  ” and  his  “Toodles  ’’dwell  in  the 
memory  of  veteran  play-goers  to  this  day.  He  wrote 
several  works,  established  in  New  York  the  Gentle- 
man’s Magazine  and  collected  a fine  library  of  Shakes- 
pearean literature. 

BUTLER,  Benjamin  Franklin,  born  in  Deerfield, 
N.  H.,  November  5,  1818;  graduated  at  Waterville  uni- 
versity,  Maine,  in  1838;  admitted  to  the  bat  in  1840. 
He  was  in  those  days  a Democrat  and  was  elected  to  the 
Massachusetts  legislature  in  1853  and  to  the  State  Sen- 
ate in  1859.  He  practiced  law  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  and 
became  prominent  in  his  profession.  Previous  to  the 
civil  war  he  was  twice  a candidate  for  the  governorship 
of  Massachusetts.  He  was  a delegate  to  the  National 
Democratic  Convention,  held  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  in 
i860,  and  took  part  in  the  proceedings  of  the  adjourned 
convention,  held  in  Baltimore,  until  there  was  a second 
secession  of  the  Southerners  on  account  of  the  admission 
of  the  Douglas  delegates  to  the  vacant  seats,  when  he 
retired.  At  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war  he  was  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  of  the  State  militia,  and,  on 
April  17th,  marched  to  Annapolis,  Md.,  with  the  8th 
Massachusetts  regiment,  to  command  the  district  of 
Annapolis,  including  Baltimore,  which  city  he  en- 
tered on  May  13,  1861,  at  the  head  of  900  men,  and 
occupied  without  opposition.  On  May  16,  1861,  he 
was  appointed  major-general  of  volunteers,  and  given 
command  of  the  department  of  Eastern  Virginia,  with 
headquarters  at  Fortress  Monroe.  While  he  was  here 
some  runaway  slaves  took  refuge  in  his  lines  and  he  re- 


B U T — C A M 


6496 

fused  to  deliver  them  to  their  masters,  saying  that  they 
were  contraband  of  war.  This  was  the  origin  of  the 
term  “contraband,”  as  applied  to  negroes. 

General  Butler  captured  Fort  Clark  and  Fort  Hat- 
teras  in  August,  1861.  In  March,  1862,  he  led  an 
expedition  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  After  Farragut’s 
capture  of  New  Orleans,  Butler  commanded  there  from 
May  to  December,  and  administered  affairs  with  great 
vigor.  He  preserved  order  and  public  health,  and 
armed  the  free  colored  men.  Resentment  was  caused 
by  his  hanging  William  Mumford  for  hauling  down  the 
United  States  flag  from  the  mint,  and  by  the  issue  of 
“OrderNo.  28,”his  famous  “ woman  order.”  Jefferson 
Davis,  in  December,  1862,  issued  a proclamation  de- 
claring him  to  be  an  outlaw.  While  in  New  Orleans 
he  seized  $800,000,  which  had  been  deposited  in  the 
office  of  the  Dutch  consul,  claiming  that  it  was 
intended  to  buy  arms  for  the  Confederates  with  this 
money,  but  the  government  ordered  him  to  return  it. 
On  December  16,  1862,  he  was  recalled,  but  in  1863, 
was  placed  in  command  of  Virginia  and  North  Caro- 
lina, his  troops  being  afterward  known  as  the  Army  of 
the  J ames.  He  formed  a plan  to  capture  Richmond  by 
operations  from  the  south  side  of  the  James,  intending 
to  cooperate  with  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  from  the 
north,  but  he  was  checked  by  General  Beauregard,  and 
many  of  his  troops  were  transferred  to  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac.  In  October,  1864,  he  was  in  New  York  sup- 
pressing the  anti-draft  riots,  and  afterward  was  sent  to 
Fort  Fisher,  North  Carolina.  Pie  was  removed  from 
command  by  General  Grant,  and  returned  to  Massa- 
chusetts. In  1866  he  was  elected  to  congress  as  a Re- 
publican, and  served  until  1879,  with  the  exception  of 
the  year  1875-6.  He  took  an  active  interest  in  the  re- 
construction of  the  Southern  States,  and  also  in  the 
impeachment  of  President  Johnson.  He  was  the  un- 
successful Republican  nominee  for  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts in  1871,  and  in  1878  and  1879,  was  again  de- 
feated for  the  same  office  on  the  ticket  of  the  Greenback 
party  and  of  an  Independent  Democratic  wing.  In 
1882  he  was  elected  by  the  Democrats,  but  was  defeated 
in  1883.  In  1884  he  ran  as  the  Greenback-Labor  can- 
didate for  president.  He  died  January  II,  1893. 

BUTLER,  Elizabeth  S.,  born  in  Switzerland, 
of  English  parents,  in  1844;  achieved  fame  by  her  pict- 
ures, The  Roll-Call,  Balaklava,  and  Inkermann,  the 
first  of  which  was  shown  at  the  World’s  Fair  in  1893. 


CABANEL,  Alexandre,  artist,  born  in  Montpelier, 
France,  in  1823;  first  exhibited  in  1844  at  the 
“ Salon  ” of  Paris,  and  afterwards  produced  many  paint- 
ings, the  finest  of  which  are  in  the  Luxembourg  collec- 
tion. He  was  elected  to  the  Academie  de  Beaux  Arts  in 
succession  to  Horace  Vernet  in  1863,  and  was  an  officer 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  Pie  died  January  23,  1889. 

CABLE,  George  Washington,  novelist,  born  in 
New  Orleans  in  1844;  served  in  the  Confederate  army 
1863-65,  and  after  the  war  engaged  in  business.  In 
1879  he  published  the  first  of  the  sketches  of  Creole  life 
which  have  made  him  famous.  He  possesses  a thor- 
ough mastery  of  the  Louisiana  dialect,  and  his  stories 
have  the  merit  of  novelty  and  interest. 

CALDERON,  Philip  H.,  born  in  1833;  studied 
painting  in  Paris  and  became  A.R.A.  in  1863,  and  an 
academician  four  years  later.  He  is  a successful  figure 
and  portrait  painter,  and  is  a knight  of  the  French 
Legion  of  Plonor.  He  died  April  30,  1898. 

CALDWELL,  Howard  PL,  poet,  born  at  Newbury, 


In  June  1 877,  she  married  Major-general  W.  F.  Butler 
of  the  British  army. 

BUTLER,  William  Francis,  born  in  Tiperary, 
Ireland,  in  1838;  entered  the  British  army  in  1858,  and 
served  in  the  Red  River  and  Ashantee  expeditions. 
He  also  held  high  command  in  the  Soudan,  and  is  a 
major-general  and  commander  of  the  Bath.  He  is  the 
author  of  The  Great  Lone  Land  (1872)  and  The  Wild 
North  Land  (1873). 

BUTLER,  William  Allen,  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y., 
in  1825  ; son  of  B.  F.  Butler,  who  was  attorney-general 
in  Jackson’s  cabinet.  Mr.  Butler  wrote,  in  1857,  a 
society  satire  in  verse — Nothing  to  Wear — and  has 
been  a liberal  contributor  to  the  magazines. 

BUTT,  Isaac,  born  in  Donegal,  Ireland,  in  1813; 
died  May  5, 1879.  He  was  professor  of  political  economy 
in  the  university  of  Dublin,  1836-41,  and  sat  in  parlia- 
ment as  a Liberal-Conservative  from  1852  to  1865.  He 
was  a prominent  member  of  the  Irish  bar,  and  defended 
Smith  O’Brien  in  1848,  and  the  Fenian  prisoners, 
1867-69.  In  1871  he  was  elected  as  a Home  Ruler,  aiyi 
for  a time  led  that  party.  His  methods,  however,  were 
too  slow  for  the  Parnell-Dillon  wing  of  the  Irish  na- 
tionalists, and  Doctor  Butt  lost  his  influence. 

BUTTERWORTH,  Benjamin,  born  in  Warren 
county,  Ohio,  October  22,  1837;  was  educated  at  Ohio 
university,  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1861,  and  practiced 
law  in  Cincinnati.  In  1870  he  became  United  States 
district  attorney,  and  in  1873-74  State  senator.  He 
was  elected  to  congress  in  1878  and  1880,  became  com- 
missioner of  patents  in  September,  1883;  and  in  1884 
was  again  elected  to  congress,  where  he  represented 
the  first  district  until  1890.  Mr.  Butterworth  was 
elected,  in  1890,  Secretary  of  the  Chicago  World’s 
Fair. 

BYFORD,  William  Heath,  born  in  Ohio,  March 
20,  1817;  graduated  at  Ohio  medical  college  in  1844. 
In  1857  he  became  professor  of  obstetrics  in  Rush 
Medical  college,  Chicago,  and  in  1880  professor  of 
gynoecology.  In  1862  he  was  chosen  president  of  the 
Woman’s  Medical  college  of  Chicago.  Doctor  Byford 
died  on  May  21,  1890. 

BYRON,  PIenry  James,  dramatist,  born  in  Man- 
chester, England,  in  1835 ; died  April  13,  1884.  His 
dramatic  works  number  over  150,  and  include  comedies, 
farces,  melodramas  and  burlesques,  many  of  which 
were  very  popular. 


S.  C.,  in  1831  ; has  contributed  largely  to  periodicals, 
and  published  two  volumes  of  poems. 

CAMBRIDGE,  George  William,  Duke  of,  born 
in  Hanover,  March  26,  1819.  He  is  the  son  of 
Adolphus  Frederick,  first  duke  of  Cambridge,  is  grand- 
son of  George  III.  and  first  cousin  of  Queen  Victoria. 
Since  1856  he  has  been  commander-in-chief  of  the 
British  forces,  and  in  1862  was  made  a field-marshal. 

CAMERON,  Angus,  born  in  Livingston  county, 
N.  Y.,  July  14,  1826;  removed  to  La  Crosse,  Wis.,  in 
1857,  and  served  several  terms  in  both  branches  of  the 
State  legislature.  From  1875  to  1885  he  was  United 
States  senator  from  Wisconsin.  Died  Mar.  30,  1897. 

CAMERON,  James  Donald,  son  of  Simon  Cameron, 
born  in  Middletown,  Penn.,  May  14,  1833 ; became  con- 
nected with  railroads  and  iron  manufacturing.  From 
May  22,  1876,  to  March  3,  1877,  he  was  secretary  of 
war  under  President  Grant,  and  was  then  chosen  United 
States  senator  in  succession  to  his  father.  Senator 
Cameron  was  reelected  in  1879,  1885,  and  1891. 


CAM— CAR 


649; 


CAMERON,  Simon,  born  in  Lancaster  county, 
f«-nn.,  March  8,  1799;  died  June  26,  1889.  He  became 
ft  printer  and  edited  a newspaper  in  Harrisburg  in  1822. 
He  was  interested  in  banking  and  railroad  building,  and 
amassed  a great  fortune.  Originally  a Democrat,  he 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1845,  and 
supported  the  Mexican  war.  He  afterward  joined  the 
Republican  party,  and  in  185  7 was  again  elected  senator. 
He  was  a formidable  candidate  in  the  Chicago  conven- 
tion of  i860,  but  the  Pennsylvania  delegation  changed 
to  Lincoln,  who,  on  becoming  president,  made  Cameron 
secretary  of  war.  He  resigned  in  April,  1862,  to  be- 
come minister  to  Russia,  ^e  was  again  United  States 
senator  from  1866  to  1877,  when  he  turned  the  office 
over  to  his  son.  For  many  years  he  was  the  dictator 
of  Republican  politics  in  Pennsylvania. 

CAMERON,  Yerney  Lovett,  Captain,  a distin- 
guished naval  officer  and  African  traveler,  was  born  in 
1844,  entered  the  Royal  Navy,  took  part  in  the  Abys- 
sinian campaign ; went  with  Stanley  to  the  relief  of  Liv- 
ingstone; made  important  explorations  in  Central 
Africa,  and  was  the  first  European  to  cross  tropical 
Africa  from  east  to  west.  He  wrote  Across  Africa.  He 
died  March  26,  1894. 

CAMPBELL,  Alexander,  theologian,  born  in  Ire- 
land, September  12,  1788 ; died  in  Bethlehem,  W.  Va., 
March  4,  1866.  His  father  Thomas,  came  to  this  coun- 
try in  1807,  and  ministered  to  destitute  congregations 
in  Western  Pennsylvania.  Following  his  father  in  1809 
he  became  pastor  of  a Presbyterian  church  in  Washing- 
ton county,  Penn.,  but  became  dissatisfied  with  that 
sect  and  held  that  the  Bible  should  be  the  sole  creed. 
With  his  father,  in  1810,  he  founded  a new  religious 
society  at  Bush  Run,  Penn.  Believing  in  immersion 
they  joined  the  Baptists  and  were  immersed  in  1812,  but 
owing  to  the  independence  of  their  doctrines  they  were 
disfellowshiped  in  1827.  They  then  formed  a sect  of 
their  own,  which  they  called  the  “ Disciples  of  Christ,” 
better  known  as  “ Campbellites.”  In  1840-41,  he 
founded  Bethany  college,  of  which  he  was  the  first 
president,  holding  this  office  until  his  death. 

CAMPBELL,  Bartley,  dramatist,  born  in  Alle- 
gheny City,  Penn.,  August  12,  1843;  died  July  30, 1888. 
He  began  life  as  a newspaper  reporter  in  Pittsburg, 
and  founded  the  Evening  Mail  of  that  city  in  1868.  In 
1871  he  began  writing  for  the  stage,  and  produced 
Through  Fire , and  the  following  year  Peril.  Among 
his  later  plays,  several  of  which  still  keep  the  stage, 
were  The  Big  Bonanza,  My  Partner,  The  Galley  Slave, 
My  Geraldine  and  Siberia.  Campbell  derived  a great 
deal  of  money  from  his  plays,  but  lost  most  of  it  through 
dissipation  and  mismanagement,  and  died  insane. 

CAMPBELL,  John  Archibald,  born  in  Wilkes 
county,  Ga.,  June  24,  1811 ; died  March  12,  1889.  He 
graduated  at  the  university  of  Georgia  in  1826,  practiced 
law  in  Alabama,  and  was  several  times  a member  of  the 
legislature  of  that  State.  President  Pierce  made  him  an 
associate  justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  in 
1853,  and  he  resigned  in  1861  to  become  assistant  secre- 
tary of  war  of  the  Confederacy  under  Jefferson  Davis. 

CAMPBELL,  Sir  Alexander,  born  in  York- 
shire, England,  in  1822;  came  to  Canada  when  a boy, 
and  in  1843  was  called  to  the  bar  of  Upper  Canada. 
In  1856  he  was  created  queen’s  counsel.  He  sat  in 
the  Legislative  Council  of  Canada  before  the  union. 
In  1867  he  took  office  under  Sir  John  Macdonald,  first 
as  postmaster-general  and  afterward  as  minister  of 
the  interior.'  In  1878  he  was  postmaster-general  and 
minister  of  militia  in  the  Liberal-Conservative  admin- 
istration. Entering  the  Senate  he  became  leader  of 
the  government  party  in  that  body;  in  1881  was  made 
minister  of  justice,  and  in  1885  postmaster-general. 


In  1887  he  became  lieutenant-governor  of  Ontario. 
Pie  died  May  22,  1892. 

CANBY,  Edward  Richard  S.,  born  in  Kentucky, 
in  1819;  killed  by  Indians  in  Oregon,  April  11,  1873. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1839,  served  several 
years  on  the  frontier,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
Mexican  war.  In  May,  1861,  he  became  colonel  of 
the  nineteenth  United  States  infantry,  and,  in  1862, 
defeated  the  Confederate  General  Sibley  in  New  Mex- 
ico. During  the  draft  riots  in  New  York  city  in  1863, 
Canby,  then  a brigadier-general,  had  command  of 
the  United  States  troops.  As  major-general  of  volun- 
teers, he  captured  Mobile  April  12,  1865,  and  received 
brevets  of  brigadier  and  major-general  in  the  regular 
army.  Gen.  Richard  Taylor  surrendered  to  him  the  last 
Confederate  army  in  the  field.  In  1873  he  was  sent, 
with  two  others,  to  treat  with  the  Modoc  Indians 
under  “Captain  Jack,”  in  Oregon,  and  they  were  killed 
under  a flag  of  truce.  Their  Indian  murderers  were 
caught  and  hanged. 

CANNON,  Joseph  G.,  born  in  Guilford,  N.  C., 
May  7,  1836;  removed  to  Illinois  and  practiced  law; 
was  states  attorney  March,  1861,  to  December,  1868. 
In  1874  he  was  elected  to  congress  as  a Republican 
from  the  fifteenth  district  of  Illinois  and  reelected  con- 
tinuously until  1890,  and  again  in  1892  and  1894. 

CANOVAS  DEL  CASTILLO,  Antonio^  states- 
man, born  February  8,  1828,  at  Malaga,  Spain.  He 
became  a journalist,  in  1854  was  elected  to  the  cortes, 
and  is  still  a member  of  that  body.  He  held  cabinet 
positions  during  Isabella’s  reign,  and  opposed  the 
republic  in  1868.  In  1874  he  was  instrumental  in 
placing  Alfonso  XII.  on  the  throne.  He  was  prime 
minister  of  Spain  three  times,  from  1874  to  1895,  when 
he  again  became  premier.  He  has  written  many  his- 
torical works.  He  died  Aug.  8,  1897. 

CAN  ROBERT,  Francois-Certain,  marshal  of 
France,  born  in  the  department  of  Lot,  June  7,  1809 ; 
entered  the  military  school  of  St.  Cyr  in  1826,  and 
later  enlisted  as  a private  soldier.  He  served  many 
years  in  Africa,  and  was  wounded  in  the  siege  of  Con- 
stantine. In  the  Crimean  war  he  commanded  a division 
and  was  wounded  at  Alma.  Promoted  commander-in- 
chief he  headed  a charge  of  zouaves  at  Inkerman,  and 
was  again  wounded.  He  commanded  the  third  corps 
at  Magenta  and  Solferino,  and  was  made  marshal  of 
France  and  grand  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  In 
the  Franco-Prussian  war  his  corps  was  cut  to  pieces  by 
the  crown  prince  of  Prussia  at  Woerth,  August  6,  1870. 
He  was  shut  up  in  Metz  with  Bazaine,  and  sent  a pris- 
oner to  Germany.  In  1876,  and  again  in  1879,  he  was 
elected  to  the  Senate.  He  died  January  28,  1895. 

CAPRIVI,  General  von  (George  Leo  von  Capri vi 
de  Caprera  de  Montecuculli),  ex-chancellor  of  the  Ger- 
man empire,  was  born  in  Berlin,  February  24,  1831, 
entered  the  Prussian  army  in  1849;  served  in  the  war  of 
1866  and  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  and  became  major- 
general  in  1877.  In  December,  1882,  he  was  given 
command  of  the  third  army  division,  with  headquarters 
at  Metz,  and  from  March,  1883,  to  J une,  1888,  was  at  the 
head  of  the  admiralty.  He  then  held  command  of  the 
tenth  army  corps  until  March  19,  1890,  when  he  became 
chancellor,  succeeding  Prince  Bismarck.  General 
Caprivi’s  skillful  conduct  of  the  yearly  army  bills  was 
warmly  approved  by  the  emperor,  and  his  resignation, 
in  October,  1894,  were  surprises.  Died  Feb.  6,  1899. 

CAREY,  Henry  Charles,  political  economist, 
born  in  Philadelphia,  December  15,  1793;  died  there, 
October  13,  1879.  He  was  the  oldest  son  of  Matthew 
Carey,  publisher  and  political  economist  (1760-1839), 
who  gave  him  a liberal  education.  He  entered  his 
father’s  bookstore  at  the  age  of  eight,  and  was  called 


CAR 


6498 

* ‘ the  little  bookseller.  ” He  was  successful  in  business, 
and  made  a special  study  of  economic  questions.  He 
was  a member  of  the  Republican  party  from  its  forma- 
tion, supported  the  Union  during  the  civil  war,  was  a 
trusted  adviser  of  Mr.  Lincoln  and  Mr.  Chase,  and  was 
a member  of  the  constitutional  convention  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  1872.  He  bequeathed  his  valuable  library  to 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Mr.  Carey  advocated 
a new  system  of  political  economy,  and  wrote  exten- 
sively on  protection  and  the  currency. 

CARLETON,  Will,  poet  and  author,  born  in 
Michigan,  October  21,  1845;  has  published  several 
volumes  of  popular  poetry  and  ballads. 

CARLISLE,  John  Griffin,  born  in  Kentucky, 
September  5,  1835.  He  became  a lawyer  in  1858, 
served  several  terms  in  the  State  legislature,  and  was 
State  senator,  1866-71.  From  1871  to  1875  he  was 
lieutenant-governor  of  the  State,  and  in  March,  1877, 
took  his  seat  in  congress,  serving  from  December  3, 
1883,  to  March  4,  1889,  as  speaker  of  the  House  of 
Representatives,  and  retiring  on  May  17,  1890,  when 
he  was  elected  United  States  senator,  to  succeed  Mr. 
Beck.  In  March,  1893,  he  became  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  in  President  Cleveland’s  second  cabinet. 

CARLOS  I.,  King  of  Portugal,  son  of  King 
Louis  I.,  was  born  September  28,  1863,  married  Marie 
Amalie,  daughter  of  the  Comte  de  Paris,  May  22,  1886, 
and  succeeded  his  father  on  the  throne,  Oct.  19,  1889. 

CARLOS,  Don,  duke  of  Madrid,  born  March  30, 
1848.  He  claims  the  crown  of  Spain,  as  the  eldest 
male  descendant  of  Charles  IV.,  and  styles  himself 
Charles  VII.  From  1872  to  1878,  his  followers  raised 
rebellions  but  were  finally  defeated. 

CARLOTTA,  ex-empress  of  Mexico,  daughter  of 
Leopold  I.,  of  Belgium,  was  born  July  7,  1840.  In 
1857  she  married  Archduke  Maximilian  of  Austria, 
usurper  of  Mexico,  and  his  execution  made  her  insane. 

CARLYLE,  Thomas,  born  at  Ecclefechan,  Scot- 
land, December  4,  1795;  died  at  Chelsea,  London, 
February  5,  1881.  The  son  of  a stonemason,  he  re- 
ceived his  early  education  in  the  village  school  and  at 
Annan  Academy.  When  fourteen  years  old  he  walked  a 
hundred  miles,  to  enter  Edinburgh  university.  Here, 
like  the  early  Edinburgh  reviewers,  he  “ cultivated  lit- 
erature upon  a little  oatmeal  ” for  four  years.  He  took 
no  prizes,  either  in  classics  or  mathematics,  although 
he  made  great  progress  in  geometry.  In  1813  he  en- 
tered as  a divinity  student,  and  in  the  following  summer 
became  teacher  of  mathematics  at  Annan  academy.  His 
stipend  was  very  small — about  $330  per  annum — but 
he  supported  hirnself  and  sent  money  to  his  father  out 
of  this  meager  wage.  In  1816  he  became  master  of  a 
grammar  school  in  Kirkcaldy,  Fifeshire,  where  he  met 
Edward  Irving.  In  November,  1818,  Carlyle  removed 
to  Edinburgh,  gave  private  instruction  in  classics,  and 
wrote  for  the  Edinburgh  Encyclopedia.  The  next 
year  he  joined  a law  class,  but  soon  abandoned  this 
study  as  he  had  previously  given  up  divinity.  He  be- 
came absorbed  in  the  study  of  German  literature,  es- 
pecially the  writings  of  Goethe  and  Schiller,  which  had 
a powerful  effect  upon  his  later  style. 

In  1822  Carlyle  became  a private  tutor,  and  wrote  a 
Life  of  Schiller  and  a translation  of  Goethe’s  Wilhelm 
Meister.  In  1826  he  married  Jane  Welsh,  a descend- 
ant of  John  Knox,  and  a woman  of  high  character  and 
considerable  literary  ability.  Their  married  life  could 
scarcely  be  called  a happy  one.  Carlyle’s  irritability, 
the  result  of  his  dyspeptic  condition,  was  aggravated 
by  his  wife’s  uncompromising  insistence  upon  her 
rights  and  her  unreasoning  jealousy.  Froude’s  Life  of 
Carlyle  tells  in  detail  the  sad  story  of  their  mutual  mis- 
understandings, and  bears  witness  also  to  the  sincere 


affection  with  which  Carlyle  regarded  his  life-partner, 
and  the  melancholy  which  oppressed  him  after  her  death. 

The  Carlyles  spent  the  years  from  1822  to  1828  on  a 
lonely  farm  called  Craigenputtock.  While  residing 
there  the  author  wrote  his  famous  essays  on  Burns, 
Schiller,  Johnson,  Voltaire,  Goethe,  and  Diderot.  In 
1833-34  Sartor  Resartus , the  most  characteristic  work 
of  this  unique  creator  of  character,  was  given  to  the 
world  through  Fraser’s  Magazine.  In  1834  Carlyle 
removedto  London,  andestablishedhimselfin  thehouse 
No.  5 Cheyne  row,  Chelsea,  which  he  inhabited  until 
his  death.  Here  he  wrote  the  French  Revolution , 
Heroes  and  Hero-  Worship , Chartism,  Past  and  Present , 
and  his  magnum  opus , the  I/istory  of  Frederick  II. 
Mrs.  Carlyle  died  suddenly  April  21,  1866,  and  Carlyle 
wrote  little  after  her  death.  He  was  elected  lord 
rector  of  Edinburgh  university  in  1865,  defeating  Ben- 
jamin Disraeli  by  more  than  two  to  one  of  the  votes 
cast.  Prussia  gave  him  the  Order  pour  la  Me'rite,  which 
he  accepted,  and  Disraeli  offered  him  a baronetcy  or  the 
grand  cross  of  the  Bath  and  a pension,  all  of  which  he 
refused.  On  his  death,  at  the  age  of  eighty-six,  it  was 
proposed  to  bury  him  in  Westminster  Abbey,  but  in  ac- 
cordance with  his  own  wishes,  his  remains  were  in- 
terred in  the  churchyard  of  his  native  village. 

CARNEGIE,  Andrew,  was  born  in  Scotland,  No- 
vember 25,  1835,  of  poor  parents.  The  family  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1845,  and  the  boy  became  a 
telegraph  operator,  railroad  employ^,  and  in  time  su- 
perintendent of  a division  of  the  Pennsylvania  railroad. 
Speculation  in  oil  lands  made  him  wealthy,  he  organ- 
ized rolling  mills  and  steel  works  and  became  the 
largest  manufacturer  of  iron  and  steel  in  the  world. 
He  is  known  for  his  benefactions,  his  work  on  Tri- 
umphant Democracy  and  the  bloody  strike  forced  at 
his  works  at  Homestead,  Pa.,  in  1892,  by  his  refusal 
to  arbitrate  complaints  of  workmen. 

CARNOT,  Marie  Francois  Sadi,  born  in  France, 
August  11,  1837,  the  grandson  of  the  Carnot  of  the 
Directory,  “the  organizer  of  victory,”  entered  politi- 
cal life  in  1871  as  a member  of  the  assembly,  was  fi- 
nance minister  in  1879  and  again  in  1887,  and  in  De- 
cember, 1887,  was  elected  president  of  France  to  suc- 
ceed M.  Gr6vy.  His  life  and  his  conservative  and 
honorable  administration  were  cut  short  by  the  dagger 
of  an  assassin,  Santo,  an  anarchist,  at  a fete  at  Lyons, 
June  24,  1894. 

CARON,  Sir  Adolphe,  born  in  Quebec  in  1843; 
practiced  law  and  became  queen’s  counsel  in  1879. 
He  entered  the  Dominion  parliament  as  a Conserva- 
tive in  1873,  became  minister  of  militia  in  November, 
1880,  and  postmaster-general  in  1893. 

CARPENTER,  Matthew  Hale,  born  in  Vermont 
December  22,  1824;  died  February  24,  1881.  - He  spent 
two  years  at  West  Point,  but  did  not  graduate,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  Vermont,  in  1847.  The  next 
year  he  settled  at  Beloit,  Wis. , from  whence  he  removed 
to  Milwaukee  in  1856.  Originally  a Democrat,  he  was 
a strong  supporter  of  the  war,  and  became  affiliated 
with  the  Republican  party.  He  was  considered  the 
greatest  constitutional  lawyer  of  his  time,  and  tried 
several  of  the  most  important  cases  before  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court.  From  March,  1869,  to  1875,  he 
was  United  States  senator  from  Wisconsin,  but  was 
beaten  for  renomination.  He  defended  W.  W.  Belknap, 
ex-secretary  of  war,  and  appeared  as  counsel  for  Mr. 
Tilden  before  the  electoral  commission.  In  1879  he 
was  again  elected  to  the  Senate,  and  died  in  office. 

CARPENTER,  William  B.,  born  in  England  in 
1812 ; graduated  in  medicine  at  Edinburgh  in  1839.  He 
wrote  Principles  of  Human  Physiology  and  monographs 
on  the  microscope  and  zoology.  Doctor  Carpenter  was 


CAR 


{>rofessor  of  medical  jurisprudence  in  University  Col- 
ege,  London,  and  fellow  of  the  Royal  society.  He 
died  in  1885. 

CARROLL,  Charles,  of  Carrollton,  statesman, 
born  in  Annapolis  Md.,  September  20,  1737;  died 
in  Baltimore,  Md.,  November  14,  1832.  He  was  de- 
scended from  one  of  the  most  ancient  septs  of  Ire- 
land, which  traced  its  ancestry  to  the  kings  of  Munster. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Jesuit  college  of  St.  Omer,  in 
French  Flanders,  at  Rheims,  and  in  the  college  of  Louis 
Le  Grand,  Paris ; studied  civil  law  in  Bourges  and  in 
the  Middle  Temple,  London.  In  1765  he  returned  to 
Maryland,  and  in  1768  married  Mary  Darnall.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution  he  was  the  wealthiest  man  in 
the  colonies,  and  he  was  ever  ready  to  use  his  influence 
and  means  for  the  aid  of  liberty.  As  early  as  1770,  he 
had  protested  against  arbitrary  taxation,  and  under  the 
name  of  the  “ First  Citizen,”  he  carried  on  a contro- 
versy with  Daniel  Dulany,  the  secretary  of  the  province, 
who  wrote  under  the  signature  of  “ Antiion.”  In  De- 
cember, 1774,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  committee  of 
correspondence  for  the  province,  and  in  1775  was  elected 
a member  of  the  Council  of  Safety. 

About  this  time  he  adopted  the  designation  of  Charles 
Carroll,  of  Carrollton,  to  distinguish  himself  from  a rela- 
tive, Charles  Carroll,  a barrister  of  Annapolis.  He  was 
a delegate  to  the  Revolutionary  Convention  from 
Anne  Arundel  county,  Md. , which  met  in  Annapolis, 
December  7,  1775,  and  in  January,  1776,  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  Continental  congress  to  visit  Canada, 
with  a number  of  commissioners,  and  induce  those 
colonies  to  unite  in  the  common  cause  of  independence. 
On  July  4,  1776,  he  was  elected  to  represent  Maryland 
in  the  Continental  congress,  and  signed  the  Declaration 
of  Independence.  The  story  that  he  first  affixed  the 
addition  “ of  Carrollton  ” then  is  disputed.  He  was  again 
a delegate  to  congress  in  1777,  and  served  on  the  com- 
mittee which  visited  Valley  Forge  to  investigate  com- 
plaints about  General  Washington.  In  1788  he  was 
elected  the  first  senator  from  Maryland  under  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States,  serving  until  1791. 
He  was  again  elected  to  the  State  Senate,  and  served 
until  1801.  In  1797  he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  to 
determine  the  boundary-line  between  Maryland  and 
Virginia.  On  April  23,  1827,  he  was  elected  a director 
of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad  company,  which 
he  inaugurated  July  4,  1828.  He  was  the  last  surviving 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  His  only 
son,  Charles,  married  Harriet,  the  daughter  of  the  Hon. 
Benjamin  Chew,  chief  justice  of  Pennsylvania ; his 
daughter  Catharine  was  married  to  Robert  Goodloe 
Harper,  a distinguished  Federalist  of  Maryland,  and  his 
daughter  Mary  was  married  to  Richard  Caton,  of  Mary- 
land, whose  four  daughters,  who  were  noted  for  their 
beauty,  were  known  at  the  court  of  George  IV.  as  “ The 
American  Graces.”  Three  of  them  were  married  to 
English  noblemen,  the  fourth,  Emily,  to  Mr.  John  Me- 
Tavish,  of  Baltimore,  Md. 

CARROLL,  John,  R.C.  Archbishop,  born  in  Upper 
Marlborough,  Md.,  in  1735  > died  in  Georgetown, 
D.  C.,  December  3,  1815.  He  was  a cousin  of 
Charles  Carroll,  of  Carrollton,  being  descended  from  the 
Carrolls  who  emigrated  to  Maryland  about  the  year 
1689.  He  was  educated  in  the  college  of  St.  Omer,  in 
French  Flanders,  and  at  the  Jesuit  college  at  Liege, 
where  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1759.  Until  1771  he 
was  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  St.  Omer’s  and 
Li£ge,  and  when  the  Society  of  Jesus  was  suppressed, 
in  1773,  he  was  forced  to  leave  the  continent  and  went 
to  England,  where  he  conducted  important  negotiations 
with  the  French  Government  regarding  the  property 
owned  by  the  society  in  France.  He  was  appointed 


6499 

chaplain  to  his  kinsman,  Lord  Arundel,  and  performed 
missionary  duties  in  the  vicinity  of  Wardour  Castle 
until  1774-  He  then  returned  to  Maryland,  whose  re- 
sistance to  the  crown  enlisted  his  sympathies.  The 
condition  of  the  Roman  Catholics  was  unhappy  there 
at  this  time.  The  celebration  of  mass  was  prohibited, 
Roman  Catholic  schools  were  forbidden,  and  the  mem- 
bers of  this  church  were  not  allowed  to  bear  arms.  In 
February,  1776,  he  was  appointed  by  the  Continental 
Congress  commissioner  with  Charles  Carroll,  of  Carroll- 
ton, Samuel  Chase  and  Benjamin  Franklin,  to  visit 
Canada  in  order  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  that  coun- 
try in  our  struggle  for  independence.  After  the  Revo- 
lution, the  Roman  Catholics  of  the  United  States  were 
anxious  to  have  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  their  own, 
independent  of  the  vicar-apostolic  of  London,  and 
petitioned  the  Pope  to  appoint  a superior,  whose  alle- 
giance would  be  to  the  Federal  Government  alone. 

In  1784  Father  Carroll  was  appointed  to  this  post, 
and  he  then  settled  in  Baltimore.  In  1789  he  was  ap- 
pointed first  bishop  in  the  United  States,  with  his  see 
in  Baltimore.  He  was  consecrated  in  England  on 
August  15,  1789,  and  returned  immediately  to  discharge 
the  duties  of  his  diocese,  which  embraced  all  of  the 
United  States.  In  1788  he  laid  the  foundation  of 
Georgetown  college,  which  was  completed  in  1791,  and 
he  established  a theological  seminary  in  connection  with 
this  which  was  merged  into  that  of  St.  Mary’s,  Balti- 
more, in  1792.  He  was  also  a founder  of  St.  John’s 
college,  Annapolis,  which  subsequently  gave  him  the 
degree  of  LL.D.  In  1806  he  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  cathedral  of  Baltimore,  which  he  also  dedicated. 
Owing  to  the  increasing  number  of  Catholics  he  caused 
Baltimore  to  be  erected  into  an  archiepiscopal  see,  with 
four  episcopal  sees  as  suffragans,  and  in  1808  he  *vas 
made  archbishop.  His  diocese  then  embraced  Mary- 
land, Virginia,  and  the  Southern  States  as  far  as  the 
gulf  and  the  Mississippi.  He  was  an  ardent  Federalist, 
and  one  of  the  most  powerful  factors  of  his  church  in 
this  country.  Pious,  learned,  patriotic,  and  eloquent, 
he  represented  one  of  the  oldest  families  of  Ireland  and 
Maryland  and  its  union  with  the  Jesuits.  Congress  in- 
vited him  to  deliver  a panegyric  on  Washington,  on 
February  22,  1800.  His  writings,  which  are  chiefly 
controversial,  include:  An  Address  to  the  Ror?ian 
Catholics  of  the  United  States  of  America;  A Con- 
cise View  of  the  Principal  Points  of  Controversy  Be- 
tween the  Protestant  and  Roman  Churches ; and  A Re- 
view of  the  I?7iportant  Controversy  Between  Doctor 
Carroll  and  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Wharton  and  Hawkins. 

CARSON,  Christopher,  better  known  as  “Kit,” 
born  in  Kentucky,  December  24,  1809 ; died  in  Colo- 
rado, May  23,  1868.  He  became  famous  as  a scout 
and  trapper,  and  guided  Fremont  across  the  Rocky 
mountains. 

CARTWRIGHT,  Peter,  clergyman,  born  in  Am- 
herst county,  Va.,  September  1,  1785;  died  near 
Pleasant  Plains,  111.,  September  25,  1872.  His 

father,  a soldier  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  removed  ta 
Logan  county,  Ky.,  in  1793,  and  Peter’s  youth  was 
spent  in  the  hardships  of  frontier  life.  He  describes 
himself  as  a “ wild  and  wicked  boy,  delighting  in  horse- 
racing, card-playing,  and  dancing.”  He  became  con- 
verted at  a camp-meeting  at  Cane  Ridge,  and  at  once 
began  to  preach  as  a “local,”  but  in  1803,  he  was  re- 
ceived into  the  regular  ministry  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal church,  and  in  1806  was  ordained  an  elder  by 
Bishop  Asbury.  In  1816  he  was  chosen  a delegate 
to  the  General  Conference,  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  and 
many  times  subsequently.  In  1823  he  removed  from 
the  Cumberland  district  to  Sangamon  county,  III, 
and  after  a few  years  was  elected  to  the  legislature 


C A R — C H A 


6500 

He  was  an  early  opponent  of  slavery,  but  adhered  to 
the  Democratic  party,  and  in  1846  was  a candidate  for 
congress  in  opposition  to  Abraham  Lincoln,  who  de- 
feated him  by  a majority  of  1,500.  He  was  an  original 
character,  an  energetic  and  powerful  preacher,  and  read 
men  with  intuition.  His  wit  was  keen  and  rough,  and 
his  quaint  eccentric  habits  and  fund  of  stories  made  him 
popular  wherever  he  went.  His  strong  hard  sense 
often  shaped  the  policy  of  his  denomination,  and  he  was 
not  afraid  to  attack  men  on  moral  ground  from  the  pul- 
pit or  to  manage  disorderly  crowds  with  the  arm  of  flesh. 
He  published  several  pamphlets,  the  most  famous  of 
which  was  The  Controversy  with  the  Devil  (1853).  His 
Autobiography  was  edited  by  William  P.  Strickland 
(New  York,  1856).  See  Dr.  Abel  Stevens’  Observa- 
tions on  Dr.  Cartwright , and  his  many  books  on  the 
history  of  Methodism  and  The  Backwoods  Preacher. 

CARTWRIGHT,  Sir  Richard,  born  in  Kingston, 
Ont.,  December  4,  1835;  entered  the  Dominion  parlia- 
ment as  a Conservative  in  1863,  and  in  1870  identified 
himself  with  the  reform  party.  He  became  minister 
of  finance  in  1873  under  Mr.  Mackenzie.  He  is  a free 
trader  and  a liberal. 

CARY,  Alice,  born  near  Cincinnati,  April  6,  1820, 
died  in  New  York,  February  12,  1871.  She  published 
several  novels  including  Clovernook  (1851);  Pictures  of 
Country  Life  (1859);  and  The  Bishop's  Son  (1867), 
and  wrote  many  domestic  poems,  some  of  which  were 
published  with  verses  by  her  sister.  The  latter,  Phcebe 
Cary,  born  September  4,  1824,  died  July  31,  1871. 

CASSAGNAC,  Paul  A.  de,  see  Granier  de  Cas- 
sagnac. 

CASIMIR-PERIER,  Jean  Pierre  Paul,  born  at 
Paris,  November  8,  1847,  of  a family  of  statesmen,  dis- 
tinguished himself  during  the  siege  of  Paris  and  entered 
public  life  as  a member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in 
1874.  Holding  various  government  offices  he  was 
president  of  thechamber  from  1885,  except  foran  interim 
in  1894  as  Premier,  until  his  election,  June  27,  1894, 
as  President  of  the  Republic  to  succeed  Carnot.  He 
resigned  January  15,  1895,  in  irritation  at  venomous 
newspaper  attacks,  adverse  influences  in  the  chamber 
and  a railroad  scandal  affecting  his  ministry,  but  in  no 
way  reflecting  upon  him.  A suit  for  divorce  pressed 
by  his  wife,  also  influenced  his  action,  but  two  months 
later  a reconciliation  was  effected  between  them. 

CASTELAR,  y Rissoll,  Emilio,  statesman  and  ora- 
tor, born  in  Spain,  in  1832 ; became  a journalist  and  pro- 
fessor of  history  and  philosophy  in  the  university  of 
Madrid,  but  was  removed  by  Isabella  on  account  of 
his  radical  views.  After  the  revolution  of  September, 
1868,  he  became  the  Republican  leader  in  the  cortes, 
opposed  the  government  of  Amadeus,  and  after  his 
abdication  in  1873,  became  successively  minister  of  for- 
eign affairs,  president  of  the  cortes,  and  president  of 
the  Spanish  Republic.  He  left  Spain  in  1875,  but 
after  Alfonso  XII.  had  been  inaugurated  returned  and 
sat  in  the  cortes  as  deputy  for  Madrid.  He  has  written 
extensively  on  history  and  politics.  Died  May  25,  1899. 

CAVENDISH,  Lord  Frederick,  younger  son  of 
the  seventh  duke  of  Devonshire,  was  born  November 
30,  1836,  and  graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge, 
in  1858.  He  sat  in  the  House  of  Commons  as  a liberal 
for  a Yorkshire  district  from  1865  until  the  spring  of 
1882,  when  he  succeeded  W.  E.  Forster  as  chief  secre- 
tary of  Ireland.  On  May  6th  he  reached  Dublin,  and 
on  that  evening  he  and  Mr.  Burke,  a subordinate  gov- 
ernment official,  were  stabbed  to  death  in  Phoenix  park 
by  “ Invincibles.”  Eight  months  later  twenty  men 
were  tried  for  the  murders,  of  whom  five  were  hanged, 
three  sentenced  for  life  and  nine  to  various  terms  of 
imprisonment.  James  Carey,  the  chief  plotter,  and  two 


others,  turned  queen’s  evidence,  and  were  discharged. 
Carey  emigrated  to  South  Africa,  but  was  shot  on  board 
ship  by  an  “avenger”  named  O’Donnell,  who  had 
been  detailed  for  that  purpose  by  one  of  the  Irish  secret 
societies.  O’Donnell  was  taken  back  to  England  and 
hanged. 

CESNOLA,  Luigi  Palma,  Count  di,  born  in 
Italy,  June  29,  1832;  served  in  the  United  States  army 
during  the  civil  war,  and  was  United  States  consul  in 
Cyprus  from  1865  to  1875.  During  this  time  he  discov- 
ered and  purchased  many  interesting  Cypriote  antiqui- 
ties, which  are  now  at  the  Metropolitan  museum  at 
New  York,  of  which  Cesnola  is  secretary  and  director. 

CETEWAYO,  king  of  the  Zulus,  was  distinguished 
by  the  desperate  resistance  which  he  made  to  the  Eng- 
lish forces  who  invaded  his  country  in  1879.  On  Janu- 
ary 22  of  that  year  he  defeated  Lord  Chelmsford  at 
Isandula  and  attacked  Rorke’s  Drift.  On  June  1 Prince 
Napoleon,  son  of  the  ex-emperor,  who  had  joined  the 
British  army  as  a volunteer,  was  killed  by  Zulus.  On 
July  4 the  English  troops  defeated  Cetewayo,  who  was 
captured  and  imprisoned,  and  afterward  sent  to  Eng- 
land. He  was  restored  to  a part  of  his  dominions  in 
1882,  but  in  the  following  year  his  subjects  drove  him 
out.  He  gave  himself  up  to  the  English,  who  im- 
prisoned him  until  his  death  in  1884. 

CHADBOURNE,  Paul  Ansel,  born  in  Maine, 
October  21,  1823;  died  February  23,  1883.  He  gradu- 
ated in  1848  at  Williams  college,  of  which  he  became 
president  in  1872,  succeeding  Mark  Hopkins. 

CHALLEMEL-LACOUR,  Paul  Amand,  born 
May  19,  1827;  became  a college  professor  and  was  ban- 
ished by  Napoleon  III.  after  the  coup  d ’ etat.  He  was 
a strong  Republican,  and  lectured  on  the  continent  of 
Europe  on  political,  social,  and  scientific  subjects,  re- 
turned to  France  after  the  amnesty  of  1859  and  estab- 
lished the  Revue  Politique , in  which  he  had  Gambetta 
and  Brisson  as  collaborators.  After  the  downfall  of  the 
empire  he  was  made  Prefect  of  the  Rhone,  with  head- 
quarters at  Lyons.  He  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  as 
a Radical  in  1872,  and  in  1876  became  a senator.  In 

1879  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Switzerland,  and 
from  June,  1880,  until  February,  1882,  represented 
France  in  London.  In  1883  he  became  minister  of 
foreign  affairs.  He  founded  and  edits  the  Republique 
Fran$aise,  and  in  1893  was  elected  president  of  the 
Senate.  He  died  at  Paris,  Oct.  26,  1896. 

CHAMBERLAIN,  Joseph,  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land, in  1836;  made  a great  fortune  in  the  manufacture 
of  screws,  retired  from  business  in  1874,  and  entered 
politics  as  a member  of  the  Birmingham  town  council. 
He  was  three  times  mayor  of  Birmingham,  and  in  1876 
became  one  of  its  members  of  parliament.  Reelected  in 

1880  and  1885  as  a Radical  Liberal,  he  was  given  the 
post  of  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  with  a seat  in 
the  cabinet  in  1880,  and  was  president  of  the  local 
government  board  in  1886.  In  that  year  he  resigned, 
and  at  the  general  election  stood  for  West  Birmingham 
as  a Liberal  Unionist.  The  Tory  government  rewarded 
him  for  his  political  change  of  front  by  sending  him  on 
a mission  to  this  country  in  regard  to  the  fisheries 
question,  but  the  negotiations  proved  futile.  Mr. 
Chamberlain  married  in  1888  a daughter  of  W.  C.  En- 
dicott,  secretary  of  war  under  Grover  Cleveland. 

CHANDLER,  William  Eaton,  born  in  Concord, 
N.  H.,  December  28,  1835;  graduated  at  Harvard  law 
school  in  1855,  and  in  1862  was  elected  to  the  New 
Hampshire  House  of  Representatives,  of  which  he  was 
speaker  in  1863-64.  He  held  various  positions  under 
the  United  States,  including  that  of  first  assistant 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  and  was  active  in  politics, 
attending  all  important  conventions.  From  1868  to  1876 


C H A — C H E 


he  served  as  secretary  of  the  Republican  national  com- 
mittee. On  March  23,  1885,  he  was  nominated  for  so- 
licitor-general of  the  United  States,  but  the  Senate  re- 
fused to  confirm  him.  In  April,  1882,  he  became  sec- 
retary of  the  navy,  and  held  that  office  until  March, 
1885.  In  June,  1887,  he  was  elected  to  fill  a vacancy 
in  the  United  States  Senate,  and  was  reelected  in  1889 
and  1895. 

CHANDLER,  Zachariah,  born  in  Bedford,  N.  IL, 
December  10,  1813;  died  in  Chicago,  November  1, 
1879.  He  became  a merchant  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  and 
in  1851  was  elected  mayor  of  that  city.  He  assisted  in 
organizing  the  republican  party,  and  in  1857  was  elected 
United  States  senator  to  succeed  Gen.  Lewis  Cass. 
He  was  reelected  in  1863  and  1869,  and  in  1874  Presi- 
dent Grant  made  him  secretary  of  the  interior,  which 
post  he  held  until  March  I,  1877.  Senator  Chandler 
was  an  enthusiastic  and  thorough-going  supporter  of 
the  Union  cause  during  the  civil  war.  In  1876  he  was 
chairman  of  the  Republican  national  committee,  and 
in  that  capacity,  when  the  country  at  large  believed 
Mr.  Tilden  had  won,  Senator  Chandler  sent  out  his 
famous  telegram,  “Mr.  Hayes  has  185  votes,  and  is 
elected.”  He  was  reelected  to  the  United  States  Sen- 
ate in  February,  1879. 

CHANGARNIER,  Nicolas,  born  at  Autun,  France, 
in  1793;  died  February  14,  1877.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Algerian  campaigns  from  1830  to  1847, 
and  became  general  of  division  andmarechale-de-camp. 
In  May,  1848,  he  succeeded  Cavaignac  as  governor- 
general  of  Algeria.  In  the  same  year  he  was  recalled 
and  became  commander-in-chief  of  the  national  guard 
of  Paris.  Louis  Napoleon,  then  prince  president,  de- 
prived him  of  his  command  in  January,  1851,  and  at 
the  coup  d'etat  of  December  2d  of  that  year  he  was  ar- 
rested and  exiled.  During  the  Franco-Prussian  war 
he  offered  his  sword  to  France  and  was  sent  to  Metz. 
He  strenuously  opposed  the  surrender  of  that  fortress 
and  of  Bazaine’s  army,  but  was  overruled.  After  the 
war  he  became  a senator. 

CHANZY,  Antoine  Eugene  Alfred,  born  in 
France,  March  18,  1823;  died  January  5,  1883.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  Italy  and  Algeria,  and  in  1870 
commanded  the  army  of  the  Loire,  which  had  been 
raised  by  the  government  of  the  national  defense.  He 
met  with  some  minor  successes  but  was  defeated  at  Le 
Mans,  January  12,  1871.  In  1873  he  was  appointed 
governor-general  of  Algeria,  in  1875  was  made  a life 
senator,  and  in  1879  became  ambassador  at  St.  Peters- 
burg. 

CHAPIN,  Edwin  Hubbell,  clergyman,  born  in 
Union  Village,  Washington  county,  N.  Y.,  Decem- 
ber 29,  1814;  died  in  New  York  city,  December 
27,  1880.  His  parents  removed  to  Bennington,  Vt., 
where  he  received  his  first  education.  He  studied  law 
in  Troy,  New  York,  and  removing  to  Utica,  edited 
The  Magazine  and  Advocate,  a periodical  devoted  to 
the  interests  of  Universalism.  He  was  ordained  a 
minister  in  1827,  and  held  charge  of  a church  in  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  for  three  years,  removing  thence  to  Char- 
lestown, Mass.  After  six  years  of  service  there  he 
became  the  colleague  of  Hosea  Ballou  in  the  School 
Street  Universalist  church,  Boston.  In  1848  he  be- 
came pastor  of  the  Fourth  Universalist  church  in  New 
York  city,  then  near  the  City  Hall  park  and  attracted 
large  audiences.  In  1866  his  congregation  removed  to 
the  Church  of  the  Divine  Paternity,  Forty-fifth  street 
and  Fifth  avenue,  where  it  has  since  remained.  Dr. 
Chapin’s  sympathies  were  broad,  and,  although  not  a 
scholarly  man,  he  was  a great  interpreter  of  human 
nature  in  its  relation  to  the  questions  of  the  time.  He 
became  one  of  the  most  popular  and  prominent  of  the 


6501 

preachers  of  New  York.  In  1850  he  was  a delegate  to 
the  Peace  Congress  at  Frankfort  on  the  Main.  He 
was  a trustee  of  Bellevue  Medical  College  and  Hospital, 
and  a member  of  many  societies.  The  Chapin  Home, 
for  aged  men  and  women  was  named  in  his  honor.  He 
succeeded  Doctor  Emerson  as  editor  of  the  Christian 
Leader  in  1872,  and  with  James  G.  Adams  compiled 
Hymns  for  Christian  Devotion  (1870).  His  works 
are: — Hours  of  Communion  (New  York,  1844);  Dis- 
courses on  the  Lord's  Prayer  (1850)  ; Characters  in  the 
Gospel  (1852);  Moral  Aspects  of  City  Life  (1853); 
Discourses  on  the  Beatitudes  (1853);  True  Manliness 
(1854);  Duties  of  Yottng  Men  (1855);  The  Crown  of 
Thorns  (i860);  Living  Words  (Boston,  1861);  Hu- 
manity in  the  City ; Discourses  on  the  Book  of  Proverbs, 
and  Providence  and  Life. 

CHAPLEAU,  Joseph  Adolphe,  born  in  Quebec, 
November  9,  1840;  became  a lawyer,  and  in  1873  solic- 
itor-general of  the  province.  He  is  a strong  conser- 
vative, and  is  considered  the  leading  French-Canadian 
orator  of  the  time.  In  1879  he  was  premier  of  Quebec, 
and  in  1882  became  member  of  the  privy  council  and 
secretary  of  state  for  Canada.  He  is  leader  of  the  party 
opposing  the  ultramontanes,  or  Castors.  In  June,  1891, 
he  again  became  secretary  of  state  of  the  Dominion, 
holding  office  two  years.  Died  June  13,  1898. 

CHARLES  I.,  king  of  Roumania,  born  April  20, 
1839;  is  of  the  Hohenzollern  family,  and  served  in  the 
Prussian  army.  He  became  prince  of  Roumania  in 
April,  1866.  In  1877  he  assisted  the  Russians  against 
the  Turks,  and  in  1881  became  king.  He  married  in 
1869  Pauline,  daughter  of  Prince  Hermann  of  Wied, 
who  has  written  some  novels  and  verse  under  the  nom 
de  plume  of  Carmen  Sylva. 

CHARLES  I.,  king  of  Wlirtemburg,  born  March  6, 
1823;  succeeded  to  the  throne  June  25,  1864.  He  mar- 
ried in  1846  a daughter  of  the  late  Czar  Nicholas  of 
Russia.  He  died  in  July,  1891. 

CHARTRES,  Due  de  (Robert  Philippe  d’Orleans), 
grandson  of  King  Louis  Philippe,  born  at  Paris,  No- 
vember 9,  1840.  He  married,  in  1863,  the  eldest 
daughter  of  the  Prince  de  Joinville. 

CHASSEPOT,  Antoine  Alphonse,  inventor,  born 
March  4,  1833;  invented  the  rifle  named  after  him, 
which  was  adopted  by  the  French  army. 

CHAUNCEY,  Isaac,  born  in  Connecticut,  Febru- 
ary 20,  1772;  died  January  27,  1840.  He  became 
captain  of  a merchant  ship  in  1 791,  and  in  1798  en- 
tered the  United  States  navy  as  a lieutenant,  was  pro- 
moted in  1802,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Tripoli  in 
command  of  the  Chesapeake.  In  the  war  of  1812  he 
commanded  on  the  lakes,  assisted  in  the  capture  of 
Toronto  and  Fort  George,  and  defeated  the  British 
fleet  under  Sir  James  Yeo.  He  afterward  commanded 
in  the  Mediterranean,  and  was  many  years  president 
of  the  board  of  navy  commissioners. 

CHELMSFORD,  Frederic  Augustus  Thesiger 
(Lord),  born  May  31,  1827;  served  in  the  Crimea,  in 
India  during  the  mutiny,  and  in  Abyssinia.  He  was 
commander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces  in  Zulu-land 
in  1879,  was  defeated  at  Isandula,  but  wiped  out  this 
disgrace  at  Ulundi.  He  was  superseded  by  Sir  Gar- 
net (now  Lord)  Wolseley. 

CHENEY,  Charles  Edward,  born  in  Canandai- 
gua, N.  Y.,  February  12,  1836;  graduated  at  Hobart 
college  in  1857,  and  entered  the  Episcopal  ministry. 
In  1873,  he,  under  the  leadership  of  Bishop  Cummins, 
of  Kentucky,  organized  the  Reformed  Episcopal  church, 
of  which  he  was  made  bishop  December  14. 

CHERBULIEZ,  Victor,  born  at  Geneva,  of  French 
parentage,  in  July,  1829;  studied  at  Paris,  Bonn  and 
Berlin,  and  wrote  romances  of  notable  excellence  which 


6502  CHE- 

were  published  in  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes.  On 
November  8,  1881,  he  was  elected  a member  of  the 
French  Academy.  He  died  July  I,  1899. 

CHEVALIER,  Michel,  born  in  Limoges,  France, 
January  13,  1806;  died  November  28,  1879.  He  be- 
came a follower  of  St.  Simon  and  Enfantin,  and  suf- 
fered six  months’  imprisonment  for  his  writings  on 
social  questions.  In  1838  he  became  councilor  of  state, 
and  in  1845  was  elected  to  the  chamber  of  deputies. 
In  1848  he  opposed  the  socialistic  doctrines  of  Louis 
Blanc.  Under  the  empire  he  became  a senator  of 
France,  and  in  i860  completed  the  great  work  of  his 
life,  the  negotiation  of  a commercial  treaty  between 
France  and  England. 

CHEVES,  Langdon,  born  in  South  Carolina,  Sep- 
tember 17,  1776;  died  Tune  25,  1857.  He  was  elected 
to  congress  in  1811,  and  succeeded  Clay  as  speaker  in 

1814. 

CHEVREUL,  Michel  Eugene,  bom  at  Angers, 
France,  August  31,  1786  ; died  April  8,  1889,  at  the  age 
of  nearly  103.  For  many  years  he  was  chemical 
director  of  the  Gobelin  tapestry  factory  , held  the  chair 
of  chemistry  in  the  museum  of  natural  history,  and  was 
a fellow  of  the  Royal  society,  and  commander  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor. 

CHICKERING,  Jonas,  manufacturer,  bom  in  New 
Ipswich,  N.  H.,  April  5, 1797  ; died  in  Boston,  Mass., 
December  8,  1853.  His  father  was  a blacksmith.  Young 
Chickering  received  a common  school  education  and  was 
apprenticed  to  a cabinet-maker.  In  1818  he  went  to 
Boston,  became  employed  with  a piano-forte  maker, 
and  in  1823  set  up  for  himself,  in  a small  way,  as  a man- 
ufacturer of  pianos.  This  business,  in  course  of  time, 
became  greatly  extended,  until  he  furnished  annually 
about  2,000  instruments.  In  1852  his  factory  was 
burned,'  and  before  the  new  one  had  been  completed 
Mr.  Chickering  died.  He  made  many  valuable  improv- 
ments  and  for  many  years  kept  the  lead  of  all  other  mak- 
ers in  this  country  and  in  Europe. 

CHILD,  Lydia  Maria,  born  in  Medford,  Mass., 
February  11,  1802 ; died  in  Wayland,  Mass.,  October 
20,  1880.  She  was  educated  in  common  schools  and  by 
her  brother,  the  Rev.  Convers  Francis,  D.  D.  She  taught 
for  one  year  in  a seminary  in  Medford,  Mass.,  and 
kept  a private  school  in  Watertown,  Mass.,  from 
1824  till  1828,  when  she  was  married  to  David  Lee  Child. 
With  her  husband  she  became  early  interested  in  the 
Anti-Slavery  movement  and  she  published  An  Appeal  to 
that  Class  of  Americans  Called  Africans  (Boston,  1833), 
which  was  the  first  anti-slavery  work  printed  in  Amer- 
ica in  book-form.  In  1841  she  removed  to  New  York 
where  she  was  editor  of  the  National  Anti-Slavery 
Standard  until  1843,  when  her  husband  became  editor- 
in-chief,  and  she  acted  as  assistant  until  1844.  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Child  spent  the  remainder  of  their  lives  in  Wayland, 
Mass.  She  contributed  largely  to  aid  the  Union  soldiers 
during  the  civil  war,  and  afterward  helped  the  freedmen 
and  gave  lavishly  for  the  support  of  schools  for  the 
negroes.  Her  anti-slavery  writings  contributed  greatly 
to  the  formation  of  public  sentiment,  and  her  letters  re- 
plying to  rebukes  from  Governor  Wise  and  Mrs.  Mason, 
published  in  Boston  in  i860,  had  a circulation  of  300,000. 

CHILDERS,  Hugh  Culling  Eardley,  born  in 
London,  June  25,  1827;  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
went  to  Australia  and  sat  in  the  legislature  of  Victoria. 
In  1857  he  returned  to  England  as  agent-general  of  that 
colony,  and  in  1859  was  elected  to  parliament  as  a Lib- 
eral from  Pontefract.  Hewasalordof  the  admiralty 
under  Palmerston  and  Gladstone;  became  chancellor  of 
the  duchy  of  Lancaster  in  1872,  secretary  of  war  in 
1880,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  1882  and  homo 
secretary  in  1886.  He  died  Jan.  29,  1896. 


- C H O 

CHILDS,  George  W. , born  in  Baltimore,  1829,  be- 
came a bookseller  and  publisher  in  Philadelphia,  and 
in  1 864  bought  the  Public  Ledger  which  made  him  rich. 
Noted  for  his  charities,  his  last  benefaction  was  the  es- 
tablishment of  a home  for  aged  printers  at  Colorado 
Springs.  He  died  February  3,  1894. 

CHISHOLM,  Julius  J.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  eminent 
specialist,  born  in  Mississippi  in  1825;  graduated  from 
Maryland  university  in  1850,  served  in  the  Confederate 
army  as  surgeon,  and  after  the  war  established  an  eye, 
ear,  and  throat  infirmary  at  Baltimore. 

CHOATE,  Rufus,  statesman,  bom  in  Essex, 
Mass.,  October  1,  1799;  died  in  Halifax,  Nova 

Scotia,  July  13,  1859.  His  ancestor,  John  Choate, 
settled  in  Massachusetts  in  1667,  and  his  grandfather  of 
the  same  name  was  a member  pf  the  State  legislature 
from  1741  till  1761,  and  for  five  years  a member  ot  the 
council.  At  an  early  age  he  was  remarkable  for  his 
memory,  and  when  he  entered  Dartmouth  in  1815,  he 
was  a good  Greek  and  Latin  scholar.  He  was  gradu- 
ated in  1819,  studied  law  with  William  Wirt,  in  Wash- 
ington, at  Ipswich  and  Salem,  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1823,  and  practiced  in  Danvers  until  1828.  In  1828, 
he  removed  to  Salem,  and  in  1830  he  was  elected  to 
congress,  where  he  distinguished  himself  in  a speech  on 
the  tariff.  He  was  reelected  the  following  term,  but 
resigned  in  1834,  and  removed  to  Boston,  where  he 
soon  acquired  fame  as  a lawyer,  and  occasionally  de- 
livered lectures  on  literary  and  historical  subjects.  In 
1841  he  was  chosen  to  succeed  Daniel  Webster  in  the 
United  States  Senate,  and  delivered  speeches  on  the 
McLeod  case,  the  bank  bill,  the  confirmation  of  Mr. 
Everett  as  minister  to  England,  the  bankrupt  law,  on 
Mr.  Clay’s  resolution  for  retrenchment  and  reform,  the 
naval  appropriation  bill,  the  tariff,  the  bill  to  provide 
further  remedial  justice  in  the  courts  of  the  United 
States,  on  the  ratification  of  the  Webster-Ashburton 
treaty,  the  Oregon  boundary,  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, and  the  annexation  of  Texas,  which  he  opposed. 
He  left  the  Senate  in  1845,  and  resumed  the  practice  of 
his  profession,  and  from  that  time  until  his  death  there 
was  no  case  involving  great  legal  difficulties  or  pecuni- 
ary responsibility  to  which  he  was  not  summoned.  In 
1850  he  traveled  through  Europe.  He  was  a delegate 
to  the  National  Whig  convention  held  in  Baltimore  in 
1852,  and  he  urged  the  nomination  of  Daniel  Webster 
for  the  presidency. 

In  1853  he  was  a member  of  the  convention  for  revis- 
ing the  Constitution  of  Massachussetts,  and  in  the  two 
years  succeeding  he  took  much  interest  in  national 
politics,  and  supported  Mr.  Buchanan  for  president. 
He  delivered  an  address  at  a Union  Meeting  in  Faneuil 
Hall,  Boston,  and  one  on  Washington  in  February, 
1851,  and  in  July,  1853,  read  at  Dartmouth  college  a 
eulogy  on  Daniel  Webster,  which  remains  unsurpassed 
in  that  style  of  eloquence.  His  last  public  oration  was 
given  on  July  4,  1853,  on  c'  American  Nationality.” 
Owing  to  impaired  health  he  planned  a visit  to  Europe 
in  1859,  hut  became  so  ill  that  he  left  his  steamer  at 
Halifax,  where  he  died  a few  days  after  landing.  Mr. 
Choate  was  an  eloquent  orator,  who  rarely  indulged  in 
invective,  but  excelled  in  quaint  humor.  He  possessed 
great  personal  magnetism,  a musical  voice,  wealth  oi 
learning,  and  a sweet  and  gentle  nature.  He  was  fre- 
quently compared  to  Lord  Erskine.  His  writings  have 
been  edited  by  S.  G.  Brown  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1862).  See 
Recollections  of  Eminent  Men , by  Edwin  P.  Whip- 
ple (Boston,  1886).  Mr.  Choate  married  Miss  Helen 
Olcott  of  Hanover,  N.  H.,  in  1825,  and  theE 
son,  Rufus,  born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  in  1834^ 
died  January  15,  1866;  was  graduated  at  Amherst  in. 
!855,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Boston  in  1858,  an  J 


C H R — C L A 


served  in  the  Civil  war,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
captain,  and  resigned  in  1862. 

CHRISTIAN  IX.,  King  of  Denmark,  born  April  8, 
1818;  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  Frederick 
VII.,  in  1863.  His  eldest  daughter,  Alexandra,  is  mar- 
ried to  the  prince  of  Wales;  his  second  daughter,  Dag- 
mar,  is  the  widow  of  Czar  Alexander  III.,  and  his 
second  son,  George,  is  king  of  the  Hellenes. 

CHRISTIAN,  prince  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  born 
January  22,  1835;  married  July  5,  1866,  the  Princess 
Helena,  third  daughter  of  Queen  Victoria.  He  is  a 
general  in  the  British  army. 

CHRISTINA,  queen-regent  of  Spain,  born  July  21, 
1858;  second  daughter  of  the  late  Archduke  Charles  of 
Austria.  In  November,  1879,  she  was  married  to  Al- 
fonso XII.  of  Spain,  to  whom  she  bore  two  children, 
the  Infanta  Mercedes,  and  Alfonso,  present  king  of 
Spain. 

CHRISTOPHE,  Henri,  king  of  Hayti,  born  Octo- 
ber 6,  1 767 ; died  October  16,  1820.  He  was  born  in  Gre- 
nada, a small  island  belonging  to  the  British  West  In- 
dies, the  son  of  a free  mulatto  and  a slave  negress.  In 
1791  his  master  sold  him  to  a tavern  keeper  at  Cs£pe 
Haytien.  By  his  savings  he  bought  his  freedom  and 
afterward  went  as  an  overseer  of  slaves  to  Santa  Do- 
mingo. On  the  uprising  of  the  negroes  he  became  the 
leader  of  a band  of  insurgents;  and  later  was  made 
brigadier-general  and  governor  of  the  northern  part  of 
the  island.  In  1802  a French  army  which  arrived  under 
General  Leclerc,  overcame  the  revolutionists,  when 
Christophe  and  Dessalines  were  denounced  as  outlaws. 
In  1803  the  slave  uprising  was  renewed,  and  at  the  end 
of  two  years  the  former  slaves  had  driven  out  their 
French  masters  from  all  parts  of  the  island.  During 
the  administration  of  Dessalines,  Christophe  was  gen- 
eral-in-chief,  and  on  the  death  of  the  former,  succeeded 
him  as  president  for  life.  Meanwhile  Petion  had  or- 
ganized another  republic  in  the  northern  part  of  Hayti 
and  a civil  war  ensued  of  eleven  years’  duration,  in 
which  Christophe  headed  the  negroes  against  the  rule  of 
the  mulattoes  led  by  Petion.  On  March  28,  1812,  Chris- 
tophe was  proclaimed  king  of  Hayti,  and  on  June  2d 
was  crowned  as  Henri  I.  at  Cape  Haytien.  As  such  he 
governed  the  country  for  nine  years  in  an  absolute  man- 
ner. He  published  the  “Code  Henri,”  founded  on 
that  of  Napoleon.  In  1818  there  was  a revolution,  and 
in  October,  1820,  his  ministers  pronounced  against  him. 
Unwilling  to  surrender  he  shot  himself. 

CHULALONGKORN  I.,  King  of  Siam,  or  what 
French  aggression  has  left  of  that  country,  was  born  in 
1853  and  became  King  October  1,  1868. 

CHURCH,  Frederic  Edwin,  artist,  born  in  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  May  4,  1826.  His  first  master  was 
Thomas  Cole,  in  Catskill,  N.  Y.,  where  he  painted 
his  first  pictures.  He  settled  in  New  York,  and  in  1849 
was  elected  a member  of  the  National  academy.  In 
1853-7  he  traveled  in  South  America,  where  he  made 
sketches  that  were  afterward  extended  into  large  can- 
vases. Afterward  he  went  on  an  expedition  to  the 
coast  of  Labrador,  and  on  his  return  painted  his  great 
picture  Icebergs,  which  attracted  much  attention  on 
its  exhibition  in  London,  in  1863.  In  1866  he  traveled 
through  the  West  Indies,  Europe,  and  Palestine,  sub- 
sequently painting  important  pictures.  His  best  work 
is  the  Great  Fall  at  Niagara  (1857),  from  the  Canada 
side,  and  this  is  the  only  painting  which  gives  an  ad- 
equate representation  of  this  wonderful  natural  scene. 
It  was  sold  in  1876,  from  the  John  Taylor  Johnson  col- 
lection to  the  Corcoran  art  gallery  in  Washington, 
District  of  Columbia.  In  1867  it  received  a medal  of  the 
second  class  at  the  Paris  exposition,  and  it  was  exhibited 
elsewhere  in  Europe.  For  many ^years  Mr.  Church  has 


6503 

spent  his  winters  in  Mexico,  and  also  has  studios  in  New 
York  and  on  the  Hudson.  His  works  include:  The 
Andes  of  Ecuador  (1855);  Niagara  (1857);  Heart  of 
the  Andes  (1859);  Icebergs  (1861);  St.  Thomas  in  the 
Vale,  Jamaica ; Niagara  from  the  American  Side 
(1866) ; Damascus  ( 1869) ; Rainy  Season  in  the  Tropics, 
Jerusalem  (1870);  Tropical  Moonlight  (1874);  Morn- 
ingin  the  Tropics  (1877);  The  Monastery  (1878);  and 
the  Valley  of  Santa  Maria  (1879).  Died  April  7,  1900. 

CHURCHILL,  Lord  Randolph,  second  son  of  the 
sixth  duke  of  Marlborough,  was  born  February  13, 
1849.  He  entered  parliament  in  1874,  sat  until  1885 
for  Woodstock,  and  then  for  South  Paddington.  In 

1880  he  formed  a clique  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
known  as  the  “Fourth  party,”  whose  objects  were  the 
active  obstruction  and  abuse  of  the  government,  and 
made  a reputation  as  a brilliant  parliamentarian.  In 
1885  he  became  secretary  for  India  in  the  Salisbury 
government,  and  annexed  Upper  Burmah.  When 
Lord  Salisbury  again  took  office  in  1886,  Lord  Ran- 
dolph became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  but  resigned 
in  a few  months,  without  having  prepared  a budget,  in 
the  hope  of  forcing  a dissolution  of  the  ministry,  and 
becoming  premier.  Disappointed  in  this  he  practically 
retired  from  public  life.  He  traveled  in  Africa  in  1891, 
and  took  part  in  the  Home  Rule  bill  debates  of  1892, 
but  disease  had  destroyed  his  brilliancy  and  he  died 
January  24,  1895.  He  married,  in  1874,  Jennie, 
daughter  of  Lawrence  Jerome,  of  New  York. 

CIALDINI,  Enrico,  born  in  Modena,  August  8, 
1811;  fought  in  the  Austro-Italian  war  of  1849  and  in 
the  Crimea.  In  i860  he  defeated  the  Papal  troops  under 
Lamoriciere  and  in  1861  took  Gaeta  and  Messina.  He 
became  general  of  the  army  and  viceroy  of  Naples,  was 
made  senator  in  1864  and  fought  against  the  Austrians 
in  1866.  In  1870  he  annexed  the  States  of  the  Church  to 
Italy  and  in  1876  became  ambassador  at  Paris,  and  in 

1881  general  of  the  army.  He  died  September  8,  1892. 

CLAIBORNE,  William,  colonist,  born  in  West- 
moreland, England,  about  1589;  died  in  Virginia  about 
1676.  He  came  from  a distinguished  family,  and  was 
appointed,  under  the  London  Company,  surveyor  of 
the  Virginia  plantations.  In  October,  1621,  he  arrived 
in  Jamestown  and  located  in  James  City.  Soon  after- 
ward he  acquired  an  estate  amounting  to  45,000  acres. 
On  March  24,  1625,  he  became  secretary  of  state  for 
the  colony,  and  on  March  13,  1628,  was  commissioned 
by  the  governor  to  make  discoveries  southward,  and 
open  trade  with  the  Indians.  He  settled  the  Isle  of 
Kent,  where  he  established  a trading  post,  bought 
out  the  interest  of  all  the  natives  in  that  island,  and  in- 
duced many  settlers  to  locate  on  his  lands.  When 
Lord  Baltimore’s  first  colony  arrived  at  St.  Marie’s,  in 
March,  1634,  they  claimed  control  over  the  Isle  of  Kent 
and  all  its  settlers,  the  Roman  Catholics  being  on  one 
side,  and  the  English  churchmen  on  the  other.  The 
dispute  was  continued  between  the  two  parties  for  many 
years,  until  Virginia,  in  1 776,  released  all  claims  to  the 
territory  of  Maryland  beyond  the  Potomac  river. 
When  Lord  Baltimore’s  colony  had  been  founded  on  St. 
Mary’s  river,  trouble  began  between  the  colonists  and 
the  party  of  Claiborne,  and  in  time  the  latter’s  settle- 
ment on  the  Isle  of  Kent  became  a failure.  Claiborne 
by  that  time  had  become  involved  in  serious  difficulties, 
and  in  1637  sailed  for  England.  Defeated  in  his  enter- 
prise on  the  Isle  of  Kent  he  bought  Palmer’s  Island  from 
the  Indians,  but  was  unable  to  maintain  his  right  thereto 
by  license  from  the  government.  Governor  Calvert  soon 
possessed  himself  of  it  as  a part  of  the  Maryland  grant. 
On  April  6,  1642,  Claiborne  was  made  treasurer  of  the 
colony  of  Virginia  for  life  by  King  Charles  I.  When 
the  Cromwellian  revolution  began  to  make  headway  in 


CL  A 


6504 

Great  Britain,  both  Maryland  and  Virginia  declared 
their  loyalty  to  the  royal  government;  but  Claiborne 
saw  fit  to  join  the  Parliamentary  party,  and  on  September 
26,  1651,  with  others,  was  appointed  a commissioner 
by  parliament  to  reduce  Virginia  and  the  plantations  on 
Chesapeake  Bay.  An  English  expedition  arrived  in  Vir- 
ginia in  March,  1652,  overthrew  the  government  of  the 
Cavalieis  and  established  a Roundhead  one,  with  Clai- 
borne as  secretary  of  state. 

CLAIBORNE,  William  Charles  Cole,  governor 
of  Louisiana,  born  in  Virginia,  in  1775  ; died  in 
New  Orleans,  La.,  November  23,  1817.  After  study- 
ing law,  he  removed  to  Tennessee,  then  a territory, 
where  he  was  elected  a judge.  He  was  a member  of 
the  convention  which  prepared  the  State  constitution 
of  1796,  and  in  1797  was  elected  to  congress,  where  he 
served  two  terms.  In  1802  he  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  the  Territory  of  Mississippi,  and  in  1803,  when 
Louisiana  was  bought  from  the  French,  he  was  ap- 
pointed a commissioner  with  Gen.  James  Wilkinson 
to  take  possession  of  the  new  Territory,  of  which  he 
was  made  governor  in  1804.  His  administration  was 
especially  difficult  owing  to  the  heterogeneous  character 
of  the  people  ; but  he  preserved  harmony  between  the 
Creoles  and  the  American  planters,  and  exercised  great 
tact  in  dealing  with  the  adventurers  of  Aaron  Burr’s 
expedition.  When  Louisiana  was  made  a State  in  1812, 
he  was  elected  governor,  and  during  the  war  with 
Great  Britain  aided  in  the  defense  of  his  State.  In  1816 
he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  but  was  pre- 
vented by  impaired  health  from  taking  his  seat.  Other 
members  of  his  family  served  in  congress  at  various 
times. 

CLARK,  Alvan,  born  in  Ashfield,  Mass.,  March  8, 
1804;  died  August  19,  1887.  He  and  his  son,  Alvan 
Graham  Clark,  born  July  10,  1832,  became  thread- 
ing manufacturers  of  object-glasses  for  telescopes,  and 
made  the  thirty-six  inch  refractor  for  the  Lick  observa- 
tory. Alvan  Graham  died  January'  1,  1892. 

CLARK,  George  Rogers,  pioneer,  born  in  Albe- 
marle county,  Va.,  November  19,  1752;  died  in 
Locust  Grove,  near  Louisville,  Ky.,  February  13,  1818. 
He  began  life  as  a land  surveyor,  and  commanded  a 
company  of  militia  in  Lord  Dunmore’s  war  with  the 
Indians.  In  1772  he  visited  Kentucky,  and  commanded 
a force  of  armed  settlers  there.  In  1776  he  returned  to 
Kentucky  and  called  an  assembly  of  people  at  Har- 
rodsburg,  June  6,  1776,  when  Clark  and  Gabriel  Jones 
were  elected  to  the  Virginia  assembly.  Although  not 
admitted  to  the  legislature,  these  delegates  were  re- 
ceived by  Patrick  Henry,  and  secured  the  formation  of 
Kentucky.  Military  posts  belonging  to  the  British  were 
frequently  the  source  of  Indian  hostilities,  and  in  De- 
cember, 1777,  Major  Clark  obtained  permission  and 
means  from  Virginia  to  attack  the  the  fort  at  Kaskas- 
kia,  which  he  captured  on  July  4,  1778.  He  then  took 
that  of  Vincennes,  and  while  engaged  in  negotiations 
with  the  Indians  on  the  Mississippi,  learned  that  this  had 
been  retaken  by  Governor  Hamilton  of  Detroit.  He 
returned,  captured  Vincennes,  February  24,  1779,  and 
sent  Hamilton  a prisoner  to  Virginia.  To  retaliate  for 
an  invasion  of  Kentucky  by  600  Canadians  and  Indians, 
he  destroyed  an  Indian  town  in  Ohio  in  June,  1780. 

In  December,  1780,  he  went  to  Richmond  to  obtain 
approval  from  the  authorities  for  his  plans  for  the 
capture  of  Detroit,  and  while  there  took  a command 
under  Baron  Steuben  to  defend  Virginia  against  an  inva- 
sion by  a British  force  under  Benedict  Arnold.  In  1781 
Clark  became  brigadier-general,  but  he  could  not  obtain 
sufficient  aid  to  carry  out  his  plans  against  Detroit,  as 
the  state  was  then  maintaining  itself  against  Lord  Corn- 
wallis. In  1782  he  gathered  a large  force  and  marched 


against  Indian  towns  on  the  Miami  and  Scioto,  five  ol 
which  were  destroyed.  He  participated  in  an  unsuc- 
cessful expedition  against  tne  Indians  on  the  Wa< 
bash,  in  1786,  and  about  1794  he  accepted  a com- 
mission as  major-general  in  the  French  army,  to  conduct 
an  expedition  against  the  Spanish  possessions  on  the 
Mississippi,  but  when  Genet,  the  French  minister  to  the 
United  States,  who  gave  him  the  commission,  was  re- 
called, this  was  annulled.  General  Clark’ s latter  years 
were  spent  in  impaired  health  and  poverty. 

CLARKE,  Adam,  born  in  the  north  of  Ireland  about 
1760;  studied  under  Wesley,  and  became  an  itinerant 
Methodist  preacher.  He  prepared  a translation  of  the 
Bible  in  Arabic,  and  became  a diligent  student  of 
Hebrew  and  other  Oriental  languages.  The  first 
volume  of  his  well-known  Commentary  on  the  Holy 
Scriptures  appeared  in  1810,  the  eighth  and  last  in  1826. 
He  also  published  a Biographical  Dictionary  (six 
volumes,  1802),  and  wrote  the  memoirs  of  the  Wesley 
family.  Doctor  Clarke  died  in  London,  August  16, 
1832. 

CLARKE,  Charles  Cowden,  born  in  England 
December  15,  1787;  died  March  13,  1877.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Shelley,  Keats,  and  Charles  Lamb. 
In  collaboration  with  his  wife,  Mary,  a daughter  of 
Vincent  Novello,  the  composer,  he  published  an  anno- 
tated edition  of  Shakespeare  and  an  admirable  Con- 
cordance to  the  poet’s  works. 

CLARKE,  James  Freeman,  clergyman,  bom  in 
Hanover,  N.  H.,  April  4,  1810.  He  was  named' 
for  his  grandfather,  the  Rev.  James  Freeman,  pastor 
of  King’s  chapel,  Boston,  who  introduced  Unitarian- 
ism  into  his  congregation.  He  was  also  a grandson 
of  Col.  William  Hull.  After  graduation  at  Harvard  in 
1829,  and  at  the  Cambridge  divinity  school  in  1833,  he 
became  pastor  of  the  Unitarian  church  in  Louisville, 
Ky.,  serving  from  1833  till  1840.  From  1836  till 
1839  he  was  also  editor  of  the  Western  Messenger , pub- 
lished in  Louisville.  Returning  to  Boston  he  founded 
in  1841,  the  Church  of  the  Disciples,  of  which  he  was 
the  pastor  until  1886.  This  became  one  of  the  leading 
religious  institutions  of  Boston,  and  its  service-book  in- 
cludes responses  from  the  congregation  as  in  the  English 
service,  extemporaneous,  and  silent  prayer.  From  1867 
till  1871  he  was  professor  of  natural  religion  and  Chris- 
tian doctrine  in  Harvard,  and  in  1876-7,  lecturer  there 
on  ethnic  religions.  He  was  an  overseer  of  Harvard,  a 
member  of  the  State  board  of  education,  and  a trustee 
of  the  Boston  public  library.  With  William  H.  Chan- 
ning  and  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  he  prepared  the 
Memoirs  of  Margaret  Fuller  D'  Ossoli  (Boston,  1852), 
and  he  was  the  author  of  several  historical  works  and 
theological  essays.  He  died  at  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass., 
June  8,  1888. 

CLARKE,  John  S.,  actor,  bom  in  Maryland  in  1835; 
began  his  theatrical  career  in  1852  in  Philadelphia,  and 
was  speedily  recognized  as  the  best  exponent  of  low 
comedy  then  on  the  boards.  He  starred  the  country 
for  years,  owned  and  managed  theaters  in  Philadelphia 
and  Boston,  and  from  1867  to  1870  played  in  London 
and  other  English  cities  with  great  success.  He  has 
often  revisited  this  country,  but  makes  England  his 
home,  and  has  played  in  all  important  towns  there.  His 
“ Doctor  Ollapod,”  “ Toodles,”  M Doctor  Pangloss,”  and 
“ Major  Wellington  de  Boots,”  are  among  his  leading 
creations. 

CLAY,  Cassius  Marcellus,  born  in  Madison 
county,  Ky.,  October  19,  1810;  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1832.  He  adopted  anti-slavery  views,  then  very  un- 
popular in  Kentucky,  and  published  in  1845  an  aboli- 
tionist paper  entitled  The  True  American.  His  pressor; 
were  seized  by  pro-slavery  mobs,  and  he  was  threatened 


C L A — C L E 


with  assassination.  He  was  a member  of  the  Kentucky 
legislature  in  1835,  1837  and  1840,  and  supported  Gen- 
eral Harrison  for  the  presidency.  During  the  Mexican 
war,  in  which  he  served  as  captain  of  a volunteer  com- 
pany, he  was  taken  prisoner.  In  1850  he  broke  away 
from  the  Whigs  and  ran  as  anti-slavery  candidate  for 
governor;  but  got  few  votes.  He  supported  Fremont 
in  1856,  and  Lincoln  in  i860,  and  in  March,  1861,  was 
appointed  minister  to  Russia.  In  June,  1862,  he  was 
commissioned  major-general  ofvolunteers,  but  resigned 
the  following  March,  and  was  again  sent  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, where  he  remained  until  September,  1869.  In 
1872  he  supported  Greeley  and  the  hybrid  Democratic- 
Liberal-Republican  ticket,  and  in  1876  was  active  in  his 
work  for  S.  J.  Tilden.  In  1877  he  shot  and  killed  a negro 
who  had  threatened  his  life,  and  was  tried  and  acquitted. 
In  1894,  at  the  age  of  84,  he  married  a seventeen  year 
old  ward,  of  poor  family,  against  the  opposition  of  his 
sons,  and  their  attempted  abduction  of  the  girl,  because 
of  which  he  armed  his  servants,  put  his  house  in  a state 
of  siege,  and  threatened  death  to  any  one  who  should 
interfere.  He  was  a noted  duellist. 

CLAYTON,  John  Middleton,  born  in  Sussex 
county,  Del.,  July  24,  1796,  died  November  9,  1856. 
In  1829  he  became  United  States  senator  and  in  1837 
chief  justice  of  Delaware.  From  1845  to  1849  he  was 
again  United  States  senator,  and  then  became  secre- 
tary of  state  under  President  Taylor,  negotiat- 
ing the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  with  Great  Brit- 
ain. He  served  again  in  the  senate  from  1851  to  his 
death. 

CLEMENCEAU,  Eugene,  born  in  Vendee,  France, 
September  28,  1841 ; studied  medicine  at  Nantes  and 
Paris,  and  practiced  as  a physician  in  Montmartre,  the 
workingman’s  quarter  of  Paris.  He  was  appointed 
mayor  of  the  eighteenth  arrondissement  of  Paris  and  a 
member  of  the  commission  of  communal  education 
after  the  Revolution  of  September  4,  1870.  In  Feb- 
ruary, 1871,  he  was  elected  representative  in  the  As- 
sembly for  the  department  of  the  Seine,  and  took  his 
seat  with  the  members  of  the  Extreme  Left,  or  Radicals. 
He  was  shut  up  in  Paris  during  both  sieges,  and  came 
near  falling  a victim  to  the  suspicions  of  the  Communist 
central  committee.  He  tried  to  save  the  lives  of  Gen- 
erals Lecomte  and  Clement  Thomas,  who  were  mur- 
dered by  the  Communists,  and  being  charged  later  with 
lukewarmness  in  this  matter,  challenged  and  wounded 
his  slanderer.  In  1871  he  became  a member,  and  in 
November,  1875,  president  of  the  Municipal  Council  of 
Paris,  and  in  1876  again  became  a deputy.  He  showed 
himself  an  aggressive  Radical,  bitterly  opposed  De 
Broglie  and  MacMahon,  and  energetically  supported 
Gambetta,  who  was  his  cousin.  When  in  1879  Gr6vy 
became  President  and  Gambetta  speaker  of  the  Assem- 
bly, M.  Clemenceau  became  leader  of  the  Extreme  Left, 
and  remained  a Radical  when  Gambetta  became  an  Op- 
portunist. He  helped  exclude  the  clergy  from  educa- 
tional affairs  and  expel  the  Jesuits,  and  obtained  an 
amnesty  for  banished  Communists.  He  made  and  un- 
made ministries  by  the  dozen,  is  an  expert  swordsman 
and  his  newspaper,  La  Justice , is  a political  power. 
During  the  Panama  scandal  he  was  charged  with  selling 
his  country,  but  the  charges  were  shown  to  be  based  on 
forgeries  and  he  was  vindicated,  but  defeated  for  re- 
election  in  September,  1894.  M.  Clemenceau,  who 
lived  in  Connecticut  from  1865  to  1870,  married  an 
American  lady,  Mary  G.  Plummer. 

CLEMENS,  Samuel  Langhorne  (Mark  Twain), 
humorist,  born  in  Florida,  Mo.,  November  30,  1835. 
He  was  educated  in  the  village  school  in  Hannibal, 
Mo.,  and  was  apprenticed  to  a printer.  After  learn- 
ing his  trade,  he  journeyed  from  town  to  town  until 


6505 

he  reached  New  York.  Afterward  he  went  to  New  Or- 
leans,  and  became  a pilot  on  the  Mississippi  river  steam- 
boats. In  1861  he  went  to  Nevada,  as  private  secretary 
to  his  brother,  who  had  been  made  secretary  of  the 
Territory.  He  engaged  in  mining  in  Nevada,  and  in 
1862  became  city  editor  of  the  Virginia  City  Enterprise. 
In  1865  he  went  to  San  Francisco,  where  he  was  en- 
gaged as  a reporter  on  the  Morning  Call.  After  ex- 
perimenting in  gold-mining,  he  resumed  his  work  for 
the  California  press,  and  visited  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
as  newspaper  correspondent.  After  his  return  he  de- 
livered humorous  lectures  in  California  and  N e vada,  and 
went  to  the  East,  where  he  published  The  Jumping 
Frog  and  other  Sketches  (New  York,  1867).  In  1867 
he  went  with  a party  of  tourists  to  the  Mediterranean, 
Egypt,  and  Palestine,  publishing  on  his  return  The  In- 
nocents Abroad  (Hartford,  1869),  of  which  125,000 
copies  were  sold  in  three  years.  For  a time  he  edited 
the  Buffalo  (N.  Y.)  Express , and  after  his  marriage 
settled  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1870. 

In  1872  he  lectured  in  England,  and  a London  pub- 
lisher issued  an  unauthorized  collection  of  his  writings,  in 
which  were  published  sketches  which  he  did  not  write. 
His  pen-name  “ Mark  Twain,”  was  suggested  by  the 
familiar  cry  of  the  sailors  on  the  Mississippi  steamboats, 
where  in  sounding  a depth  of  two  fathoms  the  leadsman 
calls  out  “mark  twain!”  Among  his  writings  are 
Roughing  It  (Hartford,  1873);  Sketches  Old  and 
New;  Adventures  of  Tom  Sawyer,  a story  of  boy 
life  in  Missouri  ("1876);  Punch,  Brothers,  Punch 
(1878);  A Tramp  Abroad  (1880);  The  Stolen  White 
Elephant  (Boston,  1882)  ; The  Prince  and  the  Pauper 
(1882);  Life  on  the  Mississippi  (1883)  ; Huckleberry 
Finn,  a sequel  to  Tom  Sawyer  (New  York,  1885);  A 
Yankee  at  King  Arthur' s Court  (1889)  and  Pudd'nhead 
Wilson  (1895).  He  also  wrote,  with  Charles  Dudley 
Warner,  The  Gilded  Age,  which  was  dramatized  in 
1879.  He  is  a popular  lecturer  and  achieved  the  novel 
distinction  in  1895  of  being  challenged  to  a real  duel 
by  Max  O’Rell,  the  French  humorist.  In  1884  he 
founded  the  publishing  house  of  Charles  L.  Webster  & 
Co.,  which  failed  in  1894. 

CLEVELAND,  Grover,  president  of  the  United 
States,  born  in  Caldwell,  Essex  county,  N.  J., 
March  18,  1837.  His  ancestor,  Moses  Cleveland,  emi- 
grated from  Ipswich,  England,  to  Woburn,  Mass., 
in  1635,  and  his  father,  Richard  F.,  was  a Presby- 
terian clergyman,  who  named  his  son  for  the  Rev. 
Stephen  Grover,  his  predecessor  in  the  Presbyterian 
church  in  Caldwell.  After  the  death  of  his  father 
Grover  became  a clerk  and  assistant  teacher  in  the 
New  York  institution  for  the  blind,  and  in  1855  he 
went  to  the  West  in  search  of  employment.  While 
passing  through  Buffalo  he  was  persuaded  to  remain 
with  his  uncle,  Lewis  F.  Allen,  whom  he  assisted  in 
preparing  the  American  Herd  Book.  Afterward  he 
became  a clerk  in  the  law  firm  of  Rogers,  Bowen  & 
Rogers,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1859.  In  1863-1866  he  was  district  attorney  of  Erie 
county.  He  became  the  law  partner  of  Isaac  V. 
Vanderpool,  and  in  1869  a member  of  the  firm  of  Lan- 
ning,  Cleveland  & Folsom,  practicing  until  1870,  when 
he  was  made  sheriff  of  Erie  county.  In  1873  he  be- 
came a member  of  the  firm  of  Bass,  Cleveland  & Bissell, 
and  he  was  noted  for  the  logic  and  mastery  with  which 
he  conducted  his  cases.  In  1881  he  was  elected  mayor  of 
Buffalo,  and  soon  became  known  as  the  “ Veto  Mayor,” 
checking  unwise,  illegal,  and  extravagant  expenditure  of 
public  money  and  saving  the  city  $1,000,000  in  the  first 
six  months  of  his  service.  In  1882  he  was  elected 
governor  of  New  York,  and  among  the  chief  acts  of 
his  administration  were  his  approval  of  a bill  to  submit 


/ 


6506  C L E 

to  the  people  a proposition  to  abolish  contract  labor  in 
the  prisons;  the  veto  of  a bill,  which  permitted  wide 
latitude  in  which  the  directors  of  savings  banks  might 
risk  deposits;  the  veto  of  a similar  bill  respecting  the 
securities  of  insurance  companies,  and  the  veto  of  a bill 
to  establish  a monopoly  by  limiting  the  right  to  con- 
struct certain  street  railways  to  companies  heretofore 
organized  to  the  exclusion  of  such  as  should  hereafter 
obtain  the  consent  of  property  owners  and  local  au- 
thorities. 

He  was  nominated  for  president  of  the  United  States 
on  the  second  ballot  at  the  National  Democratic  con- 
vention held  in  Chicago  in  1884,  and  he  was  inaugurated 
March  4,  1885,  serving  until  1889.  Chief  Justice  Waite 
administered  the  oath  of  office,  and  in  his  address  the 
president  declared  his  approval  of  the  Monroe  doctrine 
as  a guide  in  foreign  relations ; of  strict  economy  in  the 
administration  of  the  finances;  of  the  protection  of  the 
Indians,  and  their  elevation  to  citizenship;  of  the  laws 
against  Mormon  polygamy  and  the  importation  of  a serv- 
ile class  of  emigrants,  and  of  the  securing  of  the  negroes 
in  their  rights.  On  March  13,  1885,  Mr.  Cleveland 
issued  a proclamation  to  remove  the  white  intruders 
from  Oklahoma,  Indian  Territory,  and  after  the  burn- 
ing of  Aspinwall,  Panama,  by  the  revolutionists,  March 
31,  1885,  ordered  a naval  expedition  to  protect  the 
Americans  and  their  property. 

In  1888  he  was  renominated  for  president,  but  was 
defeated  by  the  Republican  candidate,  Benjamin  Har- 
rison. Mr.  Cleveland  then  removed  to  New  York  to 
practice  law.  On  June  2,  1886,  he  had  married  Miss 
Frances  Folsom,  the  daughter  of  his  early  law-partner, 
Oscar  Folsom,  in  the  White  House. 

In  1892  Mr.  Cleveland  was  again  nominated  for 
president  by  the  Democrats  and  elected  over  President 
Harrison  on  a tariff  reform  platform  and  campaign. 
Both  houses  being  Democratic,  the  Wilson  bill,  a tariff 
for  revenue  only,  measure,  was  passed  in  1894,  but 
the  Dembcratic  party  was  held  responsible  for  the  hard 
times  by  the  country,  and  the  Republicans  won  a pro- 
tective tariff  victory  in  November,  1894,  so  that 
President  Cleveland  has  to  deal  with  a Republican 
Congress  the  last  two  years  of  his  administration. 

In  the  meantime,  at  a special  session  called  by  him 
August  7,  1893,  President  Cleveland  had  secured  the 
repeal  of  the  act  of  1890,  calling  for  the  purchase  of 
$4,500,000  of  silver  bullion  monthly,  against  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  silver  wing  of  his  party,  on  the  ground 
that  this  act  was  responsible  for  the  financial  depression. 

CLEVENGER,  Shobal  Vail,  sculptor,  born  near 
Middletown,  Ohio,  October  22,  1812;  died  at  sea  Sep- 
tember 23,  1843.  His  father  was  a weaver,  who  went  to 
Cincinnati  with  his  son,  and  apprenticed  him  to  a stone- 
cutter. He  at  once  manifested  artistic  ability  in  carving 
tombstone  work,  and  learned  to  hew  busts  in  free-stone. 
Subsequently  he  chose  the  career  of  a sculptor,  and  as 
such  settled  in  New  York  city.  Here  he  made  busts 
of  General  Harrison,  Van  Buren,  Clay,  Webster  and 
other  persons  of  distinction.  Many  of  his  works  are 
contained  in  the  art  galleries  of  New  York,  Boston  and 
Philadelphia.  In  1840  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he 
roduced  his  North  American  Indian,  one  of  the  very 
est  productions  of  native  talent.  While  in  Italy  he 
became  affected  with  pulmonary  phthisis  caused  by  in- 
halation of  stone  dust.  He  died  on  the  Mediterranean, 
within  a day’s  sail  of  Gibraltar. 

CLIFFORD,  Nathan,  born  in  Rumney,  N.  H., 
August  18,  1803;  died  July  25,  1881.  He  became  a 
lawyer  in  Maine,  and  was  elected  to  the  State  legisla- 
ture as  a Democrat  in  1830.  He  held  office  until  1834, 
and  during  the  last  two  years  was  speaker.  In  1834  he 
became  attorney-general  of  the  State,  and  in  1838  was 


-C  L I 

elected  to  congress,  where  he  served  two  terms.  In 
1846  he  became  attorney-general  of  the  United  States, 
and  in  1848-1849  was  special  envoy  to  Mexico,  and 
negotiated  the  treaty  of  peace  with  that  countrv.  In 
1858,  President  Buchanan  nominated  him  associate 
justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  which 
office  he  held  until  his  death.  He  presided  over  the 
Hayes-Tilden  electoral  commission  of  1877. 

CLINTON  George,  statesman,  born  in  Little 
Britain,  N.  Y.,  July  26,  1739;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
April  20,  1812.  He  accompanied  his  father  and  brother 
James  in  the  expedition  against  Fort  Frontenac,  and  sub- 
sequently studied  law  and  obtained  a clerkship  from  the 
colonial  governor,  Adm.  George  Clinton,  a connection  of 
the  family.  In  1768  he  was  elected  to  the  New  York  as- 
sembly, and  in  1775  was  a delegate  to  the  Continental 
congress,  where  he  voted  for  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, but  did  not  sign  it,  being  called  away  by  Gen- 
eral Washington  to  command  a brigade  of  militia.  In 
1777  he  was  a deputy  to  the  Provincial  congress  which 
framed  the  State  constitution.  He  was  appointed  a 
brigadier-general  in  the  Continental  army,  March  25, 
1777.  He  took  part  in  the  defense  of  Fort  Clinton, 
October  6,  1 777.  He  was  first  governor  of  the  State, 
serving  from  1777  till  1795,  being  reelected  five  times, 
rendered  great  service  in  a civil  and  military  ca- 
pacity, and  was  known  as  the  “ Champion  of  the 
Highlands.”  In  1780  he  thwarted  an  expedition  led  by 
Sir  John  Johnson,  Brant,  and  Cornplanter,  into  the 
Mohawk  valley,  and  he  was  instrumental,  with  Timothy 
Pickering,  in  concluding  treaties  of  peace  with  the 
Western  Indians.  In  1783  he  accompanied  Washington 
and  Hamilton  on  a tour  of  the  northern  and  western 
posts  of  the  State,  and  while  on  this  trip  he  first  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  a canal  between  the  Mohawk  and 
Wood  creek,  which  he  recommended  to  the  legislature 
in  1791.  He  helped  to  suppress  Shay’s  rebellion  in  1 787. 
and  in  1788  presided  at  the  State  convention,  which 
adopted  the  Federal  constitution,  to  which  instrument 
he  was  at  first  opposed,  on  the  ground  that  it  restricted 
too  much  the  power  of  the  separate  States,  but  after- 
ward he  and  his  party  withdrew  their  opposition  though 
they  still  demanded  amendments.  In  1791  he  advo- 
cated the  improvement  of  internal  communication  by 
navigation  companies,  thus  originating  the  movement 
which  has  given  fame  to  his  nephew  DeWitt  Clinton. 
In  1800  he  served  in  the  legislature,  and  in  1801  was 
again  governor.  In  1804  he  was  elected  vice-president 
of  the  United  States,  which  office  he  held  until  his 
death.  In  1811,  while  presiding  in  the  Senate,  he  gave 
the  casting  vote  against  the  re-charter  of  the  United 
States  bank,  his  last  public  act.  He  was  instrumental 
in  organizing  the  public  school  system. 

CLINTON,  James,  soldier,  born  in  Ulster  county, 
N.  Y.,  August  9,  1736;  died  in  Little  Britain,  N.  Y., 
December  22,  1812.  . He  was  the  son  of  Charles 
Clinton,  who  emigrated  from  England  to  Philadelphia 
in  1729,  and  who  became  a lieutenant-colonel  in  Oliver 
De  Lancy’s  regiment,  March  24,  1758.  After  receiving 
a good  education  he  was  appointed  an  ensign  in  the  second 
regiment  of  the  Ulster  county  militia,  in  which  he  be- 
came a lieutenant-colonel.  During  the  Anglo-French 
war  he  distinguished  himself  at  Fort  Frontenac,  and 
served  in  General  Montgomery’s  expedition  to  Canada. 
He  was  made  brigadier-general  in  the  Continental  army 
August  9,  1776,  commanded  Fort  Clinton  when  it  was 
attacked  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  October  6,  1777,  and  was 
the  last  man  to  leave  the  works  when  they  were  captured 
by  the  British  force.  Although  suffering  from  a severe 
bayonet  wound  he  escaped  by  sliding  down  a precipice  of 
100  feet  to  the  creek.  In  1779  he  took  part  in  General 
Sullivan’s  expedition  against  the  Iroquois  of  Westeha  Net* 


C L I - 

York.  Afterward  he  commanded  the  Northern  depart- 
ment, stationed  at  Albany,  and  he  was  present  at  the 
siege  of  Yorktown  and  the  evacuation  of  New  York  by 
the  British.  He  was  a commissioner  to  determine  the 
boundary-line  between  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  was 
a member  of  the  State  convention  which  adopted  the 
Federal  constitution  of  1788,  and  served  in  the  legis- 
lature of  New  York. 

CLINTON,  Sir  Henry,  British  general,  born  in  1738; 
died  in  Gibraltar,  Spain,  December  23,  1795.  His  father, 
George,  was  an  admiral  in  the  British  navy  and  royal 
governor  of  New  York  in  1743-1753.  He  became  a 
captain  of  the  guards  in  1758,  and  served  in  Hanover 
during  the  seven-years’  war.  He  arrived  in  Boston  as 
major-general  with  Howe  and  Burgoyne  May  25,  1775. 
In  1775  he  served  in  North  Carolina  with  the  loyalists, 
and  took  part  in  the  unsuccessful  operations  against 
Charleston.  Returning  to  the  North,  he  was  second  in 
command  in  the  movements  that  compelled  the  Ameri- 
cans to  evacuate  New  York  in  September,  1775,  and  was 
left  in  command  of  that  city  in  the  summer  of  1777,  when 
Lord  Howe  sailed  for  .Chesapeake  Bay.  On  Octo- 
ber 6,  he  stormed  Forts  Clinton  and  Montgomery,  and 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  his  majesty’s  forces 
in  America,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  In 
June,  1778,  he  evacuated  Philadelphia,  which  he  had 
occupied  since  May,  and  on  his  retreat  through  New 
Jersey  fought  with  Washington  at  Monmouth  Court 
House.  He  went  to  South  Carolina  in  December,  1 779, 
with  Lord  Cornwallis,  and  captured  Charleston  May  12, 
1780.  He  left  Cornwallis  in  the  South,  and,  returning 
to  New  York,  endeavored,  with  Benedict  Arnold,  to 
secure  possession  of  West  Point.  Baffled  in  this,  he 
remained  inactive  in  New  York,  and  no  demands  for 
help  from  Lord  Cornwallis  could  rouse  him  until  Wash- 
ington left  for  Virginia.  In  October,  1781,  he  set  sail 
for  Chesapeake  Bay,  with  a large  naval  and  military 
force,  to  aid  Lord  Cornwallis,  but,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Chesapeake,  he  learned  that  Cornwallis  had  surrendered; 
upon  nearing  which,  without  landing,  he  returned  to 
New  York.  He  was  superseded  by  Sir  Guy  Carleton, 
and  returned  to  England  in  June,  1782.  He  was  elected 
to  parliament,  and  was  afterward  made  governor  of 
Limerick.  In  1 793  he  was  placed  in  command  of  Gib- 
raltar, where  he  died. 

CLUSERET,  Gustave  Paul,  born  in  Paris,  June 
13,  1823,  graduated  at  the  military  school  of  St.  Cyr 
in  1845,  and  entered  the  French  army.  In  June, 
1848,  he  became  chief  of  a battalion  of  national  guards 
and  was  made  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  He 
served  in  Algeria  and  the  Crimea,  and  in  i860  joined 
Garibaldi.  In  January,  1862,  he  entered  the  service  of 
the  United  States  and  served  on  McClellan’s  staff,  and 
later  with  Fremont.  In  1864  he  edited  a paper  in  New 
York  city,  and,  in  1867,  became  mixed  up  in  the  Fenian 
movement  in  England.  He  next  joined  the  Inter- 
national, and  during  the  second  siege  of  Paris  was  for 
a short  time  secretary  or  minister  of  war  under  the 
commune.  He  was  arrested,  but  managed  to  escape 
both  from  the  Communists  and  the  police  of  the  re- 
public, and  was  condemned  to  death  in  contumacium , 
August  30,  1872.  He  died  Aug.  22,  1900. 

COBB,  Howell,  statesman,  born  in  Cherry  Hill, 
Ga.,  September  7,  1815;  died  in  New  York,  Octo- 
ber 9,  1868.  He  was  graduated  at  Franklin  college, 
Athens,  in  1834,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1836.  In  1837  he  was  elected  solicitor-general 
of  the  western  circuit  of  Georgia;  and  in  1843  was 
elected  to  congress,  where  he  became  the  leader  of  the 
Southern  Democratic  members.  In  1849  he  was 
elected  speaker.  He  advocated  the  extension  of  slavery 
into  California  and  New  Mexico,  and  the  compromise 


-COL  6507 

measures  of  1850.  In  1851  he  was  elected  governor  of 
Georgia,  serving  until  1853,  when  he  resumed  the  prac- 
tice of  law.  In  1855  he  was  again  elected  to  congress* 
advocated  Mr.  Buchanan’s  election,  and  was  made  by 
him  secretary  of  the  treasury,  serving  from  1857  to 
i860,  when  he  resigned  to  take  part  in  the  secession 
movements.  He-  was  active  in  organizing  the  Confed- 
erate congress,  of  which  he  was  not  a member,  not 
being  a favorite  with  Jefferson  Davis.  He  was  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general,  and  subsequently  major-gen- 
eral, but  took  no  part  in  military  movements.  After 
the  war  he  opposed  the  reconstruction  measures. 

COBBE,  Francis  Power,  born  in  1822,  has  con- 
tributed many  able  essays  to  the  English  magazines  and 
reviews,  and  is  one  of  the  leading  advocates  of  the  politi** 
cal  emancipation  of  women, 

COBBOLD,  Thomas  Spencer,  born  at  Ipswich, 
England,  in  1828;  died  March  20,  1886.  He  wrote  on 
Entozoa  (1864),  Parasites  (1879),  Tapeworms  (1876), 
and  on  botany  and  zoology. 

COCK  BURN,  Sir  Alexander,  born  in  London  in 
1802;  died. November  21,  1880.  He  was  successively 
solicitor-general,  attorney-general  and  chief  j ustice,  and 
in  1871  was  one  of  the  arbitrators  of  the  Geneva  claims, 
but  refused  to  concur  in  the  award. 

COCKRAN,  William  Bourke,  of  New  York  city, 
lawyer  and  brilliant  orator,  was  born  in  Ireland,  Feb- 
ruary 28,  1854;  educated  in  France;  removed  to  Amer- 
ica; taught  school  and  served  in  the  50th,  52d  and  53d 
congresses  as  a Democrat  and  Tammany  leader. 

COE,  George  S.,  banker,  born  in  Newport,  R.  I., 
in  March,  1817.  In  1855  he  became  connected  with 
the  American  Exchange  National  bank,  first  as  vice- 
president  and  later  as  president,  and  in  1858  he  was 
instrumental  in  organizing  the  New  York  clearing 
house  banks  association,  which  carried  the  banks  safely 
through  the  war  and  the  panic  of  1873.  Died  May,  1896. 

COKE,  Richard,  born  in  Virginia,  March  13,  1829; 
served  in  the  Confederate  army,  and  after  the  war  be- 
came judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Texas.  He  was 
removed  by  General  Sheridan  for  opposing  reconstruc- 
tion, but  in  1873,  and  again  in  1876,  was  elected  gov- 
ernor. On  March  4,  1877,  he  took  his  seat  in  the 
United  States  Senate,  to  wllich  he  was  reelected  in  1883 
and  1889. 

COLDEN,  Cadwallader,  physician,  born  in 
Dunse,  Scotland,  February  17,  1688;  died  on  Long 
Island,  September  28,  1776.  After  graduation  at  the 
university  of  Edinburgh,  in  1705,  he  studied  medicine 
and  mathematics,  and,  in  1708,  came  to  this  country 
and  practiced  medicine  in  Philadelphia  until  1 7 1 5»  when 
he  visited  Scotland,  and  returned  to  Philadelphia  in 
1716.  In  1718,  at  the  request  of  Governor  Hunter,  he 
removed  to  New  York,  and  soon  after  obtained  a 
patent  for  land  near  Newburg.  In  1719,  he  became 
the  first  surveyor-general  of  the  province,  and  master 
in  chancery ; and,  during  this  period,  he  proposed  a 
route  for  trade,  from  New  York  to  the  Mississippi,  by 
way  of  the  Susquehanna,  Juniata,  Allegheny,  and  Ohio 
rivers.  He  was  appointed  a member  of  the  council  in 
1720,  and  was  an  earnest  Royalist,  and  an  advocate 
of  the  taxation  of  the  colonies.  In  1760,  he  was  made 
president  of  the  council,  and,  in  1761,  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor, which  office  he  held  until  his  death.  In  1765,  he 
was  burnt  in  effigy  by  the  Sons  of  Liberty,  on  account 
of  his  efforts  to  enforce  the  stamp  act,  and  was  forced 
to  pledge  himself  not  to  use  the  stamps.  His  death 
was  caused  from  excitement  produced  by  the  fire  of 
New  York,  in  1776.  Although  he  gave  up  the  practice 
of  medicine,  he  was  always  interested  in  it,  and  was 
one  of  the  first  to  recommend  the  cooling  regimen 
in  fevers,  and  wrote  a tract  on  yellow  fever,  in  1742, 


COL  — COO 


6508 

which  led  to  important  sanitary  regulations  in  New 
York  city. 

COLERIDGE,  John  Duke,  Lord,  was  born  in 
1820,  sat  in  parliament  from  1865  to  1873,  became  so- 
licitor-general in  1868,  attorney-general  in  1871,  chief 
justice  of  the  Common  Pleas  in  1873  and  lord  chief  jus- 
tice in  1880.  He  was  made  a peer  in  1873,  visited  the 
United  States  in  1883,  and  died  June  14,  1894. 

COLFAX,  Schuyler,  born  in  New  York  city, 
March  23,  1823;  died  January  13,  1885.  After  holding 
various  county  offices  in  Indiana,  he  edited  the  Register , 
a Whig  newspaper,  for  several  years.  He  entered  con- 
gress as  a Republican  in  1854  and  served  until  March, 
1869.  From  December  7,  1863,  to  March  4,  1869,  he 
was  speaker  of  the  house.  He  was  elected  vice  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  in  1868,  but  was  defeated  in 
his  efforts  to  be  renominated.  In  1873  it  was  charged 
that  he  had  been  implicated  in  the  Credit  Mobilier 
stock  operations.  The  charge  was  not  proven,  but 
it  effectually  disposed  of  his  political  aspirations. 
After  this  he  lectured  in  many  cities  before  large  audi- 
ences. 

COLLIER,  John  Payne,  born  in  London,  January 
11,  1789;  died  September,  1883.  He  wrot e A History 
of  Dramatic  Poetry  and  made  many  contributions  to 
Shakespearian  literature.  In  1852  he  published  Notes 
and  E?nendations  to  Shakespeare's  Plays,  which  he 
professed  to  base  on  marginal  notes  found  in  a copy 
of  the  second  folio  edition  of  the  poet’s  works.  The 
authenticity  of  these  notes  was  more  than  doubted,  and 
it  is  generally  believed  that  Collier  made  them  himself. 
However  he  was  an  industrious  scholar  and  did  good 
pervice  to  literature. 

COLLINS,  William  Wilkie,  born  in  London, 
England,  January,  1824;  died  September  23,  1889.  He 
began  writing  novels  about  1850,  and  produced  in  rapid 
succession,  After  Dark,  The  Dead  Secret , The  Woman 
in  White,  No  Name,  Armadale , The  Moonstone, 
Man  and  Wife,  Miss  or  Mrs?  The  New  Magdalen, 
The  Law  and  The  Lady , and  other  powerful  works  of 
fiction.  Many  dramas  founded  upon  his  novels  have 
been  produced  in  England  and  this  country. 

COLLYER,  Robert,  Unitarian  clergyman,  born  in 
Keighly,  Yorkshire,  England,  December  8,  1823.  His 
father  was  a blacksmith,  and  the  son  was  compelled  to 
earn  his  living  in  a factory.  He  attended  a night  school 
for  two  winters,  and,  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  he  was 
apprenticed  to  a blacksmith.  In  1850  he  came  to  this 
country,  and  worked  as  a hammer-maker  in  Shoemaker- 
town,  Penn.,  where  he  remained  nine  years.  He 
reached  on  Sundays,  having  become  a Methodist,  and, 
is  views  changing  in  the  direction  of  Unitarianism,  he 
was  expelled  by  the  conference.  He  became  a Unitarian, 
and  came  to  Chicago  to  take  charge  of  the  Unitarian 
mission  among  the  poor.  In  i860  he  organized  Unity 
church,  of  which  he  was  the  pastor  until  1879,  when 
he  removed  to  New  York  to  assume  charge  of  the 
church  of  the  Messiah,  which  post  he  still  (1892)  holds. 

CONGREVE,  Richard,  author,  born  in  England, 
September  4,  1818;  took  first-class  honors  in  classics  at 
Oxford  in  1840.  He  is  the  leading  English  follower  of 
Comte,  and  stands  at  the  head  of  the  London  Posi- 
tivists. 

CONKLING,  Roscoe,  senator,  was  born  in  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.,  October  30,  1829;  died  in  New  York, 
April  18,  1888.  His  father,  Alfred  (1789-1874), 
served  in  congress  in  1821-3,  and  was  minister 
to  Mexico  in  1852.  The  son  received  an  academic  edu- 
cation, removed  to  Utica,  studied  law,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1849.  In  1850  he  became  district' 
attorney  for  Oneida  county,  and  was  made  mayor  of 
Utica  in  1858.  In  that  year  he  was  chosen  as  a Re- 


publican to  congress,  and  was  reelected  in  i860, 
was  defeated  in  1862,  but  was  reelected  in  1864.  In 
this  term  he  was  made  chairman  of  the  committee  on 
the  District  of  Columbia,  was  a member  of  the  commit- 
tee Oil  ways  and  means,  and  of  the  special  reconstruction 
committee  of  fifteen.  His  first  important  speech  was 
in  support  of  the  fourteenth  amendment  to  the  consti- 
tution. He  attacked  McClellan’s  generalship,  opposed 
Spaulding’s  legal-tender  act,  and  advocated  the  prose- 
cution of  the  civil  war.  He  was  reelected  in  1866,  and 
in  January,  1867,  took  his  seat  in  the  United  States  Senate 
to  succeed  Ira  Harris,  and  was  reelected  in  1873  and  in 
1879.  He  was  a member  of  the  judiciary  committee, 
and  of  nearly  all  the  leading  committees  on  commerce  and 
revision  of  the  laws.  He  was  instrumental  in  the  passage 
of  the  civil-rights  bill  and  advocated  the  resumption  of 
specie  payments.  In  1877  he  took  an  important  part 
in  framing  the  electoral-commission  bill,  which  he  sup- 
ported by  an  able  speech.  Mr.  Conkling  received  ninety- 
three  votes  for  the  Republican  nomination  for  president 
in  the  Cincinnati  convention  of  1876.  When  President 
Hayes  showed  a disposition  to  adopt  conciliatory  meas- 
ures toward  the  South,  Mr.  Conkling  was  foremost 
in  opposing  the  movement,  and  organized 
the  “ Stalwart  ” faction  of  the  Republican  party. 
In  1881  he  became  hostile  to  President  Garfield’s  ad- 
ministration on  a question  of  patronage,  claiming,  with 
his  colleague,  Thomas  C.  Platt,  the  right  to  control 
federal  appointments  in  his  State.  They  finally  re- 
signed their  seats  in  the  Senate  and  appealed  to  the 
legislature  of  New  York  for  a reelection  as  a vindica- 
tion of  their  course  ; but  they  were  unsuccessful,  and 
Mr.  Conkling  resumed  the  practice  of  law  in  New 
York  city.  He  declined  the  nomination  of  justice  of 
the  United  States  supreme  court,  offered  by  President 
Arthur,  and  practiced  law  until  his  death. 

CONNAUGHT,  Duke  of  (Prince  Arthur),  third 
son  of  Queen  Victoria,  was  born  in  London,  May  1, 
1850,  and  married,  in  March,  1879,  the  Princess  Mar- 
garet Louise,  daughter  of  Prince  Frederick  Charles  of 
Germany. 

CONSTANT,  Benjamin,  artist,  born  in  Paris,  June 
10,  1845  ; has  received  several  medals  and  the  cross  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  is  one  of  the  most  successful 
of  the  modern  French  school  of  painters.  Died  May,  1902 

CONSTANTINE,  Nicholas,  grand  duke  of  Russia, 
second  son  of  Emperor  Nicholas,  was  born  September 
21,  1827,  and  was  grand  admiral  of  Russia,  and  held 
other  high  offices  until  retired  in  1882  by  his  nephew 
Alexander  III.  He  died  January  24,  1892. 

CONWAY,  Hugh,  the  nom  de  plume  of  Frederick 
John  Fargus,  born  in  Bristol,  England,  in  1847;  died 
May  15,  1885.  In  1884  he  wrote  a dramatic  story. 
Called  Back,  of  which  half  a million  copies  were  sold. 
Another,  sketch,  Dark  Days,  was  almost  as  successful. 

CONWAY,  Moncure  Daniel,  born  in  Virginia, 
March  17,  1832,  studied  law,  but  gave  it  up  for  the  min- 
istry, and  became  at  first  a Methodist,  and  about  1856 
a Unitarian.  He  was  a strong  opponent  of  slavery, 
and  suffered  for  his  outspokenness.  For  many  years 
(1863-1884)  he  preached  or  lectured  at  South  Place 
chapel,  London,  and  wrote  on  political,  social  and  re- 
ligious subjects  in  the  liberal  press. 

COOK,  Eliza,  born  in  London,  England,  in  1818; 
died  September  25,  1889.  About  1840  she  published  a 
volume  of  domestic  poems,  and  later  established  Eliza 
Cook's  fournal , to  which  she  contributed  for  several 
years.  She  was  a favorite  of  the  English  middle-class, 
and  wrote  verses  such  as  The  Old  Arm  Chair,  etc. 

COOK,  Joseph,  born  in  Ticonderoga,  N.  Y.,  Janu- 
ary 26,  1838  ; graduated  at  Harvard  in  1865.  He  be- 
came well-known  as  a preacher  and  lecturer,  and  has 


— COR 


6509 


COO- 

published  books  in  which  he  attempts  to  reconcile  science 
with  the  Christian  religion. 

COOLEY,  Thomas  MacIntyre,  born  at  Attica, 
N.  Y.,  Tanuary  6,  1824;  removed  to  Michigan  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  of  that  State  in  1845.  In  1859  he 
became  professor  and  subsequently  dean  of  the  faculty 
of  the  law  department  of  the  university  of  Michigan. 
In  1864  he  was  appointed  to  the  State  supreme  bench, 
and  in  1867  was  elected  chief  justice.  From  1887  to 
1891  he  was  at  the  head  of  the  inter-state  commerce 
commission,  and  he  is  recognized  as  a high  authority  on 
constitutional  law.  He  died  Sept.  12,  1898. 

COOMBS,  Leslie,  soldier,  born  near  Boonesboro, 
Ky.,  November  28,  1793;  died  in  Lexington,  Ky.,  August 
21,  1881.  Leslie  was  the  twelfth  child  of  a Virginia 
farmer,  who  in  1782  settled  in  the  wilds  of  Kentucky. 
At  nineteen  years  of  age  he  entered  the  army.  On 
June  2, 1813,  he  was  made  captain  of  spies  in  a regiment 
of  Kentucky  volunteers.  During  a conflict  at  Fort 
Miami,  on  May  5th,  he  was  wounded.  After  peace  was 
declared  Coombs  read  law,  and  later  pursued  a success- 
ful practice.  In  1836  during  the  Texas  struggle  with 
Mexico,  he  raised  a regiment  of  volunteers.  In  succes- 
sion he  became  state  auditor,  and  for  several  terms  was 
elected  to  the  legislature.  During  the  campaign  of  Gen- 
eral Harrison  for  the  presidency,  Coombs  became  an 
active  stump-speaker,  and  as  such  was  engaged  in  several 
western  and  southwestern  States.  In  this  department 
he  had  few  rivals ; to  hear  him  was  to  believe  in  him. 
When  the  war  with  Mexico  began  he  was  active  in  rais- 
ing volunteers  in  Kentucky.  In  1844  he  made  many 
speeches  in  favor  of  Henry  Clay,  the  Whig  nominee  for 
the  presidency.  In  i860  he  was  chosen  clerk  of  the 
Kentucky  court  of  appeals.  During  the  civil  war 
General  Coombs  was  ardently  devoted  to  the  cause  of  the 
Union.  His  last  years  were  spent  in  quiet  retirement. 

COOPER,  Myles,  clergyman,  bom  in  England  in 
1735;  died  in  Edinburgh,  May  1,  1785.  He  was 
graduated  at  Oxford  in  1 760,  and  became  a fellow  of 
Queen’s  college.  In  1762  he  came  to  America  as  an 
assistant  of  President  Johnson  of  King’s  college,  where 
he  became  professor  of  mental  and  moral  philosophy. 
Intheyear  following  he  became  president.  During  1771 
President  Cooper  went  to  England  and  returned  a short 
time  before  the  opening  of  the  Revolution.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  he  published  several  tracts  in  the  interest  of 
the  Crown.  His  outspoken  Loyalist  sentiments  were 
unfavorably  received  by  many,  and  his  person  was 
threatened  with  violence.  On  one  occasion,  it  is  said, 
he  took  to  flight  from  a back  window  and  fled  to  the 
house  of  a friend,  sailing  for  England  on  the  day  follow- 
ing. When  he  reached  that  country  two  parishes  were 
placed  in  his  charge : one  in  Berkshire  and  the  other  in 
Edinburgh. 

COOPER,  Peter,  philanthropist,  born  in  New 
York  city,  February  12,  1791 ; died  there  April  4, 
1883.  His  grandfather,  John  Campbell,  a skillful  potter 
in  New  York,  served  in  the  Revolutionary  army  as 
deputy  quartermaster,  and  his  father,  who  became  a 
lieutenant,  resumed  his  business  of  hat-making  after  the 
war.  He  removed  to  Peekskill,  where  he  opened  a 
country-store,  began  the  brewing  of  ale,  and  later  re- 
moved to  Catskill,  where  he  worked  at  hat -making  and 
also  engaged  in  making  bricks.  His  son,  Peter,  assisted 
him  in  all  of  these  occupations,  and  removed  with  his 
father  to  Brooklyn,  where  they  again  made  hats  and 
afterward  settled  in  Newburg  and  erected  a brewery. 
In  1808,  Peter  was  apprenticed  to  John  Woodward, 
a carriage-maker,  and  while  with  him  invented  a ma- 
chine for  mortising  the  hubs  of  carriages,  which  proved 
of  great  value  to  his  employer,  who  offered  to  establish 
him  in  business,  which  he  declined.  His  business  ceased 

38-J 


to  be  successful  after  the  conclusion  of  peace  with  Great 
Britain,  in  1815,  and  he  attempted  the  trade  of  cabinet-  » 
making,  the  grocery  business,  and  the  manufacture  of 
glue ; for  the  latter  he  leased  a factory  for  twenty-one 
years,  and  in  addition  to  glue,  made  oil,  prepared  chalk, 
whiting,  and  isinglass.  Subsequently  he  bought  ten 
acres  of  land  on  Maspeth  avenue,  Brooklyn,  where  the 
business  has  since  been  continued.  In  1828,  he  bought 

3.000  acres  of  land  in  Baltimore,  where  he  erected  the 
Canton  iron  works,  the  first  of  his  great  enterprises  in 
the  development  of  the  iron  industry  in  the  United  States. 

During  the  excitement  over  the  building  of  the  Balti- 
more & Ohio  railroad  in  1830,  Peter  Cooper  con- 
structed from  his  own  designs  the  first  locomotive  en- 
gine ever  made  in  this  country,  the  Tom  Thumb , by 
which  means  the  possibility  of  building  railroads  with 
little  capital  was  demonstrated,  and  the  Baltimore  & 

Ohio  railroad  was  saved  from  bankruptcy.  Soon  after 
this  Mr.  Cooper  sold  his  iron- works  in  Baltimore,  and 
returning  to  New  York  built  an  iron-factory,  which 
he  afterward  turned  into  a rolling-mill,  where  he  first 
successfully  applied  anthracite  coal  to  the  puddling  of 
iron  and  made  iron  wire  for  several  years.  In  1845 
he  removed  his  works  to  Trenton,  N.  J.,  and  built 
three  blast  furnaces  in  Phillipsburg,  near  Easton, 
Penn.,  the  largest  then  known,  bought  the  Andover 
iron-mines,  and  built  a railroad  through  the  eight  miles 
of  country  to  bring  the  ore  to  his  furnaces  at  the  rate  of 

40.000  tons  a year.  Mr.  Cooper  was  president  of  the  New 
York,  Newfoundland  and  London  telegraph  company, 
the  laying  of  the  Atlantic  cable  having  been  accom- 
plished largely  by  his  efforts  and  liberality.  He  served  in 
both  branches  of  the  New  York  common  council,  and 
advocated  the  construction  of  the  Croton  acqueduct. 

He  was  a trustee  of  the  Public  School  society,  and, 
awakened  to  the  necessity  of  a liberal  and  industrial 
education,  resolved  to  assist  younger  generations  to 
procure  what  had  been  denied  to  himself.  With  this 
idea  he  bought  the  property  at  the  intersection  of  Third 
and  Fourth  avenues,  between  Seventh  and  Eighth  streets 
and  built  here  from  his  own  plans  the  Cooper  Union 
for  the  advancement  of  science  and  art.  The  corner- 
stone was  laid  in  1854,  and  five  years  afterward  he  gave 
a deed  of  the  property  to  the  trustees,  incor- 
porated by  the  State  legislature.  Thus  far  the 
building  with  its  improvements  has  cost  nearly 
$750,000.  It  has  an  endowment  of  $200,000  for 
the  support  of  a free  reading-room  and  library.  Its  an- 
nual income  is  about  $60,000,  derived  from  rents.  Dur- 
ing the  financial  agitation  in  the  United  States  follow- 
ing the  crisis  of  1873,  Mr.  Cooper  was  active  in  the 
Greenback  movement,  and  in  1876,  the  National  Inde- 
pendent party  nominated  him  for  president. 

COPE,  Edward  D.,  born  in  Philadelphia,  July  28, 

1840,  was  professor  of  natural  sciences  at  Haverford, 
1864-67,  palaeontologist  to  the  government  geological 
survey,  a member  of  the  National  academy  of  sciences 
and  has  written  many  scientific  works.  Died  Ap’l,  1897. 

COPPEE,  Francis  Edouard  Joachim,  French  au- 
thor, was  born  January  12,  1842,  and  has  written  admir- 
able poetry,  several  popular  novels  and  a number  of  suc- 
cessful dramas,  including  Madame  de  Maintenon  (1881). 

COQUELIN,  Benoit-Constant,  actor,  born  in 
Boulogne,  France,  January  23,  1841.  Since  1884  he 
has  been  an  associate  of  the  Theater  Frarifais.  M. 
Coquelin  stands  at  the  head  of  the  dramatic  profession 
in  France  and  has  played  with  great  success  in  England 
and  the  United  States. 

CORCORAN,  William  Wilson,  banker,  born  in 
Georgetown,  D.  C.,  December  27,  1798.  His 

father  was  an  Irishman,  who  settled  in  Georgetown, 
where  he  occupied  several  minor  local  offices.  For 


C O R — C O U 


6510 

a time  the  son  attended  Georgetown  college,  but 
at  the  age  of  seventeen  became  a clerk  in  the  dry 
goods  and  auction  store  of  his  two  older  brothers. 
In  1828  Mr.  Corcoran  had  charge  of  the  real 
estate  held  by  the  United  States  Bank  and  the  Bank 
of  Columbia  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  continued 
their  agent  until  1836.  In  1835  he  was  married  to  Miss 
Louise  A.  Morris.  It  was  in  1837  that  Mr.  Corcoran 
began  his  career  as  banker  and  broker  in  Washington, 
and  in  1840  formed  a co-partnership  with  the  late  George 
W.  Riggs.  The  firm  reached  a high  reputation  and  at- 
tained to  great  wealth  after  many  risks  and  a perilous  es- 
cape from  disaster.  In  1854  Mr.  Corcoran  retired  from 
the  banking  business,  and  began  to  give  much  of  his 
time  and  attention  to  objects  of  benevolence.  Oak 
Hill,  the  Louise  Home,  and  the  Corcoran  Gallery 
of  Art  are  among  his  creations,  together  with  many 
gifts  to  colleges,  seminaries,  and  charities  to  the  extent 
of  several  millions.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
February  24,  1888. 

CORDOVA,  de  Fernando  Fernandez,  a Spanish 
general  born  in  Madrid  in  1792.  He  opposed  Espar- 
tero  in  1841,  was  appointed  Captain  General  of  New 
Castile  in  1850  and  Captain  General  of  Cuba  in  1851. 
He  was  driven  from  Spain  by  the  revolution  of  1854 
but  returned  two  years  later  on  the  fall  of  Espartero. 
He  died  in  October,  1883. 

CORFIELD,  William  Henry,  English  physician 
and  sanitary  expert,  was  born  at  Shrewsbury  in  Decem- 
ber, 1843.  Studying  medicine,  hygiene  and  natural 
science,  he  took  many  honors  and  degrees,  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Hygiene  and  Public  Health  at  University 
College,  London,  1869,  and  has  written  Dwelling 
Houses , Their  Sanitary  Construction  and  A rrangement 
(1879);  The  Treatment  and  Utilization  of  Sewerage  and 
The  Water  Supply  of  Ancient  Roman  Cities.  He  is 
chairman  of  the  Council  of  the  Sanitary  Institute  of 
Great  Britain. 

CORLISS,  George  H.,  born  in  Easton,  N.  Y., 
June  2,  1817;  died  February  21,  1888.  He  invented 
the  Corliss  engine,  was  for  many  years  at  the  head  of  a 
great  factory  in  Rhode  Island,  and  won  prizes  and 
medals  for  his  inventions  at  the  Paris,  Vienna  and 
Philadelphia  expositions.  He  was  a member  of  the 
Rhode  Island  legislature,  1868-70,  and  a Republican 
presidential  elector  in  1876.  The  great  Corliss  steam 
engine  was  the  chief  mechanical  attraction  at  the  Cen- 
tennial exposition  in  Philadelphia  in  1876. 

CORNELL,  Alonzo  B.,  son  of  Ezra  Cornell,  was 
born  in  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  January  22,  1832.  He  became 
a telegraph  operator  and  manager,  and  in  1868  a director 
of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  company.  In  1868 
he  was  the  Republican  candidate  for  lieutenant-governor 
of  New  York,  but  was  defeated.  The  next  year  Presi- 
dent Grant  made  him  surveyor  of  customs  at  New  Y ork, 
and  in  1873  he  resigned  to  enter  the  state  assembly,  of 
which  he  was  made  speaker.  From  1870  to  1878  he 
was  chairman  of  the  State  central  committee,  and  in  this 
capacity  influenced  the  New  York  delegation  at  Cincin- 
nati in  1876  to  vote  for  Rutherford  B.  Hayes.  In  Jan- 
uary, 1877,  Mr.  Cornell  was  appointed  naval  officer  of 
the  port  of  New  York  by  General  Grant.  President 
Hayes,  soon  after  taking  office,  demanded  that  Mr. 
Cornell  should  resign  from  the  State  and  national  com- 
mittees, and  as  he  refused,  he  was  suspended  in  July, 
1878.  The  collector  of  the  port,  Chester  A.  Arthur, 
shared  the  same  fate.  In  1879  Mr.  Cornell  was  elected 
governor  of  New  York  and  served  till  December  31, 
1882.  He  failed  to  obtain  a renomination. 

CORNELL,  Ezra,  born  in  New  York  state,  Jan- 
uary 11,  1807;  died  December  9,  1874..  He  realized  a 
large  fortune  through  his  connection  with  the  electric- 


telegraph  system,  and  devoted  the  greater  part  of  it  to 
the  endowment  of  Cornell  university,  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

CORNPLANTER,  a Seneca  Indian  chief,  said  to 
have  been  over  an  hundred  years  old  at  his  death,  in 
1836.  He  was  a bitter  enemy  of  the  whites ; joined  the 
French  at  the  time  of  General  Braddock’s  expedition, 
and  took  part  with  his  tribe,  in  the  Wyoming  mas- 
sacres. Although  a half-breed,  he  attained  great 
power  among  the  Senecas.  He  became  partly  civilized 
and  in  his  later  years  settled  down  to  farming. 

CORRIGAN,  Michael  Augustine,  born  in  New  * 
ark,  N.  J.,  August  13,  1839;  was  educated  at  St. 
Mary’s  college,  Delaware,  and  the  American  college 
at  Rome.  He  was  ordained  priest  September  19, 
1863;  in  1873  became  bishop  of  Newark;  in  September, 
1880,  coadjutor  to  Cardinal  McCloskey,  and  on  October 
10,  1885,  became  metropolitan  of  the  diocese  of  New 
York.  He  died  May  5,  1902. 

CORSE,  John  Murray,  born  in  Pittsburg,  Penn., 
April  27,  1835  ; entered  the  army  as  major  of  volunteers 
in  August,  1861,  fought  at  Chickasaw  and  Missionary 
Ridge  and  was  severely  wounded  at  Allatoona.  He  was 
brevetted  major-general  May  5, 1864;  became  collector  of 
internal  revenue  in  Chicago  in  1867,  and  postmaster  of 
Boston  in  1886.  He  died  April  27,  1893. 

CORWIN,  Thomas,  statesman,  born  in  Bourbon 
county,  Ky.,  July  29,  1 794;  died  in  Washington, 
D.  C.,  December  18,  1865.  His  father  removed 
to  Lebanon,  Ohio,  and  served  in  the  legisla- 
ture. After  working  on  the  farm  until  he  was  about 
twenty  years  of  age,  he  studied  law,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1818.  He  served  in  the  Ohio  legislature 
from  1822  till  1829,  was  chosen  to  congress  as  a Whig 
in  1830,  and  was  reelected  until  1840,  when  he  resigned 
to  become  the  Whig  candidate  for  governor  of  Ohio, 
which  office  he  held  for  one  term.  In  1844  he  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  where  he  opposed 
the  annexation  of  Texas,  and  in  1847,  delivered  a not- 
able speech  against  the  war  with  Mexico.  He  was  ap- 
pointed by  President  Fillmore  secretary  of  the  treas- 
ury in  1850,  and  after  his  service  there  returned  to  the 
practice  of  law  in  Lebanon.  In  1858  he  was  elected  to 
congress  as  a Republican,  and  was  reelected  in  i860. 
President  Lincoln  appointed  him  minister  to  Mexico  in 
1861,  but  on  the  arrival  of  Maximilian,  he  returned  to 
Washington,  and  practiced  law.  , He  had  much  repu- 
tation as  an  orator.  See  the  Life  and  Speeches  of 
Thomas  Corwin,  edited  by  Isaac  Strohn  (Dayton,  1859.) 

COSTA,  Sir  Michael,  born  in  Naples,  February  4, 
1810;  died  in  England,  April  29,  1884.  He  was  con- 
spicuous as  a director  of  orchestral  music,  and  con- 
ducted the  great  triennial  Handel  festivals  at  Sydenham. 
His  oratorios  and  operas  possessed  little  merit. 

COUES,  Elliott,  an  American  naturalist,  who  was 
born  in  1842,  entered  the  United  States  army  in  1862 
as  medical  cadet  and  served  from  1864  to  1881  as  assis- 
tant surgeon.  He  served  as  naturalist  on  United 
States  surveys,  of  tfie  territories,  as  collaborator  at  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  and  has  written  Field  Orni- 
thology (1874);  Birds  of  The  Northwest  (1874);  New 
England  Bird  Life  (1881),  and  other  works.  Later  he 
made  a study  of  theosophy,  joined  the  Theosophical  So- 
ciety, and  until  Mme.  Blavatsky’s  death  in  1891,  was 
an  aggressive  skeptic  of  her  supernatural  pretensions. 

COULDOCK,  Charles  Walter,  actor,  born  in 
London,  England,  in  1815;  first  appeared  on  the  stage 
in  1835,  and  came  to  this  country  in  1849.  Of  old 
time  he  supported  Charles  Kean  and  Macready,  and 
latterly  played  in  the  United  States,  creating  the  part 
of  ^Dunstan  Kirk”  in  Hazel  Kirk.  In  1895,  when  eighty 
years  old,  he  was  still  an  acrive  participant  in  stage 
representations,  being  much  admired  in  old  men’s  parts. 


C O X — C R I 


COX,  Jacob  D.,  born  at  Montreal  in  1828,  practiced 
law  in  Cincinnati,  O.,  entered  the  war  as  brigadier-gen- 
eral, became  major-general  in  1862,  marched  with  Sher- 
man to  Atlanta  and  commanded  a division  in  the  battle 
of  Nashville,  December,  1864.  He  was  elected  gov- 
ernor of  Ohio,  as  a Republican,  in  1865,  and  was  ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  the  Interior  by  President  Grant 
in  1869.  He  died  in  August,  1900. 

COX,  Samuel  Hanson,  Presbyterian  clergyman, 
born  in  Rahway,  N.  J.,  1793;  died  October  2,  1881. 
He  organized  a volunteer  corps  of  riflemen  in  1812, 
entered  the  ministry  in  1817,  held  various  charges,  de- 
livered sermons  against  slavery,  and  was  professor  of 
ecclesiastical  history  in  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York.  He  wrote  Quakerism  Not  Christianity. 

COX,  Samuel  Sullivan,  lawyer,  editor  and  states- 
man, born  in  Zanesville,  Ohio,  September  30,  1824; 
died  September  10,  1889.  He  graduated  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity in  1846,  became  secretary  of  legation  at  Lima, 
in  1856,  was  elected  to  congress  as  a Democrat  in  1857, 
serving  eight  years;  removed  to  New  York  city  in 
1866,  was  elected  to  congress  in  1868,  and  served  until 
1882.  In  1885  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Turkey, 
and  in  November,  1886,  again  became  congressman. 
He  wrote  The  Buckeye  Abroad,  Eight  Years  in  Con- 
gress, Why  We  Laugh  and  other  works.  A brilliant 
speaker  and  writer,  he  was  widely  known  as  “Sun- 
set ” Cox,  from  a glowing  description  of  a sunset. 

COXE,  Arthur  Cleveland,  born  in  Mendham,  N. 
J.,  May  10,  1818;  graduated  at  the  university  of  New 
York  in  1838,  took  holy  orders  in  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal church  in  1842,  and  became  assistant  bishop  and 
bishop  of  Western  New  York  in  1865.  Bishop  Coxe 
has  published  theological  works.  Died  July  20,  1896. 

COXEY,  Jacob  S.,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1854, 
and  for  years  an  obscure  horse  breed&r,  acquired  na- 
tional notoriety  in  1894  by  his  scheme  of  leading  an 
army  of  the  unemployed  to  Washington,  a monster  pe- 
tition in  boots  to  congress,  to  relieve  the  widespread 
distress  of  unemployed  workingmen.  Variously  called 
the  “ Commonwealth  of  Christ,”  by  those  in  sympathy 
with  it,  or  “ Coxey’s  Commonwealers,”  the  movement 
was  intended  to  demand  the  creation  of  a country  road 
fund  of  $500,000,000,  to  be  issued  in  non-interest-bear- 
ing bonds,  to  furnish  work.  Straggling  armies  of 
5,000  men,  all  told,  marched  to  Washington,  but  the 
etition  never  reached  congress,  as  Coxey  and  his  co- 
orts  were  arrested  for  failing  to  “ keep  off  the  grass,” 
and  the  armies  disbanded.  Though  much  ridiculed, 
Coxey  had  the  sympathy  of  the  masses. 

COXWELL,  Henry  Tracey,  born  in  England  in 
1819;  became  a professional  aeronaut  about  1844,  and 
has  made  over  700  balloon  ascents.  He  has  written 
extensively  on  aerostation. 

CRAIK,  Dinah  Maria  (Mulock),  was  born  in  Staf- 
fordshire, England,  in  1826.  She  wrote  many  domestic 
novels  and  some  pleasing  verses,  but  her  fame  rests  upon 
her  story  John  Halifax,  Gentleman.  She  was  married 
in  1865  to  George  L.  Craik,  novelist,  and  died  in  1887. 

CRAWFORD,  Francis  Marion,  American  novel- 
ist, son  of  Thomas  Crawford,  sculptor  (1814-57),  was 
born  in  Italy  in  1854,  educated  in  New  Hampshire  and 
abroad,  and  is  a prolific  and  popular  writer.  Among 
his  best  or  latest  books  are:  Mr.  Isaacs  (1882);  Dr. 
Claudius  ( 1883) ; A Roman  Singer  (1884) ; An  Amer- 
ican Politician  (1884);  Paul  Patoff  (1887);  A Cigar- 
ette Maker's  Romance  ( 1890) ; The  Three  Fates  (1892) ; 
Love  in  Idleness,  Katherine  Lauderdale , The  Upper 
Berth  (1894) ; The  Ralstons  ( 1894). 

CRAWFORD,  William  Harris,  lawyer  and  states- 
man, born  in  Nelson  county,  Va.,  February  24,  1772; 
died  in  Elberton,  Ga.,  September  15,  1834.  In  1800 


6511 

| he  was  appointed  with  Horatio  Marbury  to  revise  the 
laws  of  Georgia,  and  was  elected  to  th£  legislature  in 
1802,  and  in  1806  to  the  United  States  Senate,  and  dur- 
ing the  canvass  fought  two  duels,  in  one  of  which  he 
killed  his  opponent.  Pie  was  an  ardent  Republican 
and  a staunch  friend  of  Jefferson.  In  1813  he  declined 
the  office  of  secretary  of  war  in  President  Madison’s 
cabinet,  and  was  appointed  minister  to  France,  where 
he  became  an  intimate  friend  of  the  Marquis  de  Lafay- 
ette, who  appointed  him  agent  of  his  property  in  the 
United  States.  Pie  returned  to  this  country  in  1815, 
and  was  made  secretary  of  the  treasury,  serving  through 
both  terms  of  Monroe’s  administration,  after  which  his 
name  was  presented  for  the  post  of  president  of  the 
United  States.  He  was  opposed  by  Calhoun,  and  in 
the  ensuing  campaign,  in  which  General  Jackson, 
Henry  Clay,  John  Quincy  Adams  and  Crawford  were 
candidates,  he  received  the  votes  of  four  States.  Re- 
turning to  Georgia  he  lived  in  retirement  until  he  was 
made  judge  of  the  northern  circuit  of  Georgia  in  1827, 
which  office  he  held  until  the  time  of  his  death. 

CREMIEUX,  Isaac  Adolphe,  born  at  Nimes, 
France,  in  1796,  became  a lawyer  in  Paris  in  1830.  In 
1842  he  entered  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and  acted 
with  the  Extreme  Left.  He  became  minister  of  jus- 
tice in  the  provisional  government  in  February,  1848, 
but  retired  in  June.  During  the  empire  he  held  no 
public  office,  but  when  the  republic  was  proclaimed  he 
became  again  minister  of  justice,  and  was  associated 
with  Gambetta  in  the  ministry  of  the  national  defense. 
He  was  elected  life  senator  December  15,  1875,  and 
died  February  10,  1880. 

CRERAR,  John,  a Chicago  business  man,  born  in 
New  York  city,  in  1827,  died  Oct.  19,  1889,  who  left 
$3,000,000  for  charitable  purposes,  of  which  $2,000,000 
was  set  apart  for  the  founding  of  a free  public  library 
to  bear  his  name.  In  1895,  after  a long  contest  of  the 
will  had  been  defeated,  the  trustees  of  the  library  de- 
cided to  devote  it  exclusively  to  works  on  the  sciences. 

CRESAP,  Michael,  Indian  trader,  born  in  Mary- 
land, 1742;  died  in  New  York  city,  1 775.  In  1774,  at 
Wheeling,  he  led  an  attack  on  the  Indians,  who  had 
become  unruly,  and  defeated  them,  while  another  party 
barbarously  destroyed  the  entire  family  of  Logan,  a 
friendly  chieftain.  Logan  accused  Cresap  of  the  mur- 
der in  a speech  that  has  become  classic,  but  Cresap 
was  not  guilty.  Commissioned  captain  of  the  militia 
of  Virginia,  he  joined  the  Dunmore  expedition,  and  re- 
turned to  Maryland;  from  there  he  went  to  Ohio  in 
the  spring  following,  and  penetrated  the  wilds  of  far 
western  Virginia.  Later  he  was  commissioned  captain 
of  a company  of  Maryland  riflemen,  and  went  with  his 
company  to  Massachusetts,  to  join  the  American  army. 
But  when  he  arrived  at  his  destination  he  was  over- 
come by  sickness,  and  died  on  his  way  homeward,  in 
New  York  city.  His  remains  lie  buried  there  in  Trin- 
ity church-yard,  and  a tombstone  marks  his  grave. 

CRITTENDEN,  John  Jordan,  statesman,  born 
near  Versailles,  Woodford  county,  Ky.,  Septem- 
ber 10,  1787;  died  near  Frankfort,  Ky.,  July  26, 
1863.  His  father,  John,  a native  of  Virginia,  settled  in 
Kentucky  after  the  Revolutionary  war,  in  which  he 
served  as  major.  The  son  was  graduated  at  William 
and  Mary  college,  1807,  practiced  law  and  in  1809  was 
appointed  attorney-general  of  the  territory  of  Illinois, 
and  in  1811  he  was  elected  to  the  Kentucky  legislature. 
In  1817  he  was  chosen  to  the  United  States  Senate, 
where  he  obtained  a reputation  by  an  appeal  in  behalf 
of  Gen.  Arthur  St.  Clair’s  petition  for  payment  of  the 
arrears  due  him.  In  1819  he  settled  in  Frankfort, 
Ky.,  was  a conspicuous  member  of  the  Old  Court 
party,  and  aided  in  settling  the  boundary  between  Ken* 


CRI— CUL 


651s 

tucky  and  Tennessee.  In  1827  he  was  made  attorney- 
general  of  Kentucky,  and  in  1828  was  appointed  a judge 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  but  was  not  confirmed.  In  1834 
he  was  made  secretary  of  state  for  Kentucky,  and  in 
1835  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  where  he 
supported  Henry  Clay’s  measures.  He  was  appointed 
attorney-general  in  the  cabinet  of  President  Harrison, 
whom  he  had  first  met  during  an  expedition  against 
Canada  in  1813. 

After  Henry  Clay’s  resignation  in  1842,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  fill  his  place,  and  in  the  next  year  was 
elected  for  a full  term.  He  resisted  the  annexation  of 
Texas,  and  supported  the  war  with  Mexico.  In  1848 
he  became  governor  of  Kentucky,  and  in  1850  was 
made  attorney-general  in  Fillmore’s  cabinet.  In  1855 
he  again  served  in  the  United  States  Senate,  and  opposed 
the  pro-slavery  policy  of  Pierce  and  Buchanan.  To 
avert  the  calamity  of  secession  Mr.  Crittenden  pre- 
sented, in  i860,  resolutions  proposing  constitutional 
amendments  to  the  States,  which  were  known  as  the 
“ Crittenden  Compromise,”  but  although  supported  by 
numerous  petitions  they  were  not  accepted.  In  1861 

iohn  C.  Breckenridge  succeeded  him  in  the  Senate,  but 
e was  elected  to  the  House  of  Representatives  in  that 
year  and  opposed  the  methods  employed  in  suppressing 
the  rebellion.  He  opposed  the  employment  of  negroes 
as  soldiers,  and  objected  to  the  formation  of  West  Vir- 
ginia. In  his  last  speech  in  congress,  February  22, 
1863,  he  declared  that  the  government  had  broken  its 
pledges  and  diverted  the  war  from  its  original  purpose. 

CRISP,  Charles  F.,  speaker  of  the  52nd  and  53rd 
congresses,  was  born  in  England,  of  American  parents, 
January  20,  1845;  served  in  the  confederate  army, 
practiced  law,  went  on  the  Georgia  bench,  served  in  the 
state  assembly,  in  1882  entered  congress,  and  has  been 
continuously  reelected  as  a Democrat.  He  died  Oct. 
23,  1896. 

CRISPI,  Francesco,  born  in  Sicily,  October  4, 1819; 
took  a leading  part  in  the  Palermo  insurrection  of  1S48; 
and  after  its  failure  went  into  exile.  In  1859-60  he 
organized  another  revolution,  landed  at  Palermo  with 
Garibaldi,  and  became  a member  of  the  provisional 
government.  In  1861  he  was  elected  to  the  first  parlia- 
ment of  United  Italy,  and  in  1876  became  president  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  The  leader  of  the  Consti- 
tutional Party,  he  was  minister  of  the  interior  under 
Depretis  and  president  of  the  Council  in  1887.  His 
ministry  was  defeated  in  1891,  but  King  Humbert  was 
reluctantly  compelled  to  recall  him  in  1894,  to  rescue 
the  country  from  its  difficulties.  Crispi  was  the  unifi- 
cator  of  Italy,  to  a large  degree,  and  one  of  the  first 
statesmen  of  Europe.  He  died  Aug.  11,  1901. 

CROKE,  Thomas,  archbishop  of  Cashel,  Ireland, 
was  born  at  Mallow,  county  Cork,  May  19,  1824.  He 
became  archbishop  in  1875,  and  has  been  identified  with 
the  Irish  land  league  movement.  Died  July,  1902. 

CROOK,  George,  born  near  Dayton,  Ohio,  Sep- 
tember 8,  1828;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1852,  and 
served  several  years  on  the  frontier.  He  was  a captain 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war,  in  which  he  served  with 
distinction,  and  he  closed  it  a brevet  major-general.  He 
commanded  the  district  of  Wilmington,  N.  C.,  after  the 
war,  and  in  1866  was  transferred  to  Idaho,  where  he 
spent  six  years  in  active  frontier  service.  Thence  he 
was  transferred  to  Arizona,  and  thoroughly  subdued  the 
Pi-Utes  and  Apaches.  Major-general  Crook  was  in 
command  of  the  department  of  the  Missouri  until  his 
death,  March  21,  1890. 

CROCKETT,  David,  hunter  and  humorist,  born  in 
Limestone,  Tenn.,  August  17,  1786;  killed  in  Texas, 
March  6,  1836.  He  ran  away  from  home  when  he  was 
about  twelve  years  of  age,  and  associated  with  drovers. 


In  1854  he  returned  to  his  home  and  went  to  school, 
married,  and  afterward  went  to  the  wildest  parts  of  the 
State.  He  was  one  of  the  hunters  who  served  under 
General  Jackson  against  the  Creeks,  in  1813.  He  re- 
turned and  settled  in  a lawless  neighborhood  on  Shoal 
creek,  where  he  became  a magistrate.  He  still  lived  a 
hunter’s  life,  and  served  three  terms  in  the  legislature. 
He  was  elected  to  congress  in  1827  as  a friend  of  Jack- 
son,  and  attracted  much  attention  by  his  peculiar  mode 
of  dressing  and  his  eccentricities.  He  was  reelected  in 
1829  and  1831,  but  became  an  opponent  of  Jackson’s 
administration.  Subsequently  he  went  to  Texas,  and 
took  part  in  her  contest  for  independence.  He  was  one 
of  the  last  six  who  defended  the  fort  in  the  siege  of  F ort 
Alamo,  in  San  Antonio  de  Bexar,  and  he  was  captured 
and  put  to  death  by  General  Santa  Anna,  March  6,  1836. 
Many  books  of  his  exploits  and  oddities  have  been 
written.  See  his  Autobiography  (Philadelphia,  1834; 
New  York,  1882). 

CROSBY,  Howard,  Presbyterian  clergyman,  born 
in  New  York,  February  27,  1826.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  New  York  university  in  1844,  and  became  professor 
of  Greek  there  in  1851.  In  1859  he  accepted  the  same 
chair  in  Rutgers  college,  New  Brunswick,  serving  for 
one  year  as  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church  in  that 
town.  He  was  called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  Fourth 
Avenue  Presbyterian  church  in  1863,  serving  until  his 
death.  From  1870  till  1881  he  was  chancellor  of 
the  New  Y ork  university.  Doctor  Crosby  was  a founder 
and  president  of  the  New  Y ork  Society  for  the  Prevention 
of  Crime,  and  was  one  of  the  committee  who  revised 
the  New  Testament.  He  has  repeatedly  visited  Europe 
and  has  traveled  in  the  Orient.  In  addition  to  contri- 
butions to  periodicals,  magazines,  tracts,  and  lectures,  he 
is  the  author  of  Lands  of  the  Moslem;  CEdipus  Tyran- 
nise with  notes  (1861);  Scholia  on  the  New  Testament 
(1863);  Bible  Manual  (1869) ; Life  of  Jesus;  Thoughts 
on  the  Decalogue;  Social  Hints;  The  True  Humanity 
of  Christ;  The  Christian  Preacher;  Comjnentaries  on 
Joshua;  Nehemiah , and  The  New  Testament  (1875); 
Harvard  gave  him  the  degree  of  D.D.  in  1859,  and  Co- 
lumbia that  of  LL.D.  in  1872.  He  died  March  29,  1891. 

CRUIKSHANK,  George,  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land, September  27,  1792;  died  February  1,  1878.  He 
began  his  career  as  a caricaturist  in  1811,  and  illustrated 
Dickens’  earlier  works  and  some  of  William  H.  Ains- 
worth’s novels.  In  his  later  years  he  devoted  himself  to 
painting  in  oil,  and  produced  The  Worship  of  Bacchus , 
in  1862.  This  painting,  now  in  the  British  museum,  was 
designed, to  illustrate  the  evils  of  intemperance.  Many  of 
his  works  found  a place  in  the  English  national  galleries. 

CULLOM,  Shelby  M.,  born  in  Wayne  county,  Ky., 
November  22,  1829;  studied  law  and  practiced  at  Spring- 
field,  111.,  and  in  1856  was  elected  to  the  Illinois 
legislature.  Four  years  later  he  was  ree'lected  and  be- 
came speaker.  From  December,  1865,  until  March  3, 
1871,  he  represented  the  Springfield  district  in  congress. 
From  1872  to  1874  he  sat  in  the  State  legislature,  and 
in  1873  was  again  speaker.  In  1876  he  became  gov- 
ernor of  Illinois,  was  reelected  in  1880,  and  resigned 
February  5,  1883,  having  been  elected  United  States 
senator  to  succeed  David  Davis.  He  was  reelected 
to  the  Senate  in  1889  and  in  1895.  Senator  Cullom 
nominated  General  Grant  in  1872,  and  General  Logan 
in  1884,  and  has  taken  a prominent  part  in  railroad 
legislation.  His  bill  creating  the  inter-state  commerce 
commission  was  passed  in  1886. 

CULLUM,  George  W.,  born  in  New  York  city, 
February  25,  1809;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1833 
and  entered  the  engineer  corps.  He  built  Fort  Sumter 
and  other  Atlantic  harbor-defenses  and  from  1848  to 
1855  was  instructor  of  practical  engineering  at  West 


CUL- 

Foint.  During  the  Civil  war  he  became  chief  of 
engineers  and  chief  of  staff  under  General  Halleck.  In 
September,  1864,  he  became  superintendent  of  the 
United  States  military  academy,  and  was  retired  under 
the  rule  January  13,  1874.  He  was  made  vice-president 
of  the  American  Geographical  society;  and  in  1880 
became  president  of  the  Geographical  Library  society 
of  New  York.  General  Cullum  wrote  many  works  on 
military  matters.  He  died  February  28,  1892. 

CULPEPPER,  Thomas,  colonial  governor  of  Vir- 
ginia. He  was  a son  of  John  Culpepper,  who  was 
made  Baron  Culpepper,  of  Thoresway.  England,  in 
1644.  The  son  early  became  one  of  the  owners  of 
Virginia,  and,  in  1669,  he  purchased  the  right  to  the 
land  lying  between  the  Potomac  and  Rappahannock 
rivers.  In  1673  he,  with  the  earl  of  Arlington,  re- 
ceived from  King  Charles  II.  the  grant  of  the  whole 
territory  of  Virginia  for  thirty-one  years,  and,  in  1675, 
the  king  appointed  him  governor  of  the  province  for 
life.  He  did  not  come  to  this  country  until  1680,  and 
soon  after  his  arrival  he  caused  the  governor’s  salary  of 
^1,000  to  be  doubled,  placed  the  duties  on  tobacco  and 
merchandise  under  the  entire  control  of  the  king,  and 
brought  a general  amnesty  for  all  past  offenses  in  the 
province.  He  soon  went  back  to  England,  but  re- 
turned, in  1682,  hanged  the  leading  “ plant  cutters,” 
debased  the  currency,  and  annulled  the  privilege  of  Ap- 
peal from  the  governor  and  council  to  the  assembly. 
In  1683  he  returned  to  England  in  violation  of  his 
orders,  and  was,  in  consequence,  prosecuted  and  de- 
prived of  his  office  and  patent,  but  was  allowed  an 
annual  pension  until  the  time  of  his  grant  expired. 
Lord  Culpepper  was  cruel,  despotic,  and  mercenary, 
and  indifferent  to  the  welfare  of  his  colony.  On  his 
death,  in  1719,  his  large  estate  in  Virginia,  where  a 
county  is  named  for  him,  descended  to  his  daughter 
Catherine,  Lady  Fairfax. 

CUMMINGS,  Amos  Jay,  born  in  Broome  county, 
N.  Y.,  May  15,  1841;  began  newspaper  life  as  a com- 
positor on  the  New  York  Tribune , became  political 
editor  of  that  paper  and  afterward  was  connected  with 
the  New  York  Sun.  In  1886  he  was  elected  to  con- 
gress, as  a Democrat.  Died  May  2,  1902. 

CUNNINGHAM,  William,  provost-marshal,  born 
in  Dublin,  Ireland;  died  in  London,  August  10,  1791. 
His  father  was  a trumpeter  in  the  army,  and  the  son  was 
born  in  the  soldiers’  barracks.  In  1774  he  arrived  in 
New  York  city,  where,  at  first,  he  gave  lessons  in  riding. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  his  hot-headed  dec- 
larations of  Toryism  rendered  him  obnoxious  to  many, 
and  he  was  driven  from  the  city.  He  then  went  to  Bos- 
ton, continuing  his  former  course.  Here  he  came  under 
4 the  notice  of  General  Gage,  who  saw  in  the  man  adevoted 
Loyalist,  and  appointed  him  provost-marshal  of  the 
British  army.  In  1778  he  was  at  first  superintendent  of 
the  prisons  in  Philadelphia,  and  later  those  of  New  York 
city,  where  he  became  notorious  for  many  cruelties. 
Hundreds  were  hanged  without  trial  and  several  thou- 
sands starved  to  death.  At  the  close  of  the  war  Cun- 
ningham returned  to  Europe,  and  settled  in  Wales. 
Later  he  went  to  London,  where  he  led  a dissipated  life, 
and,  to  obtain  money,  was  induced  to  commit  forgery. 
For  this  felony  he  was  executed.  It  is  difficult  to  under- 
stand how  the  enlightened  British  Government,  for  so 
many  years  could  have  maintained  this  brutal  official 
at  so  important  post. 

CURTIN,  Andrew  Gregg,  born  in  Bellefonte, 
Penn.,  April  22,  1815.  He  studied  law  and  became 
prominent  at  the  bar  and  in  politics.  In  1854  he  be- 
came secretary  of  the  commonwealth  and  ex-officio 
superintendent  of  public  schools,  and  in  i860  was 
elected  governor  of  Pennsylvania  on  the  Republican 


-CUS  6513 

ticket.  In  this  capacity  he  was  energetic  in  raising 
troops  and  became  one  of  the  great  “war  governors.” 
In  1863  he  was  reelected  and  in  1869  became  minister 
to  Russia.  In  1872  he  supported  the  Liberal-Repub- 
lican ticket,  and  from  1881  to  1887  sat  in  congress  as  a 
Democrat.  He  died  October  7,  1894. 

CURTIS,  George  Ticknor,  born  in  Watertown, 
Mass.,  November  28,  1812;  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1832,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  four  years  later.  He 
sat  in  the  Massachusetts  legislature  from  1840  to  1844, 
and  then  became  United  States  commissioner.  In  1862 
he  removed  to  New  York  city.  He  wrote  extensively 
on  commercial  and  copyright  law,  and  published  a 
History  of  the  Constitution  and  a Life  of  Daniel  Web- 
ster. He  died  March  28,  1894. 

CURTIS,  George  William,  author,  born  in  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  February  24,  1824.  Pie  attended  school  in 
Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.,  was  for  a year  a clerk  in  a mer- 
cantile house  in  New  York  city,  and  in  1842  became  a 
member  of  the  Brook  Farm  socialistic  institution  in 
Roxbury,  Mass.  Here  he  lived  about  eighteen  months, 
afterward  retiring  to  a farm  in  Concord,  where  he 
remained  an  equal  time.  In  1846  Mr.  Curtis  went  to 
Europe,  and  also  visited  Egypt  and  Syria.  He  re- 
turned to  this  country  in  1850,  and  became  a member 
of  the  staff  of  the  New  York  Tribune,  and  also  one  of 
the  editors  of  the  first  series  of  Putnam1 s Monthly 
from  its  beginning,  in  1852,  until  it  was  discontinued. 
When  this  magazine  was  revived,  some  three  years 
later,  by  a new  firm,  under  the  new  title  of  Put- 
nam's Magazine,  Mr.  Curtis  was  a special  partner, 
and  its  failure  in  1857  involved  him  in  grave  pecuniary 
difficulties,  from  which  it  required  many  years  of 
toilsome  labor  to  free  himself.  In  1853  he  assumed  in 
Harper' s Monthly  the  editorship  of  the  “Editor’s  Easy 
Chair,”  which  is  being  continued  to  this  time;  in  1857 
Harper's  Weekly  was  established,  and  he  was  made  the 
principal  editorial  writer  for  that  publication.  Mean- 
while he  gave  numerous  lectures  with  universal  accepta- 
tion, soon  became  known  as  a polished  and  eloquent 
speaker,  and  entered  into  politics  on  the  side  of  the 
Republican  party.  In  1868  he  was  a presidential 
elector,  having  used  his  influence  in  promoting  the  elec- 
tion of  General  Grant  to  the  presidency,  later  he  favored 
the  successions  of  Mr.  Hayes  and  General  Garfield.  In 
1884  he  opposed  the  nomination  of  Mr.  Blaine  for  the 
presidency,  and  became  a supporter  of  the  Democratic 
candidate,  Mr.  Cleveland.  Mr.  Curtis  was  offered  sev- 
eralforeign  missions  duringthe  administration  of  Presi- 
dent Hayes,  which  he  declined.  In  1886  he  became 
vice-chancellor  of  the  university  of  the  State  of  New 
York.  His  published  volumes  include:  Nile  Notes  of 
a Howadji  (New  York,  1851);  The  Howadji  in 
Syria  (1852);  Lotus  Eating  (1852);  The  Potiphar 
Papers  (1853);  Prue  and  L (1856);  and  Trumps , a 
novel  (1862).  He  died  August  31,  1894. 

CUSHING,  Caleb,  statesman,  born  in  Salisbury, 
Mass!,  January  17,  1800;  died  in  Newburyport,  Mass., 
January  2,  1879.  After  graduating  at  Harvard 
in  1817,  he  was  tutor  of  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy  there  until  1819,  studied  law,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1822,  and  began  practice  in 
Newburyport.  In  1825-6  he  served  in  the  legislature, 
traveled  in  Europe  in  1829-31,  and  on  his  return  to 
Massachusetts  served  again  in  the  legislature.  He 
was  elected  to  congress  in  1835,  serving  until  1843.  He 
was  at  first  a Jeffersonian  Republican,  but  afterward 
became  a Whig,  and  followed  Tyler  in  his  separation 
from  that  party.  He  was  three  times  nominated  by 
Tyler  for  secretary  of  the  treasury,  but  was  rejected  by 
the  Senate.  In  1843  he  was  made  United  States  com- 
missioner to  China  and  negotiateda  treaty  J uly  3,  1844, 


c u s 


65 14 

which  was  ratified  December  31,  1845.  Having  re- 
turned to  Massachusetts,  Mr.  Cushing  was  elected 
to  the  legislature  in  1846,  and  advocated  the  war 
with  Mexico;  and,  on  the  refusal  of  the  legis- 
lature to  appropriate  funds  for  a regiment  of  vol- 
unteers, he  advanced  the  amount  from  his  own 
purse.  Appointed  colonel  of  this  regiment,  he  joined 
Gen.  Zachary  Taylor  in  1845,  served  in  the  Mexican 
war  and  was  appointed  brigadier-general,  April  14, 
1847.  He  was  subsequently  transferred  to  General 
Scott’s  army,  remaining  with  it  until  the  close  of  the 
war.  In  1850  he  served  again  in  the  Massachusetts 
legislature,  and  was  made  the  first  mayor  of  New- 
buryport. 

In  1852  he  was  appointed  an  associate  justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Massachusetts,  and  in  1853,  was  made 
United  States  attorney-general.  In  i860  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  National  Democratic  Convention,  and  joined 
the  faction  of  the  extreme  southern  party,  becoming 
afterward  president  of  the  convention  that  nominated 
John  C.  Breckinridge  for  president.  Mr.  Cushing  was 
sent  to  Charleston  as  the  confidential  agent  of  President 
Buchanan  to  induce  the  State  troops  to  defer  the  attack 
on  Fort  Sumter,  which  mission  was  unsuccessful.  Dur- 
ring  the  civil  war  he  remained  in  Washington,  and  in 
1866,  was  appointed  with  two  other  jurists  to  revise  and 
codify  the  laws  of  the  United  States.  In  1868  he  was 
sent  to  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  South  America, 
on  a special  diplomatic  errand,  and  in  1870  engaged  in 
preparing  the  protocol  of  the  treaty  of  Washington 
and,  afterward,  the  statement  to  be  laid  before  the  tri- 
bunal of  arbitration  in  Geneva,  where  he  was  one  of 
the  counsel.  In  1873  he  was  nominated  as  chief- 
justice  of  the  United  States  to  succeed  Chief  Justice 
Chase,  but  he  was  not  confirmed  by  the  Senate,  and  in 
the  same  year  he  was  made  minister  to  Spain,  where  he 
was  successful  in  settling  the  difficulties  arising  from  the 
Cuban  insurrection.  Harvard  gave  him  the  degree  of 
LL.D.  in  1852.  In  addition  to  public  addresses,  speeches 
in  congress,  and  contributions  to  periodicals,  especially 
the  North  American  Review , Mr.  Cushing  was  the 
author  of  Refniniscences  of  Spain;  the  Country,  its  Peo- 
ple, History,  and  Monuments  (1833);  and  Historical 
and  Political  Revieiu  of  the  Late  Revolution  in  France. 
His  wife  published  Letters  descriptive  of  Public  Mo7iu- 
ments,  Scenery,  and  Manners  in  France  and  Spain 
(2  vols. , 1832). 

CUSHMAN,  Charlotte  Saunders,  actress,  born 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  July,  23,  1816;  died  there  February  18, 
1876.  Her  father  had  been  a West  India  merchant ; 
when  he  died  the  widow  opened  a boarding-house.  The 
daughter,  from  the  age  of  twelve  years,  sang  in  choirs 
and  on  public  occasions  to  help  support  the  younger 
children.  Miss  Cushman  received  instruction  in  vocal 
music  and  on  the  piano-forte;  and  under  the  tuition  of 
James  G.  Maeder,  the  husband  of  Clara  Fisher,  ap- 
peared at  the  Tremont  theater  at  Boston  in  the  operas 
of  the  Marriage  of  Figaro  and  Guy  Mannering. 
Later  she  sang  in  opera  at  New  Orleans,  where  her  con- 
tralto voice  became  impaired  from  overstraining  on  high 
notes,  and  she  was  compelled  to  terminate  her  engage- 
ment. After  careful  and  prolonged  study  for  an  actress 
she  entered  into  a three-years’  engagement  with  the 
manager  of  the  New  York  Bowery  theater,  to  sustain 
the  leading  roles  in  drama  and  tragedy.  When  that 
theater  was  burned  her  engagement  became  canceled, 
and  she  played  for  about  five  months  at  the  theater  in 
Albany,  N.  Y.  From  1837  until  1840  she  performed 
in  general  utility  at  the  New  York  Park  theater,  for  a 
small  salary.  From  1842  until  1844  she  was  lessee  of 
the  Walnut  Street  theater  in  Philadelphia,  and  there- 
after accompanied  Macready  in  his  tour  in  this  country 


as  leading  lady  performer.  On  October  26,  1844,  Miss 
Cushman  sailed  for  England,  playing  “ Lady  Macbeth,” 
“Mrs.  Haller,”  “Rosalind,”  and  “Bianca,”  with 
much  acceptation.  She  began  her  second  season  as 
“ Romeo  ” to  her  sister  Susan’s  “ Juliet.”  Later  she 
played  in  various  English  cities  and  in  Dublin,  adding 
to  her  parts  “Queen  Katherine,”  “Meg  Merrilies,” 
“ Julia  ” in  The  Hunchback,  and  “ Lady  Gay  Spanker.” 
After  a prolonged  stay,  during  which  she  spent 
much  time  on  the  continent,  she  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  1849,  playing  for  several  years 
in  the  large  cities,  and  taking  her  first  farewell  of  the 
public  at  the  Broadway  theater  in  New  York  city  on 
May  15,  1852.  Thereafter  she  again  performed  in 
England  for  several  seasons.  In  1857  she  returned  to 
the  United  States  with  a salutatory  greeting,  and  played 
until  the  spring  of  1858.  In  1859  she  again  went  to 
Europe,  and  in  i860  played  in  New  York,  closing 
with  one  of  her  customary  farewells.  Later  she  mani- 
fested great  ability  as  a dramatic  reader,  and  as  such 
drew  large  audiences.  In  1871,  after  another  prolonged 
stay  in  Europe,  she  returned  to  the  United  States,  and 
appeared  as  actress  and  reader  on  many  occasions.  At 
the  close  of  this  term  she  announced  her  seventh  fare- 
well. Her  theatrical  career  closed  at  the  Globe  theater 
in  Boston,  on  May  15,  1875.  Later  she  delivered 
readings  in  Rochester,  Buffalo,  and  Syracuse,  and  re- 
tired with  a large  fortune  to  her  villa  at  Newport,  R.  I., 
to  bid  the  world  her  true  and  final  “farewell.”  See 
Charlotte  Cushman,  her  Letters  and  Memories  of 
her  Life,  by  Emma  Stebbins  (Boston,  1878). 

CUSHMAN,  Pauline,  spy,  born  in  New  Orleans, 
La.,  June  10,  1833.  Her  father,  a Spaniard,  first 
was  settled  as  a trader  in  New  Orleans  and  afterward 
became  an  Indian  trader  at  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.  At  first 
she  appeared  as  a variety  actress  in  several  southern  and 
southwestern  cities.  When  the  civil  war  began  she  was 
employed  by  the  United  States  Government  as  a detect- 
ive of  southern  sympathizers  in  Louisville,  Ky. , and  on 
several  occasions  served  as  a scout.  For  some  time  she 
posed  in  the  Southern  States  as  a Confederate  sympa- 
thizer, but  always  remained  steadfast  to  her  affiliations 
with  the  National  government.  During  a theatrical 
engagement  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  she  served  the  army 
police  in  detecting  pilfering  from  government  supplies, 
smuggling,  and  bushwhacking  arrangements.  In  1863 
she  was  sent  beyond  the  Federal  lines,  accused  as  a Con- 
federate sympathizer,  but  really  in  order  to  inform  our 
commanders  of  the  condition  of  the  enemy’s  forts,  the 
strength  of  the  southern  armies  and  the  state  of  their 
supplies.  Eventually  she  was  captured  as  a northern 
spy,  court-martialed,  and  sentenced  to  be  hanged.  But 
when  the  Confederates  left  Shelbyville  she  was  left  be- 
hind, and  became  released  by  entrance  of  the  Union 
army.  She  died  December  2,  1893. 

CUSTER,  George  Armstrong,  soldier,  born  in 
New  Rumley,  Ohio,  December  5,  1839;  died  June  25, 
1876.  After  graduating  at  West  Point,  in  1861,  he 
entered  into  active  service  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Bull  Run,  and  at  Manassas,  where  he  made  his  first 
cavalry  charge.  He  was  assistant  engineer  in  construct- 
ing earth  works  at  Yorktown,  and  went  in  pursuit  of 
the  enemy  with  General  Hancock.  Subsequently  he 
was  appointed  captain  and  aid  to  General  McClellan, 
serving  on  his  staff  as  long  as  he  was  in  command.  In 
1863  he  became  aid  to  Gen.  A.  Pleasonton,  and  was 
appointed  brigadier-general.  He  served  with  General 
Grant  in  the  Wilderness,  and  with  Sheridan  in  the 
Shenandoah  Valley.  He  also  commanded  a cavalry 
division  in  the  pursuit  of  Lee  after  the  evacuation  of 
Richmond.  After  the  war  he  was  made  lieutenant- 
colonel  with  the  brevet  of  major-general  and  assigned  to 


CUS— D AN 


the  seventh  United  States  cavalry.  He  served  on 
General  Hancock’s  expedition  against  the  Cheyennes 
and  Sioux ; but  in  1867  he  was  tried  by  court-martial 
for  cruelty  to  his  men  and  for  having  left  his  command 
without  permission.  He  was  suspended  for  a year,  but 
in  1868,  at  the  request  of  General  Sheridan,  he  was  re- 
stored, rejoined  his  regiment,  and  served  against  the 
Indians.  In  1873  he  went  with  his  regiment  to  Dakota, 
served  in  the  Yellowstone  expedition,  and  in  1874, 
was  sent  to  explore  the  Black  Hills.  His  report  of  the 
fertility  and  mineral  wealth  of  that  region  led  to  immi- 
gration and  its  encroachment  on  the  Indian  reservation 
caused  trouble  with  the  Sioux,  under  Sitting  rmll.  In 
1876  General  Sheridan  ordered  an  expedition  to  march 
against  the  Indians  to  settle  the  troubles.  This  moved 
in  three  columns  under  General  Terry,  General  Gibbon, 
and  General  Crook.  General  Custer  led  General 
Terry’s  column,  and,  when  reaching  an  encampment  of 
the  Indians  on  Little  Big  Horn  river,  he  divided  his 
men  into  three  bodies,  and  advanced  with  five  com- 
panies. The  Indians  concentrated  their  force  upon 
Custer’s  division,  all  the  men  of  which,  including 
General  Custer,  were  massacred  June  25,  1876.  Gen- 
eral Custer  was  buried  at  West  Point,  where  a statue  of 


<5515 

him  was  erected  in  1879.  See  The  Complete  Life  of 
Gen.  G.  A.  Custer , by  Capt.  Frederick  Whittaker 
(New  York,  1876).  His  wife  Elizabeth  B. , is  the 
author  of  Boots  and  Saddles  (New  York,  1886),  and 
Tenting  on  the  Plains , or  Life  with  General  Custer  in 
Dakota  (1888). 

CUSTIS,  George  Washington  Parke,  author, 
born  at  Mount  Airy,  Md.,  April  30,  1781  ; died  at 
Arlington  House,  Va.,  October  10,  1857.  He  was  the 
son  of  Col.  John  Parke  Cu'stis,  the  son  of  Mrs.  Wash- 
ington by  her  first  husband.  The  son  was  brought  up 
at  Mt.  Vernon,  and  studied  at  St.  Johns  college  and 
Princeton.  In  1802  he  left  Mount  Vernon  and  erected 
Arlington  house  near  Washington,  on  a large  estate 
derived  from  his  father.  In  early  life  he  was  married  to 
Miss  Mary  Lee  Fitzhugh.  He  became  a fluent  speaker, 
wrote  plays  for  his  amusement,  and  finished  several 
paintings  of  battles  of  the  Revolution.  Mr.  Custis  pub- 
lished Recollections  of  Washington  (New  York,  i860). 
He  led  an  uneventful  home  life,  and  the  interest  that 
centers  around  him  is  occasioned  by  his  connection  with 
the  families  of  Washington  and  Robert  E.  Lee,  the  lat- 
ter having  married  his  daughter. 


D. 


DAHLGREN,  John  Adolph,  admiral,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  November  13,  1809;  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  July  12,  1870.  His  father,  Bernard 
Ulric  Dahlgren,  was  a merchant  of  Philadelphia, 
and  for  many  years  consul  to  Sweden.  The  son  entered 
the  navy  in  1826,  passed  midshipman  in  1832,  and  after- 
ward served  in  the  coast  survey.  In  1843  went  to 
the  Mediterranean  on  a cruise.  On  his  return,  in  1845, 
he  was  assigned  to  ordnance  duty  in  Washington. 
Under  his  management  the  ordnance  bureau  acquired  its 
resent  extensive  works,  and  the  Dahlgren  guns,  which 
e invented,  have  stood  the  test  of  long  use.  In  1857 
he  equipped  the  Plymouth  according  to  his  own  ideas, 
and  visited  the  coast  of  Europe  from  Portugal  to 
Holland.  Subsequently  he  cruised  in  the  West  Indies, 
and,  on  his  return  to  Washington,  resumed  command  of 
the  ordnance  department,  of  which  he  was  made  chief 
in  July,  1862.  At  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war,  he 
had  charge  of  the  defenses  of  Washington  on  the  left, 
and  in  1863,  he  was  made  rear-admiral,  and  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  South  Atlantic  blockading  squadron. 
He  conducted  the  naval  operations  in  Charleston  harbor, 
and  aided  General  Sherman  in  his  military  operations  in 
South  Carolina  and  Georgia.  In  1866  he  had  command 
of  the  South  Pacific  squadron,  and  in  1868  again  took 
charge  of  the  bureau  of  ordnance  in  Washington.  In 
1869  he  was  appointed  commandant  of  the  Washington 
navy-yard.  Admiral  Dahlgren’ s works  on  ordnance 
have  been  used  as  text-books  by  the  government,  and 
his  reports  on  armored  vessels  and  on  coast  defenses, 
and  his  General  Orders  from  1863  to  1863,  are  of  value. 
He  published  treatises  on  Boat  Armament  (1852); 
Percussion  System  (1853);  Shells  and  Shell  Guns 
(1856) ; and  Maritime  International  Law , printed  after 
his  death.  His  biography  was  published  by  his  wife, 
Mrs.  Madeline  Vinton  Dahlgren  (1882). 

DALLAS,  George  Mifflin,  statesman,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  July  10,  1792;  died  there  December  31, 
1864.  After  graduation  at  Princeton,  in  1810,  he 
studied  law  with  his  father,  Alexander  James  Dallas, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1813.  He  went  to  Rus- 
sia as  private  secretary  to  Albert  Gallatin,  one  of  the 
commissioners  to  negotiate  a treaty  with  Great  Britain 


through  the  Russian  emperor.  On  his  return  to  this 
country  he  devoted  himself  to  his  profession  and  be- 
came solicitor  of  the  United  States  bank.  In  1817  he 
was  made  deputy  attorney-general  of  Philadelphia,  of 
which  he  was  elected  mayor  in  1828.  This  office  he  re- 
signed to  become  United  States  district-attorney.  In  1831 
he  was  sent  to  the  United  States  Senate.  In  his  first 
speech,  January  9,  1832,  he  presented  the  applica- 
tion for  the  renewal  of  the  charter  of  the  United  States 
bank.  In  1837-9  he  was  minister  to  Russia,  and  on 
his  return  again  practiced  law  in  Philadelphia.  In  1844 
he  was  elected  vice-president  by  the  Democratic  party, 
and  in  1846  he  gave  the  casting  vote  in  favor  of  free 
trade,  although  he  had  formerly  been  a protectionist. 
In  1856  he  was  made  minister  to  England,  where  he 
displayed  much  tact  in  managing  the  Central  American 
question.  He  returned  to  Philadelphia  in  1861.  Mr. 
Dallas  wrote  a Series  of  Letters  from  London  in  the 
Years  1836-/860  (1869). 

DALTON,  John  Call,  born  in  Chelmsford,  Mass., 
February  2,  1825;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1844.  He 
became  professor  of  physiology  in  the  university  of 
Buffalo,  the  Vermont  Medical  college,  and  in  Brooklyn. 
During  the  Civil  war  he  was  an  army  surgeon.  He 
died  February  12,  1889. 

DALY,  Augustin,  born  in  Plymouth,  N.  C.,  July 
20,  1838;  acted  as  dramatic  editor  of  New  York  news- 
papers, and  in  1869  began  his  career  as  a theatrical 
manager.  He  has  produced  original  plays  and  adapta- 
tions from  French  and  German.  Died  June  7,  1899. 

DALY,  Charles  Patrick,  born  in  New  York 
city,  October  31,  1816;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1839. 
From  1844  to  1886  he  held  high  judicial  offices  in  his 
native  State,  and  has  written  extensively  on  legal  and 
scientific  topics. 

DAMIEN,  Father,  a Belgian  priest,  who  in  1873 
went  as  a missionary  among  the  lepers  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  and  on  April  10,  1889,  fell  a victim  to  the 
dreadful  disease  of  leprosy. 

DANA,  Charles  Anderson,  editor,  born  at 
Ainsdale,  N.  H.,  August  8,  1819.  He  entered 
Harvard  in  1839,  and  remained  thereuntil  1841.  In 
1842  he  joined  the  Brook  Farm  community,  in  Rox- 


6$ib  DAN- 

bury,  Mass.,  and  remained  there  until  1844.  Thereafter, 
in  connection  with  George  Ripley,  Parke  Godwin  and 
John  S.  Dwight,  he  edited  the  Harbinger , a weekly 
paper,  devoted  to  social  reform  and  literature ; this  pub- 
lication lasted  from  1844  until  1847.  At  the  end  of  this 
fatter  year  he  went  to  New  York  with  wife  and  child, 
and  became  connected  with  the  New  York  Tribune  on 
a small  salary ; in  the  course  of  a few  years  he  was 
one  Cif  its  principal  editors,  and  continued  as  such  until 
1861.  In  1855,  in  connection  with  Mr.  George  Ripley, 
he  projected  the  New  American  Cyclopcedia,  of  which 
they  were  the  responsible  editors ; the  work  was  com- 
pleted in  1863.  This  publication  has  had  much  success, 
and  an  improved  edition  in  ten  volumes  was  issued  in 
1873-76.  From  1862  to  1865  he  was  in  the  service  of 
the  government,  during  the  last  two  years  officiating  as 
assistant  secretary  of  war.  On  the  return  of  peace,  Mr. 
Dana  became  editor  of  the  Chicago  Republican , a daily, 
which  failed  of  success.  In  1868  he  organized  a stock  com- 
pany that  bought  out  the  New  York  Sun , a daily  news- 
paper, and  made  it  influential  and  profitable.  As  an  editor 
ne  is  trenchant  and  sarcastic,  as  a critic  able  and  opin- 
ionated, as  a politician  bitter  and  erratic,  with  a constant 
eye  to  business.  His  manifold  ability  and  industry  are 
unquestioned,  and  yield  him  a large  income.  His  pub- 
lished volumes  include  The  Black  Ant , a translation 
(New  York,  1848).  With  Gen.  James  H.  Wilson,  he 
wrote  a Life  of  Ulysses  S.  Grant  (Springfield,  1868). 
He  also  edited  The  Household  Book  of  Poetry , first 
published  in  New  York  in  1857,  which  has  since 
passed  through  several  editions ; in  connection  with 
Rossiter  Johnson,  he  also  compiled  Fifty  Perfect  Poems 
(New  York,  1883).  Died  Oct.  17,  1897. 

DANA,  James  Dwight,  born  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Feb- 
ruary 12,  1813.  He  made  several  voyages  of  exploration 
in  his  capacity  of  mineralogist  and  geologist,  and  pub- 
lished reports  on  Zoophytes , on  Crustacea  and  on  The 
Geology  of  the  Pacific.  For  many  years  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  andgeology  at  Yale,  and  edited 
The  A merican  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts.  He  was 
a member  of  many  scientific  societies  of  this  country 
and  Europe.  He  died  April  14,  1895. 

DANA,  Richard  Henry,  lawyer  and  author,  born 
in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  August,  1815;  died  in  Rome, 
Italy,  January  7,  1882.  He  was  the  son  of  Rich- 
ard Henry  Dana  (1787-1879),  a poet  and  a founder 
of  the  North  American  Review.  The  son  entered  Har- 
vard, but  owing  to  impaired  sight  he  was  forced  to 
abandon  his  studies,  and  he  shipped  as  a common  sailor 
on  the  Pilgrim,  bound  to  California  around  Cape  Horn. 
His  experience  afterward  furnished  the  material  for 
his  book  Two  Years  Before  the  Mast.  On  his  return 
he  again  entered  Harvard,  where  he  was  graduated  in 
1837,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1840. 
In  1848  he  took  part  in  the  convention  at  Buffalo  which 
formed  the  Free-Soil  party,  and  in  1853  he  was  a mem- 
ber of  the  Massachusetts  constitutional  convention. 
He  defended  the  rescuers  of  the  slave  Shadrach,  in  1853, 
and  of  Anthony  Burns,  in  1854.  He  became  a promi- 
nent member  of  the  Republican  party  from  its  foun- 
dation, and  took  part  in  all  of  the  presidential  campaigns 
from  1856  till  1876.  He  made  a voyage  around  the 
world  in  1859-1860,  and  on  his  return  in  1861,  was  ap- 
ointed  United  States  attorney  for  Massachusetts.  He 
ecame  noted  for  his  arguments  in  the  prize  cases 
occasioned  by  the  war,  and  his  principles  were  confirmed 
by  the  United  States  Supreme  Court.  In  1867-1868  he 
was  a member  of  the  Massachusetts  legislature,  and  was 
chairman  of  the  judiciary  committee.  In  1876  he  was 
nominated  minister  to  England  by  President  Grant,  but 
he  was  not  confirmed  by  the  Senate  owing  to  the  contro- 
versy which  he  had  had  with  Mr.  W.  B.  Lawrence,  j 


- D A R 

who  in  1863  charged  Mr.  Dana  with  having  infringed 
upon  his  copyright  in  his  edition  of  Wheaton’s  Ele- 
ments of  International  Law  (1868).  Mr.  Dana  con- 
tributed to  the  North  American  Review , wrote  memoirs 
of  Washington  Allston  and  of  Prof.  Edward  Channing, 
and  published  The  Seaman's  Friend , a manual  of  the 
laws  and  customs  of  the  sea  (1841). 

DANENHOWER,  John  Wilson,  born  in  Chicago, 
September  30,  1849,  graduated  at  the  United  States 
naval  academy,  in  1870,  and  in  1879  sailed  from  San 
Francisco  as  second  in  command  of  the  Jeannette  under 
Lieut.  George  W.  DeLong.  The  steamer  was  lost  in 
the  ice,  but  the  explorers  escaped,  and  returned  home 
in  1882.  Danenhower  died  April  20,  1887. 

DA  PONTE,  Lorenzo,  dramatist,  born  in  Venice, 
Italy,  March  10,  1749;  died  in  New  York  city  August 
17,  1838.  He  was  of  the  Hebrew  race  and  bore  an 
assumed  name.  For  several  years  he  taught  rhetoric 
and  composition  in  seminaries  of  his  native  land,  and 
became  exiled  for  writing  political  squibs  against  the 
government.  He  then  went  to  Vienna,  where  his  time 
was  occupied  in  shaping  and  writing  plays  and  opera 
libretti  for  the  theaters ; among  these  were  the  texts 
of  Mozart’s  Don  Giovanni  and  Nozze  di  Figaro, 
neither  of  which  had  merit,  but  were  made  famous 
by  the  music  of  the  composer.  Later  Da  Ponte 
appeared  as  a kind  of  secretary  and  occasional  dramatist 
of  the  Italian  opera,  and  connected  therewith  the  call- 
ing of  a book-seller.  In  1805,  to  extricate  himself 
from  financial  troubles  he  sailed  for  the  United  States, 
and  settled  in  New  York  city.  Here,  for  many  years, 
he  taught  the  Italian  language,  and  in  1828  became  unsal- 
aried professor  of  Italian  at  Columbia  college.  He 
wrote  sonnets,  made  translations  from  English  into 
Italian,  and  compiled  several  instruction  books  for  acquir- 
ing his  native  language  ; for  a time  he  also  kept  a small 
book-store.  Among  his  publications  are  his  Life  (3  vols. , 
New  York,  1823),  and  a History  of  the  Florentine 
Republic  (2  vols.,  1833). 

DARLEY,  Felix  Octavius  Carr,  artist,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  June  23,  1822.  His  parents  were  Eng- 
lish actors,  who,  for  many  years,  played  in  the  principal 
theaters  of  the  United  States.  While  a clerk  in  a mer- 
cantile house  in  Philadelphia,  young  Darley  produced 
some  humorous  sketches,  which  were  so  highly  praised 
that  he  devoted  himself  to  the  pursuit  of  art  by  making 
drawings  for  engravers.  In  1848  he  came  to  New 
York  city.  His  illustrations  for  books  eventually 
became  innumerable;  for  the  works  of  James  Feni- 
more  Cooper  he  made  more  than  five  hundred  drawings. 
Some  of  his  sketches  were  reduced,  to  appear  on  gov- 
ernment bonds  and  bank-notes ; he  has  also  produced 
many  outline  illustrations  on  stone.  Among  the  latter 
are  the  series  illustrating  Irving’s  Rip  Van  Winkle  and 
Sleepy  Hollow.  In  1852  he  was  made  an  academician 
of  the  New  York  academy  of  design.  His  exhibitions 
are  nearly  all  in  black  and  white.  From  1864  until 
1868  he  resided  in  Europe.  After  his  return  home 
he  published  Sketches  Abroad  with  Pen  and  Pencil 
(New  York,  1868),  Outlines  to  the  Scarlet  Letter^  1879), 
Illustrations  to  Evangeline  (1883)  ; and  Illustrations 
to  Shakespeare' s Plays  ( 1886).  He  died  March  27,  1888. 

DARRAH,  Mrs.  Lydia,  heroine.  She  was  a 
Quaker;  of  her  birth  and  early  life  we  have  no  record; 
she  resided  in  Philadelphia.  When  the  British  army  was 
in  Philadelphia,  the  adjutant-general  hired  one  of  her 
rooms  for  private  conferences,  in  which  an  officers’ 
meeting  was  held  on  December  2,  1777.  On  that  day 
some  particular  and  emphatic  directions  were  given  that 
excited  her  curiosity.  She  listened  at  the  door  of  the 
meeting-room,  and,  among  other  things,  heard  an  order 
| read  that  the  British  soldiery  should  march  out  of  camp  on 


DAR- 

De*~ember  4th  to  attack  the  Americans  then  quartered 
at  White  Marsh,  eight  miles  distant.  On  the  following 
morning  she  arose  early,  and  left  word  with  her  husband 
that  she  had  gone  to  Frankfort,  outside  of  the  British 
lines,  to  procure  flour.  She  left  her  bag  in  the  mill, 
walked  several  miles  on  the  snowy  ground,  and  ap- 
proached the  American  camp.  Here  she  met  Colonel 
Craig,  who  knew  her  by  sight,  and  gave  him  the  important 
information.  When  the  British  movement  was  made, 
they  found  the  army  of  Washington  prepared  to  meet 
them  at  all  points,  and  the  enterprise  miscarried.  At 
the  time  this  event  was  deemed  of  much  importance, 
and  had  the  movement  been  successful,  it  might  have 
given  a different  complexion  to  the  prevailing  state  of 
affairs. 

DARWIN,  Charles  Robert,  grandson  of  Eras- 
mus Darwin,  was  born  at  Shrewsbury,  England,  Feb- 
ruary 12,  1809,  and  died  April  19,  1882.  In  1838  he 
sailed  in  the  British  ship  Beagle  on  a surveying  and 
exploring  expedition,  which  extended  over  five  years. 
On  his  return  he  published  special  reports  of  his  obser- 
vations, which  proved  of  the  greatest  value  to  science. 
Mr.  Darwin  gave  his  entire  life  to  scientific  investiga- 
tion, and  wrote  many  papers  on  natural  history  and 
geology.  . But  is  is  as  the  enunciator  of  the  hypothesis 
of  evolution  that  he  is  best  known  to  fame.  His  work 
on  The  Origin  of  Species,  first  published  in  1859, 
opened  a new  field  of  scientific  research,  and  was  trans- 
lated into  almost  all  languages.  His  Descent  of  Man 
(1871)  probably  ranks  next  in  interest  to  the  general 
reader. 

DAUDET,  Alphonse,  born  at  Nimes,  France, 
May  13,  1840,  has  written  several  successful  plays  and 
many  novels  of  superior  strength  and  interest.  Nota. 
ble  among  the  latter  are  Fromont  Jeune  et  Risler  Aine' 
(1874),  Les  Rois  in  Exit  (1879),  and  Sappho  (1884), 
M.  Daudet  has  been  long  connected  with"  the  Journal 
Official,  of  Paris.  Died  Dec.  16,  1897. 

D’AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER,  EdmeArmond  Gas- 
ton, Due,  born  in  Paris,  France,  in  1818;  became  pres- 
ident of  the  National  Assembly  in  1875,  was  made  a life 
senator,  and  served  as  president  of  the  Senate  1876-79. 
In  1878  he  became  a member  of  the  Academy. 

DA\  ENPORT,  Edward  Loomis,  actor,  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  November  15,  1814;  died  in  Can- 
ton, Penn.,  September  1,  1877.  He  first  per- 

formed in  Providence,  R.  I.,  in  1836;  it  was  a 
minor  part  in  A New  Way  to  Pay  Old  Debts. 
Afterward  he  became  engaged  at  the  New  York 
Bowery  theater,  and  in  1838  was  member  of  the 
stock  company  at  the  Walnut  Street  theater  in 
Philadelphia.  From  there  he  went  to  Boston,  where  he 
remained  several  years,  gradually  rising  in  his  profession. 
In  1847,  in  company  with  Mrs.  Anna  Cora  Mowatt, 
Davenport  visited  England,  both  making  their  debut  at 
the  Manchester  theater  in  the  principal  characters  of  the 
Lady  of  Lyons.  In  England,  for  several  seasons,  he 
played  second  parts  to  Macready,  and  also  appeared  at 
the  Haymarket  theater.  In  1854  he  returned  to  this 
country,  and  played  stock  and  star  engagements  for  a 
number  of  years  in  the  principal  cities.  In  1859  he  was 
manager  of  the  Howard  Athenaeum  in  Boston,  and,  in 
1869,  became  lessee  of  the  Chestnut  Street  theater  in 
Philadelphia.  In  1873  he  performed  in  Wood’s  museum, 
New  York  city,  and  in  1875-76  was  one  of  the  chief 
attractions  at  Booth’s  theater.  Toward  the  last  his 
energy  became  impaired  by  sickness,  and  he  ceased  to 
interest  the  public.  He  was  a judicious  and  finished 
performer,  who  never  rose  to  particular  distinction. 
u St.  Marc,”  in  a play  of  his  own  ; “ Hamlet,”  “ Sir  Giles 
Overreach,”  and  “ William,”  in  Black  Eyed  Susan , 
were  among  his  best  performances.  His  wife,  Fanny 


-DAV  6517 

Elizabeth  Vining,  born  in  1819,  was  associated  with 
him  in  his  starring  engagements. 

DAVENPORT,  Fanny,  daughter  of  the  foregoing, 
born  in  London,  England,  April  10,  1850,  went  on  the 
stage  in  1862,  taking  a child’s  part  in  Metamora  at  the 
Howard  Athenaeum,  Boston,  and  rose  to  the  front  rank 
in  her  profession.  She  has  played  many  leading  parts 
and  for  years  has  been  remarkably  successful  as  a star, 
producing  Sardou’s  Fedora , La  Tosca  and  Cleopatra  in 
sumptuous  style.  She  married  Edwin  Price  in  1879  but 
divorced  him  and  subsequently  married  her  leading 
man,  Melbourne  MacDowell.  Died  Sept.,  1898. 

DAVENPORT,  John,  clergyman,  born  in  Coventry, 
England,  in  1597,  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  1670.  A 
sympathizer  with  the  Puritans,  he  left  a London  parish 
to  preach  in  Holland  and  came  to  this  country  in  1637. 
He  preached  in  Cambridge  and  New  Haven,  gave  ref- 
uge to  the  English  regicides,  Goff  and  Whaley,  in  1660, 
and  became  pastor  of  First  Church,  Boston,  in  1668. 

DAVIS,  Andrew  Jackson,  clairvoyant  and  author, 
born  in  Blooming  Grove,  Orange  county,  N.  Y., 
August  11, 1826.  He  worked  on  a farm  until  his  father 
removed  to  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  where  the  son  was  ap- 
prenticed to  a shoemaker.  He  was  magnetized  by  Mr. 
William  Livingstone,  in  1843 — it  was  then  he  developed 
his  clairvoyant  powers,  and  became  known  as  the 
“ Poughkeepsie  Seer.”  While  in  this  state  he  claimed  he 
could  comprehend  very  difficult  subjects.  He  found  in 
Dr.  S.  S.  Lyons,  of  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  anew  magne- 
tizer,  and  in  1845  dictated  a series  of  discourses  recorded 
by  Mr.  William  Fishbough.  His  system  is  called  the 
“ harmonial  philosophy.”  He  has  written  157  lectures, 
which  were  published  in  1847,  with  the  titles : The 
Principles  of  Nature,  Her  Divine  Revelations,  and  A 
Voice  to  Mankind.  Mr.  Davis  has  also  published  thirty 
volumes,  among  which  are  The  Great  Harmonia  (5 
vols.),  Stellar  Key  to  the  Summer  Land,  Arabula,  Har- 
binger of  Health,  Death  and  the  After  Life,  Views  of  our 
Heavenly  Home,  and  The  Magic  Staff— an  Autobiogra- 
phy. 

DAVIS,  Charles  Henry,  born  at  Boston,  Mass., 
January  16,  1807,  entered  the  navy  in  1823,  held  im- 
portant commands  in  the  civil  war,  was  promoted  rear- 
admiral,  February  7,  1863,  wrote  Coast  Survey  of  the 
United  States,  and  died  February  18,  1877. 

DAVIS,  David,  born  in  Cecil  county,  Md.,  March 
9,  1815  ; died  in  Bloomington,  111.,  June  26,  1886.  He 
studied  law  in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  and  re- 
moved to  Illinois  in  1835.  In  1844  he  was  a member 
of  the  State  legislature,  and  was  circuit  judge  from  1848 
to  1862,  being  three  times  elected.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  President  Lincoln,  who,  in  October,  1862, 
appointed  him  associate  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court. 
Judge  Davis  was  named  by  the  labor  reformers  for  pres- 
ident in  1872,  but  did  not  accept  the  nomination.  In 
March,  1877,  he  left  the  Supreme  Court  bench  to  take 
his  seat  in  the  United  States  Senate,  to  which  he  had 
been  elected  as  an  independent  in  succession  to  General 
Logan.  In  1881  he  became  president  of  the  Senate. 

DAVIS,  Edwin  Hamilton,  was  born  in  Ross 
county,  Ohio,  January  22,  1811,  and  died  in  New  York 
city,  May  15,  1888.  A physician  by  profession  and  for 
some  time  professor  of  materia  medica  and  therapeutics 
in  New  York  College,  he  was  best  known  for  his  arch- 
aeological researches,  his  exploration  of  Indian  mounds 
and  collections  of  mound  relics,  and  his  Ancient  Mon- 
uments of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  which  was  the  first 
book  published  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

DAVIS,  George  R.,  born  in  Palmer,  Mass.,  in  1840, 
enlisted  in  the  8th  Massachusetts  infantry  in  1861,  re- 
cruited a battery  in  1863,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  colo- 
nel, continuing  with  the  army,  in  the  civil  department, 


6518 


DAY 


until  1871,  he  resigned,  and  settled  in  Chicago.  Tak- 
ing a prominent  part  in  politics  as  a Republican,  he 
served  three  terms  in  Congress,  1878-1884,  and  one 
term  as  treasurer  of  Cook  county,  1886-1890.  He  was 
prominent  in  the  work  of  securing  the  World’s  Fair  for 
Chicago,  was  chosen  a director  of  the  local  board,  and, 
in  September,  1890,  Director  General  of  the  Exposi- 
tion, In  which  capacity  he  rendered  signal  service. 

DAVIS,  Jefferson,  statesman,  born  in  Christian 
county,  Ky.,  June  3,  1808.  While  a child  his  father  re- 
moved to  Mississippi.  He  was  graduated  in  1828  at  the 
United  States  military  academy  at  West  Point,  served 
against  the  Indians  until  1835,  resigned  his  commission, 
and  returned  to  Mississippi,  where  he  married  a daughter 
of  Gen.  Zachary  Taylor.  From  that  time  until  1843 
Mr.  Davis  was  a cotton-planter,  soon  became  a prom- 
inent Democratic  politician,  and  interested  himself  in  the 
election  of  James  K.  Polk.  In  1845  he  was  sent  to 
congress,  where  he  took  part  in  the  debates  on  military 
affairs,  the  Oregon  question,  and  preparations  for  the 
Mexican  war.  When  the  latter  came  to  an  issue  between 
the  two  countries,  he  was  elected  colonel  of  the  Missis- 
sippi regiment  of  volunteers,  resigned  his  seat  in 
congress  and  joined  the  army  of  General  Taylor  on  the 
Rio  Grande.  He  was  engaged  at  the  storming  of  Mon- 
terey and  in  the  battle  of  Buena  Vista.  When  the  war 
closed  he  was  offered  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers, but  declined.  In  1847 he  was  elected  from  Mis- 
sissippi to  the  United  States  Senate,  where  he  appeared  as 
a zealous  defender  of  slavery  and  an  advocate  of  the  doc- 
trine of  State’s  rights.  In  1851  he  resigned  his  seat  as 
senator  to  enter  on  a canvass  for  the  election  of  General 
Pierce  for  president.  In  acknowledgment  of  his  services 
President  Pierce  appointed  Colonel  Davis  secretary  of 
war.  In  1858  he  was  again  chosen  senator;  but  the  elec- 
tion of  Abraham  Lincoln  as  president,  and  the  consequent 
secession  movement, caused  his  retirement  from  the  United 
States  congress.  When  the  southern  Confederacy  was 
formed,  Colonel  Davis,  on  February  22,  1861,  was  chosen 
provisional  president,  and  in  1862  was  elected  president 
for  six  years.  After  the  fall  of  Richmond  and  the  con- 
sequent collapse  of  the  Confederacy,  he  endeavored  to 
make  his  escape,  but  was  captured  at  Irwinsville,  Ga., 
May  10,  1865,  and  remained  imprisoned  for  two  years 
at  Fortress  Monroe,  awaiting  a trial.  In  the  summer  of 
1867  he  was  released  on  bail,  and  all  proceedings  against 
him  were  discontinued.  After  his  liberation  he  went  to 
Europe,  and  on  his  return  became  president  of  a life- 
insurance  company  in  Memphis,  Tenn.  In  1881  he  pub- 
lished The  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Confederate  Govern- 
ment , in  two  volumes.  The  presidential  administra- 
tion of  Mr.  Davis  has  been  severely  criticised  by 
many  sympathizers  with  the  South.  At  the  time  of  his 
death  he  was  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  a series  of 
sketches,  descriptive  of  the  war.  Mr.  Davis  died  at 
New  Orleans,  December  6,  1889,  and  was  interred  under 
the  monument  to  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia. 

DAVIS,  Henry  Winter,  statesman,  born  in 
Annapolis,  Md.,  August  16,  1817 ; died  in  Bal- 

timore, Md.,  December  30,  1865.  After  graduating 
at  Kenyon  college,  Ohio,  in  1837,  he  became  a 
tutor,  and  went  to  the  university  of  Virginia,  where 
he  studied  law.  He  began  to  practice  in  Alexan- 
dria, Va.,  in  1841,  but  removed  to  Baltimore  in  1850, 
and  acquired  a high  reputation.  In  1854  he  wras  elected 
to  congress  as  a Whig,  and  in  1856  and  1858  as  a member 
of  the  American  party.  He  supported  John  Bell  in  the 
presidential  campaign  of  i860,  and  when  Lincoln  called 
an  extra  session  of  congress  after  the  attack  on  Fort 
Sumter  Mr.  Davis  announced  himself  as  a candidate  for 
congress  on  “ the  unconditional  maintenance  of  the 
Union,”  but  was  defeated.  He  was  active  in  suppress- 


ing a secessionist  mob  in  Baltimore,  and  did  much  to 
prevent  the  secession  of  his  State.  In  1863  he  published 
an  address  to  the  people  of  Maryland,  urging  them  to 
emancipate  their  slaves.  He  worked  very  hard  to  ac- 
complish his  object,  and  he  finally  succeeded.  He  wav 
again  elected  to  congress  in  1863,  and  was  made  chair- 
man of  the  committee  of  foreign  affairs.  In  1864  he 
and  Benjamin  F.  Wade  made  a public  protest  against 
President  Lincoln’s  refusal  to  sign  a bill  of  reconstruc- 
tion, as  being  an  infringement  of  the  rights  of  congress. 
At  the  end  of  the  war  he  contended  that  the  negroes 
should  have  the  right  of  suffrage.  He  was  a fine  orator, 
and  a man  of  great  courage  and  principle.  He  pub- 
lished The  IVar  of  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman  in  the 
Ninteenth  Century,  (1853).  A memorial  volume  of 
his  speeches  and  addresses,  with  a sketch  of  his  life  and 
services,  was  published  by  Hon.  J.  A.  J.  Cresswell 
(1867). 

DAVIS,  Jefferson  C. , born  in  Clark  county,  Ind., 
March  2,  1828;  died  November  30,  1879.  He  fought 
in  the  Mexican  war  and  received  a commission  in  the 
regular  army.  In  April,  1S61,  he  was  at  Fort  Sumter, 
and  later  commanded  a division  in  Tennessee.  In 
September,  1862,  he  shot  Gen.  William  Nelson  at  a 
hotel  in  Louisville.  He  was  with  Sherman’s  army  in 
the  march  to  the  sea,  and  in  1865  received  a major- 
general’s  brevet  and  became  colonel  of  the  23d  infantry. 
In  1873  he  hunted  down  the  Modocs  who  killed  General 
Canby.' 

DAVIS,  John  Chandler  Bancroft,  born  in 
Worcester,  Mass.,  December  29,  1822;  acted  as  agent 
for  the  United  States  before  the  Geneva  court  of  arbit- 
ration. In  1869  and  again  in  1873,  he  was  assistant 
secretary  of  state,  and  in  1871  secretary  of  the  com- 
mission which  signed  the  treaty  of  Washington.  He 
was  next  minister  to  Berlin  (1872-1877),  then  judge  of 
the  Court  of  Claims  (1877-1882),  and  later  became 
reporter  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court. 

DAVIS,  Nathan  Smith,  born  in  Chenango  county, 
N.  Y.,  January  9,  1817;  removed  to  Chicago  in  1849, 
and  for  fifty  years  has  practiced  medicine.  He  edited 
at  various  times  the  Annalist , the  Medical  Examiner , 
the  Northwestern  Journal , and  the  Journal  of  the 
American  Medical  Association.  Doctor  Davis  held  the 
chair  of  physiology  in  Rush  Medical  college  and  became 
dean  of  the  faculty  of  Chicago  Medical  college.  He 
has  written  extensively  on  medical  subjects. 

DAVIS,  Noah,  born  at  Haverhill,  N.  H.,  Septem- 
ber 10,  1818,  was  elected  justice  of  the  New  York 
Supreme  Court  in  1857.  He  resigned  in  1868  and 
served  one  term  in  congress  as  a Republican.  In  July, 
1870,  he  became  United  States  district-attorney  for  the 
southern  district  of  New  York,  and  in  1872  was  again 
elected  to  the  State  Supreme  Court  of  which  he  became 
presiding  justice  in  1874.  Among  the  cases  which  he 
tried  were  those  of  Tweed  for  malfeasance  in  office, 
and  Edward  Stokes  for  the  murder  of  Jim  Fiske.  Judge 
Davis  retired  in  1887.  Died  March  20, 1902. 

DAVIS,  Rebecca  Harding,  born  in  Pennsylvania, 
June  24,  1831;  married  L.  Clark  Davis  in  1863.  She 
has  written  several  novels  and  many  magazine  articles, 
and  in  1869  became  an  editorial  writer  on  the  New  York 
Tribune. 

DAVITT,  Michael,  born  in  1846  in  county  Mayo, 
Ireland,  of  poor  parents,  worked  in  a factory  and  print- 
ing office,  and  in  1866  became  connected  with  the 
Fenian  movement.  In  1870  he  was  sentenced  to  fifteen 
years’  imprisonment  for  treason-felony,  but  was  released 
on  ticket-of-leave  in  1878.  The  next  year  he  founded, 
in  conjunction  with  Charles  S.  Parnell,  the  Irish  land 
league.  He  made  a tour  of  the  United  States  on  behalf 
I of  that  organization  in  1880,  and  on  his  return  to  Eng- 


D A W — D E B 


tnd  was  again  arrested  on  his  old  sentence,  and  held  in 
prison  for  fifteen  months.  On  the  day  of  his  release, 
May  6,  1882,  Lord  Frederick  Cavendish  and  Mr.  Burke 
were  assassinated  at  Dublin.  Mr.  Davitt,  with  Messrs. 
Parnell  and  Dillon,  issued  a manifesto  condemning  the 
murders.  While  he  was  in  prison,  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  parliament,  but  was  not  permitted  to  take 
his  seat.  He  gains  his  living  by  literary  work,  and  is 
actively  engaged  in  the  cause  of  Irish  nationalism.  In 
1892  he  was  elected  to  parliament,  but  was  obliged  to 
vacate  his  seat  in  1893  because  of  bankruptcy  proceed- 
ings taken  against  him. 

DAWES,  Henry  Laurens,  born  in  Massachusetts, 
October  30,  1816;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1839.  He  be- 
came a lawyer  and  served  in  both  branches  of  the  State 
legislature  between  1848  and  1852,  and  was  district 
attorney  from  1853  to  1857.  In  the  last-named  year  he 
was  elected  to  congress  as  a Republican,  and  held  the 
office  by  successive  reelections  until  1873.  In  1875  he 
succeeded  Charles  Sumner  in  the  Senate,  where  he 
served  until  March  4,  1893. 

DAWSON,  Sir  John  William,  geologist,  bom  in 
Pictou,  Nova  Scotia, October  13,  1820.  He  studied  in  the 
university  of  Edinburgh,  and  on  his  return  home 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  natural  history  and 
the  geology  of  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia.  In 
1842,  and  again  in  1852  he  accompanied  Sir  Charles 
Lyell  in  his  explorations  of  Nova  Scotia.  Since 
1843  he  has  contributed  largely  to  the  Proceedings 
of  the  London  Geological  society  and  other  scien- 
tific periodicals.  In  1850  he  was  appointed  super- 
intendent of  education  for  Nova  Scotia,  and  in  1855 
became  principal  of  McGill  university  at  Montreal, 
of  which  he  is  now  vice-chancellor.  Since  then  he  has 
contributed  largely  to  many  serial  publications  in  Can- 
ada, Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  In  1882  he 
received  the  Lyell  medal  of  the  Geological  society  of 
London,  and  was  created  companion  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Michael  and  St.  George,  became  president  of  the  Royal 
society  of  Canada,  and  also  president  of  the  American 
association  for  the  advancement  of  science.  In  1883 
he  traveled  in  Egypt  and  Syria.  He  received  the  degree 
of  LL.D.  from  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  was 
knighted  in  1884,  and  in  1885  elected  president  of 
the  British  Association  for  the  advancement  of  science. 
His  publications  embrace  : Hand-Book  of  Geography 
and  Natural  History  of  Nova  Scotia  ; Acadian  Geol- 
°gy  (1855) ; Archaia , or  Studies  of  Creation  in  Genesis 
(1859);  Air  Breathers  of  the  Coal  Period;  Notes  on 
the  Post- Pliocene  of  Canada  (1873);  The  Story  of  the 
Earth  and  Man  (New  York,  1873)  ; Science  and  the 
Bible  (18 75);  The  Dawn  of  Life  (1875) ; The  Origin 
of  the  World  (1877);  Fossil  Men  and  their  Modern 
Representatives  (1878);  The  Change  of  Life  in  Geo- 
logical Time  (1880);  Chain  of  Life  (1884);  Egypt  and 
Syria  (1885).  Besides  these  he  wrote  numerous  reports 
on  natural  science.  Died  Nov.  19,  1899. 

DAYTON,  William  Lewis,  born  in  New  Jersey, 
February  17,  1807;  died  December  1,  1864.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  1825;  studied  law  and  began 
practice  in  Trenton,  N.  J.,  in  1830.  After  serving  in 
the  State  Council,  and  as  associate  judge  of  the  State 
Supreme  Court,  he  was  appointed  to  the  United  States 
Senate  in  1842  to  fill  a vacancy,  and  was  reelected  in 
1845.  He  acted  with  the  Whig  party  until  the  founda- 
tion of  the  National  Republican  party.  In  1856  he 
was  nominated  for  vice-president  on  the  ticket  with 
John  C.  Fremont.  In  1857  he  became  attorney-general 
of  New  Jersey,  and  in  1861,  was  appointed  minister 
to  France,  which  office  he  held  until  his  death. 

DEANE,  Silas,  diplomatist,  born  in  Groton, 
Conn.,  December  24,  1737;  died  in  Deal,  England, 


6519 

August  23,  1789.  After  graduation  at  Yale,  in  1758, 
he  became  a merchant  in  Wethersfield,  Conn.  In 
1768  he  was  elected  to  the  legislature,  and  in  1774  to 
the  Continental  congress.  He  bought  the  first  vessel 
for  the  American  navy,  and  in  1776  was  sent  to  France 
as  a commercial  and  political  agent,  and  shipped  mili- 
tary stores  to  this  country.  Having  induced  several 
officers  to  come  to  America,  by  promising  them  high 
places  in  the  army,  and  exceeding  his  instructions  in 
other  ways,  he  was  recalled  by  congress,  November  21, 
1777.  He  was  accused  of  extravagance  and  embezzle- 
ment of  the  public  funds  by  Arthur  Lee,  but  Franklin 
supported  his  honesty,  and  he  was  defended  by  Robert 
Morris.  In  1779  he  was  discharged  from  congress,  and 
published  a letter  attacking  his  opponents,  to  which 
Lee  replied  in  1780.  He  then  went  to  France,  but  pri- 
vate letters  accusing  the  French  Government  of  duplic- 
ity and  intrigue  were  published  by  Rivington  (New 
York,  1781),  and  he  was  obliged  to  flee  to  the  Nether- 
lands. Finally  he  went  to  England,  where  he  died  in 
poverty.  His  heirs  presented  a claim  to  congress  in 
1835,  which  was  not  settled  until  1842,  when  they  re- 
ceived a large  sum  of  money.  Mr.  Deane  published  An 
Address  to  the  Free  and  Independent  Citizens  of  the 
United  States  (Hartford,  1784)  ; and  his  Narrative  was 
issued  in  1855.  His  official  letters  are  included  in 
Sparks'  Diplomatic  Correspondence  of  the  American 
Revolution  (vol.  1). 

DEARBORN,  Henry,  general,  born  in  Hampton, 
N.  H.,  in  March,  1751;  died  in  Roxbury,  Mass.,  June 
6,  1829.  He  studied  medicine,  and  was  practicing 
in  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  at  the  time  of  the  battle  of 
Lexington,  when  he  marched  to  Cambridge  with 
sixty  volunteers,  arriving  there  April  24,  1775.  He 
served  in  Colonel  Stark’s  regiment,  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  and  accompanied  Arnold  to 
Quebec,  where  he  was  captured  December  31,  1775. 
He  was  released  on  parole  in  May,  1776,  and  ex- 
changed in  March,  1777.  Mr.  Dearborn  served  in 
General  Gates’  army;  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Monmouth,  June  28,  1778 ; served  in  Sullivan’s  expedi- 
tion against  the  Indians  in  1779 ; was  with  the  army  in 
New  Jersey  in  1780;  and  accompanied  General  Wash- 
ington to  Yorktown  in  1781.  After  the  war  Washing- 
ton appointed  him  marshal  of  the  district  of  Maine. 
In  1793,  he  was  elected  to  congress,  and  served  two 
terms.  He  was  secretary  of  war  from  1801  till  1809, 
when  he  was  made  collector  of  the  port  of  Boston.  In 
1812  he  was  made  senior  major-general  of  the  United 
States  army,  and  having  command  of  the  department  of 
the  North,  he  intended  to  invade  Canada.  This  plan 
was  not  realized  and  he  accepted  the  offer  of  an  armis- 
tice made  by  Sir  George  Prevost,  and  rejected  by  Presi- 
dent Madison.  In  1813  he  went  with  his  army  to  Canada 
and  captured  York  (now  Toronto),  and  transporting  his 
force  to  the  mouth  of  the  Niagara,  took  Fort  George. 
In  July,  1813,  General  Dearborn  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  military  district  of  New  York  city,  which 
post  he  resigned  in  1815,  and  from  1822  till  1824  he 
was  minister  to  Portugal. 

DE  BAR,  Benedict,  actor,  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land, November  5,  1812;  died  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  August 
14,  1877.  He  began  his  stage  career  at  Margate,  Eng- 
land, in  1832,  and  in  1834  came  to  the  United  States, 
spending  twenty  years  in  making  tours  and  managing 
theaters  in  New  York,  St.  Louis  and  New  Orleans. 
In  1855  he  became  proprietor  of  the  St.  Louis  theater. 
A successful  manager,  as  an  actor,  his  ability  was  only 
moderate.  “ Falstafif  ” was  his  best  role. 

DE  BOW,  James  Dunwoody  Brownson,  editor, 
born  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  July  10,  1820;  died  in 
Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  February  27,  1867.  In  1845  he 


DEB-DEL 


6520 

was  secretary  of  the  Memphis,  Tenn.,  convention  to  | 
promote  southern  interests,  professor  of  political 
economy  in  the  university  of  Louisiana  in  184$,  and  in 
1853  superintendent  of  the  United  States  census.  After 
the  civil  war  he  was  president  of  the  Tennessee  and 
Pacific  railroad,  and  removed  his  Commercial  Review 
from  New  Orleans  to  Nashville. 

DEBS,  Eugene  V.,  president  of  the  American 
Railway  Union,  was  born  in  Terre  Haute,  Tnd.,  in  1855, 
and  educated  in  the  public  schools,  and  when  16  years 
old  began  work  as  a painter  and  railroad  fireman.  When 
26  years  old  he  was  chosen  a member  of  the  State  Legis- 
lature, where  he  secured  the  passage  of  several  laws  in 
the  interest  of  labor.  He  was  grand  secretary  and 
treasurer  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Locomotive  Firemen 
for  fourteen  years.  Always  an  earnest  advocate  of  a 
federation  of  railway  men,  the  United  Order  of  Railway 
Employes  was  formed  through  his  efforts  and  the 
American  Railway  Union  was  organized  by  him  in  Chi- 
cago, June  20,  1893.  It  prospered  until  it  became  the 
largest  body  of  railway  men  in  the  world,  and  won  a 
victory  in  its  strike  against  the  Great  Northern  railway. 

In  July,  1894,  the  American  Railway  Union,  under 
Debs’  guidance,  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Pullman 
Palace  Car  Company’s  workmen  in  their  strike  for 
higher  wages,  and  after  failing  to  secure  arbitration, 
ordered  a boycott  of  the  Pullman  cars,  which  precip- 
itated a great  railroad  strike,  with  Chicago  as  a storm 
center.  Cars  were  burned  and  trains  stopped  by  strike 
sympathizers  until  President  Cleveland  declared  mar- 
tial law,  when  traffic  was  gradually  resumed  with  new 
men  and  the  strike  called  off.  President  Debs  and  his 
fellow  directors  of  the  A.  R.  U.  were  indicted  for  con- 
spiracy, and  sentenced  to  six  months  in  jail  by  Judge 
Woods,  of  the  U.  S.  circuit  court,  for  contempt  of  court 
in  violating  an  injunction,  but  released  shortly  by  the 
United  States  supreme  court  in  the  contempt  proceed- 
ing, on  writs  of  habeas  corpus. 

DeCANDOLLE,  Alphonse  Louis  Pierre  Pyra- 
mus,  a Swiss  botanist,  born  in  1806;  became  professor 
of  botany  in  the  Academy  of  Geneva  in  1831,  and  was 
elected  president  of  the  International  Botanical  Con- 
gress of  London  in  1866,  and  of  Paris  in  1867.  He  has 
published  many  botanical  works.  Died  April  9,  1893. 

DECATUR,  Stephen,  naval  officer,  born  in  Sinne- 
puxent,  Md.,  January  5,  1779;  died  in  Washington, 
D.  C.,  March  22,  1820.  He  was  the  son  of  Capt. 
Stephen  Decatur  (1751-1808),  and  entered  the  navy  as 
a midshipman  in  1798.  In  November,  1803,  at  Tripoli, 
he  destroyed  the  captured  frigate  Philadelphia , 
for  which  exploit  he  was  promoted  captain,  and 
in  1812,  while  commander  of  the  frigate  United 
States , he  captured  the  British  frigate  Macedonian , 
after  an  engagement  of  an  hour  and  a half,  for  which 
service  congress  gave  him  a gold  medal.  On  his  way 
to  sea  through  Long  Island  Sound,  in  1813,  Decatur’s 
vessel  was  blockaded  by  the  British  fleet,  and  he  was 
driven  into  New  London,  where  he  was  shut  in  for  a 
year.  During  this  time  Decatur  declared  that  people 
on  the  shore  gave  signals  to  the  enemy  by  burning  blue 
lights,  and_this  circumstance  gave  rise  to  the  name 
'‘Blue  Lights”  for  the  political  opponents  of  America’s 
course. 

In  1814  he  was  transferred  to  the  command  of  a squad- 
ron to  sail  from  New  York  to  the  East  Indies.  He 
started  January  15,  1815,  in  the  President , of  forty-four 
guns.  His  vessel  was  grounded,  and  he  was  espied  by 
the  blockading  squadron,  which  chased  him  for  fifty 
miles,  and  a severe  engagement  ensued.  The  President 
was  forced  to  surrender,  and  was  taken  to  Bermuda. 
Decatur  was  paroled,  and,  returning  to  the  United 
States,  was  honorably  acquitted.  In  May,  1815,  he 


I was  sent  with  a squadron  of  nine  vessels  to  the  Medi 
terranean,  where  he  captured  an  Algerine  frigate  J une 
17,  1815.  On  June  28,  he  captureda  second  vessel,  and 
anchoring  his  squadron  in  the  harbor  of  Algiers,  com- 
pelled the  Dey  to  negotiate  a treaty,  and  to  restore  all 
prisoners  and  property  that  had  been  captured  by  the 
Algerines.  He  then  entered  Tunis  and  Tripoli,  forced 
the  release  of  the  American  prisoners,  and  obtained 
satisfaction  for  past  offenses.  Returning  to  the  United 
States,  he  was  made  a naval  commissioner,  and  resided 
in  Washington.  His  death  was  caused  by  a wound 
received  in  a duel  with  Commodore  Barron,  near  Bla- 
densburg,  D.  C. 

DE  HAAS,  Maurice  Frederick  Hendrick, 
painter,  born  in  Rotterdam,  Holland,  December  12, 1832. 
He  studied  at  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts;  in  1857  was 
made  artist  of  the  Holland  navy,  and  in  1859  became 
located  in  New  York  city.  In  Europe  his  productions 
were  mainly  marine  views  of  the  English  channel  and 
the  French  coast.  His  best  known  American  work  is, 
Farragut  Passing  the  Forts.  He  became  an  academi- 
cian of  the  national  academy  in  1867,  and  was  one  of 
the  original  members  of  the  American  society  of  paint- 
ers in  water  colors.  Among  his  other  noted  productions 
are:  Long  Island  Sound  by  Moonlight , the  Rapids 
above  Niagara , etc.  Died  Nov.  23,  1895. 

DE  KOVEN,  James,  born  in  Connecticut,  Septem- 
ber, 19,  1831;  died  March  19,  1879.  He  was  ordained  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  in  1855,  and  became 
Warden  of  Racine  college,  Wis.,  in  1859.  In  1875  he 
was  elected  bishop  of  Illinois,  but  owing  to  his  extreme 
high  church  views  the  diocese  refused  to  confirm  the  ap- 
pointment. 

DE  LANCE  Y,  James,  chief  justice,  born  in  New  York 
city,  November  27,  1703;  died  there  July  30,  1760. 
He  was  graduated  at  Cambridge  (England),  and  studied 
law  in  London.  In  1725  he  returned  to  New  York 
city,  where,  in  1729,  he  became  a member  of  the 
council,  and  in  1731  second  judge  of  the  Supreme 
Court.  In  1730  he  framed  the  Montgomery  char- 
ter of  the  city,  and  was  presented  with  the  free- 
dom of  New  York  in  acknowledgment  of  his 
services.  In  1733  he  succeeded  to  the  chief  judge- 
ship,  which  he  retained  throughout  life.  In  Oc- 
tober, 1753,  he  became  lieutenant-governor  of  N^w 
York,  and  on  June  19th,  1754,  presided  over  the  first 
congress  convened  in  the  country,  held  to  conciliate  the 
Indians.  In  May,  1755,  he  granted  the  charter  of  King’s 
(now  Columbia)  college,  and  was  one  of  the  council  of 
governors  who  met  at  Alexandria,  Va. , to  act  against 
the  encroachments  of  the  French.  When  Governor 
Hardy  arrived  in  September,  1755,  the  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor resumed  his  functions  on  the  bench.  Two  years 
later  Governor  Hardy  sailed  in  command  of  an  expedi- 
tion against  Louisburg,  leaving  Judge  De  Lancey  again 
governor  of  the  province. 

DELANO,  Columbus,  born  in  Shoreham,  Vt.,  June 
5,  1809;  removed  to  Ohio  in  1817,  practiced  law,  and 
was  elected  to  congress  in  1844  and  again  in  1864  and 
1866.  From  1870  to  1875  he  was  secretary  of  the  interior. 
Died  Oct.  23,  1896. 

DELAWARR,  Thomas  West,  Lord,  became  gov- 
ernor of  Virginia  in  1609,  and  died  at  sea  in  1618. 

DE  LA  RAMEE,  Louisa,  known  to  the  literary 
world  as  “ Ouida,”  was  born  in  England  in  1840.  Of 
her  novels,  which,  though  full  of  incident,  are  disfigured 
by  extravagance  of  language,  the  most  popular  are; 
Strathmore , Chandos,  Under  Two  Flags , Pucks  Folle 
Farine , Tricotrin , Moths , Pascarel  and  Two  Little 
Wooden  Shoes. 

DE  LONG,  George  Washington,  explorer,  bom 
in  New  York  city,  August  22,  1S44;  died  in  Siberia,. 


DEL- 

Russia,  October  30,  1881.  He  was  educated  in  the 
public  schools  at  Brooklyn.  In  1861  he  was  appointed 
midshipman  at  the  United  States  naval  academy,  was 
graduated  in  1865,  became  master,  March  12,  1868, 
and  lieutenant  commander,  November  1,  1879.  In 
1879  James  Gordon  Bennett,  Jr.,  purchased  the  Jean- 
nette, a steam  vessel  that  had  been  built  for  polar 
exploration,  and  had  her  strengthened  and  fitted  for  a 
three  years’ Arctic  voyage  by  way  of  Behring  Strait,  under 
the  authority  of  government.  On  July  8th  this  vessel 
sailed  from  San  Francisco  with  Lieutenant  De  Long  as 
commander,  assisted  by  four  more  officers  of  the  navy 
and  twenty-eight  others.  The  vessel  touched  at  various 
points  northward,  including  St.  Lawrence  bay,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  Cape  Serdze  Kamen,  Siberia,  in  quest  of 
Nordenskjold,  but  the  Swedes  had  departed  before  she 
reached  there.  On  September  5,  1879,  the  Jeannette 
was  surrounded  by  ice  in  latitude  710  35'  N.,  750  W. 
Driftingmore  than  600  miles  towards  the  northwest,  she 
was  crushed  in  770  15'  N.,  1 550  E.,  June  13,  1881, 
leaving  De  Long  and  his  men  150  miles  distant  from  the 
Siberian  islands,  and  much  farther  from  the  Siberian 
mainland.  De  Long  and  his  party  then  directed  their 
course  southward  alternately  by  sledge  and  boat,  reach- 
ing in  succession  Bennett  island  andThaddeus’  island, 
the  latter  on  August20, 1881.  From  there  they  set  out  in 
three  boats  commanded  by  De  Long,  Lieutenant  Chipp 
and  Chief  Engineer  Melville.  Chipp’sboat  was  swamped 
in  a gale  with  its  eight  voyagers ; Melville’s  with  ten 
passengers, enteredone  of  thebranchesofLenariverand 
reached  a small  hamlet ; De  Long,  with  fourteen  others, 
entered  the  Lena  on  September  17,  1881.  Here  the 
accumulation  of  ice  compelled  De  Long  to  abandon  navi- 
gation, and,  with  some  helpless  men,  to  proceed  gradu- 
ally up  the  river,  leaving  the  boat  behind.  On  October 
9th  they  came  to  a halt.  Two  men  were  sent  forward  for 
relief;  but  the  others  died  from  cold  and  starvation 
within  twenty-five  miles  of  a Russian  settlement.  The 
two  men  sent  forward  met  some  natives  on  October  22d, 
and  the  members  of  Melville’s  party  on  October  29th. 
De  Long’s  diary  shows  that  he  was  yet  alive  on  October 
30th.  Melville  engaged  in  searches  for  the  lost  party,  at 
first  without  success;  but  on  March  23,  1882,  found  the 
frozen  bodies  and  the  records  of  the  expedition.  The  re- 
mains were  brought  to  New  York  for  burial.  This  ill- 
fated  expedition  resulted  in  a number  of  discoveries 
that  will  prove  of  benefit  to  future  polar  voyagers. 

DELSARTE,  Francois  Alexandre  Nicolas 
Cheri,  a famous  French  singer  and  teacher  of  elocu- 
tion, born  in  France,  1811,  died  at  Paris,  July  19,  1871. 
He  published  works  on  voice-culture  and  a number  of 
novels.  His  name  is  given  to  a system  of  instruction 
in  graceful  carriage  much  talked  of  in  America. 

DENNIE,  Joseph,  journalist,  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  August  30,  1768;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Penn., 
January  7,  1812.  After  graduation  at  Harvard  in  1790, 
he  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  con- 
tributed to  newspapers,  and  removed  in  1795  to  Wal- 
pole, N.  H.,  where  he  established  The  Farmers' 
Weekly  Museum.  Moving  to  Philadelphia  he  became 
editor  of  the  United  States  Gazette , and  established  the 
Port  Folio,  a weekly,  and  afterward  a monthly  magazine 
to  which  many  famous  writers  contributed. 

DEPEW,  Chauncey  Mitchell,  lawyer,  born  in 
Peekskill,  N.  Y.,  April  23,  1834.  He  was  graduated 
at  Yale  in  1856,  studied  law,  and  in  a few  years 
was  admitted  to  practice.  In  1861-2,  he  was  a member 
of  the  New  York  Assembly.  In  i860  he  canvassed  the 
State  of  New  York  for  Abraham  Lincoln,  for  president, 
and  in  1863  was  elected  secretary  of  state.  Later  he  held 
other  offices,  but  resigned  them  to  engage  in  his  profes- 
sion. In  1866,  Mr.  Depew  became  attorney  for  the 


-DES  6521 

Harlem  railroad  company,  and,  in  1869,  became 
counsel  for  the  consolidated  New  York  Central  & 
Hudson  River  railroad  company.  In  1872,  he  was 
defeated  as  a candidate  for  lieutenant-governor  of  New 
York  State;  in  1874  the  Legislature  appointed  him 
regent  of  the  State  university.  In  1882,  Mr.  Depew 
became  second  vice-president  of  the  New  York  Central 
& Hudson  River  railroad  company,  and  in  June,  1885, 
was  elected  president  of  this  road  and  of  the  West 
Shore  railroad  company.  He  is  president  of  the 
Union  League  Club  and  the  Yale  Alumni  Association 
of  New  York  city,  and  is  famous  as  an  orator  and  after 
dinner  speaker.  Volumes  of  his  speeches  have  been 
published. 

DEPRETIS,  Agostino,  born  in  Piedmont,  Italy,  in 
1811;  became  a lawyer  and  writer  for  Liberal  news- 
papers, and  in  1849  civil  governor  of  Brescia.  He  be- 
came pro-dictator  of  Sicily  in  1861,  and  in  1862,  entered 
Ratazzi’s  cabinet.  In  1866  he  was  minister  of  marine 
and  minister  of  finance,  and  after  the  death  of  Ratazzi 
led  the  opposition  in  the  chamber.  In  1876-77,  and 
again  in  1879-81,  he  held  cabinet  offices,  and  in  May, 
1881,  became  premier  of  Italy.  He  died  in  1887. 

DERBY,  Henry  Smith  Stanley,  fifteenth  earl  of 
Derby,  born  July  21,  1826;  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
where  he  took  a first-class  in  classics  in  1848.  From 
1849  to  1869  he  sat  in  the  House  of  Commons  as  Lord 
Stanley,  and  during  the  second  and  third  administra- 
tions of  his  father  (Earl  Derby)  was  secretary  for  India 
(1858-59),  and  secretary  for  foreign  affairs  (1866-68). 
In  February,  1874,  he  became  foreign  minister  in  the 
Disraeli  cabinet ; but  resigned  in  March,  1878,  when 
Disraeli  seized  Cyprus.  He  abandoned  the  Tory  party 
in  March,  1880,  and  was  colonial  secretary  under  Mr. 
Gladstone,  from  December,  1882,  to  July,  1885.  In 
1886  he  went  over  to  the  Liberal  Unionists  in  opposi- 
tion to  Gladstone’s  Irish  policy.  He  died  April  21,  1893. 

DEROULEDE,  Paul,  poet,  born  in  Paris,  Sep- 
tember 2,  1848;  has  written  several  plays  and  patriotic 
songs.  He  is  the  chairman  of  the  so-called  Patriotic 
League,  detests  Germany,  and  preaches  la  revanche  in 
season  and  out  of  season. 

DERVISH,  Pasha,  born  at  Constantinople  in  1817; 
has  distinguished  himself,  both  in  war  and  diplomacy, 
and  was  the  first  of  Turkish  statesmen.  Died  June,  1896. 

DE  SMET,  Peter  John,  missionary,  born  in  Ter- 
monde,  Belgium,  December  31,  1801;  died  in  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  in  May,  1872.  In  1821,  together  with  five  other 
theological  students,  he  sailed  from  Amsterdam  in  com- 
pany with  Bishop  Verinx.  In  1828  he  wentto  St.  Louis, 
assisted  in  establishing  the  university  of  St.  Louis,  and 
in  1838  was  sent  to  establish  amission  among  the  Pot- 
tawatomies.  Under  his  direction  a chapel  was  built,  a 
school-house  erected,  and  most  of  the  tribe  converted  to 
Roman  Catholicism.  On  April  30,  1840,  he  attached 
himself  to  the  yearly  caravan  of  the  American  Fur  Com- 
pany to  proceed  as  missionary  among  the  Flat  Head 
Indians,  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  In  1841  he  returned 
to  St.  Louis,  but  soon  set  out  anew  for  Indian  con- 
versions, taking  with  him  two  other  missionaries  and 
several  lay  brothers,  who  were  expert  mechanics. 
After  crossing  the  Platte  river,  on  September  24th,  the 
party  reached  Bitter  Root  river,  where  they  made  a 
settlement,  and  the  Mission  of  St.  Mary’s  was  organized 
by  the  building  of  a house  and  chapel. 

In  December,  1843,  he,  together  with  five  Jesuits  and 
six  sisters,  left  Antwerp,  and  reached  Fort  Vancouver 
in  August,  1844,  and  located  themselves  on  the  Wil- 
lamette river.  In  October,  1844,  a convent  was  built 
for  the  women,  and  in  1845  a number  of  French  mis- 
sions were  established  among  various  tribes  of  Indians. 
On  different  occasions  he  efficientlyinterceded  to  prevent 


D I C 


6522  D E S- 

strife  between  the  United  States  Government  and  the 
Indians.  He  was  also  instrumental  in  ending  the  Sioux 
war. 

DESSALINES,  Jean  Jacques,  “emperor”  of 
Hayti,  born  at  Guinea,  Africa,  in  1758;  died  in 
Hayti,  October  17,  1806.  As  a boy  he  was  brought  to 
Cape  Haytien,  and  bought  by  a French  planter,  whose 
name  he  assumed.  He  united  with  the  insurgent  slaves 
in  1791,  and  became  adjutant-general  of  the  negro 
commander,  Jean  Fran£ois.  When  Toussaint  l’Ouver- 
ture  joined  the  French,  Dessalines  sided  with  him. 
He  soon  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  and 
fought  the  mulatto  chief,  Rigaud,  with  success,  and  his 
name  spread  terror  among  the  mulattoes  of  the  island 
because  of  the  barbarities  committed  against  them  by 
his  direction.  It  was  not  long  before  he  became  dis- 
solute in  his  habits  and  perpetrated  extensive  confisca- 
tions to  his  own  advantage.  In  1802  the  French  gen- 
eral, Lecleve,  was  sent  to  operate  against  him,  which 
led  to  a prolonged  guerilla  warfare.  Peace  being  es- 
tablished by  his  eventual  submission  to  the  French 
forces,  he  was  made  governor  of  the  southern  part  of 
the  island,  and  affected  zeal  for  the  cause  of  France,  by 
treating  the  vanquished  negroes  with  his  customary 
cruelty.  When  the  yellow  fever  prevailed  in  the  French 
army  and  General  Lecleve  was  among  its  victims,  Des- 
salines again  headed  the  negroes  in  a general  uprising. 

A war  of  extermination  between  the  white  and  black 
races  followed,  in  which  enormous  barbarities  were  per- 
petrated on  both  sides.  In  1803  the  French  were  com- 
pelled to  quit  the  island.  On  January  1,  1804,  Dessa- 
lines became  governor-general  of  Hayti  for  life.  Soon 
afterward  he  ordered  a massacre  of  all  the  white  resi- 
dents, who  had  remained  under  promised  protection. 
Later,  in  the  same  year,  he  attempted  to  conquer  a part 
of  the  Spanish  settlement  of  the  island.  October  8,  1804, 
he  was  crowned  emperor  of  Hayti,  as  Jean  Jacques  I. 
With  the  acquisition  of  greater  power  his  vices  and 
enormities  increased,  so  as  to  cause  an  insurrection. 
In  1806,  during  a conflict  with  the  insurgents,  Dessalines 
was  assassinated  by  two  of  his  own  officers,  Christophe 
(y.  v.)  and  Petion.  He  was  a wild  savage,  endowed 
with  shrewdness  and  intuitively  good  judgment. 

DEVENS,  Charles,  born  in  Charlestown,  Mass., 
April  4,  1820;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1838;  and  be- 
came a lawyer.  He  was  in  the  State  Senate  in  1848-49; 
and  was  United  States  marshal  of  Massachusetts 
1849-53.  He  served  in  the  Civil  war,  and  was  wounded 
at  Ball’s  Bluff,  Fair  Oaks  and  Chancellorsville.  He 
was  brevetted  major-general  after  the  capture  of  Rich- 
mond. In  1867  he  became  a Superior  Court  justice  in 
Massachusetts,  and  in  1873  justice  of  the  State  Su- 
preme Court.  In  1877  he  became  attorney-general  of 
the  United  States,  and  in  1881  one  of  the  Supreme 
Court  justices  of  Massachusetts.  He  died  in  1891. 

DEVONSHIRE,  William  Cavendish,  Duke  of, 
born  April  27,  1808;  graduated  as  second  wrangler  and 
Smith’s  prizeman  at  Cambridge  in  1829.  He  was 
chancellor  of  the  university  of  London  from  1836  to  1856, 
and  became  chancellor  of  the  university  of  Cambridge  in 
1862.  In  politics  he  was  a moderate  Liberal.  He  died 
in  December,  1891,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  long 
known  in  public  as  the  Marquis  of  Hartington  (y.  v.) 

DEWEY,  Orville,  Unitarian  minister,  born  in 
Sheffield,  Mass.,  March  28,  1794;  died  in  Shef- 
field, Mass.,  March  21,  1882.  Pie  was  gradu- 
ated at  Williams  College  in  1814.  He  studied  in  the 
theological  seminary  at  Andover,  finishing  his  course 
in  1819.  He  was  an  agent  for  the  American  Education 
Society,  afterward  took  charge  of  a church  in  Glouces- 
ter, Mass.  He  became  a Unitarian  in  1821,  and  was 
Doctor  Channing’s  assistant  in  Boston.  On  December 


17,  1823,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  a Unitarian  church 
in  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  and  while  there  he  con- 
tributed to  the  Christian  Examiner  and  the  North 
American  Review.  He  went  to  Europe,  in  1833,  for 
his  health,  and  spent  two  years  there.  He  came  back 
and  was  called  to  the  church  of  the  Messiah,  in  New 
York,  but  was  compelled  to  travel  again  in  1842.  After 
two  years  he  returned  to  his  church,  but  resigned  in 
1848,  and  removed  to  a farm  in  Sheffield.  He  took 
charge  of  Unitarian  churches  in  Albany  and  Washing- 
ton, and  was  pastor  of  a church  in  Boston  from  1858  to 
1862.  He  afterward  retired  to  his  home  in  Sheffield. 

DHULEEP  SINGH,  Maharajah  of  the  Pun- 
JAUB,  born  in  1838;  son  of  the  famous  Runjeet  Singh, 
to  whose  title  he  succeeded  when  an  infant.  The  Eng- 
lish Governmentdeprivedhim  of  all  power, but  made  him 
a large  allowance,  and  he  became  naturalized  in  England 
and  professed  Christianity.  In  1885  he  quarreled  with 
the  English  Government,  which  he  alleged  had  robbed 
him  of  the  Koh-i-noor  and  other  valuables.  He  started 
for  India,  but  was  taken  from  the  ship  at  Aden,  and 
went  to  Russia,  where  he  received  a pension  from  the 
czar.  He  repudiated  Christianity,  proclaimed  his  hatred 
of  England,  and  made  efforts  through  the  vernacular 
press  to  stir  up  his  former  subjects  against  the  British 
Government.  He  died  in  Paris  October  23,  1893. 

DIAZ,  Porfirio,  Mexican  general,  born  at  Oaxaca, 
September  15,  1830.  He  was  of  humble  origin,  and 
first  became  known  when  Maximilian  occupied  Mexico 
in  1866.  In  1867  he  marched  to  Pueblo  at  the  head  of 
a Republican  army,  and  took  the  city  by  storm,  April 
5,  1867,  and  afterward  aided  in  the  capture  of  the  city 
of  Mexico.  He  aspired  to  the  presidency  in  1871, 
as  a rival  to  Juarez,  after  whose  death,  in  July,  1872, 
Diaz  led  a military  insurrection.  He  was  forced 
to  yield  to  Lerdo  de  Tejada,  the  chief  justice,  who  was 
subsequently  elected  president.  Diaz  rebelled  again, 
and  seized  the  city  of  Matamoras.  Afterward  he  drove 
Lerdo  from  the  country,  and  was  proclaimed  president 
by  congress,  serving  from  May  5,  1877,  till  November 
30,  1880.  During  his  term  the  tariff  was  revised, 
finances  were  improved,  and  important  lines  of  rail- 
way established.  He  was  succeeded  by  Gen.  Manuel 
Gonzalez,  and  became  minister  of  public  works.  In 
1881  he  was  made  governor  of  the  province  of  Oaxaca. 
He  was  again  elected  president  in  1884,  and  reelected 
in  1888,  in  1892,  and  again  in  1000. 

DICKINSON,  Anna  Elizabeth,  orator,  was  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  October  28,  1842.  Her  parents 
were  Quakers,  and  she  wras  educated  in  the  free 
schools  of  that  denomination.  In  1857  she  made  her 
first  venture  as  a speaker  before  the  members  of  a so- 
ciety of  “Progressive  Friends,”  who  were  interested  in 
the  anti-slavery  movement.  She  also  became  an  ardent 
advocate  of  temperance,  and  spoke  at  many  temperance 
meetings.  In  1859-60  she  taught  school  in  Berks 
county,  Penn.,  and  in  1861,  for  about  nine  months, 
was  employed  at  the  United  States  mint,  in  Phila- 
delphia. After  that  time  she  lectured  in  public,  on 
political  questions,  before  the  people  in  different  parts 
of  her  native  State.  This  she  did  with  so  much  ac- 
ceptation that,  in  1862,  she  was  invited  to  deliver  an 
oration  at  Music  Hall,  in  Boston,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  prominent  leaders  in  New  England  of  the  anti- 
slavery cause.  From  there  she  went  to  New  Hamp- 
shire and  Connecticut,  speaking  in  the  interest  of  the 
Republican  party,  and  later  she  drew  large  attendances 
in  Cooper  Union,  New  York  city,  and  at  the  Academy 
of  Music,  Philadelphia,  under  the  patronage  of  the 
Union  League  clubs  of  the  two  cities.  In  the  autumn 
of  1863  Miss  Dickinson  turned  her  attention  to  elec- 
tioneering in  the  Pennsylvania  coal  regions,  in  favor  of 


D I C — D I L 


Governor  Curtin,  and  on  January  16,  1864,  she  spoke 
in  the  capitol  at  Washington,  on  the  issues  of  the  civil 
war.  She  also  addressed  the  soldiers  in  camps  and 
hospitals  on  many  occasions,  in  a way  that  stirred  them 
to  increased  patriotism.  After  the  close  of  the  war  she 
appeared  mostly  as  a lecturer  on  the  platform  of 
literary  societies.  Among  her  addresses  were  Woman’s 
Work  and  Wages , Whitened  Sepulchers , Demagogues 
and  Workingmen. 

In  1876  Miss  Dickinson  found  herself  waning  in  at- 
tractiveness as  a speaker,  and  having  told  all  she  had  to 
say,  determined  to  devote  her  attention  to  dramatic  per- 
formances. She  made  her  debut  in  a play  of  her  own 
composition,  entitled  A Crown  of  Thorns , which  was 
followed  by  personifications  of  several  of  Shakespeare’s 
heroines.  But  her  theatrical  venture  was  unsuccessful, 
and  after  having  given  readings  from  her  MS.  play, 
Aurelian , and  lecturing  on  Platform  and  Stage , she 
retired  to  private  life.  She  wrote  an  unpublished 
play,  The  American  Girl.  Her  publications  are:  What 
Answer?  a novel  (Boston,  1868) ; A Paying  Investment 
{1876),  and  A Ragged  Register  of  People,  Places , and 
Opinions. 

DICKINSON,  Daniel  Stevens,  statesman,  bom 
in  Goshen,  Conn.,  September  11,  1 :’oo;  died  in  New 
York  city,  April  12,  1886.  He  became  qualified  as  a 
lawyer  in  102S,  and  as  such  settled  in  Guilford.  In 
1831  he  removed  permanently  to  Binghamton.  Here 
he  soon  became  prominent  as  a Democratic  politician, 
and  in  1836  was  chosen  State  senator.  In  1842  he  was 
nominated  and  chosen  lieutenant-governor  of  New 
York.  When  his  term  expired  in  1 44,  he  was  appointed 
to  fill  a vacancy  in  the  United  States  Senate,  and  later 
the  legislature  elected  him  for  the  full  term.  In  1852 
he  was  nominated  collector  of  the  port  of  New  York, 
which  office  he  declined.  From  1 86  r until  1863  he  was 
active  on  the  stump  in  making  addresses  on  the  National 
side;  in  1861,  also,  he  was  elected  attorney-general  of 
New  York  State  by  100,000  majority.  Later  he  became 
district-attorney  for  the  southern  district  of  New  York. 

DICKINSON,  Don  M.,  was  born  at  Port  Ontario, 
Oswego  county,  N.  Y.,  January  17,  1846,  of  New  Eng- 
land parents,  who  removed  to  Michigan  when  the  boy 
was  two  years  old.  He  was  educated  in  the  public 
schools  of  Detroit  and  at  the  University  of  Michigan, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1867.  In  1S72  he  en- 
tered the  political  field  as  secretary  of  the  Democratic 
State  central  committee  of  Michigan  and  in  the  Tilden 
campaign  he  acted  as  chairman  of  that  body.  Subse- 
quently he  represented  his  State  on  the  National  Demo- 
cratic committee  and  in  1886  he  was  appointed  Post- 
master-General by  President  Cleveland.  On  the  expira- 
tion of  his  term  he  resumed  the  practice  oflaw  in  Detroit. 

DICKINSON,  John,  statesman,  born  in  Talbot 
county,  Md.,  November  13,  1732;  died  in  Wilmington, 
Del.,  February  14,  1808.  His  father,  Samuel,  was  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and  chief-justice  of 
Delaware.  The  son  studied  law  in  Philadelphia  and  at 
the  Temple,  London,  Eng.,  and  practiced  his  profession 
in  Philadelphia.  In  1763  he  was  elected  to  the  assem- 
bly, where  he  opposed  the  petition  in  parliament  ask- 
ing that  Pennsylvania  should  be  changed  to  a royal 
province.  In  1798  he  published  his  famous  “Letters 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  British  colonies,  by  a Pennsyl- 
vania farmer,”  showing  that  parliament  had  no  right 
to  tax  the  colonies,  and  to  him  is  due  the  phrase 
“No  taxation  without  representation.”  Dickinson’s 
influence  was  especially  felt  in  the  first  Continental 
congress,  to  which  he  was  a delegate.  He  drew 
up  the  “ Petition  to  the  King,”  the  “ Declaration 
Co  the  Armies,”  and  the  “Address  to  the  States.”  He 
was  also  a member  of  the  committee  to  draft  the 


<5523 

Declaration  of  Independence.  He  entered  the  army 
as  a private,  and  after  serving  in  New  Jersey  fora  time, 
was  made  a brigadier-general.  His  house  and  property 
were  destroyed  by  the  British  after  the  battle  of  Ger- 
mantown, October  4,  1777.  In  1779  he  was  elected  to 
congress  from  Delaware,  and  in  his  “ Address  to  the 
States”  roused  the  people  to  exertion.  In  1780 
he  was  made  a member  of  the  assembly  of  Dela- 
ware, and  was  afterward  president  of  that  body. 
In  1782  he  was  made  president  of  the  supreme 
executive  council  of  Pennsylvania,  and  for  his  lib- 
eral and  untiring  exertion  in  founding  the  college 
in  Carlisle,  Penn.,  this  institution  was  named  Dick- 
inson College,  of  which  he  was  president  until  his 
death.  In  1785  he  settled  in  Wilmington,  Del.  In 
1786  he  was  president  of  a convention  of  delegates 
from  five  States,  which  met  at  Annapolis  to  devise  a 
uniform  system  of  commercial  relations  between  the 
States.  In  1787  he  was  a member  of  the  convention 
which  framed  the  constitution  of  the  United  States, 
and  he  set  forth  in  the  nine  letters  under  the  signature 
“ Fabius  ” the  plans  of  the  proposed  bond  of  union.  In 
1792  he  was  one  of  the  convention  that  revised  the 
constitution  of  Delaware,  and  in  1797,  when  the  feeling 
was  excited  by  the  condition  of  the  French  republic,  he 
published  another  series  of  letters  signed  “ Fabius,” 
testifying  the  sympathy  of  America  in  the  struggle  of 
France.  His  political  writings  were  collected  and  pub- 
lished (1801). 

DIESKAU,  John  Erdman,  Baron,  soldier,  born  in 
Saxony,  1701  ; died  in  Surenne,  France,  September  8, 

1 767.  He  was  an  officer  in  the  army  of  Marshal  Saxe, 
by  whom  he  was  sent  on  a mission  to  St.  Petersburg,  in 
1741.  He  served  for  a time  in  Holland,  in  1748  was 
made  brigadier-general  in  the  French  army,  and  com- 
manded at  Brest.  In  1755  he  was  elevated  to  the  rank 
of  major-general,  and  on  February  25th  of  that  year 
j went  to  Canada  at  the  head  of  French  reinforcements, 
to  repel  British  aggressions.  With  about  1,000  men, 
half  of  whom  were  Indians,  he  entered  Lake  Cham- 
plain, for  the  purpose  of  attacking  Fort  Edward.  On 
September  8th,  a detachment  of  1,000  men  from  New 
England,  under  Colonel  Williams,  was  sent  against  him. 
j He  surprised  and  defeated  them,  but  in  the  pursuit  of 
j the  British  the  Indians  halted,  and  Dieskau,  with  only 
about  200  regulars,  was  compelled  to  encounter  the 
enemy.  His  men  were  all  destroyed  in  this  conflict,  and 
the  General  himself  was  thrice  wounded.  Prepared  to 
yield  himself  prisoner,  after  abrave  defense,  Dieskau  was 
again  seriously  wounded  by  his  captor.  He  was  kept  in 
confinementuntilhe was  exchanged,  in  1 763,  whenhe  was 
sent  to  France.  He  was  pensioned  by  his  government  for 
meritorious  services,  and  eventually  died  of  his  wounds. 

DILKE,  Sir  Charles  Wentworth,  born  in  Lon- 
don, England,  September  4,  1843;  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  called  to  the  bar  in 
1866.  He  traveled  in  company  with  William  Hepworth 
Dixon  through  the  United  States,  and  also  visited  Aus- 
tralia and  India.  In  the  following  year  he  published 
Greater  Britain , which  met  with  great  success.  He 
entered  the  House  of  Commons  as  a Radical  in  1868, 
and  at  that  time  held  republican  opinions,  which  he  has 
since  modified.  He  was  reelected  in  1874  and  1880,  in 
May  of  the  latter  year  became  under-secretary  for  for- 
eign affairs,  and  in  1882  was  given  a cabinet  position 
under  Mr.  Gladstone.  In  1885  he  was  again  elected 
member  for  Chelsea,  but  became  involved  in  a scandal- 
ous trial,  resigned  his  seat  and  was  defeated  for  reelec- 
tion. Pie  married  Mrs.  Mark  Pattesonin  1885  and  re- 
entered Parliament  in  1892.  Pie  is  the  proprietor  of  the 
Athenceum  and  of  Notes  and  Queries , and  wrote  The 
Fall  of  Prince  Florestan , and  other  papers. 


6524  D I L - 

DILLON,  John,  born  in  Ireland  in  1851;  entered 
parliament  in  1880  as  a home  ruler,  has  been  twice  im- 
prisoned as  a “suspect,”  and  was  considered  as  Mr. 
Parnell’s  chief  lieutenant  in  the  House  of  Commons. 

DINWIDDIE,  Robert,  lieutenant-governor  of  Vir- 
ginia, born  in  Scotland  in  1690;  died  in  Clifton,  Eng- 
land, August  1,  1770.  He  began  his  career  as  a clerk 
to  a collector  of  customs  in  the  West  Indies,  and  was 
appointed  lieutenant-governor  of  Virginia  in  1752,  in 
reward  for  having  exposed  frauds  committed  by  his  em- 
ployer. His  first  act  was  to  divide  the  militia  of  his 
colony  into  four  districts,  one  of  which  he  gave  to  the 
command  of  Maj(?r  George  Washington,  whom  he  sent 
to  order  the  French,  who  were  establishing  military 
posts  south  of  Lake  Erie,  to  leave  the  British  domain. 
He  still  further  urged  the  Assembly  of  Virginia  to 
unite  in  their  efforts  to  prevent  the  encroachment  of  the 
French.  After  increasing  the  troops,  he  promoted 
Washington  to  be  lieutenant-colonel,  but  Washington 
resigned  when  Dinwiddie  resolved  to  place  the  new 
forces  under  royal  officers,  and  to  permit  no  native-born 
officer  to  take  higher  rank  than  that  of  captain.  Wash- 
ington acted  as  volunteer  aide-de-camp  on  the  arrival  of 
General  Braddock  in  1754,  and  after  that  general’s  de- 
feat, the  defense  of  the  colony  fell  upon  him.  He  was 
much  annoyed  by  Dinwiddie’s  lack  of  judgment.  The 
governor  had  many  disputes  with  the  Assembly,  and  he 
was  charged  with  embezzlement  and  avarice.  He  re- 
turned to  England  with  great  wealth  in  1758. 

DITSON,  Oliver,  music  publisher,  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  October  20,  1811.  He  received  a common 
school  education  in  his  native  city,  and  early  in  life 
tended  a book  and  music  store.  After  a trial  of  ten 
years  he  became  partner  in  the  business,  when  it  was 
restricted  to  musical  publications  ; in  1844  Mr.  Ditson 
came  into  entire  possession.  In  1856  the  firm  name 
became  Oliver  Ditson  & Co.;  in  1867  a branch  of  the 
house  was  established  in  New  York  city,  and  in  1876 
another  in  Philadelphia.  Mr.  Ditson  died  December 
21,  1888. 

DIX,  John  Adams,  statesman  and  soldier,  born  in 
Boscawen,  N.  H.,  July  24,  1798;  died  in  New  York 
city,  April  21,  1879.  His  father,  Timothy  Dix,  was  a 
lieutenant-colonel  in  the  United  States  army.  The  son 
was  educated  at  the  college  of  the  Sulpicians,  Mon- 
treal, and  at  St.  Mary’s  College,  Baltimore,  and,  in 
March,  1813,  was  made  ensign  in  the  Fourteenth  In- 
fantry, being  the  youngest  officer  in  the  army.  In 
March,  1814,  he  became  third-lieutenant  in  the  Twenty- 
first  Infantry,  and,  in  June,  1814,  was  transferred  to 
the  artillery.  He  was  made  first-lieutenant  in  1816 ; 
aide-de  camp  to  General  Brown  in  1819;  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  First,  then  to  the  Third  Artillery  in  1821  ; 
and  appointed  captain  in  1825.  In  1826  he  resigned  his 
commission,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1828,  Mr.  Dix  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  for 
New  York  in  1833  ; was  elected  to  the  State  Assembly  in 
1842  ; and  United  States  Senator  in  1845 ; was  assistant 
treasurer  of  the  United  States  in  1853 ; postmaster  of 
New  York  in  1859;  and  secretary  of  the  treasury  in 
Buchanan’s  cabinet  in  1861.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
civil  war  he  entered  the  army  and  was  immediately 
appointed  brigadier-general  and  major-general  of  volun- 
teers. After  holding  charge  of  the  department  of 
Maryland  he  was  sent  to  Fortress  Monroe  in  command 
of  the  Seventh  Army  Corps.  In  1863  he  was  ordered 
to  New  York,  where,  in  1864-5,  he  aided  in  suppress- 
ing the  riots  caused  by  President  Lincoln’s  order  for 
the  draft  of  troops.  In  1866  General  Dix  was  appointed 
minister  to  Paris;  and,  in  1872,  was  elected  governor 
of  New  York.  General  Dix  interested  himself  in 
6chemes  for  general  education,  commercial  law,  and  in 


- DOD 

the  exposure  of  city  frauds.  He  edited  a literary  journal, 
The  Northern  Light;  published  various  translations, 
including  one  of  the  hymn,  Dies  Ira,  and  was  the 
author  of  Speeches  and  Addresses,  Winter  in  Madeira, 
and  A Summer  in  Spain  aud  Florence.  He  was  also 
an  amateur  violinist,  and  played  many  duets  with 
Thomas  Jefferson.  General  Dix  was  an  active  mem- 
ber of  Trinity  church,  New  York,  of  which  his  son, 
the  Rev.  Morgan  Dix,  became  rector  in  1852.  See 
his  biography  by  the  Rev.  Morgan  Dix  (New  York, 

DIXON,  William  Hepworth,  born  in  Yorkshire, 
England,  June  30,  1821 ; died  December  27,  1879. 
He  contributed  to  London  newspapers  and  magazines, 
and  edited  the  Athceneum  from  1853  to  1869.  He  also 
wrote  lives  of  John  Howard,  William  Penn  and 
Admiral  Blake,  and  published  New  America,  New 
Russia,  Spiritual  Wives  and  various  historical  and 
biographical  works. 

DOANE,  George  Washington,  bishop,  bom 
in  Trenton,  N.  J.,  May  27,  1799;  died  in  Burling- 
ton, N.  J.,  April  27,  1859.  After  graduating  at 
Union  College  in  1818,  he  studied  law  and  afterward 
theology.  Bishop  Hobart  ordained  him  deacon  in 
1821,  and  he  became  assistant  minister  in  Trinity  church, 
New  York.  He  was  chosen  professor  of  rhetoric  and 
belles-lettres  at  Trinity  College  (then  Washington)  when 
it  was  founded  in  1824.  He  went  in  1828  as  assistant 
minister  to  Trinity  church  in  Boston,  and  became 
rector  there  in  1830.  In  October,  1832,  he  was  conse- 
crated bishop  of  New  Jersey,  and  was  rector  of  St. 
Mary’s  church.  He  established  a school  for  young 
ladies  in  Burlington,  1837,  called  St.  Mary’s  Hall,  and 
he  also  established  Burlington  College  in  1840.  He 
went  to  Europe  in  1841,  and  was  the  first  American 
bishop  to  preach  in  England.  A volume  of  his  sermons 
was  published  in  London  the  next  year.  He  published 
in  1824,  Songs  by  the  Way,  Chiefly  Devotional,  with 
Translations  and  Imitations.  His  son,  Bishop  Cros- 
well  Doane,  has  written  his  father’s  life,  and  published 
his  poetical  works,  sermons,  and  miscellaneous  writings 
(5  vols. , i860). 

DOBSON,  Henry  Austin,  born  in  England,  Jan- 
uary 18,  1840,  the  most  popular  living  writer  of  vers  de 
societe.  He  is  of  French  extraction,  and  has  written 
some  French  verses  of  merit. 

DODGE,  Augustus  OESAR,born  in  Missouri,  Jan- 
uary 2,  1812;  died  in  Burlington,  Iowa,  November  20, 
1883.  He  was  one  of  the  first  United  States  senators 
from  Iowa,  sitting  from  1848  to  February,  1855,  and 
was  minister  to  Spain  1855-59.  In  1873  he  became 
mayor  of  Burlington.  He  was  a straight-out  Democrat. 

DODGE,  Grenville  Mellen,  born  in  Danvers, 
Mass.,  April  12,  1831;  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Civil  War,  and  in  December,  1864,  succeeded  General 
Rosecrans  in  command  of  the  Department  of  the  Mis- 
souri. In  1866  he  became  chief  engineer  of  the  Union 
Pacific  railroad,  of  which  he  has  been  many  years  a di- 
rector. He  served  a term  in  congress  from  Iowa 
1868-69. 

DODGE,  Henry,  born  in  Vincennes,  Ind.,  October 
12,  1782;  died  June  12,  1867.  He  fought  in  the  Black 
Hawk  war,  and  obtained  a colonelcy  in  the  regular  army. 
In  1836  he  was  made  governor  of  the  Territory  of  Wis- 
consin, and  later  served  two  terms  as  delegate  in  con- 
gress. In  1846  he  again  became  governor,  and  was 
United  States  senator  from  the  State  of  Wisconsin  from 
1848  to  March,  1857. 

DODGE,  Mary  Mapes,  born  in  New  York  city  in 
1838;  has  written  extensively  for  the  magazines,  and  in 
1873  became  editor  of  St.  Nicholas,  a magazine  for 
children. 


D O G — D O R 


DOGGETT,  David  Seth,  born  in  Lancaster  county, 
Va.,  January  23,  1810;  died  October  27,  1880.  Hebe- 
' came  an  itinerant  Methodist  preacher  at  the  age  of  nine- 
teen, and  from  1840  to  1846  was  professor  in  Randolph- 
Macon  college,  Virginia.  From  1850  to  1856  he  was 
editor  of  the  Southern  Methodist  Quarterly  Review, 
and  in  1865  founded,  in  connection  with  Dr.  John  E. 
Edwards,  the  Episcopal  Methodist.  He  was  a member  of 
the  conference  of  1844,  when  the  Southern  conferences 
separated  from  those  of  the  North,  being  a leader  on 
the  Southern  side.  In  1866  he  became  a bishop  of  the 
M.  E.  Church,  South,  andheld  that  office  until  his  death. 

DOLLINGER,  Johann  Joseph  Ignaz  von,  born 
at  Bamberg,  Bavaria,  February  28,  1799;  died  January, 
1890.  He  was  the  son  of  Ignaz  Dollinger  (1770-1841), 
the  celebrated  anatomist  and  physiologist.  He  received 
priestly  orders  in  the  Catholic  church,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  church  history  and  canon  law  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Munich.  In  1845  he  entered  the  Bavarian  par- 
liament, and  four  years  later  voted  in  the  Frankfort 
Diet  for  the  separation  of  church  and  state.  In  1861 
he  advocated  the  abandonment  by  the  papacy  of  its 
temporal  power,  and  in  1870  opposed  the  action  of  the 
(Ecumenical  Council  in  decreeing  the  infallibility  of 
the  Pope.  In  April,  1871,  he  was  excommunicated  by 
the  archbishop  of  Munich,  but  his  popularity  with  the 
students,  the  government,  and  the  people  remained  un- 
impaired. He  founded  the  “ Old  Catholic  ” movement, 
and  presided  over  its  congress.  Doctor  Dollinger  wrote 
numerous  historical  and  theological  works,  and  contrib- 
uted largely  to  periodical  literature. 

DONALDSON,  Washington  H.,  born  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1840;  supposed  to  have  been  drowned  in  Lake 
Michigan  in  July,  1875.  He  was  a gymnast  and  tight- 
rope performer,  and  after  1871  became  an  aeronaut. 
He  was  cool  and  daring,  but  had  no  scientific  knowl- 
edge of  aerostation,  and  met  with  many  accidents  with 
his  balloons.  In  July,  1875,  started  from  the  Lake 
Front,  Chicago,  in  a balloon  with  which  he  had  made  a 
short  and  successful  ascent  the  previous  day.  He  was 
then  in  the  employ  of  P.  T.  Barnum,  and  the  balloon 
ascensions  were  to  advertise  the  circus.  Two  Chicago 
newspaper  men,  representing  afternoon  papers,  got  into 
the  car,  and  the  balloon  went  up  a hundred  feet  or  so 
and  then  settled  down  again.  It  was  a leaky  and  badly- 
constructed  affair,  and  had  lost  much  gas  from  the  pre- 
ceding day.  The  reporters  tossed  up  to  see  who  should 
leave  the  car,  as  Donaldson  said  he  could  only  take  one 
man  with  him.  NewtonS.  Grimwood,  of  the  Chicago 
Journal , won  the  toss,  and  decided  to  go,  while  the 
other  reporter,  then  connected  with  the  Chicago  Post 
and  Mail,  stepped  out.  The  balloon  floated  away  over 
the  lake,  and  in  an  hour  was  out  of  sight.  This  was 
about  5 p.  M. ; a strong  wind  sprang  up  later,  and  by 
midnight  a violent  storm  was  blowing.  Nothing  was 
ever  heard  or  seen  of  the  balloon  or  of  Donaldson,  but 
on  August  1 6th  the  decomposed  body  of  Grimwood  was 
found  on  the  Michigan  shore,  and  identified  by  papers  on 
his  person. 

DONIPHAN,  Alexander  William,  soldier,  born 
in  Mason  county,  Ky.,  July  9,  1808;  died  August 
8,  1887.  He  was  graduated  at  Augusta  College  in 
1824,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1830,  and  began  to 
practice  in  Lexington,  Missouri.  In  1833  he  removed 
to  Liberty,  Clay  county.  He  was  elected  to  the  legis- 
lature in  1836,  1840,  and  1854.  In  1838,  when  the 
state  militia  was  summoned  out  against  the  Mormons, 
he  commanded  the  first  brigade,  and  captured  their 
prophet,  Joseph  Smith,  who  escaped,  joined  his  band  in 
Illinois,  and  afterward  called  Mr.  Doniphan  to  act  as 
his  counsel.  He  was  made  colonel  of  a regiment  of 
mounted  veterans  equipped  for  the  Army  of  the  West, 
89-J 


6525 

at  the  beginning  of  the  war  with  Mexico  in  1846.  On 
his  way  thither  Doniphan  reduced  the  unruly  Navajos 
to  submission  and  routed  the  Mexicans  at  Chihuahua. 
After  the  war  Mr.  Doniphan  resumed  his  profession  in 
Liberty.  He  was  a commissioner  from  Missouri  to  the 
Peace  Convention  in  Washington,  which  endeavored  to 
avert  the  civil  war,  in  which  he  took  no  active  part. 

DONNELLY,  Ignatius,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
November  3,  1831,  and  studied  law  there.  In  1857  he 
went  to  Minnesota,  became  lieutenant-governorin  1859, 
and  congressman  from  December,  1863,  to  March,  1869, 
being  elected  as  a Republican.  He  wrote  Atlantis 
(1882)  and  Ragnarok  (1883),  and  in  a work  called  The 
Great  Cryptogram,  published  in  1888,  attempted  to 
prove  that  Francis  Bacon  was  the  author  of  the  plays 
commonly  attributed  to  Shakespeare. 

DONOP,  Karl  Emil  Kurt  von,  Count,  soldier, 
born  in  Germany  in  1740;  died  in  New  Jersey,  October 
25,  1777.  He  was  in  command  of  grenadiers  and  rifle- 
men among  the  so-called  “Hessian”  troops  employed  by 
Great  Britain  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  and  on 
August  27,  1776,  became  engaged  in  the  battle  of  Long 
Island.  In  December,  1776,  Donop  was  acting  briga 
dier  to  General  Howe.  After  the  defeat  of  Colonel  Rail, 
Donop  retreated  to  Princeton,  leaving  behind  him  a< 
Bordentown  his  stores  and  wounded.  In  October,  1 777* 
General  Howe  ordered  Donop  to  assault  and  capture 
Red  Bank,  if  it  could  be  done  without  much  sacrifice, 
and  on  the  22d  he  attacked  the  fort  at  that  place.  Do^ 
nop  and  his  “Hessians”  fought  bravely,  but  they  were 
repulsed,  and  Donop  fell  mortally  wounded. 

DOOLITTLE,  James  Rood,  born  in  Washington 
County,  N.  Y.,  January  3,  1815;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1837,  and  removed  to  Wisconsin  in  1851.  He 
became  circuit  judge  in  1853  and  from  1857  to  1869 
was  United  States  Senator.  He  has  since  practiced  law 
in  Chicago.  In  1872  he  presided  at  the  Democratic 
Convention  in  Baltimore,  which  indorsed  Horace 
Greeley  for  the  presidency. 

DQRfi,  Gustave,  born  at  Strasburg,  January  6, 
1833;  died  January  23,  1883.  In  1845  he  went  to 
Paris  and  became  a contributor  to  the  Journal  pout 
rire.  In  his  illustrations  to  Rabelais,  the  Contes  Drola - 
tiques , and  Eugene  Sue’s  Wandering  Jew , he  first  dis- 
played his  fantastic  power  of  invention  and  wonderful 
faculty  of  execution.  In  1861  he  illustrated  the  In - 
ferno,  in  1863  Don  Quixote , in  1864  II  Purgatorio 
and  II  Paradiso , in  1865-66  the  Bible  and  Paradise 
Lost,  and  in  1867-68  the  Idylls  of  the  King  and  La 
Fontaine’s  Fables.  He  was  a tireless  worker,  and  a 
whole  gallery  of  his  drawings  and  pictures  was  one  of  the 
sights  of  London.  Dore  tried  his  hand  also  at  color- 
painting, but  his  forte  did  not  lie  in  that  direction 
Still,  his  Paola  and  Francesca  da  Rimini  and  The 
Neophyte  possessed  some  merit.  Among  his  later 
works  were,  Christ  Leaving  the  Prcetorium  and  Christ's 
Entry  into  Jerusalem.  Dor£  also  gave  some  attention 
to  sculpture,  and  exhibited  a vase  at  the  Paris  Exposi- 
tion Universelle  in  1878 

DORSEY,  Stephen  W.,born  in  Vermont,  February 
28,  1842;  served  during  the  Civil  war,  and  engaged  in 
business  in  Ohio.  He  went  to  Arkansas  in  the  “ carpet- 
bag” times,  and  sat  as  United  States  senator  from  that 
State  from  March,  1873,  to  March,  1879.  He  was 
secretary  of  the  Republican  National  Committee  in  the 
Garfield  campaign.  A Washington,  D.  C.,  grand  jury 
indicted  him  for  improper  use  of  his  influence  as  a 
senator  in  connection  with  the  “ star  route  ” contracts, 
but  the  first  trial  resulted  in  a disagreement,  and  on  the 
second  trial  he  was  acquitted. 

DORSHEIMER,  William,  born  in  Lyons,  N.  Y., 
February  5,  1832;  died  March  26,  1888.  He  studied 


D O U — D R A 


6526 

law,  served  in  the  Civil  war,  and  wrote  a series  of 
articles  on  the  Missouri  campaign  for  the  Atlantic 
Monthly.  From  1867  to  1871  he  was  United  States 
district  attorney  for  northern  New  York.  From  1874 
to  1880  he  served  as  lieutenant-governor  of  New  York, 
and  in  1883-1884  served  a term  in  congress.  In  July, 
1885,  President  Cleveland  appointed  him  United  States 
district  attorney  for  the  southern  district  of  New  York. 
In  the  same  year  he  became  proprietor  of  the  New  York 
Star. 

DOUGHERTY,  Daniel,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
October  15,  1826;  became  a lawyer,  and  made  many 
notable  political  speeches.  He  supported  the  Repub- 
lican party  during  the  war,  but  subsequently  joined  the 
Democrats,  and  nominated  General  Hancock  in  1880, 
and  Cleveland  in  1888.  He  died  September  5,  1892. 

DOUGLASS,  F rederick,  orator,  born  in  Tuckahoe, 
Md.,  in  February,  1817.  His  mother  was  a mu- 
latto slave,  and  his  father  a white  man.  At  the  age  of 
nine  years  he  was  “ hired  out  ” by  his  master,  and  be- 
came the  inmate  of  a household  where  he  was  taught  to 
read  and  write.  In  1832  he  was  purchased  by  a Balti- 
more shipbuilder,  by  whom  he  was  at  first  employed  as 
waiter  on  the  workmen,  and  afterward  became  a ship 
caulker.  In  September,  1838,  he  made  his  escape 
from  slavery  and  went  to  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  and 
in  course  of  a year  or  two  developed  considerable 
ability  as  a public  speaker.  On  the  recommendation  of 
William  L.  Garrison,  the  American  anti-slavery  society 
engaged  him  as  one  of  their  lecturers,  and  he  soon  at- 
tracted large  audiences  to  hear  his  discriptions  of  life 
under  slavery.  In  1845  he  published  My  Bondage  and 
My  Freedom , which  was  republished  in  1855,  and  en- 
larged in  1881.  In  1859  he  visited  England,  where  his 
public  addresses  were  well  received.  His  friends  there 
collected  on  his  behalf  about  $750,  which  was  sent  to 
his  former  master  wherewith  to  secure  his  legal  emanci- 
pation. Some  years  later  Douglass  went  to  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  where  he  established  two  weekly  newspapers. 
In  1870  he  published  in  Washington  a newspaper, 
The  New  National  Era , and  in  1871  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  commission,  to  Santo  Domingo.  In 
1872  he  was  chosen  a presidential  elector  from  New 
York,  and  from  1877  to  1881  officiated  as  United  States 
marshal  for  the  District  of  Columbia.  He  was  subse- 
quentlyappointed  commissionerof  deeds  for  the  District 
of  Columbia.  He  was  removed  from  this  office  in  1886, 
and  soon  afterward  visited  England.  He  married  a 
white  woman  in  1884.  In  1889  President  Harrison 
appointed  him  minister  to  Hayti.  He  died  in  1895. 

DOW,  Neal,  temperance  reformer,  born  in  Port- 
land, Me.,  March  20,  1804.  He  is  of  Quaker  parent- 
age. In  1851,  while  a member  of  the  State  Legisla- 
ture, he  secured  the  passage  of  what  is  called  the 
“ Maine  Law,”  which,  under  severe  penalties,  prohibits 
the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors.  In  1884  this  provision 
was  incorporated  in  the  constitution  of  the  State.  He 
was  twice  chosen  mayor  of  Portland,  and  during  the 
Civil  war  served  as  brigadier-general  of  volunteers, 
holding  at  different  times  three  separate  commands. 
He  was  twice  wounded  and  once  taken  prisoner.  He 
resigned  from  the  army  in  1864.  In  1880  he  was  the 
candidate  of  the  National  Prohibition  party  for  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  Died  Oct.  2,  1897. 

DOWNING,  Andrew  Jackson,  landscape  gar- 
dener, born  in  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  October  31,  1815; 
drowned  in  the  Hudson,  July  28,  1852.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  an  academy  in  Montgomery,  N.  Y.,  which 
he  left  to  aid  his  brother  in  the  nursery  garden  estab- 
lished by  their  father,  and  he  determined  to  be  a land- 
scape gardener.  In  1838  he  built  a mansion  which  he 
considered  the  true  style  of  a country  home,  and  soon 


became  an  authority  on  the  embellishment  of  country 
places.  In  1850  he  visited  England  and  wrote  descrip- 
tions of  its  country  seats,  and  on  his  return  in  1851,  he 
was  appointed  to  lay  out  the  public  grounds  of  Wash- 
ington. He  was  engaged  in  this  work  when  he  sailed 
from  his  home  in  Newburg  in  the  steamer  Henry  Clay, 
which  took  fire,  and  he  was  drowned  in  his  efforts  to 
save  other  people.  Mr.  Downing  published  a Treatise 
on  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Landscape  Gardening 
(1841);  Cottage  Residences  (1842);  and  Fruits  and 
Fruit  Trees  of  America  (1845).  He  was  also  editor 
of  the  Horticulturist,  a monthly  magazine  published 
in  Albany,  to  which  he  contributed  papers  which  were 
collected  and  issued  as  Rural  Essays  (1854). 

DOYLE,  Sir  A.  Conan,  the  creator  of  “Sherlock 
Holmes,”  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1859,  studied 
medicine  there  and  practiced  until  1890,  when  his  suc- 
cess as  a novelist  led  him  to  abandon  his  profession. 
He  has  published  The  Adventures  of  Sherlock  Holmes, 
a series  of  powerful  and  remarkably  vivid  detective 
stories,  which  have  been  widely  admired,  several  other 
volumes  of  short  stories,  Micah  Clarke,  The  White 
Company ,'  The  Refugees  (1893) ; and  A Story  of  Water- 
loo (1894),  a short  play  staged  by  Henry  Irving.  In 
1894  Dr.  Doyle  lectured  in  the  United  States. 

DRAKE,  Joseph  Rodman,  poet  and  physician,  was 
born  in  New  York  city,  August  7,  1795.  His  mostaspir- 
ing  poem,  The  Culprit  Fay,  was  written  in  his  twenty- 
second  year.  His  best-known  composition  is  the  ad- 
dress to  The  American  Flag,  for  which  Halleck  fur- 
nished the  four  concluding  lines.  For  several  years 
Doctor  Drake  kept  a drug  store  in  Park  row,  New 
York  city.  He  died  of  consumption,  Sept.  21,  1820. 

DRAKE,  Samuel  Gardner,  antiquary,  born  in 
Pittsfield,  N.  H.,  October  11,  1798;  died  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  June  14,  1875.  He  was  educated  at  the 
public  school,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty  he  became 
a public  school  teacher.  He  went  to  Boston,  in 
1825,  and  republished  Captain  Church’s  Entertaining 
History  of  King  Philip's  War.  In  1828  he  opened 
the  first  antiquarian  bookstore  in  the  United  States. 
He  was  a founder  of  the  New  England  Historical  and 
Genealogical  society,  of  which  he  was  made  president 
in  1858.  He  removed  to  London  for  two  years,  after- 
ward returning  to  this  country.  He  edited  some  New 
England  works,  and  published  many  books  of  histor- 
ical and  antiquarian  subjects,  including  an  Indian 
Biography  (1832);  Book  of  the  Indians  (1833),  often 
republished;  Old  Indian  Chronicles  (1836);  Indian 
Captivities  (1839)  ; Drake  Family  (1845)  ; History  and 
Antiquities  of  Boston  (1856);  Researches  Among  the 
British  Archives  (i860)  ; Memoir  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
(1862);  Annals  of  Witchcraft  in  the  United  States 
1869  ; and  the  History  of  the  Five  Years'  French  and 
Indian  War  ( 1870). 

DRAPER,  John  William,  scientist,  born  in  Eng- 
land, May  5,  181 1 ; died  in  New  York,  January  4,  1882. 
He  was  educated  by  tutors,  and  studied  chemistry  under 
Doctor  Turner,  in  the  University  of  London.  In  1836 
he  was  graduated  in  medicine  at  the  university  of  Vir- 
ginia, and  was  made  professor  of  chemistry  in  Hampden- 
Sidney  College,  Virginia.  In  1839  he  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  chemistry  in  the  university  of  New  York. 
He  contributed  to  numerous  scientific  periodicals  in 
Europe  and  America,  and  received  the  Rumford  medal 
from  the  American  Academy  of  Science.  He  early 
gave  his  attention  to  the  spectroscope,  and  made  inves- 
tigations on  phosphorescence,  and  obtained  phosphor- 
escent photographs  of  the  moon.  In  1839  he  succeeded 
in  making  photographs  of  the  human  face  when  it  was 
regarded  impracticable.  He  made  many  discoveries  in 
chemistry,  his  experimental  investigations  always  lead- 


D R A — D U C 


ing  to  the  desired  results.  His  works  include:  On  the 
Forces  that  Produce  the  Organization  of  Plants  (1844); 
Physiology  (1856);  History  of  the  Intellectual  Develop- 
ment of  Europe  ( 1862J;  Thoughts  of  the  Civil  Policy  of 
America  (1861-5);  A History  of  the  American  Civil 
War  (3  vols.,  I 866-8);  A History  of  the  Conflict  Be- 
tween Science  and  Religion ; Scientific  Memoirs  (1878), 
and  Text-books  on  Chemistry  and  Natural  Philosophy . 

DRAPER,  Henry,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born 
in  Virginia,  March  7,  1837;  died  in  New  York  city, 
November  30,  1882.  He  made  many  discoveries  in 
astronomy;  notably,  with  regard  to  the  solar  spectrum, 
and  was  a member  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences,  and  of  many  scientific  societies. 

DREW,  Louisa,  actress,  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land, January  10,  1820,  was  the  daughter  of  an  English 
actor  named  Lane.  Her  father  died  early,  and  in  1828 
she  came  with  her  mother,  a popular  actress,  to  this 
country,  where  she  played  in  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia. In  1834  she  played  “Julia,”  in  the  Hunchback 
at  Boston  and  in  1835  was  engaged  for  high  comedy 
parts  at  the  New  Orleans  theater.  In  1836  Miss  Lane 
was  married  to  Henry  Hunt,  an  English  operatic 
vocalist,  from  whom  she  was  divorced  in  1848,  marry- 
ing George  Mossop,  an  Irish  comedian,  and  in  1849, 
on  his  death,  she  became  Mrs.  John  Drew.  After 
continuing  her  toqrs  through  the  country  for  several 
years  more,  in  company  with  her  husband,  in  1861  she 
assumed  the  sole  management  of  the  Arch  Street 
theater  in  Philadelphia,  which  remained  under  her 
control  until  1894.  She  was  still  occasionally  seen  on 
the  stage  at  that  time  and  rated  one  of  the  finest  living 
performers  of  old  ladies  in  standard  comedies.  Her 
“Mrs.  Malaprop”  is  famous.  John,  eldest  son  of 
Mrs.  Drew,  is  a favorite  actor  in  society  roles,  and 
after  a novitiate  in  Augustin  Daly’s  company  began 
starring  in  1891.  Mrs.  Drew  died  Aug.  31,  1897. 

DREXEL,  Anthony  Joseph,  head  of  the  great 
banking  firm  of  Drexel,  Morgan  &Co.,  of  Philadelphia, 
New  York,  London,  etc.,  was  born  in  Philadelphia, 
in  1826,  and  died  June  30,  1893.  He  founded  the 
Drexel  Institute  of  Art,  Science,  and  Industry,  in  that 
city,  to  which  he  gave  $2,500,000. 

DROUYN  DeLHUYS,  Edouard,  born  in  France, 
November  19,  1805;  died  March  1,  1881.  He  was 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  1848,  ambassador  to  Eng- 
land in  1849  after  the  coup  d ’ etat , vice  president  of  the 
Senate,  and  in  1854,  and  from  1863  to  1866,  foreign 
minister.  After  the  empire  fell  he  went  into  exile. 

DRUMMOND,  Prof.  Henry,  was  born  at  Stirling, 
and  educated  at  the  University  of  Edinburg.  He  spent 
much  time  in  mission  work  and  was  a lecturer  in  science 
at  the  Free  Church  college,  Glasgow.  His  popularity 
as  a writer  became  assured  with  the  publication  of  his 
famous  book.  Natural  Law  in  the  Spiritual  World , 
Tropical  Africa,  and  other  publications.  During  1893 
Professor  Drummond  lectured  in  America  on  “Evolu- 
tion ;”  and  the  lectures  were  published  in  1894  under 
the  title,  The  Ascent  of  Man.  Died  Mar.  11,  1897. 

DRUMMOND,  Thomas,  lawyer  and  jurist,  born  in 
Lincoln  county,  Me.,  October  16,  1809;  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  in  1830,  became  United  States  judge  for  the 
district  of  Illinois  in  i860,  judgeof  thenorthern district 
in  1865,  and  in  1869  judge  of  the  United  States  Circuit 
Court.  He  died  May  16,  1890. 

DUBOIS,  John,  bishop  pfNew  York,  born  in  Paris, 
August  24,  1764;  died  in  New  York,  December  20,  1842. 
In  1789  he  was  ordained  and  at  the  time  of  the  French 
Revolution  he  sailed  for  Norfolk,  Va.  He  was  stationed 
at  Norfolk,  Richmond,  and  Frederick,  Md.,  in  1806 
erected  a church  in  Frederick,  and  in  1809  founded  Mt. 
St.  Mary’s  college,  which  has  sent  forth  thousands  of 


6527 

priests.  Dr.  Dubois  was  president  of  the  college,  pastor 
of  the  mountain  congregations,  and  of  the  church  in 
Emmitsburg,  superior  of  St.  Joseph  academy,  professor 
of  Latin  and  French  in  Mt.  St.  Mary’s  college,  and 
superintendent  of  the  farm  in  connection  with  the  col- 
lege. He  was  the  first  superior  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity 
in  the  United  States,  who  were  established  at  Emmits- 
burg under  his  protection.  In  1826  he  was  appointed 
bishop  of  New  York,  being  the  second  to  hold  this 
post.  He  was  consecrated  at  Baltimore,  October  29, 
1826,  and  installed  in  St.  Peter’s  Cathedral,  New  York, 
November  9,  1826,  where  he  served  until  1838. 

DU  BOIS,  William  Ewing,  American  writer  and 
authority  on  numismatics  and  kindred  subjects,  was 
born  in  Doylestown,  Pa.,  December  15,  1810,  became 
assistant  assayer  of  the  United  States  mint  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1836,  and  assayer  in  1872.  He  wrote 
A Manual  of  Gold  and  Silver  Coins  of  all  Nations 
(1842-51),  and  A Description  of  Ancient  and  Modern 
Coins  (i860),  besides  making  the  extensive  numis- 
matic collection  of  the  mint.  He  died  July  14,  1881. 

DU  BOISGOBEY,  Fortune,  born  in  France  in 
1824,  has  written  many  novels  in  the  style  of  Gaboriau, 
such  as  Le  Crime  de  V Omnibus , and  Les  Mysteries  du 
Nouveau  Paris.  Died  Feb.  26,  1891. 

DUBOIS-PIGALLE,  Paul,  born  in  France,  July 
18,  1829,  is  one  of  the  leading  sculptors  of  that  country. 
He  is  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  keeper  of  the 
Luxembourg  Museum,  and  director  of  the  school  of  fine 
arts  of  Paris. 

DUBOIS  REYMOND,  Emil,  physiologist,  born  in 
Berlin,  November  7,  1818,  and  noted  for  his  researches 
in  animal  electricity,  which  he  began  in  1841.  In  1858 
he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  physiology  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Berlin  and  in  1867  was  elected  permanent 
secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Died  Dec.,  1896. 

DU  CAMP,  Maxime,  traveler  and  author,  born  at 
Paris,  February  8,  1822.  He  made  travels  in  the  east, 
wrote  of  them,  and  also  wrote  poems,  romances,  a 
valuable  history  of  the  commune,  called  Les  Convul- 
sions de  Paris , and  a great  work  on  Paris  and  its  institu- 
tions. He  was  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  and  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy.  HediedFeb.  10,  1894. 

DUCEY,  Thomas  James,  well  known  and  popular 
Catholic  priest,  was  born  in  Lismore,  Ireland,  Feb.  4, 
1843;  came  to  New  York  in  1848  and  was  ordained  priest 
in  1868.  He  fought  and  exposed  the  abuses  of  Tammany 
and  founded  a home  for  indigent  sewing  women 
in  1887. 

DU  CHAILLU,  Paul  Belloni,  was  born  in  Paris, 
France,  July  31,  1835.  His  father  was  a trader  on 
the  west  coast  of  Africa.  At  an  early  age  the  son 
went  thither,  and  acquired  a knowledge  of  the  lan- 
guages and  character  of  the  native  tribes.  In  1852  he 
came  to  the  United  States  with  a cargo  of  ebony 
wood,  and  here  published  a series  of  papers  on  the 
Gaboon  country.  In  1855  he  returned  to  the  “ Dark 
Continent,”  and  spent  four  years  exploring  the  then 
unknown  region  lying  two  ^degrees  on  each  side 
of  the  equator.  During  this  time  he  shot  and 
stuffed  many  birds  and  animals,  among  which  were 
several  gorillas,  a monstrous  ape,  until  then  un- 
known to  scientists.  In  1859  he  returned  to  New 
York  city  with  his  specimens  and  a collection  of 
African  weapons  and  implements,  which  were  publicly 
exhibited,  and  eventually  sold  to  various  purchasers. 
An  account  of  this  enterprise  was  published  under 
the  title  of  Explorations  and  Adventures  in  Equa- 
torial Africa  (1861;  revised  in  1871).  This  book’s 
extraordinary  statements  provoked  doubt  among 
scientists  as  to  the  author’s  exact  truthfulness.  To 
vindicate  himself  from  severe  aspersions  Du  Chaillu 


D U C — D U N 


6528 

visited  Africa  again  in  1863,  and  returned  in  1865. 
He  published  an  account  of  this  second  expedition  under 
the  title  A Journey  to  Ashango  Land  (1867).  He 
then  lived  in  the  United  States,  where  he  lectured 
and  published  a series  of  books  of  adventure.  Subse- 
quently he  traveled  to  Sweden,  Norway,  Lapland,  and 
Finland,  and  published  The  Land  of  the  Midnight 
Sun  (1881),  The  Viking  Age  (1889)  and  Lvar,  the 
Viking  (1893). 

DUCHE,  Jacob,  clergyman,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  of  French  Huguenot  descent,  January  31,  1738; 
died  there  January  3,  1798.  He  graduated  at  the  col- 
lege of  Philadelphia  in  1757,  studied  theology  in  Eng- 
land, was  ordained  in  1759,  made  assistant-minister  to 
Christ  church,  Philadelphia,  professor  of  oratory  in 
the  college  of  Philadelphia,  and  in  1768  a trustee. 
During  the  Revolution  he  favored  the  colonists,  and  in 
1774  opened  the  first  sessjon  of  the  first  Continental 
Congress.  In  1775  h-e  became  rector  of  Christ  church. 
In  July,  1776,  he  was  appointed  chaplain  of  congress, 
but  soon  resigned,  urged  General  Washington  to 
abandon  the  cause  of  independence,  and  in  December 
sailed  to  England.  His  property  in  Philadelphia  was 
confiscated.  He  returned  to  Philadelphia  in  1792,  and 
became  a follower  of  Swedenborg. 

DUCLERC,  Charles  Theodore  Eugene,  born  in 
France,  November  9,  1812,  became  a journalist  in 
Paris,  and  in  1848  a member  of  the  constituent  assem- 
bly and  minister  of  finance.  In  retirement  during  the 
empire,  in  1871  he  was  elected  to  the  National  Assem- 
bly, acting  with  the  Republican  Left  and  in  1875  be- 
came vice-president,  and  life  senator.  In  August, 
1882,  he  became  premier  for  six  months.  He  died  in 
1888. 

DUDLEY,  Joseph,  colonial  governor  of  Massachu- 
setts, born  in  Roxbury,  Mass.,  September  23,  1647; 
died  there  April  2,  1720.  In  1675  he  helped  negotiate 
a treaty  with  the  Narragansett  Indians.  In  1682  he 
visited  England  on  behalf  of  the  colonists,  in  1685  was 
appointed  president  of  New  England,  and  in  1687  chief 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court.  From  1690  to  1693  he 
was  chief  justice  of  New  York,  and  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts from  1702  to  1715. 

DUFFERIN,  Frederick  Temple  Hamilton 
Blackwood,  Earl  of,  British  statesman,  born  in  Flor- 
ence, Italy,  June  24,  1826.  He  studied  at  Eton  school, 
and  from  there  was  sent  to  Christ  church,  Oxford, 
where  he  took  his  degree.  On  July  21,  1841,  he  suc- 
ceeded to  his  father’s  title,  and  for  some  years  was  a 
lord-in-waiting  on  the  queen.  In  1846-47,  accompanied 
by  a friend,  he  went  to  Ireland,  at  the  time  of  the 
famine,  and  on  his  return  published  an  account  of  his 
experiences.  In  February,  1855,  he  was  attached  to 
the  Vienna  mission  under  Lord  John  Russell,  and  in 
1859  made  a yacht  voyage  to  Iceland.  In  i860  he  gave 
a printed  account  of  this  voyage  in  Letters  from  High 
Latitudes.  In  i860  he  became  British  commissioner 
in  Syria,  and  served  as  under-secretary  of  state  for 
India  from  1864  until  1866,  and  later,  for  a short  time, 
was  under-secretary  of  war.  From  1868  until  1872  he 
was  chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  and  at  the 
*nd  of  the  latter  year  was  appointed  governor-general 
of  Canada.  In  1876,  accompanied  by  Lady  Dufferin, 
he  made  a tour  through  British  Columbia.  He  retired 
from  the  governorship  of  Canada  in  October,  1878. 
Since  then  he  has  received  various  degrees  from  Ameri- 
can and  British  universities.  In  1879  he  was  appointed 
ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  in  1881  became  trans- 
ferred as  ambassador  to  Constantinople.  In  1884  he 
was  sent  to  India  as  viceroy.  Lord  Dufferin  was  made 
an  earl  in  1871.  He  is  the  author  of  Irish  Emigration 
and  the  Tenure  of  Land  in  Ireland ; Mr.  Mill's  Plan 


for  the  Pacification  of  Ireland  Examined.  In  Dec.,  1891, 
he  was  ambassador  to  France.  Died  Feb.,  1902. 

DUFFY,  Sir  Charles  Gavan,  born  in  Ireland  in 
1816;  joined  the  “Young  Ireland”  party  and  con- 
tributed the  Ballad  Poetry  of  Ireland  to  the  Nation 
newspaper.  He  was  convicted  of  sedition  in  1844 
along  with  Daniel  O’Connell,  but  the  conviction  was 
quashed  on  appeal.  In  1848  he  was  tried  for  treason- 
felony,  but  the  government  failed  to  secure  a verdict. 
In  July,  1852,  he  became  a member  of  parliament,  and 
in  1856  emigrated  to  Australia.  He  became  minis- 
ter of  public  works  in  Victoria,  and  in  1871,  prime 
minister  of  that  colony.  In  1876  he  reentered  the 
provincial  parliament,  was  knighted  and  became 
speaker.  He  returned  to  England  in  1880  and  pub- 
lished Young  Ireland  and  other  historical  works. 

DU  LHUT,  Daniel  Greyslon,  explorer,  born  in 
Lyons,  France;  died  near  Lake  Superior  in  1709.  He 
was  the  younger  son  of  a French  nobleman,  and  made 
his  way  to  Canada  in  quest  of  adventures  and  a fortune. 
Here  he  became  the  leader  of  a band  of  young  French- 
men who  led  a roving  hunters’  life,  and  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Frontenac  became  engaged  in  the  fur-trade. 
To  diversify  their  pursuits  they  traded,  or  fought,  as 
occasion  offered.  Du  Lhut  made  several  voyages  to 
France  in  the  interest  of  the  colonial  minister. 
Returning,  he  built  a trading-post  on  the  north  side  of 
Lake  Superior,  where  Fort  William  now  stands.  In 
September,  1678,  he  left  Quebec,  and  in  the  year  follow- 
ing visited  three  Sioux  settlements ; in  June,  1670,  he  be- 
gan to  explore  the  Upper  Mississippi  river.  At  this 
time  heencountered  FatherHennepin  andhis  followers, 
and  continued  for  some  time  in  their  company.  During 
his  manyadventureswith  the  Indians  Du  Lhut  displayed 
much  sagacity  and  personal  bravery.  In  1695  he  com- 
manded at  Fort  Frontenac,  and  in  1697  was  captain  of 
infantry.  In  his  last  years  he  became  crippled  by  gout. 

DUMAS,  Alexandre,  the  younger,  was  born  in 
Paris,  July  28,  1824,  and  was  educated  at  the  College 
Bourbon.  He  was  the  son  of  Alexandre  Davy  Dumas, 
the  author  of  Monte  Cristo  and  the  Three  Musketeers , 
and  the  grandson  of  General  Dumas,  a distinguished 
officer  of  the  First  Empire.  The  younger  Dumas  was 
brought  up  among  actors  and  literary  people,  and  at  an 
early  age  began  to  write  poetry  and  sketches.  His  first 
important  work,  La  Dame  aux  Camelias,  was  produced 
in  1852,  has  been  dramatized,  and  forms  the  basis  of 
Verdi’s  opera,  La  Traviata.  M.  Dumas’  novels 
deal  chiefly  with  the  demi-monde,  and  are  essentially 
“Frenchy,”  in  the  unpleasant  meaning  of  that  adjec- 
tive. He  wrote  a number  of  bright  comedies.  He  was 
installed  as  a member  of  the  French  Academy, 
February  11,  1875.  He  died  November  27,  1895. 

DU  MAURIER,  George,  born  at  Paris  in  1834, 
became  well  known  by  his  cartoons  in  the  London 
Punch , and  famous  in  1894  from  his  novel  Trilby,  a 
picture  of  artist  life  in  the  Latin  Quarter  and  a study 
of  hypnotism,  which  became  the  popular  fad  of  the 
season  in  this  country.  He  also  wrote  Peter  Ibbetson , 
a novel,  and  is  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
painters  in  water  colors.  Died  Oct.  8,  1896. 

DUNCAN,  James  Armstrong,  born  in  Norfolk, 
Va.,  April  14,  1830;  died  September  23,  1877.  He 
graduated  at  Randolph-Macon  College  in  1849,  and 
from  1868  until  his  death  was  its  president. 

DUNLAP,  William,  artist,  born  in  Perth,  Amboy, 
N.  J.,  in  1766;  died  in  New  York  city,  September  28, 
1839.  In  1 777  he  moved  with  his  father  to  New  York 
city,  where  he  began  to  paint  portraits.  In  the 
year  following  he  went  to  London  for  study,  and  among 
other  artists,  spent  sometime  under  Benjamin  West. 
In  1789  he  wrote  a play,  The  Father,  which  was  several 


D U N — D U S 6529 


times  played  in  London,  and  in  1796,  being  stage-smitten, 
he  became  connected  with  the  old  John  Street  theater, 
New  York,  as  one  of  its  managers.  In  1798  he  became 
lessee  of  the  Park  theater,  when  his  tragedy  of 
Andre  was  performed.  As  manager  he  was  busied 
in  translating  plays  from  German  authors,  especially 
those  of  Kotzebue,  many  of  which  were  subsequently 
published  in  pamphlet  form.  Here  he  remained  several 
years,  as  sole  manager  and  co-manager,  until  he  became 
unable  to  meet  his  engagements.  From  1814  until 
1816  he  was  employed  as  assistant  paymaster-general 
of  the  New  York  militia.  Later,  he  renewed  his  inter- 
est in  painting,  and  produced  a series  of  large  scriptural 
pieces  that  were  exhibited  to  the  public. 

DUNMORE,  John  Murray,  Earl,  royal  governor 
of  Virginia,  born  in  1732 ; died  in  Ramsgate,  England, 
in  May,  1809.  He  was  made  a peer  in  1756,  became 
governor  of  New  York  in  1770,  and  ot  Virginia  in  1771. 
In  1772  he  went  to  ''Williamsburg,  Va.,  where  the 
promulgation  of  his  stern  measures  caused  much  dissat 
isfaction.  Among  other  acts  he  removed  the  powder 
from  the  magazine  at  that  place  on  board  of  a British 
war  vessel.  At  this  offense  the  inhabitants  became 
riotous  and  rushed  to  arms.  Alarmed,  he  sent  his  wife 
for  safety  on  board  a British  man-of-war,  and  issued  a 
proclamation  against  the  insurgents  and  their  leader, 
Patrick  Henry.  Hearing  of  the  battle  of  Lexington, 
he  took  refuge  in  Fort  Johnson,  and  sent  his  wife  to 
New  York  city.  In  1776,  supported  by  a number  of 
newly  acquired  loyalists,  he  raided  the  settlers  on  York 
and  James  rivers,  destroying  their  property  and  kidnap- 
ing their  slaves.  On  December  9th  his  band  was  de- 
feated in  a skirmish  at  Great  Bridge,  in  revenge  for 
which  he  set  fire  to  Norfolk.  In  June  of  the  following 
year  his  party  occupied  Gwynn  Island,  in  Chesapeake 
river,  where  he  was  wounded  and  from  whence  they 
were  dislodged.  His  vessels  thereafter  made  depreda- 
tions on  the  coast  and  river  banks  of  Virginia,  but  with 
only  small  results.  The  minor  craft  were  eventually 
burnt,  and  the  large  ones  sent  to  the  West  Indies.  This 
ended  his  inglorious  career.  He  returned  to  England, 
and  in  1786  was  appointed  governor  of  the  Bermuda 
Islands. 

DUNNELL,  Mark  H.,  born  in  Buxton,  Me.,  July 
2,  1823;  became  a member  of  the  State  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives in  1854  and  of  the  Senate  in  1855,  and  from 
1855  to  1859  was  State  superintendent  of  schools  of 
Maine.  He  served  in  the  army,  and  became  United 
States  consul  at  Vera  Cruz  in  1862,  and  in  1865  settled 
in  Minnesota,  where  he  was  a member  of  the  State 
legislature,  and  for  three  years  State  superintendent  of 
public  instruction.  He  entered  congress  in  1870,  and 
sat  until  1882,  and  in  1888  was  again  elected  to  congress 
as  a Republican. 

DUPONT,  Samuel  Francis,  naval  officer,  born 
in  Bergen  Point,  N.  J.,  September  27,  1803;  died 
in  Philadelphia,  June  23,  1865.  His  father,  Victor 
Marie  Du  Pont  de  Nemours,  left  France  in  1799,  and 
resided  at  Bergen  Point,  N.  J.,  afterward  estab- 
lishing in  Delaware  the  great  gunpowder  works.  The 
son  was  appointed  a midshipman  in  the  United  States 
navy,  December  19,  1815,  and  became  lieutenant  in 
1826,  and  commander  in  1842.  In  1845  he  commanded 
the  frigate  Congress , and  was  sent  to  the  Pacific.  He 
served  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  commanding  the  sloop- 
of-war  Cyrene,  and  was  made  captain  in  1855.  In  1857 
he  was  sent  on  special  duty  to  China,  commanding  the 
steam  frigate  Minnesota , and  returned  in  two  years. 
In  1861  he  was  in  command  of  the  navy  yard  in 
Philadelphia,  and  he  equipped  and  organized  the  naval 
force  for  service  in  the  Civil  war.  In  September,  1861, 
he  was  appointed  flag  officer,  and  given  the  command 


of  the  South  Atlantic  squadron,  and  he  carried  Gen. 
W.  T.  Sherman’s  force,  numbering  10,000  men,  to 
capture  Port  Royal,  S.  C.  On  November  7th  he 
attacked  Fort  Walker,  on  Hilton  Head,  and  Fort 
Beauregard,  leading  in  the  flag-ship  Wabash , and  took 
the  forts,  and  in  the  spring  of  1862  he  moved  down  the 
coast  of  Florida,  taking  nearly  every  town  and  post  on 
his  way.  In  August,  1862,  he  was  made  a rear- 
admiral.  In  1863  preparations  were  made  for  an 
attack  on  Charleston  by  the  land  and  naval  forces,  bui 
the  enemy’s  works  were  too  strong  to  be  overcome,  and 
this  plan  failed.  In  July,  1863,  Admiral  Dupont  was 
relieved  by  Admiral  Dahlgren,  and  he  returned  to 
Wilmington,  Del.  He  was  the  author  of  a treatise 
on  the  use  of  floating  batteries  for  coast  defenses,  which 
has  gone  through  various  editions  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe. 

DUPORT AIL, Louis  L.,  born  in  France  in  1736; 
died  in  1802.  He  came  to  America  in  1777,  joined  the 
engineer  corps,  and  became  major-general.  He  acted 
as  engineer-in-chief  at  the  siege  of  Yorktown,  and  in 
1 790,  having  returned  to  France,  became  minister  of  war. 

DUPUY,  Charles,  French  statesman,  was  born  at 
LePuy  in  1851,  of  humble  parentage.  He  taught  school 
until  1885,  when  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Dep- 
uties as  an  advanced  Republican.  In  December,  1892,  he 
took  office  for  the  first  time  in  M.  Ribot’s  ministry,  and  in 
March,  1893,  hesucceededhim.  Hewasretainedinoffice 
by  PresidentCasimir  Perier,  but  when  scandals  connect- 
ed with  members  of  his  ministry  prompted  Casimir  Perier 
to  resign  in  January,  1895,  M.  DuPuy  was  succeeded  in 
turn  by  M.  Ribot,  as  premier  under  President  Faure. 

DURAND,  Asher  Brown,  painter,  born  in  Jef- 
ferson, N.  J.,  August  21,  1796;  died  in  South  Orange, 
N.  J.,  September  17,  1886.  He  engraved  Trum- 
bull’s Declaration  of  Independence  and  Musidora, 
and  made  many  plates  for  annuals,  until  he  began 
the  study  of  painting,  and  from  1836  he  devoted  himself 
to  portraiture  and  landscapes.  Of  portraits,  he  com- 
pleted those  of  Jackson,  J.  Q.  Adams,  Bryant,  Kent, 
and  others  ; of  figure  paintings,  he  executed  Harvey 
Birch  and  Washington,  The  Wrath  of  Peter  Stuyvesant, 
and  The  Capture  of  Andre.  His  best  known  landscapes 
are  * The  Catskills  from  Hillsdale,  The  Franconia 
Mo^mtains,  Franconia  Notch , several  views  of  Lake 
George,  and  Kavterskill  Cove.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design,  and  from 
1845  until  1861  its  president. 

DUSTIN,  Hannah,  pioneer,  born  about  1660. 
She  was  married  to  Thomas  Dustin,  of  Haverhill,  Mass., 
December  3,  1677.  In  1697  the  Indians  made  an 
attack  on  Haverhill,  in  which  forty  inhabitants  were 
slain  and  captured.  Mrs.  Dustin,  with  her  boy  and 
a nurse,  were  carried  away,  while  her  husband  hast- 
ened to  save  the  lives  of  their  remaining  seven 
children.  Their  home  was  fired,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  infant,  torn  from  the  mother’s  arms,  was  murdered 
by  the  savages.  The  wife  and  the  others  for  several 
days  tramped  barefooted  on  the  snow,  driven  forward 
by  their  captors,  and  at  night  slept  on  the  wet  ground, 
until  the  band  reached  an  island  near  the  present 
site  of  Concord,  N.  H.  Here  they  were  transferred 
to  the  chief  of  the  tribe,  kept  in  durance,  subject  to 
the  decision  of  life  or  death  within  a day  or  two.  On 
consultation  they  determined  to  escape.  At  night  they 
attacked  the  sleeping  savages  with  tomahawks,  the  lad 
braining  the  chief  and  the  mother  killing  nine  of  the 
others  with  blows  that  were  immediately  fatal.  Only  a 
squaw  and  a wounded  Indian  boy  escaped.  They  then 
acquired  a single  canoe,  stacked  it  with  food,  and  de- 
stroyed several  others,  scalped  the  dead  savages,  and, 
through  many  hardships,  made  their  way  home.  To 


D U R — E A T 


6530 

the  governor  of  Massachusetts  Mrs.  Dustin  presented 
a tomahawk  and  a gun,  together  with  ten  scalps,  as  an 
evidence  of  her  victory.  The  general  court  accorded 
to  Mrs.  Dustin,  and  to  Leonard,  the  lad,  $250  each,  and 
named  the  eventful  place  of  massacre  Dustin’s  Island. 

DURANT,  Henry  Towle,  philanthropist,  was 
born  in  Hanover,  N.  H.,  February  20,  1822;  died 
in  Wellesley,  Mass.,  October  3,  1881.  His  name 
was  originally  Henry  Welles  Smith.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  in  1841,  read  law  with  Gen.  Benjamin 
F.  Butler,  and  in  1846  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Boston, 
becoming  prominent  in  his  profession.  He  became 
interested  in  the  New  York  Belting  and  Packing  Com- 
pany, and  other  profitable  ventures,  and  in  1863,  on  the 
death  of  his  son,  retired  from  business.  He  became 
impressed  with  the  necessity  of  a college  for  the  higher 
education  of  women,  and  founded  Wellesley  College,  at 
Wellesley,  Mass.,  at  a cost  of  a million  dollars  and  an 
annual  endowment  of  $50,000.  It  was  opened  in  Sep- 
tember, 1875,  and  maintains  ahigh  educational  standard. 
Toward  the  close  of  his  life  Mr.  Durant  became  a lay 
preacher,  in  New  England. 

DUSE,  Eleanora,  a tragic  actress  of  great  power, 
was  born  at  Vigevano,  Italy,  in  1861,  of  a family  of 
actors,  and  went  on  the  stage  in  1874.  Her  career  in 
recent  years  has  been  one  of  unbounded  success.  She 
was  cordially  received  in  America  in  1893,  playing 
“ Camille  ” and  other  roles,  in  Italian,  and  she  visited 
London  in  1893  and  1894. 

DUYCKINCK,  Evert  Augustus,  editor,  born  in 
New  York,  November  23,  1816;  died  there  August  13, 
1878.  He  graduated  at  Columbia,  studied  law,  traveled 


EADS,  James  Buchanan,  born  at  Lawrenceburg, 
Ind.,  May  28, 1820;  died  March  8,  1887.  From  1842 
to  1857  he  was  engaged  in  the  recovery  of  sunken  ships, 
and  during  the  Civil  war  he  built  a number  of  gun- 
boats for  the  government.  He  built  the  St.  Louis  bridge 
(1867-74)  and  constructed  the  jetties  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi.  His  latest  project  was  for  a ship- 
railway across  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  which  has 
not  been  carried  out. 

EAKINS,  Thomas,  artist,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
July  25,  1844;  studied  in  Paris  under  Gerome  and  Bon- 
nat.  He  exhibited  Mending  the  Net , The  Sculptor , 
The  Crucifixion  and  other  paintings  at  the  World’s 
Fair  in  Chicago  in  1893. 

EARLE,  Pliny,  born  in  Leicester,  Mass.,  December 
31,  1809,  graduated  in  medicine  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1837,  and  became  one  of  the  best 
known  alienists.  He  was  physician  at  Bloomingdale 
asylum  1844-49,  and  superintendent  of  the  State  hospital 
for  the  insane  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  for  more  than 
twenty  years.  Doctor  Earle  was  a prominent  member 
of  the  American  Medical  Association,  the  New  York 
Academy  of  Medicine,  and  other  societies,  and  a fre- 
quent contributor  to  medical  journals.  He  died  in  1892. 

EARLY,  John,  born  in  Virginia,  January  1,  1786; 
died  Nov.  5,  1873.  He  became  an  itinerant  Methodist 
preacher  in  1807,  and  when  the  denomination  separated 
in  1844,  he  went  with  the  South.  In  1854  he  was 
elected  bishop  and  held  that  office  until  his  death. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Randolph -Macon 
College. 

EARLY,  Jubal  Anderson,  soldier,  born  in  Frank- 
lin county,  Va.,  November  3,  1816.  In  1837  he  was 
graduated  at  West  Point,  and  appointed  lieutenant  of 
artillery,  but  in  a short  time  he  resigned  from  the 


in  Europe,  and  on  his  return  edited  a monthly  maga- 
zine, Arcturus,  from  1840  till  1842.  In  1847  he  estab- 
lished The  Literary  World , which  he  conducted  with 
his  brother  George  until  1853.  In  1853-6  he  published 
with  his  brother  the  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature. 

DVORAK,  Antonin,  Bohemian  composer,  was  born 
in  1841  at  Muhlhausen-on-the-Moldau,  the  son  of  an 
inn  keeper.  He  learned  music  from  the  gypsies,  en- 
tered the  Prague  Conservatoire  in  1857  and  was  stamped 
as  a great  composer  by  his  Stabat  Mater , produced  in 
London  in  1883.  His  dramatic  opera  Dimitrj , pro- 
duced at  Vienna  in  1892,  proved  a great  success. 
In  August,  1892,  he  came  to  New  York  to  direct, 
for  three  years,  the  National  Conservatory  of  Music. 
On  October  12,  his  cantata,  Columbus , was  produced 
at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House. 

DWIGHT,  Theodore,  journalist  and  lawyer,  born 
in  Northampton,  Mass.,  December  15,  1764;  died  in 
New  York  city,  July  12,  1846.  * He  was  a Federalist, 
served  in  the  State  Senate,  and  in  congress,  edited  the 
Hartford  Mirror  in  1812,  and  was  secretary  of  the 
Hartford  convention  of  1814.  In  1817  he  founded  the 
Daily  Advertiser,  in  New  York,  and  edited  it  until  1836. 
He  published  A History  of  the  Hartford  Convention 
( r^33)>  and  Character  of  Thomas  Jefferson  as  Exhibited 
in  his  own  Writings  (1839). 

DWIGHT,  Timothy,  an  eminent  American  edu- 
cator, grandson  of  President  Timothy  Dwight,  of  Yale, 
was  born  in  Norwich,  Conn.,  in  1828.  He  was  educated 
at  Yale,  was  for  many  years  professor  of  sacred  litera- 
ture in  Yale  Theological  Seminary  and  from  1866  to 
1899  was  president  of  Yale  College. 


army,  studied  law,  and  served  in  the  legislature  ol 
Virginia.  In  the  war  with  Mexico  he  became  major  of 
a volunteer  regiment.  At  the  opening  of  the  Civil  war 
he  entered  the  Confederate  service,  and  was  present  in 
several  actions.  In  May,  1863,  he  held  the  lines  in 
Fredericksburg,  while  General  Lee  was  engaged  with 
General  Hooker  at  Chancellorsville.  In  July  he  com- 
manded a division  at  Gettysburg.  In  1864  he  com- 
manded in  the  valley  of  the  Shenandoah,  where  at  first 
he  was  successful,  but  was  finally  routed  by  General 
Sheridan.  Custer  beat  him  at  Waynesboro  in  March, 
1865,  and  he  was  removed  from  command.  After  the 
close  of  the  war  General  Early  went  to  Europe,  and  on 
his  return  resumed  the  practice  of  law  in  Richmond. 
From  there  he  went  to  New  Orleans,  where,  with 
General  Beauregard,  he  was  for  some  years  manager  of 
the  Louisiana  State  lottery.  In  1867  he  published 
Memoirs  of  the  Last  Year  of  the  War,  and  in  1883  pub- 
lished Jackson’s  Campaign  against  Pope  in  1862.  He 
died  in  Lynchburg,  Va.,  March  2,  1894. 

EASTBURN,  Manton,  born  in  Leeds,  England, 
February  9,  1801 ; came  to  the  United  States  when  a 
child,  and  graduated  at  Columbia  college  in  1817.  He 
was  ordained  deacon  in  the  Episcopal  Church  in  1822, 
became  priest  in  1825,  and  held  various  pastorates, 
until  in  February,  1843,  he  became  bishop  of  Massa- 
chusetts. He  died  in  Boston,  September  12,  1872. 

EASTMAN,  John  Robie,  born  in  Andover,  N.  H., 
July  29,  1836;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  1862.  He 
became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  United  States 
navy,  and  is  a Fellow  of  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science,  and  a member  of  many 
scientific  societies.  He  is  best  known  in  connection 
with  astronomical  research. 

EATON,  Dorman  B.,  born  in  Vermont,  June  27 


EAT— ED W 


1823;  graduated  at  Harvard  law-school  in  1850.  In 
1874,  and  again  from  1883  to  1886,  he  served  on  the 
civil  service  commission,  and  he  has  written  exten- 
sively on  civil  service  reform. 

EATON,  Edward  Dwight,  born  in  Lancaster, 
Wis.,  January  12,  1851 ; graduated  at  Beloit  in  1872, 
and  at  Yale  divinity  school  in  1875  ; was  pastor  of 
Congregational  churches  in  Iowa  and  Illinois,  and  in 
1886  became  president  of  Beloit  (Wis.)  College. 

EATON,  John,  born  in  Sutton,  N.  H.,  December 
5,  1829;  was  principal  and  superintendent  of  schools  in 
Ohio,  and  became  an  army  chaplain.  He  had  charge 
of  the  freedmen  and  received  a brigadier-general’s 
brevet.  From  1866  to  1870  he  edited  the  Memphis 
(Tenn.)  Post  and  was  State  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  1867-69.  General  Eaton,  who  is  LL.D. 
of  Dartmouth,  had  charge  of  educational  exhibits  at 
the  Centennial  and  New  Orleans  expositions,  and  is  a 
member  of  many  learned  societies. 

EATON,  John  Henry,  born  in  Tennessee  in  1790; 
died  in  1856.  He  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate  from  Tennessee,  and  was  Secretary  of  War  un- 
der Andrew  Jackson  in  1829-31.  The  objections  made 
by  wives  of  other  members  of  the  cabinet  to  associating 
with  his  wife  created  a public  scandal.  President 
Jackson  warmly  espoused  Mrs.  Eaton’s  cause,  and  the 
trouble  ended  in  a disruption  of  the  cabinet.  Mr. 
Eaton  was  afterward  governor  of  the  Territory  of  Flo- 
rida and  from  1836  to  1840  minister  to  Spain. 

EATON,  William,  born  in  Woodstock,  Conn., 
February  23,  1764;  died  in  Massachusetts,  June  1,  1811. 
He  served  as  consul  to  Tunis  and  United  States  naval 
agent  to  the  Barbary  States,  and  in  the  latter  capacity 
joined  an  expedition  which  stormed  an  important  Tri- 
politan town  in  1805.  Eaton  was  one  of  the  chief  wit- 
nesses against  Aaron  Burr  on  his  trial  for  treason. 

EATON,  William  Wallace,  born  in  Connecticut, 
October  11,  1816;  served  in  the  State  legislature  in 
1847-48,  in  the  senate  in  1850,  and  again  in  the  lower 
house  from  1853  to  1875.  In  the  latter  year  he  became 
U.  S.  senator  and  served  until  March,  1881.  In  1884-85 
he  was  a member  of  congress.  Died  Sept.,  1898. 

EBERS,  George  Moritz,  born  in  Berlin,  Prussia, 
March  1,  1837;  made  a special  study  of  Egyptology  and 
discovered  and  translated  many  papyri.  He  has  writ- 
ten several  powerful  romances  based  on  Egyptian  sub- 
jects and  several  historical  works.  Died  Aug.,  1898. 

ECCLESTON,  Samuel,  born  in  Maryland,  June  27, 
1801 ; died  April  21, * 1851.  He  was  ordained  priest  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  1825,  became  coadjutor 
bishop  of  Baltimore  in  1834,  and  succeeded  as  metro- 
politan a few  months  later.  He  introduced  the  Chris- 
tian Brothers  into  the  United  States. 

ECKERT,  Thomas  Thompson,  telegrapher,  was 
born  in  1825,  took  charge  of  the  military  telegraph  of- 
fice at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war,  established  head- 
quarters in  Washington  in  September,  1862,  was  brev- 
etted  brigadier-general  in  1864  and  appointed  assist- 
ant-secretary of  war.  He  was  vice-president  and  gen- 
eral manager  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Co., 
from  1881  until  his  election  as  president  in  1893. 

ECKFORD,  Henry,  naval  architect,  born  in  Scot- 
land, March  12,  1775,  died  in  Constantinople,  Turkey, 
November  12,  1832.  He  removed  to  New  York  city 
in  1796.  During  the  war  of  1812  he  was  employed  by 
the  United  States  to  construct  vessels-of-war  for  the 
lakes  and  later  he  built  the  steamer  Robert  Fulton.  In 
1820  he  became  United  States  naval  constructor  at  the 
Brooklyn  navy  yard,  and  built  six  ships  of  the  line. 
He  was  in  the  Turkish  service  when  he  died. 

EDINBURGH,  Alfred  Ernest  Albert,  Duke 
of,  second  son  of  Queen  Victoria,  was  born  August  6, 


6531 

1844,  and  married  on  January  23,  1874,  the  Grand 
Duchess  Marie,  only  daughter  of  Alexander  II.  of 
Russia.  He  entered  the  navy,  and  in  1886  was  given 
nominal  command  of  the  Mediterranean  squadron  with 
rank  of  vice-admiral.  In  1868  he  was  shot  and  slightly 
wounded  by  an  Irishman  named  O’ Farrell  at  Port 
Jackson,  New  South  Wales,  O’Farrell  being  hanged. 
In  1893  he  inherited  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg  and 
Gotha  in  Germany.  Died  July  30,  1900. 

EDISON,  Thomas  Alva,  inventor,  born  in  Milan, 
Ohio,  February  1 1,  1847.  His  education  was  limited  to 
brief  school  attendance,  which  was  supplemented  by  in- 
struction from  his  mother  and  by  his  own  reading.  He 
became  particularly  interested  in  the  s tudy  of  chemistry. 
At  first  he  was  a newsboy  on  a railway  train.  Becoming 
interested  in  telegraphy  he  studied  it  late  at  nights  in  a 
railway  station,  and  soon  became  an  expert  operator. 
He  became  employed  as  an  operator  in  several  Canadian 
offices,  and  at  Adrian,  Mich.  At  this  last  place  he 
fitted  a small  shop  for  repairing  telegraph  instruments 
and  the  making  of  new  machinery.  He  then  went  to 
Indianapolis,  where  he  invented  his  automatic  repeater. 
After  brief  stops  at  other  places,  he  went  to  Cincinnati, 
with  the  acquired  reputation  of  a successful  inventor. 
From  there  he  was  called  to  Boston,  where  he  perfected 
his  duplex  telegraph.  Not  long  afterward  Edison  was 
made  superintendent  of  the  New  York  Gold  Indicator 
Company,  and  transferred  his  shops  to  Newark,  N.  J. 
In  1876  he  resigned  this  last  engagement,  in  order  to 
devote  his  entire  time  to  research  and  invention,  and 
located  himself  permanently  at  Menlo  Park,  N.  J. 
Mr.  Edison’s  inventions  are  many,  and  some  of  ex- 
traordinary value;  among  them  are  the  phonograph, 
improvement  in  the  electric  light  and  the  telephone, 
the  microphone,  the  electric  pen,  the  quadruplex  and 
sextuplex  transmitter  and  the  kinetoscope. 

EDMUNDS, GEORGEFRANKLiN,bornin  Richmond, 
Vt.,  February  1,  1828.  He  became  alawyer,  and  from 
1854  to  1859  was  a representative  in  the  legislature, 
serving  three  years  as  speaker.  In  1861-62  he  was  in 
the  State  Senate,  and  in  April,  1866,  became  United 
States  senator,  which  office  he  held  by  constant  re- 
election  until  he  retired  voluntarily  in  1891.  Sen- 
ator Edmunds  was  a member  of  the  Electoral  Commis- 
sion, and  was  president  pro  tem.  of  the  Senate,  and  a 
member  of  many  important  committees.  He  was  act- 
ive in  the  Andrew  Johnson  impeachment,  favored  the 
reconstruction  laws,  and  was  the  author  of  the  act  for 
the  suppression  of  polygamy  in  Utah,  known  by  his 
name.  In  the  Republican  national  convention  of  1880, 
and  in  that  of  1884,  he  received  thirty-four  and  ninety- 
three  votes  respectively  for  the  presidential  nomination. 

EDWARD,  Thomas,  a Scotch  shoemaker,  whose 
love  of  natural  history  led  him  to  collect  and  discover 
many  specimens,  was  born  in  1814,  and  died  in  1886. 
He  was  a fellow  of  the  Linnean  Society,  and  his  inter- 
esting history  is  well  told  in  Smiles’  Life  of  a Scotch 
Naturalist. 

EDWARDS,  Amelia  B.,  born  in  England  about 
1835,  has  written  many  novels,  of  which  Barbara' s His- 
tory, Half  a Million  of  Money,  and  Debenham' s Vow , 
are  best  known.  She  traveled  extensively  in  Egypt, 
and  wrote  intelligently  on  the  archaeology  of  that 
country.  She  died  April  15,  1892. 

EDWARDS,  John  Ellis,  born  in  Guilford,  N.  C., 
August  1,  1814,  graduated  at  Randolph-Macon,  and 
entered  the  M.  E.  ministry  in  1834.  He  took  a prom- 
inent part  in  the  secession  of  the  Southern  branch  in 
1844-46,  and  for  fifty  years  was  connected  with  the 
Virginia  conference. 

EDWARDS,  Landon  B.,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was 
born  in  Prince  Edward  county,  Va.,  September  20, 


6532  EDW 

1845.  He  served  in  the  Confederate  artillery,  and  after 
the  war  graduated  in  medicine  in  New  York.  He  ac- 
quired an  extensive  practice  in  his  native  State,  and  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Medical  Society  of  Virginia. 
He  established  the  Virginia  Medical  Monthly , and  is  a 
member  of  many  professional  societies. 

EDWARDS,  Ninian,  born  in  Maryland  in  March, 
1775;  died  Illinois  July  20,  1833.  He  studied  law 
in  Kentucky,  and  became  chief  justice  of  that  State  in 
1808.  In  the  following  year  he  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  the  newly-organized  Territory  of  Illinois,  and 
retained  that  office  until  Illinois  became  a State  in  1818. 
He  was  elected  United  States  senator  and  served  until 
1824,  when  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Mexico. 
From  1826  to  1832  he  again  served  as  governor  of 
Illinois.  His  son,  Ninian  Wert,  born  in  1809,  married 
a sister  of  Mrs.  Abraham  Lincoln.  He  was  attorney- 
general  of  Illinois  in  1834,  and  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  1854-57. 

EDWARDS,  Oliver,  born  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  in 
1835;  entered  the  army  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
war,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  Wilderness  and 
at  Spottsylvania  and  Sailor  Creek. 

EGAN,  Pierce,  an  English  writer  on  sporting,  and 
the  historian  of  the  palmy  days  of  the  prize-ring,  was 
born  in  17 72  and  died  in  1849.  His  Boxiana  and  Life 
in  London  were  illustrated  by  Cruikshank.  His  son, 
of  the  same  name  (1814-80)  wrote  an  enormous  num- 
ber of  tenth-rate  novels. 

EGGLESTON,  Edward,  born  in  Indiana,  Decem- 
ber 10,  1837,  has  written  the  Hoosier  Schoolmaster  and 
other  works,  and  for  some  years  held  a pastorate  in 
Brooklyn.  Died  Sept.  3,  1902. 

EHRENBERG,  Christian  Gottfried,  born  in 
Prussian  Saxony,  April  19,  1795;  died  June  27,  1876. 
He  visited  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Arabia,  accompanied 
Humboldt  on  an  expedition  to  the  Ural  and  Altai 
mountains,  and  wrote  extensively  on  microscopic  organ- 
isms. 

EIFFEL,  Gustave,  born  at  Dijon,  France,  in  1832, 
became  a civil  engineer  and  built  many  bridges  and 
viaducts,  and  the  enormous  Eiffel  tower  of  the  Paris 
exposition  of  1889.  In  1893  he  was  convicted  and 
fined  for  misappropriating  Panama  canal  funds. 

ELDER,  William  Henry,  Catholic  clergyman, 
was  born  in  Baltimore  in  1819,  educated  in  Rome,  and 
became  archbishop  of  Cincinnati  in  1882. 

ELGIN  and  KINCARDINE,  Victor  Alexander 
Bruce,  9th  Earl  of,  was  born  in  1849  in  England,  and 
became  Governor  General  of  India  in  1893. 

ELIOT, Charles  William,  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
March  20,  1834;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1853.  He 
tcught  mathematics  and  chemistry  at  Harvard,  and  in 
1869  became  president  of  that  university.  Williams 
and  Princeton  made  him  LL.D.  in  1869,  and  Yale  in 
1870.  He  is  a fellow  of  the  American  Academy  of 
Sciences  and  of  many  home  and  foreign  scientific 
associations. 

ELIOT,  George,  the  nom  de  plume  of  Marian 
Evans,  the  great  English  novelist.  She  was  bora  in 
Warwickshire,  England,  November  22,  1819,  and  died 
November  22,  1880.  She  received  a superior  education, 
and  became  familiar  with  Latin,  German,  and  the 
higher  mathematics.  In  1844-46  she  translated  Strauss’ 
Leben  Jesu,  and  later  Spinoza’s  Ethics , and  other 
works.  In  1851  she  became  assistant  editor  of  the 
Westminster  Review.  At  this  time  she  first  met  George 
Henry  Lewes,  and  with  him  she  formed  a connection, 
only  terminated  by  his  death  in  1878.  Lewes  had 
been  married  many  years,  but  his  wife  proved  un- 
faithful. He  condoned  her  offense  by  taking  her  back 
to  his  home,  and,  when  she  left  him  finally,  he  was 


-ELL 

unable,  by  reason  of  the  condonation,  to  secure  a di 
vorce  under  the  law  of  England.  Under  these  circum 
stances,  and  after  due  deliberation,  Lewes  and  Miss 
Evans  decided  to  live  together. 

In  1857  the  first  of  the  Scenes  of  Clerical  Life  ap- 
peared in  Blackwood , and  in  1858  Adam  Bede  was  pub- 
lished. This  magnificent  piece  of  work  at  once  placed 
its  author  in  the  front  rank  of  living  writers.  It  was 
followed  in  succession  by  The  Mill  on  the  Floss , Silas 
Marner , Romola , and  Felix  Holt , the  latter  appearing 
in  1866.  George  Eliot  published  her  first  poem,  The 
Spanish  Gypsy , but  neither  this  nor  others  which  fol- 
lowed proved  as  successful  as  her  prose  writings.  Mid- 
dlemarch , by  many  considered  as  even  superior  to  Adam 
Bede , was  issued  in  1871,  and  five  years  later  appeared 
Daniel  Deronda , a much  inferior  work.  Mr.  Lewes 
died  in  November,  1878,  and  Miss  Evans  married  on 
May  6,  1880,  a stockbroker  named  John  Cross,  a man 
much  younger  than  herself.  On  December  22d  of  the 
same  year  she  died,  and  was  buried  in  Highgate  ceme- 
tery, near  London. 

ELIOT,  Samuel,  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  December 
22,  1821;  graduated  at  Harvard,  where  he  afterward 
lectured  and  became  a member  of  the  board  of  over- 
seers. He  was  president  of  Trinity  College,  Hartford, 
1860-64,  and  president  of  the  American  Social  Science 
Association  1868-72.  He  has  written  extensively  on 
historical  subjects.  Died  Sept.  15,  1898. 

ELIZABETH,  Queen  of  Roumania,  was  born  in 
Germany,  December  29,  1843.  In  1869  she  married 
King  (then  prince)  Charles  of  Roumania.  She  has  pub- 
lished several  volumes  of  prose  and  verse  under  the 
signature  of  “ Carmen  Sylva.  ” 

ELLERY,  William,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  Newport, 
R.  I.,  December  22,  1727,  and  died  there  February  15, 
1820.  He  sat  several  years  in  the  Continental  Con- 
gress and  was  thirty  years  collector  of  Newport.  His 
son  Frank  (1794-1871)  entered  the  navy  aud  rose  to  be 
commodore. 

ELKINS,  Henry  Arthur,  born  in  Vermont,  May 
30,  1847;  died  July  25>  1884.  He  established  a studio 
in  Chicago  and  painted  mountain  scenery,  of  which 
Mt.  Shasta  and  the  Thirty-eighth  Star  achieved  some 
notoriety. 

ELLIOTT,  Charles  Loring,  artist,  born  in  Scipio, 
N.  Y.,  in  1812;  died  September  25,  1868.  He  was  a pupil 
of  Trumbull  and  painted  a great  many  portraits  of  Amer- 
ican celebrities.  He  became  an  associate  of  the  National 
Academy  in  1845  and  Academician  the  following  year. 

ELLIOTT,  Jesse  Duncan,  born  in  Maryland  in 
1782;  died  in  Philadelphia,  December  18,  1845.  He 
entered  the  United  States  navy  in  1804  and  in  1812 
captured  two  British  vessels  on  Lake  Erie.  He  suc- 
ceeded Perry  in  command  on  the  lakes  and  took  part 
in  Decatur’s  attack  on  Algiers. 

ELLIOTT,  Washington  L.,  son  of  the  foregoing, 
was  born  in  Carlisle,  Penn.,  March  31,  1821;  died  June 
29,  1888.  He  graduated  at  West  Point,  served  in  the 
Mexican  war  and  on  the  frontier,  fought  all  through 
the  Civil  war  as  a cavalry  officer,  became  brevet  briga- 
dier-general and  major-general  in  the  regular  army  and 
was  retired  as  colonel  in  1879. 

ELLIS,  George  Edward,  born  in  Boston,  August 
8,  1814;  graduated  at  Harvard,  and  in  1840  became 
pastor  of  the  Harvard  Unitarian  church,  and  died 
Dec.  21,  1894.  From  1857  to  1863  he  was  professor  of 
theology,  and  he  has  served  on  the  board  of  overseers 
of  Harvard.  He  is  D.D.  and  LL.D.  of  that  university, 
and  has  written  extensively  on  historical  subjects. 

ELLSKWATAWA,  Indian  prophet,  born  near 
Chillicothe,  Ohio,  in  1 775.  He  was  the  son  of  a Shawnee 


E L L — E N G 


chief,  and  brother  of  Tecumseh.  In  1809  the  Govern- 
ment purchased  of  the  Indians  a large  tract  of  country 
on  both  sides  of  the  Wabash  river,  that  included  the  sec- 
tion then  held  by  him  and  his  followers.  Two  years 
after  this  transaction  Ellskwatawa  appeared  at  the 
battle  of  Tippecanoe,  where  he  directed  the  Indian 
attack.  After  peace  was  declared  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain,  the  prophet  received  an 
English  pension,  and  dwelt  in  Canada  until  1826. 
Later,  with  Tecumseh’s  surviving  son,  he  settled  beyond 
the  Mississippi.  The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

ELLSLER,  Fanny,  born  in  Vienna,  Austria,  June 

23,  1810;  died  November  27,  1884.  She  became 
famous  as  a dancer,  and  acted  in  the  ballet  in  nearly 
every  European  country  and  in  the  United  States.  Her 
sister  Therese  (1808-1878)  was  almost  as  well-known 
as  a dancer. 

ELLSWORTH,  Ephraim  E.,  born  in  New  York 
State,  April  23,  1837;  killed  in  Alexandria,  Va.,  May 

24,  1861.  He  organized  a regiment  of  zouaves,  of 
which  he  was  commissioned  colonel.  At  Alexandria 
he  tore  down  a Confederate  flag  from  the  roof  of  a 
hotel  and  was  shot  dead  by  the  proprietor,  Jackson, 
who  was  immediatly  killed  by  a soldier. 

ELLSWORTH,  Oliver,  born  in  Windsor,  Conn., 
April  29,  1745;  died  there  November  26,  1807.  He 
became  prominent  in  State  affairs  and  in  the  Continental 
Congress,  and  was  a member  of  the  federal  convention 
of  1787  which  prepared  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States.  It  was  on  his  motion  that  the  words  “National 
overnment  ” in  that  organic  act  were  replaced  by  the 
efinition  “ Government  of  the  United  States.”  He  be- 
came United  States  senator  from  Connecticut  in  1789, 
and  was  chairman  of  the  committee  which  organized 
the  federal  judicial  system.  He  led  the  Federalist 
party  in  the  Senate,  and  was  an  earnest  advocate  of 
Jay’s  treaty  with  England  in  1794.  From  1796  to  1799 
he  was  chief  justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court, 
and  in  1800  negotiated,  with  Patrick  Henry  and  Gov- 
ernor Davie,  a treaty  with  France.  He  afterward 
served  on  the  governor’s  council  of  Connecticut,  and 
in  May,  1807,  became  chief  justice  of  the  State  Supreme 
Court. 

ELMENDORF,  John  Jay,  born  in  New  York  in 
1827,  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1846,  became 
rector  of  a church  in  New  York,  and  in  1869  was 
appointed  professor  of  mental  philosophy  and  English 
literature  in  Racine  College,  Wisconsin.  He  published 
in  1876  a Manual  of  the  History  of  Philosophy. 

EMBURY,  Philip,  born  in  Ireland  in  1729;  died  in 
Camden,  N.  Y.,  in  1775.  He  joined  Wesley’s  Society, 
became  a local  preacher,  and  emigrated  to  New  York  in 
1760.  He  was  the  pioneer  of  Methodism  in  America, 
and  supported  himself  by  working  as  a carpenter  while 
organizing  Methodist  churches  on  Sundays. 

EMERSON,  Ralph  Waldo,  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
May  25,  1803;  died  in  Concord,  Mass.,  April  27,  1882. 
He  was  descended  in  the  female  line  from  an  English 
clergyman  named  Bulkeley,  who  came  to  New  England 
in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Plis 
earliestknown  ancestor  in  the  male  linewasRev.  Joseph 
Emerson,  of  Mendon,  Mass.  (1665),  and  many  mem- 
bers of  both  families  were  clergymen.  Young  Emer- 
son entered  Harvard  College  in  1817,  and  in  1821  be- 
gan teaching  school  in  Boston.  He  studied  divinity, 
in  1826  became  a Congregational  minister,  and  held  a 
pastorate  in  Boston  from  1829  to  1832.  On  September 
29,  1829,  he  married,  and  in  February,  1832,  his  wife 
died.  In  1833  he  went  to  Europe,  where  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Walter  Savage  Landor,  of  Carlyle,  and 
of  Wordsworth.  In  1835  he  married  a second  time,  and 
took  a house  in  Concord,  where  he  lived  and  died.  | 


6533 

In  1840  Emerson  began  to  preach  the  new  doctrine 
of  transcendentalism  and  to  write  for  the  Dial.  The 
first  edition  of  Nature  appeared  in  1836,  and  the  first 
series  of  Essays  in  1841.  Meantime  Emerson  lectured 
in  Boston,  became  affiliated  with  the  Abolitionists,  and 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Bronson  Alcott,  Thoreau, 
Ellery  Channing  and  Margaret  Fuller.  For  many 
years  he  continued  to  lecture  and  to  write.  His  first 
success  was  in  prose,  but  later  he  published  consider- 
able verse,  as  to  the  merits  of  which  opinions  vary. 

EMERY,  Charles  Edward,  born  in  Aurora,  N.  Y., 
March  29, 1838,  entered  the  navy  as  engineer  and  served 
under  Farragut.  He  became  consulting  engineer  of  the 
United  States  coast  survey,  and  invented  several  im- 
provements in  steam  engineering. 

EMIN  PASHA.  See  Schnitzler,  Eduard. 

EMMA,  Queen  Regent  of  the  Netherlands,  was  born 
August  2,  1858,  in  Waldeck,  and  married,  January  1, 
1879,  the  late  William  III  of  the  Netherlands,  who  died 
November  3,  1890,  leaving  a daughter,  Wilhelmina,  as 
heir  to  the  throne. 

EMMONS,  George  Foster,  born  in  Rutland 
county,  Vt.,  August  23,  1811;  died  July  2,  1884.  He 
entered  the  United  States  navy  in  1828,  became  lieuten- 
ant in  1841,  and  commander  in  1856.  During  the 
Civil  war  he  commanded  the  Hatteras , R.  R.  Cuyler , 
and  Lackawanna,  and  captured  many  prizes.  He  be- 
came commodore  in  1868,  and  rear-admiral  in  1872. 
He  published  The  Navy  of  the  United  States  from 
1775  ^ 1853- 

EMMONS,  Samuel  Franklin,  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  March  29,  1841 ; graduated  at  Harvard  in  1861, 
and  studied  in  mining  schools  abroad.  He  had  charge 
of  the  United  States  geological  survey  of  Colorado  in 
1879,  and  has  written  many  papers  on  geology  and 
mining. 

EMORY,  William  H.,  born  in  Maryland,  Septem- 
ber 9,  1 8 1 1 ; died  December  1,  1887.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1831,  became  an  engineer  and  artil- 
lerist and  was  on  General  Kearny’s  staff  during  the 
Mexican  war.  In  1853  he  was  commissioner  to  run  the 
boundary  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico  under 
the  Gadsden  treaty.  After  several  years’  service  in  U tah 
and  Kansas  he  resigned  from  the  army  May  9,  1861, 
but  was  re-commissioned  as  lieutenant-colonel  of  the 
6th  cavalry  five  days  later  and  took  part  in  the  Penin- 
sular campaign.  He  became  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers in  March,  1862,  commanded  a division  under 
General  Banks  in  Louisiana,  and  commanded  the  nine- 
teenth army  corps  in  the  Red  River  campaign  and  later 
in  the  Shenandoah  valley,  where  he  successfully  resisted 
Jubal  A.  Early,.  He  received  successive  brevets  in  the 
regular  army  of  brigadier-general  and  major-general, 
and  became  major-general  of  volunteers  September  25, 
1865.  From  1865  to  1875  he  held  departmental  com- 
mands, and  he  was  retired  in  1876  with  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general. 

ENDICOTT,  William  C.,  born  in  Salem,  Mass., 
November  19,  1827;  was  from  1873  to  1883  a justice  of 
the  Massachusetts  Supreme  Court,  and  in  1884  ran  as  a 
Democrat  for  the  governorship  and  was  defeated. 
In  the  first  presidency  of  Mr.  Cleveland  he  was  Secre- 
tary of  War.  His  daughter  married  Joseph  Chamber- 
lain,  an  English  M.  P.  Died  May  6,  1900. 

ENGLEMANN,  George,  born  in  Germany,  Feb- 
ruary 2,  1809;  died  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  February  11, 
1884.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1832,  and  pub- 
lished in  St.  Louis  a German  newspaper  called  Das 
Westland.  Doctor  Englemann  practiced  as  a physician 
and  wrote  many  papers  on  botany.  His  son,  George 
Julius,  born  at  St.  Louis  in  1847,  is  a prominent 
physician  there. 


ENG— ESP 


6534 

ENGLISH,  James  Edward,  born  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  March  13,  1812,  sat  in  the  State  legislature 
1855—58.  He  was  elected  to  congress  as  a war  Demo- 
crat in  1861  and  served  four  years.  From  1867  to  1870 
he  was  governor  of  Connecticut  and  in  1875-76  served 
as  United  States  senator.  He  was  afterward  chairman 
of  the  national  Democratic  committee,  and  died  March 
2,  1890. 

ENGLISH,  William  Hayden,  born  at  Lexington, 
Ind.,  August  27,  1822;  was  elected  to  congress  as  a 
democrat  in  1852  and  served  from  1853  to  1861.  In 
1880  he  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for  the  vice- 
presidency With  General  Hancock.  Died  Feb.  7,  1896. 

EOTVOS,  Jozsef,  a Hungarian  novelist  and  states- 
man, was  born  at  Buda,  September  3,  1813,  and  died 
at  Pesth,  February  3,  1871.  He  served  as  minister  of 
public  instruction  in  1848  and  minister  of  worship  and 
education,  1867-71. 

ERCKM ANN-CHATRIAN,  the  compound  name 
of  two  distinguished  French  authors,  who  have  written 
many  novels  of  peasant  life  and  war  scenes  in  collabo- 
ration. Emile  Erckmann  was  born  at  Phalsbourg,  May 
20,  1822,  and  Alexandria  Chatrian  was  born  December 
iS,  1826.  M.  Chatrian  died  in  September,  1890. 

ERIC  THE  RED,  a Norwegian  navigator,  who  in 
082  located  on  the  island  of  Iceland.  In  983  he  sailed 
from  Bredifiord  to  reach  some  western  shore  said  to 
have  been  visited  by  one  of  his  countrymen  in  former 
times.  On  the  voyage  he  passed  Cape  Farewell,  and 
on  the  coast  met  with  reindeer.  He  named  the  coun- 
try Greenland  and  the  inlet  Ericfiord.  Returning  to 
Iceland  in  985,  he  interested  the  people  of  the  island  in 
his  discovery,  and  with  twenty-five  sail  set  out  for  the 
voyage.  Some  of  the  ships  were  lost  in  a storm,  and 
others  were  driven  home  ; but  he  succeeded  in  reaching 
the  Greenland  coast  with  fourteen,  and  located  on  the 
fiord,  at  some  distance  from  the  ocean,  where  there  was 
grass  and  trees.  About  twelve  years  later  his  son  Lief 
is  said  to  have  discovered  the  continent  of  North 
America,  which  he  called  Markland  and  Vinland. 

ERICSSON,  John,  engineer,  born  in  Lanzbans- 
hyttan,  Sweden,  January  31,  1803;  died  March  8,  1889. 
At  the  age  of  twelve  he  became  cadet  of  engineers,  and 
at  seventeen  entered  the  Swedish  army;  in  1827  he  was 
promoted  captain.  In  1828  he  constructed  a flame  en- 
gine, and  went  to  London  to  introduce  it,  resigning  his 
captaincy  in  the  army.  He  also  produced  in  succession 
an  instrument  for  sea-sounding,  a hydrostatic  weighing 
machine,  and  a tubular  steam  boiler,  besides  other  im- 
portant devices.  In  1829  he  competed  unsuccessfully 
with  George  Stephenson  for  the  Liverpool  and  Man- 
chester Railway  prize,  and  invented  a new  steam  fire 
engine.  In  1833  he  constructed  the  caloric  engine, 
and  in  1853  the  ship  Ericsson , of  2,000  tons,  propelled 
by  this  motor.  In  1836  Ericsson  invented  and  patented 
the  screw  propeller,  and  in  1839  he  came  to  the  United 
States,  where,  in  1841,  he  designed  for  the  government 
the  screw-propelled  war  ship  Princeton.  This  was  the 
pioneer  screw  war  ship;  she  carried  a twelve-inch 
wrought  iron  gun,  designed  by  Ericsson,  and  a wrought 
iron  gun  carriage',  which  took  up  the  recoil  without 
breaking.  To  the  London  exhibition  of  1851  he  con- 
tributed several  philosophical  instruments — a pyrometer, 
an  alarm  barometer,  a sea-lead,  and  other  devices.  In 
1861  he  built  for  the  United  States  Government,  in  100 
days,  the  iron-clad  Monitor , which,  on  March  9,  1862, 
in  Hampton  Roads,  defeated  the  Confederate  iron-clad 
ram  Merrimac.  In  1881  he  built  for  the  United  States 
a vessel  called  the  Destroyer.  His  recent  scientific  in- 
vestigations included  computations  of  the  influences 
that  retard  the  earth’s  rotary  motion,  and  of  the  inten- 
sity of  solar  heat. 


ESCOBEDO,  Mariano,  Mexican  soldier,  born  in 
Dos  Arreyos,  Mexico,  in  January,  1828.  During  the  wax 
with  the  United  States  he  armed  his  subordinates,  and 
attacked  small  bodies  of  the  invaders ; later  he  fought 
with  the  Mexican  army  at  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de 
Guerrero.  When  Juarez  got  power  in  1861  Escobedo  at- 
tained the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and  moved  against 
the  disorganized  forces  of  the  church  party.  But  he 
was  surprised  at  Rio  Verde  by  Mejia  and  Marquez  and 
imprisoned  in  Bucareli,  from  whence  he  escaped  to  find 
his  way  to  the  government  forces.  In  1862  during  the 
French  interference  in  Mexican  affairs  he  fought  at 
Puebla  on  May  5th,  and  at  the  hill  of  Cerro  del  Borrego. 
Later  he  took  part  in  the  defense  of  Puebla  against  the 
French  forces,  was  taken  prisoner,  escaped,  and  re- 
joined Juarez  in  the  capital.  In  June,  1864,  when  the 
empire  under  Maximilian  was  established,  and  the 
Liberal  party  had  retired  from  the  capital,  Escobedo 
made  a snort  resistance  to  the  nevr  order  of  things,  and 
thereafter  withdrew  to  San  Antonio,  Tex.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1865,  he  surprised  the  garrison  of  Monterey.  In 
June,  1866,  the  forces  of  Escobedo  captured  Saltillo, 
and  in  July  Juarez  established  his  government  in  that 
city.  When  the  French  soldiers  retired  toward  the  sea- 
coast,  the  northern  Republican  troops  recaptured  most 
of  the  interior  cities  from  the  Imperialists.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1866,  Escobedo  marched  on  San  Luis  Potosi,  with 
an  army  of  15,000  men.  On  February  1,  1867,  he 
attacked  the  imperial  general,  Miramon,  who  had  just 
driven  Juarez  and  his  cabinet  out  of  Zacatecas,  and 
destroyed  half  his  army.  Escobedo  was  appointed  gen- 
eral-in-chief of  the  Republican  army  and  this  victory 
was  followed  at  Queretaro  by  a second  battle  with  the 
Imperialists.  Here  the  emperor  Maximilian  with  his 
two  generals,  Mejia  and  Castillo  became  prisoners.  A 
court-martial  was  held,  by  order  of  Juarez,  and  the  em- 
peror promptly  condemned  and  shot.  After  the  con- 
clusion of  peace,  Escobedo  spent  several  years  in  retire- 
ment. In  1874  he  assisted  in  quelling  a threatened 
revolution;  in  1875  he  was  commander-in  chief  of  the 
frontier  department  of  the  east,  in  1876  he  served  as 
secretary  of  war  under  President  Lerdo  de  Tejada. 
On  the  success  of  the  Diaz  revolution,  Escobedo  fled  to 
New  York,  and  later  in  Texas  schemed  to  overthrow 
Diaz  but  ventured  to  enter  Mexico  where  he  was 
arrested,  and  sent  as  a prisoner  to  the  capital.  Here 
he  was  tried  by  court  martial,  and  narrowly  escaped 
being  declared  guilty  of  conspiracy  against  the  govern- 
ment. In  1879  he  again  went  to  New  York  city,  on 
“private  business,”  but  in  August,  1880,  returned  to 
Mexico.  From  1882  until  1883  he  was  president  of  the 
supreme  military  court-of-justice. 

ESMARCH,  Johannes  Friedrich  August,  born 
in  Schleswig-Holstein,  January  8,  1823,  is  known 
as  one  of  the  most  eminent  surgeons  of  the  time.  He 
first  brought  into  general  operation  the  system  of 
bloodless  operations  on  the  limbs. 

ESPARTERO,  Baldomero,  born  in  Spain,  Octo- 
ber 27,  1793;  died  January  8,  1879.  He  enlisted  at 
sixteen  and  was  engaged  in  active  service  for  many 
years.  In  1824  he  went  to  Peru  as  chief  of  staff,  but 
was  captured  and  held  a prisoner.  In  the  civil  war 
which  followed  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VII.  in  1833, 
Espartero  took  the  side  of  Isabella  against  Don  Carlos, 
and  for  his  success  in  this  struggle  he  was  made  captain- 
general  and  a grandee  of  Spain.  In  1840  he  was  made 
premier,  and  the  next  year  regent.  In  1843  Narvaez 
proclaimed  the  young  queen  of  age,  and  Espartero 
escaped  to  England,  where  he  resided  four  years.  In 
I 1854  he  again  became  prime  minister,  but  resigned  in 
1856.  He  took  part  in  the  revolution  of  1868,  which 
1 resulted  in  the  expulsion  of  Isabella  II.,  and  supported 


EU-EWI 


the  republic.  He  was  offered  the  crown  when  it  was 
going  begging  in  1870,  but  refused  it  and  lived  in  retire- 
ment until  his  death. 

EU  (Comte  d’),  grandson  of  Louis  Philippe,  was 
born  April  28,  1842,  and  in  1864  married  Isabella, 
daughter  of  Dom  Pedro  II.,  then  emperor  of  Brazil. 
He  held  high  command  in  the  war  with  Paraguay,  and 
was  made  marshal  of  the  army.  In  1889  the  dislike  of 
the  Brazilians  to  a foreigner  and  the  bigotry  of  the  Com- 
tesse  d’Eu,  who  acted  as  regent  during  Dom  Pedro’s 
absence  in  Europe,  led  to  the  peaceful  revolution  which 
placed  Brazil  foremost  in  the  ranks  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can republics.  The  Comte  d’Eu  was  exiled  with  his 
wife  and  the  rest  of  the  imperial  family. 

EUGENIE,  ex-empress  of  the  French,  born  in 
Spain,  May  5,  1826.  She  was  the  granddaughter  of 
Mr.  Fitzpatrick,  English  consul  at  Malaga,  whose 
daughter  married  Count  de  Montijos,  an  officer  in  the 
Spanish  army.  Her  mother,  the  Comtesse  Teba,  took 
her  to  Paris,  where  she  attracted  great  attention  at  the 
balls  given  at  the  Tuileries  by  Louis  Napoleon,  then 
prince  president.  The  latter,  after  he  made  himself 
emperor,  began  negotiations  for  a union  with  the  Prin- 
cess Carola  Wasa  of  Sweden,  which  were  peremptorily 
rejected.  He  made  overtures  to  other  reigning  houses 
and  being  each  time  refused,  proposed  to  the  charming 
young  Spaniard,  whom  he  married  January  29,  1853. 
Eugenie  bore  him  a son,  March  16,  1856,  who  was 
styled  the  Prince  Imperial,  and  who  was  killed  by  Zulus 
in  South  Africa  in  1879.  The  empress  became  the 
leader  of  the  fashions  of  Europe,  and  maintained  a 
brilliant  court,  but  not  content  with  her  triumphs  in 
this  line  she  interfered  in  politics  and  with  most  dis- 
astrous results,  forcing  on  the  war  with  Germany.  She 
was  appointed  regent  when  Napoleon  III.  went  to  fight 
the  Germans,  and  was  in  Paris  when  the  revolution 
broke  out  after  Sedan.  On  September  5,  1870,  she  es- 
caped from  the  Tuileries  and  found  refuge  in  England. 

EUSTIS,  James  B.,  born  in  New  Orleans  in  1834, 
studied  law  at  Harvard,  fought  in  the  war  on  the  Con- 
federate side,  served  in  the  Louisiana  legislature,  in  the 
United  States  Senate  twice,  1877-79  and  1885-91,  was 
professor  of  civil  law  in  the  University  of  Louisiana  in 
the  interim,  and  in  1893  was  appointed  by  President 
Cleveland  ambassador  to  France.  Died  Sept.  9,  1899. 

EVANS,  Augusta  Jane,  authoress,  born  in  Geor- 
gia, May  8,  1835;  has  written  several  novels,  of  which 
Beulah  (1859),  and  St.  Elmo  (1866),  are  the  beet- 
known.  She  married  Mr.  L.  M.  Wilson  in  1868. 

EVANS,  Frederic  William,  born  in  Hereford- 
shire, England,  in  1808;  came  to  this  country  in  1820. 
He  adopted  communistic  principles,  and  in  1830  joined 
with  the  “Shakers”  at  New  Lebanon,  N.  Y.  Of  this 
community  he  became  presiding  elder,  and  for  many 
years  was  at  its  head.  He  died  March  6,  1893. 

EVANS,  Marian.  See  F.liot,  George. 

EVANS,  Oliver,  born  in  Delaware,  in  1755;  died 
in  New  York  April  21,  1819.  He  is  said  to  have 
invented  in  1804,  the  first  steam  road-carnage  ever 
worked  in  America.  He  also  made  a number  of  im- 
provements in  mill-machinery. 

EVA  RTS,  William  Maxwell,  statesman,  born 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  February  6,  1818;  graduated  at  Yale 
in  1837,  studied  law  in  the  Harvard  law-school,  and  in 
New  York  city,  and  was  admitted  to  practice  in  1841. 
From  1849  to  1853  he  was  assistant  district  attorney  in 
New  York  city.  From  1851  to  1867  he  was  retained 
as  counsel  in  a number  of  important  cases,  which  made 
his  name  prominent.  From  July  15,  1868,  until  March 
5,  1869,  he  served  as  attorney-general  of  the  United 
States,  and  was  chief  counsel  for  Andrew  Johnson  in 
the  impeachment  case.  He  was  also  counsel  in  the 


6535 

Alabama  case,  for  Rev.  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  in  the 
Parish  will  case,  the  Gardner  will  case,  and  other  im- 
portant and  highly  remunerative  contests  at  law. 
During  the  administration  of  President  Hayes  he 
became  secretary  of  state.  In  1881  he  visited  Paris, 
as  a delegate  to  the  international  monetary  conference, 
and  on  March  4,  1885,  became  United  States  senator 
for  one  term.  He  has  delivered  several  orations  and  a 
number  of  public  addresses.  Died  Feb.  28,  1901. 

EVE,  Paul  F.,  born  in  Georgia,  June  2 7,  1806; 
died  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  January  10,  1878.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Franklin  College,  Georgia,  in  1826,  and  became 

M. D.  in  1828.  In  1832  he  was  elected  professor  of  sur- 
gery in  the  Medical  College  of  Georgia;  in  1850  was  called 
to  a similar  position  in  the  University  of  Louisville, 
and  the  next  yaar  affiliated  with  the  University  of 
Nashville.  He  was  surgeon-general  of  Tennessee  and 
held  other  positions  in  the  Confederate  medical  staff 
during  the  Civil  war,  and  was  elected  president  of  the 
American  Medical  Association.  In  1876  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  International  Medical  Congress 
at  Philadelphia.  He  wrote  over  600  articles  on  surgery 
and  medicine. 

EVERTS,  William  Wallace,  born  in  Granville, 

N. Y.,  March  13,  1814,  became  a Baptist  minister  in 
1837,  and  held  pastorates  in  New  York,  Kentucky,  and 
Chicago.  He  was  for  many  years  connected  with  the 
University  of  Chicago  and  the  Baptist  Theological 
Seminary.  In  1879  he  became  pastor  of  a church  in 
Jersey  City,  and  resigned  in  1885.  He  died  in  Chi- 
cago, September  25,  1890. 

EWELL,  Benjamin  Stoddert.  born  in  Washing- 
ton, D.C.,  June  10,  1810;  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1832  and  served  as  professor  of  mathematics  and  phi- 
losophy there  until  1836.  He  was  afterward  connected 
as  a professor  with  Hampden-Sidney,  Washington 
College,  and  William  and  Mary,  of  the  latter  of  which 
he  became  president  in  1854.  He  served  in  the  Con- 
federate army,  and  in  1865  was  again  elected  president 
of  William  and  Mary  College.  He  was  made  an 
honorary  member  of  the  Royal  Historical  Society  of 
Great  Britain  in  1880,  and  Hobart  College  made  him 
LL.  D.  in  1874.  Died  June  19,  1894. 

EWELL,  Richard  Stoddert,  brother  of  the  fore- 
going, born  in  Georgetown,  D.  C.,  February  8,  1817; 
died  January  15,  1872.  He  was  educated  at  West  Point 
and  served  in  the  Mexican  war  and  against  the  Apaches 
in  New  Mexico.  He  resigned  his  commission  of  captain 
to  enter  the  Confederate  army,  in  which  he  was  made 
major-general.  He  lost  a leg  while  serving  uJider 
Jackson  in  August,  1862,  and  took  command  of  the 
second  army  corps  after  Jackson’s  death.  He  fought 
at  Winchester,  at  Gettysburg,  and  in  the  Wilderness, 
but  was  defeated  and  captured  with  his  whole  command 
by  Sheridan,  April  6,  1865. 

EWING,  Thomas,  born  in  Ohio  county,  Va.,  De- 
cember 28,  1789;  died  October  26,  1871.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  Ohio  bar  in  1816,  and  from  1831  to 
1837  was  United  States  senator  from  Ohio.  Under 
Harrison  he  was  secretary  of  the  treasury  for  a 
month,  in  1841,  and  in  March,  1849,  became  the 
first  secretary  of  the  interior,  which  office  he  held 
until  September  12,  1850.  In  1850  he  was  appointed 
to  succeed  Thomas  Corwin  in  the  Senate,  but  only 
held  office  a year,  and  spent  the  remainder  of  his 
life  in  the  practice  of  his  profession.  He  adopted  as  a 
member  of  his  family  his  relative,  William  T.  Sherman, 
who  married  his  daughter,  Ellen,  in  1850  and  became 
General  of  the  United  States. 

EWING,  Thomas,  son  of  the  foregoing,  born  in 
Lancaster,  Ohio,  August  9,  1829;  practiced  law  in  Ohio, 
removed  to  Kansas  in  1856,  and  in  1861  became  first 


6536  EYR- 

chief  justice  of  that  State.  Me'served  with  distinction 
in  the  Civil  war,  and  in  1865  was  brevetted  major-gen- 
eral of  volunteers.  In  1877  he  was  elected  to  congress 
by  his  home  district,  and  served  until  1881.  In  1879 
he  unsuccessfully  contested  the  governorship  of  Ohio, 
on  a greenback  or  “ soft  money”  platform.  After  1881 
he  removed  to  New  York  city  and  resumed  the  practice 
of  law.  Died  Jan.  21,  1896. 

EYRE,  Edward  John,  born  in  August,  1815,  in 
Yorkshire,  England;  went  to  Australia  in  1833,  and  in 
*840-41  explored  the  south  coast  of  Australia  and  dis- 


-FAL 

covered  Lake  Torrens.  He  was  afterward  appointed 
lieutenant-governor  of  New  Zealand  and  of  the  Island  oi 
St.  Vincent.  In  1862  he  became  governor  of  Jamaica, 
and  in  1865  suppressed  with  severity  a negro  insurrec- 
tion. Martial  law  was  proclaimed,  and  a wealthy  mu- 
latto named  Gordon,  who  was  a member  of  the  House 
of  Assembly,  was  hanged.  Eyre  was  recalled  and  pros- 
ecuted by  a committee,  of  which  John  Stuart  Mill  was 
a member.  Such  men  as  Carlyle,  Charles  Kingsley, 
and  Sir  Roderick  Murchison  defended  Eyre,  and  he 
was  acquitted  by  a jury.  Died  Dec.  21,  1901. 


F. 


FABRE,  Charles  Edward,  born  in  Montreal,  Can- 
ada, February  28,  1827,  was  ordained  priest  in 
1850;  became  bishop  in  1873;  was  translated  to  Mon- 
treal in  1876,  and  on  June  8,  T886,  became  the  first 
Catholic  archbishop  of  Montreal.  Died  Dec.,  1896. 

FABRE,  Louis  K,  H.,  brother  of  the  foregoing, 
born  in  Montreal,  August  9,  1834;  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1856,  and  has  long  been  connected  with  the 
newspaper  press  of  Quebec.  He  entered  the  senate  in 
1875. 

FAED,  John,  born  in  Scotland  in  1820,  became  an 
associate  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy,  and  has  ex- 
hibited his  paintings  of  domestic  life  and  rural  scenery 
in  Edinburgh  and  London.  His  brother  Thomas,  born 
in  1826,  is  also  well  and  favorably  known  as  an  artistic 
exponent  of  Scottish  peasant  life. 

FAGNANI,  Joseph,  artist,  bom  in  Naples,  Italy, 
December  24,  1819;  died  in  New  York  city  May  22,. 
1873.  In  1851  he  came  to  the  United  States  and  set- 
tled in  New  York  city.  He  painted  the  Nine  Muses 
for  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  and  produced 
portraits  of  many  celebrities. 

FAIDHERBE,  Louis  L£on  Cesar,  born  at  Lille, 
France,  June  3,  1818;  died  September  28,  1889.  He 
studied  at  the  ficole  Polytechnique  and  served  as  a mili- 
tary engineer  in  Algeria.  In  1852  he  became  governor 
of  Senegal,  and  in  1863  was  made  general  of  brigade. 
From  1867  to  1870  he  had  military  command  in  Al- 
geria. In  November  of  the  latter  year  he  became  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  Army  of  the  North,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  checking  the  German  advance  against  Havre. 
He  was  elected  to  the  National  Assembly  in  1871  and 
to  the  Senate  in  1879.  General  Faidherbe  was  a dis- 
tinguished Egyptian  scholar,  and  published  works  on  the 
Libyan  monuments  and  inscriptions.  He  was  grand 
chancellor  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  at  the  time  of  his 
death. 

FAIRBAIRN,  Sir  William,  born  in  Kelso,  Scot- 
land, February  19,  1789;  died  in  August,  1874.  He 
began  life  as  an  engine-wright,  and  became  the  head  of 
a great  ship-building  firm.  He  then  engaged  in  the 
erection  of  bridges  under  a patent  design,  and  con- 
structed the  Britannia  and  Conway  bridges  at  Menai 
Straits. 

FAIRCHILD,  Cassius,  born  in  Kent,  Ohio,  De- 
cember 16,  1828,  died  in  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  October  26, 
1868.  He  served  throughout  the  Civil  war,  and  was 
brevetted  brigadier-general.  From  1865  until  his  death 
he  was  United  States  marshal  of  Wisconsin. 

FAIRCHILD,  Charles  Stebbins,  born  in  Caze- 
novia,  N.  Y.,  April  30,  1842  ; graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1863,  and  practiced  law  in  New  York  city.  In  1874  he 
was  deputy  attorney-general  of  New  York,  and  in  1876- 
78  was  attorney-general.  In  1885  he  was  appointed 
assistant  secretary  of  die  treasury,  and  on  April  1,  1887, 
m the  resignation  of  Daniel  Manning,  became  secretary 


of  the  treasury  in  Mr.  Cleveland’s  cabinet,  which  office 
he  held  until  March  5,  1889. 

FAIRCHILD,  Lucius,  born  at  Kent,  Ohio,  De- 
cember 27,  1831  ; removed  to  Wisconsin  when  a boy. 
He  spent  several  years  mining  in  California,  and  on  his 
return  to  Wisconsin  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  war  he  entered  the  volunteer 
service  as  a captain,  and  in  August,  j86i,  obtained  a 
commission  in  the  16th  United  States  infantry.  He  com- 
manded part  of  the  “ Iron  Brigade”  at  the  second  battle 
of  Bull  Run.  He  fought  at  Antietam,  and  lost  an  arm 
at  Gettysburg,  was  commissioned  brigadier-general 
October  19,  1863,  and  was  soon  afterward  elected  sec- 
retary of  state  of  Wisconsin,  serving  two  years.  For 
the  next  six  years  he  served  as  governor  by  successive 
elections.  In  1872  he  became  United  States  consul  at 
Liverpool,  where  he  remained  six  years.  He  was  con- 
sul-general at  Paris,  1878-80,  United  States  minister  to 
Spain  1880  -82,  and  resigned  to  return  home  to  Madi- 
son, Wis.  In  1S86  he  was  elected  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic.  Died  May,  1896. 

FAITHFULL,  Emily,  born  in  Surrey,  England,  in 
1835;  attained  a high  reputation  as  a lecturer  in  Eng- 
land and  in  this  country,  her  subjects  being  chiefly 
those  relating  to  the  improvement  of  the  condition  of 
women.  She  established  in  London  in  i860  the  Victoria 
Press,  in  which  vvomen  are  the  only  compositors.  Miss 
Faithfull  has  labored  energetically  on  behalf  of  her  sex, 
and  has  done  much  good.  She  was  also  favorably 
known  as  an  authoress.  She  died  June  2,  1895. 

FALCONER,  John  M.,  born  in  Edinburgh,  Scot- 
land, May  22,  1820;  came  to  the  United  States  in  1836, 
and  became  prominent  as  an  artist  in  water-colors.  He 
became  a member  of  the  Society  of  Painters  in  Water- 
colors,  and  of  many  other  associations  of  artists,  and 
well  known  as  an  etcher  and  engraver  on  copper. 

FALK,  Adalbert,  born  in  Silesia,  August  10,  1827: 
held  various  government  positions  in  his  native  prov- 
ince, and  in  1872  became  German  minister  of  Public 
Worship  and  Education.  In  this  capacity  he  carried  the 
“ May  Laws, ’’limiting  the  influence  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church  in  educational  matters.  He  resigned  in  1879. 

FALLOUX,  Frederic  Alfred,  Count  de,  French 
author  and  statesman  and  academician,  born  at  Angers, 
May  7,  1811;  died  January  6,  1886.  He  was  a legiti- 
mist and  wrote  a history  of  Louis  XVI.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  constituent  assembly,  and  was  minister 
of  public  instruction  for  a few  months  under  the  Prince- 
President  Louis  Napoleon. 

FALLOWS,  Samuel,  born  near  Manchester,  Eng- 
land, December  13,  1835,  came  to  the  United  States 
when  ten  years  old,  graduated  at  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin in  1859,  and  entered  the  M.  E.  ministry.  He 
became  a chaplain  in  the  army,  but  afterward  colonel 
and  brevet  brigadier-general.  In  1870  he  was  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  of  Wisconsin,  and 


F A N — F A W 


resident  of  Wesleyan  University  at  Bloomington, 

11.,  in  1874.  In  1875  he  joined  the  newly-organized 
Reformed  Episcopal  Church,  became  rector  of  St. 
Paul’s,  Chicago,  and  in  July,  1876,  was  chosen  Bishop. 
He  is  a popular  orator  and  lecturer,  has  written 
valuable  educational  works,  and  in  1895  engaged  in 
unique  and  successful  temperance  work. 

FANEUIL,  Peter,  born  at  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y., 
in  1700,  of  a French  Huguenot  family.  He  became  a 
merchant  in  Boston  and  in  1740-42  built  Faneuil  Hall 
at  his  own  expense  and  presented  it  to  the  town.  The 
original  building  was  burned  down  in  1761  and  rebuilt 
at  public  expense.  From  being  used  as  a meeting- 
place  by  the  patriots  at  the  beginning  of  the  revolution, 
Faneuil  Hall  became  known  as  “the  cradle  of  Amer- 
ican liberty.”  He  died  Mar.  3,  1743. 

FANNING,  Edmund,  born  in  Long  Island  in  1737; 
died  in  London,  England,  February  28,  1818.  He  was 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1757,  and  practiced  law  in  Hills- 
borough, N.  C.  He  also  became  recorder  of  deeds, 
and  in  this  office  was  charged  with  flagrant  abuses  by 
the  people  of  the  county.  Fanning  was  a stern 
Loyalist,  who  treated  all  opposition  to  authority  with 
extreme  severity.  Governor  Tryon  was  his  father-in- 
law,  and,  in  1771,  when  the  people  rose  en  masse 
against  his  authority,  he  followed  Governor  Tryon  to 
New  York  city  as  his  private  secretary.  In  1777  he 
organized  a body  of  about  500  Loyalists  into  a corps 
called  the  “King’s  American  Regiment.”  Later  he 
went  to  Nova  Scotia,  where,  in  1783,  he  became  coun- 
cilor and  lieutenant-governor;  in  1786  he  was  gov- 
ernor of  Prince  Edward  Island,  which  office  he  held  dur- 
ing nineteen  years.  He  rose  in  succession  to  become 
lieutenant-general  in  1799,  and  general  of  the  British 
army  in  1808. 

FARJEON,  Benjamin  Leopold,  born  in  London, 
England,  of  Jewish  parentage,.  May  12,  1833.  He 
spent  some  years  in  New  Zealand,  and  in  1869  re- 
turned to  London,  where  he  issued  several  novels,  of 
which  Blade  o'  Grass  and  London's  Heart  are  best 
known.  In  1877  he  married  a daughter  of  Joseph 
Jefferson. 

FARRAR,  Frederick  William,  born  in  Bombay, 
India,  August  7,  1831;  educated  at  London  and  Cam- 
bridge; was  ordained  in  the  church  of  England  in 
1854.  He  became  a master  of  Harrow,  and  from  1871 
to  1876  was  headmaster  of  Marlborough  College.  In 
1876  he  became  canon  of  Westminster,  and  in  1883 
archdeacon.  He  ranks  among  the  most  eloquent  of 
English  pulpit  orators,  and  has  published  many  works 
on  education  and  other  subjects. 

FARRAR,  Henry,  artist,  born  in  London,  England, 
March  23,  1843;  came  to  this  country  when  a youth. 
In  1879  he  became  secretary  of  the  American  Water 
Color  Society,  and,  in  1881,  president  of  the  New  York 
Etching  Club.  He  has  exhibited  in  London,  Paris, 
and  Philadelphia. 

FARRER,  Edward,  born  in  county  Mayo,  Ireland, 
in  1850,  came  to  Canada  in  1870,  was  connected  with 
the  press  in  Toronto,  New  York,  and  Winnepeg,  and 
later  became  editor-in-chief  of  the  Toronto  Mail. 

FARWELL,  Charles  Benjamin,  born  in  New 
York  State,  July  1,  1823;  removed  to  Illinois  in  1838, 
and,  from  1853  to  1861,  was  county  clerk  of  Cook 
county.  He  became  the  head  of  a very  large  dry  goods 
firm  in  Chicago.  In  1870  he  was  elected  to  congress, 
reelected  in  1872  and  1874,  and  again  in  1880.  On 
January  19,  1887,  he  was  elected  United  States  senator, 
to  fill  the  vacancy  occasioned  by  the  death  of  John  A. 
Logan.  He  was  a Republican. 

FARWELL,  John  Villiers,  brother  of  the  fore- 
going, was  born  in  Steuben  county,  N.  Y.,  July  29, 


6537 

1825,  became  a merchant  in  Chicago,  and  was  Indian 
commissioner  under  President  Grant.  He  is  a promi- 
nent supporter  of  the  Young  Men’s  Christian  Associa- 
tion, for  whom  he  built  a hall  in  Chicago,  and  he  was 
an  enthusiastic  supporter  of  the  evangelist  Dwight  L. 
Moody. 

FAUCIT,  Helen  (Lady  Martin),  was  born  in  Eng- 
land in  1819,  and  first  played  in  public  as  “Julia”  in 
the  Hunchback,  in  1836.  She  was  a leading  member 
of  Macready’s  company,  and  specially  distinguished  in 
Shakespearean  characters.  In  1851  she  married  Sir 
Theodore  Martin,  and  died  Oct.  31,  1898. 

FAULKNER,  Charles  J.,  born  in  Martinsburg, 
Va.,  in  1806;  died  November  1,  1884.  He  became  a 
lawyer  and  sat  in  both  branches  of  the  legislature,  and 
in  1851  was  elected  to  congress  as  a Democrat,  and 
served  four  terms.  In  1859  he  was  made  minister  to 
France,  but  was  recalled  by  President  Lincoln  and  im- 
prisoned in  Fort  Warren.  When  released  he  joined 
the  Confederate  army.  In  1874  he  was  elected  to  con- 
gress from  West  Virginia. 

FAULKNER,  Charles  James,  son  of  the  fore- 
going, born  in  Martinsburg,  Va.,  in  1840;  served  in 
the  Confederate  army,  and  afterward  became  a lawyer, 
and  was  elected  circuit  judge  in  West  Virginia.  In 
1887  he  was  elected  United  States  senator  from  that 
State  as  a Democrat,  and  reelected  in  1893. 

FAURE,  Felix,  President  of  the  French  Republic, 
was  born  in  Paris,  January  30,  1841,  became  a ship 
owner  in  Havre,  aided  in  putting  down  the  commune 
after  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  was  first  elected  to  the 
chamber  of  Deputies  as  a Republican  in  1881;  was  under- 
secretary of  state  in  the  ministries  of  Gambetta,  1881, 
Ferry,  1883,  and  Tirard,  1885;  was  minister  of  marine 
under  M.  DuPuy,  1892,  and  was  elected  President,  Jan- 
uary 17,  1895,  to  succeed  M.  Casimir-Perier,  re- 
signed. He  died  Feb.  16,  1899. 

FAURE,  Jean  Baptiste,  baritone  singer,  was  born 
in  France  in  1830,  and  appeared  at  the  Paris  Opera 
House  and  the  Royal  Italian  Opera  in  London.  He  is 
chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

FAVRE,  Jules  Claude  Gabriel,  born  at  Lyons, 
1809;  died  at  Versailles,  1880.  He  took  part  in  the 
revolution  of  1830,  held  office  in  the  republican  ministry 
in  1848;  opposed  Louis  Napoleon,  after  1858  led  the 
opposition  in  the  Corps  Legislatif  and  in  1870  became 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  the  government  of  the 
National  Defense,  and  helped  negotiate  the  treaty  of 
peace  with  Germany.  In  1876  he  became  a senator. 
He  was  a brilliant  orator  and  writer  and  an  Academician. 

FAWCETT,  Edgar,  born  in  New  York  city,  May 
26,  1847;  has  written  numerous  novels  and  sketches, 
and  some  plays  and  poetry. 

FAWCETT,  Henry,  born  at  Salisbury,  England,  in 
1833;  died  November  6,  1884.  He  graduated  at  Cam- 
bridge (seventh  wrangler)  in  1856  and  was  elected  to  a 
fellowship.  Two  years  later  he  lost  the  sight  of  both 
eyes  by  the  accidental  discharge  of  a gun.  In  1863 
be  became  professor  of  political  economy  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  in  1865  he  entered  parliament  as  an 
advanced  liberal.  In  1867  he  married  Miss  Millicent 
Garrett,  who  has  since  become  well  known  as  a writer 
and  speaker  on  woman’s  suffrage.  Mr.  Fawcett  de- 
voted himself  in  parliament  to  the  amelioration  of  the 
condition  of  the  native  races  in  India,  and  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  radical  legislation.  In  1880  he  became 
postmaster-general  under  Mr.  Gladstone  and  succeeded 
in  greatly  improving  the  condition  of  the  department. 
Mr.  Fawcett  was  a forcible  speaker  and  an  extensive 
writer  on  economic  subjects.  In  1890  his  daughter 
Philippa  carried  off  the  highest  honors  at  Cambridge, 
being  bracketed  above  the  senior  wrangler. 


F A Y — F E R 


6538 

FAY,  Theodore  S.,  author,  born  in  New  York  city 
February  10,  1807;  became  secretary  of  legation  at 
Berlin,  in  1837  and  from  1853  to  1861  was  United  States 
minister  to  Switzerland.  He  wrote  Dreams  and 
Reveries  of  a Quiet  Man , The  Minute  Book,  Norman 
Leslie , and  a History  of  Switzerland.  Died  Nov.,  1895. 

FAYE,  Herv£  Auguste,  born  in  France,  October 
5,  1814.  In  1843  he  discovered  the  comet  which  bears 
his  name,  and  in  1847  he  became  a member  of  the 
French  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  has  held  various 
positions  in  the  bureau  of  public  instruction,  and  trans- 
lated Humboldt’s  Cos?nos. 

FEBIGER,  Christian,  born  on  the  island  of  Fiinen, 
Denmark,  in  1746;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  Septem- 
ber 20,  1796.  After  receiving  a military  education  he 
went  on  the  staff  of  his  uncle, then  governor  ofSt.  Croix. 
In  1772  he  journeyed  through  the  British  North  Amer- 
ican colonies,  and  in  1773  became  a trader  in  New  Eng- 
land. On  April  28,  1775,  he  became  adjutant  of  a 
Massachusetts  regiment,  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill.  He  went  with  Arnold’s  expedition,  and 
at  the  storming  of  Quebec  on  December  31,  1775,  was 
taken  prisoner.  After  being  exchanged  on  January  1, 
1777,  he  became  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  nth  Virginia 
regiment,  and  after  the  battle  of  Brandywine  was  made 
colonel  of  the  2d  Virginia  regiment.  At  Germantown 
he  fought  under  General  Greene;  he  led  4,000  men  at 
the  battle  of  Monmouth,  and  in  the  attack  on  Stony 
Point  took  the  British  commander  prisoner.  After  the 
war  he  engageddn  business  in  Philadelphia,  and  from 
November,  1789,  until  his  death  served  as  treasurer  of 
Pennsylvania. 

FECHTER,  Charles  Albert,  actor,  born  in 
London,  of  German-French  parentage,  October  23, 
1824;  died  in  Pennsylvania,  August  5,  1879.  He  first 
appeared  on  the  stage  in  Paris  in  1840,  and  in  i860 
began  playing  in  English  in  London.  He  was  very  suc- 
cessful in  “Hamlet,”  “ Othello,”  and  other  Shakes- 
pearian characters.  For  several  years  he  managed  the 
Lyceum  theater,  London,  but  this  did  not  prove  a 
financial  success.  In  1870,  Fechter  came  to  the  United 
States,  but  his  style  did  not  prove  acceptable  to  Amer- 
ican critics  and  his  managerial  ventures  in  New  York 
and  Boston  were  failures. 

FEEHAN,  Patrick  A.,  born  in  Tipperary,  Ireland, 
in  1829,  was  educated  at  Maynooth,  and  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1852.  He  became  president  of  a sem- 
inary at  Carondelet,  held  a pastorate  in  St.  Louis,  and 
in  1865  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Nashville.  In  1880 
he  became  the  first  archbishop  of  Chicago. 

FELIPILLO,  Peruvian  Indian,  born  in  Poeches  in 
1508;  died  in  1535.  In  1527  Francisco  Pizarro  desired 
the  Peruvians  to  give  him  two  of  their  youths  to  be 
sent  to  Spain  for  an  education,  one  of  whom  was 
Felipillo.  In  1531  he  returned  with  Pizarro  to  Peru, 
where  as  an  interpreter  he  made  himself  useful  to  the 
Spaniards  and  their  commanders.  In  1533  he  and  Her- 
nando de  Soto  were  sent  to  treat  with  the  Peruvian 
monarch,  Atahualpa.  On  this  mission  Felipillo  was 
smitten  with  one  of  the  Inca’s  wives,  and  to  further  his 
purposes  he  gave  such  incorrect  translations  of  the  In- 
ca’s replies  as  to  render  the  Spaniards  suspicious  of 
treachery.  In  September,  1535,  when  Almazro  was  on 
his  way  to  invade  Chili,  Felipillo  was  his  interpreter. 
During  the  march  of  the  Spaniards  he  fled  from  the 
army,  probably  for  the  purpose  of  betrayal,  was  taken 
prisoner  and  strangled  by  the  general’s  order.  Before 
his  death  Felipillo  confessed  that  he  had  wrongfully  ac- 
cused Atahualpa. 

FELTON,  Cornelius  Conway,  born  in  West  New- 
bury, Mass.,  November  6,  1807;  died  in  Chester,  Penn., 
February  26,  1862.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in 


1827,  and  in  1834  received  the  Eliot  professorship  of 
Greek  literature.  Later  he  became  a regent  of  the  uni- 
versity. In  1853-54  he  visited  Europe  and  studied 
modern  Greek.  In  1858  he  made  a second  visit  to 
Europe  and  in  i860  was  chosen  president  of  Har- 
vard, in  which  office  he  continued  till  the  time  of  his 
death.  He  was  also  one  of  the  regents  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution.  President  Felton  made  many  con- 
tributions to  literature  in  the  leading  magazines  ami 
reviews. 

FENTON,  Reuben  E.,  born  at  Carroll,  N.  Y., 
July  1,  1819;  was  elected  to  congress  as  a Democrat, 
and  became  a Republican  in  1856.  From  1863  to 

1868  he  was  governor  of  New  York,  and  in  1868  became 
United  States  senator.  He  died  August  25,  1885. 

FERDINAND,  Prince  of  Bulgaria,  was  born  in 
Vienna,  1861,  youngest  son  of  Prince  Augustus  of  Saxe- 
Coburg,  served  as  an  officer  in  the  Austrian  army,  after 
the  deposition  of  Prince  Alexander  was  offered  the 
vacant  throne  in  1887,  accepted,  and  on  August  14  took 
the  oath  to  the  Bulgarian  constitution.  His  sovereignty 
has  not  been  formally  recognized  by  the  Powers,  but 
he  has  been  received  by  the  Emperor  of  Austria  and  by 
Queen  Victoria.  He  married  Princess  Marie  Louise  of 
Parma,  in  1893.  In  1894  he  quarreled  with  and  dis- 
missed M.  Stambuloff,  the  great  Bulgarian  statesman. 

FERGUSON,  Sir  Samuel,  lawyer,  born  at  Belfast, 
Ireland,  in  1810.  He  wrote  an  amusing  sketch,  Father 
Tom  and  the  Pope , and  the  poem  The  Forging  of  the 
Anchor.  He  was  president  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy, 
and  died  in  1886. 

FERGUSSON,  James,  born  in  Ayr,  Scotland,  in 
1808;  wrote  the  Cave  Temples  of  India , a History  of 
Ancient  and  Modern  Architecture , and  other  works. 
He  died  January  9,  1886. 

FERNANDEZ  DE  PIEDRAHITA,  Lucas,  born 
in  Bogota  in  1624;  died  in  Panama  in  1688.  On 
his  mother’s  side  he  was  descended  from  the  Incas  of 
Peru.  After  1654  he  became  a favorite  preacher  and 
vicar  general  and  governor  of  the  archbishopric  of 
Bogota.  In  1663  he  went  to  Spain  to  write  a Histvria 
del  Nuevo  Reino  de  Granada , a valuable  work. 

FERRARI,  Paolo,  born  at  Modena,  Italy,  in  1822; 
died  March  10,  1889.  He  is  best  known  by  his  come- 
dies, of  which  Goldoni  (1852),  and  Parine  e la  Satira 
(1857),  are  the  finest  examples. 

FERREIRA,  Alexandre  Rodrigues,  born  in 
Bahia,  April  27,  1756;  died  in  Lisbon,  Portugal,  April 
23,  1815.  He  studied  at  Coimbra,  in  1 770,  became  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  in  that  university,  and  was 
sent  by  the  government  of  Portugal  to  explore  the 
country  bordering  the  Amazon  river, in  1783.  In  1792  he 
returned,  and  in  1796  was  made  superintendent  of  the 
royal  cabinet  of  natural  history  and  botanical  gardens. 

FERRIER,  David,  born  at  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  in 
1843,  graduated  at  the  university  of  that  town  in  1863, 
and  in  medicine  at  Edinburgh  in  1868.  His  chief  med- 
ical work  related  to  mental  and  cerebral  diseases  and 
lesions  of  the  brain.  He  is  a fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  of  the  College  of  Physicians. 

FERRIS,  George  W.  G.,  was  born  at  Galesburg, 
111.,  1858,  studied  in  California  and,  in  civil  engineering, 
at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  ■ and  died  Nov.  22,  1896.  He 
built  and  erected  the  great  Ferris  wheel,  250  feet  in 
diameter  and  height,  which  was  the  mechanical  marvel 
of  the  World’s  Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago  in  1893, 
and  the  delight  of  the  thousands  who  rode  in  it. 

FERRY,  Jules  Francois  Camille,  born  in  the 
Vosges,  France,  April  5,  1832,  studied  law  in  Paris,  and 
contributed  to  Le  Temps  and  other  newspapers.  In 

1869  he  was  elected  to  the  Corps  Legislatif  as  a democrat, 
and  after  Sedan  he  became  secretary  of  the  Government 


F E R — F I N 


of  National  Defense,  and  assisted  in  suppressing  the 
communistic  rising  in  October,  1870.  He  became 
minister  to  Athens  in  1872-73,  and  in  1876  returned  to 
the  National  Assembly,  where  he  led  the  Republican 
Left.  In  1879  he  became  minister  of  public  instruction 
under  M.  Grevy,  and  in  this  capacity  proposed  a law 
excluding  the  religious  orders  from  the  work  of  educa- 
tion. In  September,  1880,  M.  Ferry  became  prime 
minister,  and  the  next  year  embarked  on  the  career  of 
aggrandizement  in  Tunis,  which  caused  his  fall  from 
power  a year  later.  He  again  became  premier  in  1883, 
and  again  entered  on  the  work  of  colonial  expansion  in 
Madagascar  and  Tonquin,  but  in  March,  1885,  had  to 
resign.  Called  from  retirement  in  1893  by  election  as 
President  of  the  Senate,  M.  Ferry  died  March  17,  1893. 

FERRY,  Thomas  White,  born  in  Mackinac,  Mich., 
June  1,  1827;  served  in  the  State  legislature  some 
years  and  in  Congress  from  December,  1865,  to  March, 
1871,  and  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in 
1871.  On  the  death  of  Vice-president  Wilson  in  1875, 
Mr.  Ferry  became  acting  vice-president,  and  served  as 
such  until  March  4,  1877.  He  was  reelected  to  the 
Senate,  reelected  president  pro  tern.  1877-79,  and  served 
until  March,  1883.  He  died  Oct.  14,  1896. 

FESSENDEN,  William  Pitt,  born  in  Boscawen, 
N.  H.,  October  16,  1806;  died  in  Maine,  September  8, 
1869.  He  practiced  law  in  Maine  and  was  elected  to 
the  State  legislature  in  1832,  in  1840,  and  again  in 
1845-46.  In  1840  he  was  elected  to  congress  as  a 
Whig  and  served  one  term.  In  1853-54  he  was  again 
in  the  State  legislature,  and  in  February,  1854,  took  the 
seat  in  the  United  States  Senate  which  he  retained  until 
1864.  He  was  a prominent  opponent  of  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  bill;  took  a leading  part  in  the  formation  of 
the  Republican  party,  and  opposed  slavery.  On  the 
resignation  of  Salmon  P.  Chase  in  July,  1864,  Mr. 
Fessenden  became  secretary  of  the  treasury,  an  office 
which  he  held  until  March  7,  1865.  He  was  a third 
time  elected  to  the  Senate  and  became  chairman  of  the 
joint  committee  on  reconstruction  and  of  the  finance 
committee.  He  opposed  the  impeachment  of  Andrew 
Johnson,  and  was  one  of  the  seven  Republican  senators 
who  voted  “not  guilty”  in  Johnson’s  case. 

FEUILLET,  Octave,  born  in  France,  August  11, 
1812;  a distinguished  novelist  and  dramatist.  His  most 
popular  works  are  The  Romance  of  a Poor  Young  Man 
(1858);  Monsieur  de  C amors  (1867) ; La  Veuve  and  La 
Morte  (1886).  He  became  a member  of  the  Academy 
in  1862  and  died  December  29,  1890. 

FEVAL,  Paul  Henry,  born  in  France,  September 
27,  1817,  a popular  novelist,  died  March  8,  1887. 

FIELD,  Cyrus  West,  born  in  Stockbridge,  Mass., 
November  30,  1819.  He  received  a good  education 
and,  in  1834,  went  to  New  York  city  as  clerk  in  a dry- 
goods  store.  Some  years  later  he  entered  the  paper 
business.  Retiring  in  1853,  he  traveled  for  a while  in 
South  America,  and  on  his  return,  in  1854,  he  began 
to  give  his  attention  to  ocean-telegraphs.  After  some 
discouragement  he  was  successful  in  procuring  a charter 
to  establish  a telegraph  from  New  York  city  to  New- 
foundland and  thence  to  Europe.  He  crossed  the 
Atlantic  fifty  times,  and  devoted  thirteen  years  to  the 
execution  of  this  undertaking.  He  personally  engaged 
in  constructing  the  land  line  of  the  telegraph  in  New- 
foundland, and  accompanied  the  expeditions  of  1857 
and  1858,  fitted  out  to  lay  the  cable  in  the  deep  water 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  between  Europe  and  New- 
foundland. Undismayed  by  the  breakdown  of  the 
1858  cable,  he  accompanied  the  expeditions  of  1865  and 
1866,  the  last  of  which  resulted  in  complete  success. 
For  this  achievement,  Mr.  Field  received  a gold  medal 
from  congress,  and  was  covered  with  foreign  decora- 


6539 

tions.  He  was  an  energetic  promoter  of  elevated  rail- 
roads in  New  York  city.  The  last  year  of  his  life  was 
embittered  by  financial  embarrassment  and  dishonor 
brought  on  by  his  son.  He  died  July  12,  1892 

FIELD,  David  Dudley,  born  in  Haddam,  Conn., 
in  1805  ; was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  New  York  in  1828, 
and  practiced  law  for  nearly  sixty  years,  retiring  in  1885, 
after  he  had  been,  for  twenty-five  years,  the  admitted 
head  of  the  American  bar.  He  made  the  simplification 
of  legal  procedure  and  the  codification  of  laws  his  life 
work,  and  the  code  which  he  succeeded,  after  immense 
labors,  in  having  adopted  by  the  State  of  New  York, 
early  in  the  fifties,  has  been  copied  in  the  majority  of 
the  States  of  the  union.  His  work  in  codifying  interna- 
tional law  was  equally  important.  He  died  Apr.  13,  1894. 

FIELD,  Henry  M.,  brother  of  David  Dudley,  Cy- 
rus and  Stephen  J.  Field,  was  born  in  Stockbridge, 
Mass.,  April  3,  1822,  became  a Presbyterian  preacher 
and  in  1855  editor  and  proprietor  of  The  Evangelist , 
New  York.  He  has  written  a History  of  the  Atlantic 
Telegraph  (1866),  and  numerous  books  of  travel. 

FIELD,  Kate,  born  in  St.  Louis  about  1840,  be- 
came a newspaper  correspondent,  lecturer,  novelist, 
and  actress,  playing  Peg  Woffington  in  1874  with  suc- 
cess. She  lectured  on  Mormonism  and  dress  reform,  and 
published  Kate  Field's  Washington.  Died  May,  1896. 

FIELD,  Stephen  Johnson,  born  in  Haddam, 
Conn.,  in  1816,  and  died  April  9,  1899.  He  be- 
came a judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  that  State  in 
1857  and  chief  justice  two  years  later.  In  1863  he 
became  associate  justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court.  He  was  a member  of  the  electoral  commission 
of  1876  and  voted  with  the  Democratic  minority.  In 
1880  he  was  a candidate  for  the  presidential  nomination 
and  received  sixty-five  votes  in  the  convention.  In 
1889  he  was  assaulted  by  Judge  Terry,  of  California, 
who  was  killed  by  United  States  Marshal  Nagle,  who 
had  been  deputed  to  protect  Judge  Field. 

FIFER,  Joseph  W.,  born  at  Staunton,  Va.,  re- 
moved to  McLean  county,  111.,  when  a boy,  and  worked 
on  a farm  and  as  a bricklayer.  In  1861  he  enlisted  in 
the  33d  Illinois  volunteers,  serving  in  the  ranks  until 
July,  1863,  when  he  was  badly  wounded  at  Jackson, 
Miss.,  but  recovered  and  rejoined  his  regiment.  After 
the  war  he  studied  at  Illinois  Wesleyan  University, 
became  a lawyer  in  1869,  corporation  counsel  of  Bloom- 
ington in  1871,  State’s  attorney  of  McLean  county, 
1877-80,  and  State  Senator,  1880-84.  He  was  elected 
governor  of  Illinois  as  a Republican  in  November,  1888, 
over  Gen.  John  M.  Palmer,  and  was  defeated  for  reelec- 
tion in  1892  by  John  P.  Altgeld. 

FINERTY,  John  F.,  born  in  Galway,  Ireland,  in 
1846,  became  identified,  while  a boy,  with  the  Irish 
revolutionary  movement,  came  to  this  country  in  1864, 
served  for  a year  in  the  Union  army,  became  a Chicago 
reporter  in  1865,  and  in  this  capacity  witnessed  the 
Fenian  raids  in  Canada  in  1866  and  1870.  As  war 
correspondent  of  the  Chicago  Times,  he  took  part  in 
the  historical  campaign  against  Sitting  Bull  in  1879. 
Mr.  Finerty,  although  not  holding  any  army  appoint- 
ment, distinguished  himself  in  several  battles  on  the 
Canadian  border.  He  organized  the  Irish  Land  League 
convention  which  met  in  Chicago  in  1881,  and  which 
raised  $500,000  for  the  cause  of  Ireland.  In  1882  he 
began  the  publication  of  the  Citizen  newspaper,  and  in 
November  of  that  year  he  was  elected  to  Congress  as 
an  Independent  from  the  second  district  of  Illinois.  In 
1885  he  received  the  Republican  nomination  for  treas- 
urer of  the  city  of  Chicago.  He  published  in  1890  an 
account  of  his  experience  while  fighting  the  Indians, 
under  the  title  of  “Warpath  and  Bivouac,  or  the  Con- 
quest of  the  Sioux  Indians.” 


6540  FIS- 

FISCHER,  Ernst,  born  in  Silesia,  July  23,  1824; 
graduated  at  Halle,  in  1847,  and  lectured  on  philosophy 
at  Heidelberg-and  Jena.  He  is  a follower  of  Hegel, 
and  has  written  much  on  aesthetics  and  metaphysics. 

FISH,  Hamilton,  born  in  New  York  city,  August 
3,  1808.  In  1827  he  was  graduated  at  Columbia,  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1830.  In  1842  he 
was  elected  to  congress  as  a Whig,  serving  until  1845. 
In  1847-48  Mr.  Fish  was  lieutenant-governor,  and  from 
1849  to  1851  governor  of  the  State  of  New  York.  In 
1851  he  was  elected  United  States  senator.  After  1857 
he  spent  several  years  in  Europe,  and  in  1869  was  ap- 
pointed United  States  minister  to  France.  Under  the 
administration  of  President  Grant,  Governor  Fish  was 
appointed  secretary  of  state,  which  office  he  filled  for  two 
terms  with  signal  ability,  settling  several  foreign  dis- 
putes to  this  country’s  advantage.  He  died  Sept.  7,  ’93. 

FISK,  Clinton  B.,  was  born  at  Griggsville,  N.  Y., 
Dec.  8,  1828;  died  July  9,  1890.  He  served  through  the 
war,  being  appointed  brigadier-general  in  1862  and 
brevetted  major-general  in  1865,  founded  Fisk  Univer- 
sity for  colored  youth  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,in  1866,  and 
was  its  president  until  his  death,  and  in  1888  was  the 
Prohibition  candidate  for  president  of  the  U nited  States. 

FISKE,  Daniel  Willard,  born  in  Jefferson 
county,  N.  Y.,  November  11,  1831  ; became  assistant 
in  the  Astor  library  1852-59,  and  in  1868  librarian  at 
Cornell.  He  traveled  in  Sweden  and  Iceland  and  has 
written  on  the  literature  of  both  countries. 

FISKE,  John,  born  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  March  30, 
1842 ; graduated  at  Harvard  and  became  lecturer, 
assistant  librarian,  and  member  of  the  board  of  over- 
seers. He  lectured  on  American  history  and  published 
many  important  historical  works.  He  died  July  4, 
1901. 

FLAGG,  George  W.,  painter,  born  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  June  26,  1816;  became  a member  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Design  in  1851.  His  works 
include  historical  and  figure  pieces  and  portraits.  His 
brother,  Jared  Bradley,  born  June  16,  1820,  is  a 
minister  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  and  is  well- 
known  as  a portrait-painter.  Died  Jan.  5,  1897. 

FLAMMARION,  Camille,  French  astronomer, 
born  February  25,  1842,  edited  the  Cosmos , and  be- 
came scientific  editor  of  the  Siecle  in  1865.  He  made 
many  balloon  ascents  for  scientific  purposes,  and  re- 
ceived in  1880  the  Monthyon  prize  for  a work  on 
popular  astronomy. 

FLAUBERT,  Gustave,  born  at  Rouen,  France, 
December  12,  1821  ; died  May  9,  1880.  He  belonged 
to  the  realistic  school  of  novelists,  and  is  well  known  in 
America  by  his  Madame  Bovary  and  Salammbo , which 
have  been  translated  and  extensively  circulated. 

FLEGEL,  Eduard  Robert,  born  in  Russia,  Oc- 
tober 13,  1855  ; died  in  equatorial  Africa,  September 
II,  1886.  He  made  several  expeditions  through  the 
Niger  and  Cameroon  country  under  the  auspices  of  the 
German  Colonial  Society. 

FLEISCHER,  Heinrich  L.,born  in  Saxony,  Feb- 
ruary 21,  1801;  died  February  10,  1888.  For  many 
years  he  was  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Leipzig, 
and  translated  and  edited  several  Arabic  works. 

FLETCHER,  Benjamin,  governor  of  New  York, 
born  in  England  about  1650;  died  about  1720.  He  was 
colonel  in  the  British  army,  and  became  governor  of 
New  York  under  William  and  Mary. 

FLINT,  Austin,  born  in  Petersham,  Mass. , Octo- 
ber 20,  1812;  died  March  13,  1886.  He  studied  at 
Amherst  and  Harvard,  and  graduated  in  medicine  in 
1833.  Doctor  Flint  held  professorial  chairs  in  Rush 
Medical  College,  Chicago;  in  Buffalo,  Louisville,  New 
Orleans,  and  New  York.  He  was  president  of  the  New 


- F O L 

York  Academy  of  Medicine  from  1872  I©  1885,  and 
president  of  the  American  Medical  Association  in  1884. 
His  medical  works  cover  many  volumes,  and  have  had 
a great  circulation. 

FLINT,  Austin,  J r.,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born 
in  Northampton,  Mass.,  March  28,  1836,  and  graduated 
in  medicine  in  1857.  He  edited  the  Buffalo  Medical 
Journal , which  had  been  established  by  his  father.  For 
many  years  he  held  professional  appointments  in  con- 
nection with  leading  hospitals  and  schools  of  medicine 
in  New  York  and  other  cities.  He  has  published  num- 
erous monographs  on  medical  and  scientific  subjects. 

FLOQUET,  Charles  Thomas,  born  in  France, 
October  5,  1828,  became  a lawyer  and  appeared  as 
counsel  for  the  accused  in  numerous  political  trials  dur- 
ing the  Second  Empire.  In  February,  1871,  he  was 
elected  to  the  National  Assembly,  but  being  charged 
with  complicity  with  the  Commune  was  imprisoned 
for  several  months.  He  served  five  years  in  the  Munic- 
ipal Council  of  Paris  as  a Radical,  returned  to  the 
Chamber  in  1877  and  in  1881  became  its  vice-president. 
He  favored  the  separation  of  church  and  state  and 
advocated  the  expulsion  of  all  dynastic  pretenders.  M. 
Floquet  became  president  of  the  Chamber  in  1885  and 
has  since  served  as  premier.  He  is  a talented  orator 
and  prominent  journalist.  Died  Jan.  18,  1896. 

FLORENCE,  William  J., actor,  born  in  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  July  26,  1831;  made  his  first  stage  appearance 
in  1849.  He  performed  with  great  success  in  Irish 
characters  and  his  “Bardwell  Slote  ” in  The  Mighty 
Dollar , and  “Captain  Cuttle”  in  Dombey  and  Son 
were  great  favorites.  Mr.  Florence  married  in  1853,  and 
his  wife  became  a popular  actress.  He  died  Nov.  19, 1891. 

FLOTOW,  Friedrich  von,  composer,  bovn  in 
Mecklenburg  April  27,  1812;  died  January  24, 1883.  He 
spent  most  of  his  life  in  Paris,  and  his  operas,  Stradella , 
Martha , and  the  like,  are  of  a light  and  pleasing  char- 
acter. 

FLOWER,  Roswell  P.,  born  in  Jefferson  county, 
N.  Y.,  August  7,  1835;  was  elected  to  congress  from 
New  York  city  as  a Democrat  in  1881  and  again  ill  1888 
and  in  1890.  He  was  a member  of  the  committee  on 
ways  and  means.  In  November,  1891,  he  was  elected 
Governor  of  New  York  State.  Died  May  12,  1899. 

.FLOYD,  John  Buchanan,  born  in  Virginia  June  1, 
1807;  died  August  26,  1863.  He  served  in  the  Virginia 
legislature  in  1847-49  and  in  1853,  and  was  governor  of 
the  State  1830-53.  Under  Buchanan  he  was  secretary 
of  war  from  March,  1857,  until  the  fall  of  i860,  when 
he  resigned  and  went  over  to  the  Confederacy.  He 
was  charged  with  having  used  his  official  position  to  aid 
the  rebellion  by  sending  cannon  and  arms  to  the  South 
and  dispersing  the  army  throughout  the  country,  but  a 
committee  of  the  House  of  Representatives  exonerated 
him.  In  1861  he  received  a commission  as  brigadier- 
general  in  the  Confederate  army,  was  defeated  at  Fort 
Donelson  February  16,  1862,  and  relieved  from  com- 
mand. 

FLOYD,  William,  born  in  Suffolk  county,  N.  Y., 
December  17,  1734,  died  August  4,  1821.  He  was  a 
member  of  every  continental  congress  from  1775  *° 
1782,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

FOLEY,  Thomas,  born  at  Baltimore  in  1823;  died 
in  1879.  He  was  ordained  priest  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  in  1846,  became  chancellor  of  the  arch-diocese  of 
Baltimore  in  1848,  and  vicar-general  in  1867.  In  1869 
he  was  appointed  coadjutor  bishop  of  Chicago,  Bishop 
Duggan  having  become  insane.  He  built  the  Cathedral 
of  the  Holy  Name,  and  greatly  improved  the  condition 
of  church  affairs  in  his  diocese. 

FOLGER,  Charles  James,  born  in  Nantucket, 
Mass.,  April  16,  1818;  died  September  4,  1884.  H« 


F O N — F O R 


ivas  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1839,  and  held  various  judi- 
cial offices  in  New  York  State.  In  1856  he  joined  the 
National  Republican  party,  and  from  1861  to  1869  sat 
in  the  State  Senate.  In  1869-70  he  was  assistant 
treasurer  of  the  United  States  in  New  York,  in  1871 
was  elected  to  the  State  Court  of  Appeals,  served  as 
Chief  Justice  in  1880,  and  was  reelected  as  associate 
for  a full  term  the  same  year.  In  October,  1881, 
President  Arthur  made  him  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
which  office  he  held  until  his  death.  In  September, 
1882,  he  received  the  Republican  nomination  for  gover- 
nor of  New  York,  but  the  “ mugwumps  ” voted  with 
the  democrats  against  the  “machine,”  and  Grover 
Cleveland  defeated  Judge  Folger  by  a majority  of  more 
than  190,000. 

FONSECA,  Deodoro  da,  president  of  the  United 
States  of  Brazil,  attained  that  office  on  November  15, 
18S9,  when  the  empire  of  Dom  Pedro  II.  was  quietly 
overturned  without  bloodshed.  General  Fonseca  had 
held  several  minor  government  offices  and  received  a 
militarv  education.  He  died  Aug.  23,  1892. 

FOOTE,  Andrew  Hull,  born  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  September  12,  1806;  died  June  26, 1863.  He  be- 
came a midshipman  at  sixteen  years  old,  and  was  made 
captain  in  1849.  In  February,  1862,  he  took  part  in  the 
naval  attacks  on  Fort  Henry  and  Fort  Donelson,  and 
on  April  7th  captured  Island  No.  10.  For  these  services 
he  was  made  rear-admiral  and  received  the  thanks  of 
Congress. 

FOOTE,  Henry  Stuart,  born  in  Virginia  Septem- 
ber 20,  1800;  died  May  20,  1880.  He  became  a lawyer 
and  editor  in  Mississippi,  and  in  1847  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  senate  as  a unionist.  He  resigned  in  1852 
to  run  for  governor  against  Jefferson  Davis,  whom  he 
defeated.  Foote  opposed  secession  in  the  Knoxville 
convention  in  1859,  but  subsequently  sat  in  the  Con- 
federate congress.  He  opposed  Mr.  Davis’  policy,  and 
was  in  favor  of  accepting  terms.  After  the  war  he 
became  a Republican,  and  President  Grant  made  him 
superintendent  of  the  United  States  mint  at  New 
Orleans. 

FORAKER,  Joseph  Benson,  born  in  Highland 
county,  Ohio,  July  5,  1846  ; enlisted  in  the  volunteer 
service  at  sixteen  years  old  and  served  through  the  war. 
He  graduated  at  Cornell  in  1869,  was  admitted  to  the 
Ohio  bar  the  same  year,  and  from  1879  to  1882  was 
judge  of  the  superior  court  of  Cincinnati.  In  1883  he 
was  the  Republican  candidate  for  governor  of  Ohio,  but 
was  defeated.  He  was  successful  in  1885  and  again  in 
1887,  but  was  defeated  in  1889. 

FORBES,  Archibald,  born  in  Morayshire,  Scot- 
land, in  1838;  was  educated  at  Aberdeen  University, 
and  served  several  years  as  a trooper  in  the  dragoons. 
In  1870-71  he  went  through  the  Franco-Prussian  war 
as  special  correspondent  for  the  London  Daily  News. 
He  witnessed  the  closing  scenes  of  the  Paris  Commune, 
described  the  Civil  war  in  Spain,  went  to  India  with 
the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1875-76,  and  was  all  through 
the  Russo-Turkish  war  in  1877.  In  1879  he  went  to 
Zululand  for  his  paper,  and  there — as  everywhere 
else— managed  to  see  everything,  and  to  report  the 
events  of  the  war  in  advance  of  all  competitors.  He 
has  lectured  in  the  United  States,  England,  and  Aus- 
tralia, and  has  written  some  novels  and  a Life  of  Chinese 
Gordon. 

FORD,  Corydon  L.,  born  in  Greene  county,  N.  Y., 
August  29,  1813;  graduated  in  medicine  in  1842.  He 
held  professional  chairs  at  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Buffalo, 
Castleton,  Vt.,  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  and  Bowdoin  College, 
and  was  professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  Michi- 
gan University.  He  is  considered  one  of  the  ablest 
teachers  of  anatomy  in  the  country 
40-J 


6541 

FORREST,  Edwin,  bom  in  Philadelphia,  March 
9,  1806;  died  there  December  12,  1872.  He  made  his 
theatrical  debut  as  “Douglas”  in  Home’s  tragedy  of 
that  name,  and  traveled  and  performed  in  the  theaters 
of  the  West  and  Southwest  without  attracting  much 
notice.  In  November,  1826,  he  played  a star  engage- 
ment at  the  New  York  Bowery  theater,  where  he 
opened  in  the  character  of  “Othello,”  which  was 
pronounced  a signal  success.  This  was  followed  by 
other  parts  acted  with  no  less  ability.  He  left  New 
York,  a prominent  tragedian  and  a great  favorite,  to 
repeat  his  dramatic  triumph  in  other  cities  of  the 
Union.  After  playing  for  several  years  he  visited 
Europe  for  recreation  and  study.  He  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  1831,  and  continued  playing  with  un» 
abated  attraction  until  the  autumn  of  1836,  when  he 
sailed  for  Europe.  His  first  appearance  in  England 
was  as  “ Spartacus  ” in  the  Gladiator , which  was  fol- 
lowed by  “Macbeth,”  “Lear,”  and  “Othello.”  In 
London  he  married  a daughter  of  John  Sinclair,  the 
popular  Scottish  vocalist,  and  in  November  of  the  same 
year  began  an  engagement  in  Philadelphia.  In  1845,  in 
company  with  his  wife,  he  again  visited  London,  and  per- 
formed at  the  Princess’  theater.  Much  professional 
jealousy  arose  between  Forrest  and  Macready,  the  favor- 
ite tragedian  of  the  British  stage,  which  led  to  open 
outbreaks  of  temper,  in  consequence  of  which  the  Ameri- 
can actor  lost  the  favor  of  the  British  public.  In  May, 
1849,  when  Macready  was  playing  in  this  country  as 
“ Macbeth  ” at  the  Astor  Place  opera  house,  a riot 
ensued.  On  this  occasion  twenty  rioters  were  killed  and 
thirty  six  wounded.  The  actor’s  marriage  with  his  British 
wife  proved  an  unhappy  one;  divorce  suits  were  brought 
on  both  sides,  that  occupied  the  courts  for  several  years, 
and  were  finally  decided  in  the  wife’s  favor.  In  1853 
Forrest  performed  at  the  Broadway  theater  for  several 
weeks.  In  1865  he  became  gouty,  and  one  of  .his  arms 
was  slightly  paralyzed.  Forrest’s  trip  to  California  in 
1866  was  unsuccessful.  His  last  theatrical  appearance 
wasmadeat  Boston  in  March,  1871,  when  he  brokedown 
during  the  engagement.  Later,  he  endeavored  to  give 
readings  from  Shakespeare’s  plays,  but  they  failed  *o 
attract. 

FORREST,  Nathan  Bedford,  born  in  Tennessee, 
July  13,  1821;  died  October  29,  1877.  He  became  a 
planter  and  afterward  a slave-dealer,  and  in  June,  1861, 
raised  a cavalry  regiment  for  the  Confederacy  and  was  en- 
gaged at  Fort  Donelson,  Shiloh,  Murfreesboro,  and 
Chickamauga.  Becoming  a major-general,  he  com- 
manded at  the  attack  on  Fort  Pillow  in  April,  1864. 
The  works  were  taken  by  assault  and  the  colored  troops 
of  the  garrison  were  mercilessly  slaughtered,  no  quarter 
being  given.  Forrest  was  promoted  lieutenant-general. 
Gen.  J.  H.  Wilson  defeated  him  in  April,  1865,  and  he 
surrendered  at  Gainesville  a month  later.  After  the 
war  he  engaged  in  the  railroad  business. 

FORSTER,  Ernst  Joachim,  bom  at  Munich  in 
1800,  became  well  known  as  a fresco  painter  and  a 
writer  on  art.  He  died  April  29,  1885. 

FORSTER,  Heinrich,  born  in  Silesia,  November 
24,  1800;  became  a Catholic  priest  in  1825,  and  in  1853 
was  made  prince-bishop  of  Breslau.  He  was  deprived 
of  his  see  under  the  Prussian  May  laws,  and  died 
October  20,  1881. 

FORSTER,  William  Edward,  born  in  Dorsetshire, 
England,  July  11,  1819;  died  Apal  5,  1886.  He  made 
a fortune  as  a woolen  manufacturer,  and  in  1861  entered 
parliament  as  an  advanced  Liberal.  After  holding  sev- 
eral minor  offices  under  Mr.  Gladstone  he  entered  the 
cabinet  in  1870,  and  was  instrumental  in  passing  the 
elementary  education  bill  and  the  ballot  law.  In  1874 
he  visited  the  United  States,  and  in  1875  was  elected 


6542  FOR- 

lord  rector  of  Aberdeen  University.  Mr.  Forster  ac- 
cepted in  1880  the  office  of  chief  secretary  for  Ireland. 
In  this  capacity  he  introduced  the  compensation  for 
disturbance  bill,  a measure  designed  to  relieve  the  tenant 
class.  This  passed  the  House  of  Commons  but  was  re- 
jected by  the  Lords.  The  Land  Act  of  1881  was  ac- 
companied by  a Coercion  act,  and  when  the  Land 
League  issued  its  “ No  Rent”  manifesto  Forster  retal- 
iated by  proclaiming  the  League  as  illegal.  Under  the 
Coercion  Act  he  imprisoned  Mr.  Parnell  and  a great 
many  members  of  the  Irish  Parliamentary  party,  as 
well  as  several  hundred  priests  and  private  citizens. 
He  became  known  as  “Buckshot”  Forster,  from  an 
order  which  he  gave  to  the  Royal  Irish  constabulary  to 
load  their  guns  with  buckshot  instead  of  ball.  When 
the  Gladstone  cabinet  released  the  “suspects”  Fors- 
ter resigned,  and  thereafter  opposed  all  of  Mr.  Glad- 
stone’s remedial  measures. 

FORSYTH,  James  W.,  bom  in  Onio  in  1835; 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1856,  and  served  on  the 
staff  of  McClellan  and  Sheridan-  He  was  brevetted 
colonel  and  brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army, 
became  brigadier- general  of  volunteers,  and  in  1886 
colonel  of  the  7th  United  States  Cavalry,  stationed  on 
the  frontier. 

FORSYTH,  John,  born  in  Virginia,  October  22, 
1780;  died  October  21, 1841.  He  practiced  law  in  Geor- 
gia, was  elected  attorney-general  of  that  State  in  1808, 
and  sat  in  congress  from  1813  to  1818,  when  he  became 
United  States  senator.  In  1819  he  resigned  to  become 
minister  to  Spain,  and  negotiated  the  Florida  cession 
with  that  country.  From  1823  to  1827  he  was  again  in 
congress,  and  in  1829  was  again  elected  senator.  In 
1834  he  resigned  and  served  as  secretary  of  state  under 
Jackson  and  his  successor,  Van  Buren,  until  March  3, 
1841. 

FORTIN,  Pierre,  born  in  Quebec  in  1823;  has 
held  numerous  government  appointments,  and  was 
speaker  of  the  legislative  assembly  in  1875.  the 
Canadian  parliament  he  represented  Gaspe  from  1867 
to  1874;  sat  in  the  legislative  assembly  1867  to  1881, 
and  afterward  in  the  Dominion  parliament.  He  is  a 
prominent  Conservative. 

FOSS,  Cyrus  David,  born  in  Kingston,  N.  Y., 
January  17,  1834,  became  an  M.  E.  minister  in  1857, 
and  Jn  1875  was  elected  president  of  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity. In  May,  1880,  he  was  elected  and  ordained 
bishop. 

FOSTER,  Birket,  artist,  born  in  England,  Feb- 
ruary 4,  1825.  He  became  one  of  the  most  prominent 
of  English  wood-engravers,  and  is  equally  well  known 
as  an  artist  in  water-colors.  He  died  in  1893. 

FOSTER,  Charles,  born  at  Tiffin,  Ohio,  April  12, 
1828;  engaged  in  business  in  Fostoria,  and  was  very 
successful.  In  1870  he  was  elected  to  congress  as  a 
Republican,  and  was  three  times  reelected.  He 
became  governor  of  Ohio  in  1879,  and  was  reelected 
in  1881.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Windom  in  January, 
1891,  Mr.  Foster  became  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

FOSTER,  Ellen  H.,  born  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  in 
November,  1840;  was  married  in  1859.  She  is  a 
lawyer,  newspaper  editor,  and  lecturer,  and  a prominent 
advocate  of  woman  suffrage  and  prohibition. 

FOSTER,  George  E.,  born  in  New  Brunswick, 
September  3,  1847,  was  elected  to  the  Dominion  par- 
liament m 1879,  and  became  minister  of  marine  in 
1885,  and  in  1894  was  minister  of  finance  in  the 
Dominion  cabinet.  He  is  president  of  the  Inter- 
national Temperance  Association,  anl  is  author  of 
The  Prohibitionists'  Handbook. 

FOSTER,  John  Watson,  born  in  Indiana,  March 
2,  1836;  became  a lawyer,  served  in  the  Civil  war  and 


-FOX 

later  edited  the- Evansville  Journal.  He  was  United 
States  minister  to  Mexico,  1873-80,  to  Russia  in  1881, 
and  to  Spain  1883-85.  He  was  Secretary  of  Statff 
1892-95  and  in  1895  China  appointed  him  as  commis- 
sioner to  secure  peace  with  Japan. 

FOSTER,  John  Wells,  born  in  Massachusetts, 
March  4,  1815;  died  in  Chicago,  June  29,  1873.  He 
studied  geology,  made  surveys  of  the  Lake  Superior 
copper  region,  was  president  of  the  Chicago  Academy 
of  Sciences  and  wrote  many  scientific  papers. 

FOSTER,  Lafayette  Sabine,  born  in  Franklin, 
Conn.,  November  22,  1806;  died  September  19,  1880. 
He  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1828,  practiced 
law  in  Connecticut,  and  edited  the  Norwich  Journal  in 
1835.  In  1839-40,  and  again  from  1846  to  1848  he  sat 
in  the  legislature  as  a Whig,  and  for  two  years  was 
speaker.  He  was  mayor  of  Norwich  1851-52,  twice  un- 
successful as  a Whig  candidate  for  the  governorship, 
and  in  1854  was  again  elected  to  the  Assembly,  and 
chosen  speaker.  In  May,  1854,  he  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate, .and  reelected  in  i860,  serving 
until  March,  1867.  He  joined  the  Republican  party 
in  1856,  and  supported  the  Union  cause  during  the  war. 
In  1865  he  was  president  pro  tem.  of  the  Senate,  and 
became  acting  vice-president  of  the  United  States, 
when  Andrew  Johnson  succeeded  to  the  presidency. 
In  1870  he  again  became  a member  and  speaker  of 
the  Connecticut  assembly,  and  in  June  was  elected  to 
the  State  supreme  bench  by  the  legislature.  He  sup- 
ported Greeley  for  the  presidency  in  1872,  and  was 
defeated  as  a Democratic  candidate  for  congress  two 
years  later.  From  1870  to  1876  he  was  a judge  of  the 
State  supreme  court. 

FOSTER,  Randolph  S.,  born  in  Williamsburg, 
Ohio,  February  22,  1820,  entered  the  Methodist  min- 
istry in  1837  and  for  twenty  years  held  pastorates.  In 
1856  he  became  president  of  the  Northwestern  Univer- 
sity at  Evanston,  111., and  in  1870  was  elected  president 
of  Drew  Theological  Seminary.  In  May,  1872,  he  was 
elected  bishop. 

FOWLER,  Charles  Henry,  born  in  Canada,  Au- 
gust 11,  1837;  graduated  at  Garrett  Biblical  Institute, 
Evanston,  111.,  and  held  successive  Methodist  Episcopal 
pastorates  in  Chicago  till  1872,,  when  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Northwestern  University.  In  1876  he  be- 
came editor  of  the  New  York  Christian  Advocate , and 
in  1884  was  elected  bishop. 

FOX,  Gustavus  Vasa,  born  in  Massachusetts,  June 
13,  1821 ; died  October  29,  1883.  He  joined  the  United 
States  navy  as  midshipman  January  12,  1838,  and  re- 
signed as  lieutenant  in  1856.  In  1861  he  became  as- 
sistant secretary  of  the  navy,  which  position  he  held  un- 
til the  close  of  the  war. 

FOX,  Margaret  and  Katherine,  spiritualistic 
jugglers,  born  in  1836  and  1839  in  New  York  State. 
The  elder  sister  began  to  manifest  her  “ wonders  ” when 
she  was  about  twelve  years  of  age,  under  the  tuition  of 
some  adult.  The  younger  sister  also  soon  became 
initiated  in  this  mystery.  At  about  this  time  the  family 
removeu  to  Rochester,  and  in  1849,  under  careful  man- 
agement, ventured  to  appear  in  public  halls  before  com- 
mittees, who  were  unable  to  trace  any  human  agency  in 
their  astounding  manipulations.  In  May,  1850,  the 
sisters  appeared  in  New  York  city  with  their  alleged 
“ spiritual  manifestations,”  attracting  much  notice  and 
turning  the  heads  of  the  credulous.  So  artful  was  their 
juggling  that  not  alone  the  ignorant,  but  persons  of 
position  and  learning  were  led  to  believe  in  them. 
When  Doctor  Kane  prepared  to  travel  in  quest  of  the 
North  Pole,  in  1853,  he  retired  the  elder  sister  from  the 
platform  and  provided  for  her  wants  and  education.  On 
his  return  in  1855  she  claimed  to  have  been  married  tG 


PRA- 

the  explorer  and  bore  his  name  after  his  death.  The 
younger  sister  continued  her  deceptions  for  some  time 
longer,  until  they  were  exploded  and  explained  by  or- 
dinary sleight-of-hand  performers.  In  1889  Margaret 
fox  made  a public  confession  of  fraud  claiming  that  she 
produced  the  rappings  with  a dislocated  big  toe,  but 
later  she  retracted  the  confession.  Katharine  contin- 
ued the  seances  until  1888  and  died  in  July  1892.  Mar- 
garet died  in  destitution,  March  8,  1893. 

FRANCIS  II.,  ex-king  of  Naples,  known  as 
“Bomba  Second,”  was  born  January  31,  1836,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Ferdinand  II.,  in  1858,  and  married 
in  the  same  year  Caroline  of  Bavaria,  sister  of  the 
empress  of  Austria.  In  i860  the  Sicilians  rose  in  in- 
surrection, Garibaldi  defeated  the  royalist  troops  in 
every  battle,  and  Francis  fled.  Fie  died  Dec.  27,  1894. 

FRANCIS  JOSEPH  L,  emperor  of  Austria  and 
king  of  Hungary,  was  born  August  18,  1830,  and  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  of  Austria,  December  2,  1848,  on 
the  abdication  of  his  uncle,  Ferdinand  I.  In  April, 
1854,  he  married  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of 
Duke  Maximilian -Joseph.  Their  son,  the  Crown  Prince 
Rudolph,  born  in  1858,  married  in  1881  the  Princess 
Stephanie  of  Belgium,  and  committed  suicide,  January 
30,  1889.  The  heir  presumptive  to  the  throne  is  the 
Archduke  Charles  Louis,  born  J uly  30, 1 833,  who  is  mar- 
ried to  a daughter  of  Dom  Miguel  ot  Portugal.  Fran- 
cis J oseph,  on  ascending  the  throne,  promised  to  govern 
as  a constitutional  monarch,  but  immediately  dissolved 
the  national  assembly  and  assumed  absolute  power. 
Rebellion  in  Hungary  was  put  down  with  the  help  of 
Russia,  and  the  Italian  provinces  were  held  by  the  iron 
hand  of  Radetsky.  The  Austrian  emperor  remained 
neutral  during  the  Crimean  war.  In  1855  he  signed  a 
concordat  with  the  Pope,  giving  the  clergy  full  power 
over  education.  In  1859  occurred  the  war  with  France 
and  Italy,  when  Francis  Joseph  took  thefieldin  person. 
The  decisive  Austrian  defeats  at  Magenta  and  Solferino 
led  to  the  treaty  of  Villafranca,  by  which  Austria  lost 
Lombardy.  In  the  spring  of  1864  the  Austrians  and 
Prussians  combined  to  rob  Denmark  of  the  Schleswig- 
Holstein  duchies,  and  the  quarrel  over  the  spoils  led  in 
June,  1866,  to  war  between  Austria  and  the  combined 
forces  of  Prussia  and  Italy.  The  Seven  Days’  war, 
which  ended  at  Sadowa,  broke  the  power  of  Austria. 
By  the  treaty  of  Prague  Francis  Joseph  gave  up  to  Italy 
all  Venetia  and  the  fortresses  of  the  Quadrilateral,  and 
surrendered  to  Prussia  the  duchies  and  all  claim  to  con- 
trol in  Germany.  In  1865  the  emperor  adopted  a policy 
of  conciliation  toward  Hungary,  and  on  June  8,  1867, 
he  was  crowned  king  of  that  country.  A riiore  liberal 
form  of  government  was  granted  to  the  dual  monarchy, 
a civil  marriage  bill  was  passed,  and  in  July,  1870,  the 
concordat  was  suspended.  Since  that  time  Francis 
Joseph  has  reigned  as  a constitutional  monarch. 

FRANKLIN,  William,  illegitimate  son  of  Dr. 
Benjamin  Franklin,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1729  ; died 
in  England  in  1813.  He  was  the  last  royalist  gov- 
ernor of  New  Jersey,  and  a bitter  Tory,  and  received  a 
pension  from  the  English  Government. 

FRANKLIN,  William  Buel,  born  in  York,  Penn., 
February  27,  1823;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1843, 
and  was  assigned  to  the  corps  of  topographical  en- 
gineers. He  was  brevetted  lieutenant  for  gallantry  at 
Buena  Vista,  and  became  captain  in  1857.  In  May, 
1861,  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  12th  United 
States  infantry,  received  a brigadier-general’s  brevet  in 
June,  1862,  and  that  of  major-general  in  March,  1865. 
He  became  brevet  brigadier- general  of  volunteers  in 
May,  1861, andbrigadier-generalin  July  1862.  Hecom- 
manded  a brigade  at  Bull  Run,  and  led  the  sixth  army 
corps  through  the  Peninsula.  He  was  engaged  at 


M-  P R E 6543 

South  Mountain,  and  commanded  the  left  grand  divi- 
sion at  Fredericksburg,  December  13,  1862.  Burnside 
removed  him  for  alleged  insubordination,  but  the  pres- 
ident did  not  approve  the  order  of  removal,  and  Bufn- 
side  resigned  his  command.  Franklin  was  given  com- 
mand of  the  nineteenth  army  corps,  took  part  in  the 
Red  River  expedition,  and  was  wounded  April,  1864, 
and  obliged  to  leave  the  army.  He  resigned  in  1866, 
and  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  fire-arms.  In  1880 
he  became  president  of  the  board  of  managers  of  the 
National  Soldiers’  Home. 

FRANKLIN,  Samuel  R.,  brother  of  the  foregoing, 
born  in  York,  Penn.,  August  25,  1825,  became  midship- 
man in  1841,  and  lieutenant  in  1855.  He  was  actively 
employed  in  the  naval  service  during  the  Civil  war,  be- 
came captain  in  1868,  commodore  in  1880,  and  rear- 
admiral  in  1885.  In  1887  he  was  retired  under  the  rule. 

FRANZ,  Robert,  musical  composer,  born  at  Halle, 
June  28,  1815.  He  wrote  a large  number  of  songs 
and  edited  and  arranged  the  works  of  Bach  and 
Handel.  He  died  October  24,  1892. 

FRANZOS,  Karl  Emil,  born  of  Jewish  parents  on 
the  Russo-Austrian  frontier,  October  25,  1848.  He 
became  connected  with  the  press  of  Vienna  and  Pesth, 
and  has  written  several  novels  of  marked  descriptive 
power. 

FRASER,  Alexander,  C.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  pro- 
fessor of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  was  born  in  Scotland  in  September,  1819. 
From  1850  to  1857  he  edited  the  North  British  Review , 
and  he  has  contributed  extensively  to  the  reviews,  maga- 
zines, and  encyclopsedias. 

FRASER,  Charles,  painter,  born  at  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  August  20,  1782;  died  October  5,  i860.  His  chief 
works  are  portraits. 

FRASER,  Christopher  F., born  in  Brockville,  On- 
tario, in  1839;  entered  the  legislature  of  Ontario  in 
1872,  was  provincial  secretary  and  registrar,  and  in  1874, 
became  commissioner  of  public  works. 

FRASER,  Simon,  British  soldier,  born  in  Scotland, 
1729;  died  in  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  October  7,  1777.  He 
entered  the  British  army  as  ensign,  was  with  the  army  in 
the  Netherlands  and  in  Germany,  later  led  a regiment 
in  Canada  against  Louisburg,  and  followed  General 
Wolfe  to  the  assault  on  Quebec  For  some  years  he 
commanded  the  garrison  at  Gibraltar,  and  served  in 
Ireland.  On  April  5,  1776,  he  embarked  for  Quebec, 
where  Sir  Guy  Carleton  appointed  him  acting  brig' 
adier-general.  During  that  year  he  was  engaged  in  the 
contest  at  Three  Rivers,  and  active  in  repelling  the 
American  forces. 

FRAZER,  John  Fries,  born  in  Philadelphia,  July  8, 
1812;  died  October  12,  1872.  He  acted  as  laboratory 
assistant  to  Prof.  Alex.  D.  Bache,  and  was  afterward 
connected  with  the  Pennsylvania  survey.  In  1844  he 
became  professor  of  chemistry  and  natural  philosophy 
in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  with  which  he  was 
connected  until  his  death.  From  1850  to  1866  he 
edited  the  Franklin  Institute  Journal.  He  was  a 
member,  secretary,  and  vice-president  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society  and  one  of  the  original  member*1 
of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences. 

FRAZER,  Persifor,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born 
in  Philadelphia,  July  24,  1844,  served  in  the  United 
States  army  and  navy  during  the  Civil  war,  and  in  1869 
became  connected  with  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey.  In  1870  he  was  appointed  professor  of  chem- 
istry in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  later  held  a 
similar  position  in  the  Franklin  Institute.  He  is  a 
member  of  many  home  and  foreign  scientific  societies. 

FRECEfETTE,  Louis  Honore,  born  in  Quebec, 
November  16,  1849;  has  been  long  connected  with  the 


F R E 


6544 

press  of  Canada,  and  has  published  several  volumes  of 
poems.  In  1884  he  became  chief  editor  of  La  Patrie , 
Montreal. 

FREDERICK  CHARLES,  prince  and  field-marshal 
of  Germany,  was  born  in  Berlin,  March  20,  1828,  and 
died  June  15,  1885.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Prince 
Charles,  brother  of  the  Emperor  William  I.  Frederick 
Charles  entered  the  Prussian  army  when  a boy,  served 
in  the  first  Schleswig-Holstein  war,  commanded  the 
right  wing  in  the  second  Danish  war,  and  defeated  the 
Austrians  at  Koniggratz  in  1866.  He  commanded  the 
second  army  in  1870,  drove  Bazaine  back  into  Metz, 
and  recei/ed  the  surrender  of  that  fortress  October  27, 
1870.  Thence  he  marched  on  Orleans,  which  he  cap- 
tured, defeated  General  Chanzy  at  Le  Mans,  and  broke 
up  the  army  of  the  Loire.  He  was  known  as  the  “ Red 
Prince,”  from  the  fact  that  he  always  wore  a red  hussar 
uniform.  His  daughter,  Louise  Margaret,  married  the 
duke  of  Connaught,  son  of  Queen  Victoria,  in  1879. 

FREDERICK  WILLIAM,  grand  duke  of  Baden, 
born  September  9,  1826;  succeeded  his  father  as  regent 
in  1852,  and  assumed  the  title  of  grand  duke  in  1856. 
In  the  same  year  he  married  the  only  daughter  of  Will- 
iam I.  of  Prussia.  He  assisted  Prussia  in  the  war  of 
1870-71. 

FREEMAN,  Edward  Augustus,  D.C.L.,  LL.D., 
was  born  in  Staffordshire,  England,  in  1823;  was  elected 
scholar  of  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  in  1841,  and  fellow 
in  1845.  He  was  afterward  examiner  in  law  and  mod- 
ern history,  and  in  1884  became  regius  professor  of 
modern  history.  His  great  work  is  the  History  of  the 
Norman  Conquest , one  of  the  leading  historical  pro- 
ductions of  the  century.  Mr.  Freeman  is  a member  of 
many  learned  societies,  and  has  been  decorated  by  half  a 
dozen  governments.  He  has  written  extensively  on 
architecture,  history,  and  conquests  of  the  Saracens, 
federal  government,  the  Ottoman  power  in  Europe, 
English  and  European  history,  and  many  other  sub- 
jects. He  died  March  16,  1892. 

FREEMAN,  James,  clergyman,  born  in  Charles- 
town, Mass.,  April  22,  1759;  died  November  14,  1835. 
He  was  educated  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  but  adopted 
Unitarian  tenets,  and  was  the  first  American  minister 
of  that  persuasion.  Harvard  made  him  D.D.  in  1811. 

FREI  (or  FREY),  Emil,  Swiss  statesman  and  diplo- 
mat, born  at  Arlesheim,  October  23,  1838;  while  tem- 
porarily in  this  country  in  1861  enlisted  in  the  Union 
army  as  a sergeant,  was  captured  at  Gettysburg  and 
suffered  privations  in  Libby  prison.  Returning  home 
after  the  war,  he  was  sent  as  minister  of  Switzerland  to 
the  United  States,  1882-87,  and  was  elected  president 
of  the  Swiss  Republic,  December  14,  1893,  for  one  year/ 

FRELINGHUYSEN,  Theodore,  born  in  New 
Jersey,  March  28,  1787;  died  April  12,  1861;  was  at- 
torney-general of  New  Jersey,  1817-29,  United  States 
senator,  1829-35,  and  Chancellor  of  the  university  of 
New  York.  In  May,  1834,  he  was  nominated  for  vice- 
president  by  the  Whigs,  Henry  Clay  heading  the  ticket. 
In  1850  Mr.  Frelinghuysen  became  president  of  Rut- 
gers’ College,  which  position  he  held  until  his  death. 

FRELINGHUYSEN,  Frederick  Theodore,  born 
in  New  Jersey,  August  4,  1817;  died  May  20,  1885. 
He  practiced  law  and  held  minor  offices  in  New  Jersey, 
and  in  1861  became  attorney  general  of  that  State. 
From  December,  1866,  to  March  4,  1869,  he  served  as 
United  States  senator.  In  1870  he  was  nominated  and 
confirmed  as  minister  to  England,  but  declined  the  ap- 
pointment. In  July,  1871,  he  was  again  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate,  and  served  until  1877.  He  was 
a strong  Republican;  voted  for  the  conviction  of  An- 
drew Johnson,  supported  the  civil  rights  bill,  and  was 
an  ardent  protectionist.  He  was  a member  of  the 


Hayes-Tilden  electoral  commission.  On  December  12, 
1881,  he  became  secretary  of  state  in  President  Arthur’s 
cabinet,  and  held  office  until  March  4,  1885. 

FREMONT,  John  Charles,  born  in  Savannah, 
Ga.,  January  21,  1813.  He  was  of  French  descent.  In 
1830  he  was  graduated  at  Charleston  College,  and  in 
18^3  received  the  appointment  of  teacher  of  mathe- 
matics on  the  sloop-ot-war  Natchez;  two  years  later  he 
was  made  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  United  States 
navy.  In  1839  he  was  commissioned  lieutenant  in  the 
corps  of  topographical  engineers,  and  in  1842  conducted 
a geographical  survey  of  the  then  almost  unknown 
region  between  the  Missouri  river  and  the  Pacific  ocean. 
In  May,  1843,  ^ie  set  out  on  a still  longer  expedition 
from  the  Rocky  mountains  to  the  Pacific  coast.  On 
his  return  in  1844  he  was  brevetted  captain,  and  in  the 
spring  of  1845  was  sent  to  explore  the  great  Western 
basin,  and  the  maritime  region  along  the  Pacific,  an 
expedition  that  resulted  in  the  acquisition  of  California 
to  the  United  States.  These  achievements  brought  him 
general  notoriety,  and  he  became  popularly  known  as 
the  “Pathfinder.”  During  his  absence  on  the  Pacific 
coast  war  was  declared  between  the  United  States  and 
Mexico,  and  General  Kearny  was  sent  to  take  posses- 
sion of  California.  Fremont  refused  to  obey  some 
orders  of  the  general,  who  was  his  military  superior, 
was  placed  under  arrest,  and  ordered  to  report  at  Wash- 
ington. He  was  tried  by  court-martial,  found  guilty, 
and  ordered  to  be  dismissed  from  the  service.  Presi- 
dent Polk  sustained  a part  of  the  sentence,  but  remitted 
the  penalty,  and  Fremont  resigned  his  commission.  In 
October,  1848,  he  fitted  out,  at  his  own  expense,  a large 
expedition,  with  the  object  of  finding  a practicable  route 
over  the  mountains  to  California.  After  many  hard- 
ships, he  and  his  party  reached  Sacramento  in  the 
spring  of  1849.  Here  he  bought  a large  estate  contain- 
ing rich  gold  mines.  In  1850-51  he  was  United  States 
senator  from  California.  In  1853  he  led  a fifth  expedi- 
tion along  the  line  of  the  fourth,  and  in  1855  he  located 
in  New  York  city.  In  1856  he  was  the  first  candidate 
of  the  Republican  party  for  president  of  the  United 
States,  and  was  defeated.  When  the  Civil  war  began 
Fremont  was  made  major-general,  in  command  of  the 
Western  department,  his  headquarters  being  at  St. 
Louis.  Here,  without  authority,  he  issued  a proclama- 
tion freeing  the  slaves  in  his  district,  which  was  not 
confirmed  by  the  government.  Fremont  was  recalled 
from  the  West  thereafter  and  placed  in  command  in 
Western  Virginia;  here  he  was  out-generaled  by  the 
Confederate  commander  “ Stonewall  ” Jackson.  When 
General  Pope  was  placed  in  command  of  all  the  forces 
in  western  Virginia,  Fremont  resigned  his  commission 
and  took  no  further  active  part  in  the  war.  In  1864 
the  Cleveland  convention  nominated  him  for  the  presi- 
dency, but  he  withdrew  his  name.  Subsequently  he 
devoted  himself  mainly  to  the  promotion  of  a southern 
railroad  across  the  continent,  and  spent  much  time  in 
Europe  for  this  purpose.  In  connection  with  this 
enterprise  he  was  charged  with  irregularities  in  France, 
was  tried  while  absent,  found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to 
fine  and  imprisonment;  but  as  he  was  absent  the  penalty 
could  not  be  enforced.  From  1878  to  1881  Fremont 
was  governor  of  Arizona  Territory;  later  he  practiced 
law  in  New  York  city.  On  October  19,  1841,  Fremont 
was  secretly  married  to  Jessie,  daughter  of  Senator 
Thomas  H.  Benton,  of  Missouri.  In  May,  1890,  con- 
gress placed  him  on  the  retired  list  of  the  army,  with, 
rank  of  major-general,  and  on  July  13,  1890,  he  died. 
His  publications  include  a Report  of  the  Exploring 
Expedition  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  1842 , and  id 
Oregon  and  North  California  in  1843-4  (Washington, 
1845;  New  York,  1846;  London,  1849);  Col.  J.  C, 


FRE- 

FrPmonfs  Explorations,  an  account  of  all  five  of  his 
expeditions  (2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1859);  and  Memoirs 
of  my  Life  (Chicago,  1886). 

FRENCH,  Benjamin  F.,  born  in  Richmond,  Va., 
June  8,  1799;  died  May  30,  1877.  He  contributed 
largely  to  magazines,  and  published  Biographia  Ameri- 
cana (1825),  Historical  Annals  of  North  America 
(1861),  and  other  works. 

FRENCH,  Daniel  Chester,  sculptor,  born  in  Exe- 
ter, N.  H.,  April  20,  1850.  He  studied  in  Italy,  worked 
a year  or  two  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  and,  in  1872,  re- 
turned to  Florence,  where  he  has  since  resided.  Among 
his  best-known  works  are  The  Minute  Men  of  Concord, 
The  May  Queen,  Elsie  Venner,  Peace  and  War,  and  a 
bronze  bust  of  A.  Bronson  Alcott  and  Death  and  the 
Sculptor,  exhibited  in  Chicago  in  1893. 

FRENCH,  Virginia,  born  in  Maryland  in  1830; 
died  March  31,  1881.  She  wrote  poems  and  sketches 
and  Legends  of  the  South. 

FRENCH,  Mansfield,  born  in  Vermont,  Febru- 
ary 21,  1810;  died  March  15,  1876.  He  became  an 
itinerant  Methodist  preacher,  edited  a religious  monthly, 
and  was  connected  with  several  seminaries  and  colleges. 
In  1862  he  became  agent  of  the  National  Freedman’s 
Relief  Association,  and  attempted,  with  little  success, 
to  teach  the  negroes  how  to  farm. 

FRENCH,  William  Henry,  born  in  Baltimore, 
Md.,  January  13,  1815;  died  May  20,  1881.  He  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1837,  entered  the  artillery,  and 
served  in  the  Seminole  and  Mexican  wars.  In  1861  he 
was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  served 
in  the  army  of  the  Potomac  during  the  Peninsular  cam- 
paign. He  commanded  a division  at  Antietam  and 
Fredericksburg,  and  in  October,  1862,  became  major- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  served  in  the  campaign  of 
the  Rappahannock,  and  commanded  the  third  army 
corps  at  Mine  Run.  In  May,  1864,  he  was  mustered 
out  of  the  volunteer  service,  and,  from  1865  until  1880, 
served  in  the  United  States  artillery.  He  was  retired 
under  the  rule,  when  lieutenant-colonel,  in  1880. 

FRENEAU,  Philip,  author,  born  in  New  York  city 
January  21,  1752;  died  near  Freehold,  N.  J.,  December 
18,  1832.  He  was  of  French  descent,  and  was  graduated 
at  Princeton  in  1 771.  In  1 776  he  visited  the  West  Indies, 
and  in  1778  went  to  the  Bermuda  Islands.  In  1780;  dur- 
ing the  war  of  the  Revolution,  he  again  sailed  for  the 
West  Indies,  when  he  was  captured  by  a British  cruiser. 
After  the  return  of  peace  Freneau  became  in  succession 
editor  of  a newspaper,  and  captain  of  a ship  that  plied 
between  New  York,  the  West  Indies  and  the  Southern 
States.  In  1790  he  edited  the  New  York  Daily  Adver- 
tiser. Under  Jefferson’s  administration  Freneau  was 
made  translator  for  the  state  department,  and  also 
became  editor  of  the  National  Gazette.  Later  he  pub- 
lished the  Jersey  Chronicle , which  in  1797  was  followed 
by  the  publication  of  the  Time-piece  and  Literary  Com- 
panion. From  that  time  until  his  death  he  rarely  came 
before  the  public. 

FREPPEL,  Charles  Emile,  born  in  France,  June 
1,  1827,  entered  the  priesthood  and  in  1870  became 
bishop  of  Angers.  He  was  returned  to  the  chamber  of 
deputies  as  a legitimist  in  1881,  and  reelected  in  1885. 
He  wrote  a criticism  on  Renan’s  Vie  de  Jesus,  and  many 
histories  of  church  fathers.  He  died  December  22,  1891. 

FRERE,  Sir  Henry  Barti.e  Edward,  born  in 
Wales,  March  29,  1815;  died  May  29,  1884.  He  en- 
tered the  Indian  civil  service  in  1833,  and  in  1862 
became  governor  of  Bombay,  and  in  1867  a member  of 
the  Indian  council.  In  1872  he  negotiated  a treaty  for 
the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  with  the  Sultan  of 
Zanzibar.  In  1877  he  was  appointed  governor  of  the 
Cape  and  high  commissioner.  He  antagonized  the 


-FRO  6545 

Boers  and  began  an  unjust,  unnecessary,  and  disastrous 
war  against  the  Zulus,  and  in  1880  was  recalled.  He 
was  president  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  and  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Societies  and  published  several  works  on 
African  and  Indian  subjects. 

FRERE,  Pierre  Edouard,  born  in  Paris,  Jan- 
uary 10,  1819;  died  May  23,  1886.  He  studied  under 
Delaroche  and  began  to  exhibit  at  the  Salon  in  1843. 
Among  his  best  works  are  the  Student,  Luncheon , 
The  Sempstress,  Prayer , and  the  Gleaner  Boy.  In 
1855  Frere  became  a knight  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

FRERE-ORBAN,  Hubert  Joseph,  born  in  Liege, 
Belgium,  April  22,  1812  ; joined  the  Liberal  party  and 
entered  the  Chamber  in  1841.  He  served  several  years 
as  finance  minister  and  minister  of  public  works,  be- 
came president  of  the  council  in  1861,  and  finance 
minister  again  in  1868.  In  1870  lie  resigned  and  in 
1878  became  head  of  the  cabinet  and  minister  of  foreign 
affairs.  He  resigned  in  1884  when  a Catholic  majority 
was  returned  to  the  Chamber.  Died  Jan.  2,  1896. 

FREUND,  Wilhelm,  born  in  Posen,  January  27, 
1806,  of  Jewish  parentage.  He  studied  at  Berlin  and 
Breslau,  and  has  prepared  a number  of  dictionaries  and 
school-books.  Died  June  14,  1894. 

FRL'YCINET,  Charles  Louis  de,  born  in  France, 
November  14,  1828;  attained  prominence  as  a con- 
structive engineer.  In  October,  1870,  he  became 
second  in  command  to  Gambetta  in  the  war  depart- 
ment. In  1876  he  was  elected  senator,  in  1877  he  be- 
came minister  of  public  works,  and  in  1879  premier  and 
foreign  minister.  He  resigned  in  September,  1880,  but 
formed  ministries  in  1882  and  1886,  for  short  periods, 
and  in  1890,  serving  as  premier"  and  minister  of  war 
nutil  1892  and  crushing  Boulangism. 

FREYTAG,  Gustav,  born  in  Prussian  Silesia, 
July  13,  1816;  was  educated  at  Breslau  and  Berlin. 
For  twenty-three  years  he  edited  the  Grenzboten , or 
Messenger  of  the  Frontier.  He  has  also  published 
several  dramatic  compositions,  some  poems,  and  a pop- 
ular novel,  Soil  und  Haben.  He  died  May  1,  1895. 

FRIEDLANDER,  Michael,  born  April  29,  1833, 
in  Prussian  Posen,  of  Jewish  parentage  He  gradu- 
ated at  Halle  in  1862  and  in  1865  became  principal  of 
the  Jews’  college.  He  has  published  many  commen- 
taries and  translations  from  the  Hebrew. 

FRIEZE,  Henry  S.,  bom  in  Boston,  September  15, 
1817.  He  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1841  and 
in  1854  became  professor  of  Latin  language  and  liter- 
ature in  the  University  of  Michigan,  of  which  he  has 
twice  acted  as  temporary  president.  He  is  LL.  D.  of 
Chicago,  Kalamazoo,  Brown  University,  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan.  He  died  December  7,  1889. 

FRISBY,  Edgar,  born  in  England  May  22,  1837; 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Toronto  and  became 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Northwestern  Univer- 
sity. In  1878  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  in 
the  United  States  navy,  and  he  has  written  extensively 
on  comets  and  eclipses. 

FRITH,  Willtam  Powell,  born  near  Ripon,  Eng- 
land, in  1819  ; first  exhibited  at  the  British  Institution 
in  1839.  In  1845  he  became  A.R.A.,  and  in  1852  was 
made  an  academician.  His  two  great  pictures  The 
Derby  Day,  and  The  Railway  Station , have  been  en- 
graved many  times,  and  some  of  his  productions,  such 
as  Coming  of  Age,  English  Merrymaking,  The  Village 
Pastor,  and  Life  at  the  Seaside,  are  almost  equally  well- 
known.  Mr.  Frith  is  a member  of  the  Academies  of 
Vienna,  Belgium,  and  Sweden. 

FRO FBEL,  Julius,  nephew  of  the  founder  of  the 
Kindergarten  system,  was  born  in  (Germany  in  1806. 
He  was  educated  at  Jena,  Munich,  and  Berlin,  and  in 
1833  removed  to  Switzerland,  where  he  edited  a Republi- 


F R O — F U R 


6546 

can  paper.  In  1848  he  was  elected  to  the  Frankfort 
parliament  and  in  the  same  year  was  arrested  with  Rob- 
ert Blum  at  Vienna,  court-martialed  and  sentenced  to 
death,  but  was  pardoned.  He  came  to  the  United 
States,  where  he  became  naturalized,  edited  a German 
newspaper  and  acted  as  correspondent  for  the  New  York 
Tribune.  In  1862  he  went  to  Vienna,  where  he  affiliat- 
ed with  the  Federal  party.  In  1873  he  became  consul 
of  the  German  Empire  at  Smyrna,  and  in  1876  was 
transferred  to  Algiers.  He  wrote  an  account  of  his 
travels  in  Central  America  and  Mexico.  He  died  in  1893. 

FROTHINGHAM,  Octavius  Brooks,  born  at 
Boston,  November  26,  1822;  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1843,  and  became  pastor  of  a Unitarian  church  in 
Salem,  Mass.  In  1855  he  removed  to  New  Jersey,  and 
in  1859  to  New  York,  where  he  acted  as  minister  of  an 
independent  religious  organization  for  twenty  years. 
He  wrote  on  theology.  He  died  Nov.  27,  1895. 

FROTHINGHAM,  Richard,  born  in  Charlestown, 
Mass.,  January  31,  1812 ; died  January  29,  1880.  He  was 
for  many  years  proprietor  and  managing  editor  of  the 
Boston  Post,  served  several  terms  in  the  State  legisla- 
ture, and  in  1851-53  was  mayor  of  his  native  town. 

FROUDE,  James  Anthony,  born  in  Devonshire, 
England,  April  23,  1818;  was  educated  at  Westminster 
and  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  where  he  took  a second 
class  in  classics,  in  1840.  In  1842  he  won  the  chancellor’s 
prize,  and  became  a fellow  of  Exeter.  He  took  holy 
orders  and  became  connected  with  the  High  Church 
party,  but  afterward  grew  less  orthodox.  The  pub- 
lication of  The  Nemesis  of  Faith  led  to  his  resignation 
of  his  fellowship.  In  1856  he  published  the  first  two 
volumes  of  his  History  of  England,  completed  in  1870. 
In  1869  he  was  elected  rector  of  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews,  and  was  made  LL.D.  In  1872  he  resigned 
his  office  of  deacon.  The  same  year  he  lectured  in  the 
United  States  on  the  relations  between  England  and 
Ireland,  and  became  involved  in  a controversy  with. 
Father  “Tom”  Burke.  Mr.  Froude  acted  as  literary 
executor  of  Thomas  Carlyle,  and  published  his  Reminis- 
cences in  1881,  and  History  in  1882.  He  wrote  Oceana 
(1886),  an  account  of  an  Australian  voyage  and  Life  of 
Lord  Beaconsfield  (1890.)  He  died  October  20,  1894. 

FRY,  Cary  Harrison,  born  in  Kentucky,  August 
20,  1813;  died  March  5,  1873.  He  was  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1834,  served  in  the  Mexican  war  and  was 
acting  paymaster-general  during  the  Civil  war.  In  1867 
he  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army. 

FRY,  James  Barnet,  born  in  Illinois,  February  22, 
1827;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1847,  fought  in 
Mexico,  and  was  adjutant  at  West  Point,  1854-59.  He 
became  assistant  adjutant-general  in  March,  1861,  and 
was  chief  of  staff  to  Gen.  Irvin  McDowell  and  Gen.  D. 
C.  Buell.  On  March  17,  1863,  he  became  provost- 
marshal-general  of  the  United  States,  which  position  he 
held  until  August,  1866,  He  received  a major-gen- 
eral’s brevet  in  1865  and  retired  from  active  service  in 
June,  1881.  He  died  July  11,  1894. 

FRY,  Joseph,  born  in  Louisiana  in  1828;  shot  at 
Santiago  de  Cuba,  November  7,  1873.  He  entered  the 
United  States  navy  in  1841,  became  lieutenant  in  1855, 
and  resigned  in  1S61  to  enter  the  Confederate  army. 
In  1873  he  accepted  the  command  of  the  filibustering 
steamer  Virginias,  and,  being  captured  by  a Spanish 
man-of-war,  was  shot,  with  thirty-six  of  his  crew. 

FRY,  William  Henry,  musician,  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, Penn.,  August  10,  1815;  died  in  Santa  Cruz, 
West  Indies,  December  21,  1864.  He  received  a good 
education  at  Philadelphia  and  Emmettsburg,  Md., 
and  in  1839 became  employed  as  a writer  for  his  father’s 
newspaper,  the  Philadelphia  Gazette.  In  1835  he 
fiegan  a thorough  study  of  music,  and  wrot$  for  full 


orchestra  four  overtures  that  were  performed  in  public. 
In  1845  he  produced  his  English  opera,  Leonora,  in 
New  York  and  Philadelphia.  In  1846  Fry  was  engaged 
as  European  correspondent  for  the  New  York  Tribune 
and  some  other  journals.  He  remained  abroad  until 

1852,  when  he  returned  to  New  York  city  to  become 
musical  editor  of  the  Tribune.  He  wrote  the  music  to 
an  ode  for  the  opening  of  the  New  York  industrial 
exhibition  of  1853,  delivered  a number  of  lectures  on 
musical  subjects,  and  also  produced  two  symphonies, 
The  Breaking  Heart  and  A Day  in  the  Country. 

FRYE,  William  Pierce,  born  in  Lewiston,  Me., 
September  2,  1830;  graduated  at  Bowdoin  in  1850,  and 
began  law  practice  in  his  native  town.  After  serving 
two  terms  in  the  legislature,  one  as  mayor  of  Lewis- 
ton and  one  as  attorney-general  of  Maine  (1867-9), 
he  was  elected  to  congress  as  a Republican  and  was 
five  times  reelected,  serving  from  1809  to  1881,  and  in 
the  last  named  year  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate  to  fill  the  vacancy  caused  by  the  resignation  of 
James  G.  Blaine.  In  1-883  he  was  reelected  and  again 
in  1889  and  1895. 

FULLER,  George,  born  in  Deerfield,  Mass.,  in 
1822;  died  March  21,  1884.  He  studied  painting 
under  Henry  Kirke  Brown,  was  elected  an  associate  of 
the  National  Academy,  and  exhibited  largely  from  1873 
until  his  death. 

FULLER,  Melville  W.,  born  in  Augusta,  Me., 
February  11,  1833;  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in 

1853.  He  studied  law  at  Bangor,  Me.,  and  at 
Harvard,  and  in  185.5  began  practice  in  his  native  city. 
Here  he  edited  the  Augusta  Age,  became  president  of 
the  common  council,  and  in  1856  city-attorney.  In  the 
last-named  year  he  removed  to  Chicago,  where,  for 
thirty-two  years,  he  conducted  a highly  successful  law 
practice.  Mr.  Fuller  was  a member  of  the  Illinois 
Constitutional  Convention  in  1862,  and  of  the  Illinois 
House  of  Representatives  in  1863.  A strong  Democrat, 
he  served  as  a delegate  to  all  the  national  conventions 
from  1864  to  1880,  inclusive.  President  Cleveland 
nominated  him  chief  justice  of  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court,  April  30,  1888,  and  he  was  confirmed 
by  the  Senate  July  20,  and  took  the  oath  of  office 
October  8th  following.  He  is  LL.D.  of  Bowdoin 
College  and  of  the  Northwestern  University. 

FULLER,  Thomas  Brock,  born  in  Kingston, 
Canada,  July  16,  1810;  was  ordained  in  the  Anglican 
Church  in  4835,  became  archdeacon  of  Toronto  in  1867, 
and  bishop  of  Niagara  in  1875.  Died  in  1885. 

FULLERTON,  LadyGeorgiana,  an  English  novel- 
ist, born  in  1812;  died  in  1885.  She  was  a daughter  of 
Earl  Granville  find  married  Captain  Alexander  Fullerton 
in  1833.  Her  works  include  Ellen  Middleton,  Grantley 
Manor , and  Constance  Sherwood. 

FULTON,  Justin  Dewey,  born  at  Earlville,  N.  Y., 
March  1,  1828;  became  a Baptist  minister  in  1853.  He 
held  pastorates  in  St.  Louis,  Sandusky,  Ohio,  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  Boston,  and  Brooklyn.  He  is  a voluminous 
author,  a strong  temperance  man,  and  a bitter  opponent 
of  Roman  Catholicism.  Died  April  16,  1901. 

FURNESS,  William  Henry,  born  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  in  1802 ; died  May  4,  1867.  He  in  1825 
became  pastor  of  a Unitarian  church  in  Philadelphia. 
He  was  an  ardent  abolitionist.  He  made  some 
admirable  translations  of  noted  German  works. 

FURNISS,  Harry,  caricature  artist,  was  born  inWex- 
ford,  Ireland,  March,  1854;  became  a staff  artist  of  Lon- 
don Punch  in  1 884,  contributed  much  to  American  period- 
icals and  founded  the  comic  weekly  Lika  Joko  in  1894. 

FURNIVALL,  Frederick  James,  born  in  Surrey, 
England,  February  4,  1825;  was  educated  at  University 
College,  JUmdon,  and  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge.  {If 


FUR- 

has  devoted  his  life  mainly  to  the  study  of  early  and 
middle  English  literature,  and  has  established  societies 
for  the  study  of  special  works,  such  as  the  early  Eng- 
lish Text  Society,  the  Chaucer,  Wyclif,  Browning, 
and  Shelley  societies. 


GABB,  William  More,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Jan- 
uary 16,  1839;  died  there  May  30,  1878;  was  one 
of  the  foremost  of  American  paleontologists  and  geol- 
ogists. His  short  but  active  life  was  devoted  to  science, 
and  he  wrote  extensively  on  the  topography  and  geol- 
ogy of  Santo  Domingo,  Costa  Rica,  and  California. 
He  was  a member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences 
and  of  other  home  and  foreign  scientific  societies. 

GABORIAU,  Emile,  a distinguished  French  novel- 
ist, was  born  at  Sanjon  in  1835.  He  served  in  a cav- 
alry regiment,  and  on  his  discharge  from  the  army 
worked  in  a factory.  Turning  his  attention  to  litera- 
ture he  produced  a number  of  sensational  stories,  of 
which  the  chief  were  L' Affaire  Lerouge , Le  Dossier 
No.  1 13,  and  Le  Crime  d ’ Orcival.  Gaboriau  died  in 
Paris,  September  28,  1873. 

GACHARD,  Louis  Prosper,  historian,  born  in 
Paris,  March  12,  1800;  took  partin  the  Belgian  revolu- 
tion of  1830;  was  naturalized  in  Belgium,  and  took 
charge  of  the  national  archives.  From  these  he  com- 
piled the  correspondence  of  William  the  Silent  (6  vols. ), 
that  of  Philip  II.  (4  vols.),  and  that  of  Margaret  of 
Austria  (3  vols.,  1867-81).  Gachard  died  in  1885. 

GADE,  Niels  Wilhelm,  musical  composer,  was 
born  in  Copenhagen,  February  22,  1817.  He  studied 
at  Leipsic  under  Mendelssohn,  whose  methods  he 
followed.  In  1848  he  returned  to  his  native  city,  and 
in  1865  he  became  director  of  the  Conservatory  of 
Music.  He  wrote  many  overtures,  symphonies,  can- 
tatas, and  an  opera  of  some  merit,  and  died  in  1890. 

GADSDEN,  Christopher,  born  in  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  in  1724.  Pie  was  a delegate  to  the  first  conti- 
nental congress  which  met  at  Philadelphia  in  Septem- 
ber, 1774.  During  the  Revolutionary  war  he  served 
as  colonel,  was  promoted  brigadier-general,  and,  as 
lieutenant-governor  of  South  Carolina,  signed  the  ca- 
pitulation of  Charleston.  After  suffering  nearly  a 
year’s  imprisonment  as  a prisoner  of  war  he  was  re- 
leased, and  elected  governor  of  his  State,  but  declined 
the  office.  He  died  in  his  native  city  in  1805. 

GADSDEN,  Christopher  Edwards,  grandson  of 
the  patriot,  was  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  November 
25,  1785,  and  died  there  June  24,  1852.  He  graduated 
at  Yale  in  1804,  took  holy  orders  in  1807,  held  various 
pastorates  in  Charleston  and  elsewhere,  and  was  conse- 
crated bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church  June 
21,  1840.  He  was  the  author  of  several  religious  works, 
and  for  some  years  edited  the  Gospel  Messenger. 

GADSDEN,  James,  brother  of  the  foregoing,  was 
born  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  in  1788;  was  educated  at 
Yale  and  served  in  the  war  of  1812-14  and  in  the  Sem- 
inole campaign.  He  became  a planter  in  Florida  and 
in  1853  became  minister  to  Mexico.  In  that  capacity 
he  negotiated  the  treaty,  known  by  his  name,  which 
modified  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  and  under 
which  the  United  States  acquired  territory  now  in- 
cluded in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  on  payment  of 
$10,000,000.  Gadsden  died  December  25,  1858. 

GAGE,  Lyman  J.,  banker,  was  born  at  De  Ruyter, 
Madison  county,  N.  Y.,  June  28,  1836.  When  he  was 
ten  years  old  his  parents  removed  to  Rome,  Oneida 
county,  N.  Y.,  where  he  had  for  a short  time  the  ad- 
vantages of  an  academic  schooling.  At  the  age  of 


-G  A I 6547 

FURSTENBURG,  Frederich  von,  born  at 
Vienna,  Austria,  October  8,  1812;  became  prince- 
archbishop  of  Olmutz  in  1853,  and  in  1879  was  made 
a cardinal.  He  died  August  19,  1892. 


eighteen  he  entered  the  Oneida  Central  Bank  as  office 
boy  and  general  utility  clerk.  In  October,  1855,  he 
resigned  that  position  and  came  to  Chicago  to  seek  his 
fortune.  In  August,  1858,  he  entered  the  service  of  the 
Merchants’  Savings,  Loan  and  Trust  Company,  as 
bookkeeper.  His  advancement  was  rapid.  Within  a 
year  he  was  promoted  to  the  position  of  paying-teller. 
In  i860  he  was  made  assistant  cashier,  and  in  1861  was 
appointed  cashier.  At  the  organization  of  the  Bankers’ 
Clearing  House  he  was  elected  manager.  This  appoint- 
ment he  declined,  but  filled  the  duties  of  manager  until 
a suitable  appointment  could  be  made.  In  August, 
1868,  he  accepted  a flattering  proposal  from  the  First 
National  Bank  of  Chicago,  thus  dissolving  his  connec- 
tion with  the  Merchants’  Loan  and  Trust  Company. 
In  1882,  upon  the  reorganization  of  the  First  National 
Bank,  he  was  elected  vice-president,  and  subsequently 
president.  He  has  never  been  a candidate  for  politi- 
cal office,  but  has  been  highly  honored  in  various  social 
and  business  societies  to  which  he  belongs.  He  was 
the  first  president  of  the  Bankers’  Club,  and  in  1883 
became  president  of  the  Commercial  Club  of  Chicago. 
In  1883  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  American 
Banker’s  Association,  which  office  he  held  for  three  suc- 
cessive terms.  His  services  in  behalf  of  the  Columbian 
World’s  Exposition  were  great, and  he  was  elected  pres- 
identinMay,  1890,  but  declined  reelection  in  1891.  He 
was  president,  1894-95,  of  the ' Civil  Federation,  and 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  (1897-1901). 

GAGE,  Matilda  Joslyn,  born  in  Cicero, 'N.  Y., 
March  24,  1826;  married  in  1845  ; became  well  known 
as  an  advocate  of  the  abolition  of  slavery  and  the  ex- 
tension of  the  suffrage  to  women.  For  eleven  years 
she  edited  the  National  Citizen , and  she  also  wrote 
Woman  as  an  Inventor  and  The  History  of  Woman 
Suffrage , the  latter  work  in  association  with  Susan  B. 
Anthony  and  Elizabeth  C.  Stanton.  She  died  in  1894. 

GAGERN,  Heinrich  Wilhelm  August,  Baron 
von,  born  at  Baireuth  in  1799;  died  May  23,  1880.  In 
May,  1848,  he  became  president  of  the  Frankfort 
parliament  and  leader  of  the  liberal  constitutional 
party.  In  December  of  the  same  year  he  was  made 
president  of  the  council  of  ministers,  but  resigned  in 
March  following.  His  brother  Maximilian,  born  in 
1810,  also  sat  in  the  Frankfort  parliament. 

GAGNON,  Lucian,  born  in  Canada,  took  part  in 
the  abortive  rebellion  of  1837,  and  succeeded  in  escap- 
ing to  the  United  States,  where  he  died  in  1842. 

GAILLARD,  Claude  Ferdinand,  born  in  Paris, 
January  7,  1834;  died  in  1887.  He  is  best  known  as 
a painter  by  his  admirable  St.  Sebastian,  which  he  also 
successfully  engraved. 

GAILLARD,  Edwin  Samuel,  physician,  born  in 
South  Carolina,  January  16,  1827;  died  in  Louisville, 
Ky.,  February  1,  1885.  He  graduated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  South  Carolina  in  1845,  practiced  in  New 
York  and  Baltimore,  and  served  in  a professional 
capacity  in  the  Confederate  army.  In  1865  he  began 
practice  in  Richmond,  Va.,  established  the  Richmond 
and  Louisville  Medical  Journal  and  the  American 
Medical  Weekly,  and  became  professor  in  the  Medical 
College  of  Virginia,  and  afterward  in  the  Louisville 
Medical  College,  of  which  he  was  the  first  dean.  He 


6548  G A I - 

was  M.A.  and  LL.D.  of  the  University  of  North 
Carolina. 

GAILLARD,  John,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1765; 
died  February  26,  1826;  served  in  the  United  States 
Senate  from  1805  until  his  death,  and  was  president 
pro  tem.  in  seven  congresses. 

GAINE,  Hugh,  born  in  Ireland  in  1726;  died  in 
New  York  in  1807.  In  1752  he  established  the  New 
York  Mercury  as  a weekly  Whig  organ,  but  during  the 
Revolution  turned  it  into  a Tory  paper. 

GAINES,  Ei5munb  Pendleton,  was  born  in  Vir- 
ginia in  March,  1777,  and  died  in  New  Orleans,  June 
6,  1849.  He  entered  the  United  States  army  in  1799, 
fought  on  the  frontier,  resigned  in  1811,  but  reentered 
the  army  in  1812,  and  for  gallant  conduct  at  Fort  Erie  in 
August,  1814,  was  brevetted  major-general  and  received 
the  thanks  of  congress.  He  afterward  fought  against 
the  Creeks  and  Seminoles,  and  was  instrumental  in  rais- 
ing troops  for  the  Mexican  war. 

GAINES,  Myra  Clark,  wife  of  the  foregoing,  was 
born  in  New  Orleans  in  1805,  and  died  there  at  the  age 
of  eighty.  She  was  the  daughter  of  an  Irishman  named 
Daniel  Clark,  who  was  United  States  consul  in  Louis- 
iana when  it  was  a French  possession,  and  who  died, 
leaving  much  property,  on  August  16,  1813.  Under  a 
will  dated  May  20,  1811,  his  property  went  to  his 
mother,  Mary  Clark,  of  Germantown,  Penn.  Clark, 
although  supposed  to  be  a bachelor,  was  said  to  be  the 
father,  by  a young  French  woman  named  Des  Granges, 
ol  two  daughters,  one  of  whom  was  Myra.  She  was 
brought  up  by  one  Davis,  a friend  of  Clark,  and  was 
known  as  Myra  Davis.  She  married  in  1832  Mr.  Whit- 
ney, who  learned  from  Davis  of  the  existence  of  a will 
made  by  Clark  in  1813,  acknowledging  Myra  as  his 
legitimate  daughter  and  bequeathing  her  his  propel  iy, 
which  included  some  of  the  most  valuable  real  estate  in 
New  Orleans.  A private  marriage  of  Mme.  Des  Granges 
to  Clark  in  1803  was  sworn  to  by  several  witnesses ; the 
Supreme  Court  of  Louisiana  restored  the  lost  will,  and 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court  declared  the  marriage 
valid  and  Mrs.  Whitney  legitimate.  Whitney  died  and 
his  widow  married  General  Gaines,  who  in  1849  died 
also.  In  1856  Mrs.  Gaines  filed  a bill  in  equity  to  re- 
cover real  estate  of  great  value,  then  in  possession  of 
the  city  of  New  Orleans,  and  in  1867  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court  decided  in  her  favor.  In  1877  the  pro- 
bate of  the  will  of  1813  was  recognized  by  a United 
States  circuit  judge,  and  an  accounting  was  ordered. 
In  May,  1883,  Mrs.  Gaines  obtained  a judgment  for 
nearly  $2,500,000,  including  interest,  and  pending  an  ap- 
peal she  died. 

GALE,  Samuel,  born  in  Florida  in  1783;  became  a 
lawyer  and  afterward  a judge  in  Canada,  and  died  in 
Montreal,  April  15,  1865. 

GALIGNANI,  John  Anthony,  born  in  London  of 
Italian  parents  in  1796;  for  many  years  conducted  with 
his  brother  William  (1798-1882)  the  paper  known  to 
all  European  travelers  as  Galignani' s Messenger.  The 
elder  Galignani  died  in  Paris,  December  30,  1873. 

GALLAGHER,  Hugh  P.,  born  in  Donegal,  Ire- 
land, in  1815  ; died  in  California  in  March,  1882.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1837  and  entered  the 
Roman  Catholic  priesthood  in  1840.  After  many  years 
of  faithful  service  in  Pennsylvania  he  went  to  California, 
where  he  built  many  churches  and  schools  and  estab- 
lished the  Catholii  Standard  newspaper. 

GALLAGHER,  Nicholas  A.,  born  in  Ohio,  Feb- 
ruary 19,  1846;  was  ordained  priest  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  1868;  filled  various  pastorates  in 
Ohio,  and  was  administrator  of  the  diocese  of  Colum- 
bus 1878-80.  I11  1883  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of 

Galveston- 


-GAL 

GALLAGHER,  William  Davis,  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, August  21,  1808;  began  life  as  a printer;  edited 
various  journals  in  Ohio  and  Louisville,  and  has  writ- 
ten extensively  both  of  prose  and  verse. 

GALLAHER,  John  Nicholas,  born  in  Kentucky, 
February  17,  1839;  studied  law,  but  afterward  attended 
a theological  seminary  and  took  priest’s  orders  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  1869.  He  held  succes- 
sive pastorates  in  Louisville,  New  York,  and  New 
Orleans,  and  on  February  5,  1880,  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Louisiana.  He  died  December  7,  1891. 

GALLAUDET,  Edward  Miner,  born  in  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  February  5,  1837;  organized  several  insti- 
tutions for  the  instruction  of  deaf-mutes  and  the  blind. 
He  is  LL.D.  of  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  and  Ph.D. 
of  Columbian  University. 

GALLE,  Johann  Gottfried,  born  in  Prussian 
Saxony  in  1812;  became  the  director  of  the  Berlin 
Observatory,  and  shares  with  Leverrier  (q.v.)  the 
honor  of  discovering  the  planet  Neptune.  He  after- 
ward became  professor  of  astronomy  at  Breslau. 

GALLENGA,  Antonio  Carlo,  born  at  Parma, 
Italy,  November  4,  1810 ; died  December  17,  1895. 
He  took  part  in  the  political  outbreaks  there  in 
1831;  went  to  France,  the  United  States,  and  other 
countries  and  was  naturalized  in  England  in  1849.  He 
wrote  for  the  London  Times , and  is  the  author  of 
numerous  historical  works.  From  1854  to  1864  he  sat 
in  the  Piedmontese  and  Italian  parliaments. 

GALLIFET,  Gaston  Alexandre,  Marquis  de, 
born  at  Paris,  January  23,  1830;  entered  the  French 
army  in  1848;  commanded  a regiment  in  Africa,  and 
became  general  of  brigade  in  the  army  of  the  Rhine 
1870-71.  During  the  second  siege  of  Paris  he  com- 
manded a brigade  of  the  Versaillais  troops  and  won 
unenviable  notoriety  by  his  merciless  severity  in  dealing 
with  the  Communist  prisoners.  Notwithstanding  this 
fact  he  was  promoted  to  high  command  on  the  reorgani- 
zation of  the  army  under  Gambetta.  In  1875,  having 
meantime  won  distinction  in  Africa,  he  was  made  a 
general  of  division.  He  is  a commander  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor  and  ranks  high  as  a cavalry  officer. 

GALLOWAY,  Charles  B.,  born  in  Mississippi  in 
1849;  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Mississippi;  be- 
came an  itinerant  Methodist  preacher,  and  in  1886  was 
ordained  a bishop  of  the  M.  E.  Church  South.  He 
edited  the  New  Orleans  Christian  Advocate  for  several 
years. 

GALT,  Sir  Alexander  T.,  son  of  John  Galt,  the 
Scottish  novelist  (1779-1839),  was  born  at  Chelsea; 
England,  September  6,  1817,  and  emigrated  to  Canada 
when  a boy.  For  many  years  he  was  commissioner  of 
the  British  and  American  Land  Company,  and  in  1849 
he  entered  the  Canadian  parliament  as  a liberal.  He 
was  finance  minister  from  1858  to  1862  and  from 
1864  to  1866.  From  July  to  November,  1867,  he  was 
finance  minister  of  the  Dominion.  He  was  a member 
of  the  fisheries  commission  under  the  treaty  of  Washing- 
ton, and  a member  of  the  Halifax  Fisheries  Commis- 
sion. After  1857  he  allied  himself  with  the  Liberal- 
Conservative  party,  and  he  is  considered  one  of  the 
leading  authorities  on  finances  in  the  Dominion.  Fie 
became  grand  commander  of  the  order  of  St.  Michael 
and  St.  George  in  1878.  He  died  September  19,  1893. 

GALT,  Sir  Thomas,  brother  of  the  foregoing,  was 
born  in  England  in  1815;  removed  to  Canada  in  1828, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1845.  In  1858  he  became 
queen’s  counsel,  in  1869  judge  of  the  common  pleas, 
and  afterward  chief  justice.  He  was  knighted  in  1888. 

GALTON,  Francis,  born  in  1822  at  Birmingham, 
England,  is  a grandson  of  Dr.  Erasmus  Darwin,  and 
cousin  of  Charles  Darwin,  the  naturalist.  He  grad* 


GAM 


Hated  ill  Cambridge  iri  1844,  and  spent  Several  years 
in  explorations  on  the  White  Nile,  publishing  his  Nar- 
rative of  an  Explorer  in  Tropical  South  Africa  in 
1853.  Professor  Galton  is  an  F.R.S.;  has  been  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Society  and  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society,  and  of  the  Anthropological  Institute,  and  has 
presided  over  the  geographical  and  anthropological 
sections  of  the  British  Association  on  several  occasions. 

GA  MB  ETTA,  Leon,  the  great  French  Republican 
leader  to  whose  efforts  was  greatly  due  the  rehabilitation 
of  France  after  the  war  of  1870-71,  was  born  in  Cahors, 
a small  city  of  the  south  of  France,  April  3,  1838. 
His  father  was  a small  trader  of  Italian  extraction,  the 
family  originally  coming  from  Genoa.  Young  Gam- 
betta  obtained  an  ordinary  education  at  a provincial 
school  and  college,  and  in  1858  went  to  Paris  to  study 
law.  Baptized  and  confirmed  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith,  he  practically  abandoned  all  church  communion 
before  reaching  manhood  and  became  a materialist  and 
a persistent  opponent  of  clericalism.  His  life  in  Paris 
during  the  years  which  immediately  followed  his  admis- 
sion to  the  bar  was  one  of  struggles  and  poverty.  The 
Napoleonic  system  denied  anything  in  the  nature  of 
advancement  tc  liberal  advocates  or  barristers,  and 
Gambetta  had  already  become  known  by  his  fiery 
denunciations  of  the  sham  Csesarism  of  “ Napoleon  le 
Petit.”  But  in  1868  his  opportunity  came.  In  that 
year  some  of  the  radical  Parisian  journals  opened  a sub- 
scription for  a monument  to  the  memory  of  Baudin, 
the  deputy  who  was  murdered  during  the  coup  d'etat. 
Gambetta  appeared  for  the  defense  of  the  veteran 
Delescluze  and  against  him  were  arrayed  the  best 
forensic  talent  the  government  could  command.  The 
fiery  Southerner’s  speech  in  denunciation  of  the  men 
and  methods  of  December  woke  a responsive  echo  in  the 
hearts  of  the  people  and  proclaimed  the  moral  rotten- 
ness of  the  Second  Empire  in  all  its  shame. 

In  the  following  year  Gambetta  contested  seats  in  the 
chamber  at  both  Paris  and  Marseilles,  and  being  elected 
at  both  chose  to  sit  for  Paris.  In  July,  1870,  came  the 
declaration  of  war  against  Germany,  followed  swiftly 
by  tidings  of  repeated  disasters  from  the  front.  The 
democratic  leader  sought  vainly  to  elicit  the  truth  from 
the  ministry,  which  tried  to  delude  the  people  with  op- 
timistic reports.  Earlier  than  any  of  his  associates  he 
pressed  upon  the  ministry  the  necessity  of  arming  the 
national  guard  and  of  facing  the  crisis  so  rapidly  ap- 
proaching. On  the  morning  of  Sunday,  September  4, 
1870,  the  overwhelming  news  of  the  surrender  at  Sedan 
reached  Paris,  and  the  Napoleonic  dynasty  was  swept 
away  by  the  force  of  an  indignant  people.  Gambetta 
entered  the  ministry,  which  was  constituted  at  the 
Hotel  de  Ville  by  popular  acclamation.  He  was  made 
minister  of  the  interior  in  the  provisional  government, 
which  became  the  government  of  the  national  defense. 

His  first  act  was  to  issue  a call  for  the  convocation  of 
the  National  Assembly  on  September  8th,  but  meantime 
the  Prussians  were  pressing  toward  Paris,  and  this  could 
not  be  held.  As  the  invading  army  drew  its  cordons 
around  the  citv,  cutting  off  the  government  from  all 
communication  with  the  armies  still  in  the  field,  it  be- 
came imperative  that  some  member  of  the  government 
must  leave  Paris.  The  only  possible  method  of  escape 
was  by  balloon,  and  early  in  October  Gambetta  thus  left 
the  city,  reaching  Tours  in  safety.  As  the  representa- 
tive of  the  government  outside  Paris  he  became  practi- 
cally the  dictator  of  France.  He  formed  the  nucleus  of 
a government  and  issued  a proclamation  calling  upon 
the  people  to  rise  and  repel  the  invader.  France  re- 
sponded heroically,  and  there  is  no  parallel  in  history  to 
the  gigantic  efforts  made  by  Gambetta  to  organize  the 
'mdisciplined  patriotism  of  the  country  into  an  army. 


6549 

It  looked  taf  a few  brief  weeks  if  the  army  of  the 
Loire  might  have  succeeded  in  stopping  the  Germans, 
but  Bazaine’s  treasonable  surrender  of  Metz  blasted  all 
hopes,  and  the  raw  levies  of  Faidherbe,  Chanzy  and 
d’Aurelles  de  Paladine  melted  away  before  the  trained 
organization  of  the  Germans.  Even  when  starving 
Paris  capitulated  in  January,  1871,  the  tireless  organizer 
declared  his  intention  of  carrying  on  the  war  alou trance , 
but  his  proclamation  to  this  effect  was  nullified  February 
4th  by  his  colleagues  in  the  capital,  and  he  resigned  his 
position.  Four  days  later  ten  departments  elected  him 
to  the  National  Assembly,  which  met  at  Bordeaux  to  ap- 
prove the  terms  of  peace  preliminarily  arranged  by  Jules 
Favre.  Gambetta  chose  to  sit  for  the  department  of 
the  Bas-Rhin,  but  the  surrender  of  Alsace  to  Germany 
left  him  without  a seat.  He  resigned  and  retired  to  St. 
Sebastian,  Spain,  in  order  to  avoid  voting  for  the  ratifi- 
cation of  the  treaty. 

Meantime  Paris  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  commune, 
and  had  to  be  reconquered  by  the  troops  of  M.  Thiers. 
Gambetta  was  reelected  to  the  assembly  at  the  supple- 
mental elections  in  July,  but  his  little  band  of  followers 
were  in  a hopeless  minority,  and  royalism  and  clericalism 
dominated  the  representative  chamber.  Little  by  little 
Gambetta  succeeded  in  reorganizing  the  scattered  Re- 
publicans. In  1872  he  made  a tour  through  the  south  of 
France,  which  was  one  continued  ovation.  At  Grenoble, 
in  September  of  that  year,  he  made  a memorable  speech 
in  opposition  to  the  policy  of  M.  Thiers,  and  when  that 
statesman  was  driven  from  power  in  May,  1873,  Gam- 
betta  had  once  more  become  the  leader  of  a united 
party,  which  he  ultimately  led  to  victory.  At  this  period 
of  his  public  career  the  fiery  advocate,  the  organizer  of 
the  patriot  army,  developed  new  powers  of  self-restraint, 
and  displayed  a calmness  and  patience  which,  in  the  face 
of  Orleanist  plots  and  clerical  schemes,  safely  led  the 
country  to  the  permanent  adoption  of  a republican  form 
of  government. 

In  February,  1875,  the  assembly  decreed  the  republi- 
can form  of  constitution,  and  Gambetta,  on  April  23d, 
made  a great  speech  at  Belleville,  the  Communist  quarter 
of  Paris,  in  which  he  defended  and  supported  the  new 
organic  law.  It  soon  became  evident  that  Marshal 
MacMahon,  who  had  succeeded  M.  Thiers  as  president 
of  the  republic,  with  a seven  years’  term  allotted  him, 
had  gone  over  to  the  reactionary  party.  The  years  1876 
and  1877  were  probably  those  of  the  greatest  perils  the 
Third  Republic  had  known.  De  Broglie  was  plotting  for 
the  return  of  the  Orleanists;  MacMahon  was  a royalist 
at  heart,  and  the  Ultramontanes  and  Bonapartists  were 
ready  for  anything.  Gambetta  was  president  of  the 
budget  committee  of  the  assembly,  and  thus  controlled 
the  purse-strings  of  the  nation.  The  reactionary  at- 
tempt of  May  16,  1877,  united  the  Republicans,  and  in 
October  of  that  year  their  triumph  at  the  polls  was 
complete.  In  January,  1879,  Gambetta,  by  his  famous 
“ soumettre  ou  demettre  ” (submit  or  resign)  speech  ad- 
dressed to  MacMahon,  forced  his  resignation  and  M. 
Grevy  became  president  for  the  first  time. 

Republican  institutions  had  become  incorporated  in 
the  law  of  the  land,  and  the  new  chief  of  the  state 
proved  anxious  to  rule  constitutionally.  Gambetta, 
while  actually  holding  the  power  in  his  own  hands,  de- 
clined to  assume  the  responsibilities  of  office  in  1880, 
and  contented  himself  with  the  presidency  of  the 
chamber.  His  great  idea  was  the  substitution  of  the 
scrutin  de  liste , or  vote  by  departments,  for  the  scrutin 
d' arrondissement  or  district  voting,  and  until  this  end 
was  reached  he  did  not  desire  to  take  office.  In  August, 
1880,  he  became  president  of  the  council,  and,  in 
November,  1881,  he  assumed  the  premiership.  His 
ministry  lasted  but  a few  weeks,  and  was,  in  effect 


6550  G A N - 

wrecked  by  himself.  He  proposed  a reform  which 
would  have  necessitated  a new  election  by  a new  body 
of  electors,  and  to  this  the  chamber  would  not  listen. 
But  in  his  partial  retirement  Gambetta  retained  his 
leadership  of  the  great  Republican  party  which  he  had 
built  up  and  led  to  victory,  and  his  return  to  power, 
either  as  prime  minister  or  as  president  of  the  repub- 
lic, seemed  but  a matter  of  a few  months  or  the  possi- 
bility of  a day.  At  the  height  of  his  power  the  great 
popular  tribune  was  stricken  down.  On  November  27, 
1882,  it  was  reported  that  he  had  met  with  an  accident 
while  handling  a revolver.  On  the  last  day  of  the  year  he 
died.  The  circumstances  of  his  untimely  taking-off  were 
mysterious, but  the  generally  accepted  account  refers  his 
death  to  the  hand  of  a woman.  Gambetta  was  honored 
and  France  honored  herself  by  a public  funeral  of  un- 
exampled pomp,  and  a magnificent  colossal  statue  of 
him  has  been  raised  in  Paris,  while  other  great  French 
towns  have  also  reared  monuments  to  his  fame. 

GANNETT,  Ezra  Stiles,  born  at  Cambridge, Mass., 
May  4,  1801;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1820,  and  in 
1824  became  the  assistant  of  Dr.  William  Ellery  Chan- 
ningin  Boston.  In  1842,  on  the  death  of  Doctor  Chan- 
ning,  he  became  sole  pastor,  and  held  this  position  until 
his  death  in  August,  1871.  He  edited  tne  Christian 
Examiner , 1844-49. 

GARCIA-CALDERON,  Francisco,  born  in  Are- 
quipa,  Peru,  in  April,  1829;  became  professor  of  philoso- 
phy and  mathematics  in  the  university  of  his  native  city; 
was  afterward  elected  to  the  chamber,  and  became  secre- 
tary of  the  treasury  in  1868.  He  attempted  to  form  a 
new  government  after  the  war  with  Chili  and  the  fall  of 
Lima,  and  was  sent  to  Chili  as  a prisoner.  In  1884  he 
was  elected  to  the  Senate  and  became  president  of  that 
body. 

GARDINER,  James  Terry,  born  in  Troy,  N.  Y., 
May  6,  1842;  was  associated  with  Clarence  King  in  the 
United  States  survey  and  afterward  with  F.  V.  Hayden 
in  surveying  the  Territories.  From  1876  to  1886  he 
directed  the  State  survey  of  New  York.  He  has  been 
secretary  of  the  American  Geographical  Society  and  is 
a member  of  several  scientific  societies. 

GARDINER,  Samuel  Rawson,  born  in  England, 
March  4,  1829;  educated  at  Oxford,  became  a fellow  of 
All  Souls’  College  and  professor  of  modern  history  at 
King’s  College,  London.  He  has  written  a History  of 
England  from  1603  to  1642,  a History  of  the  Great 
Civil  War , and  other  historical  works  bearing  on  the 
times  of  the  later  Stuart  kings. 

GARDNER,  Charles  K.,  born  in  New  Jersey  in 
1787;  entered  the  United  States  army  in  1808,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  on  the  northern  frontier  in  1814-15. 
He  served  under  Jackson  as  first  assistant  postmaster- 
general,  and  under  Van  Buren  as  auditor  of  the  treasury, 
and  from  1850  to  1867  was  connected  with  the  treasury 
department.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  November 
I,  1869. 

GARDNER,  George  Warren,  born  in  Vermont, 
October  8,  1828;  became  a Baptist  minister  with  pastor- 
ates in  Massachusetts  and  Ohio,  and  in  1881  president 
of  the  Central  University  of  Iowa.  He  was  connected 
with  the  Watchman  and  other  religious  papers,  and 
Dartmouth  gave  him  the  degree  of  D.D.  in  1867. 

GARDNER,  John  Lane,  born  in  Boston,  August 
1,  1793;  entered  the  regular  army  in  1812;  fought  on 
the  Canadian  frontier,  and  in  the  Florida  war,  became 
lieutenant-colonel,  and  in  i860  was  in  command  of 
Charleston,  S.  C.  He  was  removed  by  Secretary 
Floyd,  when  he  announced  his  determination  to  defend 
Fort  Moultrie.  During  the  Civil  war  he  was  engaged 
in  recruiting  service;  in  1865  he  was  breveted  brig- 
adier-general, and  on  February  19,  1869,  he  died. 


-GAR 

GARFIELD,  James  Abram,  twentieth  president  o! 
the  United  States,  was  born  at  Orange,  Cuyahoga 
county,  Ohio,  November  19,  1831.  His  father,  who 
died  when  he  was  a child,  was  a native  of  New  York 
State,  and  his  mother  was  of  New  England  ancestry. 
The  boy  was  born  in  a log  cabin,  worked  around  home 
and  on  neighbors’  farms,  and  acquired  a scanty  education 
at  the  district  school,  supplemented  by  the  instruction 
of  his  mother,  a devout  Christian  and  a woman  of 
superior  intelligence.  For  several  months  young  Gar- 
field drove  a mule  team  on  the  Ohio  canal  tow-path. 

In  the  winter  of  1849-50  he  obtained  some  additional 
instruction  in  a seminary  at  Chester,  Ohio,  and  on  his 
vacations  learned  the  trade  of  a carpenter.  At  an  early 
age  he  joined  the  Campbellite  (Disciples)  church,  and  in 
1851  entered  a college  of  that  denomination  at  Hiram, 
Portage  county,  Ohio.  Here  he  remained  three  years, 
becoming  a good  Latin  scholar,  and  acquiring  consider- 
able knowledge  of  mathematics.  In  1854  he  entered 
Williams  College,  Mass.,  whence  he  graduated  in  1856. 
Returning  to  Ohio,  he  became  teacher  of  the  classical 
languages  at  Hiram,  and  in  the  following  year  was 
made,  at  the  age  of  twenty-six,  its  president.  Here,  on 
November  11,  1858,  he  married  Lucretia  Rudolph 
(born  April  19,  1832),  whom  he  had  first  met  as  a fellow- 
student,  and  by  whom  he  had  seven  children. 

While  acting  as  president  of  Hiram,  Mr.  Garfield 
studied  law,  and  on  Sundays  preached  in  neighboring 
towns.  In  1859  he  was  elected  as  a State  Senator, 
this  being  his  first  entry  into  the  political  field.  His 
birth  and  education  made  him  an  active  opponent  of 
slavery,  a strong  Republican,  and  an  out-and-out  Union 
man.  He  cast  his  first  vote  for  John  C.  Fremont  as 
president  in  1856.  In  1861  began  a new  chapter  in 
Garfield’s  history.  In  August  of  that  year,  at  the  head 
of  a regiment  largely  composed  of  his  own  old  pupils, 
he  went  to  the  front,  reporting  in  December  to  General 
Buell  at  Louisville.  He  was  given  a brigade,  and,  with 
about  1,400  men,  was  commissioned  to  act  against 
Gen.  Humphrey  Marshall,  who  was  in  occupancy  of 
eastern  Kentucky.  In  the  fighting  which  followed 
the  Union  troops  were  entirely  successful,  though  con- 
tending against  odds  of  six  to  one,  and  Marshall  was 
driven  from  his  position.  Middle  Creek  (fought  Janu- 
ary 10,  1862)  was  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
minor  battles  of  the  war,  and,  being  won  by  raw  troops 
over  trained  forces  commanded  by  a West  Point  grad- 
uate, the  moral  effect  was  the  greater. 

Mr.  Lincoln  rewarded  the  young  soldier  with  a 
brigadier-generalship,  dating  his  commission  from  the 
day  of  the  battle.  He  was  assigned  to  the  command  of 
the  twentieth  brigade,  reached  Shiloh  in  time  for  the 
second  day’s  fight,  and  took  a prominent  part  in  the 
operations  before  Corinth.  Here  he  became  ill  with 
malaria,  and,  on  July  30, 1862,  obtained  leave  of  absence 
and  returned  home,  where  he  stayed  two  months.  In 
September  he  was  ordered  to  Washington,  and  assigned 
to  court-martial  duty.  Notable  among  the  cases  which 
he  tried  was  that  of  Fitz-John  Porter.  In  February, 
1863,  he  reported  to  General  Rosecrans,  then  in  com- 
mand of  the  army  of  the  Cumberland,  who  made  him 
his  chief-of-staff.  In  this  capacity  he,  in  the  following 
June,  alone  of  seventeen  generals  consulted  by  Rose- 
crans, advised  in  favor  of  an  immediate  advance  against 
Bragg.  At  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  Garfield,  at 
great  personal  risk,  carried  a message  from  Rosecrans 
to  Thomas,  and  for  this  he  was  made  a major-general 
September  19,  1863. 

Meantime,  in  November,  1862,  the  nineteenth  con- 
gressional district  of  Ohio  had  elected  Mr.  Garfield  as 
its  representative  in  the  thirty-eighth  congress.  H© 
succeeded  Joshua  R.  Giddings,  the  anti-slavery  leader, 


GAR 


who  for  twenty-one  years  had  represented  this  impor- 
tant constituency  in  the  national  legislature.  General 
Garfield  brought  to  his  new  field  of  labor  a thorough 
knowledge  of  the  needs  of  the  army  in  the  field,  and  he 
soon  became  known  as  an  authority  on  the  vital  ques- 
tions of  the  time.  When  elected  to  the  State  legisla- 
ture he  was  the  youngest  member  of  the  Senate,  when 
promoted  to  a brigade  he  was  the  youngest  brigadier- 
general  in  the  army,  and  now,  at  thirty-two,  he  found 
himself  the  youngest  member  of  the  house  of  represent- 
atives. He  opposed  the  proposed  increase  of  enlist- 
ment bounties  for  new  recruits  and  advocated  the  draft. 
In  1864  he  was  reelected  by  a majority  of  12,000  votes, 
and  from  that  time  until  1880  he  represented  his  district 
in  congress. 

In  1865  he  left  the  committee  on  military  affairs  to 
become  chairman  of  the  ways  and  means  committee. 
He  had  made  a special  study  of  finance  and  had  a 
natural  aptitude  for  financial  legislation.  Throughout 
his  public  life  he  was  a consistent  advocate  of  a sound 
currency,  and  financial  heresies  of  all  kinds  found  in  him 
a sturdy  opponent.  He  was  chairman  of  the  commit- 
tee on  banking  and  currency  in  the  forty-first,  and  of 
the  committee  on  appropriations  in  the  forty-second 
and  forty-third  congresses,  while  in  the  three  succeeding 
(Democratic)  congresses  his  thorough  knowledge  of 
finance  secured  him  a place  on  the  ways  and  means 
committee.  He  opposed  Andrew  Johnson  and  acted 
throughout  with  the  Union  party  in  congress.  In  1876 
he  visited  Louisiana  to  watch  the  counting  of  the  elect- 
oral vote,  and,  although  he  had  opposed  the  creation  of 
the  electoral  commission,  be  became  one  of  the  Repub- 
lican representatives  in  that  body.  On  January  13, 
1880,  while  still  a member  of  congress,  Mr.  Garfield  was 
elected  United  States  senator  by  the  legislature  of  Ohio. 

In  June,  1880,  the  Republican  convention  for  the 
nomination  of  a candidate  for  the  presidency  was  held 
in  Chicago.  At  this  historic  convention  the  chief  candi- 
dates were  General  Grant,  James  G.  Blaine,  and  John 
Sherman.  Mr.  Garfield  came  to  the  convention  at  the 
head  of  his  State  delegation,  and  favoring  the  candidacy 
of  Mr.  Sherman.  The  Grant  delegates,  306  in  number, 
held  together  for  33  ballots.  The  others  were  united 
on  but  one  point,  “ anything  to  beat  Grant.”  It  became 
evident  that  neither  Blaine  nor  Sherman  could  obtain  a 
majority.  The  names  of  Edmunds,  Washburne,  and 
others  were  suggested  and  received  many  votes,  but 
there  was  practically  a dead-lock  until  the  thirty-fourth 
ballot,  when  Wisconsin  voted  solidly  for  Garfield.  It 
was  followed  in  part  by  Connecticut,  Illinois,  and  Indiana. 
Mr.  Garfield,  who  had  nominated  Sherman,  and  with 
his  whole  delegation  had  supported  him  throughout, 
rose  and  said  he  had  not  given  his  consent,  but  was 
ruled  out  of  order.  On  the  thirty-sixth  ballot  the  States 
one  after  another  voted  for  Garfield  and  he  received  399 
votes,  a majority  of  all  cast,  and  the  nomination  was 
declared  unanimous. 

The  campaign  which  followed  was  a bitter  one,  but  on 
November  2,  1880,  General  Garfield  proved  the  victor 
over  the  Democratic  nominee,  Gen.  Winfield  Scott 
Hancock.  The  Republican  candidate  received  215  of 
the  electoral  votes;  his  opponent  155.  The  popiSar 
vote  was  very  close;  Garfield’s  majority  being  cnly 
7,018.  On  March  4,  1881,  President  Garfield  was 
inaugurated  at  the  White  House.  On  the  following 
day  he  announced  the  names  of  his  cabinet  and  selecteo 
Mr.  Blaine  as  secretary  of  state.  Less  than  four 
months  later  Garfield  fell  before  the  pistol  of  an  assas- 
sin. On  the  morning  of  July  2d  he  went  down  to  the 
Washington  station  of  the  Baltimore  and  Potomac 
railroad  to  take  a train  for  New  York.  He  was  ac- 
companied by  Mr.  Blaine,  and  as  they  passed  together 


6551 

through  a waiting-room  a man  came  up  behind  and  fired 
two  shots  from  a revolver  at  the  president,  who  fell 
senseless  to  the  floor.  His  assailant,  who  proved  to  be 
a half-crazy  man  named  Charles  Julius  Guiteau  (y.z/.), 
was  promptly  arrested.  The  wounded  president  was 
carried  to  the  White  House,  and  lay  there  suffering  for 
sixty-six  days.  An  examination  showed  that  one  bullet 
had  passed  through  the  arm  without  breaking  any  bones, 
but  the  other  had  entered  the  back,  and  its  course  was 
a matter  of  uncertainty.  The  sufferer  was  attended 
night  and  day  by  several  physicians,  but  it  was  found 
impossible  to  determine  the  exact  location  of  the  ball, 
and  in  August  it  became  evident  that  pyoemia  had 
developed.  In  the  vain  hope  that  change  of  air  might 
prove  beneficial  the  president  was  removed  to  a sea- 
side cottage  near  Long  Branch,  and  there,  on  September 
19th,  after  eighty  days  of  suffering,  borne  with  heroic 
fortitude,  he  died.  Two  days  later  the  remains  were 
removed  to  Washington,  where  they  lay  in  state  in  the 
rotunda  of  the  capitol,  and  thence  were  removed  to 
Cleveland,  where  they  were  laid  to  rest  in  the  cemetery 
of  Lakeview,  where  a magnificent  monument  has  been 
erected  to  the  memory  of  America’s  second  martyr 
president. 

GARIBALDI,  Giuseppe,  born  at  Nice,  July  22, 
1807.  In  1834,  having  compromised  himself  by  partici- 
pating in  a futile  revolutionary  outbreak  at  Genoa,  he 
fled  to  France  simultaneously  with  the  publication  in 
Italy  of  the  sentence  of  his  condemnation  to  death.  He 
volunteered  to  serve  Uruguay  in  its  war  with  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  soon  gave  proof  of  so  remarkable  a talent 
for  military  leadership,  that  he  was  raised  to  the 
supreme  command  both  of  naval  and  military  operations. 
In  1848,  war  having  broken  out  between  Austria  and 
the  liberals  of  Italy,  Garibaldi  hastened  to  Europe. 
He  bore  an  effective  part  in  the  Italian  campaign,  and 
distinguished  himself  at  Rome  by  his  resistance  to  the 
French  forces,  which,  during  four  weeks,  were  success- 
fully kept  at  bay,  and  repeatedly  repulsed  by  the  republi- 
can forces  of  Rome,  under  his  command.  Early  in  i860 
insurrectionary  disturbances  broke  out  in  Palermo,  and 
were  repeated  throughout  the  interior  of  the  island. 
Garibaldi  assembled  at  Genoa  a volunteer  force  of  1,070 
patriots,  and  on  May  5th  set  sail  for  Sicily.  On  the 
nth  the  landing  of  his  followers  was  successfully 
effected  in  sight,  and  partially  under  fire,  of  the  Neapol- 
itan fleet.  On  the  15th,  in  the  battle  of  Calatafimi, 
3,600  Neapolitan  troops  were  routed  by  Garibaldi’s 
force,  and  to  this  victory  may  be  attributed  the  subse- 
quent success  of  the  entire  expedition.  On  the  18th  of 
the  same  month  Garibaldi  and  his  little  army  occupied 
the  heights  which  command  Palermo,  and,  after  a des- 
perate battle  with  the  royalist  troops,  fought  his  way 
into  that  city.  The  Neapolitan  general  capitulated,  and 
on  his  departure  with  his  troops,  Garibaldi  remained  in 
possession  of  the  city.  On  July  20th,  at  the  head  of 
2,500  men,  he  gave  battle  at  Melazzo  to  7,000  Neapoli- 
tans, who  were  defeated,  and  compelled  to  evacuate  the 
fortress.  On  the  25th  the  Neapolitans  were  driven 
back  into  Messina,  into  which  city  Garibaldi  made  his 
triumphal  entry  on  the  27th.  Toward  the  middle  of 
August,  Garibaldi  made  a descent  on  Calabria,  and  was 
immediately  joined  by  large  bodies  of  volunteers  from 
all  directions,  by  whom  he  was  accompanied  on  his 
memorable  and  eventful  march  to  Naples.  On  Sep- 
tember 5th  Garibaldi’s  army  of  25,000  or  30,000  men 
occupied  Salerno  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  Royalists,  and 
on  the  7th  he  entered  Naples.  King  Francis  II.  with- 
drew to  the  fortress  of  Gaeta,  and  Garibaldi  accepted 
temporarily  the  office  of  dictator.  On  October  1st  the 
royalist  troops,  numbering  15,000  men,  came  from 
Capua,  and  attacked  fiercely  the  whole  line  of  the  Gari- 


6SS2  GAR  — GAT 


baldians.  Finally  the  royalists  were  driven  back  to 
Capua  in  disordor.  This  was  Garibaldi’s  last  triumph  in 
that  struggle.  Victor  Emmanuel,  with  his  army, crossed 
the  Papal  frontier,  routed  the  troops  under  Lamorici^re, 
and  passed  on  into  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  where  he 
was  met  by  Garibaldi,  who  relinquished  into  his  sover- 
eign’s hands  the  disposal  of  his  volunteer  ar.my,  and 
the  sway  over  the  Neapolitan  provinces.  During  the 
campaign  of  1866  he  took  the  field  against  the  Austrians 
in  the  Tyrol,  where  he  sustained  a severe  repulse,  which 
he  retrieved  next  day,  and  was  preparing  to  advance 
against  the  enemy,  when  the  war  was  brought  to  a close, 
and  he  returned  to  Caprera.  In  1867  he  organized  an 
invasion  of  the  States  of  the  Church,  to  complete  the 
unification  of  Italy,  but  was  made  prisoner,  and  afterward 
allowed  to  return  to  Caprera,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
which  a man-of-war  was  stationed  to  prevent  his  escape. 
He  did  escape,  however,  only  to  be  speedily  defeated  by 
the  pontifical,  reenforced  by  French,  troops.  Again  Gari- 
baldi retired  to  his  island  home,  which  he  left  to  fight 
for  the  French  republic  in  1870.  He  was  nominated  to 
the  command  of  the  irregular  forces  in  the  Vosges,  and 
performed  the  best  services  in  the  field  during  the  mem- 
orable Franco- Prussian  war.  In  1871  he  was  returned 
a deputy  to  the  French  national  assembly  for  Paris, 
but  declined  to  sit,  and  returned  to  Caprera.  He 
entered  the  Italian  parliament  in  1875,  and  accepted 
an  annual  pension  of  50,000  lire.  He  died  J une  2,  1882. 

GARLAND,  Augustus  Hill,  born  at  Covington, 
Ky.,  June  11,  1832;  practiced  law  in  Arkansas  until 
1861,  and  then  entered  the  Confederate  congress, 
serving  in  both  the  House  and  the  Senate.  He  was 
elected  governor  of  Arkansas  in  1874;  in  1877  became 
United  States  senator,  and  in  March,  1885,  attorney- 
general  in  Cleveland’s  cabinet,  which  office  he  held 
until  March,  1889.  Fie  died  Jan.  26,  1899. 

GARMAN,  Samuel,  born  in  Pennsylvania,  June  5, 
1846;  studied  natural  history  under  Louis  Agassiz,  and 
in  1873  became  connected  with  the  museum  of  compar- 
ative zoology  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  He  made  various 
scientific  explorations  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  in 
South  and  Central  America,  and  has  written  extensively 
on  natural  history. 

GARNET,  Henry  Highland,  born  of  slave  parents 
in  Kent  county,  Md. , in  1815;  escaped  to  New  York  in 
1824,  and  became  a student  for  the  ministry.  He 
preached  and  lectured  on  temperance  and  other  sub- 
jects, and  in  1881  was  appointed  by  President  Garfield 
minister  to  Liberia.  lie  died  at  Monrovia,  February 
14,  1882. 

GARNETT,  Richard  Brooke,  born  in  Virginia  in 
1819;  killed  at  Gettysburg,  July  3,  1863.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1841,  became  a captain  in  1855,  hav- 
ing served  in  Florida  and  Texas,  was  in  the  Utah  Ex- 
pedition of  1858,  and  resigned  in  May,  1861,  to  enter 
the  Confederate  army.  He  was  attached  to  Lee’s  army, 
and  attained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general. 

GARNETT,  Robert  Selden,  born  in  Essex 
county,  Va.,  December  16,1819;  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1841,  distinguished  himself  in  Mexico,  was  two 
years  commandant  of  cadets  at  West  Point,  and  com- 
manded an  expedition  to  Puget  Sound  in  1856.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  he  joined  the  Confederacy,  re- 
ceived a brigadier-general’s  commission,  and  was  killed 
in  battle  in  June,  1861. 

GARNIER,  Jean  Louis  Charles,  born  at  Paris, 
France,  November  6,  1825;  studied  at  the  School  of 
Fine  Arts,  and  began  to  exhibit  water  colors  in  1853. 
In  1861  he  competed  for  the  design  of  the  new  Opera 
House  in  Paris.  Flis  design  was  accepted,  and  he  con- 
structed the  building,  which  was  completed  in  1875. 
He  died  August  4,  1898. 


GARNIER-PAGfiS,  Louis  ANfoitffc,  bom  at  Mat. 
seilles,  France,  July  18,  1803;  took  part  in  the  revolu. 
tion  of  1830,  and  entered  politics  as  a Republican 
deputy.  He  was  minister  of  finance  in  the  provisional 
government  of  1848,  lived  in  retirement  under  the  Sec- 
ond Empire,  and  in  1870  took  part  in  the  defense  of 
Paris.  He  died  October  31,  1878.  His  principal  works 
were  a History  of  the  Revolution  of  1848  and  The  Op- 
position and  the  Empire  (2  vols.,  1872). 

GARRARD,  Kenner,  born  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
in  1830;  was  educated  at  West  Point,  served  through- 
out the  war  and  was  brevetted  major-general  United 
States  army.  Fie  died  May  15,  1879. 

GARRETT,  John  Work,  born  in  Baltimore,  July 
31,  1820;  was  best  known  as  president  of  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  railroad,  holding  that  office  from  1858  until 
his  death  in  1884.  He  was  also  interested  in  ocean 
steamship  navigation. 

GARRETT,  Robert,  son  of  the  foregoing,  born  in 
Baltimore,  April  9,  1847;  became  connected  with  rail- 
road affairs  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1884  was  president 
of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  R.  R.  Died  July,  1896. 

GASPARIN,  Agenor  Etienne,  Comte  de,  born 
in  France  in  1810;  sat  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  as  a 
Conservative  in  Louis  Philippe’s  reign,  but  is  best 
known  by  his  writings  in  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes, 
and  his  writings  on  the  American  Civil  war.  Fie  died 
in  1871.  His  wife,  Valerie,  Comtesse  de  Gasparin, 
has  published  several  works  of  travel,  and  essays  on 
various  subjects. 

GATES, Merrill  Edwards,  born  in  Warsaw,  N.Y., 
April  6,  1848;  became  president  of  Rutgers  College, 
N.  J.,  in  1882,  Indian  Commissioner,  in  1884,  and 
later  President  of  Amherst  College. 

GATES,  Sir  Thomas,  governor  of  Virginia,  was 
born  late  in  the  sixteenth  century.  His  name  first 
appears  when  the  second  charter  of  Virginia  was  given 
to  a company  on  May  23,  1609.  The  officers  therein 
named  were  West,  de  la  Warr,  Somers,  Newport,  Dale, 
Wainman,  and  Sir  Thomas  Gates  as  lieutenant-general. 
The  colonization  of  Virginia  thereafter  became  greatly 
stimulated,  money  was  contributed  in  aid  of  the  pur- 
pose, and  nine  vessels  with  nearly  600  emigrants  left 
Europe  for  America,  under  Newport,  Somers,  and 
Gates.  They  sailed  in  May,  1609.  Only  seven  ships 
reached  Virginia;  one  with  its  passengers  was  lost  at 
sea;  the  other,  that  conveyed  Gates,  was  stranded  at  one 
of  the  Bermuda  Islands.  Here  Gates  and  his  compan- 
ions improvised  two  small  vessels  in  the  course  of  nine 
months,  and  set  sail  for  their  original  destination, 
which  they  reached  on  May  24,  1610.  They  found  the 
Virginia  colony  in  a condition  of  anarchy  and  neglect, 
and  its  numbers  reduced  by  sickness  and  famine  to  about 
fifty  individuals.  Gates  and  the  colonists  then  decided 
to  abandon  the  settlement  and  sail  coastwise  for  New- 
foundland in  four  remaining  pinnaces  that  still  floated 
on  the  river,  and  seek  a passage  to  England.  But  no 
sooner  had  they  begun  their  voyage  than  they  encoun- 
tered Lord  de  la  Warr,  who,  ascending  the  river  on 
june  9,  1610,  with  new  colonists  and  fresh  supplies, 
persuaded  Gates  and  his  party  to  return  to  Jamestown. 
Lord  de  la  Warr  had  promised  to  send  to  the  council  an 
early  report  of  the  condition  of  the  colony,  and  for  this 
purpose  dispatched  Sir  Thomas  Gates  to  England. 
Sir  Thomas,  with  great  energy,  gathered  means  and 
recruits.  In  August,  1611,  he  reached  Jamestown  safely 
with  six  vessels  and  about  300  colonists.  Fie  assumed 
the  functions  of  governor,  established  divine  worship, 
law  and  order,  and  in  1611  made  new  settlements  in 
Henrico.  In  March,  1612,  a third  patent  was  granted 
to  the  company  by  the  crown,  that  for  the  time  being 
gave  them  control  of  the  Bermuda  Islands  and  all  other 


GAT- 

tslands  within  300  leagues  from  the  Virginia  shore.  Sir 
Thomas  Gates  returned  to  England  in  1614  in  the  inter- 
est of  the  colonists.  Of  his  subsequent  history  we  have 
no  record. 

GATES,  William,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1788; 
he  was  a son  of  Lemuel  Gates,  an  officer  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary army,  was  educated  at  West  Point,  and  served 
with  distinction  in  the  war  of  1812.  He  afterward 
fought  in  the  Florida  war  and  the  war  with  Mexico,  and 
was  brevetted  brigadier-general.  He  died  in  1868. 

GATLING,  Richard  Jordan,  born  in  Hertford 
county,  N.  C.,  September  12,  1818,  is  well  known  as 
the  inventor  of  the  machine  gun  wioch  bears  his  name. 
First  used  in  1862,  it  has  been  greatly  improved  by  the 
inventor.  It  consists  of  a number  of  breech-loading 
rifled  barrels,  made  to  revolve  around  a common  center 
and  fed  with  cartridges  by  a hopper.  The  new  guns 
with  ten  barrels  are  capable  of  firing  1,200  shots  per 
minute. 

GAULT,  Matthew  Hamilton,  born  in  Ireland  in 
July,  1822,  emigrated  to  Canada  and  became  connected 
with  insurance  and  transportation  interests  there.  He 
was  elected  a member  of  the  Dominion  parliament  in 
1878,  was  reelected  in  1882,  and  died  in  Montreal,  June 
1,1887. 

GAVAZZI,  Alessandro,  born  at  Bologna,  Italy,  in 
1809;  entered  the  order  of  the  Barnabites  in  1825.  He 
became  professor  of  rhetoric  in  the  university  of  Naples. 
In  1848  he  delivered  an  oration  on  the  patriots  who  had 
fallen  at  Milan,  and  was  made  chaplain-general  of  the 
forces  by  Pope  Pius  IX.,  who  at  that  time  favored  the 
liberal  movement.  But  the  Pope  went  over  to  the  reac- 
tionaries, and  recalled  the  Roman  legion  from  Vicen- 
za, and  Gavazzi  fled  to  Tuscany  and  Genoa.  On  his 
return  to  Rome  he  was  arrested,  but  was  freed  when  the 
Pope  fled  and  the  republican  government  was  estab- 
lished. The  French  captured  Rome  in  July,  1849,  and 
Gavazzi  escaped  to  .London,  where  he  taught  Italian  and 
lectured  against  Romanism.  Subsequently  he  visited 
Scotland,  tne  United  States,  and  Canada,  and  in  the  lat- 
ter country  his  orations  against  Roman  Catholicism  gave 
rise  to  riots.  In  i860  he  participated  in  the  Garibal- 
dian  expedition  to  Palermo;  in  1870  revisited  Eng- 
land, and  in  1873  made  a tour  in  the  United  States.  He 
published  his  Orations , No  Union  with  Rome , and 
other  works.  He  died  in  January,  1889. 

GAY,  Edward,  artist,  was  born  in  Ireland  in  1837; 
came  to  the  United  States  when  a boy;  studied  at 
Carlsruhe  and  Diisseldorf,  and  in  1867  opened  a studio 
in  New  York.  He  has  contributed  regularly  both  to 
the  academy  and  the  exhibitions  of  the  Water  Color 
Society,  and  has  been  quite  successful  in  landscapes. 

GAY,  Sydney  Howard,  born  in  Massachusetts  in 
1814;  edited  the  Anti-Slavery  Standard;  was  managing 
editor  of  the  New  York  Tribune  during  the  Civil  war; 
was  afterward  connected  with  the  Chicago  Tribune 
and  the  New  York  Evening  Post.  He  was  an  ardent 
abolitionist;  wrote  a History  of  the  United  States  in 
connection  with  William  Cullen  Bryant,  and  was  the 
author  of  numerous  other  works.  He  died  Tune  23, 
1888. 

GAYARRfi,  Charles  E.  A.,  born  in  New  Orleans, 
January  9,  1805;  became  a lawyer,  member  of  the 
Louisiana  legislature,  and  judge  of  the  city  court  of 
New  Orleans.  In  1835  he  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  senate,  but  on  account  of  ill  health  resigned  his 
seat.  In  1844  he  again  entered  the  State  legislature, 
and  from  1846  to  1853  was  secretary  of  state  of  Louisi- 
ana. During  the  Civil  war  he  supported  the  Confed- 
eracy,and  after  its  close  became  reporter  of  the  State 
supreme  court.  He  wrote  a History  of  Louisiana 
(3  vols. , 1866).  He  died  February  uj  1095. 


-GEN  6553 

GEAR,  John  Henry,  born  in  New  York  State  in 
1825;  removed  to  Iowa,  and  in  1843  engaged  in  business 
at  Burlington,  of  which  city  he  was  mayor  in  1863.  He 
was  three  times  elected  to  the  State  general  assembly, 
and  twice  speaker  of  the  House,  as  a Republican;  was 
twice  governor,  1878-79  and  1880-81 ; represented  the 
first  Iowa  district  in  the  50th,  51st  and  53rd  Congresses 
and  became  U.  S.  Senator,  1895.  Died  July,  1900. 

GEARY,  John  White,  born  in  Westmoreland 
county,  Penn.,  December  30,  1819;  served  as  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  volunteers  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  was 
wounded  at  Chapultepec.  In  1849  he  became  postmaster 
and  alcalde  (judge)  of  San  Francisco,  and  in  1850  first 
mayor  of  that  city.  In  1856  he  was  appointed  territo- 
rial governor  of  Kansas.  When  the  Civil  war  broke  out 
he  raised  a regiment,  was  wounded  at  Bolivar  Heights 
and  Cedar  Mountain,  became  a brigadier-general,  and 
led  a division  at  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg.  He 
joined  the  army  of  the  Cumberland  under  Hooker; 
commanded  the  second  division  of  the  twentieth  army 
corps  on  the  march  to  the  sea,  became  military  governor 
of  Savannah,  and  brevet  major-general.  In  1866  he 
was  elected  governor  of  Pennsylvania,  was  reelected  in 
1870,  and  held  that  office  until  a few  weeks  before  his 
death,  which  occurred  February  8,  1873. 

GEDDES,  James  Lorraine,  born  in  Scotland, 
March  19,  1827;  served  in  India  under  Gough,  Napier, 
and  Campbell,  and  in  1857  settled  in  Iowa.  He  enlisted 
as  a private  in  an  Iowa  volunteer  regiment  in  August, 
1861,  was  rapidly  promoted  to  brigadier-general,  and 
did  good  service  at  Memphis  and  Mobile.  After  the 
war  he  had  charge  of  the  Blind  Asylum  at  Vinton, 
Iowa,  and  was  connected  with  the  Iowa  College  of  Agri- 
culture in  Story  county,  where  he  died  in  1887.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  popular  war  songs. 

GEFFRARD,  Fabre,  born  in  Hayti,  September  19, 
1806,  entered  the  native  army,  and  took  part  in  all  the 
manifold  wars  of  the  first  halfof  the  century.  Soulouque 
made  him  a duke  in  1850,  and  in  1858,  when  the  people 
roseagainst  Soulouque  (Faustin  I.),  Geffrard  was  made 
president  of  the  republic  then  proclaimed.  Several  at- 
tempts were  made  to  assassinate  Geffrard,  and  his  daugh- 
ter was  killed.  In  1867  a revolution  drove  him  from 
Hayti,  and  in  1879  he  died  in  Jamaica. 

GEIKIE,  Sir  Archibald,  born  at  Edinburgh, 
in  1835 ; was  educated  at  the  university  of  his  native 
city.  He  became  director  of  the  geographical  survey 
of  Scotland  in  1867,  professor  of  mineralogy  and  geol- 
ogy in  Edinburgh  University,  and  in  1881  director-gen- 
eral of  the  British  Geological  Survey.  He  has  written 
extensively  on  glaciers  and  other  geological  subjects. 
His  brother,  James,  born  in  Edinburgh,  August  23, 
1839,  is  the  author  of  the  Great  Ice  Age , Prehistoric 
Europe,  and  other  scientific  works. 

GEMUNDER,  George,  violin-maker,  born  in 
Ingelfingen,  Germany,  April  13,  1816.  His  father  was 
a violin-maker,  and  the  son,  in  company  with  his 
brother,  August,  learned  the  art  at  home;  later  he 
studied  with  a noted  violin-maker  in  Paris.  In  1847 
he  came  to  the  United  States,  and  settled  in  Boston, 
Mass.  In  1851  his  instruments  obtained  the  prize- 
medal  of  the  world’s  fair  in  London.  His  elder  brother, 
August  (born  in  1816),  follows  the  same  principles  in 
constructing  his  instruments,  and  is  nearly  equally 
eminent. 

GENEST,  Edmond  Charles,  born  in  France  in 
1765;  died  in  New  York  State,  July  14,  1834.  He  en- 
tered the  French  diplomatic  service  as  chargl d'affairet 
at  St.  Petersburg  in  1789,  but  was  sent  home  in  1791, 
and  in  December,  1792,  was  accredited  to  the  United 
States.  Genest  (or  as  the  name  is  often  written, 
Genet)  trangressed  the  laws  of  neutrality  by  issuing 


GEN— GHE 


<5554 

commissions  to  privateers  to  prey  upon  English  com- 
merce, France  being  then  at  war  with  England.  He 
complained  bitterly  of  the  lack  of  sympathy  displayed 
by  tne  young  republic  to  its  old  ally,  and  did  his  best 
to  embroil  the  United  States  with  Great  Britain. 
Washington  demanded  and  obtained  his  recall,  but 
Genest  decided  to  become  a naturalized  citizen.  He 
settled  in  New  Vork,  and  married  a daughter  of  Gov- 
ernor Clinton.  He  was  the  author  of  some  historical 
works,  and  translated  a Swedish  history- 
GENOA,  Duke  of  (Thomas  Albert  Victor  de 
Savoy),  nephew  of  King  Victor  Emmanuel,  was  born 
February  6,  1854;  educated  at  Harrow,  England,  and 
became  an  officer  in  the  Italian  navy.  His  elder  sister, 
Margaret,  born  November  20,  1851,  is  the  wife  of  the 
reigning  monarch,  Humbert. 

GENTH,  Frederick  A.,  born  in  Hesse-Cassel, 
May  17,  1820-,  studied  under  Bunsen;  and  in  1850 
came  to  the  United  States.  In  1870  he  assumed  the 
chair  of  chemistry  and  mineralogy  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  He  is  a member  of  the  National  Academy 
of  Sciences,  is  prominent  as  an  analytical  chemist,  and 
has  contributed  important  papers  to  the  scientific 
journals.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  February,  2,  1893. 

GENTRY,  Meredith  Poindexter,  born  in  Rock- 
ingham county,  N.  C.,  September  15,  1809;  became  a 
member  of  the  State  legislature  of  Tennessee  in  1835, 
and  was  elected  to  congress  in  1839  as  a Whig.  Although 
a large  slave-holder,  he  voted  in  favor  of  the  reception 
of  anti-slavery  petitions.  He  served  in  the  twenty- 
seventh,  twenty-ninth,  thirtieth,  thirty-first,  and  thirty- 
second  congresses,  and  opposed  the  war  with  Mexico. 
After  the  election  of  Lincoln  he  went  with  the  .South, 
and  sat  in  the  Confederate  congress.  He  died  in 
Tennessee,  November  2,  1866. 

GEORGE  I.  (King  of  the  Hellenes),  Christian 
Wi  lliam  Ferdinand  Adolphus  George,  is  the 
second  son  of  Christian  IX.,  of  Denmark,  and  was 
born  December  24,  1845.  In  1863  he  was  invited  to 
accept  the  throne  of  Greece,  and  in  1867  he  married 
the  Princess  Olga,  daughter  of  the  Grand  Duke  Con- 
stantine of  Russia.  His  son  and  heir  apparent,  Prince 
Constantinos,  duke  of  Sparta  (born  August  2,  1868), 
married,  on  October  27,  1889,  the  Princess  Sophia, 
sister  of  the  present  emperor  of  Germany. 

GEORGE.  Henry,  born  in  Philadelphia,  September 
2,  1839.  As  a boy  he  was  apprenticed  on  a sailing 
vessel,  went  to  California,  engaged  in  newspaper  work, 
and  finally  removed  to  New  York  city.  In  1879  he 
published  Progress  and  Poverty , advocating  the  raising 
of  public  revenues  by  a single  tax  on  land  with  eventual 
government  ownership  of  all  land,  a doctrine  which  has 
gained  many  followers  in  the  United  States.  He  pub- 
lished The  Irish  Land  Question  in  1881  and  visited  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  where,  in  many  speeches,  he  set 
forth  his  radical  doctrines.  In  1886  he  was  nominated 
by  the  Labor  party  of  New  York  city  for  mayor,  and 
received  nearly  70,000  votes.  The  Democratic  can- 
didate was  elected  by  a majority  greatly  reduced  from 
its  usual  number.  Mr.  George’s  weekly  newspaper, 
The  Standard , was  founded  in  1887,  and  is  still  pub- 
lished under  his  editorship  and  control.  His  publica- 
tions include  Social  Problems  (1884),  and  Protection  or 
Free  Trade  (1886).  Died  Oct.  29,  i8q7. 

GEORGE,  James  Zachariah,  born  in  Monroe 
county,  Ga.,  October  20,  1826;  removed  to  Mississippi, 
served  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  practiced  law  until  the 
outbreak  of  the  rebellion.  He  commanded  a cavalry 
regiment  during  the  war,  and  in  1875  became  chief 
justice  of  the  State  Supreme  Court.  On  March  4, 
1881,  he  took  his  seat  in  the  United  States  Senate,  to 
which  he  was  reelected  in  1886  and  1892.  Died,  1897. 


GERHARDT,  Karl,  born  at  Boston,  January  7, 
1853,  of  German  parentage;  began  life  as  a machinist, 
and  developed  a talent  for  sculpture.  His  principal 
works  are  busts  of  General  Grant,  Mark  Twain,  and 
Henry  Ward  Beecher,  and  statues  of  Nathan  Hale, 
Putnam,  Josiah  Bartlett,  Geneial  Warren,  and  John 
Fitch. 

GERMAIN,  Antoine  Hfnri,  born  at  Lyons, 
France,  February  19,  1824;  founded  the  Credit  Lyon- 
nais, of  which  he  is  chairman.  In  1869  he  entered  the 
National  Assembly  as  a Liberal,  and  is  still  a represent- 
ative, acting  with  the  Left  Center,  and  ~ecognized  as  a 
high  authority  on  financial  questions. 

GfiROME,  J ean  Leon,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
of  living  French  artists,  was  born  at  Vesoul,  May  11, 
1824.  He  studied  under  Paul  Delaroche  at  the  £cole 
des  Beaux-Arts,  and  first  exhibited  at  the  Salon  of  1847. 
He  has  won  many  medals  for  his  portraits  and  scenes 
of  Eastern  and  classical  life.  His  Ccesarand  Cleopatra , 
and  the  Slave  Market  in  Rome , are,  among  his  most 
famous  productions,  and  he  has  painted  many  pictures 
of  Arab  and  Egyptian  life. 

GE  RON  I MU,  an  Apache  Indian  chief.  Nothing  is 
known  of  his  early  history.  For  a long  time  this  chief 
was  known  to  the  United  States  Government  as  the 
head  of  a band  of  hostile  Indians  who  had  committed 
depredations.  An  expedition  under  Gen.  George  Crook 
was  sent  in  pursuit.  Geronimo  met  with  the  com- 
manding general  cn  March  25,  1886,  when  terms.; 
were  made  with  the  Indians,  who  were  sent  to  Fort 
Bowie.  On  March  29th  the  Indians  escaped  to  the 
mountains.  The  expedition  was  pronounced  a failure. 
General  Crook  requested  to  be  relieved,  and  Gen.  Nelson 
A.  Miles  became  his  successor.  The  latter  was  in- 
structed to  use  ceaseless  pursuit  for  the  capture  of  the 
Indians,  and  this  order  was  carried  out  to  the  letter, 
until  the  exhausted  band  of  Geronimo  was  compelled  to 
come  to  terms.  Against  the  wishes  of  the  United  States 
Government  General  Miles  saw  fit  to  accept  a conditional 
surrender,  stipulating  that  the  tribe  should  be  sent  out  of 
Arizona.  General  Miles  had  ordered  them  taken  to  Fort 
Marion,  at  St.  Augustine.  This  order,  however,  was 
countermanded  by  the  president,  and  Geronimo,  with 
fourteen  adult  companions,  were  sent  to  Fort  Pickens, 
Fla. 

GERRY,  Elbridge,  born  in  Marblehead,  Mass., 
July  17,  1744;  entered  the  Massachusetts  legislature  in 
1772,  became  a member  of  the  Continental  Congress, 
and  signed  the  declaration  of  independence.  He  was 
also  a member  of  the  convention  which  framed  the 
Federal  constitution,  sat  in  congress  from  1790  to  1795, 
and  in  1797  went  on  a mission  to  France.  He  was 
elected  governor  of  his  native  State  as  a Democrat  in 
1810,  and  became  vice-president  of  the  United  States 
under  Madison  in  1812.  He  died  in  Washington,  D. 
c.,  November  23,  1814. 

GERSTER,  Etelka,  born  in  Hungary,  June  16, 
1857;  made  her  operatic  d£but  at  Venice,  in  1876,  and 
has  since  sung  as  prima  donna  in  grand  opera  in  nearly 
every  capital  in  Europe,  and  has  made  several  tours  in 
the  United  States.  She  married  Carlo  Gardiniin  1877. 

GETTY,  George  W.,  born  in  Georgetown,  D.  C., 
October  2,  1819;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1840, 
became  captain  during  the  Mexican  war,  and  served 
through  the  Civil  war  in  command  of  volunteers,  being 
brevetted  maj or-general  U nited  States  army  for  services. 
On  October  2,  1883,  he  retired,  and  died  Oct.  2,  1901. 

GHERARDI,  Bancroft,  United  States  naval  of- 
ficer, was  born  in  Jackson,  La.,  November  10,  1832; 
entered  the  navy  from  Massachusetts  as  midshipman  in 
1846,  was  made  lieutenant-commander  in  1862,  was  pres- 
ent at  the  engagement  at  Fort  Macon,  and  took  gallant 


G I B- 

part  in  the  battle  of  Mobile  Bay  in  1864.  He  was  pro- 
moted to  commander  in  1866,  made  captain  in  1874, 
commodore  in  1884  and  became  rear-admiral  in  1887. 
He  supervised  the  grand  review  of  the  naval  forces  of 
the  world  at  Hampton  Roads  in  April,  1893. 

GIBBON,  John,  was  oorn  in  Pennsylvania,  April 
20,  1827,  and  died  February  6,  1896 ; served  in  iht 
Mexican  war  and  in  the  Civil  war,  was  chief  of  artillery 
on  General  McDowell’s  staff,  until  May,  1862;  was 
then  made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  was 
successively  bre vetted  major-general  of  volunteers, 
lieutenant-colonel,  colonel,  brigadier-general  and  ma- 
jor-general United  States  army,  for  gallant  and  meri- 
torious conduct  at  Antietam,  Fredericksburg,  Gettys- 
burg, Spottsylvania  and  Petersburg;  commissioned 
major-general  of  volunteers,  June  7,  1864,  and  colonel 
United  States  army,  July  28,  1866;  promoted  to  brig- 
adier-general United  States  army  July  10,  1885,  and 
assigned  to  the  command  of  the  district  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  He  commanded  the  column  that  rescued 
Reno  from  the  Sioux  under  Sitting  Bull,  in  1876.  In 
1877,  with  191  men,  he  defeated  over  500  Nez  Perces 
warriors,  under  Chief  Joseph,  in  the  Big  Hole  Valley, 
Montana,  killing  over  200  of  the  Indians.  He  was 
then  given  command  of  the  Division  of  the  Pacific. 

GIBBONS,  James,  cardinal,  born  in  Baltimore, 
July  23,  1834;  educated  at  St.  Charles  College  and  St. 
Mary’s  Seminary  of  that  city,  and  was  ordained  priest 
June  30,  1861.  After  a few  years’  pastorate  he  became 
chancellor  of  the  diocese  under  Archbishop  Spalding, 
and  in  1868  was  created  vicar  apostolic  of  North  Car- 
olina with  rank  and  style  of  bishop.  In  1872  he  was 
translated  to  the  see  of  Richmond,  Va.,  and  in  1877 
was  appointed  coadjutor  with  right  of  succession  to  the 
see  of  Baltimore.  On  October  3d  of  the  same  year  he 
succeeded  to  the  archiepiscopacy  on  the  death  of  Arch- 
bishop Bailey.  In  1883  he  visited  Rome  to  confer  upon 
the  state  of  the  church,  and  in  November,  1884,  he 
presided  over  the  council  of  Baltimore.  On  June  30, 
1886,  Archbishop  Gibbons  became  a cardinal. 

GIBBS,  Alfred,  born  in  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  April 
22,  1823;  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1846,  and 
fought  in  Mexico  and  against  the  Apaches.  In  Aug- 
ust, 1862,  he  was  captured  by  Confederate  forces  in 
New  Mexico,  and  being  exchanged  went  to  the  front  as 
colonel  of  a New  York  volunteer  regiment.  In  1863 
he  was  given  a cavalry  command,  and  near  the  close  of 
the  war  received  all  the  brevets  up  to  and  including 
that  of  major-general  United  States  army.  He  died 
December  26,  1868,  at  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kan. 

GIBBS,  George,  born  in  Astoria,  L.  I.,  July  17, 
1815;  made  extensive  geological  explorations  in  the 
Territories  and  wrote  several  works  on  Indian  eth- 
nology and  philology.  He  was  for  six  years  secretary  of 
the  New  York  Historical  Society,  and  died  April  9, 1873. 

GIBBS,  Josiah  Willard,  born  in  Salem,  Mass., 
April  30,  1790;  died  March  25,  1861.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  in  1809,  and  from  1824  until  his  death 
was  professor  of  sacred  literature  in  the  theological 
school  of  Yale.  From  1824  until  1843  he  also  filled  the 
office  of  librarian.  He  wrote  extensively  on  grammar 
and  philology  and  published  a number  of  translations. 
His  son,  of  the  same  name,  born  at  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  February  11,  1839,  has  held  since  1871  the 
chair  of  mathematical  physics  at  Yale.  He  was  a mem- 
ber of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  and  in  1886 
was  vice-president  of  the  American  Association.  Pro- 
fessor Gibbs  received  the  Rumford  medal  for  his  papers 
on  thermodynamics. 

GIBBS,  Oliver  Wolcott,  born  in  New  York  city, 
February  21,  1822;  graduated  at  Columbia  in  1841,  and 
studied  chemistry  in  Paris  and  Berlin.  In  1849  he  was 


-GIL  6555 

chosen  professor  of  physics  and  chemistry  in  the  College 
of  the  City  of  New  York  and  in  1863  took  charge  of 
the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  laboratory. 

GIBSON,  Randall  Lee,  born  in  Kentucky,  Sep^ 
tember  10,  1832 ; studied  for  the  bar,  and  engaged  in 
sugar  planting  in  Louisiana.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
Civil  war  he  enlisted  as  a private,  became  colonel  of 
the  13th  Louisiana  infantry,  and  fought  at  Shiloh,  and 
under  Joseph  E.  Johnston  and  General  Hood.  In 
1872  he  was  elected  to  congress,  but  was  not  allowed  to 
take  his  seat.  He  was  again  elected  in  1874  and  served 
until  1882.  On  March  4,  1883,  he  took  his  seat  as  a 
Democratic  United  States  senator  from  Louisiana,  and 
was  reelected  in  1888.  He  died  December  15,  1892. 

GIBSON,  Thomas  Milner,  born  at  Trinidad, 
West  Indies,  in  1807  ; entered  the  British  parliament  in 
1837  as  one  of  the  “ Manchester  school  ” of  Liberals, 
and  acted  with  Cobden,  Bright  and  others  against  the 
corn  laws.  Like  Bright  he  lost  his  seat  in  1857  through 
having  opposed  the  Russian  war,  but  in  1859  he  be- 
came president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  in  Palmerston’s 
cabinet.  He  retired  in  1866,  and  died  in  1885. 

GIBSON,  William,  born  in  Baltimore  in  1788; 
studied  medicine  abroad,  and  in  1819  assumed  the  chair 
of  surgery  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  which  he 
held  for  over  thirty  years.  He  was  the  first  surgeon  to 
perform  the  Caesarean  operation  twice  successfully  on 
the  same  patient.  His  son,  Charles  Bell  Gibson, 
born  in  Baltimore  in  1816,  became  surgeon-general  of 
the  Confederate  forces  and  died  in  April,  1865,  in 
Richmond,  Va.  William  died  March  2,  1868. 

GIBSON,  William  Hamilton,  artist  was  born  in 
Sandy  Hook,  Conn.,  October  5,  1850.  He  has  exhib- 
ited water  colors  since  1872,  and  is  a member  of  the 
New  York  Water  Color  Society.  He  is  well  known  as 
an  author.  Pie  died  July  16,  1896. 

GIDDINGS,  Joshua  Reed,  born  in  Bradford 
county,  Penn.,  October  6,  1795;  fought  in  the  Indian 
war  of  1812;  became  a lawyer,  and  served  one  term  in 
the  Ohio  legislature.  In  1838  he  was  elected  to  con- 
gress on  the  Whig  ticket,  and  for  twenty  years  repre- 
sented the  same  district.  He  was  an  active  abolition- 
ist, opposed  the  annexation  of  Texas  and  the  compro- 
mise measures  of  1850.  In  1861  he  was  appointed 
consul-general  in  Canada,  where  he  died  May  27,  1864. 

GIERS,  Nicholas  Carlovitch  de,  born  May  9, 
(O.  S.),  1820,  in  Russia,  is  of  Swedish  origin.  He  en- 
tered the  diplomatic  corps  at  eighteen  years  of  age,  and 
rose  steadily  until,  in  1863,  he  was  made  embassador  to 
Persia.  In  1869  he  was  transferred  to  Berne  and  three 
years  later  to  Stockholm.  In  1876,  and  again  in  1877, 
during  the  war  with  Turkey,  M.  de  Giers  directed  the 
affairs  of  the  foreign  office.  He  became  a privy  coun- 
cilor, and  when  Prince  Gortchakoff  attended  the  Berlin 
congress  M.  de  Giers,  for  a third  time  took  his 
place.  In  April,  1882,  on  the  final  retirement  of 
Gortchakoff,  M.  de  Giers,  who  married  a niece  of  that 
statesman,  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  which 
position  he  retained  until  his  death,  January  26,  1895. 

GIFFORD,  Robert* Swain,  artist,  born  in  Massa- 
chusetts, December  23,  1840;  became  an  associate  of 
the  National  Academy  in  1867,  and  an  academician  in 
1878,  and  has  exhibited  many  pictures,  both  in  oil 
and  water  color. 

GIFFORD,  Sanford  Robinson,  artist,  born  in 
Saratoga  county,  N.  Y.,  in  1823;  died  in  1880.  He 
was  a member  of  the  National  Academy,  and  exhibited 
landscapes  at  Philadelphia  (1876)  and  Paris  (1878). 

GILBERT,  Charles  Champion,  born  in  Zanes- 
ville, Ohio,  March  1,  1822 ; graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1846;  served  in  Mexico  and  during  the  Civil  war  ob- 
taining a brevet  colonelcy  in  the  regular  army  for  |?r  i 


6556  G 

lant  conduct  at  Perrysville.  He  retired  from  active 
service,  March  i,  1886. 

GILBERT,  David  McC.,  born  in  Gettysburg, 
Penn.,  February  4,  1836;  was  ordained  in  the  Lutheran 
ministry  in  i860,  and  held  various  pastorates  in  Vir- 
ginia. In  1886  he  was  chosen  first  president  of  the 
United  Synod  of  the  South. 

GILBERT,  Grove  Karl,  born  in  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
May  6, 1843;  graduated  at  the  university  there  in  1862, 
and  after  serving  on  several  important  surveying  ex- 
peditions became,  in  July,  1879,  geologist  to  the 
United  States  survey.  He  was  president  of  the  Ameri- 
can Society  of  Naturalists,  and  vice-president  or  mem- 
ber of  several  scientific  societies,  and  has  written 
papers  on  the  geology  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the 
Black  Hills. 

GILBERT,  John  Gibbs,  actor,  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  February  27,  1810.  On  November28,  1828,  he 
began  a series  of  tragic  performances  at  the  old  Tre- 
mont  theater  in  his  native  city.,  where  he  appeared  in  the 
roles  of  “ Jaffier,”  “Sir  Edward  Mortimer,”  and  “ Shy- 
lock.”  From  Boston  he  directed  his  course  to  the 
western  and  southwestern  theaters,  where  he  played 
four  years,  and  then  returned  to  Boston.  In  1847  he 
joined  the  company  of  the  Princess’  theater  in  London, 
where  he  played  in  standard  English  comedy,  appearing 
at  first  as  “Sir  Robert  Bramble”  in  the  Poor  Gentleman. 
In  1848  he  returned  to  the  United  States,  and  per- 
formed at  the  Park  theater  and  at  the  Bowery  theater. 
In  1851  he  went  to  Philadelphia  for  five  years;  in  1856 
and  1857  was  in  Boston;  from  1858  until  1862  per- 
formed in  Philadelphia,  and  afterward  made  his  home 
in  New  York  city.  He  died  June  17,  1889. 

GILBERT,  John  Thomas,  was  born  in  Dublin,  Ire- 
land, in  1829,  and  became  secretary  of  the  Public  Rec- 
ord office  of  Ireland.  He  is  known  as  a painstaking 
investigator  of  Celtic  antiquities  and  he  has  published 
important  ancient  Irish  manuscripts.  Died  May,  1898. 

GILBERT,  Linda,  born  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  in 
1847;  became  noted  for  her  efforts  to  improve  the  con- 
dition of  prisoners  and  the  dependent  classes.  She  be- 
came manager  of  a prisoners’  library  and  aid  society 
which  did  much  good. 

GILBERT,  Mahlon  Norris,  born  in  Morris, 
N.  Y.,  March  23,  1848;  was  graduated  in  1875,  and 
ordained  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  In  1881 
he  became  rector  at  St.  Paul  and  in  1886  was  elected 
assistant  bishop  of  Minnesota. 

GILBERT,  Rufus  Henry,  born  in  Guilford,  N.  Y., 
January  26,  1832;  served  as  an  army  surgeon  during 
the  Civil  war.  He  became  assistant  superintendent 
of  a New  Jersey  railroad  and  devoted  his  attention  to 
the  question  of  rapid  transit  in  New  York  city.  After 
many  difficulties  he  succeeded  in  constructing  the  first 
elevated  railroad  in  that  city.  He  died  in  July,  1885. 

GILBERT,  Sir  John,  born  in  England  in  1817; 
has  exhibited  pictures  both  in  oil  and  water  color  at  the 
leading  English  galleries  since  1836.  He  is  a royal 
academician  and  president  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Painters  in  Water  Colors.  Died  Oct.  6,  1897. 

GILBERT,  William  Schwenk,  born  in  London, 
England,  November  18,  1836;  well  known  as  a dramatic 
author,  and  contributor  to  periodical  literature.  He  is 
the  author  of  Pygmalion  and  Galatea , The  Wicked 
World , The  Palace  of  Truth , and  Trial  by  Jury.  In 
conjunction  with  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan  ( q . v.)  he 
wrote  the  Sorcerer , H.  M.  S.  Pinafore , the  Pirates  of 
Penzance , Patience,  Iolanthe , Princess  Ida , The  Mi- 
kado, Ruddigore,  and  The  Gondoliers. 

GILDER,  Jeannette,  L.,  born  in  1849,  at  Flush- 
ing, Long  Island;  became  in  1881  associate  editor  with 
herbrother,  Joseph  B,,  of  the  Critic,  ahigh  class  literary 


I L 

weekly  in  New  York,  and  is  literary  correspondent  for 
the  Chicago  Tribune  and  other  papers. 

GILDER,  Richard  Watson,  poet  and  editor,  corn 
in  1844;  after  five  years  newspaper  work  in  Newark, 
N.  J.,  became  associate  editor  of  Scribner's  Monthly  in 
1870,  and  editor  of  the  Century  Magazines  1881.  He 
has  published  The  New  Day,  The  Poet  and  his  Master 
and  other  poetry  of  refined,  artistic  merit. 

GILDERSLEEVE,  Basil  L.,  born  in  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  October  23,  1831 ; graduated  at  Princeton  in 
1849,  and  studied  at  Berlin,  Bonn,  and  Gottingen. 
He  was  professor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia, 1856-76,  and  in  Johns  Hopkins  University  since 
1876.  He  is  LL.D.  of  William  and  Mary  and  of 
Harvard,  and  a D.C.L.  and  edited  the  American  Jour- 
nal of  Philology. 

GILFERT,  Agnes,  actress,  born  in  England  in  1793; 
died  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  April  19,  1833,  was  best 
known  to  the  stage  as  Agnes  Holman.  She  made  her 
debut  at  the  Haymarket  theater  in  London,  as  “Belvi- 
dera,”  in  Venice  Preserved,  and  in  1812  came  to  New 
York  city.  In  1815  she  married  Charles  Gilfert. 

GILFERT,  Charles,  born  in  Germany  in  1787; 
died  in  New  York  city,  July  30,  1829.  He  composed 
songs  and  in  1826  managed  the  New  York  theater. 

GILFILLAN,  James,  born  in  Scotland,  March  9, 
1829;  came  to  the  United  States  when  a child.  He 
practiced  law  in  New  York  State,  and  in  1857  removed 
to  Minnesota.  He  served  in  the  campaign  against  the 
Sioux  Indians  in  1862-63,  and  afterward  in  the  Civil  war. 
In  J uly , 1 869,  he  became  chief  j us  tice  of  the  State  supreme 
court  for  one  year;  was  appointed  in  1875  and  held  the 
office  by  election  until  his  death,  December  16,  1894. 

GILL,  David,  born  in  Scotland,  June  12,  1843,  is 
one  of  the  most  prominent  astronomers  of  his  time. 
He  has  published  numerous  reports  on  the  solar  par- 
allax, the  transit  of  Venus  and  other  astronomical  phe- 
nomena. He  is  LL.D.  of  Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh, 
and  a fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

GILL,  Edmund,  artist,  born  in  London,  November 
29,  1820,  is  well  known  as  a landscape  painter. 

GILL,  Theodore  Nicholas,  born  in  New  York 
city,  March  21,  1837;  became  in  1863  assistant  in  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  of  which  he  was  afterward 
librarian.  He  also  acted  for  some  years  as  senior  assist- 
ant librarian  of  congress,  and  in  1884  became  professor 
of  zoology  in  Columbian  University.  He  is  the  author 
of  nearly  500  papers  on  scientific  subjects  and  is  a 
member  of  several  societies. 

GILLISS,  James  Melville,  born  in  Georgetown, 
D.  C.,  September  6,  1811;  died  February  9,  1865.  He 
served  in  the  United  States  navy,  became  connected 
with  the  coast  survey,  and  went  to  South  America  to 
make  observations.  Among  his  works  are  a report  on 
astronomical  phenomena  observed  in  Chili,  1849-52, 
and  on  the  total  solar  eclipse  in  September,  1858.  He 
was  one  of  the  originators  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences. 

GILLMORE,  Quincy  Adams,  born  in  Lorain 
county,  Ohio,  February  28,  1825 ; graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1849,  and  was  instructor  in  practical  engineer- 
ing at  the  military  academy  1852-56.  In  the  Civil  war 
he  rose  to  be  major-general  of  volunteers,  and  after  the 
war  was  colonel  of  United  States  engineers.  Among 
his  principal  exploits  were  the  reduction  of  Forts 
Pulaski,  Sumter  and  Wagner.  General  Gillmore  died 
April  7,  1888. 

GILMAN,  Arthur,  born  in  Massachusetts,  Novem- 
ber 5,  1821,  died  July  11,  1882.  He  was  educated  as 
an  architect  and  constructed  many  fine  public  buildings 
in  New  York  and  Boston. 

GILMAN,  Daniel  Coit,  born  in  Norwich,  Conn., 


G I L- 

July  6,  1831;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1852.  From  1856 
until  i860  he  was  superintendent  of  schools  in  New 
Haven,  State  superintendent  of  schools  in  Connect- 
icut in  1865-66,  librarian  of  Yale  1856-65,  professor 
of  physical  and  political  geography  at  Sheffield  Scientific 
School  1863-72,  president  of  the  University  of  Califor- 
nia 1872-75,  and  since  1875 , has  been  president  of  Johns 
Hopkins  University  in  Baltimore,  Md.  He  is  a member 
of  various  scientific  societies,  and  was  elected  president 
of  the  American  Social  Science  Association  in  1879; 
1876  he  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Harvard, 
and  from  Columbia  in  1887.  President  Gilman  has  pub- 
lished many  magazine  articles  and  educational  reports. 
He  is  the  author  of  a number  of  addresses  and  reports. 

GILMER,  Jeremy  Francis,  born  in  Guilford 
county,  N.  C.,  February  23,  1818;  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1839,  and  served  in  the  engineer  corps  until 
1861,  when  he  resigned  to  enter  the  Confederate  service. 
He  became  attached  to  the  staff  of  Gen.  Albert  Sidney 
Johnston,  was  wounded  at  Shiloh,  and  assisted  in  the 
defense  of  Charleston  and  Richmond. 

GILMORE,  James  Roberts,  born  in  Boston,  Sep- 
tember 10,  1823;  wrote  a number  of  novels  of  Southern 
life  under  the  nom  de  plume  of  “ Edmund  Kirke.”  In 
1862  he  founded  the  Contmental  Monthly , and  he 
has  also  written  Adrift  in  Dixie , Down  in  Tennessee , 
a Life  of  Garfield , and  many  other  works. 

GILMOUR,  Richard,  born  in  Glasgow,  Scotland, 
September  28,  1824;  came  to  Canada  and  then  to 
Pennsylvania  with  his  parents,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty 
joined  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  In  1852  he  was 
ordained  priest;  held  pastorates  in  Cincinnati  and  other 
cities  in  Ohio,  and  on  April  14,  1872,  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Cleveland.  He  died  April  13,  1891. 

GILPIN,  Henry  Dilwood,  born  in  England,  April 
14,  1801;  removed  to  Pennsylvania  and  practiced  law 
in  Philadelphia.  He  became  successively  United  States 
attorney  for  Pennsylvania,  solicitor  of  the  treasury,  and 
in  1840  attorney-general  of  the  United  States.  He 
died  in  Philadelphia,  January  29,  i860. 

GIOLITTI,  Giovanni,  Italian  statesman,  born  in 
1842,  became  a doctor  of  laws,  was  director  of  customs 
in  1876,  entered  parliament  in  1882,  was  minister  of 
finance  in  1890  under  Crispi,  but  brought  about  the  fall 
of  his  ministry  and  became  premier  in  May,  1892,  h6ld- 
ing  office  two  years. 

GIRARD,  Charles,  naturalist,  born  in  France  in 
1822;  became  an  assistant  to  Agassiz,  whom  he  fol- 
lowed to  the  United  States  in  1847.  Professor  Girard 
was  connected  with  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for 
many  years  and  is  the  author  of  numerous  works  on 
natural  history,  geology  and  other  scientific  subjects. 

GIRARDIN,  Emile  de,  born  in  Paris,  France, 
June  22,  1806;  died  there  April  27,  1881.  He  began 
his  literary  career  in  1827,  with  a romance  called  Emile, 
and  in  1836  founded  the  Presse , a conservative  daily. 
He  killed  Armand  Carrel,  editor  of  the  National , in  a 
duel,  was  exiled  at  the  coup  d ’ etat,  but  soon  returned 
and  conducted  the  Presse  until  1856,  when  he  sold  it. 
In  June,  1866,  he  founded  La  Liberte.  He  opposed 
the  empire  and  was  several  times  prosecuted.  In  1873 
he  purchased  Le  Petit  Journal , and  in  1874  became 
chief  editor  of  La  France.  He  was  several  times 
elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  In  1831  he  mar- 
ried Delphine  Gay  (born  1804;  died  1855),  who  had  a 
brilliant  success  as  an  authoress. 

GIRTY,  Simon,  born  in  Pennsylvania  about  1750, 
was  for  several  years  a prisoner  among  Indians,  and 
served  under  Lord  Dunmore  as  a spy.  In  1777  he 
joined  the  Indians,  who  were  aiding  the  British  troops, 
became  a leader,  won  an  infamous  notoriety  by  en- 
couraging them  to  torture  and  murder  their  prisoners. 


-GLA  6557 

among  them  Col.  William  Crawford  and  General  Rich- 
ard Butler.  It  was  variously  believed  that  he  was  killed 
at  the  battle  ofthe  Thames,  1813,  or  died  in  Canada,  1815. 

GIST,  Christopher,  was  born  in  North  Carolina. 
He  was  employed  as  a surveyor  by  the  Ohio  Company 
to  trace  the  course  of  rivers,  and  mark  the  mountain 
passes  of  the  northwestern  territory.  On  October  31, 
1750,  he  crossed  the  mountains,  and  in  1 751  reached  the 
great  Miami  river.  On  March  1st  of  that  year  Gist 
descended  the  river  to  its  union  with  the  Ohio,  ascended 
the  valley  of  the  Kentucky  river,  discovered  a pass  and 
returned  home  by  way  of  Roanoke.  In  1 753  Gist  settled 
on  a plantation  in  Pennsylvania  near  the  Youghiogheny 
river.  At  the  end  of  that  year  he  acted  as  a guide  to 
Washington,  who  had  been  sent  by  Governor  Dinwid- 
die,  of  Virginia,  to  make  a journey  to  Lake  Erie.  On 
their  return  the  two  were  fired  on  by  some  Indians,  but 
escaped  unhurt.  A fort  was  located  where  Pittsburg 
now  stands,  on  the  favorable  report  of  the  two  travel- 
ers, which  was  taken  by  the  French,  and  named  Fort 
Du  Quesne.  From  this  point  Gist’s  history  is  unknown. 

GIVIN,  William  McKendree,  senator,  born  in 
Sumner  county,  Tenn.,  October  9,  1805;  died  in  New 
York  city,  September  3,  1885.  His  father  was  a Meth- 
odist clergyman.  Young  Givin  received  a good  educa- 
tion, read  law,  and  thereafter  studied  medicine,  taking 
his  degree  in  1828.  He  went  to  Clinton,  Miss.,  and 
was  appointed  by  President  Jackson  United  States 
marshal  for  the  district  of  Mississippi.  In  1840  he  was 
elected  to  congress.  On  the  accession  of  President 
Polk  he  was  appointed  to  superintend  the  building  of 
the  new  custom  house  in  New  Orleans.  In  1849,  on 
the  election  of  General  Taylor,  he  resigned  his  place  to 
seek  his  fortune  in  California.  Here  he  became  at 
once  active  in  favor  of  a State  government,  and  was 
chosen  a member  of  the  convention  held  in  Monterey 
to  frame  its  constitution.  In  December,  1850,  Doctor 
Givin  was  chosen  United  States  senator,  was  reelected 
in  1854  and  served  until  March  3,  1861.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Civil  war  he  was  arrested  as  a pronounced 
sympathizer  with  the  rebellion  and  kept  in  durance  until 
1863.  The  following  year  he  spent  in  Paris,  in  the 
interest  of  the  Southern  Confederacy.  At  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  war  Doctor  Givin  returned  to  California. 

GLADDEN,  Washington,  born  in  Pennsylvania, 
February  11,  1836;  graduated  at  Williams  College, 
Massachusetts,  in  1859,  and  became  a Congregational 
minister  in  Brooklyn  and  in  Massachusetts,  removing 
in  1883  to  Columbus,  Ohio,  where  he  became  pastor  ot 
the  First  church.  He  wrote  for  the  New  York 
Independent , and  has  published  many  essays. 

GLADSTONE,  The  Right  Hon.  William 
Ewart,  M.  P.,  fourth  son  of  the  late  Sir  John  Glad- 
stone, Bart.,  of  Fasque,  county  Kincardine,  Scotland, 
a well  known  merchant  of  Liverpool,  was  born  there, 
December  29,  1809,  and  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  at  which  he  graduated,  taking 
a double  first  class  in  Michaelmas  term,  1831.  He  was 
returned  at  the  general  election  in  December,  1832,  in 
the  Conservative  interest  f<jr  Newark,  and  entered 
arliament  just  as  the  struggle  of  parties  was  at  its 
eight.  In  the  House  of  Commons  nis  mercantile 
origin,  the  success  of  his  university  career,  his  habits  of 
business,  and  his  high  character,  recommended  him  to 
the  notice  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  who,  in  December,  1834, 
appointed  him  to  a junior  lordship  of  the  treasury,  and 
in  February,  1835,  under-secretary  for  Colonial  affairs. 
Mr.  Gladstone  retired  from  office  with  his  ministerial 
leader  in  April,  1835,  aRd  remained  in  opposition  until 
Sir  Robert  Peel’s  return  to  power  in  September,  1841. 
On  accepting  office  under  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1841,  ns 
vice-president  of  the  Board  of  J’rade  and  master  of  the 


G L A 


6c?8 

mint,  Mr.  Gladstone  was  sworn  a member  of  the  Privy 
Council,  In  his  new  position  he  had  to  explain  and 
defend  in  the  lower  house  of  parliament  the  com- 
mercial policy  of  the  government;  and  in  the  dis- 
charge of  this  duty  he  had  whatever  advantage 
his  mercantile  origin  and  connection  could  give  him. 
The  revision  of  the  tariff  in  1842  was  almost 
entirely  the  result  of  his  energy  and  industry.  When 
this  laborious  work  was  brought  before  the  House  of 
Commons,  it  was  found  to  be  as  admirably  executed  in 
its  details  as  it  was  complete  in  its  mastery  of  general 
principles,  and  it  received  the  sanction  of  both  Houses 
with  scarcely  an  alteration.  In  1843  Mr.  Gladstone 
succeeded  the  earl  of  Ripon  as  president  of  the  Board 
of  Trade,  but  resigned  that  office  early  in  1845.  In 
January,  1846,  Sir  Robert  Peel  announced  his  inten- 
tion of  proposing  a modification  of  the  corn  laws.  Mr. 
Gladstone,  who  had  succeeded  Lord  Stanley  (the  late 
earl  of  Derby)  in  the  post  of  secretary  of  state  for  the 
Colonies,  adhered  to  the  leader  under  whom  he  had 
entered  upon  ministerial  life;  but,  possibly  unwilling  to 
remain  under  obligations  to  the  late  duke  of  Newcastle, 
who  sympathized  strongly  with  the  opposition  party, 
resigned  his  seat  for  Newark,  and  remained  for  some 
time  out  of  parliament.  At  the  general  election  in 
August,  1847,  he  was,  with  the  late  Sir  Robert  Harry 
Inglis,  elected  for  the  University  of  Oxford.  In  the 
parliament  of  1847-52,  the  questions  of  university  re- 
form and  the  removal  of  Jewish  disabilities  were  fre- 
quently and  earnestly  agitated  in  the  lower  House. 
Though  Mr.  Gladstone’s  early  sympathies,  no  doubt, 
bound  him  to  the  High  Church  and  Tory  party,  yet 
he  felt  that  on  both  these  points  the  exigencies  of  the 
times  required  that  some  concessions  should  be  made. 
He  consequently  found  himself  frequently  opposed  to 
his  former  friends,  and  eventually  separated  himself 
from  the  Conservative  party  in  February,  1851.  At  the 
general  election  in  July  following,  Mr.  Gladstone  was 
reelected  for  the  University  of  Oxford,  but  not  without 
a severe  contest.  On  the  formation  of  what  is  gen- 
erally known  as  the  “Coalition”  ministry,  under  the 
earl  of  Aberdeen,  in  December,  1852,  Mr.  Gladstone 
was  appointed  to  the  chancellorship  of  the  exchequer,  in 
which  office  the  thorough  knowledge  of  finance  which 
he  had  acquired  in  former  life,  and  had  tested  by  prac- 
tical experience  at  the  Board  of  Trade,  proved  of  the 
greatest  assistance  to  the  ministry.  After  the  breaking 
up  of  the  Aberdeen  administration,  or  rather  on  its  re- 
construction under  Lord  Palmerston  at  the  beginning 
of  1855,  Mr.  Gladstone  at  first  continued  to  occupy  the 
same  post,  but  he  resigned  in  the  course  of  a few 
weeks,  on  finding  that  it  was  not  the  intention  of  the 
ministry,  collectively,  to  oppose  the  vote  of  censure  im- 
plied in  the  resolution  of  Mr.  Roebuck,  in  favor  of  the 
appointment  of  a committee  of  inquiry  into  the  state  of 
the  British  army  before  Sebastopol  and  the  causes  of 
its  sufferings.  For  some  time  Mr.  Gladstone,  who 
held  no  public  office,  gave  Lord  Palmerston’s  ministry 
an  independent  support.  In  the  winter  of  1858-9  he 
accepted  under  Lord  Derby’s  second  cabinet,  a special 
mission  to  the  Ionian  Islands,  to  arrange  certain  diffi- 
culties which  had  arisen  in  the  administration  of  that 
dependency;  and  in  June,  1859,  resumed  office  under 
Lord  Palmerston  as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  In 
this  capacity  he  was  mainly  instrumental  in  repealing 
fhe  paper  duty,  and  in  promoting  the  negotiations  con- 
ctooEfced  by  Mr.  Cobden,  which  resulted  in  the  commer- 
cial treaty  between  England  and  France.  Mr.  Glad- 
stone, though  originally  very  jealous  of  any  inter- 
vention by  the  state  in  the  matter  of  university  reform, 
tent  the  government  from  time  to  time  very  valuable 
assistance,  by  sufjportmg  the  suggestions  of  the  Oxford 


university  commissioners,  through  his  extensive  per< 
sonal  and  official  influence  with  the  authorities  of 
Oxford  as  one  of  the  representatives  of  that  universit  7 
in  parliament. 

Besides  being  eminent  as  a statesman,  Mr.  Gladstone 
had  acquired  celebrity  as  an  author.  His  first  work,  a 
treatise  entitled  The  State  in  its  Relations  with  ike 
Church , published  in  1838  (4th  edition  enlarged,  2 V0I3., 
1841),  and  followed  in  1841  by  his  Church  Principles , 
Considered  in  their  Results , stamped  him,  while  still  a 
young  man,  as  a deep  and  original  thinker.  His  views 
on  these  subjects,  as  they  are  unfolded  in  these  treatises, 
had  been  formed  and  molded  by  the  education  and 
associations  of  Oxford,  to  which  university  they  are 
dedicated  as  the  first  fruits  of  her  teaching  and  training. 
Soon  after  their  appearance  they  were  thought  worthy 
of  a long  and  elaborate  criticism  by  the  late  Lord 
Macaulay  in  the  pages  of  the  Edinburgh  Review.  Mr. 
Gladstone’s  Remarks  on  Recent  Commercial  Legisla- 
tion, published  in  1845,  while  England  was  on  the  eve 
ol  an  important  change  in  her  commercial  system,  were 
intended  to  pave  the  way  for  the  extensive  modification 
in  the  restrictions  on  commerce  imposed  by  the  corn 
laws,  and  contain  an  able  and  comprehensive  summary 
of  the  beneficial  results  of  the  tariff  of  1842.  In  1851 
he  published  a work  of  a different  kind,  which  created 
considerable  interest  both  at  home  and  abroad.  During 
a visit  to  Naples  in  the  previous  year,  he  learned  that  a 
large  number  of  citizens  of  that  place  who  had  formed 
the  “Opposition”  in  the  Neapolitan  chamber  of  dep- 
uties, were  exiled  or  imprisoned  by  King  Ferdinand 
(Bomba),  and  that  above  20,000  of  his  subjects  had 
been  thrown  into  prison  on  charges  of  political  dis- 
affection. Having  ascertained  the  truth  of  these  state > 
ments,  Mr.  Gladstone  wrote  to  the  earl  of  Aber- 
deen, urging  his  interposition  in  their  behalf,  and 
remonstrances  proving  ineffectual,  he  published  an 
indignant  letter  on  the  subject  of  the  state  prose 
cutions  at  Naples,  which  was  translated  into  sev 
eral  foreign  languages,  and  was  sent  by  Lord  Palm- 
erston  to  ambassadors  and  ministers  on  the  Conti- 
nent, with  orders  to  forward  copies  of  it  to  their 
respective  courts.  In  1858  Mr  Gladstone  published  an 
elaborate  work  on  Homer  {Studies  on  Homer  and  the 
Homeric  Age,  3 vols.),  and  in  July,  1861,  he  was  solic- 
ited to  become  a candidate,  in  the  liberal  interest,  lor 
South  Lancashire,  but  refused  to  fo-sake  his  former 
constituents.  Having  been  rejected  by  the  University 
of  Oxford  at  the  general  election  in  July,  1865,  Mr. 
Gladstone  was  returned,  being  third  on  the  poll,  for 
South  Lancashire.  After  the  death  of  Lord  Palmerston 
he  became  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons,  retaining 
the  chancellorship  of  the  exchequer  in  Lord  Russell’s 
second  administration.  Early  in  the  session  of  1866  he 
brought  in  a reform  bill,  and  a motion  in  committee 
having  been  carried,  June  18th,  against  the  government 
by  eleven  votes,  Mr.  Gladstone  and  his  colleagues  re- 
signed. The  divisions  in  the  Liberal  ranks  prevented  him 
from  defeating  Mr.  Disraeli’s  reform  bill,  which  he 
strenuously  opposed.  In  the  early  part  of  the  session 
of  1868  Mr.  Gladstone  brought  forward  and  passed 
through  the  House  of  Commons  a series  of  resolu- 
tions, having  for  their  object  the  disestablishment  and 
disendowment  of  the  Irish  church.  These  resolutions 
were  the  basis  of  the  Irish  Church  Suspensory  Bill, 
which,  on  May  22d,  was  read  a second  time  in  the  lower 
house  by  312  votes  to  258,  but  was  soon  afterward 
rejected  in  the  house  of  peers  by  a majority  of  95. 

At  the  general  election  of  1868  Mr.  Gladstone  stood 
as  one  of  the  candidates  for  Southwest  Lancashire. 
After  a fierce  contest,  which  excited  the  most  intense 
interest  throughout  the  country,  he  was  defeated:  but 


GLA 


this  defeat  did  not  exclude  him  from  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, as,  in  anticipation  of  such  an  event,  the  electors 
of  Greenwich,  a few  days  previously,  returned  him  by  a 
large  majority  as  one  of  the  members  of  that  borough. 
On  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Disraeli’s  ministry,  in  De- 
cember, 1868,  Mr.  Gladstone  succeeded  that  statesman 
as  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  The  principal  events 
of  his  administration  were  the  passing  of  the  Irish 
Church  Disestablishment  Act  (1869);  of  the  Irish 
Land  Act  (1870),  and  of  the  Elementary  Education 
Act  (1870);  the  abolition  of  purchase  in  the  army 
by  the  exercise  of  the  royal  prerogative,  in  con- 
sequence of  an  adverse  vote  by  the  House  of 
Lords  on  the  Army  Regulation  Bill  (1871);  the 
negotiation  of  the  treaty  of  Washington  respecting 
the  Alabama  claims  (1871);  the  passing  of  the  Ballot 
Act  (1872);  and  the  J udicature  Act  (1873).  The  prin- 
cipal measure  proposed  by  the  government  in  the 
session  of  1873  was  the  University  Education  (Ireland) 
Bill,  which  was  opposed  by  the  Roman  Catholic  mem- 
bers, who,  voting  on  this  occasion  with  the  Conserva- 
tives, caused  the  rejection  of  the  bill  by  287  votes 
against  284  (March  nth).  Upon  this  Mr.  Gladstone 
tendered  his  resignation  to  Her  Majesty,  and  Mr.  Dis- 
raeli was  sent  for;  but,  as  he  declined  to  take  office,  Mr. 
Gladstone,  though  with  reluctance,  undertook  (March 
16th)  to  reconstruct  the  cabinet.  In  August,  1873,  im- 
mediately after  the  close  of  the  session,  the  cabinet  was 
considerably  remodeled,  Mr.  Gladstone  assuming  the 
chancellorship  of  the  exchequer,  in  addition  to  his  office 
of  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  On  January  24,  1874,  a 
fortnight  before  both  houses  were  to  have  met  for  the 
dispatch  of  public  business,  Mr.  Gladstone  took  every- 
body by  surprise  by  announcing  the  immediate  dissolu- 
tion of  parliament,  and  issuing  his  address  to  his  con- 
stituents at  Greenwich,  in  which  he  promised  to  abolish 
the  income  tax.  At  the  general  election  which  ensued 
the  votes  were,  for  the  first  time,  taken  by  secret  ballot. 
The  result  proved  most  disastrous  to  the  Liberal  party. 
The  returns,  completed  on  February  27th,  showed  that 
351  Conservatives  had  been  elected  and  302  Liberals, 
inclusive  of  the  Home  Rulers  who  declined  to  identify 
themselves  with  either  of  the  old  political  parties.  Mr. 
Gladstone  at  once  resigned  and  Mr.  Disraeli  became 
prime  minister.  In  the  session  of  1874  Mr.  Gladstone, 
who  had  been  reelected  for  Greenwich,  was  rarely  to  be 
seen  in  his  place  in  the  House  of  Commons;  but  at  its 
close  he  offered  a persistent  opposition  to  the  Public 
Worship  Regulation  Bill. 

Even  amid  the  turmoil  of  political  life  Mr.  Gladstone 
had  devoted  a portion  of  his  time  to  literature.  His 
Eoce  Homo , reprinted  from  Good  Words , appeared  in 
1868;  a pamphlet  on  the  Irish  Church  question,  en- 
titled A Chapter  of  Autobiography , was  published 
November  23,  1868;  and  Juventus  Mundi:  the  Gods 
and  Men  of  the  Heroic  Age,  in  1869.  After  his  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  to  prevent  the  passing  of  the  Public 
Worship  Regulation  Bill,  he  contributed  to  the  Con- 
temporary Review  for  October,  1874,  an  article  on 
“ Ritualism,”  which  gave  rise  to  an  animated  con- 
troversy. In  it  he  asserted  that  “ Rome  had  substituted 
for  the  proud  boast  of  semper  eadem  a policy  of  violence 
and  change  of  faith,”  that  “ no  one  could  become  her 
convert  without  renouncing  his  moral  and  mental  free- 
dom, and  placing  his  civil  loyalty  and  duty  at  the  mercy 
of  another,”  and  that  “she  had  equally  repudiated 
modern  thought  and  ancient  history.”  Challenged  by 
his  Roman  Catholic  friends  to  substantiate  these  grave 
charges,  Mr.  Gladstone  published  (November  7,  1874) 
a bulky  pamphlet  entitled  The  Vatican  Decrees  in 
Their  Bearing  on  Civil  Allegiance:  A Political  Expos- 
tulation, which  elicited  numerous  elaborate  replies  from 


6559 

Mgr.  Capel,  Doctor  Newman,  Archbishop  Manning, 
and  other  distinguished  members  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church.  Mr.  Gladstone’s  reply  to  his  opponents,  pub- 
lished February  24,  1875,  is  entitled  Vaticanism:  An 
Answer  to  Replies  and  Reproofs . Mr.  Gladstone  fol- 
lowed up  his  attacks  on  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in 
an  article  on  the  Speeches  of  Pius  IX.,  in  the  Quar- 
terly Review  for  January,  1875.  On  January  13,  1875, 
three  weeks  before  the  assembling  of  parliament,  Mr. 
Gladstone  announced  in  a letter  to  Earl  Granville  his 
determination  to  retire  from  the  leadership  of  the 
Liberal  party.  Soon  afterward  the  Marquis  of  Harting- 
ton  was  chosen  by  the  Liberal  party  to  be  their  leader 
in  the  House  of  Commons.  Subsequently,  however, 
Mr.  Gladstone  constantly  took  part  in  the  discussions 
at  that  assembly.  In  1876  he  published  Homeric 
Synchronism:  an  Inquiry  into  the  Time  and  Place  of 
Homer,  and  on  September  6th,  in  the  same  year,  ap- 
peared his  famous  pamphlet  on  Bulgarian  Horrors  and 
the  Question  of  the  East.  It  was  followed  (March  13, 
1877)  by  another  pamphlet,  entitled  Lessons  in  Massa- 
cre: an  Exposition  of  the  Conduct  of  the  Porte  in  and 
about  Bulgaria  since  May,  1876.  Mr.  Gladstone  took 
an  active  part  in  the  agitation  respecting  the  massacres 
in  Bulgaria,  and  strenuously  opposed,  both  in  and  out 
of  parliament,  the  policy  of  the  Conservative  govern- 
ment, which  resulted  in  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  and  the 
signing  of  the  Anglo-Turkish  Convention.  In  the 
autumn  of  1877  (October  17th  to  November  12th)  he 
paid  a visit  to  Ireland,  and  was  presented  with  the  free- 
dom of  the  city  of  Dublin.  On  November  15th  in  that 
year  he  was  elected  lord  rector  of  the  University  of 
Glasgow, succeedingLordBeaconsfield.  Mr.  Gladstone 
sent  a letter  to  the  president  of  the  Greenwich  Liberal 
“Five  Hundred”  on  March  9,  1878,  stating  that  he 
should  only  represent  the  borough  until  the  next 
general  election.  Early  in  1879  he  had  been  invited  to 
become  the  Liberal  candidate  for  Midlothian,  and  the 
crowning  incident  of  the  electoral  campaign  in  the  en- 
suing parliamentary  recess  was  his  visit  to  Scotland  in 
connection  with  his  purpose  of  contesting  that  county  at 
the  general  election.  On  the  dissolution  of  parliament  at 
Easter,  1880,  Mr.  Gladstone  renewed  in  Midlothian  the 
oratorical  tours  de  force  of  the  preceding  winter,  and 
was  successful  in  his  candidature,  polling  1,597  votes 
against  1,368  recorded  in  favor  of  the  earl  of  Dalkeith, 
his  Conservative  opponent.  When  the  composition  of 
the  new  House  of  Commons  was  made  known,  it  ap- 
peared that  it  consisted  of  349  Liberals,  243  Conserva- 
tives, and  60  Home  Rulers.  The  earl  of  Beaconsfield 
tendered  his  resignation  to  the  queen  as  soon  as  it  was 
manifest  that  the  Liberal  party  had  obtained  an  un- 
questionable majority.  The  marquis  of  Hartington, 
who  had  been  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  Lower 
House,  and  Earl  Granville,  the  opposition  leader  in  the 
House  of  Peers,  were  sent  for  in  the  first  instance,  but, 
in  accordance  with  consultations  among  the  chiefs  of 
the  party,  they  recommended  the  queen  to  entrust  the 
task  of  forming  a cabinet  to  Mr.  Gladstone.  He  con- 
sented to  accept  the  duty  (April  23d),  and  his  cabinet 
was  constructed  with  a view  to  conciliate  and  to  repre- 
sent the  different  sections  of  the  Liberal  majority.  Mr. 
Gladstone  himself  superadded  to  his  duties  as  first 
lord  of  the  treasury  the  functions  of  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer,  but  resigned  the  latter  office  in  1883 
into  the  hands  of  Mr.  Childers.  The  history  of  Mr. 
Gladstone’s  second  ministry  may  be  summed  up  in 
three  words — Ireland,  Egypt  and  Franchise — though 
of  course  a large  number  of  other  matters  (such  as  Mr. 
Chamberlain’s  bankruptcy  bill  and  merchant  shipping 
bill)  were  long  under  consideration.  Ireland  was  the 
great  question  during  the  sessions  of  1880  (May  to 


6560  G L E — 

August),  1881  and  1882,  and  the  debates  on  the  com- 
ensation  for  disturbance  bill,  on  Mr.  Foster’s  coercion 
ill,  and  (after  the  murder  of  Lord  Frederick  Caven- 
dish and  Mr.  Burke,  May  6,  1882)  on  the  crimes  bill, 
occupied  the  greater  part  of  the  time  and  attention  of 
the  country.  What  prolonged  and  exasperated  the 
discussions  was  the  method  of  obstruction  invented 
and  practiced  not  only  by  the  followers  of  Mr. 
Parnell,  but  also  by  some  members  of  the  Tory 
party.  After  the  passing  of  the  Crimes  act,  which 
closed  a period  of  almost  unexampled  parliamentary 
and  administrative  difficulty,  Egypt  began  to  occupy 
the  mind  of  parliament.  The  struggle  with  Arabi  Pasha 
(q.v.)  came  to  a head  in  July,  when  Admiral  Seymour 
bombarded  the  forts  of  Alexandria;  and  was  ended  on 
September  13th,  when  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  won  the  bat- 
tle of  Tel-el-Kebir.  But  Mr.  Gladstone’s  difficulties  were 
only  just  beginning.  The  revolt  of  the  Arab  tribes 
of  the  Soudan,  the  destruction  of  Hicks  Pasha’s  Egypt- 
ian army,  the  two  Suakim  expeditions,  the  dispatch  of 
General  Gordon  to  Khartoum,  and  long  afterward  of 
Lord  Wolseley’s  relieving  force;  the  advance  of  this 
latter,  its  difficulties,  its  hard-won  victories,  its  failure 
to  reach  Khartoum  in  time  to  save  Gordon,  are  too 
fresh  in  memory  to  need  a detailed  repetition.  The 
session  of  1884  was  occupied,  as  far  as  home  politics 
was  concerned,  with  the  franchise  bill,  a bill  for  extend- 
ing household  suffrage  to  the  counties.  Passed  in  the 
Commons,  it  was  thrown  out  by  the  Lords,  who,  under 
the  guidance  of  Lord  Salisbury,  declined  to  pass  it 
until  the  redistribution  scheme  was  before  them.  But 
after  an  autumn  of  popular  “demonstrations,”  a series 
of  conferences  between  the  Liberal  and  Tory  leaders 
were  held,  in  which  the  lines  of  a redistribution  bill 
were  settled.  After  this  both  bills  passed  in  due  course 
(1885),  but  soon  afterward,  on  Juneqth,  Mr.  Gladstone 
was  overthrown  by  a vote  on  the  budget,  and  Lord  Salis- 
bury came  into  power,  At  the  general  election  of  No- 
vember, 1885,  the  Liberals  were  returned  with  numbers 
almost  exactly  equal  to  those  of  Tories  and  Parnellites 
combined.  Soon  afterward  Mr.  Gladstone  returned  to 
office,  and  at  the  same  time  caused  it  to  be  known  that 
he  was  prepared  to  introduce  a home  rule  measure. 
This  broke  up  the  Liberal  party.  Lord  Hartington 
and  others  refused  office,  and  Mr.  Chamberlain  and 
Mr.  Trevelyan  only  accepted  on  grounds  which  were 
soon  afterward  shown  to  be  untenable.  Mr.  Gladstone 
introduced  his  home  rule  bill  in  a long  and  powerful 
speech  on  April  8th,  and  on  June  9th  the  second  reading 
was  rejected  by  a majority  of  thirty.  He  appealed  to 
the  country,  and  as  a result  an  overwhelming  majority 
of  Conservatives  and  Unionist  Liberals  was  returned. 
He  remained  out  of  power  for  six  years  but  was  by  no 
means  inactive.  He  delivered  many  speeches  for  Home 
Rule  in  1887,  visited  Italy  in  1888  and  in  1889;  paid  trib- 
ute to  John  Bright  in  the  Commons  in  March,  1889, 
made  a great  campaign  in  the  west  of  England  in  that 
year,  celebrated  his  golden  wedding,  July  25,  1889,  and 
in  1892  made  another  Midlothian  campaign  and  was  re- 
turned at  the  general  election,  supported  by  a Liberal 
majority  of  44,  increased  to  50  through  bye-elections, 
and  August  15  he  succeeded  Lord  Salisbury,  becoming 
premier  for  the  fourth  time.  In  1893  he  secured  the 
passage  of  the  Home  Rule  bill  by  the  Commons,  but 
was  doomed  to  see  its  defeat  by  the  Lords.  He  re- 
signed the  premiership  March  2,  1894,  being  succeeded 
by  Lord  Roseberry,  for  the  reported  cause  of  a cataract 
in  his  eye,  which,  however,  was  successfully  removed. 
Mr.  Gladstone  kept  up  his  literary  activity  in  later 
life,  publishing  Landmarks  of  Homeric  Study  (1890) 
and  a volume  of  translations  of  the  Odes  of  Horace  in 
November,  1894.  He  died  May  19,  1898. 


■GON 

GLEIG,  George  Robert,  born  in  Scotland  in  1796; 
received  an  army  commission  in  1812,  took  holy  orders 
in  1822,  was  a rector,  and,  1846-75,  chaplain-general  to 
the  forces.  He  wrote  a novel,  The  Subaltern,  and 
military  biographies.  He  died  in  1888. 

GLIDDEN,  George  D.  B.,  born  in  Maine,  April 
15,  1844;  graduated  at  Annapolis  Naval  Academy, 
1863,  rose  to  be  commander,  1883,  and  died  in  1885. 

GLISSON,  Oliver  S.,  born  in  Ohio  in  1809; 
entered  the  United  States  navy  in  1826,  saw  much  active 
service  during  the  Civil  war,  and,  in  1870,  became  rear- 
admiral.  He  died  November  20,  1890. 

GLYNN,  James,  born  in  1800;  served  in  the  United 
States  navy  from  1815  to  1855,  and  died  in  1871. 

GNEIST,  Rudolph,  born  in  Berlin,  Prussia,  August 
13,  1816;  a noted  German  jurist.  In  1858  he  was 
elected  to  the  Chamber,  where  he  acted  with  the  moderate 
Liberals.  He  died  July  21,  1895. 

GODKIN,  Eugene  Lawrence,  born  m Ireland, 
October  2,  1831  ; was  connected  with  the  London, 
England,  press  as  a war  correspondent  in  the  Crimea, 
and,  in  1856,  came  to  New  York.  In  1865  he  became 
editor  of  the  ATation,  which  fourteen  years  later  was 
incorporated  in  the  Evening  Post  Died  May  24,  1902. 

GODWIN,  Parke,  born  in  New  Jersey,  February 
25,  1816;  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1834,  and  for 
twenty-four  years  assisted  his  father-in-law,  William 
Cullen  Bryant,  in  editing  the  New  York  Evening  Post. 
He  was  also  one  of  the  editors  of  Putnam' s Monthly , 
published  a History  of  France , and  a Cyclopcedia  of 
Biography , and  wrote  a biography  of  Mr.  Bryant. 

GOFFE,  William,  born  in  England  about  1605; 
died  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1679.  He  was  early  trained 
to  follow  a business  career,  but  entered  the  Parliament- 
ary army,  where,  in  1865,  he  rose  to  be  a major-general. 
He  was  a member  of  parliament  in  1654,  and  again  in 
1656,  and  was  one  of  the  commission  who  condemned 
Charles  I.  to  death.  When  King  Charles  II.  was  called 
to  return,  Goffe,  with  Whalley,  his  father-in-law,  set  out 
for  America.  On  July  27,  1660,  they  arrived  at  Bos- 
ton, and  settled  at  Cambridge.  A reward  was  offered 
for  their  arrests,  and  the  two  retired  from  Cambridge 
to  New  Haven,  where  for  a time  they  remained.  In  1664 
they  removed  to  Hadley.  They  were  several  times  seen 
during  their  stay  at  New  Haven,  but  lived  concealed 
from  the  pursuit  of  the  crown  officers.  It  is  believed 
Whalley  died  at  Hadley  in  1675.  Goffe,  in  1679,  went 
to  Hartford,  where  he  shortly  afterward  died. 

GOLDSBOROUGH,  Louis  M.,  born  in  Washing- 
ton, D C.,  February  18,  1805;  entered  the  United 
States  navy  in  1821;  fought  against  pirates  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  was  second  in  command  at  the  attack  on 
Vera  Cruz.  In  1861  he  was  flag-officer  of  the  North 
Atlantic  squadron;  in  1862  became  rear-admiral,  and 
after  the  war  commanded  the  European  squadron.  He 
died  February  20,  1878. 

GOLDSCHMIDT,  Madame,  best  known  by  her 
maiden  name  of  Jenny  Lind,  was  born  at  Stockholm, 
Sweden,  October  6,  1821.  She  studied  under  Garcia, 
and  first  appeared  in  her  native  city  in  1843.  Later  she 
sang  in  Berlin,  Dresden,  Frankfort,  Cologne,  and  Vienna, 
and  in  1847  made  her  first  appearance  in  England. 
Fresh  from  her  triumphs  there,  “ the  Swedish  Nightin- 
gale ” in  1850  visited  the  United  States,  where  she 
gave  over  a hundred  concerts  and  awoke  the  wildest  en- 
thusiasm. In  1851  she  married  Otto  Goldschmidt,  a 
noted  pianist,  and  shortly  after  retired  from  the  stage. 
She  resided  in  England  until  her  death.  November  2, 
1887. 

GONZALEZ,  Manuel,  born  in  Mexico  in  1820) 
became  a guerrilla  leader  in  1853,  and  was  prominent  in 
the  reactionary  party.  In  1861-65  he  assisted  J wares 


GOO- 

against  the  French  and  Imperialists,  and  in  1876  joined 
with  Diaz  to  overthrow  Lerdo  de  Tejada.  In  1878  he 
became  secretary  of  war  under  Diaz,  whom,  in  Novem- 
ber, ;88o,  he  succeeded  as  president.  This  office  he 
held  four  years,  and  afterward  became  governor  of  the 
State  of  Guanajuato.  He  died  in  March,  1893. 

GOOCH,  Frank  Austin,  chemist,  born  in  Massa- 
chusetts, May  2,  1852;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1872, 
and  became  attached  to  the  chemical  laboratory  there. 
He  served  with  the  United  States  geological  survey, 
and  in  1886  was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry  at 
Yale.  He  is  a member  of  many  scientific  societies  and 
has  written  on  improved  methods  of  analysis. 

GOODALE,  George  Lincoln,  botanist,  born  in 
Saco,  Me.,  August  3,  1839;  graduated  at  Amherst, 
and  in  medicine  at  Harvard  and  Bowdoin.  He  held 
professorial  chairs  at  Harvard  and  other  institutions, 
and  is  a member  of  the  council  of  Harvard  College 
library  and  of  the  museum  of  comparative  anatomy. 
He  has  written  several  works  on  botany  and  vegetable 
histology. 

GOODALL,  Frederick,  artist,  was  born  in  London, 
England,  in  1820;  became  A.R.A.  in  1852,  and  R.A. 
in  1863.  His  By  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  The  Palm  Offer- 
ing were  seen  in  Chicago  in  1893. 

GOODE,  George  Brown,  born  at  New  Albany, 
Ind.,  February  13,  1851;  became  in  1874  connected 
with  the  United  States  fish  commission  and  the 
national  museum,  and  has  written  several  works  on 
food  fishes. 

GOODRICH,  Chauncey  Allen,  born  at  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  in  October,  1790;  was  professor  of 
rhetoric  and  oratory  in  Yale  College,  1817-39,  an(l 
afterward  filled  the  chair  of  theology  there.  He  edited 
Webster's  Unabridged  Dictionary  and  died  in  i860. 

GOODSELL,  Daniel  Ayres,  born  in  Newburg, 
N.  Y.,  November  5,  1840;  became  a Methodist  Epis- 
copal preacher,  and  in  May,  1888,  was  elected  bishop. 

GOODWIN,  Nat  C.,  a popular  American  comedian, 
*ras  born  in  Boston  in  1857  and  went  on  the  stage  in 
1876,  achieving  instant  success.  Some  of  his  latest 
triumphs  have  been  in  The  Gilded  Fool , In  Mizzoura, 
The  Nominee  and  A Gold  Mine. 

GOODWIN,  William  Watson,  born  at  Concord, 
Mass.,  May  9,  1831;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1851, 
studied  in  Germany  and  in  i860  became  Eliot  profes- 
sor of  Greek  literature  at  Harvard.  He  wrote  numer- 
ous works  on  philology. 

GORDON,  Charles  George  (Chinese  Gordon), 
born  at  Woolwich,  England,  January  28,  1833.  He 
was  present  at  the  surrender  of  Pekin,  and  the  burning 
of  the  Summer  Palace  in  i860.  In  the  service  of  China 
he  commanded  a native  force  3,000  to  5,000  strong,  with 
150  European  officers,  which  in  a sixteen  months’  cam- 
paign (1863-64),  suppressed  the  rebellious  Tae-Pings. 
He  was  British  commissioner  on  the  Danube  at  Galatz 
1871-73);  next,  in  Egypt’s  service,  he  strove  to  put 
own  the  slave-hunting  in  the  Soudan  (1874-79).  In 
1880  he  went  to  China,  where  his  counsels  prevented  a 
war  with  Russia.  In  1881-82  he  was  chief  engineer  in 
Mauritius.  On  January  18,  1884,  the  British  Govern- 
ment dispatched  him  to  Khartoum,  to  extricate  the  Egyp- 
tian garrisons  in  the  Soudan,  menaced  by  the  revolt  of 
the  Mahdi.  He  reached  Khartoum  February  18th.  In 
March  he  began  a nine  months’  defense;  on  January  28, 
1885,  the  van  of  Lord  Wolseley’s  rescue  expedition 
reached  Khartoum,  to  find  that  it  had  fallen  two  days 
earlier,  and  that  Gordon  was  dead.  Gordon  was  relig- 
ious almost  to  fanaticism,  a determined  enemy  of 
slavery,  and  an  enthusiast  of  the  Puritan  type. 

GORDON,  George  Henry,  born  in  Charlestown, 
Mass.,  July  19,  1825;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846, 


-GOR  6561 

and  was  wounded  at  Certo  Gofdo.  He  resigned  to 
practice  law,  but  in  1861  reentered  the  service,  fought 
at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  commanded  a brigade 
at  Antietam,  took  part  in  the  operations  against  Mobile, 
and  was  bre vetted  major-general  of  volunteers.  He 
died  in  1886. 

GORDON,  George  William,  born  in  Jamaica, 
West  Indies;  died  there  October  23,  1865.  In  1865  he 
was  a member  of  the  legislature  of  the  island,  and  an  ac- 
tive exhorter  on  public  measures  at  negro  mass-meet- 
ings. In  October  some  negroes  had  “ squatted”  on  a 
district  of  wild  land  in  Morant,  from  which  the  whites 
endeavored  to  eject  them.  This  led  to  disturbance  and 
rioting.  Twenty-eight  rioters  were  arrested,  and  when 
they  were  Drought  to  court  for  trial  a new  riot  was  be- 
gun. The  military,  volunteers,  and  several  magistrates 
were  overpowered  by  the  negroes,  and  the  court-house 
burnt ; sixteen  whites  were  killed  and  eighteen  wounded. 
In  the  districts  adjoining,  the  negroes  plundered  the 
plantations,  but  refrained  from  bloodshed;  while  the 
returning  government  troops  sent  forward  reported  they 
had  not  lost  a soldier,  but  had,  on  their  part,  shot  and 
hanged,  without  trial,  hundreds  who  were  suspected  to 
be  implicated  in  the  uprising.  At  that  time  Gordon 
lived  at  Kingston,  and  the  governor  of  the  island  de- 
clared he  had  proofs  that  Gordon  was  chief  instigator 
of  the  disturbances.  He  was  taken  to  Morant  Bay, 
tried  by  a court-martial,  found  guilty,  and  hanged  on 
October  13th.  Governor  Eyre  (see  Eyre,  ante)  sanc- 
tioned the  finding,  and  was  indicted  for  murder  in  Eng- 
land, but  was  acquitted. 

GORDON,  John  Brown,  born  in  Upson  county, 
Ga.,  February  6,  1832;  became  a lawyer,  and  in  1861 
entered  the  Confederate  service,  in  which  he  rose  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  commanded  under  Lee 
at  Appomattox,  and  was  several  times  wounded  in 
battle.  In  1868  he  was  the  unsuccessful  Democratic 
candidate  for  governor  of  his  native  state,  and  in  1873 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate.  Reelected  in 
1879,  he  resigned  the  following  year,  and  in  1886  was 
elected  governor  of  Georgia.  In  November,  1890,  he 
was  again  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  for  the 
term  beginning  in  March,  1891. 

GORGES,  Sir  Ferdinando,  born  in  England 
about  1565;  assisted  in  the  formation  of  the  Plymouth 
Company  and  in  1639  became  lord-proprietary  of  the 
province  of  Maine,  and  died  in  England  in  1647. 

GORMAN,  Arthur  P.,  Democratic  United  States 
Senator,  an  astute  politician,  was  born  in  Howard 
county,  Maryland,  March  II,  1839;  in  1852  was  ap- 
pointed page  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  con- 
tinued in  its  service  until  1866,  held  various  offices  in 
Maryland  and  in  its  legislature  and  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1880  and  reelected  in  1886  and 
1892.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  Chesapeake  and 
Ohio  Canal  company  in  1872. 

GORRINGE,  Henry  Honeychurch,  born  in 
Barbadoes,  West  Indies,  August  11,  1811 ; died  in  New 
York  city,  July  7,  1885.  He  came  to  the  United  States 
as  a lad,  entered  the  United  States  navy  as  a sailor,  in 
July,  1862,  rose  to  the  rank  of  commander  and  when 
in  1879  the  Khedive  of  Egypt  offered  to  the  United 
States  one  of  the  noted  Alexandrian  obelisks,  he  was 
commissioned  to  bring  it  to  this  country.  He  ar- 
rived at  Alexandria,  October  1 6,  1879,  and,  with 
the  assistance  of  one  hundred  natives,  entered  on  his 
labors.  On  December  6,  1879,  the  stone  was  moved 
from  its  pedestal  and  placed  in  a horizontal  position, 
an  iron  steamer  was  purchased  at  a cost  of  $25,000, 
and  the  obelisk  introduced  through  an  opening  made 
in  the  side  of  the  vessel.  It  was  safely  transported 
to  New  York  city,  arriving  July  20,  1880,  and  was  con* 


GOR— GOU 


6562 

veyed  from  the  Hudson  river  to  Central  Park.  The 
shaft  is  sixty-nine  feet  high,  was  erected  at  Heliopolis 
about  1600  B.C.,  and  removed  to  Alexandria  in  the  year 
22  B.c.  The  total  expense  of  its  removal  and  erection 
in  the  park  amounted  to  over  $100,000.  Gorringe  pub- 
lished a History  of  Egyptian  Obelisks  (NewYork,  1885). 

GORTSCHAKOFF,  Alexander  Michaelo- 
WiTSCH  (Prince),  was  born  in  Russia,  July  16,  1798, 
and  in  1824  entered  the  diplomatic  service  of  his  country. 
During  the  Crimean  war  he  was  ambassador  at  Vienna, 
and  in  1856  he  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  He 
took  part  in  the  negotiations  over  the  treaty  of  San 
Stefano  and  in  the  congress  of  Berlin,  retired  from  office 
in  1882,  and  died  at  Baden-Baden,  March  II,  1883. 

GOSCHEN,  George  Joachim,  born  in  London, 
August  10,  1831,  of  German  parentage.  He  became  a 
member  of  parliament  for  the  city  of  London  in  1863, 
and  supported  the  Whig-Liberal  party.  In  November, 
1865,  he  became  vice-president  of  the  Board  of  Trade, 
and  in  1866  was  made  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lan- 
caster. In  the  Gladstone  ministry  of  1868  he  was 
president  of  the  Poor  Law  Board,  and  from  March, 
1871,  until  February,  1874,  was  First  Lord  of  the  Ad- 
miralty. Becoming  dissatisfied  with  the  course  of  the 
Liberal  party  on  the  question  of  extension  of  the  fran- 
chise, he  withdrew  from  parliament  in  1878.  He  was 
many  years  connected  with  a leading  banking  firm  in 
London,  and  in  1876  he  concluded  an  arrangement  with 
the  Khedive  for  a reorganization  of  the  bonded  debt  of 
Egypt.  In  1883  he  was  sent  to  Constantinople  as  a 
special  representative  to  arrangedisputedquestions  with 
the  Sultan.  He  succeeded  Lord  Randolph  Churchill 
as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  the  Salisbury  ministry 
in  1887.  In  1900,  he  was  raised  to  the  Peerage. 

GOSNOLD,  Bartholomew,  born  in  England  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century ; died  in  Virginia, 
August  22,  1607.  He  was  associated  with  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  in  his  attempt  to  found  a colony  in  Virginia, 
and  later  headed  an  expedition  fitted  out  by  the  Earl  of 
Southampton,  to  found  a colony  in  New  England.  On 
March  26,  1602,  he  left  Falmouth  for  this  purpose  with 
a ship  and  twenty  colonists,  attempting  to  cross  the 
ocean  in  a direct  line.  Contrary  winds  took  his  vessel 
to  the  Azores,  whence,  after  a tedious  voyage  of  seven 
weeks  he  reached  the  coast  of  Maine.  Following  the 
coast  south,  he  anchored  near  York  Harbor  on  May  14, 
and  discovered  and  named  Cape  Cod,  May  15.  The 
navigators  landed  on  an  island  near  the  mouth  of  Buz- 
zard’s Bay,  which  they  named  Elizabeth,  in  honor  of 
the  queen,  and  left  after  a hard  winter.  Gosnold  then 
united  with  the  company  of  which  Capt.  John  Smith 
was  a leader,  to  locate  in  Virginia.  They  received  their 
charter  April  10,  1606,  the  first  granted  for  a British 
settlement  in  North  America.  On  December  19  Gos^ 
nold  left  England  with  three  small  ships  and  about  100 
colonists,  and,  in  1607  they  reached  James  river,  and 
settled  Jamestown.  The  place  was  unhealthy,  and 
within  a year  Gosnold  and  half  the  colonists  died. 

GOSSE,  Edmund  William,  English  author  and 
sometime  Clark  lecturer  on  English  literature  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  was  born  in  London  in  1849. 
He  wrote  From  Shakespeare  to  Pope  (1885);  The  His- 
tory of  Eighteenth  Century  Literature,  1660-1 780  (1889); 
a volume  of  essays,  Gossip  in  a Library  ( 1891 );  a novel, 
The  Secret  of  Narcisse  (1892);  a volume  on  the  Ja- 
cobean poets  (1893) ; a collection  of  lyrical  poems,  In 
Russet  and  Silver  (1894),  and  other  works. 

GOSSE,  Philip  Henry,  born  in  England,  April  6, 
1810;  traveled  in  Newfoundland,  Canada,  the  United 
States,  and  the  West  Indies,  where  he  made  extended 
studies  of  geology  and  natural  history.  In  1856  he  be- 
came a fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  wrote  exten- 


sively on  birds,  animals  and  reptilia.  He  died  August 
23,  1888. 

GOT,  FRANgois  Jules  Edmond,  an  eminent  French 
comedian,  born  at  Lignerolles  (Orne),  October  1,  1822; 
received  his  education  at  the  College  Charlemagne,  and* 
after  being  employed  for  a short  time  at  the  prefecture 
of  the  Seine,  entered  M.  Provost’s  class  at  the  Con- 
servatoire, where  in  1842  he  carried  off  the  second, 
and  in  1843  the  first,  prize  for  comedy.  After  a 
year’s  compulsory  service  in  the  army,  he  made 
his  first  bow  to  a Parisian  audience  in  1844  at  the 
Comedie  Frangaise , of  which  society  he  became  a 
member  in  1850.  M.  Got’s  reputation  steadily  in- 
creased, and  he  is  now  most  deservedly  regarded 
as  one  of  the  greatest  actors  on  the  French  stage. 
He  excels  in  the  representation  of  the  leading  comic 
parts  in  the  old  classical  dramas,  and  has  created 
scores  of  original  characters  in  modern  pieces.  M. 
Got’s  name  has  been  frequently  before  the  public  in 
connection  with  the  internal  dissensions  of  the  Comedie 
Fran^aise.  When  M.  Got  and  his  colleagues  of  the 
Theatre  Fran faise,  visited  London  in  1871,  they  were  en- 
tertained at  a public  dinner  at  the  Crystal  Palace.  On 
August  4,  1881,  M.  Turquet,  the  Under  Secretary  of 
State  for  fine  arts,  publicly  conferred  the  cross  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  on  M.  Got.  Died  March,  1901. 

GOTTSCLIALK,  Louis  Moreau,  musician,  born, 
in  New  Orleans,  La.,  May  8,  1829;  died  in  Tijuca, 
Brazil,  December  18,  1869.  His  father  sent  him  to 
Paris  to  complete  his  musical  education.  He  appeared 
in  1845  in  Paris  at  a concert,  and  gave  promise  of 
coming  distinction  as  a performer  on  the  piano-forte. 
Later  he  gave  concerts  in  Spain  and  Switzerland,  and  in 
1853  returned  to  the  United  States.  His  first  concert 
was  given  in  Boston ; thereafter  he  made  the  rounds  of 
other  cities,  and  visited  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies. 
In  Rio  Janeiro  he  was  engaged  to  perform  during  a 
musical  festival  in  November,  1869,  and  on  the  second 
evening’s  performance  was  taken  seriously  ill,  and  a 
few  days  later  he  died. 

GOUGH,  John  Bartholomew,  born  in  Kent, 
England,  August  22,  1817;  died  in  Pennsylvania  in 
February,  1886.  He  came  to  New  York  when  a boy, 
and  worked  as  a bookbinder,  but  fell  into  dissipated 
habits,  but  in  1842  abandoned  the  use  of  intoxicants 
and  devoted  his  life  to  the  temperance  cause.  Gough 
was  a born  orator  and  one  of  the  most  popular  lecturers 
ever  heard  from  the  platform. 

GOULD,  Benjamin  Apthorp,  born  at  Bostop, 
Mass.,  September  27,  1824;  graduated  at  Harvard  Col-« 
lege  in  1844,  and  afterward  studied  at  Gottingen,  where 
he  took  his  degree  in  1848,  and  was  for  some  time  an 
assistant  in  the  observatory  at  Altona.  After  visiting 
the  principal  observatories  in  Europe,  he  returned  to 
America  in  1851  and  was  employed  in  the  coast  survey, 
having  in  special  charge  the  longitude  determinations, 
the  methods  of  which  he  greatly  improved.  In  1856 
he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Dudley  observatory, 
at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  retaining  that  post  until  the  begin- 
ning of  1859.  In  1866  he  established  an  observatory 
at  Valentia  in  Ireland,  and  made  the  first  determination 
of  transatlantic  longitude  by  telegraph  cable.  In 
1868  he  was  appointed  by  the  government  of  the  Argen- 
tine Republic  to  organize  and  direct  the  national  ob- 
servatory at  Gordova,  where  he  remained  until  1885. 
While  in  South  America  he  completed  a set  of  maps  of 
the  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye  from  the  observatory, 
and  also  undertook  a series  of  zone  observations  on  the 
southern  stars.  In  1849  he  founded,  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  the  Astronomical  Journal,  which  he  edited  until 
its  suspension  in  1861,  the  expenses  being  defrayed  by 
himself  and  a few  friends.  His  principal  works  are, 


GOU- 

Report  on  the  Discovery  of  the  Planet  Neptune , Smith- 
sonian Institution  Reports  (1850);  Investigation  of  the 
Orbit  of  the  Comet  V.  (1847);  Discussions  of  Observa- 
tions made  by  the  United  States  Astronomical  Expedi- 
tion to  Chili , to  determine  the  Solar  Parallax  (1856); 
On  the  Transatlantic  Longitude  (1869);  Military  and 
Anthropological  Statistics  of  American  Soldiers  ( 1869), 
and  several  charts  of  stars  of  scarcely  less  importance 
than  those  already  noted.  Died  Nov.  27,  1896. 

GOULD,  Edward  Sherman,  born  in  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  May  11,  1808;  became  a contributor  to  the 
Knickerbocker  Magazine  and  other  journals  and  pub- 
lished a number  of  sketches.  He  died  in  New  York 
city,  February  21,  1885. 

GOULD,  Jay,  born  in  Roxbury,  N.  Y.,  May  27, 
1836.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  entered  Hobart 
Academy,  N.  Y.  Here  he  studied  surveying  and 
mathematics,  and  after  leaving  school  was  employed  in 
making  surveys  for  a map  of  Ulster  county.  In  1856 
he  published  a History  of  Delaware  County.  After 
marrying,  he  became  interested  as  partner  in  the  busi- 
ness of  Colonel  Zadok  Pratt,  a noted  tanner  of  hemlock 
sole  leather,  and,  with  the  ample  means  provided  by  his 
wife,  bought  out  the  old  tanner’s  interest.  In  1857  Mr. 
Gould  was  controlling  director  of  the  Stroudsburg, 
Pa.,  bank,  and  soon  after  became  the  owner  of  the 
Rutland  and  Washington  railroad.  He  also  consoli- 
dated the  Rensselaer  and  Saratoga  roads.  In  1859  he 
removed  to  New  York  city  with  an  abundance  of  capi- 
tal, and  established  himself  as  a stock-broker  and  specu- 
lator. Here  his  operations,  partly  in  connection  with 
the  noted  “Jim”  Fisk,  were  on  a gigantic  scale,  founded 
on  a series  of  original  combinations,  united  with  con- 
solidations, “cornerings  ” and  “ waterings”  of  stocks 
to  the  amazement  and  often  ruin  of  his  long-practiced 
competitors.  At  that  time  he  rose  to  be  president  of 
the  Erie  railroad,  but  in  1872  he  was  compelled  to  re- 
linquish control  and  disgorge  $9,000,000  to  English 
stockholders.  In  1882,  his  financial  stability  being 
questioned,  he  produced  stock  certificates  for  $53,- 
000,000  and  offered  to  produce  $20,000,000  more.  He 
gained  control  of  the  elevated  railroads  of  New  York 
in  1882  and  in  1887  was  said  to  control  13,000  miles  of 
steam  railroads,  one-tenth  the  entire  mileage  of  the 
country.  He  died  December  2,  1892,  leaving  $72,000,- 
000  to  six  children,  with  the  management  of  the  prop- 
erty to  George  J.,  his  eldest  son,  and  not  a cent  to 
charity. 

GOULD,  Walter,  artist,  was  born  in  Philadelphia 
in  1829;  belonged  to  an  artists’  society  there  for  some 
years,  and  afterward  removed  to  Italy,  where  he 
painted  many  portraits.  He  died  in  January,  1893 

GOUNOD,  Charles  Francois,  composer,  was 
born  at  Paris,  June  17,  1818.  After  the  usual  course 
of  training  in  musical  science  M.  Gounod  became  known 
as  a lyric  composer  for  the  stage  by  his  pastoral  of 
Philemon  and  Baucis.  This  was  followed  by  La 
ATonne  Sanglante , Sappho,  a cantata,  and  La  Colombe. 
Although  these  works  contained  unquestionable  marks 
of  genius,  none  achieved  success.  Indeed  few  compos- 
ers who  have  risen  to  eminence  have  had  more  failures 
at  the  outset  of  their  career  than  the  author  of  one  of  the 
most  successful  of  modern  operas,  Faust.  M.  Gounod 
was  the  composer,  among  other  works,  of  a comic  opera 
founded  on  Molffire’s  Medicin  malgre  lui,  produced  in 
London  by  the  English  Opera  Company,  under  the 
title  of  the  Mock  Doctor;  of  La  Reine  de  Saba;  Mirelle , 
brought  out  in  London,  1864;  Romeo  and  Juliet,  pro- 
duced at  Paris  and  London  in  1867;  and  Polyeucte , 
produced  at  the  Grand  Opera,  Paris,  October  7,  1878. 
He  was  elected  a member  of  the  French  Institute, 
section  of  music,  in  May,  1866,  and  was  promoted  to 


- G R A 6563 

the  rank  of  commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in 
August,  1877.  His  opera,  The  Tribute  of  Zamora,  was 
produced  at  the  Grand  Opera  at  Paris,  April  1,  1881 ; 
and  in  the  following  year  his  sacred  work,  The  Re- 
demption, was  produced  at  the  Birmingham  Musical 
Festival.  In  1885  his  new  oratorio,  Mors  et  Vita,  was 
produced  at  the  Albert  Hall*  and  a second  performance, 
by  special  command  of  the  queen,  took  place  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1886.  He  died  October  18,  1893. 

GOURGUES,  Dominique  de,  French  soldier,  born 
in  Mont-de-Marsan,  France,  in  1537;  died  in  Tours, 
France,  in  1593.  He  served  as  an  officer  in  the  French 
army  in  Italy,  and  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards  and 
Turks  in  succession.  For  several  years  he  was  kept  in 
confinement  on  the  galleys.  After  his  liberation  he 
returned  to  his  own  country ; from  there  sailed  for  South 
America  and  the  West  Indies.  The  Spaniards  attacked 
a French  LIuguenot  colony  on  the  St.  John’s  river,  in 
Florida,  and  put  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword.  For 
this  the  French  government  made  unheeded  complaint 
to  the  Spanish  court.  De  Gourgues  determined  to 
avenge  this  outrage,  and  on  August  22,  1567,  fitted  out 
three  vessels  with  soldiery.  Touching  at  Puerto  de  la 
Palta,  the  command  secured  a pilot  for  the  Florida 
coast.  The  French  force  consisted  of  150  soldiers  and 
80  sailors  trained  to  the  use  of  arms.  Passing  two 
Spanish  batteries  at  the  opening  of  St.  John’s  river,  the 
expedition  anchored  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Mary’s. 
The  native  chieftain,  Saturiba,  who  was  opposed  to  the 
Spaniards,  readily  united  with  the  newcomers  for  an 
attack  on  the  Spanish  forts.  Forty-five  Spaniards 
were  killed,  and  fifteen  others  captured  and  hanged. 
The  expedition  then  returned  to  France,  June  6,  1568. 

GOURKO,  Count  Joseph  Vasilyevitch,  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  generals  of  the  Russo-Turkish 
war,  is  of  Polish  origin,  and  was  born  in  1828,  and 
educated  in  the  imperial  “ Corps  de  Pages.”  He  was 
created  ensign  of  the  regiment  of  hussars  of  the  im- 
perial body  guard  in  1846,  took  part  in  the  Crimean 
war,  1853-57,  became  captain  in  1857,  commanding, a 
squadron  in  the  same  regiment,  and  in  i860  was  made 
adjutant  to  the  emperor.  In  1861  he  received  his  colo- 
nel’s commission.  In  1866  Gourko  was  appointed 
comrpander  of  the  fourth  hussar  regiment  at  Marinpol. 
In  1867  the  emperor  named  him  major-general.  Then 
he  commanded  the  grenadier  regiment  of  the  imperial 
guards,  and  in  1873  the  first  brigade  of  the  second 
division  of  the  Cavallerie  de  la  Garde.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  with  Turkey  in  1877  he  commanded  the 
Russian  vanguard.  June  25,  with  a detachment  of 
cavalry  he  attacked  and  took  the  strong  and  powerfully 
defended  town  of  Tyrnovo.  July  5 he  occupied 
Kazanlyk  and  the  village  of  Shipka,  and  after  occupy- 
ing and  defending  the  passes  of  Shipka  and  Planko  he 
led  his  troops  across  the  Balkans  in  the  middle  of  winter 
with  but  few  losses,  one  of  the  most  brilliant  feats  in 
the  annals  of  war,  and  led  the  victorious  Russian  troops 
into  the  fertile  valleys  beyond,  occupying  Sofia,  Philip- 
popolis,  and  Adrianople.  Count  Gourko  has  been 
elevated  to  thej-ank  of  adjutant-general,  is  a knight  of 
St.  George  of  the  second  class,  and  of  several  other 
high  orders.  He  was  made  a count  in  1878,  and 
governor  of  Warsaw  in  1883.  Died  Jan.  29,  1901. 

GO  WEN,  Franklin  B.,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Feb- 
ruary 9,  1836;  practiced  law  and  became  district-attorney 
of  Schuylkill  county.  He  then  became  interested  in 
railroads  and  organized  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading 
Coal  and  Iron  Company.  It  was  largely  by  his  efforts 
that  the  “ Molly  Maguire”  organization  of  murderers 
was  stamped  out.  He  died  December  14,  1889. 

GRACE,  William  Gilbert,  a famous  cricketer, 
was  born  near  Bristol,  England,  July  18,  1848.  He 


6564 

early  evinced  a great  aptitude  for  cricket  * and  in  1864 
played  with  the  South  Wales  team  at  Brighton  against 
the  Gentlemen  of  Sussex.  The  next  year  he  was 
eagerly  sought  for,  and  his  reputation  established.  Be- 
tween 1864  and  1879  Mr.  Grace  completed  415  innings 
in  first-class  matches  and  obtained  in  all  20,842  runs, 
the  most  wonderful  record  of  batting  performances 
ever  chronicled.  In  July  of  the  latter  year  he  was  pre- 
sented with  a costly  testimonial  subscribed  for  by  all 
classes  of  players,  in  recognition  of  his  merits  as  an  all- 
round cricketer.  He  was  the  best  bat  in  England, 
a good  bowler,  an  excellent  fielder,  and  a first-rate 
captain.  In  1884  he  played  three  innings  of  over  one 
hundred  against  the  Australians,  and  in  1886  his  record 
was  equally  high.  Like  his  father  and  brother  (Dr.  E. 
M.  Grace)  he  is  a member  of  the  medical  profession, 
and  took  his  M.D.  degree  in  1879. 

GRACE,  Thomas  L. , born  in  Charleston,  S.  C., 
November  16,  1814;  was  ordained  priest  December  21, 
1839,  and  was  consecrated  bishop  of  St.  Paul  in  1859. 
After  twenty-five  years’  service  he  resigned  his  see  and 
was  created  titular  bishop  of  Mennith. 

GRADY,  Henry  Woodfin,  born  at  Athens,  Ga., 
in  1851 ; died  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  December  23,  1889.  He 
was  educated  at  the  State  University  at  Athens,  and 
took  a post-graduate  course  at  the  University  of  Virginia. 
He  became  editor  of  the  Rome  (Ga. ),  Daily  Commercial , 
and  afterward  of  the  Atlanta  Herald.  For  some  time 
he  acted  as  Southern  correspondent  of  the  New  York 
Herald , and,  in  1880,  he  became  part  owner  and 
managing  editor  of  the  Atlanta  Constitution , which  he 
conducted  until  his  death.  He  was  a fine  speaker,  a 
man  of  broad  and  liberal  views;  and,  during  his  brief 
public  life,  did  as  much  as  any  one  man  could  to  advance 
the  interests  of  Georgia  and  the  South. 

GRAHAM,  James  Duncan,  born  in  Virginia,  April 
b I799»  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1817,  and  became 
lieutenant  of  artillery.  He  was  employed  on  topo- 
graphical engineering,  and  established  the  boundary 
line ’between  the  United  States  and  the  Republic  of 
Texas,  the  northeast  boundary  line  of  the  United  States, 
and,  in  1851,  the  line  between  the  United  States  and 
Mexico.  He  died  December  28,  1865. 

GRAHAM,  Sylvester,  born  in  Sufifield,  Conn., 
in  1794;  entered  the  Presbyterian  ministry,  and  be- 
came a lecturer  on  temperance  and  vegetarianism. 
He  published  essays  on  diet  and  other  subjects,  and  died 
in  1851. 

GRAHAM,  William  Alexander,  born  in  Lincoln 
county,  N.  C.,  September  5,  1804;  practiced  law  in  his 
native  State,  and  between  1833  and  1840  was  several 
times  elected  to  the  legislature,  of  which  he  was  twice 
speaker.  From  1840  to  1843  he  served  in  the  United 
States  senate,  and  in  1844  and  1846  was  elected  governor 
as  a Whig.  In  1850  he  became  secretary  of  the  navy  in 
Fillmore’s  cabinet,  and  resigned  in  1852  to  accept  the 
Whig  nomination  for  vice-president  on  the  ticket  with 
General  Winfield  Scott.  He  acted  with  the  South  dur- 
ing the  Civil  war,  and  sat  in  the  second  Confederate 
senate  in  1864-65.  He  died  August  11,  1875. 

GRAHAM,  William  Montrose,  born  in  Virginia 
in  1798;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1817;  took  part  in 
the  Semirfble  war,  and  in  several  engagements  in  Mexi- 
co, and  was  killed  at  Molino  del  Rey,  Septembers,  1847. 

GRAMONT,  Antoine,  Due  de,  born  in  Paris, 
August  14,  1819;  was  educated  at  the  ficole  Polytech- 
nique, and  entered  the  diplomatic  service  of  France. 
Under  the  Second  Empire  he  was  successively  minister 
to  Cassel,  Stuttgart,  Turin,  Rome,  and  Vienna.  In 
May,  1870,  he  joined  the  short-lived  Ollivier  cabinet, 
and  became  the  instrument  of  Napoleon  III.  in  forcing 
on  the  declaration  of  war  against  Prussia.  He  resigned 


in  August,  and  never  appeared  in  public  life  again,  4n6 

died  at  Paris,  January  18,  1880. 

GRANBERY,  John  Covvper,  born  in  Norfolk,  Va., 
December  5,  1829;  became  a Methodist  Episcopal 
preacher  in  1848;  served  in  the  Confederate  army  as 
chaplain,  and  from  1875  to  1882  was  a professor  in  Van- 
derbilt University,  Nashville.  In  1882  he  was  appointed 
a bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South. 

GRANGER,  Francis,  born  in  Sufifield,  Conn., 
December  1,  1792;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1811,  and  be- 
came a lawyer  and  member  of  the  legislature.  He  was 
twice  Whig  candidate  for  governor,  and  was  both  times 
defeated.  In  1836  he  was  candidate  for  vice-president 
on  the  ticket  with  General  Harrison,  and  was  again  de- 
feated. In  1838  he  was  elected  to  congress,  and  in 
March,  1841,  became  postmaster-general  under  Ilarri 
son,  holding  office  until  the  dissolution  of  the  cabinet 
under  Tyler.  Later  he  again  served  in  Congress,  and 
a party  over  whose  convention  he  presided  received  the 
name  of  the  “ Silver  Grays,”  in  allusion  to  his  hair.  He 
died  August  28,  1868. 

GRANGER,  Gordon,  born  in  New  York  in  1821; 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1845,  and  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  Mexican  war.  In  1861  he  was  attached  to 
McClellan’s  staff,  became  a brigadier-general  and  com- 
manded the  cavalry  at  Corinth.  He  became  a major- 
general  of  volunteers  in  September,  1862,  and  com- 
manded the  army  of  Kentucky.  After  Chickamauga, 
where  he  distinguished  himself,  he  was  given  command 
of  the  fourth  army  corps,  and  took  part  in  the  fights  at 
Chickamauga  and  Missionary  Ridge.  Later,  he  com- 
manded a division  at  Fort  Gaines,  and  during  the  Mo- 
bile campaign.  He  finally  received  a major-general’s 
brevet,  and  died  while  in  command  of  the  district  of 
New  Mexico,  January  10,  1876. 

GRANGER,  Robert  Seaman,  born  in  Zanesville, 
Ohio,  May  24,  1816;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838, 
and  served  in  the  Florida  and  Mexican  wars,  becoming 
captain  in  1847.  He  was  captured  by  the  Confederates 
early  in  the  Civil  war,  but  was  exchanged ; became  a 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  did  good  service  in 
Tennessee  and  Alabama.  He  was  brevetted  major- 
general  United  States  army;  became  colonel  in  1871, 
and  was  retired,  January  1, 1873.  Hedied  April25, 1894. 

GRANIER  DE  CASSAGNAC,  Paul  Adolphe, 
son  of  Adolphe  Granier  de  Cassagnac,  Dorn  about  1840, 
became  at  an  early  age  a contributor  to  the  minor 
Parisian  journals.  In  1866,  under  the  auspices  of  his 
father,  he  joined  the  staff  of  Le  Pays , of  which  soon 
afterward  he  became  the  principal  editor.  Since  then 
he  has  been  perpetually  embroiled  in  quarrels  with  his 
brother  journalists  and  anti-Bonapartist  politicians.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  enumerate  all  the  “ affairs  of 
honor  ” in  which  he  has  been  engaged,  but  his  duel 
with  the  late  M.  Gustave  Flourens  in  1869  may  be 
mentioned  as  one  of  the  most  desperate  fought  in 
recent  times.  M.  Paul  de  Cassagnac  was  decorated 
with  the  Legion  of  Honor  on  the  Emperor’s  fete  day 
in  1868,  and  in  July,  1869,  was  elected  a member  of 
the  conseil  general  for  the  department  of  Gers.  On 
the  declaration  of  war  against  Prussia,  in  August,  1870, 
M.  Paul  de  Cassagnac,  who  was  still  suffering  from  a 
recent  wound  in  the  chest,  and  who  had  just  been 
appointed  a major  of  the  garde  mobile  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Gers,  preferred  to  enroll  himself  as  a volunteer 
in  the  first  regiment  of  Zouaves.  Taken  prisoner  at 
Sedan  he  was  imprisoned  for  eight  months  at  Kosel  in 
Silesia.  On  recovering  his  liberty  he  went  to  Venice 
for  the  benefit  of  his  health  ; and  afterward  he  estab- 
lished in  the  department  of  Gers,  V Appel  an  Peuple , 
a political  journal  which  met  with  considerable  success. 
Returning  to  Paris  in  January,  1872,  he  resumed  the 


G R A 


editorship  of  Le  Pays.  He  was  tried  in  Paris,  July  2, 
1874,  for  the  publication  in  Le  Pays  of  articles  calcu- 
lated to  disturb  the  public  peace,  and  to  stir  up  hatred 
and  contempt  among  citizens.  M.  Paul  de  Cassagnac 
undertook  his  own  defense  and  obtained  a verdict  of 
“ not  guilty,”  a result  that  was  regarded  by  the  Bona- 
partists  as  a signal  triumph.  M.  Paul  de  Cassagnac 
was  returned  to  the  national  assembly  by  the  arron- 
dissement  of  Condom  in  the  department  of  Gers,  at  the 
general  elections  of  February,  1876,  and  October,  1877. 
The  latter  election  was  annulled  by  the  Chamber, 
November  n,  1878,  but  in  the  following  February  M. 
de  Cassagnac  was  again  elected,  as  he  has  been  at  sub- 
sequent general  elections.  Died  Jan.  31,  1880. 

GRANT,  Hugh  J.,  was  born  in  New  York  city  in 
1854,  and  educated  in  the  common  schools  of  that  city, 
subsequently  graduating  at  Columbia  College.  He 
began  the  study  of  law  at  the  law  school  of  Columbia 
College,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  entered  pol- 
itics early  in  life,  identifying  himself  with  the  Tam- 
many organizations  of  the  nineteenth  assembly  district, 
and  from  the  first  exerted  a potent  influence.  He  was 
elected  a member  of  the  board  of  aldermen  in  1881,  and 
twice  thereafter  reelected.  He  was  defeated  for  mayor 
of  the  city  in  1884,  but  in  1885  was  elected  sheriff  of 
the  county  over  Andrew  J.  White  and  John  W. 
Jacobus,  candidates  respectively  of  the  county  Democ- 
racy and  the  Republicans.  He  was  elected  mayor  of 
New  York  in  1888  and  1890,  retiring  in  1892,  but  ran 
again  in  1894  and  was  beaten  badly  by  William  J. 
Strong,  Republican,  on  a reform  ticket. 

GRANT,  James,  was  born  at  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 
August  1,  1822.  When  only  ten  years  old  he  sailed 
with  his  father,  who  had  the  command  of  a detachment 
of  soldiers,  for  Newfoundland,  and  was  several  years 
with  the  troops  in  America,  his  education  being  prin- 
cipally received  in  barracks.  To  this  military  training 
may  be  traced  the  style  and  character  of  many  of  his 
works.  Returning  home  in  1839,  he  was  gazetted  to 
an  ensigncy  in  the  sixty-second  foot,  joined  the  pro- 
visional battalion  at  Chatham,  and  in  1840  had  charge 
of  the  depot.  He  left  the  army  soon  afterward,  and 
devoted  himself  to  literature  and  the  study  of  Scottish 
antiquities.  His  first  work,  The  Romance  of  War, 
or  Highlanders  in  Spain , was  published  in  1846,  an 
additional  volume  appearing  in  1847,  with  a secondary 
title  of  Highlanders  in  Belgium.  This  work  had  an 
immediate  success,  and  has  since  been  read  with  delight 
by  thousands  of  school-boys.  During  the  next  thirty 
years  Mr.  Grant  published  a large  number  of  novels, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  Walter  Fenton, 
Philip  Rollo,  or  the  Scottish  Musketeers,  Legends  of  the 
Black  Watch,  Only  an  Ensign , and  Dulcie  Carlyon. 
Most  of  his  works  have  been  printed  in  the  United 
States.  All  have  been  translated  into  German  and 
Danish,  and  several  into  French.  Mr.  Grant  has  been 
a constant  contributor  of  memoirs  to  the  Dublin  Uni- 
versity Magazine,  the  United  Service  Magazine,  etc. 
In  December,  1875,  Mr.  Grant  abjured  Protestantism, 
and  was  received  into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  by 
the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Westminster.  He  died 
in  1887. 

GRANT,  James,  born  in  Scotland  in  1806;  was  for 
many  years  connected  with  the  London  Morning  Ad- 
vertiser, and  was  the  author  of  numerous  popular 
works.  He  died  May  27,  1879. 

GRANT,  Sir  James  Alexander,  born  in  Scotland 
in  1829,  was  educated  at  Montreal,  Canada,  and  prac- 
ticed as  a physician  in  Ottawa.  He  was  president  of 
the  Canadian  Medical  Association.  From  1867  to  1874 
he  sat  in  the  Dominion  parliament,  and  introduced  the 
Canadian  Pacific  railway  bill. 


6565 

GRANT,  Ulysses  Simpson,  eighteenth  president 
of  the  United  States,  and  the  most  successful  of  modern 
American  generals,  was  born  at  Point  Pleasant,  Cler- 
mont county,  Ohio,  April  27,  1822.  He  was  of  Scot- 
tish ancestry,  a descendant  of  Matthew  Grant,  who 
came  from  Scotland  to  Dorchester,  Mass.,  in  May,  1630. 
His  baptismal  name  was  Hiram  Ulysses,  but  when  he 
applied  to  the  congressman  of  his  district  for  a nomina- 
tion to  West  Point,  the  congressman  misunderstood  his 
name.  The  error  went  into  the  record  at  West  Point, 
and  was  never  altered.  General  Grant’s  father  was 
Jesse  R.  Grant,  and  his  mother’s  maiden  name  was 
Hannah  Simpson.  They  were  married  in  June,  1821, 
and  Ulysses,  the  oldest  of  their  six  children,  spent  his 
boyhood  on  the  farm,  and  acquired  his  education  at  the 
village  school.  In  the  spring  of  1839  he  was  appointed 
to  a cadetship  in  the  United  States  Military  Academy, 
on  the  recommendation  ol  Congressman  Hamer.  Young 
Grant  served  his  term  at  West  Point  with  credit,  being 
especially  proficient  in  mathematics.  He  graduated  it. 
1843,  twenty-first  in  a class  of  thirty-nine.  On  gradu- 
ation he  received  a brevet  second  lieutenancy,  wav 
attached  to  the  4th  infantry,  and  assigned  to  duty  at  Jef- 
ferson Barracks,  St.  Louis.  In  May,  1844,  the  regiment 
was  transferred  to  Louisiana,  and  a year  later  young 
Grant  received  a commission  as  second  lieutenant.  The 
regiment  was  ordered  to  Texas  to  join  the  army  of  occu- 
pation under  General  Zachary  Taylor,  then  awaiting 
orders  on  the  frontier.  The  Mexican  war  began,  and 
Lieutenant  Grant  was  an  active  participant  in  the  battles 
of  Palo  Alto,  May  8,  1846,  and  of  Resaca  de  la  Palma, 
May  9th.  In  August  the  army  moved  to  Monterey, 
Mexico,  Lieutenant  Grant  acting  as  quartermaster  until 
the  assault,  on  September  21st,  on  one  of  the  protecting 
parties  at  Monterey,  when  Lieutenant  Grant  charged 
with  his  command  on  horseback  and  was  made  adjutant. 
His  brigade  was  transferred  to  Worth’s  division,  and 
ordered  to  the  Rio  Grande,  whence  it  embarked  for 
Vera  Cruz  to  join  the  army  under  General  Scott. 
Lieutenant  Grant  served  with  his  regiment  during  the 
siege  until  the  capture  of  Vera  Cruz,  March  29,  1847. 

Early  in  May  his  division  marched  for  the  city  of 
Mexico,  and  on  April  17th  and  18th  he  participated  in 
the  battle  of  Cerro  Gordo.  On  May  15th  the  troops 
entered  Pueblo.  He  took  part  in  the  capture  of  San 
Antonio,  and  the  battles  of  Churubusco  and  Molino  del 
Rey,  and  was  brevetted  lieutenant.  He  distinguished 
himself  by  his  services  at  Chapultepec  on  September 
13th,  for  which  services  he  was  brevetted  captain.  On 
September  14th,  at  the  head  of  1,200  men,  he  captured 
a church  and  mounted  a howitzer  in  the  belfry  with  so 
much  effect  against  the  enemy  as  to  receive  the  congratula- 
tions of  the  commanding  general.  The  same  day  he  en- 
tered the  city  of  Mexico  with  the  army,  and  in  a few  days 
was  promoted  first  lieutenant.  He  remained  with  the 
army  in  the  city  of  Mexico  until  the  troops  were  with- 
drawn in  the  summer  of  1848.  He  accompanied  his 
regiment  to  Pascagoula,  Miss.,  and  obtaining  leave  of 
absence  returned  to  St.  Louis,  where,  on  August  22, 
1848,  he  married  Julia  B.  Dent.  He  was  afterward 
ordered  to  Sacketts  Harbor,  N.  Y.,  thence  to  Detroit, 
and  in  July,  1852,  sailed  from  New  York  with  nis  regi- 
ment for  California,  via  the  isthmus  of  Panama.  Cholera 
attacked  the  troops  on  the  isthmus  and  Lieutenant 
Grant  was  left  behind  in  charge  of  the  sick.  From 
California  he  welit  with  his  regiment  to  Fort  Vancouver, 
Oregon.  He  was  promoted  to  a captaincy  August  5, 

1853,  and  stationed  at  Humboldt,  Cal.  On  July  31, 

1854,  he  resigned  his  commission,  returned  to  St.  Louis, 
settled  on  a small  farm,  and  engaged,  with  but  little 
success,  in  the  real  estate  business  until  May,  i860.  At 
that  date  he  removed  to  Galena,  111.,  where  his  fathe* 


G R A 


6566 

had  opened  a hardware  and  leather  store.  He  worked 
there  for  small  wages  until  the  war  broke  out.  When 
Lincoln’s  proclamation  was  issued  calling  for  troops, 
a public  meeting  was  called  in  Galena,  and  Captain 
Grant,  as  the  only  man  of  military  experience  in  the 
meeting,  was  called  upon  to  preside.  He  spoke  in 
favor  of  a vigorous  prosecution  of  the  war,  and  a com- 
pany of  volunteers  was  raised,  which  he  drilled  and 
accompanied  to  the  State  capital.  Here  he  was  em- 
ployed in  the  adjutant-general’s  department  by  direction 
of  Governor  Yates.  In  May,  1861,  he  made  application 
to  the  war  department  for  a commission,  offering  to 
serve  in  any  capacity,  but  stating  that  his  military  expe- 
rience qualified  him  for  the  command  of  a regiment. 
For  some  reason  no  answer  was  made  to  this  commu- 
nication, but  on  June  17th  Captain  Grant  was  appointed 
colonel  of  the  twenty-first  Illinois  infantry.  The  regi- 
ment reported  for  service  at  Springfield,  and  on  July  3d 
Colonel  Grant  marched  with  it  to  Palmyra,  Mo.,  and 
thence  to  Mexico,  Mo.,  where  he  reported  to  General 
Pope.  On  July  31st  General  Pope  assigned  him  to  the 
command  of  a sub-district,  and  on  August  7th  he  was 
appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  his  commis- 
sion being  dated  back  to  May  17th.  Pie  was  ordered  to 
Ironton,  Mo.,  thence  to  St.  Louis,  and  thence  to  Jeffer- 
son City.  About  the  beginning  of  September  he  was 
directed  to  report  at  St.  Louis,  and  found  that  he  had 
been  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  district  of  south- 
eastern Missouri,  with  headquarters  at  Cairo.  He 
arrived  at  Cairo,  September  4th,  received  information 
that  the  Confederates  were  about  to  seize  Paducah,  Ky., 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Tennessee  river,  and  immediately 
moved  against  them  with  two  regiments  of  infantry 
and  one  battery  of  artillery.  This  prompt  measure 
prevented  the  Confederates  from  getting  a foothold 
in  Kentucky  and  did  much  to  retain  the  State  in 
the  Union.  On  November  6th  Grant  marched  to 
meet  Gen.  Sterling  Price,  who  was  adv  ancing  through 
Missouri  with  a large  force.  On  November  7th  he  found 
that  Price  had  established  his  camp  at  Belmont,  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river,  and  at  the  head  of  2,500  men 
he  engaged  the  enemy.  During  the  engagement  Grant’s 
horse  was  shot  under  him.  General  Price’s  camp  was 
captured,  but  his  forces  rallied  and  received  reenforce- 
ments from  Columbus,  and  Grant  fell  back,  reembarked 
his  troops  in  safety,  and  returned  to  his  headquarters. 
In  this,  the  first  of  his  engagements,  he  captured  175 
prisoners  and  two  cannon,  with  a loss  of  485  men,  while 
the  Confederates  lost  650.  His  2,500  men  had  been  op- 
posed by  nearly  7,000.  In  January,  1862,  he  made  a 
reconnoissance  in  force  toward  Columbus.  His  objec- 
tive points  were  Fort  Henry,  on  the  Tennessee  river, 
and  Fort  Donelson,  on  the  Cumberland  river.  His 
idea  was  that  with  the  assistance  of  gunboats  he  could 
capture  these  two  forts  before  they  were  strengthened. 
He  returned  to  St.  Louis  and  submitted  in  person  his 
proposition  to  General  Halleck,  but  his  views  were  not 
approved.  On  January  28th  he  telegraphed  Halleck  that 
he  believed  he  “ could  take  and  hold  Fort  Henry  on  the 
Tennessee.”  Commodore  Foote,  who  was  in  command 
of  the  gunboats,  sent  a similar  dispatch,  and  the  next 
day  Grant  wrote  urging  the  expedition.  He  obtained 
leave  to  move  on  February  1st,  and  started  on  the  fol- 
lowing day.  On  the  6th  General  Tilghman  surrendered 
Fort  Henry  after  a severe  bombardment  by  the  gun- 
boats. He  and  his  staff  were  captured,  but  most  of  the 
garrison  escaped  and  joined  the  troops  in  Fort  Donel- 
son. This  important  point  was  garrisoned  by  over  20,- 
000  men,  commanded  by  General  Floyd.  Grant  at  once 
invested  Fort  Donelson,  and  on  February  12th  began  a 
siege,  having  then  under  him  some  15,000  men,  after- 
ward increased  by  reenforcements  to  27,000.  His  artil- 


lery consisted  of  eight  light  batteries,  and  owing  to  the 
extremely  cold  weather  the  soldiers  suffered  severely. 
For  three  days  there  was  very  heavy  fighting,  and  on  Feb- 
ruary 15th  Floyd  made  a sortie  with  the  intention  of 
cutting  his  way  out,  which  Grant  repelled.  Floyd, 
seeing  that  all  hope  was  lost,  turned  his  command  over 
to  General  Pillow,  who  in  turn  resigned  it  to  General 
Buckner.  Floyd  and  Pillow  escaped  on  a steamboat 
with  a large  number  of  men.  The  next  day  Buckner 
wrote  offering  to  capitulate  upon  terms.  The  reply  of 
General  Grant  was:  “ No  terms  other  than  uncon- 
ditional and  immediate  surrender  can  be  accepted.  I 
propose  to  move  immediately  upon  your  works.”  This 
epigrammatic  answer  gained  him  the  name  of  “ Uncon- 
ditional Surrender  Grant,”  which  harmonized  with  his 
initials.  The  same  day  the  garrison  surrendered  un- 
conditionally. In  included  15,000  men,  65  cannon,  and 
18,000  stand  of  arms.  The  Confederates  had  lost 
2,500  men  during  the  siege,  killed  and  wounded; 
Grant’s  loss  w&s  somewhat  less. 

The  greatest  enthusiasm  prevailed  in  the  North  on 
receipt  of  the  news  of  this  decided  victory,  really  the 
first  substantial  gain  made  by  the  Union  army  in  the 
West.  It  opened  up  two  navigable  rivers  to  the  Union, 
and  left  the  Confederates  no  hold  in  Kentucky  or  Ten- 
nessee. Grant  was  made  a major-general  of  volunteers, 
his  commission  datingfrom  February  16th,  and  he  at  once 
became  popular  throughout  the  country.  On  February 
28th  he  went  forward  to  Nashville,  T enn. , without  having 
waited  for  instructions.  He  had  telegraphed  head- 
quarters that  in  the  absence  of  orders  he  should  do  so, 
but  as  it  was  held  that  he  had  exceeded  his  instructions 
he  was  deprived  of  his  command  and  ordered  to  remain 
at  Fort  Henry.  On  March  13th  it  became  apparent  that 
his  services  would  again  be  required,  and  he  was  ordered 
to  transfer  his  headquarters  to  Savannah,  on  the  Ten- 
nessee river.  Here  he  found  himself  at  the  head  of 
about  38,000  men.  He  was  directed  not  to  attack  the 
enemy,  but  to  await  the  arrival  of  General  Buell’s  army, 
which  was  marching  southward  to  join  him.  Gen.  Albert 
Sidney  Johnston,  who  was  in  command  of  the  Con- 
federate forces,  of  about  50,000  men,  did  not  propose 
to  wait  for  this  juncture  of  the  national  forces,  and  on 
April  6th  made  a vigorous  attack  upon  Grant’s  troops 
at  Shiloh.  The  Union  forces  were  driven  back  in  con- 
fusion, and  during  the  whole  of  the  day  the  Confederates 
seemed  to  gain.  Johnston  was  killed  at  1 p.m.,  and 
the  command  devolved  upon  Beauregard.  All  that 
Grant  could  do  was  to  hold  his  own  until  the  head  of 
Buell’s  column  arrived.  That  night  the  troops  camped 
upon  the  field,  and  in  the  morning  the  joint  armies  ad- 
vanced and  drove  the  enemy  back  to  Corinth,  nineteen 
miles  from  the  battlefield.  Grant’s  loss  in  the  two  days’ 
fighting  was  over  13,000  killed,  wounded,  and  missing. 
The  Confederate  authorities  say  that  their  total  loss 
was  11,000,  but  that  is  no  doubt  much  underestimated. 
This  was  the  second  great  victory  of  the  Western  army. 
On  April  nth  General  Halleck  arrived  at  headquarters 
and  took  command,  Grant  being  named  second.  The 
Federal  forces  now  numbered  over  100,000  men,  and  the 
enemy,  who  were  strongly  fortified,  half  that  number. 
The  Confederates  evacuated  Corinth  on  May  30th,  and 
on  June  21st  Grant  moved  his  headquarters  to  Memphis. 
On  July  nth  Halleck  was  appointed  general-in-chief  of 
all  the  armies,  and  later  on  he  returned  to  Washing- 
ton, leaving  Grant  in  command  of  the  army  of  the  Ten- 
nessee. On  October  25th  General  Grant  was  assigned 
to  the  command  of  the  Department  of  the  Tennessee, 
and  ordered  a new  movement  against  Price.  A battle  was 
fought  September  19th  and  20th,  in  which  the  Federal 
loss  was  700  and  that  of  the  Confederates  double  that 
number.  Grant  strengthened  his  position  around  CoT« 


GRA 


{nth,  and,  when  again  attacked  by  the  enemy,  repulsed 
them  with  great  loss. 

After  the  battle  of  Corinth,  Grant  proposed  to  Hal- 
leck  in  October  to  move  toward  Vicksburg.  On  No- 
vember 3d  he  left  Jackson,  Tenn.,  with  20,000  men, 
occupied  Holly  Springs,  and  on  December  1st  entered 
the  enemy’s  works  on  the  Tallahatchie  river,  which  they 
had  evacuated.  On  the  8th  Sherman  moved  down  the 
Mississippi  from  Memphis  to  attack  Vicksburg  from  the 
river,  Grant’s  column  to  cooperate  with  him  by  land. 
On  December  20th  the  Confederate  troops  captured 
Holly  Springs,  with  a great  quantity  of  supplies.  Grant 
abandoned  his  land  expedition,  and  took  command  of 
the  movement  down  the  Mississippi.  He  established 
his  headquarters  at  Memphis,  January  10,  1863,  and 
prepared  for  the  concentrated  movement  against  Vicks- 
burg, and  on  the  29th  he  invested  that  city  with  20,000 
troops.  Admiral  Porter’s  fleet  of  gunboats  of  all 
classes,  carrying  280  guns,  cooperated  by  river.  Grant 
attempted  to  cut  a canal  across  the  peninsula  opposite 
Vicksburg  for  a passage  for  the  gunboats,  but  this  plan 
failed,  and  so  also  did  an  attempt  to  turn  the  Mississippi 
by  opening  a new  channel.  It  was  not  until  March 
that  General  Grant  decided  to  try  a bolder  and  more 
hazardous  plan,  which  in  the  end  proved  successful. 
Weeks  of  hard  fighting  followed  upon  his  advance,  and 
finally  he  overcame  General  Pemberton  at  Champion 
Hill,  in  which  battle  the  Confederates  lost  4,000 
killed  and  wounded,  3,000  prisoners,  and  30  cannon, 
Grant’s  loss  being  400  killed,  2,000  wounded  and  miss- 
ing. On  the  18th  the  Union  army  was  close  up  to  the 
outworks  of  Vicksburg,  and  by  the  30th  its  220  guns 
were  in  position.  Grant  now  had  70,000  men,  with 
which  force  he  had  no  difficulty  in  conducting  the  siege 
and  defending  his  rear  against  Johnston.  He  pressed 
on  Vicksburg’s  lines  by  day  and  night,  the  investment 
became  closer  and  closer,  and  finally,  on  July  3d,  Gen- 
eral Pemberton  proposed  an  armistice.  General  Grant 
replied  with  his  usual  terms  of  “ unconditional  surren- 
der,” and  on  July  4th  Pembertqn  surrendered  uncondi- 
tionally. The  officers  and  men  were  paroled,  and  the 
officers  permitted  to  retain  tlleir  horses  and  private 
baggage.  Thus  early  in  his  career  General  Grant 
showed,  as  he  did  throughout  the  war,  the  utmost  con- 
sideration for  his  vanquished  enemy.  He  supplied  them 
with  full  rations,  and  issued  an  order  instructing  his 
men  to  make  no  'offensive  remarks  as  the  Confederates 
passed  out.  The  capitulation  included  30,000  prison- 
ers, 172  cannon,  60,000  stand  of  arms,  and  an  immense 
amount  of  ammunition.  In  the  whole  Vicksburg  cam- 
paign General  Grant’s  loss  was  less  than  9,000,  while 
the  Confederate  army  had  at  least  a loss  of  60,000  men. 
Fort  Hudson  surrendered  next,  and  the  Mississippi 
was  opened,  from  its  source  to  its  mouth.  General 
Grant  was  made  a major-general  in  the  regular  army, 
and  congress  ordered  the  presentation  to  him  of  a gold 
medal.  His  next  operations  were  against  Chattanooga, 
to  which  he  sent  his  forces  to  cooperate  with  Rose- 
crans  on  October  23d.  He  arrived  at  Chattanooga  on 
October  23d,  and  on  the  29th,  by  the  victory  of  Wau- 
hatchie,  a communication  for  supplies  was  opened  to 
the  Union  troops. 

General  Thomas  commanded  the  army  of  the  Cum- 
berland, which  held  Chattanooga.  Sherman  was 
ordered  to  bring  down  the  army  of  the  Tennessee  to 
reenforce  General  Thomas,  while  Burnside,  who  was 
holding  Knoxville  against  Longstreet,  was  instructed  to 
hold  his  position  at  all  cost  until  relieved.  On  Novem- 
ber 23d  Grant  made  an  assault  upon  the  enemy’s  lines, 
which  was  continued  two  days,  the  result  being  the 
complete  rout  of  the  Confederate  troops.  Of  the  latter 
6,ooq  men  were  captured,  while  Grant’s  loss  was  750 


6567 

killed  and  about  4,500  wounded.  On  the  28th  the 
Union  troops  relieved  Knoxville.  Before  Sherman,  who 
had  been  given  the  command  of  the  troops,  could  reach 
that  city,  Longstreet  made  an  attack  and  was  defeated. 
Grant  visited  Knoxville  in  December,  and  from  there 
went  to  Nashville,  where  he  established  his  head- 
quarters January  13,  1864.  Sherman  marched  from 
Vicksburg  into  the  interior  as  far  as  Meridian,  and,  after 
destroying  railroads  and  a great  quantity  of  supplies, 
returned  to  Vicksburg. 

In  F ebruary  congress  revived  the  grade  of  lieutenant- 
general,  and  Grant  was  nominated  to  that  office  on 
March  9th.  He  returned  to  Washington  to  confer 
with  the  president  and  the  war  department,  and  on 
March  12th  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  all  the 
armies  of  the  United  States,  Sherman  being  given  the 
command  of  the  Mississippi  division  on  the  18th. 
General  Grant  removed  to  the  east,  and  established  his 
headquarters  with  the  army  of  the  Potomac  at  Cul- 
peper, Va. , on  the  26th.  With  this  began  a new  and 
most  important  chapter  in  the  history  of  the  war. 

The  condition  of  the  great  struggle  at  the  time  when 
General  Grant  assumed  supreme  command  is  told 
tersely  by  the  commander  himself  in  his  Memoii-s  as 
follows:  “The  Mississippi  river  was  guarded  from  St. 
Louis  to  its  mouth;  the  line  of  the  Arkansas  was  also 
held,  thus  giving  us  all  the  Northwest  north  of  that 
river.  A few  points  in  Louisiana  not  remote  from  the 
river  were  held  by  the  Federal  troops,  as  was  also  the 
mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande.  East  of  the  Mississippi  we 
held  all  north  of  the  Memphis  and  Charleston  railroad 
as  far  east  as  Chattanooga,  thence  along  the  line  of  the 
Tennessee  and  Holston  rivers,  taking  in  nearly  all  the 
State  of  Tennessee.  West  Virginia  was  in  our  hands, 
and  that  part  of  Old  Virginia  north  of  the  Rapidan 
and  east”  of  the  Blue  Ridge  we  also  held.  On  the  sea- 
coast  we  had  Fortress  Monroe  and  Norfolk  in  Virginia; 
Plymouth,  Washington,  and  New  Berne  in  North 
Carolina;  Beaufort,  Folly,  and  Morris  islands,  Hilton 
Head,  Port  Royal,  and  Fort  Pulaski  in  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia;  Fernandina,  St.  Augustine,  Key  West, 
and  Pensacola  in  Florida.  The  balance  of  the  South- 
ern territory,  an  empire  in  extent,  was  still  in  the 
hands  of  the  enemy.  ” 

Sherman,  who  had  succeeded  General  Grant  in  com- 
mand of  the  military  division  of  the  Mississippi,  com- 
manded all  the  troops  north  of  Natchez,  and  west  of  the 
Alleghanies,  with  a large  movable  force  around  Chat- 
tanooga. In  the  east  the  opposing  forces  lay  between 
Washington  and  Richmond,  practically  as  they  were 
when  the  war  began  three  years  before.  The  Union 
army  of  the  Potomac  lay  on  the  northern  bank  of  the 
Rapidan;  the  Confederate  army  of  northern  Virginia, 
under  Robert  E.  Lee,  was  strongly  intrenched  on  its 
southern  bank.  Behind  it  were  strongly  fortified  posi- 
tions at  intervals  all  the  way  to  Richmond,  Gen. 
Joseph  E.  Johnston,  with  the  second  army  of  the  Con- 
federacy, was  at  Dalton,  Georgia,  watching  Sherman, 
who  still  lay  around  Chattanooga.  Between  the  two 
armies  the  Confederates  watched  the  Shenandoah  Val- 
ley, while  Forrest,  at  the  head  of  a large  cavalry  force, 
kept  the  Northern  troops  busy  in  middle  and  west 
Tennessee. 

Grant  concentrated  his  forces  and  ordered  a general 
advance  all  along  the  line.  Sherman  in  the  West  was 
to  move  from  Chattanooga  against  Johnston;  Atlanta, 
Ga. , being  his  objective  point.  General  Crook,  com- 
manding in  West  Virginia,  was  instructed  to  strike  for 
the  Virginia  and  Tennessee  railroad  with  the  object  of 
destroying  the  enemy’s  communications  and  cutting  off 
their  supplies;  Sigel  was  to  advance  up  the  valley  of 
Virginia,  and  Butler  tomoye  by  the  James  river  toward 


G R A 


6568 

Petersburgand  Richmond.  Grant  was  displeased  with 
the  little  execution  that  so  far  had  been  accomplished 
by  the  cavalry,  and  demanded  Sheridan  for  chief  of  the 
cavalry  corps  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac.  Meantime 
Forrest  had  captured  Fort  Pillow  and  murdered  the 
negro  garrison,  while  Banks’  Red  river  expedition, 
ordered  from  Washington  before  Grant  had  been  pro- 
moted to  the  general  command,  proved  a failure,  its 
only  result  being  to  deprive  the  army  of  the  West  of  the 
cooperation  of  40,000  men.  Sigel’s  part  of  the  pro- 
gramme failed  ingloriously,  but  Crook  and  Averill 
managed  to  do  the  enemy  a good  deal  of  damage. 
Butler  advanced  from  Fortress  Monroe  according  to 
orders  and  seized  City  Point  and  Bermuda  Hundred 
without  loss.  His  right  was  protected  by  the  James 
river,  his  left  by  the  Appomattox,  and  his  rear  by  their 
junction.  But  the  Confederate  forces  drew  a line  across 
the  peninsula,  and  Butler,  though  perfectly  safe  from  at- 
tack, was,  as  General  Grant  expressed  it,  “ bottled,”  and 
there  was  little  to  be  hoped  for  from  his  cooperation. 

On  the  night  of  May  4,  1864,  Grant  crossed  the 
Rapidan  and  the  campaign  of  the  Wilderness  began. 
In  the  thirty  days  which  followed  the  Union  forces  lost 
40,000  men,  killed,  wounded  and  missing,  but  received 
reenforcements  of  equal  strength.  Lee’s  losses  were 
estimated  at  30,000,  and  his  reenforcements  are  supposed 
to  have  equaled  that  number.  (See  Wilderness  Cam- 
paign, The.)  On  June  13-16  Grant  transferred  the 
army  of  the  Potomac  to  the  south  side  of  the  James, 
and  moved  a force  by  water  to  City  Point,  where  Lee 
again  confronted  him  with  his  full  strength.  Sheridan 
and  Wilson  had  raided  through  the  enemy’s  country, 
while  Hunter,  who  had  replaced  Sigel,  after  destroying 
a great  quantity  of  stores,  had  been  driven  back  to  the 
Kanawha  river.  But  Jubal  Early  had  driven  the 
Federal  troops  out  of  Martinsburg,  had  crossed  the 
Upper  Potomac  and  threatened  Hagerstown  and  Fred- 
erick, Md.  During  July  and  August  a continuous 
ieries  of  skirmishes  with  little  result,  except  loss  of  men, 
characterized  the  campaign,  but  in  September  Sheridan 
routed  Early  at  Winchester. 

Meantime  Sherman  was  not  idle  in  carrying  out  his 
part  of  the  plan.  In  a series  of  brilliant  battles  he 
forced  Johnston  out  of  Atlanta,  which  was  entered  by 
the  Federal  troops  September  2d.  On  November  16th 
Sherman  destroyed  the  railroads  in  his  rear,  cut  away 
from  his  base  and  struck  out  for  the  sea.  Hood,  who 
had  superseded  Johnston,  instead  of  following  Sher- 
man, moved  against  Thomas,  who  was  in  command  at 
Nashville,  and  on  December  15-16  suffered  a tre- 
mendous defeat  at  his  hands.  Sherman  reached  the 
sea-coast  near  Savannah,  December  14th,  and  took 
the  city  six  days  later,  having  laid  waste  the  whole 
country  behind  him.  The  Confederacy  was  cut  in  half, 
and  it  only  remained  to  close  in  upon  Lee  to  effect  the 
destruction  or  surrender  of  its  last  great  army.  Butler 
meantime  had  been  sent  to  cooperate  with  a naval  force 
under  Admiral  Porter  against  Fort  Fisher,  but  this, 
too,  was  not  a success.  Sherman’s  army  of  60,000 
men  was  ordered  north  by  land  early  in  January,  while 
Schofield  marched  from  Tennessee  to  Wilmington, 
which  he  occupied  February  23d.  Five  days  later 
Sheridan  swept  down  the  valley  of  Virginia,  driving 
Early  before  him,  and  on  March  19th  joined  the  army 
of  the  Potomac.  Sherman  captured  Columbia  on 
February  17th,  and  destroyed  the  arsenal,  and  the  Con- 
federates evacuated  Charleston.  After  a month  of 
stubborn  fighting,  Sherman  effected  a junction  with 
Schofield  at  Goldsboro. 

The  final  campaign  began  on  March  25, 1865,  with  an 
attack  by  Lee  on  Grant’s  right,  in  which  he  captured  Fort 
Steadman  and  several  batteries,  but  was  driven  back 


with  heavy  loss.  On  April  1 st  Sheridan  gained  a brilliant 
victory  at  Five  Forks,  capturing  the  Confederate  works 
and  6,000  prisoners.  Next  day  Grant  closed  in  upon 
Petersburg,  took  Fort  Gregg  by  assault  and  occupied 
Fort  Whitworth,  which  had  been  evacuated.  During 
this  day’s  fighting  12,000  prisoners  and  fifty  guns  were 
taken.  Richmond  and  Petersburg  were  evacuated  by 
the  Confederates  that  night  and  on  April  3d  were  occu- 
pied by  the  Federal  forces.  For  the  next  six  days  the 
army  of  the  Potomac  pushed  on  by  forced  marches  after 
Lee,  the  Union  cavalry  doing  fearful  execution  in  the 
running  fights  which  ensued.  On  April  9th  Lee,  recog- 
nizing the  utter  hopelessness  of  the  struggle,  surrendered 
his  whole  army  at  Appomattox,  and  the  Civil  war,  so 
far  as  the  Virginia  end  of  it  was  concerned,  was  over. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  April  26th  that  Kirby  Smith 
surrendered  his  last  command  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

Grant’s  treatment  of  his  conquered  foes  was  generous 
to  a degree.  The  men  and  officers  were  paroled  on 
condition  that  they  returned  to  their  homes,  the  officers 
were  allowed  to  keep  their  side-arms,  and  both  officers 
and  men  to  retain  their  horses  and  personal  baggage. 
The  victorious  army  began  to  fire  salutes  in  honor  of 
their  victory,  but  Grant  at  once  put  a stop  to  this, 
saying:  “The  war  is  over,  the  rebels  are  again  our 
countrymen,  and  the  best  sign  of  rejoicing  for  the  vic- 
tory will  be  to  abstain  from  all  demonstrations  in  the 
field.”  The  number  of  prisoners  paroled  was  nearly  30,- 
000,  in  addition  to  over  20,000  captured  during  the  cam- 
paign. After  the  surrender  more  than  20,000  stragglers 
came  in  and  gave  themselves  up.  The  Union  losses  in 
the  final  campaign  were  11,000  killed,  wounded,  and 
missing.  During  the  year  beginning  with  the  battles  of 
the  Wilderness,  the  total  loss  of  the  Federal  troops,  in- 
cluding those  of  Butler’s  army,  was  12,000  killed,  50,- 
000  wounded,  and  20,000  missing.  There  is  no  accurate 
record  of  the  Confederate  losses,  but  Grant  took  in 
battle  nearly  70,000  prisoners.  The  day  after  the  sur- 
render at  Appomattox  General  Grant  went  to  Washing- 
ton, without  stopping  to  visit  Richmond,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  arranging  for  the  immediate  disbandment  of 
the  armies.  On  the  14th  Lincoln  was  assassinated,  and 
there  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  plotters  intended  to  have 
also  made  away  with  Grant,  but,  fortunately,  he  left 
Washington  on  the  morning  of  that  day.  On  the  26th 
Joseph  E.  Johnston  surrendered  to  Sherman  on  the 
same  terms  as  were  given  to  l ee,  and  30,000  more 
Confederate  troops  were  paroled.  Canby’s  force  cap- 
tured Mobile  on  April  nth,  with  200  guns  and  4,000 
prisoners,  and  on  the  26th  Kirby  Smith  surrendered 
his  last  command. 

In  June,  1865,  General  Grant  made  a tour  through  the 
northern  United  States  and  Canada,  receiving  ovations  in 
every  city.  He  ordered  Sheridan  with  an  army  corps 
to  the  Rio  Grande  river,  and  this  demonstration  led  to 
the  withdrawal  of  the  French  troops  from  Mexico. 
The  government  was  not  at  first  disposed  to  treat  the 
surrendered  rebels  in  accordance  with  Grant’s  agree- 
ment. General  Lee  and  other  prominent  officers  were 
indicted  in  Virginia  by  the  United  States  Court,  and 
the  cry  for  vengeance  went  up.  General  Grant  insisted 
that  he  had  the  power  to  grant  the  terms  that  he  had 
made  at  Appomattox,  and  that  the  president  was  bound 
to  respect  that  agreement.  He  threatened  to  resign 
his  commission  if  there  was  any  breach  of  faith,  and  the 
result  was  the  abandonment  of  the  prosecution  of  Lee 
and  the  other  officers.  This  led  to  ill-feeling  be- 
tween Grant  and  President  Johnson.  In  December 
Grant  made  a tour  of  inspection  through  the  South, 
and  his  report  of  the  situation  formed  the  basis  of 
the  reconstruction  laws.  Congress  passed  an  act 
cerating  the  title  of  “General”  for  the  first  time 


G R A 


in  American  history,  and  on  July  25,  1866,  General 
Grant  received  his  commission.  President  Johnson, 
finding  that  Grant  refused  to  support  him  in  his  course, 
ordered  him  out  of  the  country  on  a special  mission  to 
Mexico.  This  Grant  refused  to  accept,  saying  that  as  a 
military  man  he  was  willing  to  serve  his  country  in  any 
army  post,  but  he  considered  that  he  had  a right  to 
refuse  any  civil  or  diplomatic  appointment.  In  an 
attachment  to  the  army  appropriation  bill  on  March  4, 
1867,  it  was  provided  that  “ all  orders  and  instructions 
relating  to  military  operations  should  be  issued  through 
the  general  of  the  army,”  and  that  “he  should  neither 
be  removed,  suspended  or  relieved  from  command  or 
assigned  to  duty  elsewhere  than  at  the  headquarters  at 
Washington,  except  at  his  own  request,  without  the 
previous  approval  of  the  Senate.”  President  Johnson 
obtained  an  opinion  from  his  attorney  general  that  this 
provision  was  unconstitutional,  and  issued  this  opinion 
to  the  army  through  the  adjutant-general’s  offices,  the 
secretary  of  war  refusing  to  formulate  it.  General 
Sheridan,  then  in  command  at  New  Orleans,  inquired 
what  he  should  do  on  the  receipt  of  this  opinion. 
Grant  replied  that  “ a legal  opinion  was  not  entitled  to 
the  force  of  an  order,”  and  that  General  Sheridan 
“ should  enforce  his  own  construction  of  the  law  until 
otherwise  ordered.”  In  July  congress  passed  a law 
making  the  orders  of  the  district  commanders  subject 
to  the  disapproval  of  the  general  of  the  army,  thus 
giving  Grant  all  control  of  affairs  relating  to  the  recon- 
struction of  the  Southern  States.  But  Johnson  still 
retained  the  power  of  removal,  and  after  Congress  had 
adjourned,  he  replaced  Sheridan  in  command  of  the 
fifth  military  district  by  Hancock.  Grant  revoked 
some  of  Hancock’s  orders,  which  gave  rise  to  some 
trouble.  Under  the  “Tenure  of  Office”  act  the  presi- 
dent could  not  remove  a cabinet  officer  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  Senate,  but  on  August  12,  1867,  Johnson 
suspended  Stanton,  and  appointed  Grant  secretary  of 
war  ad  interim.  Grant  protested,  but  retained  the 
office  until  January  12, 1868.  When  the  Senate  refused 
to  confirm  the  suspension,  Johnson  ordered  Grant  to 
disregard  Stanton’s  orders,  which  the  general  declined 
to  do,  unless  instructed  in  writing  by  the  president. 
On  February  21st  the  president  appointed  Lorenzo 
Thomas,  the  adjutant  general  of  the  army,  secretary  of 
war.  On  February  24th  the  impeachment  proceedings 
against  Johnson  began. 

Grant’s  action  throughout  this  unpleasant  affair  met 
with  the  general  approval  of  the  people.  In  1868  the 
Republican  national  convention  met  at  Chicago,  and 
Ulysses  Simpson  Grant  was  unanimously  nominated  for 
the  presidency.  In  his  letter  of  acceptance  he  made 
use  of  the  famous  phrase,  “ Let  us  have  peace.”  Horatio 
Seymour,  of  New  York,  was  nominated  by  the  Demo- 
cratic party,  but,  in  the  election  which  followed,  Grant 
received  the  electoral  vote  of  twenty-six  States,  and 
Seymour  of  only  eight.  Grant’s  electoral  votes  numbered 
218,  Seymour’s  80;  Mississippi,  Texas  and  Virginia  did 
not  vote.  On  March  4,  1809,  Grant  was  inaugurated 
as  president.  He  nominated  as  his  cabinet:  for  secretary 
of  state,  E.  B.  Washburne  (who  resigned  in  a few  days, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Hamilton  Fish);  secretary  of  the 
treasury,  Geo.  S.  Boutwell ; secretary  of  war,  John  A. 
Rawlins ; secretary  of  the  navy,  Adolph  E.  Borie ; 
secretary  of  the  interior,  Jacob  D.  Cox;  postmaster 
general,  John  A.  J.  C reswell ; attorney-general,  E. 
Rock  wood  Hoar. 

At  this  time  the  condition  of  the  currency  and  the 
public  credit  was  the  most  important  subject  requiring 
the  attention  of  congress.  General  Grant  took  strong 
ground  in  his  inaugural  message  in  regard  to  the  honest 
discharge  of  ffie  national  indebtedness.  He  declared  1 


6569 

that  the  government  bonds  should  be  paid  in  lawful 
money.  “ Let  it  be  understood,”  he  said,  “ that  no  re- 
pudiator  of  the  public  debt  will  be  trusted  in  public 
place.”  Congress  acted  on  his  recommendation,  and  in 
March,  1869,  passed  an  act  entitled  “ An  Act  to 
Strengthen  the  Public  Credit.”  It  pledged  the  United 
States  to  discharge  its  indebtedness  in  coin,  excepting 
where  special  obligations  to  the  contrary  existed.  Gen- 
eral Grant  took  equally  strong  ground  on  the  question  of 
the  treatment  of  the  Indians,  and  made  great  reforms 
in  the  interior  departn.ent.  He  recommended  the 
adoption  of  the  fifteenth  amendment  to  the  constitution, 
and  when  it  was  ratified  by  the  required  number  of 
States,  he  sent  a special  message  to  congress,  in  which 
he  said:  “ I regard  this  as  a measure  of  greater  impor- 
tance than  any  one  act  of  the  kind  from  the  foundation 
of  the  government  to  the  present  date.” 

The  next  incident  of  importance  in  the  history  of 
Grant’s  administration  was  his  advocacy  of  the  annex- 
ation of  Santo  Domingo  to  the  United  States.  A com- 
mittee was  sent  to  investigate  it,  and  they  reported 
favorably  to  annexation,  but  the  Senate  was  opposed, 
and  the  treaty  failed  to  receive  the  necessary  two-thirds 
vote.  During  Grant’s  first  administration  the  first 
bill  for  the  funding  of  the  public  debt  at  a lower  rate  of 
interest  was  carried. 

Meantime  in  the  South  the  opposition  to  the  recon- 
struction measures  had  taken  the  form  of  oppression  of 
the  negroes,  while  armed  bands  under  the  title  of  the 
Ku-Klux-Klan  terrorized  the  newly  enfranchised  voters, 
and  prevented  the  expression  of  public  opinion.  To 
meet  this  state  of  affairs  congress  empowered  the  presi- 
dent under  certain  circumstances  to  suspend  the  writ  of 
habeas  corpus  in  disturbed  districts  and  to  use  the 
United  States  army  and  navy  to  suppress  insurrection. 
The  vigorous  measures  taken  by  President  Grant  under 
the  provisions  of  this  law  proved  sufficient  to  restore 
order. 

The  most  important  feature  of  Grant’s  foreign  policy 
during  his  first  term  was  the  negotiation  of  the  treaty 
with  Great  Britain  May,  1871,  known  as  the  treaty  of 
Washington.  Under  this  the  San  Juan  question  was 
referred  to  the  emperor  of  Germany  as  arbitrator,  and 
was  peacefully  settled.  Under  the  same  treaty  the 
claims  of  United  States  citizens  against  Great  Britain 
for  the  depredations  of  the  Alabama , Florida , and 
other  Confederate  cruisers  were  referred  to  the  court  of 
arbitration,  which  met  at  Geneva,  Switzerland.  This 
court  awarded  the  United  States  the  sum  of  $15,500,000, 
in  full  settlement  of  all  claims.  While  the  matter  was 
being  discussed,  Charles  Sumner,  of  Massachusetts,  made 
a demand  in  the  United  States  Senate  for  the  inclusion 
in  the  consideration  of  the  arbitrators  of  what  is  known 
as  the  claims  for  indirect  damage  to  commerce,  by  the 
transfer  of  freight  to  ships  of  neutral  powers.  This 
damage,  he  claimed,  amounted  to  $200,000,000.  The 
arbitrators  refused  to  consider  the  question  of  indirect 
claims,  the  damages  for  direct  claims  were  paid,  and 
this  episode,  which  for  years  had  threatened  to  disturb 
the  peace  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States, 
was  happily  ended.  In  May,  1872,  congress  passed  an 
amnesty  bill,  restoring  practically  all  who  had  served 
the  South  during  the  war  to  their  civil  rights. 

Some  dissatisfaction  had  arisen  in  the  Republican 
party  during  Grant’s  term,  and  a number  of  disgruntled 
Republicans  called  a convention  at  Cincinnati,  which 
styled  itself  “Liberal  Republican.”  This  convention 
placed  in  nomination  for  the  presidency,  Horace 
Greeley,  the  editor  of  the  New  York  Tribune.  The 
Democratic  convention  indorsed  the  nomination  of 
Greeley.  The  Republican  convention  which  met  in 
Philadelphia,  June  5,  1872,  renominated  Grant,  and 


G R A 


6570 

thoroughly  indorsed  his  administration.  At  the  election 
which  followed  General  Grant  received  286  electoral 
votes,  while,  had  Greeley  lived,  only  66  votes  would 
have  been  cast  for  him.  The  votes  of  Arkansas  and 
Louisiana  were  not  counted,  on  account  of  fraud. 
General  Grant’s  second  term  of  office  was  marked  by  a 
continuation  of  the  same  policy  as  prevailed  in  the  first. 
The  capture  by  Spain  of  the  American  filibustering  ves- 
sel, the  Virginius , and  the  execution  of  its  captain  and 
crew,  gave  rise  to  a clamor  for  war  against  Spain.  But  the 
president,  acting  with  promptness  and  firmness,  suc- 
ceeded in  averting  the  collision,  and  received  full  apol- 
ogy and  reparation.  Difficulties  arose  in  Louisiana, 
Arkansas,  Texas,  and  Mississippi,  between  the  Demo- 
crats and  Republicans,  but  these  were  handled  vigor- 
ously by  General  Sheridan  under  the  instructions  of  the 
president.  In  April,  1874,  congress  passed  what  be- 
came known  as  the  “ Inflation  Bill  ” and  Grant  per- 
formed a service  to  his  country  by  vetoing  it.  The 
arguments  contained  in  his  veto  message  were  unanswer- 
able, and  no  act  of  General  Grant’s  administration  was 
more  highly  approved  of  by  the  people  at  large  than 
this.  In  June,  1875,  the  Resumption  Act  was  passed, 
embodying  largely  the  views  of  the  president.  Under 
this  bill  the  paper  money  of  the  United  States  rapidly 
appreciated  to  a gold  standard,  and  the  danger  of  an  in- 
convertible and  degraded  currency  was  averted. 

During  1875  it  became  known  to  the  United  States 
authorities  that  a gigantic  ring  existed  among  public 
officers,  revenue  officials,  and  manufacturers  of  whisky, 
for  the  purpose  of  defrauding  the  internal  revenue. 
Much  of  the  money  thus  raised  had  been  used  for  elec- 
tion purposes,  and  the  revenue  robbers  were  strongly 
intrenched  in  high  places.  General  Grant  issued  an 
order  for  the  prosecution  of  all  the  guilty,  without  re- 
spect of  persons,  closing  with  his  epigrammatical  “ Let 
no  guilty  man  escape.  ” 

In  September,  1875,  General  Grant,  while  in  attend- 
ance upon  an  army  reunion  at  Des  Moines,  Iowa, 
struck  the  keynote  on  a subject  of  vital  interest  to  the 
American  people.  Speaking  on  the  question  of  educa- 
tion, he  said:  “ Let  us  labor  for  the  security  of  free 
thought,  free  speech,  free  press,  pure  morals,  unfettered 
religious  sentiments,  and  equal  rights  and  privileges  for 
all  men,  irrespective  of  .nationality,  color,  or  religion; 
encourage  free  schools,  resolve  that  not  one  dollar  ap- 
propriated to  them  shall  go  to  the  support  of  any  sec- 
tarian school;  resolve  that  neither  State  nor  nation 
shall  support  any  institution  save  those  where  every 
child  may  get  a common  school  education,  unmixed 
with  any  atheistic,  pagan  or  sectarian  teaching;  leave 
the  matter  of  religious  teaching  to  the  family  altar,  and 
keep  church  and  state  forever  separate.” 

As  the  end  of  Grant’s  second  term  approached  the 
question  of  his  successor  began  to  be  actively  mooted, 
and  a New  York  journal  of  wide  circulation  published 
a series  of  alarmist  articles,  in  which  it  professed  to  be- 
lieve that  the  election  of  Grant  for  a third  term  meant 
the  advent  of  a Caesar  and  a Catiline.  General  Grant 
had  no  idea  of  accepting  a third  term,  and  recognized 
the  existence  of  a sentimental  feeling  on  the  part  of  the 
American  people  against  exceeding  the  term  of  Wash- 
ington. He  retired  on  March  4,  1877,  from  the  office 
which  he  had  filled  for  eight  years,  and  Rutherford  B. 
Hayes  was  peacefully  inaugurated. 

On  May  17,  1877,  General  Grant  sailed  from  Phila- 
delphia for  a trip  round  the  world*  He  was  accom- 
panied by  his  wife  and  one  of  his  sons,  and  an  immense 
crowd  gathered  to  bid  him  farewell.  Wherever  he  went 
in  England  or  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  in  India, 
China,  Japan  and  Mexico,  he  was  received  by  princes 
and  people  with  every  manifestation  of  respect.  In 


England  he  was  welcomed  by  Queen  Victoria  and  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  and  was  presented  with  freedom 
of  London  and  other  great  cities.  After  a visit  to 
Berlin,  Where  he  met  Prince  Bismarck,  Count  Moltke 
and  other  distinguished  men,  and  a tour  through  the 
continent,  he  made  a cruise  through  the  Mediterranean 
in  a United  States  man-of-war  which  had  been  placed 
at  his  disposal,  visiting  also  Egypt  and  Palestine. 
From  Bombay  to  Calcutta  his  reception  was  of  the 
character  of  a royal  progress.  At  Pekin  he  was  the 
guest  of  Prince  Rung,  and  in  Japan  of  the  Mikado. 
On  September  20th  he  landed  at  San  Francisco,  and  his 
journey  east  was  one  continued  series  of  demonstrations. 
Early  in  1880  he  visited  Mexico  and  Cuba  and  traveled 
through  the  Southern  States.  He  retired  to  his  old 
home,  Galena,  III.,  where  he  settled  down  in  a modest 
house  presented  him  by  some  friends.  During 
the  months  which  followed  there  was  much  agi- 
tation of  his  name  as  a candidate  for  the  presi- 
dency, and  when  the  Republican  national  conven- 
tion met  in  Chicago  in  June,  1880,  his  name  was 
presented  by  Senators  Conkling,  Logan,  and  Cameron. 
The  opposition  was  divided  principally  between  John 
Sherman  and  James  G.  Blaine,  but  finally,  after  a most 
exciting  contest,  extending  over  several  days,  the 
nomination  wras  given  to  James  A.  Garfield.  General 
Grant  in  1881  removed  to  New  York.  Notwithstand- 
ing that  he  had  been  at  the  head  of  the  greatest  and 
most  successful  of  armies  and  for  eight  years  chief  of  a 
nation  of  50,000,000  people,  he  was  a comparatively 
poor  man.  He  invested  his  moderate  capital  in  a bank- 
ing concern  in  New  York,  bearing  the  name  of  “ Grant 
& Ward,”  in  which  his  sons  were  interested,  but  he 
took  no  part  in  its  management.  Two  of  the  partners 
in  this  firm  robbed  their  associates  and  the  public,  and 
in  1884  General  Grant  found  himself  financially  ruined. 
Under  these  circumstances  he  accepted  an  offer  to  con- 
tribute a series  of  articles  on  his  principal  campaigns  to 
a magazine,  and  thus  the  old  soldier  earned  his  bread. 
Although  he  had  never  before  engaged  in  literary  work, 
he  proved  himself  a clear  and  lucid  writer,  and  his  con- 
tributions to  the  history  of  the  war  are  of  great  value. 

In  the  summer  of  1884  General  Grant  first  noticed  a 
soreness  of  his  mouth  and  throat,  and  on  consultation 
with  a physician  the  trouble  was  pronounced  to  be  of  a 
cancerous  nature.  It  grew  worse  rapidly,  and  it  was 
soon  known  to  him  that  his  days  were  numbered. 
Then  with  a heroism  transcending  his  most  gallant 
conduct  on  the  battle-field,  the  slowly  dying  man  sat 
himself  down  to  provide,  by  the  preparation  of  his  own 
memoirs,  for  those  who  were  nearest  and  dearest  to 
him.  On  March  4,  1885,  congress  restored  him  to  the 
army  rank  which  he  had  resigned  on  accepting  the 
■presidency,  and  thus  with  the  pay  of  a general  on  the 
retired  list  he  was  secured  from  want.  Suffering  con- 
stant agony  and  unable  to  speak,  he  toiled  ceaselessly  at 
his  memoirs,  his  last  page  being  written  only  four  days 
before  his  death.  This  occurred  on  July  23,  1885,  at 
Mount  McGregor,  near  Saratoga,  N.  Y.  He  was 
given  a public  funeral,  with  all  the  honors  befitting  his 
high  character  and  matchless  services  to  the  republic, 
the  interment  taking  place  on  August  8th,  at  Riverside, 
N.  Y.,  Overlooking  the  Hudson  river.  General  Grant’s 
widow,  it  is  pleasant  to  know,  benefited  largely  by  the 
sale  of  her  husband’s  last  work,  and  is  also  in  receipt 
of  a pension  of  $5,000  a year.  She  resides  in  New 
York.  Her  daughter  Nellie,  who  in  1874  married  Mr. 
Algernon  Sartoris,  of  England,  resided  in  that  country 
until  her  separation  from  her  husband  in  1891. 

GRANVILLE,  Earl  (The  Right  Hon.  Gran- 
ville George  Levison-Gower,  K.  G.),  eldest  son  of 
the  first  earl,  born  May  11,  1815;  was  educated  at  Eton 


GR  A 


and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  took  his  degree 
,;n  1834.  He  became  an  attache  to  the  embassy  at 
Paris  in  1835,  and  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons  for  the  borough  of  Morpeth  in  1836,  being  reelected 
in  1837.  In  1840  he  accepted  the  appointment  of 
under- secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  which  he  held 
for  some  months,  and  shortly  after  took  his  seat  as 
member  for  Lichfield.  While  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons he  supported  the  Liberal  party,  and  was  an  able 
and  consistent  advocate  of  free  trade.  In  1846  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  peerage,  in  1848  was  appointed  vice- 
president  of  the  board  of  trade,  in  1851  obtained  a seat 
in  the  cabinet,  and  in  December  of  that  year  he  suc- 
ceeded Lord  Palmerston  in  the  foreign  office,  retiring 
with  the  Russell  ministry  early  in  1852.  Lord  Gran- 
ville, who  had  held  the  offices  of  master  of  the  buck- 
hounds,  paymaster-general  of  the  forces,  chancellor  of 
the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  and  treasurer  of  the  navy,  was 
appointed  president  of  the  council  in  1853,  and  in  1855 
undertook  the  ministerial  leadership  in  the  House  of 
Lords.  In  1850  Lord  Granville  acted  as  vice-president 
of  the  royal  commission  for  the  great  exhibition,  of 
which  he  was  one  of  the  most  diligent  working 
members,  and  accepted  in  the  autumn  of  i860 
the  chairmanship  of  the  commission  of  the  great 
exhibition  of  1862.  In  1856  he  was  sent  upon 
an  extraordinary  mission  to  the  court  of  St.  Peters- 
burg as  representative  of  the  English  nation  at 
the  coronation  of  Alexander  II.  Lord  Granville, 
who  retired  with  Lord  Palmerston’s  first  ministry  in 
1858,  was  re-appointed  president  of  the  council  (having 
failed  in  an  attempt  to  form  a ministry  himself),  in 
Lord  Palmerston’s  second  administration  in  1859,  anc* 
retired  on  the  fall  of  Lord  Russell’s  second  administra- 
tion in  1866.  Lord  Granville  was  made  lord  warden  of 
the  Cinque  Ports  in  December,  1865.  In  December, 
1868,  his  lordship  accepted  office  under  Mr.  Gladstone 
as  colonial  secretary,  and  retained  that  position  until 
July,  1870,  when  he  was  appointed  secretary  for  foreign 
affairs  in  succession  to  the  late  earl  of  Clarendon.  He 
occupied  the  latter  position  until  the  resignation  of  the 
Liberal  cabinet  in  February,  1874.  Early  in  the  following 
year,  when  Mr.  Gladstone  retired  from  the  leadership  of 
the  opposition,  Lord  Granville  became,  by  general  con- 
sent, the  leader  of  the  Liberal  party  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
Lord  Hartington  being  chosen  as  its  spokesman  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  On  Mr.  Gladstone  returning  to 
power  in  May,  1880,  Earl  Granville  again  became 
secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs.  In  Mr.  Glad- 
stone’s ministry  of  1886  Lord  Granville  was  secretary  of 
State  for  the  colonies.  He  died  March  31,  1891. 

GRAVES,  William  Jordan,  born  in  Newcastle, 
Ky. , in  1805;  became  a member  of  the  State  legislature 
in  1834,  and  served  in  congress  as  a Whig  from  1835  to 
1841.  In  1838  he  fought  a duel  at  Bladensburg,  Md., 
with  Jonathan  Cilley,  a fellow  congressman,  in  which 
the  latter  was  killed.  Graves  sat  in  .the  Kentucky  legis- 
lature in  1843,  and  died  in  1848. 

GRAY,  Albert  Z.,  born  in  New  York  city  in  1840; 
served  during  the  Civil  war  as  an  army  chaplain,  and 
after  holding  several  pastorates,  was  elected  in  1882 
warden  of  Racine  ( Wis. ) College  (Protestant  Episcopal). 
He  died  February  16,  18S9. 

GRAY,  Asa,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  born  at  Paris,  N.  Y., 
November  18,  1810;  graduated  M.D.  at  Fairfield 
Medical  College  in  1831,  but  soon  relinquished  the 
practice  of  medicine  and  devoted  himself,  under  Profes- 
sor Torrey,  of  New  York,  to  the  study  of  botany.  In 
1834  he  received  the  appointment  of  botanist  of  the 
United  States  Exploring  Expedition,  but  declined  it. 
In  1842  he  was  elected  Fisher  professor  of  Natural 
History,  of  Harvard  College.  In  addition  to  his  lect- 


6571 

tires  at  Cambridge  he  delivered  three  courses  of  lectures 
before  the  Lowell  Institute  in  Boston.  He  published 
in  1836  his  Elements  of  Botany , enlarged  into  the 
Botanical  Text-Book,  and  in  1838  began,  with  Doctor 
Torrey,  the  Flora  of  North  America.  He  published  in 
1848  The  Manual  of  Botany  for  the  Northern  United 
States,  and  the  first  volume  of  the  Genera  Boreali- 
Americana  Illustrata,  and  the  first  volume  of  his 
botany  of  the  United  States  Pacific  Exploring  Expedi- 
tion under  Captain  Wilkes  in  1854.  He  afterwards 
published  the  following  works,  mostly  text-books:  How 
Plants  Grow,  Lessons  in  Botany,  with  Dratvings  from 
Nature,  The  School  and  Field  Book  of  Botany , The 
Manual  of  Botany,  Structural  and  Systematic  Botany 
(new  edition  in  1879);  a revised  edition  of  the  Botanic- 
al Text-Book  with  1,300  illustrations;  Flora  of  the 
Southern  United  States,  Free  Examination  of  Dar- 
win's Treatise,  1861 ; Darwiniana , 1876;  New  Flora 
of  North  America,  1878;  Natural  Science  and  Religion, 
1880;  and  Synoptical  Flora  of  North  America,  1884. 
He  visited  Europe  in  1838-9  and  in  1850-1,  and  con- 
tributed numerous  papers  to  scientific  periodicals,  and 
to  the  transactions  of  learned  societies.  In  1874  he 
was  chosen  one  of  the  regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, and  in  1878  the  Aeademie  des  Sciences  of  Paris 
elected  him  a corresponding  member  in  the  section  of 
botany.  He  died  January  30,  1888. 

GRAY,  E,  Dwyer,  member  of  parliament  for  Dub 
lin,  son  of  the  late  Sir  John  Gray,  member  of  parliament 
for  Kilkenny,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1845.  He  was* 
lord  mayor  of  Dublin  in  1880,  and  high  sheriff  in  1882. 
He  unsuccessfully  contested  Kilkenny  on  the  death  of 
Sir  John  Gray  in  1875,  and  was  elected  in  1877  for  Tip- 
perary and  in  1880  for  Carlow  County,  for  which  he  was 
again  returned  in  1885,  but  elected  to  sit  for  Dublin. 
He  succeeded  Sir  John  Gray  as  proprietor  of  Free- 
man's Journal,  the  leading  Irish  newspaper,  and  was 
also  the  proprietor  of  the  Belfast  Morning  News,  both 
Nationalist  organs.  He  took  a very  active  part,  both 
personally  and  as  the  conductor  of  the  above  named  pa- 
ers,  in  all  the  popular  movements  in  Ireland  during 
is  last  twenty  years.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Dublin 
Mansion  House  Committee,  by  which  $900,000  was  col- 
lected for  the  relief  of  distress  in  Ireland  in  1880. 
When  high  sheriff  of  Dublin  he  was  sentenced  by  Lord 
Justice  Lawson  to  three  months’  imprisonment  and  a 
fine  of  $2,500  for  contempt  of  court,  on  account  of 
comments  written  by  him  in  the  Freeman* s Journal, 
upon  alleged  misconduct  of  the  jury  which  was  trying 
Francis  Hynes  for  murder.  After  six  weeks  he  was 
liberated  by  order  of  the  judge,  the  fine  having  been 
paid  by  public  subscription.  Mr.  Gray  was  a member  of 
the  Irish  parliamentary  party,  took  an  active  part 
in  the  promotion  of  sanitary  and  municipal  reform 
in  Dublin,  and  was  a member  of  the  royal  commission 
on  the  housing  of  the  working  classes,  appointed  in 
1884.  He  died  March  27,  1888. 

GRAY,  Elisha,  born  in  Ohio,  August  2,  1835  ; was 
educated  at  Oberlin  College.  He  made  experiments 
with  telegraphy,  and  obtained  his  first  patent  in  1867. 
In  1876  he  invented  a telephone,  and  in  1877  a multi- 
plex telegraph,  and  took  out  more  than  fifty  patents 
for  improvements  in  telegraph  apparatus  and  telephones. 
In  1893  he  announced  his  invention  of  the  telautograph, 
for  transmitting  autograph  messages.  Died  Jan.,  1901. 

GRAY,  Henry  Peters,  artist,  was  born  in  New 
York  city  in  1819,  and  died  there  in  18 77.  From  1869 
to  1871  he  was  president  of  the  National  Academy,  and 
he  painted  a large  number  of  historical  paintings  and 
portraits. 

GRAY,  Horace,  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1828; 
became  a lawyer  in  1851,  and  in  succession  reporter, 


6572  GRA- 

associate,  and  in  September,  1883,  chief  justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  State.  In  1882  he  was  made 
associate  justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court, 
which  position  he  still  holds. 

GRAY,  Isaac  Pusey,  born  in  Chester  county,  Pa., 
in  1828;  served  in  the  war,  practiced  law  in  Indiana, 
held  various  offices  as  a Democrat  and  was  elected 
Governor  in  1884.  In  March,  1893,  he  was  appointed 
by  President  Cleveland,  minister  to  Mexico,  where  he 
died,  February  14,  1895. 

GRAY,  John  Hamilton,  born  in  Bermuda  in  1814; 
became  a lawyer  in  Canada,  entered  parliament,  acted 
as  umpire  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
under  the  Washington  treaty  jn  1857,  and  in  1872  be- 
came judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  British  Columbia. 

GRAY,  John  Perdue,  born  in  Pennsylvania,  1825, 
died  Nov.  29,  1886,  was  for  many  years  at  the  head  of 
the  New  York  State  Insane  Asylum  at  Utica,  and  edi- 
ted the  American  Journal  of  Insanity. 

GREELY,  Adolphus  W.,  was  born  at  Newbury- 
port,  Mass.,  March  27,  1844.  Entering  the  volunteer 
service,  he  attained  the  rank  of  captain  during  the  Civil 
war,  and  at  its  close  was  transferred  to  the  regular 
army  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant.  In  1868  he  was 
placed  in  the  signal  service,  and  in  1881  was  assigned 
to  the  command  of  the  Lady  Franklin  Bay  expedition 
to  northern  Greenland.  After  suffering  extreme  and 
terrible  hardships,  Greely  and  a few  surviving  members 
of  his  command  were  rescued  in  1884,  by  an  expedition 
sent  to  his  relief  by  the  United  States  Government. 
Lieutenant  Greely  has  the  honor  of  having  reached  the 
farthest  point  north  of  any  Arctic  explorer.  He  pub- 
lished an  account  of  the  expedition  in  1886,  under  the 
title  of  Three  Years  of  Arctic  Sei'vice.  In  1887  he 
became  chief  of  the  United  States  signal  service,  which 
position  he  held  for  some  years. 

GREEN,  Anna  Katherine,  novelist,  daughter  of 
James  Wilson  Green,  a lawyer,  who  has  held  public 
positions  in  New  York  and  elsewhere,  was  born  at 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  educated  at  Ripley  College, 
Poultney,  Vt.  She  has  published  the  Leavenworth  Case , 
1878;  A Strange  Disappearance,  1879;  The  Sword  of 
Damocles , 1881;  The  Defense  of  the  Bride , and  other 
poems,  1882;  X Y Z,  1883;  Hand  and  Ring,  1883; 
The  Mill  Mystery,  1886.  On  November  24,  1884,  she 
was  married  to  Mr.  Charles  Rohlfs,  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

GREEN,  John  Richard,  born  at  Oxford,  England, 
in  1837,  was  ordained  in  the  Church  of  England  in 
i860,  and  acted  as  a pastor  until  1868,  when  he  became 
librarian  of  Lambeth  Palace,  London.  His  principal 
works  are  a Short  History  of  the  English  People  (1874), 
and  a History  of  the  English  People , and  The  Making 
of  England  (1883).  He  died  at  Mentone,  Nice,  March 
9,  1883. 

GREEN,  Norvin,  born  in  New  Albany,  Ind.,  April 
17,  1818;  practiced  medicine,  and  served  three  terms 
in  the  legislature  of  Kentucky.  In  1854  he  became 
connected  with  the  telegraph  service,  and  from  1878 
was  president  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Com- 
pany, until  his  death,  February  12,  1893. 

GREEN,  Samuel  Abbott,  physician,  was  born  in 
Massachusetts,  March  16,  1830.  He  graduated  in  medi- 
cine in  1854,  and  during  the  Civil  war  was  post-surgeon 
and  staff-surgeon,  and  had  charge  of  the  hospital  ships. 
He  was  brevetted  lieutenant-general  of  volunteers  for 
his  services.  From  1865  to  1872  he  was  superintendent 
of  the  Boston  dispensary,  and  from  1871  to  1880  city 
physician  of  Boston,  of  which  city  he  was  in  1882  elected 
mayor. 

GREEN,  Seth,  born  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  in  1817  ; 
died  there  in  August,  1888.  He  devoted  most  of  his 
life  to  the  artificial  propagation  of  food-fishes  and  was 


GRE 

instrumental  in  stocking  the  lakes  and  streams  of  the 
United  States  with  many  millions  of  valuable  fish. 
Mr.  Green  was  State  superintendent  of  fisheries  for 
New  York,  was  decorated  by  the  Societe  d' acclimation 
of  Paris,  and  wrote  books  on  fish  culture. 

GREENAWAY,  Kate,  artist,  born  in  England  in 
1855;  studied  at  the  South  Kensington  School  of  Design, 
and  has  become  well  and  favorably  known  by  her  quaint 
illustrations  of  children’s  books  and  her  pictures  of  little 
boys  and  girls.  Died  in  1901. 

GREENE,  Charles  Ezra,  born  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  February  12,  1842;  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1862,  and  served  in  the  Union  army  during  the  Civil 
war.  In  1872  he  became  professor  of  civil  engineer- 
ing in  the  University  of  Michigan. 

GREENE,  Charles  Gordon,  born  in  New  Hamp- 
shire in  1804;  edited  for  many  years  the  Boston  States- 
man, and  in  1831  established  the  Boston  Post.  He 
died  December  7,  1886. 

GREENE,  George  Washington,  author,  was  a 
randson  of  Gen.  Nathanael  Greene  (y.z/.),  and  was 
orn in  Kent  county  R.  I.,  in  1811.  He  wrote  lives  of  his 
grandfather  and  other  biographical  and  historical 
works,  and  from  1837  to  1845  was  United  States 
consul  at  Rome.  He  died  February  2,  1883. 

GREENE,  Nathaniel,  brother  of  Charles  Gordon 
Greene,  noticed  above,  was  born  in  New  Hampshire  in 
1797;  was  for  many  years  connected  with  journalism, 
and  in  1829  was  appointed  postmaster  of  Boston.  He 
died  in  1877. 

GREENE,  Samuel  Dana,  born  in  Cumberland, 
Md.,  February  11,  1839;  graduated  at  Annapolis,  and 
in  1861  volunteered  for  service  on  the  iron-clad  Monitor. 
He  had  charge  of  the  guns  during  her  fight  with  the 
Merrimac,  and  commanded  her  after  Lieutenant 
Worden  had  been  disabled.  After  the  sinking  of  the 
Monitor  in  December,  1862,  he  served  on  blockade 
duty,  and  in  1872  became  commander.  He  also  held 
various  appointments  in  connection  with  the  naval 
academy,  and  died  December  11,  1884. 

GREENE,  Samuel  Stillman,  born  in  Massachu- 
setts, May  3, 1810;  was  for  many  years  connected  with 
educational  matters  in  that  State  and  in  Rhode  Island. 
In  1855  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  and  civil 
engineering  in  Brown  University,  and  in  1864  was  made 
professor  of  astronomy  there,  retaining  the  last  position 
until  his  death  in  1884. 

GREENE,  Theodore  P.,  born  in  Montreal,  Can- 
ada, November  1,  1809;  removed  to  Vermont,  and 
entered  the  United  States  navy  as  midshipman  in  1826. 
He  became  commander  in  1855  and  did  considerable 
service  with  the  gulf  squadrons  during  the  war.  In 
1867  he  was  made  commodore  and  had  charge  of  the 
Pensacola  navy  yard  until  1871.  In  March,  1872,  he 
became  rear-admiral  on  the  retired  list  and  he  died 
August  30,  1887. 

GREENE,  William  Batchelder,  born  at  Haver- 
hill, Mass.,  April  4,  1819;  studied  at  West  Point,  and 
served  in  the  Florida  war,  resigning  in  1841.  He  be- 
came connected  with  the  Brook  Farm  socialistic  experi- 
ment, and  was  afterward  a Unitarian  minister.  He 
served  in  the  infantry  and  afterward  in  the  artillery 
during  the  early  part  of  the  Civil  war.  He  died  May 
30,  1878. 

GREENE,  William  Houston,  bom  in  Columbia, 
Penn.,  December  30,  1854,  graduated  in  medicine  and 
became  demonstrator  in  chemistry  at  Jefferson  College 
and  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  is  a member 
of  many  scientific  societies  and  has  translated  and  edited 
several  works  on  chemistry. 

GREENER,  Richard  Theodore,  born  in  Phila 
delphia,  January  30,  1844;  studied  at  Oberlin  and 


GRE 


Phillips’  Andover  Academy,  and  was  the  first  colored 
raduate  of  Harvard  (1870).  For  several  years  he 
eld  a professorial  chair  in  the  University  of  South 
Carolina,  and  from  1877  to  1882  was  dean  of  the  law 
faculty  of  Howard  University.  He  has  written  ad- 
dresses on  Garrison,  Sumner,  and  other  prominent 
abolitionists. 

GREENLEAF,  Jonathan,  clergyman,  was  born  in 
Massachusetts  in  1785  and  died  in  1865.  He  wrote 
numerous  historical  pamphlets,  and  served  for  twenty- 
two  years  as  a Presbyterian  minister. 

GREEN  WALD,  Emanuel,  born  in  Maryland, 
January  13,  1811;  died  December  21,  1885.  He  was 
licensed  to  preach  by  the  Lutheran  synod  in  1831,  and 
held  pastorates  until  his  death.  He  was  the  author  of 
numerous  theological  works. 

GREER,  James  Augustin,  born  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
February  28,  1833;  entered  the  United  States  navy  in 
1848;  commanded  the  Benton  and  a division  at  Vicks- 
burg, and  was  with  the  Red  river  expedition.  In  1873 
he  participated  in  the  Polaris  search  expedition,  having 
command  of  the  Tigress.  He  became  captain  in  1870 
and  commodore  ten  years  later. 

GREGG,  Alexander  P.,  born  in  South  Carolina, 
October  8,  1819;  entered  the  Protestant  Episcopal  min- 
istry in  1846,  and  became  rector  in  the  same  year.  In 
1859  he  was  elected  bishop  of  Texas,  which  position  he 
held  till  his  death  in  Galveston,'  July  11,  1893. 

GREGG,  Andrew,  born  in  Carlisle,  Penn.,  June 
10,  1755;  became  a member  of  congress  in  1791,  and 
served  as  such  until  1807,  from  which  year  until  1813  he 
was  one  of  the  United  States  senators  from  Pennsyl- 
vania. In  1816  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  of 
his  native  State;  and  he  died  in  1835. 

GREGG,  David  McMurtrie,  born  in  Huntingdon, 
Penn.,  April  10,  1833;  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1855.  In  January,  1861,  he  became  colonel  of  a Penn- 
sylvania cavalry  regiment,  and  was  engaged  in  the  Pe- 
ninsular campaign.  Lie  commanded  a division  of  caval- 
ry in  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  and  from  August,  1864, 
as  major-general  of  volunteers,  had  full  command  of  the 
cavalry  arm  of  that  army.  In  1874  he  became  United 
States  consul  at  Prague,  Bohemia. 

GREGG,  John  Irvin,  grandson  of  Senator  Andrew 
Gregg,  above-mentioned,  was  born  in  Bellefonte,  Penn., 
July  19,  1826.  He  enlisted  as  a private  in  the  Mexi- 
can war,  and  came  out  a captain.  In  May,  1861,  he 
was  commissioned  captain  of  United  States  cavalry. 
He  commanded  a cavalry  brigade  in  the  army  of  the 
Potomac  from  April,  186J,  to  April,  1865,  and  was 
severely  wounded.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was 
brevetted  major-general  of  volunteers  and  brigadier- 
general  United  States  army.  In  July,  1868,  he  became 
colonel  of  the  8th  cavalry,  and  died  in  1892. 

GREGG,  William,  born  in  Donegal,  Ireland,  July 
5,  1817;  studied  at  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh,  and  in 
1846  came  to  Canada  as  a missionary  preacher  of  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland-  For  ten  years  he  was  minis- 
ter of  a church  at  Belleville,  Ont.,  and  from  1857  to 
1872  of  a church  in  Toronto.  In  1872  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  apologetics  in  Knox  College,  Toronto. 

GREGORI,  Luigi,  artist,  was  born  in  Bologna, 
Italy,  July  8,  1819;  studied  in  Rome  and  at  the 
academy  of  his  native  city,  and  for  several  years  was 
engaged  in  the  restoration  of  old  paintings  in  the  Vati- 
can galleries.  In  1874  he  came  to  the  United  States 
and  became  director  of  the  art  museum  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Notre  Dame,  Indiana.  In  1891,  returned  to  Italy. 

GREGORY,  Daniel  Seeley,  born  in  Putnam 
county,  N.  Y.,  August  2j,  1832;  graduated  at  Prince- 
ton in  1857,  and  held  pastorates  in  Illinois,  New  York 
and  Connecticut  until  1871,  when  he  became  professor  . 
42-J 


6573 

of  metaphysics  and  logic  in  Wooster  University,  Ohio. 
In  1879  he  became  president  of  Lake  Forest  University, 
Cook  county,  Illinois. 

GREGORY,  Frank  M.,  artist,  born  at  Mansfield, 
Penn.,  October  21,  1848;  is  well  known  as  a painter, 
both  in  oil  and  water  color,  and  has  also  executed  many 
etchings  and  designs. 

GREGORY,  John  Milton,  born  in  New  York 
State,  July  6,  1822;  became  a Baptist  clergyman,  and  in 
1858  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of 
Michigan.  He  was  afterward  president  of  the  Kalama- 
zoo College  and  of  the  Illinois  Industrial  University  at 
Champaign;  from  1882  to  1885  he  was  a member  of  the 
Civil  Service  Commission. 

GRESHAM,  Walter  Q.,  born  in  Harrison  county, 
Ind.,  March  17,  1832;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1853.  He  was  elected  to  the  State  Legislature  in 
i860,  but  resigned  to  accept  a commission  in  an 
Indiana  regiment.  Colonel  Gresham  was  severely 
wounded  at  Atlanta  and  received  the  brevet  of  major- 
general  of  volunteers  for  his  gallantry.  In  1869  he  was 
appointed  United  States  judge  for  the  district  of  Indiana 
by  President  Grant,  and  in  1880  he  was  prominently 
mentioned  for  United  States  senator.  In  April,  1882, 
he  resigned  from  the  bench  to  become  postmaster- 
general  under  President  Arthur,  and  on  the  death  of 
Secretary  Folger,  in  July,  1884,  he  became  secretary  of 
the  treasury.  In  October,  1884,  he  was  appointed 
United  States  judge  for  the  seventh  circuit.  He  re- 
ceived 123  votes  for  president  in  the  Republican  conven- 
tion in  1888,  became  a Democrat  in  1892  and  in  March, 
1893,  became  Secretary  of  State.  He  died  May  28,  1895. 

GREY,  Earl  (The  Right  Hon.  Henry  Grey, 
K.G.),  born  December  28,  1802;  the  eldest  son  of  the 
late  earl,  who  was  premier  in  1830-34;  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  as  Lord  Howick  was 
returned  to  the  House  of  Commons  in  1826  as  member 
for  Winchelsea,  in  1830  for  Higham  Ferraras,  at  the 
general  election  of  1831  for  Northumberland,  and  after 
the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  for  the  northern  division 
of  that  county.  On  the  formation  of  his  father’s  minis- 
try he  was  appointed  under-secretary  for  the  colonies, 
but  in  1833  resigned  in  consequence  of  the  determination 
of  the  cabinet  not  to  attempt  the  immediate  emancipa- 
tion of  slaves.  He  afterward  held  for  a short  period 
the  post  of  under-secretary  for  home  affairs,  and  on 
the  formation  of  the  Melbourne  administration  in  1835 
became  secretary  of  war.  Having  at  the  general  elec- 
tion of  1841  lost  his  seat  for  Northumberland,  which  he 
had  represented  for  ten  years,  he  was  returned  in  Sep- 
tember of  that  year  for  Sunderland,  and  exercised  his 
powers  as  a debater  in  opposition  to  the  Peel  govern- 
ment. Lord  Howick  succeeded  his  father  as  third  Earl 
Grey,  July  17,  1845,  and  on  the  construction  of  a Whig 
cabinet  by  Lord  J.  Russell,  in  1846,  accepted  the  posi- 
tion of  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies,  resigning 
with  his  colleagues  in  1852.  Lord  Grey,  who  figured 
prominently  in  the  opposition  to  Lord  Derby,  was  not 
included  in  the  “ coalition  ” cabinet,  did  not  approve  the 
policy  of  Lord  Aberdeen’s  cabinet  in  declaring  war 
against  Russia,  and  explained  his  peculiar  view.;  on  this 
question  in  a long  speech,  May  25,  1855.  Tor  many 
ears  he  spoke  but  very  rarely  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
ut  he  frequently  wrote  long  and  weighty  letters  to  the 
Times  on  the  questions  of  the  day.  His  lordship  was 
the  author  of  Colonial  Policy  of  Lord  Russell's  Admin* 
istration,  1853,  and  of  Essay  on  Parliamentary  Govern - 
ment  as  to  Reform,  1858,  of  which  a new  edition  ap- 
peared in  1864.  He  died  October  9,  1894. 

GREVY,  Francois  Jules  Pole,  ex-president  of 
the  French  Republic,  was  born  at  Mont-sous-Vaudrey, 
in  the  Jura,  August  15,  1807.  He  was  educated  in  the 


<5574  G 

college  of  Poligny,  afterward  studied  law  in  Paris,  and 
in  due  course  was  admitted  an  advocate.  He  took  part 
in  the  revolution  of  July,  1830,  and  was  subsequently 
much  employed  at  the  bar  as  a defender  of  members  of 
the  Radical  party,  who  were  charged  with  the  commis- 
sion of  political  offenses.  In  1848  he  was  appointed 
commissary  of  the  provincial  government  in  his  depart- 
ment, and  was  returned  to  the  constituent  assembly, 
heading  a list  of  the  successful  candidates  for  the  Jura. 
As  a member  of  the  committee  of  justice  and  vice- 
president  of  the  assembly,  M.  Grevy  frequently  ascended 
the  tribune  and  proved  himself  to  be  one  of  the  most 
able  speakers  among  the  democratic  party.  While 
maintaining  an  independent  attitude,  far  removed  from 
the  socialists,  and  not  so  far  from  the  “mountain,”  he 
usually  voted  with  the  extreme  left.  Above  all,  his 
name  is  connected  with  a radical  amendment  on  the 
question  of  the  presidency.  He  proposed  that  articles 
41,  43,  and  45  of  the  constitution  should  run  in  the 
following  terms:  “ Article  41.  The  national  assembly 
delegates  the  executive  power  to  a citizen  who  receives 
the  title  of  president  of  the  council  of  ministers.” 
“ Article  43.  The  president  of  the  council  of  ministers 
is  appointed  by  the  national  assembly  by  secret  ballot 
and  by  an  absolute  majority  of  votes.”  “Article  45. 
The  president  of  the  council  is  elected  for  an  un- 
limited period.  The  appointment  is  always  revoca- 
ble.” This  amendment  was  rejected  by  633  votes 
to  158  at  the  sitting  of  October  7,  1848,  when 
the  assembly  decided  that  the  president  of  the  re- 
public should  be  elected  by  universal  Suffrage 
and  hold  office  for  four  years.  After  the  election  of 
December  10,  M.  Grevy  opposed  the  government  of 
Louis  Napoleon,  and  protested  against  the  expedition 
to  Rome.  After  the  coup  d'etat  he  held  aloof  from 
politics,  and  confined  himself  to  the  practice  of  his  pro- 
fession. In  1868  he  was  appointed  batonnier  of  the 
order  of  advocates,  and  the  following  year  he  was 
again  returned  as  deputy  for  the  Jura.  On  February 
17,  1871,  M.  Grevy  was  elected  president  of  the  national 
assembly,  then  sitting  at  Bordeaux,  and  afterward 
removed  to  Versailles ; and  in  discharging  the  duties  of 
this  important  office,  he  displayed  remarkable  tact, 
judgment  and  moderation.  He  resigned  this  office  in 
April,  1873,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  M.  Buffet.  In 
October,  1873,  he  published  a pamphlet  entitled  The 
Necessary  Government , in  which  he  declared  that  France 
had  been  transformed  and  had  become  a pure  democ- 
racy, that  “ her  first  mistake  was  not  to  have  founded  a 
constitutional  monarchy,  when  she  possessed  the  ele- 
ments of  one,”  and  that  “ her  second  mistake  would  be 
to  attempt  to  establish  one  when  those  elements  no 
longer  exist.”  At  the  general  election  of  February, 
1876,  he  was  returned  to  the  National  Assembly  by 
the  arrondissement  of  Dole,  in  the  department  of  the 
Jura,  and  on  the  meeting  of  the  Chamber  he  was 
elected  its  president.  He  was  reelected  by  the  new 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  November  10,  1877,  and  aga-in 
in  January,  1879.  After  the  resignation  of  Marshal 
MacMahon,  M.  Grevy  was  elected  president  of  the 
republic  for  seven  years,  on  January  30,  1879,  when 
563  votes  were  recorded  in  his  favor,  ninety-nine  being 
given  to  General  Chanzy  (against  his  will),  five  for  M. 
Gambetta.  one  each  for  General  Ladmirault,  the  Due 
LAumale,  and  General  Gallifet.  On  the  expiration  of 
this  period,  he  was  again  elected  for  a second  time,  in 
1885,  but  retired  in  December,  1887,  and  was  succeeded 
by  M.  Sadi  Carnot.  M.  Grevy  died  September  9,  1891. 

GRIER,  Robert  Cooper,  born  in  Cumberland 
county,  Penn.,  March  5,  1794;  died  in  Philadelphia, 
September  26,  1870.  He  became  a lawyer  and  judge 
in  his  native  state  and,  in  1846,  was  appointed  by 


R I 

President  Polk  justice  ol  the  United  States  Gupfgfn* 
Court,  which  office  he  held  until  his  death. 

GRIER,  William  Nicholson,  born  in  Pennsyl- 
vania  in  1812;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1835;  served 
on  the  frontier  and  in  Mexico  and  was  brevetted  major 
in  1848.  He  was  acting  inspector-general  of  the  army 
of  the  Potomac  in  1861-62,  was  wounded  at  Williams- 
burg and  later  was  detailed  on  recruiting  service.  He 
Was  brevetted  brigadier-general  United  States  army, 
and  in  August,  1866,  became  colonel  of  the  3d  cavalry. 
He  retired  in  1870  and  died  in  July,  1885. 

GRIERSON,  Benjamin  Henry,  born  in  Pittsburgh, 
Penn.,  July  8,  1826;  joined  the  volunteer  service  from 
Illinios  early  in  1861,  and  by  December,  1862,  had  com- 
mand of  a brigade  of  cavalry.  He  was  engaged  in 
cavalry  operations  in  Tennessee,  Mississippi,  and 
Arkansas,  and  in  1867  was  brevetted  brigadier  and 
major-general  United  States  army.  After  the  war  he 
commanded  the  district  of  the  Indian  Territory,  and  in 
November,  1886,  that  of  New  Mexico. 

GRIFFIN.  Charles,  born  in  Ohio  in  1826;  grad- 
uated at  West  Point,  and  served  in  the  Mexican  war 
and  against  the  Navajo  Indians.  From  1859  to  1861 
he  was  instructor  of  artillery  at  West  Point.  At  Mal- 
vern Hill,  second  Bull  Run,  Antietam,  Fredericksburg, 
Gettysburg,  and  in  the  Wilderness  he  commanded  a 
division,  and  at  Lee’s  surrender  he  received  the  arms 
and  colors  of  the  army  of  Northern  Virginia.  lie  was 
brevetted  brigadier  and  major-general  in  the  regular 
army,  commanded  the  district  of  Maine,  and  in  1867 
the  district  of  Texas,  with  headquarters  at  Galveston. 
The  yellow  fever  broke  out  and  he  was  ordered  to 
transfer  his  headquarters  to  New  Orleans,  bat  refused 
to  leave,  caught  the  fever,  and  died  September  15, 
1867. 

GRIFFIN,  Simon  Goodell,  born  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, August  9,  1824,  practiced  law  in  Concord  until 
i860,  and  entered  the  volunteer  service  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Civil  war.  He  was  at  both  battles  of 
Bull  Run,  at  Chantilly,  Antietam,  and  Fredericksburg, 
and  after  the  latter  (May,  1863),  Was  given  a brigade, 
with  which  he  operated  against  Vicksburg.  In  1864 
he  commanded  a brigade  in  the  Wilderness,  and  on 
June  16th  stormed  the  Confederate  lines  at  Petersburg 
and  captured  1,000  prisoners.  He  was  mustered  out 
as  brevet  major-general,  and  in  1866-68  served  in  the 
New  Hampshire  legislature,  being  speaker  of  the  lower 
house  for  two  terms. 

GRIFFITHS,  John  Willis,  born  in  New  York 
city,  October  6,  1809;  died  in  April,  1882.  He  acquired 
prominence  as  a naval  architect;  designed  a number  of 
ships  of  war,  and  invented  many  new  features  in  ship 
building.  He  was  the  author  of  a Treatise  on  Marine 
and  Naval  Architecture 

GRIGSBY,  Hugh  Blair,  born  in  Norfolk,  Va., 
November  22,  1S06;  represented  his  native  County  in 
the  legislature  and  State  convention,  and  devoted  himsefr 
to  literature.  In  1871  he  became  chancellor  of  William 
and  Mary  College.  He  died  April  28,  1881. 

GRIMES,  James  Wilson,  born  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, October  20,  1816,  rerhoyed  in  1836  to  Burlington, 
now  in  Iowa,  then  in  Michigan  Territory.  He  sat  in 
the  Iowa  territorial  legislature  and  in  that  of  the  State, 
and  from  1854  to  1858  served  as  governor.  In  1859  he 
became  United  States  senator,  and  was  reelected  ir 
1865.  He  was  a cohsistent  Republican,  but  a man  of 
independent  character,  and  he  Was  one  of  the  few  Repub- 
lican senators  who  voted  “not  guilty”  in  the  impeach* 
ment  trial  of  Andrew  Johnson.  Senator  Grimes  re- 
signed his  seat  in  December,  1869,  in  consequence  of 
impaired  health,  and  died  at  Burlington,  February  7, 
1872 


G R 1 - 

GRIMSIiAW,  William,  born  in  Ireland  in  1782; 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1815,  and  settled  in  Phila- 
delphia. He  was  the  author  of  several  school  histories, 
dictionaries  and  other  works.  He  died  in  1852. 

GRIINTNELL,  Julius  S.,  born  November  13,  1842, 
in  St.  Lawrence  county,  N.  Y. ; graduated  at  Middle- 
bury  College,  Vt.,  in  1866.  He  became  principal  of 
Ogdensburg' (N.  Y.)  Academy,  studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  at  Schenectady  in  1868.  He  re- 
moved to  Chicago  in  December,  1870,  was  elected  city 
attorney  on  the  Democratic  ticket  in  1879,  1881,  and 
1883,  and,  in  the  fall  of  1884,  was  elected  state’s  attorney 
of  Cook  county,  which  office  he  resigned  on  December 
1,  1887,  having  been  elected  judge  of  the  circuit  court. 
During  his  incumbency  of  the  state’s  attorneyship, 
Judge  Grinnell  prosecuted  the  anarchists  for  the  Hay- 
market  murders,  and  secured  convictions  against  the 
“b.oodle”  county  commissioners.  He  resigned  in  1891, 
to  become  general  counsel  for  the  Chicago  City  Ry.  Co. 

GRISI,  Giulia,  was  born  at  Milan,  in  1810,  died  at 
Berlin,  1869,  and  from  1832  was  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated operatic  singers  in  Europe.  She  married  in 
1856,  Mario,  the  great  tenor,  with  whom  she  sang  in 
America. 

G RISWOLD,  Alphonso  M.,born  in  Oneida  county, 
N.  Y.,  January  26,  1834;  became  well  known  as  editor 
of  Texas  Siftings.  He  died  in  March,  1891. 

GRISWOLD,  Rufus  Wilmot,  born  in  Benson, 
Vt.,  February  15,  1815;  died  in  New  York  city,  August 
27,  1857.  At  first  a printer  and  then  a clergyman,  he 
finally  devoted  himself  to  literature,  editing  in  suc- 
cession Graham's  Magazine  from  1841  until  1843,  the 
New  Yorker , Brother  Jonathan,  and  New  World,  the 
last  three  in  connection  with  Horace  Greeley  and  Park 
Benjamin.  In  1852  he  edited  the  International  Maga- 
zine, a semi-eclectic  monthly  publication  issued  in  New 
York  city.  On  the  death  of  Poe  he  became  his  literary 
executor,  and  did  much  to  lower  the  public  estimate  of 
Foe’s  character.  Griswold’s  volumes  on  the  many 
poets  and  poetesses  of  America  are  not  without  histor- 
ical interest,  although  he  absurdly  endeavored  to  sus- 
tain the  shallow  claims  of  many  incompetent  versifiers. 

GROSS,  Samuel  David,  bornat  Easton,  Penn.,  July 
8,  1805;  graduated  in  medicine  in  1828,  and  filled  the 
chairs  of  anatomy  and  surgery  in  the  Medical  Cbllege 
of  Ohio,  the  University  of  Louisville,  the  University  of 
New  York,  and  in  Jefferson  Medical  College.  He 
wrote  extensively  for  medical  publications,  and  made 
many  valuable  contributions  to  operative  surgery.  He 
was  made  D.C.L.  of  Oxford,  and  LL.  D.  of  Cambridge 
University,  England.  He  died  in  1884. 

GROSS,  Samuel  W.,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was 
born  in  Cincinnati  in  1837,  served  in  the  Union  army 
as  brigade  surgeon,  and  was  brevetted  lieutenant- 
colonel.  He  was  attached  to  several  colleges  in  Phila- 
delphiaas  surgeon  and  professor  of  clinical  surgery,  and 
wrote  many  valuable  papers  on  anatomy  and  diseases 
of  various  organs.  He  died  April  16,  1889. 

GROSS,  William  Hickley,  born  in  Baltimore, 
June  13,  1837,  entered  the  Redemptorist  order  in  1857, 
and  was  ordained  priest  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  1863.  On  April  27,  1873,  he  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  Savannah,  and  in  1884  became  archbishop  of  Oregon, 
which  dignity  he  still  holds. 

GROVER,  Cuvier,  born  in  Maine,  July  24,  18^9; 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1850;  served  on  the  frontier 
with  the  artillery,  and  became  captain  of  infantry.  In 
April,  1862,  he  was  commissioned  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers,  joined  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  and  fought 
at  Williamsburg,  Fair  Oaks,  and  the  second  Bull  Run. 
He  commanded  a division  of  the  nineteenth  corps  from 
December,  1862,  to  July,  1864;  was  wounded  at  Cedar 


-GUI  6575 

Creek,  and  brevetted  brigadier  and  major-general 
United  States  army  in  March,  1865.  After  the  close 
of  the  war  he  returned  to  frontier  duty,  and  finally  be- 
came colonel  of  the  1st  cavalry,  which  rank  he  held  at 
his  death,  June  6,  1885. 

GROW,  GalusHa  Aaron,  born  in  Windham 
County,  Conn.,  August  31,  1824;  practiced  law  from 
1847,  and  in  1850  was  elected  to  congress,  as  a'Democrat, 
from  Susquehanna  county,  fenn.,  to  which  fie  had  re- 
moved. He  severed  his  connection  with  the  Democratic 
party  on  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise,  and 
was  a strong  advocate  of  the  homestead  law.  In  the 
thirty-seventh  congress  he  served  as  speaker  from  July 
4,  1861,  to  March  4,  1863.  Afterward  he  was  chairman 
of  the  Republican  State  central  committee  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, became  connected  with  a Texas  railroad  as  presi- 
dent, and  returned  to  Pennsylvania  in  time  to  take 
part  in  the  presidential  campaign  of  1876.  He  declined 
the  post  of  minister  to  Russia  in  1879.  He  was 
elected  congressman  at  large  from  Pennsylvania  in 
1894. 

GRUNDY,  Felix,  born  in  Berkeley  county,  Va.; 
September  11,  17 77  ; died  in  Nashville,  Tenn.,  Decem- 
ber 19,  1840.  In  1799  he  was  chosen  a member  of  the 
Kentucky  constitutional  convention,  and  from  that 
time  until  i8o6  served  as  a member  of  the  legislature. 
He  was  appoihted  judge  oFthe  supreme  court  of  errors 
and  appeals  in  1806;  in  March,  1807,  became  chief 
justice.  In  1808  he  removed  to  Nashville,  Tenn. ; in 
1811  was  sent  to'  congress  as  a Democrat,  and  reelected 
in  1813.  In  1819  he  was  a member  of  the  legislature  of 
Tennessee;  in  1820  a commissioner  to  fix  the  boundary 
line  between  Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  and  in  1829  be- 
came United  States  senator,  to  fill  the  unexpired  term  of 
John  H.  Eaton.  Later  he  was  elected  to  fill  that  place 
as  a partisan  of  Andrew  Jackson.  In  1838  he  served 
for  a few  months  as  United  States  attorney-general 
during  the  administration  of  Martin  Van  Buren;  re- 
signing this  office  he  was  immediately  reelected  to  the 
United  States  Senate.  In  politics  Grundy  favored 
low  tariff  and  the  compromise  bill  of  1833. 

GUESS,  George,  a Cherokee  half  breed,  born  in 
1770,  died  in  1843,  who  invented  a Cherokee  alphabet, 
of  eighty-five  characters,  representing  single  sounds, 
said  to  be  the  most  perfect  alphabet  ever  devised. 

GUICClOLI,  Teresa  Gamba,  Countess,  born  in 
the  Romagna,  Italy,  in  1801 ; married  Count  Guiccioli 
in  1817.  A few  years  later  she  formed  a liaison  with 
Lord  Byron,  which  lasted  until  his  death,  in  1824.  In 
1851  she  contracted  a second  marriage  with  the  Mar- 
quis de  Boissy,  who  died  in  1866.  In  1869  she  pub- 
lished her  Recollections  of  Lord  Byron.  She  died 
March  27,  1873. 

GUILD,  ReuEen  A.,  born  in  Massachusetts,  May 
4,  1822;  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1847,  and 
the  follbwing  year  took  charge  of  the  library  there, 
which  position  he  has  since  held.  He  has  written 
articles  on  Free  Masonry,  a manual  for  librarians,  his- 
tories of  his  university,  and  other  works. 

GUITEAU,  Charles  Julius,  assassin  of  President 
Garfield,  was  born  in  Freeport,  111.,  September  8,  1841. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  but  achieved  no  success 
as  a lawyer,  and  published  some  pamphlets  setting  forth 
his  Views  on  various  moral  questions,  which  were  of 
the  most  erratic  character.  He  married,  but  his  wife 
obtained  a divorce  from  him,  and  he  obtained  a precari- 
ous living  by  lecturing  and  writing.  He  had  been  a 
member  of  the  Oneida  community,  but  was  expelled 
from  that  body.  Guiteau  became  an  office-seeker  and 
persistently  solicited  an  appointment  as  consul  from 
President  Garfield.  Enraged  at  being  refused,  he  lay 
in  wait  for  the  president,  and  shot  him,  July  2,  1 881 , 


6576  GUL- 

He  was  tried  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  found  guilty  of 
murder,  and  executed  June  30,  1882. 

GULL,  Sir  William  Withey,  Bart.,  M.D., 
F.R.S.,  was  born  December  31,  1816,  being  the 
youngest  son  of  Mr.  John  Gull,  of  Thorpe-le-Soken, 
Essex.  He  was  educated  privately,  and  subsequently 
pursued  his  medical  studies  at  Guy’s  Hospital.  He 
graduated  M.B.  in  1841  and  M.D.  in  1846,  at  the 
London  University.  Doctor  Gull  was  Fullerian  pro- 
fessor of  physiology  at  the  Royal  Institution  of  Great 
Britain  in  1847-9;  was  elected  a fellow  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians  in  1848;  and  for  twenty  years 
acted  as  physician  and  lecturer  to  Guy’s  Hospital,  retir- 
ing from  that  position  about  1867,  though  he  resumed 
his  connection  with  the  institution  in  1871  by  accepting 
the  post  of  consulting  physician.  On  January  20,  1872, 
he  was  created  a baronet,  in  recognition  of  the  services 
rendered  by  him  during  the  severe  illness  of  the  prince 
of  Wales,  at  the  close  of  the  previous  year,  and  in  the 
following  month  he  was  appointed  one  of  her  majesty’s 
physicians  extraordinary.  In  1883  he  resigned  the 
position  which  for  twelve  years  he  had  held  in  the 
general  medical  council  as  one  of  the  crown  members. 
Sir  William  Gull  was  president  of  the  Clinical  Society, 
a fellow  of  the  Royal  Medical  Chirurgical  Society,  a 
member  of  the  General  Medical  Council,  an  honorary 
doctor  of  the  Civil  Law  of  Oxford  (1868),  and  a fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  (1869).  He  was  the  author  of 
Gulstonian  Lectures  on  Paralysis , of  Treatises  on 
Hypochondriasis , and  on  Abscess  of  the  Brain,  Reports 
on  Epidemic  Cholera , drawn  up  at  the  desire  of  the 
cholera  committee  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians 
1 in  conjunction  with  Dr.  William  Baly),  1854;  An 
Oration  delivered  before  the  Hunterian  Society , Febru- 
ary ij,  1861;  Clinical  Observation  in  Relation  to  Medi- 
cine in  Modern  Times , an  Address  delivered  in  the 
Divinity  School,  Oxford , on  the  occasion  of  the  meeting 
of  the  British  Association  in  that  city  in  1868 , and  the 
Harveian  Oration , delivered  at  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians,  London,  June  24,  1870.  Sir  W.  Gull  was 
also  a frequent  contributor  to  the  reports  of  Guy’s 
Hospital.  His  specialty  was  in  clinical  practice.  He 
died  in  1890,  leaving  the  largest  fortune  ever  amassed 
by  a practicing  physician. 

GUNGL,  Josef,  a Hungarian  musician,  born  De- 
cember 1,  1810;  died  January  31,  1889.  He  was  noted 
as  an  orchestral  leader,  and  was  the  composer  of  more 
than  300  pieces  of  dance  music. 

GUNTHER,  Albert  Charles  Lewis  Gotthilf, 
M.A.,  Ph.D.,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  born  at  Esslingen  (Wiir- 
temberg),  October  3,  1830,  and  educated  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Tubingen,  Berlin,  and  Bonn;  entered  the 
service  of  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum  in  1858, 
and  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  department  of  zoology 
in  1875.  Since  that  time  he  has  devoted  himself  exclu- 
sively to  the  administration  of  the  extensive  collections 
under  his  charge.  Doctor  Gunther  is  a member  of 
several  academies  and  learned  societies  at  home  and 
abroad.  He  has  published  Die  Fische  des  Neckars , 
Stuttgart,  1853;  Medicinische  Zoloogie , Stuttgart, 
1858;  Catalogue  of  Colubrine  Snakes  in  the  Collection 
of  the  British  Museum,  London,  1858;  Catalogue  of 
Bairachta  Salientia , in  the  Collection  of  the  British 
Museum,  1859;  The  Reptiles  of  British  India,  1864; 
Catalogue  of  Fishes,  vols.  1-8,  London,  1859-70;  The 
Fishes  of  the  South  Seas,  Hamburg,  1873-78;  The 
Gigantic  Land  Tortoises,  Living  and  Extinct,  Lon- 
don, 1877;  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Fishes, 
.Edinburgh,  1880;  and  numerous  papers  in  the  Philosoph- 
ical Transactions,  the  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  and 
Linnean  Societies  and  other  periodicals.  He  is  the 
founder  of  the  Record  of  Zoological  Literature , of 


-GUY 

which  he  has  edited  the  first  six  volumes  (1864-70),  and 
co-editor  of  the  Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natural 
History. 

GUROWSKI,  Adam,  born  in  Kalisz,  Poland, 
September  10,  1805  ; died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  May 
4,  1866.  His  father  was  a Polish  nobleman,  who  lost 
his  estates  in  the  insurrection  against  Russia  in  1794. 
Young  Gurowski  studied  at  the  gymnasium  of  Warsaw, 
from  which  he  was  expelled  for  political  reasons,  and 
finished  his  education  in  Germany.  In  1825  he  re- 
turned to  Poland,  and  at  the  time  of  the  revolution  of 
1830  was  compelled  to  retire  to  France  for  safety. 
During  several  years  he  lived  in  Paris,  where  in  1835 
he  published  La  verite  sur  la  Russie,  an  argument  in 
favor  of  uniting  the  Slavonic  race  under  a single  head. 
The  appearance  of  this  book  gave  him  favorable  con- 
sideration with  the  government  of  the  Czar,  and  Gur- 
owski was  called  home,  to  be  employed  in  the  Russian 
civil  service.  In  1844  he  went  to  Heidelberg  for  study, 
and  during  two  years  lectured  on  political  economy  at 
the  University  of  Berne,  Switzerland  ; later  he  went  to 
Italy.  In  1849  Gurowski  came  to  the  United  States, 
and  in  1861-62  he  became  translator  in  the  State  de- 
partment. His  published  volumes  in  the  French,  Ger- 
man, and  English  languages  had  little  hold  on  the 
public.  In  this  country  he  printed  Russia  as  It  Is, 
(New  York,  1854);  The  Turkish  Question  (1854); 
A Year  of  the  IVar  (1855) ; A?nerica  and  Europe 
(1857) ; Slavery  in  History  (i860);  and  My  Diary , 
notes  on  the  Civil  war  (3  vols.,  1862-66). 

GUTHRIE,  Samuel,  chemist,  was  born  in  Massa- 
chusetts in  1782,  and  died  October  19,  1848.  He  was 
one  of  the  original  discoverers  of  chloroform,  and  was 
adjudged  to  have  been  the  first  to  publish  an  account  of 
its  therapeutic  effects. 

GUYOT,  Arnold,  born  in  Bondevilliers,  Switzer- 
land, September  28,  1807;  died  in  Princeton,  N.  J., 
February  8,  1884.  He  was  educated  at  the  college  of 
Neuchatel,  and,  in  1825,  went  to  Germany  for  several 
years,  to  perfect  his  studies.  In  1827  he  returned  to 
Neuchatel,  became  a clergyman,  and,  two  years  later, 
began  a course  of  lectures  at  the  University  of  Berlin. 
With  his  theological  study  he  combined  philosophy  and 
natural  science.  In  1835  he  ~etired  from  the  university 
with  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  Afterward,  for  four  years, 
he  was  private  tutor  in  Paris,  and,  in  1838,  examined 
the  Swiss  glaciers,  and  communicated  the  result  of  his 
investigations  to  the  Geological  Society  of  France.  In 
1839  Guyot  returned  to  Neuchatel,  where  he  became 
coadjutor  of  Agassiz  in  the  college,  as  professor  of 
history  and  physical  geography.  In  1848  he  came  to  the 
United  States,  settled  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  and  made 
his  first  public  appearance  as  a lecturer  at  the  Lowell 
Institute,  in  a series  of  lectures  entitled  “ Earth  and 
Man,”  published  in  Boston  in  1853.  Later  he  became 
lecturer  on  geography  and  methods  of  tuition,  and  in 
1854  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  geology  and  physi- 
cal geography  at  Princeton,  N.  J.  He  delivered  lect- 
ures in  the  State  Normal  School  at  Trenton,  at  several 
theological  seminaries,  in  Columbia  College,  and  at  tne 
Smithsonian  Institution.  Healsofounded  the  Princeton 
museum.  Professor  Guyot  was  a member  of  several 
scientific  societies,  and  in  1873  was  made  LL.D.  by 
Union  College.  Between  1866  and  1875  he  prepared  a 
series  of  popular  geographies  and  wall- maps  that  were 
favorably  received,  and  wrote  many  articles  on  physical 
geography  and  kindred  subjects  for  Johnson's  New 
Universal  Cyclopcedia . 

GUY,  Seymour  Joseph,  artist,  born  in  England, 
January  16,  1824;  removed  to  this  country  in  1854, 
and  became  an  academician  in  1865,  and  one  of  the 
original  members  of  the  American  Society  of  Painters 


G U Z — H A D 


in  Water  Colors.  His  subjects  are  chiefly  of  a popular 
character. 

GUZMAN-BLANCO,  Antonio,  born  in  Caracas, 
Venezuela,  in  1830;  was  engaged  in  various  insurrec- 
tionary movements  prior  to  1863,  when  he  became 
vice-president  of  the  republic.  He  visited  England  to 
negotiate  a loan,  and  on  his  return  was  elected  president 
of  congress.  In  1869  he  headed  another  revolution,  in 
1870  became  president  in  a provisional  government  and 
was  practically  dictator  of  the  country.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  General  Alcantara,  who  died  in  1878,  and 
after  several  revolutionary  risings  Guzman- Blanco 
again  became  president.  In  1883  he  was  made  ambas- 
sador to  France,  and  in  1886  again  assumed  the  presi- 
dency, which  he  held  until  June,  1888. 

GWIN,  William,  born  in  Colnmbus,  Ind.,  Decem- 
ber 5,  1832;  entered  the  United  States  navy  as  a midship- 
man in  1847.  He  was  engaged  in  the  blockade  of  the 

H 

HAAG,  Carl,  R.  W.  S.,  a painter,  born  at  Erlangen, 
Bavaria,  in  1820;  began  his  artistic  education  at 
the  Academy  of  Nuremberg  in  1837,  afterward  contin- 
uing it  at  Munich  and  Rome.  In  1847  he  settled  in 
England,  and  his  admiration  for  the  perfection  of  Eng- 
lish water  color  painting  induced  him  to  abandon  oil, 
and  adopt  water  color  in  preference.  In  1850  he  was 
elected  a member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Painters  in 
Water  Colors.  He  has  been  a constant  contributor  to 
the  exhibitions  of  that  society,  the  subjects  of  his  earlier 
pictures  being  chiefly  from  the  Tyrol,  Dalmatia  and 
Montenegro.  Mr.  Haag  is  an  honorary  member  of  the 
Societi6  Royale  des  Aquarellistes  of  Brussels.  He  re- 
ceived the  Royal  Bavarian  Cross  of  Merit  in  1872.  In 
1874  he  became  an  officer  of  the  Order  of  the  Medjidie, 
and  in  1878  a Knight  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  of  France. 

HABBERTON,  John,  was  born  in  Brooklyn  in 
1842.  From  1859  until  he  entered  the  army  in  1862  he 
was  connected  with  the  publishing  house  of  Harper 
Brothers.  He  was  literary  editor  of  the  Christian 
Union  from  1873  to  I^76,  and  since  then  has  been  an 
editorial  writer  on  the  New  York  Herald.  His  first 
literary  work  was  a series  of  sketches  of  Western  life. 
This  was  followed  by  a volume  of  Selections  f rom  the 
Spectator , 1876,  and  in  the  same  year  appeared 

Helen's  Babies , of  which  nearly  a quarter  of  a million 
copies  have  been  sold  in  the  United  States.  He  has 
since  written  The  Barton  Experiment , 1876;  The  Jeri- 
cho Road , 1877;  Other  People's  Children , 1877;  The 
Scripture  Club  of  Valley  Rest , 1877;  Some  Folks , 
1877;  The  Crew  of  the  Sam  Weller,  1878;  Little  Guzzy, 
1878;  The  Worst  Boy  in  Town , 1879;  Just  One  Day , 
1880;  Who  Was  Paul  Grayson?  1880;  Bows  ham 
Puzzle , 1884;  George  Washington,  1884;  and  Couldn't 
Say  No,  1890. 

HACKETT,  Horatio  Batch,  born  in  Salisbury, 
Mass.,  December  27,  1808;  graduated  at  Amherst  in 
1830,  and  studied  in  Germany.  He  became  a tutor  at 
Amherst,  professor  of  ancient  languages  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity, and  in  1839  professor  of  Biblical  literature  in 
Newton  Theological  Institute,  which  last  position  he 
held  until  1869.  In  1870  he  became  professor  of  Greek 
in  Rochester  Theological  Seminary,  and  died  Novem- 
ber 2,  1875.  He  was  one  of  the  American  revisers  of 
the  Bible,  and  was  the  author  of  many  important  works. 

HACKETT,  James  Henry,  actor;  was  born  in  New 
York  city,  March  15,  1800,  and  died  in  Jamaica,  L.  I., 
December  28,  1871.  Early  in  life  he  had  been  con- 
nected with  an  amateur  dramatic  company,  and  in  1816 
appeared  on  several  occasions,  under  a fictitious  name, 


6577 

Atlantic  ports,  participated  in  the  naval  attacks  on 
Fort  Henry  and  Fort  Donelson  and  in  the  expech 
tion  up  the  Yazoo  river.  He  was  killed  while  in  com- 
mand of  the  Benton  during  the  attack  on  Haines 
Bluff,  Miss.,  January  3,  1863. 

GWINNETT,  Button,  born  in  England  about 
1732;  settled  in  South  Carolina  and  removed  to  Georgia 
in  1765.  He  sat  in  the  Continental  Congress  and 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  Afterward  he 
held  various  offices  under  the  State  government.  On 
May  15,  1777,  he  fought  a duel  with  General  Lachlan 
McIntosh,  and  received  injuries  which  caused  his  death. 

G WYNNE,  John  Wellington,  born  in  county 
Dublin,  Ireland,  March  30,  1814; came  to  Canada  in 
1832,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1837.  In  1868  he 
became  a judge  of  the  common  pleas  in  Ontario,  and 
in  1879  was  appointed  a justice  of  the  Supreme  Court. 


at  a small  play-house  in  Newark,  N.  J.  He  opened  at  the 
Park  theater.  New  York,  as  “ Justice  Woodcock  ” in  Love 
in  a Village,  which  was  followed  by  the  part  of  “ Syl- 
vester Daggerwood,”  in  which  he  gave  a medley  of  dra- 
matic imitations  of  noted  players  and  Yankee  sketches. 
Thereafter  he  appeared  in  different  cities  in  the  Union, 
in  Yankee,  Western,  and  French  characters.  In  1827, 
1832,  1840,  1845,  and  1851  he  crossed  the  ocean  and 
appeared  in  England  with  fair  success.  In  1829  the 
actor  became  co-lessee  of  the  Bowery  theater,  and  for 
a single  term  managed  the  Chatham.  In  1837  he  was 
lessee  of  the  New  York  National  theater,  and  became 
interested  in  the  Astor  Place  opera  house.  His  “ Ham- 
let ” was  a pronounced  failure;  his  “King  Lear”  was 
novel  and  interesting;  his  “ Falstaff  ” received  universal 
applause,  and  continued  a lasting  success.  In  1854  he 
entered  into  a profitable  arrangement  to  manage  for  a 
season  an  American  tour  of  the  noted  singers,  Grisi 
and  Mario.  In  1871  he  was  manager  of  the  How- 
ard Athenaeum  in  Boston. 

HACKLANDER,  Fredrich  Wilhelm  von, 
baron,  born  in  Germany,  November  1,  1816  ;•  died  July 
5,  1877.  He  was  the  author  of  many  comedies,  novels, 
and  books  of  travel. 

HADEN,  Sir  Francis  Seymour,  F.R.C.S.,  born 
September  16,  1818,  in  London,  England,  and  edu- 
cated at  University  College  and  at  the  Sorbonne, 
Paric.  He  became  in  1842  a member,  and  in  1857  a 
fellow,  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England. 
Mr.  Haden  is  the  author  of  certain  art  publications, 
which,  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  original 
engraving  as  it  was  practiced  by  the  old  masters,  and 
as  a relief  from  the  cares  of  practice,  have  acquired  for 
the  author  a European  reputation.  These  publications, 
began  in  1858,  and  still  going  on,  have  been  partly  art- 
istic and  partly  literary.  Mr.  Seymour  Haden  is  the 
possessor  of  one  of  the  finest  collections  of  the  etched 
works  of  the  old  masters,  particularly  of  Rembrandt, 
ever  formed,  and  on  which,  during  more  than  thirty 
years,  he  has  expended  a fortune.  On  the  other  hand, 
one  of  his  own  plates — that  of  the  Agamemnon — has 
realized,  chiefly  for  fhe  benefit  of  the  publishers,  upward 
of  $20,000.  Mr.  Seymour  Haden  is  president  of  the 
Society  of  Painter-Etchers,  and  a member  of  the  Athe- 
naeum Club.  He  is  also  vice-president  of  the  Obstet- 
rical Society  of  London. 

HADING,  Madame  Jane,  otherwise  Hadingue,  was 
born  at  Marseilles,  France.  At  the  age  of  three  she 
played  “Blanche  de  Caylus”  in  Le  Bossu , her  father 
at  the  same  time  playing  the  leading  character 


HAD— HAL 


657? 

Some  years  later  she  was  sent  to  the  Marseilles  Con- 
servatoire, where  she  won  considerable  distinction. 
On  leaving,  she  entered  upon  an  engagement  at  the 
Algiers  theater,  and  when  but  fourteen  played“Zouella,” 
in  Le  Passant , “ Stefano,”  in  Chef  d'ceuvre  in  Connu , 
the  blind  girl,  in  Les  Deux  Orphilines , and  “ Pedro,” 
in  Girofle-Girofla.  From  Algiers  she  went  to  Cairo  to 
perform  at  the  Khedive’s  theater.  She  returned  to 
Marseilles  in  1876,  and  for  a time  devoted  herself  to 
drama  and  comedy ; but  the  lyric  stage  again  attracted 
her,  and  she  went  to  Paris.  At  the  Palais  Royal  she 
played  “ La  Chaste  Susanna,”  and  at  the  Renaissance, 
in  1879,  she  was  the  original  “Jolie  Persane”  and 
“ Belle  Lurette,”  and  the  heroine  in  Heloise  and  Abe- 
lard. At  the  Gymnasium,  in  1883,  she  again  appeared 
in  comedy  as  “ Paulette,”  in  Autour  de  Mariage.  The 
piece  was  a failure,  but  Mme.  Hadingmade  a great  per- 
sonal success.  In  December,  1883,  she  was  the  original 
“Claire  de  Beaulieu,”  in  La  Maitre  de  Forges , and 
her  impersonation  of  the  part  confirmed  her  success. 
In  January,  1885,  she  appeared  in  this  character  in  Lon-- 
don  at  the  Royalty  theater,  and  in  1889  she  made  a 
successful  tour  of  the  United  States,  accompanied  by 
M.  Coquelin. 

HADLEY,  James,  born  in  Fairfield,  N.  Y.,  March 
30,  1821;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1842,  became  tutor  in 
mathematics  at  Middlebury  College,  and  in  September, 
1845,  tutor  of  classical  history  at  Yale.  In  1848  he 
was  appointed  assistant  professor,  and  in  1851  succeeded 
President  Theodore  D.  Woolsey  as  professor  of  Greek, 
which  position  he  held  until  his  death  in  November, 
1872.  He  was  a great  student  of  philology  and  civil 
law,  was  one  of  the  American  committee  for  the  re- 
vision of  the  New  Testament,  and  a member  of  several 
learned  societies. 

HAECKEL,  Ernst,  a celebrated  German  naturalist 
and  writer,  was  born  at  Potsdam,  Prussia,  February 
16,  1834,  and  studied  medicine  and  science  at  Wurz- 
burg, Berlin,  and  Vienna.  In  1859  he  went  to  Italy, 
and  studied  zoology  at  Naples  and  Messina,  returning 
in  1861  to  Jena,  where  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
zoology.  Between  1866  and  1875  he  traveled  over  the 
greater  part  of  Europe,  besides  visiting  Syria  and 
Egypt.  Later  he  visited  India  and  Ceylon,  and  pub- 
lished a lively  account  of  his  travels.  He  is  regarded 
in  Germany  as  the  foremost  supporter  of  Darwin’s 
theories.  Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned  Natural 
History  of  Creation  (7th  ed.,  1879);  The  Origin  of  the 
Hwnan  Race  (3rd  ed.,  1873);  Life  in  the  Deep  Seas , 
1870;  The  History  of  Warps  Development , 1877; 
Padiolana , 1887,  and  Siphonophora , i888„ 

PI  AENKE,  Thaddeus,  born  in  Bohemia,  October  5, 
1761;  studied  at  Prague  and  Bohemia,  and  for  the  purpose 
of  botanical  study  traveled  through  South  America. 
He  died  in  1817,  having  taken  poiso  i by  mistake,  and 
bequeathed  his  botanical  collection  to  his  native  country. 

HAGARTY,  Hon.  John  Hawkins,  D C. L.,  chief 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Ontario,  was  born  at 
Dublin  on  December  17,  1816.  He, entered  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  in  1832,  but  two  years  afterward  emi- 
grated to  Canada,  where,  in  1840,  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  of  the  upper  province.  He  was  made  a queen’s 
counsel  in  1850,  and  elevated  to  the  bench  in  1856.  In 
1868  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas, 
was  subsequently  transferred  to  the  queen’s  bench,  and 
in  1878  received  the  appointment  of  chief  justice  of 
Ontario,  which  he  still  holds. 

HAGEN,  Hermann  August,  born  in  Prussia, 
May  13,  1817;  graduated  at  Konigsburg,  and  practiced 
medicine.  In  1867  he  came  to  Cambridge,  Mass.,  as 
assistant  to  Prof.  Louis  Agassiz,  and  in  1870  became 
professor  of  entomology  at  Harvard,  He  has  written 


many  articles  on  his  favorite  study,  and  was  a fellow 
of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science.  He  died  in  Cambridge,  November  7,  1893. 

HAGGARD,  Henry  Rider,  was  born  in  England, 
June  22,  1856.  He  accompanied  Sir  Henry  Bulwer,  as 
secretary  to  Natal  in  1875,  and  formally  hoisted  the 
British  flag  over  Transvaal  territory  on  May  24,  1877. 
He  was  Master  of  the  High  Court  of  the  Transvaal,  and 
during  the  Zulu  war,  adjutant  and  lieutenant  of  the  Pre- 
toria Horse.  He  retired  from  the  Colonial  service  in 
1879.  He  published  in  1882  Cetewayo  and  His  White 
Neighbors , and  then  turned  his  attention  to  novel 
writing,  bringing  out  Dawn,  The  Witch's  Head  and 
in  1886  King  Solomon's  Mines , Which  won  him  im- 
mense popularity,  further  increased  by  his  wildly  ro- 
mantic story,  She.  He  has  since  written  Allan  Quar- 
termain,  Jess,  Mr.  Meespn's  Will,  Maiwa's  Revenge, 
Colonel  Quart tch,  V.  C. , Allan's  Wife , Cleopatra , The 
World's  Desire,  in  collaboration  with  Andrew  Lang, 
Eric  Bright-eyes,  Nada  the  Lily  (1892),  Montezuma' s 
l Daughter  and  The  People  of  the  Mist  (1894). 

HAGUE,  Arnold,  geologist,  was  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  December  3,  1840;  graduated  at  the  scientific 
school  of  Yale  in  1863,  and  for  several  years  studied  in 
Germany  at  Gottingen,  Heidelberg,  and  in  the  min- 
ing school  at  Freiberg.  In  1867  he  was  appointed 
assistant  on  the  United  States  geological  explora- 
tion, under  Clarence  King.  From  1867  to  1868 
he  was  in  California,  and  spent  the  winter  in  Nevada. 
He  contributed  a number  of  papers  to  the  United  States 
Government  reports.  In  1877  he  became  government 
geologist  of  Guatemala.  In  1878  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment employed  him  to  examine  the  mines  in  northern 
China.  In  1879  he  returned  to  the  United  States  and 
became  one  of  the  geologists  -jf  the  government  survey 
of  that  year.  In  1883  he  became  geologist  of  the  Yel- 
lowstone Park  division.  In  1885  he  was  chosen  a mem- 
ber of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences. 

HALDEMAN,  Samuel  Stehman,  born  in  Penn- 
sylvania, August  12,  1812;  died  September  10,  1880. 
He  was  educated  at  Harrisburg  and  Dickinson  College. 
In  1836  he  became  assistant  to  the  State  geologist  of 
New  Jersey,  and  in  the  year  following  he  acted  in  a 
similar  capacity  in  his  own  State.  This  last  engage- 
ment continued  un*il  1842,  during  which  time  he  pre- 
pared annual  reports,  and  personally  surveyed  Lancaster 
and  Dauphin  counties.  In  1842-43  he  lectured  on 
zoology  at  the  Franklin  Institute  in  Philadelphia,  and  in 
1851  became  professor  of  natural  sciences  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania.  He  continued  as  such  until  1855, 
when  he  accepted  the  same  position  at  Delaware  Col- 
lege. He  had  also  given  lectures  on  geology  and  chem- 
istry in  the  State  Agricultural  College  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  from  1869  to  the  time  of  his  death  occupied  the 
chair  of  comparative  philology  in  the  University  ot  Penn- 
sylvania. He  also  wrote  several  handbooks  on  orthog- 
raphy, orthoepy,  and  etymology,  and  in  1851  gained  a 
prize  for  his  essay  on  Analytical  Orthography.  He 
was  founder  and  president  of  the  Philological  Society, 
and  from  1851  to  1852  edited  the  Pennsylvania  Farm- 
ers' Journal. 

HALDIMAND,  Sir  Frederick,  was  born  in  Switz- 
erland in  October,  1718;  died  June  5,  1791.  He  be- 
gan  his  military  career  in  Prussia,  but  in  1754  entered 
the  service  of  Great  Britain.  There  he  rose  to  become 
lieutenant-colonel,  and  in  1757  came  to  America.  He 
was  engaged  in  the  attack  on  Ticonderoga,  July  8, 1758, 
and  became  distinguished  for  his  able  defense  of  Oswego 
against  the  French  and  Indian  forces  in  17595  and  in 
1762  was  promoted  colonel.  In  1767  his  regiment  was 
ordered  to  Pensacola,  Fla. ; on  May  25,  1773,  wai 
made  acting  major-general  in  America,  and  ip  October 


HAL 


&{  the  same  year  became  colonel  of  the  6oth  infantry. 
Haldimand  returned  to  England  in  August,  1775,  and 
in  1777  was  advanced  to  lieutenant-general  in  the  British 
army.  On  June  27,  1778,  he  succeeded  Sir  Guy  Carle- 
ton  as  governor  of  Canada,  and  continued  as  such  until 
November  15, 1784.  The  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent 
in  Great  Britain. 

HALE,  Edward  Everett,  D.D.,  was  born  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  April  3,  1822.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  in  1839,  studied  theology,  and  was  pastor  of  the 
(Unitarian)  church  of  the  Unity,  Worcester,  Mass., 
from  1846  to  1856.  Since  that  time  he  has  been  pastor 
of  the  South  Congregational  Church,  Boston.  He  has 
published  a large  number  of  books,  among  which  are: 
The  Rosary,  1848;  America,  1856;  The  Man  Without 
a Country,  1861;  His  Level  Best,  and  other  stories, 
1872;  Ups  and  Downs , 1873;  Working-Men's  Homes, 
1874;  In  His  Name,  1874;  Philip  Nolan's  Friends , 
1876;  Boys’  Heroes,  1885;  What  is  the  American 
People,  1885;  and  has  edited  a series  of  Stories  of  the 
war,  sea  adventure,  etc.,  1880-5;  and  (conjointly  with 
Miss  Hale)  A Family  Flight  Through  France , Ger- 
many, etc. , 1 881,  etc.  Mr.  Hale  has  been  a frequent 
contributor  to  periodicals,  was  editor  of  the  Christian 
Examiner,  the  founder  and  editor  of  Old  and  New, 
and  is  now  the  editor  of  Lend  a Hand. 

HALE,  Eugene,  born  in  Maine,  June  3,  1836,  prac- 
ticed law,  was  nine  years  county  attorney  of  Hancock 
county,  and  from  1867  to  1880  a member  of  the  State 
legislature.  He  was  elected  to  congress  in  1869,  and 
served  ten  years.  On  March  4,  1881,  he  succeeded 
Hannibal  Hamlin  as  United  States  Senator,  and  was 
reelected  in  1887,  1893,  and  1898. 

HALE,  John  Parker,  born  in  Rochester,  N.  H., 
March  31,  1806;  died  in  Dover,  N.  H. , November  19, 
1873.  He  studied  at  Phillips’  Exeter  Academy,  and 
in  1827  was  graduated  at  Bowdoin.  Later  he  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  August  20,  1830. 
In  March,  1832,  he  was  sent  to  the  New  Hampshire 
legislature  as  a Democrat,  in  1834  was  appointed 
United  States  district  attorney,  and  reappointed  to  the 
same  office  in  1838.  In  1841  President  Tyler  removed 
him  on  party  grounds.  On  March  8,  1842,  he  was 
chosen  a representative  in  congress.  Mr.  Hale  opposed 
the  annexation  of  Texas,  against  the  wishes  of  the 
legislature  of  New  Hampshire.  When  the  State 
Democratic  convention  repudiated  him,  he  became  an 
independent  candidate.  In  1846  he  was  again  elected 
to  the  legislature  of  New  Hampshire,  was  speaker  of 
the  house,  and  a little  later  was  elected  to  represent 
New  Hampshire  in  the  United  States  Senate.  When 
Van  Buren  and  Adams  were  nominated  for  president 
and  vice-president  by  the  Free-soil  party  at  the  Buffalo 
convention,  in  1848,  Mr  Hale  favored  their  election. 
In  1853  he  practiced  law  in  New  York  city.  In  1855 
he  was  again  sent  to  the  United  States  Senate,  to  fill 
an  unexpired  term,  and  in  1858  was  elected  to  the  same 
office  for  a full  term.  He  supported  the  administration 
of  Abraham  Lincoln.  From  1865  until  1869  he  served 
as  minister  to  Spain,  when  he  was  removed  on  com- 
plaint of  the  Spanish  Government.  Soon  after  his 
return  from  Europe  he  died  of  a stroke  of  paralysis. 

HALE,  Nathan,  born  in  Coventry,  Conn.,  June  6, 

1 755;  died  in  New  York  city,  September  22,  1776. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1773,  and  taught  school  in 
East  Haddam  and  in  New  London.  When  the  news 
of  the  battle  of  Lexington  reached  New  London,  young 
Hale  became  a volunteer,  and  soon  was  made  lieutenant 
of  his  company.  In  September  the  regiment  left  for 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  and  participated  in  the  siege  of 
Boston.  In  Japua’ry,  1776,  he  was  appointed  captain. 
In  the  summer  of  that  year  Hale  went  to  New  York, 


<5579 

signalizing  his  advent  by  the  capture  of  a British  supply- 
vessel  lying  in  the  Hudson  river.  He  was  there  made 
captain  of  a company -of  “Connecticut  Rangers,”  and 
in  response  to  a request  from  the  commander-in-chief  of 
the  American  army,  volunteered  to  enter  the  British 
lines  to  procure  important  information.  Disguised  as  a 
loyalist  school  teacher,  he  entered  the  British  camps  in 
New  York  city  and  on  Long  Island,  where  he  jotted 
down  memoranda  and  sketched  plans  of  the  fortifica- 
tions. Or  his  return  with  papers  concealed  in  his  shoes, 
Captain  Ha.'ewas  apprehended,  taken  before  Sir  William 
Howe,  and  ordered  to  be  executed  on  the  following 
morning.  The  execution  took  place  in  an  orchard  in 
New  York  city,  at  the  present  junction  of  East  Broad- 
way and  Market  streets.  His  last  words  were,  “ I only 
regret  I have  but  one  life  to  lose  for  my  country.”  In 
1846  a stone  monument  was  erected  to  him  at  Coventry. 
A bronze  statue  of  Captain  Hale  has  also  been  placed 
in  the  capitol  at  Hartford. 

HALE,  Sarah  Josepha,  an  author,  born  in  New- 
port, N.  H.,  October  24,  1788  ; died  in  Philadelphia, 
April  30,  1879.  In  1828  Mrs.  Hale  went  to  Boston  as 
editor  of  the  Ladies’  Magazine,  which  she  conducted  until 
1831,  when  it  became  merged  in  Godey’s  Lady’s  Boqk. 
In  Boston  she  established  the  Seaman’s  Aid  Society, 
and  advocated  higher  education  on  behalf  of  her  sex, 
especially  in  the  interest  of  medical  and  mission  work. 
In  Philadelphia  she  became  interested  in  the  formation 
of  the  Ladies’  Medical  Missionary  Society,  and  later 
officiated  as  president  of  the  Woman’s  Union  Missionary 
Society.  She  was  active  in  raising  $50,000  among 
the  women  of  New  England  to  complete  Bunker  Hill 
monument. 

HA  LEVY,  Joseph,  born  in  Turkey,  of  Jewish 
parents,  September  15,  1827;  has  written  extensively 
on  Arabian  inscriptions  and  Babylonian  antiquities. 

HALliVY,  Leon,  born  at  Paris  in  1802;  became  a 
clerk  in  the  ministry  of  public  instruction;  translated 
the  Odes  of  Horace , and  wrote  a History  of  the  Jews 
(Paris,  1828),  and  Luther,  a drama.  He  died  Septem- 
ber 3,  1883. 

HALfiVY,  Ludovic,  novelist  and  dramatic  author, 
was  born  at  Paris,  in  1834,  and  received  his  education 
at  the  Lycee  Louis  le  Grand.  He  entered  the  service 
of  the  government,  and  from  1852  to  1858  was  em- 
ployed in  the  secretary’s  office  of  the  minister  of  state. 
He  was  chief  of  the  department  for  Algiers  and  the 
colonies,  and  in  1861  was  appointed  to  edit  tfye  pro- 
ceedings of  the  corps  Rgislatif.  This  position  he  re- 
signed to  devote  himself  to  the  drama.  He  was  the 
librettist  of  many  of  Offenbach’s  operettas.  Under  his 
own  name,  and  with  various  collaborators,  principally 
M.  M.  L.  Battu,  Hector  Crimieux,  and  Henri  Meilhac, 
he  has  produced  Ba-La-Clan . 1855;  Rose  et  Rosette , 
1858;  Orphee  aux  Enfers,  1861;  La  Belle  II el  erf  e,  a 
burlesque  of  ancient  Greek  life,  which  had  a great 
success,  1865;  La  Barbe  Bleue,  1866;  La  Grande 
Duchesse  de  Gerolstein,  1867;  Froufrou,  1869;  L’ Ede 
de  la  Saint  Martin,  1873;  La  Boulanger e,  a des  e'cus, 
1875  ; Le  Maride  la  Debutante,  1879,  etc.  In  1872  he 
published  L’ Invasion;  in  1873,  Madame  et  Monsieur 
Cardinal,  and  in  1883  his  idyllic  story,  L’ Abbe  Con- 
stantine. He  is  a member  of  the  French  academy  . 

HALL,  Anna  Maria,  wife  of  Samuel  Carter  Hall, 

( q . v.)  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1804.  Her  maiden 
name  was  Fielding,  and  she  married  Mr.  Hall  in  1824. 
In  1829  she  produced  Sketches  of  Irish  Character,  and 
during  the  next  forty  years  she  wrote  many  works  of 
the  same  style.  She  was  also  the  author  of  two  suc- 
cessful dramas,  The  French  Refugee,  and  The  Groves 
of  Blarney.  Mrs.  Hail  died  January  31,  1881. 

HALL,  Asaph,  astronomer,  born  in  Goshen,  Conn.? 


HAL 


6580 

October  15,  1829.  He  studied  mathematics  at  the  Nor- 
tolk  Academy,  and  removed  to  Wisconsin,  where,  for 
several  years,  he  was  employed  as  a school  teacher. 
Later  he  entered  the  University  of  Michigan  for  a single 
term  ; taught  a year  at  Shalersville,  Ohio,  and  entered 
the  observatory  of  Harvard  University  as  a student  of 
astronomy.  From  1857  until  1862  he  was  assistant  in 
the  observatory,  and  in  1862  became  connected  with 
the  United  States  naval  observatory  in  Washington, 
in  May,  1863,  he  was  promoted  professor  of  mathe- 
matics, since  which  time  he  has  been  connected  with 
many  astronomical  expeditions  sent  out  by  the  United 
States  Government.  He  has  visited  the  Polar  regions, 
Sicily,  Siberia,  and  Texas  for  the  purpose  of  making 
observations.  On  August  11,  1877,  he  made  the  im- 
portant discovery  of  the  moons  of  Mars.  In  1880  he 
made  important  observations  on  double  stars,  and  de- 
termined the  orbits  .of  the  rings  of  Saturn.  In  1879 
the  Astronomical  Society  of  London  awarded  him  a 
gold  medal.  In  1878  he  was  made  Ph.D.  by  Hamilton; 
in  1879  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Yale,  and 
in  1886  received  the  same  degree  from  Harvard.  Pro- 
fessor Hall  has  contributed  to  several  astronomical  jour- 
nals, and  to  the  annual  volumes  of  the  United  States 
naval  observatory. 

HALL,  Charles  B.,  born  in  Oxford,  N.  H.,  June 
28,  1815;  began  his  business  life  as  a clerk  at  Haver- 
hill, Mass.,  of  which  he  became  postmaster  in  1847, 
and  served  eight  years.  He  was  elected  treasurer  of 
the  commonwealth  of  Massachusetts.  In  June,  1853, 
he  organized  the  National  Bank  of  Boston  under  a 
State  charter,  served  as  its  cashier  for  twenty-five 
years,  and  was  then  elected  president.  This  office  he 
held  until  his  death,  May  8,  1883,  the  bank  having  re- 
organized as  the  National  Bank  of  Boston  in  1863. 

HALL,  James,  LL.D.,  born  at  Hingham,  Mass., 
September  12,  1811;  studied  at  the  Rensselaer  Institute, 
Troy,  N.  Y.,  1831-36,  and  in  1837  was  appointed  on 
the  New  York  survey,  his  report  on  which  was  pub- 
lished in  1843.  While  thus  engaged  he  directed  his 
attention  to  the  palaeozoic  formations  of  the  western 
part  of  the  State,  and  in  the  course  of  several  years  pre- 
pared four  illustrated  quarto  volumes  upon  the  Paleon- 
tology of  New  York  (1847,  ’52,  ’59,  ’62).  In  1855  he 
was  appointed  geologist  of  the  State  of  Iowa,  and  pub- 
lished two  volumes  of  Geological  Reports  of  Iowa 
(1856-60).  In  1879  he  published  Descriptions  of  New 
Species  of  Fossils  from  the  Niagara  Formation  at 
Waldron , Indiana . In  1850  he  was  elected  by  the 
Geographical  Society  of  London  one  of  its  fifty  foreign 
members,  and  in  1858  he  received  the  Wollaston  medal 
from  the  same  body.  He  is  a member  of  several 
scientific  societies  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States. 
Since  1866  he  has  been  geologist  and  director  of  the 
State  Museum  at  Albany,  N.  Y.  Died  Aug.  7,  1898. 

HALL,  John,  D.D.,  was  born  in  the  county  of 
Armagh,  Ireland,  July  31,  1829.  He  was  educated  at 
Belfast  College ; received  his  license  to  preach  in  1849, 
going  as  a missionary  to  the  west  of  Ireland.  He 
became  pastor  of  a Presbyterian  Church  in  Armagh  in 
1852,  and  in  1858  pastor  of  St.  Mary’s  abbey,  in 
Dublin.  The  Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland  sent  him 
as  a delegate  to  the  Presbyterian  Churches  of  the 
United  States,  in  1867  ; and  shortly  after  his  return  to 
Ireland  he  was  called  to  the  Fifth  Avenue  church,  New 
York,  over  which  he  was  installed  in  1867.  His  success 
there  has  been  very  marked,  and  he  is  regarded  as 
among  the  ablest  preachers  in  America.  In  addition  to 
his  pastoral  duties  he  has,  since  1881,  filled  the  position 
of  chancellor  of  the  University  of  New  York.  He  has 
published  Family  Prayers  for  Four  Weeks  (1868), 
Papers  for  Home  Reading  (1871),  Questions  of  the 


Day  (1873),  God’s  Word  through  Preaching  (1875), 
Foundation  Stones  for  Young  Builders  (1879)  > and,  in 
conjunction  with  G.  H.  Stuart,  American  Evangelists 
(1875).  He  died  Sept.  17,  1898. 

HALL,  Rev.  Newman,  born  at  Maidstone,  England, 
May  22,  1816;  was  educated  at  Totteridge  and  at  High- 
bury College,  and  graduated  B.A.  at  the  London  Uni- 
versity. In  1855  he  took  the  degree  of  LL.B.,  and  won 
the  law  scholarship.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  the 
Albion  Congregational  Church,  Hull,  in  1842,  and  re- 
mained at  that  post  till  1854,  when  he  succeeded  Rev. 
James  Sherman  as  minister  of  Surrey  chapel,  known  as 
Rowland  Hill’s  chapel,  in  the  Blackfriars  road,  London. 

When  the  Civil  war  in  the  United  States  broke  out, 
he  advocated  the  Northern  cause.  He  afterward  made 
two  extensive  tours  in  the  United  States  for  the  purpose 
of  allaying  the  bitter  feeling  toward  Great  Britain,  and 
of  promoting  international  good-will.  “ Lincoln  Tower,” 
adjoining  Newman  Hall’s  new  chapel,  in  Westminster 
Bridge  road,  was  built  in  commemoration  of  Abraham 
Lincoln,  from  funds  subscribed  by  Americans  and  Eng- 
lish. Newman  Hall  is  in  frequent  demand  as  a 
preacher  on  public  occasions,  and  has  occupied  the  pul- 
pits of  almost  all  denominations  in  most  towns  and  vil- 
lages of  the  United  Kingdom.  Died  Feb.  18,  1902. 

HALL,  Samuel  Carter,  F.S.A.,  born  at  Topsham, 
Devon,  England,  in  1801,  barrister-at-law,  began  his 
professional  labors  as  a gallery  reporter  for  New  Times. 
In  1825  he  established  and  for  many  years  edited  the 
Amulet , a favorite  annual,  and  is  best  known  by  an 
illustrated  work  on  Ireland,  written  in  conjunction  with 
his  wife.  Mr.  Hall  succeeded  the  poet  Campbell  in 
1830  as  editor  of  the  New  Monthly  Magazine , and 
labored  with  great  zeal  for  the  popularization  of  art  in 
England.  He  established  the  Art  Journal  in  1839, 
and  terminated  his  long  connection  with  it  in  Decem- 
ber, 1880.  Ele  also  edited  the  Book  of  Gems,  Book  of 
British  Ballads,  Baronial  Halls  and  other  illustrated 
works.  A list  of  the  several  works,  original  and  edited, 
by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Hall  would  occupy  more  space  than 
can  be  spared  in  this  work,  as  they  amount  to  340  vol 
umes.  The  Prospect  of  a Long  Life  appeared  in  two 
volumes,  1883.  Mr.  Hall  died  in  London,  March  18, 
1889. 

HALLE,  Sir  Charles,  pianist,  born  in  Germany, 
1819 ; early  established  himself  at  Paris,  and  acquired 
a great  reputation  for  his  elevated  method  in  the  Inter- 
pretation of  the  classical  compositions  of  the  best  mas- 
ters. The  revolution  of  February,  1848,  proved  calami- 
tous to  him,  as  it  did  to  many  other  musicians  in  the 
French  capital.  Mr.  Halid  repaired  to  England,  and 
made  his  first  appearance  at  a concert  in  Covent  Gar- 
den theater,  with  Beethoven’s  E flat  concerto.  He 
also  played  at  the  matinees  of  Mr.  John  Ella,  the  di- 
rector of  the  Musical  Union.  He  soon  afterward  es- 
tablished himself  at  Manchester  as  director  of  the 
Musical  Institution  there.  He  instituted,  in  1857,  an  an- 
nual series  of  twenty  orchestral  and  choral  concerts, 
which  have  taken  place  uninterruptedly  since  then,  and 
have  become  one  of  the  most  important  series  in  Eu- 
rope. He  published  some  compositions  of  a high  order, 
and  died  in  1895.  His  son,  Mr.  C.  E.  Halid,  is  a well- 
known  painter,  and  Miss  Halle  is  a rising  sculptor. 

HALLI WELL-PHI LLIPPS,  James  Orchard, 
F.R.S.,  was  born  in  England  in  1820.  He  became 
known  as  a Shakespearean  biographer,  and  was  mainly 
instrumental  in  1863  in  the  purchase  of  the  poet’s 
estate  of  New  Place  for  the  corporation  of  Stratford-on 
Avon,  and  in  the  formation  of  the  Shakespeare  Museum 
of  that  town.  His  principal  works  are  a Life  of 
Shakespeare , 1848;  and  a sumptuous  edition  of  the 
works  of  Shakespeare,  with  a revised  biography,  pub- 


HAL- 

lished  by  subscription  in  sixteen  folio  volumes,  1853—65; 
a Calendar  of  the  Records  of  Stratford-on-Avon , 1863 ; 
a History  of  New  Place , 1864;  and  Outlines  of  the  Life 
of  Shakespeare , fifth  edition.  T885.  He  died  January 
3,  1889. 

HALPINE,  Charles  Graham  (Miles  O’Reilly), 
was  born  in  county  Meath,  Ireland,  November  28, 
1829,  and  died  in  New  York  city,  August  3,  1868.  He 
graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1846;  married 
young  and  engaged  in  journalism.  In  1852  he  came  to 
New  York  and  became  connected  with  the  press  of  that 
city  and  of  Boston.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
war  he  enlisted  in  a New  York  regiment;  was  imme- 
diately promoted  lieutenant,  and  afterward  served  on 
Hunter’s  staff  with  the  rank  of  major.  While  acting  in 
this  capacity  he  wrote  a number  of  articles  purporting 
to  be  the  production  of  one  “Private  O’Reilly.”  He 
served  as  assistant  adju tan l -general  on  General  Hal- 
leck’s  staff,  and  with  Hunter  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley, 
and  received  the  brevet  of  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers. After  the  war  he  resumed  his  journalistic  work 
m New  York  city,  and  in  1867  was  elected  county 
register.  He  wrote  some  stirring  war  songs  and  pub- 
lished a volume  of  creditable  poems. 

HALSBURY,  Lord  (Hardinge  Stanley  Gif- 
ford), Lord  Chancellor  of  England,  born  in  London 
September  3,  1825.  He  was  educated  at  Merton  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  B.  A.  in  1852, 
and  M.A.  in  1855.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the 
Inner  Temple  in  1850,  and  joined  the  South  Wales  and 
Chester  circuit.  He  became  queen’s  counsel  in  1865, 
and  a bencher  of  the  Inner  Temple.  In  Mr.  Disraeli’s 
administration-  in  1875  was  made  solicitor-general. 
He  twice  contested  Cardiff  in  the  Conservative  interest, 
but  did  not  succeed  in  getting  a seat  until  1877,  when 
he  was  returned  from  Launceston,  and  sat  in  the  House 
of  Commons  for  that  borough  until  his  elevation  to  the 
peerage  in  1885,  when  he  was  created  Baron  Halsbury, 
and  appointed  lord  high  chancellor,  which  office  he 
held  until  1892.  He  was  one  of  the  leading  counsel 
in  the  Tichborne  case,  and  before  his  elevation  he  was 
engaged  in  most  of  the  important  cases  of  his  time. 

HALSTEAD,  Murat,  born  in  Butler  county,  Ohio, 
September  2,  1829;  became  connected  with  the  press  of 
Cincinnati  in  1853,  and  for  many  years  edited  the  Com- 
mercial of  that  city.  In  1883  the  Cincinnati  Gazette 
was  incorporated  with  the  Commercial , and  Mr.  Hal- 
stead became  president  of  the  publishing  company. 
Early  in  1890  he  became  editor  of  a New  York  news- 
paper. President  Harrison  nominated  him  as  minister 
to  Berlin,  but  the  senate  refused  to  confirm  the  nomina- 
tion. He  wrote  Lives  of  McKinley,  and  of  Roosevelt. 

H4MBLIN,  Thomas  Sowerby,  actor,  born  in 
Lon<ftm,  England,  May  14,  1800;  died  in  New  York, 
January  8,  1853.  He  appeared  first  in  this  country  at  the 
Park  theater,  in  New  York,  in  1829.  In  1830  Hamb- 
lin united  with  James  H.  Hackett  in  leasing  the  Bowery 
theater,  and  in  a short  time  acquired  the  sole  control 
of  the  establishment.  On  September  16,  1836,  the 
theater  was  destroyed  by  fire,  by  which  the  lessee  suf- 
fered considerable  loss.  Hamblin  then  visited  London, 
where  he  acted  “Hamlet,”  “Othello,”  “ Coriolanus,” 
“ Rolla,”  and  “ Virginius,”  with  only  moderate  success. 
He  returned  to  this  country,  and  leased  the  newly  built 
second  Bowery  theater,  in  1837.  This  he  conducted 
until  1845,  when  it  was  again  burned.  In  1847  he  man- 
aged the  third  Bowery  theater;  and  in  1848  leaded  the 
New  York  Park  theater,  conducting  both  houses  for 
several  years. 

HAMERTON,  Philip  Gilbert,  was  born  in  Eng- 
land September  10,  1834.  He  began  to  exercise  his 
pen  very  early  in  life  by  contributing  to  the  Historical 


-HAM  6581 

Times  a series  of  articles  entitled  Rome  in  1849 , and 
in  1851  he  published  a work  on  heraldry.  In  1855  ap- 
peared a volume  of  verse,  The  Isles  of  Loch  Awe , ana 
other  Poems,  with  sixteen  illustrations  by  the  author. 
In  the  same  year  Mr.  Hamerton  went  to  Paris  to  study 
painting  and  French  literature.  On  the  establishment 
of  the  Fine  Arts  Quarterly  Review  he  became  a fre 
quent  contributor,  and  he  also  contributed  to  the  Fort 
nightly  when  under  the  editorship  of  Mr.  Lewis.  In 
1866  Mr.  Hamerton  became  art  critic  to  the  Saturday 
Review.  In  1868  he  published  Etching  and  Etchers . 
In  1868  appeared  an  essay  on  French  art,  entitled  Con- 
temporary French  Painters , followed  in  the  next  year 
by  another  of  the  same  kind,  Painting  in  F'rance  afte » 
the  Decline  of  Classicism.  In  1869  he  established  the 
art  periodical,  the  Portfolio.  He  also  wrote  The  Intel- 
lectual Life,  the  most  popular  of  his  works ; Human 
Intercourse , a collection  of  essays;  The  Graphic  Arts; 
Around  My  House,  pictures  of  rural  life  in  France; 
Imagination  in  Landscape  Painting;  Drawing  and 
Engraving,  in  1892;  two  novels,  Wenderholme  and 
Marmorne , and  many  other  works.  He  was  an  author- 
ity on  French  art  and  manners.  He  died  Nov.  6,  1894. 

HAMILTON,  Andrew,  born  in  Scotland  about 
1676;  died  in  Philadelphia,  August  4,  1741.  In  1697 
he  was  in  Accomac  county,  Va.,  acting,  part  of  the 
time,  as  steward  of  a plantation,  and  teaching  school. 
He  studied  and  practiced  law,  removed  to  Philadelphia, 
and  in  1717  became  attorney-general  of  Pennsylvania. 
In  1 72 1 he  served  as  a member  of  the  provincial  council, 
resigned  this  office  in  1724,  and  in  1727  became  pro- 
thonotary  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  recorder  of  Phila- 
delphia. Later  he  became  a member  of  the  assembly, 
and  in  I729  was  chosen  speaker,  holding  this  office  .1 
number  of  years.  In  1735  John  Peter  Zenger,  the 
printer,  was  tried  for  libel.  Hamilton  undertook  to 
defend  him,  and  was  successful  in  securing  his  acquittaL 
In  1 737  he  was  appointed  judge. 

HAMILTON,  Andrew,  governor  of  New  Jersey, 
born  in  Scotland;  died  in  New  Jersey,  April  2,  1703. 
He  began  as  a merchant  in  Edinburgh,  and  was  sent  to 
East  Jersey  as  an  agent.  In  1686,  when  Lord  Camp- 
bell went  to  that  province  as  deputy-governor,  Hamil- 
ton was  appointed  a member  of  the  council,  and  in 
March,  1667,  he  became  acting  governor.  In  1688  the 
two  Jerseys  were  annexed  to  New  York  and  New  Eng 
land,  and  placed  under  control  of  Governor  Andros. 
In  1689  Hamilton  sailed  for  England  to  obtain  instruc- 
tions on  behalf  of  the  disturbed  condition  of  colonial 
affairs,  when  he  was  captured  at  sea  by  the  French,  and 
did  not  reach  England  until  May,  1690.  In  1692  he 
returned  as  governor  of  East  Jersey,  and  acting  gov- 
ernor of  West  Jersey.  In  1697  he  was  deposed  from 
office  by  the  home  government,  and  in  1698  returned  to 
England.  Hardly  had  he  reached  there  before  he  was 
re-appointed  to  his  former  office.  In  1701  William 
Penn  appointed  Hamilton  acting  governor  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, during  his  absence,  which  appointment,  after  much 
difficulty  and  delay,  received  the  royal  sanction.  Under 
Hamilton  was  organized  the  earliest  postal  service  in 
the  colonies.  He  died  while  on  a visit  to  his  family  in 
New  Jersey. 

HAMILTON,  Frank  Hastings,  born  in  Vermont, 
September  10,  1813;  practiced  medicine  for  many  years 
and  contributed  to  the  Buffalo  Medical  Journal.  He 
filled  the  chair  of  surgery  in  many  hospitals,  and  served 
in  a professional  capacity  during  the  Civil  war.  In 
February,  1863,  he  became  medical  inspector  United 
States  army,  with  rank  as  lieutenant-colonel.  He 
afterward  was  professor  of  surgery  in  Bellevue  hospital 
medical  college,  and  consulting  surgeon  to  other  medi- 
cal institutions.  Dr.  Hamilton  was  called  in  consult* 


HAN 


6582  H A M - 

tion  on  President  Garfield’s  case.  He  was  a member 
■ and  president  of  several  medical  societies,  and  wrote 
extensively  on  fractures,  dislocations  and  wounds.  He 
died  in  New  York  city,  August  11,  1886. 

HAMILTON,  Lord  George  Francis,  M.  P.,  the 
third  son  of  the  Duke  of  Abercorn.  He  was  born  at 
Brighton,  England,  in  December,  1845,  and  received 
his  education  at  Llarrow.  At  the  general  election  of 
December,  1868,  he  contested  the  county  of  Middlesex 
in  the  Conservative  interest,  and  was  returned  at  the 
head  of  the  poll.  At  the  general  election  of  February, 
1874,  Lord  George  Hamilton  was  reelected.  On  the 
formation  of  Mr.  Disraeli’s  administration  in  February, 
1874,  he  was  nominated  to  the  post  of  parliamentary 
under-secretary  of  state  for  India;  and  was  appointed 
vice-president  of  the  committee  of  council  on  education, 
April  4,  1878,  in  succession  to  Viscount  Sandon.  On 
the  latter  occasion  he  was  sworn  of  the  privy  council. 
He  went  out  of  office  with  his  party  in  April,  1880.  On 
the  defeat  of  the  Gladstone  government  he  was  made 
first  lord  to  the  admiralty  from  June,  1885,  to  Febru- 
ary, 1886,  under  Lord  Salisbury’s  administration,  and 
filled  the  same  post  in  the  second  Salisbury  cabinet. 

HAMILTON,  James,  born  in  Ireland  about  1820, 
removed  to  the  United  States  while  a boy,  and  became 
noted  as  a painter,  especially  of  water  scenes.  Among 
his  best  known  works  are  illustrations  of  Arctic  scenery, 
The  Capture  of  the  Serapis,  and  Old  Ironsides.  Ham- 
ilton died  March  10,  1878. 

HAMILTON,  Sir  Robert  George  Crookshank, 
K.  C.  B.,  born  in  Scotland,  1836,  was  educated  at  the 
university  of  Aberdeen,  and  in  1855  entered  the  civil 
service  as  a temporary  clerk  in  the  war  office.  In  that 
year  he  went  to  the  Crimea  in  the  commissariat  depart- 
ment. On  his  return,  in  1857,  he  was  employed  in  the 
office  of  works,  and  subsequently  in  the  educational  de- 
partment. From  1869  to  1872  he  served  as  accountant 
to  the  Board  of  Trade.  In  1872  he  became  assistant 
secretary,  and  in  1874,  secretary  to  the  Civil  Service 
Inquiry  Commission.  In  May,  1882,  Lord  North- 
brook appointed  him  under-secretary  to  the  admiralty ; 
but  he  had  scarcely  entered  upon  that  office  before  he 
was  called  to  take  the  place  of  the  murdered  Mr. 
Burke  as  under-secretary  of  Ireland,  which  position  he 
retained  until  November,  1886,  when  he  was  appointed 
governor  of  Tasmania.  He  died  April  22,  1895. 

HAMLIN,  Hannibal,  was  born  at  Paris,  Me., 
August  27,  1809.  Lie  prepared  for  college,  but  the 
death  of  his  father  compelled  him  to  take  charge  of  his 
farm.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one  he  became  a printer. 
He  then  studied  law;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1833, 
and  practiced  until  1848.  From  1836  to  1840  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Maine  legislature,  serving  as  speaker  in 
1S37,  1839,  and  1840.  He  was  a member  of  Congress 
from  1843  to  1847,  a State  representative  again  in  1847, 
and  United  States  Senator  from  1848  to  1857.  He 
was  governor  of  Maine  from  January  7 to  February  20, 
1857,  resigning  the  position  on  his  reelection  to  the 
senate.  He  was  elected  vice-president  of  the  United 
States  on  the  ticket  with  Mr.  Lincoln  in  i860,  and  on 
the  expiration  of  his  term  in  1865  was  made  collector  of 
customs  for  the  port  of  Boston.  This  position  he  re- 
tained until  he  was  again  chosen  to  the  Senate  in  1869, 
where  he  remained  until  1881.  He  was  for  one  year 
U.  S.  minister  to  Spain,  and  died  July  4,  1891. 

HAMMOND,  William  Alexander,  physician, 
born  in  Annapolis  Md.,  August  28,  1828;  was  gradu- 
ated in  the  medical  department  of  the  University  of 
the  City  of  New  York,  and  entered  the  United  States 
army  in  1849  as  surgeon.  In  i860  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  the  University 
of  Maryland.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war  he 


resigned  his  professorship,  and  entered  the  army  as  aft 
assistant  surgeon.  When  the  medical  bureau  was 
organized,  in  April,  1862,  he  was  appointed  surgeon- 
general  of  the  army,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general, 
serving  as  such  until  1864,  when  he  was  court-martialed, 
and  dismissed  from  the  army  for  alleged  irregularities 
in  letting  liquor  contracts,  but  in  1879  was  vindicated 
and  reinstated.  Dr.  Hammond  went  to  New  York  to 
practice  his  profession,  making  a specialty  of  nervous 
diseases.  From  1867  to  1873  he  was  professor  in  Belle- 
vue Hospital  medical  college  and  in  the  University  of 
the  City  of  New  York  from  1873  to  1882,  when  he 
founded  the  New  York  post  graduate  medical  school. 
He  published  numerous  valuable  works  on  nervous  and 
other  diseases  and  wrote  several  interesting  novels.  He 
died  Jan.  5,  1900. 

HAMPTON,  Wade, born  in  Columbia,  S.  C.,  March 
28,  1818.  He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of  South 
Carolina,  and  studied  law.  He  served  in  the  legislature 
of  his  state  as  a national  Democrat,  and,  although  a 
large  ^lave-bolder,  he  had  little  affiliation  with  secession 
sentiments.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war  he  en- 
tered the  Confederate  service,  and  organized  a regiment 
of  cavalry.  He  was  made  brigadier-general,  served 
during  the  Peninsula  campaign,  and  was  wounded  in 
1863  at  Gettysburg.  In  1864  he  became  lieutenant- 
general,  and  commanded  a body  of  cavalry  in  Virginia. 
In  1865  he  was  sent  to  South  Carolina,  where  he  com- 
manded the  rear-guard  of  the  Confederate  army,  which 
was  falling  back  before  General  Sherman.  Much  cotton 
had  been  stored  at  Columbia,  which,  on  the  approach  of 
the  Union  forces,  was  piled  up  in  an  open  square,  ready 
to  be  burnt.  It  was  fired,  and  caused  a general  con- 
flagration, by  which  a large  portion  of  the  city  was 
destroyed.  According  to  the  best  evidence  this  disaster 
was  not  willfully  planned,  although  at  the  time  both 
General  Hampton  and  General  Sherman  accused  each 
other  of  having  caused  the  disaster.  In  1876  General 
Hampton  was  elected  governor  of  South  Carolina,  and 
again  in  1878,  in  which  year  he  lost  one  of  his  legs  by 
an  accident.  He  served  two  terms  in  the  United  States 
Senate,  1879-91.  Died  April  11,  1902. 

HANCOCK,  Winfield  Scott,  was  born  in  Mont- 
gomery county,  Penn.,  February  14,  1824.  He  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1844,  served  with  credit  in  Scott’s 
campaign  in  Mexico,  and  on  frontier  duty  until  1861, 
when  he  held  the  rank  of  captain.  Having  been 
appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  1861,  he 
served  in  the  army  of  the  Potomac  throughout  its 
existence.  For  distinguished  service  on  the  peninsula 
and  at  South  Mountain  and  Antietam,  he  was  given  a 
division  and  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  in  1863  he 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  second  corps  for  his 
services  at  Fredericksburg  and  Chancellorsville.  His 
crowning  glory  was  won  at  Gettysburg.  Reynolds  fell 
on  the  first  day,  and  Hancock  was  sent  forward  by 
Meade  to  arrange  the  line  until  the  commander  could 
arrive.  On  the  second  and  third  days  Hancock  com- 
manded the  left  center,  on  Cemetery  Ridge,  where,  just 
in  the  moment  of  victory,  he  was  severely  wounded. 
He  received  the  thanks  of  congress,  and  returned  to  the 
command  of  his  corps  early  in  1864,  in  time  to  take 
part  in  Grant’s  campaigns  of  that  year.  He  distin- 
guished himself  again  and  again  at  the  Wilderness, 
at  Spottsylvania,  and  in  the  Cold  Harbor  and  Peters- 
burg operations.  At  the  end  of  the  war  he  commanded 
various  departments,  having  been  made  a maj or-general 
in  the  regular  army.  From  September,  1867,  to  March, 
1868,  he  commanded  the  department  of  the  Gulf,  under 
the  reconstruction  acts  ; and  certain  orders  issued  by 
him,  particularly  those  of  November  29  and  December 
5,  1867,  declaring  that  the  military  power  was  meant 


HAN- 

only  to  uphold,  not  to  Control,  the  civil  power,  and 
declining  to  exercise  arbitrary  powers,  were  so  satis- 
factory  to  the  Democratic  party  that  in  1 880  it  nomi- 
nated him  for  the  presidency.  He  was  defeated  by 
Garfield,  but  retained  his  position  as  senior  major- 
general  of  the  army,  and  the  Warm  regard  of  the  country. 
He  died  at  Governor’s  Island,  N.  Y.,  February  9,  1886. 

HANSBROUGH,  Henry  C.,  was  born  at  Prairie 
du  Rocher,  111.,  January  30,  1848;  became  a printer  in 
California,  published  a daily  paper  at  San  Jose,  1869- 
70;  worked  on  the  San  Francisco  Chronicle  until  1879; 
moved  to  the  Territory  of  Dakota  in  1882,  starting  a 
paper ; advocated  division  and  admission ; was  twice 
elected  Mayor  of  Devil’s  Lake,  was  elected  to  the  51st 
Congress  as  a Republican,  and  to  the  United  States 
Senate  from  North  Dakota,  January  23,  1891., 

HARCOURT,  Sir  William  George  Granville 
Venables  Vernon,  M.P.,  Q.C.,  second  son  of  the 
Rev.  William  Vernon-Harcourt,  born  October  14, 
1827;  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
graduating  in  1851;  was  returned  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons for  Oxford  as  a Liberal  in  1868 ; was  elected  pro- 
fessor of  international  law  in  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge, 1869,  and  was  a member  of  the  royal  commis- 
sions for  amending  the  neutrality,  laws  and  the  nat- 
uralization laws.  He  was  appointed  solicitor-general 
in  November,  1873,  on  which  occasion  he  was  knighted, 
and  he  held  that  office  until  the  resignation  of  Mr. 
Gladstone’s  administration  in  the  following  Feb- 
ruary. When  Mr.  Gladstone  returned  to  power  in 
May,  1880,  Sir  W.  Harcourt  was  nominated  secre- 
tary of  state  for  the  home  department.  On  his  go- 
ing down  to  Oxford  for  reelection  on  that  occasion 
he  was  defeated,  polling  only  2,681  votes  against  2,- 
735  recorded  in  favor  of  his  Conservative  antagonist, 
but  a seat  was  found  for  him  at  Derby,  for  which  con- 
stituency he  still  sits.  He  was  presented  with  the 
freedom  of  the  city  of  Glasgow,  October  25,  1881.  He 
went  out  of  office  with  his  party  in  June,  1885  ; but  on 
the  return  of  the  Liberals  to  power  in  January,  1886, 
was  made  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  In  the  Glad- 
stone and  Rosebury  ministries,  1892  and  1894,  he  was 
again  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  He  was  an  original 
contributor  to  the  Saturday  Review , and  wrote  various 
political  pamphlets  and  letters  on  international  law  in 
the  Times.  He  married,  first,  in  1859,  Therese,  daugh- 
ter of  Lady  Theresa  Lewis;  and  secondly,  in  1876, 
Mrs.  Ives,  daughter  of  the  late  John  Lothrop  Motley, 
the  historian  and  United  States  minister  to  England. 

HARDEE,  William  J.,  born  in  Savannah,  Ga., 
October  10,  1815;  died  at  Wytheville,  Va.,  November 
6,  1873.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  in  1838;  entered  the  second  dragoons ; 
served  in  Florida,  and  in  1844  was  made  captain.  He 
visited  the  military  school  at  St.  Maur,  in  France,  and 
while  there  became  attached  to  the  cavalry  department 
of  the  French  army.  In  1846  he  served  under  Gen. 
Zachary  Taylor  in  the  Mexican  war ; was  taken  prisoner 
at  Curricitas,  but  exchanged  in  time  to  take  part  in  the 
attack  on  Monterey.  At  the  termination  of  the  war  he 
was  brevetted  lieutenant-colonel  of  cavalry.  Soon  after- 
ward, by  order  of  the  United  States  Government, 
Colonel  Hardee  prepared  a system  of  tactics  for  the  use 
of  infantry.  In  1856  he  was  commandant  of  the  cadets 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy,  where  he  con- 
tinued until  1861.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war 
Colonel  Hardee  joined  the  Confederates,  with  the  rank 
of  colonel,  and  was  assigned  to  duty  at  Fort  Morgan, 
Mobile.  Afterward  he  commanded  in  Northern  Arkan- 
sas and  Kentucky,  and  fought  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh, 
where  he  was  promoted  major-general.  On  October  9, 
1862,  he  was  made  lieutenant-general,  and  fought  at 


- H A R 6583 

Chickamauga,  Chattanooga,  and  Mission  Ridge.  He 
. commanded  at  Charleston  and  Savannah,  and  fought 
at  Bentonville,  N.  C. 

HARDY,  Arthur  Sherburne,  born  at  Andover, 
Mass.,  1847,  served  in  the  army  in  .1869,  became  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1878, 

1 has  written  several  mathematical  works  and  several 
novels,  But  Yet  a Woman  (1883),  The  Wind  of  Destiny 
(1886),  and  Passe  Rose  (1889),  besides  some  poetry. 

HARDY,  Thomas,  novelist, . was  born  June  2, 
1840,  in  Dorsetshire,  England.  He  was  intended  for 
the  architectural  profession  and  in  his  seventeenth 
year  was  articled  to  an  architect.  On  taking  up  his 
residence  in  London,  Mr.  Hardy  allied  himself  with  the 
modern  school  of  Gothic  artists,  meanwhile  entering  as 
a student  of  modern  languages  at  King’s  College.  His 
first  literary  performance  wras  an  essay  on  colored  brick 
and  terra-cotta  architecture,  which  received  the  prize 
and  medal  of  the  Institute  of  British  Architects  in  1863. 
He  also  was  awarded  in  the  same  year  Sir  W.  Lite’s 
prize  for  architectural  design.  He  now  formed  the  idea 
of  becoming  an  art  critic,  and  engaged  in  further  studies 
for  that  purpose ; but  at  length  tried  his  hand  on  a veork 
of  fiction  called  Desperate  Remedies , which  was  pub- 
lished in  1871,  and  was  equally  praised  and  condemned. 
There  followed  in  1872  Under  the  Greenwood  Tree , and 
in  1873  A Pair  of  Blue  Eyes,  which  were  well  received, 
and  in  1874  one  of  his  best  known  novels,  Far  From 
the  Madding  Crowd,*  which  has  been  dramatized.  He 
has  also  written  The  Hand  of  Ethelberta  (1876);  The 
Return  of  the  Native  (1878);  The  Trumpet-Major 
(1880)  ; A Laodicean  (1881) ; Two  on  a Tower  (1882) ; 
The  Mayor  of  Casterbridge  (1886);  The  Woodlanders 
(1887J;  Tess  of  the  IT  Urbervilles  (1S92),  a powerful 
work  of  sustained  dramatic  interest ; The  Three  Way- 
farers  (1893),  a successful  drama;  Life's  Little  Ironies 
(1894)  and  several  other  volumes  of  tales.  Many  of  his 
novels  have  been  published  simultaneously  in  England, 
America,  Australia  and  India. 

HARGRAVES,  Edmund  Hammond  born  at  Gos- 
port, England,  1815,  went  to  Australia  in  1833  and  to 
California  for  gold  in  1849.  Struck  by  the  similarity  of 
geological  formation  he  returned  to  Australia  and  dis- 
covered the  rich  gold  fields  there  in  1851.  Died,  1891. 

HARLAN,  James,  born  in  Clarke  county,  111., 
August  25,  1820;  graduated  at  Indiana  Asbury  Univer- 
sity in  1845  ; became  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion for  Iowa  in  1847,  and  United  States  Senator  as  a 
Whig  and  Republican  from  1855  to  1873  except  while 
serving  as  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  1867-69/  In  1853 
and  1869  he  had  been  president  of  Iowa  University. 
He  was  presiding  judge  of  the  ■ court  of  commissioners 
of  Alabama  claims  1882-85.  Died  Oct.  5,  1899. 

HARLAN,  John  Marshall,  son  of  James  Harlan 
(1800-1863);  was  b°rn  in  Kentucky,  June  1,  1833; 
graduated  in  law  in  1853,  and  w'as  a judge  in  Franklin 
county,  Ky.  He  was  in  the  volunteer  service  during 
the  war;  was  attorney-general  of  his  State  (1863-67), 
and  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  governor  in  1871  and 
1875.  On  November  29,  1877,  he  became  associate 
justice  of  the  United  States  supreme  court,  in  succes- 
sion to  David  Davis. 

HARNEY,  William  Selby  born  near  Adysboro, 
Tenn.,  August  27,  1800;  was  appointed  second  lieu- 
tenant of  infantry;  became  major  in  1833,  and  lieuten- 
ant-colonel of  dragoons  in  1836 ; colonel  in  1846, 
and  brigadier-general  June  14,  1848.  He  served  in 
the  Black  Hawk  w'ar  of  1833,  and  in  Florida  against  the 
Seminoles.  During  the  Mexican  w^ar  he  was  brevetted 
brigadier-general  for  gallantry  at  Cerro  Gordo.  In 
i858he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  department  of  Ore- 
gon, and  on  July  9,  1859,  took  possession  of  the  island 


H A R 


6584 

of  San  Juan,  near  Vancouver.  The  last  named  action 
was  premature,  and  General  Harney  was  recalled. 
Later  he  commanded  the  department  of  the  West.  On 
his  way  from  St.  Louis  to  Washington  he  was  arrested 
by  the  Confederates  at  Harper’s  Ferry  and  taken  to 
Richmond,  but  promptly  released.  Later,  General 
Harney  was  relieved  of  command  and  retired  from 
service,  August  I,  1863.  In  March,  1865,  he  received 
the  brevet  of  major-general.  He  died  May  9,  1889,  in 
Florida. 

HARPER,  James,  publisher,  was  born  in  Newtown, 
L.  I.,  April  13,  1795;  died  in  New  York  city,  March 
27,  1869.  His  father  was  a farmer.  He  and  his 
brother  John  were  apprenticed  to  the  printing  business 
in  New  York  city,  and  soon  afterward  began  business 
by  printing  books  for  the  publishers.  The  first  book 
issued  by  the  old  firm,  J.  & J.  Harper,  was  Locke  on 
the  Human  Understanding.  This  was  in  1818.  Alto- 
gether the  brothers  published  about200  works.  In  1833, 
when  Wesley  and  Fletcher,  the  two  younger  brothers, 
joined  the  firm,  its  style  was  changed  to  Harper  & 
Brothers.  Besides  their  books,  Harper  & Brothers 
issue  Harper’s  Magazine , a monthly,  established  in 
1850;  Harper's  Weekly , established  in  1857;  Harper's 
Bazar , established  in  1867;  and  Harper’s  Young  People, 
first  issuedin  1881.  In  1844  James  Harper  was  elected 
mayor  of  New  York  city. 

HARPER,  William  Rainey,  was  born  in  New 
Concord,  Ohio,  July  26,  1856,  gained  the  degree  of 
LL.D.  at  Yale  at  nineteen,  was  appointed  professor  of 
Hebrew  language  and  literature  at  Morgan  Park  sem- 
inary in  1879,  and  at  Yale  in  1886,  and  professor  of  bibli- 
cal literature  at  Yale  in  1889.  In  1890  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  new  University  of  Chicago,  founded  and 
richly  endowed  by  John  D.  Rockefeller. 

HARRIS,  Isham  Green,  born  in  Tennessee,  Feb- 
ruary 10,  1818;  engaged  in  mercantile  business,  and 
afterward  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1841.  He  served  one  term  in  the  State  legislature  as 
a Democrat,  and  from  1848  to  1853  sat  in  congress. 
In  i857he  was  elected  governor;  reelected  in  1859,  and 
again  in  1861.  During  the  Civil  war  he  was  on  the 
staff  of  Gen.  A.  S.  Johnston,  until  his  (Johnston’s) 
death;  and  afterward  was  with  the  army  of  the  West. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  escaped  to  Mexico,  but 
returned  to  Tennessee  in  1867,  and  practiced  law  there. 
Ten  years  later  he  was  chosen  United  States  senator; 
reelected  in  1883,  and  again  in  1889.  Died  July,  1897. 

HARRIS,  Joel  Chandler,  born  in  Georgia  in 
1848,  has  been  for  a number  of  years  connected,  editori- 
ally, with  the  Atlanta  (Ga.)  Constitution.  He  is  best 
known  as  the  author  of  stories  in  negro  dialect,  and 
his  Uncle  Remus  has  placed  him  at  the  front  as  a 
delineator  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Southern 
negro. 

HARRIS,  Samuel,  born  in  Maine,  in  June,  1814; 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  in  1833,  and  at  Andover  Theolog- 
ical seminary  in  1838.  He  held  various  pastorates 
(Congregational)  in  Massachusetts  ; held  the  chair  of 
systematic  theology,  at  Bangor,  for  twelve  years,  and  in 
1867  became  president  of  Bowdoin.  In  1871  he  became 
professor  of  systematic  theology  at  Yale.  Williams 
College  gave  him  the  degree  of  D.  D.  in  1855. 

HARRIS,  Samuel  Smith,  born  in  Alabama, 
September  14,  1841 ; graduated  at  the  university  of  his 
native  State,  in  1859,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
i860.  In  1869  he  took  orders  in  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church;  held  pastorates  in  Georgia,  Louisiana, 
and  Illinois,  and  in  September,  1879,  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Michigan.  He  died  August  21,  1888. 

HARRISON,  Benjamin,  president  of  the  United 
States,  born  in  North  Bend,  Ohio,  August  20,  1833. 


He  is  a grandson  of  Gen.  William  H.  Harrison,  and 
was  born  in  his  grandfather’s  house.  Benjamin  was 
trained  on  his  father’s  farm,  and  in  1852  was  graduated 
at  Miami  University.  He  studied  law  in  Cincinnati, 
two  years,  and,  in  1854,  located  in  Indianapolis,  which 
ever  since  has  been  his  home.  In  i860  he  entered 
the  political  arena,  on  the  side  of  the  Republicans,  in 
1862  became  second  lieutenant  of  an  Indiana  regiment, 
soon  received  the  appointment  of  colonel,  and  was 
sent  to  join  the  army  under  command  of  Gen.  D.  C. 
Buell,  at  Bowling  Green,  Ky.  Later  his  regiment  was 
attached  to  the  army  corps  under  Gen.  Joseph  Hooker, 
and  served  in  the  campaign  from  Chattanooga  to  At- 
lanta. At  Resaca,  May  14,  1864,  he  led  his  command, 
took  part  in  the  capture  of  Cassville,  and  in  the  actions 
at  New  Hope  church  and  Kenesaw  Mountain.  In  1864, 
when  General  Sherman  began  his  march  through  the 
Southern  States,  Colonel  Harrison  was  ordered  to  Indi- 
ana to  obtain  recruits.  He  was  transferred  to  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  and  spent  the  winter  of  1864-65  with  Gen. 
Geo.  H.  Thomas.  In  the  spring  he  resumed  the 
command  of  his  brigade  in  the  twentieth  army  corps, 
and  was  mustered  out  of  service  on  June  8,  1865.  On 
January  23,  1865,  he  received  the  brevet  of  brigadier- 
general.  Returning  to  Indianapolis,  he  resumed  his 
former  office  as  reporter  of  the  supreme  court.  In 
1868  and  1872  he  made  public  speeches  on  behalf  of  the 
Republican  candidates  for  the  presidency.  In  1876  he 
ran  for  governor  of  his  State,  but  was  defeated  by  a 
small  majority.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Indiana  dele- 
gation at  the  national  convention,  held  in  Chicago  in 
1880,  when  General  Garfield  was  nominated  for  the 
presidency.  In  1880  Gen.  Harrison  was  chosen  for 
United  States  senator,  which  office  he  held  until  March 
3,  1887.  At  the  national  Republican  convention,  held 
at  Chicago  in  1888,  he  was  nominated  by  his  party  for 
president,  and  subsequently  elected,  but  was  defeated 
for  reelection  in  1892.  Died  Mar.  13.  iqoi. 

HARRISON,  Benjamin,  signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  born  in  Berkeley,  Va.,  about  1740; 
died  at  City  Point,  Va.,  in  April,  1791.  He  studied  at 
William  and  Mary  college,  and  was  elected  to  the 
Virginia  legislature  in  1764.  In  1774  be  was  chosen  a 
delegate  to  the  Continental  congress,  which  distinction 
was  renewed  on  several  occasions.  He  resigned  in 
1777.  He  then  became  speaker  of  the  Virginia  house 
of  delegates,  retaining  this  position  until  1 782.  There- 
after he  became  governor  of  Virginia,  and  continued  as 
such  until  1785. 

HARRISON,  Carter  H.,  born  in  Kentucky,  Feb- 
ruary 15,  1825;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1845,  became  a 
lawyer,  and  then  a real  estate  dealer  in  Chicago,  and  in 
1872  was  elected  a member  of  the  board  of  supervisors 
and  afterward  a county  commissioner  as  a Democrat. 
He  was  elected  to  congress  in  1874  and  1876,  and  was 
four  times  elected  mayor  of  Chicago  1878-86,  besides 
being  the  Democratic  candidate  for  Governor  in  1884. 
He  made  a tour  round  the  world  and  wrote  A Race  with 
the  Sun.  In  1891  he  was  again  a candidate  for  the 
Democratic  nomination  for  mayor,  was  defeated,  secured 
over  40,000  votes  as  an  independent,  bought  the 
Times  to  secure  an  organ,  was  elected  “World’s  Fair  ” 
mayor  in  1892,  and  assassinated  October  28,  1893,  by 
Eugene  Prendergast,  a disappointed  office-seeker,  who 
was  hanged  July  13,  1894. 

HARRISON,  Frederic,  M.  A.,  born  in  London,  Oct. 
8,  1831,  was  educated  at  King’s  College  School  Lon- 
don, andWadham  College,  Oxford,  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1858,  was  a member  of  the  royal  commissions  upon 
trades  unions,  1867-9;  andfor  the  digest  of  the  law,  1860- 
70,  and  in  1877  was  appointed  by  the  council  of  legal 
education  professor  of  jurisprudence  and  international 


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6585 


law.  He  has  given  much  attention  to  the  questions  and 
institutions  relating  to  workingmen.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Positivist  School  in  1870,  and  also  of 
Newton  Hall  in  1881.  He  is  the  author  of  some 
articles  in  the  Westminster  Review  between  i860  and 
1863;  of  numerous  essays  in  the  Fortnightly  Review 
from  1865,  and  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  and  Con- 
temporary Review  from  1875.  He  has  published  The 
Meaning  of  History  (1862);  Order  and  Progress  { 1875); 
an  English  translation  of  Social  Statics , or  the  Abstract 
Theory  of  Human  Oj'der , being  vol.  ii.  of  Comte’s 
Positive  Polity  (1875);  The  Choice  of  Books  (1886);  Oli- 
ver Cromwell  (1888);  and  The  Meaning  of  History  (1894). 
Mr.  Harrison  is  a follower  of  Auguste  Comte,  whose 
philosophical,  social,  and  religious  doctrines  he  has  pre- 
sented in  various  writings  and  lectures.  At  the  dissolu- 
tion of  1886,  Mr.  Harrison  (who  had  formerly  declined 
to  stand  for  Leicester)  allowed  himself  to  be  brought 
forward  as  a home  rule  candidate  for  London  Univer- 
sity, in  opposition  to  Sir  John  Lubbock.  He  polled, 
however,  only  516  votes,  against  his  opponent’s  1,314. 

HART,  Ernest,  born  in  June,  1836,  in  England; 
entered  the  school  of  medicine  attached  to  St.  George’s 
Hospital,  where  he  attained  the  position  of  first  prize- 
man in  every  class.  He  then  obtained  the  post  of 
ophthalmic  surgeon  and  lecturer  on  ophthalmology  at 
St.  Mary’s  Hospital  Medical  School,  practicing  for. some 
years  as  a surgeon,  and  he  was  the  author  of  a method 
of  treatment  of  aneurism.  For  several  years  Mr.  Hart 
was  co-editor  of  the  Lancet , and  in  1866  was  selected  as 
editor  of  the  British  Medical  Journal  by  the  council 
of  the  British  Medical  Association.  Mr.  Hart  has  de- 
voted himself  to  public  work  in  connection  with  ques- 
tions of  social  and  sanitary  progress.  He  is  editor  of 
the  Sanitary  Record  and  of  the  London  Medical  Record. 
As  honorary  secretary  of  the  Workhouse  Infirmaries 
Association  in  1866-7,  he  rendered  great  public  services 
in  exposing,  in  concert  with  others,  the  defective 
arrangements  for  the  sick  poor  in  workhouses. 

HART,  James  McDougal,  landscape  painter,  was 
bom  in  Kilmarnock,  Scotland,  in  1828.  When  a child 
he  removed  with  his  family  to  America,  and  lived  at 
Albany,  N.  Y.  In  1851  he  went  to  Dusseldorf  and 
studied  painting  for  a year.  He  returned  to  Albany  in 
1852,  and  in  1856  removed  to  New  York  city,  where 
he  has  since  resided.  He  was  made  an  academician  in 
1859.  His  pictures  are  admired  for  their  harmony  of 
color  and  quiet  peacefulness  of  tone.  The  best  known 
among  them  are:  Woods  in  Autumn.  Moonrise  in  the 
Adirondacks,  Peaceful  Homes , Coming  out  of  the  Shade , 
On  the  March,  Among  Friends,  Threatening  Weather , 
Indian  Summer,  and  A Misty  Morning.  Died,  1901. 

HART,  Joel  T.,  sculptor,  born  in  Clark  county, 
Ky.,  1810;  died  in  Florence,  Italy,  March  1,  1877.  In 
1847  Hart  went  to  Italy  for  study,  and  while  there  mod- 
eled a statue  of  Henry  Clay,  which  is  at  the  present 
time  in  Richmond,  Va.  This  was  followed  by  a large 
bronze  statue  of  the  same,  now  in  New  Orleans,  and 
by  a marble  statue  of  the  statesman.  During  his  thirty 
years’  residence  in  Florence, Hart  completed  many  busts 
and  statues  of  persons  of  distinction.  Of  original  com- 
positions, his  Charity,  Woman  Triumphant,  and  Pen- 
serosa  are  among  the  best. 

HART,  William,  landscape  painter,  elder  brother 
of  James  McD.  Hart  ( q.v .)  was  born  at  Paisley,  Scot- 
land, in  1823.  He  removed,  with  his  family,  to  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  in  1831,  and,  like  his  brother,  was  a coach- 
painter.  Evincing  a talent  and  taste  for  art,  he  took 
up  landscape  painting,  and  made  his  first  public  exhibi- 
tion at  the  Academy  of  Design  in  New  York  in  1848. 
He  has  been  a frequent  exhibitor  at  the  Academy  of 
Design,  and  was  made  an  academican  in  1858.  For 


several  years  he  was  president  of  the  Brooklyn  Academy 
of  Design,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Water- 
color  Society,  of  which,  for  three  years,  he  was  presi- 
dent. His  pictures  are  remarkable  for  their  luminous 
brilliancy  of  coloring.  Died  June  17,  1894. 

HARTE,  Francis  Bret,  was  born  at  Albany,  N.  Y., 
August  25,  1839.  He  went  to  California  in  1854,  and 
was  successively  a miner,  school  teacher,  express  mes- 
senger, printer,  and  finally  editor  of  a newspaper.  In 
1864  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  United  States 
branch  mint  at  San  Francisco,  holding  the  office  until 
1870.  He  contributed  many  poems  and  sketches  to 
periodicals,  and  in  1868,  upon  the  establishment  of  the 
Overland  Monthly,  he  became  its  editor,  and  contribut- 
ed to  it  several  notable  tales  and  sketches.  In  1869  ap- 
peared in  it  his  humorous  poem,  The  Heathen  Chinee , 
which  made  him  famous.  In  1871  he  took  up  his  resi- 
dence first  in  New  York,  and  subsequently  in  Boston. 
He  was  appointed  United  States  consul  at  Crefeld,  Ger- 
many, in  1878,  from  which  he  was  transferred  to  Glas- 
gow in  March.  1880,  remaining  there  until  July,  1885. 
His  works,  most  of  which  originally  appeared  in  period- 
icals, include  Condensed  Novels  (1867);  Poems  (1870); 
Luck  of  Roaring  Camp,  and  other  Sketches  (1870); 
East  and  West  Poems  (1871);  Poetical  Works,  illus- 
trated (1871 );  Mrs.  Skagg's  Husbands  (1872);  Echoes  of 
the  Foot  Hills  (1874);  Tales  of  the  Argonauts  (1875); 
Gabriel  Conroy  (1876);  Two  Men  of  Sandy  Bar  (1876); 
Thankful  Blossom  (1877);  Drift  from  Two  Shores  (1878); 
In  the  Carquinez  Woods  (1883);  By  Shore  and  Sedge 
(1885);  Cressy  (1889);  A Waif  of  the  Plains  and  A Ward 
of  the  Golden  Gate  (1890);  A Sappho  of  Green  Springs 
and  Sally  Dows  (1892);  Susy  (1893);  and  A Protege  of 
Jack  Hamlin's  (1894).  Died  May  5,  1902. 

HARTINGTON,  Marquis  of  (Spencer  Compton 
Cavendish,  eighth  duke  of  Devonshire  since  De- 
cember, 1891),  was  born  July  23,  1833,  and  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  gradu- 
ated B.A.  in  1854,  and  was  made  LL.D.  in  1862.  He 
was  attached  to  Earl  Granville’s  special  mission  to 
Russia  in  1856.  In  March,  1857,  he  was  returned  to 
the  House  of  Commons,  as  one  of  the  members  for 
North  Lancashire,  in  the  Liberal  interest.  At  the 
opening  of  the  new  parliament  in  1859,  he  moved  a 
vote  of  “ no  confidence  ” in  Lord  Derby’s  government, 
which  was  carried  by  323  votes  against  310.  In  March, 
1863,  he  was  appointed  a lord  of  the  admiralty,  and, 
in  April  of  the  same  year,  under-secretary  for  war. 
On  the  reconstruction  of  Lord  Russell’s  second  admin- 
istration, in  February,  1866,  the  marquis  of  Harting- 
ton  became  secretary  of  war,  and  retired  with  his  col- 
leagues in  July  of  that  year.  At  the  genertl  election  of 
December,  1868,  he  lost  his  seat  for  North  Lancashire, 
but  was  immediately  afterward  returned  for  the  Radnor 
boroughs,  having  first  received  the  office  of  postmaster- 
general  in  Mr.  Gladstone’s  cabinet.  He  held  that 
office  till  January,  1871,  when  he  succeeded  Mr. 
Chichester  Fortescue  as  chief  secretary  for  Ireland. 
He  went  out  of  office  with  his  party  in  February, 
1874.  When  Mr.  Gladstone,  shortly  before  the 
assembling  of  parliament  in  1875,  announced  his  in- 
tention of  abandoning  the  post  of  leader  of  the  Liberal 
party,  a meeting  of  the  members  of  the  opposition 
was  held  at  the  Reform  Club  (February  3d),  under  the 
presidency  of  Mr.  John  Bright.  On  the  motion  of  Mr. 
Villiers,  it  was  decided  that  the  marquis  of  Harting- 
ton  should  undertake  the  leadership  of  the  Liberal 
party  in  the  House  of  Commons.  He  received  the 
freedom  of  the  city  of  Glasgow,  November  5,  1877; 
and  was  installed  as  lord  rector  of  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  January  31,  1879.  At  the  general  election 
of  April,  i#8o,  he  was  elected  member  of  parliament' 


H A R — H A V 


6586 

for  northeast  Lancashire.  On  the  resignation  of  the 
Conservative  government,  the  marquis  of  Harrington 
was  sent  for  by  the  queen  to  form  an  administration  ; 
but  this  task,  having  been  declined  by  him  and  Earl 
Granville,  eventually  devolved  on  the  former  leader  of  i 
the  Liberal  party,  Mr.  Gladstone,  who  constructed  a 
Cabinet,  in  which  the  marquis  of  Hartington  occupied 
a seat,  as  secretary  of  State  for  India,  from  May, 
1880,  till  December  16,  1882,  when  he  was  transferred 
to  the  War  office  in  succession  to  Mr.  Childers,  who 
had  become  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  He  re- 
signed with  the  government  in  June,  1885,  and  was 
elected  for  the  Rossendale  division  of  Lancashire, 
December,  1885.  In  1886*  On  the  formation  of  Mr. 
Gladstone’s  home  rule  cabinet,  LOrd  Hartington 
declined  to  join  it;  but,  on  the  Contrary,  aCcCpted  the 
position  of  leader  of  the  Unionist  Liberals.  He 
moved  the  first  resolution  of  the  great  opera  house 
meeting;  and,  also,  in  the  House  of  Commons,  the  re- 
jection of  the  home  rule  bill  on  the  second  reading. 
He  was  reelected  for  Rossendale  in  1886,  but  declined 
either  to  form  a Conservative- Unionist  cabinet  or  to 
take  office  under  Lord  Salisbury,  preferring  to  serve  the 
Unionist  caUse  out  of  office.  He  was  appointed  chair- 
man of  the  royal  commission  on  labor  in  1891,  and 
chancellor  of  Cambridge  University  in  1892,  after  his 
succession  to  his  father  in  the  dukedom. 

HARTRANFT,  John  Frederick',  born  in  Mont- 
gomery county,  Penn.,  December  16,  1830;  Was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1859.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
Civil  war  he  enlisted  in  a volunteer  regiment,  took  part 
in  the  early  campaigns  and  distinguished  himself  at 
Vicksburg.  He  commanded  a brigade  in  the  battles  of 
the  Wilderness  and  was  brevetted  major-general  in  the 
Spring  of  1865.  In  the  aUtUmn  of  the  same  year  He 
was  elected  auditor-general  of  Pennsylvania,  reelected 
in  1868,  and  from  1872  to  1878  was  governor  Of  that 
State.  He  died  October  17,  1889. 

HARTT,  Charles  Frederick,  born  in  New 
Brunswick,  August  23,  1840;  died  irt  Brazil,  March, 
1878.  By  the  invitation  of  Louis  Agassiz  he  entered 
the  Museum  of  Comparative  Anatomy  at  Cambridge, 
Mass;  Later  he  became  professor  of  natural  history  at 
Vassar  College,  and  then  professor  of  geology  and  phys- 
ical geography  in  Cornell.  He  made  several  exploring 
trips  in  the  valley  of  the  Amazon,  where  he  died. 

HARVARD,  John,  was  born  in  England  in  1607, 
educated  at  Cambridge  College,  and  ordained  a dissent- 
ing minister  in  1637,  and  came  that  year  to  Charlestown, 
Mass.,  where  he  preached  to  the  infant  colony;  He 
died  September  24,  1638,  leaving  about  $4,000,  one- 
half  of  his  estate,  and  his  library  for  the  founding  of  the 
college  which  beafs  his  name. 

HASSLER,  Ferdinand  RudolRh,  born  in  Switzer- 
land in  1770  ; camC  to  the  United  States,  and  in  1807-10 
was  professor  of  mathematics  at  West  Point.  After- 
ward he  was  given  charge  of  the  coast  survey.  He  died 
at  Philadelphia  in  November,  1843. 

HATTON,  Joseph,  born  at  Andover,  England,  in 
1839 ; began  to  write  at  an  early  age.  He  edited  several 
provincial  and  London  newspapers,  and  in  1865  wrote 
his  first  novel,  Bitter  Sweets.  In  1868  he  was  appointed 
editor  of  the  Gentleman1 s Magdzine , which  post  he  re- 
signed in  1874.  He  has  published  numerous  hovels, 
including  Princess  Mazaroff  ahd  Under  the  Great  Seal 
(1893),  and  has  adapted  plays  arid  stories  for  the  stage; 
In  1876  he  made  a lecturing  tour  through  the  United 
States  arid  Canada,  and  has  since  been  London  corre- 
spondent of  The  Times  of  New  York. 

HATZFELPT,  Count  von,  born  iti  1831,  went  to 
Paris  with  Prince  Bismarck  in  1862,  as  one  of  his  secre- 
taries and  when  th$  foreign  office  was  mobilized  op  the 


.outbreak  of  the  Franco-German  war  was  on  the  chan- 
cellor’s diplomatic  suite.  In  1874  he  was  appointed 
imperial  minister  at  Madrid,  and  later  at  Constantinople. 
He  was  recalled  to  Berlin  to  succeed  Herr  von  BuloW 
as  foreign  secretary,  and  in  1885  replaced  Count  Munster 
as  German  ambassador  in  London.  Died  Nov.  24,  1901. 

HAUCK,  MiNnie,  was  born  in  New  York  city  in 
November,  1852,  of  German  parentage.  She  first  ap- 
peared in  public  at  a concert  in  that  city  in  1865,  and 
three  years  afterward  ffiade  her  Operatic  debut  as 
“Amina”  in  La  Samnahibula.  She  sang  at  Cdverit 
Garden  theater,  London,  1868,  afterward  in  'Vienna, 
Moscow,  Berlin,  Paris,  and  Brussels,  and  rilride  several 
successful  tours  through  the  United  States. 

HAUPT,  Herman,  American  engineer,  built  the 
Hoosac  tunnel,  1856-64,  was  chief  of  the  bureau  of 
United  States  military  railways  in  the  war,  has  been 
chief  engineer  of  the  tide  water  pipe  line  company  since 
1875,  and  has  written  several  works  on  bridge  building 
and  Street  Railway  Motors  (1893). 

HAUSSMANN,  Baron  George  Eugene,  Was 
borri  iri  Paris,  March  27,  1809;  was  educated  at  the 
Conservatoire  de  Musique,  studied  with  a notary,  and 
became  an  advocate.  After  the  revolution  of  1830  he 
Was  successively  sous-prefet  of  Nerac,  Saint  Girons, 
and  Blaye,  and  under  the  presidency  of  Louis  Napoleon 
was  prefect  of  Var,  the  Yonne,  and  Gironde.  The 
president,'  appreciating  his  administrative  talents,  ap- 
pointed him  prefet  of  the  Seine,  in  succession  to  M. 
Berger,  June  23,  1853.  Under  his  derive  direction  and 
enterprising  spirit,  works  were  executed  in  Paris  of  sUch 
a nature  as  to  almost  render  it' a new  city.  The  finan- 
cial administration  of  M.  Haussmann  gave  rise  to  the 
most  animated  discussion  in  the  corps  legislatif  and  in 
the  columns  of  the  press*  it  being  alleged  that  the  pre- 
fect had  raised,  by  means  of  bonds,  hundreds  of  mil- 
lions of  francs  over  and  above  the  large  amount  he  Was 
legally  authorized  to  expend  in  the  construction  of  pub- 
lic works.  Eventually  M.  Haussmann  requested  the 
emperor  to  place  the  budget  of  the  city  under  the  con- 
trol Of  the  corps  legislatif,  and  accordingly  the  examina- 
tion of  his  accounts  became  the  principal  business  of 
the  session  of  1869,  the  result  beihg  that  authority  was 
given  for  a new  loan  of  260,000,000  francs,  which  was 
eagerly  subscribed  by  the  public.  On  the  formation  of 
a parliamentary  cabinet  by  M.  fimile  Ollivier,  he  was 
asked  to  tender  his  resignation  Of  the  office  of  prefet  of 
the  Seine,  and  on  his  refusal  to  do  so  he  was  “relieved 
of  his  duties”  by  an  imperial  decree,  dated  Jamlary  5, 
1870.  M.  Haussmann  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
grand  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  Jrine  ij,  1856, 
and  Grand  Cross,  September  8,  1862.  In  August, 
1857,  he  was  created  a senator,  and,  in  1867*  elected  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  After  the  fall 
of  the  empire  Baron  Haussmann  prudently  quitted 
France  for  a time.  On  his  return  he  was  appointed 
(September  3,  1871)  director  of  the  Credit  mobilier.  At 
the  election  of  October,  1877,  he  was  returned  to  the 
chamber  of  deputies  by  the  arroridissement  of  Ajaccio, 
in  Corsica,  where  he  polled  8,066  votes,  against  4,421 
given  for  his  opponent,  Prince  Napoleoh.  Inthe  Cham- 
ber he  occasionally  took  part  in  the  discussion  of  finan- 
cial projects  and  questions  relating  to  public  works, 
and  defbnded  his  own  administration.  He  wrote  his 
Memoirs  in  1889  and  died  January  12,  1891. 

HAVEN,  Erastus  Otis,  born  in  Massachusetts* 
November  1,  1820;  died  in  August,  1 881.  He  gradu- 
ated in  theology  in  1842;  entered  the  Methodist 
ministry,  and  became  a professor  in  Michigan  Uni- 
versity. For  several  years  He  edited  in  Boston  the 
Zion's  Herald . In  1863  he  became  president  of  the 
University  of  Michigan;  which  petition  Hp  occupied  for 


H A V—  H AY 


seVefsl  yfears.  He  wds  president  Of  the  Northwestern 
University  at  Evanston,  111.,  1869-72  and  became  chan- 
cellor of  Syracuse  University  in  1874.  In  May,  1880,  he 
was  ordained  bishop.  Union  College  made  him  D.D., 
and  Ohio  University  gave  him  the  degree  of'  LL.D. 

HAVEN,  Gilbert,  born  in  Massachusetts,  Septem- 
ber 9,  1821;  died  January  30,  1880.  He  graduated  in 
1846  at  the  Wesleyan  University;  preached  and  taught 
for  many  years,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war 
was  appointed  chaplain  of  a volunteer  regiment.  In 
1867  he  was  appointed  editor  of  the  Zion1  s Herald , and 
in  May,  1872,  he  was  elected  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.  In  the  discharge  of  his  duties  he 
visited  Mexico,  Liberia,  and  other  places,  and  took  a 
ively  interest  in  Christian  work  among  the  freedmen 
){ the  South. 

HAWEIS,  Hugh  Reginald,  English  clergyman 
jtnd  author,  was  born  at  Egharh*  Surrey,  1838,  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  appointed  per- 
petual curate  of  St.  James  Church,  Marylebone,  in  1866. 
He  became  editor  of  Cassell's  Family  Magazine  in  1868, 
visited  the  United  States  in  1885  and  has  written  nu- 
merous works  including  Music  and  Morals , American 
Humourist,  Poets  in  the  Pulpit,  and  Christ  and  Chris- 
tianity (1887).  Died  Jan.  29,  1901. 

HAWKS,  Francis  Lister,  borrt  in  North  Carolina 
in  June,  1798;  died  in  New  York  city,  September  26, 
1866.  He  practiced  law  in  North  Carolina  but  decided  to 
enter  the  ministry,  and  was  ordained  deacon  in  the 
Episcopal  Church  in  1827.  He  was  rectof  of  a NeW 
York  church,  was  the  first  president  of  the  University 
of  Louisiana,  and  held  charges  in  New  Orleans*  Balti- 
more and  New  York  where  he  became  a popular  pulpit 
orator.  He  declined  several  bishoprics  and  wrote  sev- 
eral important  ecclesiastical  Works: 

HAWLEY,  Joseph  Roswell,  was  born  in  North 
Carolina,  October  31,  1826.  He  studied  law  and  began 
to  practice  in  Hartford  (1850),  but  abandoned  iaw  in 
1857  for  journalism,  connecting  himself  with  the  Even- 
ing Press,  a newly  established  Republican  paper. 
When  the  Civil  war  broke  out  he  was  the  first  citizen  in 
his  state  to  volunteer,  and  Was  appointed  lieutenant 
and  afterward  captain  of  a volunteer  regiment,  serving 
with  his  company  in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1861,  he  Was  made  lieutenant-colonel.  He 
received  his  commission  as  brigadier-general  in  1864, 
and  was  placed  in  command  of  the  second  brigade  of 
General  Terry’s  division  of  the  tenth  corps,  becoming 
afterward  the  chief  of  staff  of  General  Terry  in  Virginia; 
and  was  brevetted  major-gerteral  in  September,  1865. 
He  tv  as  elected  governor  of  Connecticut  in  1866-67; 
was  president  of  the  Republican  national  convention  at 
Chicago  in  1868,  when  General  Grant  was  nominated 
for  the  presidency  ; was  member  of  congress  in  1873- 
77*  and  in  1879-81 ; president  of  the  centennial  com- 
mission in  1876;  and  since  1881  has  been  United  States 
senator  from  Connecticut. 

HAWTHORNE,  Julian,  son  of  the  eminent  novel- 
ist, Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  was  born  at  Boston,  Mass:* 
June  22,  1846.  He  entered  Harvard  ih  1863.  where 
he  remained  until  his  father’s  death  in  May,  1864.  He 
subsequently  returned  to  Cambridge,  and  remained 
there  until  his  class  graduated  in  1867,  but  he  todk  no 
degree.  He  then  entered  the  scientific  school  to  study* 
civil  engineering,  but  left  it  to  go  to  Germany,  in  Oc- 
tober, 1868.  During  1871  he  contributed  a nutuber  of 
short  stories  and  pieces  to  the  magazines.  He  sailed 
for  Europe  in  1872,  and  after  a short  stay  in  England, 
proceeded  to  Dresden,  where  he  remained  two  years, 
during  which  tifne  he  published  in  England  and  America 
his  first  two  novels,  Bnssant  (18 73) , and  Idolatry 

(1874).  From  1875  until  October,  1881,  he  remained 


6587 

in  or  near  Londoh,  with  the  exception  of  a Visit  of  a few 
months  to  France,  publishing  several  volumes  of  short 
stories  and  Archibald  Malmaison.  He  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  1882:,  and  has  since  been  a prolific 
whiter,  publishing  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  and  His  Wife 
(1884),  detective  stories  and  numeroUs  novels,  among 
the  best  of  th'em  befog  Garth,  Beatrix  Randolph,  For- 
tune's Fool,  Noble  Blood,  The  Professor' s Sister  artd  Sin- 
fire  (1888).  He  also  Wrote  Confessions  akd  Criticisms 
(1886)  and  Huinors  of  the  Fair  (1893)  besides  many 
magazine  articles.  He  also  edited  a posthumous  ro- 
mance of  his  father’s,  Dr.  Grimshawe's  Secret. 

HAY,  John,  born  at  Salem,  Ind.,  October  8,  1839; 
graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1858.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  Springfield,  111.,  in  i86i,  but 
almost  immediately  went  to  Washington  as  assistant 
secretary  to  President  Lincoln,  and  subsequently  was 
his  adjutant  and  aide-de-camp.  During  the  Civil  war 
he  served  for  a time  under  Generals  Hunter  and  Oili- 
more,  attaining  the  rank  of  colonel  and  assistant  adju- 
tant-general. From  1865  to  1867  he  was  secretary  of 
legation  at  Paris,  and  from  that  time  to  1868  was  charge 
d'affaires  at  Vienna.  Fie  was  appointed  secretary  of 
legation  at  Madrid,  in  1869,  where  he  remained  Until 

1870,  when  he  returned  to  the  United  States,  and 
accepted  a position  Upon  the  editorial  staff  of  the 
New  York  Tribune.  This  he  resigned  in  1876,  Upon 
his  removal  to  Cleveland,  Ohio,  but  has  continued  to 
occasionally  coxltribute  to  its  columns  to  the  present 
time.  During  the  absence  of  the  editor,  Mr.  White- 
law  Reid,  in  Europe,  from  April  to  November,  1881, 
Colonel  Hay  returned  to  New  York  to  take  entire  edi- 
torial charge  of  the  Tribune.  From  1879  to  188 1 he 
was  assistant  sebretafy  of  state.  He  obtained  con- 
siderable celebrity  by  his  dialect  poems  of  Jim  Bludsoe, 
Little  Breeches,  etc.,  which  were  afterward  published  in 
book-form  under  the  title  of  Pike  County  Ballads, 

1871.  In  the  safoe  year  he  also  issued  Castilian  Daps, 
a series  of  sketches  of  Spanish  life  and  character.  He 
represented  the  United  States  iU  Etigland  in  1897,  ana 
became  United  States  Secretary  o'f  State  in  1898;  He 
represented  the  U.  S.  at  the  Coronation  of  Edward  VII. 
of  England.  He  has  published  fin  collaboration  With 
John  G.  Nicolay)  a Life  of  Abraham  Lhlcolh  (i887.) 

HAYDEN,  Ferdinand  V.,  born  in  Massachusetts, 
September  7, « 1829;  died  December  22*  1887.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Oberlin  in  1850,  and  three  years  afterward  in 
medicine  at  Albany  Medical  College.  He  devoted  his 
attention  to  geological  research,  and  spent  much  of 
his  time  in  the  western  States  and  Territories;  His 
collection  bf  geological  specimens  Attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  authorities  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
and  he  was  appointed  naturalist  of  the  expedition  to 
explore  the  Yellowstone  and  Missouri  rivers  in  1859. 
During  the  war  he  acted  as  surgeon  in  the  volunteer 
service,  and  in  May,  1865,  received  the  brevet  of  lieu- 
tenant-colonel. In  the  same  year  he  became  professor 
of  mineralogy  and  geology  in  the  University  Of  Penri- 
sylvania,  which  position  he  held  for  seven  years.  Be- 
tween 1869  and  1872  Doctor  Hayden  conducted  a series 
of  geological  explorations  in  Dakota  and  other  terri- 
tories, and'  his  report  caused  congress  to  set  apart  the 
Yellowstone  district  as  a national  park.  Doctor  Hay- 
den became  geologist  in  charge  of  the  Montaha  division 
of  the  United  States  sUrvey*  but  resigned  this  office  in 
Defcember,  1886,  owing  to  failing  health.  He  was  a 
member  of  scientific  societies  both  at  home  and  abroad, 
and  an  LL.D.  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
wrote  nufoeyous  scientific  works. 

HAYNES,  Isaac  Israel,  Arctic  explorer,  born  in 
Chester  county,  Penn.,  March  5, 1832;  died  in  New  York 
city;  December  17, 1881.  Fie  graduated  in  the  medickl 


6588  HAY- 

school  of  the  University  cf  Pennsylvania  in  1853,  and 
sailed  as  surgeon  in  the  polar  expedition  under  com- 
mand of  Elisha  K.  Kane  in  that  year.  To  his  medical 
acquirements  he  added  the  knowledge  of  a naturalist 
and  the  perseverance  of  an  explorer.  In  the  summer  of 
1854  the  entire  party  of  explorers  safely  reached  Uper- 
navik.  On  July  7,  i860,  Doctor  Hayes  sailed  on  a sec- 
ond expedition,  in  command  of  the  United  States.  In 
May,  1861,  he  again  landed  on  Grinnell  Land.  Doctor 
Hayes  made  a third  voyage  in  1869.  He  received  the 
founder’s  medal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  in 
1867,  and  the  gold  medal  of  the  Paris  Society  in  1869. 
When  he  returned  from  his  second  expedition  and  found 
that  the  Civil  war  had  begun,  he  sought  service  as  sur- 
geon of  volunteers,  and  was  brevetted  lieutenant-colonel 
March  13,  1865.  Later  Doctor  Hayes  removed  to  New 
York  city,  where  he  was  chosen  a member  of  the  State 
legislature  for  the  term  of  five  years.  His  publications 
include  7'he  Open  Polar  Sea  (Boston,  1867);  Cast  Away 
in  the  Cold  (1868),  and  The  Land  of  Desolation  (1871). 

HAYES,  Rutherford  Birchard,  nineteenth 
president  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Delaware, 
Ohio,  October  14,  1822,  and  graduated  at  Kenyon  Col- 
lege in  1842.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Marietta, 
Ohio,  in  1845,  and  entered  upon  practice  first  at  Fre- 
mont, and  subsequently  at  Cincinnati.  The  Civil  war 
having  broken  out.  he  was  in  June,  1861,  made  major 
of  a regiment  of  Ohio  volunteers.  His  regiment  was 
ordered  to  service  in  western  Virginia,  was  subse- 
quently joined  to  the  army  of  the  Potomac  under 
General  McClellan,  and  took  part  in  the  operations  per- 
taining to  the  Confederate  invasion  of  Maryland,  in 
September,  1862.  At  the  engagement  of  South  Mount- 
ain, just  before  the  battle  of  Antietam,  Major  Hayes 
was  severely  wounded.  Having  recovered  from  his 
wound,  he  was  in  November,  1862,  made  colonel  of  his 
regiment,  which  was  subsequently  on  duty  in  Ohio  and 
elsewhere.  He  was  later  made  brigadier-general,  and 
afterward  major-general  of  volunteers.  In  June,  1865, 
he  resigned  his  commission,  having  been  elected  a 
representative  in  congress  from  Ohio,  taking  his  seat  in 
December,  1865.  He  was  reelected  for  the  following 
term,  but  resigned  in  1867,  having  been  elected  gov- 
ernor of  Ohio,  to  which  office  he  was  reelected  in  1869, 
and  again  in  1875.  His  repeated  success  in  Ohio  in- 
duced the  Republican  National  Convention  in  1876  to 
nominate  him  for  the  presidency  as  a compromise 
candidate  between  Mr.  Blaine  on  the  one  hand  and 
Mr.  Conkling  on  the  other.  When  the  election  took 
place,  it  seemed  certain  that,  of  the  369  electoral  votes, 
184  had  been  cast  for  Mr.  Tilden,  the  Democratic 
candidate,  being  one  short  of  a majority;  172  were 
equally  sure  for  Mr.  Hayes;  but  there  were  thirteen 
electors,  in  respect  to  whose  election  there  were  grave 
questions  in  dispute.  Of  these,  eight  were  from 
Louisiana,  four  from  Florida,  and  one  from  Oregon, 
from  which  States  there  were  two  sets  of  electors,  each 
claiming  to  have  been  duly  chosen.  If  only  one  of  these 
votes  should  be  counted  for  Mr.  Tilden  he  -would  have 
a majority,  and  would  consequently  become  president. 
In  order  to  secure  the  election  of  Mr.  Hayes,  all  these 
thirteen  votes  must  be  counted  for  him.  Singularly 
enough,  neither  the  constitution  nor  any  existing  law 
provided  for  such  an  emergency,  and  as  the  Re- 
publicans had  a majority  in  the  Senate,  and  the  Demo- 
crats in  the  House,  it  was  certain  that  the  two  branches 
of  congress  would  not  agree  upon  any  bill  which  would 
give  the  counting  of  the  disputed  votes  to  their  op- 
ponents. In  this  emergency  a bill  was  passed  creating 
a special  electoral  commission  of  fifteen  for  counting  the 
votes.  It  was  to  consist  of  five  senators,  five  represent 
atives*  and  five  justices  of  the  Supreme  Court.  This  com- 


- H A Z 

mission,  by  a majority  of  one,  decided  that  the  disputed 
votes  should  all  be  counted  for  Mr.  Hayes,  giving  him 
a majority  of  one  vote,  and  he  was  declared  duly 
elected.  Mr.  Hayes’  administration  was  a conservative 
one,  and  was  noted  more  for  its  exceptional  purity  than 
for  any  especial  policy.  By  the  withdrawal  of  ah 
national  troops  from  the  Southern  States  he  restored  to 
them  the  right  of  local  self-government,  and  thus  re- 
moved the  “ Southern  question  ” from  general  politics. 
He  endeavored  to  prevent  the  remonetization  of  silver, 
but  his  veto  was  overridden  by  the  constitutional  two- 
thirds  majority  in  both  houses  of  congress.  The  Re- 
publican Senators,  led  by  Mr.  Conkling,  vigorously  op- 
posed his  efforts  to  reform  the  civil  service,  so  that  he 
was  able  to  secure  but  little  legislation  upon  the  subject, 
the  bill  prohibiting  political  assessments  on  office-hold- 
ers being  the  only  measure  in  that  direction  passed. 
He  was  able,  however,  to  set  an  example  in  favor  of 
the  reform  by  checking  removals  except  for  cause,  and 
by  instituting  in  the  Interior  Department,  and  in  the 
postoffice  and  custom  house  of  New  York,  competitive 
examinations  for  appointment.  The  house  of  repre- 
sentatives, which  was  Democratic  throughout  his  term, 
attempted  to  secure  his  assent  to  the  repeal  of  certain 
measures  by  attaching  them  to  appropriation  bills,  but 
he  was  firm  in  his  refusal  to  sign  them,  and  the'House 
was  finally  obliged  to  give  way,  public  sentiment  show- 
ing itself  largely  on  the  side  of  the  president.  On 
March  4,  1881,  Mr.  Hayes  was  succeeded  in  the  presi- 
dency by  Mr.  Garfield,  retiring  to  his  home  in  Fremont, 
Ohio.  He  died  January  17,  1893. 

HAYNE,  Paul  H.,  born  in  South  Carolina,  January 
1,  1830;  died  in  Georgia,  July  6,  1886.  He  studied  law 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  afterward  edited  the 
Charleston  Literary  Gazette , and  wrote  some  war  songs 
and  other  poetry.  t 

HAYNE,  Robert  Young,  was  born  in  South  Caro- 
lina November  10,  1791,  and  died  September  24,  1839. 
He  practiced  law  in  Charleston,  and  from  1814  to  i8j8 
served  in  the  State  legislature.  From  1818  to  1822  he 
was  attorney  general  of  his  State,  and  in  1822  he  was 
elected  United  States  senator.  lie  opposed  the  tariff 
measures  proposed  in  1828,  and  his  oratorical  efforts  in 
opposition  to  Henry  Clay  are  of  historical  record.  The 
great  debate  between  Daniel  Webster  and  Mr.  Hayne 
upon  the  principles  of  the  constitution,  the  authority  of 
the  general  government,,  and  the  rights  of  the  individual 
States  is  also  of  historical  Value.  In  1832  Mr.  Hayne 
was  elected  governor  of  South  Carolina.  President 
Jackson  on  December  10th  issued  his  proclamation 
against  the  nullification  ordinances  which  had  been 
passed  by  the  State  legislature.  Governor  Hayne  re- 
plied with  a proclamation  of  defiance.  (See  Nullifi- 
cation.) Nothing  came  of  the  proposed  resistance  of 
South  Carolina  to  the  exercise  of  the  unquestionable 
authority  of  the  national  government,  and  the  nullifica- 
tion proposition  died  a natural  death.  In  1834  Gov- 
ernor Hayne  retired,  and  two  years  later  he  served  a 
term  as  mayor  of  Charleston,  S.  C. 

HAZEN,  William  Babcock,  born  in  Vermont, 
September  27, 1830;  died  January  16,  1887.  He  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1855,  served  on  the  frontier,  and 
in  1861  became  instructor  in  infantry  tactics  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy.  In  the  fall  of  1861 
he  entered  the  volunteer  service,  won  distinction  at 
Stone  River,  Chickamauga,  and  Missionary  Ridge,  and 
was  with  Sherman  in  his  march  to  the  sea.  in  1866 
General  Hazen,  who  had  already  received  the  brevet  of 
major-general,  was  appointed  colonel  of  an  infantry 
regiment.  On  December  8,  1880,  he  became  chief  of 
the  United  States  signal  service,  which  position  he  held 
until  his  death. 


H E A — H E L 


HEADLEY,  Joel  Tyler,  born  in  Walton,  N.  Y., 
December  30,  1813,  and  died  January  16,  1897.  He 
studied  theology  at  Auburn  Theological  Seminary, 
lie  became  pastor  of  a church  at  Stockbridge,  Mass., 
but  was  soon  obliged  to  relinquish  his  work  by  ill  health. 
He  wrote  a senes  of  articles  for  Harper's  Magazine , 
and  in  1846  succeeded  Henry  J.  Raymond  as  associate 
editor  of  the  New  York  Tribune.  In  1854  Mr.  Headley 
was  elected  to  the  New  York  State  Legislature,  and  in 
1855  he  became  secretary  of  the  State  of  New  York. 

HEALY,  George  P.  A.,  was  born  in  Boston  in 
1813.  He  studied  in  Paris  and  exhibited  for  several 
years  at  the  salon,  his  specialty  being  portraiture. 
Among  the  chief  of  his  works  were  the  portraits  of 
Henry  W Longfellow,  Henry  Clay,  John  C.  Calhoun, 
Daniel  Webster,  Cardinal  McCloskey,  Thiers,  and  Gen- 
eral W.  T.  Sherman.  He  completed  in  1851,  his  Web- 
ster’s Reply  to  Hayne,  containing  130  portraits,  which 
hangs  in  Faneuil  Hall,  Boston,  and  in  1855  exhibited  in 
Paris  his  large  picture  representing  Franklin  urging  the 
claims  of  the  American  colonies  before  Louis  XVI, 
both  widely  known  through  engravings.  A number 
of  his  best  works  he  gave  to  the  Newberry  Library 
injChicago  in  1892.  He  painted  over  600  portraits. 
He  died  in  Chicago  June  24,  1894. 

HEALY,  Timothy  M.,  an  able  and  ardent  Irish 
naturalist  leader,  was  born  May  17,  1855,  at  Bantry, 
county  Cork.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  Land 
League  agitation  of  1880  and  was  tried,  but  acquitted, 
for  a speech  at  Bantry.  He  was  elected  unopposed  for 
Wexford  borough.  During  the  passing  of  the  Land  act 
in  1881,  he  secured  the  exclusion  of  tenants’  improve- 
ments from  rent.  In  1880  and  again  in  1881  he  visited 
the  United  States,  attending  the  Land  League  con- 
vention at  Chicago,  which  voted  $250,000  to  assist 
the  Irish  movement,  and  speaking  for  the  league  in 
all  leading  cities.  In  1882,  for  another  campaign  speech 
he  was  sentenced  to  six  months’  imprisonment,  but  was 
released  at  the  end  of  four  months.  In  June,  1883,  he 
resigned  his.seat  for  Wexford,  and  was  elected  for  Mon- 
aghan. In  November,  1884,  he  was  called  to  the  Irish 
bar.  In  1885  he  was  elected  for  Monaghan  and  South 
Londonderry,  and  sat  for  the  latter.  In  1886  he  was 
defeated  for  South  Londonderry,  and  in  February,  1887, 
he  was  returned  without  opposition  for  North  Long- 
ford. In  1891  he  was  Parnell’s  most  enthusiastic  cham- 
pion in  the  struggle  against  his  leadership  and  after  his 
death  became  the  leader  of  the  Parnellite  wing  of  the 
Irish  nationalists.  Since  1892  he  has  sat  for  Louth. 
He  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar  in  1884. 

HEATH,  William,  born  in  Roxbury,  Mass., 
March  7,  1737;  died  there  January  24,  1814.  Before 
the  Revolution  he  was  captain  of  the  Suffolk  regiment 
and  later  rose  to  be  its  colonel.  In  1770  he  commanded 
the  artillery  company  of  Boston  and  in  1774  became  a 
delegate  to  the  provincial  congress.  On  December  8, 
!774»  he  was  appointed  brigadier-general,  and  later  was 
promoted  successively  to  the  grades  of  brigadier-gen- 
eral and  major-general  in  the  provincial  army.  After 
the  battle  of  White  Plains  he  commanded  the  posts  of 
the  Hudson  river  highlands,  and  in  1777  the  eastern 
department,  and  had  charge  of  the  prisoners  of  Bur- 
goyne’s  army  at  Cambridge.  When  the  war  was 
finished  he  returned  to  his  farm  and  was  a State 
senator,  1791-92.  In  1806  he  was  elected  lieutenant- 
governor.  He  was  the  last  surviving  major-general  of 
the  Revolution. 

HECKER,  F riedrich  Karl  Franz,  born  in  Baden, 
Germany,  1811;  died  in  St.  Louis,  1881.  He  took 
part  in  the  Baden  revolution  in  1848,  and  when  that 
came  to  an  untimely  end,  fled  to  Switzerland  and  after- 
ward to  the  United  States.  He  settled  in  New  York, 
43-J 


6589 

became  an  ardent  anti-slavery  man,  joined  the  Republi- 
can party  and  served  under  Fremont  in  the  Union  army. 

HECKER,  Isaac  Thomas,  was  born  in  New  York 
city  in  December,  1819,  °f  German  parentage.  He 
participated  in  the  Brook  Farm  experiment;  in  1841  went 
over  to  Roman  Catholicism,  and  in  1849  was  ordained 
a priest  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  He  entered 
the  order  of  the  Redemptorists,  in  which  capacity  he 
labored  for  many  years.  He  died  December  22,  1888. 

HECICEWELDER,  John  Gottlieb  Ernestus, 
missionary,  was  born  in  Bedford,  England,  March  12, 
1743;  died  in  Bethlehem,  Penn.,  January  21,  1823.  At 
the  age  of  eleven  years  he  came  to  Pennsylvania  with  his 
father.  In  1792  he  accompanied  Gen.  Rufus  Putnam  to 
Post  Vincennes,  to  treat  with  the  tribes.  Between  1797 
and  1800  he  was  a postmaster,  justice  of  the  peace,  and 
associate  justice  of  the  court  of  common  pleas.  In  1797 
he  was  superintendent  of  the  Christian  Indians  on  the 
Muskingum  river,  and  in  1801  settled  in  Gradenhutten, 
devoted  to  the  duties  of  his  agency.  In  1810  he  re- 
sinned the  Indian  mission,  retired  finally  to  Bethlehem, 
among  the  Moravian  brethren,  and  engaged  in  literary 
pursuits.  He  studied  the  language,  manners,  and  cus- 
toms of  several  tribes  with  which  he  had  come  in 
contact. 

HEIN,  Piet,  born  in  Holland  in  1570;  entered  the 
service  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  fought  in  Brazil 
and  other  countries  against  the  Spaniards.  He  died  in 
1621. 

HEINTZELMAN,  Samuel  Peter,  born  in  Penn- 
sylvania, September  30,  1805;  died  May  1,  1880.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1826,  entered  the  infantry 
service  and  was  in  the  Seminole  and  Mexican  wars.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war  he  received  a commission 
as  colonel  in  the  seventeenth  regular  infantry.  He  com- 
manded a division  at  Bull  Run,  where  he  was  wounded, 
and  in  March,  1862,  he  had  command  of  the  third 
army  corps  at  Williamsburg.  For  his  distinguished 
services  upon  this  day  he  was  made  major-general  of 
volunteers,  and  after  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks  was 
brevetted  brigadier-general  in  the  regular  service.  He 
took  part  in  the  seven  days’  fight  at  Richmond,  was 
with  Pope  in  his  Virginia  campaign,  and  participated  in 
the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run.  Later  on  he  had  full 
command  of  the  defenses  at  Washington  and  of  the 
twenty-second  army  corps,  at  the  head  of  which  he 
distinguished  himself  at  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg 
He  was  relieved  in  October,  1863,  afterward  com- 
manded the  northern  department,  and  in  March,  1865, 
received  the  brevet  of  major-general  in  the  regular  ser- 
vice. In  1869  he  was  retired  with  the  rank  of  colonel. 

HEISS,  Michael,  born  in  Bavaria  on  April  12, 
1818;  removed  to  the  United  States  in  1842,  and  acted 
as  a missionary  priest  in  Wisconsin  for  several  years. 
In  1868  he  became  bishop  of  La  Crosse,  Wis.  In 
1880  he  was  made  coadjutor-bishop  of  Milwaukee, 
with  right  of  succession,  and  in  1881  succeeded  to  the 
see.  He  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  members  of 
the  Vatican  Council  of  1870.  He  died  March  26,  1890. 

HELLMUTH,  Isaac,  D.D.,  D.C.L.,  was  born  in 
Poland,  of  Jewish  extraction.  Having  been  converted 
to  Christianity  and  ordained  in  tlie  Anglican  Church,  he 
settled  in  Canada  about  1856.  By  his  energy  Huron 
College  was  established  for  the  education  of  the  future 
clergy  of  thediocese.  A few  months  afterward  the  Lon- 
don Collegiate  School,  since  named  Hellmuth  College, 
was  erected.  Meanwhile  Doctor  Hellmuth  had  been 
appointed  successively  archdeacon  and  dean  of  Huron. 
Finding  that  the  boys'"  college  (Hellmuth  College)  was  a 
perfect  success  he  proceeded  to  establish  a similar  col- 
lege for  ladies,  which  was  opened  in  1869.  On  August 
24,  1870,  he  was  consecrated  coadjutor-bishop  of  Hu« 


H E L—  H ER 


6590 

ron,  with  the  title  of  bishop  of  Norfork,  in  the  Cathedral 
of  St.  Paul,  London,  Canada  West.  In  1871  Doctor 
Hellmuth  succeeded  to  the  see  of  Huron.  He  re- 
signed that  see  and  removed  to  England  in  1883,  oh  be- 
ing appointed  assistant  bishop  in  the  diocese  of  Ripori. 

HELMHOLTZ,  Hermann  Ludwig,  a distinguished 
German  physiologist  and  natural  philosopher,  was  born 
August  31,  182.1,  at  Potsdam,  Prussia.  After  studying 
medicine  in  the  Military  Institute  at  Berlin,  and  being 
attached  for  a time  to  the  staff  of  one  of  the  public  hos- 
pitals there,  he  returned  to  his  native  town  as  an  army 
surgeon.  In  1848  he  was  appointed  professor  of  anat- 
omy in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Berlin;  in  1855 
professor  of  physiology  at  Konigsberg,  whence  he  re- 
moved, in  1858,  to  Heidelberg,  where  he  also  filled  the 
chair  of  physiology.  He  was  afterward  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  physiology  at  Berlin.  The  works  of  Prof. 
Helmholtz,  which  are  well  known  throughout  Europe, 
have  reference  principally  to  the  physiological  conditions 
of  the  impressions  on  the  senses.  Among  those  most 
deserving  of  notice  are:  On  the  Preservation  of  Force , 
1847;  Manual  of  Physiological  Optics , 1856;  and 
Theory  of  the  Impressions  of  Sound , 1862.  His  Popu- 
lar Lectures  on  Scientific  Subjects , translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Dr.  E.  Atkinson,  were  published  m London  in 
1873 j 2C*  ser-*  and  his  work  on  Sensations  of 

Tone , as  a Physiological  Basis  for  the  Theory  of  Mu- 
sic, translated  from  the  third  German  edition  by  Mr. 
Alexander  J.  Ellis,  appeared  in  1875.  Professor  Helm- 
holtz also  contributed  to  scientific  journals  accounts  of 
many  of  his  experiments  in  acoustics,  optics,  and  elec- 
tricity. On  December  1,  1873,  the  Copley  medal  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London  was  awarded  to  him  for  his 
eminent  services  to  science.  He  died  Sept.  8,  1894. 

HfeLPER,  Hinton  Rowan,  born  in  North  Caro- 
lina, December  27,  1829;  became  consul  for  the  United 
States  to  the  Argentine  Republic  in  I86i,  which  office 
he  held  for  six  years.  His  chief  title  to  fame  is  as  the 
author  of  a book  called  the  Impending  Crisis  of  the 
South,  which,  on  its  publication  in  1857,  attracted  great 
attention.  The  book  was  used  by  the  Republican  party 
as  a campaign  document. 

HENDERSOH,  David  B.,bofn  in  Scotland  in  1840  ; 
came  to  this  country  while  a boy  arid  settled  in  Iowa, 
where  he  studied  law.  He  entered  the  volunteer  service 
in  1861  as  a private,- and  was  discharged  in  1863,  owing 
to  the  loss  of  a leg  in  battle.  Later  he  reentered  the 
service  as  a colonel  of  an  iowa  regiment  and  served  until 
the  cldse  of  the  war.  Frohi  i865'until  1869  he  Was  col- 
lector Of  internal  revenue  for  the  third  Iowa  district;  be- 
cariie  assistant  United  States  district  attbrney  (1869-7!), 
arid  in  1883  was  elected  to  congress  as  a Republican. 
He  was  reelected  to  each  congress  until  his  retirement 
in  1895.  In  1899,  he  became  Speaker  Of  Cdrigress. 

HENDERSON,  Richard,  born  in  Virginia  in 
I734 ; died  in  1785.  He  wds  bne  of  the  original  settlers 
Of  Kentucky  and  organized  the  new  cdiintry  of  Trari- 
sylvariia,  with  Daniel  BoOne  and  Others.  Later  he 
practiced  law  in  Tennessee,  rind  engaged  in  planting  in 
North  Carolina. 

HENDERSON,  Thomas  J.,  born  in  Tennessee*  No- 
vember 29,  1824;  removed  to  Illinois,  and  held  various 
Clerical  offices  in  Starr  county.  Erom  1855  to  i860  he 
served  in  the  legislature  of  the  State,  and  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  war  entered  the  Volunteer  service  as  colonel. 
He  received  the  brevet  of  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers fbr  his  services;  iri  1871  wris  appointed  collector 
of  internal  revenue;  in  1874  was  elected  to  Congress 
as  a Republican,  and  vi^as  successively  reelected  up  to 
1892, serving  until  March  4,  1895. 

HENDRICK,  a chief  of  the  Mohawk  tribe  of  Indians, 

tioyn  b'elhh  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century, 


and  had  much  to  do  on  the  British  side  in  the  earl  j 
wars  between  England  and  France  in  Canada.  He  bc> 
came  a chief  of  the  Six  Nations,  and  in  1755  joined  the 
army  of  Sir  William  Johnson,  and  was  slain  in  battle. 

HENDRICKS,  Thomas  Andrews,  vice-president 
of  the  United  States  in  1885,  was  born  in  Muskingum 
county,  Ohio,  September  7,  1819.  He  removed  with 
his  father  to  Shelby  county,  Ind.,  in  1822,  graduated 
at  Hanover  College  in  1-841,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1843.  He  was  a member  of  the  State  legislature 
> iri  1848-49,  a Democratic  member  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, 1851-55,  and  commissioner  of  the  land 
office,  1855—59.  He  served  as  United  States  senator, 
1863-69,  and  as  governor  of  Indiana,  1873-77.  In  1876 
he  was  nominated  for  the  office  of  vice-president  by  the 
Democrats,  but  was  defeated.  In  1876,  1880,  and  1884 
he  \^as  a prominent  Candidate  for  the  nomination  for 
the  presidency;  and  in  1884,  when  Cleveland  was  nom- 
inated, he  consented  to  take  the  nomination  for  the 
vice-presidency,  and  was  elected.  He  died  at  Indian- 
apolis, Ind.,  November  25,  1885. 

HENNEPIN,  Louis,  born  in  Belgium  about  1640; 
served  in  the  army  as  chaplain,  and  in  1676  came  to 
Canada  as  a missionary  priest.  When  La  Salle  under- 
took his  exploration  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  Father 
Hennepin  was  assigned  to  his  command.  They  dis- 
covered Niagara  Falls,  traveling  west  as  far  aS  Macki- 
nac, and  thence  to  Peoria,  On  the  Illinois  river.  Here 
La  Salle  and  Father  Hennepin,  arid  two  men  in  a 
carioe,  went  down  the  Illinois  river  to  its  mouth,  and 
thence  north  up  the  Mississippi,  a journey  of  some  six 
weeks,  when  they  fell  into  the  hands  of  a party  ol 
Sioux  Indians.  They  discovered  and  named  the  falls  61 
St.  Anthony,  near  Minneapolis.  Father  Hennepin 
spent  nearly  a year  among  the  Iridiatis,  and  was  finally 
rescued  by  Du  Luth,  after  whom  Duluth  was  named. 
Father  Hennepin,  upon  his  return  to  Europe,  published 
a history  of  his  travels,  which  is  of  the  greatest  value  in 
dealing  with  the  early  explorations  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley.  The  charge  has  been  made  that  Father  Hen- 
nepin did  riot  confine  himself  to  the  truth,  but  iri  his 
published  works  he  shows  incontestibly  that  he  had 
sailed  up  and  down  the  Mississippi  in  the  time  that  he 
alleged.  He  died  in  Holland  about  1 70L 

HENNI,  John  Martin,  born  in  Switzerland,  June 
13,  1805;  died  in  Wisconsin  iri  1 88 1 . He  came  to  this 
country  in  1829,  and  became  pastor  Of  a Germain-Cath- 
olic church  in  Cincinnati.  On  March  1 9,  18 44,  he  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Milwaukee,  and  in  1875  he  was 
named  archbishop.  This  office  he  retained  until  his 
death. 

HEN RY,  Caleb  SFRagPe,  bOrn  in  Massachusetts, 
August  2,  1864;  died  March  9,  1885.  He  became  a 
COhgfegatiOrial  miriister  in  1829,  and  was  professor  of 
philOso'phy  and  history  in  the  New  York  University,  of 
which  for  several  years  he  was  chancellor.  He  also 
edited  the  Churchman. 

HENRY;  John,  born  in  Irelarid  in  1738,  was  one  of 
the  first  European  actofs  tO  appear  in  the  United  States. 
Iri  DeOember,  1767,  he  became  joint  manager  of  a 
theater  iri  New  York.  He  died  at  sea  in  1795. 

HENSLER,  ElIzA,  bofri  iri  Boston,  1835,  of  Ger- 
man parentage ; first  appeared  on  the  concert  stage  in 
NOw  YOrk  at  the  age  of  fifteen  years.  She  received  a 
dramatic  training  in  Eurbpe,  appeared  in  Paris  with 
some  success  and  thenCe  werit  to  Portugal,  where  she 
became  a great  favorite.  In  June,  1869,  she  married 
the  ex-regent  of  Portugal,  Ferdinand  Augustus,  duke 
of  Srixe-Coburg-Gotha. 

HERBERT,  Hilary  A.,  of  Montgomery,  Alabaina, 
was  born  at  Lawrfcnceville,  South  Carolina;  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  Alabktna,  served  in  the  Confederate 


HER- 

Army,  served  in  congress,  1876-92,  part  of  the  time  as 
chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Naval  Affairs  and  was 
appointed  Secretary  of  the  Navy  by  President  Cleve- 
land in  1893.  He  retired  in  1897. 

HERIN G,  Constantin,  Was  born  in  Saxony  in  1800; 
studied  medicine  at  Leipsic  and  Dresden,  became  a con- 
vert to  the  homeopathic  views  enunciated  by  Hahne- 
mann, and  in  1833  came  to  this  country.  Here  he 
founded  the  first  homeopathic  school  in  the  United 
States,  and  from  1845  to  1870  he  filled  the  chair  of 
medicine  in  the  Philadelphia  School  of  Homeopathy. 
Doctor  Hering  edited  books  on  homeopathic  medi- 
cine, and  founded  several  newspapers  to  advocate 
the  principles  of  homeopathy.  He  died  in  1880. 

HERKIMER,  Nicholas,  born  about  1720  in  Ger- 
many; died  in  Danube,  N.  Y.,  August  16,  1 777.  His 
father  Was  a farmer  who  settled  in  what  is  now  Her- 
kimer county,  N.  Y.  On  January  5,  1758,  the  son 
was  appointed  a lieutenant  of  militia,  and  commanded 
Fort  Herkimer  at  the  time  the  French  and  Indians 
attacked  German  Flats.  Later,  Herkimer  lived  in  the 
Canajoharie  district,  where  in  1775  he  was  made 
colonel  of  militia  and  chairman  of  the  Tryon  county 
committee  of  safety.  In  1776  he  attained  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general.  In  that  year,  when  Colonel  St.  Leger, 
sent  out  by  General  Burgoyne,  was  besieging  Fort 
Schuyler,  Herkimer,  with  800  militia,  marched  to  its 
relief,  and  led  an  expedition  against  Sir  J ohn  J ohnson’s 
force  of  Tories  and  Indians.  In  this  movement  he  fell 
into  an  ambuscade  at  Oriskany  on  August  6,  1777; 
Herkimer’s  horse  was  killed,  and  himself  severely 
wounded.  Of  the  militia  one-third  was  killed,  and 
another  third  wounded  or  carried  into  captivity.  The 
wound  in  Herkimer’s  leg  rendered  amputation  neces- 
sary, but  it  was  too  long  delayed  and  unskillfully  per- 
formed, and  he  died  from  the  operation. 

HERKOMER,  Hubert,  A.R.A.,  was  born  in 
1849  at  Waal,  in  Bavaria.  His  father,  Lorenzo  Her- 
komer,  who  Was  a skillful  wood-carver,  emigrated  with 
his  family  in  1851  to  the  United  States,  but  in  1857 
sought  to  improve  his  fortunes  in  England,  and  settled 
in  Southampton.  As  a boy,  Hubert  Was  hindered 
much  in  his  education  by  ill  health  ahd  poverty,  bntat 
thirteen  he  entered  the  Art  School  at  Southampton, 
and  won  a brohzfe  medal  there.  In  1865  he  Went  to 
Munich  with  his  father.  In  1866  he  entered  the  schools 
at  South  Kensington,  but  after  five  months  Was  obliged 
to  return  to  Southampton,  where  he  sold  his  first  pic- 
ture. In  1867  he  went  again  to  South  Kensington  for  a 
few  months,  and  in  the  following  year  he  established 
himself  in  the  village  of  Hythe,  and  there  painted  two 
pictures,  which  he  exhibited  At  the  Dudley  gallery 
(1868).  He  then  removed  to  London,  and  occupied 
himself  successfully  with  water-color  painting  and  de- 
signing for  the  wood  engraver.  In  1871  Mr,  Herko- 
mer  Was  invited  to  join  the  Institute  of  Painters  in 
Water  Colors,  and  to  the  gallery  of  this  society,  and 
subsequently  to  the  Grosvenor  and  the  Academy  exhi- 
bitions, he  has  contributed  many  drawings.  His  best 
work  has  been  done  in  oil;  notably  The  Last  Muster, 
a picture  of  Chelsea  pensioners  in  chapel,  which  was 
exhibited  at  the  Columbian  Fair  in  Chicago  in  1893, 
together  with  Miss  Katherine  Grant,  a portrait,  and 
Entranced.  Among  his  other  works  are:  At  Death’s 
Dodr , 1876;  Der  Bittgang,  1877;  Eventide',  A Welsh- 
woman, and  Souvenir  de  Rembrandt,  1878.  Mr.  Herko- 
mer  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
an  honorary  member  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of 
Vienna  in  1879  and  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
in  1889. 

HERNDON,  William  Lewis,  naval  bfficerj  was 

from  in  J^dericksburg,  Va,,  October  35,  1813.  He 


-HEW  659! 

entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in  1828,  and  was  pro- 
moted lieutenant  in  1841.  He  served  on  various 
cruises  and  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  for  three  years 
was  engaged  in  the  naval  observatory  at  Washington, 
D.  C.  In  1851  he  Was  seht  to  explore  the  Amazon 
river;  reached  its  head  waters  by  crossing  the  Andes 
from  Lima,  accompanied  part  of  the  way  by  Lieut. 
Lardner  Gibbon,  and  sailed  down  the  river  in  a canoe, 
returning  to  the  United  States  in  1852.  In  1855  he 
was  made  commander.  He  took  service  in  a line  of 
steamers  plying  between  New  York,  Havana,  and 
Central  America.  On  February  8,  1857,  he  left 
Havana  in  command  of  the  steamer  Central  America, 
with  474  passengers,  105  seamen,  and  several  million 
dollars  in  gold.  During  a storm  the  vessel  sprung  a leak*, 
a small  brig  was  signaled  to  stand  by,  and  all  the 
women  and  children  were  transferred  to  her;  in  the 
evening  of  the  same  day  the  steamer  sank.  A few  of 
her  people  were  picked  up  by  passing  vessels,  but  the 
captain,  with  426  others,  Were  lost. 

HERVL,  Aime  Marie  Edouard,  a French  journal- 
ist, born  May  28,  1835,  in  the  island  of  Reunion,  in  1854 
he  entered  the  normal  school,  but  he  sent  in  his  resigna- 
tion shortly  afterward,  in  order  that  he  might  devote  his 
entire  attention  to  journalism  in  Paris.  He  was  con- 
nected with  the  Rev  tie  de  V Instruction  Republique,  and 
the  Revue  Contemporaine,  to  which  he  contributed  (i860) 
the  political  summary ; and  he  then  became  editor  of  the 
Courrier  de  Dimanche  (1863),  of  the  Temps  (1864), 
and  of  the  Epoque  (1865).  After  the  publication  of 
the  imperial  letter  of  January  19,  1867,  inaugurating  a 
new  system  for  the  press,  M.  Herve  established,  in  con- 
junction with  M.  Jean  Jacques  Weiss,  the  Journal  de 
Paris  (1867),  which  became  noted  for  its  persistent 
attacks  on  the  imperial  regime.  At  the  general  election 
of  May,  1869,  M.  Herve  came  forward,  in  the  circort* 
scription  of  Arras,  as  the  candidate  of  the  Liberal  op- 
position, under  the  patronage  of  M.  Thiers,  but  he  was 
defeated  at  the  poll  by  the  official  candidate,  M.  Sens. 
M.  Weiss  having  retired  from  the  strife  of  political 
journalism,  on  being  nominated  general  secretary  of  the 
Ministry  of  Fine  Arts,  M.  Herve  remained  sole  editor 
of  the  Journal  de  Paris,  and  on  February  5,  1873,  he 
started  the  Soleil,  a large  political  half-penny  news- 
paper, Which,  at  the  outset,  was  merely  an  offshoot  of 
the  Journal  de  Paris,  and  conducted  by  the  same  liter- 
ary staff.  After  the  visit  of  the  Comte  de  Paris  to 
Frohsdorff,  which  preceded  the  attempt  to  reestablish 
the  ancient  monarchy,  M.  Herve  proclaimed  loudly  “the 
reconciliation  of  the  Hoiise  of  France*”  attd  engaged, 
with  reference  to  this  subject,  in  an  animated  contro- 
versy with  M.  Edmond  Abdut,  the  editor  of  the  Dix- 
Neuvieme  Siecle.  This  dispute  ended  in  a duel,  in 
which  M.  About  was  slightly  wounded.  After  the 
proclamation  ofthe  Septenrtate,  M.  Herv6  supported  the 
policy  of  the  BrOglie*  CisSy,  and  Buffet  cabinets.  On 
April  28,  1876,  M.  Herve  announced  to  the  readers  of 
the  Journal  de  Paris  the  discontinuance  of  that  journal, 
after  nine  years  of  a stormy  existence;  and  sinCe  then 
he  has  remained  editor  of  the  Soleil.  He  has  pub- 
lished in  book  form,  under  the  title  of  Une  Page 
d ’ Histdire  Contempdraine  (1869),  a series  of  articles 
on  the  elections  in  England,  and  the  leading  statesmen 
of  that  country.  Died  Jan.  4,  1899. 

HEWITT,  Abram  StevEns,  born  in  New  York 
State,  July  31,  1822;  graduated  at  Columbia  in  1842, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1845*  He  became  asso- 
ciated with  Peter  Cooper  in  ihe  manufacture  of  iron  and 
steel.  Mr.  HeWitt  was  elected  to  congress  as  a Demo- 
crat in  1874,  and  served  continuously,  with  the  excep- 
tion df  one  terih,  Until  4886.  In  the  latter  year  fi<j 
wad  elected  mayor  of  New  York' 


6592  H I C - 

HICKS,  Thomas,  born  in  Newtown,  Penn.,  Octo- 
ber i8,  1823.  He  received  a good  education  in  his  na- 
tive place,  and  early  showed  a predilection  for  the  art  of 
design.  He  entered  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  in  Philadelphia,  and  in  1838  studied  at  the  National 
Academy  in  New  York  city.  In  1841  he  contributed 
The  Death  of  Abel  to  its  exhibition.  Thereafter  he  re- 
paired to  Europe  for  study,  and  spent  nearly  five  years 
in  Paris,  London,  and  Italy,  returning,  in  1849,  to  New 
York  city,  where  he  settled  as  a portrait-painter.  In 
1851  he  was  chosen  a national  academician,  and  from 
1874  until  1885  was  president  of  the  Artists’  Fund  Society 
of  New  York.  Among  his  noted  portraits  are  those  of 
H.  W.  Beecher,  Edwin  Booth,  O.  W.  Holmes,  D.  K. 
Kane,  and  Abraham  Lincoln.  He  died  October  8,  1890. 

HIDALGO,  F.  Costilla,  was  born  in  Mexico, 
May  8,  1753,  and  died  in  Chihuahua,  July  30,  1811. 
He  studied  at  Valladolid,  and  in  1779  went  to  the  city 
of  Mexico,  where  he  became  a priest.  In  December, 
1809,  a conspiracy  was  formed  at  Valladolid  against 
the  Spanish  government  of  Mexico;  of  this  Hidalgo 
was  a member.  After  some  preliminary  disturbances, 
Hidalgo  issued  a declaration  of  independence  to  the 
people  of  Suevetavo.  With  about  1,000  men  he 
marched  on  San  Miguel;  his  numbers  were  greatly  in- 
creased by  armed  people  gathered  from  the  country 
districts.  Arriving  at  Celaya,  Hidalgo  was  elected 
general-in-chief.  With  an  irregular  body  of  about 
50,000  followers,  promiscuously  armed,  his  force  in- 
vaded Guanajuato,  stormed  the  place,  and,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  fashion  of  Spanish  warfare,  massacred 
all  the  inhabitants.  After  establishing  a cannon-foundry 
and  mint,  he  marched  against  Valladolid,  and  occupied 
it  without  much  resistance.  Many  of  his  plundering 
followers  deserted,  and  on  December  2d  Hidalgo  began 
his  retreat.  On  the  7th  his  body  of  troops  and  pillagers 
were  attacked  near  Acula  by  General  Callega,  and  the 
greater  part  dispersed.  Hidalgo  then  took  refuge  in 
Valladolid.  Here  he  organized  a government,  and  pre- 
pared to  resist  the  Spanish  forces.  On  January  17, 
1811,  6,000  Spanish  troops  attacked  the  mob  of  100,000 
armed  natives,  and  won  a complete  victory.  On  July 
29th  Hidalgo,  who,  before  this,  had  been  excommuni- 
cated by  the  Roman  church,  was  degraded  from  his 
sacerdotal  character,  and  executed  on  the  following  day. 

HIGGINSON,  Thomas  Wentworth,  was  born 
in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  December  22,  1823.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1841,  and  at  the  divinity  school 
in  1847.  In  the  last  named  year  he  became  pastor  of 
the  First  Congregational  church  in  Newburyport,  Mass. 
He  resigned  his  pastorate  in  1850,  and  became  an  un- 
successful Free-soil  candidate  for  congress.  Afterward 
he  became  pastor  of  a free  church  in  Worcester,  Mass., 
serving  from  1852  until  1858.  Subsequently  he  left  the 
ministry  to  devote  himself  to  literature,  and  became 
conspicuous  as  an  anti-slavery  agitator.  In  1856  he 
aided  in  organizing  parties  of  free-state  emigrants  to 
Kansas,  and  served  as  brigadier-general  on  Gov.  J.  H. 
Lane’s  staff  in  the  free-state  forces.  In  1862  he  served 
as  captain  in  the  51st  Massachusetts  regiment,  and  on 
November  16th  of  that  year  was  made  colonel  of  the  31st 
South  Carolina  volunteers,  the  first  regiment  of  freed 
slaves  mustered  into  the  national  service.  He  took 
Jacksonville,  Fla.,  was  wounded  at  Wiltown  Bluff, 
S.  C.,  in  August,  1863,  and  resigned  from  the  army  in 
1864.  From  that  year  until  1878  Colonel  Higginson 
dwelt  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  and  later  removed  to  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  where  he  has  since  resided,  engaged  in 
literary  occupation.  In  1880  and  1881  he  was  a mem- 
ber of  the  Massachusetts  legislature,  from  1881  until 
1883  he  was  also  a member  of  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion. Colonel  Higginson  has  written  for  the  Atlantic 


- H I L 

Monthly  and  other  magazines  on  his  favorite  topics. 
His  first  publication  was  a compilation  of  poetry,  Tha~ 
latto , made  with  the  assistance  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Long- 
fellow (Boston,  1853). 

HILDRETH,  Richard,  was  born  in  Deerfield, 
Mass.,  June  22,  1807.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1830,  and  became  connected  with  the  Boston  Atlas  and 
other  newspapers.  For  a number  of  years  he  was  en- 
gaged on  newspapers  in  Demerara,  and  in  1861  he 
became  United  States  consul  at  Trieste,  Austria. 
Among  his  most  notable  works  was  the  White  Slave , 
an  anti-slavery  novel,  and  a history  of  the  United 
States  in  six  volumes.  He  died  at  Trieste,  in  1865. 

HILDRETH,  Samuel  Prescott,  born  in  Massa- 
chusetts, September  30,  1783;  graduated  in  medicine 
at  Andover,  and  removed  to  Ohio  in  1806.  He  was 
for  many  years  a contributor  to  leading  scientific 
magazines,  his  special  subjects  being  meteorology  and 
geology.  Doctor  Hildreth  died  at  Marietta,  Ohio, 
July  24,  1863. 

HIGINBOTHAM,  Harlow  N.,  was  born  in  Joliet, 
111.,  October  10,  1838,  entered  the  war  in  1862,  being 
assigned  to  the  quarter  master’s  department,  became 
bookkeeper,  in  1865,  and  in  1878  a partner  in  the  dry 
goods  firm  of  Marshall  Field  & Co.,  Chicago.  He 
was  prominent  in  the  preliminary  work  of  the  Colum- 
bian World’s  Fair,  being  one  of  the  first  directors,  and 
was  President  of  the  local  board  in  1893  and  1894. 

HILL,  Ambrose  Powell,  born  in  Culpeper  county, 
Va.,  November  9,  1825;  graduated  at  West  Point,  1847; 
served  in  the  Mexican  war,  was  promoted  captain,  re- 
signed to  enter  the  Confederate  service,  was  appointed 
colonel  of  the  13th  Virginia  volunteers,  fought  at  the 
first  battle  of  Bull  Run  under  General  Johnston,  was  pro- 
moted to  brigadier-general,  and  after  the  battle  of 
Williamsburg,  was  made  major-general.  On  June  25, 
1862,  he  was  one  of  the  council  of  war  held  in  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  and  in  the  seven  days’  battle  around  that 
city,  opened  a series  of  engagements  that  drove  General 
McClellan’s  forces  to  retreat.  He  next  became  attached 
to  the  force  of  General  Jackson,  in  northern  Virginia, 
and  fought  at  Cedar  Mountain,  second  Bull  Run,  and 
Chantilly.  On  September  17,  1862,  he  received  the 
surrender  of  the  national  troops  at  Harper’s  Ferry, 
and  by  a forced  march  arrived  at  Antietam,  to  the 
relief  of  General  Lee.  At  the  battle  of  Fredricksburg, 
December  13,  1862,  he  held  the  right  of  General  Jack- 
son’s  army,  and  repulsed  the  attack  of  the  Union  forces 
under  General  Meade;  at  the  battle  of  Chancellors ville 
he  participated  in  the  flank  movement  that  crushed  the 
right  of  General  Hooker’s  army.  In  this  action  General 
Hill  was  wounded,  and  retired  from  the  field.  On  May 
20,  1863,  he  was  promoted  to  lieutenant-general,  and 
given  command  of  one  of  the  three  corps  into  which 
the  Confederate  army  was  divided.  In  July  he  fought 
at  Gettysburg,  and  in  October,  1863,  at  Bristow  Station, 
while  in  command  of  two  brigades,  was  repulsed  with 
severe  loss.  In  March,  1865,  he  commanded  the  city 
of  Petersburg  during  its  siege,  and  on  April  2nd,  while 
reconnoitering,  was  shot  dead  from  his  horse  by 
stragglers  from  the  national  army. 

HILL,  Benjamin  Harvey,  was  born  in  Georgia, 
September  14,  1823.  In  1844  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  and  in  1851  was  elected  to  the  State  legislature  as 
a Whig.  In  1859  he  served  in  the  State  Senate,  and  the 
next  year  was  one  of  the  Bell  and  Everett  presidential 
electors.  He  opposed  the  secession  of  Georgia  at  first, 
but  afterward  became  a member  of  the  Confederate 
congress  (1861),  and  of  the  Senate  (1862-65).  In  1875 
he  was  elected  to  congress  as  a Democrat,  was  reelected 
in  1876',  and  in  1879  was  sent  to  the  United  State* 
Senate,  where  he  sat  until  his  death,  August  19,  1882 


H I L — H I N 


HILL,  Daniel  Harvey,  born  in  South  Carolina, 
July  12,  1S21.  He  was  graduated  at  the  West  Point 
military  academy  in  1842,  and  in  1847  was  made  first 
lieutenant  of  infantry.  He  served  throughout  the  Mexi- 
can war,  and  attained  the  brevet  of  major.  After  the 
war  he  was  elected  professor  of  mathematics  in  Wash- 
ington College,  Lexington,  Va.  Six  years  later  he 
filled  the  same  chair  in  Davidson  College,  North  Caro- 
lina, and  afterward  became  superintendent  of  the  North 
Carolina  military  institute  at  Charlotte.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Civil  war  he  was  made  colonel  of  the  1st 
North  Carolina  regiment.  On  June  10,  1861,  he  fought 
the  battle  of  Big  Bethel,  was  soon  promoted  brigadier- 
eneral,  and  sent  to  Leesburg,  Va.,  to  serve  under  Gen. 
oseph  E.  Johnston.  On  March  26,  1862,  he  was  ad- 
vanced to  major-general,  and  commanded  a division 
during  the  seven  days’  fight  around  Richmond.  He 
took  part  in  the  battles  of  South  Mountain,  Antietam 
and  Fredericksburg,  and  in  1863  was  sent  to  command 
in  the  Carolinas.  On  July  11,  1863,  General  Hill  was 
commissioned  lieutenant-general  and  placed  at  the  head 
of  a corps  in  General  Bragg’s  army.  In  September  of 
that  year  he  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Chickamauga. 
After  the  war  General  Hill  retired  to  Charlotte,  N.  C., 
where  he  published  Field  and  Farm , a monthly  maga- 
zine, and  subsequently  The  Land  we  Love  (1867-69). 
In  1877  he  was  elected  president  of  the  University  of 
Arkansas,  and  afterward  president  of  the  military  and 
agricultural  college  of  Georgia,  at  Milledgeville.  He 
died  September  25,  1889. 

HILL,  David  Bennett,  was  born  in  Havana,  N.Y., 
August  29,  1843.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1864,  and  in  1870-71  served  in  the  State  legislature. 
In  1882  he  was  elected  mayor  of  Elmira  ; in  November 
of  the  same  year,  lieutenant-governor  of  New  York 
state,  succeeding  Cleveland  as  governor  in  1884,  and 
being  elected  governor  in  1885  and  1888.  He  was 
elected  United  States  Senator  in  1891,  for  six  years, 
during  which  he  was  beaten  for  governor  in  1894. 

HILL,  George  Handel,  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
October  9,  1809,  died  in  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  September 
27,  1849.  Hill  became  a stock  actor  at  the  Arch  street 
theater,  in  Philadelphia,  in  1828.  Shortly  afterward  he 
appeared  at  the  New  York  Park  theater  with  great 
success,  and  secured  the  position  of  a star  performer. 
He  was  equally  well  received  in  other  cities.  In  1836 
“Yankee  Hill”  performed  at  Drury  Lane  and  the 
Olympic  theaters  in  London,  at  Edinburgh,  Glasgow, 
and  other  large  cities,  and  returned  home  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  with  ample  rewards.  In  1838  he  again 
appeared  in  London,  at  the  Adelphi  theater,  and 
in  other  cities,  with  his  former  success  ; he  also  gave 
entertainments  in  Paris.  In  1839  he  returned  to  the 
United  States. 

HILLIARD,  Henry  W.,  born  in  North  Carolina, 
August  4,  1808;  graduated  at  South  Carolina  College 
in  1826,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  two  years  later. 
He  became  in  succession  a Methodist  preacher,  mem- 
ber of  the  State  legislature  and  newspaper  writer. 
In  1842  he  was  appointed  charge  d'affaires  at  Brussels, 
and  from  1845  to  1851  he  was  a member  of  congress 
from  Alabama.  When  the  Civil  war  broke  out  he  cast 
in  his  lot  with  the  Confederacy,  and  became  a brig- 
adier-general. From  1877  to  1881  he  served  as  United 
States  minister  to  Brazil.  He  wrote  several  works  of 
fiction  and  died  December  17,  1892. 

HINCKS,  Sir  Francis,  Canadian  statesman,  born 
in  Cork,  Ireland,  December  14,  1807;  died  in  Mont- 
real, Canada,  August  18,  1885.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Royal  Belfast  Institution.  In  1832  he  settled  at 
Toronto,  Canada,  where  he  became  secretary  of  an  in- 
surance company  and  cashier  of  a bank.  In  1839  he 


€>593 

founded  and  for  several  years  edited  the  Toronto  Ex- 
aminer', in  1844  he  established  the  Montreal  Pilot , and 
was  its  political  editor  for  many  years.  From  1841  tc 
1844  he  served  as  a Liberal  in  the  Canada  assembly.  He 
was  again  returned  in  1851;  later  he  was  chosen  for 
South  Oxford  and  Renfrew,  and  served  until  1855.  In 
October,  1869,  he  was  elected  for  North  Renfrew  to 
the  Commons,  and  later  returned  for  Vancouver,  which 
last  he  represented  for  a number  of  years.  In  1842 
and  1843  he  served  as  a member  of  the  executive  council 
and  inspector-general  of  Canada.  He  held  the  last- 
named  office  from  1848  until  1854,  and  was  premier  in 
the  Hicks-Morin  administration.  In  1852  he  was  sent 
as  a delegate  to  Great  Britain,  and  made  arrange- 
ments for  the  construction  of  the  Grand  Trunk  railway 
of  Canada.  PYom  1855  until  1862  he  was  governor 
of  Barbadoes  and  the  Windward  Islands,  and  from 
1862  until  1869  governor  of  British  Guiana.  In  1862 
he  was  created  a companion  of  the  order  of  the  Bath, 
and  in  i860  a knight-commander  of  the  order  of  St. 
Michael  and  St.  George.  He  was  pensioned  by  the 
British  government,  and  on  returning  to  Canada,  in 
1869,  entered  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald’s  cabinet  as 
minister  of  finance.  This  office  he  resigned  in  1873. 
In  1874  he  became  president  of  the  City  Bank  of  Mont- 
real, and  for  some  years  before  his  death  he  was 
editor-in-chief  of  the  Montreal  Journal  of  Commerce. 
He  wrote  Reminiscences  of  my  Public  Life  (1884). 

HIND,  John  Russell,  F.R.S.,  astronomer,  was 
born  in  Nottingham,  England,  May  12,  1823.  From 
the  age  of  six  his  mind  was  intent  on  the  study  of 
astronomy.  In  1839-40  he  contributed  a number  of 
astronomical  notes  to  the  Nottingham  Journal  and 
Dearden's  Miscellany.  As  an  assistant  to  a civil  en 
gineer,  he  was  sent,  in  1840,  to  London,  but  he  sought 
an  appointment  more  in  accordance  with  his  tastes. 
By  the  proposition  of  Professor  Wheatstone  to  Mr. 
Airy,  the  astronomer-royal,  he  received  a post  as  assist- 
ant to  the  magnetical  and  meteorological  department 
of  the  Royal  Observatory.  For  a period  of  three 
months,  in  1843,  Mr.  Hind  was  engaged  in  the  govern- 
ment expedition  sent  to  ascertain  chronographically  the 
longitude  of  Valentia,  in  Ireland.  He  received  the 
appointment  of  observer  in  the  private  observatory  of 
Mr.  G.  Bishop,  of  Regent’s  Park,  in  June,  1844.  In 
this  year  he  was  admitted  a fellow  of  the  Astronomical 
Society.  He  published  his  first  work — Solar  System — • 
in  1846.  In  1847  he  accepted  the  foreign  secretaryship 
of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society.  During  the  follow- 
ing year  he  was  elected  a corresponding  member  of  the 
Societe  Philomatique  of  Paris.  For  his  discovery  of  a 
planet  in  February,  1847,  he  received  a gold  medal  from 
the  king  of  Denmark.  He  published  his  Expected  Re- 
turn of  the  Great  Comet  of  1264  and  155b,  in  1848. 
On  September  13,  1850,  he  discovered  “ Victoria.”  In 
May  of  the  same  year  he  was  chosen  a corresponding 
member  of  the  National  Institute  of  France,  to  succeed 
the  late  Professor  Schumacher.  “ Irene”  he  discovered 
May  19,  1851;  “Melpomene,”  June  24,  1852;  “ For- 
tuna,”  August  22,  1852;  “Calliope,”  November  16, 
1852;  and  “ Thalia,”  December  15,  1852.  His  Astro- 
nomical Vocabulary  appeared  in  1852.  During  the 
same  year  he  was  awarded  the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal 
Astronomical  Society;  was  granted  a pension  of  $1,000 
per  annum ; published  his  Replies  to  Questions  on  the 
Comet  of  1566,  and  received  for  the  third  time  the 
•Lalande  medal,  from  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Paris, 
and  a prize  for  the  discovery  of  four  new  planets  in  the 
short  period  of  a year.  His  Illustrated I^ondon  Astron- 
omy appeared  in  1853.  In  the  same  year  he  discovered, 
on  November  8th,  “ Euterpe;  ” and  “ Urania”  on  July 
22d  of  the  following  year.  The  Elements  of  Algebra 


6594  H I N - 

was  published  in  1855,  and  his  Descriptive  Treatise  on 
Comets  in  1857.  He  has  contributed  his  observations 
to  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society, 
the  publications  of  the  Paris  Academy,  the  Athenceum , 
and  other  periodicals.  He  was  president  of  the  Royal 
Astronomical  Society  in  1880.  Died  Dec.  23,  1895. 

HINOJOSA,  Pedro  de,  born  in  Trujillo  at  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century;  died  in  Bolivia,  May  6,  1553. 
He  went  to  Peru  in  1534,  fought  tinder  Hernando 
Pizarro,  was  made  governor  of  Chuquisaca,  and  in  1545 
admiral  of  Gonzalo  Pizarro’s  fleet,  when  he  rebelled 
against  the  viceroy  and  captured  Panama  for  him.  In 
1846  he  joined  the  royal  cause  for  which  he  was  re- 
warded with  a valuable  silver  mine,  and  command  of 
the  province  of  Chavcas,  in  155 1. 

HIRSCH,  Baron  Maurice  de,  a Jewish  banker 
and  railroad  magnate  of  prodigious  wealth  and  vast 
charities,  was  born  in  Bavaria  and  has  come  prominently 
before  the  public  in  late  years  as  the  great  friend  of 
poor  and  oppressed  Jews.  Chiefly  through  his  influ- 
ence the  Russian  Government  in  1892  agreed  to  a scheme 
for  the  emigration  of  the  Russian  Jews  to  Canada  and 
to  the  Argentine  Republic,  Baron  Hirsch  financing  the 
scheme.  In  1891  he  spent  $9,000,000  in  charity.  In 
all  the  European  capitals  Hirsch  committees  are  es- 
tablished for  the  relief  of  suffering,  and  he  has  estab- 
lished a Hirsch  fund  of  $2,400,000  in  New  York.  All 
this  good  is  done  quietly  and  systematically.  A unique 
part  of  the  system  consists  of  running  race  horses  for 
charitable  ends. 

HISCOCK,  Frank,  born inNewYork,  September  6, 
1834;  became  a lawyer  in  1855,  and  was  elected  to  con- 
gress as  a Republican  in  1878.  He  served  until  1886, 
when  he  became  United  States  senator  in  succession  to 
Warner  Miller,  retiring  in  1893. 

HITCHCOCK,  Roswell  Dwight,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
born  in  Maine,  August  15,  1817;  graduated  at  Amherst 
College  in  1836.  After  graduation  he  was  principal  of 
an  academy  at  Jaffrey,  New  Hampshire,  1836-7;  he 
entered  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1838;  was  a 
tutor  at  Amherst  1839-42 ; taught  in  several  seminaries, 
and  in  1845  became  pastor  of  a Congregational  church 
at  Exeter,  New  Hampshire.  In  1852,  having  passed  a 
year  in  study  at  Halle  and  Berlin,  he  resigned  his  pas- 
torate, and  became  professor  of  natural  and  revealed 
religion  in  Bowdoin  College.  In  1855  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  church  history  in  Union  Theological  Semi- 
nary, New  York,  a position  which  he  still  holds.  In 
1866  he  traveled  in  Italy  and  Greece;  in  1869  in  Egypt 
and  Palestine;  and  in  1871  was  chosen  president  of  the 
American  Palestine  Exploration  Society.  On  the  death  of 
Doctor  Adams  in  1880  he  became  president  of  the  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  still  retaining  his  professorship. 
The  degree  of  D.D.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  in  1884.  In  1885  he  traveled 
in  Spain  and  Norway.  From  1863  to  1870  he  was  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  American  Theological  Review,  to 
which  he  furnished  many  papers,  mostly  upon  ecclesias- 
tical history.  He  was  a member  of  the  New  York 
Historical  Society,  and  of  the  American  Geographical 
Society.  He  died  June  16,  1887. 

HITT,  Robert  R.,  born  at  Urbana,  Ohio,  January 
16,  1834;  removed  to  Illinois,  and  in  1874,  became 
secretary  of  legation  at  Paris,  and  afterward  charge' 
d'affaires  for  several  years.  In  1881  he  became  as- 
sistant secretary  of  State,  and  in  November,  1882,  was 
elected  to  congress,  of  which  he  is  still  a member.  He 
is  a Republican  in  politics. 

HOAR,  Ebenezer  Rockwood,  born  at  Concord, 
Mass.,  February  24,  1816;  graduated  at  Harvard  1835. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1840,  and  practiced  in 
Middlesex  and  the  neighboring  counties.  He  was  ap- 


-HOE 

pointed  a judge  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  in  1849, 
but  resigned  in  1855,  and  returned  to  the  practice  of  his 
profession  in  Boston.  In  1859  he  was  appointed  a 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Massachusetts,  and  held 
that  office  for  ten  years,  when  he  resigned  to  become 
United  States  attorney-general.  In  1870  he  was  nom- 
inated by  the  president  as  one  of  the  justices  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  but  his  nomina- 
tion was  not  confirmed.  He  was  a member  of  the  High 
Commission  which  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Washington 
in  1871.  In  1872  he  was  elected  a representative  in 
congress,  and  in  1874  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for 
the  United  States  senate.  He  died  January  31,  1895. 

HOAR,  George  FrisBie,  brother  of  Ebenezer 
Rockwood  Hoar,  was  born  at  Concord,  Mass.,  August 
29,  1826.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1849,  and  be- 
gan practice  at  Worcester,  where  he  still  resides.  He 
was  a member  of  the  State  house  of  representatives  in 
1852,  and  of  the  State  senate  in  1857.  In  1868  he  was 
elected  a member  of  congress,  and  was  reelected  three 
times,  declining  the  nomination  for  a fifth  term.  From 
1874  to"  1880  he  was  an  overseer  of  Harvard;  was  a 
delegate  to  the  Republican  national  conventions  of  1876, 
1880  and  1884,  presiding  over  that  of  1880.  He  was 
elected  a United  States  senator  of  Massachusetts  in 
1877,  reelected  in  1883,  and  again  in  1889  and  1895. 

HOBART,  Augustus  Charles,  better  known  as 
Hobart  Pasha,  was  born  in  England  in  1822.  He  en- 
tered the  British  navy,  and  commanded  a man-of-war 
during  the  attack  on  Bomarsund,  in  1855.  He  re- 
tired on  half-pay,  and  when  the  American  Civil  war 
broke  out  took  command  of  a blockade-runner.  He* 
was  very  successful  in  evading  the  Federal  cruisers  and 
was  never  captured.  In  1867  he  took  command  of  the 
Turkish  fleet,  and  ten  years  later  was  made  admiral  of 
the  fleet  in  the  Black  Sea.  In  1881  he  became  marshal 
of  the  empire.  He  died  in  June,  1886. 

HOBART,  John  Henry,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Sep- 
tember 14,  1775;  died  in  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  September 
12,  1830.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1793,  spent  a 
year  in  a counting  house,  and  in  1795  reentered  his 
alma  mater  as  a tutor.  He  continued  in  the  last-named 
capacity  until  June,  1798,  when  he  was  admitted  to  holy 
orders.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1801,  became  an  as- 
sistant minister  of  Trinity  Church  in  New  York  city,  as- 
sistant rector  in  1812  and  rector  in  1816.  Pie  was  chosen 
assistant-bishop  in  February,  1811,  and  bishop  in  1816. 
Bishop  Hobart  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  General 
Theological  Seminary  in  New  York  city,  and  in  1821 
became  professor  of  pastoral  theology  of  that  institu- 
tion. In  1823  and  1824  he  traveled  in  Europe,  and 
while  there  published  two  volumes  of  sermons. 

HODGE,  Archibald  A.,  born  in  Princeton,  N.  J., 
July  18,  1823  ; died  there  in  1886.  Pie  graduated  at 
Princeton  in  1841,  spent  three  years  as  a missionary  in 
India,  1847-50,  and  was  afterward  in  charge  of  parishes 
in  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  Pennsylvania.  He  became 
editor  of  the  Princeton  Review , and  a member  of  the 
board  of  trustees  of  Princeton  College. 

HODGKINSON,  John,  born  in  England  in  1766; 
died  near  Bladensburg,  Md.,  September  12,  1805.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1792,  and  made  his  debut 
as  “Belcour”  in  the  West  Indian  at  the  Southwest 
theater  in  Philadelphia.  He  visited  in  succession  Bos- 
ton, New  York,  and  other  cities,  and  became  a general 
favorite.  Hodgkinson  wrote  several  plays. 

HOE,  Richard  March,  born  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  September  12,  1812;  was  the  son  of  an  English 
printer,  who  came  to  this  country  in  1803,  and  in- 
vented the  printing  press  known  by  his  name.  The 
son  improved  upon  the  invention  of  the  father,  and  to  his 
efforts  are  due  very  many  of  the  notable  improvements 


HOF- 

of  the  powet  prfesS.  Mr,  Hoe  died  in  Italy,  June 
7,  1886. 

HOFFMAN,  Charles  Fenno,  was  born  in  New 
York  city  in  1806.  First  a lawyer  he  forsook  law  to 
edit  the  New  York  American , and  in  1833  established 
the  Knickerbocker  Magazine.  He  owned  the  Ameri- 
can Monthly  Magazine , and  later  edited  the  New  York 
Mirror  and  The  Literary  World.  He  was  insane  for 
35  years,  dying  in  the  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  insane  asylum 
June  7,  1884. 

HOKENLOHE,  Prince  Clodwig  Karl  Victor, 
was  born  in  Bavaria  in  1819,  was  prime  minister  of  that 
kingdom  in  1866,  took  an  important  part  in  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war,  became  a member  of  the  first  imperial 
parliament,  was  ambassador  from  Germany  to  Paris, 
1874-85,  became  governor  of  Alsace-Lorraine  in  1885 
and  left  that  post  in  1894  at  the  command  of  Emperor 
William  II.  to  become  chancellor  of  the  German  empire 
and  prime-minister  of  Prussia,  succeeding  General  Cap- 
rivi  and  Count  Eulenberg.  Died  July,  1901. 

HOHENZOLLERN,  Leopold,  Prince  of,  was 
born  September  22,  1835,  and  studied  in  the  universities 
of  Bonn  and  Berlin.  He  was  well  known  in  connection 
with  his  candidacy  for  the  throne  of  Spain,  which 
gave  ostensible  occasion  for  the  Franco-Prussian  war. 
On  September  12,  1861,  the  Prince  married  the  Princess 
Antonia,  of  Portugal. 

HOLBROOK,  John  Edwards,  born  in  South 
Carolina,  December  30,  1794;  died  September  8,  1871. 
He  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1815,  studied  med- 
icine in  England  and  France,  and  in  1822  began  practice 
in  Charleston,  S.  C.  For  more  than  thirty  years  he 
held  the  chair  of  anatomy  in  the  Medical  College  of 
SouT  Carolina.  He  wrote  several  important  works  on 
reptiles  and  fishes,  and  was  a member  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society  and  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences. 

HOLDEN,  Edward  Singleton,  astronomer,  was 
bora  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  November  5,  1846,  and  was 
graduated  at  the  scientific  school  in  Washington  Uni- 
versity in  1866.  He  studied  at  West  Point  and  was 
appointed  second  lieutenant  of  artillery.  For  a year 
he  was  at  Fort  Johnson,  N.  C,  was  assistant  professor 
of  philosophy  at  West  Point,  and  in  1872  became  in- 
structor of  the  engineer  corps.  In  March,  1873,  he  be- 
came professor  of  mathematics  in  the  United  States 
navy,  and  was  ordered  to  the  naval  observatory  at 
Washington,  D.  C.  In  1881  he  became  professor  of 
astronomy  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin  and  director 
of  the  new  Washburn  observatory,  where  he  remained 
with  brief  intermissions  until  1886,  and  published  four 
volumes  of  observations.  In  1883  he  visited  the  Caro- 
line Islands  to  observe  a total  eclipse  of  the  sun.  At 
the  end  of  his  engagement  in  Wisconsin  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  University  of  California,  and  director  of 
the  Lick  observatory  on  Mt.  Hamilton,  San  Jose.  He 
received  a degree  of  LL.D.  from  the  University  of 
Wisconsin  (1886),  and  from  Columbia  (1887). 

HOLL,  Frank,  R.A.,  son  of  Francis  Holl,  A.R.A., 
the  eminent  engraver  (1815-84),  was  born  in  Eng- 
land, July  4,  1845,  and  educated  at  University  College, 
London.  Soon  after  he  had  passed  the  fifteenth  year 
of  his  age,  his  desire  to  be  a painter  led  him  to  enter 
himself  as  a probationer  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  a 
few  months  later  he  was  admitted  a student.  At  the 
distribution  of  prizes  in  1862,  Mr.  Holl  received  a silver 
medal  for  “the  best  drawing  from  the  antique.”  In 
the  competition  of  the  students  in  the  following  year 
(1863),  Mr.  Holl  was  yet  more  successful,  obtaining  the 
gold  medal.  In  1864  he  made  his  first  appearance  as  an 
exhibitor  at  the  Royal  Academy  with  two  pictures,  one 
being  A Portrait , the  other  bearing  the  title  of  Turned 


H 0 t 6591 

out  of  Church.  A Fern-gatherer  was  exhibited  in 
1865,  and  in  the  next  year  The  Ordeal , a picture  of  a 
young  artist  exhibiting  one  of  his  works  to  a patron.  In 
1867  he  produced  two  pictures  which  went  a long  way 
toward  the  realization  of  the  success  foreshadowed  in 
The  Ordeal.  Among  his  works  exhibited  in  subsequent 
years  are : — Better  is  a dinner  of  kerbs  where  love  is, 
than  a stalled  ox,  and  hatred  therewith  (1870) ; Winter, 
No  tidings  from  the  Sea  (painted  for  the  Queen,  1871) ; 
I am  the  Resurrection  and  the  Life  (a  village  funeral, 

1872) ,  Leaving  Home  (a  scene  in  a railway  station, 

1873) ;  Deserted  (1874);  Her  First-born  (1876);  Going 
Home(  1877);  and  Newgate ; Committed  for  Trial  ( 1878). 
He  also  exhibited  at  the  rooms  of  Mr.  Wallis  and  of  Mr. 
Tooth  a picture  entitled,  Want — her  poverty  but  not  her 
will  consents  (a  woman  pawning  her  wedding  ring) ; 
Doubtful  Hope\  and  Gone — The  Emigrant' s Departure. 
Mr.  Holl  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy 
June  19,  1878.  Pie  afterward  exhibited  The  Gifts  of  the 
Fairies,  The  Daughter  of  the  House,  and  Absconded, 
(1879);  Ordered  to  the  Front  (1880);  Home  Again, 
(1881);  and  Millicent  (1883) . Mr.  Holl  was  elected  a 
royal  academician  March  29,  1883.  He  died  July  31, 
1888. 

HOLLAND,  Josiah  Gilbert,  born  in  Belchertown, 
Mass.,  July  24,  1819;  died  in  New  York  city,  October 
12,  1881.  He  graduated  at  the  Berkshire  Medical 
College  in  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  and  settled  in  Springfield. 
He  was  engaged  as  superintendent  of  public  schools  in 
Vicksburg,  Miss.  In  May,  1849,  Doctor  Holland  be- 
came associate  editor  of  the  Springfield  Republican. 
In  1870  Scribner's  Monthly  was  projected;  of  this 
magazine  he  was  editor,  and  owner  of  one-third  of  its 
stock.  Later  Doctor  Holland  became  president  of  the 
board  of  education  of  New  York  city,  and  chairman 
of  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York.  He  gave  many  lectures  on  various  topics, 
that  drew  large  audiences.  He  published  a History  of 
Western  Massachusetts  (2  vols.,  Springfield,  1855); 
The  Bay  Path  (New  York,  1857);  Timothy  Titcomb's 
Letters  (1858) ; Bitter  Sweet , (a  poem,  1858) ; Gold  Foil 
(1859);  Miss  Gilbert's  Career  (i860);  Lessons  in  Life 
(1861);  Letters  to  the  Joneses  (1863);  Plain  Talks  on 
Familiar  Subjects  (1865);  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln 
(Springfield,  1865);  Kathrina,  a poem  (1867);  The 
Marble  Prophecy  and  other  Poems  (1872);  Ai'thur 
Bonnicastle  (1873);  Garnered  Sheaves  (1873);  The 
Mistress  of  the  Manse,  (a  poem,  1874) ; The  Story  of 
Seven  Oaks  ( 1875)  ; Every  Day  Topics  (1876)  ; Nicholas, 
Min  turn  (1876). 

HOLLAND,  Sir  Henry  Thurstan,  Bart.,  M.P., 
G.C.M.G.,  eldest  son  of  Sir  Henry  Holland,  the  famous 
physician,  and  president  of  the  Royal  Institution  of 
Great  Britain,  was  born  on  August  3,  1825,  and  edu- 
cated at  Harrow  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  tak- 
ing his  university  degree  in  1847.  After  the  usual  pre- 
liminaries he  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1849  by  the  Honor- 
able Society  of  the  Inner  Temple,  and  joined  the  north- 
ern circuit.  In  1851,  although  only  twenty-six  years 
of  age,  he  was  appointed  by  the  then  lord  chancellor  to 
the  duty  of  drawing  up  the  bill,  which,  in  1852  became 
law  under  the  title  of  the  Common  Law  Procedure  Act, 
1852.  The  Common  Law  Procedure  Act  of  1854,  which 
followed  the  measure  just  mentioned,  was  the  next  work 
upon  which  Sir  Henry  H olland  was  engaged  as  draughts- 
man. Sir  Plenry  continued  to  practice  at  the  bar  until 
the  year  1867,  when  Lord  Carnarvon  selected  him  to  fill 
the  office  of  legal  adviser  to  the  colonial  office.  In  1870 
he  waspromotedto  an  assistant  under  secretaryship,  and 
remained  in  that  office  until  August,  1874,  when  he  re- 
signed in  order  to  stand  for  the  borough  of  Midhurst. 
He  was  elected  without  a contest,  and  took  his  seat  in  the 


H O L — H O M 


6596 

House  of  Commons  in  the  following  session.  In  1855, 
after  the  borough  of  Midhurst  was  disfranchised.  Sir 
H.  T.  Holland  stood  for  the  new  borough  of  Hamp- 
stead, and  beat  his  opponent,  the  Marquis  of  Lome,  by 
a large  majority.  In  June,  1885,  when  Lord  Salisbury 
took  office,  Sir  H.  T.  Holland  accepted  the  post  of 
financial  secretary  to  the  treasury,  and  held  that  post 
till  the  September  following,  when  he  was  appointed 
vice-president  of  the  committee  of  council  on  education, 
and  became  a privy  councilor.  He  was  again  returned 
from  Hampstead,  and  again  appointed  vice-president 
of  the  council  on  education.  He  died  in  1888. 

H0LMAN,  Joseph  George,  born  in  England  in 
1764;  died  in  Rockaway,  L.  I.,  May  24,  1817.  He 
was  educated  at  Queen’s  College,  and  prepared  for  the 
ministry.  While  at  college  he  joined  an  amateur  dra- 
matic society  and  became  fascinated  with  the  drama. 
At  first  he  played  in  several  obscure  theaters,  and  on 
October  26,  1784,  he  appeared  at  Covent  Garden  thea- 
ter, London.  In  1798  he  married  Miss  Hamilton, 
who  died  in  1810.  Playing  some  years  in  the  prov- 
inces he  came  to  America  in  1812  with  his  daughter, 
playing  in  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  Boston.  Two 
days  before  his  death  he  married  Agnes  Lattimer,  an 
actress,  who  died  in  1859. 

HOLMAN,  William  S.,  born  in  Indiana,  Septem- 
ber 6,  1822 ; died  April  22,  1897 ; held  several  judicial 
offices  in  his  native  State.  In  1856  he  was  elected  to 
congress,  and,  with  two  or  three  exceptions,  as  in  1876 
and  1878,  retained  that  position  until  defeated  in  1894. 

HOLMES,  George  Frederick,  born  in  Demerara, 
in  1820,  was  educated  in  England,  and  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1838.  He  became  a lawyer  in  South 
Carolina  and  was  afterward  president  of  the  University 
of  Mississippi,  professor  of  history  in  William  and 
Mary  College,  and  in  1857  professpr  of  history  and 
literature  in  the  University  of  Virginia.  He  was  the 
author  of  some  text-books  for  use  in  the  public  schools 
of  the  South.  Died  Nov.  4,  1897. 

HOLMES,  Oliver  Wendell,  M.  D.,  was  born 
at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  August  29,  1809,  and  died 
October  7,  1894.  PL  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
1829,  and  began  the  study  of  medicine.  Having  at- 
tended the  hospitals  of  Paris  and  other  European  cities, 
he  began  practice  in  Boston  in  1836;  in  1838  was 
elected  professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  Dart- 
mouth College,  and  in  1847  was  appointed  to  a similar 
professorship  in  the  Massachusetts  Medical  School, 
from  which  he  retired  in  1882.  As  early  as  1836  his 
contributions  in  verse  appeared  in  various  periodicals, 
and  his  reputation  as  a poet  was  established  by  the  de- 
livery of  a metrical  essay,  entitled  Poetry , which  was 
followed  by  others  in  rapid  succession.  As  a writer  of 
songs,  lyrics,  and  poems  for  festive  occasions,  he  occu- 
pied the  first  place.  He  was  for  many  years  a popular 
lecturer.  In  1857  he  began,  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly, 
a series  of  articles  under  the  title  of  The  Autocrat  of 
the  Breakfast  Table , which  were  followed  in  i860  by 
The  Professor  at  the  Breakfast  Table , in  1872  by  The 
Poet  at  the  Breakfast  Table , and  in  1885  by  The  New 
Portfolio.  In  addition  he  has  published  Astrcea  (1850); 
Currents  and  Counter- Currents  in  Medical  Science 
(1861);  Elsie  Venner , a Romance  of  Destiny  (1861); 
Borderlands  in  Some  Provinces  of  Medical  Science 
(1862J  ; Songs  in  Many  Keys  (1864) ; Soundings  from 
the  Atlantic  (1864);  Humorous  'Poems  (1865);  The 
Guardian  Angel  (1868) ; Mechanism  in  Thought  and 
Morals  (1870) ; Songs  of  Many  Seasons  (1874);  John 
L.  Motley , a Memoir  (1878) ; The  Iron  Gate  and  Other 
Poems  (1880) ; Medical  Essays  (1883) ; Pages  from  an 
Old  Volume  of  Life  (1883);  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson 
(1884);  A.  Moral  Antipathy  (1885),  and  numerous 


poems  recited  at  various  reunions  and  dinners.  In 
1890  he  published  a new  series  of  delightful  essays, 
Over  the  Teacups , which  also  first  appeared  in  the  At- 
lantic Monthly.  In  1886  he  visited  England,  where  he 
was  received  with  great  cordiality.  Editions  of  his 
collected  poems  have  appeared  from  time  to  time,  the 
first  in  1836,  the  last  in  1881.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  researches  in  microscopy  and  auscultation,  and 
contributed  largely  to  current  medical  literature,  as 
well  as  to  the  literary  journals  and  reviews. 

HOLST,  Hermann  Eduard  von,  historian,  was 
born  in  Fellin,  Livonia,  in  1841,  and  emigrated  to  the 
United  States  in  1869  but  was  recalled  to  Germany  to 
become  professor  of  history  in  Strasburg  University, 
in  1872  and  at  Freiburg  in  1874.  He  delivered  courses 
of  lectures  at  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  Baltimore 
subsequently,  and  in  1894  became  professor  of  history 
at  the  University  of  Chicago.  His  more  important 
works  are:  Louis  XIV.  (1869);  The  Constitutional  and 
Political  History  of  the  United  States,  1750-1833(1873); 
The  Constitutional  Law  of  the  United  States  of  America 
(1887);  and  The  French  Revolution , Tested  by  Mira- 
beau’s  Career  (1894). 

HOLT,  Joseph,  born  in  Kentucky,  in  January,  1807; 
practiced  law,  became  postmaster-general  in  1859  and 
secretary  of  war  in  i860,  and  advocated  the  Union 
cause.  He  became  judge  advocate  general,  prosecut- 
ing Lincoln’s  assassins,  and  in  1875  was  retired  from 
office  under  the  rule.  He  died  August  I,  1895. 

HOLYOAKE,  George  Jacob,  born  in  Birmingham, 
England,  April  13,  1817,  was  acting  secretary  of  the 
British  Legion  sent  out  to  Garibaldi,  and  founded 
“Secularism,”  a system  which  “bases  duty  on  con- 
siderations purely  human,  relies  on  material  means  of 
improvement,  justifying  its  beliefs  to  the  conscience, 
irrespective  of  Atheism,  Theism,  or  Revelation.” 

Mr.  Holyoake  was  the  last  person  imprisoned  in  Eng- 
land for  alleged  atheism.  The  cause  was  an  answer 
given  in  debate  after  a lecture  upon  Home  Colonies 
(1841).  Mr.  Justice  Erskine  admitted  that  Mr.  Holy- 
oake did  not  introduce  theology  into  his  address,  and 
merely  gave  an  honest  answer  to  a public  question, 
but  sentenced  him  to  six  months’  imprisonment  to  en- 
courage him  in  candor.  Mr.  Holyoake  was  also  the 
last  person  against  whom  an  indictment  was  issued  by 
the  Court  of  Exchequer  for  publishing  unstamped 
papers  in  support  of  the  society  for  repealing  the  taxes 
upon  knowledge.  Mr.  Holyoake  having  incurred 
upward  of  $3,000,000  of  fines,  Mr.  Gladstone  said  to  a 
deputation  upon  the  subject  that  “he  recognized  that 
Mr.  Holyoake’s  object  was  not  to  break  the  law  but  to 
try  the  law.”  The  repeal  of  the  Newspaper  Stamp 
Act,  however,  caused  the  prosecution  to  be  abandoned. 
He  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  causing  the  passage  of 
the  Evidence  Amendment  Bill,  which  legalized  purely 
secular  affirmations.  In  1882  he  a second  time  visited 
Canada  and  the  United  States  to  propose  to  the  govern- 
ments of  both  countries  to  issue  a Settlers'  Guide-book , 
to  be  prepared  and  published  on  their  authority,  Mr. 
Gladstone  making  Mr.  Holyoake  two  grants  from  the 
Public  Service  Fund  in  aid  of  this  object.  Mr.  Holy- 
oake edited  the  first  three  volumes  of  The  Present  Day, 
a journal  discussing  “Agitated  Questions  without 
Agitation.”  His  recent  works  are:  Among  the  Ameri- 
can's, and  Hostile  and  Generous  Toleration.  He  has 
beer  a member  of  the  Central  Cooperative  Board  since 
its  first  establishment  in  1869. 

HOME,  Daniel  Dunglas,  born  near  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  March  20,  1833;  died  June  21,  1886.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1840.  In  his  youth  he 
claimed  to  have  had  spiritualistic  visions,  and  at  seven- 
teen years  of  age  published  himself  as  a medium.  In 


HOM- 

1853  Home  went  to  New  York  to  study  medicine.  He 
finished  his  course,  but  did  not  practice.  Later  he 
removed  to  London,  where  he  remained  for  several 
years  giving  spiritualistic  seances , and  exhibited  his  art 
in  Russia,  Germany,  Italy,  and  France.  In  1858  he 
married  a Russian  lady  of  wealth  and  station.  In  1863 
Home  went  to  Italy  to  study  art,  and  in  1866  a Mrs. 
Lyons  made  over  to  him  $165,000,  with  the  proviso  that 
he  should  add  “ Lyons”  to  his  name.  Some  years 
afterward  the  donor  demanded  the  return  of  her  gift ; 
Home  refused  compliance,  the  case  came  to  trial,  and 
was  decided  in  favor  of  the  plaintiff.  In  1871  he  married 
another  Russian  lady,  but  the  union  proved  unhappy. 
Thereafter  Home  gradually  retired  from  public  view, 
and  died  insane. 

HOMER,  Winslow,  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
February  24,  1836.  In  i860  and  1861  he  studied  in  the 
National  Academy  of  Design,  and  took  private  lessons  in 
landscape  painting.  In  1863  he  exhibited  at  the  Acad- 
emy Home , Sweet  Home , and  The  Last  Goose  of 
Yuletown.  In  1865  he  was  made  a national  academi- 
cian. He  exhibited  at  the  Philadelphia  exposition  and 
at  the  Paris  salon,  and  fifteen  pictures  of  his  were  hung 
at  the  World’s  Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago  in 
1893,  among  them  A Great  Sale , Camp  Fire , March 
Windt  Coast  in  Winter  and  Herring  Fishing. 

HOOD,  John  Bell,  was  born  at  Owingsville,  Ky., 
June  29,  1831.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1853, 
and  served  in  the  United  States  army  until  1861,  when 
he  entered  the  Confederate  service.  Rising  rapidly 
from  a first-lieutenancy  to  the  command  of  the  Texas 
brigade,  he  distinguished  himself  on  the  Peninsula,  in 
the  seven  days’  battles  at  Antietam,  and  at  Gettysburg, 
where  he  lost  an  arm.  He  became  a major-general,  and 
was  sent  to  command  a division  in  Bragg’s  army.  He 
took  a leading  part  in  the  battle  ofChickamauga,  where 
he  lost  a leg,  but  returned  to  duty  within  six  months. 
He  commanded  a corps  during  Johnston’s  retreat  before 
Sherman,  in  the  early  months  of  1864;  and,  when  Davis 
had  decided  on  removing  Johnston,  Hood  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  army.  He  accepted 
reluctantly,  and  his  position  was  not  a pleasant  one. 
He  succeeded  a general  in  whom  the  army  had  confi- 
dence; he  was  to  reverse  that  general’s  policy,  and  he 
was  to  carry  out  a plan  of  campaign  which  had  been 
prepared  for  him  by  the  Confederate  president.  His 
obedience  was  painfully  accurate.  He  assumed  the 
offensive  as  soon  as  he  took  command,  fought  several 
severe  battles,  and  soon  found  himself  under  the  neces- 
sity of  evacuating  Atlanta  (September  2,  1864).  Sher- 
man had  outflanked  him;  and  the  Confederate  adminis- 
tration came  to  the  desperate  resolution  of  ordering  him 
to  move  west  and  then  north  into  Tennessee.  He  was 
checked  at  Franklin,  where  he  lost  many  of  his  best 
officers;  and  in  the  final  battle  of  Nashville  (December 
15th)  his  army  was  completely  beaten,  and  almost  lost 
its  organization.  The  command  of  its  remnants  was 
transferred  to  Gen.  Richard  Taylor,  and  Hood 
retired  from  active  service.  He  died  of  yellow  fever  at 
New  Orleans,  August  30,  1879. 

HOOD,  Samuel,  Viscount,  born  in  England,  De- 
cember 12,  1724;  died  January  2 7,  1816.  He  entered 
the  British  navy  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  became  post- 
captain in  1756.  In  1759  hi?  vessel,  the  Vestal , at- 
tached to  the  expedition  against  Quebec,  captured  the 
French  frigate  Bellona.  On  his  return  to  England  he 
was  promoted  to  the  command  of  the  Africa , of  sixty- 
four  guns.  In  1 768  and  1769  he  was  at  Boston,  Mass., 
as  naval  commander.  In  1778  he  was  made  a baronet, 
and  in  1780  became  rear-admiral  of  the  blue.  In  the 
same  year  he  joined  Admiral  Rodney  in  the  West  In- 
dies. On  September  5,  1781,  Hood  and  De  Grasse 


- H O O 6597 

came  to  battle  near  Chesapeake  Bay  without  decisive 
results.  On  April  12,  1782,  when  the  French  admiral 
was  captured,  Hood’s  cooperation  decided  the  result, 
and  on  the  return  of  Admiral  Rodney  to  England  Hood 
commanded  the  British  fleet  until  1783.  In  1782  ha 
was  made  an  Irish  peer,  served  in  parliament  in  1784, 
was  made  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  1788,  and  again  re« 
elected  to  parliament  in  1790.  In  1793  he  took  part  in 
the  war  with  France,  and  in  1796  became  governor  of 
Greenwich  hospital.  He  was  raised  to  the  English 
peerage,  with  the  title  of  Viscount  Hood  of  Whitley. 

HOOKER,  Joseph,  born  in  Hadley,  Mass  , Novem- 
ber 13,  1814;  died  Garden  City,  L.  I.,  October  31,  1879. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1837,  served  in  the 
war  against  the  Seminoles  in  Florida,  and  in  November, 
1838,  became  first  lieutenant.  On  July  1,  1842,  he  was 
appointed  adjutant  of  the  military  academy.  He  served 
in  the  Mexican  war,  and  was  promoted  to  a captaincy. 
He  accompanied  the  army  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Mexico 
city,  and  was  brevetted  major,  having  done  good  serv- 
ice at'  Contreras,  Churubusco,  Molina  del  Rey,  Cha- 
pultepec,  and  during  the  capture  of  the  capital.  At 
Chapultepec  he  was  brevetted  lieutenant-colonel.  In 
1849  he  was  assistant  adjutant-general  to  the  division 
of  the  Pacific,  and  served  as  such  until  November  24, 
1851.  On  February  21,  1853,  he  resigned  from  the 
army  to  become  a farmer  in  California.  In  1858  he 
became  superintendent  of  military  roads  in  Oregon,  did 
other  government  surveying,  and  from  1859  until  1861 
served  as  colonel  of  California  militia.  On  May  17, 
1861,  he  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers. 
In  August,  1861,  General  Hooker  was  employed  in  the 
defenses  of  Washington,  thereafter  on  the  lower 
Potomac,  and  in  April,  1862,  was  appointed  to  a divis- 
ion of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  under  General  Heint- 
zelman.  He  was  engaged  at  the  siege  of  Yorktown, 
and  on  the  day  after  its  evacuation  was  appointed  a 
major-general  of  volunteers.  He  fought  with  distinc- 
tion at  the  battles  of  Williamsburg,  Fair  Oaks,  Fra- 
sier’s Farm,  Glendale,  and  Malvern.  Later  he  became 
division  commander  in  the  army  of  General  Pope  in 
northern  Virginia,  and  had  several  successful  en- 
counters with  the  Confederates.  On  the  failure  of 
General  Pope  to  advance  against  the  enemy,  the  army 
of  the  Potomac  was  again  led  by  General  McClellan, 
and  General  Hooker  took  command  of  the  first  corps. 
He  took  his  share  of  the  fighting  at  South  Mountain 
and  Antietam.  On  the  last  occasion  he  was  shot 
through  the  foot,  and  soon  afterward  was  appointed 
brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army.  When  General 
McClellan  was  again  relieved  from  command,  to  be  re- 
placed by  General  Burnside,  and  the  army  advanced  on 
Fredericksburg,  it  was  formed  in  three  divisions;  General 
Hooker  commanded  the  center,  with  40,000  men.  On 
the  failure  of  General  Burnside’s  movement,  that  com- 
mander, at  his  own  request,  was  relieved,  and  General 
Hooker  appointed  to  take  his  place.  General  Hooker 
was  thereafter  relieved  from  command,  which  was  con- 
ferred on  Gen.  George  G.  Meade.  On  September  24th 
General  Hooker  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  army  corps  at  Chattanooga,  serving 
under  General  Rosecrans,  and  later  under  General  Grant, 
and  took  part  in  the  attack  on  Missionary  Ridge.  Later 
General  Hooker  served  under  Gen.  W.  T.  Sherman,  and 
took  part  in  the  attack  on  Atlanta.  Some  difficulty  there- 
after arose  between  him  and  General  Sherman,  and  by  his 
own  request  he  was  relieved  of  his  command.  On  March 
13th  he  was  brevetted  major-general  in  the  regular  army. 
In  1865  General  Hooker  had  charge  of  the  department 
of  the  East,  with  his  headquarters  in  New  York  city, 
and  in  1866  was  transferred  to  the  department  of  the 
Lakes,  with  headquarters  at  Detroit.  He  was  mustered 


H O O—  H O P 


6598 

out  of  service  September  I,  1866,  and  placed  on  the  re- 
tired list  October  15,  1868,  with  the  full  rank  of  major- 
general. 

HOOKER,  Sir  Joseph  Dalton,  was  born  at 
Halesworth,  England,  June  30,  1817,  and  was  educated 
at  the  High  School  and  University  of  Glasgow,  where 
he  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1839.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-one  he  accompanied,  officially  as  assistant  sur- 
geon, but  in  reality  as  naturalist,  the  famous  expedition 
of  Sir  James  Clark  Ross,  fitted  out  by  the  govern- 
ment for  the  purpose  of  investigating  the  phenomena 
of  terrestrial  magnetism  in  the  south  circumpolar  seas. 
The  result  of  his  researches  during  this  voyage  was  a 
series  of  superb  volumes  on  the  botany  of  the  southern 
regions,  embracing  the  flora  of  the  Auckland  Islands, 
New  Zealand,  and  Tasmania.  In  1846  he  accepted  the 
appointment  of  ootanist  to  the  geological  survey  of 
Great  Britain  under  Sir  H.  de  la  Beche,  and  he  con- 
tributed a valuable  paper  to  the  second  volume  of  the 
Records  of  that  institution  on  the  vegetation  of  the  car- 
boniferous period  as  compared  with  that  of  the  present 
day,  and  another  on  the  structure  of  coal-fossils.  In  1847 
Doctor  Hooker  undertook  a journey  to  India  for  the 
purpose  of  investigating  the  plants  of  tropical  countries, 
and  the  flora  of  a hitherto  unexplored  region  of  the 
Himalayas.  He  returned  in  1851,  and  published  two 
very  interesting  volumes  of  Himalayan  Journals,  and 
a number  of  scientific  works  on  the  botany  of  India. 
He  was  appointed,  in  1855,  assistant  director  of  Kew 
gardens,  and  on  his  father’s  death,  in  1865,  succeeded 
to  the  directorship,  which  he  resigned  in  1885.  Doctor 
Hooker  presided  over  the  meeting  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation held  at  Norwich  in  1868.  The  main  subject  of 
his  address,  which  gave  rise  to  much  controversy,  was 
the  consideration  of  the  views  put  forward  from  time  to 
time  by  Mr.  Darwin  on  the  doctrine  of  the  continuous 
evolution  of  life,  and,  in  connection  with  this,  on  what 
is  termed  “natural  selection,”  together  with  his  theory 
of  the  “origin  of  species.”  To  Darwin’s  notions,  ex- 
pressed in  their  fullest  extent,  Dr.  Hooker  gave  in 
his  entire  adhesion.  In  1873  Doctor  Hooker  was 
elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  resigned  in 
1878,  when  the  late  Mr.  W.  Spottiswoode  was  chosen 
as  his  successor.  ■ In  1877  he  was  created  knight  com- 
mander of  the  Star  of  India,  for  his  services  to  the 
government  of  India.  In  that  year  he  paid  a visit  of 
three  months’  duration  to  the  United  States,  where  he 
was  most  cordially  received  by  the  leading  scientific 
men.  On  his  return  he  presented  to  Kew  a large  col- 
lection of  seeds  and  museum  specimens,  and  a herba- 
rium of  about  a thousand  species,  together  with  notes 
on  the  distribution  of  North  American  trees  in  particu- 
lar. He  was  awarded  medals  by  the  Royal  Society 
(1854),  the  Society  of  Arts  (1883)  and  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society  (1884). 

HOPKINS,  Johns,  philanthropist,  was  born  in 
Anne  Arundel  county,  Maryland,  in  1795,  of  Quaker 
parentage,  acquired  a gueat  fortune  in  business  in  Bal- 
timore, and  devoted  $4,500,000  in  life  to  founding  a 
free  hospital  in  Baltimore,  and  on  his  death,  December 
24,  1873,  bequeathed  $3,500,000  to  founfl  Johns  Hop- 
kins University,  whose  educational  standard  is  one  of 
the  highest  in  the  country. 

HOPKINS,  Mark,  born  in  Stockbridge,  Mass., 
February  4,  1802;  died  in  Williamstown,  Mass.,  June 
17,  1887.  He  was  graduated  at  Williams  College  in 
1824;  during  1825-27  was  tutor  in  that  college;  studied 
medicine,  and  was  graduated  at  the  Berkshire  Medical 
School  in  1829.  He  began  practice  a-s  a physician  in 
New  York  city,  but  in  1830  returned  to  Williams,  to 
fill  the  chair  of  rhetoric  and  moral  philosophy.  In  1832 
^ was  licensed  to  preach,  and  in  1836  became  president 


of  the  college,  which  office  he  held  until  1872.  In  the 
last  named  year  he  resigned  the  office  of  president,  but 
retained  the  professorships  of  moral  and  intellectual 
philosophy  and  of  Christian  theology.  He  also  retained 
the  pastorate  of  the  college  church  until  1883.  He  ber 
came  president  of  the  American  board  of  commission- 
ers for  foreign  missions  in  1857,  and  received  the  de- 
gree of  D.D.  from  Dartmouth  and  Harvard,  and  that 
of  LL.  D.  from  the  university  of  the  State  of  New  York 
and  from  Harvard.  Yle  wrote  Lechcres  on  Moral  Sci- 
ence, An  Outline  Study  of  Man,  and  other  works. 

HOPKINS,  Stephen,  born  in  Scituate,  R.  I., 
March,  7,  1707 ; died  July  13,  1785.  He  was  elected  to 
the  provincial  assembly  in  1732  and  made  speaker. 
In  1 742  he  became  a merchant  and  ship-builder  in  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.  In  1751  he  was  appointed  chief  jus- 
tice of  the  superior  court,  and  in  1754  became  a dele- 
gate to  the  convention  that  met  at  Albany,  N.  Y. , serv- 
ing on  the  committee  to  prepare  a plan  of  union  for  the 
colonies,  and  arranging  an  alliance  with  the  Indians  for 
defensive  purposes  against  France.  In  1756  Mr.  Hop- 
kins became  governor  of  Rhode  Island,  and  so  contin- 
ued until  1764,  with  the  exception  of  two  years.  He 
was  again  chosen  governor  in  1767,  but  shortly  after- 
ward resigned.  In  1765  he  wrote  a pamphlet  entitled 
The  Grievances  of  the  American  Colonies  Candidly 
Examined,  which,  was  re-issued  in  London.  In  1773 
he  emancipated  his  slaves  ; in  1774  brought  forward  a 
bill  in  the  assembly,  which  prohibited  the  importation 
of  negroes  into  the  colony,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
sent  to  the  continental  congress.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  revolution  he  was  one  of  the  committee  of  safety  of 
the  town  of  Providence,  and  later  was  elected  to  the 
second  and  third  congress.  His  signature  to  the  decla- 
ration of  independence  was  written  with  a paralyzed 
hand.  In  1750  he  founded  the  town-library  of  Provi- 
dence, which  was  burned  ten  years  later,  but  reestab- 
lished under  his  care.  His  History  of  the  Planting  and 
Growth  of  Providence  may  be  found  in  the  Collection  of 
the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society. 

HOPPER,  Isaac  Tatem,  born  in  New  Jersey,  De- 
cember 3,  1771 ; died  in  New  York  city,  May  7,  1852. 
To  protect  the  rights  of  the  Africans,  an  abolition 
society  had  been  formed,  of  which  Hopper  became  a 
prominent  member;  he  also  united  with  a number  of 
other  benevolent  societies,  of  all  of  which  he  was  an 
active  member.  In  1829  he  removed  to  New  York 
city  to  establish  a book-store  in  the  interest  of  his  de- 
nomination. In  1830  Mr.  Hopper  visited  Ireland  and 
England.  On  his  return  to  New  York  city  he  became 
devoted  to  the  work  of  the  Prison  Association,  and  in 
1841  became  book-agent  and  treasurer  for  the  Anti- 
Slavery  Society.  In  1845  he  relinquished  these  offices 
to  devote  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  the  work  of  the 
Prison  Association,  assisted  by  h-is  daughter,  Mrs. 
Abby  H.  Gibbons.  Through  her  exertions  an  asylum 
was  founded  for  women  unfortunates,  entitled,  The 
Isaac  T.  Hopper  Home.  The  philanthropist’s  Life  was 
written  by  Lydia  Maria  Child  (Boston,  1853). 

HOPPIN,  Augustus,  born  in  Providence,  R.  I., 
July  13,  1828,  and  died  April  1,  1896.  He  studied 
law,  but  abandoned  that  pursuit  to  become  an 
artist.  He  illustrated  the  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast 
Table,  the  Potiphar  Papers,  and  other  works,  and 
published  some  illustrated  sketch-books  and  romances. 

HOPPIN,  James  Mason,  cousin  of  the  foregoing, 
born  in  Rhode  Island  in  January,  1820;  graduated  at 
Yale  in  1840,  and  in  law  at  Harvard  two  years  later. 
From  1850  to  1859  he  was  pastor  of  a Congregational 
church  in  Massachusetts.  In  1861  he  became  pastor  of 
the  College  church  of  Yale,  and  was  afterward  professor 
of  homiletics  in  U pionTheologicai  Seminary,  New  Y ctrlc. 


HOP-HOR 


HOPPIN,  Thomas  Frederick,  artist,  was  born  in 
Rhode  Island,  August  15,  1816,  and  studied  in  Paris 
under  Delaroche.  He  is  the  author  of  numerous  works 
in  bronze,  marble,  and  plaster,  and  is  also  well  known 
by  his  etchings  and  engravings. 

HOPPIN,  William  Jones,  born  in  Rhode  Island 
in  April,  1813;  graduated  at  Yale,  and  in  law  at  Har- 
vard. From  1876  to  1886  he  was  secretary  of  legation  in 
London. 

HOP  WOOD,  Charles  Henry,  Q.C.,  was  born 
in  England  in  July,  1829.  He  became  barrister,  Middle 
Temple,  in  1853;  practiced  on  the  Northern  Circuit, 
and  in  London,  and  was  made  queen’s  counsel  in  1874. 
He  was  elected  member  of  parliament  for  Stockport,  1874, 
and  was  returned  again  in  1880,  but  rejected  in  1885. 
He  was  elected  bencher  of  the  Middle  Temple  in  1874, 
mid  reader,  1885;  was  appointed  recorder  of  Liverpool, 
February,  1886.  He  advocated  the  cause  of  trades 
-anions,  defending  their  members  at  the  bar  against 
prosecution,  and  insisting  upon  protection  to  their 
funds  against  the  prejudice  of  the  time.  In  the  House  of 
Commons  he  assisted  in  amending  the  laws  as  to  em- 
ployers and  workmen,  and  pressed  forward  reforms  in 
the  summary  jurisdiction  of  justices  to  reduce  the  fre- 
quency and  length  of  imprisonments.  He  worked  for 
the  repeal  of  the  Contagious  I Hseases  Acts  as  to  women, 
as  well  as  of  the  vaccination  laws.  Always  advanced  in 
political  opinions,  he  supported  every  extension  of  the 
suffrage  to  woman. 

HORAN,  Edward  John,  born  in  Quebec,  Can- 
ada, in  1817;  died  m 1875.  In  ^42  was  ordained 
priest,  and  in  1858  became  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of 
Kingston. 

HORN,  Charles  Edward,  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land, in  1776;  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1848.  He  was 
the  author  of  the  words  and  music  of  many  popular 
songs,  of  which  The  Deep , Deep  Sea  and  Cherry-Ripe 
are  the  best  known. 

HORN,  Edward  Traill,  born  in  Easton,  Penn., 
June  10,  1850;  became  a Lutheran  clergyman  and  has 
written  extensively  on  theological  subjects.  He  became 
D.D.  in  1887. 

HORN  AD  AY,  William  Temple,  born  at  Plain- 
field,  Inch,  December  1,  1854;  became  in  1882  chief 
taxidermist  to  the  United  States  National  Museum  in 
Washington,  D.  C.  He  founded  the  National  Society 
of  Taxidermy  in  1880,  and  has  published  several  works 
on  natural  history  and  travel. 

HORNBY,  Geoffrey  Thomas  Phipps,  was  born 
in  1825;  entered  the  English  naval  service  on  board  the 
Princess  Charlotte  in  1837,  and  was  present  as  a mid- 
shipman at  the  bombardment  of  Acre  by  Sir  Robert 
Stopford  and  Sir  Charles  Napier.  Pie  afterward  served 
under  Admiral  Percy  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope; 
under  his  father.  Sir  Phipps  Hornby,  in  the  Pacific,  and 
on  various  other  stations.  When  a young  captain  he 
got  leave  for  a year  and  studied  steam  in  the  dockyard 
at  Portsmouth.  It  was  he  who  commanded  the  first 
flying  squadron  as  captain,  with  the  rank  of  commo- 
dore, taking  the  squadron  round  the  world.  He  was 
flag  captain  to  Sir  Sidney  Dacres,  when  that  officer 
commanded  the  channel  fleet,  and  subsequently,  as 
rear-admiral,  he  himself  held  that  post,  succeeding 
Admiral  Wellesley.  He  attained  flag-rank  in  1869, 
and  became  vice-admiral  in  1875,  He  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  her  majesty’s  naval  forces  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  held  that  responsible  position  dur- 
ing the  trying  times  in  1878,  when  war  was  appre- 
hended between  England  and  Russia,  and  when  the 
English  fleet  was  ordered  to  the  Dardanelles.  He  was  • 
created  a knight  commander  of  the  Order  of  the  Bath, 
August  12.  1S78,  Subsequently  he  was  appointed  to 


6599 

the  presidency  of  the  Royal  Naval  College,  Greenwich. 
He  died  March  3,  1895. 

HORNBY,  James  John,  D.D.,  was  born  in  Eng- 
land in  1826,  and  educated  at  Eton,  and  at  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  where,  in  1849,  took  a first  class  in 
classics.  In  1849  he  became  a fellow  of  Brasenose 
College,  and  in  1854  tutor  and  principal  of  Bishop 
Cosen’s  Hall  in  the  University  of  Durham.  Returning 
to  Oxford  in  1864,  he  became  classical  lecturer  at 
Brasenose,  and  in  1866  was  senior  proctor  of  the  uni- 
versity. At  the  close  of  the  latter  year  he  was  elected 
second  master  of  Winchester  School,  which  post  he  re- 
tained till  his  appointment  as  head  master  of  Eton  in 
January-  1868.  Doctor  Hornby  was  appointed  one  of 
her  majesty’s  honorary  chaplains  in  February,  1882,  and 
made  D.C.L.  of  Durham  University  the  same  year. 
He  was  appointed  to  the  provostship  of  Eton,  July, 
1884. 

HORSFORD,  Eben  Norton,  born  in  Livingston 
county,  N.  Y.,  July  27,  1818;  studied  engineering  and 
was  engaged  on  the  geological  survey  of  the  State  of 
New  York.  In  1540  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  female  academy  at  Albany,  where 
he  remained  for  four  years.  He  afterward  studied  in 
Germany,  under  Liebig,  and  on  his  return  to  the  United 
States  in  1847,  was  elected  Rum-ford  professor  of 
science  at  Harvard.  After  sixteen  years’  service  there 
he  resigned  to  engage  in  business  as  a manufacturing 
chemist,  and  became  wealthy.  He  wrote  extensively 
on  scientific  subjects.  He  died  January  1,  1893.. 

HORSLEY,  John  Callcott,  R.A.,  son  of  the  late 
William  Horsley,  the  well  known  musician,  was  born 
in  London,  January  29,  1817.  His  first  exhibited 
picture,  painted  while  he  was  a youth — Rent  Day  at 
Haddon  Hall  in  the  Sixteenth  Century— was  spoken  of 
in  high  terms  by  Wilkie.  The  Chess  Players , The 
Rival  M usicians , Waitmg  for  an  A nswer,  were  first 
seen  in  the  British  Institution,  and  he  exhibited,  for  the 
first  time  at  the  Academy,  the  Pride  of  the  Village 
(in  the  Vernon  Gallery).  This  was  followed  by  The 
Contrast:  Youth  and  Age,  in  1840;  Leaving  the  Ball, 
another  Contrast— gay  pleasure-seekers  on  the  one 
hand,  the  homeless  outcast  on  the  other;  and  The 
Pedlar , both  in  1841;  Winning  Gloves,  in  1842;  and 
The  Father's  Grave  in  1843.  In  the  latter  year  Mr. 
Horsley’s  cartoon  of  St.  Augustine  Preaching  gained, 
at  Westminster  Hall,  one  of  the  three  prizes  in  the 
spcond  rank.  He  was  among  the  six  painters  commis- 
sioned to  execute  frescoes  for  the  palace  at  Westminster. 
That  of  1845,  for  Religion,  was  approved,  and  the  sub- 
ject executed  at  large  in  the  House  of  Lords.  In 
1847  his  colossal  oil  painting,  HeJiry  V.,  believing 
the  King  dead,  assumes  the  Crown,  secured  a premium. 
In  1882  Mr.  Horsley  was  elected  treasurer  of  the 
Royal  Academy.  His  Hide  and  Seek  and  Finishing 
Touches  were  exhibited  at  the  World’s  Columbian  Ex- 
position in  Chicago  in  1893. 

HORT,  Fenton  John  Anthony,  D.D.,  born  at 
Dublin,  April  [23,  1828,  and  died  November 
30,  1892.  He  was  a junior  optime  in  the  mathe- 

matical tripos,  and  was  bracketed  third  classic. 
Mr.  Hort  won  the  second  place  in  the  first  class  of  the 
Natural  Sciences  Tripos,  being  distinguished  in  physi- 
ology and  botany.  In  1852  he  was  elected  to  a fellow, 
ship  at  Trinity  College,  which  he  held  until  1857.  In  that 
year  he  was  presented  to  the  college  living  of  St. 
Ippolyts,  with  Great  Wymondley,  Hertfordshire,  a pre- 
ferment he  held  until  1872,  when  he  returned  to 
Cambridge  on  being  elected  a fellow  of  Emmanuel 
College.  Since  1872  he  has  been  a constant  resident  in 
the  university  and  has  delivered  lectures  on  theology. 
In  1871  he  was  elected  Hulsean  lecturer,  and  in  1875 


66oo 


H O S — HOW 


was  appointed  Lady  Margaret’s  preacher.  On  Decem- 
ber 18,  1878,  he  was  elected  to  the  Hulsean  professor- 
ship of  divinity.  Doctor  Hort  has  contributed  numer- 
ous articles  to  Smith  and  Wace’s  Dictionary  of  Chris- 
tian Biography,  and  the  Journal  of  Philology. 
Conjointly  with  Doctor  Westcott  he  edited,  in  188 1 , a 
critically  revised  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament, 
with  an  introduction  and  critical  appendix  in  an  accom- 
panying volume.  He  was  a member  of  the  committee 
for  the  revision  of  the  New  Testament. 

HOSACK,  David,  born  in  New  York,  August,  1769; 
died  there  in  December,  1835.  He  graduated  at  Prince- 
ton, and  in  medicine  at  the  College  of  Philadelphia,  and 
in  1795  became  professor  of  natural  history  in  Columbia 
College.  In  1807  he  became  professor  of  surgery  in  the 
College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  and  in  1826  organ- 
ized the  medical  department  of  Rutgers  College,  New 
Jersey.  He  edited  the  American  Medical  and  Philo- 
sophical Monthly  Magazine  for  several  years,  and  was 
connected  with  several  scientific  societies. 

HOSMER,  Harriet  G.,born  at  Watertown,  Mass., 
October  9,  1830;  was  educated  at  Lenox,  Mass.,  and 
early  displayed  a taste  for  art.  She  received  a few 
lessons  in  modeling  in  Boston,  and  then  entered  a med- 
ical college  in  St.  Louis  to  study  anatomy  and  dissection. 
Her  first  work  in  marble  was  a reduced  copy  of  Canova’s 
bust  of  Napoleon,  which  was  soon  followed  by  an  ideal 
work,  Hesper , or  the  Evening  Star,  In  1852  she 
went  to  Rome,  and  became  a pupil  of  Gibson.  After 
two  years  of  study  and  modeling  from  the  antique,  she 
roduced  the  busts  of  Daphne  and  Medusa.  Her 
rst  full-length  figure  in  marble  was  CEnone , completed 
in  1855,  and  this  was  followed,  two  years  later,  by 
Beatrice  Cenci  Sleeping  in  Her  Cell.  In  the  summer 
of  1865  she  modeled  Puck , of  which  many  copies 
have  been  made.  This  was  followed  by  Will-o* -the- 
Wisp.  A colossal  statue  of  Zenobia , Queen  of  Pal- 
myra, in  Chains , was  her  next  important  work,  fol- 
lowed by  a statue  of  Thomas  H.  Benton,  the  Sleep- 
ing and  the  Waking  Faun , and  a design  of  a memo- 
rial monument  to  Abraham  Lincoln.  She  has  resided 
for  many  years  in  Rome,  but  occasionally  visits  the 
United  States. 

HOTCHKISS,  Benjamin  Berkely,  born  in  Water- 
town,  Conn.,  October  1,  1826;  became  a machinist,  and 
in  1856  designed  a field-gun  on  a new  pattern.  In  i860 
he  submitted  to  the  United  States  Government  an  im- 
proved system  of  rifled  projectiles,  which  was  largely 
used  during  the  Civil  war.  In  1867  he  introduced  his 
revolving  cannon  to  the  European  governments,  and 
afterwards  devised  a magazine-rifle  and  a quick-firing 
gun.  He  died  February  14,  1885. 

HOUGH,  Benjamin  F.,  was  born  in  Martinsburg, 
N.  Y.,  July  20,  1820,  and  died  June  6,  1885.  He  prac- 
ticed medicine  for  many  years,  and  in  1862  entered  the 
United  States  service  as  an  army  surgeon.  Doctor 
Hough  was  connected  with  the  State  census  of  New  Y ork 
in  1865,  and  was  afterward  chief  of  the  forestry  division 
of  the  United  States  Agricultural  Department. 

HOUGH,  George  Washington,  born  in  Mont- 
gomery county,  N.  Y.,  October  24,  1836;  graduated  at 
Union  College,  1856,  and  turned  his  attention  to  as- 
tronomy. In  i860  he  became  astronomer  at  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  and  in  1879  was  made  director  of  Dearborn  Ob- 
servatory, Chicago.  His  principal  scientific  work  was 
the  cataloguing  of  double  stars,  more  than  300  different 
stars  having  been  discovered  by  him  and  catalogued. 
He  was  a member  of  several  scientific  societies  and  has 
ublished  annual  reports  of  observations  taken  at  Dear- 
orn  Observatory. 

HOUGH,  John  Stockton,  bom  in  Pennsylvania 
m 1845  ; graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 


1868,  and  has  since  practiced  medicine  in  Philadelphia 
and  other  cities.  He  is  well  known  as  an  inventor  of 
improvements  in  surgical  instruments,  and  as  a writer 
on  medical  subjects. 

HOUGHTON,  Lord  (Richard  Monckton 
Milnes),  born  in  England  June  19,  1809;  became  a 
member  of  parliament  in  1857,  and  supported  the 
Liberal  administration.  He  was  also  known  as  a writer 
both  of  prose  and  verse,  but  his  works  are  not  calculated 
to  bring  enduring  fame.  He  died  August  11,  1885. 

HOUSE,  Edward  Howard,  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
in  1836;  was  for  many  years  connected  with  the  press 
of  that  city  and  of  New  York,  and  also  acted  as  foreign 
correspondent  in  Japan  for  the  New  York  Herald. 

HOUSSAYE,  Arsene,  born  in  Laon,  France,  in 
1815.  From  1849  to  1856  he  was  director  of  the 
Theatre  Franfaise,  and  subsequently  became  inspector- 
general  of  the  works  of  art  in  the  French  academy. 
He  has  written  a History  of  Painting  and  several  suc- 
cessful novels.  Died  Feb.  26,  1896. 

HOUSTON,  David  Crawford,  was  born  in  New 
York  city  December  5,  1835,  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1856.  He  served  in  Oregon  until  the  Civil 
war  began,  and  was  brevetted  colonel  in  1865  for  gal- 
lant conduct  during  the  rebellion.  He  became  con- 
nected with  the  construction  of  river  and  harbor  im- 
provements on  the  Atlantic  coast  and  the  upper  lakes- 
and  is  a member  of  the  board  of  engineers  for  fortifica- 
tions. 

HOW,  William  Walsham,  D.D.,  was  born  in  Eng- 
land, December  13,  1823,  educated  at  Shrewsbury  and 
Wadham  College,  Oxford,  held  curacies  at  Kidder- 
minster and  Shrewsbury;  became  rector  of  Whitting- 
ton, 1851 ; honoraiy  canon  in  St.  Asaph’s  cathedral  in 
i860;  proctor  in  convocation  for  the  diocese,  1869,  and 
prebend  in  St.  Paul’s  cathedral,  and  suffragan  bishop 
of  Bedford,  1879.  He  is  a voluminous  writer  on  theolog- 
ical and  practical  subjects.  Died  Aug.  10,  1897. 

HOWARD,  Blanche  Willis  (nowMRS.TEUFFEL), 
one  of  the  brightest  of  American  women  novelists,  was 
born  in  1847  at  Bangor,  Me.,  and  now  resides  per- 
manently at  Stuttgart,  Germany.  She  has  written  One 
Slimmer  (1875),  which  went  through  many  editions; 
Aunt  Serena  (1881) ; Guenn , a Wave  on  the  Breton  Coast 
(1883)  ; Aulnay  Tower  (1885)  ; Tony,  the  Maid  (1887) ; 
The  Open  Door  (1889) ; and,  with  W.  Sharp,  A Fellowe 
and  his  Wife  (1893). 

HOWARD,  Bronson,  born  in  Detroit,  October  7, 
1842,  the  author  of  numerous  popular  dramas  of  modern 
life,  including  The  Banker's  Daughter,  Young  Mrs. 
Winthrop , Shenandoah,  a remarkably  successful  war 
drama  and  The  Henrietta,  a dramatic  portrayal  of  Wall 
street  life,  which  has  had  a great  stage  success. 

HOWARD,  Edward,  was  born  at  Nottingham, 
England,  February  13,  1829;  served  in  the  Life  Guards, 
but  when  twenty-six  years  old  became  a priest  at  Rome, 
and  attached  himself  to  the  service  of  Pius  IX.  He  was 
consecrated  archbishop  of  Meocsesaria,  in  partibus  in- 
fidelium,  in  1872,  when  he  was  made  coadjutor  bishop 
of  Frascati,  an  office  which  he  held  for  only  a few  weeks. 
He  was  created  a cardinal  priest  by  Pope  Pius  IX., 
March  12,  1877,  the  titular  church  assigned  to  him  being 
that  of  SS.  John  and  Paul,  on  the  Celian  Hill.  His 
eminence  took  possession,  as  protector,  of  the  English 
College  at  Rome,  March  24,  1878.  In  December,  1881, 
he  was  nominated  archpriest  of  the  basilica  of  St. 
Peters,  and  March  12,  1884,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
cardinal  bishop  and  appointed  to  the  suburban  see  of 
Frascati.  He  was  a famous  linguist,  speaking  all 
'European  languages.  He  died  September  18,  1894. 

HOWARD,  John  E.,  born  in  Maryland,  June  4, 
1 752 ; died  in  October,  1827.  He  served  during  the  Rev- 


HOW 


6601 


olutionary  war  under  Gen.  Horatio  Gates  and  Gen.  I 
Nathanael  Green,  and  received  a medal  from  congress 
for  his  services.  From  1789  to  1792  he  was  governor 
of  Maryland,  and  from  1796  to  1803  represented  that 
State  in  the  United  States  Senate. 

HOWARD,  Oliver  Otis,  born  at  Leeds,  Me., 
November  8,  1830;  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in 
1850,  and  in  1854  at  the  Military  Academy  at  West 
Point,  where,  in  1857,  he  was  made  assistant  professor 
of  mathematics.  Upon  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil 
war  he  was  made  colonel  of  a regiment  of  volunteers; 
commanded  a brigade  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and 
was  made  brigadier  general  of  volunteers.  He  lost  his 
right  arm  at  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  May  31,  1862. 
He  was  made  major-general  of  volunteers  November 
29,  1862,  and  had  the  command  of  a division  at  Burn- 
side’s defeat  at  Fredericksburg  December  13,  1862. 
Soon  after  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  eleventh 
army  corps,  which  was  surprised  by  the  Confederate 
General  Jackson,  and  put  to  flight  at  Chancellorsville 
July  1,  1863.  In  the  following  autumn  he  was  sent 
with  his  corps  to  the  West,  took  part  in  the  campaign 
which  followed  down  to  the  capture  of  Atlanta,  and 
commanded  the  right  wing  of  the  army  during  Sher- 
man’s “march  to  the  sea.”  He  was,  in  December, 
1864,  promoted  to  brigadier-general,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing March  to  brevet  major-general  in  the  regular  army. 
In  May,  1865,  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Freed- 
man’s Bureau,  his  duties  lasting  until  1872.  From 
1869  to  1873  he  was  president  of  Howard  University. 
In  1872  he  was  sent  as  special  commissioner  to  the 
Indians  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and  from  1873  to 
1881  he  served  on  the  Indian  frontier.  In  1881  he  took 
charge  of  the  United  States  Military  Academy  at  West 
Point,  but  was  subsequently  transferred  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  department  of  the  Platte.  In  1886  he  re- 
ceived his  full  rank  of  major-general,  and  command  of 
the  Division  of  the  Atlantic.  He  was  retired  in  1894. 

HOWE,  Elias,  born  in  Massachusetts,  July  9,  1819, 
died  at  Long  Island,  October  3,  1867.  In  1846  he  ob- 
tained his  first  patent  for  a sewing  machine,  which, 
after  much  difficulty,  he  succeeded  in  introducing  upon 
the  market.  About  1854  his  machine  attracted  much 
attention  and  sold  largely,  and  Mr.  Howe  made  a very 
large  fortune  from  it. 

HOWE,  George  Augustus,  born  in  England  in 
1 724;  entered  the  British  army  when  very  young,  and 
was  sent  to  America  in  1757,  in  command  of  the  Eng- 
lish forces.  On  July  8,  1758,  he  attacked  Fort  Ticon- 
deroga,  then  held  by  the  French,  and  was  killed  while 
leading  his  men. 

HOWE,  John  Ireland,  born  in  Connecticut  in 
1 7935  died  in  1876.  He  was  educated  for  the  medical 
profession,  and  practiced  for  many  years,  but  devoted 
himself  specially  to  experimental  chemistry.  Pie  was 
the  first  to  utilize  india-rubber  for  overcoats,  and  he . 
made  machinery  for  the  manufacture  of  pins  which  re- 
alized a fortune  for  him. 

HOWE,  Joseph,  born  in  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia, 
December  13,  1804;  died  there  in  1873.  He  became 
a journalist  when  scarcely  of  age,  entered  the  local 
parliament  in  1836,  and  for  many  years  held  different 
administrative  offices  under  the  Dominion  Government. 
He  was  lieutenant-governor  of  Nova  Scotia  at  the  time 
of  his  death. 

HOWE,  Julia  Ward,  was  born  in  New  York  city, 
May  27,  1819,  and  married  Dr.  Samuel  G.  Howe,  in 
connection  with  whom  she  conducted  an  anti-slavery 
paper,  published  in  Boston.  She  took  up  the  cause  of 
woman’s  suffrage,  and  became  the  president  of  the  New 
England  Woman’s  Club.  She  has  also  distinguished 
herself  upon  the  lecture  platform,  and  has  published  [ 


! volumes  of  both  prose  and  verse,  including  the  Life  of 
Margaret  Fuller.  Her  best  known  production  is  the 
Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic. 

HOWE,  Robert,  soldier,  born  in  Brunswick  county, 
N.  C.,  in  1732;  died  there,  November  12,  1785.  His 
parents  were  English;  he  was  left  an  orphan  and  re- 
ceived only  an  imperfect  education.  He  married  when 
oung,  and  took  his  wife  with  him  to  England,  where 
e remained  for  two  years  among  his  well-to-do  rela- 
tives. In  1766  he  was  appointed  by  Governor  Tryon 
to  the  command  of  Fort  Johnson,  N.  C.  In  1772-73110 
was  a member  of  the  provincial  assembly,  and  in  1774 
delegate  to  the  colonial  congress  that  met  at  New  Berne. 
On  August  21,  1775,  Howe  was  appointed  by  congress 
colonel  of  a North  Carolina  regiment,  and  at  the  end  of 
that  year  led  his  soldiers  into  Virginia.  In  connection 
with  Gen.  William  Woodford,  at  Norfolk,  he  drove 
Governor  Lord  Dunmore  out  of  Virginia,  and  for  this 
service  was  promoted  brigadier-general.  He  had  be- 
come particularly  obnoxious  to  the  loyalists,  so  that  Sir 
Henry  Clinton’s  proffer  of  royal  clemency  excepted 
General  Howe  from  its  benefit.  Somewhat  later  he 
commanded  the  North  Carolina  troops  at  the  defense  of 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  and  became  commander-in-chief  of 
the  southern  department.  In  October,  1777,  he  was 
made  major-general,  and  in  1778  ventured  on  a disas- 
trous expedition  to  Florida.  He  then  retreated  to  Sa- 
vannah to  defend  that  city  against  the  British  forces 
under  General  Provost,  but  was  surprised  by  night  and 
compelled  to  tevacuate  the  place.  General  Howe  was 
tried  by  court-martial  and  acquitted;  but  he  was  super- 
seded in  his  southern  command  and  ordered  to  join  Wash- 
ington’s forces  on  the  Hudson  river.  He  commanded 
at  West  Point  in  1780.  In  1785  he  returned  to  his  own 
State,  where  he  was  elected  to  the  legislature. 

HOWE,  William,  born  in  England,  August  10, 
1729;  died  in  Plymouth,  England,  July  12,  1814.  In 
1759  he  commanded  the  light  infantry  at  Quebec,  under 
General  Wolfe,  and  in  1775  succeeded  Sir  Thomas  Gage 
as  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces  in  North 
America.  He  was  in  command  at  the  battle  of  Bunker 
Hill,  and  in  August,  1776,  defeated  the  American  army 
on  Long  Island.  He  occupied  New  York  city,  defeated 
Washington  at  White  Plains,  and  captured  Fort  Wash- 
ington with  2,000  prisoners.  On  September  nth  he 
defeated  Washington  at  Brandywine,  and  on  the  26th 
entered  Philadelphia.  He  defeated  Washington’s  at- 
tack at  Germantown,  but  neglected  destroying  the  dis- 
tressed American  camp  at  Valley  Forge  for  the  pleas- 
ures of  a winter  in  Philadelphia.  In  May,  1778,  he  was 
superseded  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  In  1786  he  was 
made  full  general,  was  governor  of  Berwick  in  1795,  and 
on  the  death  of  his  brother,  Admiral  Richard,  succeeded 
to  the  Irish  estate  with  its  title.  Later  he  became 
privy  councilor  and  governor  of  Plymouth.  By  illegiti- 
mate descent  he  was  connected  with  the  royal  family. 
General  Howe  was  accounted  a skillful  commander, 
but  destitute  of  enterprise  and  activity.  His  great  mili- 
tary mistake  was  the  neglect  of  Valley  Forge. 

HOWELLS,  William  Dean,  was  born  at  Martins- 
ville, Ohio,  March  1,  1837.  In  1840  he  removed  to 
Hamilton,  Ohio,  with  his  father,  who  was  a printer  and 
journalist.  He  learned  the  printer’s  trade  of  his  father, 
and  was  afterward  editorially  connected  with  the  Cin- 
cinnati Gazette , and  the  Ohio  State  Journal.  From 
1861  to  1865  he  was  United  States  consul  at  Venice. 
Returning  to  America,  he  engaged  in  literary  labor, 
and  in  1871  became  editor  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  a 
position  which  he  retained  until  1880,  when  he  relin- 
quished it  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  writing. 
Besides  his  papers  in  that  magazine  and  other  periodi- 
[ cals,  he  has  published  Poems  of  Two  Friends,  him  sell 


6602  HOW- 

and  J.  J.  Piatt  (i860);  Venetian  Life  (1866);  Italian 
Journeys  (1867);  No  Love  Lost  (1868);  Suburban 
Sketches  (1870);  Their  Wedding  Journey  (1872);  A 
Chance  Acquaintance,'  Poems  (1873);  A Foregone  Con- 
clusion (1874);  Counterfeit  Presentment,  a comedy; 
A Day's  Pleasure  (1876);  The  Parlor  Car,  Out  of  the 
Question,  Life  of  Rutherford  B.  Hayes  (1877);  The 
Lady  of  the  Aroostook  (1879);  The  Undiscovered 
Country  (1880)  ; A Fearful  Responsibility,  and  other 
Stories,  Dr.  Breen's  Practice  (1881);  A Modern 
Instance  (1882)  ; A Woman's  Reason  (1883)  ; The  Rise 
of  Silas  Lapham,  Tuscan  Cities  ( 1885)  ; Indian  Summer 
{1886);  A Hazard  of  New  Fortunes  (1889);  A Boy's 
Town,  The  Shadow  of  a Dream  (1890) ; The  Quality  of 
Mercy  (1892);  The  Coast  of  Bohemia,  An  Imperative 
Duty,  My  Year  in  a Log  Cabin,  The  World  of  Chance 
(1893)  ; A Traveler from  Altruria  (1894),  besides  other 
novels  and  numerous  farces.  Mr.  Howells  has  always 
been  a consistent  apostle  of  truth  to  the  verities  of  life 
in  fiction,  in  opposition  to  the  romantic  school,  and, 
although  some  have  questioned  his  theory,  none  gain- 
say the  high  literary  quality  of  his  art.  His  works 
have  a wide  circulation  in  England. 

HOWITT,  Mary  (1804-1888),  born  in  England, 
wife  o:f  William  Howitt  ( q . v.),  the  author,  with 
Whom  she  published  numerous  works.  Anna  Mary, 
their  daughter  (1830-1884),  wrote  a series  of  works 
on  art. 

HOWLAND,  Sir  William  Pearce,  C.B., 
K.C.M.G.,was  born  in  New  York  State  on  May  29, 
1811,  and  settled  in  Canada  in  1830.  In  Toronto  and  the 
neighborhood  he  has  been  engaged  in  extensive  business 
enterprises  for  over  fifty  years.  He  was  returned  for 
West  York  in  1857,  and  sat  in  the  legislature  of  Can- 
ada until  1868,  when  he  was  appointed  leutenant-gov- 
ernor  of  Ontario.  From  1862  until  1864  he  held  the 
offices  of  minister  of  finance  and  receiver-general.  In 
the  latter  year  he  became  postmaster-general,  and  a 
member  of  the  executive  council.  In  1866  he  succeeded 
the  Hon.  A.  T.  Galt  as  finance  minister,  and  on  the 
formation  of  the  first  Dominion  Government,  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  he  accepted  the  portfolio  of  minister  of 
inland  revenue,  and  was  sworn  a member  of  the  privy 
council.  Since  1878  he  has  been  president  of  the 
Ontario  bank.  Pie  was  created  a K.C.  M.G.  in  1879. 

HO  WORTH,  Henry  Hoyle,  M.P.,  was  born  at 
Lisbon,  July  1,  1842,  educated  at  Rossall  school,  and 
called  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple,  June  11,  1867. 
Has  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  literature  and  politics. 
Pie  is  the  author  of  a large  work  on  the  History  of  the 
Mongols , of  which  several  volumes  are  published,  and 
of  a History  of  Genghiz  Khan  and  His  Ancestors , 
and  has  edited  a work  on  the  History  of  the  Vicars  of 
Rochdale  for  the  Chetham  society.  In  addition  he  has 
written  more  than  fifty  scientific  memoirs,  chiefly  on 
geological,  ethnographical  and  historical  subjects.  Mr. 
Ho  worth  was  elected  as  Conservative  member  for  South 
Salford  at  the  general  election  of  1886. 

HOXIE,  Vinnie  Ream,  born  in  Madison,  Wis., 
September,  1846.  She  studied  art,  and  devoted  herself 
exclusively  to  sculpture.  She  made  successful  busts  of 
General  Grant,  Reverdy  Johnson,  Senator  Sherman, 
and  a marble  statue  of  Lincoln,  now  in  the  Capitol  at 
Washington.  She  married  in  1878,  Captain  Hoxie,  of 
the  United  States  army. 

HU  AYNA,  Capac,  Peruvian  Inca,  born  in  Cuzco, 
Peru;  died  in  Tumipampa,  Ecuador,  in  1523.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  emperor  in  1483;  undertook  wars 
of  conquest  that  subjected  the  kingdoms  of  Quito  and 
Chile  ; and  constructed  many  important  inca-roads  that 
led  to  Cuzco,  the  capital.  The  palaces  of  Quito,  Callu 
and  Tumipampa  were  erected,  together  with  the  tern- 


- h 0 b 

pie  of  Curicancha.  He  had  600  wives.  After  the  land- 
ing of  the  Spaniards,  under  Andagoya,  he  feared  the 
verification  of  an  old  tradition  that  Peru  should  be  suc- 
cessfully invaded  by  strangers.  Soon  afterward  he 
died,  leaving  his  vast  empire  divided  among  two  suc- 
cessors, who  eventually  fell  a prey  to  Spanish  barbarity. 

HUBBARD,  John  Gellibra^d,  (Baron  Adding- 
ton), born  in  England  in  1805 ; early  entered  commercial 
pursuits,  and  was  the  head  of  the  firm  of  Hubbard  & 
Company,  Russian  merchants,  in  London.  Mr.  Hub- 
bard was  a magistrate  and  deputy-lieutenant  for  Buck- 
inghamshire, a director  of  the  Bank  of  England,  and 
chairman  of  the  public  works  exchequer  loan  commis- 
sion. He  was  elected  in  May,  1859,  for  the  borough 
of  Buckingham,  which  he  represented  in  the  Conserva- 
tive interest  until  the  Reform  Act  of  1868  deprived 
Buckingham  of  one  of  its  members.  At  the  general 
election  of  February,  1874,  he  was  elected  one  of  the 
members  for  the  city  of  London,  which  he  represented 
until  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Addington  in  1887. 
Mr.  Hubbard  carried  in  the  House  of  Commons,  in 
1881,  a motion  against  the  government  for  a committee 
to  inquire  into  the  working  of  the  income  tax,  and 
strenuously  advocated  a modification  of  its  most  ob- 
noxious features.  He  died  August  28,  1889. 

HUBBARD,  Lucius  Frederick,  born  in  Troy, 
N.  Y.,  January,  1836;  removed  to  Minnesota  in  1857, 
and  enlisted  as  a private  in  the  volunteer  service  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  war.  He  commanded  a brigade 
in  1862-63  and  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Vicksburg. 
He  was  severely  wounded  at  Nashville  in  1864,  and 
received  the  brevet  of  brigadier-general.  After  the 
war  he  engaged  in  business  in  Minnesota,  and  served 
as  a Republican  member  of  the  State  Senate,  and  in 
1881  was  elected  governor  of  the  State.  He  was 
reelected  in  1883,  and  served  until  January,  1887. 

HUBBARD,  Oliver  P.,  born  in  Connecticut, 
March,  1809;  graduated  at  Yale,  and  acted  as  assistant 
of  Professor  Silliman.  In  1836  he  became  a professor 
at  Dartmouth,  and  remained  attached  to  that  college 
for  over  thirty  years.  In  1863-64  he  served  in  the 
New  Hampshire  legislature,  and  was  for  many  years 
corresponding  secretary  of  the  New  York  Academy  of 
Sciences. 

HUBNER,  Baron  Joseph  Alexander,  diplomatist, 
was  born  in  Vienna,  November  26,  1811.  After  com- 
pleting his  studies  at  Vienna  he  traveled  for  some  time 
ill  Italy,  and  on  his  return  in  1833  received  from  the 
late  Prince  Metternich  a post  in  the  state  chancellerie. 
In  1837  he  accompanied  Count  Apponyi’s  embassy  to 
Paris.  In  1840  he  was  made  secretary  to  the  Austrian 
embassy  sent  to  the  late  Queen  Maria  da  Gloria,  the 
relations  between  Austria  and  Portugal  having  been  for 
a long  time  suspended.  He  was  appointed  charge  d'af- 
faires at  Leipsic  in  1844,  and  was  shortly  afterward  con- 
sul-general of  Austria.  He  joined  the  emperor  of 
Austria  at  Olmiitz;  was  sent  in  1849  on  a special  mission 
to  Paris,  and  shortly  afterward  became  Austrian  ambas- 
sador at  that  capital.  In  1856  he  signed  the  treaty  of 
Paris,  having,  during  the  Crimean  war,  been  instru- 
mental in  preventing  his  sovereign  from  taking  part 
with  Russia,  and  in'  insuring  his  neutrality.  It  was  to 
Baron  Hiibnerthat  the  emperor  of  the  French  made  the 
memorable  declaration,  January  I,  1859,  that  his  gov- 
ernment was  dissatisfied  with  that  of  Austria.  Baron 
Hiibner  was  recalled  from  Paris  in  1859,  and  after  being 
employed  in  several  diplomatic  missions,  epecially  at 
Naples  and  Rome,  he  was  recalled  from  the  latter 
city  to  enter  as  minister  of  police  the  new  cabinet 
which  had  just  been  formed  at  Vienna.  The  latter 
post,  however,  he  only  held  a few  months,  and  he  then 
lived  in  retirement  for  several  years.  In  January 


HUD- 

|866,  he  was  again  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Austrian 
embassy  in  Rome,  and  in  October,  1867,  lie  was  intrusted 
with  the  conduct  of  the  negotiations  with  the  holy 
see  in  reference  to  the  repudiation  of  the  concordat. 
He  was  soon  afterward  recalled.  Baron  Hiibner  is 
grand  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  His  Life  and 
Times  of  Sixtus  the  Fifth  appeared  in  London  (2 
vols.,  1872).  His  latest  book,  Through  the  British 
Empire,  appeared  in  French  in  1885,  and  has  been 
translated.  He  died  J uly  30,  1892. 

HU  DDE,  Andreas,  born  in  Holland,  1600;  died 
in  Delaware,  1663.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  Dutch 
governors  of  Delaware. 

HUDDLESTON,  Sir  John  Walter,  was  born  in 
1815  in  Dublin.  He  studied  for  a time  at  the  University 
of  Dublin,  but  did  not  graduate.  In  1839  he  was  called 
to  the  bar  at  Gray’s  Inn,  where  he  quickly  rose  to  a prom- 
inent position.  Mr.  Huddleston’s  success  in  his  profes- 
sion led  to  his  appointment,  in  1857,  as  one  of  her 
majesty’s  counsel.  During  his  professional  career  he  was 
counsel  in  almost  every  case  of  importance  on  the  Oxford 
circuit,  of  which,  in  course  of  time,  he  became  the 
acknowledged  leader.  He  was  Sir  Alexander  Cock- 
burn’s  junior  in  the  prosecution  of  Palmer,  the  Rugeley 
murderer.  In  his  attempts  to  enter  the  house  of  com- 
mons in  the  conservative  interest,  Mr.  Huddleston  was 
unsuccessful  at  Worcester  in  1852,  at  Shrewsbury  in 
1857,  and  at  Kidderminster  in  1859  and  1861.  In  1865, 
however,  he  was  elected  for  Canterbury,  and  he  repre- 
sented that  city  for  three  years,  being  defeated  at  the 
general  election  of  1868.  At  the  election  for  Norwich, 
in  July,  1870,  Mr.  Huddleston  was  the  unsuccessful  can- 
didate, but  at  the  general  election  of  February,  1874,  he 
was  elected  for  that  city  by  a majority  of  forty -seven  votes 
over  his  former  antagonist,  M r.  Tillett.  Mr.  Huddleston 
continued  to  represent  that  city  until  February  22,  1875, 
when,  on  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Justice  Iloneyman,  he 
was  appointed  to  a puisne  judgeship  of  the  court  of 
common  pleas.  He  sat  in  the  common  pleas  but  a short 
time,  and  in  May,  1875,  was  nominated  one  of  the 
barons  of  the  court  of  exchequer.  He  died  in  1890. 

HUEFFER,  Francis,  Ph.D.,  was  born  in  1S45,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  modern  philology  and 
music  in  London,  Paris,  Berlin,  and  Leipsic.  His  first 
publication  (1869)  was  a critical  edition  of  the  works  of 
Guillem  de  Cabestanh,  a troubadour  of  the  twelfth  cent- 
ury, for  which  the  University  of  Gottingen  conferred 
upon  him  the  degree  of  Ph.  D.  A more  extensive  work  on 
the  same  subject,  entitled  The  Troubadours — a History 
of  Provencal  Life  and  Literature  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
was  published  in  1878;  and  in  the  same  year  Mr.  Huef- 
fer  was  appointed  musical  critic  of  the  London  Times . 
As  a writer  on  music  and  a musical  critic,  Mr.  Hueffer 
was  the  first  in  England  to  advocate  the  claims  of 
Richard  Wagner.  His  first  work  on  the  subject, 
Richard  Wagner,  and  the  Music  of  the  Future , was 
published  in  1S74  ; a more  comprehensive  biography  of 
the  master  from  his  pen  appeared  as  the  first  volume  of 
a series  of  lives  of  The  Great  Musicians,  1881.  A col- 
lection of  Musical  Studies,  reprinted  from  the  Times , 
the  Fortnightly  Revieiv , and  other  periodicals,  ap- 
peared in  1880.  In  his  critical  writings  Mr.  Hueffer 
warmly  espoused  the  cause  of  a national  English  opera, 
and  he  wrote  the  libretto  of  a musical  drama,  Colomba 
(music  by  Mr.  A.  C.  Mackenzie),  for  the  English  opera 
seas  >n  of  Drury  Lane,  in  1883.  His  volume  of  essays, 
entitled  Italian  and  Other  Studies,  also  appeared  in 
1883.  In  1886  he  produced  a second  opera  in  con- 
junction with  Mr.  Mackenzie.  It  is  entitled  The  Trou- 
badour, and  Guillem  de  Cabestanh,  the  Provencal  poet 
previously  mentioned,  is  the  hero.  He  died  in  1889. 

HUELEN,  Araucanian  soldier,  born  in  Angol  about 


- H U dr  6603 

I 1540;  died  near  Osorno  in  1603.  He  was  a cacique, 
acquired  a knowledge  of  cavalry  tactics  and  the  Spanish 
mode  of  warfare,  and  in  1599  was  intrusted  with  the 
chief  command  of  the  Araucanian  tribes.  In  July., 
1599,  he  came  to  battle  with  General  Quin  ones  of  the 
Spanish  forces,  in  the  valley  of  T umbel,’  where  although 
compelled  to  retreat,  he  inflicted  severe  punishment  on 
the  enemy.  Two  days  later  he  stole  a march  on  the 
Spaniards,  and  defeated  them.  On  November  14,  1599, 
he  stormed  the  city  of  Valdivia,  slew  the  defenders  and 
many  inhabitants,  in  the  manner  of  Spanish  warfare, 
carried  off  the  women,  and  burnt  the  city.  In  1601  he 
routed  the  Spanish  forces  in  a battle  near  Concepcion, 
and,  after  capturing  the  city,  treated  its  inhabitants  in  a 
similar  manner.  In  1603  Huelen  attacked  the  city  of 
Osorno,  where  he  was  repulsed  and  killed. 

HUGGINS,  Sir  William,  F.  R.S.,  was  born  in 
London,  February  7,  1824.  Much  of  his  time  was  given 
to  experiments  in  natural  philosophy,  and  he  collected 
apparatus  by  the  use  of  which  he  gained  considerable 
practical  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  chemistry, 
electricity,  magnetism,  and  other  branches  of  physical 
science.  In  1852  he  was  elected  a member  of  the 
Miscroscopic  Society,  and  for  some  years  he  applied 
himself  with  much  assiduity  to  the  study,  with  the  aid 
of  the  microscope,  of  animal  and  vegetable  physiology. 
In  1855  Mr.  Huggins  erected  an  observatory  at  his 
residence  at  Upper  Tulse  Hill,  and  occupied  himself  for 
some  time  with  observation  of  double  stars,  and  with 
careful  drawings  of  the  planets  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn. 
For  his  important  researches  Mr.  Huggins  received,  in 
November,  1866,  one  of  the  Royal  Medals  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Royal  Society,  of  which  he  had  previously, 
on  June  1,  1865,  been  elected  a fellow.  In  1867  the 
gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  wag 
awarded  to  Mr.  Huggins  and  Doctor  Miller  for  their 
joint  researches.  Mr.  Huggins  has  since  continued 
his  prismatic  researches  by  a re-examination  of  the 
nebulae  with  a more  powerful  spectroscope,  by  which  his 
former  results  have  been  confirmed.  He  has  also  ex- 
amined the  spectra  of  four  comets,  and  has  found  that 
the  greater  part  of  the  light  of  these  objects  is  different 
from  solar  light.  Mr.  Huggins  has  made  observations 
of  the  spectra  of  the  solar  prominences,  and  devised  the 
method  by  which  the  forms  of  these  objects  may  be 
seen.  He  has  also  succeeded  in  detecting  the  heat 
received  at  the  earth  from  some  of  the  fixed  stars.  From 
1875  Mr.  Huggins  has  been  engaged  in  obtaining 
photographs  of  the  ultra-violet  portions  (invisible  to  eye 
observation)  of  the  spectra  of  the  Stars.  This  difficult 
research  has  led  to  important  results,  and  has  opened 
up  quite  a new  field  of  work  to  the  astronomer;  it 
furnishes  the  only  data  we  at  present  have  as  to  the 
probable  relative  ages  of  the  stars  and  of  the  sun. 

HUGHES,  Ball,  sculptor,  born  in  London,  England, 
January  19,  1806;  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  March  5,  1868. 
He  studied  for  seven  years  with  a modeler  and  sculptor, 
and  exhibited  specimens  of  his  work  at  the  Londoh 
Society  of  Arts,  for  which  he  received  several  silver 
medals.  Among  these  achievements  was  an  original 
composition,  Pandora  brought  to  Earth  by  Mercury , 
which  gained  him  a gold  medal.  He  afterward  made  a 
number  of  ideal  statuettes  and  many  busts.  In  1829  he 
came  to  New  York  city,  and  began  work  by  making  a 
statue  of  Alexander  Hamilton,  which  was  placed  in  the 
rotunda  of  the  merchants’  exchange.  He  also  made  a mon- 
umental relief  of  Bishop  Hobart,  now  in  the  vestry  of 
Trinity  church.  Later,  Mr.  Hughes  went  to  Dorches* 
ter,  Mass. , where  he  modeled  Little  Nell  and  Uncle  Toby 
and  Widow  Wadman,  which  are  preserved  in  plaster  ai 
the  Boston  Athenaeum.  He  also  modeled  an  equestrian 
statue  of  Washington,  a Crucifixion , a bronze  static 


HUG 


6604 

Nathaniel  Bowditch — now  in  Mount  Auburn  cemetery 
—a  statuette  of  Gen.  Joseph  Warren,  a bust  of  Wash- 
ington Irving,  and  a Mary  Magdalen. 

HUGHES,  John,  archbishop,  born  in  Ireland,  June 
24,  1 797 ^ died  in  New  York  city,  January  3,  1864.  In 
1816  his  father  jcame  to  the  United  States,  and  settled 
in  Chambersburg,  Penn.;  a year  later  the  son  joined 
him.  Before  he  came  to  this  country  he  had  determined 
to  qualify  himself  for  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood. 
For  this  purpose  he  entered  Mount  St.  Mary’s  College, 
near  Emmetsburg,  Md.  Here  he  rapidly  advanced  in 
learning,  was  ordained  priest  in  1826,  and  began  his 
ministry  in  Philadelphia.  In  January,  1838,  he  was 
consecrated  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Dubois,  of  New  York 
city.  On  the  death  of  the  latter  in  1842,  he  succeeded 
to  the  full  bishopric.  The  territory  over  which  he  then 
presided  was  the  State  of  New  York  and  about  half  of 
New  Jersey,  with  a- population  of  about  200,000  Roman 
Catholics,  divided  into  20  congregations.  Bishop  H ughes 
founded  St.  John’s  College  in  Fordham,  and  in  all 
directions  sternly  enforced  the  rules  of  his  church.  In 
1852  it  is  said  that  the  United  States  Government  made 
a formal  request  to  the  pope  for  his  elevation  to  the 
rank  of  cardinal,  which  was  repeated  during  the  admin- 
istration of  President  Lincoln,  probably  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  the  then  secretary  of  State,  William  H.  Seward. 
In  1850  he  was  made  archbishop.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  Civil  war  he  was  unfriendly  to  the  Abolitionists.  In 
November,  1861,  the  archbishop  went  to  Europe.  His 
death  was  caused  by  general  debility.  He  was  active 
in  founding  the  American  College  in  Rome;  established 
the  theological  seminary  in  Troy,  and  began  the  new 
St.  Patrick’s  cathedral. 

HUGHES,  Joshua,  D D.,  bishop  of  St.  Asaph,  born 
at  Newport,  Pembrokeshire,  in  1807,  was  educated  at 
Cardigan  and  Ystrameurig  schools,  and  subsequently 
at  St.  David’s  College,  Lampeter,  under  Doctor  Ol- 
livant, the  late  bishop  of  Llandaff.  Having  taken 
orders,  he  began  his  career  in  the  church  as  curate  to 
the  late  Archdeacon  Hughes,  of  Aberystwith.  Subse- 
quently he  was  promoted  to  the  incumbency  of  St. 
David’s,  Carmarthen,  and  soon  afterward  to  that  of 
Abergwil  (1837).  In  March,  1870,  he  was  nominated 
by  Mr.  Gladstone  to  the  see  of  St.  Asaph.  Bishop 
Hughes  was  an  effective  preacher  both  in  English  and 
Welsh.  He  died  January  21,  1889. 

HUGHES,  Thomas,  Q.C.,  was  born  on  October  20, 
1823,  at  Uffington,  in  Berkshire,  England.  In  1830  he 
was  sent  to  a school  at  Twyford,  near  Winchester,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  year  1833  he  was  removed  to  Rugby, 
where  he  studied  under  Doctor  Arnold.  Thence  he 
roceeded  to  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  where  he  took 
is  B.A.  degree  in  1845.  Previous  to  this  he  had 
turned  his  attention  to  political  problems,  and  when  he 
left  Oxford  he  was  an  advanced  Liberal.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln’s  Inn  in  January,  1848. 
He  was  one  of  the  members  for  Lambeth  from  1865  to 
1868,  when  he  was  returned  for  the  borough  of  Frome, 
which  he  continued  to  represent  till  January,  1874. 
Mr.  Hughes  was  appointed  a queen’s  counsel  in  1869, 
and  in  the  following  year  he  made  a tour  in  the  United 
States.  In  July,  1882,  he  was  appointed  judge  of  the 
county  circuit  court,  No.  9,  vacant  by  the  resignation 
of  Mr.  Yates.  He  is  the  author  of  Tom  Brown's 
School  Days,  by  an  Old  Boy , in  1857,  which  passed 
through  several  editions;  The  Scouring  of  the  White 
Horse , 1858,  though  dated  1859;  Tom  Brozun  at  Ox- 
ford, three  volumes,  1861;  Religio  Laid,  1861,  being 
the  first  of  a series  of  Tracts  for  Priests  and  People , 
and  afterward  reprinted  as  A Layman's  Faith,  1868; 
The  Cause  of  Freedom : which  is  its  Champion  in 
America,  the  North  or  the  South?  1863;  Alfred  the 


Great  in  the  Sunday  Library  for  Household  Reading 
( 1869) ; a Prefatory  Memoir  to  Charles  Kingley’s  Alton 
Locke  (1876);  and  A Memoir  of  Daniel  Macmillan 
(1882).  He  also  contributed  a preface  to  Whitmore's 
Poems,  and  edited  J.  R.  Lowell’s  Biglow  Papers  (1859); 
the  Comte  de  Paris’  work  on  The  Trade  Unions  of  Eng- 
land (1869),  and  other  works.  In  1880  he  assisted  in 
founding  a settlement  in  the  United  States,  of  which 
he  wrote  in  Rugby,  Tennessee  (1881).  Died  Mar.,  1896. 

HUGO,  Victor  Marie,  born  at  Besangon,  France, 
February  26, 1802.  He  was  the  son  of  Leopold  Hugo 
(1774-1828).  His  father  was  a soldier  under  Joseph 
Bonaparte  in  Italy  and  Spain,  and  his  wife  and  children 
followed  him  during  his  many  journeys.  • The  downfall 
of  the  Bonapartists  in  Spain  caused  the  retirement  of 
General  Hugo,  and  the  family  returned  to  Paris. 
Young  Victor  attended  a private  school  and  heard 
lectures  at  the  college  of  Louis-le-Grand.  At  the  age 
of  fourteen  he  wrote  two  dramas  of  little  value,  and  in 
1817  competed  for  an  academy  prize  with  a poem  of 
320  verses.  This  was  approved  by  Chateaubriand, 
and  two  years  later  Hugo  took  two  other  prizes  for 
poetry.  In  1820  Victor  Hugo  joined  his  brother  in 
editing  a daily  journal,  which  was  not  a success.  In 
October,  1822,  he  married  and  afterward  was  pen- 
sioned by  Louis  XVIII.,  who  was  strangely  enough 
inclined  to  think  that  the  young  man’s  views  might  be 
influenced  to  Bourbon  ism.  About  1^27  Hugo  had 
become  an  open  champion  of  the  Romanticist  school 
and  in  that  year  he  wrote  Cromwell , and  Amy  Robsart , 
two  dramas  which  met  with  little  success.  In  1829  he 
published  Les  Orie7itales,  a volume  of  lyrics  in  which 
his  genius  showed  a great  development.  In  June,  1829, 
he  wrote  his  third  drama,  Marion  He  Lorme.  This  was 
approved  by  Balzac,  Dumas,  and  Alfred  de  Musset,  but 
its  representation  was  forbidden  by  the  censor.  His 
next  production,  Hernani,  was  given  at  the  Theatre 
Frangaise,  February  25,  1830,  and  was  an  enormous 
success.  Mdle.  Mars  played  “Dona  Sol,”  and  for  two 
months  the  play  drew  crowded  houses.  In  1831 
appeared  the  first  part  of  Notre  Dame  de  Paris,  to 
which  in  1832,  in  the  eighth  edition,  Hugo  added  three 
new  chapters.  Marion  de  Lorme  was  produced  in 
August,  1831,  and  was  followed  a year  later  by  Le 
Roi  s' amuse.  In  1833  appeared  Lucretia  Boigia,  and  a 
few  months  later  Marie  Tjidor.  The  last  of  Hugo’s 
successful  dramas,  Ruy  Bias,  was  produced  at  the 
Renaissance  theater,  in  November,  1838.  The  Bur- 
graves,  which  appeared  five  years  later,  was  a failure. 
In  1836  Hugo  was  a candidate  for  the  Academy,  but 
was  defeated  by  an  obscure  competitor.  In  1839-40110 
was  again  defeated,  but  on  June  3,  1841,  took  his  seat. 
Four  years  later  he  was  made  a peer  of  France  and 
spoke  in  the  chamber  in  favor  of  Poland,  and  on  other 
subjects,  and  in  the  revolution  of  1848  he  supported 
the  republic.  On  August  1,  1848,  he  started  a daily 
newspaper,  which  advocated  him  for  the  presidency  of 
the  republic.  During  the  next  three  years  he  was 
in  opposition  to  Louis  Napoleon,  and  on  the  day 
of  the  coup  d'etat,  Hugo’s  name  appeared  at 
the  head  of  the  proscribed  with  a reward  of  $5,000 
for  his  arrest.  After  being  concealed  in  Paris 
for  five  days  he  escaped  to  Brussels,  and  his  long 
exile  began.  Early  in  1852  he  wrote  the  History  of  a 
Crime,  being  a graphic  account  of  the  coup  d'etat. 
This  he  followed  with  ATapoleon  le  Petit,  a terrible 
satire  on  Napoleon  III.,  and  from  1852  until  the  revo- 
lution of  1870,  Victor  Hugo  resided,  first  in  Jersey  and 
afterward  in  Guernsey.  In  1862  appeared  the  great 
work  by  which  Hugo  is  known  to  the  world,  Les 
Miserables.  It  was  issued  simultaneously  in  nearly 
every  European  capital  and  in  New  York  and  Rio 


H UL- 

Janeiro.  In  1866  appeared  the  Toilers  of  the  Sea , 
and  in  1869,  U Homme  qui  Rit.  On  September  5, 

1870,  Hugo  returned  to  Paris.  The  empire  had 
fallen  and  there  was  a universal  demand  for  the  return 
of  those  who  had  been  exiled  under  it.  Twelve  days 
later  Hugo  issued  an  appeal  to  the  French  people  to 
resist  the  German  invasion  to  the  last.  In  February, 

1871,  he  was  elected  to  the  Assembly  from  the  depart- 
ment of  Paris  and  acted  with  the  Extreme  Left.  He 
opposed  the  ratification  of  peace  and  the  cession  of 
Alsace  and  Lorraine.  On  March  8th  he  resigned 
from  the  Assembly  on  the  ground  of  having  been  in- 
terrupted whue  making  a speech.  He  retired  to  Brus- 
sels, where  he  remained  during  the  Communist  rebel- 
lion, and  on  his  expulsion  from  Belgium  he  again  returned 
to  Paris.  At  the  subsequent  election  of  that  year  he 
failed  to  obtain  a seat,  but  in  1876  was  elected  life  sena- 
tor. From  this  time  on  he  acted  with  the  Extreme 
Left,  but  took  no  conspicuous  part  in  politics  except  to 
support  the  Communist  amnesty  measure.  At  the  time 
that  McMahon  was  preparing  for  a repetition  of  the 
coup  d'etat,  Hugo  republished  the  History  of  a Crime. 
In  1872  appeared  LI  Anne  Terrible , and  in  1874  his 
last  powerful  romance  ’97.  On  February  25,  1880,  a 
jubilee  performance  was  given  at  the  Comedie  Fran- 
faise,  to  mark  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  Hernani. 

‘ Hugo  became  the  idol  of  Paris  and  of  France,  and  re- 
tained his  health  until  within  a few  days  of  his  death, 
which  occurred  May  22,  1885.  The  funeral  ceremony 
was  held  in  the  Pantheon,  and  not  even  Paris  itself 
ever  witnessed  a popular  pageant  of  like  magnitude. 
No  French  author  ever  succeeded  so  well  in  so  many 
lines  of  art,  and  no  Frenchman  ever  attained  such  un- 
bounded popularity  during  his  life,  or  was  followed  to 
the  grave  by  such  a concourse  of  mourners. 

. HULL,  Edward,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  director 
of  the  geological  survey  of  Ireland,  was  born  in  Antrim, 
May  21,  1829.  He  was  employed  upon  the  geological 
survey  of  Great  Britain  under  the  late  Sir  H.  T.  De  la 
Beche  and  Sir  R.  I.  Murchison.  In  1867  he  was  ap- 
pointed district  surveyor  to  the  geological  survey  of 
Scotland,  and  in  1869  director  of  the  survey  of  Ireland, 
and  professor  of  geology  in  the  Royal  College  of 
Science,  Dublin.  On  the  appointment  of  the  royal 
commission  on  coal  resources,  Professor  Hull  prepared 
an  estimate  of  the  quantity  of  coal  in  the  coal  fields  of 
Ireland,  and  also  contributed  information  on  those  of 
England,  which  is  published  in  the  report.  In  1873  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Geological  Society 
of  Ireland,  and  in  1874  president  of  the  geological  sec- 
tion of  the  British  Association  at  its  meeting  in  Belfast. 
In  1879  he  received  thehonorary  degree  of  LL.D.  from 
the  University  of  Glasgow.  Toward  the  close  of  1883 
Professor  Hull  undertook  the  charge  of  a scientific  ex- 
pedition through  Arabia  Petrsea,  the  Jordan  Arabah 
Valley,  and  western  Palestine,  organized  by  the  com- 
mittee of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund.  The  expe- 
dition was  accompanied  by  several  naturalists,  and  by 
Colonel  Kitchener,  R.E.,  and  a narrative  of  the  jour- 
ney has  been  drawn  up  and  published  by  Professor  Hull, 
1885.  He  is  the  author  o*f  several  works  of  scientific 
importance. 

HULL,  Isaac,  naval  officer,  was  born  at  Derby, 
Conn.,  March  9,  1775.  1798  he  became  lieutenant 

in  the  new  navy  created  by  congress  during  the  difficul- 
ties with  France.  He  served  with  credit  in  the  West 
Indies  and  Mediterranean,  and,  on  the  outbreak  of  war 
in  1812,  was  captain  of  the  frigate  Constitution.  By 
skillful  seamanship  he  escaped  the  close  pursuit  of  five 
British  vessels,  and  on  August  19th  he  captured  the  Brit- 
ish frigate  Guerriere  off  Newfoundland,  after  a conflict 
in  which  the  Guerriere  was  so  severely  cut  up  that  Hull 
44-J 


-HUM  6605 

was  forced  to  burn  her.  A gold  medal  was  given  nim 
by  congress.  He  died  at  Philadelphia,  February  13, 
1843- 

HULL,  William,  born  in  Derby,  Conn.,  June  24, 
1753;  died  November  29,  1825;  served  gallantly  in  the 
war  of  the  Revolution,  but  in  1812  surrendered  Detroit 
to  the  British  General  Brock  without  making  an  at- 
tempt at- defense.  He  was  court-martialed  and  sen- 
tenced to  be  shot,  but  the  sentence  was  remitted  in 
consideration  of  his  early  services. 

HUMBERT  I.,  king  of  Italy,  the  eldest  son  of 
the  late  King  Victor  Emmanuel,  was  born  March  14, 
1844.  At  an  early  age  he  obtained  an  insight  into 
political  and  military  life  under  the  guidance  of  his 
father,  whom  he  attended  during  the  war  of  Italian 
Independence,  although  he  was  then  too  young  to  take 
an  active  part  in  the  struggle.  The  youthful  heir  to  the 
throne  was  more  closely  connected  with  the  movement 
for  the  unification  of  Italy  whicn  followed  the  events  of 
1859.  In  particular  he  took  part  in  the  work  of  reor- 
ganizing the  ancient  kingdom  of  the  T wo  Sicilies,  and  in 
July,  1862,  he  visited  Naples  and  Palermo,  where  he 
shared  the  popularity  of  Garibaldi.  When  the  war  be- 
tween Prussia  and  Austria  became  imminent,  Prince 
Humbert  was  dispatched  to  Paris  to  ascertain  the  senti- 
ments, of  the  French  Government  in  reference  to  the 
alliance  between  Italy  and  Prussia.  On  the  outbreak  of 
hostilities  he  obtained  the  command  of  a division  of 
General  Cialdini’s  army  with  the  title  of  lieutenant- 
general;  and  was  present  at  the  disastrous  battle  of  Cus- 
tozza(June23,  1866).  On  April  22,  1868,  he  married,  at 
T urin,  his  cousin,  the  Princess  Marguerite  Marie  Therese 
Jeanne  of  Savoy,  daughter  of  the  late  Duke  Ferdinand 
of  Genoa,  brother  of  King  Victor  Emmanuel.  A son 
was  born  at  Naples,  November  1 1,  1869,  who  received 
the  names  of  Victor  Emmanuel  Ferdinand  Mary  Janu- 
arius,  and  the  title  of  prince  of  Naples.  After  the 
occupation  of  Rome  by  the  Italian  troops  in  1870, 
Prince  Humbert  and  the  Princess  Marguerite  took  up 
their  residence  in  the  “ Eternal  City.  ” He  succeeded  to 
the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father,  January  9,  1878. 
Ashe  was  entering  Naples,  November  17,  1878,  a man 
named  Giovanni  Passanante  approached  the  royal  car- 
riage and  attempted  to  assassinate  his  majesty  with  a 
poniard.  The  king  escaped  with  a slight  scratch,  but 
Signor  Cairoli,  the  prime  minister,  who  was  with  him, 
was  wounded  badly  in  the  thigh.  Passanante  was  con- 
demned to  death.  On  July  29,  1900,  he  fell  to  the  blow 
of  another  assassin. 

HUME,  Abraham,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  born  about 
1815;  was  educated  at  the  Royal  Belfast  College,  at 
Glasgow  University,  and  afterward  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin.  Pie  was  ordained  in  1843,  and  the  honorary 
degree  of  LL.D.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  the  Uni- 
versity of  Glasgow.  In  1847  he  was  appointed  to  a new 
parish  in  Liverpool.  In  1874  he  was  appointed  to  an 
honorary  canonry  in  Chester  cathedral. 

HUMPHREY,  William,  was  born  at  Aberdeen, 
Scotland,  July  31 , 1839.  He  was  educated  at  Marischal 
College,  Aberdeen,  and  is  a member  of  the  general 
council  of  the  University  of  Aberdeen.  He  studied 
law  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh;  was  ordained  a 
clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  held  the 
living  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene,  Dundee.  He  became 
a Roman  Catholic  in  March,  1868,  and  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  pursued  theological  studies  at  the  Collegio 
Romano.  IJe  was  ordained  priest  by  Cardinal  Man- 
ning in  1871,  and  served  on  the  mission  in  London  till 
1874,  when  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus. 

HUMPHREYS,  Andrew  A.,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
November  2,  1810;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1831, 
served  in  Florida  in  the  artillery,  and  afterward  asan  engj  - 


66o6 


HUM- 

neer  on  coast  defenses.  At  various  times  between  1838 
and  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war  he  was  engaged  in 
topographical  engineering  in  the  United  States  service, 
and  rose  the  rank  of  major.  He  joined  McClellan’s 
-staff  in  1861,  became  chief  topographical  engineer  of 
the  army  of  the  Potomac,  and  was  made  brigadier-gen- 
eral of  volunteers  in  April,  1862.  In  September  follow- 
ing he  commanded  a division  of  the  fifth  corps  of  the 
army  of  the  Potomac.  He  was  present  at  Fredericks- 
burg, Chanceilorsville,  and  Gettysburg,  was  promoted 
major-general  of  volunteers,  and  from,  July,  1863, 
to  November,  1864,  was  chief-of-staff  to  General 
Meade.  After  the  surrender  he  received  a major-gener- 
al’s brevet,  United  States  army,  and  had  charge  of  the 
district  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1865-66  he  had  charge  of 
the  Mississippi  levee  work.  As  chief  of  the  engineer 
corps  he  surveyed  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  for  canal 
routes.  He  died  in  Washington,  December  27,  1883. 

HUMPHREYS,  David,  patriot,  born  in  Derby, 
Conn.,  in  July,  1752;  died  in  New  Haven,  Conn., 
February  21,  i8i8.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1771,  and 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  entered  the  army  as 
captain.  In  1 778  he  was  attached  to  the  staff  of  General 
Putnam,  was  General  Washington’s  aide-de-camp,  1780, 
and  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Yorktown.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  he  accompanied  the  commander-in- 
chief to  Mount  Vernon,  and  remained  with  him  during 
a year.  In  1784,  through  the  influence  of  Washington, 
he  became  secretary  of  legation  to  the  American  com- 
missioners sent  to  Europe,  and  for  two  years  spent 
most  of  his  time  in  London  and  Paris,  returning  home 
in  1786.  He  was  then  again  invited  to  Mount  Vernon, 
where  he  remained  until  the  formation  of  the  Federal 
Government.  In  1790  he  was  appointed  United  States 
minister  to  Portugal,  where  he  served  seven  years,  and 
thereafter  became  transferred  to  the  court  of  Spain  in 
a similiar  capacity,  remaining  until  1802.  In  1812  he 
was  a member  of  the  legislature  of  his  State,  and  com- 
manded the  State  militia. 

HUMPH  R Y,  SirGeorge  M urray,M  . D. , born  J uly, 
1820,  at  Sudbury,  Suffolk,  England.  He  was  apprenticed 
to  a surgeon  of  Norwich  in  1836,  studied  at  the  hos- 

fitalof  that  city,  and  subsequently  at  St.  Bartholomew’s, 
n 1856  he  took  his  degree  of  M.D.  at  Cambridge. 
He  became  professor  of  anatomy  in  1866,  a member  of 
the  council  of  the  College  of  Surgeons  in  1868,  of  the 
Court  of  Examiners,  1877,  and  professor  of  surgery  at 
Cambridge  in  1883.  Sir  G.  Humphry  is  the  author  of 
A Treatise  on  the  Human  Skeleton  ; Old  Age , and 
Changes  Incidental  to  It  (1875);  The  Hunterian  Ora- 
tion (1879),  and  various  articles  in  the  Journal  of  Anat- 
omy, etc.  He  was  knighted  in  1891,  and  died  in  1896. 

HUNT,  Alfred  William,  was  born  at  Liverpool 
in  1830,  and  educated  at  the  collegiate  school  in  that 
town.  In  1848  he  gained  a scholarship  at  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Oxford.  In  1851  he  won  the  “New- 
digate,”  and  in  1852  took  his  degree  with  a second  class 
in  classics.  In  the  following  year  he  became  a fellow 
of  his  college.  He  first  exhibited  in  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy, in  1854,  Styehead  Pass , Cumberland.  In  1856  he 
made  a first  success  in  the  Academy,  and  his  picture, 
Llyn  Ldwal,  was  much  praised  by  Mr.  Ruskin ; and  the 
same  year  he  became  a member  of  the  Hog^Wh  Club, 
which  was  then  just  founded,  and  was  the  center  of  pre- 
Raphaelite  force.  He  continued  at  intervals,  to  ex- 
hibit in  the  Royal  Academy  until  1862,  when  he  was 
elected  an  associate  of  the  Society  of  Painters  in  Water 
Colors,  of  which  he  was  made  a full  member  two  years 
later,  and  for  about  seven  years  worked  only  in  that 
medium.  In  1870  he  again  sent  a picture  to  the  Acad- 
emy, and  has  since  then  exhibited  both  oil  and  water 
colors.  Mr.  Hunt’s  water  colors  are  so  numerous  that 


-HUN 

it  is  difficult  to  make  a selection  from  them.  Perhaps 
the  most  important  are  the  Durham , The  Rainboiv , 
Ullswatery  Landecwyn , Loch  Corinsk,  and  A Land  oj 
Smoldering  Fire.  Mr.  Hunt  is  generally  considered  to 
be  the  most  distinguished  follower  of  Turner,  and  the 
chief  upholder  of  the  system  of  landscape  art  which  en- 
deavors to  unite  truth  of  light  and  poetical  feeling  with 
fidelity  to  nature.  In  1882  Mr.  Hunt  was  elected  hon- 
orary fellow  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford. 

HUNT,  Henry  Jackson,  born  in  Detroit,  Mich., 
September  14,  1819;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1839, 
served  on  the  Canadian  frontier,  and  distinguished  him- 
self in  Mexico,  where  he  was  twice  wounded.  He 
became  captain  in  1852,  and  major  in  1861,  held  an 
artillery  command  at  Bull  Run,  and  became  aide  to 
McClellan.  In  September,  1862,  he  was  made  brig- 
adier-general of  volunteers.  As  chief  of  artillery  of 
the  army  of  the  Potomac  he  fought  at  Gettysburg,  in 
the  army  of  the  Rapidan  to  Petersburg,  and  became 
brigadier  and  major-general,  United  States  army.  He 
was  president  of  the  artillery  board,  was  retired  from 
active  service  in  September,  1883,  and  became  governor 
of  the  Soldier’s  Home  at  Washington,  D.  C.  He  died 
February  11,  1889. 

HUNT,  Lewis  Cass,  born  in  Wisconsin,  February 
23,  1824;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1847,  served  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  and  in  the  Peninsular  campaign  of 
1862.  He  was  wounded  at  Fair  Oaks,  received  various 
brevets  up  to  that  of  brigadier-general  in  the  regular 
army,  and  served  as  colonel  of  infantry  until  his  death 
in  September,  1886. 

HUNT,  Robert,  F.R.S.,  born  September  6,  1807, 
at  Devonport,  Eng. ; was  the  keeper  of  mining  records 
at  the  Museum  of  Practical  Geology,  and  was  the  first 
appointed  professor  of  mechanical  science  to  the  gov- 
ernment school  of  mines.  He  is  best  known  by  his 
work  on  Photography , published  in  1842;  Researches 
on  Light,  The  Poetry  of  Science,  and  Panthea,  or  the 
Spirit  of  Nature,  1849;  Elementary  Physics,  1 851;  and 
Manual  of  Photography,  7th  ed.,  1857;  and  was  the 
editor  of  three  editions  of  Ure's  Dictionary  of  Arts, 
Manufacture,  and  Mines.  Mr.  Hunt,  who  was  the 
author  of  the  Synopsis,  and  of  the  Handbook  of  the 
great  exhibition  of  1851,  and  of  the  international  exhi- 
bition of  1862,  was  the  originator  of  the  publication  of 
statistical  returns  of  the  mineral  produce  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  He  died  October  17,  1887. 

HUNT,  Thomas  Sterry,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  was 
born  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  September  5,  1825.  In  1845 
he  became  assistant  to  Professor  Silliman  in  his  chemi- 
cal laboratory  at  Yale  College,  and  in  1847  was  ap- 
pointed chemist  and  mineralogist  to  the  Geological 
Survey  in  Canada.  He  held  this  post  for  more  than 
twenty-five  years,  resigning  it  in  1872  to  accept  the 
chair  of  geology  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  but  subsequently  returned  to  Montreal, 
where  he  afterward  resided.  His  earliest  studies  were* 
directed  especially  to  theoretical  chemistry,  and  the 
theories  he  deduced  were  maintained  by  him  in  a series 
of  papers  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science,  begin- 
ning in  1848.  He  made  some  very  thorough  researches 
into  the  chemical  and  mineral  composition  of  rocks,  and 
into  the  chemistry  of  mineral  waters,  and  also  very  fully 
discussed  the  phenomena  of  volcanoes  and  igneous 
rocks.  His  views  on  these  and  other  kindred  questions 
are  to  be  found  in  an  essay  on  the  Chemistry  of  the 
Earth,  in  the  report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for 
1869,  in  his  address  as  retiring  president  of  the  Ameri- 
can Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  ( 1871 ), 
and  in  more  recent  papers.  His  contributions  to 
American  and  European  scientific  societies  and  journals 
were  very  numerous)  and  a collection  of  many  of  them 


HUN 


was  published  in  1874.  He  aided  in  the  organization 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada  in  1882,  and  in  1884- 
1885  he  was  its  president.  He  died  Feb.  12,  1892. 

HUNT,  William  Henry,  born  in  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  in  1824;  was  educated  at  Yale,  and  practiced  law 
in  New  Orleans.  In  March,  1876,  he  was  appointed 
attorney-general  of  Louisiana,  and  in  the  fall  of  the  same 
year  was  the  Republican  candidate  for  the  same  office. 
There  was  a dispute  over  the  election,  and  the  Hayes 
administration  recognized  the  Democratic  contestants. 
In  1878  Mr.  Hunt  was  appointed  judge  of  the  Court  of 
Claims,  and,  in  March,  1881,  he  became  secretary  of 
the  navy  in  the  Garfield  cabinet.  This  position  he  held 
until  1882,  when  he  was  appointed  United  States  min- 
ister to  Russia.  He  died  in  St.  Petersburg,  February 
27,  1884. 

HUNT,  William  PIolman,  painter,  one  of  the 
most  prominent  of  the  three  working  members  of  the 
pre-Raphaelite  movement,  born  in  London  in  1827; 
exhibited  his  first  picture  at  the  Academy  in  1846.  He 
began  that  series  of  religious  and  mystical  subjects, 
whereby  he  has  since  made  himself  best  known,  with 
A Converted  British  Family  Sheltering  a Christian  Mis- 
sionary from  the  Persecution  of  the  Druids , in  1850, 
followed  by  the  symbolical  Hireling  Shepherd , in  1852. 
The  occult  meaning  of  his  Light  of  the  World,  and  of 
the  Azvakening  Conscience , of  1854,  was  explained  by 
Mr.  Ruskin  in  some  letters  to  the  Tunes.  The  Scape- 
goat, of  which  the  scene  was  painted  upon  the  margin 
of  the  salt-encrusted  shallows  of  the  Red  Sea,  was  ex- 
hibited in  1856.  The  Finding  of  the  Saviour  in  the 
Temple,  exhibited  in  i860,  was  perhaps  the  painting 
which  attracted  the  most  exclusive  notice  of  any  modern 
effort.  Isabella  and  the  Pot  of  Basil  was  exhibited  in 
London  in  1866.  More  recent  pictures  were  London 
Bridge  on  the  Night  of  the  Marriage  of  the  Prince  of 
Wales;  The  After-Glow,  and  The  Festival  of  St. 
Swithin.  The  last-mentioned  was  in  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy Exhibition  of  1868.  The  largest  of  his  works, 
which  exclusively  occupied  his  time  during  a residence 
of  four  years  in  Palestine,  was  finished  in  1873.  I*  is 
styled  The  Shadow  of  Death,  and  represents  a prevision 
of  the  Crucifixion.  The  Triumph  of  the  Innocents 
was  exhibited  in  Bond  street  in  1885.  It  represents  a 
company  of  the  spirits  of  the  children  of  Bethlehem 
accompanying  the  Holy  Family  on  their  flight  into 
Egypt.  A nearly  complete  collection  of  Mr.  Holman 
Hunt’s  works  was  exhibited  at  the  Fine  Art  Society’s 
rooms  in  1886.  Mr.  Hunt  has  also  written  in  the 
Contemporary  Reviezo,  two  articles  of  reminiscences  of 
the  pre-Raphaelite  movement.  More  recently  he  has, 
in  the  columns  of  the  London  Times , led  the  attack 
upon  the  Royal  Academy. 

HUNTER,  David,  born  in  Washington,  D.  C.  ,July 
21,  1802;  died  there  February  2,  1886.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Military  Academy  in  1822, 
entered  the  army  as  second  lieutenant  of  infantry, and  in 
1833  became  captain  of  dragoons.  For  several  years 
he  served  on  the  frontier.  In  1836  he  resigned  his 
commission  and  engaged  in  business  in  Chicago.  Being 
unsuccessful,  he  reentered  the  army  as  a paymaster, 
with  the  rank  of  major.  On  May  14,  1861,  he  became 
colonel  of  the  6th  United  States  cavalry,  and  on  the 
17th  was  commissioned  brigadier-general  of  volunteers. 
He  commanded  a division  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run, 
where  he  was  wounded.  In  August  he  became  major- 
general  of-  volunteers,  and  in  November  succeeded 
General  P'remont  in  command  of  the  western  depart- 
ment. In  1862  General  Hunter  rendered  efficient 
service  at  the  capture  of  Fort  Donelson.  Later  he 
commanded  the  department  of  the  South,  where  he 
issued  general  orders  declaring  the  slaves  of  Georgia, 


6607 

Florida,  and  South  Carolina  free.  This  order  Presi- 
dent Lincoln  declared  premature,  and  annulled.  In 
September  General  Hunter  was  recalled  to  Washington, 
and  in  May,  1864,  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
department  of  West  Virginia.  He  received  the  brevet 
of  major-general  on  March  13,  1865,  and  on  July  3*1, 
1866,  was  retired  from  active  service.  Thereafter  he 
lived  in  Washington,  D.  C. 

HUNTER,  Robert  Mercer  Taliaferro,  born 
in  Virginia,  April  21,  1809,  became  a congressman  in 
1837,  and  speaker  of  the  House,  1839-41.  In  1847  he 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate;  served  two 
terms,  and  was  again  elected  for  the  term  ending  in 
1865,  but  joined  the  Southern  Confederacy,  and  from 
July,  1861,  to  February,  1862,  was  secretary  of  state  in 
Jefferson  Davis’  cabinet.  He  also  represented  Virginia 
in  the  Richmond  senate,  1862-65.  He  died  July  18, 
1887. 

HUNTER,  Sir  William  Guyer,  K.C.M.G.,  M.P., 
was  born  in  1831,  and  educated  at  King’s  College, 
London,  Aberdeen  University,  and  at  various  hospitals. 
He  entered  the  Indian  medical  service,  Bombay  presi- 
dency, in  1850,  and  served  through  the  Burmese  war 
and  the  Indian  mutiny.  In  1876  he  was  appointed 
principal  of  the  Grant  Medical  College,  and  in  1879 
vice-chancellor  of  the  University  of  Bombay.  He  retired 
in  1880,  and  in  1883  went  out  to  Egypt  to  serve  on  the 
cholera  commission.  For  his  services  on  this  occasion 
he  was  made  a K.C.  M.G.  In  1885  he  entered  Parlia- 
ment as  Conservative  member  for  Central  Hackney,  and 
was  again  returned  for  the  same  constituency  in  1886. 

HUNTER,  Sir  Wm.  Wilson,  was  born  July  15, 
1840,  and  educated  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  at 
Paris,  and  Bonn.  He  headed  the  list  of  Indian  civilians 
appointed  in  1862,  and  after  distinguishing  himself  in 
Calcutta  by  high  proficiency  in  Sanskrit  and  the  modern 
vernaculars  of  India,  passed  through  the  usual  appoint- 
ments of  a civil  servant  in  the  Bengal  districts.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  famine  in  1866  he  was  selected  to  super- 
intend public  instruction  in  the  province  of  Orissa  and 
the  southwestern  division  of  Bengal.  Mr.  Hunter  wrote 
The  Annals  of  Rural  Bengal,  which  in  the  next  ten 
years  passed  through  five  editions,  and  a Dictionary  of 
the  Non- Aryan  Languages  of  India  and  High  Asia. 
In  1869  he  was  attached  on  special  duty  to  the  secre- 
tariat of  the  government  of  Bengal;  in  1870  to  that  of 
the  supreme  government  of  India,  acting  for  a time  as 
under-secretary;  in  1871  he  was  appointed  director- 
general  of  statistics.  As  the  head  of  this  department  he 
organized  and  carried  out  the  statistical  survey  of  India. 
In  1876  The  Statistical  Account  of  Bengal  was  issued 
to  the  public  in  twenty  volumes,  and  an  exact  survey 
had  been  made  of  the  resources  and  population  of  each 
district  in  India.  He  wrote  The  Indian  Empire  (1886), 
and  a Life  of  Dalhousie  (1890). 

HUNTINGTON,  Daniel,  born  at  New  York, 
October  14,  1816,  graduated  at  Hamilton  College  in 
1834,  entered  the  studio  of  S.  B.  F.  Morse  in  New 
York  in  1835,  and  soon  produced  two  noted  genre  pic- 
tures, the  Toper  Asleep,  and  the  Bar-room  Politician , 
and  several  excellent  landscapes.  In  1839  he  studied 
in  Florence  and  Rome,  and,  on  his  return  to  America, 
painted  Mercy's  Dream  and  Christiana  and  Her  Chil- 
dren. In  1844  he  again  went  to  Rome,  where  he 
painted  the  Roman  Penitents , Italy,  The  Commun- 
ion of  the  Sick,  and  several  landscapes.  He  has  been 
president  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design,  New 
York,  most  of  the  time  since  i860.  His  Elsie,  the 
Goldsmith's  Daughter  and  portraits  of  Seth  Low  and 
Elliott  F.  Shepard  were  exhibited  in  Chicago  in  1893. 

HUNTINGTON,  Frederic  Daniel,  D.D.,  S.T.D., 
bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  diocese  of  Central 


66og  HUN- 

New  York,  was  born  at  Hadley,  Mass.,  May  28,  1819. 
He  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1839,  studied 
divinity  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1842  became  pastor  of  a 
Unitarian  Church  in  Boston.  In  1855  was  elected 
preacher  to  Cambridge  University,  and  Professor  of 
Christian  morals  in  Harvard  College.  In  1859  took 
orders  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church;  in  1861 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Church  Monthly  ; and 
in  1869  was  elected  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Central 
New  York.  Besides  a series  of  lectures  on  Human 
Society  as  Illustrating  the  Wisdom , Power,  and  Good- 
ness of  God,  he  has  published  many  volumes  of  sermons 
and  books  of  devotion,  together  with  Hymns  of  the 
Ages  (3  vols.,  1860-64). 

HUNTINGTON,  Jedediah,  soldier,  born  in  Nor- 
wich, Conn.,  February,  1743;  died  in  New  London, 
Conn.,  September  25,  1818.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1763.  Early  in  1775  he  became  captain  of 
a regiment;  on  April  26th  joined  the  American  troops 
at  Cambridge,  and  later  aided  in  repulsing  the  British 
troops  at  Danbury,  Conn.  On  May  12,  1777,  he  was 
made  brigadier-general,  and  joined  the  American  army 
at  Philadelphia.  He  was  one  of  the  officers  who  tried 
Gen.  Charles  Lee  for  misconduct  at  Monmouth,  and 
was  a member  of  the  court  summoned  to  examine  the 
case  of  Major  Andre  at  Tappan.  Later  he  was  brevetted 
major-general,  became  treasurer  of  Connecticut,  and 
delegate  to  the  convention  that  adopted  the  United 
States  constitution.  In  1789  he  removed  to  New  Lon- 
don, Conn.,  where  he  was  appointed  collector  of  cus- 
toms, and  he  held  this  office  for  many  years.  In  May, 
1783,  he  was  a member  of  the  committee  of  four  to 
draft  the  constitution  of  the  Society  of  the  Cincinnati. 

HURLBUT,  Stephen  A., born  in  Charleston,  S.  C., 
November  29,  1815  ; died  in  Peru,  March  27,  1882. 
He  became  a lawyer  in  his  native  city,  but  in  1845  re* 
moved  to  Illinois,  where  he  served  in  1859,  1861,  and 
1867  as  a member  of  the  legislature.  He  entered  the 
volunteer  service  early  in  1861  as  brigadier-general,  was 
promoted  major-general  after  Shiloh,  led  a corps  under 
Sherman  in  the  expedition  into  Mississippi,  and  suc- 
ceeded N.  P.  Banks  in  command  of  the  department  of 
the  gulf.  General  Hurlbut  was  minister  to  the  United 
States  of  Columbia  (1869-72),  served  in  congress  from 
Illinois  (1873-77),  and  in  1881  was  appointed  minister 
to  Peru,  where  he  died  a year  later. 

HURLBUT,  William  Henry,  born  in  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  July  3,  1827;  graduated  at  Harvard  and  studied 
in  Europe.  He  became  a Unitarian  minister,  and  about 
1857  began  writing  for  the  press  of  New  York.  He 
served  as  a correspondent  in  the  South  during  the  Civil 
war,  in  Mexico,  Santo  Domingo,  and  elsewhere,  and  in 
1876  became  editor  of  the  New  York  World , and  later 
London  correspondent  for  New  York  papers. 

HURST,  John  Fletcher,  born  in  Maryland,  Au- 
gust, 1834;  graduatedat  Dickinson  College,  and  became 
a Methodist  Episcopal  clergyman.  In  1871,  after  some 
years’  travel  in  Europe,  he  became  professor  of  theology 
in  Drew  seminary,  Madison,  N.  Y.,  and  from  1873  un- 
til 1880  was  president  of  that  institution.  At  Cincin- 
nati in  the  last-named  year  he  was  elected  bishop. 

HURTADO,  de  Mendoza,  Garcia,  Spanish  vice- 
roy, born  in  Cuenca  in  1531 ; died  in  Spain  about  1610. 
He  was  the  son  of  Andres,  who  preceded  him  in  the 
government  of  Peru,  a despotic  and  bloody  ruler,  in  the 
manner  of  the  Spanish  conquerors  of  South  America. 
The  son  served  in  the  Continental  European  wars  when 
Spain  was  in  its  glory,  and  in  1556  came  with  his  father 
to  Peru.  In  1557  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Chili, 
where  he  made  successful  war  on  the  turbulent  Arau- 
canians.  He  founded  Canete  and  Osorno  and  rebuilt 
Concepcion,  repaired  several  neglected  forts,  and  sent 


-HUX 

an  expedition  to  explore  the  strait  of  Magellan.  When 
his  father  died  he  returned  to  Spain,  where  he  became 
marquis  of  Canete  and  a useful  diplomat  in  the  service 
of  Philip  II.  In  1588  he  was  made  viceroy  of  Peru, 
reached  Callao  on  November  28,  1589,  and  on  January 
6,  1590,  arrived  in  Lima.  In  the  first  year  of  his  admin- 
istration he  sent  1,500,000  ducats  to  the  home  govern- 
ment in  support  of  the  Spanish  wars;  at  the  same  time 
he  repaired  the  forts  at  Callao,  and  fitted  out  several 
ships-of-war  as  defenses  against  the  English.  In  the 
autumn  of  1593  Richard  Hawkins,  with  two  vessels, 
passed  the  straits,  for  plunder  and  conquest,  when  he 
was  intercepted  by  three  Spanish  ships,  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner.  In  1592  Hurtado  founded  the  College 
of  San  Marcos,  and  in  1596,  by  his  own  request,  was  re- 
called to  Spain,  where  he  was  appointed  to  an  honorary 
office  in  the  royal  palace. 

HUTCHINSON,  Anne,  born  in  Lincolnshire,  Eng- 
land, about  1590;  died  near  Stamford,  Conn.,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1643.  Her  father  was  a clergyman.  About 
1612  she  was  married  to  William  Hutchinson,  and  in 
1644  husband  and  wife  emigrated  to  Massachusetts. 
On  her  arrival  in  Boston  she  held  meetings  and  gave 
lectures,  in  which  she  maintained  that  “ the  person  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  dwells  in  a justified  person,  and  that  no 
sanctification  can  help  to  evidence  to  us  our  justification.  ” 
She  also  expressed  herself  dissatisfied  with  some  of  the 
teachings  of  the  Massachusetts  clergy,  which  aroused  much 
attention  and  divided  the  faithful  into  two  theological  sec- 
tions. John  Cotton,  the  distinguished  clergyman,  and 
Governor  Vane,  among  others,  were  won  to  her  side. 
Mrs.  Hutchinson  was  tried  for  heresy  and  sedition,  and, 
with  some  of  her  prominent  partisans,  banished  from 
Massachusetts.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Hutchinson,  with  their 
fifteen  children,  thereafter,  for  a trifling  consideration, 
purchased  from  the  Narragansett  tribe  the  island  of 
Aquidneck,  and  founded  the  town  of  Portsmouth.  In 
1642  she  was  left  a widow,  removed  from  Rhode  Island, 
and  located  somewhere  between  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y., 
and  Stamford,  Conn.  In  1643  her  home  was  attacked 
by  the  Indians,  and  she,  with  most  of  her  children  and 
servants,  sixteen  in  number,  were  slain. 

HUTCHINSON,  Jonathan,  F.R.S.,  was  born  in 
July,  1828,  at  Selby,  Yorkshire,  England.  He  was 
admitted  a fellow  of  the  College  of  Surgeons  in  1862, 
was  appointed  president  of  the  Hunterian  Society  in 
1869  and  1870;  president  of  the  Pathological  Society  in 
1879  and  1880;  of  the  Ophthalmological  Society  in 
1883  ; and  was  professor  of  surgery  and  pathology  in 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  from  1877  to  1883. 

HUTCHINSON,  Thomas  Joseph,  M.D.,  F.R.G. 
S.,  was  born  at  Stoneyford,  county  Kilkenny,  Ireland, 
January  18,  1820.  In  September,  1855,  he  was 
appointed  to  be  British  consul  for  the  Bight  of 
Biafra,  and,  in  the  same  month  and  year,  received  a 
like  commission  for  the  Island  of  Fernando  Po.  He 
was  acting-governor  of  Fernando  Po  for  Queen  Isabella 
of  Spain,  from  January  to  July,  1867.  He  was  elected 
a fellow  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  in  1855 — 
of  the  Ethnological  Society  in  i860 — of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Literature  in  1861 — of  the  Anthropological 
Society  in  1863 — and  of  the  Society  of  Arts  in  1874. 
He  was  vice-president  d’honneur  de  lTnstitutd’Afrique 
of  Paris,  and  honorary  member  of  the  Liverpool  Liter- 
ary and  Philosophical  Society.  He  was  transferred,  as 
consul,  to  Rosario,  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  on  July 
12,  1861,  and  was  transferred,  as  consul,  to  Callao,  on 
October  10,  1870.  While  at  Callao  he  was  nominated 
by  President  Pardoe  one  of  the  fifteen  foundation  fel- 
lows of  the  Society  of  Fine  Arts  in  Peru.  He  died 
March  23,  1885. 

HUXLEY,  Thomas  Henry,  LL.D.,  Ph.D.,D.C.L., 


H Y A - 

M.D.,  F.C.S.Eng.,  F.R.S.,  was  born  on  May  4, 
1825,  at  Ealing,  Middlesex,  England,  and  was  educated 
at  the  school  in  his  native  place,  where  his  father  was 
one  of  the  masters.  He  attended  lectures  at  the  med- 
ical school  of  the  Charing  Cross  Hospital,  and  in  1845 
passed  the  first  examination  for  the  degree  of  M.B.  at 
the  University  of  London,  and  took  honors  in  physiol- 
ogy. Having  passed  the  requisite  examination,  he  was, 
in  1846,  appointed  assistant-surgeon  to  H.  M.  S.  Vic- 
tory, for  service  at  Haslar  hospital.  His  next  ap- 
pointment was  as  assistant-surgeon  to  H.  M.  S.  Rattle- 
snake, and  he  spent  the  greater  part  of  the  time  from 
1847  to  1850  off  the  eastern  and  northern  coasts  of 
.Australia.  Some  of  the  results  of  the  studies  in  natural 
history  for  which  this  cruise  afforded  facilities,  appeared 
in  various  memoirs  communicated  to  the  Linnean  and 
Royal  societies,  and  in  a work  entitled  Oceanic  Hy- 
drozoa , a Description  of  the  Calycophoridce  and  Physo- 
fhoridce  Observed  During  the  Voyage  of  H.M.S.  Rattle- 
snake (1859).  Mr.  Huxley  returned  to  England  in 
1850,  and  in  the  following  year  he  was  elected  a fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1852  one  of  the  royal  medals 
was  awarded  to  him.  In  1855  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  at  the  Royal  School  of  Mines, 
and,  in  the  same  year,  Fullerian  professor  of  physiology 
to  the  Royal  Institution,  and  examiner  in  physiology 
and  comparative  anatomy  to  the  University  of  London. 
In  1858  he  was  appointed  Croonian  lecturer  to  the 
Royal  Society,  when  he  chose  for  his  subject  the  Theory 
of  the  Vertebrate  Skull.  When,  in  i860,  it  became 
Professor  Huxley’s  duty  to  give  one  of  the  courses  of 
lectures  to  the  workingmen  in  Jermyn  street,  he  select- 
ed for  his  subject  The  Relation  of  Man  to  the  Lower 
Animals.  Mr.  Darwin’s  views  on  the  origin  of  species 
were  the  subject  of  Professor  Huxley’s  lectures  to  the 
workingmen  in  1862,  which  have  been  published  under 
the  title  of  lectures  On  our  Knowledge  of  the  Causes 
of  the  Phenomena  of  Organic  Nature.  He  also  de- 
livered lectures  on  the  Elements  of  Comparative  Anat- 
omy, and  on  the  Classification  of.  Animals  and  the 
Vertebrate  Skull.  In  1862  it  devolved  upon  Mr. 
Huxley,  who  was  then  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the 
Geological  Society,  to  deliver  the  annual  address  to  the 
Geological  Society,  and,  as  president  of  Section  D at 
the  meeting  of  the  British  Association  at  Cambridge, 
he  gave  an  address  on  the  Condition  and  Prospects  of 
Biological  Science.  He  was  elected  professor  of  com- 
parative anatomy  to  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in 
1863,  and  held  that  office  for  seven  years.  He  became 
president  of  the  Geological  and  the  Ethnological  Socie- 
ties in  1869  and  1870,- and  presided  over  the  meeting  of 
the  British  Association  held  at  Liverpool  in  1870. 
Professor  Huxley’s  name  came  prominently  before  the 
general  public  in  connection  with  the  London  School 
Board,  to  which  he  was  elected  in  1870.  He  took  a 
very  active  part  in  the  deliberations  of  that  body,  hav- 
ing rendered  himself  particularly  conspicuous  by  his 
opposition  to  denominational  teaching,  and  by  his  fierce 
denunciation,  in  1871,  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Professor  Huxley  was  compelled  by 
81-health  to  retire  from  the  board  in  January,  1872. 
He  was  elected  lord  rector  of  Aberdeen  University  for 
three  years  December  14,  1872,  and  installed  February 
27,  1874.  In  1873  he  was  elected  secretary  of  the 


- H Y R 6609 

Royal  Society.  During  Professor  Wyville  Thompson’s 
absence  with  the  Challenger  expedition,  Professor  Hux- 
ley acted  as  his  substitute  as  professor  of  natural  history 
at  the  U niversity  of  Edinburgh  in  the  summer  sessions  of 
1875  and  1876.  In  the  latter  year  he  received  the  Wol- 
laston medal  of  the  Geological  Society.  He  also  received 
the  honorary  degree  of  Ph.D.  from  the  University 
of  Breslau,  M.D.  from  the  University  of  Wurzburg, 
LL.D.  from  the  Universities  of  Edinburgh,  Dublin 
(1878),  and  Cambridge  (1879),  D.C.L.  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford  (1885),  and  he  was  elected  a fellow 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in  1884.  He  is  a 
foreign  and  corresponding  member  of  the  Academies  of 
Brussels,  Berlin,  Gottingen,  Haarlem,  Lisbon,  Lyncei 
(Rome),  Munich,  St.  Petersburg,  Philadelphia  and 
Stockholm ; of  the  Belgium  Academy  of  Medicine,  and 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  the  Royal  Society  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  the  Cambridge  Philosophical  Society. 

In  June,  1879,  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences 
elected  Professor  Huxley  a corresponding  member  of 
the  section  of  anatomy  and  zoology,  in  the  place  of  the 
late  Russian  naturalist,  Baer.  On  July  5,  1883,  he  was 
chosen  president  of  the  Royal  Society  in  place  of  the 
late  Mr.  Spottiswoode ; and  the  same  year  he  was 
elected  by  the  council  of  the  United  States  National 
Academy  as  one  of  their  foreign  members.  Professor 
Huxley  is  well  known  as  a writer  on  natural  science,  be- 
ing the  author  of  numerous  papers  published  in  Trans- 
actions and  Journals  of  the  Royal;  the  Linnean,  the 
Geological  and  the  Zoological  Societies,  and  the  Mem- 
oirs of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Great  Britain.  He 
resigned  the  presidency  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1885 
and  settled  down  to  a quiet  life  at  Eastbourne.  He 
contributed  to  the  Times  many  severe  criticisms  of 
General  Booth’s  “Darkest  England”  scheme  in  1890, 
and  was  called  to  the  Privy  Council  in  August,  1892. 
He  died  June  29,  1895. 

HYATT,  Alpheus,  born  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
April  5,  1838;  studied  at  Yale  and  Harvard,  served  m, 
a Massachusetts  regiment  in  the  war  and  in  1869  be- 
came a curator  in  the  Essex  Institute.  He  is  a fellow 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  and  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Science,  and  has  written  ex- 
tensively on  scientific  subjects.  Died  Jan.  15,  1902. 

HYMERS,  The  Rev.  John,  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  born 
in  Cleveland,  England,  July  26,  1803;  was  educated  at 
St.  John’s  College,  Cambridge,  elected  Lady  Mar- 
garet’s preacher  in  1841,  and  appointed  to  the  rectory  of 
Brandesburton  in  1852.  He  died  April  7,  1887. 

HYRTL,  Joseph,  a distinguished  anatomist,  was 
born  in  1811  at  Eisenstadt,  in  Hungary;  studied  at 
Vienna,  and  acquired  eminence  both  as  a scientific 
anatomist,  and  upon  account  of  the  extreme  beauty  of 
his  anatomical  preparations.  He  became  professor  of 
anatomy  in  Prague  in  1837,  and  at  Vienna  in  1845. 
While  yet  a student,  he  enriched  the  anatomical  mu- 
seum of  Vienna  with  many  preparations.  He  has 
contributed  not  a little  to  the  progress  of  comparative 
anatomy,  especially  that  of  fishes,  and  has  made  the 
anatomy  of  the  ear  a subject  of  very  particular  investi- 
gation. He  has  written  many  books  and  articles  on 
the  subjects  above  indicated.  Hyrtl  formed  a museum 
of  comparative  anatomy  at  Vienna,  and  became  rector 
of  the  university  there.  He  died  July  17,  1894. 


66io 


I B E — I N G 


I. 


IBERVILLE,  Pierre  le  Moyne,  born  in  Montreal, 

Canada,  July  i6,  1661;  died  in  Havana,  Cuba,  July  9, 
1706,  At  fourteen  years  of  age  he  became  midship- 
man in  the  French  navy,  and  served  in  the  overland 
expedition  in  1686  against  the  English  ports  on  Hud- 
son Bay.  In  1688-89  he  captured  two  British  ships, 
and  in  1694  took  Fort  Nelson.  Soon  afterward  he  at- 
tained the  rank  of  captain  of  a frigate,  and,  cruising  in 
the  Bay  of  Fundy,  destroyed  Fort  Pemaquid  and 
ravaged  Newfoundland.  On  October  17,  1698, 

d’Iberville  left  Brest  in  command  of  two  frigates  and 
two  smaller  vessels,  arrd  early  in  January,  1699,  reached 
Mobile.  In  May,  1699,  he  went  to  France,  but  in 
1700  returned,  built  a new  fort  on  the  river,  and  sent 
a party,  under  Le  Sueur,  to  the  copper  mines  of  Lake 
Superior.  In  December,  1701,  d’Iberville  was  again 
in  Lousiana,  where  he  found  the  colony  suffering  from 
fever,  and  transferred  it  to  Mobile.  At  that  time  his 
health  was  much  broken  and  he  was  recalled  to  France, 
where  in  1702  he  was  promoted  to  the  command  of 
a line-of-battle  ship.  Four  years  later  he  captured  the 
Isle  of  Nevis,  and  was  preparing  to  attack  the  coast  of 
Carolina  when  he  died. 

IBSEN,  Henrik,  poet  and  dramatist,  was  born  in 
Norway,  March  20,  1828.  He  at  first  studied  medi- 
cine, but  soon  abandoned  that  profession  for  literature. 
Under  the  pseudonym  of  Brynjolf  Bjarme  he  published 
in  1850  Catiline , a drama  in  three  acts.  In  the  same  year 
he  entered  the  university,  where,  in  conjunction  with 
others,  he  founded  a literary  journal,  in  the  columns  of 
which  appeared  his  first  satire.  Through  the  influence 
of  Ole  Bull,  the  violinist,  he  became  director  of  the 
theater  at  Bergen,  and  in  1857  went  to  Christiania, 
where  several  of  his  plays  were  produced  with  complete 
success.  For  some  time  he  lived  in  Rome,  and  in  1866 
obtained  from  the  Storthing  a pension.  His  best  known 
works  are  Fru  Inger  til  Oesteraad , 1857;  Haer  Maen- 
dene  paa  Helgeland , 1858;  Brandt , 1866;  Peer  Gynt , 
1867;  De  Unges  For  bund,  1869;  Keiser  og  Galelaeer , 
1875;  and  a volume  of  poems,  Lyriske  Digte , 1871. 
Of  late  years  his  dramas  have  been  introduced  in  the 
United  States,  and  have  met  with  considerable  approval, 
especially  his  Doll's  House , Ghosts , Hedda  Gabler  and 
The  Master  Builder. 

IGLESIAS,  Jose  Maria,  born  in  Mexico  in  1823; 
studied  law,  entered  politics,  acted  as  secretary  of  the 
treasury  under  Lerdo  de  Tejada  and  supported  Juarez. 
In  1873  he  was  president  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and 
claimed  the  presidency  of  the  republic  on  the  ground 
that  Tejada  had  not  been  legally  elected.  He  was  com- 
pelled to  leave  the  country,  but  returned  in  1878,  and 
devoted  himself  to  literary  work  until  his  death  in  1891. 

IGLESIAS,  Miguel,  born  in  Peru  in  1822;  was 
elected  to  the  Federal  congress  in  1861,  and  served  in 
that  body  and  in  the  senate  for  several  terms.  In  1879 
he  became  secretary  of  war,  and  later  took  an  active 
part  in  the  struggle  against  Chili.  In  1883  he  was 
elected  president  of  Peru,  but  two  years  later  his  gov- 
ernment was  overthrown,  and  he  retired  to  Spain. 

IGNATIEFF,  Nicholas  Pavlovitch,  a Russian 
general  and  diplomatist,  was  born  in  1832.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Corps  des  Pages,  and  entered  the 
guard.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Crimean  war  he  served 
with  his  regiment  at  Revel.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
war  Ignatieff  followed  his  general  to  Finland.  He 
then  passed  from  the  military  to  the  diplomatic  service, 
findinghis  point  of  transition  in  the  military  attach£ship 


to  the  embassy  at  London.  His  chief  performance  in 
this  capacity  was  a report  on  England’s  military  posi- 
tion in  India,  which  so  pleased  the  emperor  that  he 
summoned  Captain  Ignatieff  to  Warsaw  for  a personal 
interview.  In  1858  Igna-tieff,  now  made  a colonel  and 
aide-de-camp  to  the  emperor,  was  sent  on  a special 
mission  to  Khiva  and  Bokhara.  He  was  also  sent  as 
plenipotentiary  to  Pekin  (i860),  where  he  concluded  a 
treaty  by  which  the  province  of  Ussuri  was  ceded  by 
China  to  Russia.  On  his  return  to  Russia  he  was  made 
director  of  the  Asiatic  department  in  the  ministry  of 
foreign  affairs.  In  1864  he  was  appointed  minister  at 
Constantinople,  where  his  legation  was  afterward 
(1867)  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  embassy.  Apart  from 
his  rank  as  ambassador,  he  was  a lieutenant-general, 
and  general  aide-de-camp  to  the  emperor.  The  object 
which  General  Ignatieff  steadily  pursued  at  Constanti- 
nople was  to  secure  for  Russia  a powerful  influence  over 
Turkey.  In  1878  he  was  recalled  to  become  minister 
of  the  interior,  which  position  he  held  for  four  years. 
He  was  also  appointed  a senator  and  a member  of  the 
imperial  council. 

IMHOFFER,  Gustav  Melchior,  Brazilian  ex- 
plorer, born  near  Gratz,  Austria,  in  1593;  died  in  Bahia 
de  Todos  os  Santos  in  1651.  He  was  a Jesuit,  and  in 
1624  became  attached  to  the  missions  of  South  America. 
For  years  he  dwelt  in  Peru;  in  1636  crossed  the  Andes 
to  the  head  of  the  Amazon  river,  and  in  the  following 
year  descended  that  river  to  its  mouth.  Imhoffer  re- 
turned to  Bahia,  where  he  became  rector  of  the  college 
of  the  Jesuits. 

INGELOW,  Jean,  was  born  at  Boston,  Lincoln- 
shire, England,  in  1820,  and  died  July  20,  1897.  She  is 
the  author  of  Poems , 1863 ; A Story  of  Doom , 1867  5 and  a 
third  volume  of  poems  published  in  1885.  She  has  also 
written  various  prose  books. 

INGALLS,  John  James,  born  in  Massachusetts, 
December  29,  1833,  and  died  August  16,  1900.  He  be- 
gan the  practice  of  law  in  Kansas  about  1858.  He  was 
elected  to  the  territorial  council,  and  afterward  to  the 
State  Senate,  and  in  1873  became  United  States  senator. 
This  office  he  held  by  successive  reelections  for  eighteen 
years,  and  in  1887  he  served  as  president  pro  tempore  of 
the  senate. 

INGALLS,  Rufus,  was  born  in  Maine,  August  23, 
1820;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1843,  and  served  in 
New  Mexico,  California,  and  Oregon.  During  the  Civil 
war  he  served  as  aide-de-camp  to  General  McClellan, 
and  from  1862  to  1865  was  chief-quartermaster  of  the 
army  of  the  Potomac.  He  received  the  brevets  of 
brigadier  and  major-general  for  distinguished  service, 
and  in  1882  became  quartermaster-general  of  the  army. 
He  was  retired  in  1883  and  died  January  16,  1893. 

INGERSOLL,  Ernest,  born  in  Michigan,  March 
13, 1852;  became  a student  under  Prof.  Louis  Agassiz, 
and  served  with  the  Hayden  exploration  party  in  the 
Rocky  mountains.  He  was  afterward  a member  of  the 
United  States  fish  commission,  and  has  written  many 
valuable  monographs  on  natural  history. 

INGERSOLL,  Joseph  Reed,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
June  14,  1 786 ; became  a prominent  lawyer,  and  from 
1835  until  1849  served  in  congress,  where  he  consist- 
ently supported  the  Whig  party.  In  1852  President 
Fillmore  appointed  him  minister  to  England.  He  died 
Februarv  20,  1868. 

iNGh^RSOLL,  Robert  G.,  was  born  at  Dresden, 
N.  Y.,  in  1833.  The  family  removed  to  Illinois  in 


I N G — I R V 


66 1 1 


1845,  where  Robert  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  and  entered  political  life  as  a Democrat.  He  was 
nominated /or  congress  in  i860,  but  was  defeated.  In 
1862  he  entered  the  army  as  colonel  of  a regiment  of 
cavalry,  and  was  taken  prisoner,  but  was  exchanged. 
Returning  to  civil  life  he  became  a Republican,  and  in 
1866  was  made  attorney-general  of  Illinois.  At  the 
Republican  Convention  of  1876  his  speech,  in  propos- 
ing Mr.  Blaine’s  name  for  the  presidency,  aroused 
general  attention  for  its  eloquence,  and  since  that  time 
Colonel  Ingersoll  has  been  prominent  before  the  coun- 
try as  a public  speaker.  He  has  often  appeared  upon 
the  lecture  platform  in  advocacy  of  views  opposed  to 
Christianity  and  to  the  orthodox  conception  of  the 
Bible,  views  which  he  has  also  maintained  in  contribu- 
tions to  periodicals.  He  resides  in  Washington,  where 
he  has  a lucrative  law  practice.  He  has  published 
The  Gods  and  other  Lectures , Prose-Poems  and  Selec- 
tions, Lectures  Complete , Mistakes  of  Moses,  and  other 
works.  He  died  July  21, 1899. 

INGLIS,  Charles,  born  in  Ireland  in  1734;  died 
in  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  February  24,  1816.  In  De- 
cember, 1758,  he  was  appointed  missionary  at  Dover, 
Del.,  where  he  labored  until  1765,  when  he  became 
assistant  at  Trinity  Church  in  New  York  city.  In 
177c;  he  issued  a pamphlet  in  reply  to  Thomas  Paine’s 
Common  Sense.  After  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence he  ordered  his  church  closed,  and  in  August,  1776, 
retired  to- Flushing,  L.  I.,  which  at  that  time  was  in 
possession  of  the  British.  After  the  battle  of  Long 
Island  he  followed  the  army  to  New  York  city,  and  in 
1777  was  chosen  rector  of  Trinity  Church.  In  1781- 
82  he  was  chaplain  in  the  British  army,  and  in  1783 
retired  to  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia.  In  1787  he  visited 
England,  where,  on  August  12th,  he  was  consecrated 
the  first  bishop  of  Nova  Scotia;  this  made  him  the 
earliest  colonial  bishop  of  the  church  of  England. 

INGRAHAM,  Duncan  Nathaniel,  born  in 
Charleston,  S.C.,  in  1802  ; entered  the  United  States 
navy  when  ten  years  old,  became  lieutenant  at  sixteen, 
■commander  in  1838,  and  captain  in  1855.  He  came 
into  international  notoriety  in  1853,  when  a Smyrnian 
Jew,  who  had  declared  his  intention  to  become  an 
American  citizen,  having  returned  to  Smyrna  on  busi- 
ness, was  arrested  by  the  Austrian  authorities.  Ingra- 
ham was  in  command  of  an  American  vessel,  then 
lying  in  the  harbor  of  Smyrna,  and  being  satisfied  that 
the  man  was  practically  an  American  citizen,  he  de- 
manded his  immediate  release,  otherwise  proposing  to 
take  him  from  the  Austrians  by  force.  Hostilities  were 
averted  by  the  surrender  of  the  man  to  the  French 
consul,  and  he  was  ultimately  set  at  liberty.  Ingraham’s 
course  was  approved  by  congress,  and  the  matter  re- 
sulted in  an  assertion  of  the  rights  of  naturalized 
American  citizens,  which  up  to  that  time  had  been  much 
in  dispute.  Captain  Ingraham  was  in  command  of  the 
United  States  ship  Richmond,  in  the  Mediterranean, 
when  the  Civil  war  began.  He  resigned  his  commis- 
sion and  entered  the  Confederate  service,  in  which  he 
rose  to  the  rank  of  commodore.  He  died  in  1891. 

INGULF,  Rudolf,  German  explorer,  born  in 
Cologne  in  1727 ; died  in  Vienna  in  1785.  He  was  a 
merchant,  and  from  1751  until  1763  lived  in  Mexico, 
where  he  gained  a competence.  Led  by  a taste  for 
travel,  he  visited  the  remote  parts  of  Mexico,  crossed  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  explored  portions  of  New 
Granada.  Thereafter  he  entered  California,  where  he 
became  impressed  with  the  wealth  of  its  gold  mines. 
He  announced  this  observation  in  his  Lehrbuch  den 
Geographie  von  Californien  (Leipsic,  1771).  Later  he 
published  Reisen  in  New  Spanien  (2  vols. , Leipsic, 
1772),  and  Die  Geologische  Formationen  von  Califor- 


nien (Vienna,  I775B  which  prove  him  to  have  been  a 
close  observer,  with  the  eyes  of  a scientist.  At  the 
time  of  the  early  modern  Californian  gold  fever  these 
books  were  frequently  consulted  by  the  mining  ex- 
plorers, but  they  never  attained  the  distinction  they 
deserved. 

INMAN,  Henry,  born  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  October 
20,  1801;  died  in  New  York  city,  January  17,  1846. 
He  painted  the  portrait  of  Chief  Justice  Marshall, and 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  National  Academy  in 
New  York  City.  In  1832  he  removed  to  Philadelphia, 
and  a few  years  later  retired  to  Mount  Holly,  N.  J.; 
thereafter  he  returned  to  New  York  city,  and  visited 
England,  where  he  remained  one  year  and  executed  to 
order  portraits  of  Macaulay,  Wordsworth,  Chalmers 
and  Lord  Cottenham.  In  1845  he  returned  to  the 
United  States.  He  is  best  known  by  his  admirable 
specimens  of  portraiture;  among  his  best  pictures  are 
the  likenesses  of  William  Wirt,  DeWitt  Clinton,  John 
James  Audubon  and  Martin  Van  Buren.  He  also 
ainted  the  full-length  portrait  of  William  Penn  which 
angs  in  Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia. 

INNESS,  George,  landscape  painter,  was  born  at 
Newburg,  N.  Y.,  in  1825,  and  died  in  1894.  At  the  age  of 
sixteen  he  went  to  New  York  to  study  engraving.  He 
visited  Europe  several  times,  but  lived  principally  in 
New  York.  He  died  in  Scotland,  August  4,  1894. 
Among  his  best  paintings  are  The  Sign  of  Promise , 
Peace  and  Plenty , Pine  Grove  and  American  Sunset. 

IRELAND,  John,  born  in  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  Sep- 
tember 11,  1838;  came  to  the  United  States  when  a 
child,  and  settled  in  Minnesota.  Between  1853  and 
1861  he  studied  in  France  for  the  priesthood,  and  on 
Decembei  21,  1861,  he  was  ordained  at  St.  Paul.  After 
serving  as  an  army  chaplain  he  became  rector  of  the 
cathedral  at  St.  Paul,  and  in  1875  was  made  coadjutor 
bishop.  He  w&s  a prominent  member  of  the  Vatican 
council  of  1870,  and  in  1888  he  became  archbishop  of  St. 
Paul.  Archbishop  Ireland  is  well  known  as  an  author 
and  an  orator  of  high  repute. 

IRVING,  John  Henry  Brodribb,  actor,  was  born 
in  England,  February  6, 1838,  and  made  his  first  appear- 
ance on  tne  boards  of  the  Sunderland  theater,  Septem- 
ber 29,  1856.  On  September  25,  1859,  he  appeared  at 
the  Princess  theater,  London,  where  he  remained  about 
three  months.  He  proceeded  in  April,  i860,  to  Glas- 
gow, and  remained  there  until  the  29th  of  the  follow- 
ing September.  After  this  he  went  to  Manchester 
Theater  Royal,  and  continued  to  play  there  up  to  April 
1,  1865.  From  January,  1866,  to  July  in  that  year,  he 
was  engaged  at  the  Prince  of  Wales’  theater,  Liver- 
pool, and  on  July  30th  was  engaged  to  play,  with  Miss 
Kate  Terry,  of  Manchester,  by  Mr.  Dion  Boucicault, 
in  an  original  play  of  his,  entitled  Hunted  Down.  This 
led  to  a London  engagement,  when  he  came  out 
at  the  St.  James’  theater  as  “ Doricourt  ” in  the  Belle's 
Stratagem.  In  December,  1867,  he  proceeded  to  the 
Queen’s  theater,  and  subsequently  acted  in  the  prov- 
inces from  time  to  time,  as  well  as  at  various  Lon- 
don houses.  In  May,  1870,  he  transferred  his  services 
to  the  Vaudeville  theater,  where  he  appeared  as 
“ Digby  Grant  ” in  Mr.  Albery’s  comedy  of  the  Two 
Roses , which  character  he  sustained  for  300  consecu- 
tive nights.  His  next  appearance,  November  20, 
1871,  was  at  the  Lyceum  theater,  in  the  Bells.  He 
afterward  represented  the  principal  characters  in  Mr. 
Wills’  dramas  of  Charles  I.  and  Eugene  Aram , 1873, 
and  “ Richelieu  ” in  Lord  Lytton’s  play.  His  repre- 
sentation of  “ Hamlet  ” at  the  Lyceum  theater  (Octo- 
ber 31,  1874)  produced  a great  sensation  among  the 
play-going  public.  Hamlet  was  played  for  200  nights, 
the  longest  run  of  the  play  on  record.  Irving  appeared 


66 12 


1 R V—  I Z A 


in  Macbeth  September  25,  1875,  in  Othello  in  1876,  and 
next  as  “Philip”  in  Lord  Tennyson’s  drama  of  Queen 
Mary.  Afterward  Mr.  Irving  played  his  Shakespearean 
parts  in  the  provinces  in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  In 
January,  1877,  Mr.  Irving  added  to  his  Shakespearean 
repertory  by  playing  Richara  III.  at  the  Lyceum. 
The  most  remarkable  incidents  of  Mr.  Irving’s  manage- 
ment have  been  the  production  of  Othello  (in  which  he 
alternated  the  parts  of  the  “ Moor  ” and  “ I ago  ” with 
Mr.  Edwin  Booth),  The  Merchant  of  Venice , Much 
Ado  About  Nothing,  Louis  XI.,  Twelfth  Night,  and 
Faust,  all  of  which  have  been  played  in  conjunction 
with  Miss  Ellen  Terry.  A public  banquet  was  given  to 
Mr.  Irving  at  St.  James’  Hall,  on  July  4,  1883,  shortly 
before  his  departure  with  the  Lyceum  company,  for  a 
theatrical  tour  in  the  United  States.  A second  visit  to 
America  was  paid  in  1884,  and  since  then  Mr.  Irving 
has  made  several  tours  through  the  United  States. 

IRVING,  John  B.,  born  in  South  Carolina,  Novem- 
ber 26,  1825;  died  April  20,  1877.  He  studied  art  at 
Dusseldorf,  and  on  his  return  to  the  United  States 
became  an  associate  of  the  National  Academy.  He  was 
best  known  by  his  genre  pictures,  although  he  did 
some  good  portrait  work. 

IRVING,  Roland  Duer,  born  in  New  York  city, 
April  27,  1847;  became  professor  of  geology  and  min- 
eralogy in  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  and  also  served 
as  assistant  State  geologist.  His  writings  on  geology 
and  other  scientific  subjects  are  extensively  known.  He 
died  in  Madison,  Wis.,  May  30,  1888. 

ISABELLA  II.,  Maria  Isabella  Louisa,  ex- 
queen of  Spain,  was  born  at  Madrid,  October  30,  1830. 
Her  father,  Ferdinand  VII.,  had  been  induced  by  the 
influence  of  his  wife  to  issue  the  pragmatic  decree,  re- 
voking the  Salic  law;  and  at  his  death,  September  29, 
1833,  his  eldest  daughter,  then  a child,  was  proclaimed 
queen,  under  the  regency  of  her  mother,  Maria  Christina. 
This  event  proved  the  signal  for  civil  warfare,  as  the 
claims  of  the  late  king’s  brother  were  warmly  supported 
by  certain  classes  of  the  people.  The  war  of  succession 
lasted  seven  years,  and  the  country  was  desolated  by 
the  struggle  between  the  contending  Carlist  and  Chris- 
tina parties,  until  the  cortes  confirmed  the  claims  of 
Isabella  by  pronouncing  sentence  of  exile  on  Don 
Carlos  and  his  adherents.  In  1840  the  queen-regnant, 
finding  it  impossible  to  carry  on  the  government  without 
making  concessions  to  public  feeling,  for  which  she  was 
indisposed,  retired* to  France,  resigning  her  power  into 
the  hands  of  Espartero,  whom  she  had  been  previously 
compelled  to  summon  to  the  head  of  affairs.  For  the 
following  three  years,  while  that  constitutional  leader 
was  able  in  great  measure  to  direct  her  education  and 
training,  the  young  queen  was  subjected  to  better  in- 
fluences than  she  had  before  experienced.  She  wits 
declared  by  a decree  of  the  cortes  to  have  attained  her 
majority,  October  15,  1843,  and  took  her  place  among 
the  reigning  sovereigns  of  Europe.  Maria  Christina 
returned  to  Madrid  in  1845,  ar*d  her  restoration  to 
influence  was  marked  by  the  marriage  of  Isabella  II. 
to  her  cousin,  Don  Francisco  d’Assisi,  the  elder  son  of 
her  maternal  uncle,  Don  Francisco  de  Paula,  which 
took  place  October  10,  1846.  Sacrificed  to  the  intrigues 
of  a party  whose  interests  were  based  on  this  uncon- 
genial union,  Isabella  II.  never  knew  the  beneficial 
influence  of  domestic  happiness;  estrangements  and 
reconciliations  having  succeeded  each  other  alternately 
in  her  married  life.  On  September  16,  1868,  a great 
revolution  broke  out  in  Spain,  starting  with  the  fleet 
off  Cadiz,  and  gradually  spreading  over  the  whole 
peninsula.  The  speedy  result  was  the  formation  of  a 


republican  provisional  government  under  Prim,  Ser- 
rano, and  others  at  Madrid,  and  the  flight  of  Queen 
Isabella  to  France.  On  November  6th  her  majesty 
took  up  her  residence  in  Paris,  where  she  remained 
during  her  exile,  with  the  exception  of  an  interval  spent 
at  Geneva  during  the  Franco-Prussian  war.  On  June 
25,  1870,  she  renounced  her  claims  to  the  Spanish  throne 
in  favor  of  her  eldest  son,  the  prince  of  the  Asturias. 
After  eight  years  of  exile  she  returned  to  Spain,  and 
was  received  at  Santander  by  her  son,  the  late  King 
Alfonso  XII.  (July  29,  1876). 

ISMAIL  PACHA,  ex-viceroy  or  khedive  of  Egypt, 
son  of  Ibrahim  Pasha,  and  grandson  of  the  celebrated 
Mehemet  Ali,  was  born  at  Cairo  in  1830,  and  succeeded 
his  brother,  Said  Pasha,  January  18,  1863.  He  was 
educated  in  Paris,  and  on  his  return  to  Egypt,  in  1849, 
he  opposed  the  policy  of  Abbas  Pasha,  the  viceroy, 
who,  as  it  was  supposed  for  political  purposes,  made,  in 
1853,  a criminal  charge  against  him,  which  was  not, 
however,  proceeded  with.  In  1855  he  visited  France 
on  a confidential  mission,  and  proceeded  thence  to 
Rome,  where  he  conveyed  some  magnificent  Oriental 
presents  for  the  Pope’s  acceptance.  On  June  8,  1878, 
a firman  was  granted  by  the  sultan  to  the  khedive  of 
Egypt,  sanctioning  the  full  autonomy  of  that  country, 
and  enacting  the  law  of  primogeniture  in  favor  of 
Ismail  Pasha’s  family.  The  attempt  to  Europeanize 
the  country  entailed  a vast  expenditure,  and  Egypt  ac- 
quired a national  debt  of  more  than  $400,000,000.  In' 
1875  the  khedive  procured  a temporary  respite  from  his 
difficulties  by  the  sale  of  his  shares  in  the  Suez  canal  to 
the  British  Government  for  the  sum  of  $20,000,000. 
In  1879  trouble  arose,  owing  to  the  dissatisfaction  of 
the  over-taxed  people,  and  finally  the  sultan  issued  a 
firman  deposing  Ismail,  and  appointing  his  son  Tewfik 
as  khedive.  Ismail  retired  to  Italy,  where  he  d.ed  in 
March,  1895. 

ISRAELS,  Josef,  a Dutch  painter,  was  Lorn  at 
Groningen  in  1824.  He  studied  at  Amsterdam,  undei 
Kruseman,  and  next  at  Paris,  under  Picot,  and  received 
gold  medals  of  honor  at  Paris,  Brussels,  and  Rotterdam. 
He  also  had  conferred  upon  him  the  Belgian  Order  of 
Leopold,  and  was  nominated  a member  of  the  French 
legion  of  honor. 

ISTRIA,  The  Princess  Dora  d’,  the  literary 
pseudonym  of  the  Princess  Helen  Ghika,  one  of  the 
daughters  of  Michael  Ghika,  and  niece  of  Prince  Greg- 
ory IV.,  who  was  the  first  to  spread  among  the  people 
of  Wallachia  the  liberal  institutions  of  civilization,  was 
born  at  Bucharest  in  1829,  and  was  married  in  1849  to 
the  Russian  Prince  Koltzoff-Massalsky.  Disliking  the 
absolutist  system  of  government  in  Russia,  she  quitted 
that  country  in  1855.  She  spent  five  years  in  Belgium 
and  Switzerland,  carefully  studying  the  customs  and 
laws,  and,  having  made  a tour  through  Greece,  she 
went  in  1861  to  reside  in  Florence.  She  is  acquainted 
with  all  European  languages,  has  written  much  on  the 
vital  questions  affecting  the  future  of  the  Greeks,  the 
Albanians  and  the  Slavs  of  Northern  Europe,  and  con- 
tributed to  leading  European  and  American  reviews. 

ITO,  Hirobumi,  Count,  prime  minister  of  Japan, 
was  born  about  1840,  traveled  extensively  in  Europe 
and  America,  imbibed  western  ideas  and  has  been 
prominent  in  promoting  the  material  and  political  prog- 
ress of  Japan  as  well  as  in  the  direction  of  the  war 
with  China  in  1894-95. 

IZARD,  Ralph,  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1742, 
became  a member  of  the  Continental  congress ; was 
United  States  senator  from  his  native  State  for  six 
years  (1789-95),  and  died  in  1804. 


6613 


J AC 

J. 


JACKSON,  Charles,  born  at  Newburyport,  Mass., 
May  31,  1775;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1793,  became 
judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  State  (1813-24), 
and  afterward  was  one  of  the  commissioners  appointed 
to  codify  the  State  laws.  He  died  in  Boston,  Decem- 
ber 13,  1855. 

JACKSON,  Charles  Loring,  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  April  4,  1847;  graduated  at  Harvard,  and  be- 
came professor  of  chemistry  there.  He  is  a member 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  and 
has  made  several  valuable  discoveries  in  chemistry. 

JACKSON,  Charles  Thomas,  born  at  Plymouth, 
Mass.,  June  21,  1805;  graduated  at  Harvard  medical 
school  in  1829,  and  began,  in  1832,  a series  of  investi- 
gations in  electricity  whicn  produced  important  results. 
It  is  claimed  that  he  exhibited  in  1834  an  electric  tele- 
graph which  preceded  that  patented  a year  later  by  Morse. 
It  is  also  claimed  for  Jackson  that  he  was  the  original 
discoverer  of  the  anaesthetic  properties  of  sulphuric  ether. 
Doctor  Jackson  was,  for  many  years,  connected  with  the 
Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  and  his  contribu- 
tions to  scientific  literature  were  numerous.  He  died  at 
Somerville,  Mass.,  August  28,  1880. 

JACKSON,  Claiborne  Fox,  born  in  Kentucky, 
April  4,  1807;  died  at  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  December  6, 
1862.  He  was  a member  of  the  Missouri  legislature 
for  many  years,  and  in  i860  was  governor  of  Missouri. 
His  sympathies  were  with  the  South,  and  he  attempted 
to  carry  his  State  with  him,  but  failed,  and  was  driven 
from  office.  He  took  service  with  the  Confederate 
army,  but  failed  to  distinguish  himself,  and  died  early 
in  the  war. 

JACKSON,  Conrad  F.,  born  in  Pennsylvania,  Sep- 
tember 11,  1813;  entered  the  army  in  1861  as  colonel 
of  a Philadelphia  regiment,  and  was  killed  at  Fredericks- 
burg, December  13,  1862,  while  leading  his  brigade 
into  action. 

JACKSON,  Edward  Payson,  born  in  Turkey  in 
March,  1840,  was  the  son  of  an  American  missionary. 
He  served  during  the  Civil  war  in  a Massachusetts 
regiment;  graduated  at  Amherst  in  1870,  and  has  writ- 
ten several  mathematical  works. 

JACKSON,  Helen  Hunt  (Fiske),  was  born  in 
Amherst,  Mass.,  October  18,  1831,  and  married  Captain 
Hunt  in  1852.  She  became  a contributor  to  magazines 
and  periodicals,  writing  under  the  signature  of  “ H.  H.” 
She  was  appointed  special  United  States  commissioner 
to  examine  into  the  .condition  of  the  California  Indians, 
and  while  engaged  in  this  occupation  she  died  in  San 
Francisco,  August  12,  1885.  She  wrote  Ramona. 

JACKSON,  Henry  R.,  lawyer,  was  born  in  Athens, 
Ga.,  June  24,  1820;  graduated  at  Yale,  rose  to,  a 
colonelcy  in  the  Mexican  war,  was  minister  to  Austria, 
1854-58,  became  major-general  of  Georgia  troops, 
1861,  and  in  1864  was  taken  prisoner  at  Nashville. 
In  1885  he  was  U.  S.  minister  to  Mexico.  Died  May,  1898. 

JACKSON,  Howell  Edmunds,  was  born  at  Paris, 
Tenn.,  April  8,  1832,  educated  at  the  University  of 
Virginia,  practiced  law  at  Jackson  and  in  Memphis, 
held  a civil  appointment  under  the  Confederacy,  was 
elected  United  States  Senator  in  1881,  was  appointed 
ly  President  Cleveland  U.  S.  circuit  judge  for  the 
Sixth  Judicial  Circuit  in  1886,  and  in  February,  1892, 
was  appointed  associate  justice  of  the  United  States 
S-tpreme  Court  by  President  Harrison. 

JACKSON,  James,  born  in  England,  1757;  moved 
la  Georgia  and  served  in  the  Revolution,  becoming  a 


brigadier-general.  In  1 789  he  was  elected  to  congress, 
and  in  1793  to  the  United  States  senate.  He  was 
afterward  governor  of  his  State,  and  again  senator. 
He  died  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  in  March,  1806. 

JACKSON,  John  Adams,  born  at  Bath,  Me.,  in 
1825;  studied  art  in  France  and  Italy,  and  executed 
portrait  busts  of  Daniel  Webster  and  other  statesmen, 
and  other  works,  of  which  the  most  noted  is  his  Eve  and 
the  dead  Abel.  He  died  in  Tuscany  in  August,  1879. 

JACKSON,  William  Lawries,  M.P.,  was  born  at 
Otley,  England,  in  1840,  and  was  educated  privately. 
He  carries  on  an  extensive  leather  business  in  Leeds, 
and  is  a director  of  the  Great  Northern  Railway  Com- 
pany. He  represented  Leeds  from  April,  1880,  until 
the  dissolution  in  1885,  after  having  unsuccessfully  con- 
tested the  borough  in  1876.  In  1885  and  1886  he  was 
returned  for  the  northern  division  of  Leeds.  In  Lord 
Salisbury’s  first  administration  he  received  the  impor- 
tant appointment  of  financial  secretary  to  the  treasury, 
in  succession  to  Sir  Henry  Holland,  and  in  his  second 
cabinet  held  the  same  post. 

JACKSON,  William  Walrond,  D.D.,  bishop  of 
Antigua;  born  in  Barbadoes  about  1810;  received  his 
education  at  Codrington  College,  Barbadoes,  of  which 
he  was  a licentiate  in  theology.  He  was  formerly 
chaplain  to  the  forces  in  Barbadoes,  and  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Antigua  in  i860.  Died  Nov.,  1805. 

JACOBI,  Abraham,  born  in  Westphalia  in  May, 
1830;  studied  medicine  at  Bonn  and  Gottingen,  and 
became  implicated  in  revolutionary  movements  in 
Germany,  which  led  first  to  his  imprisonment  and 
afterward  to  his  expatriation.  In  1854  he  came  to  New 
York,  where  he  became  prominent  as  a physician.  For 
many  years  he  held  professorial  chairs  in  the  medical 
department  of  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York, 
has  been  president  of  the  New  York  State  Medical 
Society,  and  in  1885  became  president  of  the  New  York 
Academy  of  Medicine. 

JACOBINI,  Ludovico,  cardinal  priest  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Church,  was  born  at  Albano,  May  6,  1832.  In 
1862  Pius  IX.  made  him  one  of  the  Prelati  Domestici 
and  one  of  the  referendaries  of  the  segnatura.  Soon 
afterward  he  was  made  secretary  of  that  section  of  the 
congregation  de  Propaganda  Fide  which  is  charged 
with  the  special  supervision  of  the  affairs  of  the  Eastern 
Churches.  When,  in  1874,  the  nuncio  at  Vienna, 
Falcinelli-Antoniacci,  was  created  cardinal  and  with- 
drew from  his  post,  Monsignor  Jacobini  was  chosen  by 
Pius  IX.  to  succeed  to  the  vacancy,  which  was  at  the 
time  a position  of  no  small  difficulty.  According  to 
custom,  he  received  episcopal  consecration  with  thv 
title  of  Archbishop  of  Thessalonica  in  partibus  iitfi- 
delium , and  was  accredited  to  the  court  of  Vienna, 
where  he  remained  until  October,  1880.  On  Septem- 
ber 19,  1879,  he  was  created  cardinal.  In  conformity 
with  the  strict  etiquette  of  the  papal  court,  which  for- 
bids a cardinal  to  hold  the  inferior  rank  of  nuncio, 
Cardinal  Jacobini,  after  his  elevation  to  the  purple, 
bore  the  title  of  pro-nuncio.  He  was  recalled  from 
Vienna  in  October,  1880,  and  appointed  by  Leo  XIII. 
to  the  office  of  papal  secretary  of  state,  in  succession  to 
Cardinal  Nina.  He  died  February  28,  1887. 

JACOBUS,  M.W.,  LL.D.,  born  at  Newark,  N.  J., 
September  19,  1816;  graduated  at  Princeton  and  in 
1851  became  professor  of  Oriental  and  Biblical  litera- 
ture at  Allegheny  Seminary,  Penn.  He  died  Octo- 
ber 28,  1876. 


66 14  JAH- 

JAHN,  Ftuedrich  Ludwig,  born  in  Prussia, 
August  II,  1778;  was  the  founder  of  the  German 
system  of  gymnasia  known  as  the  “ Turners.  ” He 
served  in  the  Prussian  army,  and  after  1815  established 
Turn-art  schools  which  were  at  first  supported  by  the 
government,  but  were  afterward  suppressed  as  being 
nurseries  of  a radical  school  of  thought  not  acceptable 
to  despotic  monarchs.  Jahn  was  imprisoned  for  over 
five  years  at  Spandau  and  other  fortresses,  was  after- 
ward a member  of  the  Frankfort  parliament  of  1848, 
and  died  at  Freiburg,  October  15,  1852.  His  system 
has  been  extended  wherever  Germans  congregate,  and 
is  well  known  in  the  United  States. 

JAMES,  Henry,  novelist  and  essayist,  was  born  in 
New  York  city,  April  15,  1843.  He  is  the  son  of  the 
late  Rev.  Henry  James,  a forcible  writer  on  religious 
and  philosophical  topics  (born  1811,  died  December  18, 
1882).  Mr.  James  attended  the  Harvard  Law  School 
but  has  lived  abroad  since  1869,  latterly  in  London. 
He  contributed  to  American  magazines,  but  his  celeb- 
rity rests  upon  his  novels,  which  usually  deal  with 
Americans  abroad,  and  are  extremely  analytical.  His 
Daisy  Miller , as  portraying  an  American  type,  has 
been  much  discussed  and  abused.  Other  well-known 
novels  of  his  are  The  Bostonians,  Princess  Casamassima , 
Washington  Square  and  The  Private  Life  (1894). 

JAMES,  Sir  Henry,  Q.C.,  M.P.,  was  born  at 
Hereford,  England,  October  30,  1828,  and  received  his 
education  at  Cheltenham  College.  He  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  the  Middle  Temple  in  1852,  was  made  a 
queen’s  counsel  in  June,  1869,  and  became  a bencher 
of  his  Inn  in  1870.  In  March,  1869,  he  obtained  a 
seat  in  the  House  of  Commons  as  one  of  the  mem- 
bers for  Taunton,  and  continued  to  represent  that 
borough  in  the  Liberal  interest  until  1885,  when  he 
was  returned  for  Bury  (Southeast  Lancashire).  Dur- 
ing the  session  of  1872  he  took  a prominent  part  in  the 
debates  on  the  Judicature  Bill.  In  September, 
1873,  Mr.  Gladstone  appointed  him  solicitor-general  in 
succession  to  Sir  George  Jessel,  and  in  November  of 
that  year  he  became  attorney-general,  and  received 
knighthood.  He  went  out  of  office  with  the  Lib- 
eral party  in  February,  1874.  He  was  again  ap- 
pointed attorney-general  on  the  return  of  the  Liberals 
to  power  under  Mr.  Gladstone  in  May,  1880.  In  Mr. 
Gladstone’s  administration  of  1886,  Sir  Henry  James 
(who  had  been  offered  the  lord  chancellorship)  declined 
to  take  office,  on  the  ground  of  disagreement  with  the 
prime  minister’s  home  rule  policy.  He  was  returned 
unopposed  for  Bury,  as  a Unionist  Liberal,  at  the  gen- 
eral elections  of  1886,  and  he  was  reelected  in  1892, 
and  took  a prominent  part  in  the  Home  Rule  bill  dis- 
cussions of  1893. 

JAMES,  Thomas  Lemuel,  born  at  Utica,  N.  Y., 
March  29,  1831;  was  a pupil  at  the  Utica  Academy 
until  he  was  fifteen  years  of  age.  His  first  journalistic 
experience  was  upon  The  Liberty  Press,  an  anti- 
slavery paper.  Entering  actively  upon  political  life 
before  he  had  attained  his  majority,  he  was  made  asso- 
ciate editor  (1849)  of  The  Madison  County  Journal, 
the  organ  of  the  Seward  wing  of  the  Whig  party  in 
New  York.  Upon  the  formation  of  the  Republican 
party  Mr.  James  entered  the  new  organization  with 
zeal,  and  during  the  Fremont  canvas  for  the  presi- 
dency became  sole  proprietor  and  editor  of  the 
Journal , which  he  retained  for  ten  years.  Upon  the 
inauguration  of  President  Lincoln  in  1861  he  was  ap- 
pointed inspector  of  customs,  and  removed  to  New 
York  city.  In  1874  he  was  made  weigher,  and  in  1876 
deputy  collector  of  customs.  The  efficiency  he  dis- 
played in  all  these  positions  induced  President  Grant, 
in  1877,  to  make  him  postmaster  of  New  York  city,  a 


-JAY 

position  that  he  filled  with  ability.  He  removed  the 
office  entirely  “out  of  politics,”  making  merit  the  only 
test  for  appointments  and  promotions,  largely  increased 
its  revenues,  introduced  many  mechanical  improve- 
ments, and  in  other  ways  added  greatly  to  its  useful- 
ness. His  success  was  so  marked  that  President  Gar- 
field appointed  him  postmaster-general  in  March, 
1881,  but  the  assassination  of  Mr.  Garfield  led  him  to 
tender  his  resignation  to  Mr.  Arthur,  and  in  Decem- 
ber, 1881,  he  retired  from  political  life  to  accept  the 
presidency  of  the  Lincoln  National  Bank  in  New  York 
city. 

JANAUSCHEK,  Francesca  M adelina,  born  in 
Prague,  July  20,  1830;  distinguished  herself  both  in 
Europe  and  in  the  United  States  as  a tragic  actress, 
and  was  well  known  as  a representative  of  artistic  excel- 
lence in  the  higher  walks  of  the  drama. 

JANES,  Edmund  Storer,  born  in  Sheffield,  Mass., 
April  27,  1807,  died  September  18,  1876.  He  entered 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  ministry  in  1830,  served  as 
financial  agent  for  Dickinson  College,  and  as  financial 
secretary  of  the  American  Bible  Society,  and  in  1844 
was  elected  bishop. 

JANET,  Paul,  a French  author,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  April,  1823.  He  is  a follower  of  Cousin,  and  has 
been  a professor  at  Bourges  and  Strasbourg,  and  at  the 
Lyc£e  of  Louis-le  Grand,  Paris.  In  1864  he  became 
professor  of  the  history  of  philosophy  at  the  Sorbonne, 
and  a member  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political 
Sciences.  Among  his  more  recent  works  are  Histoire  de 
la  Science  Politique,  1871;  Problemes  du  XIX.  Siecle , 
1872;  Philosophie  de  la  Revolution  Fran^aise , 1875; 
Les  Causes  Finales,  1876;  La  Philosophie  Franfaise 
Contemporaine,  1879;  Les  Maitres  de  la  Pensee  Mo- 
derne,  1883.  He  has  also  contributed  to  the  Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes,  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences  Philosoph- 
iques,  Le  Temps , etc.,  and  is  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor. 

JANS,  Anneke,  born  in  Holland  about  the  year 
1600;  came  to  New  York  with  her  husband,  who,  in 
1636,  obtained  a grant  of  land  on  Broadway,  New  York 
city,  which  has  since  become  of  immense  value.  The 
property  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  corporation  of 
Trinity  church,  New  York,  but  persons  claiming  to  be 
descendants  of  Anneke  Jans  have  made  several  efforts 
to  recover  it  by  legal  process,  and  the  estate  furnishes 
one  of  those  instances  of  fabulous  riches  just  out  of 
reach  of  people  who  trustingly  hope  to  get  possession  of 
wealth.  As  a matter  of  fact  the  title  of  the  church  is  a 
good  one,  and  has  been  so  declared  by  the  courts  on 
several  occasions. 

JANNSEN,  Johannes,  born  in  Germany,  April  10, 
1829;  wrote  a History  of  the  German  People  Before  the 
Reformation,  in  which  he  treated  the  matter  from  an 
ultramontane  standpoint.  He  died  December  24, 1891. 

JARVES,  James  Jackson,  born  at  Boston,  Mass., 
August  20,  1818;  served  as  United  States  consul  in 
Honolulu,  and  established  a newspaper  there.  He 
published  a history  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  hav- 
ing traveled  extensively  in  Europe  produced  Art  Hunts 
and  Art  Studies,  being  critical  considerations  of  fa- 
mous pictures  and  statuary.  He  died  in  Switzerland, 
June  28,  1888. 

JARVIS,  Edward,  born  at  Concord,  Mass.,  Janu- 
ary 9,  1803;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1826,  and  prac- 
ticed medicine  in  Massachusetts,  where  jie.  became 
well  known  as  an  authority  on  insanity.  Died,  1884. 

JAY,  John,  born  in  New  York,  June  23,  1817; 
graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1836,  and  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  1839.  He  took  prominent  part  in 
the  anti-slavery  agitation,  was  one  of  the  founders  and 
for  some  years  the  president  of  the  New  York  Union 


J A Y- 

League,  and  was  United  States  minister  to  Austria 
1869-75.  He  died  May  6,  1894. 

JAY,  William,  son  of  John  Jay  (1745-1829),  was 
born  in  New  York  city,  June  16,  1789;  graduated  at 
Yale,  and  entered  the  legal  profession.  In  1818  he 
became  a county  judge,  and  while  on  the  bench  ren- 
dered some  important  decisions  as  to  the  rights  of  fugi- 
tive slaves.  Judge  Jay  was  for  several  years  president 
of  the  American  Peace  Society.  He  died  October  14, 
1858. 

JAYNE,  Francis  John,  M.A.,  was  born  about  the 
year  1844,  and  educated  at  Wadham  College,  Oxford, 
of  which  he  was  "a  scholar.  He  took  a first  class  in 
moderations  in  1866,  and  a double  first  class  in  the  final 
schools,  1868,  in  which  year  he  became  a fellow  of 
Jesus  College.  In  1886  he  accepted  the  important 
vicarage  of  Leeds,  vacant  by  the  resignation  of  Doctor 
Gott,  who  became  dean  of  Worcester. 

JEAFFRESON,  John  Cordy,  was  born  on  Janu- 
ary 14,  1831,  at  Framlingham,  England,  where  his 
father,  William  Jeaffreson,  F.R.C.S.,  was  an  eminent 
surgical  operator.  He  entered  Pembroke  College.  Ox- 
ford, and  took  his  degree  in  1852,  proceeding  afterward 
to  Lincoln’s  Inn,  where  he  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1859- 
His  first  novel,  Crewe  Rise , was  published  in  1854,  and 
has  been  followed  by  several  others.  In  connection 
with  these  works  of  fiction,  mention  may  be  made  of 
their  author’s  history  of  the  literature  of  prose  fiction 
in  England,  entitled,  Novels  and  Novelists  from  Eliza- 
beth to  Victoria , 1858.  Mr.  Jeaffreson’s  principal  con- 
tributions to  the  social  history  of  England  are  his  three 
well-known  books  on  the  three  learned  professions, 
A Book  about  Doctors,  i860;  A Book  about  Lawyers , 
1866;  A Book  about  the  Clergy , 1870.  Mr.  Jeaffreson’s 
latest  works  are,  The  Real  Lord  Byron:  New  Views  of 
the  Poet's  Life , 2 vols.,  1883;  The  Real  Shelley , 2 
vols. , 1885.  He  died  Feb.  2,  1901. 

JEBB,  John,  D.D.,  nephew  of  the  late  Doctor  Jebb, 
some  time  bishop  of  Limerick,  born  in  Dublin  in  1805; 
was  educated  at  Winchester  and  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin. Having  held  a rectory  and  a prebendal  stall  in  the 
diocese  of  Limerick,  in  1843  he  was  presented  to  the 
rectory  of  Peterstow,  Herefordshire;  was  in  i860  ap- 
pointed a prebendary,,  and  in  1870  a canon  residentiary 
of  Hereford  cathedral.  He  died  at  Hereford  January 
8,  1886. 

JEBB,  Richard  Claverhouse,  LL.  D.,  born  at 
Dundee,  Scotland,  August  27,  1841,  was  educated  at 
St.  Columba’s  College,  county  Dublin ; at  Charterhouse 
School,  London;  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  as  senior  classic  in  1862,  and  was 
afterward  elected  a fellow.  As  a classical  lecturer  of 
his  college,  he  took  a foremost  part  of  organizing  at 
Cambridge  the  system  of  inter-collegiate  classical 
lectures,  and  was  the  first  secretary  of  an  association  of 
college  lecturers  for  that  purpqse.  Along  with  Prof. 
E.  B.  Cowell,  he  was  also  instrumental  in  founding  the 
Cambridge  Philological  Society,  of  which  he  was  the 
first  secretary.  In  1869  he  was  chosen  by  the  senate  to 
be  the  public  orator  of  the  university.  In  1884,  on 
visiting  the  United  States,  he  received  the  honorary 
degree  of  doctor  of  laws  from  Harvard  University.  In 
1885  the  degree  of  doctor  of  letters  was  conferred  on 
him  by  the  University  of  Cambridge.  He  wrote  The 
Attic  Orators,  Theophrastus,  Modern  Greece , Life  of 
Bentley,  and  other  works,  and  in  1891  was  elected  to  the 
House  of  Commons,  as  a Conservative,  for  the  Univer- 
sity of  Cambridge. 

JEFFERSON,  Joseph,  actor,  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, February  20,  1829.  His  grandfather  and 
great-grandfather  were  distinguished  actors,  and  his 
mother,  Mrs.  Burke,  was  a celebrated  vocalist.  He 


-JEN  6615 

appeared  on  the  stage  at  a very  early  age,  and  soon 
rose  to  the  front  place  as  a comedian,  and  his  merits 
are  recognized  in  both  England  and  America.  His 
range  of  characters  is  very  wide,  covering  almost  the 
entire  field  of  comedy  and  farce,  without  degenerating 
into  burlesque.  His  most  famous  rble  is  that  of  “ Rip 
Van  Winkle”  in  Mr.  Dion  Boucicault’s  play  of  that 
name,  founded  upon  the  story  by  Washington  Irving; 
a character  which  Mr.  Jefferson  may  be  said  to  have 
created,  as  well  as  to  have  made  his  own.  Perhaps  he 
is  equally  succeesful  as  “ Bob  Acres  ” in  The  Rivals . 
Besides  playing  in  every  city  in  the  United  States,  he 
has  made  professional  visits  to  England  and  Australia. 
His  son,  Joseph  Jefferson,  Jr.,  is  tlso  an  actor  of 
decided  ability.  ' 

JELLETT,  John  Hewitt,  B.D.,  provost  of  Trin- 
ity College,  Dublin,  born  at  Cashel,  Ireland,  De- 
cember 25,  1817;  received  his  education  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  of  which  he  was  elected  a fellow  in 
1840.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  natural  philoso- 
phy in  the  University  of  Dublin  in  1848 ; a commis- 
sioner of  national  education  in  1868 ; and  president  of 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy  in  1869.  Mr.  Jellett,  who  was 
one  of  the  ablest  mathematicians  of  the  day,  wrote 
a Treatise  on  the  Calculus  of  Variations , published  at 
Dublin  in  1850 ; Treatise  on  the  Theory  of  Friction , 
published  in  Dublin  and  London,  1872;  besides  various 
papers  on  Pure  and  Applied  Mathematics , and  Experi- 
mental Optics,  with  their  application  to  chemistry,  pub- 
lished in  the  Transactions  and  Proceedings  of  the  Royal 
Irish  Academy.  He  died  in  1888. 

JENKINS,  Charles  Jones,  born  in  South  Caro- 
lina January  6,  1805;  died  in  Georgia  June  13,  1883. 
He  entered  the  State  legislature  of  Georgia  in  1830, 
and  served  in  it  for  twenty  years,  much  of  the  time  as 
speaker  of  the  House.  In  i860  he  was  appointed  to 
the  State  supreme  bench,  and  in  1865  was  elected  gov- 
ernor. In  1877  he  presided  over  the  Georgia  consth 
tutional  convention. 

JENKINS,  Edward,  born  in  1838  at  Bangalore, 
India;  was  educated  at  the  high  school  and  McGill  Col- 
lege, Montreal,  and  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln’s  Inn  in  1864;  and 
practiced  with  success  up  to  1872-3,  when  he  entered 
upon  politics ; was  appointed  agent-general  for  Canada 
in  February,  1874,  resigning  in  January,  1876,  and  was 
elected  member  of  parliament  for  Dundee  February, 
1874,  while  absent  in  Canada.  He  continued  to  rep- 
resent that  borough  ull  April,  1880.  In  January,  1881, 
he  contested  the  city  of  Edinburgh  against  Mr.  Mc- 
Laren, the  lord  advocate,  but  only  succeeded  in  polling 
3,940  votes,  while  11,390  were  recorded  in  favor  of  his 
opponent.  Mr.  Jenkins  is  an  advanced  liberal,  chiefly 
on  social  questions  ; an  anti-Republican;  and  is  in  favor 
of  imperial  unity  as  against  the  anti-cplonial  party. 
He  is  the  author  of  Ginx's  Baby , Lord  Bantam , The 
Coolie , Little  Hodge , The  Devil's  Chain , Lutchmee 
and  Dilloo , The  Captain's  Cabin , Fatal  Days,  1874; 
A Paladin  of  Romance , Contemporary  Manners , 1882; 
Jobson's  Enemies,  1883;  and  several  political  essays. 

JENKINS,  Thornton  Alexander,  born  in  Or- 
ange county,  Va.,  December  11,  1811;  entered  the 
United  States  navy  in  1828,  was  commissioned  lieuten- 
ant in  1839,  and  engaged  in  the  coast  survey  and  in 
various  exploring  expeditions.  He  was  promoted  cap- 
tain in  1862,  was  engaged  in  the  blockade  of  Mobile, 
and  acted  as  chief  of  staff  of  Farragut’s  Mississippi 
squadron.  In  1866  he  was  commissioned  commodore, 
was  afterward  chief  of  the  board  of  navigation  and  be- 
came rear-admiral  in  1870.  In  December,  1873,  he  re- 
tired from  active  service.  He  died  August  9,  1893. 

JENNER,  Sir  William,  F.R.S.,  born  at  Chat- 


66 16  JEN- 

ham,  England,  in  1815;  was  educated  at  University  Col- 
lege, London,  and  began  his  professional  career  as  a 
general  practitioner,  his  first  public  appointment  being 
that  of  surgeon -accoucheur  to  the  Royal  Maternity 
Charity.  He  graduated  M.D.,  London,  in  1844,  when 
he  retired  from  general  practice.  In  1848  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  and  in  the 
same  year  was  appointed  professor  of  pathological 
anatomy  in  University  College,  and  assistant-physician 
to  University  College  Hospital.  He  was  elected  fellow 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  and  appointed  to 
deliver  the  Gulstonian  Lectures  before  the  college  in 
1852.  On  the  death  of  Doctor  Baly,  in  1861,  Doctor 
Jenner  was  appon^ed  to  succeed  him  as  physician  ex- 
traordinary to  the  queen,  and  in  1862  was  gazetted  phy- 
sician in  ordinary.  In  1862  he  became  professor  of  the 
principles  and  practice  of  medicine  at  University  Col- 
lege, and  in  s36 3 physician  in  ordinary  to  the  prince  of 
Wales.  On  his  appointment  as  physician  to  the  queen, 
he  resigned  his  connection  with  the  London  Fever  Hos- 
pital, and  in  1862  resigned  the  post  of  physician  to  the 
Hospital  for  Sick  Children.  In  1864  he  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  has  written  several 
series  of  papers  on  fever,  the  acute  specific  diseases, 
diphtheria,  diseases  of  children,  diseases  of  the  heart, 
lungs,  skin,  etc.  He  was  created  a baronet  in  1868, 
and  made  a K.C.B.  January  20,  1872,  in  recognition  of 
services  rendered  during  the  severe  illness  of  the  prince 
of  Wales.  In  1881  Sir  Wm.  Jenner  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  College  of  Physicians.  Died  Dec.  1 1,  1898. 

JENNINGS,  Louis  John,  M.P.,  was  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1837.  Between  1863  and  1868  he  acted  as 
special  correspondent  of  the  Times  in  India  and  the 
United  States,  and  took  part  in  exposing  and  overthrow- 
ing the  celebrated  “ Tammany  Ring.”  After  his  return  to 
England  he  published  (1877)  a book  descriptive  of 
country  walks  in  England,  Field.  Paths  and  Green 
Lanes , and  in  1880,  a similar  and  popular  work, 
Rambles  among  the  Hills.  He  also  wrote  Eight  Years 
of  Republican  Government  in  the  United  States  (1868), 
and  The  Millionaire , a novel  (1883),  besides  editing 
the  well-known  Croker  Papers  (1884).  From  1885  until 
his  death,  February  9,  1893,  he  sat  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  as  a Conservative,  for  Stockport. 

JERMYN,  Hugh  Willoughby,  D.D.,  bishop  of 
Brechin,  was  educated  at  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  was 
made  archdeacon  of  St.  Christopher,  West  Indies,  in 
1858  became  rector  of  Nettlecombe,  Somersetshire,  and 
in  1871  was  appointed  bishop  of  Colombo.  He  re- 
signed this  see  early  in  1875  and  soon  afterward  was 
elected  bishop  of  Brechin.  In  September,  1886,  he 
was  elected  primus  of  the  Episcopal  Church  of  Scotland 
in  succession  to  Bishop  Eden. 

JEROME,  Jerome  K.,  English  humorist,  born  in 
1861,  was  a railway  clerk,  actor,  journalist,  tutor,  short- 
hand writer,  and  solicitor’s  clerk  in  succession  till  1889, 
when  he  published  On  the  Stage  and  Off,  Idle  Thoughts 
of  an  Idle  Fellow  and  Three  Men  in  a Boat,  the  last  of 
which  had  a striking  popular  success.  He  also  earned 
distinction  in  the  drama  with  Barbara  and  Woodbarrow 
Farm.  He  founded  the  Idler  in  1892  and  To-day , a 
weekly  magazine,  in  1893. 

JERROLD,  William  Blanchard,  son  of  the 
famous  Douglas  Jerrold  (y.  v.),  was  born  in  London, 
England,  in  1826.  He  engaged  in  literature,  and  was 
the  author  of  numerous  plays,  a Life  of  Napoleon  III., 
and  other  works,  and  succeeded  his  father  as  editor  of 
Lloyds'  Weekly  London  News.  He  died  March  10, 1884. 

JESSE,  George  Richard,  was  born  at  Caen,  in 
Normandy,  in  1820.  He  is  a civil  engineer,  an  etcher 
on  copper,  and  the  author  of  Researches  into  the  History 
of  the  British  Dog,  2 vols.,  1866.  He  has  been  en- 


-JOA 

gaged  in  the  construction  of  railways  in  England, 

Egypt,  and  India.  He  has  written  on  the  Suez  canal, 
the  projected  Euphrates  Valley  railway,  and  Indian 
public  works.  He  is  also  a leader  of  the  anti-vivisec- 
tionists,  and  has  written  many  pamphlets  on  the  subject 
of  vivisection. 

JESSEL,  Sir  George,  born  in  London,  England, 
of  Jewish  parents,  in  1824;  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1847,  became  queen’s  counsel  in  1865,  solicitor-general 
of  England  in  1871,  and  in  1873  became  master  of  the 
rolls,  one  of  the  highest  judicial  offices.  He  was  con- 
sidered the  best  equity  lawyer  of  his  time.  He  died 
March  21,  1883. 

JESSOPP,  Augustus,  D.D. , was  born  in  1824,  in 
England.  He  was  educated  at  St.  John’s  College, 
Cambridge,  of  which  he  is  M. A.;  and  he  is  D.D.  of 
Worcester  College,  Oxford.  He  was  appointed  head- 
master of  Helston  grammar  school,  Cornwall,  1855; 
headmaster  of  Norwich  school,  1859;  and  rector  of  Seam- 
ing, Norfolk,  1879.  He  was  preacher  before  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford  in  1870.  His  numerous  papers  on 
Acadia  ( i.e .,  the  homes,  thoughts,  and  ways  of  the 
East  Anglican  peasantry)  have  deservedly  attracted 
much  notice.  He  has  likewise  contributed  many  papers 
on  historical  and  antiquarian  subjects  in  the  proceedings 
of  the  Norfolk  and  Norwich  Archaeological  Society,  of 
which  he  is  literary  secretary. 

JEVONS,  William  Stanley,  born  at  Liverpool, 
England,  September  1,  1835;  was  educated  in  London, 
and  spent  several  years  in  Australia,  where  he  was  con- 
nected with  the  Sydney  mint.  In  1866  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  logic  at  Manchester,  and  in  1875  professor  ol 
political  economy  at  University  College.  He  wrote  an 
Elementary  Treatise  on  Logic,  and  articles  on  political 
economy.  He ’died  by  accident  August  13,  1882. 

JEWELL,  Marshall,  born  in  New  Hampshire, 
October  20,  1825;  died  in  Connecticut  February  10, 
1883.  He  engaged  in  business,  with  much  success,  and 
in  1869  was  elected  governor  of  his  State.  Defeated  the 
following  year,  he  was  again  successful  in  1871  and  1872. 
In  1873  he  was  sent  as  minister  to  St.  Petersburg,  and 
in  1874  returned  to  become  postmaster-general.  He 
resigned  this  position  in  1876,  being  dissatisfied  with  the 
treatment  accorded  to  Benjamin  H.  Bristow,  whose 
candidacy  for  the  presidency  Mr.  Jewell  strongly 
favored.  In  1880  he  was  chairman  of  the  Republican 
national  committee. 

JEX-BLAKE,  Thomas  William,  D.D.  was  born 
in  London,  England,  January  26,  1832,  and  entered 
Rugby  School  as  a pupil  of  Mr.  Cotton,  in  1844.  In 
185 1 he  was  elected  a scholar  of  University  College,  Ox- 
ford, where  he  took  his  B.  A.  degree  in  1855,  obtaining 
a first-class  in  classical  honors  both  in  moderations  and 
in  the  final  schools.  He  was  appointed  composition 
master  to  the  sixth  form  at  Marlborough  College  in  1855. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  elected  to  a fellowship  at 
Queen’s  College,  but  he  vacated  it  by  his  marriage  in 
1857.  He  was  ordained  deacon  in  1856,  and  priest  in 
the  following  year.  He  was  appointed  an  assistant 
master  at  Rugby  in  January,  1858;  principal  of  Chelten- 
ham College,  in  June,  1868;  and  head-master  of  Rugby 
School  in  February,  1874.  In  1886  he  announced  his 
resignation  of  the  head-mastership.  Dr.  Jex-Blake 
published  Long  Vacation  in  Continental  Picture  Gal- 
leries, in  1858. 

JOACHIM,  Joseph,  a celebrated  violinist,  born  in 
Hungary,  of  Jewish  parents,  July  15,  1831;  entered 
while  very  .young  the  Conservatory  of  Music  at  Vienna, 
where  he  studied  under  Joseph  Bohm.  From  the  age 
of  twelve  years  he  attracted  much  attention  at  Leipsic 
by  his  rare  skill  on  his  instrument,  and  obtained  an  cm 
gagement,  which  he  held  for  seven  years,  in  the  orchis 


J OG- 

tra  of  the  Gewandhaus.  He  assiduously  pursued  his 
studies  under  the  guidance  of  Ferdinand  David,  and  also 
received  lessons  from  Moritz  Hauptmann.  In  1850  he 
paid  his  first  visit  to  Paris,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
appointed  director  of  the  concerts  at  Weimar.  In  1853 
he  became  master  of  the  Chapel  Royal  at  Hanover. 
After  this  he  appeared  in  most  of  the  capitals  of  Europe, 
and  paid  annual  visits  to  London,  where  he  gave  several 
series  of  concerts.  In  1869  he  became  a member  of 
the  senate  of  the  Berlin  Academy,  and  was  nominated 
director  of  the  school  of  instrumental  music  in  the  Con- 
servatory of  Music,  then  recently  established  in  the 
Prussian  capital.  He  was  created  an  honorary  Mus. 
Doc.  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  March  8,  1877. 
Herr  Joachim’s  fame  rests  mainly  on  his  extraordinary 
skill  as  an  instrumentalist.  As  a composer  he  belongs 
to  the  school  of  Schumann.  The  Concert  a la  Hong- 
roise  is  one  of  his  chief  compositions  for  violin  and  or- 
chestra. In  1882,  he  became  conductor  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music  at  Berlin,  and  musical  director  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts.  He  has  played  in  the 
United  States. 

JOGUES,  Isaac,  French  missionary,  born  in  Or- 
leans, France,  January  10,  1607;  died  near  Auries- 
ville,  N.  Y.,  October  18,  1646.  He  was  a Jesuit,  and 
became  priest  in  1636,  when  he  went  to  Canada  to  labor 
among  the  Huron  tribe  of  Indians.  In  1642,  accom- 
panied by  several  natives,  he  sailed  down  the  St. 
Lawrence  river  in  a canoe  to  Quebec,  to  obtain  supplies 
for  the  missions.  On  his  return  his  party  fell  into  a 
Mohawk  ambuscade;  was  vanquished  and  the  priest 
taken  prisoner.  All  were  treated  with  savage  barbari- 
ties, and  three  of  the  Huron  captives  burnt  at  the 
stake.  Jogues  alone  was  conveyed  by  the  Mohawks  to 
their  hunting  grounds  where  he  was  treated  as  a slave. 
Later  some  Holland  settlers  combined  to  liberate  him, 
in  which  attempt  they  were  successful.  In  November, 
1643,  he  sailed  for  Europe,  and,  after  suffering  ship- 
wreck, reached  France.  In  1644  he  embarked  anew 
for  Canada  from  the  port  of  La  Rochelle,  and  for  some 
time  was  stationed  at  Montreal,  wherehe  was  employed 
in  negotiations  with  the  Mohawk  Indians.  He  passed 
through  Lake  George,  which  he  called  Sainte  Sacre- 
ment,  halted  at  Fort  Orange  and  visited  the  Mohawk 
settlements.  However,  new  troubles  again  arose  be- 
tween the  natives  and  foreigners,  and  Jogues  for  a sec- 
ond time  was  made  captive.  This  was  on  October  17, 
1646.  After  being  again  tortured,  he  was  slain. 

JOHNSON,  Bushrod  R.,  born  in  Ohio,  October  7, 
1817;  died,  September  11,  1880.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1840 ; served  in  the  Seminole  and  Mexi- 
can wars,  and  became  superintendent  of  the  Western 
Military  Institute  of  Kentucky.  In  1861  he  entered 
the  Confederate  service,  was  taken  prisoner  at  Fort 
Donelson,  commanded  a division  at  Chattanooga,  and 
was  promoted  major-general  in  1864.  He  was  after- 
ward chancellor  of  the  University  of  Nashville. 

JOHNSON,  Cave,  born  in  Tennessee  in  1793;  died 
there  in  1866.  He  became  a circuit  judge,  was  elected 
to  Congress  as  a Democrat,  and  served  in  1829-37  and 
1839-45.  In  the  last-named  year  he  became  postmas- 
ter-general in  Polk’s  cabinet,  and  from  1850  to  1859  he 
was  president  of  the  Bank  of  Tennessee.  He  sup- 
ported the  Union  cause  during  the  Civil  war. 

JOHNSON,  David,  artist,  born  in  New  York  city 
May  10,  1827,  became  in  i860  an  associate,  and  in 
1862  a member,  of  the  National  Academy.  He  is  best 
known  by  his  landscapes,  and  as  a faithful  delineator 
of  American  scenery. 

JOHNSON,  Eastman,  was  born  at  Lovell,  Me., 
July  29,  1824.  In  1849  he  went  to  Diisseldorf,  where 
M studied  two  years,  and  afterward  resided  for  four 


J O H 6617 

ears  at  the  Hague,  where,  besides  numerous  portraits, 

e executed  The  Savoyard  and  the  Card  Players , his 
earliest  elaborate  pictures  in  oil.  After  visiting  the 
principal  European  galleries,  he  returned  to  New  York 
in  1856,  devoting  himself  largely  to  portrait  painting 
His  Portrait  of  Dr.  McCosh,  Portrait  of  a Girl , The 
Cranberry  Harvest,  and  other  pictures  were  exhibited 
at  the  World’s  Fair  in  Chicago  in  1893. 

JOHNSON,  Edward  Ralph,  bishop  of  Calcutta, 
was  born  in  England,  February  17,  1828,  and  educated 
at  Rugby,  and  at  Wadham  College,  Oxford  (B.  A.  1850; 
M.A.  i860).  He  was  ordained  deacon  and  priest. 
He  was  selected  by  the  bishop  of  Chester,  in  1871,  to 
fill  the  post  of  archdeacon  of  Chester,  upon  the  resig- 
nation of  the  late  Archdeacon  Pollock.  In  October, 
1876,  he  was  appointed  to  the  bishopric  of  Calcutta. 

JOHNSON,  Sir  Edwin,  was  born  July  4th,  1825, 
at  Bath,  and  educated  at  Addiscombe  college.  He  en- 
tered the  service  as  second  lieutenant,  Bengal  artillery, 
June  10,  1842,  and  served  in  the  horse  artillery  during 
the  Sutlej  campaign,  1845-46.  In  1848  he  was  ap- 
pointed deputy  judge  advocate -general,  and  served  on 
the  staff  under  Lord  Gough  in  1848-49,  during  the 
Punjaub  war.  He  served  throughout  the  Indian  mutiny 
in  1857-58,  including  the  siege  and  capture  of  Delhi, 
and  the  siege  and  capture  of  Lucknow.  In  1862  he  was 
appointed  adjutant-general  of  the  army,  and  in  July, 
1873,  quartermaster-general  in  India,  and  adjutant-gen- 
eral in  India  in  the  following  year,  returning  to  Eng- 
land as  a member  of  the  India  council  in  1874.  He  was 
appointed  member  of  the  viceroy’s  council  in  India  in 
March,  1877;  resigned  the  post  in  September,  1880,  and 
became  director-general  on  military  education  on  De- 
cember 10,  1884.  Died,  1893. 

JOHNSON,  Sir  George,  M.  D.,  was  born  in 
November,  1818,  in  Kent,  England.  In  1843  he  was 
appointed  the  first  medical  tutor  at  King’s  College ; in 
1850,  when  he  resigned  that  office,  he  was  elected  an 
honorary  fellow  of  the  college ; in  185  7 he  was  appointed 
professor  of  materia  medica;  and  in  1863  he  succeeded 
the  late  Dr.  George  Budd  as  professor  of  the  princi- 
ples and  practice  of  medicine.  In  1876  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  clinical  medicine,  with  the  office 
of  senior  physician  of  King’s  College  Hospital.  In 
1862  he  was  elected  a fellow  or  senator  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  London,  and  in  1872,  a fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety. In  1846  he  became  a member  of  the  College  of 
Physicians,  and  in  1850,  having  been  elected  a fellow, 
he  was  appointed  to  give  the  Gulstonian  lectures.  In 
1877  he  delivered  the  Lumleian  lectures,  and  in  1882 
the  Harveian  oration.  Died  June  3,  1896. 

JOHNSON,  Sir  John,  born  in  Mount  Johnson  on 
the  Mohawk  river,  November  5,  1742;  died  in  Mont- 
real, Canada,  January  4,  1830.  He  was  educated  at 
Albany  and  in  New  York  city  by  clergymen  of  the  Re- 
formedand  Anglican  churches,  and  in  youth  spent  some 
time  in  England,  where  he  was  knighted.  Returning 
to  America,  he  had  much  military  experience.  When 
his  father  died,  in  1774,  he  succeeded  to  the  baronetcy 
and  estates,  and  also  to  the  post  of  major-general  of 
militia.  In  1776,  being  pursued  by  the  troops  under 
General  Schuyler,  Sir  John,  with  about  300  Scottish 
Tories,  fled  through  the  wilderness  to  Montreal.  On 
his  arrival  there  he  was  made  colonel,  became  active  in 
forming  two  battalions,  and  in  1777,  under  the  lead 
of  Col.  Barry  H.  Leger,  took  part  in  the  investment 
of  Fort  Stanwix.  When  General  Arnold  marched  to- 
ward Fort  Stanwix  for  its  relief,  St.  Leger  and  John- 
son fled  into  Canada.  In  1780,  in  connection  with  the 
Indians  under  Brant  and  Cornplanter,  he  ruthlessly 
desolated  Cherry  valley  and  the  Mohawk  country,  a 
barbarous  proceeding  that  led  to  no  military  result. 


J O H 


6618 

At  the  termination  of  the  war  his  estates  were  con- 
fiscated. In  return  for  his  losses  the  British  Govern- 
ment gave  him  large  tracts  of  land  in  Canada,  and  he 
was  made  superintendent-general  of  Indian  affairs. 

JOHNSON,  Reverdy,  born  in  Annapolis,  Md., 
May  21,  1796;  died  there  February  10,  1876.  Reverdy 
was  educated  at  St.  John’s  College,  studied  law  with  his 
father,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1815.  He  began 
to  practice  in  Upper  Marlboro,  and  in  1817  removed  to 
Baltimore.  From  1821  until  1825  he  was  a State  sena- 
tor. Later  he  was  appointed  attorney-general  in  Presi- 
dent Taylor’s  cabinet.  From  1845  to  1849  he  sat  in  the 
United  States  senate  as  a Whig,  but  he  supported  the 
Mexican  war,  in  opposition  to  the  political  party  to 
which  he  belonged.  He  opposed  the  doctrines  of  the 
American  or  Know-Nothing  party,  in  1856  united  with 
the  Democrats,  and  supported  the  administration  of 
James  Buchanan.  He  was  again  elected  to  the  United 
States  senate  in  1862,  throughout  the  Civil  war  sus- 
tained the  national  government,  and  when  peace  was 
restored,  argued  in  favor  of  the  prompt  readmission 
of  the  Southern  States.  In  1868  he  was  appointed 
minister  to  Great  Britain,  as  a Democrat,  and  on  the 
accession  of  General  Grant  to  the  presidency  in  1869, 
was  succeeded  in  that  office  by  a Republican.  In  his 
international  negotiations  with  the  British  Government 
he  was  remarkably  successful.  On  his  return  from 
England  he  renewed  his  law  practice. 

JOHNSON,  Richard  Mentor,  born  in  Kentucky, 
October  17,  1781;  died  November  19,  1850.  He  was 
educated  at  Transylvania  University,  practiced  law, 
entered  the  State  legislature  in  1804,  and  three  years 
later  was  elected  to  congress  as  a Republican.  He  sat 
in  congress  for  twelve  years,  but  during  the  war  with 
Great  Britain  left  his  legislative  duties  to  assist  in  the 
campaign.  He  took  part  in  the  engagement  at  Chat- 
ham, Ontario,  and  at  the  battle  of  the  Thames,  Octo- 
ber 5,  1814,  killed  an  Indian  chief,  and  was  himself 
severely  wounded.  From  1819  to  1829  Mr.  Johnson 
served  in  the  United  States  senate,  and  from  1829  to 
1837  again  in  the  lower  house  of  congress.  He  was  a 
candidate  for  vice-president  on  the  ticket  with  Van 
Buren,  in  1836,  failed  to  obtain  a majority  of  the  elect- 
oral vote,  but  was  chosen  by  congress.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  legislature  of  Kentucky  at  the  time  of 
his  death. 

JOHNSON,  Rossiter,  author,  born  in  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  January 27, 1840;  was  graduatedat  the  University 
of  Rochester  in  1863.  From  1864  until  1868  he  was 
co-editor  of  the  Democrat,  a Republican  news- 

paper, and  from  1869  until  1872  edited  the  Concord 
(N.  H.)  Statesman . From  1873  until  1877  he  wasone 
of  the  editors  of  the  American  Cyclopaedia , and  in  1879- 
80  assisted  Mr.  Sidney  H.  Gay  in  preparing  the  last  two 
volumes  of  the  so-called  Bryant's  History  of  the 
United  States.  In  1883  he  became  editor  of  the  An- 
nual Cyclopcedia.  He  planned  and  edited  the  series 
of  Little  Classics  (18  volumes,  published  in  Boston, 
1874-75,  and  1880). 

JOHNSTON,  Alexander,  painter,  born  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1813;  first  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1836.  His  earlier  pieces  were  derived  from  Scottish' 
song  and  story,  The  Gentle'  Shepherd , exhibited  in 
1840,  and  Sunday  Morning , in  1841,  from  Burns;  The 
Covenanter's  Marriage,  in  1842;  and  The  Covenanter' s 
Burial,  in  1852.  The  Arrest  of John  Brown  the  Lollard 
was  painted  in  1856,  followed  by  The  Pressgang,  in 
1858,  which  was  published  for  the  Art  Union  of  Glas- 
gow; John  Bunyan  in  Bedford  Jail,  in  1861;  The 
Cotter's  Saturday  Night,  in  1863;  Robin  Adair,  in 
1864;  and  The  Child  Queen  and  Her  Four  Maries , in 
1866,  The  Flight  of  Mary  Modena , Charlotte  Corday 


and  Flora  Macdonald  were  all  painted  in  1869,  and  ex- 
hibited in  that  year’s  Royal  Academy  exhibition.  The 
last-named  was  bought  by  the  prince  of  Wales.  The 
Elopement  of  Dorothy  Vernon  was  exhibited  in  1871. 
The  Waif,  painted  in  1877,  is  now  in  the  Sidney  Na- 
tional Gallery.  He  died  January  13,  1891. 

JOHNSTON,  George,  M.D.,  F.R.G.S.,  fellow  and 
president  of  the  King  and  Queen’s  College  of  Physi- 
cians in  Ireland,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1814,  and 
studied  at  the  University  of  Dublin.  He  was  the 
author  of  Clinical  Reports  of  the  Rotunda  Lying-in 
Hospital,  Dublin,  during  his  seven  years*  mastership, 
from  1868  to  1875,  which  contain  a most  accurate  and 
valuable  body  of  statistics  on  obstetrical  subjects, 
and  of  other  medical  papers.  He  died  in  1889. 

JOHNSTON,  Joseph  Eccleston,  was  born  in 
Prince  Edward  county,  Va.,  February,  1807.  He  grad- 
uated at  the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point  in  1829, 
and  served  in  various  military  capacities,  chiefly  in  the 
topographical  engineers,  until  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
war,  at  which  time  he  was  made  quartermaster-general, 
with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  resigned  his 
commission  April  22,  1861,  and  entered  the  Confederate 
service  as  maj  or-general.  During  the  earlier  part  of  the 
campaign  of  1862  he  was  in  command  of  all  the  Con- 
federate forces  in  Virginia,  and  was  severely  wounded 
at  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  near  Richmond,  May  31st. 
In  November,  having  been  made  lieutenant-general,  he 
was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  military  depart- 
ment of  Tennessee,  and  in  the  following  spring  made 
an  ineffectual  effort  to  relieve  Vicksburg,  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi, which  was  then  besieged  by  General  Grant. 
After  the  defeat  of  General  Bragg,  at  Chattanooga, 
.November  25,  1863,  Johnston  was  assigned  to  the  com- 
mand of  all  the  Confederate  forces  in  the  Southwest, 
with  the  rank  of  general.  In  1864  he  was  at  the  head 
of  the  forces  which  opposed  Sherman  in  his  famous 
“march  to  the  sea.’*  Compelled  to  fall  back  from 
point  to  point,  the  authorities  at  Richmond  became 
dissatisfied,  and  on  July  17th  Johnston  was  ordered  by 
President  Davis  to  turn  over  his  command  to  General 
Hood.  Near  the  close  of  February,  1865,  when  Sher- 
man had  marched  into  South  Carolina,  Johnston,  at  the 
express  urgency  of  General  Lee,  was  directed  to  assume 
the  command  of  the  remnant  of  the  army  of  Tennessee, 
and  of  all  the  forces  in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and 
Florida,  to  “drive  back  Sherman.”  The  force  which 
he  could  concentrate  was  greatly  inferior  to  that  of 
Sherman,  and  he  was  unable  seriously  to  check  his 
march.  Having  learned  that  Lee  had  surrendered  the 
army  of  Virginia  to  Grant,  Johnston  capitulated  to 
Sherman  at  Durham’s  Station,  N.  C.  From  the  close 
of  the  war  until  1885  he  was  engaged  in  agricultural, 
commercial  and  railroad  enterprises.  In  March,  1885, 
he  was  appointed  commissioner  of  railroads  by  Presi- 
dent Cleveland,  which  position  he  was  deprived  of  in 
1889  by  President  Harrison.  He  published  a narrative 
of  military  operations  conducted  by  him  during  the  war 
-between  the  States.  He  died  March  21,  1891. 

JOHNSTON,  Richard  Malcolm,  an  American 
author,  was  born  in  Hancock  county,  Georgia,  March 
8,  1822.  He  was  professor  of  literature  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Georgia  before  the  war,  and  in  1867  removed 
to  Baltimore  county,  Maryland.  He  has  published,  in 
addition  to  contributions  to  periodicals,  a.  Life  of  Alex- 
ander H.  Stephens  (1878),  A History  of  English  Litera- 
ture (1879),  Dukesborough  Tales  (1883),  Old  Mark 
Langston  (1884),  Mr.  Absalom  Billings  lea  and  other 
Georgia  Folk  (1888),  Ogeechee  Cross-Firings  ( 1889), 
Widow  Guthrie  (1890),  Little  Ike  Templin  (1894),  and 
other  stories.  He  died  Sept.  23,  1898. 

JOHNSTON,  Wjluaj M.  P,  (known  as  Mr. 


JOH- 

Tohnston  of  Ballykilbeg),  born  in  Downpatrick,  Ire- 
land, February  22,  1829,  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  called  to  the  Irish  bar  in  1872,  and  has 
been  M.P.  for  Belfast  in  the  Conservative  interest,  1868- 
78,  and  since  1886.  He  was  Inspector  of  Irish  Fisheries 
1878-85.  Mr.  Johnston  was  imprisoned  for  two 
months  in  1868,  for  taking  part  in  an  Orange  procession, 
and  is  the  leading  Orangeman  in  Parliament.  He  is  the 
author  of  the  novels — Nightshade,  1857;  Freshfield  and 
Under  which  King  ? 1872. 

JOHORE,  Tunkoo  Abubeker  bin  Ibrahim, 
K.C.S.I.,  the  maharajah  of  Johore  (commonly  called 
the  Tumongong),  born  in  1835;  is  grandson  of  one 
of  the  Malay  princes  by  whom  the  island  of  Singapore 
was  first  ceded  to  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  as  political 
agent  for  the  British  Government,  and  succeeded  to  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Johore  territories  on  the  death  of  his 
father  in  1861.  He  is  one  of  the  most  enlightened 
princes  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  is  a firm  ally  of  the  British 
Government.  Died  June  4,  1895. 

JOINVILLE,  Prince  de  (Fran^ois-Ferdinand- 
Philippe-Louis-Marie-d’Orleans),  son  of  the  late 
Louis  Philippe,  king  of  the  French,  was  born  at  Neu- 
illy,  August  14,  1818.  Soon  after  his  father’s  accession 
to  the  throne  in  1830  he  began  his  naval  studies,  was 
sent  to  sea  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  and  passed  a brilliant 
examination  at  Brest.  • From  that  time  he  devoted  him- 
self entirely  to  his  profession,  and  became  a great  favor- 
ite with  the  French  navy.  Being  with  the  Mediterra- 
nean squadron  in  1837,  he  disembarked  and  rode  up  to 
Constantine,  in  the  hope  of  taking  part  in  the  storming 
of  that  stronghold,  but  arrived  just  too  late.  Not  long 
afterward  he  received  the  command  of  the  corvette 
Creole , and,  joining  the  fleet  of  Admiral  Baudin,  was 
intrusted  with  the  difficult  mission  of  obtaining  repara- 
tion from  the  Mexican  Government.  The  Creole  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  bombardment  of  St.  Juan  d’Ulloa. 
In  1841  he  was  selected  by  the  king  to  command  La 
Belle  Poule  frigate,  charged  with  the  service  of  convey- 
ing to  France  the  body  of  the  emperor  Napoleon,  and 
he  married,  at  Rio  Janeiro,  May  1,  1843,  Donna  Fran- 
cisca  de  Braganza,  sister  of  Dom  Pedro  II.,  emperor  of 
Brazil.  Becoming  rear-admiral,  he  took  part  in  the 
sittings  of  the  admiralty.  When  war  broke  out  between 
France  and  Morocco  he  commanded  a squadron,  with 
which  he  bombarded  Tangiers  and  took  Mogador. 
After  this  decisive  expedition  he  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  vice-admiral.  Being  almost  always  on  active  service, 
the  Prince  de  Joinville  was  in  Algiers  with  his  brother, 
the  Due  d’Aumale,  when  the  revolution  of  February, 
1848,  overthrew  the  constitutional  monarchy.  The  two 
brothers  sought  refuge  in  England,  and  joined  King 
Louis  Philippe  at  Claremont.  Died  June  16,  1900. 

He  had  already,  in  1844,  begun  publishing  in  the 
Revue  des  Deux  Mondes  his  studies  on  the  French  navy. 
One  of  his  articles,  published  in  1865,  was  a compara- 
tive review  of  the  fleets  of  the  United  States  and 
France,  and  excited  much  attention  at  the  time.  Hap- 
pening to  be  in  the  United  States  about  a twelvemonth 
after  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  war,  he  accompanied 
his  nephews,  the  Comte  de  Paris  and  the  Due  de 
Chartres,  to  the  camp  of  General  McClellan,  with  whose 
staff  he  witnessed  the  principal  actions  of  the  Virginian 
campaign  of  1862,  and  gave  an  account  of  these  events 
in  a well-written  and  impartial  article  published  in  the 
Revue  des  Deux  Mondes  in  1863.  After  the  downfall 
of  the  Napoleonic  dynasty,  he  went  back  to  France  with 
the  other  Orleanist  princes.  He  and  the  Due  d’Au- 
male took  their  seats  in  the  national  assembly,  De- 
cember 19,  1871,  but  he  was  finally  expelled  from 
France,  with  other  dynastic  pretenders,  and  now  re- 
sides in  England. 


-JON  6619 

jOKAY,  Maurus  (or  M6r),  the  most  productive 
and  genial  of  Hungarian  novelists,  was  born  February 
19,  1825,  at  Komorn.  For  two  years  before  his  father’s 
death,  in  1837,  he  had  been  learning  German  at  Pres- 
burg,  but  he  was  now  left  to  teach  himself,  until,  in 
1840,  he  went  to  the  high  school  at  Papa,  and  in  1842 
to  that  of  Kecskmet,  at  both  having  the  Hungarian  poet 
Alexander  Petofi  as  his  schoolfellow.  In  1844  he  went 
to  Pesth,  where  he  was  articled  to  an  advocate,  and 
obtained  his  diploma,  of  which,  however,  he  never 
availed  himself;  for,  in  1846,  he  was  already  editor  of 
the  then  very  famous  Wochenblatt.  In  1848  he  pro- 
claimed the  Twelve  Points  of  Pesth , and  in  the  same 
year  he  married  Rosa  Laborfalvi,  the  greatest  of  Hun- 
garian tragediennes.  In  1849  followed  the  Plungarian 
government  to  Debreczin,  where  he  edited  the  Abend - 
blatter,  and  was  present  at  the  capitulation  of  Villagos, 
August  28th,  and  at  last  got  safe  to  Pesth.  Ten  years 
followed,  during  which  Hungarian  literature  became 
well  nigh  extinct.  Almost  alone  this  young  man  cre- 
ated a new  one,  and  since  political  journalism  was 
impracticable  he  betook  himself  to  fiction.  He  has 
published  in  160  volumes  25  romances  of  several 
volumes  each,  320  novelettes,  and  6 dramas,  of  which 
more  than  500,000  copies  have  been  sold  among  6,000, - 
000  of  Magyars,  besides  translations  into  various  lan- 
guages. In  1863  Jokai  established,  as  an  organ  of  the 
Left,  the  Hon  ( Fatherland ),  the  most  widely  diffused 
Hungarian  journal.  His  jubilee  was  celebrated  in  1894. 

JOLIET,  Louis,  born  in  Quebec,  September  21, 
1645;  died  in  Canada  in  May,  1700.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Jesuit  College  of  Quebec.  In  1672  Governor 
Frontenac  and  Talon  made  an  effort  to  trace  the  course 
of  the  Mississippi  river,  which  was  then  supposed  to 
discharge  itself  into  the  Sea  of  California.  Joliet  was 
intrusted  with  this  enterprise,  for  which  he  was  pro- 
vided with  a canoe  and  an  assistant.  At  a Jesuit  mission 
the  two  were  joined  by  Father  Marquette  and  five 
others,  and  proceeded  as  far  as  Mackinaw,  December 
8,  1672.  Here  they  derived  some  information  from  the 
Indians,  enough  to  enable  them  to  make  a rough  out- 
line map  of  their  proposed  route.  The  party  then 
descended  the  Wisconsin  and  Illinois  rivers,  and  on 
June  17,  1673,  entered  the  Mississippi.  After  visiting 
several  Indian  villages  on  its  banks,  they  became  assured 
that  the  river  emptied  its  waters  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  began  their  return  journey.  They  reached 
Lake  Winnipeg  at  the  end  of  September,  where  they 
spent  the  winter  at  the  mission  of  St.  Francis  Xavier, 
and  in  1674  returned  to  Quebec.  On  the  way  Joliet 
lost  his  map  and  papers  by  the  upsetting  of  his  canoe  in 
the  Lachine  rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  He  was  there- 
after made  governor  of  the  colony,  and  was  married. 
About  1680  he  was  granted  Anticosti  Island,  where  he 
built  a fort,  which  was  destroyed  by  the  British,  and 
his  wife  taken  prisoner.  Later  Joliet  explored  Labra- 
dor, and  on  April  30,  1697,  was  granted  the  seigniory 
of  Joliet,  near  Quebec.  The  honor  of  the  earliest  ex- 
ploration of  the  Mississippi  remains  unsettled;  Joliet, 
Marquette,  and  LaSalle  each  have  their  advocates. 

JOLY,  Henry  Gustave,  born  in  France,  Decem- 
ber 5,  1829;  was  educated  in  Paris,  removed  to  Lower' 
Canada,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1855.  He  sat  in 
the  Canadian  assembly  from  1861  until  the  Union, 
when  he  was  elected  both  to  the  Dominion  parliament 
and  the  legislature  of  Quebec.  In  1874  he  retired 
from  parliament  but  continued  his  services  in  the  legis- 
lature. In  March,  1878,  he  became  premier  of  Que- 
bec, resigned  in  1879,  and  led  the  opposition  until 
1883. 

JONES,  Anson,  born  in  Massachusetts,  January  20, 

1798,  died  in  Houston,  Tax.,  January  8,  t8$&  H« 


6620 


JON- 

became  a physician  and  in  1833  settled  in  Texas,  then 
under  Mexican  domination.  He  prepared'  in  1835  the 
resolutions  of  a declaration  of  the  independence  of 
Texas,  raised  a military  organization  and  took  part  in 
the  war,  1836-37,  and  was  elected  to  the  Texan  con- 
gress. From  1837  to  1839  he  was  Texan  representa- 
tive at  Washington  ; afterward  president  of  the  Texan 
senate,  secretary  of  state,  1841-44,  and  president  of 
the  republic  from  1845  until  the  annexation  of  Texas 
to  the  United  States.  He  committed  suicide. 

JONES,  Henry  Arthur,  English  dramatist,  was 
born  September  20,  1851,  at  Granborough,  Bucking- 
ham. His  principal  dramas  are  the  The  Silver  King , 
Saints  and  Sinners , The  Middleman , Judah , Heart  of 
Hearts , The  Noble  Vagabond , Wealth  and  The  Danc- 
ing Girl.  The  Masqueraders  appeared  in  1893,  and 
The  Case  of  Rebellious  Susan  in  1894. 

JONES,  Hugh  Bolton,  artist,  born  in  Baltimore, 
in  1848;  studied  in  Europe,  in  1881  became  associate, 
and  in  1883  a member  of  the  National  Academy. 

JONES,  Jacob,  U.  S naval  officer,  born  at  Smyrna, 
Del.,  in  March,  1768;  he,  in  October,  1812,  while  in 
command  of  the  Wasp,  eighteen  guns,  captured  the 
British  ship  Frolic.  Another  English  ship,  the  Poictiers, 
of  seventy-four  guns,  recaptured  the  prize  and  the 
Wasp,  but  congress  gave  Commander  Jones  a vote  of 
thanks  and  a gold  medal,  and  gave  $25,000  to  the  offi- 
cers and  crew.  Jones  became  post-captain,  and  died 
in  Philadelphia,  August  3,  1850. 

JONES,  Morris  Charles,  F.S.A.,  was  born  in 
Montgomeryshire,  Wales,  May  9,  1819.  He  is  the 
author  of  numerous  genealogical  and  antiquarian  articles 
and  privately  printed  pamphlets,  and  of  The  Abbey  of 
Valle  Crucis:  its  Origin  and  Foundation  Charter, 
1866;  and  The  Feudal  Barons  of  Powys,  1868. 

JONES,  Sir  Horace,  born  May  20,  1819,  in  London, 
England.  He  traveled  in  France,  Italy,  and  Germany 
in  .*841  and  1842,  and  soon  after  his  return  to  England 
in  1843  began  practice  as  an  architect  and  surveyor  in 
London.  About  1847,  having  obtained  the  first  prize  in 
a public  competition,  he  was  appointed  architect  to  the 
town  hall  and  law  courts  in  Cardiff,  South  Wales. 
In  1855  and  1856  he  designed  and  erected  the  Royal 
Surrey  music  hall  to  contain  an  audience  of  nearly 
10,000  persons;  and  in  the  next  few  years  designed 
various  gentlemen’s  residences  and  public  and  commercial 
buildings.  In  February,  1864,  he  was  elected  architect 
to  the  corporation  of  the  city  of  London,  and  designed 
and  superintended  the  restoration  of  the  present  oak 
roof  at  the  Guildhall,  1864  and  1866;  also,  the  Guildhall 
library  and  public  reading  room.  Among  other 
works  designed  in  this  capacity  may  be  named  the 
Metropolitan  me?  t market,  the  poultry  market,  the 
vegetable  (temporarily  used  as  a fish)  market,  Billings- 
gate fish  market,  Deptford  cattle  market,  Leadenhall 
market,  Temple  Bar  memorial,  1878  (a  work  which 
has  not  been  regarded  with  unmixed  admiration),  new 
council  chamber  for  the  court  of  common  council 
(opened  in  1885),  and  the  Guildhall  school  of  music 
(lately  completed).  He  died  May  21,  1887. 

JONES,  William  Basil,  D.D.,  bishop  of  St. 
David’s,  was  born  in  England  in  1822.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Shrewsbury  school  under  Doctor  Butler  and 
Doctor  Kennedy,  and  he  was  thence  elected,  in  1840,  to 
a scholarship  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  where  he  ob- 
tained the  Ireland  University  scholarship  in  1842,  and 
took  his  B.A.  degree  with  second-class  honors  in 
classics  in  1844.  Subsequently  he  held  a Michel  fellow- 
ship at  Queen’s  College  and  a fellowship  at  University 
College.  He  became  tutor  of  the  latter  college  in  1854, 
and  held  various  university  offices.  The  queen  nomi- 
nated him  to  the  bishopric  of  St.  David’s,  when  the  see 


•JOW 

was  vacated  by  the  resignation  of  Doctor  Thirwall,  and 
he  was  accordingly  consecrated  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
August  24,  1874.  Died  Jan.  14,  1897. 

JONES,  Thomas  Wharton,  F.R.S.,  physiologist, 
born  at  St.  Andrews,  Scotland,  in  1808;  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Edinburgh;  settled  in  London  in 
1838,  and  entered  upon  the  practice  of  his  profession. 
He  is  a fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  and 
has  been  lecturer  on  physiology  at  the  Charing-Cross 
Hospital,  Fullerian  professor  of  physiology  in  the 
Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,  and  professor  of 
ophthalmic  medicine  and  surgery  in  University  Col- 
lege, London,  and  ophthalmic  surgeon  to  the  hos- 
pital. He  is  the  author  of  various  physiological  dis- 
coveries, recorded  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions 
and  elsewhere.  Facts  he  discovered  relating  to  the 
mechanism  of  the  extreme  vessels  and  the  course  of 
the  blood  in  them  have  greatly  elucidated  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  inflammatory  process. 

JORDAN,  David  Starr,  born  in  Gainesville,  N. 
Y.,  January  19,  1851 ; became  professor  of  biology  at 
Butler  University,  and  afterward  in  the  University  of 
Indiana,  and  president  of  Leland  Stanford  Junior  Uni- 
versity, California  in  1891.  He  has  written  extensively 
on  ichthyology  and  other  zoological  subjects. 

JORDAN,  Thomas,  born  in  Virginia,  September 
30,  1819  ; graduated  at  West  Point  in  1840,  and  served 
against  the  Seminole  Indians  and  in  Mexico.  He  re- 
signed his  United  States  army  commission  in  1861,  to 
become  adjutant-general  of  the  Confederate  forces  at 
Manassas  Junction.  He  was  afterward  chief  of  staff  to 
Beauregard  and  Bragg.  In  1869  he  joined  the  Cuban 
insurgent  army  as  a soldier  of  fortune,  but  returned  to 
this  country  the  following  year.  He  has  written  re- 
views of  military  operations  for  magazines.  He  died 
Nov.  27,  1895. 

JOULE,  James  Prescott,  F.R.S.,  was  born  at 
Salford,  near  Manchester,  England,  December  24,  1818. 
He  was  the  discoverer  of  the  laws  of  the  evolution  of 
heat,  and  of  the  induction  of  magnetism  by  electric 
currents,  and  of  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,  and 
was  the  originator  of  the  Kinetic  theory  of  gases.  In 
1850  the  Royal  Society  presented  him  with  the  royal 
medal,  and  in  1870  with  their  Copley  medal,  for  his 
experimental  researches  on  the  dynamical  theory  of 
heat.  He  received,  in  1880,  the  Albert  medal  of  the 
Society  of  Arts.  The  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  was 
presented  to  him  by  the  universities  of  Dublin  and 
Edinburgh  in  1857  and  1871,  and  the  honorary  degree 
of  D.C.L.  by  the  University  of  Oxford  in  1866.  He 
was  doctor  of  natural  philosophy  of  Leyden,  and  a 
member  of  a score  of  scientific  associations.  He  died 
in  Manchester,  England,  October  11,  1889. 

JOWETT,  Benjamin,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  was  born  at 
Camberwell  in  1817.  His  father,  who  died  at  Tenby 
in  1859,  was  the  author  of  a metrical  version  of  the 
psalms  of  David.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Paul’s  school; 
was  elected  to  a scholarship  at  Balliol  College,  Ox- 
ford, in  1835,  and  to  a fellowship  in  1838.  He 
was  tutor  of  Balliol  College  from  1842  to  1870, 
and  in  the  discharge  of  that  office  he  gained  the 
regard  of  many  pupils  and  friends.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  Regius  professorship  of  Greek  on  the 
recommendation  of  Lord  Palmerston,  in  1855.  Profess- 
or Jowett  wrote  an  able  commentary  on  the  Epistles  of 
St.  Paul  to  the  Thessalonians,  Galatians,  and  Romans; 
he  also  contributed  an  essay  on  the  interpretation  of 
scripture  to  Essays  and  Reviews . In  1570  he  was 
elected  master  of  Balliol  College,  and  in  1871  published 
a translation  of  the  Dialogue s of  Plato,  in  4vols.,  with 
introduction  (2nd  ed.  in  5 vols.  1875).  The  honorary 
degree  of  LL.D.  was  conferred' upon  him  by  the  Uut» 


662 


- J O Y - 

versity  of  Leyden  in  February,  1875,  and  by  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  at  its  tercentenary  in  1884. 
He  was  appointed  vice-chancellor  of  the  university  for 
the  four  years  1882-86.  He  died  October  1,  1893. 

JOY,  Charles  Arad,  born  in  Tompkins  county, 
N.  Y.,  October  8,  1823;  graduated  at  Union  and  Har- 
vard law  school,  and  studied  at  Berlin  and  Gottingen. 
He  became  professor  of  chemistry  at  Union  and  from 
1857  to  1877  held  a similar  chair  at  Columbia  College. 
In  1886  he  became  president  of  the  New  York  Academy 
of  Sciences.  He  died  May  29,  1891. 

JUAREZ-CELMAN,  Miguel,  born  in  Cordova, 
September  29,  1844;  entered  the  provincial  assembly, 
and  became  in  1880  governor  of  his  native  province, 
and  on  April  11,  1886,  was  elected  president  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  but  in  1890  was  forced,  by  a rev- 
olution, to  resign. 

JULIEN,  Alexis  Anastay,  born  in  New  York, 
February  13,  1840;  graduated  at  Union  College  in 
1859,  made  a geological  examination  in  the  Pacific 
islands,  apd  became  connected  with  the  Columbia 
School  of  Mines  as  instructor  and  demonstrator.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  New  York  Microscopical 
Society,  and  has  written  many  valuable  monographs. 

JUMEL,  Eliza  Bowen,  born  at  sea  in  1769;  died 
in  New  York  city,  July  16,  1865.  Her  mother’s  name 
was  Capet.  She  died  at  her  daughter’s  birth,  and  the 
child  was  adopted  by  a Mrs.  Thompson,  of  Newport, 
R.  I.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  she  eloped,  and  was 
married  to  Col.  Peter  Croix,  a British  officer.  The 
couple  settled  in  New  York  city.  After  the  death  of 
Colonel  Croix,  the  widow  was  married,  about  1801,  to 


KAHNIS,  Karl  Friedrich  August,  born  in  Ger- 
many, December  22,  1814;  was  educated  at  Halle, 
and  became  professor  extraordinary  at  Breslau.  He 
became  an  active  writer  on  Lutheran  theology,  and  in 
1850  became  professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic.  He  died 

KAIN,  John  Joseph,  born  in  West  Virginia,  May 
31,  1841 ; studied  at  St.  Mary’s  College,  Baltimore,  and 
was  ordained  as  a Roman  Catholic  priest  in  1866.  After 
holding  various  pastorates  he  was,  in  1875,  consecrated 
bishop  of  Wheeling. 

KALAKAUA,  David,  king  of  the  Sandwich  or 
Hawaiian  Islands,  was  born  about  1838.  He  belonged  to 
one  of  the  ruling  families  in  the  islands.  When  King 
Kamehameha  V.  died  in  1872,  there  were  two  candi- 
dates for  the  vacant  throne — David  Kalakaua  and  Wil- 
liam Lunalilo.  The  latter  was  elected  by  a plebiscitum, 
which  was  confirmed  by  the  legislature.  Lunalilo  died 
within  a twelvemonth,  and  Kalakaua  again  put  forward 
his  claims.  A legislature,  specially  convened  for  the 
purpose,  elected  him  in  February,  1874;  but  the  validity 
of  this  election  was  contested  by  Queen  Emma,  widow 
of  Kamehameha  IV.,  who  died  in  1863.  Queen  Emma 
was  the  laughter  of  a native  chief  by  an  Englishwoman, 
and  was  adopted  by  Doctor  Rooke,  an  English  phy- 
sician on  the  islands,  and,  before  her  marriage  with 
Kamehameha,  was  known  as  Emma  Rooke.  The  dis- 
pute threatened  to  result  in  a civil  war,  the  adherents 
of  Emma  hoping  that  the  British  Government  would 
refuse  to  acknowledge  Kalakaua,  who  was  presumed  to 
be  hostile  to  European  influence  in  the  islands;  but  in 
June,  1874,  Queen  Victoria  sent  a letter  to  Kalakaua, 
congratulating  him  upon  his  accession,  and  his  right 
was  then  admitted.  In  the  autumn  of  1874  he  decided 
to  visit  America  and  Europe,  and  the  United  States 
45-J 


-KAL 

Stephen  Jumel,  a French  wine  merchant;  with  him 
she  went  to  Paris,  where  she  spent  her  large  fortune. 
On  their  return  to  the  United  States  she  turned  her 
attention  to  the  accumulation  of  wealth,  and  succeeded 
so  well  that  before  long  she  regained  the  amount  dis- 
sipated. After  the  death  of  Jumel  she  had  occasion  to 
seek  legal  advice  from  Col.  Aaron  Burr,  with  whom 
she  had  had  a long  passing  acquaintance.  He  was  then 
seventy-eight  years  of  age.  In  1830  the  pair  were 
married.  After  the  wedding  she  gave  her  new  hus- 
band a large  sum  of  money  for  investment,  which  he 
lost  in  Texas  speculations.  Thereupon  she  filed  a com- 
plaint against  him,  a final  separation  ensued,  she  re- 
sumed her  former  name  of  “ Madame  Jumel,”  and  to 
her  end  continued  to  live  in  partial  retirement. 

JUNCKER,  Henry  D.,  born  in  France  in  1810; 
came  to  the  United  States  when  young,  and  in  1834 
was  ordained  priest  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  In 
1857  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Alton,  111.  He  died 
October  2,  1868. 

JUNEAU,  Laurent  S.,  born  in  Canada  in  1793; 
was  a French  fur-trader,  who  in  1816  settled  at  Macki- 
naw, and  five  years  later  was  the  first  white  settler  of 
what  is  now  Milwaukee,  Wis.  He  was  the  first  post- 
master and  first  mayor  of  that  city,  and  a park  there  is 
named  for  him.  He  died  November  14,  1856. 

JUNKER,  Wilhelm,  African  traveler,  born  in 
Moscow  of  German  parents  in  1845,  went  to  Africa  in 
1874  and  spent  1876-88  exploring  the  Makaraka  coun- 
try. A friend  of  Gordon  and  Stanley,  Dr.  Junker  threw 
much  light  on  “ Darkest  Africa.”  He^wrote  Reisen  in 
Africa , and  died  February  14,  1892. 


Government  dispatched  a steam  frigate  to  convey  him 
to  San  Francisco,  where  he  arrived  November  28th. 
In  July,  1887,  he  was  compelled  to  grant  a new  consti- 
tution. Pie  died  at  San  Francisco,  January  20,  1891. 

KALB,  John,  born  in  Germany,  July  29,  1721 ; died 
near  Camden,  S.  C.,  August  19,  1780.  His  father  was 
a peasant;  the  “de”  prefixed  to  his  name  is  unauthor- 
ized and  he  was  no  baron.  In  1 743  he  became  lieuten- 
ant in  the  French  army,  in  1747  rose  to  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general,  and  later  took  part  in  the  Seven 
Years’  war.  In  1768  he  visited  the  American  colonies  on 
behalf  of  the  French  Government,  and  made  an  engage- 
ment with  Benjamin  P'ranklin  and  Silas  Deane  to  take 
command  in  the  Continental  army.  On  June  3,  1777, 
in  company  with  LaFayette,  he  arrived  in  the  bay 
of  Georgetown,  and  was  promptly  appointed  by  con- 
gress a major-general.  He  was  with  the  army  at  Valley 
Forge,  and  served  in  New  Jersey  and  Maryland  until 
April,  1 780.  In  Carolina  General  Kalb  was  appointed 
to  command  the  Delaware  and  Maryland  troops,  and 
there  united  his  forces  with  those  of  General  Gates.  At 
the  battle  of  Camden  Kalb  commanded  the  American 
right,  which  was  surrounded.  Dismounted  and  bare- 
headed, he  had  a number  of  hand-to-hand  encounters, 
and  fell  pierced  by  eleven  wounds,  from  which  he  died 
three  days  afterward.  A monument  was  erected  to  his 
memory  in  1825,  by  the  people  of  Camden,  and  on 
August  16,  1886,  a statue  of  him  was  placed  in  front  of 
the  court-house  of  Annapolis,  Md. 

KALISCPI,  David,  born  in  Breslau,  Germany,  on 
February  23,  1820,  of  Jewish  parentage.  ,He  became  a 
correspondent  in  Paris  of  German  newspapers,  and  con- 
tributed to  Charivari  and  Kladderatsch,  the  French  and 
German  comic  weeklies.  He  died  at  Berlin,  August 
21,  1872, 


6622 


KAL-KAY 


KALISCH,  Marcus,  born  in  Prussia,  May  16,  1828; 
studied  at  Berlin  and  Halle,  but  was  compelled  to  leave 
Germany  during  the  political  troubles  of  1848.  In 
England  he  prepared  a critical  commentary  on  various 
portions  of  the  Old  Testament,  a Hebrew  grammar, 
and  other  works.  He  died  August  23,  1885. 

KALM,  Peter,  botanist,  born  in  Finland  in  1715; 
died  in  Abo,  Sweden,  November  16,  1779.  He  was 
educated  at  Upsala  and  Abo;  traveled  in  Russia,  and 
was  chosen  by  the  Academy  of  Science  at  Abo  to  make 
a botanical  tour  in  North  America.  In  1748  he  landed 
in  Philadelphia,  and  traveled  for  three  years  in  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Canada,  gathering  botanical 
specimens.  He  returned  to  Abo  in  1 751,  published  an 
account  of  his  travels ; was  created  a knight  of  the  order 
of  Vasa  and  chosen  a member  of  the  Stockholm  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.  The  evergreen  plant  “ Kalmia  ” was 
named  in  his  honor-.  In  addition  to  several  scientific 
works  he  published  A Voyage  to  Norfh  America ; Eng- 
lish translation,  London,  1772.  His  was  the  earliest 
work  to  give  an  extended  account  of  American  botany. 

KALNOKY,  Gustav,  Count,  born  in  Moravia, 
December  29,  1832;  entered  the  Austrian  diplomatic 
service,  in  which  he  held  several  important  posts,  and 
in  1881  became  prime  minister  of  the  Austro-Hunga- 
rian empire  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  He  is 
Austria’s  foremost  statesman.  He  died  Feb.  13,  1898. 

KANE,  Sir  Robert,  M.D.,bom  fn  Dublin  in  1810; 
was  educated  for  the  medical  profession.  In  1830  he 
obtained  the  prize  for  the  best  essay  on  the  pathologi- 
cal condition  of  the  fluids  in  typhus  fever,  Mr.  Kane 
became  a licentiate  in  1832,  and  was  elected  a fellow  of 
the  King  and  Queen’s  College  of  Physicians  in  Ireland 
in  1841.  He  resigned  his  professorship  in  1845,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Doctor  Aldridge.  In  1832  he  pro- 
jected the  Dublin  Journal  of  Medical  Science.  . He 
held  the  appointment  of  professor  of  natural  philosophy 
to  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  from  1834  till  1847,  and 
in  the  latter  year  the  Royal  Academy  awarded  him  the 
Cunningham  gold  medal  for  his  discoveries  in  chemistry. 
He  had  been  a member  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy 
from  1832,  was  placed  upon  its  council  in  1841,  and 
was  afterward  elected  its  secretary.  He  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Queen’s  College  of  Cork  in  1842.  In  1875 
he  was  elected  member  of  the  academic  council  of  the 
University  of  Dublin,  and  in  1876  president  of  the 
Royal  Irish  Academy.  In  1880,  on  the  formation  of 
the  Royal  University  of  Ireland  to  replace  the  Queen’s 
University,  of  which  he  had  been  elected  vice-chancel- 
lor, Sir  R.  Kane  was  appointed  by  the  crown  a member 
of  the  senate  of  the  new  university,  and  also  a member 
«f  the  Board  of  National  Education  for  Ireland.  He  i 
died  February  16,  1890. 

KAPP,  Friedrich,  born  in  Prussia,  April  13,  1824; 
studied  at  Heidelberg  and  Berlin,  and  practiced  law  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main.  In  1850  he  removed  to  New 
York,  where  he  carried  on  a law  business  and  acted  as 
commissary  of  emigration.  He  returned  to  Germany  in 
1870,  and  entered  the  German  Diet.  He  died  in  Berlin, 
October  27,  1884. 

KARR,  Jean  Baptiste  Alphonse,  author,  bom  at 
Paris,  November  24,  1808;  received  his  first  instructions 
from  his  father  and  afterward  entered  the  College 
Bourbon,  in  which  he  became  a teacher.  A copy  of 
verses  which  he  sent  to  the  satirical  journal  Figaro  in- 
troduced him  to  literary  life.  In  1832  he  published  a 
novel  written  in  his  youth,  Sous  les  Tilleuls , a melange 
of  irony  and  sentiment,  of  good  sense  and  trifling, 
which  at  once  made  him  popular.  Une  Heure  trop 
Tard  appeared  in  1833,  Vendredi  Soir  in  1835,  Le 
Ckemin  le  plus  Court  in  1836,  Einerley  and  Genevilve 
hi  1838,  and  Voyage  auteur  de  men  Jar  din  in  1845, 


followedby  numerous  other  works.  In  i839hebecame 
editor-in-chief  of  Figaro , and  the  same  year  founded 
Les  Guepes , a monthly  satirical  journal,  which  had  a 
remarkable  success.  After  the  revolution  of  1848,  M. 
Karr,  disgusted  with  political  life,  retired  to  Nice,  and 
continued  lor  some  years  to  write  occasionally  in  the 
Revue  des  Deux  Mondes  and  other  periodicals.  The 
publication  of  a complete  edition  of  this  author’s  works 
commenced  at  Paris  in  i860.  He  was  made  chevalier 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  April  25, 1845.  His  daughter, 
Mile.  Thdr£se  Karr,  has  written  Les  Soire'es  German - 
iques  offertes  d la  Jennesse , published  in  i860;  Les 
Huit  Grandes  Epoques  de  V Histoire  de  France , in  1861 ; 
Contre  un  Proverbe  and  Dieu  et  ses  Dons , in  1864,  and 
other  works.  He  died  September  30,  1890. 

KARSTEN,  Hermann,  born  at  Straslund,  Novem- 
ber 6,  1817;  became  professor  of  botany  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Berlin,  and,  in  1868,  in  that  of  Vienna.  He 
wrote  extensively  on  botany. 

KAUFMANN,  Constantin  P.,  born  in  the  Baltic 
province  of  Russia  in  1817;  entered  the  army  and 
served  as  an  engineer,  being  chief-of-staff  in  the  Cau< 
casus.  In  1864  he  became  governor-general  of  Wilna, 
and,  in  1868,  he  defeated  the  Emir  of  Bokhara,  and 
occupied  Samarcand.  Five  years  later  he  made  an  ad- 
vance on  Khiva,  which  he  occupied  in  June,  1873, 
He  died  May  15,  1882. 

KAUTZ,  August  V.,  born  in  Bavaria,  January  5, 
1828;  came  to  this  country  while  a child,  and  volun- 
teered from  Ohio  for  the  Mexican  war.  In  1848  he 
entered  West  Point  Academy,  served  (1852-60)  on  the 
frontier,  and  became  captain  of  regular  cavalry  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  war.  He  afterward  commanded 
a brigade  in  Kentucky,  and  in  the  armies  of  the  James 
and  the  Potomac.  After  the  war  he  became  lieutenant- 
colonel  and  colonel  of  the  8th  infantry. 

KAY,  Sir  Edward  Ebenezer,  was  born  July  2, 
1822,  at  Meadowcroft,  near  Rochdale,  England.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
graduated  B.A.  in  1844,  and  M.A.  in  1847.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln’s  Inn,  in  Trinity  term,  1847. 
He  published  Kay's  Reports  and  a part  of  Kay  and 
Johnson's  Reports;  he  obtained  the  honor  of  a silk 
gown  in  1866,  and  practiced  as  queen’s  counsel.  In 
April,  1878,  he  relinquished  the  leadership,  and  con- 
fined his  practice  thenceforward  to  the  House  of  Lords 
and  special  business.  He  was  appointed  a judge  of  the 
supreme  court,  March  30,  1881.  Died  Mar.  16,  1897. 

KAYSERLING,  M.,  born  in  Hanover,  Germany, 
June  17,  1829;  was  educated  there  and  at  the  University 
of  Berlin.  He  was  appointed  by  the  government  of 
Aargau,  in  1861,  rabbi  of  the  Swiss  Jews,  and  in  Sep- 
tember, 1870,  rabbi  and  preacher  of  the  Jewish  com- 
munity in  Pesth,  Hungary. 

KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH,  Sir  Ughtred  James, 
M.P.,  is  the  eldest  son  (born  1844)  of  the  late  Sir 
James  Phillips  Kay-Shuttleworth,  Bart,  D.C.  L.  Sir 
Ughtred  was  educated  at  Harrow,  at  home,  and  at  the 
London  University,  and  is  author  of  the  First  Princi- 
ples of  Modern  Chemistry  (the  second  edition  of  which 
was  published  in  1870).  In  October,  1869,  he  became 
a member  tor  Hastings.  His  maiden  speech  in  parlia- 
ment was  delivered  on  the  second  reading  of  the  ele- 
mentary education  bill  in  1870.  In  1874  he  was 
reelected  member  for  Hastings,  and  brought  before 
the  House  the  state  of  the  dwellings  of  working  people 
in  London,  which  resulted,  in  1875,  in  the  passing  of 
the  Artisans’  Dwelling  Act.  At  the  next  general  election 
(1880)  he  lost  his  seat  for  Hastings,  and  having  failed  at 
a bye-election  in  1881,  at  Coventry,  he  was  out  of  the 
House  of  Commons  till  he  was  returned  in  1885,  for  the 
Clitheroe  division  of  Northeast  Lancashire.  He  be- 


K E A — K EL 


6623 


came  under-secretary  for  India  when  Mr.  Gladstone’s 
third  administration  was  formed  in  1886.  At  the  gen- 
eral election  of  1886,  Sir  Ughtred  Kay-Shuttleworth 
was  returned  unopposed  for  Clitheroe,  as  a Gladston- 
ian  Liberal  and  reelected  in  1892. 

KEARNY,  Philip,  born  in  New  York  city,  June  2, 
1815,  died  near  Chantilly,  Va.,  September  1,  1862. 
He  was  graduated  at  Columbia,  and  studied  law,  but 
in  1837  became  first-lieutenant  in  the  1st  dragoons, 
commanded  by  his  uncle,  Col.  S.  W.  Kearny.  In 
1839  he  was  sent  to  Europe  by  the  war  department  to 
study  cavalry  tactics,  and  for  this  purpose  entered  the 
French  cavalry  school  at  Saumur.  After  six  months’ 
training  he  went  to  Algiers  as  a volunteer  in  the 
1st  chasseurs  d’Afrique,  made  the  passage  of  the  Atlas 
mountains,  and  was  concerned  in  several  engagements. 
In  1840  he  returned  to  the  United  States,  and  was  ap- 
pointed aide  to  General  Macomb,  and  later  served  on 
the  staff  of  Gen.  Winfield  Scott.  In  1845  he  accom- 
panied his  uncle,  General  Kearny,  on  the  march  to  the 
South  Pass.  During  the  war  with  Mexico,  in  1846,  he 
was  made  captain,  and  in  the  final  assault  on  the  capi- 
tal he  was  shot  in  the  left  arm,  which  necessitated 
amputation.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was  brevetted 
major.  Early  in  1851  he  went  to  California  and  Ore- 
gon, but  resigned  at  the  end  of  the  year.  In  1859  he 
served  with  the  French  army  in  Italy,  and  was  present 
at  the  battles  of  Magenta  and  Solferino.  In  1861,  soon 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war,  he  returned,  to  the 
United  States,  and  offered  his  services  to  the  country. 
He  was  made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  after  the 
battle  of  Bull  Run.  At  first  he  was  placed  in  General 
Franklin’s  division,  and  later  under  General  Heintzel- 
mann.  He  did  important  service  at  the  battle  of  Will- 
iamsburg, served  through  the  actions  in  the  Peninsula, 
and  acted  with  the  army  of  Virginia  from  the  Rapidan 
to  Warrenton.  On  July  7,  1862,  he  was  promoted 
major-general  of  volunteers.  At  the  second  battle  of 
Bull  Run  he  forced  Gen.  Thomas  J.  Jackson’s  corps 
back  against  General  Longstreet’s  men.  A short  time 
afterward,  at  Chantilly,  while  reconnoitering,  he  entered 
the  Confederate  lines  and  was  shot 

KEATING,  Sir  Henry  Singer,  born  near  Dublin 
in  1804;  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where 
he  graduated  M.  A.;  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner 
Temple  in  1832.  He  became  a Q.C.  and  bencher 
of  the  Inner  Temple  in  1849,  in  which  year  he  edited, 
jointly  with  Mr.  (afterward  Mr.  Justice)  Willes,  that 
great  legal  work,  Stnith's  Leading  Cases.  Mr.  Keat- 
ing was  returned  at  the  general  election  of  1852  one  of 
of  the  members  for  Reading,  as  a Liberal  in  favor  of 
vote  by  ballot  and  an  extension  of  the  suffrage,  and  op- 
posed to  the  Maynooth  grant  and  church-rates.  On 
the  resignation  of  Mr.  Stuart  Wortley  in  1857,  he  was 
appointed  solicitor-general,  and  received  the  honor  of 
knignthood;  in  1859  he  was  appointed  a second  time 
solicitor- general,  and  in  December  of  the  same  year  suc- 
ceeded Mr.  Justice  Crowder  as  judge  of  the  common 
pleas.  He  resigned  his  judgeship  February  1, 1875,  and 
on  his  rerirement  was  sworn  a member  of  the  privy 
council.  He  died  October  1,  1888. 

KEBBEL,  Thomas  Edward,  M.A.,  youngest  son 
of  the  Rev.  Henry  Kebbel,  was  born  November  23, 
1828,  and  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1849.  He  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1862.  Mr.  Kebbel’s  first  introduction  to 
journalism  was  in  1855,  when  he  was  invited  to  join  the 
staff  of  the  Press  newspaper,  the  weekly  organ  of  the 
Tory  party.  In  1867,  when  the  Day  newspaper  was 
started  by  Mr.  James  Hutton,  Mr.  Kebbel  was  engaged 
as  the  leading  political  writer  in  support  of  the  Con- 
servative Reform  bill.  Since  that  time  Mr.  Kebbel  has 
been  a writer  in  the  principal  publications  of  the  day — 


the  Quarterly , Fortnightly , Nineteenth  Century , and 
National  reviews,  the  Corn  hill,  Fraser , and  Macmil- 
lan's magazines,  and  in  several  of  the  daily  papers. 

KEENE,  Laura,  a popular  actress,  who  was  born 
in  England,  in  1820,  and  died  in  Montclair,  New  Jer- 
sey, November  4,  1873.  She  first  visited  the  United 
States  in  1852,  established  the  Keene,  afterward  the 
Olympic  theater  in  New  York,  in  1858,  brought  out  in 
that  year  “ Our  American  Cousin,”  with  Joe  Jefferson 
and  the  elder  Sothern  in  the  cast,  organized  the  Laura 
Keene  Company,  and  was  presenting  “ Our  Ameri- 
can Cousin”  at  Ford’s  theater,  Washington,  when 
President  Lincoln  was  shot,  April  14,  1865. 

KEIFER,  Joseph  Warren,  born  in  Clark  county, 
Ohio,  January  30,  1836;  graduated  at  Antioch  College, 
and  began  the  practice  of  law  in  Springfield,  Ohio.  He 
entered  the  volunteer  service  as  a major  and  was 
mustered  out  a major-general  of  volunteers.  In  1868- 
69  he  served  in  the  State  Senate,  and  in  1876  entered 
congress,  where  he  served  until  1885.  From  Decem- 
ber, 1881,  until  March  3,  1883,  he  acted  as  speaker  of  the 
House. 

KEITH,  Alexander,  born  in  Scotland  in  1795,  died 
in  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  December  14,  1873. 

1817  he  began  business  in  Halifax,  of  which  he  was  three 
times  mayor.  He  sat  for  thirty  years  from  1843  in  the 
legislative  council,  and  was  in  1867  president  of  the  upper 
house  of  the  Nova  Scotian  legislature. 

KEITH,  Sir  William,  lieutenant-governor  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  Delaware,  born  near  Peterhead,  England, 
in  1680;  died  in  London,  November  18,  'I749.  His 
father  was  a Scottish  baronet.  Keith  was  made  sur- 
veyor-general of  the  customs  for  the  southern  district  of 
North  America,  and  as  such  lived  in  Virginia;  under 
the  later  rule  of  the  Whig  party  he  was  recalled.  PIow- 
ever,  he  had  been  popular  with  the  colonists,  and  after 
two  years’  negotiation  for  reinstatement  he  returned, 
newly  accredited,  on  May  31,  1717.  After  his  father’s 
death,  in  1 720,  he  succeeded  to  the  baronetcy.  At  about 
that  time  he  became  unfaithful  to  the  proprietary  trust, 
which  led  to  much  disturbance  in  the  province,  and 
he  was  superseded.  In  March,  1728,  he  fled  from  his 
creditors,  and  clandestinely  embarked  at  New  Castle  for 
Europe,  to  avoid  their  pressing  demands.  Arrived  in 
England  in  November,  1728,  he  presented  to  the  govern- 
ment “ a short  discourse  on  the  present  state  of  the 
colonies  in  America,  with  respect  to  the  interest  of 
Great  Britain.  ” In  London  he  was  for  some  time  im- 
prisoned for  debt,  and  became  utterly  forsaken.  He 
published  a number  of  essays  (London,  1740).  His 
colonial  history  of  Virginia  was  published  by  the  Society 
for  the  Encouragement  of  Learning  in  1738. 

KELLEY,  Benjamin  F.,  born  in  New  Hampshire, 
April  10,  1807;  entered  the  volunteer  army  as  colonel 
from  Virginia,  and  was  several  times  wounded.  He 
commanded  in  West  Virginia  in  1863,  and  received  the 
brevet  of  major-general  in  March,  1865.  After  the 
war  he  held  various  federal  offices.  Hediedjuly  16,1891. 

KELLEY,  William  D.,  born  in  Philadelphia,  April 
12,  1814;  practiced  law  and  became,  in  1845-46,  attor- 
ney general  of  Pennsylvania.  From  1846  to  1856  he 
was  judge  of  the  common  pleas.  Originally  a Demo- 
crat, he  joined  the  Republican  party  at  its  formation 
and  became  an  ardent  advocate  of  abolition.  From 
i860  to  the  end  of  1889  he  represented  his  district  in 
congress,  and  was  serving  his  fifteenth  term  at  the  time 
of  his  death,  in  January,  1890,  being  then  the  senior 
member  of  the  House  in  continuous  service.  He  was  a 
strong  protectionist,  and  from  his  frequent  speeches  upon 
the  tariff  in  its  relation  to  the  iron  industry,  was  popu- 
larly known  as  “ Pig-Iron  Kelley.  ” 

KELLOGG,  Clara  Louise*  was  born  at  Sumter* 


K E L — K E N 


6624 

ville,  South  Carolina,  July,  1842.  In  1843  her  parents 
returned  with  her  to  Connecticut,  where  they  remained 
until  1856,  when  they  went  to  New  York.  At  an 
early  age  she  gave  evidence  of  musical  talent,  and  after 
some  years  of  careful  study  made  her  first  appearance 
at  the  Academy  of  Music  in  New  York  in  i860.  After 
four  more  years  of  study,  she  appeared  as  “Marguerite” 
in  Gounod’s  Faust , in  the  season  of  1864-65,  when  she 
vindicated  her  title  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  best 
artists  of  her  time.  Her  success  was  not  less  complete 
in  Crispino,  as  “ Linda  di  Chamounix,  ” in  the  Barber  of 
Seville , La  Somnambula,  Lucia  di  Lammermoor , and 
other  operas,  within  the  next  two  years.  On  Novem- 
ber 2,  1867,  she  made  a successful  debut  in  London  as 
“ Marguerite  ” in  Faust.  She  returned  to  the  United 
States  in  1868.  In  1872  she  again  visited  England, 
appearing  at  the  Drury  Lane  opera  house.  In  the 
winter  of  1873-74' she  organized  a company,  and  has 
since  that  time  appeared  in  English  operas  and  con- 
certs in  the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States.  She 
married  Carl  Strakosch  in  1887,  retiring  from  the  stage. 

KELLOGG,  William  Pitt,  born  in  Vermont, 
December  8,  1831,  removed  to  Illinois  in  1848,  and 
practiced  law  in  Fulton  county.  In  1861  he  was  ap- 
pointed chief  justice  of  the  Territory  of  Nebraska,  but 
later  in  the  year  he  entered  the  volunteer  service.  In 
April,  1865,  he  was  appointed  collector  of  the  port  of 
New  Orleans,  and  from  1868  to  1871  he  served  as 
United  States  senator  from  Louisiana.  His  election  as 
governor  in  1872  was  contested,  and  considerable 
trouble  ensued.  The  McEnery  party  appealed  to 
arms  and  the  difficulty  was  only  settled  by  the  inter- 
ference of  United  States  troops.  Mr.  Kellogg  retained 
his  office,  although  impeached  by  the  State  legislature, 
and  in  1877  he  was  again  elected  to  the  United  States 
senate.  From  1883  until  1885  he  sat  in  the  House  of 
Representatives. 

KEMBALL,  General  Sir  Arnold  Burrowes, 
K.C.  B.,  K.C.S.  I.,  born  in  1818;  was  educated  for  his 
profession  at  Addiscombe,  and  received  his  first  com- 
mission as  second  lieutenant  in  the  Bombay  artillery, 
December  11,  1837.  His  battery  formed  part  of  the 
army  of  the  Indus  under  Lord  Keane,  and  with  it  he 
served  in  the  first  campaign  in  Afghanistan,  1838-9. 
He  was  appointed  as  assistant  political  resident  in  the 
Persian  Gulf  m 1842,  where  he  was  employed  in  various 
political  duties  for  twenty-eight  years,  and  acquired  a 
special  and  valuable  experience  of  Turkish  and  Persian 
affairs,  and  mastery  of  the  Turkish,  Persian,  and  Arabic 
languages.  He  was  made  political  resident  in  the 
Persian  Gulf  in  1852,  and  consul-general  at  Bagdad  and 
political  agent  in  Turkish  Arabia  in  1855.  He  took 
part  in  the  Persian  expedition  in  1857,  under  Sir  James 
Outram.  For  his  services  in  the  Persian  war,  Captain 
Kemball  was  rewarded  with  the  medal  and  clasp,  a 
brevet-majority,  and  the  C.B.  In  1866  he  was  nomi- 
nated to  the  second  class  of  the  Star  of  India,  and  in  1874 
was  promoted  to  general -officer’s  rank. 

KEMBLE,  Frances  Anne,  daughter  of  Charles 
Kemble,  and  niece  of  Mrs.  Siddons,  was  born  in  New- 
man street,  London,  November  27, 1809.  She  made  her 
first  appearance,  October  5,  1829,  as  “ Juliet,”  at  Covent 
Garden  theater,  then  under  the  management  of  her 
father.  Venice  Preserved  was  revived,  December  9th, 
in  that  year,  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  her  as  “ Bel- 
videra;”  and  she  sustained  the  parts  of  the  “ Grecian 
Daughter,”  “Mrs.  Beverly,”  “Portia,”  “Isabella,” 
“Lady  Townley,”  “ Calista,”  “Bianca,”  “Beatrice,” 
“Constance,”  “Lady  Teazle,”  “Queen  Catherine,” 
“ Louise  of  Savoy”  in  Francis  /.,  “ Lady  Macbeth,”  and 
“ Julia  ” in  the  Hunchback.  In  1832  she  visited  America, 
and,  with  her  father,  performed  with  great  success  at 


the  principal  theaters  of  the  United  States.  An  account 
of  these  wanderings  is  given  in  her  Journal  of  a Resi- 
dence in  A merica  (1835).  At  this  period  she  became  the 
wife  of  Mr.  Pierce  Butler,  a planter  of  South  Carolina, 
from  whom  she  obtained  a divorce  in  1839.  She  resumed 
her  maiden  name,  and  retired  to  Lenox,  Mass.,  where 
she  resided,  with  the  exception  of  a year  spent  in  Italy, 
for  nearly  twenty  years.  From  1869  to  1873  she  was  in 
Europe.  She  then  returned  to  America,  but  later  re- 
sided in  London,  where  she  died  January  15,  1893. 

KEMPE,  John  Edward,  M.A.,  born  March  9,  1810, 
was  educated  at  St.  Paul’s  School  and  Clare  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1833  as  a senior 
optime,  and  first  class  in  classics,  and  M.A.  in  1837. 
He  was  appointed  curate  of  Tavistock,  Devon,  in  1833, 
and  elected  a fellow  of  his  college  in  1841.  In  1861  he 
was  appointed  by  Bishop  Tait  to  the  prebendal  stall  of 
Chamberlainewood,  in  St.  Paul’s;  in  1864  he  became 
one  of  her  majesty’s  chaplains,  and  in  1868  he  was 
elected  one  of  the  proctors  in  convocation  for  London, 
being  reelected  in  1874.  In  1880  he  retired  from  con- 
vocation. He  is  a rural  dean  of  the  diocese. 

KENDAL,  Mrs.  Margaret  Brunton  actress, long 
known  to  the  public  as  “ Madge  ” Robertson,  and  more 
recently  as  the  wife  of  Mr.  William  Hunter  Ken- 
dal (ve^e  Grimston),  the  actor;  was  born  at  Great 
Grimsby,  Lincolnshire,  March  15,  1849.  Her  grand- 
father, her  father,  and  her  uncle  were  all  actors.  H er 
brother  was  the  dramatist,  T.  W.  Robertson.  Miss 
Robertson’s  debut  in  London  was  made  on  July  29, 
1865,  when  she  appeared  at  the  Haymarket  as  “ Ophelia  ” 
to  the  “ Hamlet”  of  Walter  Montgomery,  and  in  the 
following  month  she  played,  at  the  same  theater,  “ Des- 
demona  ” to  the  “ Othello  ” of  Ira  Aldridge.  In  1867 
Miss  Robertson  returned  to  town,  appearing  at  Drury 
Lane  on  Easter  Monday  as  “ Edith  ” in  Andrew  Halliday’s 
Great  City.  On  March  14,  1868,  she  made  her  first 
decided  hit  in  the  metropolis,  as  “ Blanche  Dumont,” 
in  Dr.  Westland  Marston’s  Hero  of  Romance.  August 
7,  1869,  Miss  Robertson  was  married  to  Mr.  William 
Hunter  Grimston,  who  on  the  stage  is  known  by  his 
assumed  name  of  Kendal.  In  the  ensuing  five  years 
she  appeared  at  the  Haymarket  as  “ Galatea  ” in  Pyg- 
malion and  Galatea , as  “Selene”  in  The  Wicked 
World,  and  as  “Mrs.  Van  Brugh  ” in  Charity.  The 
creation  of  the  character  of  “ Lilian”  gave  Mrs.  Kendal 
a position  among  the  leading  comediennes  of  the  day. 
In  January,  1875,  she  began  a short  engagement  at  the 
Opera  Comique.  Afterward  she  joined  the  Prince  of 
Wales’  theater,  then  under  the  management  of  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Bancroft,  where  her  greatest  triumph  was  that 
which  she  achieved  as  “ Dora  ” in  the  adaptation  from 
M.  Sardou  called  Diplomacy . In  1881  she  joined  the 
company  at  the  St.  James’ theater,  under  the  joint  man- 
agement of  Mr.  Kendal  and  Mr.  Hare.  In  1890  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Kendal  played  a highly  successful  engagement 
in  the  United  States,  which  they  have  repeated  annually. 
They  played  The  Second  Mrs.  Tanqueray  and  Lord 
Clancarty  in  1894-95. 

KENDALL,  Amos,  born  in  Dunstable,  Mass., 
August  16,  1789;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  Novem- 
ber 11,  1869.  He  entered  Dartmouth  and  was  graduated 
in  1811;  studied  law,  removed  to  Lexington,  Ky., 
and  was  for  a short  time  tutor  in  the  family  of  Henry 
Clay.  He  then  was  appointed  postmaster  of  George- 
town, Ky. , edited  the  local  paper  and  in  1816  became 
co-editor  of  the  Argus  of  Western  America , a demo- 
cratic newspaper  published  at  Frankfort,  Ky.  In  1824 
he  supported  the  nomination  of  Gen.  Andrew  Jackson 
for  the  presidency,  and  in  1829  was  appointed  fourth 
auditor  of  the  United  States  treasury;  in  1835  he  was 
appointed  postmaster-general  President  Van  Buren 


KEN 


retained  him  in  office,  from  which  he  retired  in  1840. 
In  1841  and  1842  he  established  two  newspapers,  and  in 
1845  he  was  connected  with  Professor  Morse  in  the 
ownership  of  patents,  by  which  he  became  wealthy. 
He  was  the  originator  of  the  Washington  deaf  and 
dumb  asylum. 

KENDRICK,  Asahel  Clark,  born  in  Vermont, 
December  7,  1809  ; graduated  and  taught  at  Hamilton, 
and  in  1854  became  professor  of  Greek  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Rochester.  . He  acted  as  a member  of  the  com- 
mittee on  the  revision  of  the  New  Testament,  and  is  the 
author  of  several  educational  works  and  volumes  of 
selections. 

KENNAN,  George,  bom  in  Norwalk,  Ohio, 
February  16,  1845  ; became  a telegraph  operator,  and 
located  a route  for  the  Russo- American  telegraph  line 
between  Behring  Strait  and  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  In 
1885-86  he  made  a tour  through  Siberia,  for  the  pur- 
ose  of  investigating  the  Russian  convict  prisons,  the 
orrors  of  which  he  has  graphically  described  in  a series 
of  magazine  articles. 

KENNEDY,  Alexander  William  Maxwell 
Clark,  was  born  at  Rochester,  England,  September  26, 
1851.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  where,  at  the  age  of  six- 
teen, he  published  The  Birds  of  Berkshire  and  Bucking- 
hamshire; a Contribution  to  the  Ornithology  of  the  two 
Counties , 1868,  by  an  “Eton  Boy.”  He  entered  the 
Coldstream  guards  in  1870,  became  captain  in  1874, 
and  retired  the  same  year.  He  is  the  author  of  various 
poems  and  verses,  and  of  a work  of  travels,  To  the 
Arctic  Regions  and  Back  in  Six  Weeks , 1878. 

KENNEDY,  Benjamin  Hall,  DID.,  born  at  Sum- 
mer Hill,  near  Birmingham,  November  6,  1804.  He 
graduated  B.A.  as  senior  classic  and  senior  chancel- 
lor’s medalist  in  1827,  was  elected  fellow  and  classical 
lecturer  of  St.  John’s  College  in  1828,  became  an  assist- 
ant master  at  Harrow,  under  Doctor  Longley,  in  1830, 
and  was  appointed  head  master  of  Shrewsbury  School, 
vacant  by  the  promotion  of  Doctor  Butler  to  the  see  of 
Lichfield,  in  1836.  Doctor  Kennedy  has  contributed 
largely  to  the  Sabrince  Corolla , 1850,  3d  ed.  1866; 
and  has  published  The  Psalter  in  English  Verse,  i860, 
2d  ed.  1877;  The  Public  School  Latin  Grammar , 
1871,6th  ed.  1882;  The  Birds  of  Aristophanes,  trans- 
lated into  English  Verse , 1874;  a school  edition  of  Vir- 
gil, 1876,  3d  ed.  1881.  He  died  in  1889. 

KENNEDY,  John  Pendleton,  author,  born  in 
Baltimore,  Md.,  October  25,  1795;  died  in  Newport, 
R.  I.,  August  18,  1870.  He  was  graduated  at  Balti- 
more College  in  1812,  in  1814  took  partin  the  defense  of 
Bladensburg,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  practice 
in  1814.  In  1820  he  was  chosen  a member  of  the  State 
legislature,  where  he  served  three  years.  In  1838  he 
was  elected  to  congress  as  a Whig;  and  in  1840  served 
as  one  of  the  presidential  electors  on  the  Harrison 
ticket.  In  1852  Mr.  Kennedy  was  appointed  secretary 
of  the  navy,  and  as  such  zealously  pushed  forward  Com- 
modore Perry’s  Japan  expedition  and  Doctor  Kane’s 
second  polar  voyage.  At  the  expiration  of  his  term  of 
office  he  retired  permanently  from  politics.  During 
the  Civil  war  he  supported  the  National  cause. 

KENNION,  George  Wyndham,  D.D.,  bishop  of 
Adelaide,  born  about  1846;  was  educated  at  Oriel  Col- 
lege, Oxford  (B.A.  1867,  M.A.  1871).  He  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1869,  and  priest  in  the  following  year.  On 
November  30,  1882,  he  was  consecrated,  in  West- 
minster Abbey,  bishop  of  Adelaide,  in  succession  to 
Doctor  Short,  who  had  resigned  the  see,  which  comprises 
the  whole  of  South  Australia. 

KEN  RICK,  Peter  Richard,  D.D.,  Roman  Cath- 
olic archbishop  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  was  bom  in  Dublin, 
In  1806.  He  was  educated  at  Maynooth,  and  ordained 


6625 

a priest  in  Ireland,  but  soon  afterward  came  to  Phila- 
delphia, where  his  brother  (the  late  archbishop  of  Bal- 
timore) was  then  coadjutor  to  the  bishop.-  Here  he 
edited  the  Catholic  Heracd  for  several  years,  and  pub- 
lished various  works,  original  and  translated.  He  was 
also  made  vicar-general  of  the  diocese.  In  1841  Bishop 
Rosati,  of  St.  Louis,  requested  his  nomination  as  his 
coadjutor  with  the  right  of  succession.  He  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Drasa  in  partibus , and  coadjutor  of 
St.  Louis,  November  30,  1841.  In  1843,  on  the  death 
of  Bishop  Rosati,  Doctor  Kenrick  became  bishop  of  St. 
Louis,  and  in  1847  the  first  archbishop  of  that  city. 
He  has  been  very  successful  in  promoting  the  interests 
of  the  see,  having  established  a large  hospital,  au 
orphanage,  two  magnificent  convents,  numerous  schools 
and  charitable  institutions,  and  one  of  the  most  ex- 
tensive and  beautiful  cemeteries  in  the  United  States. 
Besides  the  translations  already  referred  to,  and  edi- 
tions of  devotional  works,  the  archbishop  has  published 
The  Holy  House  of  Loretto;  or,  an  Examination  of 
the  Historical  Evidence  of  Its  Miraculous  Translation; 
also  Anglican  Ordinations.  Archbishop  Kenrick  was 
present  at  the  Vatican  council,  and  was  reported  to 
have  maintained  the  inopportuneness  of  defining  the 
dogma  of  papal  infallibilty.  He,  however,  acquiesced 
in  the  definition,  and  published  it,  together  with  the 
other  decrees  of  the  council.  Died  March,  1896. 

KENSETT,  John  Frederick,  painter,  born  in 
Cheshire,  Conn.,  March  22,  1816;  died  in  New  York 
city,  December  16,  1872.  In  1840  he  went  to  England, 
where  he  became  employed  as  an  engraver,  and  devoted 
much  of  his  time  in  studying  the  art  of  design.  In 
1845  he  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy  of  London  his 
earliest  painting,  Windsor  Castle.  He  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  spent  two  years,  and  completed  a number  of 
Italian  landscapes.  His  View  on  the  Arno  and  Shrine , 
exhibited  at  the  National  Academy  in  New  York  city  in 
1848,  established  his  reputation  as  an  artist.  In  1848 
he  returned  to  New  York  city,  where  he  became 
permanently  located.  In  1849  he  was  made  an 
academician,  and  in  1859  was  appointed  a member  of 
the  commission  to  superintend  the  decoration  of  the 
capitol  at  Washington. 

KENT,  William  Charles  Mark  (known  as 
Charles  Kent),  was  born  in  London,  November  3, 
1823.  From  an  early  age  he  adopted  literature  as  a 
profession,  and  has  produced  a number  of  volumes  of 
poems,  essays,  and  stories.  He  was  for  twenty-five 
years  editor  of  the  Sun  newspaper,  and  for  seven  years 
(1874-81)  editor  of  the  Roman  Catholic  publication,  the 
Weekly  Register.  He  has  edited  the  works  of  Lamb, 
Burns,  and  Moore,  and  the  late  Lord  Lytton,  and  has 
published  a number  of  articles,  essays,  pamphlets,  etc., 
under  various  assumed  names,  besides  some  theological 
works  of  which  Corona  Catholica  is  the  best  known. 

KENTON,  SIMON,  pioneer,  born  in  Fauquier  county, 
Va.,  April  3,  1755;  died  in  Logan  county,  Ohio,  April 
29,  1836.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  had  an  affray  wit1' 
another  youth  about  a love  affair.  In  the  belief  that  he 
had  slain  his  antagonist  in  the  encounter  he  fled  into  ih® 
wilds  beyond  the  mountains,  where  for  a time  he  wai 
known  as  Simon  Butler.  Here  he  came  in  contact  with 
Simon  Girty  and  other  traders,  hunters,  and  backwoods- 
men, and  eventually  he  joined  Daniel  Boone  as  a huntei 
and  explorer.  Later,  he  was  employed  by  the  co. 
lonial  governor,  Dunmore,  as  a spy,  and  among  othei 
daring  exploits  saved  the  life  of  Boone.  In  1778  he 
joined  Gen.  George  R.  Clark  at  the  falls  of  the  Ohio, 
and  was  with  him  at  the  surprise  of  Kaskaskia.  He 
was  captured  by  the  Indians  during  that  year  and  taken 
prisoner  to  the  British  commander  at  Detroit,  from 
whom  he  escaped.  In  1 782  he  visited  his  native  place. 


66 26 


KEO- 

and  in  1784  went  back  with  his  parents  to  Kentucky, 
settling  near  Maysville.  Thereafter  he  was  actively 
engaged  in  conflicts  with  the  Indians  until  peace  was  es- 
tablished in  1793.  Previously  Kenton  had  been  pro- 
moted major.  In  1805  he  became  brigadier-general  of 
Ohio  militia,  and  in  1813  fought  at  the  battle  of  the 
Thames.  In  1824  he  appeared  in  Frankfort,  Ky.,  be- 
fore the  legislature,  in  tattered  garments,  petitioning  for 
relief,  which  was  granted,  and  an  annual  pension  of 
$240  procured  for  him  from  congress. 

KEOKUK,  chief  of  the  Sacs  and  Foxes,  born  on 
Black  river,  Illinois,  about  1780;  died  in  Kansas  in  June, 
1848.  .He  was  of  the  tribe  of  Sacs,  and  rose  to  distinction 
during  the  war  of  1812.  Opposed  to  the  sway  of  Black 
Hawk  and  other  chieftains,  he  sided  with  the  whites, 
and  on  several  occasions  succeeded  in  quieting  his  turbu- 
lent followers.  After  the  capture  of  Black  Hawk  in 
1832,  Keokuk  was  formally  recognized  as  the  head  chief 
cf  the  Sacs  and  Foxes.  In  1837,  in  company  with  sev- 
eral minor  chieftains,  he  visited  Washington,  when 
peace  was  made  between  his  people  and  their  old-time 
adversaries,  the  Sioux.  Later,  this  party,  in  company 
with  Black  Hawk,  visited  the  principal  cities  of  the 
Union.  In  1832  the  United  States  Government  gave 
the  Indiansa  reserve  of  forty  miles  square  on  Iowa  river, 
and  in  1845  they  were  removed  to  Kansas.  In  1848  he 
was  poisoned  by  an  Indian  of  the  Black  Hawk  band. 

KEPPEL,  Sir  Henry,  admiral,  born  June  14,  1809, 
entered  the  British  navy  at  an  early  age,  was  made  lieuten- 
ant in  1829,  and  commander  in  1833.  command  of  the 
Childers,  sixteen  guns,  he  served  on  the  south  coast  of 
Spain  during  the  civil  war  of  1834-35,  afterward  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  was  made  captain  in  1837,  and 
commanded  the  Dido  from  1841  till  1845;  he  served  in  the 
Baltic  and  in  the  Black  Sea,  and  having,  in  July,  1855, 
exchanged  into  the  Rodney,  seventy-four  guns,  obtained 
command  of  the  naval  brigade  before  Sebastopol. 
After  the  fall  of  that  stronghold  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land and  was  appointed  to  the  Colossus.  He  com- 
manded a division  of  boats  at  the  destruction  of  the 
Chinese  war  fleet  in  the  Fatshan  creek,  June  1,  1857, 
for  which  service  he  was  made  a K.C.B.  He  re- 
turned to  England  in  December,  1869,  on  attaining  the 
rank  of  full  admiral,  and  was  made  D.C.L.  of  Oxford 
in  1870.  He  was  created  a G.C.B.  in  1871,  and  he  be- 
came an  admiral  of  the  fleet  in  1877. 

KEPPLER,  Joseph  Ferdinand,  born  in  Vienna, 
Austria,  February  2,  1838;  removed  to  the  United 
States  in  1869,  ar>d  in  1873  established  a weekly  illus- 
trated paper,  Puck,  of  which  he  was  the  principal  carica- 
ture artist.  He  died  February  19,  1894. 

KERATRY,  Emile,  Comte  de,  was  born  at  Paris, 
March  20,  1832,  of  an  ancient  Breton  family.  Having 
completed  his  studies  at  the  Lyceums  of  St.  Louis 
and  of  Louis-le-Grand,  he  entered  as  a volunteer  the 
1st  regiment  of  chasseurs  d’Afrique  in  1854,  went 
through  the  Crimean  campaign,  removed  successively  to 
the  1st  regiment  of  spahis  and  of  cuirassiers,  and  in 
1859  was  appointed  sous-lieutenant  in  the  5th  regiment 
of  lancers.  In  1861  he  exchanged  into  the  3rd  regi- 
ment chasseurs  d’Afrkpie,  in  order  that  he  might 
make  the  campaign  in  Mexico.  The  Comte  de  Keratry 
was  several  times  mentioned  in  the  Order  of  the  Day 
in  Africa  and  Mexico.  On  his  return  to  France  he  de- 
voted himself  to  literary  pursuits,  and  contributed  to 
the  Revue  Contemporaine  a remarkable  series  of  articles 
on  the  Mexican  expedition  in  which  he  severely  attacked 
the  government  and  the  conduct  of  Marshal  Bazaine. 
Soon  afterward  he  became  editor  of  the  Revue  Moderne, 
In  which  periodical  he  continued  his  accusation.  In 
1869  he  was  returned  by  the  electors  of  Brest  to  the 
Corps  ldgislatif,  when  he  associated  himself  with  the 


-K  E R 

new  Liberal  tiers-parti.  On  the  establishment  of  the 
government  of  the  national  defense  in  Septemper,  1870, 
he  was  made  prefect  of  police ; but  in  the  following 
month  he  escaped  from  Paris,  then  besieged,  in  a bal- 
loon, and  proceeded  on  a diplomatic  mission  to  Madrid, 
where,  soon  afterward,  he  was  replaced  by  M.  Edmond 
Adam.  He  is  the  author  of  Le  Contre-Guerilla,  1867  ; 
La  Creance  Jecker,  1867;  D Elevation  et  la  Chute  de 
Maximilien , 1867;  a work  on  French  events  entitled 
Le  4 Septembre  et  le  Gouvernement  de  la  Defense  Na- 
tionale,  1871  ; Armee  de  Bretagne,  1870-71,  published 
in  1874;  and  Mourad  V.,  prince,  sultan,  prisonnier 
d'etat , 1878. 

KERN,  J.  Conrad,  statesman,  was  born  in  1808, 
in  the  market-town  of  Berlingen,  near  Arenenberg,  in 
the  canton  of  Thurgau,  Switzerland.  After  studying 
at  the  gymnasium  of  Zurich,  he  proceeded  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Basle,  to  study  theology,  which  he  gave  up, 
became  a law  student,  and  finished  his  education  in  the 
schools  of  Berlin,  Heidelberg,  and  Paris.  From  1837 
he  performed  in  his  canton  the  duties  of  president  of 
the  supreme  court  of  judicature,  and  those  of  president 
of  the  council  of  education.  He  was,  from  1833,  under 
the  old  compact  as  under  the  new  federal  constitution, 
regularly  chosen  representative  of  his  canton  in  the 
diet  or  in  the  national  assembly.  In  1838  the  French 
Government  insisted,  through  its  ambassador,  the  duke 
of  Montebello,  on  the  extradition  of  Prince  Louis 
Napoleon,  who  with  his  mother,  Queen  Hortense,  had 
for  some  time  resided  in  the  canton  of  Thurgau.  In  the 
diet,  Doctor  Kern  .protested  against  the  right  of  any 
power  to  interfere  with  the  hospitality  of  his  canton,  or 
with  the  liberty  of  a Swiss  citizen  ; and  on  his  return  to 
Thurgau  to  render  to  the  town  council  an  account  of 
the  deliberations  of  the  diet,  he  urged  his  fellow-citizens 
not  to  allow  themselves  to  be  intimidated  by  the 
menaces  of  France.  Doctor  Kern  had  the  satisfaction 
to  return  to  the  diet  with  the  unanimous  votes  of  his 
canton  in  favor  of  his  principle.  As  president  of  the 
ficole  Polytechmque  of  Zurich,  he  did  much  for  that 
valuable  institution.  Died  April  15,  1888. 

KERR,  Michael  Crawford,  born  in  Titusville, 
Penn.,  March  15,  1827;  died  *n  Virginia,  August  19, 
1876.  He  removed  to  Indiana  in  1852,  practiced  law, 
and  in  1856  was  elected  to  the  State  legislature.  From 
1864  to  1872  he  served  in  congress  as  a Democrat,  and 
in  the  last-named  year  was  defeated  for  congressman-at- 
large.  Reelected  for  his  own  district  in  1874,  he  was 
chosen  speaker  of  the  House  December  6,  1875,  but 
his  health  failed,  and  he  died  a few  months  later. 

KERSHAW,  Joseph  Brevard,  born  in  Camden, 
S.  C.,  January  5,  1822;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1843, 
and  served  in  the  State  senate  and  State  convention  of 
i860.  He  raised  a regiment  for  the  Confederate  army, 
and  commanded  it  at  Bull  Run,  and  lost  half  his  bri- 
gade at  Gettysburg.  Becoming  a major-general  he 
commanded  a division  of  Lee’s  army,  and  surrendered 
at  Sailor’s  Creek,  April  6,  1865.  He  afterward  served 
in  the  State  senate,  and  in  1S77  was  elected  a circuit 
judge.  He  died  April  13,  1894. 

KERVYN  DE  LETTENHOVE,  Joseph  Marie 
BrIjno  Constantin,  a Belgian  statesman  and  historian, 
born  at  St.  Michel,  near  Bruges,  August  17,  1817. 
From  an  early  age  he  devoted  himself  to  historical  and 
antiquarian  studies.  He  has  been  for  many  years  a 
member  of  the  Chamber  of  Representatives,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  as  a supporter  of  the  Conserva- 
tive or  Catholic  party.  When  that  party  came  into 
power  in  July,  1870,  he  accepted  office  under  Baron 
d’An£than  as  minister  of  the  interior,  and  retained  that 
post  until  the  resignation  of  the  ministry  in  December, 
1871.  M.  Kervyn  de  Lettenhove  is  the  author  ot 


KES- 

a French  translation  of  the  select  works  of  Milton, 

Histoire  de  Flandre,  an  £tude  sur  les  Chroniques  de 
Froissart , and  Jacques  d' Artevelde,  8vo,  Ghent,  1863. 
He  has  also  edited  Les  Cronikes  des  Comtes  de 
Flandres , Bruges,  1849.  M.  Kervyn  de  Lettenhove, 
who  is  a member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Belgium, 
was  elected  in  1863  a member  of  the  French  Academy 
of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences  in  the  section  of  gen- 
eral and  philosophical  history.  Died  April,  1891. 

KESHUB  CHUNDER  SEN  (Baboo),  a Hindu  who 
renounced  the  Brahminical  caste,  and  became  a leader 
of  the  reformed  “ Brahma  Somaj,”  a theocratic  relig- 
ious society.  He  was  born  at  Bengal  in  1838,  and  died 
at  Calcutta  in  January,  1884. 

KEY,  David  McKendree,  born  in  Tennessee, 
January  27,  1824;  practiced  law,  and  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Civil  war  entered  the  Confederate  service.  After 
the  war  he  was  a member  of  the  State  constitutional 
convention  and  chancellor  of  the  third  division,  which 
latter  office  he  held  until  1875.  From  December,  1875, 
until  January  29,  1877,  he  sat  in  the  United  State  sen- 
ate, and  from  1877  until  1880  was  postmaster-general 
in  the  Hayes  cabinet.  In  1880  he  became  judge  of  the 
eastern  and  middle  districts  of  Tennessee. 

KEY,  Francis  Scott,  author,  born  in  Frederick 
county,  Md.,  August  9,  1780;  died  in  Baltimore,  Md., 
January  11,  1843.  His  father  was  a Revolutionary 
officer.  He  was  educated  at  St.  John’s  College,  studied 
law  in  the  office  of  his  uncle  at  Annapolis,  commenced 
practice  in  Frederick  City,  Md.,  and  soon  afterward 
removed  to  Washington  city,  where  he  was  appointed 
attorney  for  the  District  of  Columbia.  Being  detained 
by  the  British  fleet  during  the  bombardment  of  Fort 
Henry,  near  Baltimore,  Sept.  13,  1814,  he  wrote  those 
Jtirring,  popular  verses,  The  Star  Spangled  Banner , 
which  has  become  one  of  our  national  lyrics.  They 
were  made  complete  on  his  return  to  Baltimore,  arranged 
to  be  sung  to  the  air  “ Anacreon  in  Heaven,”  and  soon 
widely  diffused  throughout  the  United  States.  A col- 
lection of  Mr.  Key’s  “ poems  ” was  published,  with  an 
introductory  letter  by  Roger  B.  Taney  (New  York,  1857). 

KEY,  Admiral  Sir  Astley  Cooper,  was  born  in 
1821,  and  educated  at  the  Naval  College,  Portsmouth, 
where  he  obtained  the  first  medal  and  a lieutenant’s 
commission  in  the  navy,  which  he  entered  in  1835.  He 
was  junior  lieutenant  of  the  Gorgon  in  1844,  and  was 
officially  mentioned  for  rescuing  her  on  being  stranded 
at  Monte  Video.  In  1845  was  wounded  in  the  ac- 
tion of  the  Obligado  while  in  command  of  the  Fanny. 
After  three  years’  service  in  the  Bulldog , on  the  coasts 
of  Italy  and  Sicily,  Commander  Key  was  made  a cap- 
tain in  1850.  He  served  in  command  of  the  Amphion 
during  the  Baltic  campaign,  taking  part  in  the  capture 
of  the  forts  of  Bomarsund,  and  other  operations. 
When  the  honors  were  distributed,  he  was  nominated 
a C.B.  He  passed  to  the  Excellent  in  1863,  and  found 
himself  in  first  charge  of  the  great  development  of  the 
iron-plate  and  the  heavy  gun.  The  great  changes  in 
gunnery -necessitated  the  creation  of  a new  office  at 
Whitehall,  and  Captain,  afterward  Rear-Admiral  Key, 
filled  the  post  of  director-general  of  navy  ordnance  un- 
til 1869,  when  he  became  superintendent  of  Portsmouth 
dockyard.  He  was  promoted  vice-admiral  in  1873,  and 
admiral  in  1878.  In  1879  he  was  appointed  principal 
naval  aide-de-camp  to  the  queen.  The  University  of  Ox- 
ford conferred  on  him  the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L. 
in  1880 ; and  for  his  services  in  the  Egyptian  expedi- 
tion of  1882  he  was  made  a G.C.B.  Sir  A.  Cooper 
Key,  from  1879,  held  the  office  of  second  lord  of  the 
admiralty  under  two  successive  administrations,  and 
was  sworn  in  as  privy  councilor  in  1884.  He  died 
March  3,  1888. 


- K I E 6627 

KEYES,  Erasmus  Darwin,  born  in  Massachusetts, 
May  29,  1810  ; was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1832, 
served  on  frontier  and  garrison  duty,  and  as  instructor 
of  cavalry  and  artillery  at  West  Point,  and  was  ap- 
pointed major  in  1858.  He  served  throughout  the  Civil 
war  and  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  but  resigned  in 
1864  and  engaged  in  business  in  California.  Died,  1895. 

KIDD,  William,  navigator,  born  in  Scotland  about 
1654;  died  in  London,  England,  May  24,  1701.  His 
father  was  a dissenting  clergyman.  The  son  went  to 
sea  at  an  early  age,  became  captain  of  a ship,  and  en- 
gaged in  privateering  against  the  French  in  the  West 
Indies.  In  1695  the  ear^  °f  Bellmont,  governor  of  the 
province  of  New  York,  desiring  to  suppress  the  piracy 
then  prevalent,  organized  a company  that  bought,  in 
England,  a new  vessel,  the  Adventure , a galley  of  287 
tons,  carrying  thirty-four  guns.  Kidd  at  that  time 
was  living  in  New  York  city  in  comfortable  circum- 
stances, and,  after  considerable  deliberation,  was  chosen 
its  commander.  He  sailed  for  England  to  select  his 
crew,  but  failing  to  find  his  complement  left  Plymouth 
on  April  23,  1696,  and  visited  New  York,  where  he 
found  many  volunteers.  On  his  way  home,  when  of? 
Newfoundland,  he  captured  a French  fishing  vessel, 
and  brought  his  prize  with  him.  On  September  6th, 
with  a crew  of  154  men,  he  sailed  for  the  coast  of 
Madagascar,  at  that  time  a noted  piratical  resort. 
Gradually  it  became  rumored  that  Captain  Kidd  had 
made  friends  of  the  pirates,  and  orders  were  sent  to  the 
governors  of  all  English  colonies  to  apprehend  him. 
He  remained  cruising  off  the  east  coast  of  Africa  about 
a year,  without  reporting  any  captures,  which  was  un- 
. satisfactory  and  looked  suspicious.  Then  his  turbulent 
crew  induced  him,  for  the  sake  of  “booty,”  piratically 
to  attack  and  capture  an  East  Indiaman,  the  Quidcih 
Merchant.  Burning  his  own  galley,  he  transferred  his 
men  and  stores  to  the  prize.  Later  he  seized  other 
vessels.  In  April,  1699,  Captain  Kidd  arrived  in  the 
West  Indies,  secured  his  ship  in  a lagoon  on  the  island 
of  Saona,  southeast  of  Hayti,  and,  in  a sloop  called 
San  Antonio , of  fifty-five  tons,  with  forty  men,  sailed 
for  the  inner  coast  of  Long  Island.  From  there  he 
sent  a message  to  Lord  Bellmont,  then  in  Boston,  ask- 
ing for  assurance  of  safety.  Kidd  was  finally  en- 
couraged to  go  to  Boston,  where  he  arrived  July  1, 
1699.  A week  later  he  was  arrested,  tried,  and,  with 
some  of  his  men,  sent  to  England.  He  was  charged 
with  piracy,  murder,  and  brutality  on  several  occasions; 
in  particular,  with  killing  one  of  his  gunners,  William 
Moore.  In  self-justification,  Kidd  pronounced  the  man 
a mutineer,  and  the  killing  done  in  self-defense.  In 
London,  where  he  arrived  April  1,  1700,  his  trial  was 
long  delayed.  He  was  not  allowed  counsel,  nor  proper 
facilities  for  defense;  moreover,  the  evidence  against 
him  seems  to  have  been  insufficient.  Nevertheless,  he 
was  found  guilty  of  murder  and  piracy,  and  hanged  on 
May  24,  1701. 

KIEFT,  William,  governor  of  the  New  Nether- 
lands, born  in  Holland  about  1600;  died  off  the  coast 
of  Wales  in  1647.  He  was  the  fifth  Holland  governor 
of  New  Netherlands,  and  arrived  in  the  colony  on  the 
Herring , March  28,  1638.  He  had  been  a merchant 
in  Holland,  was  sent  on  a mission  to  Turkey  and  was 
said  to  have  misappropriated  government  funds.  In 
1640  he  erected  the  first  colonial  brewery  on  Staten 
Island.  Among  other  ordinances  he  forbade  selling 
arms  and  powder  to  the  Indians.  He  also  escaolished 
two  annual  cattle  fairs,  erected  a stone  tavern  on  the 
comer  of  Pearl  street  and  Crentie’s  slip,  fronting  the 
East  river,  and  a stone  church  inside  the  fort.  Kieft’s 
severities  against  the  Indians  caused  considerable 
trouble  to  the  colony.  In  1643  made  a raid  on  the 


6628 


K I E — KIN 


Mohawks  at  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  and  later,  the  Indians  of 
Long  Island,  aroused  to  enmity,  threatened  the  exist- 
ence of  the  colony.  Finally,  the  burghers  of  New 
Amsterdam  petitioned  the  home  government  for  his 
recall,  and  celebrated  his  departure  with  salutes  of 
artillery.  On  August  16,  1647,  he  sailed  for  Holland, 
and  his  ship  was  lost  at  sea. 

KIEPERT,  Heinrich,  born  in  Berlin,  July  31, 
1818;  became  director  of  the  Weimar  Geographical 
Institute,  and  made  scientific  explorations  in  Asia 
Minor.  In  1859  he  became  professor  in  the  University 
of  Berlin.  He  has  written  extensively  on  geography 
and  Egyptology. 

KILPATRICK,  Hugh  Judson,  born  near  Dock- 
ertown,  N.  J.,  January  14,  1836;  died  in  Valparaiso, 
Chili,  December  4,  1881.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in  1861,  was  appointed 
captain  of  volunteers  on  May  9th,  and  promoted  first 
lieutenant  of  artillery  in  the  regular  army  on  May  14th. 
In  the  action  at  Big  Bethel  he  was  wounded.  In 
August  he  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  of  a regiment  of 
cavalry.  In  January,  1862,  he  went  to  Kansas  as  chief 
of  artillery,  under  command  of  General  Lane.  Later 
he  rejoined  his  regiment  in  Virginia,  where  he  was 
resent  in  several  skirmishes,  and  served  in  the  second 
attle  of  Bull  Run.  On  June  13,  1863,  he  was  pro- 
moted brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Gettysburg,  and  earned  the  brevet  of  lieuten- 
ant-colonel in  the  regular  army.  Thereafter  he  led  in 
several  raids,  notably  toward  Richmond,  in  the  Penin- 
sula. In  May,  1864,  he  took  part  in  the  invasion  of 
Georgia,  as  commander  of  a cavalry  division  of  the  army 
of  the  Cumberland,  and  on  May  13th  was  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Resaca.  Throughout  the  war  he  was  particu- 
larly useful  as  a raider  on  the  enemy.  He  was  brevet- 
ted  colonel  for  bravery  at  Resaca,  and,  November  30, 
1864,  promoted  captain  of  artillery  in  the  regular  army. 
For  capturing  Fayetteville,  N.  C.,  and  services  through- 
out the  Carolina  campaign,  he  was  brevetted  major- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  resigned  his  commission  in 
the  regular  army  in  1867.  In  1865  he  had  been  ap- 
pointed minister  to  Chili,  and  continued  in  that  office 
until  1868.  Thereafter  he  spent  some  time  delivering 
lectures.  In  March,  1881,  he  was  again  appointed 
minister  to  Chili. 

KIMBALL,  Heber  C.,  born  in  Franklin  county, 
Vt.,  June  14,  1801;  died  in  Utah  in  June,  1868.  He 
joined  the  church  of  Latter-day  Saints  in  1832,  was  or- 
dained an  elder  by  Joseph  Smith,  and  in  February, 
1835,  became  one  of  the  so-called  “Twelve  Apostles.” 
He  was  one  of  the  pioneers  who  crossed  the  plains  to 
Salt  Lake,  and,  until  his  death,  he  held  high  rank  in 
the  Mormon  hierarchy. 

KIMBALL,  James  Putnam,  born  at  Salem,  Mass., 
April  26,  1836;  studied  at  Harvard,  Berlin,  and  Gottin- 
gen, and  became  connected  with  the  geological  surveys 
of  Wisconsin  and  Illinois.  He  served  during  the  Civil 
war  on  the  staffs  of  McClellan,  Burnside,  Hooker,  and 
Meade.  In  1874  he  became  honorary  professor  of 
geology  in  Lehigh  University,  and  in  1885  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  the  United  States  mint.  He  is  a 
member  of  various  scientific  societies,  and  has  written 
on  geology  and  metallurgy. 

KIMBALL,  Richard  B.,  born  in  New  Hampshire, 
October  11,  1816;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College,  and 
practiced  law  in  New  York  city.  He  was  the  author  of 
many  stories  and  sketches,  and  also  edited  a magazine. 
He  founded  a town  in  Texas,  named  after  him,  and  was 
many  years  president  of  the  first  railroad  in  that  State, 
which  was  built  by  him.  He  died  December  28,  1892. 

KIMBERLEY,  Earl  of  (The  Right  Hon.  John 
Wodehouse,  K.G.),  born  January  7,  1826;  was  edu- 


cated at  Eton  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he 
graduated  B.A.  in  1847,  taking  a first  class  in  classical 
honors.  He  succeeded  his  grandfather  as  third  Baron 
Wodehouse,  May  29,  1846,  and  was  raised  to  the  earl- 
dom of  Kimberley,  June  1,  1866.  In  December,  1852, 
he  accepted  the  post  of  under-secretary  of  state  for 
foreign  affairs,  which  he  held  under  Lords  Aberdeen 
and  Palmerston  until  1856,  when  he  was  appointed 
envoy  at  St.  Petersburg.  He  returned  from  Russia  In 
1858,  and  resumed  his  post  as  under-secretary  for  foreign 
affairs  in  Lord  Palmerston’s  second  administration, 
June  19,  1859,  retiring  August  14,  1861.  In  1863  he 
was  sent  on  a special  mission  to  the  north  of  Europe, 
with  the  view  of  obtaining  some  settlement  of  the 
Schleswig-Holstein  question;  and  in  1864  was  appointed 
under-secretary  for  India.  In  October  of  the  same 
year  he  succeeded  the  late  earl  of  Carlisle  in  the  lord- 
lieutenancy  of  Ireland,  resigning  that  post  on  the  fall 
of  Lord  Russell’s  second  administration,  in  July,  1866. 
He  held  the  office  of  lord  privy  seal  in  Mr.  Gladstone’s 
administration  from  December,  1868,  to  July,  1870, 
and  that  of  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies  from  the 
latter  date  until  the  retirement  of  Mr.  Gladstone  in 
February,  1874.  He  was  reappointed  secretary  of  state 
for  the  colonies  on  Mr.  Gladstone’s  return  to  power  in 
May,  1880;  and  in  June,  1882,  he  was  also  appointed  to 
hold  provisionally  the  seals  of  the  office  of  chancellor  of 
the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  resigned  by  Mr.  Bright.  On 
December  16,  1882,  he  received  from  the  queen  the 
seals  of  the  office  of  secretary  of  state  for  India,  which 
he  held  till  June,  1885,  and  to  which  he  was  reappointed 
on  the  formation  of  Mr.  Gladstone’s  third  government 
in  February,  1886,  and  again  in  August,  1892,  holding 
this  post  until  March,  1894,  when  he  was  appointed  for- 
eign secretary.  He  died  April  8,  1902. 

KIMBERLY,  Lewis  Ashfield,  born  in  Troy, 
N.  Y.,  April  2,  1830;  entered  the  United  States  navy  as  a 
midshipman  in  1846;  became  lieutenant  in  1855,  and 
during  the  Civil  war  served  in  the  western  gulf  block- 
ading squadron.  He  was  commissioned  commander  in 
July,  1866;  commodore  in  1884,  and  rear-admiral  in 
January,  1887. 

KING,  Charles,  born  in  New  York  city,  March 
16,  1789;  son  of  Rufus  King;  became  a member  of  the 
New  York  legislature,  and  from  1823  to  1849  edited  the 
New  York  American.  From  1849  until  1864  he  was 
president  of  Columbia  College.  He  died  in  Italy,  Sep- 
tember 27,  1867. 

KING,  Clarence,  born  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  Jan- 
uary 6,  1842;  graduated  at  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School 
of  Yale  in  1862,  and  for  several  years  assisted  in  the 
geological  survey  of  Colorado  and  the  Rocky  mount- 
ains. From  1867  to  1872  he  had  charge  of  a second 
expedition  to  the  Cordilleras,  and  from  1878  to  1881  he 
had  charge  of  all  the  national  surveys.  He  is  a member 
of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences.  Died  Dec.,  1901. 

KING,  Edward,  D.D.,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  was 
born  about  the  year  1829,  and  was  educated  at  Oriel 
College,  Oxford  (B.A.  1851,  M.A.  1855).  He  was  or* 
dained  deacon  in  1854  and  priest  1855.  In  1858  he  was 
appointed  chaplain  and  assistant  lecturer  of  Cuddesdon 
College,  and  from  1863  to  1873  he  was  principal  of  the 
college.  In  1873  he  became  canon  of  Christ  Church,  Ox- 
ford,  and  regius  professor  of  pastoral  theology,  in  which 
position  he  exercised  a wide  influence  throughout  the 
university.  On  the  death  of  Dr.  Christopher  Words- 
worth in  1885,  Doctor  King  was  appointed  to  the  bishop- 
ric of  Lincoln,  and  was  consecrated  in  Lincoln  Cathe- 
dral. Doctor  King  is  a pronounced  High  Churchman. 

KING,  John  H.,  born  in  Michigan  in  1818,  was  ap- 
pointed second  lieutenant  of  infantry  in  the  regular  army 
m 1837,  and  served  in  Florida  and  Mexico.  During  th» 


K I N — K I R 


Civil  war  he  was  engaged  at  Shiloh,  Corinth,  and  Mur- 
freesboro, and  from  April,  1863,  until  the  end  of  the 
struggle  commanded  a brigade  of  regular  troops.  He 
received  all  brevets  up  to  major-general  of  volunteers ; 
was  brevetted  colonel  United  States  army  for  gallantry 
at  Chickamauga,  and  afterward  brigadier  and  major- 
general.  In  1865  he  was  commissioned  colonel  of  the 
9th  United  States  infantry,  and  on  February  6,  1882, 
he  was  retired  from  active  service.  He  died  April  7, 1 888. 

KING,  Rufus,  born  in  Scarborough,  Me.,  1755; 
died  in  New  York  city,  April  29,  1827.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1 777;  studiedlaw  in  Newburyport,  Mass., 
and  in  1780  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1784  he  was 
sent  as  a delegate  to  the  congress  sitting  at  Trenton, 
N.  J.,  and  again  in  1785  and  1786.  He  was  also  one 
of  the  commissioners  to  settle  the  boundary  line  between 
Massachusetts  and  New  York.  In  1788  he  removed  to 
New  York  city,  where  he  was  prominent  as  a Federal- 
ist, and  was  elected  to  the  first  United  States  senate. 
In  1795  he  was  reelected,  and  in  the  following  year  ap- 
ointed  minister  to  Great  Britain,  which  position  he 
eld  for  eight  years.  After  his  return  to  the  United 
States  in  1804  he  resided  at  Jamaica,  L.  I. ; in  1813  he 
was  again  elected  to  the  United  States  senate,  and  ree- 
lected in  1819.  When  Missouri  applied  for  admission 
as  a slave  State  Mr.  King  acted  in  opposition  thereto, 
and  resisted  Henry  Clay’s  compromise.  In  March, 
1825,  he  was  for  the  second  time  appointed  minister  to 
Great  Britain,  but  ill  health  compelled  his  return  in 
the  year  following. 

KING,  Samuel  Archer,  a noted  aeronaut,  born 
‘near  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  August  7,  1828;  in  1849  con- 
structed a balloon,  and  in  1851  made  his  first  ascension 
from  Philadelphia.  He  has  made  300  voyages,  trav- 
ersing nearly  the  entire  country  and  has  often  been  ac- 
companied by  United  States  signal  service  men,  be- 
sides other  scientists,  who  have  made  many  important 
observations  from  his  balloon. 

KING,  Thomas  Starr,  born  in  New  York  city, 
December  17,  1824;  died  March  4,  1863.  At  first  a 
clerk  and  teacher,  he  studied  under  Hosea  Ballou  and 
in  September,  1845,  delivered  his  first  sermon  in  Wo- 
burn, Mass.  He  then  preached  for  a Universalist 
society  in  Boston,  and  in  July,  1846,  went  to  his 
father’s  former  church  in  Charlestown.  He  preached 
at  Hollis  Street  Unitarian  church,  Boston,  from  1848 
to  i860,  when  he  settled  in  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

KING,  William  Rufus,  born  in  North  Carolina, 
April  6,  1786;  died  in  Alabama,  April  18,  1853.  He 
graduated  at  the  University  of  North  Carolina  in  1803  ; 
practiced  law  and  was  elected  to  the  legislature  of  his 
native  State.  From  1810  to  1816  he  served  in  congress, 
and  supported  the  Madison  administration.  For  two 
years  he  was  secretary  of  legation  at  Naples;  in  1818 
removed  to  Alabama,  assisted  in  framing  the  constitu- 
tion of  that  Qtate,  and  became  one  of  its  first  repre- 
sentatives in  the  United  States  senate.  He  remained 
in  that  body  until  1844,  acting  throughout  with  the 
Democratic  party,  and  supporting  President  Jackson 
in  all  his  measures.  From  1844  to  1846  Mr.  King  was 
minister  to  France;  in  1848  he  again  became  United 
States  senator,  and  in  1852  was  elected  vice-president 
of  the  United  States.  The  oath  of  office  was  ad- 
ministered to  him  in  Cuba,  where  he  had  gone  for  his 
health,  and  he  died  immediately  on  his  return. 

KINGLAKE,  Alexander  William,  born  in  181 1 ; 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1832;  was  called  to  the 
bar  at  Lincoln’s  Inn  in  1837,  but  retired  from  the  law 
in  1856.  He  published  Edthen , an  interesting  volume 
of  sketches  of  eastern  travel,  in  1844,  but  is  best  known 
in  literature  for  his  Invasion  of  the  Crimea , an  able, 


6629 

brilliant,  but  partisan,  history  of  the  Crimean  war  of 
1854-6,  in  eight  volumes.  He  entered  parliament  as 
a Liberal  for  Bridgewater  irf  1857,  moved  the  first 
amendment  against  the  “Conspiracy  Bill,”  in  1858, 
denounced  the  annexation  of  Savoy  and  Nice  to  the 
French  empire  in  i860,  and  criticised  Emperor  Napo- 
leon so  harshly  in  his  history  of  the  Crimean  war  that 
its  sale  was  prohibited  in  France  during  the  empire. 
In  parliament  he  was  a vigorous  opponent  of  injustice 
and  oppression.  He  died  January  2,  1891. 

KIP,  William  Ingraham,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  was  born  in  New  York,  1811,  gradu- 
ated at  Yale,  1831,  held  pastorates  in  New  York  and 
New  Jersey,  in  1853  became  missionary  bishop  of  Cal- 
ifornia, and  bishop  in  1857,  wrote  extensively  on  theo- 
logical subjects  and  died  April  7,  1893. 

KIPLING,  Rudyard,  born  in  Bombay  in  1865,  of 
English  parentage,  wrote  for  the  East  Indian  press 
and  became  widely  popular  in  England  and  America 
in  1890  by  the  republication  of  his  brilliant  tales  of 
Indian  civil  and  military  life,  notably  Soldiers  Three , 
Plain  Tales  from  the  Hills , and  Story  of  the  Gads  by  st 
and  his  Barrack-room  Ballads.  His  novels,  The 
Light  That  Failed  and  The  Naulakha , the  latter  writ- 
ten in  collaboration  with  the  late  Wolcott  Balestier,  an 
American  author,  whose  sister  he  married,  were  less 
successful.  He  sustained  his  reputation,  in  1894,  with 
his  Jungle  Book.  In  1893  Mr.  Kipling  became  a resi- 
dent of  Vernlont. 

KIRBY,  Tobias,  bishop  of  Lita,  was  born  in  Water- 
ford, Ireland,  in  1803,  went  to  Rome  in  1829.  Studied 
with  the  present  pope,  Leo  XIII.,  was  ordained  a 
priest  in  1833,  selected  for  the  post  of  vice-rector  of 
the  Irish  College  in  1835,  and  for  rector  in  1850,  and 
in  May,  1881,  was  appointed  bishop  of  Lita,  in  par- 
tibus  injidelium.  He  died  Jan.  20,  1894. 

KIRCHHOFF,  Gustav  Robert,  born  at  Konigs- 
berg,  Germany,  March  12,  1824;  graduated  at  the  uni- 
versity of  his  native  city  in  1846,  and  was  made  profes- 
sor of  natural  philosophy  at  Heidelberg  in  1854.  In 
connection  with  Bunsen  (q.  v.)  he  made  valuable  dis- 
coveries with  regard  to  spectrum  analysis,  and  his  pa- 
pers on  electricity,  heat,  and  vapors  are  of  much  scien- 
tific value.  He  died  in  1887. 

KIRCHMANN,  Julius  von,  was  born  in  Germany, 
in  1802,  and  died  in  1884.  He  studied  at  Leipsic  and 
Halle,  and  wrote  extensively  on  philosophical  subjects. 
His  views  were  too  liberal  for  the  Prussian  Govern- 
ment, which  deprived  him  of  his  seat  as  a councilor. 
He  prepared  the  Prussian  civil  and  penal  codes. 

KIRK,  Edward  N.,  born  in  Ohio;  entered  the  vol- 
unteer service  from  Illinois  in  1861,  and  commanded  a 
brigade  at  Shiloh.  He  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of 
Stone  River,  and  died  July  29,  1863. 

KIRK,  John  Foster,  was  born  at  Fredericton, 
New  Brunswick,  in  1824;  came  to  the  United  States  at 
the  age  of  eighteen,  and  from  1847  to  1859  acted  as 
secretary  to  Prescott,  the  historian.  His  publications 
include  a three  volume  history  of  Charles  the  Bold. 
For  fourteen  years  (1871-85),  he  edited  Lippincott' s 
Magazine  and  he  then  became  professor  of  American 
history  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

KIRK,  Sir  John,  was  born  at  Arbirlot,  Scotland, 
in  1833.  He  graduated  M.D.  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  in  1854,  and  early  distinguished  himself  in 
botany  and  other  departments  of  natural  history.  He 
served  on  the  civil  medical  staff  during  the  Crimean 
war,  and  subsequently,  for  six  years,  as  medical  officer 
and  naturalist  to  the  late  Doctor  Livingstone’s  second 
exploring  expedition  to  the  Zambesi  river  1858-64,  act- 
ing as  chief  officer  until  the  return  of  the  expedition.  In 
1866  he  was  appointed  acting  surgeon  to  the  political 


KIR-KNO 


6630 

agency  at  Zanzibar.  He  was  promoted  to  be  vice-consul 
at  the  same  place  in  1873,  and  he  accompanied  the 
sultan  of  Zanzibar  in  his  visit  to  England  in  1875. 
Doctor  Kirk  has  materially  aided  the  progress  of  geo- 
graphical discovery  in  East  Africa;  but  his  great 
achievement  is  the  almost  complete  suppression  of  the 
slave  trade  in  the  greater  part  of  Eastern  Africa.  In 
1875  he  was  appointed  consul  in  the  Comoro  Islands; 
agent  and  consul-general  at  Zanzibar  in  1880;  and  a 
K.C.M.G.  in  September,  1881. 

KIRKWOOD,  Daniel,  born  in  Maryland,  Sept. 
27,  1814 ; became  professor  of  mathematics  in  Delaware 
College,  and  from  1854  to  1856  president  of  that  insti- 
tution. In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  to  a pro- 
fessorship in  the  Indiana  University.  He  has  pub- 
lished a work  on  comets  and  meteors,  and  other  astro- 
nomical works.  Died  June  II,  1895. 

KIRKWOOD,  Samuel  J. , born  in  Maryland,  Decem- 
ber 20,  1813;  removed  to  Ohio  in  1835,  and  practiced 
law  there  until  1855,  when  he  went  to  Iowa.  In  the 
next  year  he  served  in  the  Iowa  State  senate,  and  in 
1859  was  elected  governor.  Reelected  in  1861  he  be- 
came known  as  one  of  the  great  “War  Governors,” 
and  by  his  energy  in  raising  troops,  Iowa  was  enabled 
to  fill  her  quota  without  having  recourse  to  the  draft. 
In  1866  Mr.  Kirkwood  was  elected  United  States  sen- 
ator, in  1875  was  for  a third  time  governor  of  Iowa, 
and  in  1876  was  reelected  to  the  senate.  He  resigned 
in  1881  to  become  secretary  of  the  interior  under  Gar- 
field until  April,  1882.  He  died  April  30,  ,1894. 

KLAPKA,  George,  born  at  Temesvar,  Hungary, 
April  7,  1820;  entered  the  army  at  eighteen,  was  at 
first  attached  to  the  artillery,  and  completed  his  military 
education  at  Vienna.  He  was  about  to  travel  abroad 
when  the  revolution  of  1848  broke  out.  Fighting  against 
Austria,  he  took  command  of  a company  of  Honveds, 
and  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  against  the  Ser- 
vians. Toward  the  close  of  1848  he  was  the  chief  of 
the  staff  of  General  Kis,  and  after  the  defeat  of  Kaschau 
(January  4,  1849),  replaced  Messaros  at  the  head  of  his 
corps  d ’ armee.  Under  Kossuth  he  was  minister  of  war, 
and  entered  completely  into  the  views  of  the  government 
of  the  revolution.  Quitting  the  ministry,  he  took  com- 
mand of  Comorn,  and  vainly  endeavored  to  reconcile 
Kossuth  and  Gorgei.  After  the  unfortunate  capitula- 
tion of  Vilagos  (August  13,  1849),  Klapka  maintained 
himself  heroically  in  Comorn,  and  menaced  Austria  and 
5tyria,  until  he  heard  of  the  alleged  defection  of  Gorgei. 
In  September,  1849,  a convention  was  signed  between 
the  defenders  of  the  place  and  General  Haynau,  and 
Klapka  went  into  exile,  first  in  London,  and  afterward 
in  Switzerland  and  Italy.  His  Memoirs , published  at 
Leipsic  in  1850,  were  followed  by  The  National  War 
in  Hungary  and  Transylvania , in  1851.  In  the  un- 
fortunate arrangements  set  on  foot  by  Garibaldi  for  the, 
attempt  on  Rome,  in  1862,  when  he  sought  to  excite  the' 
Hungarians  to  take  the  field,  a judicious  counter-proc- 
lamation from  Klapka,  pointing  out  the  headlong  te- 
merity and  rashness  of  the  undertaking,  kept  them 
quietly  in  their  homes.  In  1866,  however,  after  the 
defeat  of  Austria  at  Koniggratz,  he  formed  a company  of 
Honveds,  and  endeavored  to  bring  about  a revolution 
in  Hungary ; but  the  attempt  failed,  and  Klapka  fled  to 
Oderberg.  In  1873  he  was  engaged  upon  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  Turkish  army,  and  in  the  war  of  1877-78, 
he  aided  the  Turkish  generals.  He  died  May  16,  1892. 

KNAPP,  Jacob,  born  in  New  York  State,  Decem- 
ber 7,  1 799 ; was  ordained  in  the  Baptist  communion  in 
1825,  and  for  many  years  acted  as  an  Evangelist  in  Illi- 
nois and  other  western  States.  He  died  at  Rockford, 
111.,  in  March,  1874. 

KNAUS,  Ludwig,  a celebrated  German  genre 


painter,  was  born  at  Wiesbaden,  October  10,  1829,  and 
entered  the  academy  at  Diisseldorf,  where  he  studied 
under  Sohn  and  Schadow.  He  then  went  to  Paris,  and, 
with  a break  of  one  year  in  Italy,  lived  there  for  eight 
ears,  perfecting  himself  in  the  technical  part  of  his  art 
y close  study  of  modern  French  masters.  His  first 
important  pictures  were  The  Golden  Wedding,  1858, 
and  The  Christening,  1859.  In  the  following  year  he 
returned  to  Wiesbaden,  but  in  1861  went  to  Berlin,  in 
1866  to  Diisseldorf,  whence  in  1874  he  once  more  re- 
turned to  Berlin,  in  order  to  fill  an  important  post  in 
the  academy.  Besides  the  above-named  works  may  be 
mentioned  Funeral  in  a Hesse  Village,  1871 ; His  Ex- 
cellency Traveling,  The  Village  Musician,  The  Inn, 
1876 ; and  A Peep  Behind  the  Scenes,  1880.  His  portraits 
of  Mommsenn  and  Helmholtz,  and  The  Fight  Behind  the 
Fence  were  shown  at  the  World’s  Fair  in  Chicago  in  1893. 

KNEELAND,  Samuel,  born  in  Boston,  August  1, 
1821;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1840;  and  practiced 
medicine.  From  1862  to  1865  he  acted  as  an  army 
surgeon,  and  in  1866  became  professor  of  zoology  and 
physiology  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy. Among  his  works  are  An  American  in  Iceland, 
and  Wonders  of  the  Yosemite.  Died  in  1888. 

KNICKERBACKER,  David  Buel,  born  in  New 
York  State,  February  24,  1833;  took  orders  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  in  1856;  was  for  sixteen 
years  rector  of  a church  at  Minneapolis,  and  in  1883  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Indiana.  He  died  Dec.  31,  1894. 

KNOLLYS,  Hansard,  born  in  Chalkwell,  England, 
about  1598;  died  in  London,  England,  September  19, 
1691.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge  University,  and 
became  master  of  the  free  schools  in  Gainesborough. 
In  1629  he  was  made  deacon  of  the  Church  of  England, 
became  priest,  and  received  a living  in  Humberstone. 
After  a while  he  doubted  some  of  the  tenets  of  the 
established  church,  and  preached  without  surplice  or 
prayer-book.  Thereafter  he  resigned,  and  in  1636  was 
imprisoned  in  Boston,  England,  whence  he  escaped, 
and  fled  to  the  American  colonies,  reaching  Massa- 
chusetts early  in  1638.  On  his  entrance  he  was  de- 
nounced by  Cotton  Mather,  and  by  him  nicknamed 
“Absurd  Knowless.”  For  a time  he  was  pastor  of  a 
church  in  Dover,  N.  H.,  he  then  removed  to  Long 
Island,  and  finally  settled  near  New  Brunswick,  N.  J. 
He  returned  to  London  in  1641.  He  is  considered  the 
first  Baptist  clergyman  who  preached  in  the  American 
colonies. 

KNOTT,  James  Proctor,  born  in  Lebanon,  Ky., 
August  29,  1830;  sat  in  the  State  legislature,  and  in 
1859  was  appointed  attorney-general  of  the  State,  to 
which  office  he  was  elected  in  the  following  year.  He 
was  imprisoned  for  refusing  to  take  an  ironclad  oath, 
and  his  office  declared  vacant.  In  1866  he  was  elected 
to  congress,  and  obtained  his  seat  with  some  difficulty 
He  was  reelected  in  1868,  but  was  not  in  the  forty-sec- 
ond or  forty-third  congresses.  In  1874  he  was  again 
elected,  and  served  from  1875  to  March  1883.  In  1883 
he  was  elected  governor  of  Kentucky  for  four  years. 

KNOWLES,  James,  born  in  1831  ; was  educated  as 
an  architect  at  a private  school,  at  University  College, 
in  his  father’s  office,  and  in  Italy.  He  is  a fellow  of 
the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects,  and  has  ex- 
ecuted many  architectural  works,  chiefly  in  London  and 
its  neighborhood.  Mr.  Knowles  has  also  been  engaged 
in  literature  from  an  early  age,  contributing  many  arti- 
cles to  journals  and  reviews,  and  in  i860  compiling 
(from  Sir  Thomas  Malory')  The  Story  of  King  A rthur, 
which  reached  a sixth  edition.  In  1869  he  originated 
“The  Metaphysical  Society,”  a club  consisting  of  forty 
members,  chiefly  being  eminent  representatives  of  the 
most  various  forms  of  contemporary  thought  and  belief 


K N O — K O S 


n speculative  subjects — Anglican,  Roman  Catholic, 
Nonconformist,  Positivist,  Agnostic,  and  Atheistic — 
and  constituted  for  the  full,  free,  and  confidential  dis- 
cussion of  philosophical  questions.  In  1870  he  succeeded 
Dean  Alford  in  the  editorship  of  the  Contemporary  Re- 
view. In  1877,  owing  to  a change  in  the  proprietorship 
of  the  Contemporary  Review , a separation  took  place 
between  it  and  Mr.  Knowles,  when — supported  by  more 
than  one  hundred  writers  of  celebrity  (mostly  members 
of  the  Metaphysical  Society,  and  contributors  to  the 
Contemporary  Review) — he  established  The  Nineteenth 
Century , a monthly  review. 

KNOX,  Henry,  major-general  in  the  American 
Revolutionary  army,  was  born  at  Boston,  July  25,  1750. 
Beginning  life  as  a bookseller,  he  commanded  an  inde- 
pendent company  in  Boston,  and  was  made  an  engi- 
neer and  artillery  officer  by  Washington  at  the  opening 
of  the  Revolution.  Under  his  charge  the  artillery  arm 
of  the  service  came  to  be  of  essential  value.  He  was 
made  secretary  of  war  in  1785,  and  Washington,  on  be- 
coming president  in  1789,  gave  him  the  same  office  under 
the  new  government.  He  resigned  in  1794,  and  retired 
to  private  life  in  Maine.  He  died  at  Thomaston,  Me., 
October  25,  1806.  See  Drake’s  Life  of  Knox  (1874). 

KNOX,  John  Jay,  born  in  New  York  State,  March 
19,  1828;  became  a banker  in  Minnesota.  About  1863 
he  became  connected  with  the  treasury  department 
under  Secretary  Chase.  He  was  appointed  deputy 
comptroller  of  the  currency  in  1867,  and  was  made 
comptroller  by  President  Grant  in  1872.  In  1884  he 
resigned  to  become  the  head  of  a New  York  banking 
institution.  He  wrote  United  States  Notes  and  History 
of  Banking  in  the  United  States , which  are  authorita- 
tive works  on  finance.  He  died  February  9,  1892. 

KNYPHAUSEN,  Wilhelm  von,  General,  born  in 
Liitzberg,  Germany,  November  4,  1716;  died  in  Cassel, 
Germany,  December  7,  1800.  He  was  a general  officer 
under  Frederick  the  Great,  and  in  1776  was  second  in 
command  under  General  Von  Heister,  of  the  12,000 
“ Hessian  ” troops  hired  by  the  British  Government  to 
fight  against  the  Americans.  In  1777  he  succeeded 
Von  Heister.  He  fought  at  Long  Island,  White  Plains, 
Fort  Washington,  Brandywine,  and  Monmouth. 

KOBELL,  Franz  voN,bornat  Munich,  July  19, 1803; 
became  professor  of  mineralogy  in  the  university  of  that 
city  in  1834,  and  wrote  valuable  papers  on  mineralogybe- 
sides  a number  of  dialect  poems.  HediedNov.  11,1882. 

KOCH,  Robert,  an  eminent  German  bacteriologist 
and  physician,  born  at  Klausthal,  December  11,  1843, 
was  educated  at  Gottingen.  An  obscure  practitioner 
until  1880,  his  remarkable  analyses  in  the  celebrated 
Speicher  poisoning  case  made  him  famous,  and  his  pro- 
found erudition  secured  him  a summons  to  Berlin  as 
member  of  the  Sanitary  Commission  and  professor  of  the 
Royal  School  of  Medicine.  In  1882  he  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  civilized  world  by  his  discovery  of  the 
bacillus  tuberculosis,  and  in  1883,  while  head  of  the 
cholera  commission  sent  to  Egypt  and  India  he  discov- 
ered the  cholera  microbe,  for  which  he  was  rewarded 
with  an  honorarium  of  100,000  marks,  the  rank  of  Privy 
Councilor,  and  the  rectorship  of  the  Imperial  Institute 
of  Hygiene.  Dr.  Koch  resumed  his  researches,  and  in 
September,  1890,  startled  the  medical  world  by  the  an- 
nouncement that  he  had  discovered  a remedy  which 
would  destroy  the  bacillus  tuberculosis  and  expel  it 
from  the  human  system  without  injuring  the  tissues. 

KOELLIKER,  Albert,  born  at  Zurich,  July  6, 
1817,  became  professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  at 
Wurzburg,  published  a Manual  of  Human  Histology 
(1852),  and  is  prominently  known  by  his  discoveries 
with  the  microscope. 

KOSSUTH,  Louis,  ex-governor  of  Hungary,  was 


6631 

born  April  21,  1802,  at  Monok,  in  the  county  of  Zem- 
plin,  where  his  father  was  a small  owner,  of  the  noble 
class.  Louis  was  educated  at  the  Protestant  College  ot 
Scharasehpatack,  where  he  qualified  himself  for  the 
profession  of  an  advocate;  obtained  his  diploma  in  1826, 
and  in  1830  became  agent  to  the  Countess  Szapary,  and 
as  such  sat  in  the  comital  assembly.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-seven  he  took  his  seat  in  the  national  diet  of 
Presburg,  as  representative  of  a magnate.  He  pub- 
lished reports  of  the  proceedings  of  this  assembly  on 
lithographic  sheets,  until  they  were  suppressed  by  the 
government,  and  afterward  in  MS.  circulars.  The 
government,  which  determined  not  to  allow  reports  of 
parliamentary  debates  to  become  current  in  Hungary, 
prosecuted  him  for  high  treason;  and  in  1839  was 
sentenced  to  four  years’  imprisonment.  After  about  a 
year  and  a half  of  confinement,  he  was  liberated  under 
an  act  of  amnesty.  In  January,  1841,  he  became  chief 
editor  of  the  Hirlap , a newspaper  published  at  Pesthe 
His  influence  with  his  countrymen  steadily  increased 
until,  in  March,  1848,  he  entered  Vienna  with  a deputa- 
tion to  urge  the  claims  of  his  country  upon  the  govern- 
ment, and  returned  to  Presburg  as  minister  of  finance. 
Under  his  influence  the  internal  reforms  which  he  had 
advocated  were  carried  out ; the  last  remains  of  the  op- 
pressive feudal  system  were  swept  away,  and  the  peas- 
ants were  declared  free  from  all  seignorial  claims,  the 
country  undertaking  to  indemnify  the  landlords.  The 
diet  was  dissolved,  and  a new  diet  summoned  for  July 
2d,  by  which  Kossuth  was  Created  governor  of  Hun- 
gary, and  he  held  that  post  during  the  civil  war  of 
1848-9.  After  the  efforts  of  the  Hungarians  had  been 
crushed,  mainly  by  the  aid  of  Russian  armed  interven- 
tion, Kossuth  was  compelled  to  retire  to  Turkey.  Hd 
reached  Schumla  with  Bern,  Dembinski,  Perczel,  Guyon, 
and  5,000  men,  and  was  appointed  a residence  in  Wid- 
din.  Austria  and  Russia  wished  the  refugees  to  be 
given  up,  in  which  case  they  would  probably  have  been 
executed.  Through  the  intervention  of  England  and 
France  the  demand  was  refused.  The  refugees  were  re- 
moved to  Kutahia,  in  Asia  Minor,  where  they  remained 
prisoners  until  August  22,  1851.  Kossuth  left  Kutahia, 
September  1st,  and  after  touching  at  Spezzia,  called  at 
Marseilles, but  was  refused  permission  to  travel  through 
France.  Having  been  hospitably  received  at  Gibraltar 
and  at  Lisbon,  he  reached  Southampton,  October 
28th;  sailed  for  the  United  States  November  21st,  and 
made  a tour,  agitating  in  favor  of  Hungary.  He 
soon  returned  to  England,  where  he  resided  for  some 
years,  occupying  himself  chiefly  in  writing  for  news- 
papers, and  delivering  lectures  against  the  House  of 
Hapsburg.  One  of  the  occasions  on  which  his  name 
was  brought  prominently  before  the  public  was  in  i860, 
when  the  Austrian  Government  instituted  a successful 
process  against  Messrs.  Day  and  Sons  for  lithographing 
several  millions  of  bank-notes  for  circulation  in  Hun- 
gary, signed  by  Kossuth,  as  governor  of  that  country. 
In  November,  1861,  he  published  in  the  Perseveranza , 
an  Italian  journal,  along  letter,  setting  forth  the  situ- 
ation of  Hungary,  and  urging  the  Italians  to  commence 
war  against  Austria,  with  the  view  of  enabling  the 
Hungarians  to  develop  their  strength  against  that 
power;  issued  an  inflammatory  address  to  the  Hungari- 
ans, June  6,  1866,  and  after  the  close  of  the  war  of  that 
year  advised  the  Hungarians  to  reject  the  concessions 
offered  by  Francis  Joseph.  He  was  elected  deputy  for 
Waitzen,  August  1,  1867,  but  he  declined  to  accept  the 
office.  In  April,  1875,  M.  Kossuth  purchased  an 
unpretending  dwelling  in  Turin,  where  he  lived  for 
nearly  twenty  years,  in  the  strictest  privacy.  Latterly 
he  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  science,  and  he  pub- 
lished a paper  on  the  Farbenveranderung  der  Sterne  in 


K R A — K W A 


6632 

1871.  In  November,  1879,  he  lost  his  rights  as  a Hun- 
garian citizen,  as  the  chamber  of  deputies  adopted  a bill 
declaring  that  any  native  of  the  country  who  voluntarily 
resided  abroad  for  an  uninterrupted  period  of  ten  years 
should  lose  his  civil  status.  The  extreme  left  violently 
opposed  themeasure,  accusing  the  government  of  level- 
ing it  directly  against  Kossuth,  but  it  was  finally  carried 
by  141  votes  to  52.  Kossuth  was  engaged  for  several 
years  in  writing  his  Memoirs , the  last  volume  of  which 
appeared  in  1882.  He  died  March  20,  1894. 

KRAPOTKIN,  Peter  Alexeievitch,  was  born  at 
Moscow,  December  9,  1842.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he 
entered  the  corps  of  pages  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  was 
promoted  lieutenant  in  1862.  He  joined  a regiment  of 
Cossacks  of  the  Amur,  and  spent  five  years  in  Eastern 
Siberia,  first  as  aide-de-camp  to  the  military  governor 
of  Transbaikalia,  and,  after  1863,  as  attach^  for  Cos- 
sacks’ affairs  to  the  governor-general  of  Eastern 
Siberia.  During  these  five  years  he  thrice  visited  the 
Amur  and  Usuri,  and  made  extensive  journeys  in 
Siberia  and  Manchuria.  In  1863  he  crossed  North 
Manchuria  from  Transbaikalia  to  the  Amur,  via 
Merghen;  in  the  same  year  he  took  part  in  the  first 
steamer-expedition  up  the  Sungari  to  Ghirin.  Ac- 
counts of  these  journeys,  and  several  others,  are  pub- 
lished in  the  memoirs  of  the  Russian  and  Siberian  Geo- 
graphical Society,  from  the  former  of  which  he  received 
the  gold  medal.  Promoted  captain  in  1865,  he  returned 
in  1867  to  St.  Petersburg,  and  studied  four  years  at  the 
mathematical  faculty  of  that  university,  and  acted  as 
secretary  to  the  physical-geography  section  of  the 
Geographical  Society.  In  1871  he  was  sent  by  this 
society  to  explore  the  glacial  deposits  in  Finland  and 
Sweden,  the  account  of  which  is  embodied  in  a larger 
work  on  the  Glacial  Period,  the  first  volume  of  which 
was  published  in  the  memoirs  of  the  Geographical  So- 
ciety. In  1872  he  paid  a visit  to  Switzerland  and  Bel- 
gium, and  became  acquainted  with  the  International 
Working  Men’s  Association,  and  joined  the  most  ad- 
vanced anarchist  section  of  it.  He  returned  to  Russia 
and  became  a member  of  the  widely  spread  organization 
of  the  Tchaykovtry;  was  arrested  in  March,  1874,  and 
confined  to  the  fortress  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  where 
he  continued  to  write  on  the  Glacial  Period.  He  was 
transferred  to  the  prison  of  the  Military  Hospital,  and 
escaped  on  July  12,  1876,  and  went  to  England.  The 
next  year  he  rejoined,  in  Switzerland,  the  Jura  Federa- 
tion of  the  International  Working  Men’s  Association, 
and  in  February,  1879,  founded  at  Geneva  the  anarchist 
paper  Le  Revolte ”,  now  published  at  Paris.  Expelled 
from  Switzerland  in  September,  1881,  he  stayed  first 
for  a few  months  at  Thonon  while  his  wife  passed  her 
examination  of  B.Sc.  and  then  went  to  reside  in  Eng- 
land, where  he  roused  an  agitation  against  the  Russian 
Government  both  in  the  press  ( Newcastle  Chronicle , 
Fortnightly  Review , and  Nineteenth  Century ),  and  by 
a series  of  lectures  at  Newcastle  and  in  Scotland.  In 
October,  1882,  he  went  again  to  stay  at  Thonon,  where 
he  was  arrested  December  20,  1882.  On  January  19, 
1883,  he  was  condemned  by  the  Police  Correctionnelle 


Court  at  Lyons  to  five  years’  imprisonment  for  partici- 
pationin  the  International  Working  Men’s  Association. 
He  was  liberated  on  January  15,  1886,  by  decree  of  the 
president  of  the  French  republic.  Plis  anarchistpapers 
contributed  to  the  Revolte  have  been  collected  by  his 
friend  Elise  Reclus,  and  were  published  in  October, 
1885,  in  a separate  volume,  under  the  title  Paroles  d'un 
Revolte. 

KRUPP,  Alfred  Friedrich,  born  at  Essen,  West- 
phalia, April  26,  1812;  was  the  son  of  a small  iron- 
master there.  Young  Krupp  carried  on  his  father’s 
business,  and  having  secured  government  patronage, 
developed  the  Essen  factory  to  immense  proportions. 
More  than  20,000  men  are  constantly  employed  in  the 
various  branches  of  Krupp’s  works,  at  which  hundreds 
of  cannon,  of  the  largest  size,  are  annually  manufac- 
tured. Herr  Krupp  died  July  14,  1887,  but  his  factory 
is  continued  by  his  sons,  and  supplies  all  the  material 
for  the  German  army. 

KUENEN,  Abraham,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a native  of  Hol- 
land, was  born  in  Haarlem  September  9,  1828.  He 
was  educated  in  the  local  gymnasium.  In  1846  he  was 
entered  as  a student  of  theology  in  the  University  of 
Leyden,  and  in  1821  took,  with  great  distinction,  the 
doctor’s  degree  in  that  faculty.  The  next  year  he  quali- 
fied as  professor  extraordinary  of  the  science  by  a 
learned  dissertation  on  the  importance  of  an  exact 
knowledge  of  Hebrew  antiquity  for  the  study.  In  1853 
the  ac&demical  senate  honored  him  with  the  doctorate 
in  literature,  and,  in  October,  1855,  he  became  ordinary 
professor  of  theology.  Doctor  Kuenen  made  himself 
a great  name  as  a critic  of  the  Biblical  books,  and 
especially  of  the  Pentateuch.  He  died  December 
10,  1891. 

KUHN,  Adelbert,  born  at  Konigsberg,  Germany, 
November  19,  1812;  became  a professor  in  the  Cologne 
gymnasium,  and  wrote  extensively  on  comparative 
mythology,  especially  with  reference  to  German  myths. 
He  died  in  1881. 

KUNG,  Prince,  Chinese  statesman,  was  born  in 
1833,  and  was  a brother  of  Hin-fung,  who  feigned  as 
emperor  of  China  from  1850  to  1861.  Prince  Kung 
served  as  commissioner  of  foreign  affairs,  and  on  the 
death  of  Hin-fung  he  was  made  regent  of  China.  He 
employed  foreign  officers  to  suppress  the  Taiping  re 
bellion,  and  in  many  ways  showed  himself  anxious  to 
introduce  and  utilize  inventions  and  methods  of  Euro- 
pean civilization.  In  1866  and  1869  he  visited  Europe 
and  the  United  States,  and  in  1874  fell  into  temporary 
disgrace  over  a peace  made  by  him  with  Japan.  It  is 
alleged  that  he  was  actually  condemned  to  death,  but 
in  any  case  he  was  speedily  restored  to  imperial  favor, 
and  from  1875  to  1884  he  was  prime  minister  of  the 
emperor.  In  the  last-named  year  he  was  again  driven 
from  power.  He  died  May  29,  1898. 

KWANG-SU.  “Succession  of  Glory,”  is  the  name 
of  the  reigning  emperor  of  China.  He  was  born  on 
August  15,  1871,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  January 
12,  1875.  His  coming  of  age  and  marriage  were  cele- 
brated with  great  pomp  in  1889. 


LAB  -LAI 


6633 


L. 


LABICHE,  Eugene  Marin,  a French  dramatist,  born 
at  Paris,  May  5,  1815;  was  educated  at  the  College 
Bourbon,  then  entered  the  School  of  Law,  and  made 
his  first  attempts  at  authorship  in  1835,  when  he  sent 
various  contributions  to  the  minor  journals  of  the  day. 
In  1838  he  published  a novel,  La  Clef  des  Champs. 
M.  Labiche  thenceforward  devoted  himself  to  the  pro- 
duction of  farces,  with  the  most  extravagant  plots,  and 
abounding  in  droll  situations.  The  pieces  he  has  brought 
out,  chiefly  in  collaboration  with  other  writers,  are  up- 
ward of  100  in  number.  In  February,  1880,  he  was 
elected  a member  of  the  French  Academy,  in  the  room  of 
M.  de  Sacy,  and  his  reception  took  place  on  November 
25th,  when  M.  John  Lemoinne  delivered  the  address  of 
welcome.  He  died  January  23,  1888. 

LABOUCHERE,  Henry,  M.P.,  nephew  of  the  late 
Lord  Taunton,  was  born  in  1831,  and  educated  at  Eton. 
He  entered  the  diplomatic  service  in  1854;  and  was 
successively  attache  at  Washington,  Munich,  Stock- 
holm, Frankfort,  St.  Petersburg,  and  Dresden;  he  was 
appointed  third  secretary  in  1862,  second  secretary  at 
Constantinople  in  1863,  and  retired  in  1864.  In  1865 
he  entered  parliament  as  Liberal  member  for  Windsor ; 
but  in  April,  1866,  he  was  unseated  on  petition,  and 
from  1867  to  1868  sat  for  Middlesex.  In  February, 
1874,  he  unsuccessfully  contested  Nottingham,  but  in 
1880  was  returned  at  head  of  the  poll  for  Northampton, 
and  has  since  been  one  of  the  members  for  that  borough. 
Mr.  Labouchere  is  an  advanced  Radical  and  an  able 
speaker.  He  is  proprietor  and  editor  of  Truth , part 
proprietor  of  the  Daily  News , and  was  the  defendant 
in  the  celebrated  libel  case,  Lawson  v.  Labouchere. 
He  married  Miss  Henrietta  Hodgson,  the  well-known 
actress.  In  1893  he  introduced  a bill  providing  for  the 
election  of  all  members  of  parliament. 

LABOULAYE,  Edouard  R£ne,  born  in  Paris  in 
1811;  died  May  25,  1883.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
History  of  the  United  States , and  translated  several  of 
the  works  of  Doctor  Channing  into  French. 

LADD,  George  Trumbull,  born  in  Painesville, 
Ohio,  January  19,  1842;  graduated  at  Western  Reserve 
College  and  Andover  Seminary.  He  served  as  pastor 
of  Congregational  churches  in  Ohio  and  Wisconsin  un- 
til 1879,  when  he  became  professor  of  intellectual  and 
moral  philosophy  in  Bowdoin.  In  1881  he  assumed 
the  chair  of  philosophy  in  Yale. 

LAFARGE,  John,  artist,  born  in  New  York  city, 
March  31,  1835;  became  a national  academician  in  1869, 
and  has  paid  great  attention  to  decorative  art.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  the  interior  decoration  of  Trin- 
ity church,  Boston,  and  St.  Thomas’  church,  New 
York. 

LAFITTE,  Jean,  bom  in  France  about  1780;  died 
in  Yucatan  in  1826.  He  arrived  in  New  Orleans  about 
1809,  company  with  one  of  his  brothers,  where  they 
established  a blacksmith  shop  attended  to  by  hired 
slave  labor.  Both  men  were  imperfectly  educated, 
but  persuasive  and  enterprising.  Later  they  entered 
into  smuggling,  became  leaders  of  a band,  and  were 
outlawed.  These  smugglers  were  also  buccaneers ; 
during  the  French-Spanish  wars  they  had  received 
letters-of-marque  from  the  French  republic,  and  later 
from  the  republic  of  Cartagena,  giving  them  authority 
to  prey  on  Spanish  vessels.  Their  merchandise  was 
conveyed  to  the  city  through  the  small  lakes  and  bayous, 
■nd  their  general  depot  was  on  the  island  of  Grand 
Terre.  On  March  1^,  1812,  the  governor  of  Louisiana 


issued  a proclamation  against  the  outlaws ; but  they 
received  warning  of  the  measures  of  the  authorities, 
and  went  to  other  parts  of  the  river  delta.  On  No- 
vember 24,  1813,  when  a revenue  officer  had  been  fired 
on.  Governor  Claiborne  offered  $500  reward  for  the 
capture  of  John  Lafitte.  In  January,  1814,  the  outlaws 
offered  for  sale  a body  of  slaves  ; when  the  government 
sent  forward  their  inspector  of  revenue  he  was  killed : 
but  no  action  was  immediately  taken  by  the  authorities. 
Lafitte  continued  as  before,  under  guard  of  armed  men, 
to  send  his  goods  for  sale  to  Donaldson  and  other 
places  on  the  Mississippi  river,  and  the  people  flocked 
thither  for  purchase.  About  September  1st  Colonel 
Nicolls,  commanding  the  British  forces  at  Pensacola, 
tempted  Lafitte  to  enter  the  service  of  Great  Britain, 
by  offering  him  a captain’s  commission  in  the  navy, 
$30,000,  and  to  his  followers  immunity  for  past  trans- 
gressions, indemnification  for  losses  ana  money  re- 
wards. At  that  time  Lafitte’s  brother  Pierre  had  been 
seized  by  the  United  States  authorities,  and  was  held 
for  trial  in  the  New  Orleans  jail.  On  the  departure 
of  the  British  agent  Lafitte  communicated  the  proposed 
arrangement,  together  with  sundry  letters,  to  the  gov- 
ernor of  Louisiana,  and  offered  the  services  of  himself 
and  his  band  on  the  condition  of  their  being  pardoned 
for  past  offenses. 

Governor  Claiborne  refused,  and  sent  out  an  expe- 
dition which  captured  several  vessels,  many  men,  and  a 
rich  booty.  The  two  Lafittes  escaped,  and  collected 
their  men  anew  on  an  island  near  the  mquth  of  bayou 
Lafourche.  In  December  the  British  forces  approached 
New  Orleans,  when  Lafitte’s  terms  were  accepted,  and 
he  was  employed  in  fortifying  the  passes  of  Batavia 
bay,  while  part  of  his  followers  garrisoned  the  forts  on 
the  river.  On  February  6,  1815,  President  Madison 
issued  a proclamation  offering  full  pardon  to  all  en- 
gaged in  the  defense  of  New  Orleans.  After  the  war 
the  brothers  left  New  Orleans.  In  1816,  for  about 
four  years,  one  of  them  was  settled  in  Galveston,  Texas, 
whence  he  was  expelled  on  May  12,  1820. 

LAING,  Samuel,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1810;  was 
educated  at  St.  John’s  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
took  his  B.A.  degree  in  1832,  being  second  wrangler 
and  second  Smith’s  prizeman.  He  was  elected  a fellow 
of  St.  John’s,  resided  in  the  universitv  as  a mathe- 
matical tutor,  and  entered  at  Lincoln’s  Inn,  where  he 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1840,  and  soon  after  became 
private  secretary  to  Mr.  Labouchere,  then  president  of 
the  Board  of  Trade.  Upon  the  formation  of  the  rail- 
way department,  he  was  appointed  secretary,  and 
thenceforth  distinguished  himself  in  railway  legislation 
under  successive  presidencies  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 
In  1844  he  proved  the  results  of  his  experience  in  “a 
report  on  British  and  foreign  railways.”  In  1845  Mr. 
Laing  was  nominated  a member  of  the  sailway  commis- 
sion. In  1848  he  accepted  the  post  of  chairman  and 
managing  director  of  the  Brighton  Railway  Company. 
In  1852  he  became  chairman  of  the  Crystal  Palace 
Company,  from  which  he  retired  in  1855,  as  well  as  from 
the  chairmanship  of  the  Brighton  Railway  Company. 
In  July,  1852,  Mr.  Laing  was  returned  in  the  Liberal 
interest  for  the  Wick  district,  which  he  represented  till 
1857,  and  having  been  reelected  in  April,  1859,  re- 
signed in  October,  i860,  on  proceeding  to  India  as 
finance  minister,  and  was  once  more  elected  in  July, 
1865.  He  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  Wick  in 
November,  1868,  but  in  January,  1873,  he  again  ob- 


LAI-LAN 


6634 

tained  a seat  in  the  House  of  Commons  as  member  for 
Orkney  and  Shetland.  Mr.  Laing,  who  was  financial 
secretary  to  the  treasury  from  June,  1859,  till  October, 
i860,  again  accepted  the  chairmanship  of  the  Brighton 
railway  in  1867.  Of  late  years  he  has  written  books, 
and  his  Modern  Science  and  Modern  Thought  (1886) 
has  been  read  with  interest.  Died  Aug.  6,  1897. 

LAIRD,  David,  born  in  Prince  Edward  Island, 
March  12,  1833  ; represented  Belfast  in  the  assembly 
of  his  native  province,  and  in  1873  was  elected  to  the 
Canadian  parliament.  He  established,  and  for  many 
years  edited,  the  Charlottetown  Patriot . He  served  on 
the  executive  council;  was  minister  of  the  interior, 
1 873-76,  and  for  five  years  was  governor  of  the  north- 
western provinces. 

LAKE,  William  Charles,  D.D.,  dean  of  Dur- 
ham, born  in  January,  1817;  was  educated  at  Rugby 
under  Doctor  Arnold,  whence  he  was  elected,  in  1834, 
to  a scholarship  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  and  took 
first  class  honors  in  classics.  He  obtained  the  Latin 
essay,  became  fellow  and  tutor  of  his  college,  proctor 
and  university  preacher  and  public  examiner  in  classics 
and  in  modern  history.  He  was  appointed,  in  1858, 
member  of  the  royal  commission,  to  report  on  the  state 
of  popular  education  in  England ; in  1858  was  presented 
by  his  college  to  the  living  of  Huntspill,  Somerset ; was 
appointed,  by  the  bishop  of  London,  preacher  at  the 
Chapel  Royal  of  Whitehall,  and  was  made  prebendary 
of  Wells.  In  1868  he  was  again  member  of  the  royal 
commission  on  military  education,  and  on  August  9, 
1869,  was  appointed  to  the  deanery  of  Durham  by  Mr. 
Gladstone.  On  June  2,  1881,  he  married  Miss  Kath- 
arine Gladstone,  niece  of  the  premier. 

LAMAR,  Lucius  Quintus  Cincinnatus,  was  born 
in  Putnam  county,  Ga.,  September  17,  1825.  Hegradu- 
ated  at  Emory  College  in  1845  ; studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  Georgia  bar  in  1847.  Hemoved  to  Mis- 
sissippi in  1849  ; was  elected  a representative  in  Con- 
gress in  1856,  and  reelected  in  1858.  When  the  State 
of  Mississippi  passed  the  ordinance  of  secession,  in  1861, 
he  resigned  his  seat,  and  became  a colonel  in  the  Con- 
federate army,  but  was  soon  sent  ( 1863)  on  a mission  to 
Russia.  After  the  close  of  the  Civil  war  he  was  made 
professor  of  political  economy  and  social  science  in  the 
University  of  Mississippi,  1866,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  transferred  to  the  professorship  of  law.  His 
civil  disabilities  having  been  removed,  he  was,  in  1872, 
elected  to  congress  from  Mississippi,  and  was  reelected 
in  1874.  In  1876  he  was  elected  United  States  senator 
from  Mississippi,  and  reelected  in  1882.  He  resigned 
his  seat  in  1885  to  accept  the  position  of  secretary  of 
the  interior  in  President  Cleveland’s  cabinet.  In 
1887  he  was  appointed  associate  justice  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court.  He  died  January  23,  1893. 

LAMAR,  Mirabeau  B.,  born  in  Georgia,  August 
16,  1798;  conducted  the  Inquirer  newspaper  at  Colum- 
bus, Ga.,  and  in  1835  removed  to  Texas,  where  he  be- 
came a major-general  in  the  Texan  army;  in  1836  was 
made  vice-president,  and  in  1838  president  of  the  Re- 
public of  Texas.  He  fought  at  Monterey  and  else- 
where during  the  Mexican  war;  and  in  1858  became 
United  States  minister  to  Nicaragua  and  to  Costa  Rica. 
He  died  in  Texas,  December  19,  1859. 

LAMB,  Martha  J.  (born  Nash),  was  born  in  Plain- 
field,  Mass.,  August  13,  1829,  helped  establish  the 
Home  for  the  Friendless  and  Half  Orphan  Asylum  in 
Chicago,  became  editor  of  the  Magazine  of  American 
History  in  New  York  in  1883,  and  wrote  The  History 
of  the  City  of  New  York , Wall  Street  in  History  and 
other  works.  She  died  January  2,  1893. 

LAMBDIN,  George  C.,  artist,  born  in  Pittsburg, 
Pa.,  January 6,  1832;  studied  in  Munich,  Paris,  and 


Rome,  and  became  well  known  by  his  portraits  and 
flower-pieces.  He  is  a National  Academician. 

LAMBER,  Juliette  (Mme.  Edmond  Adam),  was 
born  at  Verberie  in  1836,  recorded  her  experiences  in 
Le  Siege  de  Paris : Journal  d'une  Parisienne  (1873,) 
published  a number  of  works  on  political  and  social 
subjects,  especially  on  the  condition  of  women,  among 
them  Laide  (1878),  and  La  Patrie  Hongroise  : Souve- 
nirs Personnels  (third  edition,  1884),  and  in  1879 
started  the  Nouvelle  Revue,  which  she  continues  to 
conduct  with  great  ability. 

LAMONT,  Daniel  S.,  born  in  New  York  in  1851, 
entered  upon  a newspaper  career,  formed  the  acquaint- 
ance of  political  leaders  of  the  democratic  party  in 
New  York,  became  President  Cleveland’s  private  sec- 
retary in  1885,  as  such  exhibiting  tact  and  personal 
qualifications  of  a high  order,  and  in  1893  accepted  the 
portfolio  of  the  war  department  under  President  Cleve- 
land’s second  administration. 

LANDER,  Frederick  William,  born  in  Salem, 
Mass.,  December  18,  1821 ; died  in  Pawpaw,  Va., 
March  2,  1862.  He  made  two  surveys  for  a railway 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean ; from  the  second  of  which  he 
alone  of  his  party  returned  home  alive,  and  while  con- 
structing the  overland  wagon  route,  in  1858,  his  party 
was  attacked  by  the  Indians.  In  1861  he  served  as  a 
volunteer  aide  on  the  staff  of  General  McClellan,  and 
was  made  brigadier-general.  At  Ball’s  Bluff  he  was 
wounded  in  the  leg,  and  later,  at  Hancock,  repelled  a 
superior  Confederate  force.  Increasing  sickness  and 
debility  compelled  him' to  retire  and  he  died  suddenly 
of  congestion  of  the  brain.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  patriotic  lyrics. 

LANDRY,  August  Charles,  born  in  Quebec, 
January  15,  1846;  a prominent  author;  has  been  a 
member  of  the  Quebec  assembly  and  the  Dominion 
parliament.  He  is  a member  of  the  Canadian  Ento- 
mological Society  and  president  of  the  Quebec  Con- 
servative Association. 

LANDRY,  Pierre  Armand,  born  in  New  Bruns- 
wick, May  1,  1846;  sat  in  the  assembly  of  that  province 
and  held  various  government  offices.  In  1883  he  was 
elected  to  the  Dominion  parliament,  and  was  reelected 
in  1887. 

LANE,  James  Henry,  born  at  Lawrenceburg,  Ind., 
June  22,  1814;  enlisted  in  the  Mexican  war  and  com- 
manded a brigade  at  Buena  Vista.  In  1849  he  was 
lieutenant-governor  of  Indiana,  and  in  1853  was  elected 
to  congress.  In  1855  he  went  to  Kansas  and  presided 
over  the  Topeka  and  Leavenworth  constitutional  con- 
vention. He  took  an  active  part  on  the  side  of  the 
Free-Soilers  during  the  border  troubles,  was  indicted 
for  murder  by  the  pro-slavery  government,  but  was  ac- 
quitted, and  in  1861  was  elected  United  States  senator. 
During  the  Civil  war  he  was  a brigadier-general  of 
volunteers.  He  died  by  his  own  hand  at  Leaven- 
worth, Kan.,  July  11,  1866. 

LANE,  Joseph,  born  in  Buncombe  county,  N.  C., 
December  14,  1801 ; removed  to  Indiana  and  served  in 
the  legislature  of  that  State  from  1822  to  1846.  He 
enlisted  as  a private  of  Indiana  volunteers  in  the  Mexi- 
can war;  was  wounded  at  Buena  Vista,  and  commis- 
sioned major-general  for  gallantry.  He  was  appointed 
territorial  governor  of  Oregon  by  President  Polk ; was 
elected  to  congress  as  delegate  1851-57,  and  on  the  ad- 
mission of  Oregon  as  a state  was  chosen  United  States 
senator  in  1859.  In  i860  he  was  nominated  for  vice- 
president  on  the  ticket  with  John  C.  Breckenridge,  and 
after  his  defeat  retired  from  public  life.  He  died  iD 
Oregon,  April  19,  1881. 

LANG,  Andrew,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Sel- 
kirk, March  31,  1844,  and  educated  at  the  Edinburgh 


LAN 


Academy,  St.  Andrews  University,  and  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  gained  first  classes  in  classical  modera- 
tions and  the  final  schools.  In  1868  he  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  Merton  College,  Oxford.  He  has  published, 
in  verse,  Ballades  in  Blue  China  (1881) ; Rhymes  a la 
Mode  (1884) ; and  Helen  of  Troy  ( 1882) ; and,  in  prose, 
Custom  and  Myth  (1844);  and  The  Mark  of  Cain  (a 
novel  1866).  He  has  also  published  a prose  translation 
of  the  Odyssey  (with  Professor  Butcher),  and  of  the 
Iliad  (with  Messrs.  E.  Myers  and  Walter  Leaf),  and  of 
Theocritus.  He  has  published  numerous  other  delight- 
ful works  on  a wide  range  of  subjects. 

LANGEVIN,  The  Hon.  Sir  Hector  Louis, 
K.C. M.G.,  C.B.,  born  in  Quebec,  August  25,  182b; 
was  educated  at  the  seminary  in  his  native  city,  studied 
law  at  Montreal,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1850.  He 
was  created  Q.C.,  March  30,  1864.  He  was  for  some 
time  chief  editor  of  the  Melanges  Religieux , a news- 
paper devoted  to  politics  and  theology,  and  publisned 
in  Montreal;  was  afterward  one  of  the  editors  of  Le 
Courrier  du  Canada , a daily  paper  published  in  Que- 
bec, and  wrote  Droit  Administratif  des  Paroisses,  or 
Parochial  Laws  and  Customs  of  Lower  Canada , 1862. 
Mr.  Langevin,  elected  mayor  of  Quebec  in  December, 
1857,  was  reelected  in  1858  and  1859,  tias  filled  the  chair 
of  the  Institut  Canadien,  and  has  been  president  of  the 
St.  Jean  Baptiste  Society  of  Quebec.  He  was  elected 
January  2,  1858,  member  of  the  Provincial  Parliament, 
by  the  county  of  Dorchester,  and  has  always  supported 
the  Conservative  party.  In  March,  1864,  Mr.  Langevin 
became  solicitor-general  for  Lower  Canada,  with  a seat 
in  the  cabinet  in  Sir  E.  P.  Tache’s  administration, 
and  exchanged  the  former  post  for  the  postmaster- 
generalship  in  November,  1866.  He  was  one  of  the 
Canadian  delegates  to  the  conference  at  Prince  Edward 
Island,  on  the  question  of  the  Confederation  of  the 
British  North  American  Provinces  in  the  summer  of 
1866,  and  afterward  to  the  Quebec  Conference,  and  re- 
paired to  London  with  other  commissioners  toward  the 
end  of  that  year,  in  order  to  complete  the  arrangements. 
On  the  reorganization  of  the  Dominion  Cabinet,  in  1867, 
Mr.  Langevin  was  transferred  to  the  position  of  secre- 
tary of  state  of  Canada,  superintendent-general  of  In- 
dian Affairs,  and  registrar-general;  and  in  November, 
1869,  exchanged  this  office  for  that  of  minister  of  pub- 
lic works,  which  he  retained  until  the  fall  of  the  Mac- 
donald government  in  1873.  At  the  general  elections 
of  1878  he  was  returned  for  Three  Rivers,  and  was 
sworn  in  as  postmaster-general  in  the  Liberal- Conserva- 
tive government  of  that  year.  This  portfolio  he  resigned, 
in  May,  1879,  for  that  of  the  ministry  of  public  works. 
He  was  made  a C.  B.  when  in  London,  completing  the 
arrangements  for  the  organization  of  the  Dominion 
Government,  and,  in  1881,  nad  the  order  of  K.C.M.G. 
conferred  upon  him. 

LANGLEY,  Samuel  P.,  LL.D.,  born  at  Roxbury, 
Mass.,  August  22,  1834;  studied  at  Harvard  Observa- 
tory, and  in  1867  became  director  of  the  observatory  at 
Alleghany  City,  Penn.  He  published  numerous  scien- 
tific papers,  especially  in  reference  to  solar  physics,  and 
has  been  awarded  the  Draper  medal  and  both  the  Rum- 
ford  medals.  In  1887  he  became  secretary  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution. 

LANGTRY,  Lillie,  actress,  is  the  daughter  of  the 
Rev.  W.  C.  Le  Breton,  dean  of  Jersey,  and  was  bom 
in  1852.  In  1874  she  was  married  to  Mr.  Langtry,  a 
native  of  Belfast,  and  about  1881,  after  having  been  for 
some  vears  extremely  well  known  in  London  society, 
determined  to  go  on  the  stage.  Mrs.  Langtry  made  her 
first  public  performance  on  December  15,  1881,  at  the 
Haymarket  theater,  London,  in  She  Stoops  to  Conquer , 
in  aid  of  the  Royal  General  Theatrical  Fund.  In  Janu- 


6635 

ary  of  the  following  year  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Bancroft  en- 
gaged Mrs.  Langtry  to  play  at  the  Haymarket  theater, 
and  she  appeared,  on  January  19,  1882,  in  Robertson’s 
play  of  Ours , and  in  the  character  of  “Blanche  Haye.” 
She  appeared  as  Rosalind  in  As  You  Like  It,  at  the 
Imperial  theater,  London,  on  September  23,  1882,  and 
since  then  made  several  tours  in  America,  where  her 
success  was  moderate. 

LANIER,  Sidney,  poet,  born  in  Macon,  Ga.,  Feb- 
ruary 3,  1842;  died  in  Lynn,  N.  C.,  September  7, 
1881.  He  was  graduated  at  Oglethorpe  College, 
Georgia,  in  i860,  and  served  in  the  Confederate  army 
during  the  war.  Toward  its  termination  he  was  captured 
and  held  prisoner  for  five  months  at  Point  Lookout, 
Fla.  From  1865  to  1867  he  was  a clerk  in  Montgomery, 
Ala.,  had  a school  in  Prattsville,  Ala.,  and  from 
1868  to  1872  practiced  law  in  company  with  his  father 
at  Macon.  In  1876  he  prepared  an  ode  for  the 
centennial  exhibition  at  Philadelphia,  and  in  Octo- 
ber, 1877,  settled  in  Baltimore,  where  he  delivered 
lectures  on  English  literature.  In  1879  he  was  ap- 
pointed lecturer  on  English  literature  at  Johns  Hopkin? 
University.  In  the  summer  of  1880,  enfeebled  by  thtf 
progress  of  consumption,  he  sought  relief  in  the  mount- 
ains of  North  Carolina,  where  he  died.  His  two  nota- 
ble books  are  his  Science  of  English  Verse,  and  his 
Poems.  The  former  is  an  ingenious,  well  worked  out 
theory,  treated  somewhat  in  accordance  with  the  musical 
system  of  Marx.  None  of  his  versions  have  become 
particularly  noted ; but  they  contain  elevated  passages 
that  mark  the  truly  endowed  poet. 

LANIGAN,  George  Thomas,  born  at  St.  Charles, 
Can.,  December  10,  1845;  died  in  Philadelphia  in  1886. 
He  was  a clever  and  versatile  journalist  and  the  author 
of  various  ballads,  Fables  Oiit  of  the  World,  sketches 
and  essays. 

LANKESTER,  Edwin,  F.  R.  S.,  born  in  Suffolk, 
England,  in  1814;  graduated  at  Heidelberg,  and  was  for 
many  years  professor  of  natural  history  at  New  College, 
London.  He  edited  the  Journal  of  Microscopical  Sci- 
ence, contributed  to  the  scientific  reviews,  and  lectured 
on  natural  history  at  the  Royal'  Institution.  In  1845 
he  became  a fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  died 
October  30,  1874. 

LANKESTER,  Edwin  Ray,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R. 
S.,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born  May  15,  1847,  in 
London,  and  educated  at  St.  Paul’s  School,  London, 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  was  appointed  fellow 
and  lecturer  of  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  in  1872,  and 
professor  of  zoology  and  comparative  anatomy  in  Uni- 
versity College,  London,  in  1874.  He  is  an  honorary 
LL.D.  of  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  (1885),  and  ex- 
aminer in  the  Universities  of  Cambridge,  London,  and 
New  Zealand.  Professor  Lankester  was  elected  a fel- 
low of  the  Royal  Society  in  1875.  He  has  published 
more  than  a hundred  scientific  memoirs  (dating  from 
1 865 ) , mostly  on  comparative  anatomy  and  palaeontology. 
Besides  these  he  has  published  numerous  shorter  memoirs, 
and  has  constantly  contributed  reviews  and  articles  to 
the  pages  of  the  Athenceum,  the  Academy,  and  Naticre. 
Since  1869,  when  he  joined  his  father,  the  late  Dr.  Ed- 
win Lankester,  in  that  work,  he  has  been  chief  editor  of 
the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopical  Science.  Dur- 
ing the  years  1870-74,  he  was  one  of  the  sectional  secre- 
taries of  the  British  Association  for  the  advancement  of 
science,  and  organized  the  annual  museum  which  has 
become  a feature  of  the  meetings  of  that  body.  In  1883 
he  was  president  of  the  biological  section  of  the  associa- 
tion. 

LANMAN,  Charles,  was  born  in  Monroe  county, 
Michigan,  June  14,  1819.  He  received  an  academical 
education  at  Plainfield,  Conn.,  and  became  successively 


L A N — L A U 


6636 

a clerk  in  a mercantile  house  in  New  York,  a journal- 
ist, traveler,  private  secretary  to  Daniel  Webster,  and 
librarian  to  the  House  of  Representatives.  From  1871 
to  1882  he  was  secretary  of  the  Japanese  legation  at 
Washington,  and  since  then  has  devoted  himself  to 
landscape  painting,  and  writing  a large  number  of 
books,  of  which  the  most  important  was  his  Dictionary 
of  Congress , of  which  a number  of  editions  were  issued, 
until  it  was  superseded,  in  1876,  by  Biographical  A nnals 
of  the  Civil  Government  of  the  United  States.  He  is 
an  associate  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design,  New 
York.  He  died  March  4,  1895. 

LANSDOWNE  (Marquis  of),  The  Right  Hon. 
Henry  Charles  Keith  Fitz-Maurice,  eldest  son 
of  the  fourth  Marquis  of  Lansdowne,  K.G.,  was  bom 
in  1 84.5.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Balliol  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  the  marquisate 
and  other  titles  in  1866.  Lord  Lansdowne  was  a lord 
of  the  treasury  from  1868  to  1872,  and  under-secretary 
for  war  from  the  latter  date  till  1874.  He  was  ap- 
pointed under-secretary  for  India  when  Mr.  Gladstone 
took  office  again  in  1880,  but  retired  two  months  after- 
ward (July  8th)  owing  to  a disagreement  with  the  gov- 
ernment on  the  subject  of  the  Compensation  for  Disturb- 
ance (Ireland)  Bill.  In  May,  1883,  the  queen  approved 
the  appointment  of  Lord  Lansdowne  as  governor- 
general  of  Canada,  in  succession  to  the  marquis  of 
Lome,  who  was  to  retire  in  October^  of  that  year,  on 
the  completion  of  the  period  for  which  he  was 
appointed.  In  1888  Lord  Lansdowne  was  made 
governor-general  of  India,  serving  until  December, 
1893.  He  is  now  (1902)  Foreign  Secretary. 

LANSING,  John,  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Jan- 
uary 30,  1754;  died  in  New  York  city,  December  12, 
1829.  He  studied  law,  and  in  1776-77  was  military  sec- 
retary to  Gen.  Philip  Schuyler..  On  February  3,  1784, 
he  was  elected  a member  of  the  lower  house  of  con- 
gress. On  September  29,  1786,  he  was  appointed 
mayor  of  Albany.  On  January  26,  1787,  he  was  again 
a delegated  member  of  congress,  and  on  March  6th  of 
that  year  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  New  York  dele- 
gates to  the  Philadelphia  convention  which  assembled 
to  frame  the  constitution  of  the  United  States.  In 
1790  he  was  appointed  a justice  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  on  February  15,  1798, 
became  chief  justice.  In  1801  he  became  chancellor, 
and  held  this  office  until  1814.  His  manner  of  death 
was  never  accounted  for.  He  was  in  New  York  and 
left  his  hotel  to  dispatch  a letter  by  the  steamboat 
going  to  Albany.  At  this  time  he  was  seventy-five 
years  of  age,  and  it  was  supposed  that  he  was  either 
robbed  and  murdered  or  accidentally  drowned. 

LARCOM,  Lucy,  author,  born  in  Beverly,  Mass., 
in  1826.  When  she  was  twelve  years  old  her  father 
died,  and  her  mother  established  a factory  boarding- 
house in  Lowell.  After  spending  about  three  years  at 
school  she  became  a factory  “ hand  ” in  a cotton-mill. 
During  that  time  she  contributed  to  the  Lowell  Offering 
a series  of  parables.  At  the  age  of  twenty  she  went  to 
Illinois,  where  for  three  years  she  studied  in  Monticello 
Female  Seminary.  On  her  return  to  Massachusetts  she 
was  employed  six  years  in  the  Norton  Female  Seminary, 
\nd  later  taught  classes  in  the  Boston  schools.  She  was 
for  a time  editor  of  Oar  Yonng  Folks , a Boston  maga- 
zine. Her  publications  are  Ships  in  the  Mist  (Boston, 
1859);  Poems  (1868);  An  Idyl  of  Work  (1875);  Child- 
hood Songs  (1877);  Wild  Roses  of  Cape  Ann , poems 
( 1 880);  New  England  Girlhood  ( 1 884) ; As  It  Is  in  Heaven 
(1891),  and  The  Unseen  Friend (1892).  She  also  edited 
several  collections  of  poetry.  She  died  April  13,  1893. 

LASKER,  Eduard,  born  in  Prussian  Poland,  of 
Jewish  parentage,  October  14,  1829;  studied  law  at 


Berlin  and  Breslau,  and  became  successively  a mem- 
ber of  the  Prussian,  North  German  and  imperial  diets. 
He  was  an  earnest  Liberal  and  probably  the  most  influ- 
ential as  he  was  the  most  uncompromising  opponent  of 
the  policy  of  Bismarck.  He  died  in  New  York,  June  5, 
1884. 

LASSELL,  William,  F.R.S.,  LL.D.,  born  in 
Lancashire,  England,  June  18,  1799;  died  October  5, 
1880.  He  was  engaged  in  trade  but  devoted  all  his  leisure 
to  astronomy,  and  with  telescopes  of  his  own  construc- 
tion discovered  two -satellites  of  the  planet  Uranus  and 
one  of  Neptune. 

LATHAM,  Robert  Gordon,  M.D.  F.R.S.,  born 
in  Lincolnshire,  England,  in  1812,  was  educated  at  Eton, 
and  proceeded  to  King’s  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
graduated  B.A.  in  1832,  being  duly  elected  fellow.  He 
afterward  studied  medicine,  and  became  assistant  phy- 
sician to  Middlesex  hospital,  where  he  lectured  on 
forensic  medicine  and  materia  medica.  His  name,  how- 
ever, is  best  known  to  the  world  by  his  ethnological  re- 
searches, and  his  writings  on  that  subject  and  on  philol- 
ogy. His  first  works  were  Norway  and  the  Norzuegians, 
a translation  from  the  Swedish  of  Tegner’s  Frith- 
iof  Saga,  and  Axel,  published  in  1840;  The  Varieties 
of  Man , and  The  Ethnology  of  Europe , in  1852;  The 
English  Language , in  1855;  Descriptive  Ethnology , 
in  1859;  Nationalities  of  Europe,  in  1863;  a work  on 
Comparative  Philology ; several  papers  on  Logic;  a new 
edition  of  Johnson's  Dictionary,  of  which  the  thirty- 
sixth  and  last  number  was  published  January  1,  1870; 
Outlines  of  General  or  Developmental  Philology,  1878; 
and  Russian  and  Turk  from  a Geographical,  Ethnolog- 
ical, and  Historical  Point  of  View,  1878.  He  died 
March  9,  1888. 

LATHROP,  George  Parsons,  born  in  Honolulu, 
August  25,  1851,  was  educated  in  Germany  and  married, 
in  1871,  Rose  Hawthorne,  youngest  daughter  of  Na- 
thaniel Hawthorne  ( q.v.) , who  has  distinguished 
herself  as  a magazine  writer.  Mr.  Lathrop  was  assist- 
ant editor  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  1875-77,  and  after- 
ward edited  the  Boston  Courier.  He  has  published 
poems  and  sketches.  Died  April  19,  1898. 

LATROBE,  Benjamin  Henry,  born  in  Yorkshire, 
England,  May  1,  1764;  died  in  New  Orleans,  La.,  Sep- 
tember 3,  1820.  In  1785  he  entered  the  Prussian  army 
in  a regiment  of  hussars,  and  was  twice  wounded  in 
battle.  Returning  to  England,  he  studied  architecture, 
and  m 1788  was  made  manager  of  the  public  offices  of 
London.  In  1796  he  came  to  the  United  States,  when 
he  was  made  engineer  of  the  James  river  and  Appo- 
mattox canal,  and  superintended  the  building  of  the 
penitentiary  in  Richmond.  In  1798  he  settled  in  Phil- 
adelphia, where  he  designed  the  bank  of  Pennsylvania, 
the  old  academy  of  art,  and  the  bank  of  the  United 
States.  In  1811  he  completed  the  capitol  at  Washing- 
ton, and  after  its  destruction  by  the  British  in  1814, 
superintended  its  reconstruction. 

LAUBE,  Heinrich,  born  in  Silesia  in  1806;  died 
in  Vienna,  August  I,  1884.  He  wrote  some  poems 
and  a number  of  tales,  romances,  and  dramas,  as  well 
as  the  History  of  the  First  German  Parliament  (1849). 

LAURENT,  Cornelius  Baldran,  born  in  Dord- 
recht, Holland,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century;  died  about  1710.  He  began  his  career  at  sea 
among  the  Spaniards.  Captured  by  the  buccaneers,  he 
was  induced  to  join  their  ranks,  and  eventually  became 
one  of  their  leaders.  In  1683  about  1,300  pirates, 
gathered  under  the  leaderships  of  Laurent  and  Van  de 
Horn,  struck  terror  in  the  Spanish-American  colonies. 
Each  captain,  with  a frigate  of  fifty  guns,  sailed  for 
Vera  Cruz,  which  they  surprised  by  night,  took  the 
principal  inhabitants  prisoners,  and  held  them  for  ran* 


L A U — L A Y 


som.  On  the  arrival  of  Spanish  forces  from  the  in- 
terior, the  buccaneers  retired  with  about  1,000  captives, 
and  booty  to  the  amount  of  a million  dollars.  Soon 
dissensions  arose  between  the  two  leaders  about  the 
division  of  spoils,  and  Horn  and  Laurent  fought  a duel, 
in  which  the  former  was  wounded.  After  a division  of, 
booty  and  prisoners,  they  set  sail,  in  company  with  a 
number  of  captured  smaller  vessels,  for  the  west  coast 
of  Hayti.  Laurent  resumed  his  buccaneering  in  1684  by 
capturing  two  frigates  and  a sloop  off  Carthagena  on 
December  23d,  and  later  became  engaged  in  other  naval 
enterprises.  The  king  of  France  made  him  governor  of 
Avache  Island,  and  he  also  received  orders  to  drive 
away  the  pirates  who  infested  the  southern  part  of 
Hayti.  In  1691  the  Spaniards  threatened  the  French 
colony  of  that  island,  and  Laurent  gathered  2,000  fol- 
lowers for  its  defense.  In  1694,  when  Jamaica  was  at- 
tacked, Laurent’s  skill  and  bravery  were  instrumental 
in  obtaining  a victory  for  the  French.  Later,  as  lieu- 
tenant of  the  king  of  France,  he  was  intrusted  with  the 
defense  of  Fort  du  Paix,  Santa  Domingo.  At  that 
time  the  British  and  Spanish  forces  combined  to  attack 
the  place,  and  the  French  were  vanquished.  On  this 
occasion  Laurent’s  wife  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Spaniards,  who  kept  her  in  durance  for  many  years. 
Later  he  was  retired  from  military  command,  appointed 
captain  of  a frigate,  and  became  employed  in  piloting 
fleets  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  among  the  Antilles. 

LAURIER,  Sir  Wilfrid,  born  in  Quebec,  Nov. 
20,  1841 ; became  a lawyer,  and  served  in  the  Quebec 
assembly,  1871-74.  In  the  last-named  year  he  entered 
the  Dominion  parliament,  and  in  1877-78  was  minister 
of  inland  revenue  in  the  Mackenzie  government.  He 
led  the  Liberal  opposition  in  parliament  after  the  re- 
tirement of  Edward  Blake  in  1887.  Knighted,  1897. 

LAUZUN,  Armand  Louis  de  Gontaut,  duc  de, 
French  soldier,  born  in  Paris,  April  15,  1747;  died 
there  December  31,  1793.  He  fought  in  the  American 
cause  in  the  Revolution,  commanded  500  cavalry,  known 
as  “Lauzun’s  legion,”  and  was  engaged  at  Yorktown 
and  at  New  York  city;  became  duc  de  Biron  in  1788, 
and  in  1792  was  made  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
of  France  on  the  Rhine.  He  was  cited  before  the 
revolutionary  tribunal  in  1793,  for  alleged  conspiracy 
against  the  republic,  and  was  condemned  to  death,  with- 
out a hearing. 

LAVAL-MONTMORENCY,  Francois  Xavier 
de,  was  born  at  Laval,  France,  in  1623,  was  the  first 
bishop  of  the  Church  of  Rome  in  Canada,  a man  of 
great  ability  and  high  character,  who,  from  his  arrival 
in  1659  to  his  death  in  Quebec,  in  1708,  did  much  for 
the  infant  colony.  He  founded  and  endowed  the 
Seminary  of  the  Holy  Family,  1675. 

LAVELEYE,  Emile  Louis  Victor,  de,  Baron, 
born  at  Bruges,  Belgium,  April  5,  1822;  studied  law  at 
Ghent,  and  devoted  himself  to  economics.  In  1864  he 
became  professor  of  political  economy  in  the  University 
of  Li6ge,  and  wrote  much  on  economics  and  politics. 
He  died  January  3,  1891. 

LAVIGERIE,  Charles  Allemand,  Cardinal, 
born  in  Bayonne,  France,  1825,  a missionary  in  Syria, 
a prelate  of  the  Pope,  was  made  a cardinal  in  1882,  and 
both  before  and  afterward  was  active  in  establishing 
and  supporting  Christian  missions  in  London,  Tunis, 
Tripoli,  East  Africa  and  Algeria,  and  his  energetic  op- 
position to  the  slave  trade  brought  about  the  Brussel’s 
Anti-Slavery  Conference  of  1889.  He  died  Nov.  26, 1892. 

LA  WES,  Sir  John  Bennet,  Bart.,  F.R.S.,  LL.D., 
was  born  at  Rothamsted,  England,  December  28,  1814, 
and  died  August  31,  1900.  He  studied,  in  a practical 
manner,  the  science  of  chemistry,  and  in  1834  started 
regular  experiments  in  agriculture  at  Rothamsted,  and 


6637 

from  that  date  has  unceasingly  engaged  in  solving  ques- 
tions affecting  practical  agriculture,  among  them  the 
effect  of  bones  as  manure  on  land,  endowing  his  agri- 
cultural station  with  $500,000. 

LAWRENCE,  George  Alfred,  an  English  nov 
elist,  born  in  1827;  died  in  1876.  His  best-known 
works  are  Guy  Livingstone,  Sword  and  Gown,  and 
Barren  Honor. 

LAWRENCE,  James,  captain  in  the  United  States 
navy,  was  born  at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  October  1,  1781, 
and  entered  the  navy  as  a midshipman  in  1798.  He 
commanded  the  Hornet  in  the  capture  of  the  Peacock, 
February  24,  1813.  Placed  in  command  of  the  frigate 
Chesapeake,  he  accepted  the  challenge  of  Captain  Broke 
of  the  Shannon  to  a single  battle,  off  Boston  harbor. 
The  Chesapeake  was  captured,  and  Lawrence,  mortally 
wounded,  died  June  6,  1813.  (See  Irving’s  Spanish 
Papers,  vol.  ii.) 

LAWSON,  James  Antony,  LL.D.,  born  at  Water- 
ford, in  1817;  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
where  he  took  the  usual  degrees  and  was  professor  of 
political  economy.  He  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar  in 
1840.  He  became  a Q.C.  in  1857;  was  appointed  law 
adviser  of  the  crown  in  Ireland,  and  on  the  formation 
of  Lord  Palmerston’s  second  administration,  in  1859, 
solicitor-general  for  Ireland,  succeeding  Mr.  O’Hagan 
as  attorney-general  in  1865,  from  which  office  he  retired 
on  the  fall  of  Lord  Russell’s  second  administration,  in 
July,  1866.  He  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  in  the 
Liberal  interest  for  the  University  of  Dublin  in  April, 
1857,  and  was  first  returned  for  Portarlington  at  the  gen- 
eral election  in  July,  1866.  Mr.  Lawson  was  appointed 
a justice  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  in  Ireland,  in 
1868.  On  the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish  church  in 
1871  he  was  appointed  commissioner,  with  Lord  Monck 
and  the  late  Mr.  G.  A.  Hamilton,  to  carry  into  effect 
the  provisions  of  the  act.  In  1882  he  was  transferred 
to  the  queen’s  bench,  and  became  the  senior  puisne 
judge  in  Ireland.  He  died  August  9,  1887. 

LAWSON,  Sir  Wilfrid,  Bart.,  M.  F.,  was  born 
September  4,  1829,  and  succeeded  to  the  title  and  estates 
on  his  father’s  death  in  1867.  From  an  early  age  he 
has  been  an  enthusiastic  advocate  of  the  temperance 
movement,  and  he  is  now  the  leader  of  the  United 
Kingdom  Alliance,  and  its  spokesman  in  parliament. 
At  the  general  election  of  1859  he  stood,  in  conjunction 
with  his  uncle,  the  late  Sir  James  Graham,  as  a candi- 
date for  the  representation  of  Carlisle,  and  succeeded  by 
a narrow  majority  over  his  opponent,  Mr.  Hodgson. 
In  March,  1864,  he  first  moved 'for  leave  to  introduce 
the  measure  now  so  well  known  as  the  permissive  bill, 
the  main  principle  of  which  is  the  giving  to  two-thirds  of 
the  inhabitants  of  any  parish  or  township  an  absolute 
veto  upon  all  licenses  for  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors 
granted  within  their  districts.  It  was  supported  by 
forty  members.  In  1865  he  was  displaced  at  the  general 
election  by  his  former  opponent,  Mr.  Hodgson;  but  at 
the  general  election  of  1868,  on  appealing  to  the  en- 
larged constituency  as  a supporter  of  Mr.  Gladstone,  he 
w°s  returned  at  the  head  of  the  poll.  Sir  Wilfrid  Law- 
son  succeeded,  on  June  18,  1880,  in  carrying  his  “ Local 
Option  ” resolution  by  a majority  of  twenty-six.  In 
1885  he  stood  for  the  new  Cockermouth  division  of 
Cumberland,  but  was  defeated  by  a Conservative  ma- 
jority of  ten.  In  1886  and  1892,  as  a Gladstonian 
Liberal,  he  gained  the  seat  by  a large  majority.  He  is 
an  advanced  Radical  and  is  in  favor  of  the  disestab- 
lishment of  the  church,  and  of  the  abolition  of  the 
House  of  Lords  and  standing  armies. 

LAYARD,  The  Right  Hon.  Sir  Austen  Henry, 
G.C.B.,  was  born  in  Paris, 'March  5,  1817.  After 
studying  law  for  a -time,  he,  in  1839,  set  out  with  a 


6638  L A Z - 

friend  on  a course  of  travel;  visited  various  points  in 
northern  Europe,  and  proceeded  through  Albania  and 
Roumelia,  to  Constantinople,  where,  at  one  period,  he 
acted  as  a correspondent  of  a London  newspaper,  and 
afterward  traveled  through  various  parts  of  Asia,  and 
learned  the  Arabic  and  Persian  languages.  In  his  wan- 
derings he  made  it  a special  point  to  explore  those  spots 
believed  to  have  been  the  sites  of  ancient  cities;  and 
when  at  Mosul,  near  the  mound  of  Nimroud,  he  examined 
carefully  the  spot  to  which  history  and  tradition  point 
as  the  “ birthplace  of  the  wisdom  of  the  West.”  On 
hearing  that  M.  Botta,  a Frenchman,  had  been  carrying 
out  excavations  at  the  cost  of  his  government,  and  had 
found  a great  number  of  curious  marbles,  Mr.  Layard 
longed  for  the  opportunity  of  making  similar  discov- 
eries. Returning  to  Constantinople,  he  laid  his  views 
before  Sir  Stratford  Canning,  who,  in  1845,  generously 
offered  to  share  the  cost  of  excavations  at  Nimroud,  and 
in  the  autumn  Mr.  Layard  set  off  for  Mosul,  and  began 
his  labors  on  a spot  previously  undisturbed.  Here  he 
ultimately  succeeded  in  exhuming  some  of  the  numerous 
wonderful  specimens  of  Assyrian  art  which  enrich  the 
British  Museum.  The  government,  however,  for  a 
time  failed  to  appreciate  the  value  of  Mr.  Layard’s  re- 
searches. He  was  appointed  attach^  to  the  embassy  at 
Constantinople,  April  5,  1849,  and  under-secretary  of 
state  for  foreign  affairs  in  Lord  Russell’s  first  adminis- 
tration for  a few  weeks  in  1852. 

In  1853  he  was  presented  with  the  freedom  of  the 
city  of  London,  in  consideration  of  his  discoveries 
among  the  ruins  of  Nineveh,  and  went  to  Constantino- 
ple with  Lord  Stratford  de  Redcliffe.  In  the  House  of 
Commons  he  became  the  advocate  of  a more  decided 
course  of  action  on  the  Eastern  question,  and  delivered 
several  energetic  and  impressive  speeches  on  that  im- 
portant subject.  He  was  returned  as  one  of  the  mem- 
bers in  the  Liberal  interest  for  Aylesbury  in  July,  1852; 
was  defeated  at  the  general  election  in  March,  1857; 
was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  at  York  in  April,  1859, 
and  was  returned  one  of  the  members  for  Southwark  in 
December,  i860.  In  1848-9  he  published  Nineveh  and 
its  Remains , and,  in  1853,  a second  part  ol  the  work. 
His  Monuments  of  Nineveh  appeared  in  1849-53, 
and  an  abridged  edition  of  Nineveh  and  its  Remains  in 
1851.  Mr.  Layard,  who  had  been  elected  lord  rector 
of  Aberdeen  University  in  1855  and  1856,  became 
under-secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs  in  Lord 
Palmerston’s  second  administration,  in  July,  1861,  and 
retired  on  the  fall  of  Lord  Russell’s  second  adminis- 
tration, in  July,  1866.  He  was  appointed  a trustee  of 
the  National  Gallery  in  February,  1866.  He  was  chief 
commissioner  of  works  in  Mr.  Gladstone’s  administra- 
tion from  December,  1868,  at  which  time  he  was  added 
to  the  privy  council,  until  November,  1869,  when  he 
retired  from  parliament  on  being  appointed  envoy  ex- 
traordinary and  minister  plenipotentiary  at  Madrid.  In 
April,  1877,  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Constanti- 
nople in  succession  to  Sir  Henry  Elliot.  On  the  re- 
establishment of  ordinary  diplomatic  relations  with  the 
Sublime  Porte,  Mr.  Layard  was  chosen  by  L^d 
, Beaconsfield  to  be  ambassador.  He  arrived  at  Con- 
stantinople, April  24,  1877.  The  Order  of  the  Grand 
Cross  of  the  Bath  was  conferred  on  him  in  June,  1878, 
just  before  the  assembling  of  the  Congress  of  the  Great 
Powers  at  Berlin.  In  April,  1880,  when  Mr.  Gladstone 
returned  to  power,  Sir  A.  H.  Layard  received  leave 
of  absence  from  his  post  at  Constantinople,  and  his 
place  was  soon  afterward  taken  by  Mr.  Goschen.  He 
died  July  5,  1894. 

LAZARUS,  Emma,  author,  born  in  New  York  city, 
Julv  22,  1849;  died  there  November  19,  1887.  Her 
parents  were  Hebrews.  She  was  carefully  educated,  and 


-L  EC 

as  she  advanced  to  womanhood  contributed  articles  to 
Scribner’s  Monthly  and  other  periodicals.  She  was  a 
good  German  and  Hebrew  linguist,  and  from  these  lan- 
guages made  sundry  translations.  Miss  Lazarus  led  a 
quiet,  uneventful  life,  living  in  sympathy  with  her  race, 
and  died  of  lingering  consumption.  Her  publications 
include  Poems  and  Ballads  of  Heine  (New  York,  1881), 
and  Songs  of  a Semite , poems  (1882).  Her  last  writ- 
ings, a series  of  prose-poems,  appeared  in  1887. 

LEADER,  Benjamin  Williams,  A.R.A.,  was 
bom  at  Worcester,  England,  March  12,  1831.  He  re- 
ceived his  earliest  instruction  in  art  at  the  School  of 
Design  in  his  native  city.  In  1854  he  was  admitted  a 
student  in  the  Royal  Academy,  and  in  the  same  year 
exhibited  his  first  picture,  Cottage  Children  Blowing 
Bubbles , which  was  bought  for  $250  by  an  American 
gentleman.  Since  then  he  has  become  one  of  the  most 
opular  delineators  of  mountain  scenery,  Wales  and 
witzerland  being  his  favorite  sketching-grounds.  He 
was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  January 
16,  1883,  and  has  exhibited  pictures  in  the  Royal 
Academy  since  1856. 

LECLERC,  Victor  Emmanuel,  born  in  Pontoise, 
March  17,  1779;  died  in  Tortugas,  West  Indies,  De- 
cember 2,  1802.  He  began  his  military  career  in  1 790  as  a 
private  in  the  French  army,  in  1793  became  captain,  and 
in  1796  was  made  major-general.  In  1797  he  married 
Pauline,  the  sister  of  Napoleon,  and  in  1799  was  pro- 
moted to  lieutenant-general.  In  December,  1801,  he 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  expedition  to 
Santo  Domingo,  sent  to  quell  the  negro  rising  undei 
Toussaint  l’Ouverture.  A fleet  of  eighty  sail,  having 
on  board  33,000  soldiers,  was  assembled  at  Rochefort, 
and  Madame  Leclerc  joined  her  husband  on  the  voy- 
age. On  February  6,  1802,  the  forces  were  landed. 
The  general  at  once  issued  proclamation  to  the  inhabi- 
tants, was  joined  by  many  negroes,  and  for  three 
months  devastated  the  country.  Following  this  meas- 
ure he  defeated  Toussaint,  and  on  May  9th  the  negro 
chieftain  signed  a treaty,  in  which  he  acknowledged  the 
government  of  France  over  the  entire  island.  Notwith- 
standing this  treaty  Toussaint  was  arrested  a few  days 
later,  and  sent  a prisoner  to  France.  Thereafter  the 
French  general  assumed  the  office  of  governor-general, 
and  began  to  reenslave  the  negroes.  This  precipitate 
measure  caused  a new  rising  in  the  interior,  in  which 
distressing  barbarities  were  committed  on  both  sides. 
Yellow  fever  and  want  of  food  bore  heavily  on  the 
French  soldiers  ; the  blacks  became  more  successful  in 
the  contest,  and  Leclerc  retired  to  the  island  of  Tor- 
tugas,  where  he  died  of  yellow  fever. 

LECKY,  William  Edward  Hartpoi.e,  M.A.,  was 
born  in  Dublin,  March  26, 1838,  and  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  where  he  graduated  B.  A.  in  1859,  and 
M.A.  in  1863.  Devoting  himself  to  literature,  he  soon 
gained  great  distinction  as  an  author.  His  acknowl- 
edged works  are:  The  Leaders  of  Public  Opinion  in 
Ireland,  published  anonymously  in  1861,  and  repub- 
lished in  1871-2;  History  of  the  Rise  and  Influence  of 
the  Spirit  of  Rationalism  in  Europe,  2 vols.  1865,  5th 
ed.  1872;  History  of  European  Morals  from  Augustus 
to  Charlemagne  (2  vols.,  1869) ; and  a History  of  Eng- 
land in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  in  eight  volumes,  of 
which  the  first  appeared  in  1878  and  the  last  in  1890. 
All  these  works  have  been  translated  into  German,  and 
some  of  them  into  other  languages. 

LE  CONTE,  Joseph,  M.D.,  born  in  Liberty  county, 
Ga.,  February  26,  1823,  graduated  at  Franklin  College 
in  1841,  and  the  New  York  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons  in  1845,  and  practiced  his  profession  at  Ma- 
con, Ga.  In  1850  he  went  to  Cambridge,  Mass., 
where  he  studied  under  Agassiz.  He  subsequently  held 


L EC- 

several  professorships,  and  since  1869  has  been  profes- 
sor of  geology  and  natural  history  in  the  University  of 
California.  He  has  published  several  essays  on  educa- 
tion and  the  fine  arts,  a work  on  The  Mutual  Relations 
of  Religion  and  Science , 1874;  Elements  of  Geology , 
1878;  Sight , 1881;  and  A Compend  of  Geology , 1884. 
Among  his  strictly  scientific  publications  are  papers  on 
The  Agency  of  the  Gulf  Stream  in  the  Formation  of 
the  Peninsula  of  Florida;  On  the  Correlation  of  Vital 
Force  with  Chemical  and  Physical  Forces;  On  the 
Phenomena  of  Binocular  Vision;  A Theory  of  the 
Formation  of  the  Great  Features  of  the  Earth's  Sur- 
face; On  Some  of  the  A ncient  Glaciers  of  the  Sierras; 
On  the  Great  Lava  Flood  of  the  Northwest;  and  On 
the  Structure  and  Age  of  the  Cascade  Mountains . 

LECONTE  DE  LISLE,  Charles  Marie  Ren£,  a 
French  poet,  was  born  October  23,  1818,  at  St.  Paul 
(Reunion  Isle).  After  making  several  tours  in  France 
he  established  himself  in  Paris  in  1847.  He  first  came 
before  the  public  in  1853,  when  his  Poemes  Antiques 
were  published.  This  work  and  Poemes  et  Poesies , 
1885,  gave  him  a leading  position  among  the  younger 
poets.  In  1873  he  was  appointed  sub-librarian  at  the 
Luxembourg,  and  in  the  same  year  offered  himself  as  a 
candidate  at  the  Academy  for  the  chair  of  the  Aboe 
Gratey.  In  1877  he  again  presented  himself  in  opposi- 
tion to  MM.  Sardou  and  D’Audiffret-Pasquier,  but  was 
only  supported  by  Victor  Hugo  and  Aug.  Barbier. 
His  tragedy  Erynnies  was  produced  at  the  Odeon  in 
January,  1873,  and  he  has  contributed  to  the  Revue 
Europeenne , Nain  Jaune , etc.  In  August,  1870,  he 
was  decorated  with  the  Legion  of  Honor.  In  1886  he 
was  admitted  to  the  French  Academy  in  succession  to 
Victor  Hugo  ( q . v.)  He  died  July  18,  1894. 

LEDOCHOWSKI,  Miecislas,  cardinal  of  the 
Roman  Church,  archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Posen,  and 
primate  of  Poland,  was  born  at  Gork,  of  an  illustrious 
Polish  family,  October  29,  1822.  He  began  his  theo- 
logical studies  under  the  Lazarists  in  the  college  of  St. 
John,  Warsaw,  and  at  the  age  of  eighteen  received  the 
ecclesiastical  tonsure  and  habit  from  the  bishop  of 
Sandomir.  After  some  studies  at  Vienna  he  proceeded 
to  Rome,  where  he  joined  the  Academia  Ecclesiastica , 
founded  by  Pius  IX.  to  impart  a special  training  to 
young  ecclesiastics  distinguished  by  their  acquirements. 
His  holiness  named  Ledochowski  domestic  prelate 
and  prothonotary  apostolic,  and  also  sent  him  on  a diplo- 
matic mission  to  Madrid  and  as  auditor  of  the  nunci- 
ature to  Lisbon,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  Santiago  de  Chili. 
He  was  nominated  archbishop  of  Thebes,  in  partibus 
infidelium , on  his  appointment,  September  30,  1861, 
to  the  nunciature  of  Brussels,  where  he  remained  four 
years.  In  January,  1866,  he  was  translated  to  the 
archbishopric  of  Gnesen  and  Posen,  and  as  the  occu- 
pant of  that  see  he  possessed  the  title  of  primate  of 
Poland.  In  consequence  of  his  resistance  to  the  laws 
enacted  in  Prussia  against  the  church,  he  was,  in  1874, 
cast  into  prison,  and  he  was  actually  incarcerated  in  the 
dungeons  of  Ostrowo  when  he  was  proclaimed  a cardi- 
nal by  the  Pope  in  a secret  consistory  held  in  Rome, 
March  15,  1875.  He  was  released  from  captivity  Feb- 
ruary  3,  1876.  Beingbanished  from  his  diocese  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Rome,  where  he  took  possession  of  his 
“title,’-'  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  in  Ara  Coeli  (May 
11).  He  resigned  his  see  in  1885.  Died  July,  1894. 

LEE,  Ann,  founder  of  the  Shaker  sect;  born  in 
Manchester,  England,  February  29,  1736;  died  in  Wa- 
tervliet,  N.  Y.,  September  8,  1784.  Her  father  was  a 
poor  blacksmith  and  she  was  successively  employed  as 
an  operative  in  a cotton  factory  and  a cook  in  a public 
institution,  and  was  married  to  William  Stanley,  a 
blacksmith.  By  him  she  had  four  children  all  of  whom 


-LEE  6639 

died  in  their  infancy.  In  1758  she  joined  the  Manches- 
ter Society  of  Friends,  ana  preached  against  lustful 
gratification.  In  1770  she  had  become  a favorite 
preacher  of  new  doctrines  among  her  people,  and,  being 
imprisoned  for  creating  religious  disturbance  among  the 
lower  orders,  after  her  release  was  deemed  by  many 
their  spiritual  mother  in  Christ.  She  then  claimed  to 
have  had  direct  revelation  from  Christ,  declared  the 
wrath  of  the  Almighty  against  marriage,  and  was 
eventually  incarcerated  in  a mad-house.  Thereafter 
she  declared  she  had  a special  revelation  to  go  to  the 
United  States,  and,  with  a number  of  her  followers, 
arrived  in  New  York  city  in  May,  1774.  After  some 
vicissitudes  she  left  her  husband,  and  founded  a settle- 
ment at  Watervliet,  near  Albany,  N.  Y.  Here  she 
was  accused  of  witchcraft,  and  later,  on  a charge  of 
high  treason,  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  in  Albany 
during  the  summer  of  1776.  In  1780  her  society  began 
to  increase,  and  during  a religious  revival  at  New  Leb- 
anon many  persons  united  with  her  followers.  In  1781, 
in  company  with  several  of  her  elders,  she  visited  the 
New  England  States,  preaching  at  many  places,  and 
founded  a new  society  at  Harvard,  Mass. 

LEE,  Charles,  soldier,  born  in  Dernhall,  Eng- 
land, in  1 73 1;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  October  2, 
1782.  His  father  was  General  John  Lee.  He  studied, 
in  the  schools  of  his  native  place  and  in  Switzerland, 
acquiring  a knowledge  of  Latin,  Greek,  and  French, 
and  later  added  a proficiency  in  Spanish,  Italian,  and 
German.  After  rambling  for  some  time  ,on  the  conti- 
nent he  studied  military  tactics,  and  in  175 1,  after  his 
father’s  death,  became  lieutenant  in  a regiment  of 
which  his  father  had  been  colonel.  In  1 754  this  regi- 
ment was  ordered  to  America  to  take  part  in  Brad- 
dock’s  western  expedition.  Lee  served  in  later  cam- 
paigns as  captain  of  grenadiers,  and  was  present  at  sev- 
eral conferences  of  Sir  William  Johnson  with  the 
Indians.  His  relations  with  the  Mohawks  became  so 
friendly  that  he  was  adopted  as  one  of  their  tribe.  In 
1758  he  was  wounded  in  the  assault  on  Ticonderoga, 
and  was  present  at  the  capture  of  Fort  Niagara.  In 
1760  he  returned  to  England,  and  was  promoted  major; 
in  1762  he  served  under  General  Burgoyne  in  Portu- 
gal, with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  In  1764  he 
visited  Poland,  and  was  employed  on  the  staff  of  the 
king.  After  some  adventures  in  Russia  and  Austria,  in 
1770  he  went  to  Italy,  where  he  lost  two  fingers  in 
a duel  with  an  officer,  whom  he  killed.  He  arrived  in 
New  York  city,  November  10,  1773,  and  journeyed 
through  the  colonies  from  Massachusetts  to  Virginia, 
where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  many  leaders  of  the 
Revolution.  In  1775  he  bought  a handsome  estate  in 
Berkeley  county,  Va.,  and  on  June  17th  of  the  same  year, 
congress  appointed  him  second  major-general  in  the 
Continental  army,  General  Ward  being  the  first.  In 
July,  1775,  Lee  joined  the  army  at  Cambridge,  and  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  left  wing.  In  November  he 
went  to  Newport,  R.  I.,  to  erect  works  of  defense,  and 
in  March,  1776,  visited  Virginia  to  check  the  movements 
of  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  On  October  14th  Lee  arrived  in 
New  York  city  and  took  command  of  the  right  wing  of 
Washington’s  army,  on  Harlem  Heights.  At  the  fall 
of  Fort  Washington,  the  commander-in-chief  had  placed 
half  his  army  on  the  west  side  of  the  Hudson  river,  to 
oppose  any  movement  of  the  British  toward  Philadel 
phia,  leaving  the  other  half,  7,000  men,  in  Westchester 
county,  N.  Y.,  to  await  his  orders.  While  separated 
from  his  forces,  on  December  13th,  General  Lee  was 
surprised  and  captured  at  Basking  Ridge,  N.  J.,  by  a 
party  of  dragoons.  In  May,  1778,  he  was  exchanged 
for  General  Prescott,  and  joined  the  American  army  at 
Valley  Forge.  On  June  28th  Lee  overtook  the  enemy. 


LEE 


6640 

who  were  retreating  from  Philadelphia  to  New  York, 
at  Monmouth,  N.  J.  When  Washington  arrived  for 
his  support,  he  was  astonished  to  find  his  division  in 
disorderly  retreat,  pursued  by  the  British.  It  was  then 
the  commander-in-chief  lost  his  temper,  and  in  round 
terms  swore  at  Lee  in  the  hearing  of  his  soldiers.  Rallying 
his  forces,  he  soon  repelled  the  enemy  and  sent  Lee  to 
the  rear.  Afterward  Lee  was  tried  for  insubordination, 
and  ordered  to  be  suspended  from  command  for  a year. 
For  his  disrespect  to  Washington,  he  was  challenged 
by  Col.  John  Laurens,  Washington’s  aide-de-camp, 
and  in  the  subsequent  duel  was  shot  in  the  arm.  There- 
after he  wrote  an  offensive  letter  to  congress,  for  which 
he  was  dismissed  from  the  army.  He  retired  to  his 
estate  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 

LEE,  Francis  Ljghtfoot,  born  in  Westmoreland 
county,  Va.,  October  14,  1734;  died  in  Richmond,  Va., 
April  3,  1797.  After  serving  in  the  Virginia  house  of 
burgesses  from  Loudon  and  Richmond  counties,  he 
was,  in  August,  1775,  elected  to  the  Continental  con- 
gress, in  which  he  served  until  1779.  He  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  and  assisted  in  drawing 
up  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

LEE,  George  W.  C.,  eldest  son  of  General  Robert 
E.  Lee,  born  at  Arlington,  Va.,  September  16,  1832; 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1854,  became  an  engineer 
officer,  and  in  May,  1861,  resigned  to  enter  the  Con- 
federate service.  He  rose  to  a major-general’s  com- 
mission, and  commanded  a division  of  the  army  of 
Northern  Virginia.  In  February,  1871,  he  succeeded 
his  father  as  president  of  Washington  College,  Va., 
(now  Washington  and  Lee  University). 

LEE,  Henry,  soldier,  born  in  Virginia,  January  29, 
1756;  died  on  Cumberland  Island,  Ga.,  March  25,  1818. 
He  was  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1774,  and  later  was 
appointed  a captain  of  Virginia  cavalry  under  Col.  Theo- 
doric  Bland.  In  1777  Captain  Lee,  with  his  company, 
joined  the  American  army  in  Pennsylvania;  in  1778  be- 
came major,  and  was  placed  in  command  of  an  inde- 
pendent partisan  cerps.  At  that  time  he  received  the 
name  of  “ Light-horse  Harry.”  In  July,  1779,  he  sur- 
prised the  British  garrison  at  Paulus  Hook,  N.  J.,  for 
which  he  was  made  lieutenant-colonel.  In  1780  he 
joined  the  Southern  army  under  General  Greene,  had  a 
number  of  skirmishes  with  Colonel  Tadeton’s  British 
cavalry,  assisted  at  the  capture  of  Augusta,  Ga.,  and  at 
the  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs.  In  October  of  that  year 
he  joined  the  American  army  at  Yorktown.  In  1788 
he  was  a member  of  the  Virginia  convention  that  rati- 
fied the  constitution,  in  1792  became  governor  of  Vir- 
ginia, and  in  1794  was  called  to  the  command  of  a 
military  force  to  quelf  the  whisky  insurrection.  In 
1801  he  retired  to  private  life.  In  1812  he  was  in  Bal- 
timore at  the  time  of  a riot,  when  he  received  bodily  in- 
juries from  which  he  never  recovered.  For  the  improve- 
ment of  his  health,  General  Lee  sailed  for  the  West  In- 
dies, but  died  soon  after  his  return  to  the  United  States. 
He  was  the  father  of  Gen.  Robert  E.  Lee,  {q.v.) 

LEE,  Richard  Henry,  born  in  Westmoreland 
county,  Va.,  January  20,  1732;  died  June  19.  1794;  was 
educated  in  England^  and  from  1764  to  1788  was  a mem- 
ber of  the  Virginia  house  of  burgesses.  In  August, 
1774,  he  was  elected  a delegate  to  the  continental  con- 
gress, and  served  in  several  subsequent  congresses, 
being  president  of  that  of  1784.  On  June  7,  1776,  he 
presented  his  famous  resolution  (seconded  by  John 
A.dams),  “ That  these  united  colonies  are,  and  of  right 
ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  States;  and  all  polit- 
ical connection  between  them  and  the  state  of  Great 
Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved.”  It  was 
upon  this  resolution  that  the  DECLARATION  OF  INDE- 
PENDENCE  ( q . v.)  was  based. 


J LEE,  Robert  Edward,  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Confederate  armies,  was  born  in  Stratford,  in  Westmore- 
land county,  Va.,  January  19,  1807.  He  was  the  son 
of  “ Light  Horse  Harry  Lee,”  a distinguished  general 
of  the  Revolutionary  war;  was  graduated  from  West 
Point  in  1829,  and  assigned  to  the  engineer  corps  of  the 
regular  army,  with  the  rank  of  second  lieutenant.  In 
the  Mexican  war,  during  which  he  served  as  chief  en- 
gineer of  the  army,  evidences  of  his  military  skill  steadily 
accumulated,  and  his  possession  of  military  ability  ol 
the  highest  order  was  made  the  subject  of  commenda- 
tory comment  by  the  generals  commanding.  The  capt- 
ure of  Vera  Cruz  and  his  successful  assault  upon  Cha* 
pultepec  earned  for  Lee  not  only  the  acknowledgments 
of  General  Scott,  but  the  title  of  colonel  by  byevet.  In 
1852  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  military  academy 
at  West  Point,  where  he  remained  for  three  years.  In 
1855  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  second 
cavalry  and  ordered  to  Texas,  where  he  remained  until 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  war,  except  for  a brief 
period,  about  the  time  of  John  Brown’s  raid  on  Harper’s 
Ferry,  when  he  was  ordered  to  Washington,  and  took 
command  of  the  troops  sent  in  pursuit.  In  March,  1861, 
he  was  promoted  colonel  of  the  first  cavalry,  but  re- 
signed his  commission  a month  later  (three  days  after 
Virginia  had  adopted  the  ordinance  of  secession),  declar- 
ing, in  his  letter  to  General  Scott,  that  his  “ resignation 
would  have  been  presented  at  once  but  for  the  struggle 
it  has  cost  me  to  separate  myself  from  a service  to  which 
I have  devoted  all  the  best  years  of  my  life.” 

At  this  time  General  Lee  was  temporarily  sojourning 
at  Arlington,  an  estate  on  the  Potomac  river  near 
Washington  which  he  acquired  upon  his  marriage  in 
June,  1831,  with  Mary  Randolph  Custis,  daughter  of 
George  Washington  Parke  Custis,  grandson  of  Martha 
Washington. 

He  repaired  to  Richmond  when  he  was  appointed  a 
major-general  in  command  of  the  State  troops,  and  in 
July  following  was  designated  as  one  of  the  brigadier- 
generals  of  the  Confederate  army.  His  earliest  service 
was  in  West  Virginia.  That  portion  of  the  country 
was  then  in  possession  of  the  Union  forces  commanded 
by  General  W.  S.  Rosecrans,  the  successor  of  General 
McClellan  upon  the  latter’s  promotion  to  command  the 
army  of  the  Potomac.  General  Rosecrans  defeated 
General  John  B.  Floyd  at  Carnifex  I'erry  in  September, 
1861,  and  his  efforts  were  thereafter  successfully  directed 
against  the  investment  of  any  portion  of  the  territory 
included  within  his  jurisdiction  by  the  army  under  Lee. 
The  fall  of  1861  was  passed  by  the  latter  in  designing 
and  completing  the  coast  defenses  of  South  Carolina, 
but  early  in  the  succeeding  spring  he  was  summoned  to 
Richmond  upon  “special  service” — upon  a service,  in 
fact,  that  subsequent  events  developed  into  the  Penin- 
sular campaign  of  1862. 

As  will  be  remembered,  General  McClellan  was 
called  to  Washington  in  July.  1861.  and  made  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Union  armies  during  the  month 
succeeding.  His  reorganization  of  the  army  followed, 
and  about  March  17,  1862,  he  embarked  his  forces  at 
Alexandria,  Va.,  for  Fortress  Monroe,  the  government 
fort  on  Old  Point  Comfort,  seventy-two  miles  southeast 
of  Richmond.  Meanwhile,  the  Confederates  had  estab- 
lished themselves  to  the  south  of  the  Rappahannock 
river,  and,  when  General  McClellan  began  his  advance 
upon  Richmond  by  way  of  the  Peninsula,  Gen.  Joseph 
E.  Johnston,  commanding  the  Confederates,  was  en- 
camped at  Williamsburg,  General  Buell  commanded 
the  line  of  defense  along  the  Rappahannock  and  Gen- 
eral Jackson  held  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  F*;-!r  h* 
May,  General  Magruder,  after  confronting  McCleLax, 
forces  for  nearly  a month,  evacuated  Yorktown.  Gen- 


LEE 


oral  Franklin’s  command  of  the  Union  army  was  there- 
upon moved  in  the  direcdon  of  the  White  House  at  the 
head  of  navigation  on  the  Pamunkey  river,  while  Gen- 
eral McClellan  undertook  the  pursuit  of  Johnston’s 
army  on  its  retreat  to  Richmond,  whither  it  arrived 
after  contesting  for  the  occupation  of  Williamsburg. 
McClellan  continued  his  pursuit,  and,  during  the  last 
week  in  May,  was  established  on  the  Chickahominy, 
with  the  White  House,  protected  by  Franklin’s  division, 
as  his  base  of  operations.  The  Chickahominy  river  was 
at  this  time  unusually  high,  overflowing  the  surround  ing 
country,  and  rendering  the  position  of  McClellan  crit- 
ical. On  the  night  of  May  30th  his  left  wing  was  at- 
tacked by  Johnston.  The  battle  of  Seven  Pines  or 
Fair  Oaks,  by  which  name  it  has  since  been  known, 
was  fought  the  next  day,  during  which  Johnston  was 
severely  wounded,  and  General  Lee  succeeded  to  the 
command  of  the  army  of  Northern  Virginia. 

Thus  promoted  to  a position  of  such  conspicuous 
importance  General* Lee  determined  to  adopt  that  offen- 
sive defense  which  was  always  his  favorite  method,  and 
instead  of  awaiting  McClellan’s  attack,  he  resolved  to 
defend  Richmond  by  dislodging  the  foe  that  threatened 
it.  In  pursuance  of  this  policy  Lee  inaugurated  a 
movement  under  Jackson,  the  Hills,  and  Longstreet, 
with  the  object  of  turning  the  enemy’s  flank,  and  by 
menacing  their  communications  compel  them  either  to 
fight  or  retreat.  The  movement  was  conducted  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  plan  proposed,  and,  on  the  evening 
of  June  25th,  the  environment  of  General  McClellan 
was  such  as  to  import  disastrous  consequences.  The 
battle  of  Mechanicsville  was  fought  on  the  afternoon 
of  the  next  day,  followed  by  Gaines’  Mill,  Savages’ 
Station,  Frazier’s  Farm,  and  Malvern  Hills,  in  all  of 
which  both  armies  suffered  severely  (see  Peninsular 
Campaign).  The  Union  armies  arrived  at  Harrison’s 
Landing,  July  2d;  on  August  3d  they  evacuated  the 
Peninsula.  Gen.  John  Pope  had  meanwhile  been  placed 
in  command  of  the  army  of  Virginia,  consisting  of  the 
corps  of  Banks,  Fremont,  and  McDowell. 

During  July,  Gen.  Thomas  J.  Jackson,  acting  under 
Lee’s  ojders,  proceeded  to  Gordonsville,  moving  thence 
with  his  own  and  Ewell’s  divisions  to  Orange  Court 
Plouse  where  he  formed  a junction  with  A.  P.  Hill’s 
division,  and,  crossing  the  Rapidan,  fought  the  battle  of 
Cedar  Mountain  August  9th,  in  which  a division  of 
the  army  of  V irginia  under  the  command  of  Banks  was 
defeated.  On  August  14th  General  Lee,  having  mean- 
while strengthened  the  army  of  Northern  Virginia  by 
reenforcements,  took  command  on  the  Rapidan,  and 
personally  directed  operations,  while  General  Pope, 
who  had  also  received  reenforcements  from  the  army  of 
the  Potomac,  and  had  become  aware  of  his  danger,  was 
strongly  intrenched  to  prevent  the  crossing  of  the  Rap- 
pahannock river  by  the  enemy.  Both  armies  moved  up 
the  river  to  a point  in  Fauquier  county  near  Warren- 
ton  Springs,  where  General  Lee  made  a feint  to  cross, 
while  General  Jackson  executed  such  a movement  eight 
miles  above,  and,  marching  through  Thoroughfare  Gap, 
gained  the  enemy’s  rear  at  Manassas.  Three  days 
later,  or  on  August  29th,  Longstreet  joined  Jackson, 
and  on  the  afternoon  of  the  same  day  the  second  battle 
of  Bull  Run  was  commenced.  It  was  continued 
through  August  30th,  and  concluded  with  the  retreat  of 
the  Union  forces  to  Centerville,  whence  they  retired 
within  the  fortifications  of  Washington,  and  on  Sep- 
tember 2d  General  Pope  resigned  his  command. 

Lee  now  determined  to  change  his  base  of  operations, 
and  on  September  5 th,  cutting  loose  from  his  sources  of 
supply,  crossed  the  Potomac,  intending  either  to  attack 
Washington  or  Baltimore,  or  to  invade  Pennsylvania. 
His  army  consisted  of  between  45,000  and  50,000  men, 


6641 

opposed  to  whom  were  the  combined  armies  of  V ir» 
ginia  and  the  Potomac,  again  commanded  by  General 
McClellan.  The  presence  of  a strong  force  of  Union 
soldiers  at  Harper’s  Ferry,  under  the  command  of 
General  Miles,  is  said  to  have  somewhat  disarranged 
Lee’s  plans,  and  accordingly  he  ordered  Jackson  to 
move  in  the  direction  of  that  stronghold,  and  at  the 
same  time  so  dispose  of  his  remaining  forces  as  to  be 
prepared  for  battle  should  the  same  occur  before  Har- 
per’s Ferry  surrendered  or  was  captured.  These 
Maces,  however,  came  into  McClellan’s  possession,  and 
hastened  his  advance.  He  encountered  Hill’s  corp^  at 
Sharpsburg,  a point  on  Antietam  creek  seven  miles 
north  of  Harper’s  Ferry,  where  he  arrived  and  placed 
his  army  in  position  about  September  16th,  Lee  having 
preceded  him  thither,  and  there  received  news  of  the 
surrender  of  Harper’s  Ferry.  The  battle  of  Sharpsburg 
or  Antietam  was  inaugurated  at  daylight  on  the  morn- 
ing of  September  17th,  and  lasted  all  day.  Hostilities 
were  not  resumed  on  the  18th,  and  on  that  night  Lee 
recrossed  the  Potomac  and  established  himself  near 
.Winchester. 

General  Burnside  took  command  of  the  Union  army 
during  the  fall  of  1862,  and  planned  a campaign  against 
Richmond  by  way  of  Fredericksburg.  His  army,  esti- 
mated at  122,000  men,  reached  Falmouth,  across  the 
Rappahannock  from  Fredericksburg,  on  November 
17th.  To  confront  him,  Lee  placed  a portion  of  his 
army  among  the  hills  which  environ  the  city,  under  the 
command  of  Longstreet,  with  the  divisions  of  Jackson 
and  Hill  so  disposed  of  as  to  protect  the  wings  if  his 
army  was  attacked.  On  December  12th  Burnside 
crossed  the  river  at  two  points,  but  reserved  his  attack 
until  the  following  morning,  when  the  right  and  left  of 
Lee’s  army  were  made  the  objective  points.  The  contest 
raged  all  day.  As  the  Union  forces  advanced,  their 
ranks  were  swept  with  shot  and  shell  from  the  artillery 
placed  on  Mary’s  Heights,  and  by  the  withering  fire 
of  muskets  from  soldiers  occupying  a sunken  road 
opposite  the  Union  lines.  Darkness  finally  put  a period 
to  further  carnage,  and,  on  December  15th,  Burnside 
recrossed  the  Rappahannock,  and  hostilities  were  sus- 
pended until  spring. 

During  the  winter  Burnside  was  in  turn  succeeded  by 
Gen.  Joseph  Hooker,  who  delayed  operations  until  April. 
In  the  latter  part  of  that  month  General  Sedgwick 
crossed  the  Rappahannock  below  Fredericksburg  with 
a large  force,  while  Hooker  crossed  above  the  city  with 
the  remainder  of  the  army.  His  design  was  to  flank 
Lee.  The  latter,  however,  met  him  at  Chancellorsville, 
May  1st,  and  checked  his  advance,  while  Jackson,  with 
a force  of  36,000  men,  marched  to  attack  Hooker’s  rear. 
The  attack  was  made  on  the  afternoon  of  May  2d,  and 
the  fighting  lasted  far  into  the  night.  On  the  same  night 
General  Jackson  received  a wound  from  some  of  his 
own  men,  from  the  effects  of  which  he  died  at  Gunia 
Station  four  days  later.  The  next  morning  the  attack 
upon  Hooker’s  army  was  renewed,  the  advance  being' 
led  by  Lee  in  person,  and  the  enemy  was  driven  from 
the  field  with  great  loss.  Meanwhile  Lee  succeeded  in 
permanently  obstructing  Sedgwick’s  operations,  and 
the  latter,  having  recrossed  the  Rappahannock,  was 
joined  by  Hooker  about  September  6th,  and  a period 
of  inactivity  followed. 

After  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville,  Lee  decided  to 
once  more  change  his  field  of  operations  to  Pennsylvania. 
His  army  was  composed  of  three  corps  severally  com- 
manded by  Longstreet,  Ewell,  and  A.  P.  Hill,  and 
aggregated  less  than  100,000  men.  A movement  in  the 
direction  of  Pennsylvania  began  early  in  June,  the  army 
being  led  by  Lee.  His  forces  moved  thither  by  way  of 
the  Shenandoah  Valley,  crossed  the  Potomac  at  Sharps- 


L E E — L E G 


6642 

burg,  June  24th,  and  three  days  later  were  distributed  at 
Chambersburg,  Carlisle,  and  York.  The  army  of  the 
Potomac  took  up  a line  extending  from  Washington  to 
Baltimore,  hoping  and  expecting  that  Lee  would  again 
give  battle  in  Maryland.  When  Lee’s  intention  of 
transferring  his  field  of  operations  to  Pennsylvania  be- 
came apparent,  Hooker  put  his  army  in  motion,  march- 
ing in  a northerly  .direction,  and  on  a line  parallel  with 
that  pursued  by  the  invading  Confederates.  At  this 
juncture  Hooker  was  relieved,  and  on  the  night  of 
June  27th  Gen.  George  G.  Meade,  of  the  fifth  corps, 
succeeded  to  his  command,  numbering  at  that  date, 
a total  of  107,320  men.  The  battle  of  Gettysburg 
followed,  commencing  on  the  afternoon  of  July  1st, 
and  terminating  with  the  charge  led  by  Pickett  against 
the  Union  ■ forces  between  Little  Round  Top  and 
Ziegler’s  Grove,  made  on  the  afternoon  of  July  3d 
(see  Gettysburg)..  Lee  retreated  into  Virginia,  fol- 
lowed by  Meade,  but  no  further  active  operations  took 
place  during  the  year. 

In  May,  1864,  hostilities  were  renewed.  Lee’s  army 
was  about  66,000,  while  that  of  General  Grant,  who  had 
meantime  been  appointed  commander-in-chief,  has  been 
variously  estimated  at  from  120,000  to  150,000.  Dur- 
ing the  months  of  May  and  June  some  of  the  most  hotly 
contested  battles  of  the  war  were  fought  between  the 
opposing  forces,  notably  the  Wilderness,  Spottsylvania, 
North  Anna,  Cold  Harbor,  and  engagements  of  minor 
importance  (see  Wilderness,  Campaign  of  the), 
until  the  middle  of  June,  when  the  siege  of  Petersburg 
was  begun.  It  was  maintained  through  succeeding 
months,  until  April,  1865,  when  the  city  was  evacuated. 
Prior  to  this  occurrence  it  is  said  to  have  been  the  desire 
of  Lee  to  abandon  the  defense  of  Richmond  and  pro- 
ceed further  south,  where  he  might  be  able  to  effect  a 
junction  with  the  armies  operating  in  that  portion  of 
the  country,  and,  by  concentrating  his  forces,  contracting 
his  lines,  and  other  methods,  attempt  to  gain  advantage 
over  his  foe.  He  was  unsupported  in  this  desire,  how- 
ever, and  the  surrender  at  Appomattox  followed. 

With  the  final  close  of  hostilities  General  Lee  retired 
to  the  private  walks  of  life,  accepting  the  results  of  the 
war  with  a candor  and  dignity  characteristic  of  that 
type  of  elevated  manhood  he  so  truly  exemplified,  and 
exerting  an  influence  irresistible  and  widely  extended  to 
bind  up  the  wounds  between  the  two  sections,  caused  by 
the  Civil  war.  He  accepted  the  presidency  of  Washing- 
ton College,  now  known  as  Washington  and  Lee  Uni- 
versity, at  Lexington,  Va.,  and  as  a public  educator 
passed  the  closing  years  of  his  life.  He  died  at  Lexing- 
ton, October  12,  1870,  and  was  buried  three  days  later 
beneath  the  chapel  of  the  university.  Since  his  death 
monuments  have  been  erected  to  his  memory  in  many 
portions  of  the  South,  that  in  Lee  Circle,  St.  Charles 
street,  New  Orleans,  La.,  and  the  equestrian  statue 
occupying  a site  at  the  head  of  Broad  street,  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  where  it  was  unveiled  in  June,  1890,  being 
specially  noted.  Mary  Randolph  Custis  Lee,  widow 
of  General  Lee,  died  November  6,  1873,  also  at 
Lexington ; of  his  sons  surviving,  G.  W.  C.  Lee  suc- 
ceeded to  the  presidency  of  Washington  and  Lee  Uni- 
versity, while  W.  H.  F.  Lee  was  a planter  in  Virginia. 

LEE,  William  Henry  Fitzhugh,  second  son  of 
Robert  E.  Lee  ( q . v.),  was  born  at  Arlington,  Va., 
May  31,  1837;  was  appointed  lieutenant  United  States 
army  in  1857  and  served  in  the  Utah  campaign.  In 
1861  he  joined  the  Confederate  forces,  became  a briga- 
dier-general in  October,  1862,  was  captured  and  ex- 
changed, and  in  April,  1864,  was  promoted  major-gen- 
eral of  cavalry  and  led  his  division  from  the  Rapidan  to 
Appomattox.  In  1886  he  was  elected  to  congress  and 
reelected  in  1888  as  a Democrat.  He  died  in  1891. 


LEFEBVRE,  Jules  Joseph,  a French  painter,  bom 
at  Tournan  in  1836;  was  a pupil  of  Leon  Cogniet.  He 
gained  the  Grand  Prix  de  Rome  in  1861  for  The  Death 
of  Priam , and  in  1870  exhibited  at  the  Salon  Truth  and 
a portrait.  These  were  followed  by  The  Grasshopper , 
1872;  a portrait  of  the  Prince  Imperial,  1874;  Mary  Mag- 
dalene, 1876;  Pandora , 1877;  a portrait  of  M.  Pelpel, 
1880;  Fiammetta  and  Ondine,  1881;  La  Fiancee , 1882. 
M.  Lefebvre  has  obtained  three  medals,  in  1865,  1868, 
and  1870,  and  a first-class  medal  at  the  Paris  Exhibition 
of  1878.  He  was  decorated  with  the  Legion  of  Honor 
in  1870,  and  made  an  officer  in  1878.  He  is  one  of  the 
leading  painters  of  his  school  and  style,  an  excellent 
example  of  which  is  the  beautiful  Psyche  exhibited  in 
London,  and  engraved  by  Francois. 

LEFEVRE,  George  John  Shaw,  M.P.,  was  born 
in  England  in  1832,  and  received  his  education  at  Eton 
and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  was  called  to 
thebar  at  the  Inner  Temple  in  1856.  In  i863he  wasfirst 
elected  member  of  parliament  for  Reading,  in  the  Liberal 
interest,  andhe  continued  to  be  one  of  the  representatives 
of  that  borough  down  to  1885,  when  he  was  defeated  by 
Mr.  Murdock.  He  was  a lord  of  the  Admiralty  from 
May  to  July,  1866;  secretary  to  the  Board  of  Trade 
from  December,  1868,  to  January,  1871;  secretary  to  the 
Admiralty  from  the  last  date  to  February,  1874,  and 
again  from  April,  1880,  to  the  following  November, 
when  he  was  appointed  first  commissioner  of  works  and 
buildings.  As  first  commissioner  Mr.  Shaw-Lefevre  in- 
troduced great  improvements  into  the  streets  of  Lon- 
don. On  the  death  of  Mr.  Fawcett  he  was  appointed 
postmaster-general  (November,  1884),  and  his  tenure  of 
this  office  was  marked  by  the  introduction  of  sixpenny 
telegrams.  Mr.  Shaw-Lefevre  was  elected  a bencher  of 
the  Inner  Temple  in  November,  1882.  He  is  the  author 
of  an  important  article  on  Public  Works  in  London , in 
the  Nineteenth  Century  (November,  1882).  After  his 
defeat  at  Reading  in  November,  1885,  he  was  without 
a seat  until,  at  a bye-election,  April,  1886,  he  success- 
fully stood  for  Bradford,  vacant  by  the  death  of  the 
Right  Hon.  W.  E.  Forster.  At  the  general  elections  of 
1886  and  1892  he  was  again  elected  as  a Gladstonian 
Liberal,  and  in  1892  he  again  became  commissioner  of 
works.  He  has  published  several  useful  works,  some  of 
a statistical  kind,  on  the  English  and  Irish  land  question. 

LEGARE,  Hugh  Swinton,  born  in  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  January  2,  1789;  was  of  French  Huguenot 
descent.  In  1814  he  was  graduated  at  the  College  of 
South  Carolina,  studied  law  for  three  years,  and  for  two 
more  years  traveled  and  studied  abroad.  He  returned 
to  Charleston  in  1820,  and  became  engaged  in  planting 
cotton  on  John’s  Island;  later  he  opened  a law  office, 
but  had  little  success.  In  1830  he  was  elected  attorney- 
general  of  the  State,  and  in  the  days  of  nullification 
supported  the  cause  of  the  Union.  In  1827  he  had  be- 
come co-editor  of  the  Southern  Review , a quarterly 
magazine.  In  1832  he  was  appointed  charge  d'affaires 
at  Brussels.  He  returned  home  in  1836  and  was 
elected  to  congress  as  a Union  Democrat.  He  re- 
turned to  the  practice  of  his  profession,  in  which  he 
soon  became  eminent.  In  the  presidential  canvass  of 
1840  he  favored  the  election  of  General  Harrison,  and 
in  1841  President  Tyler  appointed  him  attorney-general 
of  the  United  States.  In  July,  1843,  he  visited  Boston, 
to  take  part  in  the  Bunker  Hill  celebration,  and  died 
suddenly. 

LEGGE,  James,  was  born  at  Huntly,  Aberdeen- 
shire, in  1815,  and  died  November  29,  1897.  He  was 
educated  at  the  grammar  schools  of  Aberdeen.  He 
entered  King’s  College  and  University  in  1831;  grad- 
uated M.A.  in  1835;  studied  subsequently  at  Highbury 
Theological  College,  London,  and  received  from  the 


LEG- 

University  of  Aberdeen  the  degree  of  LL.D.  in  1870; 
and  the  same  degree  again  at  the  tercentenary  of  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  in  1884.  He  was  appointed 
a missionary  to  the  Chinese  in  connection  with  the 
London  Missionary  Society,  in  1839,  and  arrived  at 
Malacca  in  that  capacity  in  December  of  the  same  year. 
In  1840  he  took  charge  of  the  Anglo- Chinese  College, 
founded  there  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  R.  Morrison  in  1825. 
In  1842  he  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  New  York.  In  1843  he  removed  to  Hong 
Kong,  where  he  continued  till  1873  in  the  discharge  of 
missionary  duties.  In  1875  several  gentlemen  con- 
nected with  the  China  trade  formed  themselves  into  a 
committee  to  promote  the  establishment  of  a chair  of 
the  Chinese  language  and  literature  at  Oxford,  to  be 
occupied  in  the  first  place  by  Doctor  Legge.  The 
university  liberally  responded  to  the  proposal,  and  the 
chair  was  constituted  in  March,  1876.  Corpus  Christi 
College  was  forward  in  aiding  the  foundation,  and 
Doctor  Legge  is  now  a fellow  and  M.A.  of  it. 

LEGOUVE,  Ernest  Wilfrid,  a French  dramatist, 
the  son  of  Gabriel  Legouve,  author  of  Merite  des 
Femmes,  was  born  in  Paris,  February  14,  1807.  At  an 
early  age  he  wrote  novels,  plays,  and  poems,  and  his 
lectures  on  V Historic  Morailes  des  Femmes  were  pub- 
lished in  1848.  In  1849,  in  conjunction  with  Scribe, 
he  produced  Adrienne  Lecouvreur,  which  gained  great 
popularity  through  the  personation  of  the  heroine  by 
Rachel.  She,  however,  paid  a fine  of  5,000  francs 
rather  than  perform  in  his  Medee , a play  which  in  Mon- 
tanelli’s  Italian  version  was  in  1856  very  successful  with 
Ristori.  In  1856  he  succeeded  Ancelot  as  a member 
of  the  academy. 

LEHMANN,  Rudolf,  artist,  was  born  August  19, 
1819,  at  Ottensen,  near  Hamburg,  and  educated  at 
Hamburg.  His  art  education  he  received  at  Paris, 
Munich,  and  Rome.  He  obtained  three  gold  medals, 
at  three  Paris  exhibitions,  and  was  created  a knight  of 
the  Order  of  the  Falcon  by  the  grand  duke  of  Saxe- 
Weimar.  M.  Lehmann’s  chief  pictures  are:  Sixtus  V. 
Blessing  the  Pontine  Marshes , bought  by  the  French 
Government  for  the  museum  in  Lille;  a Madonna , and 
a St.  Sebastian , ordered  by  the  French  Government  for 
two  churches  in  France;  Grazielle , from  Lamartine’s 
Confidences ; Early  Dawn  in  the  Pontine  Marshes; 
numerous  pictures  of  modern  life  and  costumes  in  Italy; 
numerous  portraits  of  distinguished  persons  in  England, 
among  whom  are  Lord  Houghton,  Mr.  Browning,  Mr. 
James  Payn,  Sir  Wm.  Ferguson,  the  duke  and  duchess 
of  Leinster,  etc. 

LEIDY,  Joseph,  born  in  Philadelphia,  September  9, 
1823;  graduated  in  medicine  at  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1844.  He  held  chairs  of  anatomy  in  several 
Pennsylvania  colleges;  was  an  army  surgeon  during  the 
Civil  war,  and,  in  1871,  became  professor  of  natural 
history  in  Swarthmore  College.  He  was  a member  of 
numerous  scientific  societies,  including  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  was  president  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Academy  of  Natural  Sciences.  Harvard  made 
him  LL.D.  in  1886.  He  wrote  hundreds  of  papers  on 
biology  and  kindred  subjects.  He  died  April  30,  1891. 

LEIGHTON,  Lord  Frederick,  P.R.A.,  was  born 
at  Scarborough,  December  3,  1830,  and  died  January  25, 
1896.  His  first  instruction  in  drawing  was  received 
at  Rome  in  1842-43  from  a painter  named  Filippo 
Meli.  In  1843-44  he  entered,  as  a student,  the  royal 
academy  of  Berlin.  Some  drawings  of  the  young 
student  were  submitted  to  the  celebrated  American 
sculptor,  Hiram  Powers.  The  estimate  formed  by 
Powers  of  the  drawings  being  highly  favorable,  the 
youthful  Leighton  was  permitted  from  that  day  forward 
to  devote  the  whole  of  his  time  to  painting.  Part  of 


-LEI  6643 

the  time,  from  1846  to  1848,  he  studied  in  the  Academy 
of  Frankfort-on- the-Main.  The  winter  of  1848-49  he 
passed  in  Brussels,  painting  his  first  finished  picture, 
which  represented  the  story  of  Cimabue  finding  Giotto 
drawing  in  the  fields.  The  succeeding  year  or  so  he 
spent  in  Paris,  copying  in  the  Louvre,  and  attending 
the  life  school.  Thence  he  returned  to  Frankfort,  and 
became  a pupil  of  E.  Steinleof  Vienna,  professor  of  his- 
torical painting  at  the  academy  of  that  city.  More  or 
less  of  three  winter  seasons  were  next  passed  at  Rome 
in  diligent  study  and  in  painting  a large  picture  of  Cim- 
abue. The  exhibition  of  this  work  by  Mr.  Leighton  at 
the  Royal  Academy  in  1855  was  a great  surprise  to  the 
London  public,  coming  as  it  did  from  an  artist  unknown 
in  England.  It  was  at  once  purchased  by  the  queen, 
and  it  was  reexhibited  at  the  Manchester  art-treasures 
and  the  international  exhibitions.  During  four  years 
after  this  early  and  great  success,  the  artist  resided  in 
Paris,  aided  by  the  counsel  of  Ary  Scheffer,  Robert 
Fleury,  and  other  French  painters.  Subsequently  he 
resided  in  London,  and  in  1856  he  contributed  to  the 
academy  exhibition  a picture  entitled  The  Triumph  of 
Music,  Orpheus  rescuing  his  wife,  Eurydice,  from 
Hades.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  knighted  and  nominated  an  officer  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  in  1878.  He  was  chairman  of  the 
British  Committee  on  Fine  Arts  for  the  World’s  Fair  at 
Chicago,  in  1893,  when  his  Garden  of  the  Hesperides , 
Perseus  and  Andromeda  and  Hercules  Wrestling  with 
Death for  the  Body  of  A Icestis  were  exhibited,  besides  two 
pieces  of  statuary,  Needless  Alarm  and  The  Sluggard. 

LEIGHTON,  John,  F.S.A.,  artist,  was  bom  in 
London,  September  15,  1822,  and  became  a pupil  of 
Mr.  Howard,  R.A.  His  first  published  work,  a series 
of  outlines,  came  out  in  1844,  but  he  had  previously 
contributed  to  cartoon  exhibitions.  In  1848-50  he 
published  several  serio-comic  brochures , satires  on  cer- 
tain art  principles,  under  the  name  of  Liike  Limner. 
In  1851  he  published  a series  of  twenty-four  outlines, 
entitled  Money , and  at  the  same  time  a book  on  design, 
enlarged  in  1881.  He  has  lectured  on  Libraries  and 
Books , Oriental  Art , and  Binocular  Perspective,  and 
has  also  traveled  in  Russia,  Caucasia,  and  Georgia,  for 
the  purpose  of  studying  the  Byzantine  art  of  the  Greek 
church.  In  1871  he  edited,  with  illustrations,  Paris 
under  the  Commune.  Mr.  Leighton  served  on  the 
commissions  of  the  exhibitions  of  1851  and  1862;  also 
at  Paris,  1855, 1867;  and  Philadelphia,  1867.  In  June, 
1885,  he  assisted  at  Victor  Hugo’s  funeral  at  Paris. 

LEISLER,  Jacob,  born  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
Germany,  about  1640  ; died  in  New  York  city,  May  16, 
1691.  He  came  to  New  York  in  1660  as  a soldier  in 
the  service  of  the  Holland  West  India  Company.  He 
traded  with  the  Indians,  and  for  a time  lived  in  Albany 
as  a magistrate.  In  1678  he  went  to  Europe,  where  he 
was  captured  by  Moorish  pirates,  and  was  compelled  to 
pay  a heavy  ransom.  In  New  York  he  lived  in  the  first 
brick  house  built  in  that  city,  and  became  endeared  to 
the  people  by  several  acts  of  liberality.  In  1683  he  was 
appointed  a commissioner  of  the  court  of  admiralty.  In 
1689  the  military  force  of  the  city  consisted  of  a regiment 
of  five  companies,  of  one  of  which  Leisler  was  captain. 
When  news  was  received  of  the  accession  of  William 
III.  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain,  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor Nicholson  left  the  province  at  a time  when  war 
with  France  was  imminent.  When  it  became  the  duty 
of  Leisler’s  company,  in  its  turn,  to  occupy  the  fort,  he 
called  together  all  the  citizens  for  defense.  Four  hun- 
dred citizens  agreed  to  hold  the  fort  for  the  Protestant 
government  that  reigned  in  England ; a committee  of 
ten  assumed  the  power  of  a provisional  government, 
with  Leisler  at  their  head,  commissioned  as  “ captain  of 


66  44  LEI- 

the  fort.”  Nicholson  and  Mayor  Van  Cortlandt  in  vain 
endeavored  to  prevent  the  uprising,  the  governor  sailed 
for  England,  and  the  mayor  retired  to  Albany. 
Eventually  Leisler  assumed  the  functions  of  acting 
governor  of  the  province,  dissolved  the  committee  of 
safety,  and  swore  in  a council.  He  entered  on  his 
administration  with  great  energy.  In  1690  he  extended 
his  authority  over  Albany,  moved  against  the  French, 
and  dispatched  a fleet  of  armed  vessels  to  Quebec. 

In  March,  1691,  the  newly . appointed  royal  governor, 
Henry  Sloughter,  arrived,  to  whom  Leisler,  after 
some  delay,  made  over  his  command.  Sloughter  ar- 
rested him  and  nine  of  his  friends,  but  only  he  and  his 
son-in-law  were  held,  charged  with  treason  and  murder, 
tried,  condemned,  and  executed.  The  judges  were  the 
personal  and  political  enemies  of  the  prisoners.  In 
1698  the  earl  of  Bellamont,  then  governor  of  the  prov- 
ince, caused  an  indemnity  to  be  voted  to  the  heirs  of 
Leisler  for  the  loss  of  his  estates. 

LEITNER,  Gottlieb  William,  M.A.,  Ph.D., 
corn  at  Pesth,  capital  of  Hungary,  October  14,  1830. 
He  was  educated  at  Constantinople,  Brussa,  Malta,  and 
King’s  College,  London;  was  lecturer  in  Arabic,  Turk- 
ish, and  Modern  Greek  at  King’s  College,  London,  in 
1859;  and  Professor  of  Arabic  with  Muhammadan  Law 
at  the  same  institution  in  1861,  when  he  founded  the 
Oriental  section.  The  degrees  of  M.A.  and  Ph.D. 
werp  conferred  upon  him  by  the  University  of  Freiburg 
in  1862.  He  has  founded  over  seventy  institutions,  in- 
cluding the  Punjaub  University  College,  a number  of 
schools  of  various  grades,  literary  societies,  and  free 
public  libraries  in  India  and  elsewhere;  and  has  started 
six  journals  in  English,  Arabic,  Urdu,  etc.  Doctor  Leit- 
ner  discovered  the  languages  and  races  of  Dardistan  in 
1866;  and  he  has  since  incorporated  other  languages 
besides  Kabul,  Kashmir,  and  Badakhshar  in  his  re- 
searches. He  excavated  Graeco-Buddhistic  sculptures 
in  1870,  and  established  a link  between  Greece  at  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  Buddhist  art  and  re- 
ligion. Doctor  Leitner  also  caused  considerable  excava- 
tions to  be  made  by  his  retainers  in  Swat,  which  yielded 
numerous  Graeco-Buddhistic  sculptures,  and  proved  that 
Greek  art  had  once  influenced  that  now  inhospitable 
region.  He  is  also  the  president  of  an  important  body 
which  he  founded  in  1864,  namely,  the  Punjaub  Associa- 
tion, or  Anjuman-i-Punjaub,  an  institution  for  social, 
political,  and  educational  reforms.  Doctor  Leitner 
died  March  24,  1899. 

LE  JEUNE,  Henry,  A.R.A.  (retired),  of  Flemish 
extraction,  was  born  in  1819.  In  early  life  he  was 
sent  to  study  at  the  British  Museum,  and  in  1841  he 
obtained  the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Academy,  for  a 
picture  of  Samson  Bursting  His  Bonds.  He  was  head 
master  of  the  Government  School  of  Design  from  184510 
1848,  when  he  became  curator  of  the  painting  school  at 
the  Royal  Academy,  retiring  from  this  post  in  1864. 
He  has  been  a frequent  exhibitor  since  1841,  was  chosen 
an  A.R.A.  in  1863,  and  retired  in  1886. 

LELAND,  Charles  Godfrev,  was  born  at  Phila- 
delphia, August  15,  1824.  He  graduated  at  Princeton 
College  in  1846,  and  subsequently  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versities of  Heidelberg,  Munich,  and  Paris.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1851,  but  soon  relinquished  law 
for  literature,  and  contributed  largely  to  periodicals. 
For  several  years  he  resided  in  Europe,  but  returned  to 
the  United  States  in  1880,  and  is  now  conducting  an 
experiment  in  industrial  art  education  in  the  public 
schools  of  Philadelphia.  His  works,  many  of  which  are 
of  a humerous  or  burlesque  character,  include,  The 
Poetry  and  Mystery  of  Dreams,  1855;  Meister  KarVs 
Sketch  Book,  1855 ; Pictures  of  Travel,  a translation  of 
Heine’s  Reisebilder , 1856;  Sunshine  in  Thought,  1862; 


-LEO 

Legends  of  Birds,  1864;  Hans  Breitmann'  s Ballads , 
1867-70;  The  Music  Lessons  of  Confucius , and  other 
Poems , 1870;  Gaudeamus , a translation  of  the  humor- 
ous poems  of  Scheffel,  1871;  Egyptian  Sketch  Book , 
1873?  The  English  Gipsies  and  Their  Language , 
1873;  Fu-Sang ; or,  the  Discovery  of  America  by 
Chinese  Buddhist  Priests  in  the  Fifth  Century , 1875; 
English  Gipsy  Songs,  1875;  -Johnny kin  and  the  Gob- 
lins, 1876;  Pidgin-English  Sing-Song,  1876;  Abraham 
Lincoln , 1879;  The  Minor  Arts , 1880;  The  Gipsies , 
1882;  and  1 he  Algonquin  Legends  of  -New  England, 
1884;  and  Memoirs,  1893.  He  also  edited  a series  of 
Art  Work  Manuals,  published  in  1885. 

LEMMON,  John  Gill,  born  in  Lima,  Mich.,  June 
2,  1832 ; has  made  many  discoveries  in  botany  and 
entomology,  and  has  published  Ferns  of  the  Pacific  and 
other  works.  His  wife,  Sarah  Allen  Plummer,  is 
also  eminent  as  a botanist,  and  has  written  papers  on 
ferns  and  silk  culture. 

LEMOINNE,  John  Smile,  publicist,  born  in  Lon- 
don, of  French  parents,  October  17,  1815,  began  his 
studies  in  England,  and  finished  them  in  France.  In 
1840  the  director  of  the  Journal  des  Debats  intrusted 
him  with  the  supervision  of  the  English  correspondence 
of  that  journal.  He  has  contributed  to  the  Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes  numerous  articles,  for  the  most  part 
relating  to  political  history,  England,  and  biography. 
Several  of  these  articles  were  published  in  a separate 
form,  under  the  title  of  Etudes  Critiques  et  Biographi- 
ques,  in  1862.  He  was  elected  a member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  succession  to  Jules  Janin,  May  13,  1875, 
and  his  reception  was  on  March  2,  1876.  His  keen 
and  often  hostile  criticism  of  English  policy  is  always 
read  with  interest  by  the  more  serious  portion  of 
Frenchmen,  and  i§  not  disregarded  in  England;  and  it 
may  be  said  that  it  is  chiefly  by  his  exertions  as  a 
journalist  that  he  obtained  admission  to  the  French 
Academy ; but  he  is  the  author  of  a number  of  able 
articles  in  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes , which  have 
deservedly  obtained  a European  reputation.  M.  Le- 
moinne  has  written  no  continuous  book.  On  Februaiy 
6,  1880,  he  was  definitively  chosen  by  the  Left  Center 
for  the  life  senatorship,  and  in  April  of  the  same  y--ar 
he  was  appointed  French  minister  at  Brussels,  but  he 
declined  the  appointment.  He  died  Dec.  14,  1892. 

LENBACH,  Franz,  a distinguished  German  por- 
trait-painter, was  born  at  Schrobenhausen  in  Bavaria, 
December  13,  1836.  In  1856  he  entered  the  Munich 
Academy  to  study  painting,  and  afterward  was  a pupil 
of  Grafle  and  Piloty.  He  first  confined  himself  to  genre- 
painting, and  his  Peasant  Family  in  a Storm  excited 
much  interest.  In  1858  he  went  with  Piloty  to  Rome, 
and  there  painted  a picture  of  the  forum,  which  by  its 
realism  and  color  created  a great  sensation  in  Munich. 
He  then  turned  to  portrait-painting,  taking  the  old 
masters,  especially  Rembrandt,  as  his  models.  In  i860 
he  received  an  appointment  at  the  School  of  Art  at 
Weimar,  but  left  it  soon  in  order  to  pursue  further 
studies  at  Rome.  In  1867  he  exhibited  a masterly  por- 
trait of  the  artist,  Von  Hagn,  and  after  further  travels 
in  Italy  and  Spain  he  returned  to  Munich,  and  soon 
became  renowned  for  his  portraits.  For  two  years  he 
worked  in  Vienna,  but  in  1874  settled  again  in  Munich, 
where  he  has  since  resided.  Among  his  most  cele- 
brated pictures  are  portraits  of  Paul  Heyse,  Franz 
Lachner,  Moltke,  Bismarck,  Doctor  Dollinger,  Wagner, 
Liszt,  and  the  late  king  of  Bavaria. 

LEO  XIII.,  Pope,  the  258th  Roman  pontiff,  and 
257th  successor  of  St.  Peter,  is  the  son  of  Count 
Ludovico  Pecci,  by  his  wife  Anna  Prosperi.  He  was 
born  at  Carpineto,  in  the  diocese  of  Anagni,  in  the  State 
of  the  Church,  March  2,  1810,  and  was  baptized  by  the 


LEO- 

names  of  Vincenzo  and  Gioacchino.  In  1818  his  father 
sent  him,  along  with  his  elder  brother,  Giuseppe,  to  the 
Jesuit  College  of  Viterbo.  There  he  was  taught  gram- 
mar and  humanities  under  Father  Leonardo  Giribaldi,  a 
man  of  great  learning,  until  the  year  1824,  when  he  was 
sent  to  Rome  to  the  care  of  an  uncle,  and  took  up  his 
residence  in  an  apartment  in  the  palace  of  the  Marchese 
Muti.  In  November,  1824;  he  entered  the  schools  of 
the  Collegio  Romano,  then  restored  to  the  Jesuits. 
Three  years  later  he  began  to  study  mathematics.  He 
had  for  instructors  Father  Giovanbattista  Pianciani, 
nephew  of  Leo  XII.,  ana  Father  Andrea  Carafa,  a 
mathematician  of  renown.  Young  Pecci  signalized 
himself  by  his  assiduity  and  talent,  and  in  1828  got  the 
first  premium  in  physico-chemistry,  and  the  first  accessit 
in  mathematics.  While  studying  philosophy  Pecci  was 
intrusted,  despite  his  youth,  to  give  repetitions  in  phi- 
losophy to  the  pupils  of  the  German  College.  In  his 
third  year  of  philosophy  he  sustained  a public  disputation, 
and  obtained  the  first  premium  (1830).  The  following 
year,  being  then  but  twenty  one  years  old,  he  obtained 
the  laurea  in  philosophy.  Even  in  Viterbo  young 
Pecci  was  noticed  for  his  ability  and  for  his  perfect  pro- 
priety of  conduct.  In  Rome  he  seemed  entirely  devoted 
to  study,  and  took  no  part  in  entertainments,  conver- 
sazioni, amusements,  or  plays.  At  the  age  of  twelve  or 
thirteen  he  wrote  Latin,  prose  or  verse,  with  facility ; 
and  it  may  be  mentioned  that  since  he  became  Pope  a 
volume  of  his  verses,  chiefly  Latin,  has  been  printed 
at  Udine.  Having  entered  the  College  of  Noble 
Ecclesiastics,  the  Abbate  Pecci  frequented  the 
schools  of  the  Roman  University  to  learn  canon 
and  civil  law.  Pecci  and  Duke  Sisto  Riario  Sforza 
(afterward  cardinal  archbishop  of  Naples)  were  the 
two  brilliant  youths  who  eclipsed  all  the  rest  of  their 
companions  in  study.  Cardinal  Antonio  Sala  took 
much  interest  in  Pecci,  and  assisted  him  with  advice 
and  instruction.  Becoming  a doctor  in  laws,  he  was 
made  by  Pope  Gregory  XVI.  a domestic  prelate  and 
referendary  of  the  Segnatura,  March  16,  1837.  Car- 
dinal Carlo  Odescalchi  gave  Pecci  holy  orders  in  the 
chapel  of  St.  Stanislaus  Kostka,  in  S.  Andrea  al  Quir- 
inale,  and  on  December  23,  1837,  conferred  the  priest- 
hood upon  him  in  the  chapel  of  the  vicariate.  Greg- 
ory XVI.  bestowed  upon  him  the  title  of  prothonotary 
apostolic,  and  appointed  him  apostolic  delegate  at 
Benevento,  Perugia,  and  Spoleto  in  succession.  In 
these  important  posts  he  ruled  with  firmness  and  pru- 
dence, and  while  at.  Benevento  he,  by  his  energy,  put  a 
stop  to  the  brigandage  which  had  before  infested  that 
district.  In  1843  he  was  again  promoted  by  Pope 
Gregory  XVI.,  being  sent  as  nuncio  to  Belgium,  and  on 
lanuary  17th,  in  that  year,  he  was  created  archbishop  of 
Damietta,  in  partibns  infidelium , to  qualify  him  for 
his  office  of  nuncio.  He  remained  at  Brussels  for  three 
years,  and  was  then  nominated  bishop  of  Perugia  on 
January  19,  1846,  about  four  months  previous  to  the 
death  of  Gregory  XVI.  The  assertion  that  that  pontiff 
created  Pecci  a cardinal  in  pectore  before  he  died,  and 
that  Pius  IX.  allowed  seven  years  to  elapse  before  he 
gave  effect  to  the  nomination  made  by  his  predecessor 
in  pectore , has  been  often  made,  but  the  statement  has 
no  foundation  in  fact.  He  was  created  and  proclaimed 
a cardinal  by  Pius  IX.  in  the  consistory  of  December 
19,  I^53-  He  was  a member  of  several  of  the  congre- 
gations of  cardinals — among  them  those  of  the  Council 
of  Rites  and  of  Bishops  and  Regulars.  In  September, 
1877,  he  was  selected  by  Pope  Pius  IX.  to  fill  the  im- 
portant office  of  cardinal  camerlengo  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Church,  which  post  had  become  vacant  by  the 
death  of  Cardinal  De  Angelis.  In  that  capacity,  after 
the  death  of  the  late  Pope  (February  7,  1878),  he  acted 


- L E R 6645 

as  head  of  the  church  in  temporal  matters,  made  the 
arrangements  for  the  last  solemn  obsequies  of  the 
pontiff,  received  the  Catholic  ambassadors,  and  super- 
intended the  preparations  for  the  conclave.  Sixty-two 
cardinals  attended  the  conclave,  which  was  closed  in 
the  Vatican  on  Monday,  February  18,  1878.  In  the 
first  scrutiny,  made  on  the  following  morning,  Pecci  had 
nineteen  votes,  the  others  being  scattered  among 
various  cardinals,  such  as  Franchi,  Bilio,  De  Luca, 
Martinelli,  and  Ferrieri.  In  the  second  scrutiny,  on 
the  evening  of  Tuesday,  Cardinal  Pecci’s  votes  rose  to 
thirty-four,  and  in  the  scrutiny  on  Wednesday  (Feb* 
ruary  20)  morning  to  forty-four.  The  election  was 
then  at  an  end,  and  the  cardinal  camerlengo  was 
made  Pope  by  the  acclamation  of  all.  The  news  was 
officially  proclaimed  to  the  outside  world  from  the 
gallery  of  St.  Peter’s,  when  it  was  announced  that  his 
Holiness  had  assumed  the  name  of  Leo  XIII.  On 
March  3d  he  was  crowned  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  all 
the  ancient  ceremonies  being  observed,  save  the  bene- 
diction Urbi  et  Orbi , from  the  loggia  of  St.  Peter’s. 
The  history  of  the  Pope  since  his  election  is  the  history 
of  the  papacy,  and  as  such  it  would  occupy  too  much 
space  to  tell  it  here  at  the  length  that  it  might  be 
thought  to  deserve.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  Leo  XIII. 
has  throughout  behaved  with  perfect  consistency  as  a 
pontiff  willing  to  act  with  modern  governments,  but 
determined  to  abate  no  jot  of  his  rights  as  head  of  the 
church,  and  as  the  despoiled  sovereign  of  Rome.  He 
has  never  quitted  the  Vatican,  but  has  religiously  kept 
up  the  fiction  of  his  being  held  there  a prisoner.  He 
refused  the  income  voted  to  him,  as  to  his  predecessor, 
by  the  Italian  parliament,  and  has  never  recognized  the 
Law  of  Guarantees.  In  his  relations  with  foreign 
powers  he  has  always  been  moderate  and  dexterous. 
He  checkmated  Bismarck’s  attempt  to  hamper  Catholic 
worship  and  instruction  in  Germany,  through  the 
“ Kulturkampf  ” movement  and  made  tolerable  terms 
for  the  clergy  in  France.  His  encyclical  on  “ Labor,  ” 
1891,  and  his  celebration  in  1893  of  his  Golden  Jubilee 
as  Bishop,  were  important  events  in  the  church. 

LEONCAVALLO,  Ruggiero,  musical  composer, 
borninNaples,  March  8,  1858,  taught  musicin  Paris  and 
has  composed  songs,  fugitive  pieces,  and  the  success- 
ful operas,  Pagliacci  (1892)  and  Medici  (1893). 

LEOPOLD  II.  (Leopold-Louis-Philippe-Marie- 
Victor),  king  of  the  Belgians,  who  succeeded  his 
father  December  10,  1865,  was  born  at  Brussels,  April 
9,  1835;  and  married,  August  22,  1853,  the  Archduchess 
Maria  of  Austria.  In  1855,  while  duke  of  Brabant,  in 
company  with  his  wife,  he  made  an  extended  tour  through 
Europe,  Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor.  As  duke  of  Brabant, 
he  took  a prominent  part  in  several  important  discus- 
sions in  the  Senate,  especially  on  the  establishment  of 
a maritime  service  between  Antwerp  and  the  Levant. 
He  has  been  prominent  in  carrying  out  the  work  of  ex- 
ploring Africa,  the  Congo  Free  State,  founded,  and  is 
now  its  president. 

LEPSIUS,  Karl  Richard,  born  in  Germany,  De- 
cember 23,  1810;  studied  at  Leipsic,  Berlin,  and  Got- 
tingen. He  devoted  himself  to  Egyptian  research,  and 
made  important  discoveries  in  both  Upper  and  Lower 
Egypt.  In  1874  he  was  made  chief  of  the  Prussian 
state  library  at  Berlin,  and  he  died  in  July,  1884. 

LERDO  DE  TEJADA,  Sebastian,  born  in  Ja- 
lapa,  Mexico,  April  25,  1825;  died  in  New  York,  April 
21,  1889.  In  1855  he  became  a judge  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Mexico,  and  in  1857  was  made  foreign  minister 
under  President  Comonfort.  He  was  a Liberal  in  poli- 
tics, and  after  the  rise  of  the  Church  party,  joined 
Juarez,  with  whom  he  acted  until  1867.  In  December 
of  that  year  he  became  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme 


LES 


6646 

Court,  and  on  July  18, 1872,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  presidency  on  the  death  of  Juarez.  He 
was  elected  in  December  of  the  same  year,  and 
reelected  in  1876,  but  a revolution  followed,  and  Lerdo 
fled  to  the  United  States. 

LESLEY,  John  Peter,  an  American  geologist, 
born  at  Philadelphia  in  1819,  graduated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania  in  1838,  was  assistant  on  the  ge- 
ological survey  of  Pennsylvania  until  1841,  and  then 
studied  theology  and  preached  until  1850,  when  he 
settled1  in  Philadelphia  as  an  expert  geologist.  In  1872 
he  became  professor  of  geology  and  mining,  and  dean 
of  the  scientific  faculty,  in  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. He  has  made  numerous  examinations  of  coal 
oil  and  iron  fields,  and  in  1874  became  chief  geologist 
of  Pennsylvania,  with  charge  of  a complete  re-survey 
of  the  State.  Besides  70  volumes  of  reports,  he  pub- 
lished a Manual ofCaal and  Its.  Topography ; and  Men's 
Origin  and  Destiny  as  Seen  from  the  Platform  of  the 
Sciences. 

LESLIE,  George  Dunlop,  an  English  artist,  was 
born  at  London,  July  2,  1835,  exhibited  his  first  picture, 
Hope,  in  1857,  and  became  a Royal  Academician  June 
29,  1876.  His  Hen  and  Chickens,  Home,  Sweet  Home, 
and  The  Monks  of  Abingdon,  were  exhibited  in  Chi- 
cago in  1893. 

LESLIE,  Henry  David,  musical  composer,  born 
in  London,  June  18,  1822;  founded  the  choral  society 
known  by  his  name,  in  1856,  and  is  principal  of  the 
College  of  Music,  founded  in  1864.  He  has  composed 
Te  Deum  and  Jubilate  in  D (1841) ; Orchestral  Sym- 
phony in  F (1847);  festival  anthem,  Let  God  Arise 
(1849);  oratorio,  Immanuel  (1853);  operetta,  Romance, 
or  Bold  Dick  Turpin,  and  oratorio,  Judith  (1857);  can- 
tata, Holyrood  (i860);  wedding  cantata,  The  Daughter 
of  the  Isles  (1861),  besides  seventy  songs.  Died,  1896. 

LESSAR,  Paul,  was  bom  in  1851,  and  comes  of  a 
Montenegrin  family.  He  was  educated  at  the  lilcoledes 
Ingeniers,  in  St.  Petersburg,  and  was  selected  to  accom- 
pany General  Skobeleff  into  Asia  to  survey  for  railways. 
In  1880  he  joined  General  Komaroff  in  surveying  and 
exploring  the  Turcoman  country  between  the  Caspian 
and  Afghanistan.  He  established  himself  at  Askabod, 
and  in  November,  1881,  he  penetrated  beyond  Sarakhs, 
across  the  African  frontier,  to  within  a few  miles  of 
Herat.  In  the  course  of  two  years  he  rode  a distance 
of  nearly  6,000  miles,  exploring  the  whole  of  the  ground 
of  the  Russo- Persian  and  Russo- Afghan  frontier.  In 
1885  he  was  sent  on  a special  mission  to  London  as 
geographical  expert  to  assist  the  Russian  ambassador 
in  the  negotiations  which  accompanied  the  dispatch  of 
the  Afghan  boundary  commission. 

LESSEPS,  Vicomte  Ferdinand  de,  diplomatist 
and  engineer,  born  at  Versailles,  November  19,  1805, 
was  appointed,  in  1828,  attache  to  the  French  con- 
sulate at  Lisbon,  and  after  holding  various  consular  offices 
in  Europe  and  the  East,  was  made  consul  at  Barce- 
lona in  1842.  His  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  scheme  to 
pierce  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  by  means  of  a canal,  and  in 
successfully  carrying  it  out  he  showed  much  zeal  and  in- 
defatigable energy.  It  was  in  1854,  when  in  Egypt  on 
a visit  to  Mehemet  Said,  that  he  opened  the  project  to 
Said  Pasha,  who,  seeing  the  advantage  that  might  be  ex- 
pected to  accrue  from  its  execution,  invited  him  to  draw 
up  a memorial  on  the  subject.  This  was  done  with 
full  details,  under  the  title  of  Percement  de  PIsthme 
de  Suez  expos!  et  Documents  Officiels*  M.  deLesseps 
received  a firman  sanctioning  the  enterprise  in  1854,  and 
a letter  of  concession  was  granted  by  the  viceroy  of 
Egypt  in  January,  1856.  Eminent  English  engineers 
(and  among  them  the  late  G.  Stephenson)  questioned 
its  practicability,  which,  however,  has  since  been  clearly 


demonstrated.  The  works  were  begun  soon  after  th« 

company  was  constituted,  in  1859 ; large  sums  were 
subsequently  expended,  and  the  late  pasha  of  Egypt 
was  induced  to  take  a large  number  of  shares  in  the  un- 
dertaking, besides  permitting  M.  de  Lesseps  to  employ 
native  laborers.  This  ingenious  scheme  was  at  first 
favored  by  a portion  of  the.  commercial  body  in  Eng- 
land ; but  a belief  soon  gained  ground  that  the  project 
was  virtually  a political  one,  and  it  received  no  encour- 
agement from  the  British  Government.  On  the  death 
of  the  pasha  of  Egypt  in  1863,  the  question  of  the 
sanction  of  the  Ottoman  Porte  was  more  actively 
discussed,  and  the  right  of  the  sultan  to  grant  it  form- 
ally insisted  upon.  The  result  was  the  withdrawal 
of  the  permission  to  the  company  to  hold  any  portion 
of  Egyptian  territory — the  supposed  covert  design  of 
the  project;  and  after  much  dispute  between  M.  de 
Lesseps  and  the  Egyptian  Government,  the  claim  for 
compensation  to  the  company  he  represented  was  left 
to  the  arbitration  of  the  emperor  of  the  French, 
who  imposed  certain  conditions  on  both  parties,  and  al- 
lowed the  works  to  be  continued.  A canal,  with  suffi- 
cient water  to  admit  of  the  passage  of  steamboats,  was 
opened  August  15,  1865.  By  degrees,  owing  to  the 
employment  of  gigantic  dredges  and  a novel  system 
of  machines  for  raising  and  carrying  away  the  sand, 
the  bed  of  the  canal  was  enlarged,  so  that  small  ships 
and  schooners  were  enabled  to  pass  through  in  March, 
1867.  At  length  the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean 
mingled  with  those  of  the  Red  Sea  in  the  Bitter  Lakes, 
August  15,  1869,  an  event  which  was  commemorated 
by  grand  fetes  at  Suez;  and  on  November  1 7th  the  canal 
was  formally  opened  at  Port  Said  amid  a series  of  fes- 
tivities, participated  in  by  the  empress  of  the  French, 
the  emperor  of  Austria,  the  crown  prince  of  Prussia, 
Prince  William  of  Orange,  the  English  and  Russian  am- 
bassadors at  Constantinople,  and  a large  number  of 
English  and  continental  merchants  and  journalists.  A 
grand  processional  fleet,  composed  of  forty  vessels,  then 
set  out  from  Port  Said  in  the  direction  of  Ismailia.  A 
few  days  after  the  inauguration,  M.  de  Lesseps  married 
Mile.  Autard  de  Bragard,  a very  young  creole  of  Eng- 
lish extraction.  In  February,  1870,  the  Paris  Society 
de  Geographic  awarded  the  empress’  new  prize  of  io,« 
000  francs  to  M.  de  Lesseps,  who  gave  the  money  as 
a contribution  to  the  society’s  projected  expedition  to 
equatorial  Africa.  He  was  appointed  to  the  rank  of 
grand  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  November  19, 
1869;  received  the  cordon  of  the  Italian  Order  of  St. 
Maurice  in  December,  1869;  and  was  nominated  by 
Queen  Victoria  an  honorary  knight  grand  commander 
of  the  order  of  the  Star  of  India,  August  19,  1870.  The 
honorary  freedom  of  the  city  of  London  was  publicly 
presented  to  him,  July  30,  1870.  In  July,  1873,  the  Paris 
Academy  of  Sciences  chose  M.  de  Lesseps  a free  member 
in  the  place  of  M.  de  Verneuil,  deceased.  In  1875  he 
published  Lettres%  journal  et  documents  pour  servir  d 
P histoire  du  canal  du  Suez . For  this  work  the  French 
academy  awarded  to  him  the  Marcelin  Guerin  prize  of 
5,000  francs  (May,  1876).  On  June  21,  1881,  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  French  Geographical  Society,  in 
the  place  of  Admiral  de  la  Ronciere-le-Noury.  Dur 
ing  the  Egyptian  expedition  of  1882  M.  de  Lesseps 
violently  opposed  the  policy  pursued  by  Great  Britain, 
and  regarded  Arabi  Pasha  as  a noble  patriot.  In  th< 
following  year  M.  de  Lesseps  entered  into  a prelimi- 
nary agreement  with  the  British  government  for  the 
cutting  of  a second  Suez  Canal;  but,  as  the  arrangement 
did  not  receive  the  sanction  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
the  negotiations  were  abandoned.  The  broad  ribbon  of 
the  Persian  Order  of  the  Lion  and  the  Sun  was  pre- 
sented to  M.  de  Lesseps,  July  25,  1883.  He  entered 


LES-LIL 


6647 


upon  the  Panama  canal  enterprise  in  1873,  had  surveys 
made  in  1876  and  secured  the  concession  in  1879.  The 
Inter  Oceanic  Canal  Company  was  organized  January 
31,  1881,  and  work  begun  in  October.  The  original 
estimate  of  the  entire  cost  of  the  work  was  soon  ex- 
ceeded with  little  to  show  for  it,  and  an  investigation 
begun  in  1890  by  the  French  government  revealed  a 
tremendous  scandal.  Several  hundred  million  dollars 
had  been  subscribed  but  evidences  of  actual  outlay  at 
Panama  could  not  be  produced  for  over  $80,000,000. 
The  rest  had  been  stolen  or  used  in  bribery  to  deceive  the 
public.  Deputies  and  officials  had  undoubtedly  been 
bribed,  and  amid  a storm  of  public  excitement  De 
Lesseps,  his  son  Charles  and  others  were  tried  for 
manipulating  the  great  fraud.  Being  88  years  old  and 
feeble  in  mind  and  body  the  elder  De  Lesseps  was  not 
brought  into  court,  but  was  sentenced  to  five  years’ 
imprisonment  and  a fine.  No  attempt  was  made  to 
imprison  him  as  he  was  considered  innocent  of  guilty 
knowledge,  and  he  died  November  7,  1894. 

LE  SUEUR,  born  in  Canada  about  1675,  became  an 
explorer  and  soldier  and  acquired  influence  with  the 
Indians.  In  1700  he  established  a trading  post  at  the 
falls  of  the  Mississippi,  built  a fort  and  opened  a cop- 
per mine,  from  which  he  extracted  30,000  pounds  of 
ore.  In  1 730  he  led  700  Choctaws  against  the  Natchez, 
defeated  them,  and  liberated  200  French  captives. 
Later  he  went  to  France,  and,  while  returning  to  Can- 
ada, died  at  sea  in  1 740. 

LEVI,  Leone,  F.S.A.,  born  at  Ancona,  Italy,  July 
6,  1821,  became  a British  subject,  1847,  was  called  to 
the  bar,  wrote  many  valuable  treatises  on  economical 
subjects  and  on  international  and  commercial  law  and 
statistical  science,  and  was  a fellow  of  many  scientific 
societies.  He  died  May  9,  1888. 

LEVY,  Emile,  a French  painter,  born  at  Paris, 
August  29,  1826,  gained  the  prize  of  Rome  in  1854, 
and  sent  from  Rome  to  the  universal  exposition  of 
Paris,  1855,  his  picture  of  Noah  Cursing  Ham,  which 
was  purchased  by  the  State.  He  died  August  3,  1890. 

LEWALD,  Fanny,  German  novelist,  born  of  He- 
brew parents  at  Konigsberg,  March  24,  1811,  died  at 
Dresden,  August  5,  1889.  She  lived  in  Berlin,  mar- 
ried Adolph  Stahr  (1805-76),  the  literary  critic,  in  1855, 
and  wrote  books  on  Italy  (1847)  and  Great  Britain 
(1852),  the  outcome  of  extended  travels,  besides  many 
brilliant  novels,  most  of  them  with  the  distinct  purpose 
of  emancipating  her  sex.  All  her  works  have  been 
translated  into  English. 

LEWIS,  John  Travers,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  archbishop 
of  Ontario,  born  June  20,  1825,  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  ordained  in  1848,  came  to  Canada  in 
1850,  was  appointed  to  the  pastoral  charges  of  Hawkes- 
bury  and  Brookville,  and  consecrated  first  bishop  of 
Ontario  in  1862  and  archbishop  in  September,  1892. 

LEWIS,  Richard,  D.D.,  born  about  1822;  was 
educated  at  Worcester  College,  Oxford,  and  became 
rector  of  Lampeter- Velfry,  1851;  archdeacon  of  St. 
David’s,  1875,  and  bishop  of  Llandaff  on  April  25,  1883. 

LEWIS,  Thomas  Hayter,  F.S.  A.,  born  in  London, 
July  9,  1818,  became  a student  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
obtained  the  silver  medal  for  architectural  drawing  in 
1839,  and  became  a prominent  architect,  professor  of 
architecture  at  University  College,  and,  in  1871,  dean 
of  the  Faculty  of  Arts.  Died  Dec.  10,  1899. 

LEWIS,  William  James,  M.A.,  born  near  New- 
town, Wales,  January  16,  1847;  was  a scholar  of  Jesus 
College,  Oxford,  1865,  and  fellow  of  Oriel  College,  1869; 
was  a member  of  the  total  eclipse  expeditions  (English) 
of  1870  and  1871,  and  in  February,  1881,  was  elected 
professor  of  mineralogy  at  Cambridge. 

LICK,  James,  founder  of  the  great  Lick  observatory. 


was  born  in  Fredericksburg,  Pa.,  August  25,  1796,  and 
died  in  San  Francisco,  October  1,  1876.  After  spend- 
ing many  years  in  South  America  he  settled  in  Cali- 
fornia in  1847,  and  there  amassed  an  immense  fortune. 
At  his  death  he  bequeathed  large  sums  for  public  pur- 
poses : $60,000  for  a monument  to  Francis  Scott  Key ; 
$150,000  for  public  baths  in  San  Francisco;  $500,000 
for  a school  of  mechanical  arts,  and  $700,000  for  the 
construction  of  an  observatory,  which  was  built  at 
Mount  Hamilton,  and  under  the  foundations  of  which 
his  body  is  buried. 

LIDDON,  Henry  Parry,  canon  of  St.  Paul’s 
Cathedral,  London;  was  born  in  England  in  1829; 
graduated  in  1850  at  Christ’s  Church,  Oxford,  was  pro- 
fessor of  exegesis  at  Oxford,  and  wrote  several  theolog- 
ical works.  He  was  a leading  pulpit  orator  of  the 
Church  of  England.  He  died  September  9,  1890. 

LIEBKNECHT,  Wilhelm,  German  Socialist  and 
journalist,  was  born  at  Giessen  in  1832.  He  took  part 
in  the  French  revolution  of  1848.  Returning  to  Ger- 
many he  fought  for  the  cause,  was  imprisoned  and  ex- 
iled, but  returned  and  was  elected  to  the  Reichstag  in 
1867.  In  company  with  Bebel,  he  was  in  1872  con- 
demned to  two  years’  imprisonment.  As  editor  of 
Vorwarts  and  legislator  he  works  incessantly  for  the 
socialist  cause.  Died  Aug.  6,  1900. 

LI  HI,  king  of  Corea,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in 
1884,  the  twenty-ninth  ruler  in  succession  since  the 
foundation  of  the  present  dynasty  in  1392,  and  achieved 
an  incidental  importance  in  the  war  between  China  and 
Japan  in  1894-5,  begun  by  Japan  for  the  ostensible 
object  of  establishing  the  independence  of  Corea  from 
China,  of  which  it  was  a vassal  state. 

LI  H UNG  CHAN G,  Chinese  statesman,  was  born  in 
1823  in  the  province  of  Anhui.  When  the  Taiping 
rebels  invaded  Anhui,  1850,  he  joined  Tseng  Kuo  Fan’s 
army  as  secretary.  He  was  appointed  provincial  judge 
of  Chekiang,  and  in  1861  governor  of  Kiangsu.  In  con- 
junction with  General  Gordon  he  recovered  Suchow  iii 
1863,  and  drove  the  rebels  entirely  out  of  Kiangsu. 
For  his  services  he  received  the  yellow  jacket  and 
peacock’s  feather,  and  was  created  an  hereditary  noble 
of  the  third  class.  Two  years  later  he  was  appointed 
governor-general  of  the  Liang  Kiang  Provinces,  and 
subsequently  commanded  against  the  Nienfei  and  Mo- 
hammedan rebels.  In  1872  he  was  appointed  governor- 
general  of  Chihli,  the  metropolitan  province.  He  was 
also  Senior  Grand  Secretary — the  highest  distinction 
to  which  a Chinese  official  can  aspire.  He  is  a friend 
to  foreigners  and  to  European  culture  and  industry. 
A member  of  the  Board  of  Admiralty,  he  originated 
the  Chinese  navy,  and  he  was  the  chief  promoter  of 
the  China  Merchants’  Steam  Navigation  Co.,  the  only 
native  steamship  line.  He  was  also  Imperial  Commis- 
sioner of  trade  for  the  Northern  ports.  In  1894  the 
emperor  of  China  appointed  him  commander  in  chief 
of  the  Chinese  forces,  both  naval  and  military,  which 
were  engaged  in  the  war  with  Japan,  but  early  in  the 
war  marked  his  displeasure  by  depriving  him  of  the 
yellow  jacket  and  the  peacock’s  feather,  and  later  super- 
ceded  him  in  the  chief  command.  In  1895  the  em- 
peror restored  Li  Hung  Chang  to  favor  and  sent  him 
as  peace  commissioner  with  full  power  to  treat  with 
Japan.  While  conferring  with  the  Japanese  premier, 
Count  Ito,  at  Shimonoseki,  March  24,  he  was  shot  in  the 
face  by  a young  Japanese  monomaniac  ofl  the  subject 
of  patriotism,  Koyama,  and  seriously  hurt.  He  re- 
covered sufficiently,  however,  to  be  able  to  resume 
the  peace  negotiations  in  a few  days.  Died  Nov.,  1901. 

LILIUOKALANI,  ex-queen  of  Hawaii,  eldest  sister 
of  King  Kalakaua,  was  born  September  2,  1838,  married 
John  O.  Dominis,  governor  of  Oahu  (who  died  Au- 


6648 


LIN  — LLO 


gust  27,  1891),  succeeded  to  the  throne,  January  20, 
1891,  on  the  death  of  Kalakaua,  and  was  deposed  by 
a revolution,  January  13,  1893,  because  of  her  alleged 
violations  of  the  constitution.  A provisional  govern- 
ment was  established,  and  annexation  to  the  United 
States  advocated.  President  Harrison  approved  the 
idea  and  a treaty  providing  for  annexation  was  receiv- 
ing favorable  consideration  in  the  senate,  when  Presi- 
dent Cleveland,  immediately  on  his  inauguration,  re- 
called the  treaty,  recalled  U.  S.  Minister  Stevens,  who 
had  aided  in  the  revolution,  and  withdrew  the  Ameri- 
can protectorate.  In  1894  President  Cleveland  at- 
tempted to  restore  the  queen  to  the  throne  but  the  pro- 
visional government  refused  to  abdicate,  the  United 
States  senate  decided  on  a policy  of  non-interference 
and  a republic  was  established,  and  Sanford  B.  Dole, 
elected  president,  July  4.  On  January  6,  1895,  occurred 
a royalist  uprising  for  the  purpose  of  seating  Queen  Lil- 
iuokalani  on  the  throne  again  but  it  was  promptly  sup- 
pressed. The  ex-queen  was  arrested  with  others  and 
her  trial  for  treason  begun  before  a military  commis- 
sion, February  5.  She  was  sentenced  to  five  years’ 
imprisonment  and  to  pay  a fine,  but  on  her  formally 
abdicating  her  claims  to  the  throne  her  sentence  was 
commuted  to  three  months’  imprisonment  and  four 
years  and  nine  months  under  surveillance. 

LIN  COLN,  Robert  Todd,  son  of  Abraham  Lincoln, 
was  born  at  Springfield,  111.,  August  I,  1843,  and  was 
educated  at  Phillips  Exeter  College  and  at  Harvard. 
During  the  latter  years  of  the  Civil  war  he  served  as  a 
captain  on  the  staff  of  General  Grant.  After  the  war  he 
practiced  law  in  Chicago  until  1881,  when  he  became 
secretary  of  war  in  Garfield’s  cabinet.  This  office  he 
retained  until  the  close  of  President  Arthur’s  adminis- 
tration, when  he  returned  to  his  law  practice  in  Chicago. 
In  1889  President  Harrison  appointed  him  minister  to 
England,  where  he  remained  until  1893. 

LIND,  Jenny.  See  Goldschmidt  Mme.,  Vol. 
X,  page  6560. 

LINDAU,  Paul,  was  born  June  3,  1839,  at  Magde- 
burg, became  a journalist  in  Paris,  returned  to  Ger- 
many in  1863,  and  has  since  founded  and  edited  Die 
Gegenwart  and  Nord  und  Slid.  He  has  written  books 
of  travel,  critical  sketches  in  a satirical  and  humorous 
manner, andliterary  criticisms,  including  (1871) 

and  Alfred  de  Musset  (1877),  but  is  best  known  as  a 
writer  of  popular  plays  and  novels  of  modern  life.  Of 
his  plays  the  most  successful  was  Maria  und  Magda- 
lena; of  his  novels,  Herr  und  Frau  Fewer,  Toggen- 
burg,  Mayo,  a romance  cycle,  Berlin  (1886-87)  and 
Im  Fieber  (1889). 

LINDSAY,  William,  born  in  Rocklendge,  Ky., 
September  4,  1835,  served  in  the  Confederate  army  as 
colonel,  became  judge  of  the  Appellate  Court  in  1870, 
and  chief  justice  1876-78;  was  World’s  Fair  Commis- 
sioner at  large,  1890-93,  and  was  appointed  United 
States  senator  in  1893,  and  elected  in  1895. 

LINTON,  Eliza  Lynn,  born  in  Keswick,  England, 
in  1822,  has  written  popular  novels  and  numerous  ar- 
ticles in  the  magazines.  Died  July  14,  1898. 

LINTON,  William  James,  was  born  in  London, 
December  11,  1812,  became  prominent  as  a wood  en- 
graver and  writer  on  art,  married  the  preceding  in 
1858,  and  separated  from  her  in  1867,  coming  to  the 
United  States.  Died  Dec.  29,  1897. 

LISTER,  Lord  Joseph,  an  English  surgeon,  born 
in  1827;  became  surgeon  extraordinary  to  the  Queen 
and  in  1880  received  the  royal  medal  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, and  in  1881  the  prize  of  the  Academy  of  Paris 
for  his  invaluable  discoveries  in  antiseptic  treatment 
in  surgery  known  as  “ Listerism.” 

LISZT,  Franz,  pianist,  composer,  and  author, 


born  at  Raiding,  Hungary,  1811,  died  at  Baireuth,  Ba- 
varia, 1886.  At  the  age  of  nine  years  he  displayed  so 
much  musical  talent  that  several  Hungarian  noblemen 
offered  the  means  for  his  education  at  Vienna,  where 
he  studied  under  the  best  masters,  and  in  1822  played 
before  enth  usiastic  audiences . He  continued  his  studies 
in  Paris  and  played  there  with  success,'  and  in  other 
continental  cities.  In  1827  his  father  died  and  for  a 
time,  until  1831,  he  morbidly  withdrew  from  the  world; 
but  the  violin  playing  of  Paganini  roused  him  to  emu- 
lation and  he  became  for  years  the  foremost  figure  in 
the  musical  world  and  the  idol  of  music  lovers.  In 
1847  he  was  appointed  Kapellmeister  at  Weimar,  and 
honors  were  showered  upon  him.  In  1861  he  re- 
signed this  appointment,  and  in  1865,  took  minor  or- 
ders in  the  Church  of  Rome,  to  which  he  was  devoted, 
and  was  known  as  Abbe  Liszt.  After  1871  he  resided 
principally  at  Pesth.  In  1875  he  was  made  director  of 
the  Hungarian  Academy  of  Music.  Among  Liszt’s 
compositions  are:  Fantasias;  Poems  Symphoniques ; 
the  grand  symphonies  Faust  and  the  Divina  Corn- 
media  ; the  two  oratorios,  Die  Heilige  Elizabeth  and 
Christus  and  several  Grand  Masses.  He  also  published 
a Life  of  Chopin.  Died  July  11,  1886. 

LITTLE  CROW,  hereditary  chief  of  the  Sioux  In- 
dians, born  near  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  instigated  and  led  a 
massacre  along  the  frontier  line  of  the  Sioux  reserva- 
tions in  Northern  Minnesota,  August  18,  1862,  in 
which  the  Indians  slew  1,000  men,  women  and  chil- 
dren. On  September  23,  1862,  the  United  States 
forces,  under  General  Sibley,  met  and  defeated  the  In- 
dians, took  2,000  prisoners,  and  released  120  white 
women  from  captivity.  Little  Crow  escaped  until  1863 
when  he  was  discovered  by  a raiding  party  near  Hutch- 
inson, Minn.,  and  shot. 

LITTLEJOHN,  Abram  Newkirk,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
born  in  Florida,  N.  Y.,  December  13,  1824;  was  for 
many  years  a Protestant  Episcopal  minister  in  Con- 
necticut and  New  York,  and  in  1869  became  firstbishop 
of  Long  Island.  He  wrote  several  theological  works. 

LIVINGSTON,  Henry  Brockholst,  born  at  New 
York  in  1757,  studied  law,  left  college  to  serve  as 
aide  to  Gen.  Philip  Schuyler,  and  in  1777  was  major 
and  aide  to  Benedict  Arnold,  when  the  latter  captured 
Burgoyne’s  army.  After  the  war  he  became  one  of 
the  most  eminent  attorneys  of  New  York  city.  In 
1802  he  became  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  New 
York,  and  in  1806,  associate  justice  of  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court.  He  died  March  19,  1823. 

LIVINGSTON,  John  Henry,  born  at  Poughkeep- 
sie, N.  Y.,  in  1746,  died  in  1825.  He  studied  theol- 
ogy at  Utrecht,  Holland,  became  pastor  of  Dutch 
churches  in  New  York,  Albany,  Kingston,  and  Pough- 
keepsie, and  in  1807  became  professor  of  theology  and 
president  of  Queen’s  College  (now  Rutgers),  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.  He  was  styled  “the  father  of  the 
Dutch  Reformed  Church  in  America.” 

LIVINGSTON,  Philip,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y., 
January  16,  1716;  died  in  York,  Penn.,  June  12,  1778. 
He  was  an  alderman  of  New  York  city  and  a member 
of  the  provincial  assembly,  opposed  the  stamp  act, 
and  sat  in  all  continental  congresses  of  1774-78. 

LIVINGSTON,  William,  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y., 
November  30,  1723;  died  in  Elizabethtown,  N.  J., 
July  25,  1790.  In  July,  1774,  he  was  elected  a deputy 
to  the  first  continental  congress,  and  reelected  twice 
thereafter.  In  1776  he  became  commander-in-chief  of 
the  New  Jersey  militia  and  governor  of  New  Jersey  ; 
in  1786  he  freed  his  slaves,  and  in  1787  he  was  a dele- 
gate to  the  constitutional  convention. 

LLOYD,  David  E.,  an  American  journalist  and 


LOC- 

dramatist,  born  in  New  York,  September  i,  1851,  died 
September  4,  1889.  Several  of  his  plays  still  keep  the 
stage  : For  Congress  (1882)  ; The  Woman  Hater  (1885) ; 
The  Dominie's  Daughter  (1886),  and  The  Senator  (i88g). 

LOCKE,  David  Ross,  born  in  New  York  State,  in 
1833;  became  a journalist,  and  achieved  considerable 
notoriety  by  his  political  satires,  signed  “Petroleum 
V.  Nasby.”  He  died  February  15,  1888. 

LOCKWOOD,  James  Booth,  explorer,  born  in 
Annapolis,  Md.,  October  9,  1852,  was  commissioned 
lieutenant  of  United  States  infantry,  in  1873.  He 
volunteered  for  duty  as  second  in  command  under  Lieut. 
A.  W.  Greely  ( q . v.)  in  the  Lady  Franklin  expedition, 
and  on  April  3,  1882,  led  an  overland  journey,  by  dog 
sledge,  which  reached  the  most  northerly  point,  by  28 
miles,  which  had  yet  been  attained  by  Arctic  explorers, 
Lockwood  Island,  in  83°  24'  N.  latitude,  40°  46'  W. 
longitude,  350  miles  from  the  pole,  and  added  125  miles 
of  established  coast  line  to  Greenland.  In  the  disasters 
that  overtook  the  Greely  expedition,  Lieutenant  Lock- 
wood  perished  at  Cape  Sabine,  April  9,  1884. 

LOCKYER,  Sir  J.  Norman,  astronomer,  born  at 
Rugby,  May  17,  1836,  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
Royal  Commission  on  Scientific  Instruction  in  1870,  and 
sent  out  to  Sicily  in  1870  and -to  India  in  1871  as  head  of 
the  eclipse  expeditions,  and  was  elected  Rede  lecturer  at 
Cambridge,  1871.  He  discoveredanew  method  of  observ- 
ing the  sun  ; and  in  1874  gained  the  Rumford  medal  of 
the  Royal  Society,  and  was  appointed  editor  of  Nature. 
He  wrote,  among  other  works,  Elementary  Lessons  in 
Astronomy  (1868),  The  Spectroscope  and  Its  Applications 
(1873),  Chemistry  of  the  Sun  (1887),  The  Meteoritic 
Hypothesis  (1890),  and  The  Dawn  of  Astronomy  (1894). 

LODGE,  Henry  Cabot,  born  in  Boston,  May  12, 
1850;  graduated  at  Harvard,  became  lecturer  on  Amer- 
ican history  there,  edited  the  North  American  Review 
(1873-76),  the  International  Review  (1879-81),  and  the 
works  of  Alexander  Hamilton,  and  wrote  lives  of  George 
Cabot,  Alexander  Hamilton  and  of  George  Washing- 
ton (1890).  He  served  in  the  Massachusetts  legisla- 
ture, 1880-81,  as  a Republican;  served  in  congress 
1887-93,  and  in  1893  was  elected  United  States  senator. 

LOEWE,  Louis,  Orientalist,  was  born  at  Ziilz,  in 
Prussian  Silesia,  in  1809,  studied  theology  and  Oriental 
languages  and  taught  them,  became  principal  and  direc- 
tor of  Sir  Moses  Montefiore’s  Theological  College  at 
Ramsgate  in  1868,  traveled  extensively  and  wrote  The 
Origin  of  the  Egyptian  Language , Observations  on  a 
Unique  Cufic  Gold  Coin,  a Dictionary  of  the  Circassian 
language,  a Life  of  Sir  Moses  Montefiore  (1889),  and 
other  works.  He  died  in  1889. 

LOFTIE,  William  John,  F.S.A.,  was  born  in  the 
county  Armagh,  Ireland,  in  1839.  Mr.  Loftie  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  B.A.  in  1864.  He  was  ordained  to  a curacy 
at  Corsham,  Wiltshire,  in  1865.  In  1868  he  turned  to 
literature,  writing  first  on  antiquarian  subjects  in  the 
People's  Magazine,  of  which  he  became  editor  in  1872. 
Elected  F.S.A.  in  1872,  he  published  a Century  of 
Bibles , and  in  1873  The  Latin  Year,  a collection  of 
hymns.  After  holding  temporary  church  appointments 
he  became  assistant  minister  of  the  Chapel  Royal  Savoy, 
1871,  and  in  1879  published  Memorials  of  the  Savoy; 
meanwhile,  having  spent  some  winters  on  the  Nile,  he 
wrote  A Ride  in  Egypt , and  has  since  published  An 
Essay  of  Scarabs,  and  written  papers  in  the  Archceolog- 
tcal  Journal  on  Egyptology . He  became  connected 
with  the  Guardian  in  1870,  and  was  a weekly  con- 
tributor for  six  years.  In  1874  be  joined  the  staff  of  the 
Saturday  Review , and  he  has  written  on  art  and  archae- 
ology in  the  Portfolio,  the  Magazine  of  A rtt  and  many 
other  periodicals. 


LOG  6649 

LOFTUS,  Augustus  Wiluam  Frederick  Spen. 
cer,  G.C.B.,  commonly  called  Lord  Augustus 
Loftus,  the  fourth  son  of  the  second  marquis  of  Ely, 
was  born  in  1817,  an(^  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  En- 
tering the  diplomatic  service,  he  was  appointed  attache 
at  Berlin  in  1837,  and  paid  attache  at  Stuttgart  in  1844. 
He  accompanied  Sir  Stratford  Canning  (afterward  Vis- 
count Stratford  de  Redcliffe)  on  his  special  mission  to 
the  courts  of  Berlin,  Vienna,  Munich,  and  Athens,  in 
March,  1848.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
legation  at  .Stuttgart  in  1852;  and  at  Berlin  in  1853; 
and  envoy  extraordinary  and  minister  plenipotentiary 
at  Vienna  in  March,  1858.  In  December,  i860,  he 
was  transferred  to  Berlin.  On  the  elevation  of  the 
mission  at  Beriin  to  the  rank  of  an  embassy,  he  was 
transferred,  October  28,  1862,  to  Munich,  which  was 
on  that  occasion  raised  to  the  rank  of  a first-class 
mission.  He  was  created  a K.C.B.,  December  12, 
1862;  was  promoted  to  be  ambassador  extraordinary 
and  plenipotentiary  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  January 
19,  1866;  and  was  made  a G.C.B.,  July  6,  1866.  He 
was  appointed  ambassador  extraordinary  and  plenipo- 
tentiary to  the  North  German  Confederation,  February 
24,  1868;  was  sworn  a privy  councilor,  November  n, 
1868;  and  was  appointed  ambassador  extraordinary 
and  plenipotentiary  to  the  emperor  of  Russia,  October 
16,  1871.  The  latter  post  he  held  till  February,  1879, 
when  he  was  appointed  governor  of  New  South  Wales, 
which  office  he  held  for  several  years. 

LOGAN,  Benjamin,  born  in  Augusta  county,  Va., 
in  1752;  died  in  Shelby  county,  Ky.,  December  11, 
1802.  His  parents  removed  from  Virginia  to  Pennsyl- 
vania; the  father  died  when  Benjamin  had  attained  the 
age  of  fourteen.  The  son  went  westward,  bought  a 
farm,  and  was  married.  He  was  sergeant  in  the  ex- 
pedition of  Col.  Henry  Bouquet  against  the  Indians 
in  1774,  became  engaged  in  the  Dunmore  war,  and,  in 
1 775,  joined  the  party  of  adventurers  under  Daniel 
Boone.  Arrived  in  Kentucky,  he  built  a stockade, 
called  Logan’s  fort,  near  Stanford,  and  in  1776  removed 
thither  with  his  family.  On  May  20,  1777,  the  fort 
was  attacked  by  the  Indians.  For  defense  it  had 
mounted  ten  or  eleven  guns;  its  garrison  consisted  of 
about  thirty-five  persons,  men,  women,  and  children. 
The  siege  lasted  many  weeks.  Meanwhile,  Logan,  with 
two  others,  at  night  crept  out,  and  made  his  way 
through  the  forest  to  a settlement,  distant  about  150 
miles,  for  succor.  Returning  in  September  with  100 
armed  men  and  supplies,  they  raised  the  siege.  Logan 
became  a professed  Indian  hunter,  and  pursued  the  red 
men  as  he  would  wild  game.  During  one  of  his  raids 
his  arm  was  shattered  by  a musket-ball.  Logan,  a 
little  later,  joined  Col.  John  Bowman  in  an  expedi- 
tion against  the  Shawnees;  united  in  the  pursuit  ol 
Simon  Girty,  the  Indian  chief,  and  made  sundry  im- 
portant raids  on  the  villages  of  the  savages.  Retiring 
from  military  life,  he  went  to  his  farm,  and,  in  after 
years,  served  as  a member  of  the  Kentucky  legislature. 
He  was  of  gigantic  stature,  and  on  several  occasions 
displayed  great  personal  courage. 

LOGAN,  James,  born  in  Ireland,  October  20,  1674; 
died  near  Germantown,  Penn.,  October  31,  1751.  He 
was  of  Scottish  descent,  belonged  to  the  Quakers,  and 
was  thoroughly  educated.  In  1699  he  became  secretary 
to  William  Penn,  whom  he  followed  to  Philadelphia. 
After  Penn’s  return  to  England  he  became  provincial 
secretary,  and  acted  as  the  business  agent  of  the  Penn 
family.  From  1704  until  1 71 1 he  was  embroiled  in  dis- 
putes with  the  assembly,  who,  in  the  latter  year,  ordered 
nis  detention  in  the  county  jail.  However,  he  escaped 
the  penalty,  sailed  for  England,  and  returned  in  1712. 


L O G — L ON 


6650 

In  the  following  year  he  became  presiding  judge  of  the 
common  pleas,  and  in  1723  served  as  mayor  of  Philadel- 
phia. From  1731  until  1739  he  was  chief  justice  of  the 
supreme  court,  and  after  Governor  Gordon’s  death,  in 
1736,  acted  as  governor  for  two  years.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
Logan’s  library  of  2,000  volumes,  consisting  mostly  of 
the  classics,  was  given  to  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  and 
in  1792  became  annexed  to  the  library  established  by 
Benjamin  Franklin. 

LOGAN,  John,  Indian  chief,  born  about  1725;  died 
near  Lake  Erie  in  1780.  He  came  of  the  Cayuga 
tribe,  and  his  English  name  was  adopted  in  honor  of 
James  Logan,  the  friend  of  the  Indians,  and  secretary 
to  William  Penn.  Logan  dwelt  near  the  Moravian 
settlement  at  Shamokin  creek,  on  friendly  terms  with 
his  neighbors.  Later  he  lived  near  Reedsville,  Penn., 
where  he  was  chosen -chief  of  the  Mingo  tribe,  and  in 
1770  retired  to  the  banks  of  the  Ohio  river.  In  1774 
his  entire  family  was  massacred  by  settlers  on  the 
Ohio  river.  Logan  suspected  that  the  deed  was  done 
at  the  instigation  of  Michael  Cresap,  and  during  several 
months  his  tribe  perpetrated  many  barbarities  on  the 
whites.  Personally  he  took  thirty  scalps.  This  state  of 
things  was  terminated  by  the  defeat  of  the  Indians  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Great  Kanawha  river.  At  that  time 
he  would  not  appear  among  those  who  sued  for  peace, 
but  instead  led  the  emissary  of  Governor  Dinsmore  into 
the  woods,  and  told  the  story  of  his  wrongs,  made 
famous  by  Jefferson  in  his  Notes  on  Virginia.  In  his 
declining  years  Logan  became  a drunkard,  and  in  one  of 
his  frenzies  killed  his  wife.  While  traversing  the  wilder- 
ness between  Sandusky,  Ohio,  and  Detroit,  Mich.,  he 
was  overtaken  by  a party  of  Indians  and  killed. 

LOGAN,  John  Alexander,  born  in  Jackson  county, 
111.,  February  9,  1826;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  De- 
cember 26,  1886.  His  father  was  an  Irish  physician, 
who  settled  in  Illinois.  In  1840  the  son  attended 
Shiloh  College.  When  war  was  declared  with  Mexico 
he  volunteered  as  private,  and  became  a lieutenant. 
After  the  war  he  studied  law,  in  1851  was  graduated  at 
Louisville  University,  and  admitted  to  practice  in  1852. 
In  1858  he  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a Democrat,  and 
was  reelected  in  i860.  In  August,  1861,  he  resigned  his 
seat,  raised  an  Illinois  regiment  of  volunteers,  was  com- 
missioned colonel,  and  joined  General  Grant  at  Cairo. 
He  was  engaged  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Henry,  and  at 
Fort  Donelson  in  February,  1862,  where  he  was 
wounded.  He  was  advanced  to  brigadier-general, 
served  in  northern  Mississippi,  and  in  November  be- 
came major-general  of  volunteers.  In  1864,  in  front  of 
Atlanta,  for  a short  time  he  commanded  the  army  of  the 
Tennessee.  In  May  of  that  year  he  joined  Sherman’s 
army  at  Savannah,  remained  with  it  during  its  “ march 
to  the  sea,”  and  until  the  surrender  of  Gen.  Joseph  E. 
Johnston,  April  26,  1865.  He  served  several  terms  in 
congress,  and  in  1871  was  chosen  United  States  sena- 
tor, which  office  he  again  filled  in  1879.  In  1884  he 
was  nominated  for  the  vice-presidency  of  the  United 
States  on  the  ticket  with  James  G.  Blaine,  but  failed 
to  be  elected.  In  May,  1885,  he  was  again  chosen  to 
represent  his  State  in  the  United  States  Senate. 

LOGAN,  Sir  William  Edmond,  Canadian  geolo- 
ist,  born  in  Montreal,  April  20,  1798;  died  in  Wales, 
une  22,  1875.  1817  he  was  graduated  at  the  Uni- 

versity of  Edinburgh,  and  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits 
in  London.  In  1829  he  managed  a coal-mining  and 
copper-smelting  enterprise  at  Swansea,  Wales,  and  in- 
vestigated the  geology  of  that  neighborhood.  In  1841 
he  visited  the  coal-fields  of  North  America,  and  commu- 
nicated the  results  of  his  observation  to  the  geological 
society  of  London.  From  1842  until  1870  he  was  at 


the  head  of  the  geological  survey  of  Canada,  and  within 
that  time  prepared  an  elaborate  map  of  northeastern 
America.  At  Paris,  1855,  he  was  made  a knight  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  and  was  knighted  in  1856.  He  en- 
dowed the  chair  of  geology  of  McGill  College,  in  Mon- 
treal. Many  of  his  scientific  papers  are  among  the  pub- 
lications of  the  geological  society  of  London,  and  in  the 
American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  the  Annual 
Reports  of  the  Progress  of  the  Canadian  Survey,  and 
the  Proceedings  of  the  British  Association. 

LONDONDERRY,  Marquis  of  (The  Right 
Hon.  Charles  Stewart  Vane-Tempest  Stewart), 
son  of  the  fifth  marquis,  was  born  in  1852,  and  educated 
at  Eton  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  As  Viscount 
Castlereagh,  he  unsuccessfully  contested  South  Kensing- 
ton in  1874,  and  Montgomery  district  in  1877,  and  sat 
for  county  Down  from  1878  to  1884.  On  the  death  of 
his  father  in  1884  he  succeeded  to  the  title,  and  on  the 
formation  of  Lord  Salisbury’s  second  administration 
in  1886,  was  appointed  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland.  He 
married  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Shrewsbury, 
and  is  the  owner  of  extensive  collieries  in  Durham. 

LONG,  Charles  Chaille,  born  in  Maryland  July 
2,  1842;  enlisted  in  the  volunteer  service  in  1862  and 
rose  to  rank  of  captain.  He  became  attached  to  the 
Egyptian  army  under  General  Loring  {q.v.),  and  in 
1874  was  assigned  as  chief  of  staff  to  General  Charles 
Gordon,  (q.v.)  In  this  capacity  he  made  two  journeys 
into  Equatorial  Africa,  and  was  promoted  colonel  and 
bey.  In  September,  1877,  resigned  and  returned  to 
New  York,  and  in  1882  again  went  to  Egypt,  where  he 
practiced  law  in  Alexandria.  During  the  massacres  in 
that  city  at  the  time  of  Arabi  Pasha’s  insurrection 
Colonel  Long  reestablished  the  American  consulate  and 
protected  the  refugees.  He  afterward  removed  to  Paris, 
and  in  1887  became  United  States  consul-general  in 
Corea. 

LONG,  Crawford  W.,  born  in  Georgia  November 
1,  1815;  died  June  16,  1878.  He  graduated  at  the 
medical  department  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1839  and  practiced  medicine  in  his  native  State.  It 
is  claimed  on  his  behalf  that  he  was  the  first  to  use  ether 
for  the  purpose  of  producing  anaesthesia  in  surgical 
operations. 

LONG,  Stephen  H.,  born  in  New  Hampshire 
December  30,  1784;  died  in  Alton,  111.,  September  4, 
1864.  He  entered  the  engineer  corps  in  1814  and  made 
topographical  surveys  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
Long’s  Peak  was  named  in  his  honor.  Later  he  en- 
gaged in  railroad  surveying,  and  in  1861  became  chief  of 
the  corps  of  topographical  engineers.  He  was  the 
author  of  a Railroad  Manual  and  of  other  works. 

LONGFELLOW,  Henry  Wadsworth,  was  born 
February  27,  1807,  at  Portland,  Me.  He  was  of  Eng- 
lish descent,  his  earliest  known  ancestor,  William  Long- 
fellow, coming  to  America  from  Hampshire,  England, 
in  1678.  The  poet  was  the  son  of  Stephen  Longfellow, 
a congressman;  and  on  his  mother’s  side  he  was 
descended  from  John  Alden.  His  boyhood  was  spent 
in  his  native  town,  and  at  the  age  of  fourteen  he  en- 
tered Bowdoin  College.  Among  his  class-mates  there 
were  Hawthorne,  Franklin  Pierce,  J.  S.  C.  Abbott, 
and  others  who  afterward  attained  fame.  He  gradu- 
ated with  honors  in  1825,  but  remained  some  time  in 
the  college  in  the  capacity  of  tutor.  He  intended  to 
have  become  a lawyer,  and  studied  in  his  father’s  office, 
but  the  work  was  not  suited  to  him,  and  he  speedily 
abandoned  it.  Being  offered  a professorship  at  Bow- 
doin College  he  spent  three  years  in  Europe,  where  he 
acquired  a knowledge  of  the  language  and  history  of 
many  countries.  In  1829  he  returned,  and  began  his 
duties  at  Bowdoin..  where  he  remained  for  six  years. 


LON- 

ai  1831  he  married,  and  two  years  later  published  his 
first  poetical  work,  a small  volume  of  translations 
from  the  Spanish.  In  1835  he  was  chosen  to  succeed 
George  Ticknor,  as  professor  of  modern  languages  at 
Harvard,  and  made  another  visit  of  about  a year  to 
Europe,  this  time  devoting  his  attention  to  the  Scandi- 
navian countries.  His  wife  died  at  Rotterdam  in  1835, 
and  on  his  return  to  Harvard  in  the  following  year  he 
took  up  his  residence  at  Cambridge,  where  he  practi- 
cally spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  In  1835  he  published 
Outre  Mer:  A Pilgrimage  Beyond  the  Sea , followed 
in  1839  by  Hyperion , a Romance , said  to  be  an  account 
of  his  own  experiences  in  Europe,  though  veiled  in 
poetical  images  and  elegant  diction.  Besides  these 
his  only  pretentious  prose  work  was  Kavanagh , a 
Tale  (1857).  In  1839  appeared  also  Voices  of  the 
Night,  his  first  volume  of  original  poetry,  which  con- 
tained many  of  his  best  minor  poems,  particularly  the 
Psalm  of  Life  and  the  Footsteps  of  the  Angels.  In  1841 
he  issued  a volume  of  ballads  and  other  poems. 
Among  these  were  the  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus,  The 
Village  Blacksmith , Excelsior,  The  Bridge , and  the 
Skeleton  in  Armor.  Longfellow  was  an  abolitionist  by 
conviction  and  by  surroundings,  and  about  this  time  he 
wrote  his  first  poems  on  slavery,  which  he  dedicated  to 
dhanning. 

In  1843  he  married  again,  this  time  a sister  of 
Thomas  G.  Appleton.  He  purchased  the  old  house 
which  at  one  time  was  occupied  by  George  Washington 
as  his  headquarters,  and  this  historical  mansion  formed 
his  residence  until  his  death.  At  this  time  he  began  to 
lecture  and  met  with  much  success.  In  1844  appeared 
The  Spanish  Student,  which  was  also  well  received, 
and  the  next  year  he  published  The  Belfry  of  Bruges 
and  other  poems.  In  1847  he  produced  the  work,  by 
which  his  name  will  probably  be  best  known  to  poster- 
ity, namely,  Evangeline , a Tale  of  Acadie . The  Sea- 
side and  the  Fireside  appeared  m 1849,  a collection 
containing  many  of  his  best  smaller  works.  In  1851 
appeared  the  Golden  Legend , and  in  1854  The  Song  of 
Hiawatha,  perhaps  the  best  of  all  his  works.  In  1858 
he  published  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish , a story 
based  on  an  incident  in  the  early  history  of  Plymouth 
colony.  He  also  published  a small  volume  of  minor 
poems  under  the  title  of  Birds  of  Passage . 

In  1861  a dreadful  calamity  occurred,  which  had 
much  to  do  with  the  future  of  Longfellow’s  life.  His 
wife  was  accidentally  burned  to  death,  and  it  was  long 
before  he  recovered  from  the  shock.  He  was  left  with 
five  children,  and  his  home  life  is  beautifully  told  in  one 
of  his  poems,  entitled  The  Children's  Hour.  In  1863 
he  wrote  Tales  of  a Wayside  Lnn , the  best  known  of 
which  is  the  Ride  of  Paul  Revere.  Meantime  he  had 
spent  several  months  in  the  translation  of  Dante’s 
Divina  Commedia,  and  he  gave  to  the  world  the  best 
literal  translation  of  Dante  yet  known.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  New  England  Tragedy  (1868)  and  the 
Divine  Tragedy  (1871).  Longfellow  revisited  Europe 
in  1868-69,  and  was  received  with  the  honor  due  to  his 
exalted  character.  After  this  the  most  noticeable  of 
his  works  are : The  Hanging  of  the  Crane , and  Morti- 
turi  Salutamus.  Among  his  later  works  are  Keramos 
and  Other  Poems , Ultima  Thule , and  Hermes  Tris- 
megistus.  On  March  24,  1882,  he  died.  He  was 
LL.D.  of  Bowdoin  College,  of  Harvard,  and  of  Cam- 
bridge, England;  and  D.C.L.  of  Oxford,  England.  He 
was  also  a member  of  the  Russian  Academy  of  Science, 
and  of  the  Spanish  Academy. 

LONGSTREET,  Augustus  Baldwin,  author, 
born  in  Augusta,  Ga.,  September  22,  1790;  died  in 
Oxford,  Miss.,  September  9,  1870.  His  father, 
William,  invented  a steamboat,  unlike  Fulton’s  in 


-LOO  6651 

construction;  in  1807  it  was  propelled  at  the  rate  of 
five  miles  an  hour  on  the  Savannah  river.  Augustus 
was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1813,  read  law  in  Connecticut 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Georgia.  In  1822  he 
was  made  circuit  judge.  Removing  to  Augusta,  Ga., 
he  established  the  Augusta  Sentinel,  and  in  1838  be- 
came a minister  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
From  1839  to  1848  he  was  president  of  Emory  College 
at  Oxford,  Ga.,  and  later  occupied  similar  positions  in 
the  University  of  Mississippi  and  Centenary  College, 
Louisiana.  In  1857  he  was  elected  to  the  presidency 
of  South  Carolina  College,  and  thereafter  returned  to 
his  former  post  at  the  University  of  Mississippi. 

LONGSTREET,  James,  was  born  in  South  Caro- 
lina, January  8,  1821.  He  graduated  at  the  military 
academy  at  West  Point  in  1842,  and  was  on  duty  on  the 
Mexican  frontier  till  1846 ; took  part  in  the  Mexican 
war,  1846-48,  where  he  was  wounded;  attained  the 
rank  of  captain  and  a major’s  brevet;  served  subse- 
quently in  Texas  and  as  paymaster  in  the  United  States 
army,  being  promoted  major  on  the  staff  in  1858.  He 
resigned  his  commission  to  take  part  with  the  South  in 
the  Civil  war,  June  1,  1861;  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  fourth  brigade  of  General'  Beauregard’s 
first  corps,  near  Centerville,  and  was  present  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861.  During  the  early  part 
of  1862  he  was  made  major-general,  and  won  reputa- 
tion under  General  Lee  in  the  campaigns  against  Mc- 
Clellan, Pope,  Burnside,  and  Meade.  After  the  battle 
of  Fredericksburg,  December  13,  1862,  Longstreet  was 
promoted  to  the  command  of  a corps,  with  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Gettysburg,  July  1-3.  He  was  also  conspicuous 
for  his  military  ability  in  the  campaign  of  the  W ilder- 
ness,  May  1-6,  1864,  and  was  severely  wounded  on 
May  6th,  but  recovered  in  time  to  take  command  of  his 
corps  during  the  siege  of  Petersburg.  He  surrendered 
with  General  Lee  in  April,  1865.  After  the  war  Gen- 
eral Longstreet  acted  zealously  for  the  restoration  of 
harmony  between  the  two  sections.  He  made  New 
Orleans  his  residence,  and,  having  been  amnestied  by 
President  Johnson,  he  was  so  cordial  toward  the  admin- 
istration that  President  Grant  appointed  him  surveyor 
of  the  port  of  New  Orleans.  In  1875  he  took  up  his 
residence  in  Georgia,  and  in  1880  was  sent  as  minister 
to  Turkey,  where  he  remained  until  1881.  He  was 
subsequently  United  States  marshal  for  the  Northern 
District  of  Georgia,  but  at  present  holds  no  official  posi  • 
tion.  He  resides  at  Gainesville,  Ga. 

LOOMIS,  Elias,  LL.D.,  born  in  Connecticut, 
August  7,  1811,  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1830, 
and  was  tutor  there  from  1833  to  1836.  In  1836  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy  in  Western  Reserve  College  in  Ohio,  with 
permission  to  spend  a year  in  Europe  in  scientific 
studies.  During  his  residence  in  Ohio  he  devoted  a 
large  amount  of  time  to  astronomical,  magnetic,  and 
meteorological  observations,  and  to  researches  con- 
nected with  these  observations.  In  1844  he  became 
professor  in  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York, 
and  while  there  devoted  considerable  time  to  tele- 
graphic comparisons  for  longitude  in  concert  with  Mr. 
Sears  C.  Walker.  These  observations  afforded  the  first 
determination  of  the  velocity  of  the  electric  current 
through  telegraph  wire.  In  18S0  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  natural  philosophy  and  astronomy  in  Yale 
College.  He  published  a series  of  text  books  embracing 
the  whole  range  of  mathematics,  natural  philosophy,  as- 
tronomy and  meteorology.  These  books  have  attained 
an  aggregate  circulation  of  over  half  a million  of  copies. 
His  Treatise  on  Analytical  Geometry  and  Calculus  has 
been  translated  into  the  Chinese  language,  and  his 


L O P — L O S 


3652 

Treatise  on  Meteorology  into  Arabic.  His  scientific 
papers  embrace  the  various  departments  of  meteorology, 
the  phenomena  of  auroral  exhibitions  and  atmospheric 
electricity,  territorial  magnetism,  astronomical  obser- 
vations,  shooting-stars,  solar  spots,  etc.  These  papers 
are  nearly  a hundred  in  number,  amounting  to  over 
twelve  hundred  pages.  His  entire  publications  aggre- 
gate more  than  nine  thousand  pages.  Professor  Loomis 
was  a member  of  the  principal  scientific  societies  of 
the  United  States  and  also  of  several  scientific  acade- 
mies of  Europe.  He  died  August  15,  1889, 

LOPES,  Henry  Charles,  Lord,  lord  justice  of  the 
court  of  appeal,  was  born  at  Davenport,  England,  Oc- 
tober 3,  1828,  and  received  his  education  at  Winchester 
School,  and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1850).  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  of  the  Inner  Temple,  June  7,  1852, 
and  for  some  time  he  practiced  as  an  equity  draftsman 
and  a conveyancer.  In  1857  he  joined  the  western  cir- 
cuit. Mr.  Lopes  was  made  recorder  of  Exeter  in  1867. 
In  April,  1868,  he  was  returned  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, in  the  Conservative  interest,  as  member  for 
Launceston.  He  was  reelected  in  December,  1868, 
and  continued  to  sit  for  that  borough  till  January,  1874. 
He  represented  Frome  from  1875  until  his  elevation 
to  the  judicial  bench.  Mr.  Lopes  was  a frequent 
speaker  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  he  succeeded 
in  carrying  through  that  house  a Jury  bill.  On 
November  3,  1876,  Mr.  Lopes  accepted  the  vacant 
judgeship  in  the  court  of  common  pleas,  in  succession 
to  the  late  Mr.  Justice  Archibald,  and  shortly  after- 
ward received  the  honor  of  knighthood.  On  December 
1,  1885,  he  was  appointed  lord  justice  of  appeal,  and 
subsequently  sworn  of  the  privy  council. 

LORAIN,  Lorenzo,  born  in  Philipsburg,  Penn., 
August  3,  1831;  died  in  Baltimore,  March  6,  1882.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1856,  and  served  on  the 
frontier.  He  was  wounded  in  the  early  part  of  the 
Civil  war,  and  retired  from  active  service  to  become 
professor  of  geology  and  chemistry  at  West  Point.  In 
1875  he  held  the  chair  of  physics  at  Lehigh  University, 
and  was  afterward  instructor  in  gunnery  at  Fortress 
Monroe. 

LO RIMER,  James,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  professor  of 
public  law,  and  of  the  law  of  nature  and  nations  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh,  was  born  at  Aberdalgie, 
near  Perth,  Scotland,  November  4.  1818.  Mr.  Lorimer 
was  educated  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  subse- 
quently studied  at  the  academy  of  Geneva  and  at  the 
universities  of  Berlin  and  Bonn.  In  1845  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Scotch  bar,  and  in  1862  professor  of 
public  law.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  insti- 
tute of  international  law,  1873;  and  with  its  members 
and  earlier  continental  friends  has  always  maintained 
intimate  relations.  He  was  a member  of  the  academy 
of  jurisprudence  of  Madrid,  and  of  the  universities  of 
St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow,  a fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh,  etc.  In  earlier  life  he  was  a 
frequent  contributor  to  th e Edinburgh,  North  British, 
and  other  reviews,  and  to  Chambers ’ Encyclopaedia, 
and  he  has  published  many  pamphlets,  introductory 
lectures,  and  the  like.  He  died  in  Scotland  February 
13,  1890. 

LGRING,  William  Wing,  born  in  Wilmington, 
N.  C.,  December  4,  1818;  died  in  New  York  city, 
December  30,  1886.  A?  a lad  he  joined  a volunteer 
company  to  act  against  the  Seminole  Indians  in  Florida; 
was  engaged  in  several  battles,  and  won  promotion  to  a 
second  lieutenancy.  In  1846  he  became  captain  of 
mounted  riflemen  and  served  in  the  Mexican  war.  He 
was  promoted  major,  and  lost  his  left  arm  by  a cannon- 
shot.  On  March  5,  1848,  he  became  lieutenant-colonel, 
and  in  1851  served  against  the  Indians  in  Texas,  as 


colonel  in  a newly  organized  regiment.  In  1859  h« 
visited  Europe,  Egypt  and  Palestine.  Returning  home, 
he  commanded  the  department  of  New  Mexico  until 
May,  1861,  when  he  resigned  and  joined  the  Confed- 
erate army  as  brigadier-general;  later  he  was  made 
major-general,  and  commanded  a division  of  Gen- 
eral Johnston’s  army  in  the  attempt  to  relieve  Vicks- 
burg in  1803.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  went 
abroad,  and  in  1869  became  inspector-general  of 
the  Egyptian  army,  had  command  of  the  coast  of 
Egypt,  and  in  the  expedition  to  Abyssinia,  in  1875-76, 
was  second  in  command  and  chief  of  staff.  In  1879, 
together  with  other  American  officers,  he  was  mustered 
out  of  the  Egyptian  service  and  returned  to  the  United 
States.  General  Loring  published  A Confederate  Sol- 
dier in  Egypt. 

LORNE,  John  George  Edward  Henry  Doug- 
las  (now  Duke  of  Argyll),  called  by  courtesy 
the  Marquis  of  Lorne,  eldest  son  of  the  duke  of 
Argyll,  was  born  at  Stafford  House,  London,  in  1845. 
He  was  elected  member  of  parliament  for  Argyleshire, 
in  the  liberal  interest,  in  February,  1868,  and  in  De- 
cember of  the  same  year  he  became  private  secretary  to 
his  father  at  the  India  office.  The  chief  event  of  his 
life  was  his  marriage  with  the  Princess  Louise,  fourth 
daughter  of  Queen  Victoria,  on  March  21,  1871,  on 
which  occasion  he  war,  created  a knight  of  the  Thistle. 
A trifling  work  by  the  marquis  of  Lorne,  entitled  a Trip 
to  the  Tropics , and  Home  Through  America , was  pub- 
lished in  1867.  It  was  followed  by  Guido  a7id  Lita:  a 
Tale  of  the  Riviera , a poem,  1865;  and  The  Psalms 
Literally  Rendered  in  Verse , 1877.  In  July,  1878,  he 
accepted  the  post  of  governor-general  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  in  succession  to  Lord  Dufferin.  He  was 
soon  afterward  created  a knight  grand  cross  of  the 
Order  of  SS.  Michael  and  George.  Accompanied  by 
the  Princess  Louise,  he  proceeded  to  Canada  (Novem- 
ber, 1878)  where  he  had  a most  enthusiastic  reception. 
His  term  of  office  (during  which  he  traveled  very  ex- 
tensively throughout  the  Dominion)  expired  in  1883, 
when  he  was  succeeded  by  the  marquis  of  Lansdowne. 
At  the  general  election  in  1885,  Lord  Lorne  contested 
•Hamstead,  as  a Liberal,  and  stood  unsuccessfully  for 
Central  Bradford,  1892. 

LOS  AD  A,  Manuel,  Mexican  freebooter,  born  in 
Santa  Teresa  about  1825;  died  in  Tepic,  July  19,  1873. 
He  was  a mongrel,  part  mulatto  and  part  Indian,  bred 
among  Indians.  Gathering  a large  band  of  followers,  he 
became  formidable  to  the  land  holders,  and  levied  con- 
tributions of  horses,  cattle,  arms  and  provisions.  Dur- 
ing the  strife  between  the  Liberal  and  Conservative 
parties  of  Mexico,  he  united  with  the  latter,  ruled  the 
mountain  country,  and  gathered  tribute  in  all  direc- 
tions. General  Miramon  decorated  him  with  medals, 
and  in  i860  the  returning  Liberal  government  left  him 
undisturbed.  When  the  French  troops  withdrew  from 
the  country,  his  self-styled  grade  of  general  was  recog- 
nized by  the  national  government  and  Maximilian  sent 
him  a costly  sword  and  his  picture  in  a frame  adorned 
with  diamonds.  Until  1872  Losada  completely  ruled  the 
mountain  lands  among  which  he  resided,  and  formed  the 
plan  to  organize  an  Indian  empire.  In  1873  he  gathered 
25,000  armed  Indians  at  San  Luis,  divided  them  into 
three  bodies,  sending  one  against  Zacatecas,  another 
against  Sinaloa,  and  on  January  17th  himself  marched 
on  Jalisco,  with  10,000  men.  At  the  same  time  General 
Corona  with  600  government  troops  approached  Guad- 
alajara and  defended  it  from  being  plundered,  and  a bat- 
tle was  fought  at  Movonera,  in  which  the  forces  of  Lo- 
sada were  routed  with  a loss  of  about  3,000  men.  Their 
chief  was  wounded,  and  the  remainder  fled  for  shelter 
to  the  mountains.  Thereafter  he  was  defeated  in  several 


LOS- 

eucounters,  and  his  followers  abandoned  the  losing  side. 
At  last  Losada  was  hunted  down,  surrounded  in  the 
manner  of  Mexican  warfare,  and  was  summarily  shot. 

LOSSING,  Benson  John,  LL.D.,  born  at  Beek- 
man,  N.  Y.,  February  12,  1813.  After  working  some 
years  at  watchmaking,  he  became,  in  1835,  joint  owner 
and  editor  of  the  Poughkeepsie  Telegraph.  He  soon 
added  to  this  a semi-monthly  literary  journal  called  the 
Poughkeepsie  Casket , and  studied  wood-engraving  and 
drawing,  to  be  able  to  illustrate  it.  About  1838  he 
settled  in  New  York  as  a wood-engraver,  publishing 
also  the  Family  Magazine.  In  1841  he  published  An 
Outline  History  of  the  Fine  Arts.  In  1847  he  pub- 
lished Seventeen  Hundred  and  Seventy-Six , and  in 
1848,  Lives  of  the  Signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, and  Pictorial  Field  Book  of  the  Revolution , 
and  a large  number  of  other  popular  historical  works. 
Besides  these,  he  contributed  to  Harper's  Magazine , 
and  other  periodicals  a number  of  papers,  and  was  a 
most  industrious  collector  of  documents  relating  to 
American  history.  He  wrote  The  Two  Spies , Nathan 
Hale  and  John  Andre,  and  A Cyclopcedia  of  Univer- 
sal History.  In  1872  he  received  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
from  the  University  of  Michigan.  He  died  at  Chestnut 
Ridge,  N.  Y.,  June  5,  1891. 

LOTI,  Pierre  (Lieut.  J ulien  Viaud),  naval  officer, 
was  elected  a member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1892, 
and  is  one  oi  the  most  distinguished  literary  Frenchmen 
of  the  day.  His  best  works  are  Pecheur  d'Islande, 
Mon  Frere  Yves,  Madame  Chrysantheme , and  Le  Livre 
de  la  Pitie  etde  la  Mort.  His  dramatization  of  Pecheur 
d'  Is lande,  produced  in  1893,  was  a brilliant  success. 

LOUDOUN,  John  Campbell,  Earl  of,  born  in 
Scotland  1705  ; died  there  1782.  He  became  commander 
of  the  British  forces  in  North  America  in  1756,  imposed 
an  embargo  on  commerce,  impressed  400  men  in  New 
York  into  government  service,  committed  other  arbi- 
trary acts,  and  went  to  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  where  he 
had  an  army  of  10,000  men,  and  a fleet  of  sixteen  ves- 
sels, but  although  the  French  were  gaining  ground  in 
all  directions,  made  no  attempts,  either  by  sea  or  land, 
to  stay  their  encroachments. 

LOUIS  I.,  late  King  of  Portugal,  second  son  of 
Donna  Maria  II.,  Queen  of  Portugal,  and  Dom  Fer- 
nando, Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg,  born  October,  1838; 
succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  brother, 
King  Pedro  V.,  November  11,  1861.  He  married,  Oc- 
tober 6,  1862,  Pia,  youngest  daughter  of  Victor  Em- 
manuel, King  of  Italy,  by  whom  he  had  two  sons: 
Carlos,  born  September  28,  1863,  and  Alfonso,  born 
July  31,  1865.  He  published  in  1877  a translation  into 
Portuguese  of  Shakespeare’s  Hamlet.  It  was  followed  in 
1880  by  a translation  of  the  Merchant  of  Venice.  In 
that  year  also  he  completed  his  translation  into  Portu- 
guese of  Shakespeare’s  Richard  III.  A second  edition 
of  the  king’s  translation  of  Hamlet  was  issued  in  1880. 
The  first  edition  was  limited  to  1,000  copies.  King 
Louis  died  at  Lisbon,  October  18;  1889. 

LOUIS  IV.  (Frederick  William  Louis  Charles), 
K.  G.,  Grand  Duke  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  eldest  son  of 
Prince  Charles  William  Louis  of  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
born  September  12,  1837,  is  a captain  in  the  first  regi- 
ment of  the  Prussian  guard,  and  colonel  of  a regiment 
of  hussars.  He  married  the  Princess  Alice,  second 
daughter  of  Queen  Victoria,  July  1,  1862.  He  suc- 
ceeded to  the  grand-dukedom  on  the  death  of  his  uncle, 
Louis  III.,  June  13,  1877,  and  was  left  a widower  on 
December  14,  1878.  Some  years  later  he  morganatically 
married  Madame  de  Kolomine,  but  after  a short  time 
divorced  her.  Died  Mar.  13,  1892. 

LOVEJOY,  Elijah  Parish,  born  in  Maine,  Novem- 
ber 9,  1802;  murdered  in  Alton,  III,  November  7,  1837. 


LOW  6653 

He  became  a Presbyterian  minister  and  edited  the  St 
Louis  Observer,  and  other  abolitionist  papers.  A mob 
of  ruffians  attacked  his  office  at  Alton,  and  shot  at  him 
through  the  door,  inflicting  wounds  from  the  effects  of 
wfficn  he  died. 

LOVEJOY,  Owen,  brother  of  the  foregoing,  born  in 
Albion,  Me.,  January  6,  i8ii;died  in  Brooaiyn,  N.  Y., 
March  25,  1864.  He  was  pastor  of  a Congregational 
church  in  Illinois;  was  present  when  his  brother  was 
murdered,  and  was  often  fined  for  holding  anti-slavery 
meetings.  He  served  in  the  Illinois  legislature,  and 
from  1856  until  his  death  sat  in  congress  as  a Re- 
publican from  that  State. 

LOVELL,  John,  born  November  20,  183^,  at  Fam- 
ham,  Surrey,  England,  began  his  journalistic  career  in 
1856,  at  the  smalltown  of  Guildford,  in  Surrey.  Thence 
he  went  north,  where  he  became  connected  with  several 
of  the  leading  provincial  journals,  and  at  the  same  time 
contributed  to  the  periodical  literature  of  the  day.  He 
was  appointed  editor  of  Cassell's  Magazine,  in  succes- 
sion to  Mr.  Moy  Thomas,  in  1868,  but  relinquished 
that  post  in  1869  to  take  the  management  of  the  Press 
Association.  Having  successfully  launched  and  carried 
on  this  undertaking,  he  in  1880  retired  to  take  the  edi- 
torship in  chief  and  general  management  of  the  Liver- 
pool Mercury.  In  addition  to  contributing  largely  to 
periodical  literature  Mr.  Lovell  edited  the  Nouveau 
Robinson  Suisse.  He  died  in  1S90. 

LOVELL,  Mansfield,  born  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
October  20,  1822;  graduated  at  West  Point,  in  1842, 
and  served  in  Texas  and  Mexico.  He  resigned  to  enter 
the  Confederate  service,  and  in  October,  1861,  was  com- 
missioned major-general,  and  given  command  of  the  de- 
fenses of  New  Orleans.  He  withdrew  his  troops  when 
the  forts  were  captured,  afterward  commanded  a divis- 
ion at  Corinth,  and  succeeded  Gen.  L.  Polk  in  1864. 
He  died  in  New  York,  June  1,  1884. 

LOW,  Edward,  English  buccaneer,  born  in  Lon- 
don, England,  about  1675;  died  at  Martinique  in  1724. 
He  is  first  heard  of  in  Boston,  Mass.,  whence  he  set 
sail  for  the  gulf  of  Honduras.  On  arrival  he  left  the 
vessel  with  part  of  the  crew,  in  a long-boat,  captured  a 
small  ship,  and  entered  on  a voyage  of  piracy.  In  1722 
he  commanded  several  ships,  with  which  he  ravaged  the 
cost  of  New  England  and  the  West  India  Islands.  In 
June,  1723,  his  vessels  came  to  an  engagement  with  a 
ship-of-war,  in  which  one  was  captured  and  taken  to 
Rhode  Island,  where  most  of  the  crew  were  hanged.  In 
July,  1723  he  captured  a large  vessel,  of  which  he  took 
command,  with  the  title  of  admiral,  and  hoisted  on  the 
main-mast  a black  flag  with  a death’s-head  in  red.  In 
January,  1 724,  while  his  fleet  was  in  the  Caribbean  sea,  he 
quarreled  about  an  enterprise  with  his  lieutenant;  Low 
silenced  his  opposition  by  having  him  murdered  in  his 
§leep.  Thereupon  the  crew  seized  their  leader,  with 
several  of  his  partisans,  lowered  them  in  a boat  and 
abandoned  them  to  their  fate.  They  were  picked  up  by 
a vessel  from  Martinique  and  taken  to  that  island,  where 
they  were  recognized  and  executed. 

LOWE,  Edward  Clarke,  D.D.,  bom  near  Liver- 
pool, England,  December  15,  1823;  was  educated  in 
Liverpool  at  a private  school,  and  afterward  at  Oxford, 
where  he  entered  under  Rev.  W.  Jacobson,  afterward 
bishop  of  Chester,  at  Magdalen  Hall  in  1842,  whence 
he  was  elected  to  the  bible  clerkship  at  Lincoln  College 
in  June,  1844,  where  he  was  a pupil  of  the  late  Mark 
Pattison.  He  graduated  B.A.  in  1846,  and  was  or- 
dained deacon  in  September  of  the  same  year,  and  priest 
in  September  following.  In  January,  1050,  he  opened, 
as  head  master  at  Hurstpierpoint,  a middle  school,  and 
remained  in  that  office  till  the  end  of  1872,  when  he  was 
appointed  provost  of  the  Midland  district  of  St.  Nicko- 


LO  W — LOY 


6654 

las’  College.  In  September,  1873,  he  was  preferred  to 
a canonry  in  Ely  Cathedral. 

LOWE,  Edward  Joseph,  F.R.S.,  was  born  at  High- 
field,  November  11,  1825;  and  in  1840  began  his  valu- 
able series  of  daily  meteorological  observations  which 
were  continued  to  April,  1882.  In  1846  he  published  A 
Treatise  on  Atmospheric  Phenomena.  About  1848  he 
assisted  the  late  Professor  Baden  Powell  in  the  meteor 
observations  for  the  British  Association,  and  was  the 
first  to  point  out  the  convergence  of  meteors  to  a point 
in  the  heavens.  Prognostications  of  the  Weather , a 
small  work  by  him,  appeared  in  1849.  In  1850  he  be- 
came a member  of  the  Meteorological  Society,  of  which 
he  was  one  of  the  founders.  In  1853  he  wrote  two 
valuable  local  works  entitled  The  Climate  of  Notting- 
hamshire and  The  Conchology  of  Nottinghamshire.  In 
the  same  year  he  likewise  assisted  the  late  Professor 
Edward  Forbes  in  the  compilation  of  his  work  on  Brit- 
ish Mollusca,  and  issued  the  first  parts  of  the  well-known 
Natural  History  of  British  and  Exotic  Ferns.  His 
next  work,  on  British  Grasses,  appeared  in  1858,  and 
he  subsequently  wrote  two  other  botanical  works  on 
Beautiful -leaved  Plants  and  New  and  Rare  Ferns , in 
1861  and  1862;  and  Our  Native  Ferns , in  1865.  In 
1866  he  was  local  secretary  to  the  British  Association. 
In  1868  he  was  president  of  the  Nottinghamshire  liter- 
ary and  philosophical  society.  Besides  being  the  author 
of  the  works  enumerated,  Mr.  Lowe  has  contributed 
many  papers  on  scientific  subjects  to  various  learned  so- 
cieties, and  to  the  British  Association. 

LOWE,  Major-General  Sir  Drury  Curzon 
Drury,  K.C.B.,  was  born  in  1830,  in  England.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1854,  and  became  a full  colonel  in 
1871.  He  served  with  the  1 7th  Lancers  in  the  Crimea, 
and  also  in  the  Indian  mutiny.  He  commanded  his 
regiment  in  the  Zulu  war,  and  led  the  charge  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  battle  of  Ulundi.  He  went  out  to 
South  Africa  again  in  1881  to  command  the  cavalry 
there,  but  did  not  arrive  in  the  country  in  time  to  see 
active  service.  In  the  Egyptian  expedition  of  1882  he 
commanded  the  cavalry  brigade,  and  for  his  services  he 
was  created  K.C.B.,  and  received  the  thanks  of  parlia- 
ment and  also  the  second  class  of  the  Osmanleh. 

LOWELL,  James  Russell,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.,  born 
at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  February  22,  1819.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College  in  1838,  and  studied  law,  but 
soon  abandoned  it  for  literature.  Before  leaving  col- 
lege he  published  a class  poem.  A volume  of  mis- 
cellaneous poems,  entitled  A Year's  Life,  appeared  in 
1841;  a new  collection  containing  A Legend  of  Brittany , 
Prometheus,  and  others,  in  1844;  Conversations  on 
Some  of  the  Old  Poets,  containing  a series  of  well- 
studied  criticisms,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  giving  in- 
dications of  Mr.  Lowell’s  interest  in  the  various  politi- 
cal and  philanthropic  questions  of  the  day,  and  of  his 
attachment  to  those  principles  of  which  he  was  after- 
ward the  champion,  in  1845;  a third  collection  of 
poems,  and  The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  founded  on  a 
legend  of  the  search  for  the  San  Graal,  in  1848;  A 
Fable  for  Critics,  in  which  he  satirically  passed  in 
review  the  literati  of  the  United  States,  and  his  most 
remarkable  work,  The  Biglow  Papers , a collection  of 
humorous  poems  on  political  subjects,  written  in  the 
Yankee  dialect,  in  1848.  Fireside  Travels,  including 
graphic  papers  on  Cambridge  in  old  times,  and  the 
second  series  of  the  Biglow  Papers  appeared  in  1864. 
In  1869  he  published  Under  the  Willows,  and  Other 
Poems,  and  near  the  close  of  the  same  year,  The 
Cathedral,  an  epic  poem;  in  1870,  a collected  volume 
of  essays,  entitled  Among  My  Books',  and  in  1871  My 
Study  Windows.  Three  Memorial  Poems  appeared  in 
1876 ; and  in  1881  a new  edition  of  his  complete  works 


in  five  volumes  was  issued.  In  1855  he  succeeded 
Longfellow  as  professor  of  modern  languages  and  belles- 
lettres  in  Harvard  College.  The  degree  of  D.C.L. 
was  conferred  upon  him  in  1873,  by  the  English  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford,  and  that  of  LL.D.  by  Cambridge  in 
1874.  From  1857  to  1862  he  was  editor  of  th z Atlantic 
Monthly,  and  he  had  previously  been  connected  edi- 
torially or  otherwise  with  The  Pioneer,  a magazine  of 
high  character,  the  Anti-Slavery  Standard  and  Put- 
nam^ s Monthly.  From  1863  to  1872  he  was  editor  of 
the  North  American  Review.  He  was  also  a lec- 
turer before  the  Lowell  Institute,  in  Boston,  on  the 
British  poets.  Toward  the  close  of  1874  he  was  of- 
fered the  post  of  minister  to  Russia,  which  he  declined; 
but  in  1877  accepted  that  of  minister  to  Spain ; from 
which  he  was  transferred  in  January,  1880,  to  that  of 
minister  to  Great  Britain.  On  the  change  of  adminis- 
tration in  1885  he  resigned  this  position  and  returned 
to  the  U nited  States.  The  speeches  which  he  delivered 
in  England  have  been  republished.  Mr.  Lowell  died 
August  11,  1891. 

LOWTHER,  The  Right  Hon.  James,  M.P.,  was 
born  near  Leeds,  England,  in  1840,  and  educated  at 
Westminster  School  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge 
■(B.A.,  1862;  M.A.,  1866).  He  was  called  to  the  bar  at 
the  Inner  Temple  in  1864.  The  next  year  he  was  elected 
member  of  parliament  for  York  in  the  Conservative  in- 
terest, and  continued  to  sit  for  that  city  until  1880.  He 
unsuccessfully  contested  East  Cumberland  in  February, 
1881,  and  in  September  of  the  same  year  was  elected 
member  for  North  Lincolnshire,  which  constituency 
he  represented  until  November,  1885.  He  was  parlia- 
mentary secretary  to  the  Poor  Law  Board  from  August 
to  December,  1868,  and  under  secretary  of  state  for  the 
colonies  from  February,  1874,  till  February,  1878,  when 
he  was  appointed  chief-secretary  of  Ireland,  which  office 
he  held  until  the  resignation  of  Lord  Beaconsfield’s  gov- 
ernment in  May,  1880.  He  unsuccessfully  contested 
the  East  Lindsay  division  of  Lincolnshire,  November, 
1885,  and  was  defeated  in  North  Cumberland  in  1886, 
but  has  sat  for  Kent,  Thanet  division,  since  1888. 

LOYSON,  Charles,  known  as  Father  Hya- 
CINTHE,  was  born  at  Orleans,  France,  in  1827;  finished 
his  studies  at  the  Academy  of  Pau,  and  at  an  early  age 
composed  some  remarkable  poetry.  In  1835  he  en- 
tered St.  Sulpice,  was  ordained  priest  after  four  years  of 
theological  study,  taught  philosophy  at  the  great  semi- 
nary at  Avignon,  and  theology  at  that  of  Nantes,  and 
officiated  in  his  ecclesiastical  capacity  at  St.  Sulpice. 
He  afterward  spent  two  years  in  the  convent  of  the 
Carmelites  at  Lyons,  entered  that  order,  and  attracted 
much  attention  by  his  preaching  at  the  Lycee  of  that 
city.  He  delivered  the  course  of  sermons  in  Advent  at 
Bordeaux,  a course  for  Lent  at  P£rigueux,  in  1864, 
and  repaired  to  Paris,  where  his  Advent  sermons 
at  the  Madeleine  and  at  Notre  Dame  attracted  much 
attention  (1865-69).  Gradually,  however,  a suspicion 
grew  up  that  the  eloquent  pulpit  orator  was  not  alto- 
gether orthodox  in  his  views,  and  in  1869  M.  Louis 
Veuillot  denounced  him  to  Rome,  but  he  succeeded  this 
time  in  clearing  himself  from  the  charge  of  heresy.  In 
June,  of  the  same  year,  however,  Father  Hyacinthe  de- 
livered before  the  International  League  of  Peace  an 
address,  in  which  he  spoke  of  the  Hebrew  religion,  the 
Catholic  religion,  and  the  Protestant  religion,  as  being 
“the  three  great  religions  of  civilized  people.”  This 
expression  elicited  severe  censures  from  the  Catholic 
press.  The  doubt  now  generally  entertained  as  to  the 
reverend  father’s  orthodoxy  was  changed  into  certainty 
by  his  famous  letter  addressed,  on  September  20th  of 
the  same  year,  to  the  general  of  the  Barefooted  Carme- 
lites at  Rome,  in  which  he  protested  against  the  “ sacrb 


LUA^LUC 


legious  perversion  of  the  gospel,”  and  went  on  to  say: 
“It  is  my  profound  conviction  that  if  France  in  par- 
ticular and  the  Latin  races  in  general  are  given  up  to 
social,  moral,  and  religious  anarchy,  the  principal  cause  is 
not  Catholicism  itself,  but  the  manner  in  which  Cathol- 
icism has  for  a long  time  been  understood  and  prac- 
ticed.” This  manifesto  against  the  alleged  abuses  in 
the  church  created  intense  excitement,  not  only  in 
France,  but  throughout  the  civilized  world,  and  the 
young  monk  was  hailed  as  a powerful  ally  by  all  the 
opponents  of  the  papacy.  Soon  after  this  Father  Flya- 
cinthe  left  France  for  America,  landing  in  New  York, 
October  18,  1869.  He  was  warmly  welcomed  by  the 
leading  members  of  the  various  Protestant  sects  in  the 
United  States,  but,  though  he  fraternized  with  them  to 
a certain  extent,  he  constantly  declared  that  he  had  no 
intention  of  quitting  the  fold  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
The  Pope,  after  frequent  solicitations  on  the  subject,  at 
last  consented,  in  February,  1870,  to  relieve  Father 
Hyacinthe  from  his  monastic  vows,  and  he  accordingly 
became  a secular  priest  under  the  title  of  the  Abbe 
Loyson.  As  was  natural  to  be  expected,  M.  Loyson 
energetically  protested  against  the  dogma  of  the  Pope’s 
infallibility;  and  soon  after  the  seizure  of  Rome  by 
King  Victor  Emmanuel’s  troops,  he  paid  a visit  to  the 
Eternal  City,  where  he  delivered  a series  of  discourses. 
In  September,  1871,  he  attended  the  congress  of  the 
“ Old  Catholics  ” at  Munich.  On  September  2,  1872, 
he  was  married  in  London,  to  Emily  Jane,  daughter  of 
Mr.  Amory  Butterfield,  and  widow  of  Mr.  Edwin 
Ruthven  Meriman,  of  the  United  States.  The  Abbe 
Loyson  was  elected  cure  of  the  Geneva,  but  he  resigned 
this  post  in  1874,  on  the  ground  “ that  the  spirit  which 
prevailed  in  the  Liberal  Catholic  movement  in  Geneva 
*was  neither  liberal  in  politics  nor  catholic  in  religion.” 
He  has  since  preached  in  Paris. 

LUARD,  Henry  Richards,  D.  D.,  born  in  1825; 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
graduated  B.A.  in  1847,  M.A.  in  1850,  B.D.  in  1875, 
and  D.D.  in  1878,  and  became  fellow  and  asssistant 
tutor  of  his  college,  1855-65,  registrar  of  the  university 
in  1862,  and  vicar  of  St.  Mary  the  Great,  Cambridge, 
1860-86.  He  has  written  The  Life  of  Porson , in  the 
Cambridge  Essays  for  1857;  Catalogue  of  the  MSS.  in 
the  Cambridge  University  Library — the  theological 
portion,  and  the  general  index 

LUBBOCK,  Sir  John  (Lord  Avebury),  was 
born  at  London,  April  30,  1834.  His  father  took  him, 
when  but  fourteen  years  of  age,  into  his  bank  in  Lom- 
bard street,  a business  with  which  the  family  has  been 
connected  for  several  generations.  He  became  a part- 
ner in  this  establishment  in  1856.  Among  the  improve- 
ments which  he  introduced  in  banking  affairs  were  the 
Country  Clearing  and  the  publication  of  the  clearing- 
house returns.  He  was  chosen  honorary  secretary  to  the 
Association  of  London  Bankers,  an  association  number- 
ing nearly  2,000  members,  and  was  nominated  by  the 
crown  to  serve  on  the  International  CoinageCommission. 
He  was  also  a member  of  the  Public  School  Commission 
and  of  the  Advancement  of  Science  Commission.  It  is, 
however,  by  his  works  on  the  ancient  vestiges  and  re- 
mains of  man  that  Sir  John  Lubbock  has  most  dis- 
tinguished himself.  He  has  written  Prehistoric  Times , 
as  Illustrated  by  Ancient  Remains  and  the  Manners 
and  Customs  of  Modern  Savages , 1865,  fourth  edition 
1878;  The  Origin  of  Civilization  and  the  Primitive 
Condition  of  Man,  1870,  which  has  also  passed  through 
four  editions,  and  which,  like  the  preceding  work,  has 
been  translated  into  all  the  principal  languages;  The 
Origin  and  Metamorphoses  of  Insects , 1874;  On  British 
Wild  Flowers , considered  in  relation  to  Insects , 1875; 
Monograph  of  the  Thysanura  and  Collembola',  two 


6655 

volumes  of  lectures  and  addresses;  and  lastly  a work  on 
Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps,  which  in  less  than  a year  ran 
through  five  editions;  and  nearly  a hundred  separate 
memoirs  on  zoological,  physiological,  and  archaeological 
subjects  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society,  the 
Society  of  the  Antiquaries,  the  Linnean,  Ethnological, 
Geological,  and  Entomological  Societies,  and  the  Brit- 
ish Association.  He  was  chosen  as  president  of  the 
British  Association  for  the  “ Jubilee  ” year  (1881),  and 
presided  over  the  meeting  held  at  York.  Later  he 
became  president  of  the  Linnaen  Society.  He  has  been 
president  of  the  Ethnological  and  Entomological  So- 
cieties, and  of  the  Anthropological  Institute,  vice-pres- 
ident of  the  British  Association,  and  of  the  Royal 
Society.  Sir  John  Lubbock  has  been  twice  chosen  to 
represent  Maidstone  in  parliament.  In  February,  1870, 
after  he  had  been  defeated  as  a Liberal  candidate  for 
West  Kent  by  only  fifty  votes,  he  was  triumphantly 
returned  for  the  county  town,  an  honor  which  was  re- 
newed at  the  general  election  of  1874;  in  1880,  how- 
ever, he  lost  his  seat,  but  was  immediately  returned 
by  the  University  of  London,  for  which  he  now  sits. 
In  the  House  of  Commons  he  has  spoken  principally 
on  financial  and  educational  subjects.  He  has  been  so 
fortunate  as  to  succeed  in  carrying  no  fewer  than 
twenty  important  public  measures,  including  the  Bank 
Holidays  Act  (1871)  by  which  four  new  statute  holi- 
days were  added  to  the  two  previously  in  existence. 
In  March,  1878,  he  was  appointed  a trustee  of  the  Brit- 
ish Museum,  in  the  place  of  the  late  Sir  William  Stir- 
ling Maxwell.  In  the  same  year  the  University  of  Dub- 
lin conferred  upon  him  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D. 
He  is  also  a D.C.L.  of  Oxford,  and  M.D.  of  Wurzburg. 
He  was  vice-chancellor  of  the  University  of  London, 
but  resigned  the  office  on  his  election  to  represent  the 
university  in  parliament.  He  is  a Liberal  Unionist 
and  in  1894  advocated  the  Shop  Hours  Bill  for  a shorter 
working  day.  He  was  elected  a member  and  vice- 
chairman  of  the  London  County  Council,  1889.  His 
Pleasures  of  Life,  a volume  of  essays  of  a popular  charac- 
ter, has  gone  through  thirty-three  editions. 

LUCA,  Antonino  Saverio  de,  Cardinal-Bishop  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Church,  was  born  at  Bronte,  Sicily, 
October  28,  1805.  In  1829  De  Luca  went  to  Rome  to 
complete  his  studies,  and  in  1830  published  his  first 
essay  in  literature.  In  1833  he  was  appointed  secretary 
to  Cardinal  Weld,  and  retained  that  office  till  the  Cardi- 
nal’s death  in  1837.  From  1835  to  1845  he  was  editor 
of  the  Annale  delle  Scienze  Religiose.  De  Luca  became 
in  Rome  a member  of  the  Accademia  Tiberina,  of  the 
Arcadia,  and  of  the  Archaeological  Academy.  He  was 
made  censor  of  the  Accademia  of  the  Catholic  Religion, 
and  he  took  part  in  the  revival  of  the  Accademia 
Liturgica,  which  was  founded  by  Benedict  XIV.,  but 
had  fallen  into  decay  by  reason  of  the  revolution.  In 
the  consistory  of  November  24,  1845,  Mgr.  De  Luca  was 
promoted  by  Gregory  XVI.  to  the  bishopric  of  Aversa, 
near  Naples,  and  he  received  episcopal  consecration  on 
December  8th  following  from  Cardinal  Fransoni.  In  1853 
he  was  advanced  to  the  archbishopric  of  Tarsus,  in 
partibus  infidelium , and  was  sent  as  apostolic  nuncio 
to  the  court  of  Bavaria,  where  he  remained  from  May, 

1854,  till  October,  1856.  From  Bavaria  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  a still  more  important  office,  that,  namely^  of 
nuncio  to  the  emperor  of  Austria,  to  whom  he  presented 
his  credentials,  dated  November  1,  1856.  The  new 
nuncio  had  a difficult  task  to  accomplish.  In  August, 

1855,  a concordat  had  been  concluded  between  the  em- 
peror  and  the  pope,  but  by  recent  laws  passed  by 
Francis  Joseph  II.  the  jurisdiction,  rights,  properties, 
and  privileges  of  the  church  had  been  injuriously 
affected.  It  was  the  endeavor  of  the  nuncio  to  bring 


LUC-LUG 


6656 

back  everything  to  a state  conformable  to  the  tenor  of 
the  concordat,  and  especially  to  restore  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  ecclesiastical  tribunals  of  the  archbishops  and 
bishops  of  the  Austrian  empire,  and  to  regulate  all 
apj>eals  according  to  the  rules  of  the  canon  law.  Cases 
affecting  ecclesiastical  persons  and  properties,  and 
matrimonial  causes,  were  restored  to  the  sole  juris- 
dit  tion  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts.  In  1858  Mgr.  De 
Luca  executed  a special  charge  committed  to  him  by  the 
sovereign  pontiff,  and  went  on  a delegation  to  the  ortho- 
dox Roumanians  in  Hungary  and  Transylvania.  Pius 
IX.  created  Mgr.  De  Luca  a cardinal  in  the  consistory 
of  March  16,  1863,  and  he  received  the  beretta  from  the 
emperor  of  Austria  on  May  13th  following,  and  was  also 
decorated  with  the  grand  cross  of  St.  Stephen  of 
Hungary.  Cardinal  De  Luca,  as  pro-nuncio,  repre- 
sented the  holy  see  at  Vienna  till  September  10,  1863. 
Returning  to  Rome  at  the  end  of  that  month,  he  received 
the  hat  from  the  hands  of  Pius  IX.,  and  the  presbyteral 
title  of  the  church  of  St.  Quattro  Coronati.  At  the 
end  of  the  year  he  became  prefect  of  the  Congregation 
of  the  Index.  In  the  Vatican  council  Cardinal  De  Luca 
wa  s second  in  order  of  seniority  of  the  five  presidents  of 
the  council,  and  was  in  constant  communication  with  the 
Austrian,  Bavarian,  French,  and  Italian  bishops.  In 
the  consistory  of  July  15,  1878,  he  was  declared  bishop 
of  Palestrina,  and  vice-chancellor  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Church,  and  sommista  of  apostolic  letters.  On  the 
same  day  the  cardinal  recei  ved  in  commendam  the  church 
of  St.  Lorenzo  in  Damaso.  He  died  December  28, 1883. 

LUCAS,  Seymour,  A.R.A.,  was  born  in  London 
on  December  21,  1849.  Leaving  school  at  the  age  of 
fifteen,  he  spent  three  months  in  the  studio  of  a sculp- 
tor, and  a further  term  of  nine  months  with  Gerard 
Robinson,  the  wood-carver,  from  whom  he  received  his 
first  notions  of  composition.  His  uncle,  John  Lucas, 
the  painter,  then  articled  him  to  his  son,  John  Temple- 
ton Lucas,  who  was  to  teach  him  the  art  of  painting. 
During  the  term  of  his  apprenticeship  Mr.  Lucas 
attended  the  evening  classes  of  the  St.  Martin’s  school 
of  art,  in  connection  with  South  Kensington  ; and  in 
1871  he  became  a student  of  the  Royal  Academy,  ex- 
hibiting his  first  picture  there  in  1872.  It  was  not 
until  1875,  however,  that  Mr.  Lucas  contributed  to  the 
annual  exhibition  at  Burlington  House  a work  of  any 
mark  ; this  was  entitled  By  Hook  or  Crook.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  sent  two  pictures,  Fleeced , and  For  the 
King  and  the  Cause,  and  in  1877  Intercepted  Dis- 
patches. An  Ambuscade , Edge  Hill , appeared  in 
1878.  The  technical  excellence  of  all  this  artist’s  work 
is  of  a high  order,  and  is  especially  noticeable  in  The 
Gordon  Riots , which  was  exhibited  in  1879.  In  1877 
he  was  elected  full  member  of  the  Institute  of  Painters 
in  Water  Colors,  and  in  1886  was  elected  A.R.  A.  His 
recent  works  are  The  Armada  in  Sight , 1880;  Charles 
before  Gloucester,  1881 ; The  Favorite,  1882;  A Whip 
for  Van  7'rompe,  1883;  After  Culloden , 1884;  From 
the  Field  of  Sedg?noor,  1885;  and  Peter  the  Great  at 
Deptford , 1886. 

LUCAN  (Earl  of)  The  Right  Hon.  George 
Charles  Bingham,  G.C.B.,  elder  son  of  the  second 
earl,  whom  he  succeeded,  June  30,  1839,  born  April  16, 
1800,  was  educated  at  Westminster,  entered  the  army 
at  the  usual  age,  and  served  as  a volunteer  with  the 
Russian  army  under  General  Diebitsch,  in  the  Turkish 
campaign  in  1828.  He  was  one  of  the  representatives 
of  the  county  of  Mayo,  in  the  Conservative  interest, 
from  1826  to  1830,  and  was  chosen  one  of  the  represent- 
ative peers  for  Ireland  in  1840.  He  served  in  the 
Crimea  in  1854-55,  in  command  of  a division  of  cavalry, 
and  took  part  in  the  battles  of  the  Alma,  September  20, 
BaVddava,  October  2$,  and  Inkermann,  November  5, 


1854.  Owing  to  some  misapprehension  of  Lord  Rag- 
lan’s orders,  that  heroic  but  fatal  charge  of  the  Light 
Brigade,  in  which  so  many  lives  were  lost,  was  made  in 
the  battle  of  Balaklava.  Lord  Lucan  was  colonel  of  the 
eighth  hussars  till  February  22,  1865,  when  he  became 
colonel  of  the  first  regiment  of  life  guards,  was.  made 
a lieutenant-general  in  1858,  and  general  August  28, 
1865;  was  nominated  a*K.C.B.  for  his  Crimean  serv- 
ices, and  G.C.B.  in  1869;  was  commander  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor,  knight  first-class  of  the  Medjidie,and  a knight 
second-ciass  of  St.  Anne  of  Russia.  He  died  in  1888. 

LUCY,  Henry  W.,  born  at  Crosby,  near  Liverpool, 
December  5,  1845;  was  apprenticed  to  a Liverpool  mer- 
chant; joined  the  staff  of  the  Shrewsbury  Chronicle  as 
chief  reporter  in  1864;  in  1869  went  to  Paris  to  attend 
lectures  at  the  Sorbonne;  in  January,  1870,  returned  to 
London  to  join  the  staff  of  the  morning  edition  of  the 
Pall  Mall  Gazette , and  in  October,  1873,  joined  the 
Daily  Are7os  as  special  correspondent,  chief  of  the  gal- 
lery staff  and  writer  of  the  parliamentary  summary. 
Mr.  Lucy  is  author  of  A Handbook  of  Parliai?ientary 
Procedure,  and  Men  and  Manners  in  Parliament. 
He  is  a frequent  contributor  to  London  and  American 
periodical  literature.  In  1882  his  first  novel,  Gideon 
Fleyce,  was  published.  In  January,  1886,  Mr.  Lucy 
accepted  the  editorship  of  the  Daily  News. 

LUCCA,  Pauline,  was  born  at  Vienna,  of  Jewish 
parentage,  in  1842,  and  in  1859  made  her  first  appear- 
ance in  opera  art  Olmutz.  From  1861  to  1872  she  was 
court  singer  at  Berlin. . She  sang  with  great  success  in 
England  and  at  various  continental  cities,  and  in  1872 
visited  the  United  States.  In  1865  she  married  Count 
von  Rahden,  from  whom  she  obtained  a divorce 
shortly  afterward.  , 

LUDLAM,  Reuben,  born  in  Camden,  N.  J.,  Octo- 
ber 7,  1831  ; graduated  in  medicine  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1852,  and  for  nearly  forty  years  prac- 
ticed homeopathic  medicine  in  Chicago.  He  was 
connected  with  Hahnemann  College  and  Hospital  from 
its  organization  in  i860  ; was  president  of  the  American 
Institute  of  Homeopathy  and  of  the  Chicago  Academy 
of  Medicine,  and  for  ten  years  a member  of  the  Illinois 
State  Board  of  Health. 

LUDLOW,  Fitz-Hugh,  author,  born  in  New  York 
city,  September  11,  1836;  died  in  Geneva,  Switzerland, 
September  12,  1870.  He  was  graduated  at  Union  in 
1856,  after  which  he  began  literary  life.  At  college  he 
wrote  some  popular  student-songs,  and  thereafter  con- 
tributed to  Putnam's  Monthly.  From  1858  to  i860  he 
read  law,  while  editing  Vanity  Fair,  a comic  weekly 
on  the  style  of  the  London  Punch.  Later  he  wrote 
for  several  New  York  newspapers  on  travels,  the  drama, 
and  fine  arts.  In  1863  he  journeyed  overland  to  Cali- 
fornia and  Oregon,  and  after  a variety  of  literary  occu- 
pations went  to  Europe  in  June,  1870,  to  seek  relief 
from  slowly  wasting  consumption.  Many  of  his  verses 
were  floated  by  the  newspapers,  and  he  made  a hobby 
of  writing  on  the  hasheesh  and  opium  habits.  His 
published  volumes  are  The  Opium  Habit  (New  York, 
1868);  Little  Brother  (Boston,  1867);  and  The  Heart  of 
the  Continent  (New  York,  1870). 

LUGARD,  General,  The  Right  Hon.  Sir  Ed- 
ward, G.C.B.,  born  at  Chelsea,  England,  in  1810,  was 
educated  at  the  niilitary  college,  Sandhurst,  and,  having 
entered  the  army  in  1828,  proceeded  to  India,  where 
he  served  with  distinction  for  many  years.  During  the 
Afghan  war  of  1842,  he  was  brigade-major  of  the  4th 
brigade  ; and  during  the  Sikh  war  of  1845-46,  assistant 
adjutant-general  of  the  first  division.  Throughout  the 
Punjaub  campaigns  of  1848-49,  he  was  adjutant-general 
to  thequeen’s  forces.  He  was  made  K.C.  B.  for  his  serv- 
ices as  chief  of  the  staff  in  the  Persian  expedition  of 


L U I - 

1856-57,  and  was  appointed  adjutant -general  in  India  at 
the  close  of  1857.  At  the  capture  of  Lucknow,  and  the 
Subsequent  operations  against  the  rebels,  he  commanded, 
as  brigadier-general,  the  second  division  of  infantry,  and 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general  in  1858. 
He  was  sworn  of  the  privy  council  November  3,  1871. 
He  attained  the  rank  of  general  in  November,  1872, 
and  died  in  1888. 

LUITPOLD,  Prince  Charles  Joseph  William, 
regent  of  Bavaria,  was  born  at  Wurzburg,  March  12, 
1821.  He  is  general  and  inspector-general  of  the  Ba- 
varian army,  chief  of  the  regiment  of  Bavarian  artillery, 
and  proprietor  of  the  1st  regiment  of  Austrian  artillery. 

■ He  married  April  15,  1844,  the  Princess  Augusta,  arch- 
duchess of  Austria.  On  the  death  of  Louis  II.,  king 
of  Bavaria,  in  June,  1886,  he  was  appointed  regent  on 
account  of  the  mental  derangement  of  Prince  Otto,  the 
succeeding  titular  king. 

LUMSDEN,  Major-General  Sir  Peter  Stark, 
G.C.B.,  C.S.I.,  was  born  at  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  in 
1829.  He  entered  the  Indian  army  in  1847,  and  has 
risen  to  his  present  rank  by  constant  and  active  service, 
principally  on  the  northwest  frontier  of  India.  In  1857 
he  was  employed  in  a difficult  mission  to  Afghanistan, 
at  the  crisis  of  the  Indian  mutiny,  and  discharged  his 
arduous  and  perilous  duties  with  infinite  credit.  He 
accompanied  the  expedition  to  China  in  i860,  and  was 
% present  in  all  the  actions  there,  including  the  assault 
and  capture  of  the  Takee  forts.  He  was  adjutant-gen- 
eral to  the  commander-in-chief,  Sir  F.  P.  Haines,  dur- 
ing the  last  Afghan  war,  and  was  appointed  commis- 
sioner for  the  demarcation  of  the  northwestern  boun- 
dary of  Afghanistan,  July  16,  1884.  After  the  Penjdeh 
“ incident,”  Sir  Peter  Lumsden  returned  home  to  report 
on  the  state  of  things  to  the  British  Government,  and  his 
place  was  taken  by  Colonel  (now  Sir  West)  Ridgway. 
Sir  Peter  Lumsden  is  a member  of  the  Council  of  India, 
and  was  made  a G.C.  B.,  July  3,  1885. 

LUNT,  George,  born  in  Newburyport,  Mass., 
December  31, 1803;  died  in  Boston,  May  17,  1885.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1824;  served  in  the  State  Legis- 
lature, and  was  United  States  District  Attorney  under 
President  Taylor.  He  wrote  several  volumes  of  poems 
and  prose  essays. 

LUSSAN,  Raven  eau  de,  French  buccaneer,  born  in 
Paris  in  1663;  died  in  France  about  1710.  He  was  of  good 
family,  and  at  the  age  of  fourteen  entered  on  a military 
career.  In  1679  he  went  to  Santo  Domingo  in  quest  of 
adventure,  and  joined  the  buccaneers  under  Cornelius 
Laurent.  In  the  following  year  he  formed  a band  of 
his  own  to  act  against  the  Spaniards,  and  pillaged  the 
town  of  Redlejo,  in  Guatemala.  In  1686  his  band  set 
fire  to  Grenada.  Later,  in  unison  with  English  pirates, 
he  took  part  in  the  capture  of  Guayaquil.  Thereafter 
his  band  of  about  300  men  captured  Tehuantepec.  At 
Nueva  Legoria  his  men,  having  made  a journey  over- 
land, were  surrounded  and  hemmed  in  by  the  Spaniards, 
but,  favored  by  fog,  they  found  their  way  to  the  rear  of 
the  entrenched  Spaniards,  and  put  them  to  flight. 
After  much  suffering  and  frequent  hazards.  Lussan 
reached  France,  and  published  his  Journal  du  voyage 
fait  a la  mer  du  Sud  avec  les  flibustiers  de  P Amer- 
ique  (Paris,  1688).  It  was  dedicated  to  the  minister 
of  the  navy,  and  by  him  and  the  nation  at  large  was 
well  received. 

LYALL,  Sir  Alfred  Comyn,  K.C.B.,  was  born  at 
Coulston,  Surrey,  England,  in  1835,  an^  educated  at 
Eton.  He  was  appointed  home  secretary  in  India  in 
1873,  foreign  secretary  in  1878,  and  lievtfcnant-governor 
of  the  Northwest  Provinces  in  1882,  having  in  the  pre- 
vious year  been  created  a K.C.B.  He  was  formerly 
Secretary  to  the  Order  of  the  Star  of  India  and  the 


- L Y O 6657 

Order  of  the  Indian  Empire.  Sir  Alfred  Lyall,  who  is 
no  less  distinguished  in  literature  than  in  the  public 
service,  is  the  author  of  Asiatic  Studies , Religious  and 
Social  (1882). 

LYMAN,  Henry  Munson,  American  physician, 
was  born  in  Hilo,  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  at  which 
place  his  parents  were  missionaries,  November  26,  1835. 
He  was  graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1858  and  took 
his  M.D.  degree  at  the  New  York  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  in  1861.  Immediately  on  his  graduation 
he  entered  the  Federal  army  as  surgeon,  serving  in  this 
capacity  till  1863,  when  he  resigned  and  settled  in  Chi- 
cago, where  he  has  since  remained.  Doctor  Lyman  has 
given  his  attention  mostly  to  diseases  of  the  nervous 
system,  and  is  regarded  as  an  eminent  authority  on  these 
and  kindred  affections.  For  five  years  he  was  professor 
of  chemistry  in  Rush  Medical  College,  and  since  1875 
has  occupied  the  chair  of  physiology  and  nervous  dis- 
eases in  that  school.  He  also  occupies  the  chair  of 
theory  and  practice  of  medicine  in  the  Chicago  Wom- 
an’s Medical  College.  He  is  a most  accomplished 
lecturer,  and  his  writings  are  characterized  by  both  lit- 
erary and  professional  excellence.  He  is  a member  of 
various  professional  and  learned  societies. 

LYMAN,  Phineas,  born  in  Durham,  Conn.,  in 
1716;  died  near  Natchez,  Miss., "September  10,  1774. 
He  was  at  first  appenticed  to  a weaver,  but  later  studied 
for  college,  and  in  1738  was  graduated  at  Yale.  For 
three  years  afterward  he  served  there  as  tutor,  at  the 
same  time  reading  law.  Admitted  to  practice,  he 
settled  in  Sheffield,  then  belonging  to  Massachusetts, 
but  later  ceded  to  Connecticut,  and  for  seven  years 
served  in  the  legislature.  In  March,  1755,  he  became 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Connecticut  forces  sent 
against  Crown  Point.  In  the  battle  at  the  head  or 
Lake  George,  when  Sir  William  Johnson  was  wounded, 
the  command  fell  to  General  Lyman.  In  1758  he  was 
at  the  head  of  about  5,000  New  England  troops,  shared 
in  General  Abercrombie’s  repulse,  and  was  with  Lord 
Howe  when  he  fell.  In  1759  he  was  for  the  second 
time  commissioned  major-general,  and  with  4,000 
Connecticut  soldiers  supported  General  Amherst  in  the 
conquest  of  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point.  He  was 
present  at  the  reduction  of  Fort  Louis  at  Oswego,  and 
the  capture  of  Montreal. 

LYMAN,  Theodore,  born  in  Waltham,  Ma??., 
August  23,  1833;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1855,  and  at 
the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  in  1858.  He  served  on 
General  Meade’s  staff  during  the  Civil  war,  and  from 
1865  until  1882  was  fish  commissioner  of  Massachusetts. 
From  1883  to  March,  1885,  he  served  in  congress  af 
an  independent  Republican.  He  is  a member  of  many 
scientific  societies,  and  has  written  extensively  on 
zoology  and  natural  history.  Died  Sept.  10,  1897. 

LYON,  Mary,  born  in  Buckland,  Mass.,  February 
28,  179 7;  died  March  5,  1849.  She  was  educated  at  a 
district  school,  and  in  1814  began  teaching  at  Shelburne 
Falls.  Soon  afterward  she  studied  some  of  the  highei 
branches,  and  in  1824  went  to  Amherst  to  qualify  her- 
self for  giving  instruction  in  chemistry.  From  1824 
until  1834  she  taught  successively  at  Londonderry  and 
Ipswich,  Mass.  In  November,  1837,  she  founded 
Mount  Holyoke  Female  Seminary,  at  South  Hadley, 
Mass.,  and  from  that  time  until  her  death  was  its 
principal.  Miss  Lyon  taught  more  than  3,000  pupils, 
many  of  whom  became  missionaries.  In  1840  she  pub- 
lished  a pamphlet  entitled  Tendencies  of  the  Principles 
embraced  and  the  Systems  adopted  in  the  Mount  Holy - 
oke  Seminary , and  also  The  Missionary  Offering  (Bos- 
ton, 1843). 

LYON,  Nathaniel,  born  in  Ashford,  Conn.,  July 
14,  1818;  died  near  Wilson’s  Creek.  He  was  graduated 


6658  L Y O - 

at  the  United  States  Military  Academy  in  1841,  was  as- 
signed duty  as  lieutenant  of  infantry,  and  served  in  Flor- 
ida at  the  end  of  the  Seminole  war.  In  the  Mexican  war  he 
was  present  at  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  brevetted 
captain;  at  the  assault  on  the  Mexican  capital  he  was 
wounded.  At  the  close  of  that  war  he  was  ordered  to 
California,  where  in  1851  he  was  promoted  captain. 
Returning  to  the  east  in  1853,  he  sympathized  with  the 
Free  State  party.  He  was  on  duty  in  Kansas  in  1859, 
and  with  Gen.  William  S.  Harney  in  December,  i860, 
when  the  governor  sent  a brigade  of  militia  to  cooperate 
with  the  national  troops  in  arresting  James  Mont- 
gomery, the  Free  State  leader.  In  February  he  was 
ordered  to  St.  Louis,  Mo.  There  he  began  to  drill  and 
organize  the  home-guards,  and  had  charge  of  the  arsenal, 
where  his  ability  and  vigilance  did  much  for  the  Union 
cause.  The  home-guards  were  nearly  all  German  re- 
cruits, as  the  native  population  and  the  Irishmen  were 
mostly  secessionists.  On  June  10,  1861,  at  the  head  of 
a body  of  these  German  troops,  he  took  possession  of 
Camp  Jackson,  a secessionist  rendezvous.  A week  later 
he  was  promoted  to  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and 
Boon  afterward  was  placed  in  command  of  the  depart- 
ment. He  next  dispersed  the  Confederate  force  at 
Potosi,  and  on  June  17th  defeated  a body  of  Governor 
Jackson’s  State  militia.  On  August  2d  he  defeated  Gen- 
eral McCulloch  at  Dry  Springs,  and  eight  days  later 
attacked  a formidable  force  under  Generals  McCulloch 
and  Price  at  Wilson’s  Creek,  when  he  was  defeated. 
Here,  in  the  ardor  of  action,  he  was  twice  wounded; 
nevertheless,  keeping  his  saddle,  he  led  his  men  to 
renewed  attacks,  until  his  horse  was  killed  and  himself 
shot  in  the  breast  by  a minie  rifle-ball.  His  death 
was  deeply  lamented  throughout  the  Union. 

LYONS,  Viscount  (The  Right  Hon.  Richard 
Bickerton  Pemell  Lyons,  G.C.B.,  G.C.M.G.),  last 
surviving  son  of  the  first  Lord  Lyons  (who  commanded 
the  British  fleet  in  the  Black  Sea  in  1855-6),  was  born 
at  Lymington,  April  26,  1817,  and  succeeded  to  his 
father’s  title,  November  23, 1858.  Having  been  educated 
at  Winchester  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  he  was  ap- 
pointed unpaid  attache  at  Athens  in  1839,  and  paid 
attache  in  1844,  at  Dresden  in  1852,  at  Florence 
(residing  at  Rome)  in  1853,  secretary  of  legation  there 
(residing  at  Rome)  in  1856,  and  envoy  to  Tuscany  in 
1858.  He  was  accredited  as  envoy  extraordinary  to  the 
United  States  in  December,  1858,  returned  to  England 
on  account  of  ill  health  in  February,  1865,  was  appointed 
ambassador  at  Constantinople  in  August,  1865,  and  was 
transferred  to  Paris  in  July,  1867.  That  post  he  held 
uninterruptedly  until  his  death,  December  5,  1887.  He 
was  made  a K.C.B.  in  i860,  a G.C.B.  in  1862;  was 
sworn  of  the  privy  council,  March  9,  1865;  and  made 
an  honorary  D.C.L.  at  Oxford,  June  21,  1865.  In 
November,  1881,  he  was  created  Viscount  Lyons,  of 
Christ  Church.  He  died  December  5,  1887. 

LYNE,  The  Rev.  Joseph  Leycester,  called 
“ Father  Ignatius,”  was  born  November  23,  1837,  in 
London.  He  was  ordained,  in  i860,  to  the  curacy  of 
St.  Peters,  Plymouth ; but  left  to  begin  the  attempt  of 
restoring  monasticism  in  the  Church  of  England,  in 
1862.  He  is  the  author  of  many  published  sermons, 
poems  and  hymns ; the  Tales  of  Llanthony ; Brother 
Placidus  ; Leonard  Morris , and  Tales  of  the  Monastery. 
He  and  his  monks  claim  to  follow  the  ancient  rule  of 
St.  Benedict,  and  use  the  Benedictine  Breviary  for  choir 
office  and  the  Sarum  Missal  of  the  ante- Reformation 
Church  of  England.  They  wear  the  old  English  Bene- 
dictine dress.  Mr.  Lyne’s  monastic  name  is  “ Ignatius 
of  Jesus.” 

LYTTON,  Earl  of  (The  Right  Hon.  Edward 
Robert  Bulwer-Lytton,  G.C.B.,  G.C.S.I.),  poet 


-LYT 

and  diplomatist,  only  son  of  the  celebrated  novelist, 
poet,  dramatist,  orator,  and  statesman,  was  born  No- 
vember 18,  1831.  He  was  educated  first  at  Harrow, 
and  under  private  tutors,  and  afterward  at  Bonn,  where 
he  devoted  himself  especially  to  the  study  of  modern 
languages.  When  nearly  eighteen  years  of  age  he 
entered  the  diplomatic  service  of  the  crown,  being 
appointed  October  12,  1849,  attache  at  Washington, 
where  his  uncle,  Sir  Henry  Bulwer,  afterward  Lord 
Dalling  and  Bulwer,  was  minister.  To  Sir  Henry  he 
acted  at  the  time  as  private  secretary.  On  February 
5,  1852,  he  was  transferred  as  attach^  to  Florence,  and 
on  August  12,  1854,  was  removed  to  the  embassy  at 
Paris.  He  was  thence  promoted,  shortly  after  the 
peace  of  1856,  to  be  paid  attache  at  the  Hague.  Two 
years  afterward,  on  April  1,  1858,  he  was  appointed 
first  paid  attache  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  a little  more 
than  two  months  later,  was  gazetted  first  paid  attach^ 
at  Constantinople.  From  that  embassy  he  was,  on 
January  6,  1859,  transferred  to  the  one  at  Vienna.  He 
was  on  October  1,  1862,  gazetted  second  secretary  of 
her  majesty’s  diplomatic  service,  being  employed  in 
that  capacity  at  Vienna.  Shortly  afterward  he  was  pro- 
moted on  January  6,  1863,  to  be  secretary  of  legation 
at  Copenhagen.  There,  during  two  intervals,  from 
February  27  to  March  18,  1863,  and  again  from  April 
14  to  May  24,  1864,  he  held  the  position  of  charge 
d'affaires.  A week  before  the  date  last  mentioned  (on 
May  18,  1864),  he  was  gazetted  as  secretary  of  legation 
at  Athens,  whence,  on  April  21,  1865,  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Lisbon.  Upon  three  several  occasions  he 
there  also  discharged  the  office  of  charge  d'affaires  from 
May  30th  to  October,  1865,  from  April  29th  to 
November  18,  1886,  and  from  September  14,  1867, 
to  March  19,  1868.  In  little  more  than  a month 
from  the  last  named  date,  on  February  29,  1868,  when 
he  successfully  concluded  the  negotiation  of  a commercial 
treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Portugal,  he  was 
transferred  to  Madrid.  Six  months  later  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  secretaryship  of  embassy  at  Vienna.  There 
he  acted  once  more,  from  October  30th  to  December  29, 
1869,  as  charge  d'affaires , and  was  thence  transferred 
on  October  5,  1872,  as  secretary  of  embassy  to  Paris. 
Three  months  afterward  (January  18,  1873),  upon  his 
father’s  death,  he  succeeded  to  the  title  as  the  second 
Baron  Lytton.  Twice  during  that  same  year,  from  April 
13th  to  May  17th,  and  again  from  September  14th 
to  October  22d,  he  acted  at  Paris  as  charge  d'affaires , 
and  to  the  close  of  his  career  in  the  French 
capital  as  secretary  of  embassy  he  was  always, 
during  the  absence  of  the  ambassador,  accredited 
there  as  minister  plenipotentiary.  Having  previously 
declined  the  governorship  of  Madras,  he  was  appointed 
ambassador  at  Lisbon,  December,  1874;  and,  after  occu- 
pying that  post  for  a year,  was  suddenly  informed  by 
telegram,  in  January,  1876,  of  his  nomination  by  Mr. 
Disraeli  as  viceroy  of  India.  Immediately  on  his  arrival 
at  Calcutta  he  was  sworn  in  as  governor-general  and 
viceroy  on  April  12,  1876;  and  on  January  1,  1877,  sur- 
rounded by  all  the  princes  of  Hindostan,  presided  at 
the  gorgeous  ceremonial  which  marked  on  the  plains  of 
Delhi  the  proclamation  of  Queen  Victoria  as  empress 
of  India.  In  December,  1877,  the  queen  conferred 
upon  him  the  honor  of  the  grand  cross  of  the  civil  di- 
vision of  the  Order  of  the  Bath.  On  December  12, 
1879,  an  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  Lord  Lytton, 
happily  without  any  ill  effect  whatever.  The  principal 
event  of  Lord  Lytton’s  viceroyalty  was  the  Afghan  war. 
On  April  28,  1880,  he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  an 
earldom,  being  created  earl  of  Lytton,  of  Lytton.  in  the 
county  of  Derby,  and  Viscount  Knebworth,  of  Kneb* 
worth,  in  the  county  of  Herts.  Lord  Lytton  had  pre. 


M A A—  M A C 


6659 


viously  given  in  his  resignation  as  viceroy  of  India,  the 
earl  of  Beaconsfield  placing  it  in  the  hands  of  her 
majesty  simultaneously  with  his  own  resignation,  in 
April,  1880,  of  the  premiership.  Lord  Lytton  had  pub- 
lished (chiefly  under  the  assumed  name  of  Owen  Mere- 
dith), a number  of  volumes  in  prose  and  verse,  among 
which  are  Clytemnestra  and  other  Poems , 1855;  Lucile , 
i860;  Tannhauser,  or  the  Battle  of  the  Bards , 1861; 


and  The  Ring  of  Amasis,  1863.  In  1874  appeared  in 
2 vols.,  his  Fables  in  Song , and  also  in  2 vols.,  the 
Speeches  of  Edward,  Lord  Lytton , with  some  of  his 
Political  Writings , hitherto  unpublished , and  a Pre- 
fatory Membir  by  his  Son.  In  1883  Lord  Lytton  pub* 
lished  two  volumes  of  The  Life , Letters , and  Literary 
Remains  of  E dwarf,  Bulwer , Lord  Lytton , and  in 
1885  the  poem  of  Glenaveril.  He  died  Nov.  24,  1891. 


M. 


MAARTENS,  Maarten  (pen  name  of  J.  M.  W. 

Vander  Poorten-Schwarz),  barrister,  born  in 
Holland,  in  1857,  won  a high  place  in  literature  by  his 
powerful  novels,  originally  written  in  English : The  Sin 
of  Joost  A velingh , An  Old  Maid's  Love , God's  Fool,  and 
The  Greater  Glory. 

MABERY,  Charles  Frederic,  born  in  Maine, 
January  13,  1850;  graduated  at  Lawrence  Scientific 
School  at  Harvard  in  1876,  and  was  assistant  in  chem- 
istry there  from  1875  to  1883.  In  the  last  named  year 
he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  chemistry  in  the  Case 
School  of  Applied  Science  at  Cleveland,  Ohio.  Pro- 
fessor Mabery  has  made  many  experiments  with  re- 
gard to  the  production  of  platinum  by  electricity.  He 
is  a member  of  several  scientific  societies. 

MACADAM,  John  Loudoun,  born  in  Ayr,  Scot- 
land, September  21,  1756;  died  November  26,  1836. 
He  became  note'd  by  his  introduction  of  the  system  of 
“macadamizing”  roads  so  named  from  him. 

McALESTER,  Miles  Daniel,  born  in  New  York, 
March  21,  1833  ; died  April  23,  1869.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1856,  assisted  in  the  construction  of 
the  defenses  of  Washington,  was  chief  engineer  of  the 
third  corps  in  the  army  of  the  Potomac  and  of  the  de- 
partment of  the  Ohio,  and  received  a brigadier-gener- 
al’s brevet. 

MACALISTER,  Alexander,  F.R.S.,  was  born  in 
Dublin,  1844,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
He  became  L.R.C.S.  in  1861,  L.R.C.P.,  1862,  and 
M.A.  and  M.D.  of  the  Universities  of  Dublin  and 
Cambridge.  In  1869  he  was  appointed  professor  of  zo- 
ology in  Dublin  University,  and  of  anatomy  in  1872. 
In  1883  he  accepted  the  professorship  of  anatomy  at 
Cambridge,  and  he  was  elected  fellow  of  St.  John’s 
College.  He  is  F.R.S.  and  member  of  the  senate  of 
the  Royal  University  of  Ireland,  and  has  published  Ln- 
troduction  to  Animal  Morphology , 1876;  Morphology  of 
Vertebrate  Animals,  1878. 

MACALISTER,  James,  born  in  Glasgow,  Scotland, 
April  26,  1840;  came  to  this  country  when  a boy  and 
graduated  at  Albany  Law  School.  He  became  superin- 
tendent of  public  schools  in  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  in  1873; 
was  afterward  regent  of  Wisconsin  normal  schools,  and 
superintendent  of  public  schools  in  Philadelphia.  He  has 
published  various  text-books  and  manuals  of  instrhction. 

McALLISTER,  Matthew  Hall,  born  in  Georgia, 
November  26,  1800;  died  in  California  in  December, 
1865.  He  graduated  at  Princeton,  practiced  law,  and 
became  United  States  district  attorney  in  Georgia 
(1827).  He  sat  in  the  State  legislature,  and  for  several 
terms  was  mayor  of  Savannah.  In  1850  he  removed  to 
California,  where  he  became  United  States  circuit 
judge,  serving  from  1855  until  1862. 

McALPINE,  William  Jarvis,  born  in  New  York 
city  in  1812;  became  a civil  engineer  and  had  charge  of 
the  Erie  canal  improvements,  the  building  of  a dry- 
dock  in  the  United  States  navy  yard  at  Brooklyn,  the 
construction  of  the  original  Chicago  and  Albany,  N.Y., 
water-works,  and  many  other  engineering  works.  He 


was  in  1868  elected  president  of  the  American  Society 
of  Civil  Engineers.  He  died  February  16,  1890. 

MACAULAY,  James,  was  born  in  Edinburgh,  May 
22,  1817.  His  early  education  was  received  at  the 
Edinburgh  Academy.  In  1830  he  entered  the  Univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh,  where  he  took  degrees  in  art  and 
in  medicine,  attending  also  the  classes  in  theology. 
After  graduating  in  1841,  Doctor  Macaulay  studied  in 
Paris,  and  traveled  in  Italy  and  Spain.  In  1851  he  be- 
came joint  editor  of  the  Literary  Gazette , and  retained 
the  appointment  till  1857.  In  the  following  year  he  be- 
came editor  of  the  Leisure  Hour  apd  the  Sunday  at 
Home. 

MACBETH,  Robert  William,  A.R.A.,  second 
son  of  Mr.  Norman  Macbeth,  the  Scotch  portrait 
painter,  was  born  in  1848.  He  first  exihibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1873,  a picture  called  Sunshine  and 
Shade , and  has  been  an  exhibitor  ever  since.  He  at* 
tracted  general  attention  in  1876  by  his  Lincolnshire 
Gang,  a number  of  little  children  working  in  the  field 
under  a gang-master.  Another  picture  which  drew  much 
attention  was  his  Flood  in  the  Fens,  exhibited  in  1880  at 
the  Grosvenor  Gallery,  Mr.  Macbeth  was  an  excellent 
etcher,  and  achieved  a very  remarkable  success  by  his 
plates  after  Frederick  Walker,  G.  J.  Pinwell,  and 
George  Mason.  He  was  a member  of  the  Institute  of 
Painters  in  Water  Colors,  and  of  the  Royal  Academy. 
He  died  in  March,  1888. 

MacCABE,  Edward,  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland, 
February  14,  1816;  was  educated  at  Maynooth  College, 
and  became  a priest  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in 
1839.  In  1877  he  became  bishop,  and  assistant  to 
Cardinal  Cullen,  in  1879  was  made  archbishop  of 
Dublin,  and  in  1882  was  created  a cardinal  priest.  He 
died  February  10,  1885. 

McCALL,  Edward  R.,  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C., 
August  5,  1790;  died  in  New  Jersey,  July  31,  1853. 
entered  the  United  States  navy  as  a midshipman  in  1808, 
and,  in  September  1803,  was  a lieutenant  on  board  the 
Enterprise  when  she  fought  the  British  brig  Boxer. 
Lieutenant  Burrows,  in  command  of  the  Enterprise, 
was  mortally  wounded  early  in  the  action,  and  the  com- 
mand devolved  on  Lieutenant  McCall,  who  finally 
captured  the  enemy.  He  was  made  master-command- 
ant in  1825,  and  captain  in  March,  1835. 

McCALL,  George  Archibald,  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, March  16,  1802;  died  February  26,  1868.  He 
was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1822,  served  in  the 
Florida  and  Mexican  wars,  and  from  1850  to  1853  wa3 
inspect  ’ general  of  the  United  States  army.  He  or- 
ganizer' the  Pennsylvania  volunteers  in  1861;  com- 
manded at  Mechanicsville,  June  26,  1862;  was  after- 
ward captured  and  held  a prisoner  in  Libby. 

McCALLUM,  Daniel  Craig,  born  in  Scotland  in 
January,  1815;  came  to  the  United  States  when  a boy, 
and  became  engaged  in  railroad  work.  During  the 
Civil  war  he  had  charge  of  the  railroad  military  service 
and  received  the  brevets  of  brigadier  and  major-general 
of  volunteers.  He  wrote  a report  on  military  railroads. 


666o 


M . 

k 

McCANN,  William  Penn,  born  in  Kentucky, 
May  4,  1830 ; entered  the  United  States  navy  as  a mid- 
shipman in  1848,  and  became  lieutenant-commander 
in  1862.  He  rendered  distinguished  service  in  co- 
operation with  the  army  of  the  Potomac  in  1862,  and 
at  New  Berne,  N.  C.,  in  the  following  March.  After- 
ward he  assisted  in  the  blockade  of  Mobile  and  cap- 
tured several  blockade-runners.  In  1867  he  was  made 
commander;  in  September,  1876,  captain, and  in  1887, 
commodore.  He  was  afterward  promoted  rear-ad- 
miral and  given  command  of  the  South  Atlantic  station. 

McCarthy,  Justin,  M.  P.,  was  born  at  Cork  in 
November,  1830.  After  receiving  a liberal  education 
there,  he  became  attached  to  the  staff  of  a Liverpool 
paper  in  1853.  He  entered  the  reporters’  gallery  of 
the  House  of  Commons  in  i860  for  the  Morning  Star,  be- 
came foreign  editor  of  that  paper  the  following  autumn, 
and  chief  editor  in  1864 ; he  resigned  the  latter  post  in 
1868,  and  traveled  through  the  United  States  for  nearly 
three  years,  visiting  thirty-five  of  the  then  thirty-seven 
States.  Mr.  McCarthy  has  contributed  to  the  London 
Review , the  Westminster  Review , the  Fortnightly  Re- 
view, the  Nineteenth  Century , the  Contemporary  Re- 
view, to  several  English  magazines,  and  to  many 
American  periodicals.  He  is  the  author  of  The  Water- 
dale  Neighbors  (1867) ; My  Enemy's  Daughter  (1869) ; 
Lady  Judith  (1871);  A Fair  Saxon  (1873);  Linley 
Rochford  (1874);  Dear  Lady  Distain  (1875);  Miss 
Misanthrope  (1877);  Dogma  Quixote  (1879);  The 
Comet  of  a Season  (1881);  Red  Diamonds  (1894)  and 
many  other  novels;  of  Con  Amore,  a volume  of  critical 
essays ; and  Prohibitory  Legislation  in  the  United  States , 
an  account  of  the  working  of  the  liquor  laws  in  Maine, 
Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Iowa,  and  other  States  of  the 
Union.  Mr.  McCarthy’s  most  important  work  is  A 
History  of  Our  Own  Times  (1878-80),  being  an  ac- 
count of  what  happened  in  the  British  Islands  from  the 
accession  of  Queen  Victoria  to  the  general  election  of 
1880.  He  has  also  published  a four  volume  History  of 
the  Four  Georges.  He  has  also  written  a short  history 
of  The  Epoch  of  Reform , the  period  between  1830  and 
1850,  published  in  1882.  Mr.  McCarthy  is  a political 
writer  for  one  of  the  London  daily  papers.  He  was 
elected  to  parliament  as  member  for  the  county  of 
Longford,  Ireland,  in  March,  1879,  and  was  reelected 
when  the  dissolution  took  place  in  1880,  in  both  in- 
stances without  a contest.  At  the  general  election, 
1885,  he  contested  Derry,  and  was  defeated  by  a ma- 
jority of  twenty-nine,  but  was  immediately  elected  for 
Longford,  by  a large  majority.  In  1886  he  was  re- 
turned for  Longford  and  in  1892  for  North  Longford. 
He  has  lectured  in  America,  and  has  been  president  of 
the  Irish  Parliamentary  party  since  Parnell’s  death. 

MCCARTHY,  Justin  Huntly,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  born  in  Ireland  in  i860,  was  a member  of 
parliament  for  Athlone,  1884-85,  and  for  Newry  in 
1886  and  has  written  novels  and  historical  works,  be- 
sides transient  articles  for  newspapers  and  magazines. 
His  works  include  Serapion,  and  Other  Poems  (1883), 
Camiola,  Doom,  One  Sensation  Novel,  Lily  Lass,  and 
Roland  Oliver,  novels,  and  Sketches  of  Lrish  History , 
England  under  Gladstone,  1880-84,  The  Case  for  Home 
Rule  and  a History  of  the  French  Revolution. 

McCAUL,  John,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Dub- 
lin in  1807.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  where  he  became  classical  tutor  and  examiner. 
In  November,  1838,  he  was  appointed,  by  the  then 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  principal  of  the  Upper 
Canadian  College,  and  entered  upon  his  duties  in  Jan- 
uary, 1839.  In  1842  he  became  vice-president  of  King’s 
College,  Toronto,  and  professor  of  classics,  logic, 
rhetoric,  and  belles  lettres.  In  1848  he  was  appointed 


v c 

president  of  the  University  of  Toronto,  and  in  1853 
president  of  University  College,  and  vice-chancellor  ot 
the  University  of  Toronto,  positions  which  he  resigned 
in  1881,  in  consequence  of  advancing  years.  Doctor 
McCaul  published  several  volumes  of  essays  and  trea- 
tises on  classical  topics.  He  also  edited  for  collegiate 
text-books,  the  Satires  and  Epistles  of  Horace,  and 
portions  of  Longinus,  Lucian,  and  Thucydides.  He 
died  April  15,  1887. 

McCAULEY,  Charles  Adam  H.,  bom  in  Mary- 
land, July  13,  1847;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1870, 
and  served  first  in  the  artillery,  and  afterward  in  the 
cavalry.  In  1876  he  accompanied  the  Red  River  ex- 
ploring expedition  as  a ornithologist,  and  in  1881 
he  became  quartermaster,  with  rank  of  captain.  He  is 
the  inventor  of  a system  of  military  signaling  by 
means  of  mirrors,  and  is  an  active  member  of  various 
scientific  societies. 

McCAULEY,  Edward  Yorke,  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, November  2,  1826;  entered  the  United  States 
army  as  midshipman  in  1841;  took  part  in  the  attack 
on  Chinese  pirates  in  1855,  assisted  in  laying  the  first 
Atlantic  cable,  and  during  the  Civil  war  commanded 
the  Gulf  squadron.  He  was  made  rear-admiral  in 
1885,  afterward  commanded  the  Pacific  station,  and  was 
retired  in  1887. 

McCLELLAN,  George  Brinton,  was  born  at 
Philadelphia,  December  3,  1826.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1846,  served  in  the  Mexican  war  with 
such  ability  as  to  win  the  brevet  of  captain,  and 
attained  full  rank  as  captain  in  1855.  His  services 
until  1857  were  mainly  scientific,  with  the  exception  ol 
a military  report  on  the  organization  of  European 
armies  in  1856,  the  result  of  a commission  from  the 
government  to  follow  the  progress  of  the  Crimean  war. 
In  1857  he  resigned  and  entered  the  service  of  the 
Illinois  Central  railway,  becoming  its  president.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war  he  was  engaged  by  Ohio 
as  major-general,  commanding  her  volunteers,  and  was 
soon  given  the  same  rank  in  the  United  States  army  by 
President  Lincoln.  It  fell  to  McClellan  to  cross  inta 
West  Virginia  and  begin  the  campaign  there,  which  he 
did  during  the  early  summer,  the  campaign  ending  with 
the  surrender  of  the  Confederate  forces  at  Rich  Mount- 
ain and  the  expulsion  of  the  opposing  armies  from 
his  department  on  July  14,  1861.  This  sudden  and 
brilliant  success,  followed  almost  immediately  by  the 
collapse  of  the  Manassas  campaign  against  Richmond, 
brought  McClellan  into  notice  as  the  most  likely  leadei 
to  restore  public  confidence  in  the  army  of  the  Poto- 
mac. He  was  called  to  Washington,  given  command 
of  the  army,  and,  when  Scott  retired,  was  made  com- 
mander of  all  the  armies  until  March,  1862,  when  his 
command  was  reduced  again  to  the  army  of  the  Poto- 
mac. The  winter  of  1861-62  was  spent  in  organizing 
his  new  army,  and  in  the  spring  he  was  at  last  almost 
forced,  by  public  outcry  and  the  impatience  of  the  ad- 
ministration, to  attempt  the  task  of  wielding  the 
weapon  which  he  had  created.  Following  what  seems 
now  the  most  feasible  method  of  attack  on  Richmond, 
McClellan  appears  to  have  begun  with  little  confidence 
in  the  administration,  and  it  was  not  long  before  the 
administration  lost  confidence  in  him.  His  campaign 
on  the  peninsula  is  historical ; but  the  time  involved 
should  be  taken  carefully  into  account  in  estimating 
McClellan’s  abilities.  It  was  on  September  2d  that  he 
was  recalled  and  given  command  of  “ all  the  troops  foT 
the  defense  of  the  capital.”  He  found  the  armies  m 
almost  complete  confusion ; he  organized  and  united 
them,  marched  them  through  Maryland  to  its  northern 
border,  attacked  Lee’s  rear  so  vigorously  at  South 
Mountain  as  to  force  him  to  turn  and  fight,  and  de- 


MAC 


feated  him  after  a two  days’  battle ; and  all  this  work 
was  done  in  fifteen  days,  September  2-17.  He  was 
removed,  however,  November  7,  1862,  for  slowness  in 
pursuing  Lee,  and  Burnside  became  his  successor. 
McClellan  was  nominated  for  the  presidency  in  1864, 
and  had  much  difficulty  in  reconciling  the  peace  plat- 
form of  his  party  with  his  own  feelings.  Defeated  by 
Lincoln,  he  retired  to  private  business  as  a civil  engi- 
neer, in  which  he  was  very  successful.  He  was  elected 
governor  of  New  Jersey  in  1877,  serving  in  1878-81.  He 
died  at  Orange  Mountain,  N.  J.,  October  29,  1888. 
The  literature  in  attack  and  defense  of  his  military 
reputation  is  voluminous  ; for  his  own  version  of  his 
career  see  McClellan'1  s Own  Story. 

McCLERNAND,  John  Alexander,  born  in  Ken- 
tucky, May  30,  1812;  removed  to  Illinois,  and  practiced 
la\y,  and  for  some  years  edited  a newspaper  at  Shawnee- 
town.  In  1836-40  and  in  1842  he  served  in  the  State 
legislature,  and  from  1843  to  1851  Sat  congress  as  a 
Democrat.  In  1859  he  was  reelected  to  congress,  but 
resigned  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war  to  raise  a 
brigade  of  which  he  was  given  command.  He  com- 
manded the  right  of  the  line  at  Fort  Donelson,  ted  a 
division  at  Shiloh,  and  was  at  Champion  Hill,  Vicks- 
burg, and  other  battles.  Afterward  he  commanded  the 
13th  army  corps  until  relieved  in  July,  1863,  and  in  Nov., 
1864,  he  resigned,  and  died  Sept.  20,  1900. 

McCLINTOCK,  John,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Octo- 
ber 27,  1814,  graduated  at  the  university  of  Pennsylva- 
nia in  1835,  and  was  ordained  in  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal church.  For  twelve  years  he  held  successively  the 
chairs  of  mathematics  and  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  Dickin- 
son College,  and  from  1848  to  1856  he  edited  the  Meth- 
odist Quarterly  Review.  He  was  afterward  pastor  of 
Sc.  Paul’s  M.  E.  church,  New*  York,  and  in  1867 
became  the  first  president  of  Drew  Theological  Semi- 
nary at  Madison,  N.  J.  He  was  D.D.  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  LL.D.  of  Rutgers,  and  was  the 
author  of  numerous  text-books  and  essays.  He  died 
March  4,  1870. 

McCLINTOCK,  Sir  Francis  Leopold,  D.C.L., 
LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  was  born  at  Dundalk  in  1819,  and 
entered  the  British  navy  in  1831.  He  was  not  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  lieutenant  until  1845.  After 
some  years  of  foreign  service  Lieutenant  McClintock 
returned  to  England,  about  the  time  when  great  anxi- 
ety began  to  be  felt  for  the  safety  of  Sir  John  Franklin 
and  his  companions.  He  accompanied  Sir  James 
Clarke  Ross  as  second  lieutenant  on  board  the  Enter- 
prise, in  the  Arctic  expedition  sent  out  in  1848.  Re- 
turning unsuccessful  in  November,  1849,  McClintock 
joined  a second  expedition  sent  out  early  in  1850,  as 
senior  lieutenant  of  the  Assistance.  It  was  his  fortune 
in  August,  1850,  to  see,  at  Cape  Riley,  the  first  traces 
of  the  missing  expedition.  In  the  following  spring, 
while  frozen  up  at  Griffith’s  Island,  he  signalized  him- 
self by  an  unprecedented  sledge  journey  of  eighty  days 
and  760  geographical  miles,  reaching  the  most  westerly 
point  which  had  yet  been  attained  from  the  east,  in  the 
Arctic  regions.  Upon  the  return  of  this  expedition  to 
England  in  October,  1851,  Lieutenant  McClintock  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  commander.  The  following 
spring  he  again  proceeded  to  the  Arctic  regions  in  com- 
mand of  the  Intrepid , one  of  five  vessels  composing 
the  third  searching  expedition  under  Sir  Edward  Bel- 
cher’s command.  In  accordance  with  instructions  from 
the  admiralty,  the  Intrepid , in  company  with  the  Reso- 
lute, Captain  Kennett,  wintered  at  Melville  Island,  in 
order  to  search  for  Captain  McClure  and  his  compan- 
ions; and,  most  fortunately,  they  were  discovered  and 
rescued,  after  their  three  years’  imprisonment  in  the 
ice.  McClintock  again  distinguished  himself  by  his 


666 j 

sledge  journey  of  105  days  and  1,210  geographical 
miles,  into  the  hitherto  unexplored  region  northward  of 
Melville  Island.  The  comparative  perfection  to  which 
Arctic  sledge- traveling  has  been  carried  is  almost 
entirely  due  to  the  improvements  effected  by  him. 
Abandoning  four  out  of  the  five  ships  imbedded  in  the 
ice,  and  also  McClure’s  ship,  the  Investigatory 
the  personnel  of  this  expedition,  with  McClure 
and  his  companions,  returned  to  England  in  Oc- 
tober, 1854,  in  the  depot  ship  North  Star , and 
two  relief  ships,  freshly  arrived  out,  under  Captain  In- 
glefield.  McClintock  was  now  advanced  to  the  rank  of 
captain.  In  1857  he  accepted  the  command  of  Lady 
Franklin’s  own  search  expedition— to  be  fitted  out 
at  her  expense.  He  selected,  and  appropriately 
equipped,  the  steam  yacht  Fox,  of  177  tons,  and  with 
twenty-four  companions,  sailed  on  July  1,  1857.  He 
returned  September  20,  1859,  having  discovered,  on  the 
northwest  shore  of  King  William’s  Island,  a record 
announcing  the  death  of  Sir  John  Franklin  and  the 
abandonment  of  the  Erebus  and  Terror.  He  published 
a very  interesting  account  of  his  most  important  and 
successful  searching  voyage,  the  most  memorable  of  its 
kind  in  history.  He  was  knighted  in  i860,  and  until  1865 
commanded,  in  succession,  H.M.S.  Bulldog,  Doric, 
and  Aurora.  From  1865  to  1868  lie  served  as  commo- 
dore of  the  Jamaica  Station.  From  1868,  until  pro- 
moted to  rear-admiral  in  1871,  he  was  a naval  aide-de- 
camp  to  the  queen;  from  1872  to  1877,  admiral-superi.i* 
tendent  of  Portsmouth  dockyard,  when  he  was  promoted 
to  vice-admiral;  and  from  1879  to  1882  he  served  as 
commander-in-chief  of  the  North  American  and  West 
Indian  Stations.  In  1884  he  became  a full  admiral  and 
also  an  elder  brother  of  the  Corporation  of  Trinity 
House.  He  is  the  author  of  The  Voyage  of  the  Fox 
in  the  A retie  Seas. 

McCLOSKEY,  John,  cardinal,  born  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  March  20,  1810,  of  Irish  parentage;  died  in 
New  York  city,  October  10,  1885.  He  studied  in  the 
college  and  theological  seminary  at  Emmettsburg,  Md., 
and  in  1834  was  ordained  to  the  Roman  Catholic  priest- 
hood. Later  he  was  sent  to  Rome  to  continue  his 
studies.  In  1835  he  spent  two  years  at  the  Gregorian 
College  in  that  city,  and  also  visited  several  parts  of 
Europe.  On  his  return  to  the  United  States,  in  1837, 
he  became  pastor  of  St.  Joseph’s  church  in  New  York 
city,  and  in  June,  1841,  when  Bishop  Hughes  opened 
St.  John’s  College  in  Fordham,  N.Y.,  he  was  appointed 
its  president.  In  1844  he  was  translated  to  the  new 
Roman  Catholic  diocese  of  Albany,  N.Y.,  where  he 
continued  seventeen  years,  and  built  the  cathedral.  In 
May,  1864,  he  succeeded  Dr.  John  Hughes  as  archbishop 
of  New  York.  Here  he  built  the  new  St.  Patrick’s 
cathedral,  and  in  1875  was  created  cardinal -priest,  be- 
ing the  first  American  elevated  to  that  dignity.  On 
several  occasions  he  was  called  on  to  confer  with  the 
propaganda  at  the  Vatican;  and  he  took  part  in  the  elec- 
tion of  Leo  XIII. 

McCLOSKEY,  William  Georqe,  born  in  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  November  10,  1823;  was  ordained  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  priesthood  in  [852,  held  the  chair 
of  moral  theology  in  St.  Mary’s  College,  and  in  Decem- 
ber, 1859,  became  the  first  president  of  the  American 
College  at  Rome.  In  1868  he  was  appointed  bishop  of 
Louisville,  which  office  he  still  (1891)  holds. 

McCLURE,  Alexander  K.,  born  in  Perry  county, 
Penn.,  January  9,  1828; edited  newspapers  in  his  native 
State,  and  served  in  the  legislature  as  a Republican. 
He  supported  Lincoln  in  i860  and  1864,  and  Greeley  in 
1872;  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  mayor  of  Phila- 
delphia, and  in  1874  established  the  Times  of  that  city. 
McCOOK,  Alexander  McD.,  born  in  Ohio,  Vpril 


6662 


MAC 


22,  1831;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1852,  served 
against  the  Apaches,  and  from  185810  1861  was  instructor 
of  infantry  tactics  at  West  Point.  He  commanded  a 
regiment  at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and  a division 
of  the  army  of  the  Ohio  in  the  Tennessee  and  Mississippi 
campaigns.  He  was  brevetted  colonel  for  services  at 
Shiloh,  and  finally  brigadier-general  and  major-general 
United  States  army  for  gallant  and  meiytorous  services  at 
Perrysville  and  elsewhere.  After  the  war  he  became 
lieutenant-colonel,  rose  to  the  rank  of  major-general,  in 
1894,  and  was  retired  in  April,  1895. 

McCOOK,  Anson  George,  born  in  Steubenville, 
Ohio,  October  10,  1835;  entered  the  volunteer  service  in 
1861  as  captain  of  an  infantry  regiment,  of  which  he  be- 
came colonel.  He  served  in  the  army  of  the  Cumber- 
land, and  with  Sherman  at  Atlanta,  commanded  a brigade 
in  Virginia,  and  was  brevetted  brigadier-general.  From 
1877  to  1883  he  sat  in  congress  as  a Republican  from 
New  York,  and  was  for  a time  secretary  of  the  United 
States  Senate. 

McCOOK,  Daniel,  born  in  Pennsylvania,  June  20, 
1798;  died  in  July,  1863.  Although  sixty-one  years  of 
age  he  volunteered  in  the  national  army  in  1861,  and 
was  killed  during  one  of  Morgan’s  raids.  He  was  the 
father  of  “ the  fighting  McCooks,”  ten  of  whom  served 
in  the  Federal  army. 

McCOOK,  Edward  Moody,  born  in  Ohio,  June  15, 
1833;  served  in  the  Civil  war  with  distinction,  and  was 
brevetted  major-general  of  volunteers.  From  1866  to 
1869  he  was  United  States  minister  to  Honolulu,  and 
he  was  twice  territorial  governor  of  Colorado. 

McCOOK,  Henry  Christopher,  born  in  New 
Lisbon,  Ohio,  July  3,  1837;  graduated  at  Jefferson 
College,  Penn.;  served  as  chaplain  in  the  army,  and 
held  pastorates  in  Illinois,  Missouri,  and  (since  1869)  at 
Philadelphia.  Doctor  McCook,  who  is  D.  D.  of  La- 
fayette University,  is  vice-president  of  the  American 
Entomological  Society,  and  has  written  on  natural 
history  and  other  subjects. 

. McCORD,  George  Herbert,  born  in  New  York 
city  in  August  1848;  first  exhibited  at  the  Academy  of 
Design  in  1868,  and  became  an  associate  of  that  body 
in  ,88o.  He  is  also  a member  of  the  American 
Water  Color  Society,  and  is  well  known  as  a landscape 
painter. 

McCORD,  John  Samuel,  born  in  Ireland  in  1801; 
became  a lawyer  and  afterward  a judge  in  Canada,  and 
served  as  commissioner  of  public  works,  and  chancellor 
of  the  university  at  Lennoxville.  He  died  in  June, 
1865. 

MacCORMAC,  Sir  William,  was  born  at  Bel- 
fast, Ireland,  January  17,  1836,  and  died  December  4, 
1901.  He  was  educated  in  Dublin,  and  in  Paris  ; he  be- 
came bachelor  and  master  of  arts,  and  master  in  sur- 
gery, and  doctor  of  science  honoris  causa  of  the  Queen’s 
University,  and  received  its  gold  medal.  He  saw 
service  at  Metz  and  Sedan,  during  the  Franco-German 
war,  as  surgeon-in-chief  of  the  Anglo-American 
ambulance.  He  is  one  of  the  senior  surgeons,  and 
lecturer  on  surgery,  at  St.  Thomas’  Hospital,  and  con- 
sulting surgeon  to  the  French  Hospital.  He  is  a 
fellow  of  the  English  and  Irish  Colleges  of  Surgeons, 
and  examiner  in  surgery  in  the  University  of  London. 
In  1881  he  acted  as  honorary  secretary-general  of  the 
International  Medical  Congress.  Sir  W.  MacCormac 
is  the  author  of  Work  Under  the  Red  Cross , and 
treatises  on  Antiseptic  Surgery  and  Surgical  Opera- 
tions,  besides  numerous  surgical  papers  contributed  to 
medical  journals  and  addressed  to  medical  societies. 

McCORMICK,  Robert,  F.R.C.S.,  deputy  in- 
spector general  of  hospitals  and  fleets,  only  son  of 
Robert  McCormick,  a naval  surgeon  (lost  in  the  ship- 


wreck of  H.M.S.  Defense , in  1811),  was  born  at  Run- 
ham,  Norfolk,  July  22,  1800.  He  was  a pupil  of  Sir 
Astley  Cooper  at  Guy’s  and  St.  Thomas’  hospitals.  He 
became  a member  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons, 
December  6,  1822,  and  an  honorary  fellow  in  1844.  He 
entered  the  navy  in  1823,  on  board  H.M.S.  Queen 
Charlotte , served  three  times  on  the  West  India  station, 
and  accompanied  Sir  Edward  Parry  in  H.M.S.  Hecla  in 
his  attempt  to  reach  the  North  Pole.  In  1836  Mr. 
McCormick  joined  H.M.S.  Terror,  commissioned  for 
the  relief  of  the  ice-bound  whale-ships;  and  in  April. 
1839,  H.M.S.  Erebus , employed  with  the  Terror  in 
the  antarctic  expedition,  on  a voyage  for  magnetic  ob- 
servation and  discovery  in  the  south  polar  regions.  He 
was  one  of  the  first,  in  1847,  to  ca^  the  attention  of  the 
admiralty  to  the  fate  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  and  his  long 
experience  in  polar  service  enabled  him  to  lay  before 
the  board  promising  plans  of  search,  at  the  time,  for  the 
missing  ships,  he  himself  volunteering  to  carry  them 
out.  He  was  at  last  sent  out  in  the  North  Star  in  1852. 
He  was  given  the  command  of  an  open  boat,  manned  by 
six  volunteers  from  the  North  Star , which  he  called  the 
Forlorn  Hope , the  season  being  too  far  advanced;  but 
after  a three  weeks’  exploration,  amid  tempestuous 
weather,  he  set  at  rest  the  then  mooted  question  that 
there  was  no  opening  between  Baring  Bay  and  Jones’ 
Sound.  On  March  13,  1853,  he  was  benighted  in  a 
dense  fog,  and  had  to  bivouac  in  the  snowdrift,  with  a 
temperature  of  320  Fahr.  below  zero.  Having  in  vain 
volunteered  to  explore  Smith  Sound  into  the  Polar 
Ocean,  if  given  the  command  of  the  Mary  yacht  of 
twelve  tons,  lying  useless  at  Beechey  Island,  his  former 
boat’s  crew  volunteering  to  accompany  him,  he  returned 
to  England  in  H.M.S.  Phoenix , On  January  6,  1857, 
he  laid  before  the  Rovai  Geographical  Society  and  the 
admiralty  his  last  plan  of  search,  by  King  William’s 
Land,  through  Bellot’s  Strait,  for  records  of  the  lost 
ships.  This  plan  was  subsequently  successfully  carried 
out  by  Sir  Leopold  McClintock,  and  the  all-important 
“ record”  found,  as  he  had  anticipated,  near  Cape  Felix. 
He  was  awarded  the  Arctic  medal  in  1857,  and  the 
Greenwich  Hospital  pension  in  1876.  He  died  in  1891. 

McCOSH,  James,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Ayr- 
shire, Scotland,  in  1811.  He  was  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versities of  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh,  became  a minister 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  Arbroath  in  1835,  re- 
moved to  Brechin  in  1839,  joined  the  Free  Church  of 
Scotland  in  1843,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  logic 
and  metaphysics  in  Queen’s  College,  Belfast,  in  1851. 
In  1868  he  came  to  America,  and  became  president  of 
the  College  of  New  Jersey,  at  Princeton,  and  took  a 
prominent  place  among  American  divines  and  educators. 
Besides  numerous  contributions  to  British  and  Americar 
reviews,  he  published  many  philosophical  works,  essays, 
sermons  and  addresses.  He  died  November  16,  1894. 

McCOSKRY,  Samuel  Allen,  born  in  Carlisle, 
Pa.,  November  9,  1804;  entered  West  Point  but  did 
not  graduate ; afterward  studied  law  and  practiced  for 
some  years.  In  1833  he  was  ordained  in  the  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  Church,  served  as  a pastor  for  two  years, 
and  in  July,  1836,  became  the  first  bishop  of  Michigan. 
He  was  D.D.  of  Columbia  and  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  D.C.L.  of  Oxford,  England.  In 
1878  he  resigned  his  see,  charges  effecting  his  moral 
character  were  made,  and  he  left  the  United  States. 
He  was  formally  deposed  from  the  ministry  by  the 
house  of  bishops,  and  died  in  New  York  city  in  1886. 

McCRARY,  George  W.,  was  born  in  Evansville, 
Ind.,  August  29,  1835.  With  his  parents  in  1836  he 
went  to  that  part  of  Wisconsin  Territory  which  after- 
ward became  the  State  of  Iowa,  and  began  the  practice 
of  law  in  Keokuk  in  1856.  In  1857  he  was  a member 


MAC  6663 


a the  State  legislature,  and  from  1861  to  1865  he  was 
State  senator  from  Keokuk,  and  chairman  of  the  com* 
mittee  on  military  affairs.  In  1868  he  was  elected  to 
congress,  and  served  until  March,  1877.  In  1876 
Judge  McCrary  introduced  in  congress  the  electoral 
commission  bill,  which  resulted  in  the  choice  of  Ruther- 
ford B.  Hayes  as  president.  When  President  Hayes 
formed  his  cabinet  McCrary  was  given  the  war  port- 
folio, which  he  held  two  years.  He  resigned  to  accept 
the  judgeship  of  the  United  States  circuit  court,  to 
which  he  was  appointed  in  December,  1879.  In  March, 
1884,  he  resigned  his  judgeship,  and  removed  from 
Keokuk  to  Kansas  City,  where  he  became  general 
consulting  attorney  for  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and 
Santa  F6  Railroad  Company.  He  died  in  St.  Joseph, 
Mo.,  June  23,  1890. 

McCULLOCH,  Ben,  born  in  Rutherford  county, 
Tenn.,  November  11,  1811;  died  near  Pea  Ridge, 
Ark.,  March  17,  1862.  In  1835  he  started  to  join  the 
party  of  David  Crockett  and  other  Texan  revolutionists 
at  Nacogdoches.  Too  long  delayed  on  the  road  for 
that  purpose,  he  united  with  Gen.  Samuel  Houston’s 
army,  and  in  1836  did  service  at  the  battle  of  San 
Jacinto.  Later  he  went  to  Gonzales,  where  he  surveyed 
and  located  lands  on  the  frontier,  and  in  1839  became  a 
member  of  the  Texan  congress.  When  Texas  entered 
the  Union,  in  1845,  he  was  chosen  a member  of  the 
legislature,  and  appointed  major-general  of  militia.  In 
the  war  between  the  United  States  and  Mexic  he  won 
distinction  as  an  officer  of  the  Texas  rangers.  He  was 
particularly  successful  as  a scout  and  was  made  quarter- 
master with  the  rank  of  major.  In  1849  Major  McCul- 
loch settled  at  Sacramento,  Cal.,  where  he  was  chosen 
sheriff  of  the  county.  In  1852  he  returned  to  Texas, 
where  he  was  appointed  United  States  marshal  under 
the  Democratic  administration,  and  later  spent  several 
years  in  Washington.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  be- 
tween the  States  he  resigned  his  government  employ- 
ment and  joined  the  Confederates,  and  was  com- 
missioned brigadier-general  on  May  14,  1861.  He 
gathered  a force  of  men,  and  marched  through  Arkansas 
toward  Missouri,  formed  a junction  with  the  troops 
under  Gen.  Sterling  Price  and  encountered  the  national 
troops  under  Gens.  Nathaniel  Lyon  and  Franz  Sigel. 
The  battle  of  Wilson’s  Creek  was  the  result,  where  the 
Confederates  were  victorious.  Later  he  led  a division 
at  the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  and,  while  riding  forward  to 
reconnoiter,  was  killed  by  a bullet. 

McCULLOCH,  Hugh,  born  in  Maine,  December  7, 
1808;  studied  at  Bowdoin  College  and  settled  in  Indiana 
in  1833.  He  became  cashier  and  later  president  of  the 
bank  of  the  State  of  Indiana.  In  1863  he  became 
comptroller  of  the  currency  and  assisted  Secretary 
Chase  in  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  the  act  organ- 
izing national  banks.  He  was  secretary  of  the  treasury 
1865-69,  was  instrumental  in  converting  the  national 
debt  and  strongly  favored  resumption  of  specie  payments 
and  reduction  of  the  debt.  From  1871  until  1878  he 
was  a banker  in  England.  In  October,  1884,  he  suc- 
ceeded Judge  Gresham  as  secretary  of  the  treasury,  for 
the  rest  of  President  Arthur’s  term..  He  wrote  Bi- 
Metallism  and  Men  and  Measures  of  Half  a Qentury. 
an  interesting  historical  review.  He  died  May  24,  1895. 

McCULLOUGH,  John  Edward,  actor,  born  in 
Coleraine,  Ireland,  November  2,  1837;  died  in  Phila- 
delphia, Penn.,  November  8,  1885.  He  came  to  Phila- 
delphia in  1853,  and  played  for  some  time  with  an 
amateur  company.  He  began  his  public  career  as  an 
actor  at  the  Arch  street  theater  in  Philadelphia,  playing 
a minor  part  in  The  Belle's  Stratagem.  He  was  an  ar- 
dent admirer  of  the  acting  of  Edwin  Forrest,  played 
second  parts  to  him  for  seven  years,  and  to  a marked 


degree  copied  his  style.  In  1869  McCullough,  in  con 
nection  with  Lawrence  Barrett,  managed  the  California 
theater.  From  1873  unt^  1883  be  performed  in  most 
of  our  large  cities,  in  the  robust  parts  formerly  held  by 
Forrest,  such  as  “Damon,”  “Brutus,”  “Jack  Cade,” 
“ Spartacus,”  Virginius,”  Othello,*”  and  “Coriolanus.” 
In  1881  he  appeared  at  the  London  theaters  without  mak- 
ing much  impression,  and  soon  returned  to  the  United 
States.  At  about  this  time  he  gave  way  to  excesses  of 
intemperance.  His  last  appearance  was  in  Chicago, 
September  29,  1884,  where  he  broke  down,  and  wasled 
from  the  boards  in  the  midst  of  his  performance,  and 
closed  his  life  in  a lunatic  asylum. 

MACDONALD,  Andrew  A.,  born  in  Prince  Ed- 
ward Island,  February  14,  1829;  represented  George- 
town in  the  Assembly,  1854-70,  and  then  served  in  the 
legislative  council  until  1873,  when  he  became  post- 
master-general of  the  Province.  In  1884  he  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant-governor  of  Prince  Edward  Island. 

MACDONALD,  George,  poet  and  novelist,  was 
born  at  Huntly,  Aberdeenshire,  in  1824,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  the  parish  school  there,  and  at  King’s  College 
and  University,  Aberdeen.  After  taking  his  degree  he 
became  a student  for  the  ministry  at  the  Independent 
College,  Highbury,  London,  and  was, for  a short  time 
an  Independent  minister,  but  soon  retired,  became  a 
lay  member  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  settled  in 
Bordighera  to  engage  in  literature.  He  is  the  author 
of  The  Seaboard  Parish , Robert  Falconer , and  other 
.novels  and  of  numerous  books  for  juveniles. 

MacDONALD,  Hugh,  born  in  Nova  Scotia,  May 
4,  1827;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1855,  and  became 
queen’s  counsel  in  -1872.  He  served  in  the  Dominion 
parliament  1867-73,  and  as  president  of  the  privy  coun- 
cil and  minister  of  militia.  In  November,  1873,  he 
was  appointed  judge  of  the  superior  court  of  Nova 
Scotia. 

MCDONALD,  James,  born  in  Nova  Scotia,  July  i, 
1828;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1857,  and  sat  in  the 
legislature  from  1859  until  1872.  From  1874  until 
1881  he  was  a member  of  the  Canadian  parliament.  In 
October,  1878,  he  was  appointed  minister  of  justice,  and 
in  1881  chief  justice  of  Nova  Scotia. 

MacDONALD,  James  W.  A.,  born  in  Steubenville, 
Ohio,  August  25,  1824;  studied  sculpture  in  the  inter- 
vals of  business,  and  in  1854  produced  a portrait  bust 
of  Thomas  H.  Benton.  Among  his  works  are  a statue 
of  Fitz-Greene  Halleck,  a colossal  equestrian  statue  of 
Gen.  Nathaniel  Lyon,  and  busts  of  William  Cullen 
Bryant,  Charles  O’Conor,  Thurlow  Weed,  and  Peter 
Cooper. 

MACDONALD,  John  S.,  was  born  in  Canada, 
December  12,  1812;  died  June  1,  1872.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1840,  and  elected  to  parliament  as 
a Conservative  in  1841.  In  1849  he  became  solicitor- 
general,  and  speaker  in  1852-54.  He  afterward  served 
a short  time  as  attorney-general.  In  1862  he  was 
called  upon  to  form  a government  on  the  defeat  of  the 
Cartier-Macdonald  administration,  and  he  held  office 
for  two  years.  In  1867  he  became  premier  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Ontario,  but  resigned  in  1871.  He  remained 
a member  of  parliament  until  his  death. 

MACDONALD,  John  Hay  Athoi.e,  was  born  in 
1836;  was  educated  at  the  Edinburgh  Academy  and 
University,  and  in  1859  was  called  to  the  Scottish  bar. 
He  unsuccessfully  contested  the  city  of  Edinburgh  in 
the  Conservative  interest  in  1874  and  1880,  and  Had- 
dington Burghs  in  1878,  but  in  1885  he  was  returned 
for  the  Universities  of  Edinburgh  and  St.  Andrews. 
In  1876  he  became  solicitor-general  for  Scotland. 
From  1880  to  1885  he  was  sheriff  of  Perthshire,  and 
dean  of  the  faculty  of  advocates  from  1882  to  1885, 


MAC 


6664 


On  the  formation  of  Lord  Salisbury’s  first  ministry  in 
1885,  Mr.  Macdonald  was  appointed  lord  advocate  of 
Scotland,  and  in  the  second  administration  he  held  the 
same  office. 

MCDONALD,  Joseph  Ewing,  born  in  Ohio,  Au- 
gust 29,  1819;  died  June  21,  1891.  He  was  elected 
attorney  general  of  Indiana,  1856;  practiced  law  in 
Indianapolis ; served  in  Congress  as  a Democrat, 
1849-51  and  was  United  States  senator,  1875-81. 

MACDONALD,  Sir  John  Alexander,  Canadian 
lawyer  and  statesman,  born  at  Glasgow,  Scotland,  Jan- 
uary 11,  1815;  was  educated  at  Kingston,  elected  to 
parliament  for  Kingston  as  a Conservative  in  Novem- 
ber, 1844,  and  long  represented  that  city,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  executive  council,  receiver-general  and 
commissioner  of  crown  lands,  1847-50.  He  was  out  of 
office  until  difficulties  connected  with  the  lands  re- 
served for  the  Protestant  clergy,  and  other  questions, 
led  to  a coalition  in  1854,  Mr.  Macdonald  joining 
the  government  as  attorney-general,  which  post  he  held 
until  May,  1862,  being  a part  of  the  time  premier.  In 
January,  1862,  the  militia  department  was  reorganized, 
and  Mr.  Macdonald  appointed  minister  of  militia.  De- 
feated on  their  militia  bill  of  that  year,  he  and  his 
colleagues  resigned,  and  remained  in  opposition  until 
March,  1864,  when  he  again  accepted  office  as  attor- 
ney-general in  the  cabinet  of  Sir  E.  P.  Tache.  But  the 
government  was  unable  to  command  a sufficient 
majority,  and  the  opposition  to  federalize  British 
America  having  been  reported  by  a committee  of  the 
legislative  assembly,  a conference  took  place  between 
the  leaders  on  both  sides,  which  resulted  in  a coalition, 
with  the  view  of  maturing  and  carrying  a measure  to 
anite  in  one  government  Canada  and  the  maritime  prov- 
inces. On  the  death  of  Sir  E.  P.  Tache,  in  July,  1865, 
Mr.  Macdonald  again  became  minister  of  militia,  which 
office,  with  that  of  attorney-general  of  upper  Canada,  he 
continued  to  hold  till  confederation.  This  union  of 
the  provinces  of  British  North  America  he  was  mainly 
instrumental  in  bringing  about,  having  been  a delegate 
to  the  conference  in  Charlottetown  in  1864,  and  in 
Quebec  in  the  same  year,  and  he  was  chairman  of  the 
London  Colonial  Conference,  1866-67,  when  the  act  of 
Union  known  as  the  “ British  North  AmericaAct  ” was 
passed  by  the  imperial  parliament.  On  July  1,  1867, 
when  the  new  constitution  came  into  force,  Mr.  Mac- 
donald was  called  upon  to  form  the  first  Government 
and  was  appointed  minister  of  justice  and  attorney- 
eneral  of  Canada,  an  office  he  continued  to  fill  until 
e and  his  ministry  resigned  on  the  Pacific  Railway 
charges,  November,  1873.  In  1871  Mr.  Macdonald  was 
one  of  the  joint  high  commissioners  and  plenipotentiaries 
to  act  in  connection  with  the  commission  named  by  the 
president  of  the  United  States  for  the  settlement  of  the 
Alabama  claims,  resulting  in  the  treaty  of  Washington, 
May,  1871.  In  October,  1878,  on  the  fall  of  the  Mack- 
enzie Reform  Government,  Mr.  Macdonald  was  in- 
trusted with  the  task  of  forming  a new  administration, 
taking  himself  the  position  of  minister  of  the  interior 
(until  1885)  and  premier  of  the  Dominion,  which  he 
held  until  his  death  on  June  6,  1891.  In  1C65  Mr. 
Macdonald  received  the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L. 
from  the  University  of  Oxford;  and  in  1^67  was  made 
a K.C.B.  In  1872  he  was  created  a Knight  Grand 
Cross  of  the  Royal  Order  of  Isabel  la  Catolica  (of 
Spain).  For  more  than  forty  years  Sir  John  Mac- 
donald was  the  acknowledged  leader  of  the  Conservative 
party  of  Canada. 

McDONOGH,  John,  born  in  Baltimore,  Md., 
December  29,  1779;  died  in  McDonogh,  La.,  October 
26,  1850.  His  father  was  in  General  Braddock’s 
axpedition,  and  later  served  in  the  Revolution.  The 


son  was  well  educated ; at  the  age  of  seventeen  became 
a clerk  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  in  1800  removed  to  New 
Orleans,  where  he  was  successful  in  business  and  ac- 
cumulated a fortune.  In  1830  he  became  vice-president 
of  the  American  Colonization  Society,  and  contributed 
to  its  support.  When  he  died  he  left  the  bulk  of  his 
fortune,  about  $2,000,000,  to  the  cities  of  Baltimore  and 
New  Orleans  for  the  establishment  of  free-schools. 
The  McDonogh  labor-schools  were  established,  at 
which  seventy  boys  are  annually  received  to  learn 
farming  and  elementary  English  education.  He  also 
left  bequests  to  the  American  Colonization  Society 
and  to  the  New  Orleans  boys’  orphan  asylum. 

MACDONOUGH,  Thomas,  born  in  New  Castle 
county,  Del.,  December  23,  1783;  died  at  sea,  Novem- 
ber 16,  1825.  He  entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in 
1800,  and  in  1803,  under  Commodore  Preble,  served  in 
the  war  against  Tripoli.  In  1804  he  acted  under  Commo- 
dore Decatur.  In  1813  he  was  promoted  master-com- 
mander, and  during  the  second  war  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain,  commanded  a flotilla  on 
Lake  Champlain,  anchored  in  Plattsburg  Bay.  He 
had  in  all  fourteen  vessels,  carrying  eighty-six  guns, 
with  a complement  of  850  men.  In  August,  1814,  £ 
British  army,  under  Gen.  Sir  George  Provost,  advanced 
on  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Champlain  to  Plattsburg, 
accompanied  by  a lake  squadron  of  sixteen  vessels, 
carrying  ninety-five  guns,  and  about  1,000  men.  The 
two  fleets  soon  came  to  an  action,  in  which  the  British 
were  defeated.  For  this  victory  Macdonough  was 
made  captain,  received  a gold  medal  from  congress, 
and  was  presented  by  the  State  of  Vermont  with  an 
estate,  situated  near  the  scene  of  the  engagement.  He 
afterward  commanded  the  United  States  Mediterranean 
squadron. 

McDOUGALL,  William,  puisne  judge  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Quebec,  Canada,  was  born  at  Toronto,  Janu- 
ary 25,  1822.  He  was  educated  at  Toronto  and  at 
Victoria  College,  and  afterward  studied  law.  From 
1848  till  1858  he  conducted  at  Toronto  a monthly  jour- 
nal on  agriculture,  which  obtained  a large  circulation 
in  all  the  provinces;  and  from  1850  till  1857  edited  the 
North  American , which  was  merged  in  the  Toronto 
Globe  in  1857.  He  was  first  elected  to  parliament  as  a 
Reformer  in  1858;  was  appointed  commissioner  of 
crown  lands,  and  a member  of  the  executive  council 
in  a Reform  Ministry  in  May,  1862;  and  resigned  office 
with  his  colleagues  in  March,  1864.  In  June  of  the 
same  year  he  was  offered  a seat  in  a coalition  ministry 
(as  one  of.  three  representatives  of  the  Liberal  party  o’ 
Upper  Canada),  formed  to  carry  a measure  to  unite 
British  America  under  one  government,  and  accepted 
office  as  provincial  secretary.  During  the  Fenian 
troubles  in  the  summer  of  1866,  Mr.  McDougall  was 
charged  with  the  duties  of  minister  of  marine,  and  with 
the  aid  of  Vice-Admiral  Sir  James  Hope,  organized  a 
navy  of  seven  gunboats.  In  the  first  Dominion  govern- 
ment of  1867  he  was  made  minister  of  public  works, 
which  position  he  held  until  1869,  when  he  was  com- 
missioned lieutenant-governor  of  Rupert’s  Land  and 
the  Northwest  Territories.  In  1868  he  was  sent  to 
England  to  confer  with  the  general  government  on  some 
questions  of  a constitutional  character  that  had  arisen 
between  the  provinces.  In  1873  he  was  the.  special 
commissioner  of  the  Dominion  Government  to  confer 
with  the  imperial  authorities  on  the  subjects  ot  the 
fisheries  and  emigration.  Mr.  McDougall  sat  for  South 
Simcoe;  in  the  Ontario  legislature  from  May,  1875,  to 
September,  1878,  when  he  resigned  to  contest  Halton 
in  the  Dominion  parliament,  in  which  he  was  successful. 
He  was  created  C.B.  (Civil)  in  1867.  He  is  now  a 
puisne  judge  in  the  Province  of  Quebec.  His  son. 


MAC 


Joseph  E.  McDougall  (bom  in  1846),  is  judge  of 
the  maritime  court  of  Ontario. 

McDOWELL,  Irvin,  born  at  Columbus,  Ohio, 
October  15,  1818;  studied  in  a military  school  in  France, 
and  graduated  from  the  Military  Academy  at  West 
Point  in  1838,  remaining  there  until  1845,  as  instructor 
in  tactics  and  adjutant.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Civil  war  he  was  made  a brigadier-general  and  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  Federal  troops  at  Wash- 
ington. He  was  in  command  when  the  Union  army  was 
defeated  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861. 
General  McClellan  took  the  command  soon  after  that 
battle,  and  General  McDowell  was  placed  in  charge  of 
the  troops  around  Washington.  He  was  made  a major- 
general  of  volunteers,  March  14th,  and  commander  of 
the  department  of  the  Rappahannock,  April  14,  1862. 
He  took  part  in  the  various  battles  fought  by  General 
Pope,  in  August,  1862,  but  was  relieved  from  his  com- 
mand September  5th.  In  18^3-64  he  was  president  of 
the  court  for  investigating  cotton  frauds,  and  of  the 
board  for  retiring  disabled  officers.  From  July,  1864, 
to  June,  1865,  he  was  in  command  of  the  department  of 
the  Pacific.  In  November,  1872,  he  was  made  major- 
general  of  the  regular  army,  and  successively  had  com- 
mand of  the  various  military  departments  into  which  the 
United  States  is  divided,  until  he  was  placed  on  the 
retired  list  in  1882.  He  died  in  San  Francisco,  May >4, 
1885. 

McDUFFIE,  George,  .born  in  Columbia  county, 
Ga. , about  1 7 88  ; died  in  Sumter  district,  S.  C. , March 
11,  1851.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1814,  and 
practiced  in  Edgefield,  S.  C.  Four  years  later  he  be- 
came a member  of  the  legislature,  during  which  time  he 
had  several  personal  and  political  controversies  that  led  to 
a number  of  duels,  in  one  of  which  he  was  maimed  for 
life.  He  was  an  able  writer  on  the  local  questions  of 
the  day,  and  issued  a series  of  pamphlets  that  are  col- 
lectively known  as  The  Crisis.  From  1821  until  1834 
he  was  a Democratic  member  of  congress.  Originally 
he  had  been  a supporter  of  President  Jackson,  but  op- 
posed him  on  the  State-rights  question  and  became  an 
ardent  champion  of  nullification.  He  wrote  the  address 
to  the  people  of  the  United  States  that  was  issued  by  the 
South  Carolina  convention  of  1832.  From  1834  until 
1836  he  was  governor  of  South  Carolina,  and  from  1842 
until  1846  served  as  United  States  senator. 

MACEDO,  Joaquim  Manoel,  born  in  Brazil,  June, 
1820,  became,  in  1850,  professor  of  natural  history, 
entered  politics  in  1854,  and  was  elected  deputy  of  the 
State  of  Rio  Janeiro  several  times.  He  is  the  author 
of  numerous  novels,  some  dramas  and  comedies,  and 
has  a reputation  as  a lyric  poet. 

McENTEE,  Jervis,  painter,  born  inRondout,  N.Y., 
July  14,  1828.  In  1853  he  first  exhibited  at  the  Na- 
tional Academy  of -Design,  and  in  1861  was  elected  an 
academician.  In  1869  he  went  to  Europe  for  study, 
visiting  the  principal  art  galleries  and  sketching  in  Italy 
and  Switzerland.  Like  many  American  painters  his 
art  was  limited  to  the  painting  of  landscapes  and  he 
usually  delineated  nature  in  her  somber  aspects  and 
autumnal  scenes.  He  died  January  27,  1891. 

MACFARREN,  Sir  George  Alexander,  son  of 
the  late  G.  Macfarren,  dramatic  author,  born  in  Lon- 
don, March  2,  1813,  was  educated  at  the  Royal 
Academy  of  music,  and  was  appointed  member  of  the 
board  of  professors  of  the  academy,  i860,  and  of  the 
committee  of  management  of  the  same,  in  1868.  In 
1875,  upon  the  death  of  Sir  W.  Sterndale  Bennett,  Mr. 
Macfarren  succeeded  him  as  principal,  chairman  of  the 
committee,  and  one  of  the  directors  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music.  He  was  knighted  May  24,  1883. 
Si-r  Q A Macfarren  composed  The  Devil's  Opera , 


6665 

Don  Quixote , King  Charles  11 Sleeper  Awakened, 
Robin  Hood , Freya's  Gift , Jessy  Lea , She  Stoops  to 
Conquer,  Soldier's  Legacy,  and  Helvellyn\  the  ora- 
torios of  St.  John  the  Baptist , The  Resurrection, 
Joseph,  and  King  David , and  many  other  works.  He 
died  in  London  in  1887. 

MacGAHAN,  J.  A.,  born  in  Perry  county,  Ohio, 
June  12,  1844;  died  in  Turkey,  June,  1878.  In  1870, 
while  visiting  in  Europe,  he  was  engaged  as  special  cor- 
respondent for  the  New  York  Herald  and  undertook  to 
follow  the  fortunes  of  the  French  army  of  the  Loire. 
His  work  during  the  campaign  attracted  much  attention 
and  was  followed  by  letters  from  Paris  describing  the 
rise  and  fall  of  the  commune.  He  formed  an  intimacy 
with  some  of  the  communist  leaders  and  was  arrested 
by  the  Versailles  troops,  but  was  released  through  the 
intercession  of  the  American  minister.  Afterward  he 
became  the  special  correspondent  for  the  Herald  at  St. 
Petersburgh,  and  reported  the  proceedings  of  the  Geneva 
conference.  In  January,  1873,  he  started  on  his  famous 
expedition  to  Khiva.  In  1874  he  published  in  London 
his  Campaign  on  the  Oxus,  and  the  Fall  of  Khiva. 
In  the  same  year  he  joined  the  Carlist  forces  in  Spain 
and  for  ten  months  contributed  letters  to  his  paper  from 
that  country.  In  June,  1875,  he  sailed  in  the  Pandora 
on  its  Arctic  expedition.  A year  later  he  visited  Bul- 
garia in  company  with  Eugene  Schuyler,  and  his  letters 
on  the  condition  of  affairs  in  that  unhappy  country  were 
reprinted  under  the  title  of  Turkish  Atrocities  in  Bul- 
garia. During  the  Russo-Turkish  war,  which  followed, 
he  met  with  a severe  accident,  but  managed  to  keep  in 
the  field,  and  described  the  scenes  of  battle  from  the 
fight  at  Shipka  Pass  to  the  surrender  of  Plevna.  He 
died  at  Pera,  a suburb  of  Constantinople,  of  an  epidemic 
diseash. 

McGEE,  Thomas  D’Arcy,  born  in  Ireland  in  1825; 
killed  in  Ottawa,  Canada,  April  7,  1868.  He  became  a 
parliamentary  correspondent  of  the  Dublin  Freeman’s 
Journal , identified  himself  with  the  “Young  Ireland” 
party,  and  then  joined  the  staff  of  the  Nation.  In 
1848  he  was  compelled  to  leave  Ireland,  came  to  the 
United  States,  and  established  a newspaper  in  advocacy 
of  the  claims  of  Ireland  to  independency.  About  1855 
he  abandoned  his  nationalistic  opinions  and  became  a 
Loyalist.  He  removed  to  Canada,  where  he  estab- 
lished a paper,  and  in  1857  .was  elected  to  the  Canadian 
parliament  from  the  city  of  Montreal.  In  1864  he  be- 
came president  of  the  executive  council,  an  office  he  re- 
tained nntil  1867.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  move- 
ment for  confederacy  after  the  Union,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  Ottawa  parliament,  but  he  had  rendered 
himself  obnoxious  to  the  Fenian  element  of  the  Irish 
party,  and  while  returning  from  a night  session  of  the 
House  he  was  assassinated  at  the  door  of  his  hotel. 

McGEE,  W.  J.,born  in  Iowa,  April  17,  1853;  ini88i 
became  a geologist  attached  to  the  United  States  serv- 
ice. He  is  a member  of  many  scientific  societies  and 
has  written  extensively  on  geology  in  technical  journals. 

McGLYNN,  Edward,  born  in  New  York  city, 
September  27,  1837.  He  was  educated  at  the  public 
schools  of  New  York  city,  and  for  ten  years,  from  185 1 
to  i860,  studied  theology  at  the  college  of  the  Propa- 
ganda in  Rome.  In  i860  he  was  ordained  priest  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  church,  and  on  his  return  to  the  United 
States  became  a hospital  chaplain.  In  1866  he  became 
pastor  of  St.  Stephen’s  church  in  New  York  city.  His 
unwillingness  to  establish  a parochial  school  in  connection 
with  his  church  brought  him  into  disfavor  with  the  arch- 
bishop of  his  diocese  and  his  coadjutor,  Mgr.  Preston. 
He  also  spoke  in  favor  of  the  land  theories  of  Henry 
George  on  several  public  occasions,  for  which  he  came 
under  the  censure  of  his  church,  and  was  suspended 


6666 


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from  his  pastoral  functions.  Cited  to  appear  for  a hear- 
ing at  the  Vatican  he  ignored  the  papal  demands,  and 
was  excommunicated  in  1887.  He  lectured  for  some 
time  but  went  to  Rome  in  1892  and' was  restored  to  his 
ministerial  functions.  Died  Jan.  7,  1900. 

MacGREGOR,  John,  born  at  Gravesend,  England, 
January  24,  1825.  He  entered  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  graduated  "as  B.A.  and  a wrangler.  In 
1845  Mr.  MacGregor  began  to  write  and  sketch  for 
Punch.  In  1847  he  entered  at  the  Inner  Temple,  and 
graduated  as  M.A.  at  Cambridge.  During  the  revolu- 
tion in  Paris  in  1848  he  visited  that  metropolis;  and, 
in  1849-50  made  a tour  in  Europe  and  the  Levant,  and 
through  Egypt  and  Palestine.  In  1851  he  was  called  to 
the  bar.  He  subsequently  visited  Russia,  and  every 
other  couhtry  in  Europe,  as  well  as  Algeria  and  Tunis, 
and  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  published  an 
account  of  his  observations.  In  1865  he  made  his  first 
canoe  voyage,  and  published  in  1866  his  logbook,  under 
the  title  of  A Thousand  Miles  in  the  Rob  Roy  Canoe  on 
Rivers  and  Lakes  of  Europe , which  has  passed  through 
many  editions.  He  died  July  16,  1892. 

McGUIRE,  Hunter  Holmes,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  born 
in  Virginia,  October  n,  1835,  entered  the  Confederate 
service  as  medical  director  of  the  army  of  the  Shenan- 
doah, and  later  of  the  second  army  corps.  From  1865 
until  1880  he  was  professor  of  surgery  in  the  Virginia 
Medical  College  at  Richmond,  in  1885  became  professor 
emeritus  and  was  president  of  the  American  Surgical 
Association  in  1887. 

MACH  RAY,  Robert,  first  Canadian  archbishop  of 
the  Church  of  England,  born  in  1832  at  Aberdeen,  and 
educated  at  Cambridge,  was  a University  examiner 
and  vicar  of  Madingley  till  he  was  appointed  bishop  of 
Rupert’s  Land,  now  Manitoba,  in  1865.  He  is  chancel- 
lor of  St.  John’s  College,  Manitoba,  and  prelate  of  the 
Order  of  St.  Michael  and  St.  George,  and  at  the  first 
General  Synod  of  the  Church  of  England  in  Canada, 
September,  1893,  was  made  primate  of  the  dominion, 
and  archbishop  of  his  see. 

McILVAINE,  Charles  Pettit,  born  in  New 
Jersey  in  1799,  graduated  at  Princeton,  became  a deacon 
in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  1820,  held  a chair 
in  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  in  1832 
was  elected  bishop  of  Ohio.  He  was  D.C.  L.  of  Oxford 
and  LL.D.  of  Cambridge.  In  March,  1873,  he  died 
while  on  a visit  to  Europe  for  his  health. 

McINTOSH,  Lachlan,  soldier,  born  in  Scotland, 
March  17,  1725;  died  in  Savannah,  Ga.,  February  20, 
1806.  Brought  to  America  when  a boy,  he  was  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  in  1776;  in  1777  challenged 
Button  Gwinnett  to  a duel  and  mortally  wounded  him ; 
in  1778  quelled  the  western  Indians,  and  in  1779  was 
captured  at  Charleston.  In  1 784  he  became  a member 
of  congress  for  a short  time. 

McINTYRE,  Alexander  Fraser,  born  in  Ontario, 
December  25,  1847,  educated  at  McGill  University, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1872,  and  in  1875  entered  the 
Ontario  assembly  as  representative  from  Cornwall. 
He  was  president  of  the  Liberal  association  of  Ottawa, 
and  held  an  important  position  in  the  political  field  of 
the  province. 

MACKARNESS,  John  Fielder,  D.D.,  bishop  of 
Oxford,  was  born  December  3,  1820,  and  received  his 
education  at  Eton  and  at  Merton  College,  Oxford. 
He  took  his  B.A.  degree  in  1844,  with  a second  class  in 
classics.  Shortly  afterward  he  was  elected  to  a fellow- 
ship at  Exeter  College.  In  1855  he  was  presented  to 
the  rectory  of  Honiton,  Devonshire.  In  1858  he  was 
promoted  by  the  late  bishop  of  Exeter  (Doctor  Philpotts) 
to  an  honorary  prebendal  stall  in  Exeter  cathedral.  In 
December,  1869,  he  was  appointed,  on  the  recommenda- 


tion of  Mr.  Gladstone,  to  the  bishopric  of  Oxford,  vacant 
by  the  translation  of  Doctor  Wilberforce  to  the  see  ot 
Winchester.  He  died  September  16,  1889. 

MACKAY,  Charles,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Perth 
in  1804  and  removed  in  infancy  to  London.  Proceed- 
ing to  Belgium  to  complete  his  education,  he  was  a 
witness  of  the  startling  events  of  the  revolution  that 
broke  out  in  1830,  and  published  in  1834  a small 
volume  of  poems.  He  became  editor  of  the  Glasgow 
Argus  in  September,  1844,  and  retired  from  the  man- 
agement of  that  paper  at  the  general  election  in  1847, 
in  consequence  of  a schism  in  the  Liberal  party.  In 
1846  the  Glasgow  University  conferred  on  him  the  title 
of  LL.D.  Doctor  Mackay,  on  the  establishment  of  the 
Daily  News,  under  the  editorship  of  Mr.  Charles 
Dickens,  wrote  for  that  journal  a series  of  poems. 
For  some  years  he  contributed  leading  articles  to  the 
Illustrated  London  News , and  he  established  the  Lon- 
don Review  in  i860.  Doctor  Mackay  visited  the 
United  States  from  the  winter  of  1857  to  the  spring  of 
1858  on  a lecturing  tour,  and  published  an  account  of 
his  experiences  under  the  title  of  Life  and  Liberty  in 
America.  He  returned  to  America  in  1862,  andresided 
in  New  York  until  1866,  as  correspondent  of  the  London 
Times  in  that  city  during  the  Civil  war.  As  a prose 
writer  he  is  known  by  his  Memoirs  of  Extraordinary 
Popular  Delusions,  published  in  1841.  A collection  of 
his  contributions  to  All  the  Year  Round,  Robin  Good- 
fellozv,  and  other  periodicals,  was  published,  with  the 
title  of  Under  the  Blue  Skyt  in  1871.  Doctor  Mackay 
died  December  24,  1889. 

MACKAY,  Robert,  born  in  Montreal  in  1816; 
died  in  1888.  He  practiced  law  after  1837,  became 
queen’s  counsel  in  1867;  judge  of  the  supreme  court 
in  1868,  and  from  the  latter  year  until  1883  was  judge 
of  the  court  of  queen’s  bench. 

McKEAN,  Thomas,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence, was  born  in  New  London,  Penn. , March  19, 
1734,  and  died  in  Philadelphia,  June  24,  1817.  He  was 
sent  to  the  general  assembly  in  1765.  Subsequently  he 
held  various  public  offices  in  Delaware,  and  from  1774 
until  1783  was  a member  of  the  continental  congress 
from  that  State.  In  1777,  although  residing  in  Penn- 
sylvania, he  was  appointed  president  of  Delaware,  and 
in  a single  night  wrote  its  State  constitution.  From 
1777  until  1799  he  was  chief  justice  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  from  1799  until  1808,  served  as  governor  of  that 
State.  By  a strange  oversight  of  the  printer  his  name 
does  not  appear  subscribed  to  the  copy  of  the  signers  as 
published  in  the  journal  of  congress.  He  was  vice- 
president  of  the  Pennsylvania  Society  of  the  Cincinnati, 
and  was  given  the  degree  of  LL.D.  by  three  colleges 
in  succession.  With  Prof.  John  Wilson  he  published 
Commentaries  on  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

MACKENZIE,  Alexander,  M.  P.,  ex-premier  of 
the  Canadian  Dominion,  was  born  in  Perthshire, 
Scotland,  January  28, 1822.  He  was  educated  at  Perth 
and  at  Dunkeld,  after  which  he  emigrated  to  Canada, 
and  for  a time  became  a contractor  and  builder,  first  at 
Kingston,  and  latterly  at  Sarnia,  Province  of  Ontario. 
For  some  years  he  edited  the  Lambton  Shield , a reform 
journal.  He  entered  parliament  in  1862  as  member  for 
Lambton,  and  represented  that  constituency  in  the 
Canadian  assembly  until  confederation.  In  1867  he 
was  returned  to  the  Dominion  parliament,  and  concur- 
rently represented  West  Middlesex  in  the  Ontario 
legislature  during  the  years  1871-72,  holding  the  office 
first  of  provincial  secretary,  and  afterward  of  provincial 
treasurer.  In  October  of  the  latter  year  he  resigned 
his  seat  in  the  local  house ; and  in  1873,  on  the  defeat  of 
the  Macdonald  ministry,  was  called  upon  to  form  an 
administration  in  the  Dominion  parliament,  and  accepted 


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the  office  of  premier  and  minister  of  public  works. 
This  post  he  held  until  the  fall  of  his  government  in 
1878.  In  1875  he  visited  the  mother  country,  when  he 
was  presented  with  the  freedom  of  the  Scottish  towns  of 
Irvine,  Dundee,  and  Perth.  In  1881,  on  the  occasion 
©f  a second  visit  to  his  native  land,  he  was  presented 
with  the  freedom  of  Inverness.  He  remained  a mem- 
ber of  the  Dominion  parliament  until  his  death,  April 
17,  1892. 

MACKENZIE,  Sir  Alex’r.  Campbell,  was  born 
in  Edinburgh  in  1847,  and  sent  to  Germany  at  the  age 
of  ten,  to  study  music.  Four  years  later  he  entered  the 
dual  orchestra,  at  Schwarzburg-Son*dershausen,  and  re- 
mained in  Germany  till  1862,  when  he  went  to  London 
to  study  the  violin  under  M.  Sainton.  The  same  year 
he  was  elected  king’s  scholar  at  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Music.  In  1865  he  returned  to  Edinburgh  as  a teacher 
of  the  pianoforte.  He  has  written  Cervantes , an  over- 
ture for  orchestra ; a scherzo  for  the  same ; overture  to 
a comedy ; a string  quartet,  and  many  other  pieces  in 
MS.,  but  the  composition  which  made  him  famous  was 
his  opera  Colomba,  based  upon  Merimee’s  celebrated 
story.  This  work  (of  which  the  libretto  was  written  by 
Doctor  Hueffer)  was  produced  with  great  success  by  the 
Carl  Rosa  Company  at  Drury  Lane,  1884.  His  second 
opera,  The  Troubadour , was  produced  in  the  summer 
of  1886.  His  Veni  Creator  Spiritus  and  his  oratorio 
Bethlehem  (1891)  were  very  successful. 

MACKENZIE,  Alexander  Slidell,  naval  officer, 
born  in  New  York  city,  April  6,  1803;  died  in  Tarry- 
town,  N.  Y.,  September  13,  1848.  His  father  was 
John  Slidell;  his  mother’s  name,  Mackenzie,  was  added 
to  his  own  in  1837,  for  family  reasons.  He  entered  the 
United  States  navy  in  1815,  became  lieutenant  in  1825, 
and  commander  in  1841.  During  the  siege  of  Bahia 
and  its  surrender  he  was  in  command  of  the  Dolphin. 
In  1842  he  was  sent  to  the  west  African  coast  in  com- 
mand of  th£  United  States  brig  Somers , manned  mostly 
by  naval  apprentices.  On  the  return  voyage  a midship- 
man, John  C.  Spencer,  son  of  the  United  States  secre- 
tary of  war,  with  two  others,  was  arrested  for  mutiny, 
tried  by  a council  of  officers,  and  sentenced  to  be  hanged 
at  the  yard-arm.  This  affair  created  much  sensation 
and  a wide  difference  of  opinion.  Officers  of  the  navy 
justified  the  sentence  on  technical  grounds,  but  the 
public  at  large  censured  Mackenzie  for  hasty  and  un- 
necessary severity.  When  the  Somers  arrived  in  New 
York  city  a court  of  inquiry  was  ordered  to  investigate 
the  circumstances,  with  the  result  of  a full  approval  of 
Mackenzie’s  conduct.  Later  he  was  sent  on  a private 
mission  to  Cuba,  was  ordnance  officer  at  the  siege  of 
Vera  Cruz,  and  commanded  a division  of  artillery  at  the 
storming  of  Tabasco. 

MACKENZIE,  George  Henry,  born  in  Scotland, 
March  24,  1837;  came  to  the  United  States  in  1863, 
and  served  in  the  Civil  war,  in  which  he  attained  the 
rank  of  captain  of  volunteers.  He  developed  a remark- 
able capacity  for  the  game  of  chess,  of  which  he  was, 
perhaps,  the  greatest  modern  exponent.  Between  1878 
and  1887  he  contested  in  and  carried  off  the  prizes  at 
tournaments  in  Paris,  Berlin,  Vienna,  London,  Ham- 
burg, and  Frankfort.  He  defeated  Zukertort,  Black  - 
burne,  and  almost  every  other  prominent  player  except 
Steinitz.  In  1887  he  won  fifteen  out  of  twenty  games, 
against  the  most  formidable  competitors,  and  received 
the  championship  medal.  He  died  April  13,  1891. 

MACKENZIE,  Randall  S.,  born  in  Westchester 
county,  N.  Y.,  July  27,  1840;  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1862,  and  joined  the  engineer  corps.  He  was 
wounded  at  Manassas,  fought  at  Gettysburg,  Chancel- 
lorsville,  and  Petersburg,  and  received  the  brevets  of 
brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army  and  major-general 


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of  volunteers,  in  March,  1865.  He  was  retired  in  1884 
on  account  of  disability,  and  died  on  January  19,  1889. 

MACKENZIE,  Robert  Shelton,  born  in  Ireland, 
June  22,  1809;  became  editor  of  an  English  journal, 
and  was  for  many  years  the  English  correspondent  of  a 
New  York  paper.  In  1852  he  came  to  the  United 
States  and  settled  first  in  New  York,  and  afterward  in 
Philadelphia.  He  became  identified  with  the  Phila- 
delphia press,  and  engaged  in  literature,  art,  and  pur- 
suits of  various  kinds.  He  was  made  LL.  D.  of  Glasgow 
University  in  1834,  and  D.C.L.  of  Oxford,  England, 
in  1844.  His  works  consisted  principally  of  the  lives  of 
literary  men  and  of  sketches.  He  died  in  Philadelphia 
in  November,  1880. 

MACKENZIE,  Sir  Morell,  M.D.  (London),  was 
born  at  Leytonstone,  Essex,  England,  in  1837,  and 
educated  at  the  London  Hospital  Medical  College. 
Paris,  and  Vienna.  He  founded  the  hospital  for  diseases 
of  the  throat,  Golden  Square,  1863  ; and  in  the  same 
year  obtained  the  Jacksonian  prize  from  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  for  his  essay  on  diseases  of  the 
larynx.  He  was  soon  afterward  elected  assistant- 
physician  to  the  London  hospital,  becoming  in  due 
course  full  physician,  and  was  appointed  lecturer  on 
diseases  of  the  throat,  which  position  he  held  until  his 
death.  He  was  a corresponding  member  of  the  Imperial 
Royal  Society  of  Physicians  of  Vienna,  and  of  the 
Medical  Society  of  Prague,  and  an  honorary  fellow  of 
the  American  Laryngological  Association.  Doctor 
Mackenzie  was  the  author  of  numerous  publications  on 
laryngological  subjects,  and  in  particular  of  a systematic 
treatise  in  two  volumes,  on  Diseases  of  the  Throat  and 
Nose , which  is  acknowledged  to  be  a standard  work. 
Sir  Morell  Mackenzie  received  his  title  from  Queen 
Victoria  for  his  services  to  the  late  Emperor  Frederick 
of  Germany.  He  died  February  3,  1892. 

MACKENZIE,  William  Lyon,  born  in  Dundee, 
Scotland,  March  12,  1795;  died  in  Toronto,  August 
28,  1861.  After  a brief  visit  to  France  Mr.  Mackenzie 
came  to  Canada  early  in  1820,  where  he  became  con- 
nected with  the  works  of  the  Lachine  canal,  and  later 
opened  a store  in  Toronto.  In  1823  he  removed  to 
Queenstown,  where  he  published  the  Colonial  Advo- 
cate. Subsequently  he  removed  to  Toronto,  where,  in 
June,  1826,  the  establishment  was  raided  and  destroyed 
by  persons  whom  his  newspaper  had  held  up  to  ani- 
madversion. In  1832  he  visited  England  with  a peti- 
tion of  grievances,  and  secured  the  dismissal  from  office 
of  the  attorney-general  and  solicitor-general  of  Upper 
Canada,  and  also  a veto  of  the  Upper  Canada  bank 
bill.  In  March  Mr.  Mackenzie  was  chosen  the  first 
mayor  of  Toronto.  In  July,  1836,  he  issued  the  first 
number  of  The  Constitution,  in  August,  1837,  pub- 
lished in  his  paper  what  was  virtually  a declara- 
tion of  Canadian  independence,  and  in  Decem- 
ber instigated  rebellion.  At  the  head  of  an  armed 
body  of  insurgents  he  demanded  of  Lieutenant-gov- 
ernor Head  a settlement  of  all  provincial  diffi- 
culties by  convention;  this  was  not  acceded  to.  In 
return  he  threatened  to  march  on  the  city,  arrest  the 
governor  and  his  council,  and  declare  Canada  a republic. 
An  encounter  took  place  four  miles  from  Toronto,  on 
December  7,  1837,  where  the  insurgents  fled  before  a 
superior  force  of  regulars,  and  took  up  a position  on 
Navy  island  in  Niagara  river.  Here,  reenforced  by  50a 
American  sympathizers,  Mackenzie  formally  established 
a provisional  government,  and  offered  a reward  of  $2,500 
for  the  apprehension  of  the  lieutenant-governor,  Sir 
Francis  B.  Head.  In  return  he  was  outlawed,  his 
camp  cannonaded  by  British  troops,  and  all  volunteer- 
ing prevented  by  the  interference  of  the  United  States. 
Mackenzie  fled  to  the  United  States,  and  was  sentenced 


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to  a year’s  confinement  in  Rochester  jail,  for  viola- 
tion of  the  neutrality  laws.  Later  he  became  em- 
ployed on  several  newspapers.  In  1849,  when  political 
amnesty  was  proclaimed,  he  returned  to  Canada,  and  in 
1850  was  elected  to  parliament,  where  he  sat  until 
1858.  For  a number  of  years  he  published  in  Toronto 
Mackenzie's  Message , a weekly  newspaper.  He  died 
in  comparative  poverty.  His  persistent  agitation, 
however,  was  not  without  effect  as  all  the  reforms  for 
which  he  battled  have  since  been  granted. 

McKINLEY,  William,  President,  was  born  at  Niles, 
Ohio,  January  29,  1844 ; enlisted  in  the  U.  S.  army 
in  May,  1861,  as  a private  soldier  in  the  23d  Ohio 
volunteer  infantry,  and  was  mustered  out  as  captain  of 
the  same  regiment  and  brevet  major  in  September, 
1865  ; was  prosecuting  attorney  of  Stark  county,  Ohio, 
1869-71 ; was  elected  to  the  forty-fifth  congress  (1877), 
and  sat  continuously  until  1891,  becoming  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Republican  party  and  its  chief  advocate  of 
protection.  In  the  51st  congress  he  was  chairman  of  the 
Committee  on  Ways  and  Means,  and  in  1890  introduced 
the  tariff  measure,  adopted  and  since  known  as  the  Mc- 
Kinley Bill.  He  was  defeated  for  reelection  in  1890, 
but  was  elected  governor  of  Ohio  in  1891.  He  was 
reelected  in  1893  by  a plurality  of  80, 995  over  Lawrence 
Neal,  a revenue  reform  Democrat,  and  at  once  became 
prominent  as  a Presidential  possibility  for  1896.  Mc- 
Kinley became  President  in  1896,  and  was  elected  again 
in  1900.  He  was  shot  at  Buffalo  in  Sept.,  1901,  dying  on 
the  14th  of  that  month. 

MACKINTOSH,  Charles  Herbert,  born  in 
London,  Ontario,  1843;  was  for  many  years  connected 
with  journalism  in  Canada,  and  for  five  years  in  Chi- 
cago. In  1879  he  became  mayor  of  Ottawa,  and  in 
1882  he  was  elected  to  the  Dominion  parliament  from 
that  city. 

McLANE,  Louis,  was  born  in  Delaware,  in  May, 
1 786,  represented  his  native  State  in  congress  from  1817 
to  1827,  and  for  two  years  acted  as  United  States  sena- 
tor. From  1829  to  1831  he  served  as  minister  to  Eng- 
land, and  in  April,  1831,  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
treasury  by  President  Jackson.  He  was  not  in  accord 
with  Jackson’s  policy  in  regard  to  the  removal  of  the 
government  deposits  from  the  United  States  bank,  and 
was  soon  removed  from  the  treasury  department  and 
made  secretary  of  state.  This  position  he  resigned  in 
1834,  and  in  1845  he  again  became  minister  to  England. 
In  this  capacity  he  negotiated  with  the  English  Gov- 
ernment on  the  vexed  questions  in  relation  to  the 
Oregon  boundary,  and  when  this  was  settled  he  re- 
turned home.  He  died  in  October,  1857. 

McLANE,  Robert  M.,  born  in  Wilmington,  Del., 
June  23,  1815,  studied  in  St.  Mary’s  College  and  in 
Paris.  He  was  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1837  and 
assigned  to  the  artillery.  He  took  part  in  the  Seminole 
war,  and  in  1843  resigned  his  army  commission  and  be- 
gan the  practice  of  law  in  Delaware.  In  1844  he  was 
elected  to  congress  from  Maryland  and  was  reelected, 
1847  and  1849.  He  supported  the  Mexican  war  policy 
of  Polk.  In  1853  he  was  sent  as  United  States  commis- 
sioner to  China,  Japan,  Siam,  Corea,  and  Cochin-China. 
He  was  accompaniedby  a naval  force  and  accomplished 
the  mission  on  which  he  was  sent  and  returned  home  in 
1856.  In  1859  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Mexico. 
He  took  no  active  part  in  the  Civil  war,  and  in  1877  be- 
came a State  senator  for  Maryland.  In  1878  he  was 
elected  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  in  1883 
he  was  chosen  governor  of  Maryland.  In  1885  he  was 
appointed  minister  to  Fiance  by  President  Cleveland. 
He  resigned  in  1889,  and  died  April  16,  1898. 

McLAREN,  William  Edward,  born  in  Geneva, 
N.  Y.,  December  13,  1831,  graduated  at  Washington 


and  Jefferson  College,  Pennsylvania,  in  18^1,  and  after- 
ward  studied  at  the  Alleghany  Presbyterian  Theological 
Seminary,  whence  he  was  graduated  in  i860.  He  was 
ordained  in  the  Presbyterian  ministry,  and  for  three 
years  served  as  a missionary  in  South  America.  On  his 
return  to  the  United  States  he  decided  to  enter  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  ministry,  in  which  he  was  ordained  in 
1872.  He  held  a pastorate  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  for  three 
years,  and  in  September,  1875,  was  elected  bishop  of 
Illinois.  When,  two  years  later,  two  dioceses  were  set 
apart  from  his  own,  he  retained  that  part  of  the  State 
now  included  in  the  diocese  of  Chicago,  over  which  he 
still  presides. 

M cLAWS,  Lafayette,  born  in  Augusta,  Ga., 
January  15,  1821;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842,  and 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Monterey  and  the  siege  of 
Vera  Cruz.  He  served  against  the  Mormons  in  1858, 
and  against  the  Navajoes  in  1859-60,  and  resigned  to 
join  the  Confederacy  in  1861.  On  May  23,  1862,  he 
was  promoted  major-general.  His  division  formed  the 
right  wing  at  Chancellorsville  and  was  in  the  thick  of  the 
fight  at  Gettysburg.  He  commanded  in  Georgia  in 
1864  and  afterward  in  North  Carolina.  After  the  war 
he  held  Federal  offices  in  Georgia.  Died  July  24,  1897. 

McLELAN,  Archibald  W.,  born  in  Nova  Scotia, 
December  24,  1824;  served  in  the  assembly  of  that 
province' from  1858  to  1867.  Then  he  entered  the  Do- 
minion parliament,  and  in  June,  1869,  was  sent  to  the 
Senate.  He  became  president  of  the  privy  council  of 
Canada  and  a member  of  the  cabinet  in  May,  1881.  In 
July,  1882,  he  was  appointed  minister  of  marine  and 
fisheries;  in  December,  1885,  minister  of  finance,  and  in 
January,  1887,  postmaster-general. 

MacMAHON,  Marie  Edme  Patrick  Maurice 
DE,  Due  de  Magenta,  a marshal  of  France,  ex-president 
of  the  French  Republic,  born  at  Sully,  July  13,  1808; 
derives  his  descent  from  an  Irish  family.  The  MacMa- 
hons,  carrying  their  national  traditions,  ancestral  pride, 
and  historic  name  to  France,  mingled  their  blood  by 
marriage  with  the  old  nobility  of  their  adopted  country. 
This  member  of  the  family  entered  the  military  service 
of  France  in  1825,  at  the  school  of  St.  Cyr;  was  sent 
to  the  Algerian  wars  in  1830;  while  acting  as  aide-de- 
camp  to  General  Achard,  took  part  in  the  expedition  to 
Antwerp  in  1832;  attained  to  the  rank  of  captain  in 
1833;  and,  after  holding  the  post  of  aide-de-camp  to 
several  African  generals,  and  taking  part  iii  the  assault 
of  Constantine,  was  nominated  major  of  foot  chasseurs 
in  1840,  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  Foreign  Legion  in 
1842,  colonel  of  the  41st  of  the  line  in  1845,  and  general 
of  brigade  in  1848.  When,  in  1855,  General  Canrobert 
left  the  Crimea,  General  MacMahon,  then  in  France, 
was  selected  by  the  emperor  to  succeed  him  in  the  com- 
mand of  a division  ; and  when  the  chiefs  of  the  allied 
armies  resolved  on  assaulting  Sebastopol,  September 
8th,  they  assigned  to  General  MacMahon  the  perilous 

ost  of  carrying  the  works  of  the  Malakoffi  For  his 

rilliant  success  on  this  occasion  he  was  made  grand 
cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor;  and  in  1856  was  nomi- 
nated a knight  grand  cross  of  the  Bath.  General  Mac- 
Mahon, who  took  a conspicuous  part  in  the  Italian  cam- 
paign of  1859,  received  the  baton  of  a marshal,  and  was 
created  duke  of  Magenta,  in  commemoration  of  that 
victory.  He  was  nominated  to  the  command  of  the  3rd 
corps  d'armee , October  14,  1862,  governor-general  ctf 
Algeria  September  1,  1864.  In  this  capacity  he  in- 
augurated a new  system,  the  tendency  of  which  was  to 
create  an  Arab  kingdom.  It  proved,  however,  a com- 
plete failure.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  with  Prus< 
sia,  Marshal  MacMahon  was  intrusted  with  the  command 
of  the  First  Army  Corps,  whose  headquarters  were  at 
Strasburg.  On  August  6,  1870,  the  crown  prince  of 


MAC 


lJrU§sia  attacked  the  united  army  corps  of  General  Mac* 
Mahon,  Failiy,  and  Canrobert,  drawn  up  in  a position 
at  Woerth.  MacMahon  had  under  him  50,000  men  in 
all,  and  occupied  a strong  defensive  position  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Vosges,  but  the  French  line  was  turned  by 
the  Prussians  at  two  points,  and  their  left  and  center 
broken,  notwithstanding  a desperate  charge  of  cavalry, 
which  was  ordered  by  MacMahon  as  a last  resort. 
MacMahon  retired  on  the  following  day  to  Saverne, 
next  to  Toul  (13th),  Rheims  (21st),  and  Rathel  (22d). 
On  the  30th  his  forces  were  again  defeated  by  the 
Prussians,  being  driven  back  from  Beaumont  beyond 
the  Meuse,  near  Mouzon.  He  was  chief  in  command 
at  the  battle  of  Sedan  (September  1st),  but  received  a 
severe  wound  in  the  thigh  at  the  beginning  of  the  en- 
gagement, whereupon  the  command  devolved  on  Gen- 
eral Wimpffen,  who  signed  the  capitulation.  Mac- 
Mahon was  made  a prisoner  of  war,  and  conveyed  into 
Germany.  Having  recovered  from  his  wound,  he  left 
Wiesbaden  for  France,  March  13,  1871,  and  was  nom- 
inated in  the  fallowing  month  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  at  Versailles.  He  successfully  conducted 
the  siege  of  Paris  against  the  commune,  and  ably  as- 
sisted M.  Thiers  in  reorganizing  the  army.  On  M. 
Thiers  resigning  the  presidency  of  the  republic,  May  24, 
1873,  he  was  elected  to  the  vacant  office  by  the  assem- 
bly. Of  the  392  members  who  voted,  390  voted  for 
Marshal  MacMahon.  He  at  once  proceeded  to  form 
a conservative  administration.  The  Septennate  was 
voted  November  19,  1873,  when  the  National  Assembly, 
by  378  votes  against  310,  intrusted  him  with  the  exer- 
cise of  power  for  seven  years.  On  May  16,  1877, 

Marshal  MacMahon  addressed  to  M.  Jules  Simon,  the 
president  of  the  council,  a letter  reproaching  him  with  in- 
capacity. This  compelled  the  latter  to  resign,  and  a new 
ministry  was  formed.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies  was 
immediately  prorogued,  and  the  Senate,  by  a small  ma- 
jority, resolved  to  exercise  the  power  conferred  by  the 
constitution,  by  concurring  with  the  president  of  the 
republic  in  a dissolution.  Accordingly,  the  Marshal 
dissolved  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  by  a decree  dated 
June  25,  1877.  The  elections  for  the  new  Chamber 
were  held  throughout  France  on  October  14th,  resulting 
in  the  return  of  335  Republicans  and  198  Anti-Repub- 
licans, the  latter  classed  as  89  Bonapartists,  41  Legit- 
imists, 38  Orleanists,  and  30  “ MacMahonists.”  The 
Republican  majority  refused  to  vote  the  supplies,  and 
after  a brief  interval  of  hesitation  the  marshal  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  M.  Gambetta’s  famous  alternative — 
se  soumettre  oil  se  demettre — “ submit  or  resign  ” — must 
be  acted  upon.  Accordingly  he  yielded  to  the  Repub- 
lican majority,  and  a new  ministry  was  formed  under  the 
presidency  of  M.  Dufaure,  with  M.  Leon  Say  as  min- 
ister of  finance,  and  M.  Waddington  at  the  foreign 
office.  Thus,  the  prolonged  crisis  that  began  on  May 
16th,  was  peacefully  brought  to  a close  on  December 
14,  1877.  The  senatorial  elections  at  the  beginning  of 
1879  gave  the  Republican  party  an  effective  working 
majority  in  the  Upper  Chamber.  M.  Dufaure’s  cabinet 
was  at  once  pressed  to  remove  the  most  conspicuous 
Anti-Republicans  among  the  generals  and  officials. 
Marshal  MacMahon  refused  to  be  a party  to  these 
measures,  and,  seeing  that  resistance  was  idle,  resigned 
on  January  30th,  and  was  succeeded  by  M.  Grevy.  He 
wrote  his  Memoirs  and  died  October  17,  1893.  An  im- 
posing state  funeral  was  given  him. 

McMASTER,  John  Bach,  born  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
June  29,  1852  ; graduated  at  the  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York  in  1872,  in  1877  became  instructor  in  civil  en- 
gineering at  Princeton  College,  and  in  1883,  professor 
of  American  history  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
He  has  written  a History  of  the  United  States  from 
48-J 


666$ 

tht  Revolution  to  the  Civil  War , a Life  of  Benjamin 
Franklin,  and  other  works. 

McMULLEN,  John,  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  was 
born  in  Ireland  in  1833;  came  to  the  United  States 
when  a child  and  was  educated  at  St.  Mary’s  College, 
Chicago.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1858;  was  for 
some  years  president  of  the  University  of  St.  Mary’s  of 
the  Lake,  and  in  1870  took  charge  of  the  cathedral  of 
the  Holy  Name  in  Chicago.  In  1877  he  became  vicar- 
general  of  the  diocese  of  Chicago,  and  in  1881  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Davenport,  Iowa.  He  died  July  3, 
1883. 

MacNAB,  Sir  Allan  Napier,  born  in  Niagara, 
Ontario,  February  19,  1798.  His  father  was  aide-de- 
camp  to  Colonel  Simcoe  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution. 
In  the  war  of  1812-14  between  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain,  young  MacNab  served  as  midshipman, 
under  Sir  James  L.  Yeo,  in  an  expedition  against 
Sackett’s  Harbor  and  other  United  States  ports  on  Lake 
Erie,  and  afterward  was  an  ensign  in  the  army.  At 
the  affair  at  Plattsburg  he  led  the  advance  guard.  On 
the  return  of  peace  he  studied  law,  and  in  1826  entered 
on  practice  in  Hamilton.  In  1829  he  was  elected  a 
member  in  the  Assembly  of  Upper  Canada. . In  the  in- 
surrection of  1837  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  militia 
on  the  Niagara  frontier,  and  routed  the  insurgents  near 
Toronto  on  December  7,  1837.  When  their  leader, 
William  L.  Mackenzie  ( q.v .),  took  possession  of  Navy 
Island,  in  Niagara  river,  and  leceived  supplies  and  re- 
enforcements from  the  American  side  by  the  steamer 
Caroline,  Colonel  MacNab  sent  over  a party  of  men, 
who  seized  and  burnt  the  steamer  and  sent  her  adrift 
over  the  falls.  For  this  dramatic  performance  he  was 
knighted  July  14,  1838.  From  1846  to  1854  he  was 
prime  minister  under  the  earl  of  Elgin,  and  again  under 
Sir  Edmund  Head,  1854-56.  He  was  made  a baronet 
in  1858,  and  a member  of  the  legislative  council  in  i860. 
In  1857  he  went  to  England  for  recreation,  where  he 
was  made  honorary  colonel  of  the  British  army,  and 
honorary  aide-de-camp  to  the  queen.  Throughout  life 
he  was  guided  by  Tory  sentiments,  and  just  before  his 
death  is  said  to  have  become  a Roman  Catholic.  He 
died  in  Toronto,  August  8,  1862. 

MACOMB,  Alexander,  born  in  Detroit,  Mich., 
April  3,  1782;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  June  25, 
1841.  He  entered  the  army  in  1799,  and  in  1812  had 
been  advanced  to  lieutenant-colonel  of  engineers  and 
adjutant-general  of  the  army.  Later  he  was  made  col- 
onel of  a regiment  of  artillery,  and  for  his  services  at 
Niagara  and  Fort  George  was  promoted  brigadier- 
general  in  1814.  At  Plattsburg,  when  in  command  of 
1,500  soldiers,  he  was  attacked  by  a superior  force  under 
Sir  George  Provost,  and  repulsed  the  enemy.  For  this 
achievement  he  was  promoted  major-general,  and  re- 
ceived the  thanks  of  congress  and  a gold  medal.  After 
the  death  of  Gen.  Jacob  Brown,  in  1835,  he  became 
commander-in-chief  of  the  United  States  army.  In  the 
Florida  war  he  acted  for  a short  time  only. 

MACON,  Nathaniel,  born  in  Warren  county, 
N.  C.,  December  17,  1757;  died  there  June  29,  1837. 
He  studied  at  Princeton,  but  left  his  classes  to  join  a 
company  of  American  volunteers.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  war  he  served  in  South  Carolina,  where  he  was 
present  at  the  surrender  of  Fort  Moultrie,  the  fall  of 
Charleston,  the  rout  at  Camden,  and  with  Gen. 
Nathanael  Greene  in  his  retreat  across  Carolina.  Later 
he  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  North  Carolina,  and 
unwillingly  retired  from  military  service,  refusing  a 
pension  and  all  payment.  He  continued  in  the  Senate 
until  1785,  and  permanently  settled  on  a plantation  on 
Roanoke  river,  in  Warren  county.  From  1791  until 
1815  he  was  a member  of  the  United  States  Congress, 


6670  M A C - 

was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate  in  1816,  and  in 
1825  was  its  temporary  president. 

McPHERSON,  Edward,  LL.D.,  born  in  Gettys- 
burg, Pa.,  July  31,  1830;  graduated  at  Pennsylvania 
College,  in  his  native  town,  and  began  literary  work  in 
Philadelphia.  From  1859  to  *86'3  he’served  in  congress 
as  a representative,  and  in  the  beginning  of  1864  became 
clerk  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  which  office  he 
held  until  1873.  He  has  since  been  engaged  in  journal- 
ism in  his  native  State.  Mr.  McPherson,  who  is  M.A. 
of  Princeton  and  LL.D.  of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, has  published  several  historical  works  and  a hand- 
book on  politics,  and  has  edited  the  New  York  Tribune 
almanac  for  many  years.  Died  Dec.  14,  1895. 

McPHERSON,  James  Birdseye,  born  in  San- 
dusky, Ohio,  November  14,  1828;  died  near  Atlanta, 
Ga.,  July  22,  1864.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1853,  first  in  a class  of 
fifty-two  members,  and  for  a year  later  served  as  in- 
structor at  that  institution.  He  entered  the  army  as 
second  lieutenant  of  engineers  in  1853,  and  became 
captain  in  1861,  serving  on  fortification  and  construc- 
tion in  the  harbors  of  New  York  city  and  San  Fran- 
cisco. At. the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war  he  applied 
for  active  duty,  was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel,  No- 
vember 12,  1861,  and  became  major-general  of  volun- 
teers October  8,  1862.  In  the  early  part  of  1862  he 
was  attached  to  the  staff  of  Gen.  U.  S.  Grant,  and 
served  as  chief  engineer  at  Fort  Henry,  Fort  Donelson, 
Shiloh  and  the  siege  of  Corinth.  On  October  2nd  he 
commanded  a brigade  under  Gen.  William  S.  Rose- 
crans  at  the  battle  of  Corinth.  He  was  promoted  to 
the  command  of  a division  at  Bolivar,  Tenn.,  and  during 
the  winter  of  1862-63  cooperated  with  General  Grant’s 
movements.  At  the  battle  of  Fort  Gibson  part  of  his 
corps,  led  by  himself,  decided  the  battle  in  favor  of  the 
Federals.  On  May  12th  his  corps  engaged  part  of  Gen. 
Joseph  E.  Johnston’s  army  at  Raymond,  and  routed  it. 
On  May  16th  General  Grant’s  army  met  Pemberton’s 
at  Champion’s  Hill,  where  General  McPherson  signally 
aided  in  the  fight  Throughout  the  entire  campaign  Gen- 
eral McPherson  was  constantly  engaged,  and  was  con- 
spicuous for  his  skill,  industry,  and  personal  bravery. 
On  August  1,  1863,  he  was  made  brigadier-general  in 
the  regular  army.  In  1864  General  McPherson  was 
advanced  to  the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Tennessee. 
He  assembled  25,000  men  at  Huntsville,  Ala.,  in  April, 
1864.  From  May  until  June  he  had  constant  skir- 
mishes with  the  Confederate  forces,  and  led  several 
attacks  that  inflicted  losses,  but  led  to  no  permanent 
results.  On  July  22nd  General  Hood  massed  the  Con- 
federate forces  and  made  an  attack  on  the  left  flank  of 
General  Sherman’s  army,  commanded  by  General  Mc- 
Pherson. The  latter  at  the  time  was  at  General  Sher- 
man’s headquarters,  engaged  in  consultation,  and  rode 
rapidly  to  the  threatened  point.  In  attempting  to  pass 
from  one  column  to  another,  to  meet  this  attack,  he 
unguardedly  passed  into  the  enemy’s  lines  and  was 
killed.  As  a general  he  showed  remarkable  ability, 
being  self-possessed,  quick  of  perception  and  of  untir- 
ing activity.  In  one  of  the  public  parks  of  Washington 
a statue  is  erected  to  his  memory  by  his  comrades  of 
the  army  of  the  Tennessee. 

MACPHERSON,  Sir  David  Lewis,  born  in  In- 
verness, Scotland,  September  18,  1813;  came  to  Canada 
in  1835,  and  engaged  in  business  in  Montreal,  and  was 
one  of  the  organizers  of  the  railway  from  Montreal  to 
Kingston,  which  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  Grand 
Trunk  railroad.  He  sat  in  the  legislative  council  of 
Canada  from  October,  1864,  until  the  Union,  and  was 
transferred  to  the  Senate  in  May,  1867.  In  February, 
1880,  he  was  appointed  speaker  of  the  Senate  and  a 


-MAG 

member  Of  the  cabinet;  and  in  1883  became  minister  of 
the  interior,  which  office  he  resigned  in  August,  1885. 
He  has  written  on  banking  and  currency,  and  is  con- 
sidered a high  authority  on  finance.  Died  Aug.,  1896. 

McQUAID,  Bernard  John,  born  in  New  York 
city,  December  15,  1823;  was  ordained  priest  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  in  1848,  held  several  pastorates, 
and  for  ten  years  was  president  of  the  Seton  Hall 
College  and  Seminary.  In  July,  1868,  he  was  conse- 
crated first  bishop  of  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Mc  VEAGH,  Wayne,  born  in  Chester  county,  Penn., 
April  19,  1833;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1853.  He  served 
as  district  attorney  of  Chester  county,  Penn.,  from  1859 
to  1864.  In  1870  he  was  appointed  United  States  min- 
ister to  Turkey,  and  in  1877  he  was  a member  of  the 
commission  which  visited  Louisiana  by  request  of  Presi- 
dent Hayes.  At  the  accession  of  Mr.  Garfield,  in 
March,  1881,  Mr.  McVeagh,  who  had  taken  much  in- 
terest in  the  civil  service  reform  movement,  was  ap- 
pointed attorney-general  of  the  United  States,  but  re- 
signed at  Garfield’s  death.  Becoming  a Democrat  he 
supported  Cleveland,  in  1884  and  was  appointed  by  him 
ambassador  to  Italy  in  1893-97. 

MACWHIRTER,  John,  artist,  was  born  in  1839, 
near  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  and  became  an  associate  of 
the  Royal  Academy,  associate  and  honorary  member  of 
the  Royal  Scottish  Academy,  and  member  of  the  Royal 
Institute  of  Painters  in  Water  Colors.  His  Fairy  of 
the  Glen , Corrie  Arran,  and  Hail  Gentle  Spring,  were  in 
the  British  collection  at  Chicago  in  1893. 

MADLER,  Johann  Heinrich,  astronomer,  born 
at  Berlin  in  1794?  died  at  Hanover,  in  1874;  was  director 
of  the  observatories  at  Berlin,  and  at  Dorpat,  Russia; 
made  important  observations  on  Mars  and  Jupiter,  and 
on  double  and  variable  stars ; published  numerous 
works  and  in  Die  Centralsonne  presented  the  hypothesis 
of  a central  sun,  around  which  the  whole  stellar  universe 
revolves,  naming  Alcyone  as  the  central  sun. 

MAFFITT,  John  Newland,  son  of  Bishop  Maffitt, 
was  born  February  22,  1819,  and  entered  the  United 
States  navy  as  a midshipman,  1832.  He  served  in  vari- 
ous capacities  until  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war, 
when  he  entered  the  naval  service  of  the  Confederate 
States.  In  April,  1862,  he  received  command  of  a 
vessel  which  had  been  clandestinely  constructed  at 
Liverpool  for  the  Confederacy.  It  took  on  guns  and 
ammunition  at  Nassau,  and  he  rechristened  the  vessel 
the  Florida.  With  this  vessel  he  entered  upon  a 
cruise  in  the  northern  Atlantic,  emulating  the  piracies 
of  the  Alabama.  I11  all  he  took  fifty-five  merchant- 
men, some  of  the  prizes  being  extremely  valuable.  He 
was  relieved  in  consequence  of  sickness,  returned  to  the 
United  States  after  the  war,  and  died  in  1886. 

MAGEE,  William  Connor,  D.D.,  archbishop  of 
York,  was  born  in  Cork,  Ireland,  in  1821.  At  the  age 
of  thirteen  he  entered  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
subsequently  obtained  a scholarship,  besides  other 
academical  distinctions.  In  due  course  he  took  holy 
orders.  In  1848  he  accepted  the  curacy  of  St. 
Saviour’s,  Bath.  In  1850  he  was  appointed”  joint 
incumbent,  and  shortly  after  sole  incumbent  of  the 
Octagon  Chapel,  Bath.  In  i860  he  succeeded  Dean 
Goulburn  as  minister  of  Quebec  Chapel,  London,  and  in 
the  following  February  he  was  appointed  to  the  rectory 
of  Enniskillen  by  the  University  of  Dublin.  In  1864  he 
was  appointed  dean  of  Cork.  In  1868  he  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Peterborough  and  in  January,  1891,  became 
archbishop  of  York.  He  died  three  months  later. 

MAGOFFIN,  Beriah,  born  in  Kentucky,  April, 
1815;  died  there  February  28,  1885.  He  practiced  law 
and  served  in  the  State  Senate  and  as  probate  judge,  and 
in  September,  1859,  became  governor  of  Kentucky.  In 


M AG- 

this  .capacity  he  refused  to  honor  Lincoln’s  call  for 
troops,  and  demanded  the  withdrawal  of  both  Federal 
and  Confederate  forces  from  the  State. 

MAGRUDER,  John  B.,  born  in  Winchester,  Va., 
August  15,  1810;  diedin  Texas  in  February,  1871.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1830,  was  assigned  to  the 
artillery,  commanded  a battalion  in  the  Mexican  war, 
and  was  brevetted  lieutenant-colonel  for  gallant  conduct 
at  Chapultepec.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war  he 
resigned  his  commission  of  captain,  entered  the  service 
of  the  Confederacy,  won  the  battle  of  Big  Bethel  and  re- 
ceived a brigadier-general’s  commission.  At  Yorktown 
for  several  weeks  he  prevented  the  advance  of  the 
National  forces,  was  promoted  major-general,  and  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Malvern  Hill.  In  October,  1862, 
he  was  given  command  of  the  department  of  Texas,  and 
on  January  I,  1863,  he  recaptured  Galveston.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  he  entered  the  army  of  Maximilian,  in 
Mexico,  with  the  rank  of  major-general. 

MAHAFFY,  John  Pentland,  D.D.,  born  in 
Switzerland,  1839,  was  educated  in  Germany,  and  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  since  1871  he  has  been 
professor  of  Ancient  History.  An  eminent  Greek  scholar 
and  philosopher,  he  has  written  Kant's  Critical  Philos- 
ophy for  English  Readers , Social  Life  in  Greece,  Greek 
Antiquities,  Descartes,  Greek  Life  and  Thought,  The 
Decay  of  Modern  Preaching,  and  many  other  works. 

MAHAN,  Alfred  Thayer,  Captain,  American 
naval  officer  and  author,  born  September  27,  1840, 
entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in  1859,  becoming 
lieutenant,  1861;  lieutenant  commander,  1865;  com- 
mander, 1872,  and  captain  in  1885.  In  the  latter  year 
he  was  appointed  lecturer  on  history,  strategetics  and 
tactics,  and  president  of  the  United  States  Naval  War 
College.  In  1895  he  was  commander  of  the  ‘ ‘ Chicago.  ” 
Capt.  Mahan  has  written  The  Gulf  and  Inland  Waters 
(1883) ; Influence  of  Sea  Power  upon  History , 1660-1783 
(1890) ; Influence  of  Sea  Power  upon  the  French  Revolu- 
tion and  Empire , 1793—1812  (1892),  the  two  latter  works 
winning  him  a wide  reputation  and  an  offer  from  the 
English  ministry  to  enter  the  service  of  that  nation,  and 
Life  of  Admiral  Farragut  (1894). 

MAHDI,  El,  Arabic  for  “The  Well  Directed,”  the 
title  of  an  Arab  dervish,  supposed  to  have  been  Mahom- 
med  Ahmed,  born  near  Dongola,  Nubia,  about  1842, 
who  announced  himself  in  1881  as  the  Mahdi  or  Messiah 
of  the  Mohammedan  faith.  After  the  overthrow  of 
Arabi  Pasha  in  Egypt,  in  1882,  the  Mahdi  raised  a large 
body  of  troops  in  the  Soudan,  with  which  he  annihilated 
the  Egyptian  army  under  Hicks  Pasha.  By  1884  he 
had  extended  his  power  to  Souakin  and  threatened 
Egypt.  England  sent  General  Charles  Gordon  (q.v.) 
unarmed  and  alone  to  Khartoum,  where  he  was  block- 
aded by  the  Mahdi  and  slain  in  January,  1885,  when 
Khartoum  was  captured.  The  British  evacuated  the 
entire  territory,  except  Souakin,  and  the  Mahdi  formed 
a government  with  its  capital  at  Khartoum.  A few 
months  later  he  died,  it  is  said  of  small-pox,  and  was 
succeeded  by  one  of  his  generals. 

MAHON,  Charles  James  Patrick,  “The O’Gor- 
man,” a distinguished  Irish  soldier  and  orator,  who  was 
born  in  Ennis,  March  17,  1800,  was  a member  of 
parliament  for  Ennis,  1847-52,  served  in  the  armies  of 
Russia,  Turkey,  and  Austria ; was  a general  in  the  gov- 
ernment armies  in  U ruguay  in  the  Civil  war ; commanded 
the  Chilian  fleet  in  the  war  with  Spain ; was  a colonel  in 
the  Brazilian  army,  fought  in  the  Union  army  in  the 
Civil  war,  was  a colonel  under  Louis  Napoleon  and  an 
intimate  of  Bismarck.  He  entered  parliament  in  1879, 
sitting  for  Clare  until  1885,  and  for  Carlow  from  1887 
until  his  death  in  London,  January  15,  1891. 

MAHONE,  William,  born  in  Virginia,  December 


- M A L 6671 

21,  1826;  joined  the  Confederate  army  early  in  186.1  and 
fought  at  Norfolk  navy  yard,  and  in  nearly  every  battle 
of  the  Peninsular  campaign,  on  the  Rappahannock,  and 
in  the  campaign  around  Petersburg.  A fearless  fighter, 
he  became  brigadier  and  major-general,  and  commanded 
a division  in  A.  P.  Hill’s  corps.  After  the  war  he  re- 
turned to  engineering,  became  president  of  the  Norfolk 
and  Tennessee  railroad,  entered  politics  about  1878,  and 
became  the  leader  of  the  party  which  aimed  at  the 
“readjustment”  (repudiation)  of  the  State  debt  of 
Virginia.  He  was  Republican  United  States  senator, 
1881-87.  He  died  Oct.  8,  1895. 

MAHONY,  Francis,  better  known  as  “Father 
Prout,”  was  born  in  Ireland  about  1805,  and  died  in 
1866.  He  was  one  of  the  wittiest  of  scholars  and  most 
charming  of  writers. 

MAINE,  Sir  Henry  James  Sumner,  born  in  1822, 
educated  at  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge,  was  regius 
professor  of  the  civil  law,  1847-54,  reader  on  juris- 
prudence at  the  Middle  Temple,  1854-62,  and  in  1862 
went  to  India  as  law  member  of  the  supreme  govern- 
ment, originating  many  legislative  improvements.  Re- 
turning to  England,  1869,  he  was  elected  corpus  pro- 
fessor of  jurisprudence  in  the  University  of  Oxford  in 
1870,  in  1871  was  appointed  a member  of  the  council  of 
the  secretary  of  state  for  India,  on  which  occasion  he 
was  created  a K.C.S.I.,  and  in  1885  was  offered  the 
permanent  under-secretaryship  of  state  at  the  home 
office,  but  declined  it.  He  died  February  3,  1888.  A 
high  authority  on  international  law,  he  wrote  important 
works  on  that  and  other  subjects,  including:  Ancient 
Law:  Its  Connection  with  the  Early  History  of  Society ; 
Village  Communities  in  the  East  and  West;  Early  His- 
tory of  Institutions;  Popular  Government,  and  Inter- 
national Law. 

MAITLAND,  Sir  Frederick  Lewis,  a British 
naval  officer,  born  in  Scotland  in  1 779,  commanded  the 
Bellerophon  off  the  coast  of  France  in  1815,  with  instruc- 
tions to  prevent  the  escape  of  Napoleon,  who  had 
arranged  to  take  ship  at  Rochelle  for  the  United  States. 
Napoleon,  finding  himself  unable  to  escape,  surrendered 
to  Captain  Maitland  in  July,  and  was  by  him  conveyed 
in  the  Bellerophon  to  England.  Captain  Maitland  was 
knighted  and  made  a rear-admiral.  He  died  in  1839. 

MAITLAND,  Sir  Peregrine,  born  in  England  in 
I777»  died  in  1854;  became  a full  general  in  the  British 
army,  fought  at  Corunna  and  Waterloo,  in  1818  became 
lieutenant-governor  of  Canada,  and  afterward  became 
interim  governor-general  and  lieutenant-governor  of 
Nova  Scotia. 

MAJOR,  Richard  Henry,  F.S.A.,  born  in  London 
in  1818,  was  honorary  secretary  of  the  Hakluyt  Society, 
1849-58,  a vice  president  of  the  Royal  Geographical  So- 
ciety, 1881-84,  and  long  connected  with  the  library  of 
the  British  Museum.  He  died  June  25,  1891. 

MAKART,  Hans,  celebrated  Austrian  figure  painter, 
and  brilliant  colorist,  born  at  Salzburg,  1840,  died  1884. 
His  well  known  series  of  ideal  paintings  of  the  Five 
Senses  was  exhibited  at  the  Word’s  Columbian  Expo- 
sition-in Chicago  in  1893. 

MALBONE,  Edward  Greene,  painter,  born  in 
Newport,  R.  I.,  in  August,  1777;  died  in  Savannah, 
Ga.,  May  7,  1807.  He  early  painted  a landscape 
scene  for  the  Newport  theater.  In  1794^96  he  was 
settled  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  as  a portrait  painter.  He 
visited  Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia,  and  in 
1800  accompanied  Washington  Allston  to  Charleston, 
S.  C.  In  1801  both  artists  visited  Europe,  but  Mal- 
bone  returned  in  December  of  the  same  year  to  Charles- 
ton, where  he  became  permanently  located.  From 
there  he  made  periodical  visits  to  the  northern  cities, 
where  he  painted  miniatures  of  many  persons  of  note. 


66?i  MAL- 

Toward  the  close  of  his  life  he  attempted  oil  painting. 
An  interesting  specimen  in  this  department  is  his  own 
likeness,  now  in  the  Corcoran  gallery  at  Washington. 
Occasionally  he  painted  landscapes  in  oil,  and  figure 
pieces.  One  of  his  finest  of  the  latter  kind  is  The 
Hours , preserved  in  the  Providence  Athenaeum.  In 
his  day  Malbone’s  pencil  and  brush  were  in  great  de- 
mand. 

MALET,  Sir  Edward  Baldwin,  K.C.B.,  born  at 
the  Hague,  October  io,  1837,  is  the  son  of  Sir  Alex- 
ander Charles  Malet,  K.C.  B.,  formerly  British  minister 
at  Frankfort.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  at  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Oxford,  and  entered  the  diplomatic  serv- 
ice in  1854,  as  attache  at  Frankfort.  In  1858  he  was 
transferred  to  Brussels,  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  in  1861,  and 
in  1862  to  Washington,  where  he  was  made  second 
secretary.  From  1865  to  1878  he  served  at  Lisbon, 
Constantinople,  Paris,  Pekin,  Athens  and  Rome,  and 
on  April  20,  1878,  he  was  appointed  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary at  Constantinople.  The  following  year  he 
went  to  Egypt  as  agent-consul-general,  and  a minister 
plenipotentiary  in  the  diplomatic  service ; was  made 
K.C. B.  in  1881,  and  received  the  medal  and  Khedive’s 
star  for  his  services  in  Egypt  in  1882.  In  August,  1883, 
he  was  promoted  to  be  envoy  extraordinary  and  minis- 
ter plenipotentiary  at  Brussels,  and  he  became  ambas- 
sador at  Berlin,  September  20,  1884.  Sir  Edward 
Malet  was  sworn  a privy  councilor  in  March, 
1885,  and  in  June  of  the  same  year  was  made  a 
G.C.M.G. 

MALIBRAN,  Maria  Felicita  Garcia,  born  in 
Paris,  in  1808,  died  in  1836,  was  one  of  the  most  celebrat- 
ed mezzo-soprano  singers  of  the  century.  She  achieved 
a continental  reputation  before  she  was  eighteen,  sang 
in  1826  in  New  York,  where  she  married  M.  Malibran, 
a banker ; separated  from  him  in  1828,  after  his  bank- 
ruptcy, and  repeated  her  successes  in  all  the  capitals  of 
Europe. 

MALLERY,  Garrick,  born  in  Wilkesbarre,  Pa., 
April  23,  1831,  graduated  at  Yale  in  1850;  practiced 
law  and  engaged  in  editorial  work  in  Philadelphia  until 
1861.  He  then  entered  the  volunteer  service  as  first 
lieutenant  of  Pennsylvania  troops,  received  the  brevets 
of  lieutenant-colonel  and  colonel,  and  in  1870  was  com- 
missioned captain  in  the  United  States  infantry.  Dur- 
ing the  war  he  was  twice  severely  wounded  and  was 
for  some  months  a prisoner  in  Libby  prison.  During 
the  reconstruction  period  he  served  as  secretary  of 
state  and  adjutant  general  of  Virginia.  In  August, 
1870,  he  was  detailed  for' meteorological  service,  and 
until  1876  had  charge  of  the  signal  service  bureau. 
While  on  duty  in  the  West  he  paid  much  attention  to 
the  ethnology  and  mythology  of  the  Dakota  Indians,  on 
which  subjects  he  wrote  several  valuable  works.  In 
1879  he  became  ethnologist  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnol- 
ogy, which  position  he  held  until  his  death,  October 
25,  1894.  He  was  president  of  the  Anthropological 
Society  and  chairman  of  the  anthropological  section  of 
the  American  Association  (1881).  Died  Oct.,  1804. 

MALLET,  John  William,  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland, 
October  10,  1832;  studied  chemistry  at  Gottingen  and 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1853.  He  became  con- 
nected with  the  chemical  department  of  Amherst  and 
afterward  with  the  University  of  Alabama.  He  served 
in  the  Confederate  army,  and  from  1867  to  1883  held 
professorial  chairs  at  the  U niversity  of  Virginia.  After 
one  year  at  the  University  of  Texas  he  accepted  the 
chair  of  physics  in  Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadel- 
phia, and  in  1885  returned  to  the  University  of  Vir- 
inia  as  professor  of  chemistry  and  pharmacy.  He 
as  written  extensively  on  chemistry  as  applied  to  the 
arts,  is  a fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  England, 


-MAN 

and  in  1882  was  president  of  the  Ameficah  Chfemlc&l 
Society. 

MALLOCK,  William  Hurrell,  born  in  England 
in  1849.  The  New  Republic , most  of  which  he  wrote 
when  he  was  at  Oxford,  was  published  in  1876,  having 
first  appeared  in  a fragmentary  form  in  Belgravia.  A 
year  later  he  published  The  New  Paul  and  Virginia. 
In  1879  he  published  Is  Life  Worth  Living,  which  first 
appeared  in  fragments  in  the  Contemporary  Review  and 
the  Nineteenth  Century.  In  1880  he  brought  out  a 
small  edition  of  Poems,  written,  most  of  them,  many 
years  previously.  The  following  year  he  published  A 
Romance  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  and  in  1882 
Social  Equality : a Study  in  a Missing  Science,  the 
substance  of  which  had  already  appeared  in  fragments 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century  and  the  Contemporary  during 
the  three  previous  years.  In  1884  he  published  Prop- 
erty and  Progress,  an  examination  of  the  theories  of 
contemporary  radical  and  socialistic  agitation.  The 
year  following  he  published  Atheism  and  the  Value  of 
Life  ; or  Five  Studies  in  Contemporary  Literature,  be- 
ing criticisms  of  Professor  Clifford,  Lord  Tennyson, 
George  Eliot,  the  author  of  Ecce  Llomo,  and  Herbert 
Spencer.  He  also  wrote  The  Old  Order  Changes,  a 
novel  (1886),  and  Labor  and  the  Popular  Welfare  (1893.) 

MALLORY,  Stephen  Russell,  born  in  the  West 
Indies,  April,  1813 ; died  in  Florida,  November  9,  1873. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Florida  in  1839;  served 
as  judge  of  Monroe  county,  and  probate  judge,  and  in 
1845  was  appointed  collector  of  customs  at  Key  West. 
He  took  an  active  partin  the  Seminole  war,  and  in  1851 
was  elected  to  the  U nited  States  senate ; was  reelected  in 
1857,  and  continued  to  represent  the  State  until  the 
secession  of  Florida  early  in  1861,  when  he  resigned  to 
join  the  Confederacy.  He  was  appointed  chief  justice 
of  the  admiralty  court  of  Florida  after  the  secession,  but 
declined  that  office,  and  on  February  21,  1861,  became 
secretary  of  the  navy  in  Jefferson  Davis’  cabinet,  which 
position  he  held  to  the  close  of  the  war. 

MALMESBURY,  Earl  of  (James  Howard  Har- 
ris, G.C.B.),  born  in  London,  March  25,  1807,  entered 
the  House  of  Commons  as  a Conservative  in  1841 ; suc- 
ceeded to  the  peerage  the  same  year ; as  secretary  of 
state  for  foreign  affairs  in  Lord  Derby’s  first  adminis- 
tration, in  1852,  was  the  first  to  recognize  the  French 
empire,  held  the  same  position,  1858-59,  and  was  lord 
keeper  of  the  privy  seal,  1866-68,  and  again,  1874-76. 
He  died  May  17,  1889. 

MAMIANI,  Della  Rovere,  Count  Terenzio, 
Italian  scholar  and  statesman,  born  in  1799,  at  Pe- 
saro;  died  at  Rome,  May  21,  1885.  He  took  partin 
revolutions  against  the  papal  power,  founded  a society 
for  promoting  Italian  unity  at  Turin  ; on  the  flight  of 
Pius  IX.  from  Rome  to  Gaeta,  became  foreign  minister 
in  the  cabinet  of  Galetti ; in  1856  was  a member  of 
the  Sardinian  parliament ; in  i860  was  Italian  minister 
of  instruction,  and  was  ambassador  to  Greece  in  1861, 
and  to  Switzerland  in  1865. 

MANBY,  George  William,  inventor  of  life-saving 
apparatus,  born  in  England,  1765 ; died  1854.  In 
1808  he  succeeded,  with  his  apparatus,  in  saving  the 
lives  of  the  crew  of  the  brig  Elizabeth  and  devoted  his 
life  to  similar  work. 

MANCINI,  Pasquale,  born  in  Italy,  1820,  became 
professor  of  jurisprudence  at  the  University  of  Naples  ; 
opposed  the  king  in  the  Neapolitan  parliament  and  in 
1848  had  to  flee  to  Turin  ; in  i860  became  minister  of 
justice  and  religion  in  the  new  Italian  government; 
minister  of  education  in  1862  and  in  1876  minister  of 
justice.  From  1871  to  his  death,  December  26,  1888, 
he  was  professor  of  criminal  jurisprudence  in  the 
university  of  Rome  as  well  as  deputy  in  parliament. 


MAN-MAP 


MANCO  CAP  AC,  first  Inca  of  Peru,  died  about 
1107.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  a foreigner  who 
gathered  the  native  tribes  on  the  borders  of  Lake  Titi- 
caca, pretending  to  bring  them  a new  revelation  as  the 
offspring  of  the  sun  ; taught  them  the  arts  of  peace, 
abolished  human  sacrifice,  taught  of  an  unknown 
supreme  being,  and  offered  subordinate  homage  to 
the  sun,  moon  and  stars,  and  founded  the  city  of 
Cuzca. 

MANET,  Edouard,  a French  painter,  born  in  1832, 
died  in  1883.  He  founded  the  school  of  Impression- 
ism in  painting,  a protest  against  the  conventional  in 
art  in  favor  of  absolute  truth  in  rendering  the  personal 
and  immediate  “impressions”  of  nature. 

MANN,  Ambrose  Dudley,  diplomatist,  born  in 
Virginia,  April  26,  1801,  and  died  at  Paris,  France, 
Nov.  20,  1889.  He  served  as  United  States  consul  at 
Bremen  in  1842,  and  became  commissioner  to  Hungary 
in  1849,  The  next  year  he  was  made  United  States 
minister  to  Switzerland,  and  from  1851  to  1856,  was 
assistant  secretary  of  state.  He  joined  the  Confederacy, 
and  with  Slidell  and  Mason  was  sent  on  a special  mis- 
sion to  Europe  in  1861.  He  resided  in  France  after 
the  war,  and  published  his  Memoirs  in  1888. 

MANNERS,  Lord  John  James  Robert,  second 
son  of  the  late  Duke  of  Rutland,  born  at  Belvoir  Castle, 
Leicestershire,  December  13,  1818;  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  gradu- 
ated M.  A.  in  1839,  and  was  one  of  the  earliest  members 
of  the  Camden  Society.  He  entered  Parliament  as  a 
Conservative  for  Newark  in  1841,  and  represented 
Colchester  from  1850  to  1857,  when  he  was  elected  for 
North  Leicestershire.  He  made  his  maiden  speech  in 
February,  1841,  when  he  opposed  the  repeal  of  the 
corn  laws.  He  was  appointed  first  commissioner 
of  the  office  of  works,  with  a seat  in  the  cabinet,  and 
sworn  a privy  councilor  in  Lord  Derby’s  first  adminis- 
tration in  1852;  held  the  same  post  in  Lord  Derby’s 
second  administration  in  1858-59,  and  was  reappointed 
in  Lord  Derby’s  third  administration,  1866-67.  In 
February,  1874,  he  was  appointed  postmaster-general, 
and  he  held  that  post  till  the  Conservatives  went  out 
of  office  in  April,  1880,  when  he  was  created  a G.C.B. 
In  1885  he  was  returned  for  the  new  Melton  Division 
of  Leicestershire,  and  was  postmaster-general  in  Lord 
Salisbury’s  government.  In  1888  he  succeeded  to  the 
dukedom  of  Rutland,  and  has  since  sat  in  the  House 
of  Lords. 

MANNING,  Daniel,  was  born  at  Albany,  N.  Y., 
August  16,  1831.  Losing  his  father  at  an  early  age  he 
was  compelled  to  support  himself,  and  soon  became  con- 
nected with  the  Albany  A tlas,  a paper  afterward  merged 
in  the  Albany  Argus.  Working  his  way  up  from  office- 
boy,  through  the  composing-room  to  the  ’ reportorial 
and  editorial  staff,  by  1873  he  had  secured  control  of  the 
paper  and  had  become  president  of  the  Argus  Publish- 
ing Company.  On  the  accession  to  the  presidency  of 
Mr.  Cleveland  in  March,  1885,  Mr.  Manning  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  the  treasury.  He  held  that  office 
until  April,  1887,  and  died  December  24,  1887. 

MANNING,  Henry  Edward,  cardinal  priest  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Church  and  archbishop  of  Westminster, 
born  in  England,  July  15,  1808,  was  educated  at  Har- 
row and  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated 
B.  A.  in  first-class  honors  in  1830,  and  became  fellow  of 
Merton  College.  He  was  for  some  time  one  of  the 
select  preachers  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  was  ap- 
pointedrectorofLavingtonandGraftham,  Sussex,  1834, 
and  archdeacon  of  Chichester  in  1840.  These  prefer- 
ments he  resigned  in  1851  on  joining  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church,  in  which  he  entered  the  priesthood,  and  in 
1857  founded  an  ecclesiastical  congregation  at  Bays- 


6673 

water.  The  degree  of  D.  D.  was  conferred  upon  him  at 
Rome,  and  the  office  of  provost  of  the  Catholic  archdi- 
ocese of  Westminster,  prothonotary  apostolic  and  do- 
mestic prelate  to  the  Pope.  After  the  death  of  Cardinal 
Wiseman,  Monsignor  Manning  was  consecrated  arch- 
bishop of  Westminster,  June  8,  1865.  Pope  Pius  IX. 
created  him  a cardinal  priest  March  15,  1875,  the  title 
assigned  to  him  being  that  of  SS.  Andrew  and  Gregory 
on  the  Coelian  Hill.  The  same  pontiff  invested  him 
with  the  cardinal’s  hat  at  a consistory  held  at  the  Vati- 
can, December  31,  1877.  Cardinal  Manning  was  the 
foremost  English  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  took  a deep 
interest  in  social  reforms,  was  a sincere  friend  of  the 
working  classes,  frequently  acting  as  their  mediator  in 
strikes,  and  wrote  numerous  ecclesiastical  works,  in- 
cluding The  Temporal  Power  of  the  Pope.  He  died 
June  14,  1892. 

MANNING,  Thomas  C.,  born  in  North  Carolina  in 
1831 ; died  1887.  He  practiced  law  in  North  Carolina 
and  Louisiana;  sat  in  the  Louisiana  secession  conven- 
tion, was  appointed  adjutant-general  in  1863;  became 
chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  Louisiana,  1877- 
80;  in  1880  was  appointed  United  States  senator,  but 
not  admitted  by  the  senate;  sat  on  the  supreme  bench 
of  Louisiana  again,  1882-86,  and  was  then  appointed 
by  President  Cleveland  as  minister  to  Mexico. 

MANOGUE,  Patrick,  born  in  county  Kildare,  Ire- 
land, 1831 ; came  to  the  United  States  in  1856,  was  or- 
dained in  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood  in  1861,  held 
pastorates  in  the  missionary  districts  of  Nevada,  and 
in  1884  became  bishop  of  Virginia  City.  He  died 
February  27,  1895. 

MANSFIELD,  Richard,  an  actor  of  versatile  gen- 
ius and  great  merit,  who  was  born  in  Heligoland,  1857, 
but  has  won  his  dramatic  triumphs  on  the  American 
stage,  achieving  great  success  in  such  widely  different 
plays  as  Richard  III.,  Prince  Karl,  Beau  Brummell , 
“ Baron  Chevrial  ” in^  Parisian  Romance,  the  titular 
roles  in  Dr.  Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde,  and,  in  1895,  as 
“Baron  Bluntschli”  in  Man  and  the  Arms.  Early  in 
1895  he  opened  the  “ Garrick  Theatre  ” in  New  York 
city,  as  a permanent  home  for  his  stock  company. 
His  wife,  Beatrice  Cameron,  was  his  leading  lady. 

MANTEUFFEL,  Edwin  Hans  Karl  von 
(Baron),  was  born  at  Magdeburg,  Germany,  February 
24,  1809,  and  entered  the  Prussian  army  at  the  age  of 
eighteen.  In  1858  he  had  attained  the  rank  of  major- 
general,  and  in  1864  he  commanded  a large  force  of 
German  troops  in  the  Schleswig-Holstein  campaign. 
During  the  Austro-Prussian  war  in  1866  he  was  active 
in  Hanover  and  Saxony,  and  when  the  Franco-Prussian 
war  broke  out  in  July,  1870,  he  was  given  command 
of  an  army  corps,  in  which  capacity  he  greatly  dis- 
tinguished himself.  In  1879  he  was  promoted  to#the 
rank  of  field  marshal.  He  was  given  the  governorship 
of  Alsace-Lorraine,  which  he  administered  in  an  auto- 
cratic manner.  He  died  June  17,  1885. 

MAPES,  James  Jay,  born  in  New  York  city,  May 
29,  1806;  died  there  January  10,  1866.  In  1832  he  in- 
vented a new  process  for  sugar-refining.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  chemistry  at  the  National  Academy 
of  Design  in  New  York,  and  delivered  lectures  on  the 
chemistry  of  colors ; later  he  became  connected  with  the 
American  Institute  in  the  same  capacity.  At  that  time 
he  experimented  in  many  directions,  analyzing,  dis- 
tilling, dyeing,  etc.,  and  later  opened  a consulting 
office  for  civil  engineering.  In  1847  he  removed  from 
New  York  city  to  Newark,  where  he  devoted  much 
attention  to  agriculture  and  agricultural  chemistry ; here 
he  made  the  first  artificial  fertilizers,  and  originated  the 
use  of  superphosphates  in  the  United  States.  He  was 
elected  president  of  the  Mechanics’  Institute  in  1844; 


MAR 


6674 

for  many  years  was  vice-president  of  the  American  In- 
stitute, and  delivered  many  addresses  before  agricul- 
tural societies.  In  1840  Professor  Mapes  published  The 
American  Repertory  of  Art,  Sciences,  and  Manufactures, 
and  from  1850  to  1864,  The  Working  Farmer. 

MARBOIS,  Francois  de  Barb£,  Marquis  de, 
French  diplomatist,  born  in  Metz,  Germany,  January 
31,  1745;  died  in  Paris,  January  14,  1837.  In  1779  he 
became  secretary  of  legation  to  the  United  States,  and 
served  as  such  during  the  American  Revolution.  When 
de  Luzerre  returned  to  France,  Marbois  remained  until 
1785,  as  charge  d'affaires,  and  organized  the  various 
French  consulates  in  this  country.  In  1783  he  married 
a daughter  of  Governor  William  Moore  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  in  1785  became  intendant  of  Santo  Domingo. 
During  the  revolutionary  disturbances  in  France  he 
was  exiled  to  Cayenne  for  over  two  years.  On  his 
return  he  was  made  state  councilor,  and  in  1801  became 
French  secretary  of  the  treasury.  In  1803  he  was 
authorized  by  Napoleon  to  cede  Louisiana  to  the  United 
States  for  50,000,000  francs,  but  diplomatically  managed 
to  exact  80,000,000  francs  for  its  transfer.  In  1813-14 
he  served  as  senator,  and  in  1814  was  the  first  one  to 
vote  for  the  deposition  of  Napoleon.  Louis  XVIII. 
made  him  a peer  of  France,  and  soon  afterward  he  was 
created  marquis.  He  published  several  essays  on  fi- 
nance and  agriculture.  His  history  of  the  plot  of  Ar- 
nold and  Clinton  is  of  considerable  historical  value. 

MARCH,  Francis  Andrew,  LL.D.,  born  at  Mill- 
bury,  Mass.,  October  25,  1825;  graduated  at  Amherst 
College  in  1845  ; in  1858  was  chosen  professor  of  the 
English  language  and  comparative  philology  in  Lafay- 
ette College,  Easton,  Pa.,  has  devoted  himself  to  the 
Anglo-Saxon  language,  ranking  among  the  foremost 
scholars  in  that  department,  and  in  1873  was  chosen 
president  of  the  American  Philological  Association. 
He  has  taken  the  direction  of  the  work  in  America  for 
the  Historical  Dictionary  of  the  Engtish  Language,  now 
in  publication  by  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  is  presi- 
dent of  the  Spelling  Reform  Association,  and  honorary 
member  of  the  Philological  Society  of  London. 

MARCHETTI,  Filippo,  an  operatic  composer, 
born  at  Rome  irt  1835,  became  in  1881  president  of  a 
musical  college  in  Rome.  His  best-known  operas  are 
Romeo  e Giuletta,  and  Ruy  Bias. 

MARCOU,  Jules,  a French  geologist,  born  in  1824. 
As  agent  for  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  he  visited  the 
United  States,  making  valuable  collections  of  minerals, 
and  in  1853  he  entered  the  United  States  service  for 
two  years;  in  1861  was  associated  with  Louis  Agassiz 
in  founding  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  and 
in  1875  again  entered  the  United  States  service.  He 
wrote  several  works  on  geology.  Died  April  17,  1898. 

MARCY,  Oliver,  born  in  Massachusetts,  February 
13,  1820,  was  educated  at  Wesleyan  University,  and  in 
1862  became  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  North- 
western University  at  Evanston,  111.  He  is  the  author 
of  numerous  scientific  articles,  a member  of  several 
scientific  societies,  and  LL.  D.  of  the  University  of 
Chicago,  1876. 

MARCY,  Randolph  Barnes,  born  in  Massachu- 
setts, April  9,  1812  ; graduated  at  West  Point  in  1832, 
and  served  in  the  Blackhawk  war,  the  Mexican  war, 
the  Red  River  exploration,  the  Seminole  war  in  Florida 
in  1857,  and  the  Utah  expedition  of  the  following  year. 
Puring  the  Civil  war  he  served  as  chief  of  staff  to  his 
son-in-law,  Gen.  George  B,  McClellan,  in  West  Vir- 
ginia, and  in  the  Peninsula.  He  was  made  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  in  September,  1861,  and  after- 
ward was  assigned  as  inspector-general  of  the  south- 
west. In  1869  he  became  inspector-general  of  the 
United  States  army,  and  served  m that  capacity  until 


January  2,  1881,  when  he  was  retired  from  active  serv 
ice.  He  died  in  New  Jersey,  November  22,  1887. 

MARCY,  William  Learned,  was  born  at  Stur- 
bridge,  Mass.,  December  12,  1786.  He  graduated  at 
Brown  University  in  1808,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1810,  and  began  practice  at  Troy,  N.  Y.  He  soon  be- 
came a leading  Democratic  politician,  and  one  of  the 
“ Albany  regency  ” which  was  supposed  to  control  the 
action  of  the  party  in  New  York  State.  He  was  United 
States  senator  in  1831-32,  and  during  his  term  he  inci- 
dentally made  use  of  the  phrase  so  frequently  afterward 
heard,  “ To  the  victors  belong  the  spoils.”  He  resigned 
to  become  governor  of  New  York,  1833-39.  He  was 
secretary  of  war  under  Polk,  1845-49,  and  secretary  of 
state  under  Pierce,  1853-57.  As  secretary  of  state  he 
conducted  with  success  the  Koszta  case  in  1854,  involv- 
ing a collision  with  Austria  on  the  subject  of  the  right 
of  expatriation.  All  his  political  leanings  were  to  that 
branch  of  the  Democratic  party  in  New  York  whick 
made  the  strength  of  the  new  Republican  party  in  1856, 
and  he  would  have  been  its  natural  leader  if  he  had  fol- 
lowed his  own  convictions  on  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill. 
He  hesitated,  and  other  men  took  his  place.  He  died 
at  Ballston  Spa,  N.  Y.,  July  4,  1857. 

MARIA  CHRISTINA,  ex-Queen  of  Spain,  was 
born  April  27,  1806.  In  1829  she  became  the  fourth 
wife  of  Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain,  who  in  1830  restored 
the  law  by  which,  in  default  of  male  issue,  the  right  of 
inheritance  was  given  to  females,  and  in  October  of  that 
year  the  queen  gave  birth  to  a daughter,  Isabella  II., 
ex-Queen  of  Spain.  Ferdinand  died  September  29, 
1833,  and  by  his  testament  his  widow  was  appointed 
guardian  of  her  children — the  young  Queen  Isabella 
and  the  Infanta  Maria  Louisa,  now  Duchess  de  Mont- 
pensier — and  also  regent  till  the  young  queen  should  at- 
tain the  age  of  eighteen  years.  A civil  war  broke  out, 
the  adherents  of  Don  Carlos,  Ferdinand’s  brother,  seek- 
ing to  place  him  on  the  throne.  This  war  continued 
till  1840.  Maria  was  united,  in  December,  1833,  to 
Don  Fernando  Munoz,  in  a morganatic  marriage, 
which,  however,  was  kept  secret,  while  her  connection 
with  him  was  no  secret.  She  had  ten  children  by  him. 
A conspiracy,  which  broke  out  on  the  night  of  August 
13,  1836,  exposed  Munoz  to  great  danger,  and  led  the 
queen-mother  to  concede  a constitution  to  Spain.  She 
gave  to  the  new  prime  minister  Espartero,  October  10, 
1S40,  a renunciation  of  the  regency,  and  retired  to 
France.  After  the  fall  of  Espartero  she  returned  to 
Madrid,  in  1843,  and  in  October,  1844,  her  niarriage 
with  Munoz,  who  was  now  made  Duke  of  Rianzares, 
was  publicly  solemnized.  In  July,  1854,  a revolution 
expelled  her  from  the  country,  and  she  again  took 
refuge  in  France,  but  returned  to  Spain  in  1864.  She 
died  in  August,  1878. 

MARIO,  Guiseppe,  born  in  Sardinia  in  1810;  served 
in  the  army  of  his  native  country,  and  about  1838  made 
his  first  appearance  as  a singer  in  Paris.  He  took  the 
leading  character  in  the  opera  Robert  le  Diable.  For  six 
years  he  sang  in  London  and  Paris,  and  for  five  years  at 
St.  Petersburg.  In  1854  he  visited  the  United  States 
in  company  with  Madame  Grisi.  He  was  then  at  the 
top  of  his  reputation,  and  the  engagement  was  a great 
success.  Twenty  years  after  he  revisited  America,  but 
this  time  his  magnificent  voice  was  gone.  He  was  one 
of  the  greatest  tenor  singers  of  his  age,  and  had  a voice 
of  remarkably  sympathetic  quality.  Mario  was  of  good 
birth,  being  titular  marquis  of  Candia.  He  died  in 
Rome,  December  11,  1883. 

MARISCAL,  Ignacio,  born  in  Mexico,  July  5, 
1829;  practiced  law  in  Oajaca,  and  became  solicitor- 
general  of  that  state  (1850-53).  In  1856  he  served  in 
the  national  congress,  and  again  in  1861-62.  Juarei 


MAR 


made  him  a judge  in  1863,  and  he  afterward  acted  as 
assistant  secretary  of  state.  From  August,  1863,  until 
October,  1867,  he  served  as  secretary  of  the  Mexican 
legation  at  Washington.  In  1868  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  justice,  and,  shortly  afterward,  a represent- 
ative and  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court.  In  1869  he 
was  appointed  secretary  of  justice  and  education,  and 
in  this  capacity  introduced  into  Mexico  the  system  of 
trial  by  jury  in  criminal  cases.  From  June,  1869,  until 
May,  1871,  he  was  the  Mexican  minister  to  the  United 
States,  and,  after  a short  term  as  secretary  of  foreign, 
affairs,  he  returned  to  Washington  in  his  former 
capacity,  remaining  there  until  1877.  After  that  he 
held  various  judicial  and  cabinet  offices  in  Mexico,  and 
in  1883  became  minister  at  London.  In  the  following 
year  he  returned  home,  and  became  secretary  of  foreign 
affairs  under  President  Diaz. 

MARKHAM,  Sir  Clements  Robert.  C.B.,  F.R.S., 
F.S.A.,  was  born  July  20,  1830;  educated  at  Westmin- 
ster School,  and  entered  the  British  navy  in  1844.  He 
passed  for  a lieutenant  in  1850,  and  left  the  navy  in 
1851.  He  became  a clerk  in  the  board  of  control  in 
1855,  assistant  secretary  in  the  India  office  in  1867,  and 
was  placed  in  charge  of  the  geographical  department  of 
the  India  office  in  1868.  From  1862  to  1864  he  was 
private  secretary  to  Mr.  T.  G.  Baring  (now  earl  of 
Northbrook).  He  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  Hak- 
luyt Society  in  1858,  and  was  elected  secretary  of  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society  in  1863.  Mr.  Markham 
served  in  the  Arctic  expedition  in  search  of  Sir  John 
Franklin  in  1850-51;  explored  Peru  and  the  forests  of 
the  Eastern  Andes  in  1852-54;  introduced  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  cinchona  plant  from  South  America  into 
India  in  1860-61;  visited  Ceylon  and  India  in  1865-66; 
served  as  geographer  to  the  Abyssinian  expedition,  and 
was  present  at  the  storming  of  Magdala  in  1867-68; 
and  was  created  a companion  of  the  Bath  in  1871. 

MARKS,  PIenry  Stacey,  R.A.,  was  born  in  Lon- 
don, September  13,  1829.  He  gained  admission  as  a 
student  to  the  Royal  Academy  in  1851.  He  was  elected 
an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  January,  1871;  an 
associate  of  the  Water  Color  Society  in  March  the  same 
year;  and  a royal  academician  December  19,  1878. 
Mr.  Marks,  whose  forte  is  genre  and  quaint  mediaeval- 
ism,  has  been  a constant  exhibitor  at  the  Royal  Academy 
since  1853.  He  died  Jan.  9,  1898. 

MARMADUKE,  John  S. , born  in  Missouri,  March 
14,  1833;  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1857,  and 
served  in  Utah  and  New  Mexico  under  Albert  Sidney 
Johnston.  Like  his  general  he  joined  the  Confederacy, 
and  was  made  colonel  of  the  3d  Confederate  infantry. 
He  fought  with  gallantry  at  Shiloh,  and  was  wounded 
in  the  second  day’s  fight.  Afterward  he  took  part  in 
the  campaigns  of  Mississippi  and  Arkansas,  and  was 
made  a major-general  for  his  services  against  N.  P. 
Banks.  He  was  captured  in  Missouri,  in  October, 
1864,  and  held  a prisoner  of  war  at  Fort  Warren,  Bos- 
ton, until  August,  1865.  After  the  war  he  engaged  in 
the  life  insurance  business  in  Missouri,  and  also  carried 
©n  a newspaper.  In  1873  became  secretary  of  the 
Missouri  State  Board  of  Agriculture.  In  1875  he  was 
appointed  railway  commissioner,  and  in  1884  was  elected 
governor  of  Missouri.  He  died  at  Jefferson  City,  De- 
cember 28,  1887. 

MARMORA,  Alfonso  Ferrero  Della,  born  in 
Turin,  Italy,  in  1804;  became  Sardinian  minister  of  war 
in  November,  1848,  and  held  that  office  until  February, 
1855*  A year  later  he  commanded  the  Sardinian  con- 
tingent in  the  Crimea,  and  on  his  return  home  again 
served  as  minister  of  war.  In  July,  1859,  he  became 
president  of  the  council  of  ministers,  which  office  he 
held  for  one  year.  In  1864  he  was  again  president,  and 


6675 

also  held  the  portfolio  of  foreign  affairs.  When  the 
Austro-Prussian  war  broke  out  in  June,  1866,  Della 
Marmora  resigned  his  offices  to  take  command  of  the 
army.  His  troops  were  overwhelmed  by  the  Archduke 
Albert  of  Austria,  at  Custozza,  a few  weeks  later. 
Della  Marmora  practically  disappeared  from  public  life 
after  this  and  died  at  Florence,  January  8,  1878. 

MAROCHETTI,  Charles  (Baron),  was  born  at 
Turin,  Italy,  1805,  and  removed  to  England  in  1848. 
He  had  already  produced  numerous  statues,  busts,  and 
other  works  of  sculpture,  and  in  England  his  chief 
works  are  the  colossal  statue  of  Richard,  Cceur  de  Lion, 
in  Palace  Yard,  Westminster,  the  equestrian  statue  of 
Queen  Victoria  at  Glasgow,  and  various  groups  of 
statuary  in  London.  He  became  a Royal  Academician 
in  1866,  and  died  in  December  of  the  following  year. 

MARRIOTT,  Sir  William  Thackeray,  Q.C., 

M. P.,  was  born  in  1834,  and  educated  at  St.  John’s  Col- 
lege, Cambridge.  He  took  orders  and  worked  for  some 
time  as  a curate,  but  gave  up  his  clerical  career  and  was 
called, to  the  bar  at  Lincoln’s  Inn  in  1864.  He  became  a 
queen’s  counsel  in  1877  and  was  made  a bencher  in  hisr 
Inn  in  1879.  He  first  entered  parliament  as  Liberal 
member  for  Brighton  in  1880,  but  in  1884,  having  dif- 
fered from  his  party  on  the  question  of  the  cloture , he 
announced  a change  in  his  political  opinions  and  was 
reelected  as  a Conservative,  and  returned  as  such  in 
1885  and  again  in  1886.  In  Lord  Salisbury’s  first  ad- 
ministration (having  been  sworn  of  the  privy  council) 
he  was  judge  advocate-general,  a post  to  which  he  was 
again  appointed  in  1886.  Mr.  Marriott  at  one  time 
gained  notoriety  by  his  violent  attacks  on  the  Liberal 
party.  He  was  made  a knight  in  1888. 

MARRYAT,  Florence  (Mrs.  Francis  Lean), 
sixth  daughter  of  the  late  Capt.  Frederick  Marryat 
(y.z'.),  was  born  at  Brighton  in  Sussex,  and  educated  at 
home.  She  began  to  write  in  1865,  when  her  first 
novel,  Love's  Conflict , was  published,  since  which 
time  she  has  written  over  fifty  works,  most  of  which 
have  been  republished  in  America  and  Germany,  and 
translated  into  French,  German,  Russian,  Flemish,  and 
Swedish.  She  was  appointed  editor  of  London  Society 
in  1872,  and  has  been  a constant  contributor  to  maga- 
zines and  newspapers.  She  is  known  on  the  stage  as 
an  operatic  singer  and  high-class  comedy  actress,  and 
has  been  most  successful  as  an  entertainer  and  lecturer. 

MARSH,  George  Jenkins,  born  in  Woodstock, 
Vt.,  March  15,  1801;  died  in  Vallombrosa,  Italy,  July 
23,  1882.  He  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  1820, 
and  studied  law  in  Burlington,  Vt.  In  1835  he  was 
chosen  a member  of  the  State  legislature,  and  in  1842 
elected  to  congress  on  the  Whig  ticket,  where  he  served 
until  1849.  From  1849  until  I&53  ^ie  served  as  United 
States  minister  to  Turkey,  and  in  1861  was  appointed 
minister  to  Italy.  He  received  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
from  several  colleges,  and  was  connected  with  many 
learned  societies.  He  rendered  important  services  as  a 
philologist,  and  made  the  Gothic  dialects  his  particular 
study.  In  1858  and  1859  he  lectured  on  language  at 
Columbia  College  and  the  Lowell  Institute. 

MARSH,  Othniel  Charles,  was  born  at  Lockport, 

N.  Y.,  October  29,  1831.  He  graduated  from  Yale 
College  in  i860,  and  from  the  Yale  Scientific  School  in 
1862,  and  from  1862  to  1865  studied  in  the  universities  of 
Berlin,  Heidelberg,  and  Breslau.  Returning  to  America 
in  1866,  he  was  chosen  professor  of  paleontology  in  Yale 
College.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  special  investiga- 
tion of  the  extinct  vertebrate  animals  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  districts,  and  nearly  every  year  since  1868  has 
organized  and  led  a scientific  expedition  to  those  regions. 
In  these  explorations  more  than  1,000  new  species  of 
vertebrates  have  been  discovered,  many  of  which  repre- 


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sent  wholly  new  orders,  and  others  not  before  discovered 
in  America.  0/  these  more  than  300  have  already  been 
described  by  Professor  Marsh  in  papers  most  of  which 
have  appeared  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science. 
These  papers  are  over  150  in  number.  Since  1876  he 
has  been  engaged  in  preparing  a series  of  reports,  to  be 
published  by  government,  giving  full  illustrated  descrip- 
tions of  his  western  discoveries.  The  first  of  these,  on 
Ihe  Odontornithes,  or  birds  with  teeth  (34  plates),  was 
issued  in  1880,  and  a second  memoir  on  the  Dinocerata 
(56  plates),  appeared  in  1884.  A third  volume  on  the 
Sauropoda  (90  plates)  has  lately  been  completed.  In 
1878  Professor  Marsh  was  president  of  the  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  and  since 
1882  has  been  president  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences.  He  is  a.  fellow  of  the  Geological  Society, 
Zoological  Society,  and  many  others.  Died  Mar.,  1899. 

MARSHALL,  the  name  of  an  English  family  which 
settled  in  Virginia,  many  of  the  members  of  which  be- 
came more  or  less  notable  in  early  days.  The  founder 
of  the  family,  John,  was  a cavalry  captain  under  Charles 
I.,  and  settled  in  Virginia  during  the  commonwealth. 
His  son  Thomas  (1665-1704),  and  Thomas,  grandson  of 
the  same  name  (1730-1802)  were  large  planters  and  land- 
owners.  The  last  named  became  colonel  of  a Virginia 
regiment  and  fought  gallantly  at  the  Brandywine.  He 
removed  to  Kentucky,  and  held  some  important  offices. 
His  eldest  son,  John  (1755-1835),  became  chief  justice 
of  the  United  States  supreme  court,  and  his  life  is 
treated  of  in  an  earlier  volume.  (See  Marshall, 
John).  Another  son  of  the  second  Thomas  (1761-1817), 
and  also  of  that  name,  served  in  the  Revolutionary  war. 
Another  so>.,  James  Markham  (1764-1848),  married  a 
daughter  of  Robert  Morris  {q.v.),  and  was  financial 
agent  of  some  of  the  colonies  in  France.  Another  son, 
Alexander  Keith  (1770-1825),  was  a somewhat 
noted  lawyer;  and  another,  Louis  (1773-1866),  was  a 
physician,  and  became  president  of  Washington  Col- 
lege, Va.,  and  Transylvania  University,  Ky. 

Of  the  third  and  fourth  generations  the  most  noted 
were: 

Thomas  (1793-1853)  was  a member  of  the  Kentucky 
legislature  and  a brigadier-general  in  the  Mexican  war. 

Charles  Alexander,  born  in  1809;  raised  a regi- 
ment for  the  Union  in  Kentucky  and  fought  at  Ivy 
Creek. 

Thomas  Francis  (1801-1864)  lawyer,  congressman, 
and  soldier  of  the  Mexican  war. 

Edward  Colston,  born  in  1820;  served  in  the 
Mexican  war;  settled  in  California;  served  in  congress 
1851-53,  and  in  1878  was  elected  attorney -general  of 
California. 

Charles,  born  in  Virginia,  October,  1830;  was  math- 
ematical professor  in  the  University  of  Virginia,  and 
served  on  Lee’s  staff.  After  the  war  he  practiced  law 
in  Baltimore. 

Nicholas  Taliaferro,  born  in  1810;  died  in  1858; 
practiced  medicine  in  Kentucky  and  Cincinnati,  and  was 
a professor  in  the  Ohio  Medical  College. 

Of  a collateral  branch  of  the  family  was  Humphrey, 
born  in  Virginia  in  1756,  who  was  a delegate  to  the  early 
conventions  and  served  in  the  United  States  Senate  from 
1795  to  1801  as  a Federalist.  He  fought  a duel  with 
Henry  Clay,  January  19,  1809,  in  which  Clay  was 
wounded. 

His  son,  John  Jay  (1785-1846)  served  many  years  in 
the  Kentucky  legislature,  and  for  six  years  was  a circuit 
court  judge  at  Louisville.  Another  son,  T hom  as  Alex 
ander  (1794-1871),  sat  in  the  Kentucky  legislature  and 
in  1831-35  in  congress  as  a Whig.  He  became  chief 
justice  of  the  court  of  appeals. 

MARSHALL,  Herbert  Menzies,  was  born  at 


Leeds,  England,  August  1,  1841,  and  educated  at  West- 
minster School,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  in  1864,  second  class  in  the  natural 
science  tripos.  In  the  same  year  he  went  to  Paris  for 
the  purpose  of  studying  architecture.  In  1871  he  ex- 
hibited nis  first  drawing  at  the  Dudley  Gallery.  In  1879 
he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Society  of  Painters  in 
Water  Colors,  and  became  full  member  in  1882. 

MARSHALL,  Humphrey,  born  in  Frankfort,  Ky., 
January  13,  1812;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1832, 
but  resigned  to  become  a lawyer.  H e was  sent  to  con- 
gress twice  from  his  native  State,  served  as  colonel  of 
cavalry  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  in  1861  entered  the 
Confederate  service,  in  which  he  served  throughout  the 
war,  rising  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  He  died  at 
Louisville,  March  28,  1872. 

MARSHALL,  James  Wilson,  born  in  New  Jersey 
in  1812;  died  in  California  August  8,  1885.  In  1844  he 
went  from  Kansas  to  California,  where  he  worked  for 
Gen.  John  A.  Sutter  at  Coloma.  On  January  18,  1848, 
he  found  a nugget  of  gold,  the  first  discovered  in  Cali- 
fornia. A rush  of  miners  followed  and  Marshall  de- 
rived no  advantage  from  his  find. 

MARSTON,  Philip  Bourke,  poet,  novelist,  and 
essayist,  the  son  of  Dr.  Westland  Marston,  was  born 
in  London,  August  13,  1850.  After  contributing  a few 
oems  to  the  Cornhill  Magazine  and  other  periodicals, 
e published  his  first  volume  of  poems,  entitled  Song- 
Tide,  in  1870.  This  was  followed  by  a second  volume, 
entitled  All  in  All , in  1875,  and  by  a third,  entitled 
Wind  Voices,  1883.  These  poems  gained  for  him  the 
friendship  of  Swinburne  and  of  the  late  Dante  Gabriel 
Rossetti,  who  addressed  to  him  a sonnet.  Mr.  Marston 
also  contributed  poetical  criticisms,  essays,  and  novel- 
ettes to  various  well-known  periodicals  both  in  Eng- 
land and  America.  He  died  in  England  February  14, 
1887. 

MARSTON,  Westland,  LL.D.,  poet  and  dram- 
atist, was  born  at  Boston,  Lincolnshire,  England, 
January  30,  1819.  His  best  known  five-act  dramas  are, 
The  Patrician's  Daughter , a tragedy,  published  in 
1841;  The  Heart  and  the  World , a play,  in  1847; 
Strathmore,  a tragedy,  in  1849;  and  Ann  Blake , a 
play,  in  1852.  He  also  wrote  Philip  of  France , a 
tragedy  ; A Life's  Ransom , a play  ; Borough  Politics , 
a comic  drama  in  two  acts ; A Hard  Struggle,  a drama 
in  one  act ; and  assisted  in  the  composition  of  Tre- 
vanion,  or  the  False  Position , a play  in  three  acts.  Of 
late  years  his  more  conspicuous  works  are,  Pure  G01J , 
a play  in  four  acts ; The  Wife's  Portrait,  a drama  in 
two  acts;  and  Donna  Diana , a comedy  in  three  acts. 
Mr.  Marston,  who  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Na- 
tional Magazine,  has  written  some  stirring  lyrics,  some 
of  which  appeared  in  the  Athenceum.  He  died  Janu- 
ury  5,  1890. 

MARTIN,  Benjamin  Nicholas,  born  inMt.  Holly, 
N.  J.,  October  20,  1816;  died  in  New  York  city,  De- 
cember 16,  1883.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1837, 
filled  pulpits  in  New  York  city  and  in  the  interior  cities 
of  the  State,  and  in  1852  became  professor  and  lecturer 
in  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  where  he 
remained  for  thirty-one  years. 

MARTIN,  Bon  Louis  Henri,  French  historian, 
born  in  1810;  died  December  14,  1883.  He  was  the 
author  of  A History  of  France  up  to  1789,  of  Monarchy 
in  the  Seventeenth  Century,  and  of  various  other  his- 
torical works.  He  was  elected  senator  in  1871,  and  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1878. 

MARTIN,  Francois  Xavier,  born  in  France, 
March  17,  1764;  died  in  New  Orleans,  December  II, 
1846.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1786  and  settled 
at  New  Berne,  N.  C.,  where  he  became  a printer  and 


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proprietor  of  a newspaper.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  and  after  twenty  years  practice  as  a lawyer  in  North 
Carolina  was  appointed  United  States  judge  for  the 
(then)  Territory  of  Mississippi.  Afterward  he  became 
a judge  in  the  Territory  of  Orleans,  (now  Louisiana).  In 
1813  he  became  attorney-general  of  the  new  State  of 
Louisiana;  in  1815  judge  of  the  State  supreme  court,  of 
which  he  was  made  chief  justice  in  1837,  and  from  which 
he  retired  in  1845.  Judge  Martin  codified  the  laws  of 
Louisiana,  and  was  LL.D.  of  Nashville  University  and 
of  Harvard. 

MARTIN,  Henry  Newell,  born  in  Ireland  in  1848, 
studied  at  University  College,  London,  and  took  his 
B.  A.  degree  at  Cambridge,  England,  where  he  became 
a fellow  of  his  college  and  lecturer  on  natural  history. 
In  1876  he  was  invited  to  become  professor  of  biology  in 
the  newly  constituted  Johns  Hopkins  University  at 
Baltimore,  which  position  he  has  since  retained.  Prof. 
Martin  is  a member  of  many  scientific  societies,  and 
a fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  England,  apd  has 
contributed  largely  to  scientific  journals,  his  special  sub- 
ject being  biological  research.  Died  Oct.  2Q,  1896. 

MARTIN,  Homer  Dodge,  born  in  Albany, N.  Y., 
October  28,  1836  ; began  his  artistic  career  in  New 
York  city,  and  became  in  succession  an  associate  of  the 
National  Academy,  and  (in  1875)  an  academician.  He 
is  chiefly  known  as  a landscape  painter. 

MARTIN,  Josiah,  born  in  the  West  Indies,  April 
23,  1737  ; died  in  London,  England,  in  July,  1786. 
In  1756  he  was  an  ensign  in  the  British  army,  and  in 
1771  had  become  lieutenant-colonel,  when  he  was 
appointed  governor  of  North  Carolina.  In  April,  1775, 
affairs  came  to  a crisis  ; he  secretly  organized  the  Loy- 
alist elements,  and  a body  of  Whigs  attacked  his  resi- 
dence and  carried  away  six  cannon.  He  took  refuge 
on  board  of  a sloop-of-war,  and  transferred  his  head- 
quarters to  Fort  Johnston,  on  Cape  Fear  river.  Sub- 
sequently a body  of  colonists  demolished  the  fort  and 
compelled  the  governor  to  seek  safety  on  board  the 
vessel  that  conveyed  him  thither.  Martin  then  pre- 
pared a plan  for  the  subjugation  of  the  two  Carolinas, 
with  the  aid  of  Sir  Peter  Parker  at  sea,  and  the  land 
forces  of  Lord  Cornwallis  ; but  it  miscarried.  In  June, 
1776,  he  went  to  Charleston,  S.  C.,  and  assisted  in  the 
formation  of  military  bodies  among  the  Highlanders 
and  Regulators. 

MARTIN,  Lady  (Helen  Faucit),  born  in  1816; 
went  upon  the  stage  in  1836,  and  speedily  took  rank  as 
an  artist  of  the  very  first  class.  She  married  Sir 
Theodore  Martin  (q.v.)  in  1851  and  retired  from 
the  stage,  but  has  since,  on  several  occasions,  given 
readings  from  Shakespeare  and  other  great  dramatists 
for  the  benefit  of  charities.  Died  Oct.  31,  1898. 

MARTIN,  Luther,  born  in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J., 
February  9,  1748;  died  in  New  York  city,  July  10, 
1826.  He  was  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1762,  and 
taught  school  in  Queenstown,  Md.,  while  reading  law. 
I11  1771  he  was  admitted  to  practice,  and  settled  in 
Somerset,  Md.  In  1774  he  was  a member  of  the  con- 
vention at  Annapolis,  where  he  defended  the  rights  of 
the  colonies.  In  1778  he  became  attorney-general  of 
Maryland,  and  in  1784  a delegate  to  the  continental 
congress.  In  1805  he  resigned  the  attorney-generalship 
of  Maryland  and  continued  his  law  practice.  In  1807, 
on  the  occasion  of  Col.  Aaron  Burr’s  trial  at  Richmond, 
Ya. , he  was  one  of  his  counsel,  and  at  its  close  enter- 
tained both  Burr  and  Herman  Blennerhassett  at  his 
residence  in  Baltimore.  From  1814  to  1816  he  was 
chief  judge  of  the  court  of  oyer  and  terminer  in  Balti- 
more, and,  in  1818,  was  again  appointed  attorney- 
general  of  Maryland.  In  1820  he  was  made  helpless 
by  a stroke  of  paralysis,  and  became  dependent  on  his 


friends  for  support.  Luther  Martin’s  last  days  were 
spent  in  New  York  city,  where  Aaron  Burr  gave  him  a 
home  in  his  own  house.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
Defense  of  Captain  C resap,  whose  daughter  he  had 
married  in  1783. 

MARTIN,  Thomas  Mower,  born  in  England,  Oc- 
tober 5,  1838;  removed  to  Canada  in  1862,  and  settled  in 
Toronto.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Ontario 
Society  of  Artists,  and  of  the  Royal  Canadian  Academy, 
and  became,  in  1877,  director  of  the  Ontario  School  of 
Art.  In  1884  he  removed  to  New  York  city,  and  be- 
came connected  with  the  National  Academy  of  Design. 

MARTIN,  Sir  Theodore,  K.C.B.,  was  born  in  Ed- 
inburgh in  1816,  and  received  his  education  at  the  high 
school,  and  at  the  university  of  his  native  city.  After 
practicing  as  a solicitor  in  Edinburgh  for  several  years, 
he  went  in  1846  to  London,  where  he  established  him- 
self as  a parliamentary  agent.  He  first  became  known 
as  an  author  by  his  contributions  to  Fraser's  Magazine 
and  Tail's  Magazine , under  the  signature  of  “Bon 
Gaultier,”  and  in  conjunction  with  the  late  Professor 
Aytoun  he  composed  the  Book  of  Ballads , which  bears 
that  pseudonym,  and  a volume  of  translations  of  the 
Poems  and  Ballads  of  Goethe , 1858.  He  prepared  a 
translation  of  the  Danish  poet  Henrik  Hertz’s  fine 
lyrical  drama  King  Rene's  Daughter , which  was  pro- 
duced on  the  stage  with  great  effect,  the  principal  char- 
acter, “ Iolanthe,”  being  played  by  Miss  Helen  Faucit, 
who  in  1851  became  Sir  T.  Martin’s  wife.  His  metri- 
cal translation  of  the  Odes  of  Horace  appeared  in  i860, 
and  was  immediately  republished  in  the  United  States. 
It  was  followed,  ten  years  later,  by  a critical  essay  on 
Horace’s  life  and  writings,  in  the  Ancient  Classics  for 
English  Readers.  In  1882  Sir  T.  Martin  completed 
his  Horatian  labors  by  a translation  of  Horace’s  wj^ole 
works,  with  a life  and  notes,  in  two  volumes. 

MARTINDALE,  John  Henry,  born  in  New  York 
city  in  1815;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1835,  and  was 
attached  to  the  first  dragoons  but  resigned  a year  later. 
He  practiced  law  in  Batavia  and  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
until  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war,  when  he  received  a 
commission  as  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He 
was  actively  engaged  at  Hanover  Court  House,  Gaines’ 
Mills,  and  Malvern  Hill.  Charges  were  preferred 
against  him  by  Fitzjohn  Porter,  but  he  was  fully  exon- 
erated by  the  court  of  inquiry.  From  November,  1862, 
until  May,  1864,  he  served  as  military  governor  of 
Washington  city.  He  then  joined  the  army  of  the 
James,  and  led  a division  in  the  operations  at  Richmond 
and  Petersburg.  Subsequently  he  commanded  the 
eighteenth  army  corps  until  he  was  compelled,  on 
account  of  sickness,  to  resign  his  commission.  He  was 
brevetted  major-general  of  volunteers  for  gallant  con- 
duct at  Malvern  Hill.  In  1866-68  he  served  as  attor- 
ney-general  of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  he  died 
December  13,  1881. 

MARTINEAU,  James,  LL.D.,  younger  brother  of 
the  late  Miss  Harriet  Martineau,  was  born  at  Norwich, 
England,  April  21,  1805.  He  was  appointed  second 
minister  of  Eustace  Street  Presbyterian  meeting-house, 
Dublin,  in  1828;  second  minister  of  Paradise  Street 
chapel,  Liverpool,  in  1832;  professor  of  mental  and 
moral  philosophy  in  Manchester  New  College,  in  1841 ; 
removed  to  London,  1857;  was  minister  of  Little  Port- 
land Street  chapel,  1859-72;  and  was  appointed  princi- 
pal of  Manchester  New  College,  London,  in  1868. 
Doctor  Martineau  is  the  author  of  The  Rationale  of  Re- 
ligious Inquiry,  published  about  1837;  Lectures  on  the 
Liverpool  Controversy , 1839;  Hymns  for  the  Christian 
Church  and  Home,  1840;  Endeavors  after  the  Christian 
Life , Studies  of  Christianity , 1858;  Essays  Philosophical 
and  Theological , 2 vols.,  1868;  Hymns  of  Praise  and 


M A R — M A S 


66/8 

Prayer,  1874;  and  Religion  as  Affected  by  Modern  Ma- 
terialism. He  has  been  a constant  contributor  to  the 
National  Review,  of  which  he  was  one  of  the  founders. 
The  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  was  conferred  upon 
him  by  Harvard  College,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  1872; 
that  of  doctor  of  theology  by  the  University  of  Leyden, 
in  1875;  and  that  of  D.D.  by  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh in  1884.  He  died  Jan.  11,  1900. 

MARTINEZ  CAMPOS,  Arsenio,  a Spanish 
statesman  and  one  of  Spain’s  foremost  generals,  who 
in  1895  was  sent  to  Cuba  to  suppress  the  revolution 
which  was  threatening  to  secure  the  independence  of 
that  rich  colony.  He  was  born  in  1834 ; and  died 
September.  23,  1900.  He  won  the  rank  of  major  in 
Morocco  in  1859,  and  in  1864  joined  the  army 
in  Cuba  as  colonel,  remaining  six  years  on  that 
island.  On  his  return  to  Spain  in  1870,  he  was  sent, 
with  the  title  of  brigadier-general,  to  join  the  army  of 
the  North,  which  was  engaged  in  subduing  the  Carlist 
rebellion.  After  the  abdication  of  King  Amadeo  he 
declined  to  give  in  his  adhesion  to  the  new  order  of 
things,  and  made  no  secret  of  his  antipathy  to  the 
republic.  He  was  put  on  the  retired  list  in  1873,  and 
shortly  afterward  was  confined  in  a fortress  as  a con- 
spirator. He  was  sent  to  the  army  of  the  North  in 
April,  1874,  to  command  a division  of  the  third  corps; 
took  part  in  the  engagements  of  La  Munecas  and  Gal- 
dames,  which  led  to  the  siege  of  Bilbao  being  raised, 
and  was  the  first  to  enter  the  liberated  city  on  May  1, 
1874.  When  General  Concha  reorganized  the  Liberal 
army,  Martinez  Campos  was  appointed  general  in  com- 
mand of  the  3rd  corps.  General  Martinez  Campos,  be- 
sieged at  Zurugay,  by  the  main  body  of  the  Carlists, 
opened  a passage  through  the  enemy’s  ranks  at  the  head 
of  a column  which  numbered  barely  1,800  men,  and 
weflt  to  rejoin  at  Murillo,  the  headquarters,  where  he 
was  able  to  organize  the  retreat  of  the  army  on  Tafalla. 
Returning  to  Madrid,  he  continued  to  conspire  almost 
overtly  in  favor  of  Don  Alfonso,  while  Marshal  Serrano, 
chief  of  the  executive  power,  was  operating  against  the 
Carlists.  In  conjunction  with  General  Jovellar  he  made 
the  military  prominciamiento  of  Sagonto,  which  gave 
the  throne  of  Spain  to  Alfonso  XII.  The  new  govern- 
ment sent  him  into  Catalonia  as  captain-general  and 
commander-in-chief  of  that  military  district.  In  less 
than  a month  he  pacified  the  country,  put  down  the 
Carlist  bands,  and  took  the  command  of  the  army  of 
the  North.  He  brought  the  civil  war  to  a close  by 
the  defeat  of  Don  Carlos  at  Pena  de  Plata,  in  March, 
1876.  The  high  dignity  of  captain-general  of  the  army, 
which  is  equivalent  to  a marshal  of  F ranee,  was  the 
recompense  for  his  signal  services.  A year  afterward 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in 
Cuba,  which  the  rebels  had  held  in  check  for  seven 
years.  On  his  return  to  Spain,  General  Martinez 
Campos  accepted  the  portfolio  of  war  and  the  presidency 
of  the  council  (March  7,  1879),  and  endeavored  to  pro- 
cure the  fulfilment  of  the  promises  made  to  the  Cubans; 
but  not  obtaining  the  support  of  the  Cortes,  he  re- 
signed. and  was  succeeded  by  Sen  or  Canovas  del  Cas- 
tillo (December  9,  1879).  Early  in  1881  the  Conserv- 
ative government  of  Senor  Canovas  del  Castillo  was 
overthrown,  and  a coalition  between  Senor  Sagasta  and 
General  Martinez  Campos  came  into  power,  and  re- 
tained it  till  October,  1883,  when  it  resigned  in  conse- 
quence of  being  unable  to  obtain  from  the  French 
Government  a satisfactory  apology  for  theinsult  offered 
to  King  Alfonso  by  the  Paris  mob  on  his  visit  to  Paris. 

MARX,  Karl,  born  at  Treves,  Germany,  in  1818; 
was  educated  at  Bonn  and  Berlin,  and  in  1843  became 
connected  with  a newspaper  at  Cologne.  He  was  ex- 
pelled successively  from  that  city,  from  France  and 


from  Belgium,  but  returned  to  Germany  during  the 
revolutionary  movement  of  1848-49.  Again  banished, 
he  sought  refuge  in  London,  where  he  founded  the 
“International,”  a federation  of  socialistic  societies 
which  undertook  to  reform  everything.  Marx  wrote 
extensively  on  political  economy,  quarreled  with  his 
co-workers  and  established  several  newspapers  for  the 
dissemination  of  his  own  views,  and  died  March  16, 
1883. 

MASCAGNI,  Pietro,  composer  of  the  famous  opera 
Cavalleria  Rusticana,  was  born  at  Leghorn  in  1863. 
The  son  of  a baker,  he  began  composing  at  an  early 
age,  went  to  the  Milan  Conservatoire,  but  could  not 
get  on  with  the  professors  there,  and  so  joined  a trav- 
eling opera  company.  ' Cavalleria  Rusticana,  though 
not  the  first  of  his  operas,  was  the  first  that  brought 
him  fame,  and  has  been  performed  in  Italian,  German, 
French,  English,  and  Russian,  and  frequently  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States.  It  was  written  in  a few 
days  in  1886,  in  competition  for  a public  prize  offered 
for  a one-act  opera.  Signor  Mascagni  has  written 
other  successful  operas  including  L'Amico  Fritz  and  / 
Rantzau,  the  latter  performed  in  Florence  in  1892,  and 
in  London  in  1893  under  the  composer’s  direction. 

MASON,  Charles,  born  in  England  in  1730;  died 
in  Philadelphia,  February,  1777.  For  several  years  he 
served  as  assistant  in  the  Greenwich,  England,  Observa- 
tory, and,  with  Jeremiah  Dixon,  made  an  observation 
of  the  transit  of  Venus  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in 
1761.  Two  years  later  the  two  scientists  were  in- 
structed to  survey  the  boundary  line  between  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Maryland.  They  spent  four  years  on  this 
work,  and  the  line  then  drawn  became  famous  in  the 
history  of  the  United  States,  as  practically  marking  the 
northern  limit  of  the  slave  States.  Mason  and  Dixon’s 
line,  however,  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
boundary  of  36°  30',  beyond  which  slavery  was  not  to 
be  permitted  in  any  territories  of  the  United  States. 
(See  Wilmot  Proviso  and  Missouri  Compromise,  under 
head  of  United  States.) 

MASON,  George,  member  of  the  Federal  conven- 
tion of  1787,  was  born  in  Fairfax  county,  Va.,  in  1726. 
He  served  in  the  Virginia  convention  in  1775,  and 
drafted  its  declaration  of  rights  and  plan  of  govern- 
ment. His  most  conspicuous  service  was  in  the  Fed- 
eral convention  of  1 787,  of  which  he  was  a member. 
He  took  part  in  most  of  the  debates,  and  exerted  a 
strong  influence  on  the  decision  of  almost  every  ques- 
tion before  the  convention.  Some  of  his  strongest 
utterances  were  on  the  subject  of  slavery,  and  his 
language  on  one  occasion  (August  22d)  might  have 
served  as  a model  to  an  anti-slavery  orator  of  later 
times.  He  was  dissatisfied  with  the  constitution,  and 
opposed  its  ratification.  He  died  October  7,  1792. 

MASON,  James  Murray,  born  in  Fairfax  county, 
Va.,  November  3,  1798;  died  in  April,  1871.  He 
served  many  years  in  the  Virginia  house  of  delegates, 
and  sat  in  congress  as  a Democrat  from  1837  to  1839. 
From  1847  to  1861  he  sat  in  the  United  States  Senate 
from  Virginia,  but  resigned  to  join  the  Confederacy. 
In  the 'autumn  of  1861  he  was  appointed  with  John 
Slidell  as  commissioner  from  the  Confederate  States  to 
England.  They  sailed  from  Charleston,  October  12th, 
for  Cuba.  Here  they  took  passage  for  England  on  the 
British  mail  steamer  Trent.  This  vessel  was  overhauled 
by  a United  States  ship  of  war  under  the  command  of 
Commander  Charles  Wilkes,  who  demanded  the  bodies 
of  Mason  and  Slidell,  and  the  steamer  being  unarmed, 
the  captain  turned  the  men  over  to  him.  They  were 
brought  to  Boston  and  confined  in  Fort  Warren,  and 
congress  passed  a resolution  of  thanks  to  Wilkes  for  his 
prompt  action.  The  British  Government  made  an  ime 


MAS 


mediate  demand,  and  a peremptory  one,  for  the  delivery 
of  the  men,  who,  they  claimed,  were  protected  by  the 
British  flag.  There  was  a great  outcry  against  surrender- 
ing them,  but  Abraham  Lincoln  showed  his  good  sense 
and  political  wisdom  by  giving  them  up.  This  occur- 
rence, known  as  the  Trent  affair,  intensified  the  ill- 
feeling  between  England  and  the  United  States,  which 
had  grown  out  of  the  expressions  of  sympathy  made 
by  the  English  aristocrats  for  the  Confederates. 

MASON,  John  Young,  born  in  Virginia  in  April, 
1799;  died  in  France,  October,  1859.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  University  of  North  Carolina  in  1816,  and 
practiced  law  for  many  years  in  his  native  State.  He  sat 
in  the  State  legislature  and  in  congress  from  1831  to  1837, 
then  became  a judge  of  the  United  States  District  Court, 
and  in  1844  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  navy.  In 
1845  he  became  attorney  general  of  the  United  States, 
and  a year  later  returned  to  the  navy  department. 
From  1853  until  his  death  he  was  minister  to  France. 

MASON,  Lowell,  musician,  born  in  Medfield, 
Mass.,  January  8,  1792;  died  in  Orange,  N.  J.,  August 
II,  1872.  In  early  youth  he  taught  himself  to  play  on 
a variety  of  musical  instruments,  led  the  village  choir, 
and  trained  Sunday-school  singing  classes.  At  twenty 
years  of  age  he  went  to  Savannah,  where  he  taught 
music.  At  that  time  he  arranged  a collection  of  hymn 
and  psalm  tunes,  mostly  derived  from  the  German  com- 
posers, and  including  several  of  his  own.  These  were 
published  in  Boston  in  1821  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Boston  Handel  and  Haydn  Society  and  favorably  re- 
ceived. In  1827  Mr.  Mason  removed  to  Boston  and 
made  church  music  and  the  training  of  church  choirs  his 
specialty.  In  1837  he  went  to  Europe  for  observation 
and  study,  and  on  his  return  published  Musical  Letters 
from  Abroad  (New  York,  1853).  In  1855  he  received 
from  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York  the  de- 
gree of  Mus.  Doc. 

MASON,  William  E.,  was  born  in  New  York,  July 
7,  1850;  removed  with  his  parents  to  Bentonsport, 
Iowa,  in  1858;  taught  school  from  1866  to  1870,  the 
last  two  years  at  Des  Moines,  Iowa  ; entered  the  law 
office  of  Hon.  Thomas  F.  Withrow,  and  was  admitted 
to  practice  law  in  Des  Moines ; went  to  Chicago  in 
1872,  and  has  practiced  law  there  ever  since;  was 
elected  to  the  State  house  of  representatives  in  1879, 
to  the  State  senate  in  1881  ; was  elected  to  the  fiftieth 
congress  (1886),  and  was  reelected  to  the  fifty-first  con- 
gress as  a Republican,  but  was  defeated  in  1890. 

MASPERO,  Gaston,  a French  Egyptologist,  was 
born  at  Paris  June  24,  1846,  and  after  a brilliant  cpurse 
of  study  at  the  Lycee  Louis-le-Grand,  entered  the  Ecole 
Normale  in  1865.  He  was  appointed  teacher  and  as- 
sistant professor  of  Egyptian  Archaeology  and  philos- 
ophy at  the  College  of  France,  February  4,  1874.  On 
the  death  of  Mariette  Bey,  Professor  Maspero  was  ap- 
pointed keeper  of  the  Boulak  Museum,  and  since  that 
time  he  has  done  much  to  promote  archaeological  dis- 
covery in  Egypt.  He  was  decorated  with  the  Legion 
of  Honor  January  15,  1879. 

MASSASOIT,  Indian  chief,  born  in  Massachusetts 
about  1580;  died  there  in  1660.  His  control  extended 
from  Cape  Cod  to  Narragansett  Bay.  In  March,  1621, 
an  Indian,  whom  the  whites  called  Samoset,  appeared 
three  months  after  the  founding  of  Plymouth,  and  called, 
in  broken . English,  taught  him  by  some  fishermen, 
“Welcome,  Englishmen.”  He  said  he  came  from  the 
great  sachem,  Massasoit.  After  some  parleying  the 
chief  appeared  in  person,  was  received  with  deference, 
and  a treaty  of  amity  was  concluded  with  his  tribe  and 
their  confederates,  and  honorably  kept  for  fifty-four 
years — beyond  the  lifetime  of  Massasoit.  When  Roger 
Williams  was  banished  from  Massachusetts,  and  went 


6679 

on  his  way  to  Providence,  he  was  entertained  by  Mas- 
sasoit for  several  weeks.  Massasoit  lived  and  died  a 
sincere  friend  to  the  white  settlers.  His  sons  were 
Alexander  and  “ King  ” Philip. 

MASSPl,  Victor,  a French  musical  composer,  was 
born  March  7,  1822.  He  was  educated  at  the  Paris 
Conservatory,  and  produced  his  first  work  for  the  stage 
in  1852.  Among  his  compositions  the  best  known  are 
Galatea , Paul  and  Virginia , and  The  Seasons.  He 
died  July  6,  1884. 

MASSENET,  Jules  Emile  Fr£d£ric,  a French 
composer,  born  at  Montaud,  May  12,  1842;  studied  at 
the  Paris  Conservatoire  under  Laurent,  Reber,  Savard, 
and  Ambrose  Thomas,  obtained  the  first  prize  for 
pianoforte  in  1859,  the  first  for  fugue  and  the  prix  de 
Rome  for  his  cantata  Da,vid  Rizzio  in  1863.  He 
traveled  through  Italy  and  Germany,  and  made  his 
de'but  at  the  Opera  Comique,  Paris,  1868,  with  La 
Grande  Tante,  In  1873  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  composition  at  the  conservatoire,  and  elected  a 
member  of  the  Academie  des  Beaux  Arts. 

MASSEY,  Gerald,  was  born  at  Tring  in  Hertford- 
shire, England,  May  29,  1828.  At  eight  years  of  age 
he  was  working  twelve  hours  a day  in  a silk  manu- 
factory. At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  went  to  London  and 
found  work  as  an  errand  boy,  and  at  twenty-one  he  be- 
came editor  of  the  Spirit  of  Freedom.  The  following 
year  he  was  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  “ Christian 
Socialists,”  and  a personal  friend  of  Charles  Kingsley 
and  F.  D.  Maurice.  In  1854  he  published  The  Bal- 
lad of  Babe  Christabel , and  other  Poems , which  was  at 
once  favorably  reviewed.  He  then  joined  the  staff  of  the 
Athenceum , and  for  ten  years  wrote  a considerable 
number  of  its  reviews  of  poetry.  As  early  as  1852  Mr. 
Massey  began  to  take  a great  interest  in  mesmerism, 
spiritualism,  and  kindred  subjects,  and  he  has  since  de- 
livered many  lectures  on  such  matters  in  England,  North 
America,  Aust/alia,  and  the  colonies,  where  he  is  better 
known  and  more  highly  thought  of  than  in  England. 
Of  late  years  he  has  written  very  little  poetry,  and  has 
occupied  himself  chiefly  with  promoting  spiritualistic 
and  socialistic  societies. 

MASSON,  David,  professor  of  rhetoric  and  Eng. 
lish  literature  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,*  was  born 
December  2,  1822,  in  Aberdeen,  and  educated  at  Ma- 
rischal  College  in  that  city,  and  at 'the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  He  began  his  literary  career  at  the  age  of 
nineteen,  as  editor  of  a Scotch  provincial  newspaper, 
and  repairing,  in  1844,  to  London,  where  lie  remained 
about  a year,  contributed  to  Frazer's  Magazine  and 
other  periodicals.  He  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of 
English  language  and  literature  at  University  College, 
London,  on  the  resignation  of  the  late  Professor  Clough 
in  1852.  He  retired  from  his  post  in  October,  1865, 
having  been  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  and  Eng- 
lish literature  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  He  con- 
tributed numerous  articles  to  the  Quarterly /,  National , 
British  Quarterly , and  North  British  reviews,  to  the 
Encyclopcedia,  and  the  English  Cyclopaedia , and  in 
1859  became  editor  of  Macmillan’ s Magazine , which 
he  conducted  for  a good  many  years,  and  to  which  he 
has  largely  contributed. 

MASTERS,  Maxwell  Tylden,  M.D.,  F.R.S., 
born  in  1833  at  Canterbury,  was  educated  at  King’s 
College,  London,  after  which  he  practiced  medicine  for 
some  years.  He  held  the  lectureship  on  botany  at  St. 
George’s  Hospital  from  1855  to  1868,  and  became 
principal  editor  of  the  Gardeners’  Chronicle  in  1865. 
Doctor  Masters  has  been  botanical  examiner  in  the 
University  of  London;  is  a fellow  of  the  Royal  Lin- 
nean,  and  Royal  Horticultural  Societies;  an  associate  of 
King’s  College;  an  honorary  or  corresponding  member 


66 8o 


MAT-MAX 


of  the  principal  horticultural  societies  of  Belgium, 
France,  Germany,  Russia,  Italy  and  America,  and  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  Sciences  of  Liege,  the  Society 
of  Natural  Sciences  of  Cherbourg  and  the  Botanical  So- 
ciety of  France,  and  correspondent  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia. 

MATHER,  Increase,  clergyman,  born  in  Dor- 
chester, Mass.,  June  21,  1639;  died  in  Boston,  August 
23,  1 723 • He  was  the  father  of  Cotton  Mather,  and 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1656.  He  took  his  de- 
gree at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1658.  His  earliest 
ministry  was  at  Great  Torrington,  Devonshire,  Eng- 
land. From  there,  in  1659,  he  was  transferred  to  the 
island  of  Guernsey,  as  chaplain  of  the  English  garrison, 
where  he  continued  for  two  years.  In  1661  he  returned 
to  his  native  land.  There  he  preached  alternately  for 
his  father  in  Dorchester  and  for  the  North  Church  in 
Boston.  Increase  Mather  was  in  England  when  the 
witchcraft  excitement  was  at  its  height.  On  his  return 
home  he  published  a book  entitled  Causes  of  Conscience 
Concerning  Witchcraft  (1693).  He  wrote  sermons 
against  the  witches,  and  at  the  same  time  endeavored 
to  subdue  the  excitement.  In  1681  he  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  Harvard,  which  office  he  then  refused;  but,  on 
the  renewal  of  the  offer  in  1685,  it  was  accepted.  He 
was  the  sixth  president  of  Harvard,  and  retained  the 
office  until  1701.  Some  time  before  the  year  1700  he 
resigned  his  pastorate.  In  1692  Harvard  gave  him 
the  degree  of  D.  D. , the  earliest  one  of  the  kind  bestowed 
in  the  colonies. 

MATHER,  Richard  Henry,  born  in  Binghamton, 
N.  Y.,  February  12,  1835,  graduated  at  Amherst,  1857, 
and  taught  Greek  and  German  in  that  university  for 
many  years.  He  became  D.D.  in  1879,  and  was  well 
known  as  the  author  and  editor  of  several  Greek  text 
books.  He  died  April  16,  1890. 

MATHERS,  Helen  Buckingham  (Mrs.  Henry 
Reeves),  novelist,  was  born  in  1852  at  Somerset, 
England.  Her  first  novel  was  Cornin'  Thro 1 the  Rye 
(1875),  which  immediately  secured  popularity,  and  was 
rapidly  translated  into  more  languages  than  any  of 
Dickens’  works.  The  Token  of  the  Silver  Lily , a poem, 
was  published  in  1876,  and  soon  sold  out ; Cherry  Ripe, 
Miss  Mathers’  second  novel,  was  published  in  1877, 
and  followed  in  1878  by  The  Land  o'  the  Leal,  and  As 
He  Comes  up  the  Stair,  which  are  novelettes.  Her 
third  novel,  My  Lady  Green  Sleeves,  appeared  in  1879, 
and  was  followed  in  1881  by  The  Story  of  a Sin.  Sam's 
Sweetheart  and  Eyre's  Aquittal  were  published  in 
1883  and  1884;  Found  Out  in  1885;  Venus  Victrix  and 
Wrostella's  Weird  (1893) ; A Man  of  To-day  (1894),  and 
many  others. 

MATHEWS,  Charles  James,  actor,  born  in  Lon- 
don, England,  in  December,  1803 ; died  in  England, 
June,  1878.  He  made  his  first  appearance  on  the  stage 
in  1835,  and  for  more  than  forty  years  was  the  leading  ex- 
ponent of  light  comedy  on  the  English  stage.  Mathews 
visited  this  country  twice  and  was  well  received. 

MATHEWS,  William,  born  in  Waterville,  Me., 
July  28,  1818;  practiced  law  in  Washington,  and  pub- 
lished newspapers  in  Maine  and  in  Boston,  and  in  1856 
removed  to  Chicago.  He  became  professor  of  rhetoric 
and  English  literature  in  the  University  of  Chicago  in 
1862.  He  retained  that  position  for  thirteen  years,  and 
in  1880  he  removed  to  Boston,  wherehe  is  still  residing. 
He  is  the  author  of  many  works  of  general  circulation. 

MATHILDE,  Princess  (Mathilde  L^etitia  Wil- 
helmine  Bonaparte),  daughter  of  the  ex-King  Jerome 
and  Princess  Catherine  of  Wiirtemberg,  and  cousin  of 
Napoleon  III.,  was  born  at  Trieste,  May  27,  1820,  and 
married  at  Florence,  October  10,  1841,  to  the  Russian 
Prince  Anatole  Demidoff.  This  union  was  not  happy, 


| and  in  1845  they  separated  by  mutual  consent,  her  hus- 
band being  compelled  by  the  czar  to  allow  the  princess 
an  annuity  of  200,000  roubles.  From  1849  till  the 
marriage  of  Napoleon  III.  she  did  the  honors  at  the 
palace  of  the  president,  and  on  the  reestablishment  of 
the  empire  was  comprised  among  the  members  of  the 
imperial  family  of  France,  and  received  the  title  of 
highness. 

MATTHEWS,  Brander,  born  in  New  Orleans, 
February  21,  1852,  graduated  at  Columbia  in  1873  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  has  written  several 
successful  plays  and  many  essays  upon  lives  of  actors 
and  authors. 

MATTHEWS,  Henry,  Q.C.,  M.P.,  was  born  in 
1826  in  Ceylon,  where  his  father  was  a judge.  After 
graduating  at  the  universities  of  Paris  and  London,  he 
was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln’s  Inn.  He  has  been 
engaged  in  several  of  the  great  cases  of  his  time,  notably 
the  Home  case,  the  Tichborne  case,  and  the  Crawford 
case.  He  contested  the  borough  of  Dungarvan  three 
times  unsuccessfully,  but  sat  for  it  from  1868  to  1874. 
At  the  general  election  of  1886  he  was  returned  for 
East  Birmingham,  being  the  first  Conservative  who 
ever  sat  for  Birmingham.  On  the  formation  of  Lord 
Salisbury’s  second  ministry,  Mr.  Matthews  was 
appointed  home  secretary.  He  is  a Roman  Cath- 
olic. 

MATTHEWS,  Stanley,  born  in  Cincinnati,  July 
21,  1824;  died,  March  22,  1889.  He  graduated  at 
Kenyon  College  in  1840,  and  practiced  law  for  a short 
time  in  Tennessee.  He  removed  to  Cincinnati  and 
became  connected  with  the  Herald  of  that  city,  an  ar- 
dent anti-slavery  paper,  which  he  conducted  for  several 
years.  He  was  elected  judge  of  the  court  of  Hamilton 
county,  afterward  became  State  senator,  and  from 
1858  to  1861  United  States  attorney  for  the  southern 
district  of  Ohio.  He  entered  the  volunteer  service  in 
March,  1861,  and  served  in  western  Virginia  and  with 
the  army  of  the  Cumberland.  He  resigned  in  1863  to 
become  judge  of  the  superior  court  of  Cincinnati,  and 
was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  congress  in  1876. 
In  1877  he  was  of  counsel  for  the  Republicans  in  the 
Florida  and  Oregon  cases  before  the  electoral  com- 
mission. In  March,  1877,  he  was  elected  United 
States  senator  and  took  the  place  of  John  Sherman, 
who  had  resigned.  In  1881  Mr.  Matthews  was  ap- 
pointed, by  President  Garfield,  associate  justice  of  the 
United  States  supreme  court. 

MAUDSLEY,  Henry,  M.D.,  born  February  5, 
1835,  and  educated  at  University  College,  London,  ij 
an  acknowledged  authority  on  mental  diseases;  con 
suiting  physician  to  the  West  London  Hospital,  and  ay 
honorary  member  of  various  learned  societies  in  Paris, 
Vienna,  Italy  and  America. 

MAUPASSANT,  Guy  DE,  a brilliant  French  writer, 
born  August  5,  1850,  was  trained  in  letters  by  Flaubert, 
and  after  seven  years  practice  in  writing  published  i\ 
1880  a short  story,  Boule  de  Soif  which  made  him  im- 
mediately popular.  He  wrote  plays,  lyrics  and  ovei 
thirty  naturalistic  novels  of  great  power,  and  sometimes 
less  delicacy,  but  always  clear  and  charming  in  style, 
including  Une  Vie,  Pierre  et  Jean,  Bel  Ami  and  Notre 
Cceur.  He  died  July  6,  1893,  after  two  years  insanity 
caused  by  use  of  stimulants. 

MAX-MULLER,  Frederic,  son  of  Wilhelm  Miil 
ler,  the  German  poet,  was  born  at  Dessau,  December 
6,  1823;  studied  at  the  University  of  Leipsic,  where 
he  published,  in  1884,  his  first  work,  a translation  0/ 
The  Hitopadesa,  a collection  of  Sanskrit  fables ; then  at 
Berlin  attended  the  lectures  of  Bopp  and  Schelling,  and 
examined  the  collection  of  Sanskrit  MSS.  there.  Iiv 
1845  he  went  to  Paris  to  study  under  E.  Burnouf 


MAY- 

He  was  invited  by  the  University  of  Oxford  to  give 
some  courses  of  lectures  on  comparative  philology, 
as  deputy  Taylorian  professor,  in  1850;  was  made  hon- 
orary M.A.  and  member  of  Christ  Church  in  1851;  was 
elected  Taylorian  professor,  and  received  the  full  degree 
of  M.A.  by  decree  of  convocation  in  1854;  was  made  a 
curator  of  the  Bodleian  library  in  1856;  and  elected 
a fellow  of  All  Souls  College  in  1858.  He  was  in  i860 
an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  professorship  of 
Sanskrit  at  Oxford,  being  opposed  by  a coalition  of 
theological  parties.  For  a time  he  was  Oriental  libra- 
rian at  the  Bodleian  library.  In  1868  the  university 
founded  a new  professorship  of  comparative  philology, 
and  the  statute  of  foundation  named  him  as  the  first 
professor.  In  1872  he  was  invited  to  lecture  in  the 
newly  founded  University  of  Strasburg  as  professor  of 
Sanskrit.  He  declined  the  appointment,  but  gave  some 
courses  of  lectures  there  in  1872.  As  he  refused  to  ac- 
cept any  salary,  the  University  of  Strasburg  founded  a 
triennial  prize  for  Sanskrit  scholarship  in  memory  of 
his  services.  On  December  3,  1873,  at  the  invitation 
of  the  Dean  of  Westminster,  he  delivered  in  West- 
minster Abbey  a lecture  on  the  Religions  of  the 
World.  In  1875  he  resigned  his  professorship 
at  Oxford,  intending  to  return  to  Germany,  but  the 
university  requested  him  to  remain  in  Oxford,  and  in- 
trusted him  with  the  editing  of  a series  of  translations 
of  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  East.  Forty-nine  volumes 
of  this  series  have  been  published,  of  which  the  first 
contains  Max-Miiller’s  translation  of  the  Upanishads, 
1879,  and  the  tenth  his  translation  of  the  Dhammapada 
from  Pali,  1881.  A new  series  was  begun  in  1883. 
On  October  28,  1881,  he  was  elected  curator  of  the 
Bodleian  library  in  place  of  the  late  Professor  Rolles- 
ton.  In  1882  he  was  invited  by  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge to  give  a course  of  lectures  on  India,  specially 
intended  for  the  candidates  for  the  Indian  civil  service. 
These  lectures  were  published  in  1882,  under  the  title 
of  India:  What  can  it  teach  us?  In  1873  appeared 
his  edition  of  the  two  texts  of  the  Rig- Veda  (2nd  ed., 
1877),  and  in  1874  the  sixth  and  concluding  volume  of 
his  large  edition  of  the  Rig-  Veda  Sdyana's  Comment- 
ary. Since  the  year  1879  Prof.  Max-Miiller  has  de- 
voted himself  to  the  teaching  of  several  Buddhist 
riests  who  had  been  sent  to  him  from  Japan  to  learn 
anskrit.  This  led  him  to  the  discovery  that  the  oldest 
Sanskrit  MSS.  existed  in  Japan.  Died  Oct.  28,  1900. 

MAY,  Edward  Harrison,  artist,  born  in  England 
in  1824,  came  to  this  country  when  a child,  and  in  1876 
was  elected  an  associate  of  the  National  Academy.  He 
painted  both  figures  and  landscape  and  received  a medal 
at  Paris  in  1855.  He  died  May  17,  1887. 

MAY,  George  Augustus  Chichester,  was  born 
at  Belfast  in  1815.  He  received  his  education  at  Shrews- 
bury School  and  at  Magdalen  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  with  honors.  He  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  Ireland  in  1844;  was  made  a queen’s  counsel 
there  in  1865;  was  law  adviser  to  the  crown  in  Ireland 
from  February,  1874,  to  November,  1875;  and  attor- 
ney-general for  Ireland  from  the  last  date  to  February, 
1877,  when  he  was  appointed  to  succeed  the  late  Right 
Honorable  James  Whiteside  as  lord  chief  justice  of 
the  queen’s  bench  for  Ireland.  Died  Aug.  15,  1892. 

MAY  ALL,  Thomas  Jefferson,  born  in  North 
Berwick,  Me.,  August  10,  1826;  became  employed  in  a 
paper-mill  and  invented  rubber  belting  and  cylinder 
printing.  He  also  devised  a revolving  cannon  and  took 
out  many  patents  for  electric  railroads.  He  died  in 
Massachusetts  in  February,  1888. 

MAYER,  Alfred  Marshall,  born  in  Baltimore, 
November  17,  1836,  was  called  in  1856  to  the  chair 
of  physics  and  chemistry  in  the  University  of  Maryland.  | 


-ME  A 6681 

He  afterward  held  professorial  chairs  in  Westminster 
College,  Missouri ; Pennsylvania  College,  and  the  Le- 
high University.  He  devoted  himself  largely  to  the 
study  of  astronomy,  and  in  1872  was  elected  to  the  Na- 
tional Academy  of  Sciences.  In  the  same  year  he  be- 
came professor  of  physics  in  the  Stephens  Institute, 
at  Hoboken,  N.  J.  He  has  contributed  articles  to  many 
of  the  technical  journals,  and  is  a member  of  numerous 
scientific  societies.  Died  July  13,  1807. 

MAYER,  Constant,  born  in  France,  October  4, 
1832  ; studied  at  the  School  of  Fine  Arts  in  Paris,  and 
in  1857  removed  to  New  York.  He  is  best  known  by 
his  genre  pictures,  many  of  which  have  been  engraved. 
He  is  an  associate  of  the  National  Academy,  and  a 
member  of  the  American  Art  Union.  Among  his 
works  are  portraits  of  General  Grant  and  General  Sher 
man. 

MAYHEW,  Henry,  born  in  1812;  began  his  liter- 
ary career  in  London,  bringing  out,  in  conjunction  with 
the  late  Mr.  Gilbert  a Beckett,  the  farce  of  the  Wander- 
ing Minstrel  at  the  Queen’s  theatre,  and  in  1841  was 
one  of  the  promoters  of  Punch , from  which  he  after- 
ward withdrew.  He  also  wrote  numerous  tales  and 
articles  in  magazines,  but  is  best  known  by  London 
Labor  and  the  London  Poor,  a cyclopaedia  of  informa- 
tion on  the  condition  of  the  working  classes.  Among 
his  other  works  are  The  Mormons , or  Latter-Day  Saints, 
published  in  1852,  and  The  Wonders  of  Science,  in  1855. 
In  conjunction  with  his  brothers,  Horace  and  Augustus, 
he  published  a variety  of  fairy  tales  and  farces,  and  sev- 
eral works  of  humorous  fiction: — The  Greatest  Plague 
of  Life,  Whom  to  Marry  and  How  to  get  Married,  The 
Magic  of  Kindness,  Peasant-boy  Philosopher , and 
Tricks  of  Trade.  He  died  July  25,  1887. 

MAYNARD,  Horace,  born  in  Massachusetts,  Au- 
gust 13,  1814;  died  m Tennessee,  May,  1882.  He  grad- 
uated at  Amherst  in  1838  and  became  instructor  in  the 
East  Tennessee  College.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
of  Tennessee  and  practiced  until  1857,  when  he  was 
elected  to  congress  on  the  Know-Nothing  ticket.  In 
1864  he  became  attorney  general  of  the  State,  and  from 
1866  to  1875  he  served  in  congress  as  a representative. 
From  1875  to  1880  he  was  United  States  minister  to 
Turkey,  and  in  August,  1880,  became  postmaster- 
general  under  Hayes,  and  served  until  March  4,  1881. 

MEAD,  Larkin  G.,  born  in  New  Hampshire,  Janu- 
arY  3>  1835 ; studied  sculpture  with  Henry  Kirke  Brown, 
and  in  1855  produced  his  first  work.  One  of  the  most 
noted  of  his  works  is  the  statue  of  Abraham  Lincoln  at 
Springfield,  111. 

MEADE,  George  Gordon,  general  in  the  United 
States  army,  was  born  in  Cadiz,  Spain,  where  his  father 
was  an  agent  of  the  United  States  navy,  December  30, 
1815.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1835,  and, 
after  serving  but  one  year  in  the  army,  resigned  to  begin 
practice  as  a civil  engineer.  He  was  frequently  employed 
by  the  government,  and  reentered  its  military  service  in 
1842.  He  served  with  distinction  on  the  staffs  of 
Taylor  and  Scott  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  in  scientific 
work.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war  he  was  placed 
in  command  of  a brigade  of  volunteers,  soon  rising  to 
the  command  of  a division,  and  joining  his  fortunes  per- 
manently to  those  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac.  He  led 
his  division  through  the  Seven  Days’  battle,  being 
severely  wounded  at  Glendale,  through  the  Antietam 
campaign,  and  at  Fredericksburg,  where  he  particularly 
distinguished  himself.  At  Chancellorsville  he  com- 
manded the  fifth  corps  ; and  when  Hooker  resigned  the 
command  of  the  army,  and  while  the  army  itself  was  in 
hasty  movement  northward  to  check  Lee’s  invasion  of 
the  North  in  1863, Meade  was  appointed  to  the  command. 
He  accepted  it  with  the  greatest  reluctance,  and 


6682 


ME  A- — M E I 


altogether  from  a sepse  of  duty.  He  had  inclined  to 
fight  on  the  line  of  Pipe  Creek,  to  the  south  of  Gettys- 
burg i but  Reynolds  fell  into  collision  with  Lee’s 
advance  at  Gettysburg,  other  corps  hurried  to  support, 
and  Gettysburg  became  historical.  When  Grant 
assumed  general  command  in  1864,  Meade  continued  to 
command  the  army  of  the  Potomac  under  him,  and 
mutual  good-feeling  enabled  them  to  maintain  this 
delicate  relation  without  friction,  and  with  the  best 
results.  At  the  close  of  the  war,  being  major-general  in 
the  regular  army,  he  commanded  the  military  division 
of  the  Atlantic  until  his  death  at  Philadelphia,  Novem- 
ber 6,  1872. 

MEAGHER,  Thomas  Francis,  born  in  Waterford, 
Ireland,  August  3,  1823;  was  educated  at  Stonyhurst 
(Catholic)  College,-  England,  and  became  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  “Young  Ireland”  party,  1846-48.  In 
October,  1848,  he  was  convicted  of  treason  and  sen- 
tenced to  death,  but  this  was  commuted  to  banishment 
for  life.  He  was  sent  to  Van  Diemen’s  Land  but  es- 
caped in  1852  and  came  to  the  United  States,  where  he 
practiced  law.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war  he 
joined  a New  York  regiment  and  was  present  at  the 
first  battle  of  Bull  Run.  Later,  in  1 861,  he  organized  the 
“ Irish  brigade  ” in  New  York  city.  As  brigadier-gen- 
eral he  fought  at  second  Bull  Run,  Fredericksburg, 
Antietam,  and  Chancellorsville.  In  1865  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  the  Territory  of  Montana,  and 
while  exercising  the  duties  of  governor  pro  tem . was 
(frowned  in  the  Missouri  river,  July  1,  1867. 

MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ,  Grand  Duke  of, 
(Frederick  William  Charles  George  Ernest 
Adolphus  Gustavus),  a lieutenant-general  in  the 
Prussian  army,  born  October  17,  1819;  married,  June 
28,  1843,  the  Princess  Augusta  Caroline  Charlotte  Eliza- 
beth Maria  Sophia  Louisa  of  Cambridge,  daughter  of  the 
late  Duke  of  Cambridge.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Sep- 
tember 6,  i860,  and  has  one  son,  George  Adolphus 
Frederick  Augustus  Victor  Ernest  Gustavus  William 
Wellington,  born  July  22,  1848. 

MEDILL,  Joseph,  born  in  New  Brunswick,  Canada, 
April  6,  1823;  removed  to  Ohio  when  a boy,  and  prac- 
ticed law  in  Massillon.  He  founded  a Free  Soil  and 
a Whig  newspaper  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  and  in  1855 
purchased  an  interest  in  the  Chicago  Tribune , of  which 
he  is  editor  and  chief  owner.  In  1871  he  was  elected 
mayor  of  Chicago.  He  was  also  a member  of  the 
Illinois  constitutional  convention  in  1870,  and  after- 
ward of  the  civil  service  commission,  and  is  credited 
with  having  refused  several  appointments  as  foreign 
minister.  He  died  Mar.  16,  1899. 

MEDING.  Oskar,  a German  novelist,  who  writes 
under  the  pseudonym,  “Gregor  Samarow,”  was  born 
April  11,  1829,  at  Konigsberg,  being  the  son  of  the 
governor  of  East  Prussia.  He  studied  law  in  his  native 
town,  at  Heidelberg  and  at  Berlin,  from  1848  to  1851, 
when  he  became  an  advocate  at  Marienwerder.  At  a 
later  period  he  was  employed  in  the  magistracy  and 
administration;  and  in  1859  he  quitted  the  public  service 
of  Prussia  and  joined  that  of  Hanover.  . Sent  on  a 
mission  to  the  Elector  of  Hesse,  in  1866,  he  returned  to 
Hanover  at  the  time  of  the  Prussian  invasion  of  that 
country;  rejoined  the  king,  who  was  with  the  army,  and, 
after  the  catastrophe  of  Langenesalza,  followed  the  king 
to  Vienna.  He  went  to  Paris  in  the  following  year  as 
the  representative  of  the  interests  of  the  deposed  king. 
In  1870  he  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  the  Prussian  govern- 
ment, and  after  residing  two  years  in  Switzerland,  and 
at  Stuttgart,  he  settled  in  Berlin,  where,  keeping  wholly 
aloof  from  politics,  he  began  to  write  his  personal  rem- 
iniscences, in  the  form  of  novels,  under  the  pseudonym 
of  “ Gregor  Samarow.  ” 


MEDLEY,  John,  D.D. , bishop  of  Fredericton,  and 
metropolitan  of  Canada,  born  in  1804;  was  educated 
at  Wadham  College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  B.A. 
in  honors  in  1826,  and  M.A.  in  1830.  He  was  for 
several  years  vicar  of  St.  Thomas’,  Exeter,  and  preb- 
endary of  that  cathedral,  and  in  1845  was  consecrated 
first  bishop  of  Fredericton.  Flis  diocese  included  the 
entire  province  of  New  Brunswick.  In  1879  he  became 
metropolitan  of  Canada.  He  died  September  9,  1892. 

MEEKER,  Joseph  R.,  artist,  was  born  in  New 
Jersey,  April  21,  1827,  and  exhibited  at  the  American 
Art  Union  about  1850.  He  removed  to  St.  Louis  and 
devoted  his  attention  to  landscape  painting,  in  which 
he  became  very  successful. 

MEIGS,  James  A.,  born  in  Philadelphia,  July  31, 
1829;  died  November  8,  1879.  He  held  the  chair  of 
physiology  in  the  Pennsylvania  Medical  College  and  was 
also  professor  of  the  institutes  of  medicine  in  Phila- 
delphia College  of  Medicine.  He  became  distinguished 
as  an  anatomist  and  a pathologist  and  was  a member  of 
various  medical  societies.  His  articles  on  craniology 
and  ethnology  are  of  value. 

MEIGS,  Montgomery  C.,  born  in  Augusta,  Ga., 
May  3,  1816,  graduated  at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  in  1836,  and  was  appointed  to  the  artillery, 
but  transferred  the  following  year  to  the  engineer  corps. 
For  many  years  he  was  occupied  in  the  engineering  serv- 
ice on  the  sea  coast  and  in  the  construction  of  the 
government  works  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  else- 
where. In  May,  1861,  he  was  promoted  colonel  of  the 
nth  infantry,  and  the  following  day  was  made 
quartermaster-general  of  the  United  States  army,  with 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  This  post  he  held  until 
his  retirement  from  active  service  in  November,  1882. 
During  the  whole  of  the  war  General  Meigs  was  en- 
gaged in  directing  the  equipment  and  supplies  of  the 
armies  in  the  field.  In  1876  he  was  a member  of  the 
commission  for  reorganization  of  the  army,  and  after 
his  retirement  he  served  as  the  architect  of  the  pension 
bureau  building  at  Washington,  which  was  completed 
in  1887.  He  was  a regent  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion. He  died  in  January,  1892. 

MEILHAC,  Henri,  a French  dramatic  author, 
born  in  Paris  in  1832;  was  educated  at  the  Lyc£e  Louis- 
le-Grand.  From  1852  to  1855  he  contributed  with  pen 
and  pencil  to  the  Journal  pour  Rire,  and  in  1855  his  first 
dramatic  efforts,  Satania  and  Garde  toi,  je  me  garde 
were  produced  at  the  Palais  Royal,  but  without  much 
success.  In  i860,  in  . collaboration  with  M.  Ludovic 
Halevy,  he  wrote  Ld  Etincelle,  and  Une  heure  avant 
V ouver ture , both  played  at  the  Vaudeville,  and  in  1861, 
with  M.  Arthur  Delavegne,  La  Vertu  de  Celimene,  pro- 
duced at  the  Gymnase,  which  became  very  popular,  not- 
withstanding its  improbable  plot.  In  conjunction  with 
the  above-mentioned  authors,  M.  Meilhac  has  produced 
a large  number  of  plays,  the  chief  among  them 
being  La  Belle  Helene , Barbe  Bleu,  La  Grande  Duch- 
esse  de  Gerolstein , Frou-frou,  etc.  Died  July,  1897. 

MEISSONIER,  Jean  Louis  Ernest,  painter,  born 
at  Lyons  about  1812;  went,  while  young,  to  Paris,  and 
for  some  time  attended  the  studio  of  M.  Leon  Cogniet. 
He  displayed  remarkable  ingenuity  in  microscopic 
painting,  which  no  one  in  France  had  attempted  before 
him,  and  his  Little  Messenger,  exhibited  in  1836,  attracted 
the  attention  of  critics,  who  were  astonished  that  so  much 
precision  could  be  allied  to  such  delicacy  of  finish.  In 
1853  he  exhibited  four  pictures,  all  in  his  minute  and 
elaborately  careful  manner,  all  of  entirely  different  sub- 
jects, each  one  perfect  in  its  way.  In  the  salon  of  1857 
he  had  nine  subjects,  all  distinguished  by  an  exquisite 
touch,  and  manifesting  great  care  and  patience.  His 
most  celebrated  pictures  are  the  Napoleon  Cycle,  four 


M EL  — M EN 


small  paintings  from  the  life  of  the  first  Napoleon,  of 
which  1814 — the  Campaign  of  France — is  certainly 
his  masterpiece.  He  obtained  a medal  of  the  third 
class  in  1840,  one  of  the  second  class  in  1841,  and  two 
of  the  first  class  in  1855.  He  was  decorated  with  the 
Legion  of  Honor  in  1840;  was  made  grand  officer  in 
June,  1856;  commander  in  June,  1867,  and  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Beaux  Arts  in  1861.  In  1884  an  ex- 
hibition of  his  works  was  held  in  Paris.  Meissonier 
died  January  31,  1891. 

MELBA,  Nellie,  singer,  born  in  Australia,  May  19, 
1865.  She  studied  under  Madame  Marchesi  in  Paris,  and 
made  her  stage  debut  October  15,  1887,  in  Rigoletto,  at 
Brussels,  and  her  pure  soprano  voice,  of  great  power, 
range  andbeauty,  soon  madeher  the  most  admired  of  art- 
ists in  grand  opera.  For  her  Bemberg  wrote  Elaine , 
produced  in  London  in  1892.  She  sang  in  grand  opera 
in  the  United  States  in  1894  and  1895,  winning  popu- 
lar triumphs  by  her  renditions  of  “ Lucia,”  “Juliet,” 
“Elaine,”  “ Ophelia,”  and  “Marguerite,”  in  Faust. 

MELIKOFF,  Loris,  a Russian  general,  of  Arme- 
nian descent,  born  at  Moscow,  1824.  In  the  Crimean 
war  he  was  colonel  of  a light  cavalry  regiment,  won 
the  rank  of  general,  fought  in  the  Caucasus,  and  be- 
came governor  of  Vladi-Kavkas,  in  Circassia,  in  i860. 
Some  years  afterward  he  obtained  leave  of  absence  be- 
cause of  ill  health  and  was  staying  at  Wiesbaden  when 
the  declaration  of  war  by  Russia  against  Turkey  re- 
called him  to  active  service.  He  was  appointed  adju- 
tant-general to  the  Grand  Duke  Michael,  the  imperial 
lieutenant  commanding-in-chief  the  army  of  the  Cauca- 
sus. It  was  in  fact  Gen.  Loris  Melikoff  who  directed 
all  the  military  operations  in  a country  with  which  no 
one  was  more  intimately  acquainted  than  himself.  To 
him  in  particular  was  due  the  capture  of  Ardham  by  the 
Russian  troops,  May  17,  1877.  He  died  Dec.  27,  1888. 

MELLO,  Custodio  Jos£  DE,  Brazilian  naval  officer 
and  revolutionist,  born  in  1845.  He  was  a captain  in 
the  navy  at  the  time  of  the  bloodless  revolution,  in 
which  he  took  a prominent  part,  that  overthrew  the 
empire  in  1889,  and  was  promoted  to  admiral  by  Presi- 
dent Fonseca  in  1890,  and  for  a time  was  minister  of 
marine.  On  September  6,  1893,  he  seized  the  Brazil- 
ian war  ships  in  the  harbor  of  Rio  Janeiro  and  declared 
war  on  President  Peixoto.  He  captured  some  of  the 
forts  but  was  unable  to  establish  a blockade  through 
the  refusal  of  foreign  powers  to  recognize  him  as  a 
belligerent.  He  captured  Santa  Catherina  in  Septem- 
ber, established  a provisional  government  there  and 
carried  on  the  war  six  months  until  President  Peixoto, 
having  secured  war  ships  from  Europe  and  the  United 
States,  captured  Mello’s  fleet  and  suppressed  his  re- 
bellion. Mello  was  repulsed  at  Rio  Grande  do  Sul 
April  16,  1894,  and  took  refuge  at  Buenos  Ayres,  Ar- 
gentine Republic. 

MELLON,  Mrs.  Alfred,  known  under  her  maiden 
name,  Miss  Sarah  Jane  Woolgar,  born  July  8,  1824; 
made  her  first  appearance  in  London  in  the  Adelphi 
theater,  in  September,  1843,  in  a farce  called  Antony 
and  Cleopatra , when  her  merit  was  recognized,  and  she 
found  herself  high  in  favor  with  the  London  public. 
She  took  part  in  all  the  Adelphi  triumphs  from  the  date 
of  her  first  appearance  till  her  retirement ; indeed,  ex- 
cept for  very  brief  engagements,  she  has  appeared  at 
no  other  London  theater.  She  became  the  wife  of  the 
late  Mr.  Alfred  Mellon,  the  popular  composer  and  con- 
ductor, for  some  time  the  leader  of  the  orchestra  at 
the  Adelphi  theater,  who  died  in  June,  1867. 

MELVILLE,  George  Wallace,  born  in  New 
York  city,  January  10,  1841,  entered  the  United  States 
navy  as  an  engineer  in  July,  1861,  and  rose  through  the 
intervening  grades  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-com- 


6683 

mander.  He  was  engineer  of  the  Jeannette,  which 
sailed  on  July  8,  1879,  under  the  command  of  Lieut. 
George  W.  DeLong,  on  a polar  expedition.  Melville 
accompanied  DeLong  over  the  ice  to  Bennett  Island 
after  the  sinking  of  the  Jeannette  in  June,  1881,  and 
after  the  division  of  the  party  he  commanded  one  of  the 
Jeannette's  boats,  which  reached  t.he  mouth  of  the  Lena 
river  in  September  of  that  year.  Melville  afterward 
discovered  the  remains  of  DeLong  and  his  eleven 
companions,  and  after  his  return  to  the  United  States 
he  was  appointed  engineer-in-chief  in  the  United  States 
navy,  with  the  rank  of  commodore.  He  is  the  author 
of  In  the  Lena  Delta,  an  account  of  the  voyage  of  the 
Jeannette. 

MELVILLE,  Herman,  author,  was  born  in  New 
York  city,  August  1,  1819.  In  1837  he  went  to  sea  as 
a common  seaman,  to  Liverpool,  and  several  years  later 
sailed  around  Cape  Horn,  for  a whaling  cruise  in  the 
South  Pacific  Ocean.  But  as  the  treatment  to  which  he 
was  subjected  was  harsh  and  forbidding,  he,  with  a com- 
panion, deserted  when  the  vessel  reached  one  of  the 
Marquesas  Islands.  Here  the  two  mariners  were  held 
captive  for  several  months.  Altogether  Melville  spent 
about  two  years  among  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
In  1850  he  removed  to  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  but  subse- 
quently returned  to  New  York  city,  where  he  became 
employed  at  the  custom  house.  His  adventures  formed 
the  basis  of  his  earliest  work,  Typee  (New  York,  1846), 
and  were  further  related  in  Omoo  (1847).  In  both 
books  actual  adventure  is  apparently  mingled  with  ro- 
mance, which  secured  for  them  an  extensive  sale.  But 
the  vein  was  soon  exhausted.  Mr.  Melville  died  Sep- 
tember 28,  1891. 

MEMMINGER,  Charles  Gustavus,  born  in  Wiir- 
temberg,  Germany,  January  9,  1803  ; came  to  the  United 
States  when  very  young  and  settled  in  South  Carolina. 
In  1836  he  was  elected  to  the  legislature  of  that  State, 
in  which  he  sat  until  1852.  From  February,  1861,  until 
June,  1864,  he  was  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  the  Con- 
federate Government.  After  his  resignation  he  lived  in 
retirement,  and  died  at  Charleston,  March  7,  1888. 

MENABREA,  Louis  Frederick,  Marquis  de 
Val-Dora,  an  Italian  general  and  statesman,  born  at 
Chamb£ry  (Savoy),  September  4,  1809;  studied  with 
distinction  at  the  University  of  Turin,  and  entered  the 
corps  of  engineers  as  lieutenant.  At  an  early  age  he 
became  favorably  known  by  his  scientific  attainments, 
which  led  to  his  appointment  as  professor  of  mechanics 
in  the  Military  Academy,  in  the  School  of  Artillery, 
and  in  the  University  of  Turin,  and  to  his  election,  in 
1839,  as  a member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  that 
city.  He  attained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1848.  Sent 
by  King  Charles  Albert,  of  Sardinia,  on  amission  to  the 
Italian  duchies,  he  worked  to  procure  a vote  in  favor 
of  union  with  the  Subalpine  kingdom.  He  was  next 
elected  to  th,e  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  attached  as 
chief  officer,  first  to  the  ministry  of  war,  and  next  to 
that  of  foreign  affairs.  These  functions  he  resigned  on 
the  accession  to  power  of  Gioberti,  but  he  resumed 
them  after  the  defeat  at  Novarra.  In  the  war  of  Italian 
Independence  Count  Menabrea,  who  had  been  ad- 
vanced to  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  engineering  department  of  the  army,  exe- 
cuted several  important  works,  including  the  invest- 
ment of  Peschiera,  and  was  present  at  the  battles  of 
Palestro  and  Solferino.  On  the  cession  of  his  native 
province  to  France,  he  determined  to  retain  his  Italian 
nationality.  Soon  afterward  he  was  nominated  a sena- 
tor by  King  Victor  Emmanuel.  He  was  also  made  lieu- 
tenant-general, and  conducted  the  military  operations 
at  Ancona,  Capua,  and  Gaeta.  In  1861  he  became 
minister  of  marine  in  the  administration  of  Baron  Rica- 


MEN-MER 


6684 

soli,  and  in  1866  he  was  sent  to  Germany,  where,  as 
plenipotentiary  of  Italy,  he  signed  the  treaty  of  Prague. 
In  1867  he  was  entrusted  by  the  king,  whose  first  aide- 
de-camp  he  had  been  for  some  time  previously,  with  the 
formation  of  a cabinet  in  which  he  held  the  portfolio  of 
foreign  affairs,  besides  being  president  of  the  council ; 
and  notwithstanding  numerous  financial  difficulties,  and 
the  complications  of  the  Roman  question,  he  remained 
in  power  till  November,  1869,  when  a new  cabinet  was 
formed  by  Signor  Lanza.  General  Menabrea  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Vienna  in  November,  1870,  but 
was  recalled  in  the  following  year.  He  was  appointed 
ambassador  at  the  court  of  St.  James  in  May,  1876. 
He  was  subsequently  appointed  ambassador  at  Paris. 
Ennobled  in  1843,  he  was  created  a count  in  1861,  and 
Marquis  de  Val-Dora  in  1875.  Died  May,  1896. 

MENARD,  Pierre,  born  in  Quebec,  Canada,  in 
1767;  removed  to  Kaskaskia,  111.,  in  1788;  became  a 
United  States  district  judge  and  member  of  the  Terri- 
torial legislature,  and  in  1819  became  the  first  lieu- 
tenant-governor  of  the  new  State  of  Illinois.  He  died 
in  1845. 

MENARD,  Ren£,  a French  missionary,  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1604;  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1624, 
and  came  to  Montreal  in  1640.  For  more  than  twenty 
years  he  was  active  as  a missionary  among  the  Algon- 
quin, Cayuga,  and  Oneida  Indians  of  central  New 
York.  He  died  while  on  a journey  to  visit  some  Huron 
tribes  on  the  Black  river.  A county  in  Illinois  is 
named  after  Father  Menard. 

MENDENHALL,  Thomas  C.,  born  in  Ohio, 
October  4,  1841 ; became  in  1873  professor  of  physics 
and  mechanics  in  Ohio  University,  and  occupied  that 
position  for  five  years.  From  1878  until  1881  he  was 
occupied  with  meteorological  observations  in  Japan, 
and  on  his  return  resumed  his  pld  position.  In  1884 
he  became  connected  with  the  United  States  signal 
service,  and  in  1886  accepted  the  presidency  of  a 
Polytechnic  Institute  in  Indiana. 

MENDES,  Catulle,  was  born  at  Bordeaux  in  1840. 
In  i860  he  established  in  Paris  La  Reine  Fantaisiste , 
in  which  he  published  Le  Roman  d'une  Nuit , a drama 
in  verse,  but  being  under  age  he  was  condemned  to  two 
months’  imprisonment  and  a fine  of  500  francs.  His 
other  works  include  Philomela  (a  volume  of  lyrics, 
1864);  Hesperus  (a  poem,  1869);  La  Colere  d’un 
Franc- tireur  Odelette  Guerriere  (1871);  Contes  Epiques 
(1872),  republished  in  1876  under  the  title  of  Poe'sies ; 
several  novels,  Les  Folies  Amoureuses  (1877);  Les 
Meres  Ennemies  (1880) ; La  Divine  Adventure  (1881), 
in  conjunction  with  M.  Lesclide;  Le  Rose  et  le  Noir 
(1885),  and  various  pieces  for  the  theater.  In  1866  he 
married  Mile.  Judith  Gautier. 

MENKEN,  Adah  Isaacs,  was  born  in  New  Orleans, 
of  Jewish  parentage,  June  15,  1835.  She  appeared  as 
a dancer  in  Havana,  Cuba,  at  an  early  age,  and  played 
in  Texas,  Mexico,  and  New  Orleans.  In  Galveston, 
1856,  she  married  Alexander  Isaacs  Menken,  a musi- 
cian, from  whom  she  subsequently  obtained  a divorce. 
For  two  years  she  appeared  in  various  parts  as  leading 
lady  in  theaters  of  the  South,  and  on  April  3,  1859,  she 
married,  in  New  York  city,  John  C.  Heenan,  of  Cali- 
fornia, the  well  known  pugilist,  from  whom  she  was 
divorced  in  1862.  She  first  appeared  in  New  York  city 
in  1859,  as  an  actress,  and  in  that  city  married  Robert 
H.  Newell,  better  known  by  his  nom  de  plume  of  “ Or- 
pheus C.  Kerr.”  After  a visit  to  California  in  July, 
1863,  she  went  to  England,  where  she  drew  crowded 
houses  by  playing  her  favorite  character  of  Mazeppa. 
In  1865  she  terminated  her  matrimonial  engagement 
with  Newell,  and  a year  later  married  one  James  Bar- 
clay.. She  died  in  Paris,  August  io*  1868,  and  is  bur- 


ied in  the  cemetery  of  Mont  Parnasse.  She  was  the 
author  of  a book  of  poems  called  Infclicia , of  which 
Charles  Dickens  spoke  in  high  terms. 

MENZEL,  Adolf  Friedrich  Erdmann,  German 
historical  painter,  was  born  Decembers,  1815,  at  Bres- 
lau, but  removed  in  1830  with  his  parents  to  Berlin, 
where  he  studied  art  at  the  academy.  In  1836  he  made 
his  first  attempt  in  oil  painting,  The  Chess  Players , fol- 
lowed by  several  other  pictures;  butfrom  183910  i842he 
worked  at  the  illustrations  to  Kugler’s  History  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great.  Since  then  he  has  become  celebrated 
as  a painter  of  the  most  life-like  and  accurate  scenes 
from  the  age  of  Frederick.  His  first  important  work  of 
the  period  was  the  Round  Table  of  Frederick  the  Great 
(1850);  followed  by  the  Flute  Concert  at  Sans  Souci 
(1852);  Frederick’s  Reception  in  Breslau , and  Freder- 
ick at  the  Battle  of  Hochkirch  (1856)  ; Bliicher  and  Well- 
ington at  Waterloo  (1858),  and  many  others.  All 
these  paintings  are  remarkable  for  strong  realism, 
great  power  of  characterization,  and  for  the  masterly 
skill  with  which  every  detail  is  represented.  He  has 
been,  since  1856,  professor  at  the  Berlin  Academy,  and 
is  a member  of  the  academies  of  Vienna  and  Munich,  and 
honorary  member  of  the  English  Royal  Water  Color 
Society. 

MERCER,  Hugh,  born  in  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  in 
1721;  died  near  Princeton,  N.  J.,  January  12,  1777. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Aberdeen,  be- 
came a physician,  and  in  1 745  served  as  surgeon  in  the 
battle  of  Culloden.  He  came  to  America  in  1747,  and 
located  near  what  is  now  Mercersburg  in  Pennsylvania. 
He  was  made  a captain  in  the  wars  with  the  Indians ; 
and  was  wounded  in  the  expedition  of  General  Brad- 
dock.  In  1 758  he  was  promoted  lieutenant-colonel,  and 
for  several  months  commanded  the  post  at  Pittsburg. 
He  afterward  settled  in  Fredericksburg,  Va.,  where  he 
practiced  medicine.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution 
he  raised  three  regiments  of  minute  men  on  behalf  of 
the  colonies;  in  1776  was  made  colonel  and  organized 
the  Virginia  militia.  On  June  5,  1776,  congress  ap- 
pointed him  brigadier-general.  He  led  the  column  of 
attack  at  Trenton,  N.  J.,  and  advised  the  night-march 
on  Princeton.  Commanding  the  advance  he  encountered 
a large  body  of  British  troops  and  in  the  ensuing  action 
was  felled  to  the  ground  by  the  butt  of  a musket  and 
several  times  bayonetted.  A monument  has  been 
erected  to  his  memory  at  Laurel  Hill  cemetery,  Phila- 
delphia. 

MERCHANT,  Charles  Spencer,  born  in  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  February  22,  1795  ; became  the  first  cadet  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy,  and  was  graduated 
from  there  in  1814.  He  served  in  the  war  against 
Great  Britain  during  the  disturbances  in  Canada,  and 
in  the  Mexican  war.  In  1861  he  was  promoted  colonel 
of  artillery,  and  commanded  Fort  Washington  on  the 
Potomac  until  August,  1863,  when  he  was  retired  from 
active  service,  and  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  for 
long  and  valuable  services.  At  the  time  of  his  death- 
in  December,  1879,  he  was  senior  officer  in  the  United 
States  army. 

MERClfe,  Marcus  Jean  Antoine,  a French  sculp- 
tor, was  born  at  Toulouse,  October  30,  1845.  He  was 
a pupil  of  Falguiere  and  Jouffroy,  and  studied  at  the 
ficole  des  Beaux  Arts.  In  1868  he  obtained  the  prix 
de  Rome,  and  the  same  year  exhibited  a medallion  at 
the  Salon.  In  1872  he  sent  from  Rome  a plaster  statue 
of  David,  and  Dali  la,  avbust;  and  in  1874  Gloria  Victis, 
a group  in  bronze,  attracted  much  attention,  and  was 
purchased  by  the  government.  The  Genius  of  the 
Arts,  intended  for  the  grand  entrance  of  the  Louvre, 
was  exhibited  in  1877 ; the  plaster  model  of  the  bas- 
relief  for  the  tomb  of  Michelet  in  P&re  Lachaise,  ia 


M E R 


1879 ; and  a statue  of  Arago,  in  1880.  Besides  these  he 
\ns  modeled  various  portrait  busts.  M.  Merci6  was 
lecorated  with  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1874,  and  made 
tn  officer  in  1879. 

MERCIER,  Honors,  was  born  in  Quebec,  October 
15,  1840;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Lower  Canada  in 
1867,  and  edited  Le  Courrier  de  St.  Hyacinth.  He  sat 
h the  Dominion  Parliament  and  the  Legislative  As- 
lembly  of  Quebec,  and  served  as  solicitor-general  in 
1879.  In  1881-86  he  was  reelected,  and  in  1887  be- 
taine premier.  His  administration  was  dismissed  in 
1891  for  corruption,  but  he  was  not  involved  person- 
ally. He  died  October  30,  1894. 

MERCUR,  Ulysses,  lawyer,  born  in  Bradford 
county,  Pa.,  August  12,  1818;  died  June  16,  1887. 
He  served  as  judge,  1861-65,  was  four  terms  in  con- 
gress, became  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1872,  and  chief  justice  in  1883. 

MEREDITH,  George,  novelist  and  poet,  born  in 
Hampshire,  England,  about  1828,  and  educated  partly 
in  Germany,  was  brought  up  to  the  law,  which  he 
quitted  for  literature.  He  has  written  Poems  (1851) ; 
The  Shaving  of  Shagpat,  an  Arabian  Entertainment 
(a  burlesque  prose  poem,  1855);  Farina , a Legend  of 
Cologne  (1857) ; The  Ordeal  of  Richard  Feverel  (a  phil- 
osophical novel,  bearing  upon  the  more  serious  ques- 
tions of  moral  education  1859) ; Evan  Harrington  (a 
serial  tale  of  modern  life,  first  printed  in  Once  a Week , 
and  republished  in  a separate  form,  1861);  Modern 
Love : Poems  and  Ballads  (1862) ; Emilia  in  England 
(1864);  Rhoda  Fleming  (1865) ; Vittoria  (1866)  ; The 
Adventures  of  Harry  Richmond  (1871);  The  Egoist 
(a  novel,  3 vols.,  1879);  The  Tragic  Comedians  (2 
vols.,  1881,  a novel  founded  on  the  life  and  tragic  fate 
of  Ferdinand  Lassalle)  ; Diana  of  the  Crossways;  Lord 
Ormont  and  his  Aminta  (1894);  The  Amazing  Mar- 
riage (1895),  and  other  novels  and  poems. 

MEREDITH,  Sir  William  Colles,  born  in  Ire- 
land, May  23,  1812;  studied  law,  emigrated  to  Canada, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  of  Montreal  in  1836.  In 
1844  he  became  queen’s  counsel,  and  from  1849  to  1866 
served  as  judge  of  the  Superior  Court  and  of  the  Court 
of  Queen’s  Bench  successively.  From  1866  to  1884  he 
was  chief  justice  of  the  Superior  Court.  He  received  the 
degrees  of  D.C.L.  andLL.D.,  and  was  knighted  in  1886. 

MEREDITH,  Solomon,  born  in  North  Carolina 
in  May,  1810;  died  in  Indiana,  October,  1875.  He  re- 
moved to  Indiana  when  a lad,  served  twice  as  sheriff 
of  Wayne  county,  was  four  times  elected  to  the  State 
legislature,  and  served  one  term  as  United  States 
marshal.  In  186 1 he  became  a colonel  in  the  volunteer 
service,  and  was  promoted  brigadier-general  in  October, 
1862.  He  commanded  the  “Iron  Brigade”  through 
the  w’ar,  took  a distinguished  part  in  the  battles  of 
Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg,  and  was  severely 
wounded  at  the  latter.  On  his  recovery  he  commanded 
at  Cairo,  111.,  and  Paducah,  Ky.  On  August  14,  1865, 
he  was  brevetted  major-general  of  volunteers.  His 
three  sons  served  in  the  national  army  and  two  were 
killed  in  battle. 

MEREDITH,  Sullivan  Amory,  brother  of  the 
foregoing,  born  in  Philadelphia,  July  5,  1816;  died 
December  27,  1874.  In  April,  1861,  he  entered  the 
volunteer  service  as  colonel  of  the  10th  Pennsylvania 
regiment ; served  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  and  was 
with  McDowell’s  corps  in  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run, 
where  he  was  severely  wounded.  He  was  promoted 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  served  in  the  south- 
west, and  was  mustered  out  in  August,  1865. 

MEREDITH,  William  Morris,  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, June  8,  1799;  died  there  August  17,  1873.  He 
graduated  at  the  Pennsylvania  University  in  1812,  and 

49— J 


6685 

practiced  law  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  a member  of 
the  select  council,  of  the  State  legislature,  and  of  the 
constitutional  convention  of  1837.  In  1849  he  became 
secretary  of  the  United  States  treasury,  and  held  that 
office  until  the  death  of  President  Taylor.  From  1861 
to  1867  he  was  attorney-general  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
in  1873  he  presided  over  the  constitutional  convention 
of  that  year. 

MERIVALE,  Charles,  D.D.,  churchman,  brother 
of  the  late  Herman  Merivale,  born  in  1808,  was  edu- 
cated at  Harrow,  Haileybury,  and  St.  John’s  College, 
Cambridge,  of  which  he  was  successively  scholar,  fel- 
low, and  tutor.  He  took  his  B.  A.  degree  in  high  honors 
in  1830,  was  a select  preacher  before  the  University  of 
Cambridge  in  1838-40,  one  of  the  preachers. at  White- 
hall in  1839-41,  Hulsean  lecturer  at  Cambridge  in  1861, 
and  Boyle  lecturer  in  1864  and  1865.  He  was  rector  of 
Lawford,  Essex,  1848-69;  chaplain  to  the  speaker  of 
House  of  Commons  from  1863  to  1869;  and  was  in- 
stalled dean  of  Ely,  December  29,  1869.  He  was  the 
author  of  a History  of  the  Romans  Under  the  Empire 
(published  in  8 vols.,  8vo,  in  1850-62) ; Boyle  Lectures 
(1864-65);  Translation  of  Homer's  Iliad  (in  English 
rhymed  verse,  2 vols.,  1869)  ; General  History  of  Rome 
from  the  Foundation  of  the  City  to  the  Fall  of  Augustu- 
lus  (B.C.  753-A.D.  476,  8vo,  London,  1875);  and  Lec- 
tures on  Early  Church  History  (1879).  He  died  De- 
cember 27,  1893. 

MERIVALE,  Herman  Charles,  son  of  the  late 
Herman  Merivale,  permanent  under-secretary  of  state 
for  the  colonies,  and  afterward  for  India,  was  born  in 
London,  January  27,  1839,  and  educated  at  Harrow  and 
at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in 
1861.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  in 
1864 ; and  served  on  the  western  circuit  and  Exeter  ses- 
sions. He  afterward  practiced  in  the  privy  council  on 
Indian  appeals.  From  1870  to  1880  he  was  editor  of 
the  Annual  Register,  and  in  1879,  owing  to  ill-health, 
was  obliged  to  give  up  the  legal  profession.  Since  then 
he  has  occupied  himself  almost  entirely  with  literature 
and  politics.  His  chief  works  are  the  plays  All  for 
Her  (1874);  Forget  Me  Not  (1879);  The  Cynic 
(1882);  Fedora  (from  Sardou,  1883);  and  Our  Joan 
(1885);  a novel,  Faucit  of  Balliol  (1882);  Binko's 
Blues  (a  fairytale,  1884);  White  Pilgrim,  and  Other 
Poems  (1883);  Florien  and  Other  Poems  (1884). 

MERIWETHER,  Lee,  born  in  Mississippi,  De- 
cember 25,  1862.  He  has  written  extensively  on  the 
tariff  question  and  the  condition  of  labor  in  the  United 
States.  He  published  in  1887  an  account  of  a pedes- 
trian tour  through  Europe. 

MERMILLOD,  Gaspard,  D.D.,  bishop  of  Geneva, 
born  at  Carouge,  near  Geneva,  in  1824;  in  1846  became 
parish  priest  of  Geneva.  There  he  displayed  remark- 
able activity ; was  mainly  instrumental  in  raising  the 
church  of  Notre  Dame,  which  was  opened  in  1857, 
and  obtained  great  influence  at  Rome  on  account  of  his 
zeal  and  rare  eloquence.  In  1864  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Hebron,  in  partibus  infidelium , and  appointed 
auxiliary  to  the  bishop  of  Lausanne  and  Geneva,  as 
vicar-general.  In  1873  Pius  IX.  nominated  him 
vicar-apostolic  of  Geneva,  which  was  thus  separated 
from  the  diocese  of  Lausanne.  This  act  was  consid- 
ered as  the  creation  of  a new  hierarchical  office  in  the 
canton  without  the  consent  of  the  government.  Con- 
sequently on  February  17th  the  bishop  was  exiled,  and 
it  was  added,  “this  decree  is  to  hold  good  as  long  as 
the  person  elected  shall  not  declare  to  the  federal 
council,  or  to  the  government  of  Geneva,  that  he  re- 
nounces the  functions  conferred  upon  him  contrary  to 
the  decisions  of  the  cantonal  and  federal  authorities.” 
For  ten  years  Bishop  Mermillod  was  absent  from  his 


6686 


MER-MIC 


flock,  yet  ever  active  in  his  zealous  labors  for  the  Cath- 
olic faith  in  France,  in  Rome,  and  in  other  parts  of 
Europe,  being  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  eminent 
prelates  of  the  Roman  Church.  In  1879  Leo  XIII. 
settled  the  dispute  by  appointing  him  bishop  of  Frei- 
burg-Lausanne,  Geneva,  suppressing  the  vicariate 
apostolic.  Bishop  Mermillod  published  numerous  ser- 
mons, conferences,  discourses,  and  other  theological 
works.  He  died  February  23,  1892. 

MERRILL,  Lewis,  born  in  Pennsylvania,  October 
28,  1834;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1853,  and  in 
1861  was  made  colonel  and  chief  of  cavalry  on  the  staff 
of  General  Fremont.  He  led  a brigade  in  the  army 
of  the  southwest,  commanded  the  district  of  northern 
Missouri,  and  was  engaged  in  several  battles  with  the 
guerilla  cavalry.  He  commanded  the  cavalry  in  Mis- 
souri against  Price,  and  later  w^s  transferred  to  the 
army  of  the  Cumberland  as  brigadier- general.  In 
March,  1875,  he  was  made  inspector-general  and  judge 
advocate  of  the  department  of  the  Platte.  He  was 
afterward  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  military  dis- 
trict of  South  Carolina,  where  he  did  good  service  in 
the  suppression  of  the  Ku-Klux  conspiracy.  In  1876  he 
performed  a similar  duty  in  Louisiana,  and  in  1886  he 
was  retired  from  active  service  on  account  of  disability. 

MERRILL,  Stephen  Mason,  born  in  Jefferson 
county,  Ohio,  September  16,  1825;  became  a traveling 
preacher  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  in  1864, 
edited  the  Western  Christian  Advocate  from  1868  to 
1872,  and  was  consecrated  bishop  in  the  latter  year. 
He  is  D.D.  of  Ohio  University,  and  LL.D.  of  the  North- 
western University. 

MERRILL,  William  Emery,  born  in  Brown 
county,  Wis.,  October  11,  1837;  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1859,  was  assigned  to  the  engineer  corps  and 
served  as  assistant  engineer  in  the  army  of  the  Potomac 
and  afterward  as  chief  engineer  of  the  army  of  Kentucky, 
and  of  the  army  of  the  Cumberland.  He  served  in  all 
important  actions  during  the  campaigns  of  1862-63-64 
and  was  promoted  colonel  for  faithful  services  at  Chick- 
amauga  and  Lookout  Mountain.  After  the  war  he 
served  as  chief  engineer  on  the  staff  of  General  Sher- 
man and  had  charge  of  the  improvements  on  the  Ohio 
and  other  rivers.  He  was  promoted  lieutenant-colonel 
February,  1883,  and  died  in  1891. 

MERRY,  William  Walter,  M.A.,  rector  of 
Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  was  born  in  1835,  and  edu- 
cated at  Cheltenham  College,  whence  he  proceeded  to 
Oxford,  as  a scholar  of  Balliol,  in  1853.  Mr.  Merry 
was  placed  in  the  first  class  in  classical  moderations  in 
1854,  and  in  the  second  class  in  lit.  humaniores  in 
1856.  He  gained  the  chancellor’s  prize  for  the  Latin 
essay  in  1858;  and  in  the  next  year  he  was  elected 
fellow  and  tutor  of  Lincoln  College,  an  appointment 
which  he  held  till  his  election  in  1884  to  the  place  of 
rector  of  that  society,  in  succession  to  the  late  Mark 
Pattison.  Mr.  Merry  has  taken  a prominent  part  in 
teaching  and  examining  in  the  university,  having  fre- 
quently filled  the  post  of  classical  moderator.  The 
editions  of  classical  authors,  which  he  has  undertaken 
far  the  Clarendon  press,  are  well  known  and  widely 
circulated ; the  principal  ones  are  Homer , Odyssey , 
i-xii.,  2d  ed.,  1886;  the  same  for  schools,  29th  thousand  ; 
and  a series  of  the  plays  of  Aristophanes. 

METTERNICH,  Prince  (Richard  Clement 
Joseph  Lothaire  Hermann),  diplomatist,  son  of  the 
famous  statesman  Prince  Metternich,  born  at  Vienna, 
January  7,  1829,  was  educated  as  a diplomatist,  became 
attached  to  the  Austrian  embassy  at  Paris  in  1852,  and 
was  made  secretary  of  legation  there  in  December, 
1854.  In  the  complications  which  arose  in  1859,  before 
$he  Italian  war  broke  opt,  Prince  Metternich  was  in- 


trusted by  the  Austrian  Government  with  a special 
mission  to  Paris,  and  at  the  close  of  the  war  he  became 
ambassador  of  Austria  at  the  French  court,  which  posi- 
tion he  retained  till  December,  1871.  He  was  named 
hereditary  councilor  of  the  Austrian  empire,  1861,  and 
councilor,  1864.  He  died  March  1,  1895. 

MEYER,  Johann  Georg,  a distinguished  German 
painter,  best  known  as  “Meyer  von  Bremen,”  was 
born  at  Bremen  in  1813,  and  died  in  1886.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  pictures  of  domestic  life,  and  particu- 
larly of  children.  The  best  known  is  the  Game  of 
Blind  Man's  Br.ff. 

MEYRICK,  Frederick,  M.A.,  born  in  1826,  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  was 
successively  scholar,  fellow,  and  tutor;  graduated  B.A. 
in  honors  in  1847,  an<3  afterward  held  the  university 
offices  of  select  preacher  and  public  examiner.  He  has 
written  several  theological  works. 

MIANTONOMO,  chief  of  the  Narragansetts;  died  in 
September,  1643.  In  1636  he  succeeded  his  uncle, 
Canonicus,  in  the  government  of  his  tribe.  Mianto- 
nomo  was  friendly  to  the  colonists  of  Massachusetts, 
and  proposed  to  the  governor  the  complete  destruction 
of  the  Pequot  nation,  making  a treaty  that  neither 
party  should  make  peace  with  the  enemy  without  the 
consent  of  the  other.  In  1636  Canonicus  and  Mianto- 
nomo  made  over  to  Roger  Williams,  for  his  colony,  a 
section  of  land  at  the  head  of  Narragansett  Bay,  now 
artially  occupied  by  the  city  of  Providence.  In  1637 
e aided  in  fighting  the  Pequots;  but  in  the  following 
year  he  and  Uncas,  sachem  of  the  Mohegans,  agreed 
not  to  make  war  without  first  appealing  to  the  colo- 
nists. Eventually  the  unfriendly  feeling  between  the 
Narragansetts  and  Mohegans  could  no  longer  be  re- 
strained, and  hostilities  followed.  Miantonomo,  with 
600  warriors,  marched  against  the  rival  chieftain,  Un- 
cas, who  led  400  men.  The  latter  proposed  a duel 
between  themselves  as  a settlement  of  their  difficulties, 
which  Miantonomo  declined,  when  the  forces  of  Uncas 
suddenly  fell  on  the  Narragansetts  and  put  them  to 
flight.  Their  chief,  who  was  encumbered  with  a coat 
of  mail,  was  taken  prisoner  and  surrendered  to  the 
English  at  Hartford,  who  returned  him  to  Uncas  for 
punishment.  The  Mohegan  chief  then  sent  him  to  the 
spot  where  he  was  captured,  and  caused  him  to  be 
slain. 

MICHAEL,  Grand  Duke  (Nicolaievitch), 
brother  of  the  late  Alexander  II.,  emperor  of  Russia, 
and  fourth  son  of  the  late  Czar  Nicholas  I.,  was  born 
October  13  (25),  1832.  He  is  a general  and  grand 
master  of  artillery,  general  aide-de-camp  to  the  Czar, 
governor-general  of  the  Caucasus,  and  head  of  several  . 
regiments  of  artillery,  cavalry,  and  infantry.  In  the 
war  between  Russia  and  Turkey  in  1887  the  Grand  Duke 
Michael  had  the  chief  command  of  the  army  of  the 
Caucasus.  He  married,  in  August,  1857,  Olga-Feodo- 
rovna  (formerly  Cecilia  Augusta),  daughter  of  the  late 
Leopold,  grand  duke  of  Baden.  The  eldest  of  his 
children,  the  Grand  Duke  Nicholas,  was  born  April 
14,  1859. 

MICHEL,  Louise,  poet,  communist  and  anarchist, 
was  born  in  1839  in  Lorraine,  France.  At  fourteen 
she  began  to  teach,  and  to  write  in  the  papers  against 
Napoleon.  In  1855  she  went  to  Paris  as  a teacher,  and 
even  then  was  an  enthusiastic  Republican.  In  1870  she 
was  an  active  worker  in  the  revolutionary  commune, 
and  fought  for  her  principles  in  the  streets  of  Paris. 
She  was  arrested,  and  banished  to  New  Caledonia. 
On  her  return  she  became  an  anarchist,  and  was  again 
imprisoned  in  1883  and  1886.  Since  her  release  she  has 
lived  in  London,  and  has  written  her  Memoirs  apd  a 
novel,  The  Microbes  of  Society, 


MIC- 

MICHELET,  Karl  Ludwig,  born  at  Berlin  in 
1801 ; died  in  1893.  In  1825  he  became  professor  of 
philology  and  philosophy  in  the  French  gymnasium  of 
Berlin,  and  later  was  promoted  to  the  chair  of  philosophy 
in  the  university  of  that  city.  He  published  the  His- 
tory of  the  German  Philosophy,  from  Kant  to  Hegel. 

MICHELSON,  Albert  A.,  born  in  Poland,  De- 
cember 19,  1852;  graduated  at  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  in  1873,  and  served  in  the  navy  until  1881. 
In  that  year  he  became  professor  of  physics  at  the  Case 
School  of  Applied  Science  at  Cleveland,  Ohio.  He  is 
a member  of  several  learned  societies,  and  has  served 
as  vice-president  of  the  American  Association  for  the 
advancement  of  science. 

MIDDLETON,  Arthur,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  South  Caro- 
lina in  June,  1722,  and  died  therein  1787.  He  became 
a member  of  the  provincial  congress  and  of  the  coun- 
cil of  safety  in  1775  and  in  J77^  a delegate  to  the  Con- 
tinental congress,  signing  the  Declaration  on  behalf  of 
his  native  state.  He  afterward  served  in  congress  and 
in  the  State  legislature. 

MIDHAT  PASHA,  born  in  Constantinople,  1822, 
exterminated  the  brigands  of  Roumelia  in  1857  and  be- 
came successively  acting  governor  of  Bulgaria,  pasha, 
governor  of  Albania,  governor-general  of  Bulgaria, 
president  of  the  council  of  state,  grand  vizier,  govern- 
or of  Bagdad,  minister  of  justice  and  governor-gen- 
eral of  Syria.  In  1881  he  was  tried  and  found  guilty 
of  the  murder  of  the  Sultan  Abdul  Aziz  in  1876  and 
sentenced  to  death,  but  this  was  commuted  to  banish- 
ment, and  he  died  in  South  Arabia,  May  11,  1884. 

MIFFLIN,  Thomas,  soldier,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  in  1744;  died  in  Lancaster,  Pa.,  January  20, 
1800.  His  parents  were  Quakers.  He  was  graduated 
at  Philadelphia  College  in  1760;  traveled  in  Europe  in 
1 765  ; in  1 772  was  elected  to  the  legislature,  and  in  1 774 
to  congress.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  he  be- 
came aid-de-camp  to  the  general-in-chief,  with  rank 
of  colonel.  On  May  19,  1776,  he  was  cortimissioned 
brigadier-general,  and  participated  in  the  retreat  from 
Long  Island,  where  he  commanded  the  rear  guard. 
Later,  in  Philadelphia,  General  Mifflin  organized  three 
regiments,  and  sent  1,500  men  to  Trenton,  N.  J. 
On  February  19,  1777,  congress  commissioned  him 
major-general.  Together  with  other  generals  he  was 
opposed  to  the  Fabian  policy  of  General  Washington, 
and  offered  his  resignation,  which  was  not  accepted. 
In  March,  1778,  both  he  and  General  Gates  were  dis- 
charged from  their  places  on  the  board  of  war.  On 
November  3,  1783,  he  was  chosen  president  of  congress, 
and  in  1787  was  a delegate  to  the  convention  that 
framed  the  constitution  of  the  United  States.  From 
1791  until  1800  he  was  governor  of  Pennsylvania. 

MILAN  OBRENOVITCH  I.,  ex-king  of  Servia, 
grandson  of  Ephraim  Obrenovitch,  brother  of  Milos, 
and  second  cousin  of  Prince  Michael,  was  born  August 
10,  1854,  at  Jassy,  of  a Moldavian  mother,  who  had 
married  the  only  son  of  Prince  Ephraim.  He  was 
adopted  by  Prince  Michael,  who  had  no  children  by  his 
marriage  with  Julia  Hunyadi,  and  was  sent  by  him,  in 
1864,  to  Paris  to  be  educated  at  the  Lycee  Louis-le- 
Grand.  The  youth’s  studies  were  interrupted  by  the 
events  of  1868,  and  the  assassination  of  Michael  Obren- 
ovitch. Hastening  to  Servia,  he  was  proclaimed  Prince 
in  July  of  that  year,  the  government  of  the  country 
being  intrusted,  during  his  minority,  to  a council  of 
regency,  who  continued  the  liberal  and  reforming  policy 
begun  by  Michael  III.  Their  regency  terminated  with 
the  coronation  of  Prince  Milan  IV. ; but  M.  Ristics 
continued  to  possess  the  confidence  of  the  prince,  who 
was  only  eighteen  years  of  age  when  he  was  crowned 


-MIL  6687 

in  Belgrade  cathedral,  August  22,  1872.  On  June  12, 
1876,  Prince  Milan  issued  a proclamation  stating  that 
“the  insurrection  in  the  Turkish  provinces  had  found 
its  way  to  the  frontiers  of  Servia,  which  had  compelled 
him  to  place  his  people  under  arms  Shortly  after- 
ward (J  une  22d),  he  sent  what  may  be  called  a threaten- 
ing letter  to  the  grand  vizier,  and  he  formally  pro- 
claimed (June  30th)  that  he  intended  to  join  his  arms  to 
those  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  in  order  to  secure  the 
liberation  of  the  Slavonic  Christians  from  the  yoke  of 
the  Porte.  On  July  2d  a joint  declaration  of  war  was 
sent  by  the  prince  of  Servia  and  the  Hospodar  of  Mon- 
tenegro to  the  Turkish  Government,  their  troops  cross- 
ing the  frontier  at  the  same  time.  The  prince  departed 
from  Belgrade  (July  24th),  to  assume  the  command  of 
the  Servian  troops  in  the  field;  but  he  soon  returned  to 
his  capital  (August  12th), andappointed  the  Russian  gen- 
eral Tchernayeff,  to  the  command  of  the  Servian  forces. 
On  September  1st  an  important  battle  under  the  walls 
of  Alexinatz  resulted  in  the  complete  defeat  of  the  Ser- 
vian army.  The  great  powers  now  interposed,  but  the 
negotiations  for  the  suspension  of  hostilities  were 
delayed  by  an  ill-advised  step  which  Prince  Milan,  at 
the  instigation  of  General  Tchernayeff,  was  induced 
to  take.  On  September  16th  he  was  proclaimed  king 
of  Servia  at  Deligrad.  War  broke  out  again,  and  the 
Servian  army  though  largely  reenforced  by  Russian 
volunteers — men  as  well  as  officers — was  ignominiously 
beaten.  On  October  31st  the  Turks  captured  the 
town  of  Alexinatz,  and  on  the  following  day  Deligrad 
was  captured,  thus  leaving  the  road  to  Belgrade  com- 
pletely open.  A peace  was  now  concluded  between 
Turkey  and  Servia  on  favorable  terms  to  the  latter. 
When,  however,  Russia  made  war  upon  Turkey, 
Prince  Milan  saw  an  opportunity  of  gaining  complete 
independence,  and  a proclamation  of  the  Servian  Gov- 
ernment, dated  December  14,  1877,  made  known  that 
the  Servian  army  was  immediately  to  cross  the  Turkish 
frontier,  which  it  did  on  the  following  day,  under 
the  command  of  Generals  Lesjanin  and  Benitzki.  After 
the  close  of  the  war  the  independence  of  Servia  was 
recognized,  and  its  boundaries  defined  by  the  treaty  of 
Berlin  (July  13,  1878).  Prince  Milan  married,  Oc- 
tober 17,  1875,  Natalie,  daughter  of  the  late  Russian 
Colonel  Keschko,  by  his  wife  Pulcheria,  princess  of 
Stourdza.  Servia  was  proclaimed  a kingdom  under 
King  Milan  I.  on  March  6,  1882.  In  1885  King  Milan 
declared  war  upon  Prince  Alexander  of  Bulgaria  on 
the  ground  of  the  unlawful  union  of  Bulgaria  and  East- 
ern Roumelia.  His  army  had  some  success  at  first, 
but  within  a fortnight  was  driven  back,  defeated  and 
crushed,  within  the  Servian  frontier.  Milan  and  his 
wife  disagreed,  and  she  obtained  a divorce  from  the 
patriarch  of  Servia.  She  was  enthusiastically  pro- 
Russian,  and  took  no  pains  to  hide  her  preferences. 
Finally,  in  March,  1889,  King  Milan  was  compelled 
to  abdicate,  which  he  did  in  favor  of  his  son  Alexander 
Obrenovitch,  born  August  14,  1876,  who  is  now  ruler 
of  Servia.  He  died  Feb.  11,  1901. 

MILBURN,  William  Henry,  “the  blind  preacher,” 
was  born  in  Philadelphia,  September  26,  1823,  and  lost 
his  sight  by  accident  when  a boy.  In  1843  he  became 
a traveling  preacher  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church 
and  two  years  later  he  was  elected  chaplain  of  the 
United  States  congress.  He  held  pastorates  in 
Alabama,  and  in  1853  was  elected  chaplain  of  the 
thirty-third  congress.  He  visited  England  and  lectured 
there,  and  took  orders  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
church  in  1859,  but  he  returned  to  the  Methodist 
communion  in  1871.  In  1885  he  again  became  chaplain 
of  congress  and  held  that  position  until  1893.  He  is 
a popular  lecturer  and  author. 


6688 


M I L 


MILES,  Nelson  Appleton,  born  in  Massachusetts, 
August  8,  1839;  entered  the  volunteer  service  in  Sep- 
tember, 1861,  as  lieutenant  of  infantry;  engaged  in 
the  battles  of  the  Peninsula  and  at  Antietam,  and  was 
commissioned  colonel  in  September,  1862.  He  was 
several  times  wounded  while  with  the  army  of  the  Po- 
tomac; was  made  brigadier-general  and  brevet  major- 
general  of  volunteers  for  his  services  at  Chancellorsville 
and  in  the  Wilderness,  and  was  commissioned  major- 
general  in  October,  1865,  and  mustered  out  of  the 
volunteer  service  September  1,  1866.  On  July  28,  1866, 
he  received  an  appointment  as  colonel  of  the  40th  regu- 
lar infantry,  and' in  March,  1867,  was  brevetted  briga- 
dier-general and  major-general  of  the  United  States 
army.  He  was  transferred  to  the  West  and  fought 
against  the  Comanches  in  the  Staked  Plain. 

In  1876,  after  Custer  was  killed,  Miles  subjugated 
the  hostile  Sioux  in  Montana,  and  drove  Sitting  Bull 
over  the  border.  He  afterward  captured  Chief  Joseph 
and  his  Nez  Perces  Indians.  He  received  a brigadier- 
general’s  commission  in  1880,  commanded  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Columbia  till  1885,  and  was  transferred  in 
succession  to  that  of  the  Missouri  and  to  Arizona.  In 
September,  1886,  he  compelled  Geronimo  to  surrender. 
The  terms  of  the  surrender  guaranteed  the  Apache  chief 
from  capital  punishment  for  his  past  crimes.  General 
Miles  was  presented  with  a sword  of  honor.  He  was 
assigned  to  the  department  of  the  Pacific,  and  pro- 
moted major-general.  Later  he  was  transferred  to  the 
Division  of  the  Missouri,  having  charge  of  the  Indian 
war  in  1891,  and  in  1894  to  the  Atlantic  Division. 

MILLAIS,  Sir  John  Everett,  R.  A.,  was  born  at 
Southampton,  England,  in  1829.  The  family  of  Millais 
has  held  for  centuries  a place  among  the  lesser  landlords 
in  the  island  of  Jersey,  where  the  name  doubtless  ex- 
isted long  prior  to  the  Norman  conquest  of  England. 
He  gained  his  first  medal  at  the  Society  of  Arts  when 
only  nine.  Pizarro  Seizing  the  Inca  of  Peru , his  first 
exhibited  picture,  was  at  the  Academy  in  1846,  followed 
by  Dunstan' s Emissaries  Seizing  Queen  Elgiva,  and  a 
colossal  cartoon  at  the  Westminster  Hall  competition, 
The  Widow's  Mite , in  1847,  and  the  picture  of  The 
Tribe  of  Benjamin  Seizing  the  Daughters  of  Shiloh , at 
Jhe  British  Institution  in  1848.  Keats’  Isabella  was 
the  subject  of  his  pencil  in  1849.  While  a student  in 
the  Academy’s  schools,  his  taste  had  tacitly  rebelled 
against  the  routine  conventions  of  academic  teaching, 
and  he  and  his  friends,  William  Holman  Hunt  and 
Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti,  resolved  to  study  nature  as  it 
appeared  to  them,  not  as  it  appeared  in  “ the  antique.” 
These  views  were  afterward  adopted  by  Charles  Collins 
and  other  young  painters,  who  were  termed,  half  in  jest 
and  half  in  earnest,  the  Pre-Raphaelite  School.  For  a 
short  time  the  artists  tried  to  enforce  their  views  by  the 
pen  as  well  as  the  brush,  in  a short-lived  periodical,  The 
Germ,  or  Art  and  Poetry , which  appeared  in  1850.  The 
principal  works  executed  by  Mr.  Millais  under  the  in- 
fluence of  his  new  convictions  are  a mystical  picture  of 
Our  Saviour,  and  Ferdinand  Lured  by  Ariel,  in  1850; 
Mariana  in  the  Moated  Grange,  and  the  Woodman’s 
Daughter,  in  1851;  and  The  Huguenot  and.  Ophelia,  in 
1852.  Mr.  Ruskin  came,  in  1851,  to  the  support  of  the 
new  school  with  enthusiastic  approval.  Mr.  Millais 
was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1853, 
and  became  R.A.  in  December,  1863.  A large  number 
of  these,  as  well  as  some  later  pictures,  were  brought 
together  in  the  exhibition  of  the  artist’s  works  held  at  the 
Grosvenor  gallery  in  the  early  months  of  1886.  He 
was  decorated  with  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1878.  In 
1881  he  was  appointed  a trustee  of  the  National  Por- 
trait Gallery,  in  the  place  of  the  late  Dean  Stanley ; and 
in  1882  he  was  elected  a foreign  associate  of  the 


Academie  des  Beaux-Arts,  in  the  place  of  the  Italian 
sculptor  Dupr£.  In  1885  he  was  made  a baronet,  on 
recommendation  of  Mr.  Gladstone.  He  painted  por- 
traits of  Gladstone,  Bright,  Salisbury,  Mrs.  Langtry, 
Cardinal  Newman,  and  many  other  celebrities.  His 
Sweet  Emma  Morland,  Halcyon  Weather,  The  Last 
Rose  of  Summer,  Shelling  Peas,  The  Ornithologist  and 
Bubbles  were  exhibited  at  the  World’s  Fair  in  Chicago 
in  1893.  Died  Aug.  13,  1896. 

MILLER,  Charles  Henry,  born  in  New  York 
city,  March  20,  1842;  graduated  in  medicine  in  1864, 
but  turned  his  attention  to  painting,  and  studied  for 
several  years  in  Germany.  In  1873  he  became  an  asso- 
ciate of  the  National  Academy,  and  in  1879  an  acade- 
mician. He  has  produced  chiefly  landscapes,  and  has 
written  on  art  topics. 

MILLER,  Joaquin,  an  American  poet,  whose  real 
name  is  Cincinnatus  Heine  Miller,  was  born  in  the  Wa- 
bash district,  Indiana,  November  10,  1841.  When  he 
was  thirteen  years  old  his  father  immigrated  to  Lane 
county,  Ore.,  whence  the  boy  went  three  years  later 
to  try  his  fortune  in  California.  After  a wandering  life 
of  seven  years,  he  returned  home  in  i860,  and  entered 
a lawyer’s  office  at  Eugene,  Ore.  The  next  year  he 
was  an  express  messenger  in  the  gold-mining  districts 
of  Idaho,  which  he  left  to  take  charge  of  the  Demo- 
cratic Register,  a weekly  newspaper  at  Eugene,  after- 
ward suppressed  by  the  authorities  for  its  political  senti- 
ments. In  1863  he  opened  a law  office  in  Canon  City, 
Ore.  From  1866  to  1870  he  served  as  county  judge  for 
Grant  county,  and  during  this  time  he  began  to  write 
his  poems.  He  published  first  a collection  in  paper 
covers  called  Specimens,  and  next  a volume  with  the 
title  Joaquin  et  al.,  from  which  he  derived  his  pseu- 
donym. In  1870  he  went  to  London,  where  he  pub- 
lished in  the  following  year,  his  Songs  of  the  Sierras, 
and  Pacific  Poems.  In  1873  appeared  Songs  of  the  Sun 
Lands,  and  a prose  volume  entitled  Life  Among  the 
Modocs:  Unwritten  History.  His  later  works  are 
The  Ship  in  the  Desert  (1875);  First  Families  in  the 
Sierras  (1875,  republished  in  1881,  under  the  title  of 
The  Danites  in  the  Sierras')',  The  One  Fair  Woman 
(1876);  Baroness  of  N.  Y.  (1877) ; Songs  of  Far  Away 
Lands  (1878);  Songs  of  Italy  (1878);  Shadows  of 
Shasta  (1881)  ; Memorieand  Rime  (1884) ; Forty-Nine, 
the  Gold- Seeker  of  the  Sierras  (1884);  My  Own  Story 
(1890),  and  The  Building  of  the  City  Beautiful  (1893). 

MILLER,  Samuel  Freeman,  born  in  Richmond, 
Ky.,  April  5,  1816;  graduated  at  Transylvania  Uni- 
versity in  1838,  and  practiced  law  in  his  native  State 
until  1850,  when  he  removed  to  Keokuk,  Iowa.  He 
was  prominent  as  an  abolitionist,  and  became  a leader 
in  the  Republican  party,  but  refused  all  State  or  local 
offices  offered  him,  until  in  1862  President  Lincoln 
made  him  an  associate  justice  of  the  United  States  Su- 
preme Court.  Justice  Miller  died  in  Washington,  D. 
C.,  October  13,  1890. 

MILLER,  William,  born  in  Pittsfield,  Mass., 
February  5,  1782,  became  a farmer,  a captain  of  militia 
in  the  war  of  1812,  a county  constable  and  a sheriff. 
He  wrote  poetry  and  was  long  an  infidel,  but  about 
1830  became  interested  in  the  study  of  the  Bible,  and 
joined  the  Baptist  communion.  In  1831  he  persuaded 
himself  that  he  had  discovered  the  key  to  the  mystical 
numbers  in  the  book  of  Daniel  and  the  Apocalypse. 
His  calculation  made  it  clear  to  him  that  the  world 
would  come  to  an  end  sometime  between  March  21, 
1843,  and  March  21,  1844,  and  he  proceeded  to  warn 
the  people  to  make  ready  for  the  change.  Multitudes 
listened  to  his  lectures  and  accepted  his  doctrines. 
The  dissolution  of  all  things  failed  to  occur  within  the 
appointed  limits  and  Miller  promulgated  a new  revela- 


M I L — M I O 


tion,  fixing  October  24,  1844,  as  the  opening  day  of  the 
millenium,  and  thousands  of  disciples  sold  their  prop- 
erty, and  gathered  on  hill-tops  for  the  ascension.  In 
spite  of  their  disappointment  they  clung  to  their  faith, 
and  in  1845  enrolled  themselves  as  a sect  under  the 
name  of  “Adventists.”  Miller  died  December  20,  1849. 

MILLET,  Francis  Davis,  an  artist  and  war  cor- 
respondent of  distinction,  was  born  in  Mattapoisett, 
Mass.,  November  3,  1846,  graduated  at  Harvard,  1869, 
studied  art  abroad,  was  war  correspondent  of  the  Lon- 
don Daily  News  in  the  Russo-Turkish  war,  1877-78, 
accompanying  the  Russian  armies,  and  received  numer- 
ous foreign  decorations.  He  was  juror  of  fine  arts  at 
the  Paris  World's  Fair  in  1878  and  was  superintendent 
of  color  at  theWorld’s  Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago 
in  1893,  having  entire  charge  of  the  decorations  of  the 
buildings  and  executing  many  admirable  mural  paint- 
ings. Among  his  pictures  hung  in  the  Art  Gallery 
were:  Antony  Van  Corlaer , the  Trumpeter , Sweet 
Melodies , Old  Harmonies , Rook  and  Pigeon,  A Difficult 
Duet,  Lacing  the  Sandal  and  The  Window  Seat.  Mr. 
Millet  is  a frequent  contributor  to  newspapers  and 
magazines. 

MILLS,  Clark,  sculptor,  born  in  Onondaga  county, 
N.  Y.,  December  1,  1815;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
January  12,  1883.  He  made  a bust  of  John  C.  Calhoun, 
for  the  city  of  Charleston, and  was  commissioned  by  con- 
gress to  make  an  equestrian  statue  of  Gen.  Andrew 
Jackson  from  cannon  captured  by  the  hero,  which  was 
unveiled  on  January  8,  1853,  in  Lafayette  square, 
Washington,  D.  C.  Mr.  Mills  was  the  sculptor  of  the 
colossal  equestrian  statue  of  Washington,  in  the  same 
city,  and  in  1863  he  cast  in  bronze  Crawford’s  colossal 
statue  of  liberty,  which  now  crowns  the  dome  of  the 
capitol. 

MILLS,  Luther  Laflin,  born  at  North  Adams, 
Berkshire  county,  Mass.,  September  3,  1848;  was 
educated  in  the  public  schools  of  Chicago  and  the 
University  of  Michigan.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1871,  and  served  as  State’s  attorney  for  Cook  county, 
111.,  from  1876  to  1884.  In  this  capacity  he  prose- 
cuted many  cases  of  importance,  and  distinguished 
himself  both  as  an  efficient  criminal  lawyer  and  as  an 
orator  of  convincing  force  and  eloquence. 

MILLS,  Robert,  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  August 
12,  1781;  studied  architecture  under  Latrobe,  and  be- 
came United  States  architect  in  1830.  He  designed  the 
United  States  post-office,  patent  office,  and  treasury 
building  at  Washington,  and  prepared  the  original 
design  for  the  Washington  monument  in  that  city. 
The  construction  of  this  gigantic  work  was  begun  in 
1848,  but  Mills  died  in  1855,  thirty  years  before  its 
completion.  The  monument,  which  was  dedicated 
February  22,  1885,  was  the  tallest  structure  ever  erected 
by  man,  until  excelled  in  height  by  the  Eiffel  tower  in 
Paris.  It  is  555  feet  5J6  inches  in  height. 

MILLS,  Roger  Q.,  born  in  Todd  county,  Ky., 
March  30,  1832;  settled  in  Texas  and  practiced  law  at 
Corsicana,  and  satin  congress  as  a Democrat  from  1873 
to  1892,  introducing  the  tariff-reform  bill  known  by  his 
name  in  1888.  He  was  appointed  United  States  sen- 
ator in  1892  and  elected  for  the  term  ending  1890. 

MILLS,  Sebastian  Bach,  born  in  England  in 
March,  1839;  came  to  the  United  States  in  1859,  and 
established  himself  in  New  York  city  as  a pianist.  He 
is  the  author  of  numerous  compositions  for  the  piano. 

MILNE,  Sir  Alexander,  G.C.B.,  was  born  in 
1806,  entered  the  naval  service  in  1817,  rose  to  the  rank 
of  vice-admiral  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean station  in  1869,  and  served  as  junior  lord  of  the 
admiralty,  between  1847  and  1876.  Died  Dec.  29,  1896. 
MILNE-EDWARDS,  Henry,  born  at  Bruges, 


6689 

October  23,  1800,  died  July  29,  1885.  His  researches 
in  natural  history,  especially  in  the  department  of 
invertebrates,  are  of  the  utmost  value  to  science. 

MINGHETTI,  Marco,  an  Italian  statesman,  Ca- 
vour’s  disciple  and  successor  as  leader  of  the  Italian 
Right,  born  September  8,  1818,  died  at  Rome,  Decem- 
ber 10,  1886.  In  1859-60  he  was  Cavour’s  secretary 
for  foreign  affairs,  then  minister  of  the  interior,  and  in 
1863,  two  years  after  Cavour’s  death,  he  became  prime 
minister.  He  was  then  Italian  minister  in  London, 
minister  of  agriculture  and  from  1873  to  1876  prime 
minister  for  the  second  time,  and  among  many  useful 
measures  earned  his  country’s  gratitude  by  effecting 
the  “parraggio  ” or  financial  equilibrium  between  her 
outlay  and  income.  He  wrote  valuable  economical 
treatises  and  also  scholarly  lectures  and  essays  on 
Raphael  and  Dante. 

MINlfi,  Claude  Etienne,  Captain,  French 
soldier,  born  in  Paris  in  1810,  died  in  1879.  He  de- 
voted much  thought  to  the  perfecting  of  fire-arms,  and 
in  1849  invented  the  Minie  rifle,  which  was  used  by  the 
Confederate  armies  in  the  Civil  war. 

MINTO,  William,  born  October  10,  1845,  in  Aber- 
deenshire, and  educated  at  Aberdeen,  where  he  was 
assistant  to  Professor  Bain,  wrote  two  biographical 
and  critical  books  on  English  Literature,  English 
Prose  Writers,  and  English  Poets.  He  contributed 
occasionally  to  the  now  extinct  Examiner,  of  which 
journal  he  was  appointed  editor  in  1874.  He  held 
that  position  for  four  years,  and  thereafter  was  on  the 
leader-writing  staff  of  the  Daily  News  and  the  Pall 
Mall  Gazette.  Mr.  Minto  was  appointed  professor  of 
logic  in  Aberdeen  in  1880,  and  was  the  author  of  a novel, 
The  Crack  of  Doom,  first  published  in  Blackwood' s 
Magazine  (1885);  of  Defoe , in  Mr.  John  .Morley’s 
series  of  English  Men  of  Letters  (1879),  and  of  various 
contributions  to  the  British  reviews  and  magazines. 
He  died  in  March,  1893. 

MINUIT,  Peter,  colonist,  born  in  Wesel,  Germany, 
about  1580;  died  in  Fort  Christina,  Delaware,  in  1641. 
Landing  on  Manhattan  Island,  May  4,  1626,  he  bought 
the  island  from  the  Indians  for  about  sixty  guilders, 
and  built  Fort  Amsterdam.  The  population  of  the 
island  soon  increased  to  several  hundred,  by  new  arriv- 
als from  abroad,  and  settlers  attracted  from  Albany, 
and  friendly  relations  were  established  with  the  colonists 
of  Plymouth.  In  August,  1631,  Minuit  was  recalled  by 
the  Dutch  East  India  Company  for  having  shown  too 
much  favor  to  the  patroons.  After  unsuccessful  en- 
deavors to  recover  his  office,  Minuit  offered  his  services 
to  Sweden,  and  in  i637left  Gonthenburg  with  a number 
of  Swedish  and  Finnish  colonists,  on  two  vessels,  the 
Key  of  Calmar  and  the  Griffin.  Sailing  up  Delaware 
Bay  they  bought  of  the  Indians  the  land  from  the  south- 
ern cape  to  the  falls  near  Trenton,  and  in  March,  1638, 
began  to  build  Fort  Christina,  near  the  present  city  of 
Wilmington,  the  first  permanent  European  settlement 
on  Delaware  river. 

MIOLAN-CARVALHO,  Madame  Marie  Caro- 
line, singer,  born  at  Marseilles,  December.  31,  1827, 
and  died  July  10,  1895.  Making  choice  of  music  as  a 
profession,  she  entered  the  Conservatoire  of  Paris, 
where  she  remained  for  two  years,  under  Duprez.  In 
1853  Mademoiselle  Miolan  was  married  to  M.  L6on 
Carvaille,  called  Carvalho,  director  of  the  Theatre 
Lyrique,  of  which  establishment  she  at  once  became 
the  prima  donna,  singing  in  Fanchonette,  Margot,  La 
Reine  Topaze,  La  Marguerite,  Les  Noces  de  Figaro , 
and  other  new  operas.  On  the  death  of  Madame 
Bosio,  in  1859,  Mr.  Gye  was  recommended  by  M. 
Meyerbeer  to  supply  her  place  with  Madame  Miolan- 
Carvalho,  who  appeared,  July  26th,  in  the  character 


66go  M I Q - 

of  “ Dinorah,”  and  became  a favorite.  She  was  the 
original  “ Marguerite  ” in  Gounod’s  opera  of  Faust. 

MIQUEL,  Johannes,  a German  statesman,  born 
at  Neuenhaus,  Hannover,  Feb.  21,  1829;  was  a Na- 
tional Liberal  member  of  the  Prussian  House  of  Dep- 
uties 1867-77,  and  of  the  imperial  Reichstag  1870-73, 
and  from  1887,  and  became  Prussian  Minister  of  Fi- 
nance in  1890.  Died  April  1,  1900. 

MISTRAL,  Frederic,  a Provencal  poet,  son  of  a 
peasant,  born  near  Maillaune,  September  8,  1830,  pub- 
lished in  1859  the  epic  Mireio , written  in  his  native 
Provengal  dialect,  a charming  representation  of  life  in 
southern  France  which  made  his  name  famous  through- 
out the  country,  and  gained  for  him  the  poet’s  prize  of 
the  French  Academy  and  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  Mistral  has  since  published  a second  epic,  Cal- 
endou  (1867) ; volume  of  poems,  Lis  Iseto  d'  Or  (1876);  a 
novel  Nerto , and  a dictionary  of  the  Provengal  dialect. 

MITCHEL,  John,  born  in  county  Derry,  Ireland, 
November  3,  1815;  died  in  Cork,  March  28,  1875.  A 
lawyer  and  newspaper  writer,  in  May,  1848,  he  was 
convicted  of  treason-felony  for  his  writings  and 
speeches  and  sentenced  to  fourteen  years’  banishment 
in  Van  Diemen’s  Land.  Escaping  in  1853  to  New 
York  he  published  his  Jail  Journal , and  established  a 
paper,  The  Citizen , in  which  he  defended  human 
slavery.  Pie  edited  other  papers  and  returned  to  Ire- 
land in  1874.  He  was  elected  to  parliament  but  not 
allowed  to  take  his  seat. 

MITCHEL,  Ormsby  McKnight,  born  in  Ken- 
tucky, July  28,  1809 ; died  in  South  Carolina,  October 
30,  1862.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1829,  in  the 
same  class  with  Robert  E.  Lee  and  Joseph  E.  Johnston. 
He  was  assigned  to  the  artillery,  and  until  1832  was 
assistant  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  United  States 
military  academy.  Pie  resigned  from  the  army  and 
became  professor  of  mathematics,  philosophy,  and 
astronomy  in  Cincinnati  College  in  1836.  In  1844  he 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  construction  of  an  observa- 
tory in  Cincinnati,  of  which  he  was  made  first  director. 
During  his  incumbency  of  this  office,  which  extended 
over  many  years,  he  made  many  notable  astronomical 
discoveries,  and  in  1859  he  took  charge  of  the  Dudley 
University  in  Albany,  N.  Y.  He  became  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  in  1861,  and  served  in  the  army 
of  the  Ohio  in  Tennessee  and  northern  Alabama.  He 
was  promoted  major-general  of  volunteers,  April  11, 
1862,  and  later  given  command  of  the  department  of 
the  South.  He  died  in  South  Carolina,  of  yellow  fever. 

MITCHELL,  Donald  Grant,  author,  born  in 
Norwich,  Conn.,  April  12,  1822;  was  graduated  at  Yale 
in  1841,  and  went  to  Europe,  where  he  wandered  over 
England  on  foot,  and  later  visited  the  continent  of 
Eur'ope.  In  1846  he  returned  to  the  United  States ; 
studied  law ; practiced  at  the  bar  for  a short  time,  and 
made  contributions  to  literature  under  his  well-known 
pen-name  of  “Ik  Marvel.”  In  1848  he  again  went 
abroad,  traveling  through  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
Switzerland,  and  on  his  return  published  The  Lorgnette, 
a periodical  in  the  manner  of  Irving’s  Salmagundi. 
He  was  United  States  consul  at  Venice,  1853-55,  an(l 
has  since  lived  on  his  estate  of  Edgewood  near  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  engaged  in  literary  pursuits.  His  first 
works  Reveries  of  a Bachelor  (1850)  and  Dream  Life 
(1851)  are  still  the  most  popular  of  his  writings.  He 
has  also  published  Seven  Stories  With  Basement  and 
Attic  (1864);  Wet  Days  at  Edgewood  (1864);  R7tral 
Studies  (1867);  English  Lands , Letters  and  Kings 
:(two  vols.  1889-90)  and  other  works. 

MITCHELL,  Margaret  J.  (Maggie),  an  Ameri- 
can actress,  was  born  at  New  York  city  about  1832, 
and  made  her  first  appearance  when  a child  on  the  stage 


- M I V 

of  the  old  Bowery  theater.  She  became  prominent  as 
a soubrette  during  1852,  and  later  acquired  a national 
reputation  as  an  actress  in  Fanchon,  a part  which  she 
created.  She  also  played  with  great  success  Little 
Barefoot , The  Pearl  of  Savoy,  and  other  dramas  adapted 
to  the  requirements  of  her  particular  school.  She  has 
been  twice  married  and  is  possessed  of  a fortune. 

MITCHELL,  Maria,  was  born  at  Nantucket, 
Mass.,  August  1,  1818.  For  astronomy  and  its  cog- 
nate sciences  she  had  a strong  predilection,  and  at 
an  early  age  became  an  active  assistant  of  her  father, 
who  was  himself  a teacher  and  an  astronomer  of  some 
note.  She  carried  on  a series  of  independent  observa- 
tions, and  in  1847  discovered  a comet  of  small  magni- 
tude, for  which  she  received  a gold  medal  from  the  king 
of  Denmark.  She  calculated  the  elements  of  this  comet, 
and  communicated  the  result  to  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution. She  was  subsequently  employed  on  the 
coast  survey  and  in  the  compilation  of  the  American 
Nautical  Almanac.  She  visited  the  principal  observa- 
tories of  Great  Britain  and  the  continent  of  Europe  in 
1857,  and  in  1865  was  appointed  professor  of  astronomy 
in  Vassar  College,  Poughkeepsie,  N.'  Y.  She  died  at 
Lynn,  Mass.,  June  28,  1889. 

MITCHELL,  Peter,  a Canadian  statesman,  born 
January  4,  1824,  at  Newcastle,  New  Brunswick,  served 
in  the  parliament  and  legislative  council  of  his  prov- 
ince, was  an  ardent  advocate  of  union,  and  on  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Dominion  Government,  in  July,  1867, 
he  was  called  to  the  cabinet  as  minister  of  marine  and 
fisheries,  which  post  he  held  until  the  resignation  of 
the  Macdonald  administration,  in  1873.  Mr.  Mitchell 
took  an  active  part  in  the  settlement  of  the  fisheries 
dispute  between  the  Dominion  of  Canada  and  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States,  and  more  lately  gave  im- 
portant aid  in  operations  connected  with  the  Canadian 
Pacific  railway.  In  1882  he  was  elected  representa- 
tive in  the  Dominion  parliament  for  Northumberland 
county,  New  Brunswick. 

MITCPIILL,  Samuel  Latham,  born  in  North 
Hempstead,  L.  I.,  August  20,  1764;  died  in  New  York 
city,  September  7,  1831.  In  1790  he  was  elected  to  the 
New  York  legislature,  and  in  1792  became  professor  of 
chemistry  and  natural  philosophy  at  Columbia  College, 
New  York  city.  In  1794 he  made  a mineralogical  sur- 
vey of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  in  1797  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Medical  Repository , which  he  edited 
for  sixteen  years.  In  1801  he  retired  from  his  college 
professorship,  and  from  December  1,  1801,  until  No- 
vember 22,  1804,  served  as  a Democrat  in  congress. 
Thereafter  he  was  appointed  to  fill  a vacancy  in  the 
United  States  Senate,  and  held  that  place  until  March 
3,  1809.  From  1820  to  1826  he  was  professor  of  botany, 
and  materia  medica  in  the  New  York  College  of  Phy- 
sicians and  Surgeons.  He  became  connected  with 
other  learned  societies,  and  made  numerous  contribu- 
tions to  scientific  periodicals. 

MITCHELL,  Silas  Weir,  born  at  Philadelphia, 
February  15,  1829,  a distinguished  physician  and  au- 
thor, noted  as  a toxicologist.  He  wrote  Researches 
Upon  the  Venom  of  the  Rattlesnake  (i860);  Lnjuries 
of  the  Nerves  (1873)  ; Lectures  on  Diseases  of  the  Ner- 
vous System  (1881),  and  other  technical  works  besides 
volumes  of  poems  (1882  and  1887)  and  the  following 
novels:  In  War  Time  (1885);  Doctor  and  Patient 
(1887),  and  Characteristics  (1891). 

MIVART,  St.  George,  F.R.S.,  was  born  at 
London,  November  30,  1827,  and  educated  at  Clapham 
Grammar  School,  Harrow  School,  King’s  College, 
London,  and  finally  at  St.  Mary’s  College,  Oscott, 
being  prevented  from  going  to  Oxford  (as  intended) 
through  having  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  church 


MOD- 

in  1844.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln’s  Inn 
in  1851;  appointed  lecturer  of  St.  Mary’s  Hospital 
Medical  School  in  1862  ; elected  a fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1867 ; vice-president  of  the  Zoological  Society 
in  1869  and  1882;  secretary  of  the  Linnean  Society  in 
1874;  and  professor  of  biology  at  University  College, 
Kensington,  in  1874;  created  a Ph.D.  (Rome)  in  1876, 
and  M.D.  (Louvain)  in  1884.  He  has  published  On 
the  Genesis  of  Species  (1871),  Lessons  in  Elementary 
Anatomy  (1873),  The  Cat  (1880),  Nature  and  Thought 
(1882)  and  other  works.  Died  April  I,  1900. 

MODJESKA,  Helena  (Opido),  born  at  Cracow, 
Poland,  about  1843,  early  manifested  a desire  for  the 
stage,  and  after  her  marriage,  at  the  age  of  seventeen, 
with  her  guardian  (whose  name  she  still  bears  on  the 
play  bills),  a humble  beginning  was  made  with  a com- 
pany of  strolling  players.  It  was  not,  however,  until 
after  her  husband’s  death  in  1865,  and  her  marriage 
three  years  later  to  Count  Charles  Bozenta  Chlapowski 
that  she  became  the  theatrical  star  and  favorite  of  War- 
saw, a position  which  she  held  until  about  1876,  when 
she  and  her  husband  emigrated  to  America.  Their 
experiences  on  a Californian  farm  were  highly  unpro- 
fitable. The  only  course  open  to  her  was  to  act  in 
English  and  after  six  months’  study,  she  appeared  in 
August,  1877,  in  Adrienne  Lecouvreur  at  San  Francisco, 
soon  winning  great  popularity  by  her  finished  and  sym- 
pathetic acting,  in  this  role  and  as  “Camille,”  “ Frou- 
Frou,”  “ Mary  Stuart,”  “Rosalind,”  “Juliet”  and 
many  others.  She  starred  jointly  with  Edwin  Booth 
and  became  a favorite  in  Europe.  In  1894  while  play- 
ing in  Warsaw  she  was  interdicted  by  the  Czar  from 
appearing  in  a popular  Polish  play. 

MOE,  Jorgen  E.,  was  born  at  Hole,  in  Sigdal,  Nor- 
way, April  22,  1813,  and  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Christiana.  From  1845  to  1853  he  was  professor 
of  divinity  in  the  National  Military  School,  and  in  1875 
was  appointed  bishop  of  Christiansund.  He  was  the 
author  of  Songs  and  Ballads,  and  of  many  folk-songs. 
He  died  March  27,  1882. 

MOHR,  Karl  Friedrich,  born  at  Coblentz,  Ger- 
many, November  4,  1806;  studied  at  Heidelberg,  Ber- 
lin, and  Bonn,  and  became  extraordinary  professor  of 
pharmacy  at  the  latter  university.  He  wrote  exten- 
sively on  the  correlation  of  forces  and  on  the  nature  of 
heat.  He  died  in  October,  1879. 

MOLESWORTH,  William  N.,  born  in  Hamp- 
shire, England,  November  8,  1816;  graduated  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  was  for  many  years  rector  of  an  English 
parish.  In  addition  to  his'  writings  on  astronomy  and 
on  social  and  political  questions  he  was  the  author  of 
a standard  History  of  England,  and  of  a History  of  the 
Church  of  England.  He  died  December  10,  1890. 

MOLESCHOTT,  Jac'ob,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc,  in 
the  Netherlands,  in  1&22;  was  educated  at  Heidelberg 
and  settled  as  a physician  at  Utrecht.  In  1847  he  be- 
came professor  of  physiology  and  anthropology  at  Hei- 
delberg, and  in  1855  was  made  professor  of  physiology 
at  Zurich.  Among  his  works,  are  Light  of  Life,  Chem- 
istry of  Eood  and  Diet  and  the  Doctrine  of  A liments. 
He  died  May  20,  1893. 

MOLTKE,  Hellmuth,  Count  von,  chief  marshal 
of  the  German  empire,  chief  of  the  general  staff,  was 
descended  from  a well-known  Mecklenburg  family,  and 
was  born  at  Parchim,  October  26,  1800,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  which  place  his  father,  a former  officer  of 
the  Mollendorf  regiment,  possessed  the  estate  of  Gne- 
witz.  Soon  after  Hellmuth’s  birth  his  parents  settled 
down  in  Plolstein;  and  thus  the  boy,  in  his  twelfth  year, 
went  to  Copenhagen,  in  order  to  devote  himself,  in  the 
barracks  there,  to  the  military  profession.  In  1822  he 
“ntered  the  Prussian  service,  as  a lieutenant  in  the  8th 


-MOM  6691 

infantry  regiment,  and  studied  in  the  Military  Academy. 
After  having  spent  some  time  in  the  School  of  Division 
of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  Moltkewas  entered  into  the 
general  staff.  In  1835  he  undertook  a tour  in  Turkey, 
which  brought  him  under  the  notice  of  the  Sultan 
Mahmoud,  who  advised  with  the  young  Prussian  officer 
on  the  reorganization  of  the  Turkish  army.  Moltke  re- 
mained several  years  in  Turkey,  and  in  1839  took  part 
in  the  campaign  of  the  Turks  in  Syria  against  the,  Vice- 
roy Mehemed  Ali  of  Egypt  and  his  adopted  son  Ibra- 
him Pasha.  In  1845,  having  returned  to  Prussia,  and 
published  an  account  of  his  Turkish  experiences,  he 
became  adjutant  to  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  then  resi- 
dent in  Rome,  and  after  his  death,  in  1847,  he  was  en- 
gaged in  connection  with  the  general  command  on  the 
Rhine,  becoming,  in  1848,  a member  of  the  grand 
general  staff,  and,  in  1849,  chief  of  the  staff  of  the  fourth 
army  corps,  in  Magdeburg.  In  1858  he  was  advanced 
to  the  rank  of  chief  of  the  grand  general  staff  of  the 
Prussian  army,  and  in  1859  became  a lieutenant-general. 
In  the  Austro-Italian  wrar  Moltke  was  present  in  the 
Austrian  headquarters.  After  the  conclusion  of  peace 
he  spared  no  pains  that  he  might  fully  develop  the 
capacities  of  the  Prussian  general  staff  and  the  Prussian 
army.  When  the  war  of  1864  against  Denmark  broke 
out,  Moltke  sketched  the  plan  of  the  compaign,  and 
assistedinitsexecution,  acting  similarlyin  the  case  ofthe 
Austro- Prussian  war  of  1866.  The  whole  plan  ofthe  Bo- 
hemian compaign  was  due  to  the  lieutenant-general,  who 
was  personally  present  in  the  battle  of  Koniggratz,  which 
he  led,  and  in  like  manner  he  arranged  the  bold  advance 
of  the  Prussian  columns  against  Olmiitz  and  Vienna, 
and  negotiated  the  armistice  and  the  preliminaries  of 
peace.  For  these  services  he  received  the  order  of  the 
Black  Eagle,  and  a national  dotation.  To  “Father 
Moltke  ” (Vater  Moltke),  as  he  is  familiarly  termed  in 
the  German  army,  and  his  brilliant  strategy  are  ascribed 
the  splendid  victories  of  the  German  arms  in  the 
Franco-German  war.  He  was  practically  the  com- 
mander-in-chief.  The  whole  plan  of  the  campaign  was 
due  to  him.  In  recognition  of  his  unrivaled  services, 
Moltke  was  made  the  chief  marshal  of  the  German 
empire  (September,  1871),  again  received  a national 
dotation,  and  was  created  count,  1872.  The  illustrious 
marshal,  who  was  generally  considered  the  first  strate- 
gist of  the  day,  received  from  the  czar  the  order  of  St. 
George,  the  highest  military  decoration  of  Russia;  in 
October,  1870;  and  from  his  own  sovereign  the  grand 
cross  of  the  order  of  the  Iron  Cross,  March  22,  1871. 
An  English  translation  of  his  Observations  on  the  In- 
fluence that  Arms  of  Precision  have  on  Modern  Tactics , 
was  published  in  1871.  He  died  April  24,  1891. 

MOMMSEN,  Theodor,  born  at  Garding,  in  Schles- 
wig, November  30,  1817,  studied  at  the  University  of 
Kiel,  and  traveled  from  1844  till  1847.  On  his  return 
he  wrote  numerous  articles  for  the  Schleswig-Holstein 
Journal,  which  he  conducted,  and  was  made  professor 
of  law  at  Leipsic.  Having  been  dismissed  on  account 
of  the  part  he  took  in  political  affairs,  he  was  made 
titular  professor  of  law  at  Zurich  in  1852,  at  Breslau  in 
1854,  and  at  Berlin  in  1858.  In  1875  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  jurisprudence  in  the  University  of  Leipsic. 
He  wrote  numerous  learned  works  ; and  edited  a mag- 
nificent work  on  Latin  inscriptions,  published  by  the 
Prussian  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  a work  on  Roman 
Coins.  He  is  best  known  to  American  readers,  by  his 
Earliest  Inhabitants  of  Italy , of  which  a translation  by 
Robertson  appeared  in  1858,  and  his  celebrated  His- 
tory of  Rome,  translated,  and  published  in  1862-63.  He 
became  secretary  of  the  Berlin  Academy  in  1873.  In 
1878  the  king  of  Italy  conferred  on  him  the  Grand 
Cross  of  the  order  of  SS.  Maurice  and  Lazarus. 


MON 


6692 

MONCK,  Viscount  (The  Right  Hon.  Charles 
Stanley  Monck),  born  at  Templemore,  county  Tip- 
perary, October  10,  1819,  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  and  called  to  the  bar  in  Ireland  in  1841. 
He  was  returned  one  of  the  members  for  Portsmouth, 
in  the  Liberal  interest,  in  July,  1852,  ,was  reelected  in 
March,  1855,  was  defeated  at  the  general  election  in 
March,  1857,  and  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for 
Dudley  in  April,  1861.  He  was  a lord  of  the  treasury 
from  1855  till  1858,  and  captain-general  and  governor- 
in-chief  of  Canada,  and  governor-general  of  British 
America,  October  28,  1861.  He  was  formally  reap- 
pointed, under  a fresh  act  of  parliament,  governor 
of  the  United  Provinces  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and 
New  Brunswick  in  June,  1867,  but  resigned  in  Novem- 
ber, 1868.  In  1871  he  was  appointed  a commissioner 
of  national  education  in  Ireland.  On  the  disestablish- 
ment of  the  Irish  Church  in  1871  he  was  appointed  a 
commissioner  to  carry  into  effect  the  provisions  of  the 
act;  the  other  commissioners  being  Mr.  Justice  Law- 
son  and  the  late  Mr.  G.  A.  Hamilton.  He  succeeded 
his  father  as  fourth  viscount  in  the  peerage  of  Ireland, 
April  20,  1849,  and  was  made  a peer  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  July  12,  1866.  He  died  Nov.  29,  1894. 

MONCREIFF,  Lord  (The  Right  Hon.  James 
Moncreiff),  was  born  at  Edinburgh,  November  29, 
1811.  He  was  educated  at  the  high  school  and  at  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  and  was  admitted  an  advocate 
at  the  Scotch  bar  in  1833.  He  was  solicitor-general 
for  Scotland  from  February,  1850,  till  April,  1851,  when, 
on  the  elevation  of  Lord  Rutherford  to  the  bench,  he 
was  appointed  the  lord  advocate,  and  continued  to  hold 
that  office  until  the  change  of  ministry  in  March,  1852. 
Soon  after  being  appointed  lord  advocate  he  was  re- 
turned to  parliament  as  member  for  the  Leith  district, 
as  a Liberal,  and  in  favor  of  free  trade.  He  retained 
his  seat  for  the  Leith  district  till  April,  1859,  when 
he  was  elected  for  Edinburgh,  which  city  he  con- 
tinued to  represent  till  1868,  when  he  was  returned  to 
parliament  as  representative  for  the  universities  of  Glas- 
gow and  Aberdeen.  He  became  lord  advocate  a sec- 
ond time  in  December,  1852,  and  occupied  that  position 
till  March,  1858;  a third  time  from  June,  1859,  till 
July,  1866;  and  a fourth  time  from  December,  1868, 
till  November,  1869,  when  he  was  appointed  lord  jus- 
tice clerk  and  president  of  the  second  division  of  the 
court  of  session  in  Scotland.  On  this  occasion  he  was 
sworn  of  the  privy  council,  and  took  the  courtesy  title 
of  Lord  Moncreiff.  He  was  elected  lord  rector  of  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  in  the  early  part  of  the  year 
1869;  was  created  a baronet  May  17,  1871;  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  of  the  United  Kingdom  as  Baron 
Moncreiff,  January  1,  1874.  He  died  April  27,  1895. 

MOND,  Ludwig,  F.R.S.,  chemist,  born  in  Cassel, 
Germany,  March  7,  1839,  was  a pupil  of  Kolbe  and 
Bunsen,  developed  the  Mond  process  of  sulphur  recov- 
ery from  alkali  waste  in  1863,  discovered  a new  pro- 
cess of  extracting  nickel  from  ore,  acquired  a fortune 
from  these  and  other  discoveries  in  practical  chemistry 
and  in  1894  gave  $500,000  for  the  establishment  of  the 
“ Davy- Faraday  Research  Laboratory”  at  the  Royal 
Institution,  England. 

MONIER-WILLIAMS,  S;r  Monier,  Sanscrit 
scholar,  born  at  Bombay  in  1819;  educated  at  King’s 
College  and  Balliol,  Oxford,  gained  first  prizes  in  Ori- 
ental subjects  at  Haileybury  College,  India,  and  was 
professor  of  Sanscrit  there  from  1844  till  the  abolition  of 
the  institution,  in  1858,  when  he  removed  to  Chelten- 
ham, and  superintended  the  Oriental  studies  at  the  col- 
lege for  two  years.  In  December,  i860,  after  a long 
contest,  he  was  elected  Boden  Sanscrit  professor  at 
Oxford.  He  died  April  11,  1899. 


MONROE,  James,  born  in  Plainfield,  Conn.,  Julv 
18,  1821 ; graduated  at  Oberlin  College,  Ohio,  in  1846, 
and  from  1849  until  1852  taught  there.  He  was  a 
member  in  succession  of  both  houses  of  the  Ohio  legis- 
lature, and  from  1863  to  1869  was  consul-general  at 
Buenos  Ayres.  From  1871  to  1881  he  sat  in  congress 
as  a Republican,  and  has  since  filled  the  chair  of  polit- 
ical science  and  modern  history  at  Oberlin. 

MONTAGU,  Lord  Robert,  second  son  of  the 
sixth  duke  of  Manchester,  born  January  24,  1825,  and 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  grad- 
uated M.A.  in  1848,  was  returned  in  April,  1859,  one 
of  the  members,  in  the  Conservative  interest,  for  Hunt- 
ingdonshire, which  county  he  represented  till  F ebruary, 
1874,  when  he  was  returned  for  the  county  of  West- 
meath, as  a “ Conservative,  but  in  favor  of  home  rule.  ” 
The  home  rule  he  professed  was*  however,  essentially 
different  from  that  of  the  Irish  party.  He  withdrew 
from  the  home  rule  organization  in  June,  1877.  He 
ceased  to  be  a member  of  parliament  in  March,  1880. 
He  had  been  vice-president  of  the  committee  of  coun- 
cil on  education,  privy  councilor  and  first  charity  com- 
missioner 1867-68.  He  joined  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  1870,  and  renounced  it  on  June  II,  1882. 
He  wrote  Home  Rule , Rome  Rule  (1886)  and  numer- 
ous other  works. 

MONTCALM,  Louis  Joseph,  Marquis  de,  born 
near  Nimes,  France,  February  29,  1712;  died  in  Que- 
bec, Canada,  September  14,  1759.  He  was  carefully 
educated,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen  entered  the  French 
army  as  an  ensign,  serving  both  in  Italy  and  Germany, 
and  in  1743  he  was  promoted  colonel.  In  1746,  at 
Piacenza,  he  received  five  saber-cuts,  and  was  made 
prisoner.  Later  he  was  exchanged,  promoted  to  briga- 
dier-general, and  again  wounded.  In  1 755  he  was  sent 
to  Canada  to  succeed  General  Dieskau,  and  in  1756 
sailed  from  Brest.  In  August,  1756,  Montcalm  cap- 
tured Fort  Ontario,  cX  Oswego,  and  in  the  following 
year  took  Fort  William  Henry  with  2,500  men  and  42 
guns.  In  1 758  he  occupied  and  strengthened  Ticonder- 
oga.  On  July  8th  of  that  year,  with  an  army  of  3,500, 
he  repulsed  General  Abercrombie’s  forces  of  15,000 
men.  In  1759  General  Wolfe,  with  about  8, 500  troops, 
ascended  the  St.  Lawrence  river,  accompanied  by  a 
large  naval  force,  when  Montcalm  mustered  his  army  on 
the  Montmorency  to  oppose  the  English.  Quebec,  with 
the  opposite  shore  of  Beauport,  was  occupied  by  a mot- 
ley crowd  of  French  defenders,  consisting  of  regulars, 
militia  and  Indians.  Montcalm  shared  the  command 
with  Vaudreuil,  and  on  the  first  attempt  of  the  British 
general  to  scale  the  heights  of  Montmorency  he  met 
with  a disastrous  repulse.  On  the  morning  of  Septem- 
ber 13th  General  Wolfe,  with  about  5,000  men,  scaled 
the  heights  that  border  the  St.  Lawrence,  gained  the 
plateau  of  Quebec,  and  formed  for  battle  on  the  Plains 
of  Abraham.*  Montcalm  left  his  camp  on  the  Beauport 
shore,  crossed  the  river  St.  Charles,  and  at  10  o’clock 
in  the  morning  advanced  to  attack  the  enemy.  The 
forces  were  about  equal  in  number.  Montcalm  person- 
ally led  the  charge ; but  the  French  lines  soon  broke  in 
disorder.  General  Wolfe,  leading  the  pursuit,  was 
mortally  wounded,  and  died  on  the  field.  Montcalm 
vainly  tried  to  rally  his  forces,  but  was  carried  away 
by  the  tide  of  fugitives,  when  a bullet  passed  through 
his  body. 

MONTEFIORE,  Sir  Moses,  born  October  24, 
1784;  died  in  Ramsgate,  England,  July  28,  1885,  in  his 
101st  year.  He  was  the  first  Jew  to  be  elected 
sheriff  of  London  (1837),  was  knighted  the  same  year, 
and  became  a baronet  in  1846.  Sir  Moses  Montefiore, 
who  was  a representative  of  a historic  Jewish  family, 
was  distinguished  by  a philanthropy  which  knew  no 


MON 


bounds  of  sect,  creed,  or  race.  (See  The  Life  of  Sir 
Moses  Monte  fore,  Chicago,  1890). 

MONT£GUT,  Emile,  a French  writer,  was  born  at 
Limoges,  June  24,  1826.  His  first  publication  was  an 
article  in  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes  for  August, 
1847,  on  the  philosophy  of  Emerson,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  a series  of  studies  of  English  and  American 
literature.  In  1857  he  succeeded  Gustave  Planche  in 
the  reviewing  department  of  the  Revuet  which 
position  he  filled  until  1862,  when  he  transferred 
his  services  to  the  Moniteur  Universel.  He  was 
nominated  a chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor, 
August  12,  1865.  He  died  Dec.  11,  1895. 

MONTEPIN,  Xavier  Aymon  de,  French  writer, 
was  born  at  Apremont,  March  18,  1824,  made  himself 
conspicuous  as  an  anti-revolutionary  journalist  in  1848, 
and  since  then  has  devoted  himself  to  literature.  His 
novels  and  plays,  mostly  of  a sensational  and  melo- 
dramatic kind,  are  exceedingly  numerous. 

MONTEZ,  Lola,  born  in  Ireland  in  1824,  died  in 
Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  June  30,  1861.  She  became 
famous  as  a ballet  dancer,  and  about  1846  acquired  an 
ascendancy  over  the  imbecile  King  Louis  of  Bavaria, 
which  resulted  in  his  abdication  and  her  banishment. 
She  became  an  actress  and  lecturer  in  this  country,  and 
died  in  an  insane  asylum  at  the  age  of  thirty-seven. 

MONTEZUMA  I.,  seventh  king  of  Mexico,  born  in 
Tenochtitlan,  Mexico,  in  1390;  died  there  in  1464.  He 
was  the  son  of  Huitzilihuitl,  and  added  to  the  empire 
the  districts  of  Tequizquiac  and  Chaleo.  In  1436  Mon- 
tezuma was  chosen  king;  his  coronation  was  celebrated 
with  festivity  and  human  sacrifices  from  among  the 
captured  enemies  of  his  nation.  In  1446  the  lake  of 
Pezcoco  overflowed  and  inundated  the  city  of  Tenoch- 
titlan and  its  surroundings,  which  was  followed  by 
famine  and  pestilence.  To  prevent  a return  of  this 
calamity,  immense  dams  were  built,  the  remains  of 
which,  in  the  San  Lorenzo  valley,  are  a marvel  to 
engineers. 

MONTEZUMA  II.,  eleventh  king  of  Mexico,  born 
in  Mexico  in  1466;  died  there  in  June,  1520.  He  was 
a son  of  Axayacatl,  the  eighth  king  of  that  country,  and 
on  September  15,  1502,  was  chosen  king.  He  improved 
his  capital;  in  1 507  made  war  on  the  people  of  Guatemala, 
and  conducted  expeditions  to  Honduras  and  Nicaragua. 
In  1519,  when  Cortez  arrived  in  Mexico,  he  was  met  by  an 
embassy  from  Montezuma  with  presents,  and  when  he, 
with  his  followers,  advanced  to  the  capital,  Montezuma 
lodged  him  in  one  of  his  palaces.  Thereafter,  Monte- 
zuma became,  practically,  a prisoner  of  the  Spaniards, 
and  lost  the  respect  and  control  of  his  own  subjects. 
In  J une,  1 520,  when  his  people  rose  against  the  Span- 
iards, he  ordered  them  to  desist : but  they  attacked  him 
also,  and  severely  wounded  him  with  a stone,  and  he 
died  three  days  afterward. 

MONTGOMERY,  Richard,  soldier,  born  near 
Feltrim,  Ireland,  December  2,  1736;  died  in  Quebec, 
Canada,  December  31,  1775.  His  father  was  a mem- 
ber of  parliament ; the  son  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  entered  the 
British  army  as  an  ensign,  and  in  1757  was  sent  to  Hal- 
ifax, Nova  Scotia.  In  1758  he  served  at  the  siege  of 
Louisburg  under  Gen.  James  Wolfe,  and  also  in  an  ex- 
pedition under  Gen.  Jeffrey  Amherst,  in  1759,  to  reduce 
the  French  forts  on  Lake  Champlain.  In  1762  he  was 
promoted  to  a captaincy,  and  within  that  year  was  ac- 
tively employed  in  expeditions  against  Martinique  and 
Havana.  In  1772  he  sold  his  commission  in  the  British 
army,  and  in  1773  settled  in  New  York  city,  where  he 
bought  an  estate.  After  being  a member  of  the  New 
York  provincial  congress  in  1775,  through  the  influence 
Df  R.  R.  Livingston,  his  father-in-law,  he  was  appointed 


66  93 

brigadier-general  in  the  Continental  army,  and  sent 
against  Canada  under  General  Schuyler.  When  the 
latter  fell  ill  the  leadership  of  the  expedition  devolved  on 
General  Montgomery.  After  capturing  St.  Johns  and 
Montreal  in  1775,  his  little  army  of  about  400  men 
joined  that  of  Gen.  Benedict  Arnold,  before  Quebec,  in 
December.  At  about  that  time  he  was  promoted  major- 
general.  Before  moving  Montgomery  called  a council 
of  war,  at  which  it  was  decided  to  carry  the  city  by 
assault.  The  attack  was  made  on  December  31,  1775, 
at  two  o’clockin  the  morning,  and  during  a snow-storm. 
However,  it  utterly  failed;  400  prisoners  were  lost, 
Montgomery  was  killed  and  Arnold  wounded. 

MONTGOMERY,  Sir  Robert,  K.C.B.,  born  in 
Londonderry  in  1809,  and  educated  at  Foyle  College, 
in  that  city,  was  appointed  to  the  Bengal  presidency, 
and  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company  in 
1828.  Having  served  in  various  posts,  in  1849  he 
was  selected  as  one  of  the  commissioners  for  the  newly- 
annexed  province  of  the  Punjaub,  and  on  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  board  in  1853,  was  appointed  judicial 
commissioner,  superintendent  of  prisons,  and  director- 
general  of  police  for  the  whole  province.  During 
the  mutiny  in  May,  1857,  he  adopted  measures  for 
disarming  the  large  native  force  stationed  at  Lahore, 
was  appointed  chief  commissioner  of  Oude  in  1858, 
and  for  his  services  in  aiding  the  armies  under  Lord 
Clyde  and  restoring  tranquillity  to  the  province,  re- 
ceived the  thanks  of  both  houses  of  parliament,  and 
was  created  a knight  commander  of  the  Bath.  In 
1859  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-governor  of  the  Pun- 
jaub, from  which  office  he  retired  in  1865,  after  service 
in  India  of  upward  of  thirty-six  years.  He  was  LL.D. 
of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  received  the  grand 
cross  of  the  Star  of  India,  February  20,  1866.  He 
died  December  28,  1887. 

MONTI,  Luigi,  born  in  Palermo,  Sicily,  in  1830; 
served  in  the  revolutionary  army  in  1848-49,  and  fled 
to  the  United  States  on  the  suppression  of  the  rebellion. 
He  taught  Italian  at  Harvard  from  1854  to  1859, 
and  from  1861  to  1873  was  United  States  consul  at 
Palermo.  He  is  the  “ young  Sicilian  ” of  Longfellow’s 
Tales  of  a Wayside  Inn.  Signor  Monti  published 
an  Italian  grammar,  some  novels  and  tales  in  English, 
and  translations  of  various  Italian  works 

MONTPENSIER,  Due  de  (Antoine  Marie  Phi- 
lippe Louis  d’Orl£ans),  born  at  Neuilly,  July  31, 
1824,  fifth  son  of  the  late  King  Louis  Philippe  and 
Queen  Marie  Amelie,  was  educated  at  the  College 
Henri  IV.,  and  after  a special  examination,  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant  of  artillery  in  1842.  He  was  sent  to 
Africa  in  1844,  where  he  took  part  in  the  expedition 
against  Biskara,  and  was  wounded  in  the  face  during 
the  campaign  of  Ziban.  His  services  were  rewarded 
with  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  and  promotion  to 
the  rank  of  major.  Having  accompanied  his  father  on 
his  visit  to  the  queen  of  England  in  1845.  he  rejoined 
the  army  in  Africa,  and  distinguished  himself  against  the 
Kabyles,  after  which  he  made  a tour  in  Egypt,  Syria, 
Constantinople,  and  Greece.  On  his  return  he  married, 
at  Madrid,  October  10,  1846,  the  Infanta  Marie  Louise 
Ferdinande  de  Bourbon,  sister  of  Queen  Isabella  II.  of 
Spain.  This  marriage  was  regarded  as  a master-stroke 
of  policy  by  Louis  Philippe,  and  will  long  be  remem- 
bered for  the  excitement  and  the  irritation  it  caused, 
which  nearly  led  to  a rupture  between  France  and 
England.  After  the  revolution  of  February,  1848, 
the  Due  de  Montpensier,  with  the  rest  of  his  family, 
took  refuge  in  England,  and  having  remained  a short 
time  in  that  country,  went  to  Holland,  where  he  em- 
barked for  Spain,  and  afterward  resided  at  Seville, 
occasionally  making  excursions  abroad,  or  visiting  his  rel- 


MON— MOO 


6694 

atives  at  Claremont,  England  He  received  the  title  of 
Infante  of  Spain,  and  was  made  captain-general  of  the 
Spanish  army,  October  10,  1859.  During  the  political 
events  which  preceded  the  flight  of  Queen  Isabella,  the 
duke  left  Spain  at  the  request  of  the  minister  Gonzales 
Bravo,  and  before  doing  so  renounced  his  rank  in  the 
army,  his  title  of  Infante,  and  sent  back  to  the  queen 
the  decorations  he  had  received  from  her.  After  the 
triumph  of  the  revolution  of  September,  he  recognized 
the  provisional  government,  obtained  permission  to 
return  to  Seville,  and  became  a candidate  for  the  vacant 
throne.  All  chance,  however,  of  his  being  elected 
king  of  Spain  was  destroyed  by  his  fatal  duel  with  his 
cousin,  the  Infante  Don  Enrique  de  Bourbon.  The 
ill-blood  between  the  combatants  was  of  long-standing, 
and  had  been  added  to  not  a little  by  Don  Enrique’s 
letter  to  the  regent,  dated  January  14th,  soliciting 
restoration  to  his  naval  rank  and  pay,  of  which  the 
government  of  Narvaez  had  despoiled  him  years  previ- 
ously, for  his  avowal  of  liberal  sentiments.  In 
that  letter  he  made  some  bitter  allusions  to  Mont- 
pensier and  his  followers.  The  Due  de  Montpen- 
sier,  galled  beyond  measure,  sent  a challenge  to  his 
cousin,  and  a hostile  meeting  took  place  on  March  12, 
1870,  at  the  artillery  ground  near  Carabanchel,  about 
three  miles  from  Madrid.  The  combatants  stood  at 
ten  paces  from  each  other.  Enrique  fired  his  first  shot 
in  the  air;  Montpensier  imitated  the  example.  Some- 
what wildly  Enrique  fired  his  second  shot,  which  went 
close  to  Montpensier’s  head  at  the  right  side.  Mont- 
pensier’s  second  shot  struck  the  butt-end  of  Enrique’s 
pistol  and  split  it  in  two.  Enrique  fired  a third  time, 
missing  his  adversary,  who  took  careful  and  deadly 
aim.  The  ball  entered  Don  Enrique’s  head,  and  in 
three  minutes  he  expired.  Montpensier  was  tried  by 
a court-martial  and  sentenced  to  one  monthls  banish- 
ment, and  to  pay  $6,000  to  the  family  of  the  deceased. 
Montpensier  had  three  sons  and  four  daughters.  His 
eldest  daughter  married  the  Comte  de  Paris,  May  30, 
1864;  and  his  third  daughter,  the  Princess  Maria  de 
las  Mercedes,  was  the  first  wife  of  the  late  king  of 
Spain.  He  died  in  February,  1890. 

MONTT,  Jorge,  born  in  Santiago,  Chili,  1847,  son 
of  the  following,  was  a naval  officer,  sided  with  con- 
gress against  Balmaceda  in  1891,  was  temporary  com- 
mander of  the  congressional  forces  and  a member  of 
the  governing  junta,  and  was  elected  president  of 
Chili,  November  6,  1891,  for  five  years. 

MONTT,  Manuel,  born  in  Chili,  September  5, 
1809;  died  March  13,  1881.  In  1836  he  became  assist- 
ant secretary  of  state;  in  1839  president  of  congress, 
and  afterward  held  cabinet  offices  under  several  admin- 
istrations. He  was  elected  president  of  Chili  by  the 
Conservatives  in  1851,  and  was  reelected  in  1856.  From 
1844  until  his  death  (except  while  serving  as  minister  or 
president)  he  was  president  of  the  Supreme  Court. 

MONTUFAR,  Lorenzo,  born  in  Guatemala,  March 
Ii,  1823;  practiced  law,  and  in  1849  removed  to  Costa 
Rica,  where  he  became  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and 
afterward  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  He  served  as 
Costa  Rican  minister  to  the  United  States,  and  to  Peru, 
and  in  1870  again  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
and  later  minister  to  Spain.  He  held  cabinet  offices 
and  foreign  missions  up  to  1885,  when  he  was  expelled 
from  the  country,  but  was  recalled  in  1887  to  resume 
his  old  position  in  the  foreign  office.  He  is  the  author 
of  a life  of  William  Walker  ( q.v .),  the  filibuster. 

MOODY,  Dwight  Lyman,  born  at  Northfield, 
Mass.,  February  5,  1837;  worked  on  a farm  until  the 
age  of  seventeen,  when  he  became  a clerk  in  a shoe 
store  in  Boston.  In  1856  he  went  to  Chicago,  and 
■white  engaged  in  active  business  there  entered  zealously 


into  missionary  work  among  the  poorer  classes.  Dux* 
ing  the  Civil  war  he  was  in  the  service  of  the  Christian 
commission,  and  afterward  became  a lay-missionary  of 
the  Young  Men’s  Christian  Association  of  Chicago.  In 
1873,  accompanied  by  Mr.  Sankey,  an  effective  singer 
he  went  to  England,  and  the  two  instituted  a series  of 
week-day  religious  services,  which  attracted  large  and 
enthusiastic  audiences.  They  returned  to  America  in 
1875,  where  they  organized  similar  meetings  all  over 
the  country.  They  again  visited  England  in  1883.  In 
addition  to  the  many  printed  accounts  of  his  meetings 
and  reports  of  his  addresses,  Mr.  Moody  has  published 
Arrows  and  Anecdotes , 1877;  Heaven , 1880;  Secret 
Power , 1881;  and  IVay  to  God  and  How  /-*  Find  It, 
1884.  He  died  Dec.  22,  1899. 

MOODY,  Granville,  born  in  Portland,  Me.,  Jan- 
uary 2,  1812;  became  in  1833  a local  preacher  in  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  In  the  Civil  war  he 
served  as  an  army  chaplain  and  was  brevetted  brigadier- 
general  for  gallant  conduct  at  the  battle  of  Stone  River. 
After  the  war  he  resumed  his  ministerial  functions,  and 
died  June  4,  1887. 

MOORE,  Daniel,  M.A.,  a native  of  Coventry, 
England,  was  educated  in  the  grammar  school  of  that 
city,  and  entered  at  St  Catherine’s  College,  Cambridge, 
in  1837  (B.A.  1840;  M. A.  1844).  He  gained  the  Nor- 
risian  prize  in  1837  and  1839,  and  the  Hulsean  prize 
in  1840.  He  died  May  15,  1899. 

MOORE,  Edward  Mott,  born  in  New  York  State 
July  15,  1814;  graduated  in  medicine  at  the  University, 
of  Pennsylvania  and  became  professor  of  surgery  at 
Woodstock,  Vt.,- Berkshire,  Mass.,  and  Starling  Medi- 
cal College,  Columbus,  Ohio.  For  many  years  he  was 
president  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  New  York, 
and  has  been  president  of  the  Medical  Society  of  New 
York.  Doctor  Moore  took  high  rank  as  an  authority 
on  diseases  of  the  heart. 

MOORE,  George  Henry,  born  in  Concord,  N.  H., 
April  20,  1823  ; graduated  at  the  University  of  New 
York,  was  connected  with  the  New  York  Historical 
Society’s  library  from  1841  to  1872,  and  in  the  latter 
year  became  superintendent  of  the  Lenox  library  in  New 
York.  He  was  LL.D.  of  his  university  and  published 
several  historical  works.  He  died  June  3,  1892. 

MOORE,  Harry  Humphrey,  born  in  New  York 
city  July  2,  1844;  studied  under  Gerome  in  Paris,  and 
spent  some  years  in  Spain  and  Morocco.  He  returned 
to  the  United  States  in  1875  and  since  1881  has  resided 
in  Paris.  His  works  are  chiefly  illustrations  of  Span- 
ish, Moorish,  and  Japanese  subjects. 

MOORE,  John,  born  in  Indiana,  August  16,  1826; 
entered  the  United  States  army  as  a surgeon  in  1853, 
served  in  Florida  and  Utah,  and  was  assigned  to  the 
army  of  the  Potomac  in  1862  as  medical  director.  He 
held  a similar  position  in  the  army  of  the  Tennessee, 
and  was  brevetted  colonel  for  services  in  the  Atlanta 
campaign.  In  November,  1886,  he  was  appointed  sur- 
geon-general of  the  army  with  rank  of  brigadier-general. 

MOORE,  Thomas,  F.L.S.,  botanist  and  horticultur- 
ist, born  at  Stoke-next-Guildford, England,  May  29, 1821; 
was  appointed,  in  1848,  curator  of  the  ancient  Botanic 
Garden  of  the  Society  of  Apothecaries  at  Chelsea.  He 
was  a member  of  the  Lindley  Library,  and  also  of  the 
Veitch.  Memorial  Prize  Fund.  He  was  the  author  of 
Cultivation  of  the  Cucumber  and  Melon,  Handbook 
of  British  Ferns , Ferns  end  Allied  Plants , Ferns  oj 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland — Nature-printed  (folio), 
Illustrations  of  Orchidaceous  Plants , and  Index  Fili- 
cum , Nature-printed  Ferns , 2 vols.,  the  Field  Bota- 
nist's Companion  for  the  British  Isles,  and  Elements 
of  Botany.  He  died  January  1,  1887. 
MQORHOUSE,  James,  D.D.,  bishop  of  Manchea- 


M O R 


66  95 


ter,  was  born  in  that  town  in  1826.  He  received  his 
education  at  St.  John’s  College,  Cambridge.  In  May, 
1876,  was  appointed  bishop  of  Melbourne,  and  in  1885 
was  appointed  by  Lord  Salisbury  to  the  bishopric  of 
Manchester. 

MORA,  Francis,  born  in  Spain,  November  25, 
1 827;  came  to  California  in  1856,  and  was  ordained  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood.  After  holding  pas- 
torates at  Monterey  and  Los  Angeles,  he  was,  in  1865, 
appointed  vicar-general  Of  the  diocese,  and  in  1873  was 
consecrated  as  coadjutor  bishop,  with  right  of  succes- 
sion. In  May,  1878,  he  succeeded  to  the  see  of  Mon- 
terey and  Los  Angeles. 

MORAES,  Prudente  Jos£  DE,  third  president  of 
Brazil,  was  born  in  1844  in  Sao  Paulo,  a Brazilian 
state;  studied  law,  entered  politics,  from  1871  was  a 
prominent  advocate  of  republican  principles  and  was 
one  of  the  three  republicans  elected  to  the  imperial 
parliament  of  1885.  After  the  peaceful  revolution  of 
1889  in  which  he  aided,  he  was  elected  governor  of 
Sao  Paulo,  was  a candidate  for  president  against  Fon- 
seca in  1-891,.  was  president  of  the  National  Senate, 
1893,  and  was  elected  president  of  the  Republic, 
February  28,  1894,  for  four  years.  He  took  his  seat 
November  15,  1894. 

MORALES,  Juan  Bautista,  Mexican  lawyer  and 
politician,  born  in  Guanajuato,  August  29,  1788;  died 
in  Mexico,  July  29,  1856.  He  was  several  times  sen- 
ator; in  1837  was  chosen  judge  of  the  Federal  Supreme 
Court,  and  later  became  editor  of  the  Siglo  XIX.  He 
was  an  instigator  of  the  revolution  of  1844,  that  re- 
moved Santa  Anna  from  power,  and  became  governor 
of  Guanajuato.  In  1855  he  was  again  president  of  the 
Supreme  Court.  He  defended  the  Church  party,  and 
wrote  a pamphlet  against  religious  toleration. 

MORAN,  Edward*  born  in  England  in  1829,  re- 
moved to  this  country  in  1844,  studied  art  in  Phila- 
delphia  and  in  England;  settled  in  New  York,  1869,  re- 
moved to  Paris,  1877,  is  an  associate  of  the  National 
Academy,  and  is  best  known  by  his  admirable  marine 
paintings.  His  Life  Saving  Patrol , Jersey  Coast ; The 
First  Ship  Entering  New  York  Harbor ; The  White 
Squadron1  s Farewell  to  Commodore  John  Ericcson  and 
Melodies  of  the  Sea  were  shown  at  the  World’s  Colum- 
bian Exposition  in  Chicago  in  1893.  Died  June  1,  1901. 

MORAN,  Patrick  Francis,  D.D.,  Roman  Catho- 
lic bishop  of  Ossory,  born  at  Leighlinbridge,  county 
Carlow,  Ireland,  September  16,  1830;  was  consecrated 
coadjutor  bishop  of  Ossory  on  March  5,  1872,  and  suc- 
ceeded, a few  months  later  to  that  see.  Doctor  Mo- 
ran has  labored  to  promote  the  study  of  Irish  history  and 
antiquities.  In  1885,  he  became  an  Australian  cardinal. 

MORAN,  Thomas,  painter,  born  in  Bolton,  Eng- 
land, January  12,  1837.  He  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1844;  was  apprenticed  to  a wood  engraver  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  began  painting  landscapes  in  water  colors 
in  1850.  His  earliest  attempt  in  oil  was  an  illustration 
of  Shelley’s  Alasior  (i860).  • In  1862  Moran  went  to 
Europe  for  study,  and  spent  some  time  in  London, 
Paris,  and  Italy.  In  1871  he  accompanied  Professor 
Hayden’s  expedition  to  the  Yellowstone  river,  and  in 
1873  Major  Powell’s  expedition  to  the  Colorado  river, 
where  he  painted  The  Grand  Canon  of  the  Yellowstone 
and  The  Chasm  of  the  Colorado , both  purchased  by 
congress  to  adorn  the  capital,  at  a cost  of  $10,000  each. 
In  1872-he  removed  from  Philadelphia  to  New  ifork 
City.  In  1884  he  became  a National  Academician, 
and  is  a member  of  the  New  York  Water  Color 
Society,  the  Society  of  Painters  and  Etchers,  in  Lon- 
don, and  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Design.  As  an 
artist  he  is  also  skilled  in  etching,  engraving,  and  lith- 
ography. Among  his  works  are  The  Pass  of  Glencoe} 


The  Mountain  of  the  Holy  Cross,  A Dream  of  the  Orient 
and  Ponce  de  Leon. 

MORENO,  Francisco,  born  in  Buenos  Ayres, 
October  7,  1827 ;,  graduated  at  the  University  of  Cor- 
dova, and  after  1872  made  a series  of  explorations  in 
Patagonia,  tracing  the  course  of  several  rivers  till  then 
unknown,  and  discovering  the  volcano  Chalteu.  He 
is  a director  of  the  Anthropological  Museum  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  a member  of  several  scientific  societies. 

MORGAN,  Charles  Hale,  born  in  New  York 
State,  November  6,  1834;  died  in  California,  December 
20,  1875.  He  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1857, 
was  assigned  to  the  artillery,  and  took  part  in  the  Utah 
expedition  of  1859.  In  1862  he  became  chief  of  artillery 
in  the  second  corps  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  and 
acted  as  chief  of  staff  during  the  compaign  before 
Richmond.  He  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  United 
States  army  in  March,  1865,  and  was  made  full  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers  in  the  following  May.  After 
the  war  he  served  in  the  regular  artillery,  and  at  the 
time  of  his  death  was  in  command  at  Alcatraz  Island, 
California. 

MORGAN,  Daniel,  born  in  Hunterdon  county, 
N.  J.,  in  1736;  died  in  Winchester,  Va.,  July  6,  1802. 
He  was  of  Welsh  extraction ; removed  to  Charlestown, 
Va.,  in  1754,  and  in  the  year  following  began  his  con- 
nection with  the  army  as  a teamster  in  General  Brad- 
dock’s  army,  where  he  brought  away  the  wounded. 
Later  he  became  attached  to  the  quartermaster’s  de- 
partment. After  he  defeated  a small  force  of  French 
and  Indians,  Governor  Dinwlddie  gave  him  an  en- 
sign’s commission.  He  had  several  narrow  escapes 
from  the  Indians,  in  one  of  which  he  was  shot  in  the 
neck  by  a musket  ball.  Before  the  war  of  the  Revo- 
lution he  had  become  a substantial  farmer,  a few  miles 
east  of  Winchester,  Va.  In  Pontiac’s  war  he  served 
as  lieutenant,  and  in  1773  he  served  as  captain  in  Lord 
Dunmore’s  war  on  the  frontier.  In  1775,  as  captain 
of  a company  of  riflemen,  he  went  to  Cambridge,  Mass., 
arriving  there  in  the  middle  of  July.  Here  he  joined 
Arnold’s  expedition  to  Quebec,  marching  through  the 
wintry  wilds  of  Maine,  and,  after  great  hardships,  was 
made  prisoner.  On  being  exchanged,  he  was  ap- 
pointed colonel  of  a rifle  corps,  on  November  12,  1776. 
In.  September,  1777,  Colonel  Morgan  served  under 
General  Gates  at  Saratoga,  and  later  joined  General 
Washington  near  Philadelphia.  On  June  30,  dissatis- 
fied and  suffering  from  impaired  health,  he  sent  in  his 
resignation  and  retired  to  his  Virginia  farm.  After 
the  defeat  at  Camden  he  was  again  induced  to  join 
the  American  army  at  Hillsborough,  and  on  October 
13,  1780,  was  commissioned  brigadier-general  under 
General  Greene.  Morgan  held  a detached  command, 
and  on  January  17,  1781,  won  a victory  at  Cowpens 
over  the  British  colonel,  Tarleton.  There  were  about 
1,000  men  engaged  on  each  side,  and  when  the  battle 
had  terminated  the  American  force  held  the  ground. 
It  was  found  that  the  enemy  had  lost  230  in  killed  and 
wounded,  and  600  prisoners,  and  the  Americans  73 
killed  and  wounded,  with  a number  of  prisoners.  In 
1795  he  commanded  the  army  that  put  an  end  to  the 
whisky  insurrection  in  Western  Pennsylvania*  and 
in  the  following  year  was  elected'  to  congress  as  a 
Federalist. 

MORGAN,  Edwin  Dennison,  governor  of  New 
York,  was  born  at  Washington,  Mass.,  February  8, 

1 1811.  After  a successful  career  as  a merchant,  in  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  and  New  York  city,  he  served  in  the  New 
York  State  Senate  (1850-53),  and  was  chairman  of  the 
Republican  national  committee  (1856-64).  Elected 
governor  of  New  York  in  1858,  he  served  through  the 
year  1862,  supervising  the  raising  and  equipment  of 


MOR 


6696 

about  220,000  soldiers.  He  was  United  States  senator, 
1863-69.  He  died  February  14,  1883. 

MORGAN,  Sir  George  Osborne,  born  in  England, 
May  8,  1826,  and  educated  at  Shrewsbury  School,  and 
afterward  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  where,  in  addition 
to  other  honors,  he  obtained  the  Craven  University 
scholarship,  while  still  at  school,  the  Eldon  law  scholar- 
ship, the  Newdigate  and  Chancellor’s  prizes,  the  Stow- 
ell  civil  law  fellowship,  and  a first  class  in  classics.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1853,  made  a queen’s  counsel 
in  1869,  and  for  many  years  enjoyed  an  extensive  prac- 
tice at  the  chancery  bar.  Mr.  Morgan  represented  the 
county  of  Denbigh  from  1868  to  1885,  when  he  was  re- 
turned for  East  Denbighshire.  He  was  appointed 
judge-advocate-general  in  1880,  and  under  secretary  of 
state  for  the  colonies  in  1886.  Died  August  25,  1895. 

MORGAN,  George  Washington,  born  in  Penn- 
sylvania, September  20,  1820;  studied  at  West  Point,  but 
resigned  without  graduating  and  practiced  law  in  Ohio. 
He  had  previously  served  in  the  Texan  army,  in  which 
he  rose  to  the  rank  of  captain.  In  the  Mexican  war  he 
commanded  a regiment  of  Ohio  volunteers,  and  later  a 
United  States  infantry  regiment.  He  was  wounded  at 
Churubusco,  and  was  brevetted  brigadier-general.  In 
1856  he  became  United  States  consul  at  Marseilles, 
France,  and  from  1858  to  1861  he  was  minister  at  Lisbon. 
In  November,  1861,  he  was  appointed  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers,  and  in  March,  1862,  commanded  the 
seventh  division  of  the  army  of  the  Ohio.  He  was  with 
Sherman  at  Vicksburg,  but  in  June,  1863,  was  com- 
pelled by  ill-health  to  resign.  In  1866  he  was  elected 
to  congress  from  Ohio  as  a Democrat,  but  in  June, 
1868,  his  seat  was  awarded  to  Columbus  Delano,  who 
had  contested  it.  Morgan  was  again  elected  and  served 
from  1869  to  1873.  He  died  July  27,  1893. 

MORGAN,  Henry  James,  born  in  Quebec,  Canada, 
November  14,  1842;  entered  the  civil  service  and  rose 
to  be  chief  clerk  in  the  State  department.  He  is  the 
author  of  The  Canadian  Parliamentai y Companion  and 
The  Dominion  Annual  Register , and  is  an  honorary 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Colonial  Institute. 

MORGAN,  James  Appi.eton,  born  in  Portland, 
Me.,  October  2,  1850;  graduated  at  Racine  College, 
Wisconsin,  and  Columbia  Law  School,  and  practiced 
law  in  New  York  city.  He  has  written  exhaustively 
on  Shakespeare;  and  founded  the  Shakespeare  Society 
of  New  York. 

MORGAN,  John  Hunt,  born  in  Huntsville,  Ala., 
June  1,  1826;  killed  in  Tennessee,  September  4,  1864. 
He  raised  a body  of  cavalry  for  the  Confederacy  and 
attained  a national  notoriety  as  the  leader  of  raids  into 
Kentucky,  Ohio,  and  Indiana.  He  received  a major- 
general’s  commission  in  the  Confederate  service,  but 
was  practically  uncontrolled  by  the  war  department. 
On  one  of  his  raids  in  1863  he  was  captured  with  most 
of  his  command  and  was  imprisoned  in  the  Ohio  pen- 
itentiary, at  Columbus.  From  this  he  escaped  by 
tunneling  under  the  walls,  and  while  leading  another 
raid  into  Tennessee  was  shot  by  Federal  troops. 

MORGAN,  John  Tyler,  born  in  Tennessee,  June 
20,  1824;  practiced  law  in  his  native  State,  and  entered 
the  Confederate  service  as  a private.  He  commanded  a 
regiment  in  Alabama,  was  commissioned  brigadier- 
general  in  November,  1863,  and  commanded  a division 
under  Longstreet,  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  and  John  B. 
Hood.  In  1877  he  was  sent  to  the  United  States 
Senate,  reelected  in  1883,  and  again  in  1889. 

MORGAN,  Lewis  Henry,  born  in  Aurora,  N.  Y., 
November  21,  1818;  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1840, 
and  practiced  law  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.  He  served  in 
1861  in  the  State  legislature,  and  in  1868  in  the  Senate. 
Doctor  Morgan,  who  was  LL.D.  of  Union,  a member 


of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  at  one  time 
president  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,  devoted  many  years  to  the  study  of 
the  history  of  the  American  aborigines.  H e was  adopted 
into  the  tribe  of  the  Senecas,  and  wrote  The  League 
of  the  Iroquois , Houses  and  House-Life  of  the  A mer- 
ican  Aborigines , and  many  works  on  American  anthro- 
pology. He  died  December  17,  1881. 

MORGAN,  Matthew  S. , artist,  born  in  London, 
England,  April  27,  1839;  died  in  1890.  About  i860  he 
established  a satirical  paper  in  London,  which  became 
known  by  its  bitter  caricatures  of  Napoleon  III.,  and 
of  the  English  royal  family.  Later  he  established  the 
London  Fun.  In  1870  he  came  to  the  United  States, 
acted  as  manager  and  principal  scene  painter  of  several 
theaters,  and  did  a great  deal  of  meritorious  artistic 
work.  He  painted  a series  of  panoramic  pictures  rep- 
resenting battle  scenes. 

MORGAN,  Michael  Ryan,  born  in  Halifax,  Nova 
Scotia,  January  18,  1833;  removed  to  the  United  States 
when  a boy,  and  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1854. 
In  the  Civil  war  he  had  charge  of  the  commissariat  de- 
partment. He  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  and, 
after  the  war,  became  commissary-general  of  various 
departments. 

MORGAN,  Philip  Hicky,  born  in  Baton  Rouge, 
La.,  November  9,  1825;  practiced  law  in  New  Orleans, 
and,  from  1855  to  1861,  was  judge  of  the  district  court. 
He  was  appointed  United  States  district  attorney  by 
President  Johnson,  and  served  until  1873,  when  he  re- 
signed to  become  justice  of  the  State  Supreme  Court. 
From  January,  1880,  until  March,  1885,  he  was  United 
States  minister  to  Mexico. 

MORIER,  Sir  Robert  Burnett  David,  K.C.B., 
was  born  in  England  in  1827,  and  graduated  at  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  taking  his  bachelor’s  degree  as  a second 
class  in  classics  in  1849.  He  served  in  the  educational 
department  of  the  Privy  Council  Office  in  1851-52,  and 
was  afterward  successively  unpaid  attache  at  Vienna,  and 
paid  attache  at  Berlin.  In  1859  he  accompanied  Mr. 
(now  Sir  Henry)  Elliot’s  special  mission  to  Naples,  and 
in  i860  he  acted  as  assistant  private  secretary  to  Lord 
John  (afterward  earl)  Russell  at  Coburg.  Mr.  Morier 
was  appointed  a second  secretary  in  the  diplomatic  serv- 
ice in  1862.  In  1866  he  was  appointed  secretary  of 
legation  at  Darmstadt ; he  was  nominated  charge 
d'affaires  at  Stuttgardt  in  1871,  and  was  transferred  to 
Munich  in  1872.  He  was  promoted  to  be  envoy  ex- 
traordinary and  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  king  of 
Portugal  in  1876,  to  Madrid  in  1881,  and  to  St.  Peters- 
burg in  1884.  He  died  November  16,  1894. 

MORISON,  James  Cotter,  was  born  in  London, 
April  20,  183 1, and  educated  at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  received  the  degree  of  M.A.  He  was  the 
author  of  Life  and  Times  of  St.  Bernard  (1863),  several 
times  reprinted ; Irish  Grievances  Shortly  Stated  ( 1868); 
Gibbon  (in  English  Men  of  Letters  series,  1878) ; 
Macaulay  (in  the  same  series,  1882);  Madame  dc 
Maintenon  (1885),  and  several  essays  in  the  Fortnightly 
and  other  reviews.  He  died  February  26,  1888. 

MORLEY,  Albert  Edmund  Parker,  third  Earl 
of,  only  son  of  the  second  earl,  was  born  at  Kent 
House,  Knightsbridge,  June  11,  1843,  and  educated  at 
Eton  and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  where  he  took  a 
first  class  in  classics  in  1865.  He  succeeded  to  the  title 
in  1864,  and  was  lord- in-waiting  to  the  queen  from  1868 
to  1874.  He  was  under-secretary  of  state  for  wat  in 
Mr.  Gladstone’s  government  from  1880  to  1885,  and  on 
the  formation  of  the  new  cabinet  in  February,  1886, 
became  first  commissioner  of  works,  but  resigned  in 
April  through  disagreement  with  Mr.  Gladstone’s 
Home  Rule  Bill. 


MOR 


MORLtY,  ARNOLD)  M.P.,  fourth  son  of  the  iate 
Mr.  Samuel  Morley,  was  born  in  1849.  and  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  was  called  to  the  bar 
at  the  Inner  Temple  in  1873,  and  first  entered  parlia- 
ment in  1880  as  member  for  Nottingham.  He  repre- 
sented that  borough  until' 1885,  when  he  was  returned 
for  its  eastern  division.  He  is  vice-president  of  the 
“ Eighty  Club,”  and  was  one  of  the  party  who  accom- 
panied Mr.  Gladstone  in  the  Sunbeam  to  Norway.  He 
has  several  times  represented  the  home  office  at  inquiries 
relating  to  accidents  in  mines.  In  Mr.  Gladstone’s  ad- 
ministration of  1886  Mr.  Arnold  Morley  was  appointed 
political  secretary  to  the  treasury  and  first  “ whip  ” of 
the  Liberal  party. 

MORLEY,  Edward  William,  born  in  Newark, 
N.  J.,  January  29,  1838;  graduated  at  Williams  Col- 
lege, and  became  professor  of  chemistry  and  geology 
in  YVestern  Reserve  College  and  in  the  Cleveland  Medi- 
cal College.  He  has  made  many  experiments  on  the 
velocity  of  light  and  the  atomic  weight  of  oxygen. 

MORLEY,  Henry,  son  of  Henry  Morley,  Esq.,  of 
Midhurst,  Sussex,  born  in  London  in  1822 ; was  edu- 
cated at  King’s  College,  London,  of  which  college  he  has 
since  been  made  an  honorary  fellow.  He  practiced  medi- 
cine at  Madeley,  Shropshire,  from  1844  till  1848.  He  has 
written  How  to  make  Home  Unhealthy , A Defence  of 
Ignorance , Life  of  Palissy , the  Potter , Life  of  Jerome 
Cardan,  Life  of  Cornelius  Agrippa,  Life  of  Clement 
Marot,  essays  in  Household  Words,  reprinted  as  Gossip, 
and  Memoirs  of  Bartholomew  Fair,  two  volumes  of 
Fairy  Tales,  English  Writers  before  Chaucer  (1867), 
and  Journal  of  a London  Playgoer,  from  1857  to  1866. 
He  edited,  with  notes,  Steele  and  Addison’s  Spectator 
in  1868,  and  published  Tables  of  English  Literature , 
A First  Sketch  of  English  Literature , A Library  of 
English  Literature,  and  a sketch  of  English  Litera- 
' ure  in  the  Reign  of  Victoria.  From  1865  he  was  long 
professor  of  the  English  language  and  literature  at 
University  College,  London.  He  was  examiner  in  Eng- 
lish language,  literature,  and  history  to  the  University 
of  London,  from  1870  to  1875,  and  during  a second  term 
of  five  years  from  1878  to  1883.  Since  1878  he  had 
been  also  professor  of  the  English  language  and  litera- 
ture at  Queen’s  College,  London.  In  1879  the  honor- 
ary degree  of  LL.  D.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  the 
University  of  Edinburgh.  In  1882  he  became  princi- 
pal of  U niversity  Hall,  London.  He  died  May  14,  1894. 

MORLEY,  John,  M.P.,born  in  England,  December, 
1838;  was  educated  at  Cheltenham  College  and  at  Lin- 
coln College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1859, 
and  M.A.  in  1874.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln’s 
Inn  in  1859.  He  was  for  some  years  editor  of  the 
Literary  Gazette , the  title  of  which  was  subsequently 
altered  to  the  Parthenon.  Mr.  Morley  was  editor  of  the 
Fortnightly  Review  from  1867  to  October,  1882.  He 
was  also  editor  of  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette  from  May, 
1880,  till  August,  1883,  and  of  Macmillan1 s Magazine 
from  1883  to  1885.  He  unsuccessfully  contested  the 
borough  of  Blackburn  in  1869  in  the  Liberal  interest, 
and  the  city  of  Westminster  in  1880;  but  in  February, 
1883,  at  a bye-election,  he  was  returned  as  an  advanced 
Liberal  by  the  borough  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  de- 
feating his  Conservative  opponent,  Mr.  Gainsford 
Bruce,  by  a majority  of  2,256  (9,443  votes  against 
7,187).  Mr.  Morley  presided  over  the  great  conference 
of  Liberals  held  at  Leeds  in  October,  1883.  On  the 
formation  of  Mr.  Gladstone’s  “Home  Rule”  cabinet, 
February,  1886,  Mr.  Morley  was  appointed  chief 
secretary  for  Ireland;  and  throughout  the  debate  on  the 
bill  (for  which  he  was  in  a great  measure  responsible) 
he  was  the  prime  minister’s  right-hand  man.  As  almost" 
the  only  cabinet  minister  who  had  been  a consistent 


6697 

home  ruler,  Mr.  Morley  commanded  the  respect  of  his 
opponents.  He  was  returned  for  Newcastle  in  July, 
1886  and  in  1892,  then  becoming  chief  secretary  for  Ire- 
land again.  His  works  are:  Edmund  Burke,  a His- 
torical Study  (1867)7  Critical  Miscellanies  (1871,  2d 
series,  1 877) ; Voltaire  (1872) ; On  Compromise  (1874) ; 
Rousseau  (187  6) ; Diderot  and  the  Encyclopcedists  (2  vols. , 
1878) ; Life  of  Richard  Cobden  (1881) ; and  he  is  the  ed- 
itor of  the  English  Men  of  Letters  series.  Mr.  Morlej 
is  an  honorary  LL.D.  of  the  University  of  Glasgow. 

MORPHY,  Paul  Charles,  chess-player,  born  in 
New  Orleans,  La.,  June  22,  1837;  died  there  July  10, 
1884.  His  father  was  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Louisiana.  The  son  was  graduated  at  St.  Joseph’s 
College,  Alabama;  studied  law,  and  in  1858  was  ad- 
mitted to  practice.  In  early  youth  he  displayed  emi- 
nent talent  as  a chess-player.  In  the  autumn  of  1857, 
at  the  chess  congress  in  New  York  city,  he  met  the 
most  noted  players  of  the  day,  and  vanquished  them. 
In  January,  1858,  he  vainly  challenged  all  others  to  a 
test,  offering  the  odds  of  a pawn  and  first  move.  Later 
he  exhibited  his  ability  in  playing  simultaneously  a 
number  of  games,  without  seeing  the  board,  and  in 
June,  1858,  went  to  Europe,  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
tending with  the  eminent  players  of  Great  Britain  and 
the  continent.  In  London,  Mr.  Staunton,  the  English 
champion,  declined  to  meet  him;  but  in  Germany  he 
met  the  noted  champion  Adolph  Anderssen,  when  he 
won  seven  games  and  lost  two.  After  having  van- 
quished the  famous  chess-players  of  Paris,  in  1859 
was  given  a farewell  banquet.  Returning  to  London 
he  repeated  his  former  victories,  and  thereafter  sailed  for 
home.  Later  he  practiced  law  in  New  Orleans,  and 
occasionally  visited  Mobile,  Ala.,  and  Richmond,  Va. 
Several  years  later  his  mind  became  disordered. 

MORRILL,  Justin  S.,  born  in  Orange  county,  Vt., 
April  14,  1810 ; served  in  congress  as  a Republican  from 
December,  1855,  to  March  3,  1867,  and  was  the  author 
of  the  tariff  bill  of  1861,  known  by  his  name.  In  1867 
he  was  elected  United  States  senator,  from  Vermont, 
which  office  he  still  holds.  Died  Dec.  28,  1898. 

MORRILL,  LotMyrick,  born  in  Kennebec  county, 
Me.,  May  3,  1813;  died  January  10,  1883.  In  1854  he 
was  elected  to  the  State  legislature,  as  a Democrat,  sub- 
sequently entered  the  senate,  of  which  he  became  presi- 
dent (1856),  and  a year  later,  having  broken  with  the 
Democratic  party  on  the  Kansas  question,  was  elected 
governor  by  the  Republicans.  He  was  twice  reelected, 
and  in  1861  succeeded  Hannibal  Hamlin  in  the  United 
States  Senate.  Reelected  in  1863  he  served  until  1869, 
but  was  then  defeated  in  caucus;  served  a part  of  Wm. 
Pitt  Fessenden’s  term,  1869-71,  and  was  again  elected 
senator  in  1871.  In  June,  1876,  he  became  secretary  of 
the  treasury  in  succession  to  Benjamin  H.  Bristow,  and 
held  that  office  until  March,  1877.  President  Hayes  ap- 
poined  him  collector  of  customs  for  the  district  of  Port- 
land, Me.,  which  office  he  held  until  his  death. 

MORRIS,  Clara,  actress,  born  in  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
about  1846.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  she  became  a ballet- 
girl  at  the  Academy  of  Music  in  her  native  city.  In  1869 
she  joined  the  company  at  Wood’s  theater  in  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio.  In  1870  she  played  at  Daly’s  theater  in 
New  York  city  as  a stock  actress,  in  small  parts,  and 
made  her  first  prominent  success  as  “ Anne  Sylvester  ” 
in  Man  and  Wife.  Thereafter  she  appeared  in  the 
plays  of  Divorce,  Camille , and  others  of  a similar  kind, 
with  undiminished  success.  Subsequently  she  appeared 
in  the  Union  Square  theater,  and  also  filled  an  engage- 
ment at  San  Francisco.  In  1874  she  was  married  to 
Frederick  C.  Harriot. 

MORRIS,  Charles,  born  in  Connecticut,  July  26, 
1784;  entered  the  United  States  navy  as  a midshipman 


M OR 


6698 

in  1799;  served  in  the  war  against  Tripoli,  and  was 
wounded  in  the  fight  between  the  Constitution  and  the 
Guerriere  in  August,  1812.  He  was  promoted  to  the 
command  of  a twenty-eight  gun  vessel,  and  cruised  in 
the  North  Atlantic.  Afterward  he  commanded  a 
squadron  in  the  South  Pacific,  and  in  1825  was  in  com- 
mand of  the  Brandywine , in  which  Lafayette  returned 
to  France.  For  many  years  Captain  Morris  had  charge 
of  the  Annapolis  Naval  Academy,  and  from  185 1 until 
his  death,  on  January  27,  1856,  he  was  chief  of  the 
bureau  of  ordnance  and  hydrography. 

MORRIS,  Charles  D’Urban,  born  in  England, 
February  17,  1827;  died  in  Baltimore,  February  7, 
1886.  He  graduated  at  Oxford,  England,  and  became 
a fellow  of  Oriel.  In  1853  he  came  to  the  United 
States;  was  professor  in  the  University  of  the  City  of 
New  York;  and  in  1876  became  professor  of  Latin  and 
Greek  in  Johns  Hopkins  University,  where  he  remained 
until'his  death.  Professor  Morris  wrote  extensively  on 
philology,  and  published  a Latin  grammar  and  other 
text-books. 

MORRIS,  The  Rev.  Francis  Orpen,  B.A.,  was 
born  March  25,  1810,  and  educated  at  Br  msgrove 
School  and  Worcester  College,  Oxford,  where  he  grad- 
uated a second  class  in  classics  in  1833.  He  held  the 
living  of  Nunburnholme,  Yorkshire;  was  chaplain  to 
the  late  Duke  of  Cleveland;  and  he  wrote  A History 
of  British  Birds , A Bible  Natural  History , A Book  of 
Natural  History,  A Natural  History  of  the  Nests  and 
Eggs  of  British  Birds , and  A Natural  History  of 
British  Butterflies , Anecdotes  in  Natural  History , 
Natural  History  of  British  Moths,  Records  of  Animal 
Sagacity  and  Character , and  several  smaller  works. 
He  died  February  10,  1893. 

MORRIS,  George  Perkins,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Penn.,  October  10,  1802;  died  in  New  York  city,  July 
6,  1864.  He  removed  to  New  York  city  in  early  life, 
and  at  the  age  of  fifteen  sent  occasional  contributions 
to  the  New  York  Gazette  and  the  American.  In  1823 
he  became  connected  with  the  New  York  Mirror. 
Some  of  his  ballads  became  general  favorites.  Among 
them  are  Woodman , Spare  that  Tree,  and  Near  the 
Lake  where  Drooped  the  Willow. 

MORRIS,  Gouverneur,  born  in  Mornsania,  N. 
Y.,  January  31,  1752;  died  there  November  6,  1816. 
He  was  half-brother  to  Lewis,  the  signer  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  and  was  graduated  at  King’s 
College  in  New  York  city  in  1768;  studied  law,  and  in 
1771  was  admitted  to  practice.  At  an  early  age  he 
began  to  write  political  articles,  and  in  1776  served  as 
a member  of  the  Continental  congress.  When  the 
American  army  lay  at  Valley  Forge  he  was  appointed 
one  of  a committee  to  examine  into  its  condition.  In 
May,  1780,  Mr.  Morris  was  thrown  from  his  carriage 
in  Philadelphia,  and  his  leg  was  so  seriously  injured 
that  it  had  to  be  amputated.  In  1781  he  was  appointed 
an  assistant  to  Robert  Morris  (of  whom  he  was  no 
relation),  in  the  treasury  department.  In  1787  he  was 
one  of  the  delegates  that  framed  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States.  In  December,  1788,  Mr.  Morris  sailed 
for  France,  where  for  two  years  he  attended  to  private 
business,  and  in  1791  was  appointed  United  States 
agent  to  the  British  Government  for  the  adjustment  of 
several  minor  differences.  At  that  time  he  was  also 
appointed  United  States  minister  to  France,  and  in 
1794  made  an  extensive  tour  throughout  Europe.  In 
1798  he  returned  homeland  in  the  early  part  of  the  fol- 
lowing year  was  sent  to  fill  a vacancy  in  the  United 
States  Senate,  serving  from  May  3,  1800,  until  March 
3,  1801.  Retiring  from  political  life,  he  finally  ap- 
peared in  1810  as  the  bh airman  of  the  commissioners  of 
the  Erie  canal,  and  continued  as  such  until  the  time  of 


his  death.  He  was  the  author  of  Observations  on  -tht 
American  Revolution  (1779);  An  Address  to  the  As- 
sembly of  Pennsylvania  (1785);  An  Address  in  Celebra- 
tion of  the  Deliverance  of  Europe  from  the  Yoke  of 
Military  Despotism  (1814);  and  several  addresses  and 
funeral  orations. 

MORRIS,  John,  was  born  in  India,  in  the  Madras 
Presidency,  July  4,  1826.  While  pursuing  his  studies 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  he  became  a Roman 
Catholic,  and  repairing  to  Rome  entered  the  English 
College.  After  receiving  orders  he  spent  three  years 
in  the  diocese  of  Northampton  and  was  made  canon. 
He  then  returned  to  Rome,  and  for  three  years  held 
the  office  of  vice-rector  of  the  English  College;  at  the 
expiration  of  this  period  he  entered  the  archdiocese  of 
Westminster,  was  made  canon  penitentiary  of  the 
metropolitan  chapter,  and  acted  as  secretary  to  Cardi- 
nal Wiseman,  and  to  his  successor,  Cardinal  Manning. 
He  left  the  archdiocese  in  1867  to  join  the  Society  of 
Jesus.  He  died  October  22,  1893. 

MORRIS,  Lewis,  a signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  was  born  in  Morrisania,  N.  Y.,  in  1726, 
and  died  there  January  22,  1798.  He  was  graduated 
at  Yale,  and  was  among  the  first  to  give  utterance  to 
the  sentiments  that  led  to  the  war  of  American  inde- 
pendence. He  was  a delegate  to  the  Congress  of  1775, 
and  served  on  a committee  to  devise  ways  and  means  to 
supply  the  colonies  with  ammunition  and  military  stores. 
At  the  close  of  the  session  he  was  sent  among  the 
Indians  to  induce  them  to  make  common  cause  with 
the  colonists  against  the  British,  but  resumed  his  seat  in 
congress  in  1776.  When  he  signed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  he  knew  that  a British  army  had  landed 
near  his  estate,  and  he  was  not  surprised  when  his  ex- 
tensive possessions  were  laid  waste  and  his  family  driven 
from  home.  Pie  resigned  his  seat  in  congress  in  1777, 
and  afterward  served  as  a member  of  the  New  York 
legislature,  and  as  major-general  of  the  State  militia. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  returned  to  agricultural 
pursuits. 

MORRIS,  Sir  Lewis,  was  born  in  Carmarthen, 
Wales.  He  was  educated  at  Cowbridge  and  Sher- 
borne schools  and  Jesus  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
graduated  in  1855  as  first-class  in  classics  and  chan- 
cellor’s prizeman;  M.A.,  1858;  was  called  to  the  bar  at 
Lincoln’s  Inn  in  November,  1861,  when  he  obtained  a 
certificate  of  honor  of  the  first  class;  practiced  chiefly 
as  a conveyancing  counsel  until  1880;  was  elected  an 
honorary  fellow  of  Jesus  College  in  1877.  Mr.  Morris 
is  perhaps  best  known  for  his  contributions  to  the 
poetical  literature  of  the  time.  In  1871-74-75,  ap- 
peared the  three  volumes  of  Songs  of  Two  Worlds,  now 
collected,  and  in  an  eleventh  edition.  In  1876  ap- 
peared Book  II.,  and  in  1877,  Books  I.  and  IIP,  of 
The  Epic  of  Hades,  now  in  a 26th  edition.  In  De- 
cember, 1878,  appeared  Gwen,  a Drama  in  Monologue; 
in  March,  1880,  The  Ode  of  Life,  and  in  October,  1883, 
Songs  Unsung. 

MORRIS,  Mary  Philipse,  born  in  the  Highlands  of 
the  Hudson,  N.  Y. , 1739;  died  in  York,  England,  in 
1825.  She  was  the  wife  of  Col.  Roger  Morris,  a noted 
Loyalist,  and  the  daughter  of  Frederick  Philipse,  the 
owner  of  an  immense  landed  estate.  She  was  carefully 
educated  by  private  teachers,  and  was  attractive  in  her 
personal  appearance,  besides  being  the  heiress  to  a large 
estate.  In  1776  Mrs.  Morris  was  under  suspicion  as  a 
Loyalist.  In  the  autumn  of  1776  her  property  was 
confiscated  and  she  was  at  once  compelled  to  fly 
with  her  family  to  Beverly  on  the  Hudson,  the  country 
seat  of  Col.  Beverly  Robinson.  In  1809  the  children  of 
Roger  Morris  and  his  wife  sold  their  reversionary  inter- 
est for  $100,000,  and  the  British  government  made  them 


aft  additional  compensation  of  $85,000.  Mrs.  Morris 
Anally  went  to  England  with  her  husband.  Two  sons, 
Henry  G.  and  Amherst,  afterward  became  captains  in 
the  British  navy. 

MORRIS,  Philip  Richard,  A.R.A.,  was  born  at 
Devonport,  England,  December  4,  1838.  He  owed  his 
first  regular  training  to  Mr.  Holman  Hunt,  and,  by  the 
advice  of  that  eminent  artist,  studied  the  Elgin  marbles 
at  the  British  Museum.  He  next  entered  the  schools  of 
the  Royal  Academy,  where  his  first  success  was  made  by 
gaining  the  silver  medal  for  the  best  drawing  from  the 
life.  In  1858  he  won  the  gold  medal  for  the  best  histor- 
ical picture,  the  subject  being  The  Good  Samaritan , 
and  subsequently  competed  successfully  for  the  travel- 
ing studentship.  Among  his  best  known  pictures  are 
The  Shadow  of  the  Cross,  Prison  Fare , and  the  large 
picture  of  a Procession  at  Dieppe , exhibited  in  187 7. 
Mr.  Morris  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy, June  18,  1877.  He  makes  a specialty  of  portraits, 
and  is  particularly  successful  with  those  of  children. 

MORRIS,  Robert,  born  in  Massachusetts,  August 
31,  1818;  died  in  Kentucky,  July  31,  1888.  He  was 
president  of  Oldham  College,  Kentucky,  and  was  prom- 
inent in  Freemasonry,  on  which  he  lectured  and  wrote 
in  prose  and  verse. 

MORRIS,  Sir  Michael,  born  in  Ireland  in  1827. 
He  received  his  education  at  Erasmus  Smith’s  College, 
Galway,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he 
graduated  in  1847,  first  senior  moderator  and  gold 
medalist.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  Ireland  in  June, 
1849,  and  made  a queen’s  counsel  in  February,  1863. 
Mr.  Morris,  who  was  high  sheriff  in  1849-50,  neld  the 
office  of  recorder  of  Galway  from  1857  till  1865.  He 
was  first  elected  as  one  of  the  members  in  parliament 
of  the  borough  of  Galway,  on  independent  principles,  in 
July,  1865;  was  subsequently  twice  reelected  without 
opposition,  on  his  appointment  as  solicitor-general  for 
Ireland  (July,  1866),  and  as  attorney-general  (Novem- 
ber, 1866),  in  Lord  Derby’s  government;  and  retained 
the  seat  until  he  was  raised  to  the  bench,  as  one  of  the 
judges  of  the  common  pleas  in  Ireland,  in  1867.  He 
was  appointed  lord  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas 
in  1876,  and  was  created  a baronet  in  August,  1885. 

MORRIS,  William,  was  born  near  London  in 
1834.  He  was  educated  at  Forest  School,  Waltham- 
stow, at  Marlborough,  and  Exeter  College,  Oxford.  He 
studied  painting,  but  did  not  succeed  in  that  profession. 
In  1858  he  published  a small  volume  entitled  The  De- 
fense of  Gaenevere,  and  other  poems.  In  1863,  with 
several  partners,  he  started  in  London  an  establishment 
for  the  artistic  designing  and  manufacture  of  various 
articles,  especially  wall-paper,  stained  glass,  tiles,  and 
household  decorations.  At  this  business  Mr.  Morris 
has  ever  since  wrought  as  a designer,  devoting  his  leis- 
ure to  the  composition  of  poetry.  He  published  The 
Life  and  Death  of  Jason , a narrative  poem,  in  1867, 
and  The  Earthly  Paradise  (4  parts),  3 vols.,  1868-70. 
The  latter  poem  is  made  up  of  twenty-four  legendary 
and  romantic  tales  in  verse,  recited  by  a company  of 
travelers  who  had  sailed  westward  from  Norway  to  find 
the  earthly  paradise.  Of  late  years  Mr.  Morris  has 
declared  himself  a socialist,  and  has  written  and  spoken 
much  in  support  of  socialist  doctrines.  Died  Oct.,  1896. 

MORRISON,  William  R.,  born  in  Illinois,  Sep- 
tember 14,  1825;  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar.  In  the  Mexican  war  he  served  as  a private,  and 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war  he  organized  a volun- 
teer regiment.  He  had  previously  served  in  the  State 
legislature  and  as  speaker  of  the  House  (1859),  and 
while  still  in  the  field  with  his  regiment  was  elected  to 
congress  as  a Democrat.  He  served  from  1863  to 
1865,  and  again  from  1873  to  1887.  Daring  1873-75 


he  was  chairman  of  the  committee  of  ways  and  means, 
and  in  1885  he  introduced  a tariff  reform  bill,  which 
was  defeated.  In  1887  he  was  appointed  a member  of 
the  inter-state  commerce  commission. 

MORSE,  David  Appleton,  born  in  Ohio,  Decem- 
ber 12,  1840;  graduated  at  Cleveland  Medical  College, 
and  from  1862  to  1865  served  as  an  army  surgeon  under 
Rosecrans  and  Sherman.  He  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  insanity,  and  became  professor  of  nervous  dis- 
orders in  Starling  Medical  College.  Doctor  Morse 
has  contributed  papers  on  insanity  to  the  Lancet  and 
Observer,  and  other  medical  journals. 

MORSE,  Edward  Sylvester,  born  in  Portland, 
Me.,  June  18,  1838;  became  assistant  at  the  Lawrence 
Scientific  School  at  Harvard.  He  established  the 
American  Naturalist,  made  investigations  of  brachio- 
pods,  which  he  classed  among  worms,  and  held  pro- 
fessorships of  zoology  and  comparative  anatomy  at 
Bowdoin  and  Salem.  In  1881  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  Peabody  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  is  a 
member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences;  has 
been  president  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science,  and  has  written  works  on  zoology 
and  other  scientific  subjects. 

MORSE,  Henry  Dutton,  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
April  20,  1826;  died  in  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.,  January 
1,  1888.  He  learned  the  art  of  engraving,  and  became 
a jeweler.  In  1861  he  turned  his  attention  to  diamond 
cutting,  and  organized  the  Morse  Diamond-Cutting 
Company.  His  partner  had  been  in  the  African  mines, 
and  brought  with  him  a number  of  diamonds  in  the 
rough,  with  which  they  began  their  operations.  At 
first  the  firm  employed  Holland  experts  for  cutting  and 
polishing,  who  worked  in  secret,  with  closed  doors,  and 
dictated  terms  to  their  employers.  But  Morse  discov- 
ered their  methods  and  appliances,  and  imparted  his 
knowledge  to  a number  of  intelligent  apprentices.  The 
Hollanders  were  discharged  and  their  places  filled  with 
native  workmen. 

MORSE,  John  Torrey,  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
January  9,  1840;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  i860,  sat  in 
the  Massachusetts  legislature  and  has  written  lives  of 
Adams,  Jefferson,  and  other  American  statesmen. 

MORTON,  Henry,  scientist,  born  in  New  York  city, 
Dec.  I I,  1836;  graduated  at  the  Universityof  Pennsylva- 
nia, held  the  chair  of  physics  and  chemistry  there,  be- 
came president  of  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology, 
and  was  president  of  the  light-house  board,  1878-85. 

MORTON,  John,  born  in  Pennsylvania,  1724,  held 
judicial  offices  in  that  State,  was  a member  Of  the  Con- 
tinental congress  and  of  the  committee  which  prepared 
the  articles  of  confederation  and  gave  the  casting-vote 
of  Pennsylvania  for  the  adoption  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  He  died  in  April,  1777. 

MORTON,  Julius  Sterling,  born  in  New  York, 
April  22,  1832 ; was  elected  to  the  Nebraska  territorial 
legislature,  1855,  was  four  times  the  Democratic  can- 
didate for  governor,  drew  up  the  Arbor  Day  legisla- 
tion, since  adopted  by  forty-four  States,  and  was  ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  Agriculture  by  President  Cleve- 
land in  March,  1893.  Died  April  27,  1902. 

MORTON,  Levi  Parsons,  born  in  Shoreham,  Vt., 
May  16,  1824;  engaged  in  business  in  Boston,  in  1854, 
founded  a banking  house  in  New  York  which  had  a 
branch  in  London,  England,  that  acted  as  fiscal  agent 
for  the  United  States  Government,  1873-74;  served 
in  congress  as  a Republican  in  1878-81,  and  as  min- 
ister to  Paris,  1881-85.  On  November  6,  1888,  he 
was  elected  vice-president  of  the  United  States  on  the 
ticket  with  Benjamin  Harrison.  In  November,  1894, 
he  was  elected  Governor  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
over  David  B.  Hill,  Democrat,  by  a plurality  of  156, 108. 


6706  M 0 R - 

MORTON,  OLiVfek  i>EkkY,  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Republican  party,  was  born  in  Wayne  county,  Ind. , 
August  4,  1823.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1847, 
and  was  elected  a circuit  judge  in  1852.  He  had  been  a 
Democrat,  but  became  a Republican  in  1855,  and  was 
the  Republican  candidate  for  the  governorship  in  1856. 
He  was  defeated,  and  in  i860  was  nominated  for  the 
office,  of  lieutenant-governor,  with  the  understanding 
that  the  candidate  for  governor  was  to  be  sent  to  the 
United  States  Senate,  if  possible.  This  arrangement 
took  effect,  and  Morton  was  left  to  fill  the  office  of 
governor  throughout  the  Civil  war.  He  was  active 
and  successful  in  raising  troops  for  the  support  of  the 
Federal  Government,  and  bold,  almost  to  recklessness, 
in  his  means  of  action.  He  knew,  or  at  least  believed, 
that  his  political  opponents  in  the  State  were  determined 
to  support  the  Confederacy  by  refusing  to  supply  any 
more  troops  to  the  Federal  Government;  and  the 
meeting  of  a hostile  legislature  in  1863  brought  matters 
to  a head.  The  Republicans  left  the  legislature,  thus 
leaving  their  opponents  without  a quorum  ; the  govern- 
or ordered  money  for  war  expenses  to  be  borrowed  on 
the  credit  of  the  State  ; the  Democratic  attorney-general 
and  the  State  Supreme  Court  held  that  this  was  illegal, 
but  the  indomitable  governor  borrowed  the  money  on 
his  personal  responsibility,  and  managed  the  State  Gov- 
ernment without  a legislature.  The  borrowed  money 
was  afterward  repaid  by  the  State.  In  1866  he  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  and  remained  there 
till  his  death,  taking  a prominent  part  in  every  debate, 
and  exercising  a strong  influence  on  the  party  policy. 
He  introduced  the  resolution  for  the  repeal  of  the 
twenty-second  joint  rule,  which  had  governed  the  count 
of  the  electoral  votes  since  1865.  He  died  at  Indianap- 
olis, November  1,  1877. 

MORTON,  Thomas  C.,  born  in  England  about 
1580;  died  in  Agamenticus,  Me.,  in  1646.  He  was  a 
lawyer  in  London,  and  in  1622  led  a colony  to  Weston, 
Mass.,  but  soon  returned  to  England.  In  1625  he 
came  back  with  Captain  Wallaston,  who, settled  part  of 
his  followers  at  Braintree,  Mass.  Morton  taught  the 
savages  the  use  of  fire-arms,  for  which  misdemeanor  he 
was  arrested  by  Capt.  Miles  Standish,  and  imprisoned. 
He  escaped  from  durance  by  night,  was  recaptured,  and 
sent  to  England.  He  returned  to  America  ir  the 
following  year,  and  in  1630  was  again  arrested  for 
mischievous  behavior,”  his  house  torn  down,  and  him- 
self seized  and  transported.  He  came  to  Massachusetts 
for  the  fourth  time  in  1643,  when  he  published  a 
“ scandalous  book,”  as  the  Puritans  called  it,  and  was 
imprisoned  for  a year  in  Boston  jail, 

MORTON,  William  T.  G.,  born  at  Charlton, 
Mass.,  August  19,  1819;  died  in  New  York  city,  July 
15,  1868.  He  became  a dentist,  studied  chemistry,  and 
laid  claim  to  the  discovery  of  the  use  of  sulphuric  ether 
as  an  anaesthetic.  The  French  Academy  of  Sciences 
awarded  him  one  of  the  Monthyon  prizes  for  this  dis- 
covery. 

MOSBY,  John  Singleton,  born  in  Powhatan 
county,  Va.,  December  6,  1833.  He  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia,  where  he  wounded  a student  who 
had  assaulted  him.  For  this  he  was  imprisoned;  studied 
law  during  his  confinement;  was  eventually  admitted  to 
the  bar,  and  practiced  in  Bristol,  Va.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  Civil  war  he  enlisted  in  a cavalry  company,  and 
served  under  Gen.  Joseph  E.  Johnston  in  the  Shen- 
andoah Valley  and  around  Manassas.  On  February  14, 

1862,  he  was  made  adjutant  of  his  regiment.  Later  he 
served  as  scout  and  partisan  ranger  under  Gen.  James 
E.  B.  Stuart,  and  did  effective  service.  In  March, 

1863,  he  was  made  major,  and  before  the  close  of  the 
war  he  received  a colonel’s  commission.  His  troops 


- M 0 U 

stood  on  the  same  footing  as  the  Confederate  cavalry 
of  the  line,  and  received  the  same  pay,  besides  being 
permitted  to  retain  captured  spoils.  After  the  close 
of  the  war  he  settled  at  Warrentown,  Va.,  and  re- 
turned to  the  practice  of  his  profession.  He  exerted 
himself  to  quiet  Southern  dissatisfaction,  and  at  that 
time  declined  all  favors  offered  him  by  the  national 
government.  Under  President  Hayes  he  was  appointed 
United  States  consul  at  Hong  Kong,  remaining  there 
for  more  than  six  years.  Later  he  located  in  San 
Francisco. 

MOSELEY,  Henry  Nottidge,  M.A.,  LL.D., 
F.R.S.,  was  born  at  Wandsworth,  England,  Novem- 
ber 14,  1844,  and  educated  at  Harrow  and  Exeter  Col- 
lege, Oxford.  He  subsequently  studied  medicine  at 
University  College,  London,  and  in  Vienna  and  Leipsic. 
In  1871  he  served  as  a member  of  the  English  Govern- 
ment eclipse  expedition  to  Ceylon  and  southern  India, 
and  made  successful  observations  near  Trincomali.  In 
the  autumn  of  1872  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  nat- 
uralists to  the  Challenger  expedition,  and  served  on 
board  H.M.S.  Challenger , during  the  entire  voyage 
round  the  world  till  May,  1876.  On  his  return  he  was 
elected  fellow  of  Exeter  College,  and  resided  there 
several  years,  working  out  some  of  the  scientific  results 
of  the  expedition  and  preparing  for  the  press  his  book 
entitled  Notes  by  a Naturalist  on  the  Challenger , 1879. 
He  became  a fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1877,  and 
was  for  a number  of  years  a member  of  the  council.  In 
1884  he  was  president  of  the  section  of  biology  at  the 
meeting  of  the  British  Association  at  Montreal,  when 
the  McGill  University  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of 
LL.D.  During  the  Challenger  expedition  he  undertook 
the  entire  collection  of  plants  at  the  various  regions 
visited.  Besides  the  Notes  by  a Naturalist  on  the 
Challenger  he  also  published  a small  work  entitled 
Oregon , its  Climate , Resources , People , and  Productions 
(1878),  and  contributed  to  the  transactions  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  other  learned  bodies,  many  papers  on 
natural  history  subjects.  He  died  November  10,  ,1891. 

MOSS,  Lemuel,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  born  in  Kentucky, 
December  27,  1829;  graduated  at  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
and  was  ordained  in  the  Baptist  ministry.  In  1863-65 
he  served  as  secretary  of  the  Christian  Commission, 
afterward  held  the  chair  of  theology  at  Lewisburg,  and 
in  Crozier  Seminary,  Philadelphia;  became  president 
of  the  University  of  Chicago,  and,  from  1875  to  1884, 
president  of  Indiana  University.  He  is  D.D.  and 
LL.D.  of  Rochester;  edited  the  National  Baptist 
(1868-72),  and  has  published  articles  on  religious  sub- 
jects. 

MOTT,  Lucretia,  reformer,  born  on  Nantucket 
Island,  Mass.,  January  3,  1793;  died  near  Philadelphia, 
Penn.,  November  n,  1880.  She  was  the  wife  of  James 
Mott,  a noted  philanthropist.  When  she  was  eleven 
years  of  age  she  went  to  Boston,  Mass.,  and  at  the  age 
of  fifteen  became  a teacher.  In  1817  she  took  charge 
of  a small  school,  and  soon  became  conspicuous  for  her 
eloquent  discourses  at  the  Quaker  meetings.  1111827, 
when  the  denomination  divided,  she  united  with  the 
Hicksite  branch.  She  made  many  preaching  tours  in 
the  Middle  States  and  New  England,  advocating  peace- 
principles  and  opposing  slavery.  In  1833  s^e  was  Pr?m* 
inent  in  organizing  the  American  Anti-slavery  Society 
of  Philadelphia.  In  1840  she  went  to  London  as  a 
delegate  to  the  World’s  Anti-slavery  Convention;  but 
was  not  admitted  to  its  deliberations.  On  her  return 
to  the  United  States  Mrs.  Mott  became  greatly  in- 
terested in  improving  the  condition  and  political  stand- 
ing of  woman,  and  labored  with  speech  and  pen  on  be- 
half of  the  Woman’s  Medical  College  in  Philadelphia. 
MOULTON,  Louise  Chandler,  born  in  Connects 


MOU- 

CUt,  in  April,  1S35 ; married  a Boston  publisher  in 
1855,  and  has  contributed  sketches,  essays,  stories, 
and  poems  to  the  leading  magazines. 

MOULTRIE,  William,  born  in  England  in  1731  ; 
died  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  September  27,  1805.  His 
father  was  a Scottish  physician  who  settled  in  Charles- 
ton. In  1761  the  son  served  as  captain  of  a militia  regi- 
ment raised  to  defend  the  South  Carolinafrontier  against 
the  Cherokee  Indians.  In  1 775  he  was  a member  of  the 
provincial  congress,  and  on  June  17th  of  that  year  was 
made  colonel  of  a regiment.  In  March,  1776,  he  was 
ordered  to  take  charge  of  a fort  then  being  erected  on 
Sullivan’s  island ; it  was  built  of  palmetto  logs  and  filled 
in  with  sand,  having  26  guns  and  a garrison  of  435  men. 
On  June  28,  1776,  this  fort  was  'attacked  by  a British 
fleet  of  eight  vessels,  with  262  guns,  under  Sir  Peter 
Parker,  assisted  by  a land  force,  under  Sir  Henry  Clin- 
ton. The  action  lasted  eight  hours,  when  the  fleet  with- 
drew with  a loss  of  205  men ; the  Americans  lost  only 
37.  In  commemoration  of  Moultrie’s  bravery,  the  fort 
subsequently  received  his  name.  On  September  16, 
1776,  he  was  made  a brigadier-general,  and  commanded 
a body  of  North  Carolina  troops.  In  April,  1 779,  Gen- 
eral Augustine  Prevost  advanced  on  Charleston  with  a 
force  of  British  regulars  and  Tories,  when  Moultrie, 
stationed  on  the  north  side  of  the  Savannah  river,  with 
1,200  militia,  compelled  the  British  general  to  fall  back 
on  Savannah.  In  the  early  part  of  1 780,  when  Charles- 
ton was  attacked  by  a strong  land  and  sea  force  Moul- 
trie shared  in  the  capitulation  of  the  Americans.  He 
was  kept  in  confinement  for  two  years,  and  in  February, 
1782,  exchanged  for  General  Burgoyne.  On  October 
15,  1782,  he  was  made  major-general,  and  in  1785-86 
and  1794-96,  was  governor  of  South  Carolina.  While 
a prisoner  of  war  he  wrote  his  Memoirs  of  the  American 
Revolution. 

MOUNT,  William  Sidney,  born  in  Long  Island, 
in  1808,  died  in  1868.  He  achieved  popularity  as  a 
painter  of  rural  and  domestic  life,  and  his  Farmers' 
Nooning , Husking  Corn  and  Raffling  for  a Goose  are 
well  known  through  reproductions. 

MOUNT-STEPHEN,  Lord  (George  Stephen), 
was  born  February  5,  1829,  emigrated,  in  1850,  to 
Canada,  became  a merchant  in  Montreal;  became 
president  of  the  Bank  of  Montreal,  and  president  of 
the  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Manitoba  railroad  in 
1878  and  was  first  president  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway  Company,  1881-88.  In  1887,  as  a memorial 
of  the  Queen’s  jubilee,  he  gave  $500,000  to  found  the 
Victoria  Hospital  at  Montreal.  He  was  created  a baro- 
net in  1886  for  his  public  services  in  connection  with 
the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  and  raised  to  the  peer- 
age in  1891. 

MOW  AT,  Sir  Oliver,  born  at  Kingston  in  1820, 
was  called  to  the  bar  of  Upper  Canada,  1842;  ap- 
pointed a queen’s  counsel,  1856,  and  became  a member 
of  the  senate  and  an  LL.D.  of  Toronto  University. 
From  1856  to  1859  he  was  a commissioner  for  consoli- 
dating the  public  general  statutes  of  Canada  and  Up- 
per Canada.  He  entered  political  life  in  1858,  as 
representative  of  South  Ontario;  was  provincial  sec- 
retary, postmaster-general,  1863-64,  and  vice-chancel- 
lor of  Upper  Canada  from  1864  to  1872  when  he  formed 
a new  administration  in  Ontario,  and  became  premier 
and  attorney-general  for  the  province,  and  repre- 
sentative of  North  Oxford  in  the  legislature.  He 
drafted  the  judicature  bill  for  the  fusion  of  law  and 
equity  in  the  courts  of  Ontario,  and  in  1897  was  appointed 
lieutenant-governor  of  Ontario. 

MOWATT,  Anna  Cora  Ogden,  daughter  of  a New 
York  merchant,  born  in  Bordeaux,  France,  1819;  died 
in  London,  England,  July  28,  1870.  She  married 

60 — J 


- M U E 6701 

James  Mowatt,  a New  York  lawyer,  and  from  1836  to 
1845  wrote  numerous  forgotten  satires  and  stories  and 
the  comedy  Fashion , and  in  the  latter  year  made  her 
debut  at  the  Park  theater,  New  York,  as  “Pauline” 
in  The  Lady  of  Lyons,  scoring  an  immediate  popular 
success.  In  1847  she  wrote  her  second  play  Armand, 
which  was  well  received.  In  1848,  in  company  with 
E.  L.  Davenport,  she  made  her  first  appearance  in 
England  as  “Julia”  in  The  Hunchback,  and  became 
very  popular.  She  returned  to  the  United  States  in 
1851,  in  which  year  her  husband  died,  retired  from 
the  stage  in  1854  on  her  marriage  to  William  Ritchie 
of  Richmond,  Va.,  and  went  to  Europe  in  i860. 

MOWBRAY,  Sir  John  Robert,  M.P.,  born  at 
Exeter,  England,  1815;  educated  at  Westminster  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  called  to  the  bar,  and  elected, 
in  1853,  as  a Conservative  for  the  city  of  Durham, 
which  he  continued  to  represent  until  1868,  has  since 
represented  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  was  judge- 
advocate  general  in  Lord  Derby’s  second  and  third 
administrations  in  1858  and  1866,  and  was  second 
/Lurch  estates  commissioner  from  August,  1866,  to 
December,  1868.  His  son,  Mr.  Robert  G.  L. 
Mowbray,  was,  in  1886  and  1892,  elected  Con- 
servative member  for  the  Prestwich  division  of  Lan- 
cashire. Died  April  22,  1899. 

MOYLAN,  Stephen,  born  in  Ireland,  1732,  died 
in  Philadelphia,  April  11,  1811.  He  settled  in  Phila- 
delphia as  a merchant,  was  among  the  earliest  to 
enlist  in  the  cause  of  the  colonies,  joining  the  army 
before  Boston  in  1775,  and  being  placed  in  charge  of 
the  commissariat  department  at  the  suggestion  of  John 
Dickinson.  General  Washington  appointed  Moylan 
his  aide-de-camp  in  1776,  and  recommended  him  for 
quarter-master  general.  This  post  he  resigned  to 
raise  the  First  Pennsylvania  regiment  of  cavalry  which 
he  commanded  at  Valley  Forge,  on  the  Hudson  river, 
in  Connecticut,  and  in  the  Southern  campaign,  doing 
gallant  service  in  nearly  all  of  Washington’s  battles 
and  campaigns,  and  making  many  daring  and  success- 
ful raids  on  the  enemy.  He  was  commissioned  briga- 
dier-general before  his  retirement. 

MOZIER,  Joseph,  sculptor,  born  in  Burlington, 
Vt.,  August  22,  1812,  died  in  Switzerland,  in  October, 
1870.  His  Pocahontas ,-  Truth,  Silence,  Rebecca  at  the 
Well,  Esther,  Jeppthah's  Daughter  and  The  Peri  were 
among  his  most  admired  statues. 

MUELLER,  Baron  (Sir  Ferdinand  von,  K.C. 
M.G.,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.),  son  of  the  kte  Frederick 
Mueller,  of  Rostock,  Germany,  was  born  at  Rostock, 
1825,  educated  in  Schleswig,  studied  also  in  Kiel,  and 
examined  extensively  the  vegetation  of  Schleswig  and 
Holstein  from  1840  to  1847,  when,  on  account  of  he- 
reditary inclination  to  phthisis,  he  emigrated  to  Aus- 
tralia. He  traveled  through  the  extensive  territory  of 
South  Australia,  mainly  for  researches  on  plants,  from 
1848  till  1852,  at  his  private  expense.  In  1852  he  ac- 
cepted the  newly-created  office  of  government  botanist 
for  Victoria;  explored  there  till  1855,  examining  also 
the  whole  mountain  vegetation  of  Australia,  previously 
utterly  unknown,  ascended  and  named  Mount  Hotham, 
the  Barkly  ranges,  and  many  other  mountains  ; joined, 
as  phytographic  naturalist,  the  expedition  sent  out 
under  Augustus  Gregory,  by  the  duke  of  Newcastle, 
to  explore  the  river  Victoria,  and  other  portions  of  the 
north  parts  of  the  Australian  continent ; was  one  of  the 
four  who  reached  Termination  lake  in  1856;  accom- 
panied all  of  the  other  parts  of  the  same  expedition, 
conducted  overland  by  Gregory  to  Moreton  bay  and 
accepted  the  directorship  of  the  botanical  garden  of 
Melbourne  in  1857,  which  office  he  held  till  1873.  He 
was  one  of  the  commissioners  for  the  industrial  ex« 


6702  MUH- 

hibitions  in  Melbourne  m 1854,  1862,  and  1867;  has 
issued  eight  volumes  of  his  Fragmenta  Phytographice 
Australia ; two  volumes,  profusely  illustrated,  on  the 
Plants  of  Victoria,  irrespective  of  several  other  pub- 
lications, and  contributed  to  the  Flora  Australiensis,  of 
which  six  volumes  have  appeared.  He  died  October  9, 
1896. 

MUHLENBERG,  William  Augustus,  clergy- 
man, born  in  Philadelphia,  September  16,  1796;  died 
in  New  York  city,  April  8,  1877.  He  was  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1814;  studied  the- 
ology under  Bishop  White,  and  became  assistant  in 
Christ  church,  Philadelphia.  On  October  22,  1821, 
he  took  charge  of  St.  James  church,  Lancaster,  Penn., 
remaining  six  years,  and  in  1828  founded  a school  at 
Flushing,  L.  I.,  which  afterward  became  St.  Paul’s 
College,  and  for  eighteen  years  was  its  principal.  In 
1846  he  was  rector  of  the  free  church  of  the  Ploly  Com- 
munion, erected  by  his  sister.  In  1858  Doctor  Muhlen- 
berg became  superintendent  of  St.  Luke’s  hospital, 
which  he  had  been  active  in  founding,  and  in  1852  or- 
ganized the  first  Protestant  sisterhood  in  the  United 
States.  In  1866  he  also  established  an  industrial 
Christian  settlement  at  St.  Johnland,  L.  I.  Doctor 
Muhlenberg  was  the  author  of  numerous  hymns,  of 
which  I Would  not  Live  Alway  is  the  best  known. 

MUHLENBERG,  John  Peter  Gabriel,  born  in 
Trappe,  Penn.,  October  1,  1746;  died  near  Phila- 
delphia, Penn.,  October  1,  1807.  His  father  was  a 
clergyman.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  years,  in  company 
with  two  brothers,  he  was  sent  to  Halle,  Germany,  to 
be  educated.  While  there  he  rashly  enlisted  in  a com- 
pany of  soldiers,  but  was  released  through  the  inter- 
vention of  friends.  In  1766  he  returned  to  America, 
studied  theology,  and  became  pastor  of  Lutheran 
churches  in  New  Germantown  and  Bedminster,  N.  J. 
In  1772  he  settled  in  Woodstock,  Va.,  left  his  former 
denomination  in  consequence  of  the  Virginia  laws,  and 
obtained  Protestant  Episcopal  ordination  from  the 
bishop  of  London.  He  continued  his  ministry  there 
for  three  years,  and  in  1775  accepted  a colonel’s  com- 
mission in  the  American  army.  After  he  had  preached 
his  last  sermon  to  his  congregation,  and  given  the  bene- 
diction, he  removed  his  gown,  and  stood  in  the  pulpit 
in  full  military  uniform.  Proceeding  to  the  door  of 
his  church  he  ordered  drums  to  be  beaten,  and  at  once 
about  250  of  his  congregation  volunteered  as  recruits. 
After  having  formed  his  “ German  Regiment,”  he 
marched  with  300  men  to  the  relief  of  Charleston, 
S.C.,  took  part  in  the  southern  campaigns,  and  in  1777 
was  promoted  brigadier-general.  Subsequently  he  was 
engaged  in  the  battles  of  Brandywine,  Germantown, 
Monmouth,  Stony  Point,  and  Yorktown,  and  at  the 
close  of  the  war  was  made  major-general.  In  1785, 
when  Benjamin  Franklin  was  chosen  president  of  Penn- 
sylvania, General  Muhlenberg  became  vice-president, 
and  in  1801  for  a short  time  was  a member  of  the 
United  States  Senate.  In  1803  he  was  made  collector 
.of  the  port  of  Philadelphia.  His  statue,  by  Blanche 
Nevin,  is  in  the  capitol  at  Washington,  D,C. 

MUIR,  Sir  William,  K.C.S.I.,  LL.D.,  son  of  Mr. 
William  Muir  of  Glasgow,  was  born  in  1819.  He  was 
educated  at  the  universities  of  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow; 
entered  the  Bengal  civil  service  in  1837;  has  been  sec- 
retary to  the  government  of  India  in  the  foreign  depart- 
ment; was  appointed  provisional  member  of  the  gov- 
ernor-general’s council  in  India  in  December,  1867, 
and  lieutenant-governor  of  the  Northwest  Provinces 
in  1868;  was  invested  with  the  Order  of  the  Star  of 
India  in  1867;  appointed  an  ordinary  member  of  the 
council  of  the  governor-general  of  India  in  1847; 
and  retired  in  1876;  member  of  the  council  of  India, 


-MUL 

1876  to  1885;  principal  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
1885,  in  succession  to  the  late  Sir  Alexander  Grant. 
He  was  created  an  honorary  D.C.L.  of  the  University 
of  Oxford  in  1882. 

MUKHTAR-PACHA,  Ghazi  Ahmed,  was  born  in 
1837,  and  was  brought  up  by  his  grandfather,  who  sent 
him,  in  1849,  to  the  preparatory  military  school  of  his 
native  city.  He  manifested  a remarkable  aptitude  for 
military  studies,  and  at  the  expiration  of  five  years  he 
passed  from  the  school  first  of  his  class.  Entering  the 
military  academy  at  Constantinople,  he  remained  four 
years  as  pupil,  and  was  promoted,  while  still  pursuing 
his  studies,  to  the  grade  of  lieutenant.  When  he  left  he 
was  made  captain  on  the  staff,  and  in  that  capacity  he, 
in  i860,  joined  the  headquarters  of  the  Sirdar  Ekrem 
Omar  Pacha,  in  Montenegro,  where  he  soon  distinguished 
himself.  After  a time  Ahmed  Mukhtar  returned  to  the 
military  academy,  where  he  was  appointed  to  the  post 
of  professor  of  astronomy,  military  architecture,  and 
fortification.  In  1863  he  was  sent  as  binbashi  or  major 
and  chief  of  the  staff  of  the  division  of  Islaheye — a 
division  of  organization — at  Alexandretta,  under  the 
command  of  Dervish  Pacha,  now  mushir  at  Batoum. 
At  the  end  of  1864  the  young  soldier  was  appointed 
caimakam,  or  lieutenant-colonel,  and  tutor  to  Prince 
Youssouf  Issedin,  the  eldest  son  of  Sultan  Abdul  Aziz. 

When  Ali  Pacha,  the  minister  of  war,  died,  Essad 
Pacha  became  Seraskier,  and  Mukhtar  was  promoted  to 
Mushir  (or  full  general)  and  the  governorship  of  Yemen, 
in  1871,  at  the  age  of  thirty-three.  He  also  received 
the  Osmanli  of  the  first  class  in  brilliants.  After  the 
taking  of  Sana  he  was  further  decorated  with  the  first 
class  of  the  Medjidie.  In  1873  he  returned  to  Stam- 
boul,  where  he  was  appointed  minister  of  public  works, 
but  he  did  not  take  up  the  post,  as  a few  days  after- 
ward he  was  named  governor  of  Crete.  On  March  25, 
1877,  he  learnt  that  for  the  first  time  the  prospects  of 
peace  were  judged  hopeless  by  Turkish  statesmen,  and 
making  an  immediate  application  for  a ship  he  left  in  a 
man-of-war  on  the  26th  for  Trebizonde,  where  he  ar- 
rived on  the  30th,  proceeding,  after  three  days’  hard 
work,  in  the  organization  of  land  transport,  etc.,  to 
Erzeroum  and  Kars.  He  had  onk,  three  weeks  to  pro- 
vide for  the  defense  of  Armenia  when  the  war  broke 
out,  and  in  less  than  a week  from  his  arrival  in  Kars 
that  fortress  was  invested,  and  Mukhtar  retired  on  the 
Soghanly  Dagh.  His  gallant  conduct  has  become  a 
matter  of  history.  On  the  evening  of  October  1,  1877, 
he  received  the  news  that  the  Sultan  had  conferred  on 
him  the  title  of  Ghazi,  one  of  the  greatest  honors  that 
can  be  given  to  an  Ottoman.  The  word  originally 
meant  fanatic,  but  in  its  modern  acceptation  it  is  both 
defender  of  the  faith  and  conqueror.  In  April,  1878, 
he  was  appointed  grand  master  of  artillery,  and  in  No- 
vember of  the  same  year,  commandant  of  Janina. 

MULHALL,  Michael  G.,born  1836;  is  third  son  of 
the  late  Thomas  Mulhall,  lawyer,  St.  Stephen’s  Green, 
Dublin.  He  was  educated  at  the  Irsh  college,  Rome. 
He  has  published  the  following  works:  Progress  of  the 
World , 1880;  Balance-Sheet  of  the  World,  1881;  Dic- 
tionary of  Statistics,  1884;  History  of  Prices , 1885, 
besides  numerous  essays  in  the  Contemporary  Re- 
view, and  papers  read  in  Section  F.  of  the  British 
Association.  Died  Dec.  12,  1900. 

MULLIGAN,  James  A.,  born  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  June 
25,  1830;  graduated  at  the  University  of  St.  Mary  oi 
the  Lake  in  Chicago,  in  1850,  practiced  law  and  edited 
a Catholic  weekly  paper.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
war  he  raised  the  23rd  Illinois  volunteer  regiment,  of 
which  he  became  colonel.  He  defended  Lexington.. 
Mo.,  against  a large  Confederate  force  under  Sterling 
Price;  was  captured  and  exchanged,  and  fought  in  Vir  • 


M UN- 

gini'j,  1863-64.  He  was  fatally  wounded  at  the  battle 
of  Winchester,  Va.,  July  26,  1864. 

MUNK,  Hans,  Danish  navigator,  was  born  in  Elsi- 
nore in  1589,  and  died  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  June  3, 
1628.  Like  his  father,  he  was  a pilot,  and  as  such 
made  many  voyages  from  Denmark  and  Norway  to  the 
northern  shores  of  America.  Under  the  patronage  of 
the  king  of  Denmark  and  Norway  he  was  commissioned 
in  1619  to  find  the  northwestern  route  to  China  and  the 
Indies.  He  left  Elsinore  on  May  16,  1619,  with  two 
vessels  and  644  men,  and  penetrated  Davis  Strait  as  far 
north  as  69°.  On  Lis  charts  Davis  Strait  is  called 
Tretum  Christianeum.  In  1620  exposure,  sickness,  and 
famine  had  gradually  reduced  his  followers  to  two  men. 
They  then  set  sail  for  the  coast  of  Norway,  where  they 
arrived  at  the  end  of  September,  1620.  In  March, 
[621,  Munk  sailed  anew  on  the  former  errand,  reached 
75P  N.  latitude,  and  on  his  return,  in  June,  1623, 
reported  that  he  had  seen,  farther  north,  an  open  sea. 
He  organized  a third  expedition  for  Arctic  discovery, 
and  on  that  voyage  died  at  sea. 

MUNK,  William,  M.D.,  F.S.A.,  was  educated  at 
University  College,  London,  and  the  University  of 
Leyden,  where  he  graduated  doctor  of  medicine,  June 
23,  1837.  He  was  admitted  a member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians  in  1844,  and  a fellow  in  1854  ; 
elected  Harveian  librarian  of  the  college  in  1857  ; and 
was  senior  censor  in  1882.  Doctor  Munk  died  Decem- 
ber 20,  1898. 

MUNKACZY,  M'ihaly,  painter,  born  in  Hungary  in 
1846;  studied  painting  at  Vienna,  Munich,  and  Diissel- 
dorf,  and  exhibited  for  the  first  time  at  Paris  in  1870. 
His  chief  works  are  The  Last  Day  of  the  Condemned  and 
Christ  Before  Pilate . Died  May  1,  1900. 

MUNROE,  Charles  Edward,  born  in  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  May  24,  1849;  graduated  at  the  Lawrence  Scien- 
tific School,  and  became  a tutor  there.  From  1874  to 
1886  he  was  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  Annapolis 
Naval  Academy,  and  afterward  became  chemist  to  the 
United  States  torpedo  corps.  He  is  a member  of  many 
home  and  foreign  scientific  societies,  and  has  written  on 
the  higher  explosives. 

MURDOCH,  James  Edward,  actor,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  January  25,  1811.  On  October  13,  1829, 
he  appeared  at  the  Arch  Street  theater,  Philadelphia,  as 
“ Frederick  ” in  Kotzebue’s  play  of  Lovers’'  Vozus.  After 
acting  in  several 'Southern  cities  he  appeared  in  1838  in 
New  York  city.  In  1840  he  became  stage-manager  of 
the  Chestnut  Street  theater  in  Philadelphia,  and  two 
years  later  relinquished  the  stage  to  lecture  on  Shakes- 
peare and  teach  elocution.  In  1845  he  returned  to 
acting.  In  1856  he  performed  at  the  Haymarket 
theater  in  London.  During  the  Civil  war  he  gave 
readings  and  recitations  in  aid  of  the  United  States 
sanitary  commission.  After  that  time  he  was  professor 
of  elocution  at  the  Cincinnati  College  of  Music.  In  1882 
he  gave  a farewell  series  of  recitations  in  the  principal 
American  cities.  He  died  May  19,  1893. 

MURE,  David,  called  by  courtesy  Lord  Mure,  a 
Scotch  judge  of  session,  third  son  of  the  late  Colonel 
Mure,  of  Caldwell,  and  brother  of  the  eminent  historian 
of  Greece,  born  in  1810;  was  educated  at  Westminster 
and  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  Having  been  called 
to  the  Scotch  bar  in  1831,  he  was  appointed  solicitor- 
general  for  Scotland  in  1858,  lord  advocate  in  April, 
1859,  and  was  raised  to  the  Scotch  bench  in  January, 
1865.  He  represented  Buteshire,  in  the  Conservative 
interest,  from  April,  1859,  till  he  was  made  a judge;  is 
a deputy-lieutenant  for  Buteshire,  and  was  sheriff  of 
Perthshire  in  1853-58. 

MURRAY,  Alexander,  born  in  Perthshire,  Scot- 
land, June  2,  i8iij  served  in  the  British  navy,  and  in 


- M U S 6703 

1837  settled  in  Canada.  He  was  engaged  for  many 
years  in  the  geological  survey  of  Canada  and  of  New- 
foundland, and  wrote  on  the  geology  and  mineralogy 
of  the  provinces.  He  died  in  January,  1885. 

MURRAY,  Alexander  S.,  keeper  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Antiquities  in  the  British  Museum,  was  born  in 
1841,  and  educated  at  the  Royal  High  School,  Edin- 
burgh, the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  the  Univer- 
sity of  Berlin.  He  was  appointed  assistant  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum  in  1867,  and  keeper  in  1886.  He  is  best 
known  by  a learned  and  careful  work  on  the  History  of 
Greek  Sculpture  (2  vols.,  1880  and  1883),  and  he  has 
also  contributed  numerous  articles  to  the  Nineteenth 
Century , Contemporary  Review , Revue  Archeologique , 
and  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  etc.  He  is  an  active 
and  prominent  member  of  the  Hellenic  Society. 

M URR  AY,  Logan  Crittenden,  was  born  in  Breck- 
inridge county,  Ky. , in  1845.  Both  his  father  and  mother 
were  of  Scotch-Irish  Presbyterian  line  of  descent.  He 
took  a course  at  Princeton  College,  New  Jersey,  leaving 
there  in  1866,  and  has  the  degree  of  M.  A.  from  that  col- 
lege. In  1866  also  he  assumed  the  management  of  the 
Kentucky  National  Bank  of  Louisville,  which,  from  his 
devotion  to  its  interests,  was  placed  in  the  first  position 
of  all  the  banks  of  the  South.  In  1880  he  was  called 
to  the  management  of  the  United  States  National  Bank 
of  New  York  city,  and  continues  its  president.  In 
addition  to  the  presidency  of  the  bank,  he  is  connected 
with  many  of  the  living  activities  of  the  metropolis  in 
church  business  and  social  affairs.  In  Boston,  in  1886, 
he  was  made  president  of  the  American  Bankers’  Associ- 
ation, and  was  reelected  the  following  year  at  Pittsburgh. 

MURRAY,  William  Henry  Harrison,  born  ir. 
Connecticut,  April  26,  1840;  graduated  at  Yale,  and 
held  pastorates  (Congregational)  in  Boston,  and  other 
New  England  cities.  He  resigned  his  pastorate  in 
1874,  and  has  lectured  and  written  on  horses,  sporting 
in  the  Adirondacks,  and  other  subjects. 

MURRAY,  Lindley,  was  born  near  Lancaster, 
Penn. , April  22,  1745;  died  near  York,  England,  Febru- 
ary 16,  1826.  His  father  was  a rich  Quaker  merchant  in 
New  York  city;  and  the  son  continued  a member  of  that 
denomination.  In  1761  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar. 
When  the  Revolution  began,  as  a Quaker  non-combat- 
ant, he  retired  for  four  years  to  Islip,  L.  I.  In  1779 
he  returned  to  New  York  city,  and  made  several  profit- 
able business  ventures.  In  1784  he  sailed  for  England, 
and  settled  in  Holdgate,  about  a mile  from  the  city  of 
York,  where  he  devoted  his  time  to  literary  pursuits. 
He  there  published  The  Power  of  Religion  on  the 
Mind  (1787),  which  passed  through  seventeen  editions; 
and  the  English  Grammar  (1795),  which  had  an  ex- 
traordinary success.  The  grammar  was  introduced  into 
all  English  and  American  schools,  and  made  his  name 
a household  world.  Later  he  devoted  much  time  to  the 
study  of  botany,  and  his  garden,  in  the  variety  and  rarity 
of  its  plants,  surpassed  the  royal  gardens  at  Kew, 
England. 

MUR  SKA,  Ilma  de,  born  in  Buda-Pesth,  Hun- 
gary, in  1843;  died  in  Munich,  Bavaria,  January  14, 
1889.  She  first  sang  in  public  at  Florence,  Italy,  in 
1862,  and  appeared  in  London  in  May,  1865,  as 
“ Lucia  ” in  Lucia  di  I.ammermoor.  In  1873  she  sang 
in  opera  at  New  York,  and  her  last  appearance  in  this 
country  was  in  1887. 

MUSURUS  PACHA,  Constantine,  diplomatist, 
was  born  at  Constantinople,  February  18,  1807,  his 
father,  Paul  Musurus,  having  been  a native  of  Retimo, 
in  Crete,  and  a descendant  of  an  ancient  patrician  family. 
He  received,  a Constantinople,  a very  careful  educa- 
tion, comprising  the  classical  literature  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  the  sciences,  and  several  European  languages.. 


6704  M U T 

In  1832  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  prince  of  1 
Samos  (Stephen  Vogorides),  and  in  1833  accompanied 
the  commissioners  of  France,  England,  and  Russia, 
sent  to  exhort  the  Samians  to  make  their  submission 
to  the  Porte.  In  1840  he  was  sent  to  Athens  as  envoy 
extraordinary  and  minister  plenipotentiary,  a difficult 
mission  for  an  Ottoman  diplomatist.  It  was  signalized 
by  a rupture  of  diplomatic  relations  between  the  two 
courts,  by  the  triumph  of  Ottoman  policy,  and  by  an 
attempted  assassination  of  M.  Musurus.  At  the  end  of 
1848  he  was  recalled  from  Athens  to  represent  Turkey 
at  the  Austrian  court,  where  his  able  management  of 
matters  connected  with  the  demand  for  the  surrender 
of  Hungarian  refugees  increased  his  reputation.  He 
was  appointed  minister  at  London,  1851,  became 
ambassador,  1856,  and  pacha,  on  the  Sultan’s  visit  to 
London,  1867,  and  .retained  the  embassy  until  1885. 
He  died  February  11,  1891. 

MUTSU  HITO,  Mikado  or  Emperor  of  Japan,  born 
In  1852,  ascended  the  throne  in  1867.  His  reign  has 
been  marked  by  the  abolition  of  the  feudal  system,  the 
introduction  of  Western  arts  and  ideas  and  a material 
progress,  the  extent  of  which  was  abundantly  shown  by 
the  prowess  and  unbroken  victories  of  the  Japanese 
army  and  navy  in  the  war  which  he  waged  with  China, 
in  1894  and  1895. 


-NAP 

MYER,  Albert  James,  born  in  Newburg,  N.  Y., 
September  20,  1827;  died  August  24,  1880.  He 
graduated  at  Hobart  and  at  Buffalo,  and  in  1854  entered 
the  United  States  army  as  a surgeon.  In  i860  he  joined 
the  signal  service  corps,  and  served  under  General 
McClellan  in.all  the  battles  from  Bull  Run  to  Antietam. 
In  1863  he  took  charge  of  the  United  States  signal  de- 
partment, but  his  appointment  was  revoked  in  July, 
1864.  In  July,  1866,  he  was  reappointed  with  rank  as 
colonel,  and  in  June,  1880,  was  promoted  brigadier- 
general  as  a reward  for  the  improvements  which  he  had 
introduced  in  the  signal  service.  Under  his  administra- 
tion the  existing  system  of  “weather  probabilities” 
was  inaugurated  and  perfected. 

MYLNE,  The  Right  Rev.  Louis  George,  D.D., 
bishop  of  Bombay,  son  of  Maj.  Charles  David  Mylne, 
H.E.I.C.S.,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1843,  and  educated  at 
Merchiston  Castle  School,  Edinburgh,  at  the  University 
at  St.  Andrews,  and  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford 
(B.A.  first  class  in  classics,  1866;  M.A.,  1870;  D.D., 
1876).  He  was  curate  of  North  Moreton,  Berkshire, 
from  1866  to  1870,  and  senior  tutor  of  Keble  College 
from  1870  to  1876.  He  was  appointed  bishop  of  Bom- 
bay in  succession  to  the  late  Doctor  Douglas,  and  was 
consecrated  in  St.  Paul’s  Cathedral,  London,  by  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  May  1,  1876. 


N. 


NACHTIGAL,  Gustav,  born  in  Prussian  Saxony 
in  1834;  died  in  1885.  He  studied  at  Berlin  and 
Halle ; served  as  an  army  surgeon,  and  practiced  as  a 
physician  in  Algeria  and  Tunis.  He  made  extensive 
explorations  of  the  Soudan. 

NAGLEE,  Henry  Morris,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
January  15,  1815;  died  in  California,  March  5,  1886. 
He  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1835,  and  assigned 
to  the  infantry,  but  resigned  to  become  a civil  engineer. 
He  served  in  the  Mexican  war  as  a captain  of  volun- 
teers, and,  until  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war,  engaged 
in  banking  in  San  Francisco.  In  February,  1862,  he 
entered  the  volunteer  service  as  brigadier-general,  took 
part  in  the  Peninsular  campaign,  and,  in  1863,  com- 
manded the  seventh  army  corps.  He  was  mustered 
out  April  4,  1864. 

NANSEN,  Frithjof,  a Norwegian  zoologist  and 
scientific  explorer,  born  at  Christiana  in  1861.  He  is 
curator  of  the  zoological  department  of  the  Bergen  Mu- 
seum and  is  known  as  the  leader  of  a scientific  expedi- 
tion across  Greenland  in  1889,  and  as  the  originator  of 
a plan  for  the  discovery  of  the  North  Pole  by 
drifting.  He  led  an  expedition  to  the  North  Pole  in 
1893. 

NAPIER  and  ETTRICK,  Lord  (Francis  Napier, 
K.T.J,  eldest  son  of  the  eighth  baron,  born  September 
15,  1819,  succeeded  his  father  October  11,  1834.  He 
was  made  attache  to  the  embassy  at  Vienna  in  1840, 
and  held  diplomatic  posts  at  Teheran  and  Constanti- 
nople, to  which  place  he  returned  as  secretary  of  em- 
bassy in  1854,  after  having  been  secretary  of  legation  at 
Naples  and  St.  Petersburg.  In  1857  he  was  appointed 
British  minister  at  Washington,  whence  he  was  removed, 
December  13,  1858,  to  the  Hague  ; going  December  1 1, 
i860,  to  St.  Petersburg;  and  September  15,  1864,  to 
Berlin.  He  was  governor  of  Madras  from  January  31, 
1866,  till  January,  1872,  and  was  then  acting  viceroy  of 
India  pro  tempore,  after  the  assassination  of  Lord 
Mayo.  Having  returned  to  England  he  acted  as 
president  of  the  Social  Science  Association  at  the  meet- 
ing held  at  Plymouth  in  the  autumn  of  1872.  He  was 


chairman  of  the  crofter  commission,  and  is  believed  to 
have  written  the  celebrated  report,  which  caused  so 
much  indignation  in  the  minds  of  the  duke  of  Argyll 
and  other  Highland  landlords.  Died  Dec.  19;  1898. 

NAPIER  OF  MAGDALA,  Lord  (Robert  Cor- 
nelius Napier,  G.C.B.,  G.C.S.I.),  son  of  Maj.  C.  F. 
Napier,  Royal  Artillery,  was  born  in  Ceylon  in  1810. 
He  received  his  education  at  the  military  college,  Ad- 
discombe,  entered  the  corps  of  Bengal  engineers  in 
1828,  and  served  with  distinction  in  the  Sutlej  cam- 
paign, at  the  conclusion  of  which,  having  attained  the 
rank  of  major,  he  was  selected  by  the  late  Sir  Henry 
Lawrence  for  the  post  of  engineer  fo  the  Durbar  of 
Lahore.  He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  colonel,  and 
named  Chief  Engineer  under  the  new  Punjaub  adminis- 
tration. During  the  mutiny  of  1857  he  served  in 
the  capacity  of  chief  engineer  with  the  army  of  Sir 
Colin  Campbell,  and  the  part  he  played  in  the  sup- 
pression of  the  rebellion  greatly  enhanced  his  previous 
high  reputation.  His  services  in  China  as  second  in 
command  under  Sir  Hope  Grant  are  well  known,  and 
he  was  rewarded  by  being  made  major-general,  a 
K.C.B.,  and  successor  to  the  late  Sir  J.  Outran,  as 
a military  member  of  the  Council  of  India.  This 
post  he  resigned  in  January,  1865,  when  he  was 
nominated  to  succeed  Sir  W.  Mansfield  as  commander- 
in-chief  at  Bombay,  with  the  local  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general;  and  in  1867  he  received  the  appointment 
to  command  the  expedition  intended  to  rescue  the 
Abyssinian  captives,  and  was  made  a knight  grand 
commander  of  the  Star  of  India.  He  achieved  a bril- 
liant success.  King  Theodore  was  thoroughly  defeated 
in  an  engagement  on  the  heights  of  Islamgie,  April  10, 
1868,  and  soon  afterward  released  his  prisoners.  The 
English  commander  followed  up  this  victory  by  the 
storming  of  Magdala  on  the  13th,  when  Theodore,  in 
despair,  committed  suicide.  On  Sir  Robert  Napier’s 
return  to  England,  in  July,  he  received  the  thanks  of 
parliament ; the  sum  of  $10,000  per  annum  was  settled 
on  him  and  his  next  heir,  in  consideration  of  his  serv- 
ices ; he  was  elevated  to  the  peerage  by  the  title  of  Baron 


NAP  — N A R 


Napier  of  Magdala  (July  14th);  was  presented  with  the 
freedom  of  the  city  of  London,  and  a sword  of  the 
value  of  200  guineas  (July  21st);  and  received  other 
marks  of  honor.  He  was  elected  a fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  December  16,  1869.  In  January,  1870,  he 
was  appointed  to  succeed  Sir  Wm,  Mansfield  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  forces  in  India,  with  the  local 
rank  of  general.  He  was  appointed  governor  of  Gi- 
braltar in  June,  1876.  In  February,  1878,  he  was  se- 
lected by  the  government  to  be  the  commander-in- 
chief of  the  English  expeditionary  force  in  the  event  of 
that  country  declaring  war  against  Russia — a contin- 
gency which  was  averted  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin.  In 
1886  he  was  appointed  constable  of  the  Tower  of  Lon- 
don. He  died  in  May,  1890,  and  was  buried  with 
great  pomp  in  St.  Paul’s  Cathedral. 

NAPOLEON,  Prince  Napoleon  Joseph  Charles 
Paul  Bonaparte,  cousin  to  the  late  emperor  Napoleon 
III.,  and  second  son  of  Jerome  Bonaparte,  by  his  sec- 
ond marriage  with  the  Princess  Frederika  of  Wtirtem- 
burg,  was  born  at  Trieste,  September  9,  1822.  His 
youth  was  passed  at  Vienna  and  Trieste,  Florence  and 
Rome,  occasionally  in  Switzerland,  England,  and  Spain. 
In  1845  he  obtained  permission  to  visit  Paris  under  the 
name  of  the  Comte  de  Montfort,  but  was  soon  after- 
ward compelled  to  leave  on  account  of  his  intrigues 
with  the  extreme  Democrats.  After  the  revolution  of 
February,  1848,  Prince  Napoleon  returned,  and  the 
Corsicans  elected  him  a member  of  the  constituent  as- 
sembly, in  which  he  became  leader  of  the  extreme  Re- 
publican party  known  as  the  Mountain.  His  views, 
however,  underwent  a change,  and  in  1849  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  plenipotentiary  at  Madrid,  but  was 
shortly  recalled  for  having  quitted  his  post  without  au- 
thority. He  was  made  a French  prince,  with  a seat  in 
the  Senate  and  Council  of  State,  December  23,  1853, 
and  at  the  same  time  received  the  grand  cross  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  and  the  rank  of  general  of  division. 
In  1854  he  was  appointed  to  a command  in  the  expedi- 
tion to  the  Crimea,  and  commanded  an  infantry  division 
of  reserve  at  the  battles  of  Alma  and  Inkermann.  On 
account  of  his  sudden  retirement  from  this  post,  ill 
health  being  the  excuse,  the  sobriquet  of  Plon-plon  was 
given  him  by  his  countrymen.  In  1855  he  was  named 
president  jf  the  imperial  commission  of  the  Universal 
Exhibition.  In  June,  1858,  he  was  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  new  ministry  for  Algiers  and  the  colonies,  but 
speedily  resigned  his  appointment.  He  married  the 
Princess  Clotilde,  daughter  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  late 
king  of  Italy,  January  30,  1859,  by  whom  he  had  two 
sons,  Napoleon  Victor  Jerome  Frederick,  born  July  18, 
1862,  and  Napoleon  Louis  Joseph  Jerome,  born  July 
16,  1864,  and  one  daughter,  Maria  Letitia  Eugenia 
Catherine  Adelaide,  born  December  20,  1866.  In 
the  Italian  campaign  of  1859  he  commanded  the 
French  army  of  reserve  in  the  north  of  Italy, 
but  was  not  engaged  in  any  of  the  great  bat- 
tles. In  the  Senate  in  1861  he  made  an  attack  upon 
the  Orleans  family,  which  was  answered  with  spirit 
by  the  Due  d’Aumale.  Prince  Napoleon,  to  the  disgust 
of  a great  portion  of  the  French  army,  declined  to  ac- 
cept the  challenge  sent  him  by  the  duke  on  that  occasion. 
He  was  president  of  the  French  commission  to  repre- 
sent France  in  the  Great  Exhibition  at  Kensington  in 
1862.  In  1865  Prince  Napoleon  was  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  commissioners  for  the  Universal  Exhibition 
at  Paris  in  1867,  but  resigned  the  post  in  consequence 
of  a reprimand  which  he  received  from  the  emperor  for 
a speech  delivered  in  Corsica  at  the  unveiling  of  a 
statue  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  I.,  May  27,  1865. 
On  war  being  declared  with  Prussia,  in  July,  1870, 
Prince  Napoleon  asked  his  cousin  to  appoint  him  to 


6705 

a military  command.  The  emperor,  however,  declined 
to  do  so.  After  the  fall  of  the  empire  he  spent  some 
months  in  Brussels  and  in  other  continental  cities,  but 
ultimately  he  fixed  his  residence  in  England.  After 
May  24,  1873,  he  obtained  permission  to  return  to 
France.  After  the  death  of  the  emperor,  Prince 
Napoleon  claimed  to  be  the  chief  representative  of 
his  family,  and  endeavored,  though  without  success, 
to  organize  a party  of  his  own  in  opposition  to  the 
adherents  of  the  Empress  Eugenie  and  the  Prince 
Imperial.  At  the  general  election  of  February  20, 
1876,  Prince  Napoleon  cam,e  forward  as  a candidate 
in  the  arrondissement  of  Ajaccio,  against  M.  Rouher. 
Prince  Napoleon  was  defeated  on  the  second  ballot,  but 
the  chamber  invalidated  the  election  of  his  adversary,  and 
on  May  14th  the  prince  was  elected.  He  took  his  seat 
on  the  benches  of  the  Left,  though  he  did  not  identify 
himself  with  any  particular  group.  On  December  24, 
1876,  he  delivered  a speech  in  which  he  made  a violent 
attack  on  the  clerical  party.  At  the  election  of  Oc- 
tober 14th  he  was  defeated  in  the  arrondissement  of 
Ajaccio  by  Baron  Haussmann.  On  January  16,  1883, 
a manifesto  by  the  prince  appeared  in  the  Figaro , and 
was  extensively  placarded  on  the  walls  of  Paris. 
In  this  document,  which  was  an  indictment  against  the 
republic,  he  posed  as  champion  of  the  church,  and 
advised  the  nation  to  have  recourse  to  a plebiscite. 
A meeting  of  the  cabinet  was  immediately  convened, 
and  the  prince  was  arrested  and  imprisoned.  The 
Chambre  des  Mises  en  Accusation  unanimously  decided, 
however,  that  the  prince  had  in  reality  committed  no 
offense,  and  accordingly,  after  a month’s  detention, 
he  was  set  at  liberty.  He  was  included  in  the  expulsion 
law  of  1886.  He  died  March  16,  1891. 

NAPPER  TANDY,  James,  born  near  Dublin  in 
1747;  became  prominent  in  the  rebellion  of  1798,  when 
he  invaded  Ireland  with  a body  of  French  troops.  He 
was  captured  and  sentenced  to  death,  but  was  released 
after  two  years,  and  died  in  1803. 

NARBONNE,  Peter  Remi,  born  in  Canada  in 
1806;  hanged  at  Montreal,  January,  26, 1839.  He  took 
an  active  part  in  the  Canadian  rebellion  of  1837,  was  de- 
feated and  imprisoned,  and  upon  his  release  again  joined 
the  insurgents  (1838).  He  was  tried  at  Montreal  for 
high  treason,  convicted,  and  executed. 

NARES,  Sir  George  Strong,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S., 
was  born  in  1831,  and  educated  at  the  Royal  Naval  Col- 
lege, New  Cross,  England.  He  saw  some  service  in 
H.M.S.  Canopus,  forming  part  of  the  channel  squadron, 
and  afterward  in  H.M.S.  Havannah , on  the  Australian 
station.  He  was  a mate  on  board  the  Resolute  in  the 
Arctic  expedition  of  1852-54.  In  the  spring  of  1853 
he  was  auxiliary  to  Lieutenant  Mecham,  and  traveled 
over  665  miles  in  69  days.  In  1854  he  started  in  the 
intense  cold  of  March  and  went  over  586  miles  in  56 
days.  On  the  return  of  this  Arctic  expedition  he  served 
in  H.M.S.  Glatton  during  the  last  year  of  the-Crimean 
war  ; afterward  in  H.M.S.  Conqueror  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean station.  In  1854  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  commander,  being  attached  also  to  the  training-ship 
Boscawen.  In  1866-67  he  was  employed  at  the  anti- 
podes in  command  of  the  Salamander  in  surveying  the 
eastern  and  northeastern  coasts  of  Australia  and  Torres 
Straits.  In  1869  he  was  sent  in  H.M.S.  Shearwater  to 
survey  and  report  upon  the  Gulf  of  Suez.  From  1872 
down  to  the  end  of  1874  Captain  Nares  was  in  com- 
mand  of  H.M.S  Challenger,  employed  in  making  ex- 
tensive soundings  on  the  coast  of  China,  in  the  Eastern 
and  South  Pacific  Oceans,  and  in  other  parts  of  tho 
world.  He  was  then  ordered  home  and  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  Arctic  expedition.  The  two  ships 
composing  the  expedition,  H.M.S.  Alert  and  H M.^. 


NAS 


6706 

Discovery , commanded  respectively  by  Captains  Nares 
and  Stephenson,  left  England  in  May,  1875,  with  the 
hope  of  reaching  the  north  pole.  The  expedition 
reached  the  mouth  of  Lady  Franklin  Bay  on  August 
27th.  Here  Captain  Nares  left  the  Discovery  to  take  up 
her  quarters  for  the  winter,  while  the  Alert  continued 
her  course  along  the  western  shore  of  Robeson  Channel. 
This  course  she  held  until,  on  September  1st,  the  Alert 
herself  attained  the  highest  latitude.  Lieutenant  Raw- 
son,  of  the  Discovery , with  his  sledge-crew  of  eight  men, 
had  accompanied  the  advance  ship  with  the  object  of 
returning  to  the  Discovery  during  the  autumn  with  news 
of  the  Alert’s  progress.  This  journey,  however,  he  was 
never  able  to  accomplish.  The  Discovery  therefore 
knew  nothing  of  her  consort’s  position  until  the  ensu- 
ing spring.  On  October  12th  the  sun  finally  disap- 
peared, leaving  the  Alert  in  total  or  partial  darkness  for 
142  days,  and  the  Discovery  for  almost  the  same  pe- 
riod. After  the  return  of  daylight,  sledge  expeditions 
were  arranged.  A party,  numbering  in  the  aggregate 
fifty-three  persons,  led  by  Commander  Markham  and 
lieutenant  Parr,  made  a gallant  attempt  to  reach  the 
p*.«le.  They  were  absent  seventy-two  days  from  the 
ship,  and  on  May  12th  succeeded  in  planting  the  British 
flag  in  latitude  83°  10'  26''  N.  From  this  position 
there  was  no  appearance  of  land  to  the  northward,  but, 
curiously  enough,  the  depth  of  water  was  found  to  be 
only  seventy-two  fathoms.  The  men  suffered  intensely 
from  the  extreme  cold,  many  were  attacked  by  scurvy, 
and  it  was  with  great  difficulty  that  the  sledging  party 
made  their  way  back  to  the  ship.  Captain  Nares  now 
resolved  to  return  home,  as,  with  the  whole  resources 
of  the  expedition,  he  could  not  hope  to  advance  more 
than  about  fifty  miles  beyond  the  positions  already  at- 
tained. The  expedition  arrived  at  Valentia,  October 
27,  1876.  In  reward  for  his  services  Captain  Nares 
was  appointed  a K.C.  B.  (December  ist).  Hewasafter- 
ward  again  placed  in  command  of  the  Alert , which 
sailed  from  Portsmouth,  September  24,  1878,  for  a two- 
years’  survey  of  the  South  Pacific.  He  has  written  in- 
teresting accounts  of  his  voyages  in  polar  seas. 

NASMYTH,  James,  engineer,  born  at  Edinburgh, 
August  19,  1808;  son  of  Alexander  Nasmyth,  a well- 
known  landscape  painter.  He  was  the  youngest  of  a 
family  of  eleven,  the  eldest  being  Patrick,  also  a well- 
known  artist.  James  gave  very  early  evidence  of  a de- 
cided taste  for  mechanical  pursuits.  In  1829  he  went  to 
London  to  offer  his  services  to  Henry  Maudslay,  the 
founder  of  the  celebrated  engineer  firm  in  London. 
The  evidences  of  his  efficiency  as  a workman  were  so 
satisfactory  to  Mr.  Maudslay  that  he  appointed  him  his 
assistant  in  his  private  workshop.  Here  he  remained 
till  Mr.  Maudslay’s  death  in  1831,  after  which  he  re- 
turned to  Edinburgh  for  the  purpose  of  constructing  a 
set  of  engineering  tools,  wherewith  he  started  business 
in  Manchester  in  1834.  This  site  was  soon  covered  by 
an  extensive  series  of  workshops,  named  the  Bridge- 
water  Foundry,  Here  many  mechanical  tools  were 
invented  and  manufactured  which  are  now  doing  good 
service  in  the  workshops  of  the  world.  Conspicuous 
among  them  is  the  steam  hammer,  which,  since  its 
invention  in  1839,  has  had  no  small  influence  in  advanc- 
ing the  progress  of  the.  mechanical  arts.  The  applica- 
tion of  his  steam  hammer  as  a means  for  driving  piles 
for  the  foundation  of  bridges  and  great  dock  works  was 
one  of  his  most  successful  inventions,  and  was  hailed  as 
a most  valuable  agent  in  carrying  out  such  great  works 
as  the  High  Level  bridge  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  the 
Borders  bridge  at  Berwick-upon-Tweed,  the  great  coffer 
dam  required  for  the  construction  of  great  docks  at 
Keyham,  near  Devonport,  and  many  other  such  works 
U home  and  abroad.  Among  other  inventions  of  his 


which  have  been  extensively  adopted  owing  to  their  high 
practical  utility  may  be  named  his  safety  foundry  ladle 
double-faced  wedge  sluice  valve,  a suction  fan  for  effect- 
ing the  perfect  ventilation  of  mines;  a reversible  rolling 
mill  in  which  all  need  of  a fly-wheel  is  dispensed  with, 
and  by  which  simple  arrangement  enormous  plates  and 
bars  of  iron  and  steel  can  be  rolled  with  vast  saving  of 
labor ; a form  of  steam  engine  derived  from  that  of  his 
steam  hammer,  and  now  almost  universally  adopted  for 
screw  steamships  ; and  a spherical  safety  valve.  He 
died  May  7,  1890. 

NASON,  Elias,  born  in  Massachusetts,  April  21, 
1811;  died  June  11,  1887-  He  graduated  at  Brown 
University  in  1835,  and  removed  to  Georgia,  where  he 
edited  a newspaper.  He  afterward  became  a Congre- 
gational minister  in  his  native  State.  He  was  a volu- 
minous author,  and  a member  of  several  scientific 
societies. 

NASON,  Henry  Bradford,  born  in  Massachusetts, 
June  22,  1831;  graduated  at  Amherst  in  1855,  and  studied 
chemistry  at  Gottingen.  He  became  professor  of  natural 
history  at  the  Rensselaer  Institute,  Troy,  N.  Y. , in  1858, 
and  professor  of  chemistry  and  natural  sciences  in  Belor; 
College,  Wis.,  1858-66.  In  the  last  named  year  he 
accepted  a similar  chair  at  the  Polytechnic  Institute. 
He  is  M.D.  of  Union,  and  LL.D.  of  Beloit. 

NASR-ED-DEEN,  Shah  of  Persia,  son  of  the  late 
Mehemet  Shah,  by  Queen  Velliat,  of  the  Kadjar  tribe, 
and  grandson  of  Abbaz  Mirza,  born  in  1829,  was  called 
to  the  throne  in  1848.  The  shah  is  well  versed  in  Per- 
sian and  Turkish,  is  acquainted  with  history,  and  has 
traveled  in  Europe.  At  the  beginning  of  the  war  be- 
tween Russia  and  Turkey,  in  1853,  he  declared  his 
neutrality,  but  shortly  before  its  close  entered  into  a 
treaty  with  Russia.  In  the  following  year,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  occupation  of  Herat  by  Persian  troops, 
the  government  of  India  declared  war  against  him 
(November  1,  1856).  After  a few  months  of  hostilities, 
during  which  General  Outram  captured  Kurrach,  Bu- 
shire,  and  other  places,  a treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at 
Paris  by  Lord  Cowley  and  the  Persian  ambassador,  in 
which  ample  satisfaction  was  given  to  England.  Subse- 
quently the  shah  had  wars  with  several  neighboring 
states,  and  was  successful  in  an  expedition  against 
the  Turcomans.  In  1866  a treaty  for  establishing 
telegraphic  communication  between  Europe  and  India 
through  Persia  was  signed  at  Teheran.  The  shah’s 
visit  to  Europe  in  1873  is  a strong  argument  as 
to  the  moderation  and  popularity  of  his  rule,  for 
although  he  was  absent  from  his  kingdom  from 
May  12th  till  September  6th,  not  one  breath  of 
sedition  disturbed  the  political  calm  that  reigned 
there.  During  this  journey  the  shah  kept  a diary, 
which,  on  his  return,  was  published  in  the  original 
Persian.  A verbatim  English  translation,  by  Mr.  J. 
W.  Redhouse,  appeared  in  London  in  1874.  The  shah 
has  since  paid  a visit  to  Russia,  entering  the  capital  of 
that  country  in  state,  May  23,  1878,  and  in  1889 
revisited  England.  Assassinated  May  1,  1896. 

NASSAU,  Adolph  William  Charles  Augustus 
Frederick,  Duke  of,  born  July  24,  1817,  assumed 
the  sovereignty  August  20,  1839.  The  duke  married  in 
1844  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  the  Grand  Duke 
Michael  of  Russia,  who  died  January  28,  1845;  and 
took,  as  a second  wife,  April  23,  1851,  Adelaide  Mare, 
daughter  of  Prince  Frederick,  of  Anhalt-Dessau,  by 
whom  he  has  .two  children.  A constitutional  govern- 
ment had  existed  for  many  years  before  his  accession  to 
the  throne,  the  nation  being  represented  not  in  chambers 
elected  by  popular  suffrage,  but  by  the  states  of  the 
dukedom.  In  1848  a new  constitution,  upon  a more 
liberal  basis,  was  proclaimed;  the  duke  declared  hjg 


NA'S- 

intention  of  governing  in  a constitutional  manner,  and 
for  a time  the  experiment  promised  to  succeed.  • The 
duke  was  one  of  the  sovereigns  who  joined  the  union  of 
German  states  under  the  presidency  of  the  king  of 
Prussia,  formed  after  the  failure  of  the  Frankfort  con- 
stitution. This  union  was  soon  dissolved,  and  the  duke 
joined  the  Austrian  party  in  1850,  and  voted  with  it  in 
the  diet.  The  constitution  was  annulled  in  November, 
1851.  This  state  was  joined  to  Prussia  uy  decree, 
September  20,  1866,  and  the  Prussians  took  possession 
October  8th. 

NAST,  Thomas,  was  born  at  Landau,  in  Bavaria, 
September  27,  1840.  In  1846  his  parents  emigrated  to 
America,  and  when  very  young  he  found  employment 
in  the  office  of  Frank  Leslie’s  Illustrated  Newspaper. 
With  only  six  months’  art-instruction  under  Theodore 
Kaufmann,  he  began  to  furnish  acceptable  sketches  and 
Irawings  for  the  engravers.  In  1860-61  he  was  in  Eu- 
rope, employed  as  a traveling  artist  for  British  and 
American  illustrated  periodicals.  Returning  to  Ameri- 
ca, he  formed  a connection  with  Harper's  Weekly. 
During  1873  he  lectured  in  a number  of  cities  in  the 
United  States,  illustrating  his  lectures  by  caricatures, 
drawn  On  the  platform.  In  1885  he  again  delivered 
iome  lectures,  illustrating  them  in  oil  on  canvas  in  the 
presence  of  the  audience.  He  has  illustrated,  among 
other  books,  Dickens’  Pickwick  Papers , and  Pictures 
from  Italy , Nasby’s  Szvinging  Round  the  Cerkle , etc. 
As  a political  caricaturist,  or  rather  satirist,  he  enjoyed 
much  notoriety,  and  his  productions  were  of  great 
service  to  the  Republican  party. 

NEAL,  David  D.,  artist,  born  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  Oc- 
tober 20,  1837;  studied  at  Munich,  and  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy,  London.  One  of  his  principal  works 
is  The  Meeting  of  Mary  Stuart  arid  David  Rizzio,  ex- 
hibited in  1876. 

NEAL,  John,  born  in  Falmouth,  Mass.,  August  25, 
1793;  died  in  Portland,  Me.,  June 21,  1876.  Hestudied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Maryland  bar  in  1819.  In 
1823  he  sailed  for  England,  where  he  wrote  for  the 
leading  British  magazines.  After  remaining  there  for 
four  years  he  returned  to  Portland  and  opened  a law 
office.  At  that  time  he  wrote  a portion  of  Paul  Allen’s 
History  of  the  American  Revolution. 

NEELY,  Henry  Adams,  born  in  Fayetteville, 
N.  Y.,  May  14, 1830;  studied  at  Hobart,  where  he  became 
a tutor,  and  was  ordained  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
church  in  1852.  In  1867  he  became  bishop  of  Maine. 

NEILL,  Thomas  Hewson,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
April  9,  1826;  died  there  March  12,  1885.  He  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1847,  and  served  on  the  frontier 
in  an  infantry  regiment.  In  February,  1862,  he  was 
made  colonel  of  Pennsylvania  volunteers;  served  in  the 
Peninsula,  and  was  brevetted  major  United  States  army 
for  gallantry  at  Malvern  Hill.  He  also  took  part  in 
the  battles  of  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg;  served 
as  acting  inspector-general  under  Sheridan,  and  was 
brevetted  brigadier-general  United  States  army,  and 
major-general  of  volunteers.  After  the  war  he  com- 
manded the  1st  United  States  infantry,  and  in  1874- 
75  the  6th  cavalry.  He  was  commandant  of  cadets 
at  West  Point  1875-79;  served  as  colonel  of  the  8th 
cavalry,  and  was  retired  in  April,  1883. 

NEILSON,  Lillian  Adelaide,  born  in  Spain, 
March  3,  1850;  died  in  Paris,  August  15,  1880.  She 
was  of  English  parentage,  and  made  her  first  appear- 
ance on  the  English  stage  in  1865.  Seven  years  later 
she  came  to  this  country,  playing  “Juliet,”  “Rosalind” 
and  other  Shakespearean  creations  with  great  success. 
She  married  a Mr.  Lee  in  1872,  but  obtained  a divorce 
from  him  a few  years  later. 

NELATON,  Auguste,  born  in  Paris  in  1807;  be- 


-NEM  6707 

came  professor  of  surgery  to  the  Faculty  of  Medicine 
in  Paris,  in  1851.  In  1867  he  became  a member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  was  the  professional 
adviser  of  Napoleon  III.,  and  won  fame  by  a skillful 
operation  on  General  Garibaldi.  He  died  in  1873. 

NELSON,  Thomas,  born  in  Yorktown,  Va.,  Decem- 
ber 26,  1738;  died  in  Hanover  county,  Va. , January  4, 
1789.  He  was  sent  to  Eton  College  at  fourteen  years 
of  age,  and  later  went  to  Cambridge  University,  Eng- 
land, where  he  was  graduated.  In  1761  he  returned  to 
the  United  States;  a year  later  married,  and  inherited  a 
large  estate.  On  July  4,  1776,  he  signed  the  declara 
tion  of  independence.  In  August,  1 777,  on  the  approach 
of  the  British  fleet,  he  became  commander-in-chief  of  the 
State  forces.  He  was  twice  chosen  a membet  of  the 
Continental  Congress,  and  on  his  personal  security 
raised  large  sums  of  money  for  the  continental  treas- 
ury. These  debts  he  was  obliged  to  redeem,  for  which 
he  received  no  compensation  from  the  United  States 
Government.  He  also  advanced  money  to  pay  two 
Virginia  regiments  that  had  been  ordered  to  the  South, 
but  had  refused  to  march  until  their  arrears  were  dis- 
charged. In  1781  he  became  governor  of  Virginia,  and 
at  the  siege  of  Yorktown  commanded  the  Virginia 
militia. 

NELSON,  William,  born  in  Maysville,  Ky.,  in 
1825,  entered  the  United  States  navy  in  1840,  and  rose  to 
be  lieutenant  and  master.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
war  he  had  charge  of  the  gunboats,  on  the  Ohio  river, 
and  in  September,  1861,  became  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers.  He  commanded  a division  of  Buell’s  army, 
and  in  July,  1862,  was  appointed  major-general  of  volun- 
teers. He  was  shot  by  General  Jefferson  C.  Davis  in 
a Louisville  hotel,  and  died  September  29,  1862. 

NEMOURS,  Louis  Charles  Philippe  Raphael 
d’Orleans,  Due  de,  one  of  the  Orleans  princes,  is 
the  second  son  of  King  Louis  Philippe,  and  was  born 
at  Paris,  October  25,  1814.  He  received  his  education 
at  the  College  Henri  IV.,  and  was  still  a child  when 
Charles  X.,  in  accordance  with  ancient  custom,  ap- 
pointed him  colonel  of  the  first  regiment  of  Chasseurs 
de  Cheval,  at  the  head  of  which  he  made  his  entry  into 
Paris,  August  3, 1830.  In  February,  1831,  he  was  elected 
king  of  the  Belgians,  but  his  father  declined,  on  his  be- 
half, this  offer  of  the  national  congress,  as  he  did  also 
at  a later  period  a similar  offer  of  the  throne  of  Greece. 
Subsequently  the  due  de  Nemours  served  with  distinc- 
tion in  the  two  Belgian  campaigns  and  in  Algeria,  being 
in  1837  promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general. 
Premature  decease  of  his  elder  brother,  the  due  d’Or- 
leans (July  13,  1842),  placed  the  due  de  Nemours  in  a 
position  of  great  importance.  Contrary  to  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  old  monarchy,  which  were  in  favor  of  fhe 
mother  of  the  heir  presumptive  being  declared  regent, 
a bill  was  introduced,  conferring  the  regency  on  the  due 
de  Nemours,  and  carried  in  the  chamber  of  deputies  by 
a majority  of  216  votes,  and  afterward  hi  the  peers  by 
163  to  14  votes.  Public  opinion,  however,  did  not  ap- 
pear to  ratify  this  law,  which  the  general  apprehension 
of  danger  caused  to  be  abandoned  in  1848.  After  the 
revolution  of  February  the  due  de  Nemours  quitted 
France,  and  joined  the  other  members  of  the  exiled 
family  of  Claremont;  and  he  did  not  return  to  his  native 
country  until  after  the  downfall  of  the  empire  in  1870. 
He  married  April  27,  i84o,Victoire-Auguste-Antoinette, 
Duchess  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  (born  February  14, 
1822;  died  November  10,  1857),  by  whom  he  had 
two  sons,  Prince  Louis  Philippe  Marie  Ferdinand  Gas- 
ton d’Orteans,  comte  d’Eu  (<f.V.);  and  Prince  Ferdinand 
Philippe  Marie  d’Orldans,  due  d’Alengon,  born  July  12, 

11844;  and  two  daughters,  the  eldest  of  whom,  the  Prin- 
cess Marguerite  Adelaide  Marie  d’Qrteans,,  born  Feb» 


6708  NET- 

ruarv  16,  1846,  was  married  at  Chantilly  to  Prince  Lad- 
islas  Czartoryski,  January  15,  1872.  He  was  exiled 
with  the  other  dynastic  pretenders,  and  resides  in  Eng- 
land. He  died  June  25,  1896. 

NETTLESHIP,  Henry,  born  at  Kettering,  in 
Northamptonshire,  England,  May  5,  1839,  and  edu- 
cated at  Charterhouse,  gained  scholarship  at  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Oxford,  and  became  corpus  professor 
of  Latin  literature  in  the  University  of  Oxford  in  1878. 
Professor  Nettleship  published  and  edited  a large  number 
of  works  on  classical  subjects.  He  died  July  10,  1893. 

NEUVILLE,  Alphonse  Marie  de,  the  most  pop- 
ular of  the  later  school  of  French  painters  of  battle- 
scenes,  born  at  St.  Omer,  May  31,  1836,  died  in  Paris, 
May  20,  1885.  After  studying  under  Delacroix,  he 
painted  a series  of  successful  pictures  of  French  exploits 
in  the  Crimean  war,  Italy,  and  Mexico.  He  fought  in 
the  ranks  in  the  Franco-German  war  and  painted  a series 
of  graphic  and  powerful  pictures.  He  excelled  also  as 
an  illustrator  of  books. 

NEVILLE,  Henry,  born  at  Manchester,  became  an 
actor  at  an  early  age,  and  worked  in  the  provinces  be- 
fore going  to  London,  where  he  appeared  as  “ Percy 
Ardent”  in  Boucicault’s  Irish  Heiress  at  the  Lyceum 
theater  in  October,  i860,  and  made  a great  success  in 
H.  Leslie’s  Adrienne.  He  played  for  a short  season 
at  the  Operetta  house  in  Edinburgh  before  appearing 
at  the  Olympic;  and  achieved  a still  greater  success 
as  “ Brierly”  in  The  Ticket  of  Leave  Man , which  was 
produced  in  May,  1863,  and  played  for  over  400  nights 
without  intermission.  After  his  engagement  at  the 
Olympic,  Mr.  Neville  went  to  the  Adelphi,  where  he 
once  more  made  a decided  hit  in  Watts  Phillips’  Lost 
in  London , Mr.  Charles  Reade’r  Dora , and  Put  Your- 
self in  His  Place.  He  also  appeared  with  Mr.  Fletcher 
in  the  memorable  production  of  No  Thorough- 
fare. Subsequently  he  went  back  to  the  Olympic  The- 
ater, not  alone  as  actor,  but  also  as  lessee  and  man- 
ager. Mr.  Neville  also  published  a work  entitled  The 
Stage , Its  Past  and  Present  in  Relation  to  Fine  Art, 
and  contributed  several  stories  to  London  serials. 

NEVIN,  John  Williamson,  D.D.,  was  born  in 
Franklin  county,  Penn.,  in  1803,  and  died  June  6,  1886. 
He  was  president  of  the  Theological  Seminary  at 
Mercersburg  and  later  of  Franklin  and  Marshall  Col- 
lege. Doctor  Nevin  published  a number  of  theological 
works. 

NEVIN,  Robert  j.,  D.D.,  son  of  tne  foregoing, 
was  born  at  Allegheny,  Penn.,  November  24,  1839,  and 
graduated  at  Franklin  and  Marshall  College.  He 
served  in  the  Federal  army  in  1862-65,  and  was 
ordained  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  1867. 
He  has  been  for  many  years  rector  of  St.  Paul’s  church 
in  Rome,  Italy. 

NEW,  John  Chalfant,  born  in  Vernon,  Ind., 
July  6,  1831;  served  during  the  Civil  war  and  as 
quartermaster- general  of  Indiana,  and  was  elected  to 
the  State  Senate.  He  became  president  of  the  first 
national  bank  of  Indianapolis,  was  made  United  States 
treasurer,  1875-76*  and  assistant  secretary  of  the 
treasury,  1882-84.  In  1878  he  became  proprietor  of 
the  Indianapolis  Journal,  and  in  1889  United  States 
consul-general  at  London. 

NEWBERRY,  John  Strong,  geologist,  was  born 
in  Windsor,  Conn.,  December  22,  1822.  In  1846  he 
was  graduated  at  the  Western  Reserve  College,  Ohio, 
and  in  1848  at  the  Cleveland  Medical  College.  From 
1851  to  1855  he  was  settled  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  as  a phy- 
sician. Thereafter  he  became  assistant  surgeon  and 
geologist  of  the  United  States  survey  of  northern  Cali- 
fornia.and  Oregon.  In  1857  he  joined  Lieut.  Joseph 
C.  Ives  in  exploring  the  Colorado  river  for  500  miles 


NEW 

from  its  mouth,  and  in  1859,  under  Capt.  J.  N.  Ma- 
comb, completed  the  exploration  of  this  river  and  its 
branches.  During  the  Civil  War  Doctor  Newberry  was 
connected  with  the  United  States  sanitary  commission, 
and  directed  its  operations  in  the  Mississippi  valley.  In 
1866  he  was  made  professor  of  geology  and  mines  in 
Columbia  College,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1869  State  geologist 
of  Ohio.  He  also  assisted  in  the  New  Jersey  zoologi- 
cal survey.  He  was  connected  with  the  principal  sci- 
entific societies  of  this  country  and  of  Europe.  In  1867 
he  received  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  from  Western  Re- 
serve College.  He  contributed  many  papers  on  natural 
history  to  scientific  publications.  His  more  important 
publications  are  found  among  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment reports,  and  the  State  reports  of  New  Jersey 
and  Ohio.  He  died  December  7,  1892. 

NEWBERRY,  Walter  Loomis,  born  in  East 
Windsor,  Conn.,  September  18,  1804;  died  November 
6,  1868.  In  1833  he  came  to  Chicago,  where  he  was 
very  successful  as  a merchant  and  banker.  By  his  will 
he  left  over  $2,000,000  to  found  a library  in  Chicago, 
to  be  known  by  his  name.  (See  Libraries.) 

NEWCOMB,  Simon,  LL.D  , was  born  at  Wallace, 
Nova  Scotia,  March  12,  1835.  While  a youth  he  came 
to  the  United  States,  and  was  for  several  years  engaged 
as  a teacher.  In  1857  he  was  employed  on  the  com- 
putations of  the  National  Almanac.  In  1858  he  began 
his  original  investigations  in  astronomy,  and  in  1861 
was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  United 
States  navy,  and  was  stationed  at  the  naval  observatory. 
He  negotiated  the  contract  for  the  great  telescope  or- 
dered by  congress,  and  supervised  its  construction. 
He  was  made  secretary  of  the  commission  created  by 
congress  in  1871,  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus  (De- 
cember 9,  1874).  In  1872  he  was  elected  an  associate 
of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  and  in  1874  received 
its  gold  medal  for  his  tables  of  Neptune  and  Uranus. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  chosen  a corresponding  mem- 
ber of  the  Institute  of  France;  and  in  1875  he  received 
the  honorary  degree  of  doctor  of  mathematics  and 
physics  from  the  University  of  Leyden.  He  is  now 
superintendent  of  the  Nautical  Almanac,  and  he  went 
to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  observe  the  transit  of 
Venus  on  December  6,  1882. 

NEWELL,  Robert  Henry,  born  in  New  York 
city,  December  13,  1836;  engaged  in  literary  pursuits 
in  New  York,  and  published  a series  of  papers  under 
the  name  of  “Orpheus  C.  Kerr,”  which  attracted  some 
attention  during  the  Civil  war.  Died  July  I,  1901. 

NEWMAN,  Francis  William,  son  of  John  New- 
man, and  younger  brother  of  Cardinal  Newman,  born 
in  London  in  1805;  was  educated  at  a private  school  at 
Ealing,  and  at  Worcester  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
obtained  a double  first  class  in  classics  and  mathematics 
in  1826.  In  the  same  year  he  was  elected  fellow  of 
Balliol.  He  gave  up  the  idea  of  taking  orders  and 
resigned  his  fellowship  in  1830  from  conscientious 
scruples  on  the  subject  of  infant  baptism.  He  then 
went  to  Bagdad  with  the  object  of  assisting  the  late  Mr. 
Antony  Norris  Greves  in  a Christian  mission,  but  his 
further  studies  convinced  him  that  he  could  not  con- 
scientiously undertake  the  work,  and  in  1833 
returned  to  England  and  became  classical  tutor  in 
Bristol  College,  where  he  occupied  some  of  his 
time  in  compiling  a grammar.  In  1840  he  accepted 
the  post  of  classical  professor  at  Manchester,  and 
in  1846  became  Latin  professor  at  University  Col- 
lege, London,  which  post  he  resigned  in  1S63.  He 
has  published  a number  of  works  on  religious  subjects, 
of  which  the  best  known  are  The  Soul:  its  Sorrows  and 
Aspirations,  1849;  Phases  of  Faith:  Passages  from  my 
own  Creed , 1850;  Theism , Doctrinal  and  Practical , 


NEW 


(858.  Professbr  Newman  has  lorig  siilce  ceased  to  call 
himself  a Christian,  but  defines  his  own  aim  as  “ that  of 
saving  all  that  is  spiritual,  pure,  and  merciful  in  Chris- 
tianity amid  the  wreck  which  erudition  has  made  of  its 
mythology.”  Professor  Newman  has  also  published 
works  on  political  economy  and  history,  mathematics, 
classics,  and  Oriental  languages.  He  has  always  taken 
2 keen  interest  in  politics,  but  adheres  to  no  party. 
He  died  October  4,  1897. 

NEWMAN,  Henry  R.,  born  in  New  York  in  1833; 
became  a painter,  and  exhibited  water  colors  at  the 
New  York  Academy  of  Design,  1861-69.  He  has  since 
resided  in  Florence,  Italy. 

NEWMAN,  John  Henry,  cardinal  deacon  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  elder  brother  of  Francis 
William  Newman,  was  born  in  London  in  1801,  and 
educated  at  Ealing  School,  whence  he  proceeded  to 
Trinity  College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  B.  A.  1820, 
taking  classical  honors,  and  was  elected  fellow  of  Oriel 
College.  In  1825  he  became  vice-principal  of  St.  Al- 
ban’s Hall,  then  under  the  late  Doctor  (afterward  Arch- 
bishop) Whately,  and  in  1826  tutor  of  his  college,  which 
post  he  held  until  1831.  In  1842  he  quitted  Oxford,  and 
established  at  Littlemore  an  ascetic  community  on  a me- 
diaeval model,  over  which  he  presided  for  three  years.  He 
held  the  rectorship  of  St.  Mary’s  from  1828  till  1843, 
where,  by  his  preaching,  he  gained  such  influence  over 
the  younger  members  of  the  university,  that  he  became, 
in  conjunction  with  Doctor  Pusey,  a recognized  leader  of 
the  High  Church  party.  He  took  a leading  part  in  the 
publication  of  the  Tracts  for  the  Times , to  which  he 
contributed  the  final  tract,  No.  90,  which  was  severely 
censured  by  the  university  authorities  as  practically  an- 
nulling the  broad  lines  of  demarcation  between  the 
English  and  Roman  Catholic  churches.  In  October, 
1845,  he  seceded  from  the  Established  Church,  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Roman  communion,  and,  after  being 
ordained  priest,  became  founder  of  the  English  Oratory 
and  head  of  its  Birmingham  house.  In  1854  he  was  ap- 
pointed rector  of  the  newly-founded  Catholic  University 
in  Dublin,  but  resigned  that  post  in  1858,  and  estab- 
lished a school  for  the  sons  of  Roman  Catholic  gentry 
at  Edgbaston,  near  Birmingham.  Doctor  Newman  was 
elected  an  honorary  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Oxford, 
December  28,  1877.  It  has  been  frequently  asserted 
that  Doctor  Newman  did  not  believe  in  the  doctrine  of 
the  infallibility  of  the  Roman  pontiff  when  speaking  ex 
cathedrfi,  to  the  Universal  Church  on  questions  of  faith 
or  morals.  In  reply  to  a criticism  to  this  effect,  Doctor 
Newman  wrote  as  follows  (September  13,  1872):  “ He 

assumes  that  I did  not  hold  or  profess  the  doctrine  of  the 
Pope’s  infallibility  till  the  time  of  the  Vatican  council, 
whereas  I have  committed  myself  to  it  in  print  again 
and  again  from  1845  to  1867.  And  on  the  other  hand, 
as  it  so  happens — though  I held  it,  as  I ever  have  done — 
I have  had  no  occasion  to  profess  it,  whether  in  print 
or  otherwise,  since  that  date.  Any  one  who  knows  my 
writings  will  recollect  that  in  so  saying  I state  a simple 
fact.”  Doctor  Newman  was  created  a cardinal  deacon 
by  Pope  Leo  XIII.  in  1879,  and  died  August  11,  1890. 

NEWMAN,  John  Philip,  born  in  New  York, 
September  1,  1826;  became  a minister  of  the  M.  E. 
Church  in  1849.  He  preached  in  New  York  State,  and 
from  1864  to  1869  at  New  Orleans,  and  from  1869  to 
1874  was  chaplain  of  the  United  States  Senate.  He 
served  three  terms  as  a pastor  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
and  twice  in  New  York  city.  In  1888  he  was  elected 
bishop. 

NEWPORT,  Christopher,  born  in  England  about 
1565.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Jamestown 
colony,  Va. , and  had  previously  acquired  notoriety  in 
expeditions  against  the  Spaniards  in  the  West  Indies. 


5709 

On  April  26,  1607,  he  Passed  Cape  Henry  and  Cape 
Charles,  which  he  named  in  honor  of  the  sons  of  King 
James  of  Great  Britain.  On  April  30th  he  landed,  after 
having  endured  a severe  storm,  and  called  the  place 
Point  Comfort,  and  thirteen  days  later  arrived  at  James- 
town. Returning  to  England  in  the  following  year, 
he  again  set  sail  for  the  colony  with  120  settlers.  The 
majority  of  them  were  goldsmiths  and  gentlemen,  as 
Capt.  John  Smith  remarked,  “sent  hither  by  their 
friends  to  escape  ill  destinies.  ” Captain  Newport  soon 
made  his  way  to  the  Indian  chiefs,  Powhatan  and 
Opecancanough,  to  obtain  information  and  make  ex- 
changes of  commodities.  Some  yellow  mica  having 
been  discovered  near  the  site  of  Richmond,  Newport 
freighted  his  vessels  with  it,  under  the  impression  that 
it  was  gold,  and  took  it  to  England.  At  the  end  of 
the  same  year  he  again  visited  the  colony,  bringing  pro- 
visions and  presents  for  Powhatan.  In  1610  he  made 
another  and  final  voyage,  when  his  vessels  were  wrecked 
on  the  Bermudas,  but  finally  reached  their  destination. 

NEWTON,  Hubert  Anson,  born  at  Sherburne, 
N.  Y.,  March  19,  1830;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1850,  and 
in  1853  took  charge  of  the  mathematical  department 
of  that  college.  He  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  very 
highest  living  authorities  on  meteors  and  their  orbits. 
He  is  LL.D.  of  the  University  of  Michigan,  and  original 
member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  an  associ- 
ate of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  and  a fellow  of 
the  Royal  Philosophical  Society.  Died  Aug.  12,  1896. 

NEWTON,  Alfred,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  born  at  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  in  1829  ; entered  Magdalene  College, 
Cambridge,  and  graduated  B.A.  in  1852,  being  after- 
ward chosen  traveling  fellow  of  that  college,  in  which 
capacity  he  visited  Lapland,  Iceland,  the  West  Indies, 
North  America,  and  other  countries.  In  1864  he 
accompanied  Sir  Edward  Birkbeck  to  Spitzbergen,  and 
was  elected  by  the  University  of  Cambridge  to  the 
professorship  of  zoology  and  comparative  anatomy  on 
its  establishment  in  1866.  In  1877  he  was  reelected 
fellow  of  Magdalene  College.  Professor  Newton  has 
published  The  Zoology  of  Ancient  Europe  (1862); 
Ootheca  Wollsyana  (1864)  ; and  edited  the  Ibis,  second 
series;  Zoological  Records  (1871-72);  and  the  fourth 
edition  of  YarrelPs  British  Birds. 

NEWTON,  Sir  Charles  Thomas.  C.B..  D.C.L., 
born  in  1816;  was  educated  at  Shrewsbury  School  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  of  which  he  was  a faculty 
student,  and  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1837,  and 
M.A.  in  1840.  In  May,  1840,  he  was  appointed  one 
of  the  assistants  in  the  department  of  antiquities  at  the 
British  Museum,  which  post  he  held  until  1852,  when 
he  obtained  the  appointment  of  vice-consul  at  Mity- 
lene.  After  having  spent  several  years  in  exploring 
the  Archipelago,  he  discovered  at  Budrum  (the  ancient 
Halicarnassus)  the  site  of  the  Mausoleum  erected  by 
Artemisia,  and  carried  on  extensive  excavations  at 
Cnidus  and  at  Branchidse,  between  October,  1856,  ana 
April,  1859.  The  results  of  his  discoveries  consist  of  a 
fine  collection  of  sculptures  from  the  Mausoleum  and 
other  places,  deposited  in  the  British  Museum,  which 
is  indebted  to  Mr.  Newton  for  a most  interesting  col- 
lection of  Greek  inscriptions,  vases,  coins,  and  other 
antiquities,  acquired  in  Asia  Minor  and  the  Archipelago, 
by  purchase  or  in  the  course  of  excavation.  In  May, 
i860,  he  was  appointed  British  consul  at  Rome;  in 
1861  keeper  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities  in  the 
British  Museum;  and  in  1880  professor  of  archaeology 
at  University  College,  London.  Mr.  Newton  was 
elected  an  honorary  fellow  of  Worcester  College 
Oxford,  November  27,  1874.  He  was  made  an 

honorary  D.C.L.  of  Oxford  in  1875;  a companion  of 
the  Bath  in  the  same  year;  and  an  honorary  LL.  D.  of 


6;iO 


NEW  — NIC 


Cambridge  in  1879.  He  is  also  a member  of'  the 
Roman  Accademiadei  Lincei;  a corresponding  member 
of  the  French  Institute;  has  received  the  honorary 
degree  of  Ph.D.  from  the  University  of  Strasburg; 
and  holds  the  honorary  post  of  antiquary  to  the  Royal 
Academy.  He  died  Nov.  28,  1894. 

NEWTON,  Gilbert  Stuart,  painter,  born  in  Hali- 
fax, Nova  Scotia,  September  27,  1797;  died  in  Wim- 
bledon, England,  August  5,  1835.  He  came  to  Boston, 
Mass.,  with  his  widowed  mother  in  1803.  After  having 
learned  drawing  and  elementary  painting,  young  New- 
ton went  to  Italy  for  study,  where  he  remained  about  a 
year.  Here  he  acquired  considerable  proficiency  in 
nis  art,  and  thereafter  visited  England,  where  he  was 
admitted  a student  at  the  Royal  Academy.  In  1828  he 
became  un  associate,  and  in  1831,  an  academician.  In 
the  last  named  year  he  was  ill,  and  in  October  sailed 
for  the  United  States,  to  derive  the  benefit  of  a sea- 
voyage.  In  August,  1832,  he  was  married  in  Boston, 
in  October  returned  with  his  wife  to  England,  and 
three  years  later  died,  leaving  a widow  and  daughter. 
Mr.  Newton  always  considered  himself  an  Englishman: 
his  entire  artistic  career  was  English.  He  was  an  ex- 
cellent portrait  and  genre  painter,  a remarkably  fine 
colorist,  and  had  an  innate  sense  for  humor.  His  ear- 
liest subject  picture  was  A Poet  reading  his  Verses  to  an 
impatient  Gallant.  His  portraits  include  likenesses  of 
Walter  Scott,  Thomas  Moore,  Sidney  Smith,  and  Wash- 
ington Irving. 

NEWTON,  Isaac,  civil  engineer,  born  in  New 
York  city,  August  4,  1837;  died  there  September  25, 
1884.  He  studied  civil  engineering  at  the  University  of 
the  City  of  New  York.  He  was  employed  at  the 
Novelty  iron-works  and  the  Delamater  works  in  New 
York  city,  and  served  as  assistant-engineer  on  Hudson 
river  steamboats,  and  as  engineer  on  the  Collins  line  of 
steamers  between  New  York  and  Liverpool.  When 
the  Civil  war  began  he  was  appointed  first  assistant- 
engineer  in  the  United  States  navy,  and  in  1861  was 
assigned  to  the  Roanoke.  In  the  contest  between  the 
Merrimac  and  Monitor , on  March  9,  1862,  he  had 
charge  of  the  engines  and  turret.  Later,  in  New  York 
city,  he  supervised  the  building  of  iron-clads  for  the 
government,  and  on  February  8,  1865,  resigned  from  the 
United  States  navy.  Subsequently  he  assisted  Gen. 
George  B.  McClellan  as  engineer,  and  in  1881  was  ap- 
pointed chief  engineer  of  the  department  of  public  works. 

NEWTON,  John,  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1823, 
and  graduated  from  the'United  States  Military  Academy 
at  West  Point  in  1842.  Until  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
war  he  was  principally  occupied  in  the  construction  of 
fortifications  on  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts.  In  Au- 
gust, 1861,  he  was  made  a brigadier- general  of  volun- 
teers, and  given  command  of  a brigade  in  the  defenses 
of  Washington.  He  led  his  brigade  in  many  engage- 
ments until  1862,  when  a division  was  given  him,  and 
he  was  promoted  to  a major-generalship  of  volunteers. 
At  Gettysburg  he  succeeded  to  the  command  of  a corps, 
which  he  retained  until  the  reorganization  of  the  army 
in  March,  1864,  when  he  was  transferred  to  the  West, 
and  led  a division  in  the  campaign  which  ended  in  the 
capture  of  Atlanta  (September,  1864).  From  1864  to 
1866  he  was  in  charge  of  various  districts  in  Florida. 
He  then  returned  to  his  engineering  corps  as  a lieuten- 
ant-colonel in  the  regular  army,  and  was  afterwards  en- 
gaged in  various  important  engineering  duties  in  the 
neighborhood  of  New  York,  principally  in  removing 
obstructions  in  the  channel  at  Hell  Gate  ( q . v.)  and 
Flood  Rock.  In  1879  he  was  made  a colonel,  and  in 
1884  a brigadier-general  and  chief  of  engineers.  In 
1887  he  was  appointed  commissioner  of  public  works 
of  New  York  city.  He  died  May  1,  1895. 


NEWTON,  Robert  SaffoRd,  born  In  Cincinnati* 
Ohio,  September  2,  1855;  graduated  in  medicine  in 
New  York,  and  studied  in  London,  Paris,  and  Vienna. 
In  1881  he  became  professor  of  diseases  of  the  skin, 
throat,  and  eye,  and  dean  of  the  faculty  of  the  New 
York  Eclectic  Medical  College.  He  edited  the  New 
York  Medical  Eclectic , 1877-85. 

NICHOL,  John,  LL.D.,  only  son  of  J.  P.  Nichol, 
late  professor  of  astronomy,  was  born  at  Montrose, 
Forfarshire,  September  8,  1833,  and  educated  in  the 
University  of  Glasgow  and  Bailiol  College,  Oxford.  In 
1861  he  was  appointed  professor  of  English  literature 
in  the  University  of  Glasgow.  He  took  some  part  in 
political  questions,  and  advocated  the  cause  of  the 
North  in  the  American  Civil  war,  secular  education, 
and  broad  church  theology.  He  died  October  1 1,  1894. 

NICHOLAS  I.,  reigning  prince  or  hospodar  of 
Montenegro,  born  October  7,  1841,  and  educated  at 
Trieste  and  Paris,  succeeded  his  uncle,  who  had  been 
assassinated,  in  August,  i860.  He  married,  in  the  same 
year,  Princess  Milona,  daughter  of  the  Vice-President 
of  the  Council  of  State.  During  1890  the  thirtieth  an- 
niversary of  his  accession  was  celebrated. 

NICHOLAS  II.,  Czar  of  Russia,  eldest  son  of  Czar 
Alexander  III.,  was  born  at  St.  Petersburg,  May  18, 
1868,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  November  1,  1894, 
on  the  death  of  his  father.  The  Czar  saw  some  military 
service  before  his  accession,  and  in  1891,  during  the 
famine,  worked  hard  for  the  relief  of  starving  Russians 
in  the  volunteer  capacity  of  president  of  the  Committee 
of  Succour.  He  had  formed  a liason  with,  and  subse- 
quently married,  a beautiful  actress,  but  discarded  her 
and  on  November  26,  1894,  married  Princess  Alix,  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  the  bride  who  had  been  selected  for 
him  by  his  father.  He  signalized  his  accession  by  par- 
doning 25,000  prisoners. 

NICHOLAS  (Grand  Duke)  Nicolaievitch,  third 
son  of  the  Czar  Nicholas  I.,  born  July  27  (August  8), 
1831,  entered  active  service  at  the  age  of  sixteen ; was  at 
Sebastopol  in  1855 ; was  commander  in  chief  of  the 
army,  with  General  Todleben  as  his  assistant  and  in  the 
war  against  Turkey  commanded  the  army  of  the  Danube, 
which  invaded  Roumania  in  1877.  He  married,  Feb- 
ruary 6,  1856,  Princess  Alexandra,,  of  Oldenburg.  He 
died  in  1891. 

N1CHOLLS,  Henry  Alfred  Alford,  M.D., 
F.L.  S.,  born  in  London  on  September  27,  1851;  began 
to  study  for  the  medical  profession  at  St.  Bartholomew’s 
Hospital,  where  he  gained  great  distinction.  After 
three  years  he  proceeded  to  the  University  of  Aberdeen, 
and  graduated  with  honors  as  master  in  surgery,  and 
bachelor  of  medicine  in  1873.  In  the  same  year  Doctoi 
Nicholls  gained  the  membership  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Surgeons  of  England,  since  which  time  he  has  resided 
in  Dominica,  W.  I.,  as  government  medical  officer. 
Here  Doctor  Nicholls  has  for  a number  of  years  carried 
on  important  investigations  into  the  nature  of  the  disease 
known  as  Yaws.  He  has  established  a reputation  as  2 
naturalist,  and  has  published  some  treatises  on  tropical 
agriculture.  He  is  a fellow  of  the  Linnean  Society,  1 
corresponding  member  of  the  New  York  Academy  ol 
Sciences,  and  of  the  Chamber  of  Agriculture  of  the 
French  Colony  of  Guadeloupe. 

NICHOLS,  William  Ripi.ey,  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  April  30,  1847;  died  in  Germany,  July  14,  1886. 
He  was  graduated  in  1869  at  the  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology,  where  he  became  professor  ol 
chemistry  in  1872.  He  wrote  a number  of  papers  on  the 
water  supply  of  cities  and  on  experimental  chemistry. 

NICHOLSON,  James  W.  A.,  born  in  Massachu- 
setts, March  10,  1821;  died  in  New  York  city,  Octo- 
ber 28?  1887.  He  entered  the  United  States  navy  i® 


N I C- 

1838  and  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  under  Perry 
in  the  Japanese  expedition.  In  the  Civil  war  he  en- 
gaged in  the  Port  Royal  expedition,  was  promoted 
commander  and  had  charge  of  a monitor  at  Mobile 
Bay.  In  1873  he  was  made  commodore,  and  in 
October,  1881,  was  commissioned  rear-admiral.  He 
retired  in  March,  1883. 

NICHOLSON,  Henry  Alleyne,  M.D.,  F.G.S., 
was  born  at  Penrith,  Cumberland,  England,  September 
11,  1844,  and  died  January  19,  1899.  He  was  Baxter 
scholar  in  natural  science  (1866),  Ettles  scholar  in 
medicine,  and  gold  medalist  of  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  (1867).  He  was  appointed  lecturer 
on  natural  history  in  the  Medical  School  of 
Edinburgh  in  1869 ; professor  of  natural  history 
and  botany  in  the  University  of  Toronto  in 
1871 ; professor  of  biology  and  physiology  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Durham  (College  of  Physical  Science,  New- 
castle) in  1874;  professor  of  natural  history  in  the 
University  of  St.  Andrews  in  1875;  and  Swiney  lecturer 
on  geology  to  the  British  Museum  in  1877.  In  1882 
he  was  appointed  regius  professor  of  natural  history  in 
the  University  of  Aberdeen,  which  appointment  he  now 
holds.  He  is  the  author  of  original  scientific  works, 
principally  geological  and  paleontological,  and  of  vari- 
ous educational  works,  such  as  Manual  of  Zoology ; 
Manual  of  Palaeontology ; Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Biology , and  Ancient  Life- History  of  the  Earth. 

NICHOLSON,  Sir  Charles,  Bart.,  D.C.L., 
LL.D.,  born  180S;  was  educated  at  Edinburgh,  where 
he  graduated  as  M.  I).  in  1833.  He  became  a resident  in 
New. South  Wales  in  1834,  and  was  one  of  the  original 
representative  members  for  Port  Phillip  (now  the  col- 
ony of  Victoria)  in  the  first  legislative  council  estab- 
lished in  New  South  Wales  in  1843,  °f  which  body  he 
became  chairman  of  committees,  and  subsequently 
speaker  from  1846  to  1856.  He  filled  the  post  of  vice- 
provost, and  subsequently  that  of  chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Sydney,,  and  received  the  honor  of  knight- 
hood in  1852,  and  that  of  baronet  in  1859.  He  re- 
ceived also  the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L.  from  the 
University  of  Oxford,  and  that  of  LL.D.  from  the 
University  of  Cambridge.  He  is  the  author  of  various 
official  papers  and  reports,  and  has  also  written  articles 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature , 
containing  an  account  of  exploration  in  Upper  Egypt, 
and  at  Memphis,  with  descriptions  of  remains  of  “ Disk 
Worshipers,”  now  deposited  in  the  museum  of  the 
University  of  Sydney. 

NICHOLSON,  Sir  Francis,  colonial  governor, 
born  about  1664;  died  in  London,  England,  March  5, 
1728.  He  had  been  an  officer  in  the  British  army,  was 
lieutenant-governor  of  New  York  under  Gov.  Edmund 
Andros,  and  governor  from  1687  until  1689.  From 
1690  until  1692,  and  from  1699  to  1705,  he  was  governor 
of  Virginia,  and  from  1694  until  1699  governor  of  Mary- 
land. During  the  second  term  of  his  administration  of 
Virginia,  its  capital  was  transferred  from  Jamestown  to 
Williamsburg.  He  commanded  the  soldiery  that  cap- 
tured Port  Royal,  Nova  Scotia,  in  1710,  after  which  he 
went  to  England  in  company  with  five  .Iroquois  Indians 
to  urge  on  measures  for  the  conquest  of  Canada.  He 
then  returned  to  America,  commanded  an  unsuccessful 
expedition  against  Canada,  and  served  as  governor  of 
Nova  Scotia  from  October,  1712,  until  August,  1717. 
In  1720  he  was  knighted,  from  1721  until  1725  served 
as  governor  of  South  Carolina,  and  in  1725  returned  to 
England,  where  he  was  made  a lieutenant-general. 

NICOL,  Erskine,  A.R.A.  (retired),  was  born  at 
Leith,  Scotland,  in  1825,  and  received  his  art-education 
in  the  Trustees’  Academy,  Edinburgh,  under  Sir  Will- 
iam Allan  and  Mr.  Thomas  Duncan.  In  1846  he  went 


- N I E 671 1 

to  reside  in  Ireland,  where  he  remained  three  or  lout 
years.  Most  of  his  subsequent  pictures  have  been 
Irish  in  subject.  From  Ireland  he  returned  to  Fdin- 
burgh,  and  after  exhibiting  for  some  time,  he  was 
ultimately  elected  a member  of  the  Royal  Scottish 
Academy.  In  1862  he  settled  in  London,  and  after 
that  date  contributed  regularly  to  the  exhibition  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  of  which  body  he  was  elected  an  asso- 
ciate in  June,  1866.  Mr.  Nicol  entered  on  the  retired 
list  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1885,  on  account  of  ill- 
health. 

NICOL  AY,  John  George,  born  in  Bavaria,  Febru- 
ary 26,  1832,  and  died  Sept.  26,  1901.  He  early  came 
to  this  country  and  settled  in  Illinois.  He  soon  became 
assistant  to  the  secretary  of  state  at  Springfield,  and  in 
i860  secretary  to  Abraham  Lincoln.  He  went  with 
President  Lincoln  to  Washington  and  served  as  his 
secretary  until  his  death.  From  1865  until  1869  he 
was  United  States  consul  in  Paris,  and  from  1872  to 
1887  was  marshal  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court. 
He  has  written  The  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln , in  con- 
nection with  John  Hay,  and  also  published  The  Out- 
break of  Rebellion  in  Campaigns  of  the  Civil  War. 

NICOLL,  James  Craig,  born  in  New  York  city, 
November  22,  1846;  exhibited  in  1868  at  the  National 
Academy  of  Design,  of  which  he  became  an  associate 
in  1880  and  an  academician  in  1885.  He  was  secretary 
of  the  Etching  Club,  was  elected  president  of  the 
Artists’  Fund  Society  in  1887,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  American  Water  Color  Society. 

NICOLLS,  Sir  Richard,  British  governor  of  New 
York,  was  born  in  Ampthill,  England,  in  1624,  and 
died  at  sea,  May  28,  1672.  He  served  as  a captain, 
and  on  the  failure  of  the  king’s  cause  retired  to  Hol- 
land, and  entered  the  service  of  the  duke  of  York  in 
the  continental  wars.  In  1664  he  was  appointed  chief 
of  the  commission  to  settle  affairs  between  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  colonies,  and  to  acquire  New  Netherland 
from  the  Holland  Government.  On  May  15,  1664,  he 
sailed  with  a fleet  from  Portsmouth,  and  landed  at 
Boston,  Mass.,  for  conference  with  Governor  Win- 
throp.  On  August  25,  1664,  he  reached  Gravesend 
Bay,  Long  Island,  and  demanded  the  surrender  of  the 
Holland  colony.  The  surrender  was  agreed  to  on 
September  6th,  and  confirmed  in  writing  within  a day 
or  two  by  both  parties.  Nicolls  named  the  city  and 
province  “New  York;”  Long  Island  and  Westchester 
“Yorkshire;”  the  northern  part  of  the  province  “ Al- 
bania;” and  its  principal  town  “ Albany.  ” On  Octo- 
ber 25th  and  26th  the  chief  men  of  the  colony  took  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  Charles  II.  as  their  king,  and  the 
duke  of  York  as  their  proprietor,  acknowledging 
Nicolls  as  deputy-governor.  On  March  8,  1665,  Gov- 
ernor Nicolls  published,  The  Duke's  Laws , and  on 
June  12,  1665,  appointed  a mayor,  aldermen,  and  sheriff 
to  govern  the  city.  In  1666  he  regulated  affairs  with 
the  French  and  Indians;  in  1668  returned  to  serve 
under  the  Duke  and  was  killed  in  a naval  battle  May 
28,  1672. 

NICOTERA,  Baron  Giovanni,  Italian  statesman, 
born  at  San  Biase,  Calabria,  September  9,  1828,  was, 
in  his  youth,  a member  of  “ Young  Italy,”  took  part 
in  the  Calabrian  revolution  of  1848,  served  under  Maz- 
zini  and  Garibaldi  and  was  minister  of  the  interior  in 
1876-77  and  again  in  1891-92.  He  died  at  Vico 
Equesne,  near  Naples,  June  13,  1894. 

NIEMEYER,  John  Henry,  artist,  born  in  Bre- 
men, Germany,  June  25,  1839;  removed  to  the  United 
States  when  a boy,  and  settled  in  Cincinnati.  He 
studied  in  Paris,  and  in  1871  became  professor  of  draw- 
ing in  the  Yale  school  of  fine  arts.  He  has  exhibited 
portraits  and  genre  pictures  in  New  York. 


6712  N I G- 

NIGHTINGALE,  Florence,  a lady  whose  name 
has  been  rendered  illustrious  by  her  philanthropic 
efforts  to  alleviate  the  sufferings  of  wounded  soldiers, 
was  born  at  Florence  in  May,  1820.  She  enjoyed  all 
the  advantages  which  fall  to  the  lot  of  the  children  of 
the  affluent  and  refined ; and  her  command  of  different 
languages  and  other  branches  of  a truly  “ liberal  educa- 
tion ” stood  her  in  good  stead  in  her  after  career.  It 
was  not  long  before  her  philanthropic  instincts,  exer- 
cised among  the  poorer  neighbors  of  her  English  home, 
led  her  to  the  systematic  study  of  the  ameliorative 
treatment  of  physical  and  moral  distress.  The  ineffi- 
ciency and  mismanagement  of  the  military  hospitals  in 
the  Crimea  led  to  an  outburst  of  public  feeling.  Vari- 
ous plans  of  help  were  suggested,  the  most  popular  of 
which  was  the  sending  forth  a select  band  of  ladies.  At 
the  request  of  the  late  Lord  Herbert,  then  secretary  of 
war  (whose  letter  crossed  one  from  Miss  Nightingale, 
offering  to  go),  she  undertook  the  organization  and 
conduct  of  this  body.  No  eulogy  can  do  justice  to  the 
talent,  energy,  and  devotion  she  constantly  displayed 
in  her  self-imposed  task.  By  instituting  order  where 
confusion  had  before  reigned,  and  by  affording  care  and 
consolation,  she  alleviated  the  sufferings  of  all,  saved  the 
lives  of  many,  and  earned  the  blessings  of  the  sick  and 
wounded,  as  well  as  the  gratitude  of  her  country.  A tes- 
timonial fund  amounting  to  fifty  thousand  pounds,  sub- 
scribed by  the  public  in  recognition  of  her  noble  services, 
was  at  her  special  request  devoted  to  the  formation  of 
an  institution  for  the  training  of  nurses,  now  carried 
out  at  St.  Thomas’  Hospital,  in  the  “ Nightingale 
Home.”  Her  writings  are  intended  to  disseminate 
practical  knowledge  on  the  subject  in  which  she  is  so 
well  versed.  Notes  on  Hospitals , a valuable  work  which 
had  a very  large  circulation,  appeared  in  1859;  Notes  on 
Nursing , of  which  nearly  a hundred  thousand  copies 
have  been  sold,  in  i860;  and  Observations  on  the  Sanitary 
State  of  the  Army  in  India , in  1863.  During  the  Civil 
war  in  this  country,  she  was  frequently  consulted  on  ques- 
tions affecting  the  health  of  the  army,  and  assistance  for 
the  wounded  in  the  field.  Her  name  is  as  well  known  in 
America  as  in  England.  Duringthe  Franco-German  war 
she  was  similarly  appealed  toby  the  German  authorities. 

NIGRA,  Count  Constantino,  an  Italian  diplo- 
matist, born  at  Castellemonte,  June  12,  1827;  studied 
law  at  the  University  of  Turin,  and  took  part,  as  a 
volunteer,  in  the  war  against  Austria  in  1848.  Being 
severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Rivoli,  he  abandoned 
the  military  career,  entered  the  diplomatic  service,  and 
acted  as  secretary  to  Count  Cavour  at  the  congress  of 
Baris  in  1856.  He  took  part  in  the  negotiations  be- 
tween Piedmont  and  Fiance  which  preceded  the  war  of 
1859,  at  which  he  was  present  with  the  general  staff  of 
Napoleon  III.  He  was  secretary  to  the  Italian  pleni- 
potentiaries at  the  Zurich  Congress,  after  which  he  was 
nominated,  on  Cavour’s  recommendation,  minister 
plenipotentiary,  first  of  Sardinia,  and  afterward  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  at  Paris.  On  the  war  of  1870  break- 
ing out,  he  was  among  those  who  made  efforts  to  pre- 
vent it,  and  then  showed  himself  to  the  end,  at  least 
personally,  devoted  to  the  emperor  and  empress.  He 
was  one  of  the  few  persons  who,  on  September  4th, 
were  by  the  side  of  the  menaced  and  fugitive  sovereign. 
After  having  represented  Italy  at  Paris  for  fifteen  years 
as  minister  plenipqtentiary,  he  was  in  May,  1876,  ap- 
pointed to  fill  the  same  post  at  St.  Petersburg.  He 
was  nominated  Italian  ambassador  in  London  in  No- 
vember, 1882,  on  which  occasion  King  Humbert  con- 
ferred upon  him  the  title  of  count.  Count  Nigra  has 
published  several  works  on  the  dialects  and  popular 
poetry  of  Italy.  In  1885  he  resigned  the  embassy  in 
London,  and  was  succeeded  by  Count  Corti. 


-N  I S 

NILES,  John  Milton,  born  In  Windsor,  Conn.. 
August  20,  1787;  died  May  31,  1856.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1817,  and  in  1820  became  judge  of 
the  Hartford  county  court.  He  established  the  Hartford 
Times  and  edited  it  for  many  years.  In  1835  he  was 
appointed  United  States  senator,  elected  to  the  same 
position  twice,  and  served  from  1835  to  1839  and  from 
1843  to  1849.  In  1840-41  he  was  postmaster-general 
under  Van  Buren. 

NILSSON,  Christine,  daughter  of  alaboring  man, 
born  at  Wederslof,  near  Wexio,  in  Sweden,  August  3, 
1843;  at  an  early  age  evinced  great  taste  for  music. 
She  became  proficient  on  the  violin,  learned  the  flute, 
and  attended  fairs  and  other  places  of  public  resort,  at 
which  she  sang,  accompanying  herself  on  the  violin. 
While  performing  in  this  manner  at  a fair  at  Ljungby, 
in  June,  1857,  her  extraordinary  powers  attracted  the* 
attention  of  Mr.  F.  G.  Tornerhjelm,  a gentleman  of 
influence,  who  rescued  her  from  her  vagrant  life,  and 
placed  her  at  school,  first  at  Halmstad  and  afterward  at 
Stockholm,  where  she  was  instructed  by  M.  Franz 
Berwald.  She  made  her  first  appearance  at  Stockholm 
in  i860,  went  to  Paris,  continued  her  musical  education 
under  Masset  and  Wurtel,  and  came  out  at  the  Theatre 
Lyrique,  October  27th,  as  “Violetta”  in  La  Traviata , 
with  such  success  that  she  was  engaged  for  three  years. 
She  made  her  first  appearance  in  London  at  Her 
Majesty’s  theater  in  1S67,  proved  the  great  operatic  at- 
traction at  that  establishment  during  the  season,  and 
has  since  performed  there  with  constantly  increasing 
success  In  1870  she  paid  a visit  to  the  United  States. 
After  a transatlantic  trip  of  two  years  she  reappeared 
at  Drury  Lane  theater,  May  28,  1872,  in  La  Traviata . 
She  was  married  at  Westminster  Abbey,  August  27, 
1872,  to  M.  Auguste  Rouzaud,  the  son  of  an  eminent 
French  merchant.  (He  died  at  Paris,  February  22, 
1882.)  Madame  Nilsson  made  a farewell  appearance 
in  New  York,  April  16,  1883,  before  a crowded 

audience,  thus  closing  the  most  successful  concert  tour 
ever  conducted  in  the  United  States.  Madame  Nilsson 
in  1886  married  again. 

NINEGRET,  Indian  sachem,  born  about  1616  in 
New  England;  died  there  about  1670.  He  was  the 
uncle  of  Miantonomo,  and  became  known  to  the  colo- 
nists under  different  names.  He  was  of  the  tribe  of 
Narragansetts,  did  not  participate  in  the  Pequot  war  of 
1632,  and  eventually  aided  the  English.  After  the 
death  of  Miantonomo  he  formed  a plan,  in  connection 
with  other  tribes,  to  expel  the  colonists.  With  this 
purpose  in  view  Ninegret  approached  Waiandance, 
sachem  of  the  Long  Island  Indians.  Later,  Ninegret 
was  suspected  of  having  gone  among  the  western  tribes 
and  the  settlers  of  New  Amsterdam  to  rouse  them 
against  the  English.  About  1652  Ninegret  was  at  war 
with  the  Long  Island  tribes.  The  colonists  declared 
war  against  Ninegret,  who,  on  the  approach  of  their 
troops,  fled  into  a distant  swamp.  Eventually,  how- 
ever, he  came  to  terms. 

NISARD,  Jean  Marie  NapolEon  D£sir£, 
journalist,  born  at  Chatillon-sur-Seine,  March  20,  1806; 
was  educated  at  Sainte  Barbe,  joined  the  staff  of  the 
Journal  des  Debats  in  1826,  and  afterward  became  con- 
nected with  the  National.  He  was  appointed  to  a post 
in  the  Fcole  Normale,  which  he  filled  till  1844,  and  held 
other  important  posts ; succeeded  M.  Villemain  in  the 
chair  of  French  eloquence,  and  was  made  director  of  the 
Fcole  Normale  Superieure  in  1857.  This  latter  position 
he  retained  till  1867,  when  he  was  raised  to  the  dignity 
of  a senator.  He  was  made  a member  of  the  Academic 
Framjaise  in  1850;  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in 
1845,  and  commander,  June  16,  1856.  He  superin- 
tended the  publication  of  a collection  of  Latin  classics. 


N O A — N O R 


with  a translation  in  French,  begun  in  1839.  He  died 
March  25,  1888. 

NOAH,  Mordecai  Manuel,  journalist,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  14,  1785;  died  in  New  York 
city,  May  22,  1851.  He  studied  law,  and  practiced  in 
Charleston,  S.  C.  In  1811  he  was  made  United  States 
consul  at  Riga,  and  in  1813  was  transferred  to  Tunis, 
with  a special  mission  to  Algiers.  On  his  return  he 
settled  in  New  York  city,  where  he  founded  and  edited 
several  newspapers,  one  of  which,  The  Sunday  Times, 
is  still  being  issued,  and  is  the  oldest  Sunday  weekly 
published  in  that  city.  In  1832  Mr.  Noah  was  ap- 
pointed surveyor  of  the  port;  later,  he  became  a judge 
of  the  court  of  sessions,  sheriff,  and  a major  of  the  mili- 
tia. He  was  usually  spoken  of  as  “ Major”  Noah. 
His  earnest  devotion  to  his  co-religionists,  the  He- 
brews, was  shown  in  1820,  in  his  endeavor  to  establish 
a Jewish  colony,  a kind  of  Occidental  Jerusalem,  for 
the  gathering  of  the  tribes  on  Grand  Island  in  the  Ni- 
agara river.  He  there  raised  a monument  on  which  the 
place  was  designated  “Ararat,  a city  of  refuge  for  the 
Jews.”  Major  Noah  published  Travels  in  England, 
France,  Spain,  and  the  Barbary  States  (London,  1819); 
Gleanings  from  a Gathered  Harvest  (New  York,  1845) ; 
A Translation  of  the  Book  of  Jas her  (1840).  Among 
his  printed  pamphlets  is  one  on  the  Restoration  of  the 
Jews  (1845).  He  wrote  a number  of  plays,  some  of 
which  were  performed. 

NOIRJii,  Ludwig,  German  philosophical  writer,  was 
born  at  Alzey,  in  Hesse,  March  26,  1829.  He  studied 
from  1846  to  1848  at  Giessen,  and  then  became  a school- 
master at  Mainz.  The  study  of  the  works  of  Spinoza, 
Schopenhauer,  and  Lazarus  Geiger  led  him  to  devote 
himself  to  philosophy;  in  1874,  he  published  Die  Welt 
als  Entwickelung  des  Geistes-,  Der  Monistische  Gedanke 
(1875);  Die  Doppelnatur  der  Kausalitat  (1875);  Der 
Ursprung  der  Sprache  (1877).  He  also  published,  in 
English,  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Development  of  Phi- 
losophy before  Kant  (1881).  He  died  in  Mayence 
(Mainz),  March  26,  1889. 

NORDENSKJOLD,  Baron  (Adolf  Erik),  a Swed- 
ish naturalist  and  explorer,  was  born  at  Helsingfors, 
the  capital  of  Finland,  November  18,  1832.  He  first 
went  to  the  gymnasium  at  Borgo,  and  on  entering  the 
University  of  Helsingfors  in  1849  devoted  himself 
almost  entirely  to  scientific  studies,  spending  his  vaca- 
tions in  excursions  to  the  rich  mineral  localities  of 
Finland.  He  soon  became  eminent  in  this  particular 
branch  of  science.  He  settled  in  Sweden,  and  in  1851 
first  entered  on  his  Arctic  travels  by  accompanying 
Torell  to  Spitzbergen.  On  his  return  to  Stockholm, 
Nordenskjold  was  nominated  director  of  the  Riks  Mu- 
seum, but  in  1861  he  went  again  to  Spitzbergen  with 
Torell,  to  obtain  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the 
meridian.  The  work  was  not  then  finished,  and  ac- 
cordingly, three  years  later,  Nordenskjold  headed  an 
expedition  which  successfully  completed  the  measure- 
ment, and  mapped  the  southern  part  of  Spitzbergen. 
Nordenskjold  now  endeavored  to  organize  a fresh  ex- 
pedition, and  he  eventually  started  in  1868  in  the  gov- 
ernment steamer  Sofia,  which  managed  to  attain  the 
high  latitude  of  8i°  42' — a latitude  only  exceeded  by 
Hall’s  and  Greely’s  American  and  Nares’  British  Arc- 
ticexpeditions.  This  success  convinced  Nordenskjold 
that  he  could  reach  a much  higher  latitude  by  winter- 
ing in  Spitzbergen  and  utilizing  sledges.  Accord- 
ingly, after  an  interval — during  which  he  sat  in  the 
Swedish  diet,  and  traveled  in  Greenland  to  ascertain  the 
respective  values  of  dogs  and  reindeer  as  beasts  of 
burden  for  sledge  journeys — Nordenskjold  sailed  in  the 
Polhem  in  1872,  accompanied  by  two  tenders. ^ The 
winter  was  unusually  early,  and  the  ice  shut  in  the 


6713 

tenders,  which  were  to  have  returned  home,  thereby 
straitening  the  provisions  through  extra  mouths ; the 
reindeer  were  lost,  and  the  men  suffered  greatly  from 
scurvy.  Nevertheless,  Nordenskjold  and  Lieutenant 
Palender  successfully  surveyed  part  of  Northeast  Land, 
and  in  the  following  July  the  vessels  were  extricated 
from  their  winter  quarters,  Mussel  Bay,  on  the  north 
coast  of  Spitzbergen,  and  returned  home.  Nordenskjold 
now  turned  his  attention  to  Siberian  exploration,  and  in 
1875  sailed  through  the  Kara  Sea  to  the  Yenisei,  and 
ascended  the  river  in  a small  boat,  returning  home  over- 
land. He  repeated  this  voyage  in  the  following  year, 
after  a flying  visit  to  the  Philadelphia  exhibition,  but 
this  time  came  back  from  the  Yenisei  by  sea.  These 
experiences  gave  Nordenskjold  a reasonable  hope  of 
accomplishing  the  northeast  passage.  The  king  of 
Sweden,  Mr.  Oscar  Dickson,  and  Mr.  Sibiriakoff at  once 
lent  their  aid  to  the  project,  and  in  July,  1878,  Profes- 
sor Nordenskjold  started  in  the  Vega.  She  was  the 
first  vessel  to  double  the  most  northern  point  of  the 
Old  World,  Cape  Tchelyuskin;  she  wintered  in  Behr- 
ing’s Straits;  and,  once  more  free,  in  July,  1879, 
reached  Japan  on  September  2d.  On  his  arrival  in 
Europe,  Nordenskjold  was  enthusiastically  welcomed, 
and  laden  with  honors.  He  was  created  a baron  (April, 
1880);  and  appointed  a commander  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor,  and  a foreign  knight  of  the  Prussian  Ordre 
pour  le  Merite.  He  died  Aug.  12,  1901 

NORDHOFF,  Charles,  born  in  Westphalia, 
August  31, 1830;  came  to  the  United  States  when  a boy, 
and  served  in  the  United  States  navy  and  in  the  mer- 
chant service.  He  then  entered  a publishing  house  in 
New  York  and  from  1861  to  1871  was  on  the  staff  of 
the  Evening  Post  of  that  city.  Subsequently  he  was 
with  the  Tribune  and  the  Herald,  as  correspondent, 
now  representing  the  latter  paper  in  Washington.  He 
has  written  books  about  California,  Oregon,  the  Sand- 
wich Islands,  and  published  The  Commu?iistic  Societies 
of  the  United  States.  Died  July  15,  1901. 

NORDICA,  Lillian  (Norton),  famous  soprano 
singer,  was  born  in  Farmington,  Maine,  in  1858.  She 
studied  at  the  Boston  Conservatory,  and  in  1879  in 
Italy,  singing  for  three  years  with  great  success,  in 
opera,  in  Europe,  and  retiring  on  her  marriage  with 
Mr.  Gower,  who  soon  afterwards  met  his  death  in  a 
balloon  ascent.  She  returned  to  the  stage  in  1887  at 
Covent  Garden,  London,  and  since  then  has  been  a 
leading  operatic  favorite  and  well  received  in  oratorio. 
She  has  made  several  concert  tours  in  the  United  States 
and  in  1895  sang  in  grand  opera  in  the  leading  cities, 
achieving  great  popularity. 

NORFOLK,  Duke  of  (Henry  Fitzalan  How- 
ard), premier  duke  and  earl,  hereditary  earl-marshal, 
and  chief  butler  of  England,  oldest  son  of  the  seven- 
teenth duke,  was  born  in  London,  December  27,  1847, 
and  succeeded  to  the  peerage  November  25,  i860.  A 
zealous  Roman  Catholic  he  takes  great  interest  in 
church  matters  and  is  president  of  the  Catholic  Union 
of  Great  Britain.  Pie  opposed  home  rule,  thus  bring- 
ing himself  into  collision  with  the  Irish  hierarchy. 

NORMAN,  Henry,  born  in  Leicester,  England, 
about  1850,  was  educated  at  Harvard  College,  in 
France  and  at  Leipzig,  explored  unknown  parts  of 
China,  Korea,  Japan  and  the  Malay  peninsula,  be- 
came literary  editor  of  the  London  Daily  Chronicle , 
1892,  and  has  written  An  Account  of  the  Harvard 
Greek  Play  (1881);  The  Real  Japan  (1891),  and  The 
Peoples  and  Politics  of  the  Far  East  (1894.) 

NORMANBY,  Marquis  of  (George  Augustus 
Constantine  Phipps),  born  July  23,  1819,  entered 
the  Scots  Fusilier  guards  in  1838,  as  Lord  Mulgrttve, 
was  member  for  Scarborough  in  the  Liberal  interest, 


NOR 


6714 

1847-51,  and  1852-57,  and  was  governor  of  Noya 
Scotia  from  1858  to  1863,  when  he  succeed  his  father  as 
second  Marquis.  He  was  appointed  captain  of  the  corps 
of  gentlemen-at-arms,  1869,  and  in  1871  became  gov- 
ernor of  Queensland;  governor  of  New  Zealand,  1874, 
and  governor  of  Victoria,  1878.  He  died  April  3, 
1890. 

NORMAN-NERUDA,  Wilhelmine,  violinist,  was 
born  March  21,  1840,  at  Briinn,  in  Moravia,  where  her 
father  was  organist  of  the  cathedral.  She  was  a pupil 
of  Jansa,  made  her  first  appearance  at  Vienna  in  1846, 
came  to  London  in  1849  to  play  at  the  Philharmonic  in 
a concert  of  De  Beriot’s,  played  on  the  Continent  with 
much  success,  married  Ludwig  Norman,  a Swedish  mu- 
sician, in  1864,  and  since  1869  has  played  in  London 
annually,  usually  in  the  recitals  of  Sir  Charles  Halle, 
the  eminent  pianist,  whom  she  married  in  1888,  some 
years  after  the  death  of  her  first  husband. 

NORQUAY,  John,  born  in  Manitoba,  May  8, 
1841  ; was  elected  to  the  first  Manitoba  parliament  in 
1870,  and  the  next  year  became  minister  of  public 
works  and  agriculture,  which  office  he  held  for  three 
years.  In  1876  he  was  again  minister  of  public  works, 
and  in  October,  1878,  became  premier.  He  sat  in  the 
Manitoba  parliament  in  1874,  and  again  from  1878  to 
1888.  In  1886  he  became  railroad  commissioner,  and 
resigned  in  1888.  He  died  July  5,  i88ty 

NORRIS,  William  Edward,  a popular  novelist, 
born  in  England,  November  18,  1847.  His  novels, 
which  are  usually  descriptive  of  life  of  the  English 
aristocracy,  are  notable  for  their  bright  dialogue 
and  have  many  readers  in  the  United  States.  Among 
the  best  are  Heaps  of  Money  (1877),  Matrimony , A 
Deplorable  Affair  and  A Victim  of  Good  Luck 
(1894). 

NORTH,  Sir  Ford,  judge  of  the  high  court  of 
justice  of  England,  is  son  of  Mr.  John  North,  of  Liver- 
pool, and  was  born  there  January  10,  1830.  He  was 
educated  at  Winchester  School,  and  at  University  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  where  he  graduated  as  B.A.  in  1852, 
taking  a second  class  in  classics.  He  was  called  to  the 
bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  in  1856,  was  appointed  a 
queen’s  counsel  in  1877,  and  obtained  a large  practice 
in  the  equity  courts,  and  at  the  Lancaster  Chancery 
Palatine  Court.  He  was  appointed  a judge  of  the 
queen’s  bench  division  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice  in 
1881,  on  the  removal  of  Mr.  Justice  Lindley  to  the 
Court  of  Appeal ; and  was  transferred  to  the  chancery 
division  of  the  same  court  in  1883. 

NORTHBROOK,  Earl  of  (The  Right  Hon. 
Thomas  George  Baring),  eldest  son  of  the  first  baron, 
who  was  long  known  as  Sir  Francis  Baring,  was  born 
in  1826,  and  received  his  education  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  where  he  graduated  (second  class  in  classics) 
in  1846.  He  was  successively  private  secretary  to  Mr. 
Labouchere  at  the  board  of  trade,  to  Sir  George  Grey 
at  the  home  office,  to  Sir  Charles  Wood  at  the  India 
board,  and  at  the  admiralty  till  1857,  when  he  was 
returned  to  the  House  of  Commons  for  Penryn  and 
Falmouth,  which  constituency  he  continued  to  repre- 
sent in  the  Liberal  interest  till  he  became  a peer  on  the 
death  of  his  father  in  1866.  He  was  a lord  of  the  ad- 
miralty from  May,  1857,  to  February,  1858;  under- 
secretary of  state  for  India  from  June,  1859,  to  January, 
1861  ; and  under- secretary  for  war  from  the  latter  date 
•till  June,  1866.  On  the  accession  of  Mr.  Gladstone  to 
power,  in  December,  1868,  Lord  Northbrook  was 
again  appointed  under-secretary  for  war ; and  after  the 
assassination  of  the  earl  of  Mayo  he  was  appointed  to 
succeed  that  nobleman  as  viceroy  and  governor-general 
of  India,  in  February,  1872.  He  resigned  in  February, 
X876,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Lytton.  In  recogni- 


tion of  his  distinguished  services  he  was  created  Vis. 
count  Baring  of  Lee  in  the  county  of  Kent,  and  earl  ol 
Northbrook  in  the  county  of  Southampton.  On  the 
formation  of  Mr.  Gladstone’s  cabinet,  in  May,  1880, 
his  lordship  was  appointed  first  lord  of  the  admiralty; 
but  in  1886  he  was  one  of  those  who  opposed  the  home 
rule  policy  of  the  premier. 

NORTHROP,  Lucius  B.,  born  in  South  Carolina, 
September  8,  1811;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1829, 
and  left  the  army  to  practice  medicine.  He  was  rein- 
stated by  Jefferson  Davis  when  the  latter  became  secre- 
tary of  war,  but  resigned  to  join  the  Confederacy,  and 
became  commissary-general,  which  office  he  held  until 
near  the  close  of  the  war.  Common  repute,  both  in  the 
North  and  the  South,  placed  upon  Northrop  the  blame 
for  much  of  the  neglect  and  starvation  of  Union  prison- 
ers in  Libby,  and  elsewhere.  Several  attempts  were 
made  by  members  of  the  Confederate  Congress  to  obtain 
his  removal  from  office,  but  all  these  efforts  were  de- 
feated by  Jefferson  Davis,  who  supported  Northrop 
throughout.  Northrop  was  arrested  in  July,  1865.  and 
was  held  prisoner  until  November,  but  was  never  tried. 

NORTHUMBERLAND,  Duke  of  (Algernon 
George  Percy),  was  born  in  1810,  and  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  at  St.  John’s  College,  Cambridge,  of  which 
university  he  was  created  a doctor  of  laws  in  1842.  He 
first  entered  parliament  as  M.P.  for  the  borough  of 
Beeralston  (disfranchised  under  the  first  reform  act), 
and  represented  the  northern  division  of  Northumber- 
land in  the  Conservative  interest  from  1852  down  to 

1865.  He  held  office  in  1858-9,  first  as  a lord  of  the 
admiralty,  and  afterward  as  vice-president  of  the  board 
of  trade.  He  was  appointed  lord  privy  seal,  on  the 
earl  of  Beaconsfield  resigning  that  office  in  February, 
1878.  In  August  of  that  year  he  was  appointed  to  pre- 
side over  the  royal  commission,  which  had  been  charged 
with  conducting  an  inquiry  into  the  parochial  charities 
of  the  city  of  London.  He  went  out  of  office  with  his 
party  in  April,  1880.  He  is  president  of  the  Royal 
Institution,  and  honorary  colonel  of  the  Northumber- 
land militia;  and  he  was  created  an  honorary  D.C.L.  of 
Oxford  in  1870.  His  eldest  son,  Earl  Percy  (born  in 
1846),  was  long  Conservative  member  for  North  North- 
umberland, and  in  1885,  after  the  enfranchisement  of 
the  agricultural  laborers,  he  was  defeated  by  Sir  Ed- 
ward Grey.  He  died  July  2,  1899. 

NORTON,  Charles  Ledyard,  born  in  Connecti- 
cut, June  11,  1837;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1859.  He 
entered  the  Union  army  as  private  in  a New  York  regi- 
ment, was  promoted  to  a colonelcy,  and  commanded 
in  Louisiana  during  the  early  days  of  reconstruction. 
After  the  war  he  became  editor  of  the  Christian  Union * 
and  later  of  the  Continent  magazine. 

NORTON  (Lord),  Charles  Bowyer  Adderley, 
K.C.M.G. , was  born  in  August,  1814,  and  educated 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  of  which  he  was  a gentle- 
man commoner,  and  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in 
1838.  He  was  elected  in  the  Conservative  interest, 
in  1841,  to  represent  the  northern  division  of  Stafford- 
shire. Mr.  Adderley  was  president  of  the  board  of 
health,  and  vice-president  of  the  committee  of  the 
privy  council  on  education  under  Lord  Derby’s  second 
administration  of  1858-59,  and  under  secretary  for  the 
colonies  under  Lord  Derby’s  third  administration  (July, 

1866,  to  December,  1868).  He  is  a trustee  of  Rugby 
School  and  chairman  of  the  royal  sanitary  commission. 
In  1869  he  was  made  a knight-commander  of  the  Order 
of  St.  Michael  and  St.  George.  On  the  return  of  tne 
Conservatives  to  power,  in  February,  1874,  he  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  board  of  trade.  He  resigned 
this  office  in  April,  1878,  when  he  was  raised  to  the  peer- 
age of  the  United  Kingdom  by  the  title  of  Baron  Norton. 


NOR  - 

NORTON,  John  Pitkin,  bom  in  Albany,  N.  Y., 

July  19,  1822;  died  in  September,  1852.  He  studied 
at  New  Haven,  and  from  1847  until  his  death  was  pro- 
fessor of  agricultural  chemistry  at  Yale. 

NORTON,  Lewis  Mills,  born  in  Massachusetts, 
December  26,  1855;  studied  at  the  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology,  and  in  Paris,  Berlin,  and  Gottingen. 
In  1883  he  became  professor  of  organic  and  industrial 
chemistry  in  the  Institute  of  Technology. 

NORTON,  Sidney  Augustus,  born  in  Ohio,  January 
II,  1835;  graduated  at  Union  College,  became  professor 
of  chemistry  in  Miami  Medical  College,  and  in  1873  ac- 
cepted a similar  position  in  the  Ohio  State  University. 
He  has  written  extensively  on  chemistry  and  physics,  and 
is  LL.  D.  of  Wooster  College  and  Ph.D.  of  Kenyon. 

NOTT,  Eliphalet,  educator,  born  in  Ashford, 
Conn.,  June  25,  1773;  died  in  Schenectady,  N.Y.,  Jan- 
uary 29,  1866.  He  entered  Brown  University  in  1795  ; 
studied  theology,  and  served  as  a missionary  in  north- 
ern New  York.  At  Cherry  Valley  he  became  pastor  of 
a Presbyterian  congregation,  and  established  an  acad- 
emy. From  I794  until  1804  he  preached  in  Albany, 
and  in  1804  was  chosen  president  of  Union  College. 
More  than  3,700  students  eventually  graduated  during 
his  presidency.  Before  his  death  he  found  means  to 
endow  the  college  with  property  worth  $500,000.  He 
was  an  ardent  advocate  of  the  temperance  cause. 

NOVELLO,  Clara.  Anastasia  (Countess  Gig- 
Liucci),  fourth  daughter  of  Vincent  Novello  (y.z\), 
musical  composer,  born  in  London,  June  10,  1818;  at 
an  early  age  displayed  so  much  musical  talent  as  to 
induce  her  father  to  give  her  a thoroughly  professional 
education.  Her  progress  repaid  the  care  bestowed 
upon  her,  for  at  the  early  age  of  eleven  year's  she  won, 
by  competition,  her  admission  as  a pupil  into  the  Con- 
servatoire de  Musique  Sacree  at  Paris,  where,  for  two 
years,  she  studied  assiduously.  On  the  closing  of  the 
institution,  in  the  revolution  of  1830,  she  returned 
home  fitted  to  take  a prominent  part  among  the  singers 
of  the  day,  at  the  concerts  of  the  Philharmonic  Society 
and  Other  leading  musical  entertainments.  When  only 
seventeen  years  of  age  she  was  elected  an  associate  of 
that  society;  and  soon  afterward  accepted  an  invi- 
tation from  Mendelssohn  to  take  part  in  the  Leipsic 
gewandhaus  concerts.  In  Berlin  and  Vienna  she  was 
equally  well  received.  Her  success  at  Vienna  induced 
her  to  take  part  in  the  musical  festivals  at  Lombardy, 
and  she  felt  anxious  to  follow  her  wishes,  but, 
owing  tc  engagements  at  St.  Petersburg  and  in  Ger- 
many, could  not  carry  out  this  plan  until  1839-40. 
She  appeared  at  Padua  in  1841  in  the  character  of 
“ Serftiramide,”  with  such  success,  that  enghgements  at 
Bologna,  Modena,  and  Genoa  followed,  and  in  1842 
both  Rome  and  Genoa  endeavored  to  secure  her  for 
the  fetes  of  the  carnival.  In  1843  she  returned  to 
England,  and  sang  in  London  and  Manchester;  and, 
having  married  Count  Gigliucci,  she  withdrew  from  the 
stage  in  1844.  Circumstances,  however,  induced  her  to 
return  in  T85o;  and  she  constantly  appeared  in  concerts, 
oratorios,  and  operas,  on  the  Continent  and  in  London, 
until  i860,  when  she  finally  retired. 

NOVELLO,  Joseph  Alfred,  son  of  Vincent  No- 
vello, organist  and  composer,  was  born  in  1810.  A 
friend  and  admirer  of  Felix  Mendelssohn,  Mr.  Alfred 
Novello  eagerly  introduced  to  English  auditors  the 
works  of  that  great  master,  and  aided  him  in  translat- 
ing St.  Pauly  Lobgesangy  and  other  compositions.  In 
1849  he  associated  himself  with  the  energetic  men  who 


N'UN  6713 

relieved  England  from  ’*  taxation  on  knowledge/’  and 
for  years  was  the  active  treasurer  of  their  soc»ety,  the 
object  of  which  was  the  repeal  of  the  advertisement 
duty  (accomplished  in  1853),  the  repeal  of  the  news- 
paper stamp  (accomplished  in  1855),  duties  on  paper 
and  foreign  books,  and  the  repeal  of  the  security  sys- 
tem. In  1856  he  retired  from  business  and  established 
himself  in  Italy,  but  died  July  17,  1896. 

NOYES,  Edward  F.,  born  in  Haverhill,  Mass., 
October  3,  1832;  graduated  at  Dartmouth,  and  practiced 
law  in  Cincinnati.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  wai 
he  was  commissioned  major  of  volunteers,  served  unde! 
Pope  and  in  the  Atlanta  campaign,  and  was  severely 
wounded  at  Ruff  Mills.  He  was  mustered  out  as 
brigadier- general,  and  became  city  solicitor  of  Cincin- 
nati,and  in  1867  probate  judge  of  Hamilton  county,  Ohio. 
In  1871  he  was  elected  governor  of  Ohio  as  a Repub* 
hcan,  but  was  defeated  for  reelection,  and  in  1877  wa« 
appointed  United  States  minister  to  France.  He  re- 
signed in  1881  and  resumed  the  practice  of  law  in  Cin- 
cinnati. He  died  September  4,  1890. 

NOYES,  John  Humphrey,  born  in  Vermont,  Sep- 
tember 6,  1811;  died  in  Canada  April  13,  1886.  He 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  1830,  and  subsequently 
studied  theology  at  Andover  and  Yale,  and  began  to 
preach  about  1833.  He  invented  or  discovered  a semi- 
communist and  semi-polygamous  system  of  religion  and 
morals  which  he  styled  Perfectionism.  The  experi- 
ment of  communal  living  with  its  “ free  love  ” attach- 
ment was  tried  for  twelve  years  in  Putnam  county,  Vt., 
but  finally  the  “ Perfectionists  ” were  driven  out  by  the 
force  of  public  opinion.  They  removed  to  Oneida,  in 
Madison  county,  N.  Y.,  where  they  practiced  their 
system  of  “ plural  marriage,”  and  became  possessed  of 
nearly  $500,000  worth  of  property.  After  Noyes* 
death  the  community  went  to  pieces. 

NUNEZ,  Casto  Mendez,  a Spanish  sailor,  was 
born  in  Galicia  about  1830,  and  died  in  1880.  He  en- 
tered the  Spanish  navy  and  by  1864  had  risen  to  the 
rank  of  commodore.  Being  given  command  of  the 
Peruvian  fleet  he,  on  March  31,  1866,  bombarded  the 
city  of  Valparaiso,  Chili,  and  inflicted  $10,000,000 
damage  on  that  city.  He  afterward  attacked  Callao, 
where  he  was  severely  wounded  and  was  promoted 
vice-admiral. 

NUNEZ  DE  ARCE,  Gasper,  was  born  at  Valla- 
dolid, August  4,  1834.  He  studied  at  Toledo,  where 
he  took  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy.  He  has 
written  Como  se  empene  un  Mando,  a comedy  in  one 
act,  and  in  verse,  i860;  Ni  tanto  ni  tan  poco,  a comedy 
in  three  acts,  1865 ; Discursos  leidos  ante  la  Real  Acad- 
emia Espaiiolay  1876;  El  Haz  de  Lena,  a drama  in 
five  acts,  1882;  Las  Mujeres  del  Evangelioy  1884.  His 
lyric  poems  have  gained  him  the  name  of  “ the  Tenny- 
son of  Spain.” 

NUNEZ,  Rafael,  born  in  Carthagena,  Colombia, 
in  September  1825,  was  elected  to  congress  from  Pan- 
ama in  1851,  and  from  1855  to  1857  was  secretary  of 
the  treasury.  He  afterward  resided  for  several  years 
in  New  York,  and  from  1865  to  1874  was  Colombian 
consul  at  Havre  and  Liverpool  successively.  In  1875 
he  became  governor  of  the  State  of  Bolivar,  served  in 
1878  in  the  Colombian  senate,  and  in  1879  was  elected 
president  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia.  After  a 
short  intermission  he  was  reelected  in  1884,  and  in  1886 
was  again  chpsen  for  a term  of  six  years,  and  reelected 
in  1892.  Senor  Nunez  was  a brilliant  writer  both  of 
prose  and  verse.  He  died  September  18,  1894. 


6716 


OAK-OCO 


a 


OAKELEY,  Sir  Herbert  Stanley,  Mus.D., 
D.C.L.,  was  born  at  Ealing,  Middlesex,  England,  in 
July,  1830.  He  was  educated  at  Rugby  School  and  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford  (B.  A.  1853,  M.  A.  1855).  After 
having  graduated  he  went  abroad  to  complete  his 
studies  in  music,  for  which,  from  earliest  childhood,  he 
had  shown  a marked  predilection.  At  Leipsic  he 
studied  pianoforte-playing  under  Professors  Moscheles 
and  Plaidy,  and  at  Bonn  organ-playing  under  Doctor 
Breidenstein,  professor  of  music  in  that  university,  and 
later  under  the  great  organist,  Dr.  Johann  Schneider, 
of  Dresden.  While  resident  in  London  he  acted  for 
some  years  as  musical  critic  and  correspondent.  In 
1864  he  was  enrolled,  in  Rome,  as  member  of  the 
Society  of  “Quirites.”  In  1865,  on  the  death  of  Pro- 
fessor Donaldson,  he  was  elected  professor  of  music  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.  In  1871  he  received  ex 
officio  the  degree  of  doctor  of  music.  In  recognition 
of  musical  services  for  Scotland,  the  honor  of  knight- 
hood was  conferred  on  him  in  August,  1876.  In  1879 
his  own  university,  Oxford;  gave  him  the  degree  of 
Mus.D.,  honoris  causd;  and  in  1881  that  of  LL.D. 
was  presented  to  him  by  the  University  of  Aberdeen. 
He  has  written  for  the  church,  for  chorus,  orchestra, 
organ,  and  pianoforte,  and  has  published  vocal  quartets, 
etc. 

OAKES,  James,  born  in  Pennsylvania,  April  4, 
1826;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846.  He  was  as- 
signed to  the  dragoons;  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  and 
was  brevetted  captain  in  April,  1861.  He  was  made 
major  and  led  his  regiment  in  Tennessee  and  Missis- 
sippi. In  1862  he  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  of 
the  United  States  army,  and  in  March,  1865,  commis- 
sioned colonel.  He  was  retired  from  active  service  in 
i879- 

OAKES,  John  Wright,  A.R.A.,  born  in  1822,  at 
Sproston  House,  near  Middlewich,  Cheshire,  was  edu- 
cated at  a private  school  in  Liverpool.  He  exhibited 
at  the  Royal  Academy  nearly  every  year  from  1848  until 
his  death.  Mr.  Oakes  was  elected  an  Associate  of  the 
Royal  Academy  in  April,  1876,  and  an  honorary  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy,  November,  1883. 
He  died  July  8,  1887. 

OAKLEY,  John,  D.D.,  dean  of  Manchester,  was 
born  in  1834,  and  educated  at  Brasenose  College,  Ox- 
ford, of  which  he  was  a scholar.  He  was  ordained  in 
1858,  and  fifteen  years  of  excellent  work  brought  him 
under  the  notice  of  Mr.  Gladstone,  who  appointed  him 
to  the  vacant  deanery  of  Carlisle.  In  1883,  on  the 
death  of  Doctor  Boyd,  of  Exeter,  Dean  Cowie,  of  Man- 
chester, was  transferred  to  Exeter,  and  Doctor  Oakley 
succeeded  to  the  deanery  of  Manchester.  He  published 
The  Conscience  Clause , Its  History , Terms , Effect  and 
Principle  (1864^  ; The  Christian  Aspect  and  Applica- 
tion of  the  Decalogue  (1865),  and  various  sermons,  etc. 
He  died  June  10,  1890. 

O’BRIEN,  Cornelius,  born  in  Prince  Edward 
Island,  May  4,  1843 ; studied  in  Rome  at  the  College 
of  the  Propaganda.  He  was  ordained  in  1871,  and 
became  a professor  in  St.  Dunstan’s  College,  and  held 
pastorates  until  1882.  On  January  21,  1883,  he  was 
consecrated  archbishop  of  Halifax,  N.  S. 

O’BRIEN,  Fitz-James,  born  in  Limerick,  Ireland, 
in  1828;  died  in  Maryland  in  April,  1862.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Dublin,  and  served  in 
the  British  army.  About  1852  he  came  to  the  United 
States,  and  devoted  himself  to  literature  in  New  York 


city.  He  was  connected  with  several  important  news- 
papers there,  and  contributed  a great  many  sketches  to 
Harper's  Magazine , in  addition  to  writing  plays  and 
verse.  O’Brien  occupied  a prominent  position  among 
the  Bohemian  literary  men  of  New  York  at  that  time. 
In  1861  he  joined  the  7th  New  York  volunteers,  and 
afterward  served  on  the  staff.  In  February,  1862,  he 
was  severely  wounded  in  a skirmish,  and  died  from  the 
effects  of  this  wound  about  six  weeks  later. 

O’BRIEN,  Lucius  Richard,  president  of  the 
Royal  Canadian  Academy  of  Arts,  was  born  at  Lake 
Simcoe,  Ontario,  Canada,  in  1832,  and  educated  at  Up- 
per Canada  College,  Toronto.  At  an  early  age  he  de- 
veloped a taste  for  art.  In  1872  he  took  an  active  part 
in  founding  the  Art  School  of  the  Ontario  Society  of 
Artists,  and  for  six  years  he  held  the  vice-presidency  of 
that  institution.  In  1880  the  Royal  Canadian  Academy 
of  Arts  was  founded  and  Mr.  O’Brien  was  elected  pres- 
ident. To  the  exhibitions  he  has  been  a large  contrib- 
utor. He  superintended  the  illustration  of  Picturesque 
Canada  (2  vols.,  Toronto,  1884),  to  which  he  contrib- 
uted a large  number  of  the  drawings. 

O’BRIEN,  William,  was  born  in  1852,  and  was 
educated  at  the  Diocesan  Co'llege,  Cloyne,  and  at 
Queen’s  College,  Cork.  He  represented  Mallow  from 
January,  1883,  until  its  extinction  as  a borough  under 
the  Redistribution  Act,  1885,  and  in  the  parliament  of 
1885  was  member  for  South  Tyrone.  At  the  general 
election  of  1886  he  was  defeated  by  Mr.  T.  W.  Russell, 
Unionist  Liberal,  but  was  elected  for  Cork  in  1887  and 
again  in  1892.  He  was  a delegate  of  the  National 
League  to  the  Chicago  convention  in  August,  1886,  and 
in  1890  escaped  to  the  United  States  to  avoid  arrest  and 
make  speeches  for  the  Home  Rule  fund.  He  was  im- 
prisoned in  1888  under  the  Crimes  Act  and  again  in 
1891.  He  was  one  of 'Parnell’s  supporters,  but  took 
part  against  him  in  1891.  He  edited  United  Ireland. 
He  married  in  June,  1890,  a Russian  lady  of  large 
fortune. 

O’CONNOR,  James,  born  in  Ireland,  September 
10,  1823,  came  to  the  United  States  in  1838,  and  studied 
in  Philadelphia  and  at  the  College  of  the  Propaganda 
in  Rome.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1845 ; served 
many  years  as  pastor  and  teacher  in  various  institutions, 
and  in  1876  was  named  vicar-apostolic  of  Nebraska, 
and  later  (1885)  bishop.  He  died  May  27,  1890. 

O’CONNOR,  John,  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1824; 
died  in  Coburg,  Ontario,  November  3,  1887.  He  be- 
came a member  of  the  Canadian  bar  in  1854,  and 
served  several  terms  in  the  local  and  the  Dominion 
Parliament.  In  Sir  John  Macdonald’s  administration 
he  was  successively  president  of  the  council,  minister  of 
inland  revenue,  and  postmaster-general.  In  1884  he 
was  appointed  to  a judgeship. 

O’CONNOR,  Thomas  Power,  M.P.,  born  at  Ath- 
lone,  county  Roscommon,  in  1848,  was  educated  first 
at  the  College  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  Athlone, 
and  afterward  at  the  Queen’s  College,  where  he  gradu- 
ated in  the  degrees  of  B.A.  and  M.A.  He  adopted 
journalism  as  a profession,  and  after  three  years’  con- 
nection with  the  Dublin  press,  went  to  London  in 
1870.  He  first  obtained  an  engagement  on  the  Daily 
Telegraph , and  was  afterward  employed  on  several 
other  London  journals.  He  published,  in  1876,  a com- 
plete life  of  the  then  premier,  in  a single  volume,  en- 
titled Lord  Beaconsfield , a Biography . The  -work 
received  general  praise  for  its  literary  merit*  and  rc- 


o c O — O K E 


search,  but,  as  it  took  a very  unfavorable  view  of  the 
Conservative  leader,  its  conclusions  met  with  a widely 
different  reception  from  Liberal  and  Conservative  critics. 
Mr.  O’Connor  was  elected  member  for  the  town  of 
Galway  at  the  general  election  of  1880,  and  soon  be- 
came one  of  the  most  active  and  prominent  members  of 
the  party  led  by  Mr.  Parnell.  He  was  an  executive 
officer  of  the  Land  League,  both  in  England  and 
Ireland.  In  October,  1881,  he  came  to  the  United 
States,  and  lectured  on  the  Irish  cause  to  large  gather- 
ings in  nearly  all  the  great  cities,  during  a tour  which 
extended  over  seven  months,  and  raised  a large  sum  of 
money.  In  1883  he  was  elected  president  of  the  “Irish 
National  League  of  Great  Britain.”  In  1885,  1886,  and 
1892  he  was  elected  for  the  Scotland  division  of  Liver- 
pool. He  has  written  Gladstone's  Hotise  of  Commons , 
The  Parnell  Movement , a biography  of  Parnell,  and 
numerous  tales  and  essays,  besides  editing  a Cabinet 
of  Irish  Literature.  He  founded  the  Star  in  1888,  and 
the  Sunday  Sun  in  1891,  bringing  it  out  as  an  even- 
ing paper  in  1893. 

O’CONOR,  Charles,  lawyer,  born  in  New  York 
city,  January  22,  1804;  died  in  Nantucket,  Mass.,  May 
12,  1884.  His  father  was  an  Irish  journalist,  who  died 
in  New  York  city  at  the  age  of  eighty-five.  The  son 
studied  law,  and  when  twenty-one  years  of  age  was 
admitted  to  practice.  He  continued  assiduously  in 
the  practice  of  his  profession  until  the  end  of  his 
life,  being  employed  as  counsel  in  many  important 
cases,  usually  attended  with  success,  winning  national 
celebrity,  and  drawing  large  fees.  During  the  Civil  war 
he  sympathized  with  the  Confederacy,  and  at  its  con- 
clusion became  senior  counsel  for  Jefferson  Davis,  when 
the  latter  was  indicted  for  treason.  In  1869  Mr.  O’Conor 
was  chosen  president  of  the  law  institute  of  New  York. 

O’FARRELL,  Michael  Joseph,  born  in  Limerick, 
Ireland,  in  1832;  studied  in  Paris  and  was  ordained 
priest  in  1855.  He  came  to  the  United  States  to  take 
charge  of  a pastorate  in  New  York  city,  and  in  1881 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Trenton,  N.  J.,  a new  dio- 
cese then  formed.  He  died  April  2,  1894. 

OGDEN,  Aaron,  born  in  Elizabethtown,  N.  J., 
December  3,  1756;  died  in  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  April  19, 
1839.  He  was  graduated  at  Princeton,  thereafter 
taught  school,  and  participated  in  the  struggles  of  the 
Revolution.  In  1776  he  was  made  captain  of  a New 
Jersey  regiment,  and  was  present  at  the  battles  of 
Brandy  wine  and  Monmouth.  In  1779  he  served  as  aide 
in  an  expedition  of  Gen.  John  Sullivan  against  the 
Indians,  and  a year  later  fought  at  the  battle  of  Spring- 
field,  N.  J.,  where  his  horse  was  shot  under  him. 
Later  he  was  commissioned  by  General  Washington  to 
visit  Sir  Henry  Clinton  for  the  purpose  of  proposing  an 
exchange  of  Major  Andre  for  Gen.  Benedict  Arnold.  As 
was  undoubtedly  foreseen,  Sir  Henry  Clinton’s  honor 
would  not  permit  the  exchange.  In  1781  Ogden  was 
present  at  the  Yorktown  surrender.  After  the  war  he 
studied  law,  and  practiced  with  success,  and  in  1796  was 
a presidential  elector.  Thereafter  he  became  lieuten- 
ant-colonel and  for  six  months  served  as  deputy  quar- 
termaster-general of  the  United  States  army.  On  Feb- 
ruary 28,  1801,  he  became  United  States  senator,  and  on 
October  29,  1812,  was  elected  governor  of  New  Jersey. 

OGDEN,  William  Butler,  born  in  Walton,  N.Y., 
June  15,  1805;  died  August  3,  1877.  He  removed  to 
Chicago  in  1835,  engaged  in  the  real  estate  business, 
and  in  1837  became  the  first  mayor  of  the  new  city.  Mr. 
Ogden  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Chicago  and 
Galena  railroad,  the  first  railroad  built  in  the  North- 
west, and  was  afterward  president  of  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern  railroad,  which  grew  out  of  the  first- 
named.  He  was  the  first  president  of  the  Union  Pacific 
5W 


6717 

railroad,  and  was  one  of  the  foremost  lumbermen  of  the 
United  States.  Mr.  Ogden  made  many  benefactions 
during  his  life  and  by  his  will  to  institutions  of  learning 
and  charity  in  Chicago  and  elsewhere. 

O’HARA,  Theodore,  born  in  Danville,  Ky.,  Feb- 
ruary 11,  1820;  died  in  Alabama,  June  6,  1867.  He 
studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Kentucky, 
and  in  June,  1846,  entered  the  volunteer  service  as  cap- 
tain. He  was  brevetted  major  for  gallant  service  at 
Churubusco,  and  afterward  served  in  the  United  States 
cavalry  as  captain.  During  the  Civil  war  he  joined  the 
Confederate  army  and  served  on  the  staff  of  Albert  S. 
Johnston  and  John  C.  Breckenridge.  O’Hara  was 
connected  at  various  times  with  several  Southern  news- 
papers, and  was  the  author  of  many  sketches  and  some 
verse.  He  is  best  known  by  his  poem,  The  Bivouac  oj 
the  Dead,  written  in  commemoration  of  the  Kentuckians 
who  fell  at  Buena  Vista. 

OJltDA,  Alonso  de,  Spanish  adventurer,  born  in 
Cuenca  in  1465;  died  in  Hispaniola  in  1515.  In  the 
second  expedition  of  Columbus  he  joined  that  leader, 
and  was  sent  to  explore  the  interior  of  Hispaniola, 
where  he  discovered  several  gold  mines,  had  contests 
with  the  Indians,  captured  their  cacique  (or  chief),  and 
took  him  as  a prisoner  to  Columbus.  In  1496  Ojeda 
returned  to  Spain  to  obtain  permission  to  explore  the 
main  land,  and  sailed  from  Santa  Maria  on  May  18, 
1499,  accompanied  among  others  by  Americo  Vespucci. 
Eventually  the  explorers  came  to  a place  where  they 
found  several  Indian  villages  built  on  piles  in  the  mid?* 
of  lakes,  which,  having  a fancied  resemblance  to  Venice, 
they  named  Venezuela.  On  September  5,  1499,  their 
storm-beaten  vessels  sought  refuge  at  Jacmet,  but  were 
driven  away  by  Raldan,  one  of  the  lieutenants  of 
Columbus.  Eventually  Ojeda  and  his  followers  returned 
to  Cadiz,  and  took  with  them  several  hundred  Indians 
from  the  Bahama  Islands,  to  be  sold  as  slaves.  In  1501 
he  was  commissioned  governor  of  Coquibacoa,  and 
sailed  anew  for  America  in  January,  1502.  He  settled 
in  Hispaniola,  sending  his  former  pilot,  La  Cosa,  to 
Madrid  to  obtain  patents  for  new  conquests  on  the  main 
land.  Returning  with  three  ships  and  200  men,  La  Cosa 
joined  Ojeda  at  Hispaniola.  Here  the  latter  gathered 
about  100  more  adventurers,  among  whom  was  Francisco 
Pizarro.  After  beating  about  in  different  directions  and 
enduring  hardships,  he  again  returned  to  Hispaniola, 
where  he  passed  his  closing  years  in  misery,  and  died 
from  the  wound  of  a poisoned  arrow. 

O’KELLY,  James,  M.P.,  was  born  in  Dublin  in 
1845.  He  was  educated  at  Dublin  University  and  at 
the  Sorbonne,  Paris,  and  served  for  some  time  as  an 
officer  in  the  French  army  during  the  Franco-German 
war.  He  left  France  after  the  fall  of  Paris  and  came 
to  New  York,  where  he  worked  for  some  time  for  the 
New  York  Herald.  As  a correspondent  for  the  same 
paper  he  went  to  Cuba  at  the  time  of  the  insurrection, 
but  joined  the  rebels,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  confined 
for  some  time  in  a dungeon,  whence  at  last  he  contrived 
to  escape.  After  various  adventures  in  America,  Al- 
giers, and  elsewhere,  he  went  to  the  Soudan  for  the 
purpose  of  joining  the  Mahdi’s  troops;  he  was  lost  foi 
some  months  in  the  desert,  and  at  last  appeared  on  the 
Nile,  not  far  from  Khartoum.  After  writing  a series 
of  lively  letters  to  the  Daily  News  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land, and  once  more  represented  the  constituency  of 
Roscommon  in  the  House  of  Commons.  At  the  gen- 
eral election  of  1885  he  and  Mr.  Mullany  were  returned 
by  an  immense  Parnellite  majority  for  the  new  division 
of  North  Roscommon,  and  in  1806  he  was  returned  un- 
opposed, but  was  defeated  in  1892  by  M.  Bodkin,  anti- 
Parnellite.  Mr.  O’Kelly  was  a “suspect,”  and  was 
imprisoned  at  Kilmainham  in  1881-82. 


OLD-OLM 


6718 

OLDENBURG,  Grand  Duke  of  (Nicholas 
Frederick  Peter),  son  ofthe'Grand  Duke  Paul  Fred- 
erick Augustus  and  the  Princess  Ida  of  Anhalt-Bern- 
berg,  born  July  8,  1827;  succeeded  his  father  February 
27,  1843.  The  population  of  the  duchy  over  which  he 
reigns  is  about  300,000.  He  promulgated  a liberal 
constitution  in  February,  1849,  modified  it  in  1852,  and 
during  the  war  between  Russia,  Turkey,  and  the  allied 
powers,  he  adhered  to  the  policy  of  Prussia.  After  the 
conquest  of  Schleswig-Holstein  by  Prussia  and  Austria, 
the  grand  duke  claimed  a portion  of  these  duchies, 
which  claim  he  endeavored  to  support  by  some  “ me- 
moires”  addressed  to  the  diplomatists  of  Europe.  He 
married,  February  10,  1852,  Elizabeth,  daughter  of 
Prince  Joseph  of  Saxe-Altenburg,  by  whom  he  has  two 
sons. 

OLIPHANT,  Laurence,  son  of  the  late  Sir  An- 
thony Oliphant,  C.B.,  for  many  years  chief  justice  of  Cey- 
lon, born  in  1 829,  was  intended  for  the  law,  but  visited 
India  while  very  yoUng,  and  accompanied  Jung  Baha- 
door  to  the  Nepaulese  court.  An  account  of  this 
visit  he  published  under  the  title  of  A Journey  to 
Kalmandhu . In  1852  he  traveled  through  a great  part 
of  Russia,  as  far  as  the  Crimea,  an  account  of  which 
tour  he  published  in  1853,  under  the  title  of  The  Rus- 
sian Shores  of  the  Black  Sea.  He  became  private  secre- 
tary to  the  late  earl  of  Elgin,  then  governor- general  of 
Canada,  and  civil  secretary  and  superintendent  of  In- 
dian affairs;  and  in  1855  published,  under  the  title  of 
Minnesota  and  the  Far  West , a narrative  of  his  wan- 
derings in  Canada  and  the  United  States.  The  Coming 
Campaign , on  the  war  with  Russia,  and  many,  other 
books,  testified  to  his  keen  observation  during  his  dip- 
lomatic career  which  ended  in  1862,  when  an  attempt 
was  made  to  assassinate  him  when  acting  as  charge  d ’ 
affaires  in  Japan.  He  was  elected  to  parliament  for 
Sterling  in  1865,  but  resigned  in  1868,  to  join  the  spirit- 
ualist community  in  Dutchess  county,  New  York. 
He  turned  his  fortune  over  to  the  community,  and  lived 
there  eighteen  months,  doing  the  work  of  a laborer. 
In  1870  he  went  as  correspondent  of  the  London  Times 
to  the  Franco-Prussian  war  and  some  years  later  founded 
three  religious  colonies  in  Palestine,  living  at  Haifa. 
His  latest  book  was  Scientific  Religions , or  Higher 
Possibilities  of  Life  and  Practice  through  the  Operation 
of  Natural  Forces  (1888),  a work  of  a theosophical 
character.  He  died  December  23,  1888. 

OLIPHANT,  Mrs.  MArgaret,  whose  maiden 
name  was  Wilson;  novelist  and  biographer,  and  one  of 
the  most  prolific  writers  of  the  day,  was  born  in  Mid- 
lothian, Scotland,  in  1828.  The  first  of  her  numerous 
works  of  fiction,  which  abound  in  skillful  delineatibns  of 
Scotch  life  and  character,  appeared  in  1849,  before  the 
author  had  attained  her  majority,  under  the  title  of 
Passages  in  the  Life  of  Mrs.  Margaret  Maitland  of 
Sunnyside.  Its  success  was  such  as  to  excite  its  author 
to  fresh  efforts,  and  she  produced  along  series  of  works 
of  fiction,  which  secured  for  her  a wide-spread  reputa- 
tion both  in  England  and  America.  She  also  edited 
Messrs.  Blackwood’s  Foreign  Classics  for  English 
Readers,  and  herself  contributed  volumes  on  Dante  and 

Cervantes.  She  ,died  June  25,  1897. 

OLL1VIER,  Emile,  born  at  Marseilles,  July  2, 
1825  ; became  a member  of  the  Paris  bar  in  1847 ; and 
in  1848  was  commissary-general  of  the  republic  at  Mar- 
seilles ; was  Prefet  at  Langres ; arid  returned  to  the  bar 
in  1849.  Elected  as  Opposition  candidate  for  the  third 
circonscription  of  the  Seine  in  1S57,  he  took  part  in 
several  important  discussions.  During  the  session  of 
i860  he  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  iriembers  of 
a small  group  of  Opposition  deputies,  known  by  the 
name  of  “The  Five.”  In  1863  he  was  reelected  fof 


Paris,  and  in  1865  he  was  elected  a member  of  the 
council-general  of  the  Var.  M.  Ollivier  was  chosen  by 
the  emperor  as  arbitrator  of  the  difficulties  which  arose 
relative  to  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  and  it  was  upon  his 
report  that  the  final  decision  was  founded.  The  session 
of  1866-67  witnessed  the  complete  separation  of  M. 
Ollivier  from  his  former  political  associates  of  the 
“ Left.”  He  was  returned  by  an  enormous  majority  for 
the  first  circonscription  of  the  Var,  but  was  defeated 
in  the  third  circonscription  of  the  Seine,  for  which  he 
was  also  a candidate.  On  December  27th  M.  Ollivier, 
who  had  been  for  some  time  the  center  of  the  movements 
for  uniting  the  factions  of  the  late  majority  with  the 
new  Liberal  “ third  party,”  received  from  the  Em- 
peror a letter  inviting  him  to  form  a ministry.  Among 
the  first  fruits  of  the  new  administration  was  the  grant- 
ing of  an  amnesty  in  favor  of  M.  Ledru-Rollin,  the 
convocation  of  the  high  court  of  justice  at  Tours,  to 
try  Prince  Pierre  Bonaparte,  the  maintenance  of  order 
without  shedding  of  blood  during  the  popular  excite- 
ment caused  by  the  assassination  of  Victor  Noir,  the 
prosecution  of  Henry  Rochefort,  and  the  dismissal  of 
M.  Haussmann.  Several  administrative  reforms  were 
also  introduced,  and  it  was  thought  by  many  that  an  era 
of  constitutional  liberty  had  begun  for  France.  These 
hopes  were  soon  rudely  dispelled.  The  declaration  of 
war  against  Germany,  and  its  disastrous  results,  led  to 
the  overthrow  of  the  Ollivier  government  on  August 
9,  1870,  when  General  Count  cle  Palikao  was  charged 
with  the  formation  of  a war  ministry.  M.  Ollivier, 
who  had  been  elected  a member  of  the  French  Academy 
in  April,  1870,  deemed  it  prudent  after  the  fall  of  the 
empire  to  retire  to  Biella,  in  Piedmont,  where  he 
resided  for  a considerable  time.  He  returned  to  his 
house  at  Passy  at  the  close  of  the  year  1872,  and  his  re- 
ception at  the  French  Academy  took  place  February 
25,  1874.  M.  Emile  Ollivier  has  published  numerous 
juridical  works,  \Vhich  have  appeared  in  the  Revue  de 
Droit  Pratique , which  he  founded  in  1856,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  MM.  Mourlon,  Demangeat,  and  Ballot. 

OLMSTEt),  Frederick  Law,  was  born  in  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  November  10,  1822.  He  studied  at  Yale 
College,  devoting  special  attention  to  engineering  and 
the  sciences  connected  with  agriculture.  In  1848  he 
purchased  a fruit-farm  on  Staten  Island,  near  New 
York,  and  while  successfully  managing  it,  studied  land- 
scape gardening.  In  1850  he  made  a pedestrian  tour 
through  England  and  portions  of  the  Continent,  an  ac- 
count of  which  was  given  in  his  Walks  and  Talks  of  an 
American  Farmer  in  England,  1852.  In  1852-53,  as 
correspondent  of  the  New  York  Times , he  traveled 
through  the  Southern  States  with  the  special  purpose 
of  studying  the  effects  of  slavery  upon  agriculture.  The 
results  of  this  journey,  and  of  a subsequent  one,  were 
afterward  published  in  separate  works:  A'  Journey  in 
the  Seaboard  Slave  States,  1856;  A Journey  Through 
Texas , 1857;  A Journey  in  the  Black  Country,  i860;  and 
The  Cotton  Kingdom , 1861.  In  1855  he  made  a tour 
through  France,  Italy,  and  Germany,  for  the  purpose 
of  observing  parks  and  rural  grounds.  In  1856  he 
secured  the  prize  for  the  best  plan  of  laying  out  the 
New  York  Central  Park,  and  was  appointed  architect 
and  chief  engineer.  He  continued  in  charge  of  the 
park  until  1801,  when,  the  Civil  war  having  broken  out, 
he  Was  appointed  secretary  and  executive  officer  of  the 
sanitary  commission.  From  1864  to  1866  he  spent  in 
California,  when  he  was  made  one  of  the  commissioners 
of  the  National  Park  of  the  Yosemite.  He  returned  to 
New  York  in  1866,  and  had  charge  of  the  laying  out  of 
the  Brooklyn  Prospect  Park.  He  was  afterward  asso- 
ciated in  designs  for  parks  and  other  public  works  at 
Washington,  Chicago,  Sari  Francisco  and  inany  other 


OLN- 

cities  and  designed  the  lagoons  and  wooded  island 
which  were  among  the  chief  beauties  and  glories  of  the 
World’s  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago  in  1893. 
In  1895,  after  the  exposition  buildings  had  been  re- 
moved, Mr.  Olmsted’s  plans  for  the  laying  out  and 
beautification  of  Jackson  Park,  the  site  of  the  Exposi- 
tion, were  accepted  by  the-  park  commissioners  and 
work  begun  on  a scale  of  magnificence  which  would 
make  the  park  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world. 

OLNEY,  Richard,  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in 
1835.  Educated  at  Brown  University  and  the  Law 
School  of  Harvard,  he  took  high  rank  as  a lawyer,  be- 
came chief  counsel  for  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and 
Santa  Fd,  and  the  Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy 
railroads,  and  in  March,  1893,  became  attorney-general 
of  the  United  States  in  the  second  cabinet  of  President 
Cleveland,  and  was  from  1895  to  1897  United  States 
Secretary  of  State  (succeeding  Judge  Walter  Q.  Gres- 
ham, deceased). 

OMMANNEY,  Admiral,  Sir  Erasmus,  was  born 
in  London  in  1814,  and  entered  the  British  navy  in 
1826.  Promoted  captain  in  1846  he  was  employed  by 
the  government  to  help  in  carrying  out  the  relief  meas- 
ures during  the  Irish  famine,  and  in  February,  1850, 
was  second  in  command  of  the  Arctic  expedition,  under 
Captain  Austin,  to  search  after  the  Franklin  expedi- 
tion, and  was  the  first  to  discover  traces  of  the  missing 
ships.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war  against  Russia  in 
1854,  he  commanded  the  White  sea  expedition,  which 
harassed  the  towns  of  Russian  Lapland;  in  1855  he 
assisted  in  the  operations  of  the  fleet  in  the  Gulf  of 
Finland.  In  1857  he  commanded  th z Brunswick  in  the 
West  Indies  and  was  afterward  attached  to  the  Chan- 
nel fleet  and  the  Mediterranean  fleet.  He  was  senior 
officer  at  Gibraltar  (1862-64),  was  promoted  rear-ad- 
miral, retired  from  the  navy  in  1875,  was  promoted 
admiral  in  1877,  and  knighted  for  his  Arctic  services. 
He  was  elected  a fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  for  scien- 
tific discoveries  in  the  Arctic  and  White  seas. 

OPPERT,  Jules,  was  born  in  Hamburg,  of  Jewish 
parents,  July  9,  1825.  He  studied  law  at  Heidelberg, 
and  Sanskrit  and  Arabic  at  Bonn.  He  next  studied 
the  Zend  and  the  ancient  Persian,  and  published  a 
treatise  at  Berlin  on  the  vocal  system  of  the  latter 
language.  He  went  to  France  in  1847,  obtained  the 
professorship  of  German  at  the  lyceums  of  Laval  and 
Rheims,  was  appointed  on  the  scientific  expedition 
sent  by  the  government  to  Mesopotamia,  and  after  his 
return  in  1854,  submitted  to  the  institute  his  new  system 
of  interpreting  the  cuneiform  inscriptions*  for  which  he 
received  the  grand  prize  of  $4,000.  In  1857  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Sanskrit  in  the  school  of  lan- 
guages of  the  Imperial  Library,  and  in  1874  became 
professor  at  the  College  de  France.  He  has  written  a 
Sanskrit  grammar,  histories  of  the  Chaldean  and  As- 
syrian empires,  The  People  and  the  Language  of  the 
Medes  (1882),  and  other  learned  works. 

ORCHARDSON,  William  Quiller,  R*A.,  born 
at  Edinburgh  in  1835,  at  the  age  of  fifteen  entered 
the  Trustees’  Academy  of  his  native  city.  The  first  pic- 
tures he  submitted  to  public  inspection  were  shown  in 
the  exhibitions  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy.  In 
January,  1868,  he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  He  exhibited  that  year  at  the  academy,  be- 
sides a portrait  of  Mrs.  Birket  Foster,  a subject  from 
Shakespeare — Prince  Henry , Poins  and  Falstaff.  In 
1870  three  pictures  by  him  were  exhibited  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  viz.,  Day  Dreams,  The  Market-Girl fro7n  the 
Lido , and  Toilers  of  the  Sea.  Mr.  Orchardson  achieved 
a great  success  at  the  Paris  Universal  Exhibition,  where 
his  Challenge  and  Christopher  Sly  were  greatly  ad- 
mired by  French  critics,  and  won  for  the  painter  one  of 


•-ORE  6^19 

the  very  few  medals  awarded  to  English  artists.  He 
was  elected  a Royal  Academician  in  1877. 

ORD,  Edward  Otho  Cresap,  soldier,  born  in 
Cumberland,  Md.,  October  18,  1818;  died  in  Havana, 
Cuba,  July  22,  1883.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy,  and  served  against  the  Flor- 
ida Seminoles  from  1839  to  1842.  In  1850  he  was 
made  captain,  and  in  1852  went  to  California,  where 
for  three  years  he  was  engaged  on  the  coast  survey. 
In  1861  he  was  made  a brigadier-general  of  volunteers, 
and  on  May  2,  1862,  became  major-general.  There- 
after he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  left  wing  of 
General  Grant’s  army  at  Corinth,  Miss.,  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Iuka,  and  on  October  5,  1862,  was 
wounded  at  Hatchie.  Subsequently  he  was  engaged  at 
the  siege  and  capture  of  Vicksburg,  and  the  capture  of 
Jackson.  In  July,  1864,  he  commanded  the  eighteenth 
corps  at  the  siege  of  Richmond,  and  on  September  29th 
was  again  wounded  at  Fort  Harrison.  In  January, 
1865,  he  commanded  the  army  of  the  James  at  Peters- 
burg, and  participated  in  the  operations  that  resulted  in 
the  evacuation  of  Richmond,  and  the  surrender  of  the 
Confederate  army  under  Gen.  Robert  E.  Lee.  On 
July  26,  1866,  he  was  promoted  brigadier-general  of 
the  regular  army.  Thereafter  he  held  several  military 
commands  in  the  South  and  West,  and  in  1881  was 
placed  on  the  retired  list.  Eventually  General  Ord 
accepted  the  appointment  of  engineer  in  the  construc- 
tion of  a Mexican  railroad,  and  died  while  on  his  way 
from  Vera  Cruz  to  New  York  city. 

ORDWAY,  John  Morse,  born  in  Massachusetts, 
April  23,  1823  ; graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  1844,  and 
engaged  in  the  study  of  chemistry.  In  1869  he  became 
professor  of  industrial  chemistry  at  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology,  which  position  he  held  for  fif- 
teen years.  He  has  written  extensively  for  scientific 
journals,  and  is  a member  of  many  scientific  societies. 

O’REILLY,  John  Boyle,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Castle 
Dowth,  county  Meath,  Ireland,  June  25,  1844.  He  was 
tried  and  convicted  of  high  treason  in  June,  1866,  and 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life,  but  the  sentence 
was  commuted  to  twenty  years  penal  servitude.  In 
1869  he  escaped  to  the  United  States,  and  soon  be- 
came editor  of  the  Boston  Pilot.  He  also  published 
Songs  from  the  Southern  Seas  (1872)  ; Songs,  Legends, 
and  Ballads  (1876);  Moondyne  (1877);  and  Statues 
in  the  Block  (1881).  He  died  August  10,1890. 

ORELIE,  Antoine  I.,  king  of  Aracania  and  Pata- 
gonia, was  the  title  assumed  by  Or^lie  Antoine  Charles 
de  Tounens,  a French  adventurer,  born  in  Chourgnac, 
in  France,  in  October,  1820;  died  in  Tourtoirac,  France, 
September  19,  1878.  He  studied  law  in  Toulouse, 
practiced  for  a time  in  Perigueux,  and  about  1852  emi- 
grated to  Buenos  Ayres.  From  there  he  went  as  a 
merchant,  to  Concepcion  and  Santiago  where  he  traded 
with  the  Aracanians.  Eventually  he  was  adopted  into 
one  of  their  tribes  and  was  chosen  their  king.  Tounens 
issued  a manifesto  to  the  various  nationalities  of  Europe 
and  America,  informing  them  of  his  accession  to  the 
throne.  The  Chilian  Government  at  once  threatened 
to  declare  war  against  the  Indians  unless  they  agreed 
to  expel  the  adventurous  Frenchman.  Or6lie  was  taken 
prisoner,  but  escaped.  Shortly  afterward  he  was  re- 
captured, and  by  the  Santiago  court  of  appeals  declared 
a lunatic,  placed  on  a vessel,  and  sent  to  France.  He 
lectured  in  the  principal  French  cities,  and  in  the 
autumn  of  1869  returned  to  Patagonia.  Here  he  failed 
to  interest  his  alleged  subjects  on  his  behalf,  and  after  a 
few  months  of  adverse  adventure  sailed  for  Marseilles. 
There,  in  1871  and  1872,  he  founded  two  journals  advo- 
cating his  claims,  and  in  April,  1874,  having  interested 
several  parties  of  means,  left  Bordeaux  in  a vessel  loaded 


O R E—  O S C 


6720 

with  arms  and  ammunition,  for  Buenos  Ayres.  After 
reaching  that  point  he  freighted  a small  schooner,  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Jean  Prat,  and  sailed  for  his  alleged 
possessions.  An  Argentine  ship-of-war,  at  the  request 
of  the  Chilians,  overtook  the  adventurers  and  returned 
Tounens  to  Buenos  Ayres,  where  he  was  imprisoned. 
On  October  31st  he  returned  to  France,  quite  impover- 
ished, and  for  a time  became  the  inmate  ol  a poor-house 
in  Bordeaux.  Under  the  promise  of  great  rewards,  he 
found  means  to  organize  a new  South  American  expedi- 
tion, out  died  before  he  could  carry  out  his  plans. 

O’RELL,  Max  (Paul  Blouet),  born  in  Brittany, 
France,  on  March  2,  1848,  was  educated  in  Paris. 
He  entered  the  military  school  in  1867,  received  a 
lieutenant’s  commission  in  the  artillery,  1869,  served 
during  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  and  was  severely 
wounded,  and  pensioned.  He  became  a journalist  and 
London  correspondent  of  several  Paris  newspapers,  and 
wrote  John  Bull  and  his  Island  in  1883  ; of  this  book 
750,000  copies  were  sold.  His  other  books  are  John 
Bull's  Womankind , 1884;  The  Dear  Neighbors,  1885  ; 
John  Bull  Junior , 1886  ; Friend  MacDonald , 1887  ; 
Jonathan  and  his  Continent  (1889) ; English  Pharisees 
(1893),  and  John  Bull  6°  Co.  (1894),  the  latter  work 
concerning  the  English  colonies.  Max  O’Rell  has 
made  numerous  lecture  tours  in  the  United  States. 

ORELLANA,  Francisco,  Spanish  adventurer,  born 
in  Trujillo,  Spain,  about  1500;  died  in  Guiana  in  1545. 
He  had  been  a boyhood’s  companion  of  Francisco  Pi- 
zarro,  and  followed  him  throughout  the  conquest  of 
Peru.  In  1537  he  became  engaged  in  the  rebuilding  of 
Guayaquil,  and,  in  1539,  served  under  Gonzala  Pizarro, 
as  his  deputy  in  the  expedition  that  set  out  in  search  of 
El  Dorado.  The  Spanish  chronicler  says  that,  at  times, 
they  met  Indian  tribes  led  by  women  of  warlike  aspect, 
and  that  he  was  told  the  country  belonged  to  women, 
who  lived  in  communities,  separate  and  apart  from  men. 
These  reports  tended' to  spread  the  myth  of  a country 
peopled  by  Amazons.  Later  the  expedition  arrived  at 
the  island  of  Trinidad.  From  the  account  given  of 
these  explorations,  it  appears  that  Orellana  was  the  first 
European  who  navigated  the  Amazon  river.  On  Feb- 
ruary 2,  1544,  he  obtained  from  the  king  of  Spain  a 
grant  of  the  country  bordering  on  the  great  river,  under 
the  name  of  Nueva  Andalucia,  but  died  on  his  voyage 
to  his  new  possessions. 

ORLEANS,  Due  d’,  a son  of  the  Comte  de  Paris, 
and  great-grandson  of  Louis  Philippe,  has  come  into 
prominence  recently  by  reason  of  his  claim  to  the 
throne  of  France  by  right  of  descent  from  the  latter, 
in  defiance  of  the  law  enacted  by  the  French  National 
Assembly,  banishing  the  Orleans  and  Bonaparte 
families  from  French  citizenship.  During  the  spring  of 
1890  he  became  of  age,  and  making  his  appearance  in 
Paris,  demanded  to  be  accepted  as  a soldier  in  the 
French  army.  His  arrest  and  conviction  for  violation 
of  the  law  above  referred  to,  followed,  and  his  punish- 
ment was  fixed  at  two  years’  imprisonment.  After  a 
short  detention,  however,  he  was  released  and  sent  out 
of  the  country. 

ORMEROD,  Eleanor  A.,  is  the  youngest  child 
of  the  late  Mr.  George  Ormerod,  the  well-known  gen- 
ealogist and  historian  of  Cheshire.  About  1868,  when 
the  collection  of  economic  entomology  now  at  the 
Bethnal  Green  Museum  was  begun,  Miss  Ormerod  be- 
came a contributor.  In  1877  she  invited,  by  circular, 
information  for  publication  in  reports,  as  to  means 
found  practically  serviceable  for  prevention  of  injury  to 
oaks  by  insects,  and  in  this  way  and  by  constant  study 
she  has  gained  much  practical  knowledge  on  the  sub- 
ject. In  1879  s^c  published  Notes  of  Observations  of 
Injurious  Insects;  A Manual  of  Injurious  Insects , with 


Methods  of  Prevention  and  Remedy  for  their  Attacks  to 
Food,  Crops , etc.,  1881;  Reports  of  Observations  of  In- 
jurious Insects  during  1882,  1883;  Some  Observations  on 
the  (Estridce,  1884.  In  1882  Miss  Ormerod  was  appoint- 
ed consulting  entomologist  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England,  and  shortly  after  became  special 
lecturer  on  economic  entomology  at  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural College,  Cirencester.  Died  July  19,  1901. 

O RMS  BY,  Henry,  was  born  in  February,  1812, 
and  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he 
graduated  in  1834.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1835, 
and  made  a Q.C.  in  1858.  Shortly  before  the  resigna- 
tion of  the  Conservative  ministry,  in  1868,  he  was 
nominated  solicitor-general  for  Ireland.  Upon  the  re- 
turn of  Mr.  Disraeli  to  power  in  1874  he  was  reap- 
pointed solicitor-general.  In  January,  1875,  was 
appointed  attorney-general  for  Ireland,  and  sworn  of 
the  privy  council;  and  in  November,  the  same  year,  lie 
was  appointed  a judge  of  the  landed  estates  court  in 
Ireland.  He  died  September  17,  1887. 

ORR,  James  Lawrence,  born  in  South  Carolina, 
May  12,  1822;  died  in  Russia  in  May,  1873.  He  served 
for  thirteen  years  (1844-57)  in  the  legislature  of  his 
native  State,  and  from  December,  1849,10  March,  1859, 
was  a member  of  congress;  in  the  thirty-fifth  congress 
(1857)  being  elected  speaker.  He  opposed  the  seces- 
sion movement,  but  finally  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  it 
when  South  Carolina  went  out  of  the  Union.  After- 
ward he  raised  a regiment,  of  which  he  became  colonel, 
and  in  1862  he  was  elected  to  the  Confederate  senate. 
In  1865-68  he  was  governor  of  South  Carolina;  in  1870 
he  was  elected  circuit  judge,  and  in  1872  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  Russia. 

ORTON,  Edward,  born  in  New  York  State,  March 
9,  1829;  graduated  at  Hamilton,  and  studied  at  the 
Lawrence  Scientific  School  at  Harvard.  He  became 
in  succession  professor  in  the  New  York  State  Normal 
School,  in  Antioch  College,  Ohio,  and  in  the  Ohio 
State  University,  serving  as  president  of  the  two  last- 
named.  In  1881  he  became  professor  of  geology  in  the 
Ohio  State  University,  of  which  he  is  LL.D. 

ORTON,  James,  born  in  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y.,  April 
21,  1830;  died  in  Peru,  September  25,  1877.  He  acted 
as  pastor  of  Congregational  churches  in  Maine  and 
New  York,  and  in  1869  was  elected  professor  of  nat- 
ural history  at  Vassar.  He  died  while  engaged  in  a 
scientific  expedition  in  Peru. 

OSBORNE,  Lord  Sydney Godolphin,  third  son  of 
the  first  Lord  Godolphin,  born  in  1808;  graduated  B.A. 
at  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  in  1830,  and  having  been 
for  some  years  rector  of  Stoke  Pogis,  near  Eton,  was 
appointed  rector  of  Durweston,  Dorsetshire,  in  1841. 
He  resigned  the  latter  incumbency  in  September,  1875. 
Lord  S.  G.  Osborne  was  formerly  well  known  for  his 
letters  on  social  and  philanthropic  subjects,  published 
under  the  signature  of  “ S.  G.  O.”  He  died  in  1888. 

OSBORNE,  Thomas  O.,  born  in  Licking  county, 
Ohio,  August  11,  1832;  became  a lawyer  in  Chicago, 
and  in  1861  entered  the  volunteer  service  as  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  an  Illinois  jegiment.  During  the  war  he 
rose  to  be  brevet  major-general  of  volunteers.  From 
1874  to  1885  he  was  consul-general  to  the  Argentine 
Republic. 

OSCAR  II.,  King  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  was 
born  January  21,  1829,  and  before  he  ascended  the 
throne  held  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  the  army. 
He  married,  in  June,  1857,  the  Princess  Sophia  of 
Nassau,  daughter  of  the  late  Duke  Wilhelm  of  Nassau, 
who  was  born  in  July,  1836.  From  this  union  there 
are  four  sons — namely,  Gustaf,  duke  of  Wermland,  born 
in  June,  1858,  now  heir-apparent  to  the  throne;  Oscar, 
duke  of  Gotland,  born  in  November,  1859;  Carl,  duk* 


OSC-OSM 


of  WestefgStland,  born  in  February,  1861;  and  Eugene, 
duke  of  Nerike,  born  in  August,  1865.  On  the  death 
of  his  brother,  Charles  XV.,  in  1872,  Oscar  succeeded 
to  the  throne.  The  coronation  of  King  Oscar  and 
Queen  Sophia  took  place  July  18,  1873,  at  the  Cathedral 
of  Drontheim  in  Norway.  In  1878  the  Frankfort 
Academy  of  Sciences  elected  the  king  of  Sweden  a cor- 
responding member  in  recognition  of  his  poetical  trans- 
lation of  Goethe’s  Faust  into  Swedish.  His  majesty  is 
also  the  author  of  A Memoir  of  Charles  XII.  (trans- 
lated into  English  in  1879);  and  of  Poems  and  Leaflets 
from  my  Journal,  1880. 

OSCEOLA,  a Seminole  chief,  born  on  the  Chat- 
tahoochee river,  Georgia,  in  1804;  died  in  Fort  Moul- 
trie, S.  C.,  January  30,  1838.  His  father  was  an  Eng- 
lishman who  traded  among  the  Indians.  As  he  grew  to 
manhood  he  obtained  much  influence  among  the  tribe 
and  married  the  daughter  of  a fugitive  slave,  who  in 
1835  was  seized  as  a slave.  Osceola  demanded  her 
return,  and  in  reply  General  Thompson,  United  States 
Indian  agent,  ordered  the  Indian  to  be  confined  in  irons 
^ for  six  days.  Six  months  later  Osceola  revenged  this 
injury  by  killing  General  Thompson  and  several  others. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  the  protracted  Seminole  war. 
On  December  28,  1835,  with  a band  of  Indians  and 
fugitive  slaves,  Osceola  surrounded  and  slew  Maj. 
Francis  L.  Dade  and  his  detachment  of  no  soldiers. 
Three  days  later,  with  200  followers,  he  met  Gen. 
Duncan  L.  Clinch,  with  600  United  States  regulars,  and 
after  a severe  contest  was  compelled  to  retreat.  In  this 
action  Osceola  was  slightly  wounded.  Thereafter  he 
fought  the  United  States  forces  on  several  occasions, 
and,  although  often  greatly  outnumbered,  he  bravely 
and  sagaciously  held  his  own.  On  October  21,  1837, 
while  holding  a conference  with  Gen.  Thomas  S.  Jesup, 
he  was  seized  with  some  of  his  followers  and  confined 
in  Fort  Moultrie,  where  he  died. 

OSGOOD,  Frances  Sargent,  author,  born  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  June  18,  1811;  died  in  Hingham,  Mass., 
May  12,  1850.  As  a girl  she  wrote  for  several  periodi- 
cals, and  in  1835  was  married  to  Samuel  S.  Osgood,  a 
portrait  painter,  with  whom  she  afterward  visited  Lon- 
don. In  1840  the  couple  returned  to  Boston,  and  later 
removed  to  New  York  city  and  to  Brooklyn  L.  I., 
where  Mr.  Osgood  pursued  his  art.  Mrs.  Osgood 
wrote  prose  and  poetry  for  many  periodicals. 

O’SHEA,  John  Augustus,  born  in  Ireland  in 
1840,  was  educated  in  the  Catholic  University,  Dublin. 
He  went  through  the  Austro-Prussian  war  as  corre- 
spondent of  a New  York  paper,  and  joined,  in  1869,  the 
staff  of  the  London  Standard.  While  acting  as  a rep- 
resentative of  the  Standard  during  the  Franco- Prussian 
war,  he  was  sentenced  to  death  at  Rheims  on  suspicion 
of  having  been  in  communication  with  the  enemy,  and 
it  was  only  on  a personal  appeal  to  the  Emperor  by  a 
press  colleague  that  his  release  was  ordered.  After 
that  he  was  one  of  the  last  to  reenter  Paris  before  it 
was  invested  by  the  German  forces,  and  while  contrib- 
uting continuous  letters  by  balloon-post  suffered  all  the 
privations  of  the  siege  in  the  beleaguered  city.  He  was 
afterward  with  the  Carlists  in  Biscaya,  was  present  at 
the  capture  of  Carthagena,  and  chronicled  the  episodes 
of  the  famine  in  Bengal.  Mr.  O’Shea  is  the  author  of 
one  or  two  serial  novels,  and  several  comediettas,  be- 
sides many  shorter  sketches  and  stories  which  have 
appeared  in  different  magazines. 

O’SHEA,  William  Henry,  born  in  1840,  is  the 
only  son  of  the  late  Henry  O’Shea,  Esq. , of  Dublin.  He 
was  educated  at  Oscott  and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
and  in  1858  joined  the  18th  hussars,  but  retired.  He 
entered  parliament  in  1880  as  Liberal  Home-Rule  mem- 
ber for  Clare  and  retained  his  seat  until  1885.  When 


672 1 

it  was  in  contemplation  to  release  Mr.  Parnell  and 
others  from  Kilmainham  in  April,  1882,  Captain  O’Shea 
acted,  in  some  way  not  precisely  defined,  as  the  inter- 
mediary between  the  government  and  the  suspects. 
His  devotion  to  the  Home-Rule  cause,  however,  had 
not  been  so  absolute  as  to  secure  for  him  the  confidence 
of  the  other  members  of  the  party,  and  in  1885  it  re‘ 
quired  all  Mr.  Parnell’s  authority  to  secure  his  election 
as  member  for  Galway.  In  1886  he  was  not  a candi- 
date. In  1889  he  instituted  suit  for  divorce  from  his 
wife,  naming  Charles  S.  Parnell  as  co-respondent.  The 
result  of  the  trial  was  that  O’Shea  obtained  his  divorce, 
while  the  exposures  of  Parnell’s  conduct  resulted  in  the 
disruption  of  the  Irish  parliamentary  party. 

OSMAN  PASHA  (Ghazi),  a Turkish  general,  was 
born  at  Tokat,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  1832.  He  began  his 
education  in  the  preparatory  school  in  Constantinople, 
under  the  supervision  of  his  brother,  Hussein  Effendi, 
who,  at  the  time,  was  professor  of  Arabic  at  the  institu- 
tion. From  the  preparatory  school  Osman  passed  in 
due  course  into  the  military  school,  and  quitting  the 
latter  in  1853  with  very  high  certificates,  at  once  entered 
the  army  as  a lieutenant,  being  appointed  to  the  general 
staff  in  Shumla  shortly  after  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean 
war.  His  gallantry  in  action,  and  general  soldier-like 
qualities,  led  to  his  rapid  advancement,  and  at  the  ter- 
mination of  the  campaign  he  was  appointed  a captain  in 
the  imperial  guard  at  Constantinople.  Before  long  he 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major,  and  as  such  took 
part  in  the  fighting  in  Crete,  from  1866  to  1869.  Re- 
turning to  Constantinople  after  the  suppression  of  the 
insurrection  in  the  island,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  colonel;  and  on  attaining  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general,  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a division 
in  the  fifth  army  corps.  In  the  Turko-Servian  war 
Osman  Pasha  commanded  the  division  of  the  Turkish 
army  assembled  at  Widdin,  and  for  his  conduct  in  the 
campaign  he  was  promoted,  by  an  imperial  irade,  to 
the  rank  of  muschir,  or  field-marshal.  When  the  war 
between  Russia  and  Turkey  broke  out  he  still  remained 
at  Widdin,  but  his  command  was  increased  to  68 
battalions,  16  squadrons,  and  174  guns;  and  it  was 
with  the  greater  part  of  this  force  that  he  appeared  at 
Plevna  in  July,  1877,  anc^  turned  the  tide  of  war  in  favoi 
of  the  Turks.  He  defended  that  place  with  such  gal- 
lantry that  in  October  he  received  from  the  sultan  the 
title  of  “ Ghazi,”  or  “ Victorious,”  and  the  decoration  of 
the  Osmanle  in  brilliants.  At  last  Plevna  surrendered 
(December  10,  1877),  after  Osman  had  made  a desperate 
attempt  to  break  through  the  Russian  lines.  Osman 
Ghazi  Victorious  surrendered  unconditionally  the  gal- 
lant army  with  which  he  had  held  this  famous  strong- 
hold for  so  long,  with  which  he  upset  the  whole  Russian 
plan  of  campaign,  and  with  which  he  defeated,  in  three 
pitched  battles,  Russia’s  finest  armies.  When  he  sur- 
rendered the  Russian  troops  presented  arms  to  him. 
Shortly  after  the  conclusion  of  peace  in  March,  1878,  he 
returned  to  Constantinople,  and  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  imperial  guard.  On  June  10th 
he  was  appointed  marshal  of  the  palace,  at  the  same 
time  retaining  his  command  of  the  army  for  the  defense 
of  Constantinople.  He  was  next  ap'pointed  governor- 
general  of  the  island  of  Crete.  Ghazi  Osman  Pasha  was 
appointed  minister  of  war  in  the  administration  formed 
in  December,  1878,  and  he  elaborated  a plan  for  the 
radical  reorganization  of  the  army.  In  a short  time  he 
acquired  considerable  influence  over  the  mind  of  the 
sultan.  Being  accused  of  maladministration,  before  the 
sultan  himself  and  the  council  of  ministers,  he  was  suc- 
cessful in  preventing  the  charges  from  being  pressed 
(June,  1879).  To  his  influence,  and  that  of  the 
Sheikh-ul-Islam,  was  attributed  the  dismissal  of  the 


OTT-OWE 


Grand- Vizier  Khereddin  Pasha.  In  July,  1880,  his  dis- 
missal from  the  post  of  minister  of  war  was  announced, 
but  in  January,  1881,  he  was  again  appointed  to  that 
office  in  the  place  of  Hussein  Huvni  Pasha.  After  be- 
ing for  some  time  out  of  office,  he  once  more,  on  Decem- 
ber 3,  1882,  became  minister  of  war  with  the  title  of 
seraskier.  He  died  September  19,  1890. 

OTTO,  King  of  Bavaria,  was  born  June  13,  1848, 
;he  second  son  of  Maximilian  II.,  and  succeeded  to  the 
throne  June  13,  1886,  upon  the  death  of  his  brother, 
Ludwig  II.,  who  died  that  day  by  drowning  himself  in 
Starnberg  Lake. 

OULESS,  Walter  William,  R.A.,  was  born  at 
St.  Helier,  Jersey,  September  21,  1848,  and  educated  at 
Victoria  College  in  that  island.  He  removed  to  Lon- 
don in  1864,  and  was  admitted  a student  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  the  following  year.  While  there,  he  took 
a silver  medal  in  the  antique  school,  and  was  an  unsuc- 
cessful competitor  for  the  historical  gold  medal.  Mr. 
Ouless  has  been  a constant  exhibitor  at  Burlington 
House  since  1869,  and  his  first  works  were  subject 
pictures,  the  principal  being  Home  Again , and  An  In- 
cident in  the  French  Revolution.  In  1872,  acting  on 
the  advice  of  Mr.  Millais,  he  took  to  portrait-painting, 
and  has  since  devoted  himself  almost  exclusively  to  that 
branch  of  the  profession.  He  was  elected  an  associate 
of  the  Royal  Academy,  January  2,  1877,  and  a royal 
academician  May  5,  1881.  He  obtained  the  medal  of 
the  second  class  at  the  Paris  international  exhibition  of 
1878. 

OWEN,  David  Dale,  born  in  Scotland  on  June 
24,  1807;  died  in  Indiana,  November  13,  i860.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1828,  and  was  graduated 
at  the  Ohio  Medical  College  in  1835.  Afterward  he 
conducted  a geological  survey  of  the  State,  and,  in 
1839  was  appointed  geologist  to  the  United  States 
survey.  In  this  capacity  he  made  surveys  of  the  greater 
part  of  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota.  Between 
1854  and  1857  he  was  State  geologist  of  Kentucky, 
and  after  that  of  Arkansas.  From  1859  until  his 
death  he  was  State  geologist  of  Indiana.  He  was  a 
member  of  many  scientific  societies,  wrote  many  com- 
munications for  scientific  journals,  and  possessed  the 
finest  museum  and  laboratory  in  the  United  States. 

OWEN,  Richard,  a geologist  who  contributed 
largely  to  the  promotion  of  that  science,  was  a native  of 
Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  and  was  born  January  6, 
1810.  He  entered  Lanark  Grammar  School  at  an 
early  age,  matriculated  at  Hozwyl  and  Andersonian 
Institute,  and  came  to  America  in  1828,  locating  at 
New  Harmony,  Ind.  After  a brief  residence  at  Cin- 
cinnati, he  returned  to  New  Harmony,  and  in  1847 
served  in  the  Mexican  war  as  captain  of  a company 
attached  to  the  16th  regiment  of  United  States  infantry. 
After  the  war  he  made  geological  explorations  into  por- 
tions of  Minnesota,  and  in  1849  was  appointed  to  the 
professorship  of  natural  science  in  the  Western  Military 
institute  of  Kentucky.  In  1859  he  received  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  medicine  from  the  Nashville  (Tenn.)  Med- 
ical College,  subsequently  making  a geological  survey 
of  Indiana,  of  which  State  he  had  meanwhile  been  ap- 
pointed geologist.  During  the  Civil  war  he  served  as 
lieutenant-colonel  of  the  15th  Indiana  volunteers,  also 
as  colonel  of  the  60th  regiment,  from  the  same  State, 
participating  in  the  siege  of  Vicksburg,  Red  river  expe- 
dition, etc.,  and  being  taken  prisoner  at  Mumfordsville, 
Ky.  In  1864  he  was  appointed  professor  of  natural 
Sciences  in  the  University  of  Indiana,  and  continued  in 
that  capacity  until  the  summer  of  1879.  During  the 
next  ten  years  he  prosecuted  his  professional  researches 
continuously  and  with  good  results.  His  abilities  were 
frequently  recognized,  Wabash  College  having  conferred 


the  degree  of  LL.D.,  and  other  institutions,  notably 
the  Academy  of  Science  of  New  Orleans  and  St.  Louis, 
making  him  an  honorary  member.  He  died  March  25, 
1890. 

OWEN,  Robert  Dale,  born  in  Glasgow,  Scot- 
land, November  9,  1800;  died  June  17,  1877.  He  com- 
pleted his  education  in  Switzerland,  and  in  1825  came 
to  the  United  States  with  his  father,  who  endeavored 
to  found  a colony  of  social  reformers  in  New  Harmony, 
Ind.  On  the  failure  of  this  experiment  young  Owen 
went  to  Europe,  but  in  1827  returned  to  the  United 
States,  where  he  became  a citizen.  From  1828  until 
1832,  in  connection  with  Miss  Frances  Wright,  he 
published  a New  York  weekly  paper  I'he  Free  En- 
qicirer , the  columns  of  which  were  devoted  to  socialistic 
principles.  Toward  the  end  of  the  last-named  year  he 
returned  to  New  Harmony.  In  1843-47  he  served  as 
a Democratic  member  of  congress,  and  later  became  a 
regent  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  From  1855 
until  1858  Mr.  Owen  was  United  States  minister  to 
Naples.  His  later  years  were  devoted  to  the  advance- 
ment of  spiritualism.  In  1872  the  University  of  Indiana 
gave  him  the  degree  of  LL.D. 

OWEN,  Sir  Richard,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
the  celebrated  comparative  anatomist,  was  born  at 
Lancaster,  England,  July  20,  1804.  In  1824  he  ma- 
triculated at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  at- 
tended the  anatomical  lectures  of  Doctor  Barclay. 
He  also  attended  for  a considerable  time  the  schools 
of  medicine  in  Paris.  He  became  a member  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in  London  in  1826,  but  his 
subsequent  appointment,  on  Doctor  Abernethy’s 
recommendation,  to  the  post  of  assistant  curator  of 
the  Hunterian  Museum,  led  him  to  devote  his  attention 
exclusively  to  the  study  of  comparative  anatomy.  In 
1834  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  comparative 
anatomy  at  St.  Bartholomew’s  Hospital.  In  1836  he 
succeeded  Sir  Charles  Bell  as  professor  of  anatomy  and 
physiology  in  the  College  of  Surgeons,  being  appointed 
by  the  college  in  the  same  year  as  the  first  Hunterian 
professor.  Professor  Owen  took  part  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  great  exhibition  of  1851;  served  as  president 
of  one  of  the  juries;  at  the  request  of  the  government 
went  to  Paris,  and  was  president  of  the  jury  of  the 
same  class  of  objects  in  the  “ Universal  Exhibition  ” of 
1855,  and  received  the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor. 
Professor  Owen’s  connection  with  the  College  of  Sur- 
geons ceased  in  1856,  on  his  being  appointed  superin- 
tendent of  the  natural  history  departments  (zoology, 
geology,  mineralogy)  in  the  British  Museum.  Among 
the  first  great  works  which  he  undertook  were  the 
Descriptive  and  Illustrated  Catalogue  of  the  Specimens 
of  Physiology  and  Comparative  Anatomy ; the  Cata- 
logue of  the  Natural  History,  and  that  of  the  Osteology , of 
all  the  Fossil  Organic  Remains , preserved  in  the  mu- 
seum of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.  Discerning  in  a 
fragment  of  fossil  bone  from  New  Zealand,  submitted 
to  him  in  1839,  evidence  of  a bird  more  gigantic  than 
the  ostrich,  Professor  Owen  published  an  account  of 
it;  transmitted  copies  to  New  Zealand,  and  obtained 
evidence  in  confirmation  and  extension  of  his  idea, 
which  occupies  many  successive  parts  of  the  Transac- 
tions of  the  Zoological  Society.  In  that  for  1855  he 
propounds  his  theory  of  the  extinction  of  species  on 
the  principal  of  the  “contest  of  existence”  through 
the  operation  of  extraneous  influences.  The  genera 
of  birds  thus  lost  by  “ natural  rejection  ” ar e Dinornis, 
Aptornis,  Notornis , Chemiornis,  etc. 

Professor  Owen  also  communicated  numerous  papers 
to  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal,  Linnsean,  Geological, 
Zoological,  Cambridge,  Philosophical,  Medico-Chirur- 
gical,  and  the  Microscopical  societies,  and  contributed 


OWE- 

some  elaborate  reports,  published  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  British  Association.  He  was  one  of  the  founders, 
and  first  president,  of  the  Microscopical  Society;  was  a 
fellow  or  associate  of  most  of  the  learned  societies  or 
scientific  academies  at  home  and  abroad;  was  a cheva- 
lier of  the  Order  of  Merit  of  Prussia,  and  one  of  the 
eight  foreign  associates  of  the  French  Institute.  He 
was  created  a companion  of  the  Bath,  June  3,  1873,  and 
shortly  afterward  made  a K.C.B.;  and  in  January, 
1879,  he  was  elected  a foreign  member  of  the  Berlin 
Academy  of  Sciences.  He  died  December  29,  1892. 

OWENS,  John  Edward,  born  in  Liverpool,  Eng- 
land, May  4,  1824;  died  in  Maryland,  December  6, 
1886.  He  came  to  this  country  in  1834  with  his  parents 
and  settled  in  Philadelphia.  About  1841  he  made  his 
first  appearence  on  the  stage  at  the  old  National  thea- 
ter at  Philadelphia,  then  under  the  management  of 
William  E.  Burton.  In  1843  he  removed  to  Baltimore, 
where  he  rapidly  built  up  a great  reputation  as  a come- 
dian, and  for  many  years  he  played  comedy  parts 


PACA,  William,  born  in  Maryland,  October  31, 
1740;  died  in  that  State  in  1799.  He  studied  law 
and  was  admitted  to  the  English  bar,  and  on  his  return 
home  opposed  the  stamp  act  and  other  tyrannical  meas- 
ures of  the  British  Government.  From  1771  to  1774 
he  was  a member  of  the  Maryland  legislature,  and  from 
1774  to  1779  served  in  the  Continental  Congress.  He 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  became  State 
senator,  afterward  held  two  judicial  offices,  and  was 
governor  of  Maryland  1782-86.  From  1789  until  his 
death  he  was  United  States  district  judge. 

PACKARD,  Alpheus  Spring,  born  in  Chelmsford, 
Mass.,  in  December,  1798;  died  in  Maine,  July  13, 
1884.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  in  1816,  and  for 
nearly  sixty-five  years  held  various  professorial  appoint- 
ments in  that  institution,  of  which  he  was  finally  made 
acting  president.  He  acted  as  chaplain  for  many  years 
and  contributed  extensively  to  scientific  publications. 

PACKARD,  Alpheus,  Jr.,  son  of  the  foregoing, 
born  in  Maine,  February  19,  1839;  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  in  1861,  served  as  an  army  surgeon  1864-65, 
and  became  director  of  the  Peabody  Museum  at  Salem, 
Mass.  In  1878  he  was  appointed  professor  of  zoology 
and  geology  at  Brown  University.  He  was  a member 
of  the  United  States  Entomological  Commission  and 
has  written  largely  on  insects. 

PACKER,  Asa,  born  in  Groton,  Conn.,  December 
20,  1806;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  May  17,  1879. 
He  acquired  an  interest  in  boating  coal  to  Philadelphia ; 
in  1831  he  established  a store  and  boat-yard,  and 
entered  on  various  .extensive  schemes  of  mining  and 
transportation  that  were  highly  remunerative.  Later 
he  became  county  judge,  ana  eventually,  from  the  prof- 
its of  his  many  successful  ventures,  rose  to  be  the 
wealthiest  person  in  Pennsylvania.  From  1853  until 
1857  he  was  a Democratic  member  of  congress.  In 
1865  Mr.  Packer  gave  $500,000  and  115  acres  of  land 
for  the  erection  of  Lehigh  University  at  Bethlehem, 
Pa.,  and  in  his  will  increased  the  endowment  to 
$1,500,000,  with  $500,000  additional  for  a library. 

PADDOCK,  Algernon  S.,  born  in  Glen’s  Falls, 
N.  Y.,  November  9,  1830;  studied  law  and  removed  to 
Nebraska,  where  he  became  secretary  of  the  Territory. 
From  1875  to  1881  he  served  as  United  States  senator ; 
was  defeated  for  reelection,  but  in  January,  1887,  was 
again  elected  for  the  term  ending  March  3,  1893. 

PADDOCK,  Benjamin  Henry,  born  in  Norwich, 
Conn.,  February  28,  1828;  was  ordained  in  the  Protes- 


-PAG . 6723 

throughout  the  United  States.  In  1858  he  became 
manager  of  the  Varieties  theater  in  New  Orleans. 
When  the  Civil  war  began,  he  returned  to  Baltimore 
and  afterward  visited  England,  where  he  played  with 
great  success  in  all  the  prominent  cities.  His  princi- 
pal characters  were  “ Doctor  Ollapod,”  “ Doctor  Pan- 
gloss,” “Caleb  Plummer,”  and  “ Aminidab  Sleek,” 
and  he  was  also  very  clever  as  a burlesque  artist. 

OXENDEN,  Ashton,  D.D.,  late  primate  and  met- 
ropolitan of  Canada,  was  born  at  Broome  Park,  near 
Canterbury,  in  1808 ; graduated  B.  A.  at  University  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  in  1831,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1834. 
In  1864  he  became  an  honorary  canon  of  Canterbury 
Cathedral.  In  1869,  having  been  elected  by  the  synod, 
he  was  consecrated  to  the  metropolitan  see  of  Montreal, 
in  virtue  of  which  he  became  primate  of  all  Canada. 
He  resigned  his  bishopric  in  April,  1878.  In  May, 
1879,  he  was  instituted  to  the  vicarage  of  St.  Stephen, 
near  Canterbury,  holding  that  position  until  1885.  He 
wrote  many  theological  books,  and  died  Feb.  22,  1892. 


tant  Episcopal  Church  in  1853,  and  held  pastorates  in 
New  York,  Maine,  and  Detroit.  In  1873  he  was 
elected  bishop  of  Massachusetts,  and  died  March  9, 
1891. 

PADDOCK,  John  Adams,  born  in  Norwich,  Conn., 
January  19,  1825;  was  ordained  in  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  in  1850,  and  held  pastorates  in  Stratford, 
Conn.,  and  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  up  to  1880,  when  he  was 
elected  missionary  bishop  of  Washington  Territory. 
He  died  March  6,  1894. 

PADEREWSKI,  Ignace  Jan,  born  in  Podolia,  Rus- 
sian Poland,  in  i860,  a famous  pianist  of  marvelous 
power  and  sympathy,  and  a skilled  composer.  He  has 
made  several  remarkably  successful  tours  in  America, 
clearing  over  $150,000  in  the  season  of  1893. 

PAEZ,  Jose  Antonio,  born  in  Venezuela  in  June, 
1790;  died  in  New  York  city  in  May,  1873.  He  took 
part  in  numerous  revolutionary  movements,  finally 
becoming  head  of  the  army  with  rank  of  general-in- 
chief.  In  1825,  when  his  impeachment  was  proposed, 
he  became  the  civil  and  military  ruler  of  Venezuela  by 
virtue  of  a mutiny  of  the  populace  in  his  favor.  In 
November,  1829,  the  Venezuela  republic  was  estab- 
lished, and  Paez  served  as  its  president  for  several 
years,  was  later  minister  to  the  United  States,  and  in 
1861  again  became  president.  He  resigned  in  1863 
coming  to  the  United  States. 

PAGE,  Thomas  Nelson,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Oak- 
land, Virginia,  April  23,  1853.  He  studied  law  at 
Washington  and  Lee  University,  and  has  since  prac- 
ticed his  profession  at  Richmond,  but  is  best  known 
by  his  clever  stories  of  southern  life,  including  Uncle 
Gabe's  White  Folks , In  Ole  Virginia,  Meh  Lady,  Pas- 
time Stories,  Polly  {1894),  and  others. 

PAGE,  William,  painter,  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y., 
January  23,  1811;  died  in  Tottenville,  Staten  Island, 
N.  Y.,  October  1,  1885.  Fora  time  he  studied  theol- 
ogy, but  preferred  to  paint  portraits  and  opened  a 
studio  in  New  York  city,  where,  in  1836,  he  was  chosen 
an  academician,  and  eventually,  from  1871  until  1873, 
served  as  president  of  the  institution. 

PAGET,  Lord  JClarence  Edward,  K.C..B.),  son 
of  the  first  marquis  of  Anglesey,  born  June  17,  1811, 
entered  the  British  navy  at  an  early  age,  and  saw  service 
in  the  Baltic  during  the  Crimean  war.  He  was  secre- 
tary to  his  father  when  master-general  of  the  ordnance, 
was  appointed  secretary  to  the  admiralty  in  Lord 
Palmerston’s  second  administration  in  1859,  and  retired 


6;24  PAG- 

in  May,  1866,  to  take  Command  of  the  Mediterranean 
squadron.  He  attained  flag  rank  in  1858,  and  was  made 
vice-admiral  April  24,  1865.  He  died  March  22,  1895. 

PAGET,  Sir  Augustus  Berkeley,  was  born  in 
1823,  and  was  appointed  clerk  in  the  British  foreign 
office  in  1841.  He  became  precis  writer  to  the  late 
earl  of  Aberdeen  in  February,  1846;  attache  to  the  em- 
bassy of  Paris  in  June  the  same  year  ; and  secretary  of 
legation  at  Athens  in  February,  1852.  After  filling 
diplomatic  offices  in  Egypt,  Holland,  and  other  coun- 
tries, he  was  on  several  occasions  charge  d'affaires  at 
Lisbon  ; was  nominated  envoy  extraordinary  and  min- 
ister plenipotentiary  to  Saxony  in  December,  1858  ; to 
Sweden  and  Norway  in  June,  1859;  to  Denmark  in 
July,  1859;  to  Portugal  in  1866;  and  to  Italy  in  July, 
1867.  In  March,  1876,  he  was  nominated  ambassador 
to  Italy,  and  shortly  afterward  he  was  sworn  of  the 
privy  council  (July  21).  On  the  resignation  of  Sir 
Henry  Elliot,  Sir  A.  Paget  was  transferred  to  Vienna, 
as  British  ambassador.  Died  July  11,  1896. 

PAGET,  Sir  James,  an  eminent  surgeon,  was  born  at 
Great  Yarmouth,-  England,  in  1814,  became  a member  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in  1836,  and  an  honorary 
fellow  in  1843.  Sir  James  Paget,  who  is  a member  of 
the  senate  of  the  University  of  London,  and  of  the 
council  of  the  College  of  Surgeons,  is  the  author  of  the 
Pathological  Catalogue  of  the  Museum  of  the  College 
of  Surgeons  ; Report  of  the  Results  of  the  Use  of  the 
Microscope , published  in  1842;  and  Lectures  on  Sur- 
gical Pathology , in  1853,  1863,  and  1868;  and  has 
been  an  extensive  contributor  to  the  Transactions  of 
the  Royal  and  other  learned  societies.  He  was  created 
a baronet  in  August,  1871,  and  in  the  same  month  the 
honorary  degree  ofLL.D.  was  conferred  on  him  by  the 
University  of  Edinburgh.  He  has  been  president  of 
the  College  of  Surgeons  since  1875.  Died  Jan.  3,  1900. 

PAGET,  Sir  George  Edward  ,was  born  December 
22,  1809,  at  Great  Yarmouth,  England,  and  educated  at 
Charterhouse  and  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  B.A. 
degree  as  eighth  wrangler  in  1831,  and  was  elected 
fellow  of  Caius  in  1832.  He  studied  medicine  at 
Cambridge,  at  St.  Bartholomew’s  Hospital,  and  at 
Paris,  and  was  made  M.D.,  1838,  F.R.C.P.L.  1839, 
Hon.  M.D.  Dublin,  1867,  D.C.L.  Oxford  and  Dur- 
ham, LL.D.  Edinburgh,  and  F.  R.S.  Doctor  Paget 
was  president  of  the  Cambridge  Philosophical  Society, 
1855-;  president  of  the  British  Medical  Association, 
1864;  president  of  the  General  Medical  Council  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  1869-1874;  and  was  appointed 
regius  professor  of  physic  at  Cambridge  in  1872. 
He  published  papers  and  small  works,  chiefly  on  sub- 
jects relating  to  medicine.  In  1885  he  was  made  K. 
C.B.  He  died  January  29,  1892. 

PAGET,  Violet,  who,  under  the  name  of  Vernon 
Lee,  contributed  philosophical  and  esthetic  criticism  to 
the  principal  English  reviews,  was  born  in  1857,  and 
has  lived  in  Italy  for  several  years.  She  has  devoted 
herself  specially  to  the  history  of  the  arts,  literature,  and 
drama  of  that  country.  In  1880  she  published  Studies 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century  in  Italy. 

PAILLERON,  Edouard,  a French  dramatist,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1834.  He  began  life  as  a clerk  in  a 
notary’s  office,  and  published  in  i860  a volume  of  sati- 
rical poetry,  and  a play.  Among  his  most  successful 
subsequent  productions  are:  Le  Dernier  Quartier,  pro- 
duced at  the  Theatre  Frangais  in  1863;  Le  Second 
Monument,  at  the  Odeon  in  1865;  Le  Monde  oil  Von 
s*  amuse,  at  the  Gymnase,  1868;  Les  faux  Menages , in 
1869;  Helene,  1872;  Petit  Pluie,  1875;  Z’ Etincelle, 
1879.  Le  Monde  ou  Von  s'ennuie  was  produced  at  the 
Comedie  Frangaise,  and  had  an  unprecedented  run.  To 
this  piece  of  contemporary  satire — for  it  is  rather  that 


-PAR 

than  a-play — M.  Paiilerofi  owed  his  election  in  1882  M 
the  Academie  Frangaise.  Died  April  20,  1899. 

PAINE,  John  Alsop,  born  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  Jan- 
uary 14,  1840;  graduated  at  Hamilton  and  at  Andovei 
Theological  Seminary,  and  was  ordained  in  1867.  He 
held  the  chair  of  natural  science  in  several  universities, 
and  made  some  valuable  archaeological  discoveries  in 
Palestine. 

PAINE,  John  Knowles,  born  in  Portland,  Me., 
January  8,  1839;  studied  music  in  Germany,  and  in 
1872  became  instructor  of  music  at  Harvard.  He  has 
produced  several  oratorios,  cantatas,  fantasies,  sym- 
phonies, and  overtures,  and  ranks  high  as  a musical 
composer. 

PAINE,  Robert,  born  in  North  Carolina,  Novem- 
ber 12,  1799;  died  in  Mississippi  October  20,  1882.  In 
1817  he  began  to  preach  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  and  in  1844-45  he  took  a foremost  part  in  the 
debates  over  the  slavery  question  which  led  to  the  sepa- 
ration of  that  church.  In  1846  he  became  bishop  in  the 
M.  E.  Church  South. 

PAINE,  Robert  Treat,  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
March  11,  1731;  died  there  May  11,  1814;  was  one  of 
the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard,  became  first  a preacher,  and 
later  a lawyer,  and  was  prominent  in  the  prosecution  of 
a British  regular  army  officer  for  his  participation  in 
the  “Boston  Massacre”  of  1770.  He  served  in  the 
Colonial  Legislature,  in  the  Provincial  Congress,  and 
in  the  Continental  Congress  (1774-78).  After  the 
formation  of  the  United  States  Government  he  became 
attorney-general  of  Massachusetts  and  judge  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  State. 

PAINE,  Robert  Treat,  poet,  born  in  Taunton, 
Mass.,  December  9,  1773  ; died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  No- 
vember 13,  1811.  His  father  was  one  of  the  signers 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  In  1792  he 
was  graduated  at  Harvard,  and  began  to  contribute 
to  the  Massachusetts  Gazette.  In  1794  he  established, 
and  for  two  years  conducted,  a semi-weekly  paper, 
called  the  Federal  Orrery , whose  personalities  made 
him  numerous  enemies.  In  1794  the  Federal  theater 
was  built  in  Boston,  when  Paine  became  on  a familiar 
footing  with  those  attached  to  it,  and  married  Miss 
Baker,  an  actress.  This  connection  estranged  him 
from  his  father,  and  excluded  him  from  fashionable  so- 
ciety. For  a time  he  left  the  playhouse,  removed  to 
Newburyport,  Mass.,  studied  law  under  Theophilus 
Parsons,  and  in  1802  practiced  his  profession  in  Boston. 
However,  he  soon  resumed  his  former  interest  in  theat- 
ricals, wrote  criticisms  on  the  drama,  led  an  unsettled 
and  dissipated  life,  and  passed  his  closing  days  in  desti- 
tution. 

PAINE,  Timothy  Otis,  born  in  Winslow,  Me., 
October  13,  1824;  graduated  at  Colby  University  in 
1847,  and  in  1856  became  pastor  of  the  Swedenborgian 
(New  Jerusalem)  church  at  Elmwood,  Mass.  In  1866 
he  became  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Boston  Theological 
School.  He  has  written  several  theological  works. 

PAKENHAM,  Sir  Edward,  born  in  Westmeath. 
Ireland,  March  19,  177S;  died  near  New  Orleans,  Jan- 
uary 8,  1815.  He  was  the  second  son  of  the  earl  ol 
Longford,  and  a brother-in-law  of  the  duke  of  Welling- 
ton. He  entered  the  British  army  in  1794,  and  fought 
with  distinction  in  Spain  and  particularly  at  Salamanca, 
where  he  carried  off  the  honors  of  the  day.  In  1814  he 
was  given  command  of  the  large  force  of  British  regulars 
which  operated  against  New  Orleans.  Here  he  was 
opposed  by  Gen.  Andrew  Jackson  (q.v.),  with  a num- 
ber of  Mississippi  and  Tennessee  militia.  In  the  cam- 
paign following  Pakenham  was  entirely  out-maneuv- 
ered, and  killed  in  the  battle  of  New  Orleans  Jan.  8, 1815. 


PAL 


PALEY,  Frederick  Apthorp,  M.A.,  LL.D., 
eldest  son  of  the  late  Rev.  Edmund  Paley,  and  grand- 
son of  the  author  of  The  Evidences  of  Christianity, 
born  in  England  in  1816;  was  educated  at  St.  John’s 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1838, 
and  M.A.  in  1842,  and  continued  to  reside  there  till 
1846,  when  he  left  the  university,  having  embraced  the 
Roman  Catholic  faith.  He  returned,  however,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  partial  removal  of  religious  disabilities, 
and  resided  in  Cambridge  from  i860  to  1874,  when  he 
accepted  the  appointment  of  professor  of  classical  lit- 
erature in  the  Catholic  University  College  at  Kensing- 
ton, and  shortly  afterward  that  of  classical  examiner  to 
the  University  of  London.  He  edited  the  plays  of 
AEschylus,  with  Latin  notes  and  emendations.  He 
also  edited  Sophocles , Euripides,  Ovid’s  Fasti , Propet  - 
tius , Theocritus,  Hesiod,  Homer’s  Iliad,  the  Peace , the 
Acharnians,  and  the  Frogs  o^  Aristophanes.  Among 
his  minor  works  are  several  jontributions  to  the  Trans- 
lations of  the  Cambridge  Philosophical  Society  and  the 
Journal  of  Philology , many  articles  and  classical  re- 
views in  various  quarterly  and  other  periodicals,  and 
two  Latin  pamphlets.  In  1883  the  honorary  degree  of 
doctor  of  laws  (LL.  U.)  was  conferred  upon  him  by  the 
University  of  Aberdeen.  He  was  one  of  the  original 
and  most  energetic  members  of  the  Cambridge  Camden 
Society,  and  wrote  several  pamphlets,  papers,  etc.  He 
died  December  9,  1888. 

PALFREY,  John  Gorham,  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
May  2,  1796;  died  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  April  26,  1881. 
His  grandfather  was  paymaster-general  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary army.  John  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1815, 
later  studied  theology,  and  was  minister  of  the  Brattle 
Street  Unitarian  Church  of  Boston  from  1818  until 
1830.  From  1831  until  1839  he  was  professor  of  sacred 
literature  at  Harvard.  He  served  a term  as  member  of 
congress,  and  from  1861  until  1867  was  postmaster  of 
Boston.  He  delivered  several  courses  of  lectures  be- 
fore the  Lowell  Institute  in  Boston,  and  in  1851  was 
editorially  connected  with  the  Commonwealth  news- 
paper. He  published  several  discourses  in  the  periodi- 
cals of  his  time,  besides  a history  of  his  former  church 
and  a History  of  New  England. 

PALGRAVE,  Francis  Turner,  eldest  son  of  the 
late  Sir  Francis  Palgrave,  born  September  28,  1824; 
was  educated  at  the  Charterhouse  and  at  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  of  which  he  was  a scholar,  and  where  he  took 
his  degree  of  M.A.,  and  was  elected  to  a fellowship  at 
Exeter  College.  He  has  published  Idylls  and  Songs 
(1854)  ; The  Golden  Treasury  of  English  Songs  (1861)  ; 
Art  Catalogue  of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1862;  Essays 
on  Art  (1866) ; and  a Life  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  prefixed 
to  the  Globe  edition  of  his  poems,  1867.  Mr.  Palgrave 
was  created  an  honorary  LL.D.  of  Edinburgh  in  1878. 
On  the  death  of  Principal  Shairp,  in  1886,  Mr.  Pal- 
grave was  elected  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford.  He 
died  Oct.  24,  1897. 

PALGRAVE,  Sir  Reginald,  fourth  son  of  the 
late  Sir  Francis  Palgrave,  was  born  in  London,  June 
28,  1829.  In  1886,  on  the  death  of  Sir  Thomas  Erskine 
May,  he  was  appointed  clerk  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. He  published  (1869)  The  House  of  Commons: 
Illustrations  of  Its  History  and  Practice,  and  (1877) 
The  Chairman' s Handbook. 

PALIKAO,  Due  de  (Charles  Marie),  born  in 
Paris,  France,  June  24,  1796;  died  January  8,  1878. 
He  entered  the  French  army  when  very  young,  and  in 
1855  became  general  of  division.  In  September,  1863, 
he  defeated  the  Chinese  forces  and  pillaged  the  Summer 
Palace  at  Pekin.  On  his  return  to  France  with  an  im- 
mense booty  he  was  made  duke.  When  Napoleon 
III.  took  the  field  in  July,  1870,  Palikao  was  made 


6725 

prime  minister  and  minister  of  war,  but  he  only  held 
office  until  the  surrender  at  Sedan,  and  then  fled  tha 
country. 

PALLES,  Christopher,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Ire- 
land in  1831.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  where  he  took  his  bachelor’s  degree  in  1852, 
and  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar  in  1853.  He  attained  a 
high  position  at  the  Irish  chancery  bar,  and  almost 
immediately  became  eminent  as  a chancery  advocate! 
He  took  the  degree  of  LL.D.  at  Dublin  in  1865. 
Doctor  Palles  was  appointed  solicitor-general  for  Ire- 
land under  Mr.  Gladstone’s  administration  on  the  pro- 
motion of  Mr.  Dowse  to  the  attorney-generalship  for 
Ireland.  On  Mr.  Dowse  being  elevated  to  the  judicial 
bench  in  November,  1872,  Doctor  Palles  succeeded  to 
the  latter  office,  which  he  held  until  the  defeat  of  the 
Liberal  party  at  the  general  election  of  1874  Just  be- 
fore Mr.  Gladstone’s  resignation  Doctor  Palles  was 
appointed  chief  baron  of  the  court  of  exchequer  in  Ire- 
land, February  16,  1874. 

PALLISER,  John,  born  in  Ireland  in  1817,  has 
taken  an  active  interest  in  the  progress  of  geographical 
science  and  exploration.  He  explored  a large  portion 
of  the  “ Far  West”  region  of  America  to  the  shores  of 
the  Pacific,  and  under  a commission  from  the  English 
Government,  in  1857-60,  topographically  determined  the 
British  North  American  international  boundary-line  from 
Lake  Superior  in  Canada,  across  the  main  chain  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains;  and  thence  to  the  sea-coast  or  Cas- 
cade ranges.  He  died  August  18,  1887. 

PALLISER,  Sir  William,  born  in  Dublin,  June  18, 
1830;  died  February  4,  1882.  He  served  in  the  British 
army,  but  is  chiefly  known  by  his  improvements  in 
field-guns  and  his  invention  of  the  shot  and  shell  which 
bear  his  name. 

PALMER,  Alonzo  Benjamin,  born  in  Richfield, 
N.  Y.,  October  6,  1815;  died  in  Ann  Arbor,  Mich., 
December  23,  1887.  He  graduated  in  medicine  in 
1839,  f°r  many  years  practiced  in  Chicago  and 
elsewhere,  and  from  1852  until  his  death  held  vari- 
ous professorial  chairs  in  the  University  of  Michigan. 
He  edited  a medical  journal  and  wrote  extensively  on 
the  theory  and  practice  of  medicine. 

PALMER,  Anthony,  colonial  governor,  born  in 
Great  Britain  about  1670;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
in  May,  1 749.  He  bought  a large  estate  near  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  where  he  engaged  in  commercial  pursuits, 
founded  the  town  of  Kensington,  now  the  manufactur- 
ing center  of  Philadelphia,  and  in  1708  became  a mem- 
ber of  the  provincial  council  of  Pennsylvania,  and  its 
president.  He  was  ex-offcio  acting  governor  of  the 
province  for  nearly  two  years,  during  which  time  he 
made  treaties  with  several  tribes  of  Indians,  and  put 
the  fortifications  on  Delaware  river  in  a more  efficient 
condition,  and  for  several  years  he  was  a judge  of  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas. 

PALMER,  Bertha  Honors,  of  Chicago,  111.,  wife 
of  Potter  Palmer,  millionaire  business  man,  was  ap- 
pointed by  President  Harrison  a member  for  Illinois 
of  the  Board  of  Lady  Managers  of  the  World’s  Colum- 
bian Exposition  and  elected  its  president.  Mrs. 
Palmer  was  largely  instrumental  in  securing  the  unique 
and  extensive  exhibition  of  woman’s  work  in  the 
Woman’s  Building  in  Chicago  in  1893. 

PALMER,  Erastus  Dow,  sculptor,  was  born  in* 
Pompey,  N.  Y.,  April  2,  1817.  First  a cameo  cutter, 
he  was  thirty-two  when  he  produced  his  earliest  work, 
The  Infant  Ceres,  modeled  from  one  of  his  children. 
In  1850  it  was  exhibited  at  the  National  Academy  of 
Design  in  New  York  city.  Mr.  Palmer’s  studio  is  in 
Albany,  N.  Y. 

PALMER,  John  McCauley,  born  in  Scott  county, 


PAL— PAR 


6726 

Ky.,  September  13,  1817;  removed  to  Illinois,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1840.  He  served  in  the 
State  Senate,  and  in  i860  was  a Republican  presidential 
elector.  In  April,  1861,  he  was  appointed  colonel  of 
an  Illinois  volunteer  regiment,  served  at  Island  No.  10, 
Stone  River,  and  Chickamauga,  and  was  promoted  major- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  led  the  fourteenth  army 
corps  through  the  Atlanta  campaign,  May  till  Septem- 
ber, 1864.  From  1870  until  1873  he  served  as  governor 
of  Illinois.  In  1891,  after  a long  and  spirited  contest, 
he  was  elected  United  States  Senator  from  Illinois  as  a 
Democrat.  He  died  Sept.  25,  1900. 

PALMER,  Innis  Newton,  born  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
March  30,  1824;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846,  and 
served  in  Mexico  and  on  the  frontier,  in  the  rifles  and 
cavalry.  He  served  throughout  the  Civil  war,  became 
brigadier  and  major-general  of  volunteers,  and  had 
command  successively  of  various  departments.  After 
the  war  he  was  assigned  to  the  regular  army,  and 
served  as  colonel  of  cavalry,  until  his  retirement  in 
March,  1879. 

PALMER,  Ray,  born  in  Rhode  Island,  November 
12,  1808;  died  March  29,  1887.  He  became  a Congre- 
gational minister  in  1832,  held  pastorates  for  over 
thirty  years,  and  for  sixteen  years  was  secretary  of  the 
Congregational  Union.  He  became  well  known  in 
religious  circles  by  the  numerous  hymns  which  he 
wrote. 

PALMER,  Sir  Charles  Mar.k,  was  born  at  South 
Shields,  England,  in  1822.  In  the  year  1851  Mr.  Pal- 
mer conceived  the  idea  of  cheapening  the  transit  of 
coal  to  London  and  other  ports  by  the  employment  of 
Steam  collier  vessels,  which  have  since  completely  super- 
seded the  old  sailing  brigs  of  the  north  of  England. 
He  established  the  ship-building  yard  at  Jarrow  on  the 
Tyne*  where  the  first  screw  collier  was  launched  in 
1852.  He  has  since  developed  the  Jarrow  works  into 
a gigantic  concern,  which  constructs  an  ocean  steamer, 
from  the  iron  ore  of  its  own  Yorkshire  mines,  through 
all  its  processes  into  a complete  ship.  From  these 
works  the  populous  modern  town  of  Jarrow  origi- 
nated. 

PALMER,  Thomas  Witherell,  born  in  Detroit, 
Mich.,  January  25,  1830;  was  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan,  and  engaged  in  the  real  estate  and 
lumber  trade.  He  served  in  the  State  Senate  in  1878; 
was  defeated  for  congress  in  1876,  and  in  1.883  became 
U nited  States  Senator.  Afterward  he  served  as  minister 
to  Spain.  In  June,  1890,  Mr.  Palmer  was  elected  pres- 
ident of  the  national  commission  having  charge  of  the 
World’s  Fair  of  1893. 

PALMIERI,  Luigi,  born  in  Sicily,  April  22,  1807; 
became  known  to  fame  as  a meteorologist  and  seismolo- 
gist, and  for  many  years  had  charge  of  the  observatory 
on  Mt.  Vesuvius,  where  observations  as  to  the  volcanic 
conditions  of  the  mountain  were  made.  He  has  in- 
vented many  astronomical  instruments.  Died  Sept.,  1896. 

PANCOAST,  Joseph,  M.D.,  born  in  New  Jersey 
in  1805;  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1828,  and  for  many  years  held  the  chair  of  surgery 
and  anatomy  in  Jefferson  medical  College,  Philadelphia. 
He  was  author  of  Operative  Surgery  and  other  works. 
Pie  died  in  March,  1882. 

PAPINEAU,  Louis  Joseph,  Canadian  politician, 
born  in  Montreal  in  October,  1789;  died  in  Montebella, 
Canada,  September  23,  1871.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Seminary  of  Quebec,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1812.  In  1809  he  was  elected  to  the  provin- 
cial parliament,  and  in  1815  became  speaker  of  the 
Jlouse,  and  was  recognized  as  leader  of  the  young 
French  Canadian  party.  He  served  in  the  war  of  1812 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  In  1833 


Papineau  went  to  England,  to  remonstrate  against  the 
union  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada.  For  about  fifteen 
years  thereafter  he  was  engaged  in  all  kinds  of  agita- 
tions against  the  British  Government,  and  in  1837  a 
warrant  was  issued  for  his  arrest.  lie  then  made  his 
way  to  Richelieu,  and  thence  to  the  United  States,  and 
in  1839  to  France.  He  returned  to  Canada  in  1847, 
having  been  amnestied,  and  was  subsequently  elected 
to  parliament,  but  retired  in  1854. 

PARDEE,  Ario,  born  in  Chatham,  N.  Y.,  Novem- 
ber 19,  1810.  He  received  an  ordinary  education,  and 
eventually  became  a civil  engineer.  He  was  engaged 
in  the  building  of  several  canals  and  railways,  and 
later  in  iron  manufactures  in  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Virginia  and  Tennessee,  and  coal  mining  in  Ohio  and 
Pennsylvania,  amassing  a fortune  of  over  $30,000,000. 
Pie  gave  $500,000  to  Lafayette  University.  He  died 
March  26,  1892. 

PARIS,  Comte  de  (Louis  Albert  Philippe 
d’Orleans),  son  of  the  Due  d’Orleans,  and  grandson 
of  Louis  Philippe,  King  of  the  French,  born  at  Paris, 
August  24,  1838,  fled  from  France  in  1848,  was  educated 
at  Claremont,  England,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1861,  Paris, 
with  his  brother,  the  Due  de  Chartres,  accompanied  by 
their  uncle,  the  prince  de  Joinville,  came  to  the  United 
States,  the  young  princes  entering  the  Union  army 
with  the  rank  of  captains  of  volunteers,  and  serving  on 
General  McClellan’s  staff  at  his  invitation,  until  June, 
1862,  when  they  returned  to  Europe.  The  Comte  de 
Paris  married  his  cousin,  the  Princess  Marie-Isabelle, 
eldest  daughter  of  the  Ducde  Montpensier,  May  30, 1864, 
and  had  three  children,  one  son,  Prince  Louis  Philippe 
Robert  (born  February  6,  1869),  and  two  daughters. 
In  1871  he  was  admitted  a member  of  the  National  As- 
sembly, at  Versailles,  under  President  Thiers,  and  on 
December  22,  1872,  the  assembly  voted  the  restitution 
of  the  property  of  the  Orleans  family.  He  acknowledged 
the  Comte  de  Chambord  as  the  head  of  the  royal  house 
of  France,  but  on  the  latter’s  death  August  24,  1883,  the 
great  majority  of  the  Legitimists  acknowledged  the 
Comte  de  Paris  as  his  successor.  In  1886  he  was 
banished  from  France,  under  the  expulsion  bill,  aimed 
at  him.  He  wrote  a history  of  The  Civil  War  in 
America,  and  an  important  work  on  English  Trades 
Unions.  He  died  September  7,  1894. 

PARIS,  Gaston,  French  philologist,  born  at  Aver- 
nay,  Marne,  August  9,  1839,  was  educated  at  Rollin 
College,  Gottingen,  and  Bonn,  and  has  made  a special 
study  of  the  Romance  languages.  On  May  12,  1876,  he 
was  elected  a member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip* 
tions. 

PARK,  Edwards  Amasa,  D.D.,born  at  Providence, 
R.  I.,  December  29,  1808;  and  educated  at  Brown  Uni 
versity  and  at  Andover,  became  professor  of  mental 
and  moral  philosophy  at  Amherst  College,  1830,  and 
professor  in  Andover  Theological  Seminary.  He  was 
an  editor  of  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra.  Died  June  4,  1900. 

PARKE,  John  G.,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1828; 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1849.  He  served  on  the 
frontier,  and  during  the  Civil  war  became  major-gen- 
eral of  volunteers. 

PARKER,  Joel,  born  in  New  Hampshire,  January 
25,  1795;  died  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  August  17,  1875. 
He  became  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  New 
Hampshire,  1838,  and  in  1848  was  appointed  a profes- 
sor in  the  law  school  of  Harvard. 

PARKER,  Joel,  lawyer,  born  in  New  Jersey  in 
1816 ; died  January  2,  1888.  He  entered  the  legislature 
in  1847,  was  elected  governor  in  1862  and  1864,  and 
vigorously  supported  the  war,  was  again  elected  govern- 
or as  a Democrat  in  1870,  and  was  elected  to  the  State 
supreme  bench  in  1880  and  *887, 


PAR 


PARKER,  Rev.  Joseph,  D.D.,  minister  of  the  City 
Temple,  London,  was  born  at  Hexham,  1830,  educated 
at  University  College,  London,  became  a Congrega- 
tional minister  in  1853  and  a popular  and  vigorous 
preacher.  He  wrote  the  Inner  Life  of  Christ,  Apos- 
tolic Life  and  many  other  works,  and  also  engaged 
on  the  People's  Bible . He  traveled  in  the  United 
States  in  1888,  lecturing  in  many  cities. 

PARKES,  Sir  Henry,  K.C.M.G.,  was  born  at 
Stoneleigh,  England,  in  1815,  the  son  of  a laborer,  and 
in  1839  emigrated  to  Sydney,  New  South  Wales.  He 
took  part  in  politics,  established  the  jE?npire,  a daily 
newspaper,  which  he  conducted,  1849-56,  was  elected  to 
the  legislative  council  for'  Sydney,  1854,  and  to  the  par- 
liament of  New  South  Wales.  He  went  as  commis- 
sioner for  emigration  to  England,  in  1861,  was  colonial 
secretary,  in  1866,  and  became  premier,  1872-75,  a sec- 
ond time  in  1877  and  again  in  1878-89,  always  advocat- 
ing free  trade,  free  education,  and  colonial  confedera- 
tion. He  visited  England  in  1861,  1881,  and  1887  as 
representative  of  New  South  Wales  at  the  colonial  con- 
ference in  London  ; in  1891  he  presided  over  the  great 
conferences  at  Sydney,  on  Australasian  Confedera- 
tion, and  he  was  still  in  1895  actively  devoted  to  that 
cause.  In  1892,  he  published  Fifty  Years  of  the  Making 
of  Australian  History.  Died  April  26,  1896. 

PARIvHURST,  Charles  H.,  D.D.,  a noted  social 
and  municipal  reformer  of  New  York  city ; was  born  in 
Framingham,  Mass.,  in  1842  ; graduated  at  Amherst  in 
1866;  studied  theology  at  Halle  and  Leipsic,  became 
president  of  the  Amherst  High  School  in  1867;  profes- 
sor in  Williston  Seminary,  Easthampton,  Mass,  in  1870 ; 
pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church  at  Lenox,  Mass., 
in  1874,  and  pastor  of  Madison  Square  Presbyterian 
Church,  New  York  city  in  1880.  He  succeeded  Dr. 
Howard  Crosby  as  president  of  the  Society  for  the  Pre- 
vention of  Crime  and  made  a vigorous  campaign  against 
evil-doers,  having  them  prosecuted  and  punished  in 
spite  of  police  indifference.  In  the  spring  of  1892  his  . 
exposure  and  denunciation  of  those  in  control  of  the 
city  became  more  determined  and  made  him  famous  as 
the  leading  municipal  reformer  in  America.  He  op- 
posed party  politics  in  city  affairs.  His  efforts  resulted 
in  November,  1894  in  the  defeat  of  the  Tammany  or- 
ganization and  the  election  of  Mayor  Strong.  In  the- 
ology Dr.  Parkhurst  advocates  a revised  and  more  lib- 
eral confession  of  faith. 

PARKMAN,  Francis,  one  of  the  greatest  of  Amer- 
ican historians,  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  September 
16,  1823.  He  graduated  at  Harvard,  1844,  studied 
law,  explored  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  1846  and  lived 
among  the  Indians,  gaining  that  intimate  knowledge 
of  their  customs  which  was  of  great  value  in  his 
future  work.  He  published  The  California  and  Ore- 
gon Trail  (1849);  History  of  the  Conspiracy  of  Pon- 
tiac (1851),  and  then  turned  his  attention  to  the  his- 
tory of  French  colonization  in  the  new  world,  of  the 
hardships  of  the  pioneers,  their  struggles  with  the 
Indians  and  the  long  warfare  between  France  and 
England  for  the  possession  of  the  coveted  territory. 
This  field  Mr.  Parkman  made  distinctively  his  own  by 
a thorough  and  assiduous  research  into  the  documentary 
history  of  the  period,  visiting  France  five  times  to 
examine  colonial  records,  and  by  the  exquisite  graphic 
art  of  his  narration,  by  which  he  made  the  history  of 
those  times  as  fascinating  as  the  pages  of  a romance. 
He  published  The  Old  Regime  in  Canada  (1864),  The 
Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World  (1865),  The 
Jesuits  in  North  America  (1866),  The  Discovery  of  the 
Great  West  (1869),  Count  Frontenac  and  New  France 
under  Louis  XIV.  ( 1878),  Montcalm  and  Wolfe  (1884), 
and  A Half  Century  of  Conflict  (1892),  completing  the 


6727 

series,  having  struggled  part  of  this  time  against  .the 
depressing  obstacle  of  blindness.  He  died  Novem- 
ber 8,  1892. 

PARNELL,  Charles  Stewart,  M.P.,  was  born 
in  1846,  at  Avondale  county,  Wicklow,  Ireland.  He 
was  descended  from  an  old  English  family  that  passed 
over  from  Congleton,  Cheshire  to  Ireland.  Mr.  Par- 
nell, whose  mother  was  a daughter  of  Admiral  Charles 
Stewart,  a celebrated  American  naval  officer,  was  edu- 
cated at  various  private  schools  in  England,  and  after- 
ward went  to  Magdalen  College,  Cambridge.  After  a 
tour  in  the  United  States  he  returned  to  his  home  in 
Wicklow,  and  was  high  sheriff  of  the  county  in  1874. 
Hemade  his  first  attempt  to  enter  public  life  in  the  same 
year,  contesting  the  county  of  Dublin,  was  defeated  by  an 
overwhelming  majority,  but  in  the  following  year — 1875 
— was  returned  for  the  county  of  Meath.  For  some 
time  he  took  no  prominent  part  in  the  proceedings  of 
parliament,  but  during  the  session  of  1876  he  attracted 
some  attention  by  engaging  in  one  or  two  prolonged 
and  stubborn  conflicts  with  the  government.  In  Feb- 
ruary, 1877,  he  made  his  first  appearance  as  a legislator, 
introducing  “ The  Irish  Church  Act  Amendment  Bill,” 
the  object  of  which  was  to  facilitate  the  purchase  of 
their  holdings  by  the  tenantry  of  the  disestablished 
Irish  church;  the  bill  was  thrown  out  by  150  to 
no  votes.  The  introduction  of  the  Prisons  Bill  by 
Sir  Richard  (then  Mr.)  Cross,  gave  rise  to  the  first  real 
development  of  the  principle  of  what  was  known  as  the 
“active”  policy  to  the  Irish,  and  the  policy  of  “ob- 
struction ” to  the  English  people.  The  various  clauses 
of  the  measure  were  obstinately  opposed;  and  when 
attempts  were  made  to  force  the  bill  through  at  a late 
hour,  there  were  repeated  motions  for  adjournment. 
A similar  course  was  pursued  on  the  Mutiny  Bill, 
hostility  being  chiefly  directed  against  the  flogging 
clauses  ; and  scenes  of  much  excitement  frequently 
occurred.  Mr.  Parnell  came  into  serious  collision  in 
the  course  of  this  session,  both  with  Sir  Stafford  North- 
cote,  the  then  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
Mr.  Butt,  then  leader  of  the  Irish  party.  Sir  Stafford 
Northcote  moved  a resolution  on  one  occasion  for  Mr. 
Parnell’s  suspension,  which,  after  varying  fortunes,  had 
finally  to  be  abandoned,  in  order  to  give  way  for  some 
new  rules  against  “obstruction”  generally.  Mr.  Butt 
condemned  the  policy  of  Mr.  Parnell,  both  by  letters 
and  speeches;  but  it  soon  became  apparent  that  the 
action  of  the  younger  man  was  the  more  popular  among 
the  Irish  people.  In  the  beginning  of  1878  Mr. 
Parnell  was  elected  president,  instead  of  Mr.  Butt,  of 
the  Irish  organization  in  England,  known  as  the  Home 
Rule  Confederation,  and  from  this  time  forward  Mr. 
Butt  practically  ceased  to  be  the  leader  of  the  Iris 
party.  At  the  close  of  the  session  of  1879  Mr.  Parnell 
entered  upon  a new  and  important  epoch  in  his  career. 
There  had  been  a succession  of  three  bad  harvests  in 
Ireland;  the  country  was  threatened  with  deep  and 
wide-spread  distress ; and  the  time  was  ripe  for  starting 
a new  movement  for  reform  of  the  relations  between 
landlord  and  tenant.  On  October  21st  following,  the 
“ Irish  National  Land  League  ” was  founded,  and  Mr. 
Parnell  was  elected  the  first  president.  The  objects  of 
the  new  organization  were  declared  to  be  “first,  to 
bring  about  a reduction  of  rack-rents;  secondly,  to 
facilitate  the  ownership  of  the  soil  by  the  occupiers.” 
In  December  of  the  same  year  he  sailed  for  America, 
in  order  to  raise  funds  for  the  relief  of  the  distress  and 
for  starting  the  new  organization  ; lectured  in  a large 
number  of  towns,  before  several  State  legislatures,  and 
finally  before  the  House  of  Representatives  at  Wash- 
ington. Meantime,  parliament  was  dissolved;  Mr. 
Parnell  hurried  home,  took;  an  active  part  in  the 


PAR 


6728 

general  election,  and  was  himself  elected  for  three 
constituencies — Meath,  Mayo,  and  Cork  city.  He 
selected  the  last-named  constituency.  At  the  meet- 
ing of  the  new  Irish  party  after  the  election,  he  was 
chosen  leader  of  the  Irish  party  instead  of  Mr.  Shaw, 
who  had  succeeded  Mr.  Butt.  In  the  autumn  of  1880 
he  took  an  active  part  in  organizing  the  Land  League, 
which  rapidly  grew  to  be  the  most  powerful  of  modern 
Irish  movements.  In  November  of  this  year  informa- 
tions were  laid  by  the  Irish  attorney-general  against 
Mr.  Parnell  and  several  other  members  of  the  Land 
League  executive ; the  trial  opened  at  Dublin  on  De- 
cember 28th,  and  finally,  after  nineteen  days’  hearing, 
ended  in  a disagreement  of  the  jury.  In  the  opening 
of  the  session  of  1881  the  government  brought  in  a 
coercion  bill,  and  to  this  measure,  as  well  as  to  the 
Arms  Bill,  Mr.  Parnell  and  his  colleagues  offered  a 
fierce  and  obstinate  opposition,  prolonged  over  seven 
weeks.  The  Land  Act'  having  been  passed  into  law, 
Mr.  Parnell  presided  at  a Land  League  convention, 
at  which  it  was  resolved  that  the  “Act  should  be 
tested”  by  means  of  certain  selected  cases;  he  was 
present  afterward  at  several  large  Land  League  demon- 
strations; and  on  October  13th  he  was  arrested  and 
conveyed  to  Kilmainham  jail.  The  government  im- 
mediately afterward  proclaimed  the  Land  League  as  an 
illegal  association,  and  Mr.  Parnell  and  his  colleagues 
issued  the  “No  Rent”  manifesto.  Mr.  Parnell  re- 
mained in  Kilmainham  jail  till  April  10,  1882,  when  he 
was  released  on  parole  in  order  to  attend  the  funeral 
of  a relative.  On  May  2nd  following,  he  was  formally 
released,  as  well  as  his  colleagues,  Mr.  John  Dillon, 
M.P.,  and  Mr.  O’Kelly,  M.P.  Then  followed  the 
resignation  of  Mr.  Forster  and  Lord  Cowper,  the  mur- 
ders in  the  Phoenix  Park,  and  the  stormy  debates  on 
the  .Crimes  Bill.  The  freedom  of  the  city  had  been 
voted  to  Mr.  Parnell,  during  his  imprisonment,  at  Dub- 
lin and  other  places,  and  on  January  3,  1882,  he  and 
Mr.  Dillon  attended  in  the  City  Hall,  Dublin,  to  receive 
the  honor.  In  the  session  of  1882  he  took  an  active 
part  in  procuring  the  passage  of  the  Arrears  Act,  and 
of  the  Tramways  and  Laborers  Acts  in  the  session  of 
1883.  A national  subscription  to  Mr.  Parnell  was 
started  in  the  spring  of  1883,  and  a sum  of  $175,000  is 
said  to  have  been  presented  to  him.  The  Land  League 
was  revived  under  the  name  of  the  National  League, 
and  Mr.  Parnell  took  his  place  at  its  head.  He  inspired 
all  the  policy  of  the  Irish  parliamentary  party  during  the 
sessions  of  1884  and  1885 ; and  on  the  dissolution,  when 
the  Irish  people  first  voted  on  a general  household  suf- 
frage, he  nominated  every  Nationalist  candidate,  and 
went  back  to  Westminster  with  eighty-five  followers. 
It  was  to  meet  this  new  situation  that  Mr.  Gladstone 
proposed  home  rule,  in  which,  of  course,  he  was  sup- 
ported by  Mr.  Parnell  and  the  whole  strength  of  his 
party.  Mr.  Parnell  retained  the  leadership  of  the  Irish 
parliamentary  party  until  1890,  when  the  publication  of 
his  relations  with  Mrs.  O’Shea  led  to  its  division  into 
Parnellites  and  anti-Parnellites,  the  latter  believing 
that  his  usefulness  was  gone  and  choosing  for  their 
leader,  Justin  McCarthy,  who  later  became  the  recog- 
nized head  of  the  Nationalists.  Mr.  Parnell  died  Oc- 
tober 7,  1891. 

PARRY,  Charles  Hubert  Hastings,  English 
musical  composer,  was  born  in  1848,  and  educated 
at  Eton  and  Oxford.  He  composed  sonatas,  over- 
tures, an  adaption  of  Shelley’s  Prometheus  Unbottnd 
and  the  oratorios  Judith  (1888)  ; Job  (1891),  and  King 
Saul  (1894). 

PARRY,  Edward,  D.D.,  son  of  Rear-Admiral 
PaEry,  the  Arctic  explorer,  was  born  at  Sydney,  New 
South  Wales,  in  1830,  was  educated  at  Balliol  College, 


Oxford,  was  ordained  deacon  in  1854,  priest  in  1855, 
and  in  1870  appointed  bishop  suffragan  of  Dover,  which 
see  he  retained  until  he  died,  April  11,  1890. 

PARRY,  Joseph,  musical  composer,  born  at  Mer- 
thyr Tydfil,  1841,  won  prizes  in  New  York,  returned 
to  England  in  1863,  and  has  composed  numerous 
works  including  the  successful  oratorio  Saul  of  Tarsus 
(1892). 

PARSONS,  Alfred  William,  R.I.,  landscape 
painter,  was  born  in  England,  December  2,  1847,  and 
educated  at  private  schools.  His  first  pictures  and 
water  color  drawings  were  exhibited  at  the  Dudley 
Gallfery,  and  he  was  elected  a member  of  the  committee 
of  the  General  Exhibition  of  Water  Color  Drawings  in 
1879.  On  the  dissolution  of  that  society,  he,  with  the 
other  members  of  the  committee,  joined  the  Royal 
Institute  of  Painters  in  Water  Colors.  In  the  winter 
of  1881-82  he  visited  New  York,  and  has  since  done 
many  illustrations  for  American  magazines.  At  the 
World’s  Fair  in  Chicago  in  1893  he  exhibited  Boden- 
ham  Church  and  Somersetshire  Hills,  in  water  colors, 
and  In  a Cider  Country , The  Flowers  Appear  on  the 
Earth  and  The  Daylight  Dies,  in  oil. 

PARSONS,  Charles,  born  at  Homer,  Cortland 
county,  N.  Y.,  January  24,  1824,  engaged  in  banking 
in  Keokuk,  Iowa,  in  1857,  and  from  1862  to  1864  served 
in  the  army  as  assistant  quartermaster  with  rank  of 
captain,  and  had  charge  of  the  United  States  river 
and  rail  transportation  in  the  West,  from  Galena  and 
Fort  Benton  to  Vicksburg.  In  February,  1864,  he 
was  elected  cashier  of  the  State  Savings  Associa- 
tion in  St.  Louis,  in  which  position  he  continued 
until  1870,  when  he  was  elected  president  of  the 
same  institution  (which  is  now  the  State  Bank  of  St. 
Louis,  its  name  having  been  changed  in  1888),  and  this 
position  he  has  held  since  that  date.  He  is  president 
of  the  St.  Louis  clearing  house,  to  which  position 
he  has  been  continuously  reelected  since  1873.  He 
is  also  president  and  director  of  many  other  corpora- 
tions doing  business  at  St.  Louis  and  vicinity.  He  was 
brevetted  major  and  lieutenant-colonel  in  recognition 
of  his  services  in  the  army. 

PARSONS,  Samuel  Holden,  born  in  Lyme, 
Conn.,  May  17,  1737;  died  November.  17,  1789.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1756,  and  became  a law- 
yer. In  1773  he  was  made  king’s  attorney,  and  re- 
moved to  New  London.  On  April  26,  1775,  he  was 
appointed  colonel  of  militia  stationed  at  Roxbury, 
Mass.,  and  ordered  to  New  York  city.  In  August, 
1776,  he  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  and  in 
the  same  year  was  made  brigadier-general.  General 
Parsons  was  one  of  the  board  that  tried  Major  Andre, 
and  in  1780  he  received  the  commission  of  major-gen-, 
eral.  Later,  he  resumed  the  practice  of  law  in  Middle- 
town,  Conn.,  and  became  first  judge  of  the  Northwest 
Territory.  After  this  appointment  he  settled  near 
Marietta,  Ohio. 

PARSONS,  Theophilus,  born  in  Byfield,  Mass., 
February  24,  1 750;  died  October  30,  1813.  He  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  in  1769,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
Portland,  Me.,  in  1774,  returned  to  Byfield,  and  later 
settled  at  Newburyport.  Here  his  practice  became 
extensive.  In  1800  he  removed  to  Boston,  and  from 
1806  until  the  time  of  his  death  was  justice  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  Massachusetts. 

PARTON,  James,  born  at  Canterbury,  England, 
February  9,  1822,  came  to  America  when  a child.  He 
received  an  ordinary  education,  and  at  the  age  of  nine- 
teen was  teacher  in  an  academy  at  White  Plains,  N.  Y., 
and  subsequently  taught  in  Philadelphia  and  New  York. 
He  afterward  became  a journalist  and  magazine  writer, 
and  wrote  many  books,  mostly  of  a historical  character. 


P A S — P A T 


In  1856  he  married  the  well-known  authoress  “ Fanny 
Fern.”  He  resided  in  New  York  until  1875,  when  he 
removed  to  Newburyport,  Mass.  He  died  in  1891. 

PASSAGLIA,  Carlo,  D.D.,  was  born  in  Italy  in 
1814,  received  his  education  at  Rome,  took  orders, 
joined  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  became  professor  of 
theology  in  the  Roman  University.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  learned  treatises  on  Biblical  interpretation. 
In  1861  he  published  a remarkable  pamphlet  in  Latin, 
in  which  he  counseled  the  Pope  to  abandon  his  tem- 
poral state  and  power,  in  obedience  to  the  voice  of 
united  Italy.  It  was  placed  upon  the  Index  Expurga- 
torius  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  and  its  author 
soon  afterward  left  Rome.  He  was  appointed,  at  the 
instance  of  King  Victor  Emmanuel,  a theological  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Turin,  was  elected  a member 
of  the  Italian  parliament  in  January,  1863,  and  took  an 
active  part  in  promoting  the  formation  of  an  independ- 
ent Liberal  Catholic  party  in  Italy.  He  was  made 
grand  officer  of  the  Order  of  Saints  Maurice  and  Laza- 
rus in  January,  1863.  In  November,  1882,  he  was 
completely  reconciled  with  the  Holy  See,  and  resumed 
the  ecclesiastical  dress.  He  died  March  13,  1887. 

PASTEUR,  Louis,  chemist,  born  in  Dole,  Jura, 
December  27,  1822 ; entered  the  university  in  1840,  be- 
came a supernumerary  master  of  studies  at  the  College 
of  Besan5on,  was  received  as  a pupil  in  the  flcole 
Normale  in  1843,  took  the  degree  of  doctor  in  1847, 
and  was  appointed  professor  of  physics  at  the  Faculty 
of  Sciences,  Strasburg,  in  1848.  At  the  end  of  i854he 
was  intrusted  as  dean  with  the  organization  of  the 
newly  created  Faculty  of  Sciences  at  Lille,  and  in  1857 
returned  to  Paris,  and  undertook  the  “scientific  direc- 
tion” of  the  Ecole  Normale.  In  December,  1863,  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  geology,  physics,  and  chem- 
istry at  the  ficole  des  Beaux-Arts,  and  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Institute.  The  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don in  1856  awarded  M.  Pasteur  the  Rumford  medal 
for  his  researches  relative  to  the  polarization  of  light,  etc. 
He  was  decorated  with  the  Legion  of  Honor  August 
12,  1853,  was  promoted  to  be  an  officer  of  that  order  in 
1863,  and  became  a commander  in  1868.  In  1869  he 
was  elected  one  of  the  fifty  foreign  members  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London.  M.  Pasteur  has  written 
numerous  works  relating  to  chemistry,  which  have  been 
favorably  received,  and  for  which,  in  1861,  he  obtained 
the  Jecker  prize.  In  1874  the  national  assembly  ac- 
corded to  M.  Pasteur,  as  a reward  chiefly  for  his  in- 
vestigations on  fermentation,  a life  annuity  of  12,000 
francs.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  grand  officer  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor,  October  24,  1878.  His  recep- 
tion into  the  French  Academy  took  place  April  27, 
1882,  when  he  delivered  a panegyric  of  M.  Littre,  to 
whose  chair  he  had  succeeded.  In  the  same  year  the 
council  of  the  Society  of  Arts  awarded  the  Albert  medal 
of  the  society  to  M.  Pasteur  for  his  researches  in  con- 
nection with  fermentation,  the  preservation  of  wines, 
and  the  propagation  of  zymotic  diseases  in  silkworms 
and  domestic  animals.  OF  late  years  M.  Pasteur  has 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  inoculation  for  diseases 
other  than  smallpox,  and  has  achieved  some  very  re- 
markable results  in  the  prevention  of  hydrophobia, 
patients  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  even  from  Amer- 
ica, traveling  to  Paris  to  put  themselves  under  his  care. 
Large  subscriptions  were  raised  in  Europe  to  form  an 
“ Institut  Pasteur,”  to  teach  his  principles.  In  1893 
he  discovered  a cholera  vaccine.  Died  Sept.,  1895. 

PATER,  Walter,  born  in  London,  August  4,  1839, 
and  educated  at  the  Queen’s  College,  Oxford,  was 
elected  fellow  of  Brasenose  College,  in  1865,  and  be- 
came dean  and  lecturer  there.  His  first  contribution 
to  literature  was  an  essay  on  the  Writings  of  Coleridge 


6729 

in  the  Westminster  Review  (January,  1866).  In  1873 
he  published  The  Renaissance,  a series  of  studies  in 
art  and  literature.  In  1885  appeared  Marius , the  Epi- 
curian:  His  Sensations  and  Ideas , in  2 vols.  He  con- 
tributed the  notices  of  Coleridge  and  Rosseti  to  Ward’s 
English  Poets , and  published  Plato  and  Platonism 
(1893).  He  was  a master  of  literary  style.  He  died 
July  30,  1894. 

PATMORE,  Coventry  Kearsey  Deighton,  a 
popular  poet  among  the  English  middle  classes,  was 
born  in  \yoodford,  Essex,  in  1823,  began  writing  in 
1844  and  published  his  best  known  poem  The  Angel 
in  the  House  (a  story  of  a young  man’s  “maiden  pas- 
sion for  a maid  ”)  in  1855.  He  has  since  published 
A Garland  of  Poems  for  Children,  The  Unknown  Eros , 
a memoir  of  Barry  Cornwall,  Religio  Poetce  (1893),  and 
other  works.  He  was  assistant  librarian  of  the  British 
Museum,  1846-68.  Died  Nov.  26,  1896. 

PATON,  Sir  Joseph  Noel,  born  at  Dunfermline, 
Fifeshire,  Scotland,  in  1821,  well  known  for  his  out- 
line etchings  illustrative  of  Shakespeare  and  Shelley, 
and  his  illustrations  of  The  Ancient  Mariner ; was 
knighted  in  1867  and  produced,  among  other  works, 
A Fairy  Raid,  and  in  1868  Caliban  Listening  to  the 
Music.  Of  his  subsequent  pictures  the  more  impor- 
tant are  Faith  and  Reason  (1871,  engraved);  Christ 
and  Mary  at  the  Sepulcher,  and  Oskold  and  the  Elle- 
Maids  (1873);  Satan  Watching  the  Sleep  of  Christ 
(1874);  The  Man  of  Sorrows  (1875);  The  Spirit  of 
Twilight  and  Christ  the  Great  Shepherd  (1876);  and 
The  Man  With  the  Muck-rake  (1877).  He  is  the 
author  of  two  volumes  of  poems,  and  in  1876  received 
from  the  University  of  Edinburgh  the  honorary  degree 
of  LL.D.  Died  Dec.  26,  1901. 

PATTERSON,  James  Laird,  bishop  of  Emmaus, 
born  in  London,  England,  November  16,  1822;  be- 
came curate  of  St.  Thomas’,.  Oxford  in  1845,  but,  in 
1850,  entered  the  Roman  Communion.  In  1880  he  was 
consecrated  titular  bishop  of  Emmaus,  rector  of  St. 
Mary’s,  Chelsea,  in  1881. 

PATTERSON,  Robert,  born  in  Ireland,  January 
12,  1792;  died  in  Philadelphia,  August  7,  1881.  He 
served  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  in  the  Mexican  war,  and 
was  made  major-general  of  volunteers.  When  Lincoln 
issued  his  call  for  75,000  three-months’  men  General 
Patterson,  then  the  ranking  major-general,  was  given 
command  of  the  military  department  which  included 
Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Delaware,  and  the  District 
of  Columbia.  He  did  not  distinguish  himself  in  this 
capacity,  and  was  retired  in  July,  1861. 

PATTI,  Adelina  Maria  Clorinda,  a popular  oper- 
atic singer,  daughter  of  Salvatori  Patti,  is  of  Italian  ex- 
traction, and  was  born  at  Madrid,  April  9,  1843.  After 
a course  of  professional  training  under  her  brother-in- 
law,  Maurice  Strakosch,  she  appeared  at  New  York, 
November  24,  1859.  She  made  her  first  appearance  in 
London  at  the  Italian  Opera  House,  Covent  Garden,  in 
the  part  of  “Amina,  ” in  La  Somnambula,  May  14,  1861, 
and  became  at  once  the  prime  favorite  of  the  day.  She 
achieved  a fresh  success  in  the  part  of  “Juliet,”  in 
Gounod’s  Romeo  and  Juliet,  which  proved  the  great  at- 
traction of  the  operatic  season  of  1867.  In  May,  1868, 
she  was  married  to  the  Marquis  de  Caux,  from  whom 
she  was  afterward  divorced.  In  the  early  part  of  1870 
she  visited  Russia,  where  she  met  with  a most  enthusi- 
astic welcome,  receiving  from  the  Emperor  Alexander 
the  Order  of  Merit,  and  the  appointment  of  first  singer 
at  the  imperial  court.  She  has  since  achieved  fresh 
successes  both  in  Europe  and  America.  In  1886  she 
was  married,  in  Wales,  to  Signor  Nicolini.  She  visited 
the  United  States  on  several  occasions,  and  was  the 
leading  attraction  at  the  opening  of  the  Chicago  Audi- 


6736  PAT- 

torium.  She  gave  annual  “farewell  tours”  in  the 
United  States  for  some  years  up  to  1893. 

PATTI,  Carlotta,  sister  of  the  preceding,  was  also 
a well-known  operatic  singer,  and  performed  with  great 
success  in  this  country  and  in  Europe.  She  was  mar- 
ried in  1879  to  Ernst  von  der  Munck,  of  Weimar, 
Saxony.  She  died  June  27,  1889. 

PAULDING,  James  Kirke,  born  in  Dutchess 
county,  N.  Y.,  August  22,  1779  ; died  April  6,  i860. 
In  1807  he  issued,  in  connection  with  Washington 
Irving,  the  first  number  of  Salmagundi , & magazine 
which,  during  its  short  existence  of  one  year,  proved 
itself  an  important  contribution  to  current  literature. 
Paulding  also  wrote  a Life  of  George  Washington , and 
a pamphlet  in  defense  of  slavery.  From  1826  to  1837 
he  filled  the  office  of  navy  agent  of  the  port  of  New 
York,  and  in  1837  President  Van  Buren  made  him 
secretary  of  the  navy.  After  his  retirement  from  public 
office  he  resumed  his  magazine  work,  and  published 
several  novels. 

PAULDING,  John,  born  in  New  York  city  in  1758; 
died  in  Staatsburg,  N.  Y.,  February  18,  1818.  He 
served  as  a common  soldier  during  the  Revolution,  and 
was  three  times  taken  prisoner.  Shortly  after  his  sec- 
ond escape  he  assisted  in  capturing  Major  Andre,  of  the 
British  army.  Paulding,  Isaac  Van  Wart,  and  David 
Williams,  on  September  23,  1780,  were  patrolling  the 
east  bank  of  the  Hudson  river,  when  Andre  was  on  his 
return  to  the  British  lines,  after  an  interview  with  Gen. 
Benedict  Arnold.  Paulding  sprang  from  a thicket, 
where  he  had  been  concealed  with  his  two  companions, 
and,  presenting  a gun  at  him,  asked  which  way  he 
was  going.  Andre  replied:  “ Gentlemen,  I hope  you 
belong  to  our  party.”  “ Which  party  ? ” inquired  Paul- 
ding. “ The  lower  party,”  said  Andre.  Paulding  said 
he  did.  Said  Andre,  “ I am  a British  officer  out  on  par- 
ticular business,  and  I hope  you  will  not  detain  me.” 
Thereupon  Paulding  and  the  others  ordered  him  to  dis- 
mount. Andre  then  produced  a pass  given  him  by  Gen- 
eral Arnold,  and  added:  “ By  stopping  me  you  will  de- 
tain the  General’s  business.”  The  three  now  deprived 
him  of  his  watch  and  valuables,  took  him  among  the 
bushes  and  thoroughly  searched  his  person,  when  three 
parcels  in  papers  were  discovered  under  each  stocking. 
They  proved  to  cpntain  a plan  of  the  fortifications  at 
West  Point,  a memorial  from  the  military  engineer  on 
the  attack  and  defense  of  that  place,  and  returns  of  the 
garrison,  cannon,  and  stores  in  Arnold’s  own  handwrit- 
ing. The  men  conducted  their  captive  to  the  nearest 
American  military  post  at  North  Bend,  and  delivered 
him  to  the  officer  in  command.  At  the  time  of  Andre’s 
trial,  Paulding  said:  “ Had  he  pulled  out  General  Ar- 
nold’s pass  first  we  should  have  let  him  go.” 

PAUNCEFOTE,  Sir  Julian,  was  born  at  Munich, 
Bavaria,  September  13,  1828,  and  educated  at  Paris, 
at  Geneva,  and  at  Marlborough  College.  He  settled  in 
England,  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1852,  joined  the  Ox- 
ford circuit,  and  also  practiced  as  a conveyancer.  He 
was  appointed  attorney-general  of  Hong-Kongin  May, 
1865,  and  acted  as  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court 
in  1869,  and  in  1874  was  knighted  by  patent.  He  was 
appointed  chief  justice  of  the  Leeward  Islands  in  1873, 
and  assistant  under-secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies 
in  1874.  In  1876  he  was  appointed  assistant  (legal) 
under-secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs.  He  was 
created  a C.B.  and  a K.C.M.G.  in  1880,  and  in  1882 
he  succeeded  the  late  Lord  Tenterden  as  permanent 
under-secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs.  In  1885  he 
received  the  grand  cross  of  the  Order  of  St.  Michael 
and  St.  George.  In  1888  he  was  appointed  British 
ambassador  at  Washington.  Died  May  24,  1902. 

PAYN,  James,  was  born  at  Cheltenham,  England, 


-PEA 

in  1830,  and  died  March  25,  1898.  He  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  grad- 
uated in  1854.  At  that  date  he  had  already  published  a 
volume  of  verse  called  Stories  fro?n  Boccacio , and  the 
next  year  he  published  another  book  of  Poems.  In  1854 
he  began  to  write  for  the  Westminster  Review , and  con- 
stantly contributed  to  Household  Words,  until,  in  1858, 
he  succeeded  Mr.  Leitch  Ritchie  as  editor  of  Chambers' 
Journal,  for  which  magazine  he  wrote  exclusively  for 
many  years.  In  Chambers'  came  out  his  first  novel, 
A Family  Scapegrace,  and,  a few  years  afterward,  Lost 
Sir  Massingberd.  Mr.  Payn’s  novels  became  after- 
ward very  numerous,  and  his  popularity  a growing  one. 
In  addition  to  his  works  of  fiction,  Mr.  James  Payn 
frequently  contributed  essays  of  a humorous  type  to  the 
Nineteenth  Century  and  the  Times.  A collection  of 
such  essays  from  these  two  periodicals  was  published 
in  London  under  the  title  of  Some  Private  Views.  His 
works  in  the  British  Museum  extend  to  upward  of  a 
hundred  volumes.  In  1882  Mr.  Payn  succeeded  Mr. 
Leslie  Stephen  as  editor  of  the  Cornhill  Magazine. 

PAYNE,  Henry  B.,  born  in  New  York  State,  No- 
vember 30,  1810;  died  September  9,  1896.  He  practiced 
law  in  Ohio  from  1834.  In  1850  he  was  State  senator, 
and  in  1857  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  governor 
of  the  State,  being  defeated  by  Salmon  P.  Chase. 
During  the  Civil  war  he  supported  the  government. 
He  became  wealthy  from  Standard  oil  investments ; in 
1875  was  elected  to  congress  as  a Democrat,  and  in  1876 
Served  on  the  electoral  commission.  In  1884  he  w.as 
elected  United  States  senator. 

PAYNE,  John  Howard,  born  in  New  York  city, 
June  9,  1 792  ; died  in  Tunis,  Africa,  April  10,  1852.  At 
the  age  of  fifteen  he  entered  Union  College,  where  he 
remained  two  years,  and  during  that  time  published  a 
periodical  called  The  Pastime.  Payne  made  his  first 
appearance  as  an  actor  at  the  Park  theater  in  New  York 
city,  on  February  24,  1809,  as  “ Young  Norval,”  in  the 
play  of  Douglas  and  repeated  the  performance  in 
other  cities,  as  the  “American  Roscius,  ” in  the  manner  of 
Master  Betty  of  England.  Thereafter  he  appeared  in 
London,  at  Drury  Lane  theater,  on  June  4,  1813,  and 
made  a tour  through  Great  Britain,  with  fair  success. 
For  nearly  twenty  years  he  was  engaged  in  England, 
as  actor,  manager  and  playwright.  Besides  translating 
and  adapting  French  plays  for  the  theaters,  he  pro- 
duced Brutus,  or  the  Fall  of  Tarqitin  (1818),  a favor- 
ite tragedy ; with  Edmund  Kean  and  J.  B.  Booth,  com- 
piled several  plays  on  the  same  subject ; also  Clari,  or 
The  Maid  of  Milan,  in  which  occurs  the  song  of  Home, 
Sweet  Home.  In  August,  1832,  Payne  returned  to  New 
York  city  and  engaged  in  literary  and  dramatic  work, 
sustaining  himself  with  difficulty.  From  1841  until 
1845  he  w as  United  States  consul  at  Tunis,  and  in  1851 
was  reappointed  to  the  same  office,  wdiich  he  held  until 
the  time  of  his  death.  In  1883  his  remains  were 
brought  to  this  country. 

PAYSON,  Lewis  E.,  was  born  in  Providence,  R.  I., 
September  17,  1840;  removed  to  Illinois  in  1852;  re- 
ceived a common-school  education,  with  two  years  at 
Lombard  University,  Galesburg,  111.;  studied  law  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Ottawa,  111.,  in  1862;  re- 
moved to  Pontiac  in  January,  1865,  wffiere  he  has  since 
resided,  practicing  law,  was  judge  of  County  Court  1869- 
73;  was  elected  to  the  forty-seventh,  forty-eighth,  forty- 
ninth,  and  fiftieth  congresses,  and  w^as  reelected  to  the 
fifty-first  congress  as  a Republican,  receiving  16,878 
votes  against  14,490  votes  for  Herman  W.  Snovr, 
Democrat,  and  1,345  votes  for  M.  C.  Smith,  Prohibi- 
tionist. 

PEABODY,  Elizabeth  Palmer,  philanthropist 
and  educator,  born  in  Massachusetts,  1804;  wrote  many 


PEA- 

educational  works,  became  a teacher  in  Boston  in  1822, 
and  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  kindergarten  system 
in  this  country.  Her  two  sisters  married  Horace  Mann, 
and  Nathaniel  Hawthorne.  She  died  January  4,  1894. 

PEACOCK,  Sir  Barnes,  born  in  England  in  1810, 
became  a lawyer,  was  appointed  legal  member  of  the 
supreme  council  at  Calcutta  in  1852,  and  chief  justice  of 
the  Supreme  Cpurt,  and  vice-president  of  the  legislative 
council  of  India  in  1859.  He  resigned  his  seat  on  the 
Calcutta  bench  in  1870,  and  died  in  England,  December 
5,  1890. 

PE  ALE,  Charles  Willson,  painter,  born  in  Ches- 
tertown,  Md.,  April  16,  1741  ; died  in  Philadelphia, 
Penn.,  February  22,  1827.  From  1768  to  1769  he  lived 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  where  he  received  some  instruction 
from  J.  S.  Copley.  In  1770 he  went  to  England,  where 
he  became  a pupil  of  Benjamin  West,  and  also  studied 
modeling,  engraving  and  miniature  painting.  In  1774 
he  established  himself  *as  an  artist  in  Annapolis.  In 
1772  he  executed  a portrait  of  Washington  in  the  uni- 
form of  a Virginia  colonel.  In  1776  he  went  to  Phila- 
delphia as  a captain  of  volunteers,  and  fought  at  Tren- 
ton and  Germantown.  For  fifteen  years  he  was  the 
most  noted  portrait  painter  in  the  United  States,  and 
drew  many  likenesses  of  prominent  Revolutionary  char- 
acters. In  1802  he  opened  a museum  of  natural  his- 
tory in  Philadelphia,  called  Peale’s  Museum,  to  which 
his  extensive  gallery  of  paintings  became  an  adjunct. 
He  also  assisted  in  founding  the  Pennsylvania  Academy 
bf  Fine  Arts,  and  for  seventeen  years  contributed  to  its 
Exhibitions. 

PEALE,  Rembrandt,  painter,  born  in  Bucks  coun- 
ty, Penn.,  February  22,  1778;  died  October  3,  i860. 
He  was  a son  of  the  foregoing.  At  the  age  of  seven- 
teen he  painted  a likeness  of  Washington,  after  three 
sittings,  and  from  1796  until  1801  was,  a portrait  painter 
in  Charleston,  S.  C.  Thereafter  he  went  to  London, 
took  lessons  of  Benjamin  West,  and  painted  portraits 
of  notabilities  for  his  father’s  museum  in  Philadelphia. 
He  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1803.  In  1807, 
and  again  in  1809,  he  visited  Paris  for  study,  and 
painted  many  likenesses  of  eminent  Frenchmen  for 
his  father’s  collection.  In  1810  he  returned  home,  and 
opened  a studio  in  Philadelphia.  From  that  time  until 
1829  he  was  engaged  in  portrait  painting  at  Philadel- 
phia, Baltimore,  New  York,  and  Boston,  thereafter 
went  abroad,  visiting  France  and  Italy,  and  in  1833 
visited  England.  After  his  return  he  established  Peale’s 
Museum  in  New  York  city. 

PEARY,  Robert  Edwin,  Lieutenant,  an  Ameri- 
can Arctic  explorer,  born  in  1854,  was  educated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy,  made  a journey  to 
Greenland  in  1886;  sailed  in  the  Kite  in  June,  1891, 
making  his  headquarters  at  McCormick  Bay  on  the 
west  coast  of  Greenland,  and  made  many  sledge  jour- 
neys, reaching  latitude  82°  on  the  eastern  coast  and 
proving  the  convergence  of  the  east  and  west  coasts  of 
Greenland.  He  discovered  many  glaciers,  returned  in 
September,  1892,  and  sailed  again  in  the  Falcon  in  July, 
1893,  intending  to  push  on  from  Greenland  to  the  pole. 
His  wife  Mrs.  Josephine  Diebitsch  Peary  went  on  the 
expedition  of  1891  and  wrote  My  Arctic  Journal,  a Year 
Among  the  Ice  Fields  (1893). 

PEDRO  I.,  de  Alcantara,  Dom,  emperor  of 
Brazil,  born  in  Lisbon,  Portugal,  October  12,  1798; 
died  there  September  24,  1834;  was  the  son  of  Prince 
Regent  Joao,  who  fled  to  Brazil  before  French  invasion 
in  1808,  but  became  King  of  Portugal  in  1816,  and  in 
1821  was  forced  by  a revolution  to  recognize  a constitu- 
tion for  Portugal  and  Brazil.  Dom  Pedro  was  left  in 
Brazil  as  regent,  and  the  Portuguese  cortes,  believing 
that  his  presence  in  Brazil  would  eventually  cause  a sep- 


- E E E 67  31 

aration  between  the  mother-country  and  her  great  col- 
ony, ordered  his  return  and  relegated  Brazil  to  its  form- 
er subjection.  When  the  royal  decree  was  promulgated, 
on  December  10,  1821,  the  people  rose  and  urged  that 
the  prince  would  establish  himself  permanently  and 
independently  in  Brazil.  Dom  Pedro  consented,  and 
became  “ Perpetual  Defender  of  Brazil.”  On  Septem- 
ber 7,  1822,  he  declared  the  absolute  independence  of 
that  country.  On  his  twenty-fourth  birthday  the  prince 
was  proclaimed  emperor,  and  crqwned  on  December  1st 
in  the  cathedral.  In  September,  1823,  the  young  em- 
peror’s authority  was  recognized  throughout  the  entire 
land,  and  in  1825  Portugal,  yielding  to  the  influence  of 
Great  Britain,  recognized  the  independence  of  Brazil. 
The  death  of  Dom  Pedro’s  father,  King  John  VI.  of 
Portugal,  caused  the  emperor  some  embarrassment.  He 
seemed  disposed  to  reunite  the  two  monarchies,  but 
found  much  opposition  thereto  in  the  empire,  and  was 
eventually  compelled  to  abdicate  his  claims  to  the  Portu- 
guese throne  in  favor  of  his  daughter,  Maria  de  Gloria. 
Several  circumstances  combined  to  render  the  emperor 
unpopular,  and,  tired  of  the  cares  of  royalty,  he,  on  April 
7,  1831,  abdicated  the  Brazilian  throne  in  favor  of  his 
son,  then  in  his  sixth  year. 

PEDRO  II.,  de  Alcantara,  ex-emperor  of  Brazil, 
born  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  December  2,  1825,  the  son  of 
Dom  Pedro  I.,  of  Braganza  and  Bourbon,  and  of  Leo- 
poldina,  archduchess  of  Austria;  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror upon  the  abdication  of  his  father,  in  April,  1831, 
.at  the  age  of  five  years  and  some  months.  The  govern- 
ment was  at  first  administered  by  a council  of  regency, 
and  afterward  by  one  regent.  In  July,  1840,  Pedro 
was  declared  of  age  by  the  Chambers,  and  assumed  the 
sovereign  power  when  not  quite  fifteen.  In  1843  he 
was  married  to  the  Princess  Theresa  Christina  Maria, 
sister  of  Francis  I.,  late  king  of  Naples;  from  which 
union  were  born  two  princes,  who  died  young,  and  two 
princesses.  The  firm  and  judicious  attitude  he  assumed 
in  1862,  in  the  quarrel  which  broke  out  between  his 
government  and  that  of  Great  Britain,  which  was  set- 
tled in  his  favor  by  the'  arbitration  of  the  king  of  the 
Belgians,  tended  greatly  to  consolidate  his  power. 
In  1865  Dom  Pedro  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Uru- 
guay and  the  Argentine  Republic  against  the  Paraguay- 
ans under  Lopez.  The  war  began  in  1866,  and  raged 
with  varying  fortunes  down  to  March  1,  1870,  when  it 
was  brought  to  a close  by  the  death  of  Lopez.  In  1871 
Dom  Pedro  made  the  tour  of  Europe,  visiting  London, 
Paris,  Florence,  Rome,  Brussels,  and  other  capitals, 
and  in  1876  he  visited  the  United  States.  The  most 
important  event  of  his  reign  was  the  issuing  of  an  im- 
perial decree,  in  1871,  for  the  gradual  but  total  abolition 
of  slavery  in  Brazil.  On  November  15,  1889,  a peace- 
ful revolution  occurred,  Brazil  became  a republic,  and 
Dom  Pedro,  two  days  later,  left  the  country.  He  was 
granted  a pension,  but  this  was  afterward  stopped. 
He  died  December  4,  1891. 

PEEL,  Arthur  Wellesley,  M.P.,  ex-speaker  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  is  the  youngest  son  of  the  late 
Right  Hon.  Sir  Robert  Peel,  and  was  born  in  1829. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford, 
and  in  1865  entered  parliament  for  Warwick  as  a 
liberal,  but  left  that  party  at  the  time  of  the  Unionist 
defection.  He  was  parliamentary  secretary  to  the  poor 
law  board  from  December,  1868,  to  January,  1871 ; 
secretary  to  the  board  of  trade  from  1871  to  1873, 
patronage  secretary  to  the  treasury  1873-74,  and  under- 
secretary to  the  home  department  for  nine  months  in 
1880.  On  the  retirement  of  Sir  Henry  Brand  in  1884, 
Mr.  Peel  was  elected  speaker,  and  he  continued  to 
hold  the  post  amid  general  expressions  of  good-will 
from  all  parties,  being  elected  without  opposition  in 


PE  E — V EM 


6732 

1886  and  1892,  until  his  resignation  of  the  office  in 
April,  1895. 

PEEL,  Sir  Frederick,  K.C.M.G.,  second  son  of 
the  late  Sir  Robert  Peel,  born  in  London,  October  26, 
1823,  and  educated  at  Harrow  and  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  was  first  class  in  classics ; was 
called  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  in  1849,  and  re- 
turned as  one  of  the  members  in  the  liberal  interest  for 
Leominster  in  February,  1849;  was  elected  for  Bury  in 
July,  1852,  and,  having  been  defeated  at  the  general 
election  in  March,  1857,  was  again  returned  by  this 
constituency  at  the  general  election  in  April,  1859,  but 
was  defeated  at  the  general  election  in  July,  1865.  He 
was  under-secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies  from 
November,  1851,  till  March,  1852,  in  Lord  Russell’s 
first  administration;  held  the  same  post  in  the  coalition 
administration  under  Lord  Aberdeen  ; was  under-secre- 
tary for  war  in  Lord  Palmerston’s  first  administration 
in  1855,  and  resigned  in  1857;  and  was  secretary  to 
the  treasury  from  i860  till  1865. 

PEEL,  Sir  Robert,  Bart.,  G.G.B.,  eldest  son  of 
the  late  Sir  Robert  Peel,  born  May  4,  1822;  was  edu- 
cated at  Harrow  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  was 
attach  £ to  the  British  ambassy  at  Madrid  from  June, 
1844,  till  May,  1846,  when  he  was  appointed  secretary 
to  the  British  Legation  in  Switzerland ; became  charge 
^ ’a/fl/w  in  N ovember,  1846,  and  retired  in  December, 
1850.  He  was  a lord  of  the  admiralty  from  February, 
1855,  till  May,  1857,  and  was  chief  secretary  for  Ire- 
land from  July,  1861,  till  December,  1865.  Sir  R. 
Peel  was  returned  one  of  the  members,  in  the  Liberal 
interest,  for  Tamworth,  soon  after  the  death  of  his 
father,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the  baronetcy,  July  2, 
1850,  and  retained  the  seat  till  March,  1880.  He  took 
a prominent  part  in  the  debates  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, especially  on  Irish  questions,  and  subjects  affect- 
ing the  foreign  policy  of  the  country.  He  sat  as  a 
Conservative  for  Huntingdon  in  1884-85,  and  for  Black- 
burn from  1885-86.  At  the  general  election  of  1886  he 
stood  as  a Home  Ruler  for  Inverness  Burghs,  but  was 
defeated.  He  died  May  9,  1895. 

PEFFER,  William  Alfred,  Senator,  of  Topeka, 
Kansas,  was  born  on  a farm  in  Cumberland  county, 
Pennsylvania,  September  10,  1831 ; was  teacher  and 
farmer,  enlisted  as  a private  in  the  Eighty-third  Illi- 
nois Infantry,  in  1862,  becoming  Second  Lieutenant, 
Judge- Advocate  of  a Military  Commission,  and  Depot 
Quartermaster  at  Nashville;  studied  law,  settled  in 
Kansas  in  1870,  practiced  law  and  established  and  con- 
ducted several  newspapers,  was  elected  to  the  State 
senate  in  1874  as  a Republican,  but  became  a populist 
and  as  such  was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  in  1891. 

PEGRAM,  Robert  Baker,  born  in  Virginia,  De- 
cember 10,  1811;  entered  the  United  States  navy  in 
1829,  and  became  lieutenant  in  1841.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Civil  war  he  went  over  to  the  South  and 
assisted  in  fitting  out  what  was  to  be  the  “Virginia 
volunteer  navy.”  He  commanded  the  Nashville , a 
vessel  which  did  considerable  harm  to  American  com- 
merce. 

PEIRCE,  Benjamin,  born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  April 
4,  1809;  died  October  6,  1880.  He  graduated  in  1829 
at  Harvard,  where  he  became  professor  of  mathematics 
and  natural  philosophy,  and  afterward  of  astronomy, 
holding  the  latter  chair  until  his  death.  Professor 
Peirce  was  for  many  years  connected  with  the  United 
States  coast  survey  and  made  several  valuable  observa- 
tions of  eclipses  and  Other  celestial  phenomena.  He 
achieved  great  note  as  a mathematician,  was  a member 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  of  the 
Royal  Astronomical  Society,  and  of  many  other  learned 
bodies,  and  wrote  standard  mathematical  text-books. 


PEIXOTO,  Floriano,  Marshal,  Brazilian  soldi?.* 
and  politician,  born  April  30,  1826,  took  part  in  the 
revolution  of  1889,  was  elected  vice-president  of  the 
new  republic  in  1890  and  on  Fonseca’s  forced  resigna- 
tion, November  23,  1891,  became  president.  Fear  that 
Peixoto  intended  to  succeed  himself  led  to  a revolt  of 
the  naval  force  in  September,  1893,  under  Admirals 
Mello  and  DeGama  which  he  suppressed  in  April,  1894. 
In  the  meantime  Prudente  Moraes  had  been  elected 
president  and  Peixoto  retired  from  office  November  15, 
1894.  He  died  June  29,  1895. 

PELHAM,  John  Thomas,  D.D.,  89th  bishop  of 
Norwich,  born  June  21,  1811 ; was  educated  at  West- 
minster and  Christ  Church,  Oxford;  became  succes- 
sively rector  of  Burgh  Apton,  Christ  Church,  Hamstead, 
and  Marylebone,  and  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Nor- 
wich in  1857,  resigning  in  1893.  He  died  May  1,  1894. 

PELLETIER,  Charles  Alphonse, born  in  Quebec, 
January  22,  1837;  became  a lawyer  and  member  both 
of  the  Quebec  Assembly  and  of  the  Dominion  Parlia- 
ment, was  minister  of  agriculture  in  1877,  and  in  the 
same  year  was  called  to  the  senate. 

PELLY,  Sir  Lewis,  English  soldier,  born  in  1825, 
served  in  India,  went  on  a special  mission  through  Af- 
ghanistan, and  Beloochistan,  in  i860  and  1861 ; became 
political  agent  at  Zanzibar  in  1 861  and  1862,  and  politi- 
cal resident  in  the  Persian  Gulf  in  1862.  He  was 
appointed  agent  to  the  governor-general  and  chief  com- 
missioner to  the  states  of  Rajpootana  in  1873,  and  hav- 
ing been  sent  as  special  commissioner  to  Baroda, 
'arrested  the  guicowar,  and  took  charge  of  the  state  in 
1874.  He  became  envoy  extraordinary  and  plenipo- 
tentiary for  Afghan  affairs,  entered  parliament  and 
died  April  25,  1892. 

PEMBERTON,  John  Clifford,  soldier,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Penn.,  August  10,  1814;  died  in  Penllyn, 
Penn.,  July  13,  1881.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  was  assigned 
to  artillery,  served  against  the  Seminole  Indians  in 
Florida  in  1837-39,  and  on  the  northern  frontier  during 
the  Canadian  disturbances  in  1840-42.  On  March  19, 
1842,  he  was  promoted  first  lieutenant,  served  as  aide  to 
General  Worth  in  the  Mexican  war,  took  part  in  the 
engagements  at  Monterey  and  Molino  del  Rey,  and  at 
the  close  of  the  war  was  brevetted  captain.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  war  he  resigned  his  commission  in 
the  United  States  army,  and  was  appointed  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  Virginia’s  State  troops  in  the  Confederate 
army.  On  June  17th  he  became  brigadier-general,  and 
on  February  13,  1862,  was  promoted  major-general. 
He  commanded  the  departments  of  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  and  Florida,  with  headquarters  at  Charleston, 
S.  C.  On  October  13,  1862,  he  was  made  lieutenant- 
general,  and  given  charge  of  the  department  which  com- 
prised Mississippi,  Tennessee,  and  eastern  Louisiana. 
He  was  intrusted  with  the  defense  of  Vicksburg,  and  in 
his  attempt  to  keep  open  the  way  for  reenforcements  by 
Johnston’s  army,  was  defeated  at  Champion  Hills  on 
May  16,  1863.  Thereafter  he  was  shut  up  in  the  forti- 
fications of  Vicksburg  until  July  4,  1863,  when  he  was 
compelled  to  surrender  his  large  army  to  General  Grant 
After  being  exchanged  he  resigned  his  command,  and 
became  inspector  of  ordnance  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  with 
the  rank  of  colonel,  and  served  as  such  until  the  end  of 
the  war.  Later  he  spent  some  time  on  a farm  at  War- 
renton,  Va.,  but  in  1876  located  in  Philadelphia,  the 
home  of  his  family. 

PEMBROKE,  Earl  of,  George  Robert  Charles 
Herbert,  eldest  son  of  Lord  Herbert  of  Lea  (Sidney 
Herbert),  was  born  July  6,  1850,  and  educated  at  Eton. 
From  1867  to  1870  he  traveled  in  New  Zealand  and 
Australia,  and  the  South  Seas,  and  wrote,  conjointly 


PEN-PER 


with  Dr.  George  Kingsley,  South  Sea  Bubbles , 1871, 
and  Roots  in  1872,  besides  various  articles.  From  1874 
to  1875,  in  Mr.  Disraeli’s  government,  he  was  under- 
secretary of  State  for  war.  He  died  May  3,  1895. 

PENDLETON,  George  Hunt,  born  in  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  July  15,  1825;  died  in  Belgium,  November  24, 
1889.  He  practiced  law  in  Cincinnati,  served  in  the 
State  senate,  and  from  1856  until  1865  sat  in  congress 
as  a Democrat.  In  1864  he  was  nominated  for  vice- 
president  of  the  United  States  on  the  Democratic  ticket, 
headed  by  George  B.  McClellan.  From  1879  until 
March,  1885,  he  was  United  States  Senator  from  Ohio, 
and  in  the  latter  year  was  appointed,  by  President 
Cleveland,  minister  to  Germany. 

PENDLETON,  William  Nelson,  born  in  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  December  26,  1809;  died  January  15,  1883. 
He  was  graduated  at  West  Pointin  1830,  was  professor 
of  mathematics  there  and  afterward  in  Bristol  College, 
Tenn.,  but  resigned  to  enter  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
ministry  in  1837.  When  the  Civil  war  broke  out  he 
joined  the  Confederate  army  as  captain  of  artillery,  and 
was  given  charge  of  the  artillery  arm  of  the  army  of  the 
Shenandoah.  He  served  throughout  the  war,  and  then 
returned  to  Lexington,  Va.,  where  he  assumed  charge 
of  the  high  school. 

PENGELLY,  William,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  was  born 
in  Cornwall,  England,  January  12,  1812.  He  is  the 
author  of  several  memoirs  and  papers  on  Rainfall , The 
Devonian  and  Triassic  Rocks  of  Devonshire , the  ossif- 
erous caverns  and  the  submerged  forests  of  the  same 
county,  and  (conjointly  with  Doctor  Heer,  of  Zurich) 
of  a monogram  on  The  Lignite  Formation.  He  col- 
lected and  arranged  the  Devonian  fossils,  which,  under 
the  name  of  the  “ Pengelly  Collection,”  were  lodged 
in  Oxford  University  Museum  by  the  Baroness  Bur- 
dett-Coutts,  in  connection  with  the  Burdett-Coutts 
geological  scholarships.  He  died  March  16,  1894. 

PENNELL,  Henry  Cholmondely,  born  in  Eng- 
land, in  1837,  was  appointed  one  of  the  inspectors  of 
fisheries  in  1866,  and  in  1875,  director-general  of  com- 
merce for  the  interior  in  Egypt.  Mr.  Pennell  wrote 
Puck  on  Pegasus , Crescent,  Modern  Babylon , The 
Muses  of  Mayfair,  Pegasus  Re-saddled  and  other  poetry, 
besides  works  on  angling  and  ichthyology. 

PEPPER,  George  D.  B.,  born  in  Ware,  Mass., 
February  5,  1833;  graduated  at  Amherst  in  1857,  and 
was  ordained  in  the  Baptist  faith.  He  held  a pastorate 
in  Waterville,  Me.,  and  later  was  professor  of  ecclesi- 
astical history  at  Newton  Theological  Seminary.  In 
1882  he  became  president  of  Colby  University. 

PEPPERRELL,  Sir  William,  born  in  Kittery, 
Me.,  June  27,  1696;  died  there  July  6,  1759.  At  the 
age  of  twenty-one  he  was  appointed  captain  of  a com- 
pany of  cavalry  and  at  the  age  of  thirty  was  advanced 
to  a colonelcy.  In  1730  Governor  Belcher  appointed 
him  chief  justice  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  which 
office  he  retained  until  his  death.  In  1745  Colonel 
Pepperrell  was  appointed  to  command  the  New  Eng- 
land expedition  against  Louisburg  on  the  island  of 
Cape  Breton,  and,  supported  by  the  fleet  of  Command- 
er Warren,  on  June  17th  captured  it.  After  the  dec- 
laration of  peace  between  England  and  France  Sir 
William  retired  from  active  life. 

PERCIVAL,  James  Gates,  born  in  Kensington, 
Conn.,  September  15, 1795  ; died  in  Hazel  Green,  Wis., 
May  2,  1856.  In  1815  he  was  graduated  at  Yale,  at 
the  head  of  his  class.  After  leaving  college  he  taught 
school  for  a time,  studied  medicine,  and  practiced  in 
Charleston,  S.  C.  In  1822,  while  in  the  last-named 
place,  he  published  Prometheus  and  Clio.  In  1824 
Doctor  Percival  was  appointed  assistant  army  surgeon 
and  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  U nited  States  Military 
52 — T 


6735 

Academy,  but  resigned  after  a few  months  to  become  a 
surgeon  in  the  recruiting  service  at  Boston.  At  that 
time  he  contributed  to  the  United  States  Literary 
Magazine , and  published  a collection  of  his  Poems  (2 
vols.,  New  York,  1826).  In  1827  he  removed  to  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  where  he  published  the  third  part  of  his 
tragedy,  Clio.  In  1834  he  made  a particular  study  of 
geology,  and  in  the  year  following  was  appointed  to 
make  a geological  and  mineralogical  survey  of  Connect- 
icut, in  connection  with  Prof.  Charles  U.  Shepard.  In 
1843  he  published  his  Dream  of  a Day.  In  1853  he 
surveyed  the  lead  region  of  the  American  Mining  Com- 
pany in  Wisconsin,  and  in  1854  was  appointed  geolo- 
gist of  that  State.  A complete  collection  of  his  Poems 
was  published  in  two  volumes  (Boston,  1859). 

PERCIVAL,  John,  LL.D.,  born  in  England  about 
1835,  was  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  was  scholar 
of  Queen’s  College  from  1854  to  1858,  and  fellow  of  the 
same  college  from  1858  to  1862.  From  i860  to  1862 
he  was  master  at  Rugby  School,  and  was  then  ap- 
pointed first  head-master  of  Clifton  College.  He  served 
here  until  1878,  when  he  was  elected  president  of  Trin- 
ity College,  Oxford.  A few  years  later  he  was  made 
a canon  of  Bristol.  Doctor  Percival  was  appointed 
head-master  of  Rugby  School,  in  succession  to  Doctor 
Jex-Blake  in  1886. 

PERCY,  John,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,born  at  Nottingham, 
England,  in  1817;  was  educated  in  Paris  and  in  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  was  a pupil  of  Sir  C.  Bell,  and  where 
he  graduated  M.D.  For  some  years  he  was  in  medical 
practice  at  Birmingham.  Doctor  Percy  was  appointed 
in  1851  professor  of  metallurgy  in  the  Government  (now 
Royal)  School  of  Mines,  and  he  held  that  office  till 
-December,  1879.  He  was  the  author  of  an  important 
work  on  Metallurgy , or  the  Art  of  Extracting  Metals 
from  their  Ores,  and  adapting  them  to  the  various  Pur- 
poses of  Manufacture,  with  illustrations,  published  in 
1861 ; The  Metallurgy  of  Gold,  Silver,  and  Lead,  1869; 
and  The  Metallurgy  of  Lead,  including  Desilverization 
and  Cupellation,  1871.  The  Iron  and  Steel  Institute, 
on  January  25,  1877,  awarded  their  Bessemer  medal  to 
Doctor  Percy  for  his  works  on  metallurgy,  especially 
those  on  iron  and  steel.  He  died  June  19,  1889. 

PEREZ  GALDOS,  Benito,  a Spanish  novelist, 
was  born  in  1845,  at  Las  Palmas  in  the  Canary  Isles. 
As  a writer  of  fiction  he  first  distinguished  himself  by 
the  publication  of  two  historical  romances  relating  to 
the  state  of  Spain  in  1820  and  1804,  and  entitled,  re- 
spectively, La  Fontana  de  Oro  (Madrid,  1871)  and  El 
Audace.  Next,  in  imitation  of  MM.  Erckmann-Chat- 
rian,  he  published  two  series  of  Episodios  ATacionales, 
the  first  dealing  with  subjects  taken  from  the  war  of 
Independence  against  Napoleon,  and  the  second  de- 
scribing the  struggle  of  Spanish  liberalism  against  the 
tyranny  of  Ferdinand  VII.  These  novels  achieved  a 
great  success  in  Spain,  and  were  also  widely  read  in 
Spanish  America.  He  died  in  April,  1897. 

PEREZ,  Santiago,  was  born  in  Colombia,  South 
America,  in  1830  and  engaged  in  journalism  and  politics 
at  an  early  age.  He  was  elected  to  congress  in  1863 
as  a Liberal  and  the  next  year  became  secretary  of  the 
interior.  Afterward  he  sat  in  the  senate,  from  1870 
until  1872  was  minister  to  the  United  States,  and  from 
1874  until  1876  president  of  Colombia.  He  served 
another  term  as  minister  at  Washington  and  has  since 
devoted  himself  to  literature,  having  published  dramas 
and  poetry  as  well  as  scientific  writings. 

PERRY,  Arthur  Latham,  a prominent  political 
economist  of  the  free  trade  school,  born  at  Lyme,  N. 
H.,  February  27,  1830,  published  Political  Economy 
(1867);  and  has  for  many  years  been  professor  of  eco- 
nomics and  history  at  Williams  College. 


PER-PEY 


6734 

PERRY,  Charles,  D.D.,  born  in  1807,  and  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  held  a parochial 
cure  in  Cambridge  and  was  Bishop  of  Melbourne  from 
1847  until  he  resigned  in  1876.  He  died  Dec.  2,  1891. 

PERRY,  Matthew  Calbraith,  born  in  Rhode 
Island,  April  10,  1794;  died  in  New  York  city,  March 
4,  1858.  He  was  a younger  brother  of  Com.  Oliver 
Hazard  Perry  (y.  v. ),  and  one  of  five  brothers,  all  of 
whom  served  in  the  United  States  navy.  His  father 
was  captain  in  the  navy  and  eventually  became  collector 
of  Newport,  R.  I.  In  1809  Matthew  became  midship- 
man, and  in  1813  was  made  lieutenant.  In  1819  he 
selected  the  locality  for  the  first  settlement  of  Mon- 
rovia, under  instruction  from  the  American  Coloni- 
zation Society,  and,  later,  was  active  in  the  war  with 
Mexico,  taking  part  in  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz.  In 
1841  he  was  made'  commodore.  He  formed  the  first 
United  States  naval  brigade  of  sailors  trained  as  in- 
fantry, that  captured  Tuspan,  Tabasco,  and  Laguna. 
In  1853  Commodore  Perry  organized  and  commanded 
the  famous  expedition  to  J apan  that  opened  that  country 
to  intercourse  with  the  civilized  world.  On  his  return 
a report  of  the  expedition  was  published  by  the  United 
States  government,  in  three  volumes,  entitled  Report 
of  Commodore  Perry's  Expedition  to  Japan  (Washing- 
ton, 1856).  A bronze  statue  to  his  memory  has  been 
erected  at  Truro  Park,  Newport,  R.  I. 

PERRY,  Oliver  Hazard,  naval  officer,  born  in 
South  Kingston,  R.  I.,  August  23,  1785;  died  in  Port 
Spain,  Trinidad,  August  23,  1819.  On  April  7,  1799, 
he  received  his  commission  as  midshipman,  and  on 
January  15,  1807,  was  promoted  lieutenant.  After 
building  a fleet  of  gunboats,  he  commanded  the 
schooner  Revenge , that,  in  1810,  cruised  off  the  south- 
ern coast  of  the  United  States.  This  vessel  was 
wrecked  on  a reef  near  Watch  Hill,  R.  I.,  January  8, 
1811,  but  Perry  was  honorably  acquitted  of  neglect  or 
carelessness  by  a court  of  inquiry.  Thereafter  he  re- 
peatedly applied  for  a command  at  sea,  which  was  re- 
fused, and  eventually  offered  his  services  to  Com. 
Isaac  Chauncey  on  the  lakes,  who  ordered  him  for  duty 
to  Lake  Erie.  Here,  at  Erie,  he  superintended  the 
building  of  a number  of  small  vessels,  the  largest  of 
which  were  of  500  tons  burden,  with  which  he  expected 
to  encounter  the  British  flotilla,  under  Captain  Bar- 
clay. Perry’s  squadron  consisted  of  nine  vessels  of 
1,671  tons,  with  54  guns.  On  the  British  side  Capt. 
Robert  Heriot  Barclay  had  a flotilla  of  six  vessels  of 
1,460  tons,  manned  by  450  men  and  63  pieces  of  cannon. 
On  September  10,  1813,  the  American  forces  moved 
out  of  Put-in-Bay  for  action,  and  after  a hard-fought 
contest,  on  the  afternoon  of  that  day  the  British  flotilla 
surrendered.  Captain  Barclay  was  wounded  in  the 
action.  Congress  bestowed  on  Perry  the  rank  of  cap- 
tain, and  the  British,  having  lost  control  of  Lake  Erie, 
evacuated  Detroit.  Perry  served  in  the  Mediterranean 
under  Decatur,  and  in  1819  was  sent,  in  command  of 
a squadron,  to  the  Carribbean  Sea,  where,  on  the 
Orinoco  river,  he  died  of  yellow  fever. 

PERRY,  Stephen  Joseph,  F.R.S.,  born  August 
26,  1833,  in  London;  received  his  classical  education  in 
the  English  College  at  Douay,  following  it  with  a 
course  of  mental  philosophy  at  Rome.  He  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus  in  November,  1853,  and  afterward 
studied  higher  mathematics  at  Stonyhurst,  London, 
and  Paris.  He  was  appointed  in  September,  i860, 
director  of  the  Meteorological  and  Astronomical  Ob- 
servatory of  Stonyhurst  College.  He  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  J une,  1874,  and  served  for 
several  years  on  the  councils  of  the  Astronomical  and 
Meteorological  Societies.  He  died  January  4,  1890. 
PETERS,  Christian  Henry  Frederick,  born 


in  Schleswig,  September  19,  1813,  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1853  and  entered  the  Coast  Survey.  He  was 
the  first  director  of  the  Litchfield  Observatory  at  Hamil- 
ton College,  and  one  of  the  most  successful  observers 
of  astronomical  phenomena.  He  was  a member  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences  and  of  numerous  scien- 
tific societies.  He  died  in  1890. 

PETO,  Sir  Samuel  Morton,  Bart.,  born  at  Wok, 
ing,  England,  August4,  1809.  He  constructed  a large 
portion  of  the  leading  railway- works  in  England,  and 
was  engaged  in  the  formation  of  a large  railway  in  Can- 
ada. Among  his  most  important  works  were  the  Nor- 
wegian Grand  Trunk  line  and  the  Royal  Danish  line. 
Toward  the  close  of  1854  he  undertook,  without  pros- 
pect of  profit,  the  construction  of  a railway  from  Balak- 
lava,  in  the  Crimea.  Pie  was  returned  as  one  of  the 
members  in  the  advanced  Liberal  interest  for  Norwich 
in  August,  1847,  and  again  at  the  general  election  in 
July,  1852,  and  retired  in  December,  1854.  He  was 
elected  one  of  the  members  for  Finsbury  in  April,  1859, 
and  at  the  general  election  in  July,  1865,  exchanged  his 
seat  for  Bristol,  but  retired  from  parliament  in  April, 
1868,  in  consequence  of  the  bankruptcy  of  the  firm  of 
Peto,  Betts  and  Crampton,  with  liabilities  of  above 
$35,000,000.  He  died  November  13,  1889. 

PETRIE,  W.  M.  Flinders,  Egyptologist,  was 
born  in  1853  in  England.  From  1875  to  1880  he  was  em- 
ployed in  exploring  and  measuring  British  earthworks, 
and  in  1880  published  Stonehenge.  The  years  1881  and 
1882  were  spent  in  Egypt,  measuring,  surveying,  and 
photographing  the  pyramids  and  temples  of  Ghizeh. 
An  account  of  this  expedition  was  published  in  1883. 
In  1884  he  again  visited  Egypt,  this  time  as  explorer  to 
the  Egypt  Exploration  F und ; and  excavated  the  mounds 
of  San,  the  Zoaroi  Scripture.  Mr.  Petrie’s  memoir  on 
Tanis,  p'art  I.,  with  plans  and  illustrations,  was  pub- 
lished by  the  committee  in  1885.  He  again  went  out  in 
the  same  capacity,  and  discovered  the  site  and  ruins  of 
the  long  lost  Grreco-Egyptian  city  of  Naukratis,  in  the 
Delta.  His  third  expedition  resulted  in  the  discovery 
of  the  s^tes  of  Am,  and  of  Defenneh.  He  discovered 
the  site  of  Lachish  in  1891  and  made  some  marvelous 
discoveries  at  Tel-el-Amarua  in  1892. 

PETTIGREW,  James  Belt.,  was  born  at  Roxhill, 
Lanarkshire,  Scotland.  In  1861  he  graduated  in  medi- 
cine at  Edinburgh  University  with  first  class  honors. 
In  1858-59  he  was  awarded  Prof.  John  Goodsir’s  senior 
anatomy  gold  medal  for  the  best  treatise  On  the  Ar- 
rangement of  the  Muscular  Fibers  in  the  Ventricles  of 
the  Vertebrate  Heart.  In  1862  he  obtained  the  post  of 
assistant  curator  of  the  Hunterian  Museum  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  London.  In  1 869  he  was 
made  a fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and,  in 
the  autumn  of  that  year,  he  returned  to  Edinburgh, 
hkving  been  appointed  curator  of  the  Museum  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  Edinburgh,  and  pathol- 
ogist to  the  Royal  Infirmary  of  Edinburgh. 

PEYTON,  John  Lewis,  LL.B.,  F.R.G.S.,  was 
born  September  15,  1824,  in  Virginia.  At  the  age  of 
fifteen  he  was  sent  to  the  Virginia  Military  Academy. 
In  1848  he  traveled  through  Canada,  the  Maritime 
Provinces,  and  in  the  Northwest  States  and  Territories, 
and  in  1851  was  sent  by  the  United  States  Government 
on  special  service  to  the  courts  of  England,  France,  and 
Austria.  He  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1853, 
and,  after  spending  a few  years  in  Illinois,  retired  in 
1856  to  his  Virginia  estate.  He  was  chief  of  the  staff 
of  General  Layne  in  1854,  and  in  the  same  year  de- 
clined the  offered  position  of  U nitedStatesdistrict-attor- 
ney  of  Utah.  In  1861  he  devoted  his  property  to  the 
Southern  cause,  and  engaged  in  raising  and  equipping 
a regiment  for  the  Confederate  army.  Unable,  from  a 


PHE- 

severe  injury,  to  take  command,  he  accepted  the  posi- 
tion of  agent  for  North  Carolina  in  Europe.  After  an 
absence  of  fifteen  years  in  Europe,  Colonel  Peyton 
returned  to  the  United  States  in  1876,  and  resumed 
his  residence  at  Steephill,  near  Staunton,  Augusta 
county,  Va.,  where  he  engaged  in  literary  and  scien- 
tific pursuits. 

PHEAR,  Samuel  George,  D.D.,  master  of  Em- 
manuel College,  Cambridge,  was  born  March  30,  1829, 
in  England;  entered  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
in  1848,  and  graduated  B.  A.  as  fourth  wrangler,  Janu- 
ary, 1852.  He  became  fellow  and  afterward  tutor  of 
his  college,  and  was  elected  master  October  2,  1871. 
He  filled  the  office  of  vice-chancellor  of  the  university 
for  the  successive  years  1875-76. 

PHELPS,  Edward  John,  born  in  Middlebury,  Vt., 
July  II,  1822,  and  died  March  9,  1900.  In  1851  he  was 
appointed  second  comptroller  of  the  United  States 
treasury.  In  1881  he  became  professor  of  law  at  Yale,  a 
chair  he  has  since  filled  except  while  minister  to  Eng-  ! 
land,  1885-89.  He  was  of  counsel  for  the  United  States 
on  the  Bering  Sea  question  in  1893. 

PHELPS,  Elizabeth  Stuart,  born  in  Andover, 
Mass.,  August  13,  1844;  has  written  many  books,  of 
which  The  Gates  Ajar  is  the  best  known.  She  mar- 
ried Rev.  H.  S.  Ward  in  1888. 

PPIELPS,  William  Walter,  born  in  New  York 
city,  August  24,  1839;  graduated  at  Yale  and  at  the 
Columbia  Law  School,  and  practiced  law  in  New  York. 
In  1872  he  entered  congress  from  New  Jersey  as  a Re- 
publican. He  was  defeated  for  reelection,  and  in  1881 
was  sent  as  minister  to  Austria.  In  1882  he  was  again 
elected  to  congress,  and  was  reelected  in  1884  and 
1886.  In  1889  President  Harrison  nominated  him  as 
minister  to  Germany,  where  he  remained  four  years. 
He  died  June  17,  1894. 

PHILIP,  Indian  chief,  born  in  R.hode  Island  about 
1625;  died  near  Mount  Hope,  R.  I.,  August  12,  1676. 
His  Indian  name  was  Metacomet;  but  he  is  usually 
spoken  of  as  King  Philip.  He  was  the  son  of  Mas- 
sasoit,  sachem  of  the  Wampanoags.  He  lived  at 
Pokanoket,  and  for  a time  maintained  friendship  with 
the  whites ; but  in  1670  there  were  rumors  of  his  disaf- 
fection, and  in  the  following  year  an  attempt  was  made 
to  disarm  the  Indians.  John  Sausamon,  a Christianized 
Indian,  who  had  given  secret  information  of  the  hostile 
movements  on  the  part  of  the  Wampanoags,  was  killed, 
and,  when  his  assassins  had  been  tried  and  executed,  the 
Indians  slew  several  whites.  Philip,  seeing  that  the 
steady  advance  of  the  whites  was  caused  by  their  unity 
of  action,  prevailed  on  the  Narragansetts  and  other 
tribes  to  form  an  alliance  for  the  purpose  of  extermi- 
nating the  English  colonists.  In  December,  1675,  Cap- 
tain Winslow  marched  with  1, 000  armed  men  against 
the  stronghold  of  the  Narragansetts,  and  destroyed  it. 
In  the  spring  of  that  year  the  war  raged  with  great 
fury ; thirteen  towns,  with  600  buildings,  were  burned 
and  600  colonists  slain.  But  gradually,  the  Indians 
were  overpowered,  and  Philip,  with  a few  of  his  fol- 
lowers, sought  refuge  in  the  wilds  near  Mount  Hope, 
R.  I.  His  presence  there  was  betrayed  by  one  of  his 
tribe,  when  he  was  surrounded  by  a body  of  troops 
under  Captain  Church,  and,  on  attempting  to  escape, 
was  shot  dead  on  August  12,  1676. 

PHILLIPS,  George,  D.D.,  president  of  Queen’s 
College,  Cambridge,  was  born  in  1804.  He  entered 
at  Queen’s  College,  Cambridge,  in  1825,  where  he  took 
the  degree  of  eighth  wrangler  in  1829.  Pie  was  or- 
dained deacon  in  1830,  and  priest  in  1832.  In  the  year 
1832  he  was  elected  fellow  and  assistant  tutor  of  his 
college.  In  1835  he  became  senior  tutor,  and  contin- 
ued in  the  office  till  1846,  when  he  was  appointed  to 


-‘PHI  ' 6735 

the  rectory  of  Sandon,  Essex.  This  preferment  he 
held  till  1857.  In  that  year  he  was  invited  to  return 
to  Cambridge  to  be  president  of  his  college.  He  took 
the  degree  of  B.D.  in  1839,  and  of  D.D.  in  1858.  He 
was  vice-chancellor  in  1861-62.  He  died  in  1892. 

PHILLIPS,  John,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  por- 
trait painters  of  recent  years,  was  born  in  Paisley,  Ren- 
frewshire, Scotland,  May  8,  1822,  and  died  at  Helena, 
Mont.,  July  25,  1890.  He  emigrated  to  America  in 
1838,  and  for  four  years  worked  on  a farm  near  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y.  About  1842  he  started  on  his  career  as  an 
artist,  and  in  a comparatively  brief  period  attained  to 
professional  eminence.  In  1852  he  visited  Europe,  and, 
after  two  years  of  study,  returned  to  New  York,  where 
he  opened  a studio.  During  the  winter  of  1858  he  was 
in  Cuba,  engaged  on  the  portrait  of  General  Concha, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1861  he  was  called  to  Montreal  upon 
professional  business.  In  1868  he  located  in  Chicago, 
where  he  became  a member  of  the  Academy  of  Design, 

| and  by  his  work  speedily  established  himself  as  one  of 
the  leading  portrait  painters  in  America.  About  1886 
he  removed  west,  and  up  to  the  date  of  his  death  was 
engaged  in  artistic  work,  and,  to  some  extent,  in  min- 
ing operations.  His  gallery  of  paintings  embraced 
the  portraits  of  William  H.  Sewrard,  Thomas  Ewing, 
Wilbur  F.  Storey,  Christine  Nilsson,  Brigham  Young, 
Henry  M.  Stanley,  and  many  other  distinguished  Amer- 
icans and  foreigners. 

PHILLIPS,  Lawrence  Barnett,  was  born  in 
London,  January  29,  1842.  In  1861  he  started  in  busi- 
ness as  a watch  and  chronometer  manufacturer,  since 
which  time  he  has  constructed  some  of  the  most  compli 
cated  and  highly  finished  specimens  of  the  horological 
art,  and  by  the  invention  of  various  forms  of  mechan- 
ism has  done  much  toward  the  introduction  of  keyless 
watches,  and  the  simplification  of  chronographs  and 
calculating  machines.  Heretired  from  business  in  1882. 
In  November,  1865,  he  was  elected  a fellow  of  the 
Royal  Astronomical  Society,  and  in  March,  1885,  a 
fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 

PHILLIPS,  Wendell,  a famous  orator,  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  November  29,  1811;  died  there  Feb- 
ruary 2,  1884.  He  graduated  at  Plarvard,  1831,  and 
began  to  practice  law,  1834.  On  December  8,  1837,  he 
made  his  first  address  in  public  as  an  avowed  abolition- 
ist. In  1864  Mr.  Phillips  opposed  the  reelection  of 
Abraham  Lincoln.  In  later  years  Mr.  Phillips  became 
a champion  of  the  cause  of  temperance,  claimed  the 
ballot  for  women,  advocated  the  rights  of  Indians,  and 
endeavored  to  improve  the  penal  institutions  of  the 
country.  In  1881  he  delivered  an  address  at  the  centen- 
nial anniversity  of  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  Society  of 
Harvard.  His  last  public  address  was  delivered  at 
the  unveiling  of  a statue  of  Miss  Harriet  Martineau,  at 
the  old  South  Church  in  Boston,  December  26,  1883. 

PHILPOTT,  Henry,  D.D.,  bishop  of  Worcester, 
born  in  England,  November  17,  1807,  was  educated  at 
the  Cathedral  Grammar  School,  Chichester,  and  at  St. 
Catherine’s  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated 
B.  A.,  as  senior  wrangler,  and  a first  class  in  the  classical 
tripos  in  1829.  He  was  elected  fellow  of  his  college, 
and  held  the  office  of  assistant  tutor  and  tutor  till  his 
election  to  the  mastership  of  the  college  in  1845.  He 
filled  the  office  of  moderator  in  the  university  in  1833- 
34,  and  1836;  that  of  examiner  for  mathematical  honors 
in  1837-38,  and  that  of  proctor  in  1834-35.  In  1861  he 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Worcester.  He  died  Janu- 
ary 10,  1892. 

PHIPS,  Sir  William,  governor  of  Massachusetts, 
born  in  Bristol,  Me.,  P'ebruary  2,  1651 ; died  in  Lon- 
don, England,  February  18,  1695.  Young  Phips,  at 
first,  was  a shepherd  boy,  and  at  the  age  of  eighteen 


P H Y — P I E 


6736 

was  apprenticed  to  a ship-  carpenter.  He  built  a vessel 
and  engaged  in  commerce.  In  1684  he  went  to  Eng- 
land to  procure  means  to  recover  treasure  from  a Span- 
ish vessel  wrecked  on  one  of  the  West  India  islands, 
but  was  unsuccessful  in  interesting  capitalists  in  the 
scheme.  In  1687  a second  attempt  was  made,  under  the 
patronage  of  the  duke  of  Albemarle,  when  he  recovered 
valuables  amounting  to  ^300,000  sterling.  His  share 
in  this  enterprise  amounted  to  ^16,000,  and  gained  him 
the  distinction  of  knighthood.  In  May,  1690,  he  com- 
manded an  expedition  against  Port  Royal,  in  Nova 
Scotia,  which  he  captured.  In  1692,  while  in  England, 
he  was  appointed  governor  of  Massachusetts.  His  ad- 
ministration was  made  notorious  by  the  delusion  of  the 
Salem  witchcraft.  At  first  he  became  a busy  perse- 
cutor, but,  eventually,  signed  a pardon  to  all  accused 
of  sorcery.  In  1694  Governor  Phips  was  summoned  to 
England  to  answer  several  accusations  brought  against 
him  for  personal  assaults  on  persons  of  distinction. 

PHYSICK,  Philip  Syng,  surgeon,  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, Penn.,  July  7,  1768;  died  there  December  15, 
1837.  He  graduated  in  1785  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  was  a private  pupil  of  Dr.  John  Hunter 
in  London  and  practiced  in  Philadelphia  from  1793, 
holding  many  important  posts,  becoming  a member  of 
foreign  societies  and  introducing  many  important  im- 
provements in  surgery. 

PIATT,  Donn,  soldier  and  journalist,  born  in  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio,  June  29,  1819,  was  Judge  of  Hamilton 
county,  1851,  secretary  of  legation  in  Paris  under 
Minister  John  Y.  Mason  and  charge  d'affaires  on  his 
death;  stumped  Illinois  with  Robert  E.  Schenck  for 
Lincoln  in  i860  and  was  colonel  on  General  Schenck’s 
staff  in  the  war.  He  was  Judge  advocate  of  the  com- 
mission that  tried  General  Don  Carlos  Buell,  and  after 
the  war  represented  the  Cincinnati  Commercial  and 
was  for  many  years  dean  of  the  corps  of  correspondents 
there.  He  became  editor  of  Belford's  Magazine , New 
York,  in  1888,  and  wrote  Memoirs  of  the  Men  Who 
Saved  the  Nation.  He  died  November  12,  1891. 

PIATT,  John  James,  born  in  Milton,  Ind.,  March 
1,  1835.  In  1856  he  removed  to  Illinois,  and  became  a 
contributor  of  poems  to  the  Louisville  Journal.  In 
i860,  in  connection  with  William  D.  Howells,  he  pub- 
lished in  Columbus,  Ohio,  Poems  of  Two  Friends , and 
in  1861  became  clerk  in  the  United  States  treasury  de- 
artment  at  Washington,  where  he  remained  six  years, 
n 1867  he  engaged  in  newspaper  work  at  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  in  1870  returned  to  Washington  as  clerk  in  con- 
gress, and  in  1872  was  made  librarian  of  the  House  of 
Representatives.  Since  1882  Mr.  Piatt  has  been 
United  States  consul  at  Cork,  Ireland. 

PICKENS,  Andrew,  soldier,  born  in  Paxton, 
Penn.,  September  19,  1739;  died  in  Pendleton  district, 
S.  C.,  August  17,  1817.  In  1752  his  parents  removed 
to  Waxhaw,  S.  C.  In  1761  Andrew  served  as  a vol- 
unteer against  the  Cherokees,  and  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  Revolution  became  a captain  of  militia.  During  the 
Revolutionary  struggle  he  took  part  in  a number  of 
skirmishes  with  the  British  and  Cherokee  Indians,  and 
was  advanced  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  At  the 
battle  of  Cowpens,  January  17,  1781,  he  commanded 
the  militia,  and  later  invested  the  British  forts  at  Au- 
gusta, Ga.,  which  surrendered  after  two  weeks’  siege. 
He  also  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs,  and 
in  1782  led  a successful  expedition  against  the  Indians, 
for  which  he  obtained  a large  cession  of  territory. 
From  December  2, 1 793, until  March3, 1 795,  he  served  in 
congress.  He  was  made  major-general  of  militiain  1 795* 

PICKERING,  Timothy,  statesman,  born  in  Salem, 
Mass.,  July  17,  1745;  died  there  January  29,  1829. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1763,  studied  law,  and 


was  admitted  to  practice  in  1768.  For  some  time  he 
was  register  of  deeds  in  Essex  county,  and  in  1775  was 
elected  colonel  of  militia.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
appointed  judge  of  the  marine  court  for  Suffolk,  Essex, 
and  Middlesex  counties.  He  served  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary war  as  colonel  in  1777,  was  appointed  adjutant- 
general,  and  in  1780,  quartermaster-general.  On  the 
conclusion  of  peace,  Colonel  Pickering  became  con- 
spicuous for  his  opposition  to  the  vindictive  policy  that 
drove  so  many  citizens  to  settle  in  Canada  and  Nova 
Scotia.  He  served  as  postmaster-general  (1791-94), 
secretary  of  war  (1794-95),  and  secretary  of  state  (1795- 
1800).  In  1803  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate  and  during  the  war  of  1812  was  a member  of 
the  board  of  war  of  Massachusetts.  Later  he  was  a 
member  of  congress  for  a single  term. 

PICKERSGILL,  Frederick  Richard,  R..A., 
nephew  of  the  late  HenryWilliam  Pickersgill,  R.A., 
born  in  London  in  1820,  studied  at  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy. His  first  production,  The  Combat  between  Her- 
cules and  A chelous,  an  oil  painting  exhibited  in  1840, 
was  followed  by  a prize  cartoon  of  The  Death  of  King 
Lear , exhibited  in  Westminster  Hall  in  1843;  and  the 
Burial  of  Harold , a picture  for  which  he  received  a 
first-class  prize  in  1847,  and  which  was  immediately 
purchased  for  the  new  houses  of  parliament.  Mr. 
Pickersgill  was  for  many  years  a regular  exhibitor.  In 
1847  he  was  elected  A. R.  A.,  and  in  1857  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  academician.  Died  Dec.,  1900. 

PICKETT,  George  Edward,  soldier,  born  in  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  January  25,  1825;  died  in  Norfolk,  Va., 
July  30,  1875.  He  was  graduated  from  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1846,  served  in  the  war 
with  Mexico  and  was  promoted  captain.  He  became  a 
Colonel  in  the  Confederate  army ; was  promoted  brig- 
adier-general in  February,  1862,  wounded  at  the  battle 
of  Gaines  Mills  and  promoted  major-general.  At  Fred- 
ericksburg, his  division  held  the  center  of  General 
Lee’s  line,  and  he  led  the  famous  final  assault  at  Gettys- 
burg, entering  the  Union  lines,  but,  left  without  ad- 
equate support,  his  troops  were  hurled  back  and  al- 
most annihilated.  In  May,  1864,  General  Pickett  de- 
fended Petersburg,  attacked  Gen.  Benjamin  F.  Butler’s 
army  and  captured  his  works.  At  Five  Forks  on  April 
1,  1865,  General  Pickett’s  forces  were  surrounded  and 
overwhelmed.  After  the  war  he  returned  to  Richmond. 

PICO,  Don  Pio,  born  in  1801,  died  September  11, 
1884;  was  the  Mexican  governor  of  California  when 
it  was  seized  by  the  United  States  in  1846. 

PIERCE,  Gilbert  Ashville,  born  in  East  Otto, 
N.  Y.,  enlisted  in  the  9th  Indiana  volunteers,  1861, 
and  fought  through  the  war,  becoming  colonel.  He 
wasamember  of  the  Indiana  legislature  in  1868;  assist- 
ant financial  clerk  of  theUnited  States  Senate,  1869-71 ; 
managing  editor  of  the  Chicago  Inter-Ocean , 1871-83  ; 
and  in  July,  1884,  was  appointed  governor  of  Dakota, 
resigning  in  1886.  He  was  elected  United  States  Sen- 
ator by  the  legislature  of  the  State  of  North  Dakota  in 
1889,  serving  two  years,  and  has  since  been  in  the 
newspaper  business  in  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

PIEROLA,  Gen.  Nicholas  de,  born  at  Arequipa, 
Peru,  January  5,  1839,  became  a lawyer  and  politician 
and  in  1869  was  appointed  minister  of  finance.  He 
was  impeached,  and,  although  acquitted,  went  to  Chili, 
and  in  1874  and  1877  organized  unsuccessful  expe- 
ditions against  Peru.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Chilian 
war  his  proffered  services  were  refused  by  president 
Prado  but  after  Prado  fled  in  1879  General  Pierola  as- 
sumed charge  of  affairs  in  Peru,  retiring  from  the 
presidency  after  his  final  defeat  in  1881.  He  tried  to 
seize  the  presidency  in  1885,  but  was  banished  and 
was  a candidate  in  1894. 


P I E - 

PIERPONT  John,  born  in  Litchfield,  Conn.,  April 
6,  1785  ; died  in  Medford,  Mass.,  August  26,  1866.  He 
was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1804.  In  1809  he  returned  to 
Litchfield,  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1812, 
and  practiced  law  in  Newburyport,  Mass.  In  1816  Mr. 
Pierpont  began  the  study  of  theology  in  Baltimore, 
and  afterward  at  the  Cambridge  Divinity  School.  In 
April,  1819,  he  was  ordained  minister  of  the  Hollis 
street  Unitarian  Church  in  Boston,  and  in  1835  made  a 
tour  through  Europe  and  Palestine.  On  his  return  he 
resumed  his  pastoral  relations,  and  continued  in  Boston 
until  1845.  Thereafter,  for  four  years,  he  was  pastor  of  a 
church  in  Troy,  N.  Y.,  and  on  August  I,  1849,  was  set- 
tled over  the  Congregational  Church  in  Medford,  Mass., 
from  which  he  retired  in  1856.  He  was  a zealous 
apostle  of  temperance  and  anti-slavery. 

PIERREPONT,  Edwards,  born  at  North  Haven, 
Conn.,  March4,  1817;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  from  the 
New  Haven  Law  School  in  1840,  and  practiced  in  New 
York  until  elected  to  the  Superior  Court  bench  from  that 
city  (1857).  In  i860  he  resigned  his  seat  to  resume 
practice.  He  was  a member  of  the  judiciary  com- 
mittee of  the  New  York  State  Constitutional  Con- 
vention in  1867,  and  in  the  same  year  conducted 
the  case  of  the  government  against  John  H.  Surratt, 
indicted  for  aiding  in  the  murder  of  President  Lin- 
coln. Mr.  Pierrepont  received  the  honorary  degree  of 
LL.D.  in  1871  from  Columbia  College,  and  from  Yale 
College  in  1873.  From  1869  to  1870  he  was  United 
States  District  Attorney  for  New  York,  and  in  1873  he 
was  appointed  minister  to  Russia,  but  declined  the 
honor.  In  April,  1875,  he  was  appointed  attorney- 
general  of  the  United  States,  and  in  1876  envoy-ex- 
traordinary and  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the  Court 
of  St.  James.  He  resigned  that  office  in  December, 
1877.  He  died  March  6,  1892. 

PIKE,  Albert,  a native  of  Boston,  Mass.,  was 
born  December  29,  1809,  and  removed  to  St.  Louis  in 
1831.  There  he  joined  an  expedition  to  Santa  Fe, 
finally  settling  at  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  where  he  became 
editor  and  proprietor  of  the  Arkansas  Advocate.  In 
1836  he  abandoned  journalism  to  engage  in  the  practice 
of  the  law,  and  from  1840  to  1845  published  the  reports 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Arkansas.  He  served  during 
the  Mexican  war  as  a volunteer,  and  participated  in  the 
battle  of  Buena  Vista.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
war  he  was  appointed  Confederate  commissioner  and 
negotiated  an  alfiance  with  a number  of  Indian  tribes, 
in  command  of  which  he  took  part  in  the  battles  of 
Elkhorn  and  Pea  Ridge.  After  the  close  of  hostilities 
he  returned  to  Little  Rock,  whence  he  removed  to 
Memphis  in  1866,  becoming  editor  of  the  Appeal  in 
that  city  during  the  year  following,  and  in  1868  became 
a resident  of  Washington,  D.  C.  He  died  April  2, 1891. 

PIKE,  Zebulon  Montgomery,  was  born  at  Lam- 
berton,  N.  J. , January  5,  1779,  and  educated  at  Easton, 
Penn.  In  1805  he  engaged  on  an  expedition  to  ascertain 
the  source  of  the  Mississippi  river.  The  two  following 
years  were  passed  by  him  in  exploring  the  territory  of 
Louisiana,  discovering,  while  thus  occupied,  what  has 
since  been  known  as  “ Pike’s  Peak,”  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Early  in  life  he  became  an  ensign  in  the 
army,  from  which  he  was  promoted,  through  various 
gradations,  until  he  became  brigadier-general,  March 
12,  1813,  and  was  placed  in  command  of  the  expedition 
against  Toronto  (York),  Upper  Canada.  During  the 
game  year  he  was  killed  in  the  explosion  of  a powder 
magazine.  He  was  the  author  of  The  Sources  of  the 
Mississippi , issued  in  1810  at  Philadelphia. 

PILLOW,  Gideon  Johnson,  a native  of  William- 
son county,  Tenn.,  born  June  8,  1806;  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Nashville  in  1827,  and  soon  after  com- 


PIN  673; 

menced  the  practice  of  law  at  Columbia,  Tenn.  In 
1844  he  was  prominent  in  Tennessee  and  national  poli- 
tics, and  during  1846  commanded  the  Tennessee  troops 
in  the  Mexican  war,  participating  in  the  capture  of  the 
city  of  Mexico.  The  year  following  he  was  promoted 
to  be  major-general,  and,  having  differed  with  General 
Scott  in  respect  to  the  convention  of  Tacubaya,  was 
charged  with  insubordination,  but  trial  by  court-mar- 
tial resulted  in  his  complete  vindication.  After  the  war 
General  Pillow  divided  his  time  between  the  practice  of 
law  and  planting,  also  devoting  considerable  attention 
to  politics.  At  the  National  Democratic  Convention  of 
1852  he  was  a candidate  for  vice-president,  and  received 
twenty-five  votes.  When  the  war  between  the  States 
was  inaugurated  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
the  State  forces,  and  aided  in  the  organization  of  the 
Tennessee  soldiers.  He  served  at  the  battle  of  Bel- 
mont, Mo.,  November  7,  1861,  and  was  next  to  Gen. 
John  B.  Floyd  in  the  command  of  Fort  Donelson,  but 
escaped  before  the  surrender  of  that  fortress.  He 
never  afterward  had  an  important  command,  though 
he  continued  in  the  Confederate  service  to  the  close  of 
the  war,  and  died  in  Lee  county,  Ark.,  October  6, 
1878. 

PINCHBACK,  P.  B.  S.,  born  of  African  parents  in 
Macon,  Ga. , May  10,  1837.  He  was  sent  to  school  at 
Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  1846,  but  two  years  later,  his  father 
dying,  he  left  school  to  become  a boatman.  He  en- 
listed in  the  Union  army  at  New  Orleans  in  1862,  and 
was  detailed  to  assist  in  raising  a regiment,  but  owing 
to  his  color  he  was  forced  to  resign,  September  3,  1863. 
Subsequently  he  was  authorized  by  Gen.  Nathaniel  P. 
Banks  to  raise  a company  of  colored  cavalry.  In  1867 
he  was  made  inspector  of  customs  at  New  Orleans,  was 
elected  State  senator  in  1868,  and  in  1869  was  ap- 
pointed register  of  the  land  office.  He  established  the 
New  Orleans  Louisianian  in  1870,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  elected  president  pro  tern,  of  the  State  Senate 
and  lieutenant-governor  to  fill  the  vacancy  caused  by 
the  death  of  Oscar  Dunn.  Pie  was  nominated  for 
governor  in  1872,  but  in  the  interest  of  party  peace 
withdrew  and  was  elected  to  congress  on  the  same 
ticket.  In  1873  he  was  chosen  United  States  senator, 
but  after  three  years’  debate  was  disallowed  his  seat. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  a commissioner  to 
the  Vienna  exposition  from  Louisiana.  Mr.  Pinchback 
became  surveyor  of  customs  at  New  Orleans  in  1882, 
and  was  appointed  by  Governor  McEnery  in  1883  and 
1885  trustee  of  Southern  University.  He  graduated 
in  the  law  department  of  Straight  University,  New 
Orleans,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  April,  1886. 

PINCKNEY,  Charles  Cotesworth,  born  at 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  February  25,  1746,  and  died  at  the 
same  place  August  16,  1825.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford and  the  Middle  Temple,  served  with  distinction  in 
the  American  Revolutionary  army,  was  one  of  the 
envoys  to  France  in  1797,  and  was  the  Federalist 
candidate  for  the  presidency  in  1804  and  1808. 

PINCKNEY,  Charles,  American  statesman,  was 
born  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  March  9,  1758.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1779,  was  a delegate  to  the  Con- 
tinental congresses,  1777-78  and  1784-87;  a delegated  o 
the  Federal  convention  of  1787;  governor  of  South 
Carolina,  1789-92  and  1796-98;  United  States  senator 
(Democrat),  1797-1801;  minister  to  Spain,  1803-5; 
governor  of  South  Carolina,  1806-8;  member  of  the 
State  legislature,  1810-14;  and  member  of  the  House 
of  Representatives,  1819-21.  He  died  at  Charleston, 
February  25,  1822. 

PINE,  Robert  Edge,  painter,  born  in  London, 
England,  in  1730; died  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  November 
19,  1788;  son  of  John  Pine,  a skillful  artist.  In  1760 


PI  N — P L A 


67  38 


he  secured  the  first  prize  of  $500  from  the  Society  for 
the  Encouragement  of  the  Arts  for  the  best  historical 
picture  offered,  The  Surrender  of  Calais.  He  again 
took  a first  prize  in  1762  for  his  picture  of  Canute 
Reproving  his  Courtiers.  His  portraits  of  John 
Wilkes  and  David  Garrick  are  familiar  from  having 
been  repeatedly  engraved.  In  1782  he  placed  on  ex- 
hibition a collection  of  Shakespearian  portraits,  some 
of  which  were  afterward  reproduced  in  engravings  and 
used  to  illustrate  Boydell’s  Shakespeare.  He  came  to 
America  in  1 783  and  settled  with  his  family  in  Phila- 
delphia, his  object  being  to  paint  portraits  of  the 
eminent  men  of  the  Revolution.  He  painted  the 
portraits  of  Francis  Hopkinson  and  George  Washing- 
ton, but  neither  possessed  any  great  merit.  Robert 
Morris  built  for  him  a house  in  Philadelphia,  adapted 
for  use  as  a studio  and  a place  for  the  exhibition  of  his 
paintings.  There  he  died  of  apoplexy. 

PINERO,  Arthur  Wing,  born  in  London  in  1855; 
is  the  son  of  a solicitor,  and  was  educated  with  the  view 
of  following  his  father’s  profession.  Plaving  no  partic- 
ular liking  for  the  law,  however,  he  ultimately  prepared 
for  the  stage,  making  his  debut  at  Edinburgh  in  1874. 
His  talent  was  for  writing  plays,  rather  than  acting, 
however,  and  his  first  piece,  Two  can  Play  at  That  Game 
(1876),  has  been  followed  by  many  successful  dramas 
of  modern  life,  including  Sweet  Lavender,  Lady  Boun- 
tiful, The  Second  Mrs.  Tanqueray  (1893)  and  The 
Notoi'ious  Mrs.  Ebbsmith  (1895). 

PINKNEY,  Edward  Coate,  son  of  William  Pink- 
ney, was  born  in  London,  England,  October  1,  1802. 
He  published  in  1825  Rudolph , and  other  Poems.  In 
1826  he  became  professor  of  belles-lettres  and  rhetoric 
in  the  University  of  Maryland,  and  in  the  following  year 
was  editor  of  the  Marylander , a political  newspaper. 
He  died  in  1828.  ' 

PINKNEY,  William,  was  born  at  Annapolis,  Md., 
in  March,  1764.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1786, 
and  was  sent  to  congress  by  a district  of  Maryland  in 
1789.  He  went  to  London  in  1796  as  a commissioner 
under  Jay’s  treaty,  remaining  there  about  eight  years, 
and  in  1806  he  was  appointed  minister  to  England. 
Returning  home  in  181 1 , he  settled  in  Baltimore.  From 
December  of  that  year  until  February,  1814,  he  was 
attorney-general  of  the  United  States,  and  in  1816  was 
appointed  minister  to  Russia.  He  was  elected  a mem- 
ber of  the  United  States  Senate  in  1819.  Mr. 
Pinkney  was  considered  one  of  the  foremost  Amer- 
ican lawyers  of  his  time.  He  died  in  February,  1822. 

PINTO,  Alexandre  Alberto  da  Rocha  Serpa, 
was  born  April  20,  1846,  at  the  Tendaesin  the  Province 
of  Douro,  Portugal,  and  educated  at  the  Royal  Military 
College,  Lisbon.  He  entered  the  7th  infantry  regiment, 
August  13,  1863;  became  ensign  July  14,  1864;  lieuten- 
ant in  the  12th  rifles,  November  20,  1868;  captain, 

October  10,  1874,  major,  April  17,  1877;  and  aide-de- 
camp  of  the  king  of  Portugal,  March  10,  1880.  In 
1869  he  was  in  the  Zambesi  war,  and  in  the  battle  of 
November  23d  at  Massangano  he  succeeded  in 
saving  the  regiment.  He  was  then  in  command  of  the 
African  native  troop.  During  1877-79  he  crossed 
Africa  from  Benguella  to  Durban,  and  he  has  admirably 
described  the  journey  in  a work  entitled  How  7 Crossed 
Africa , London,  1881.  These  geographical  tasks  ob- 
tained for  him  the  gold  medals  (first  class)  of  the  geo- 
graphical societies  of  London,  Paris,  Antwerp,  Rome, 
and  Marseilles.  He  was  also  elected  a fellow  of  all  the 
most  important  geographical  societies  in  the  world,  and 
of  many  scientific  associations.  Maj.  Serpa  Pinto  is  a 
knight  commander  of  the  Order  of  St.  James  of  Portu- 
gal, a knight  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  and  of  Leopold 
of  Belgium.  He  died  Dec.  28, 190a 


PITMAN,  Sir  Isaac,  born  at  Towbridge,  Wilts, 
January  4,  1813,  was  educated  at  the  grammar  school 
in  that  town.  After  having  been  clerk  for  some  time 
in  the  counting-house  of  a cloth  manufacturer,  he  was 
trained  in  the  Normal  College  of  the  British  and  For- 
eign School  Society,  Borough  road,  London,  and  ap- 
pointed master  of  the  British  School,  Barton-on- 
H umber,  in  1832.  He  established  the  British  School 
at  Wotton- under- Edge  in  1836,  and  removed  to  Bath  in 
1839.  Dis  ^rst  treatise  on  shorthand,  entitled  Steno- 
graphic Sound-hand , appeared  in  1837,  and  he  became 
the  originator  of  the  spelling  reform,  to  which,  and  the 
propagation  of  his  system  of  phonetic  shorthand,  he 
has  devoted  his  entire  attention  since  1843,  in  which 
year  the  phonetic  society  was  formed.  His  system  of 
shorthand  was  entitled  Phonography , or  Writing  by 
Sound,  1840;  and  his  Phonographic  Reporter's  Com- 
panion appeared  in  1846.  Besides  printing  his  own 
instruction-books  for  teaching  phonetic  shorthand,  Mr. 
Pitman  has  issued  a little  library  of  books  printed 
entirely  in  shorthand,  ranging  from  the  Bible  to  Ras- 
selas.  He  was  knighted  in  1894  and  died  in  1895. 

PITRA,  John  Baptist,  a French  cardinal,  born  at 
Champforgueil,  near  Autun,  August  31,  1812,  em- 
braced the  ecclesiastical  profession  at  an  early  age,  and 
after  being  some  time  teacher  of  rhetoric  in  the  semi- 
nary of  his  native  town,  became  a Benedictine  monk  in 
the  abbey  of  Solesme.  Following  the  example  of 
many  members  of  that  learned  order,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  ecclesiastical  antiquities,  and  com- 
posed an  admirable  Histoire  de  Saint- Le'ger,  which  was 
followed  by  his  Spicilegium  Solosmense,  a collection  of 
documents,  previously  unpublished,  in  elucidation  of 
church  history.  To  obtain  the  materials  for  this  superb 
work,  Pitra  visited  nearly  all  the  great  libraries  in 
Europe.  Summoned  to  Rome  by  Pope  Pius  IX.  in 
1858,  he  was  directed  to  study  the  ancient  and  modern 
canons  of  the  Oriental  churches,  and  the  result  of  his 
labors  are  embodied  in  a work  entitled  Juris  Ecclesi- 
astici  Grcecorum  Historia  et  Monumenta , the  first 
volume  of  which,  printed  by  the  Sacred  Congregation 
of  the  Propaganda,  appeared  in  1864.  Pitra  was 
appointed  a member  of  that  congregation  for  the 
religious  affairs  of  the  East  in  1862,  and  created  a 
cardinal  priest  of  the  Holy  Roman  Church,  with  the  title 
of  S.  Tommaso  in  Parione,  March  16,  1863.  He  held 
the  office  of  librarian  of  the  Holy  Roman  Church  for 
many  years,  and  died  in  1889. 

PLACIDE,  Henry,  actor,  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C., 
September8,  1799;  died  near  Babylon,  L.  I.,  January 
23,  1870.  He  appeared  as  a child  under  his  father’s 
direction  at  the  Charleston,  S.  C.,  theater,  and  in  1814 
played  in  New  York.  In  1823  he  appeared  as  “ Ezekiel 
Homespun  ” in  The  Heir  at  Law,  at  the  New  York  Park 
theater,  and  remained  attached  to  that  establishment, 
with  a few  interruptions,  for  about  twenty-five  years. 
After  the  destruction  of  the  Park  theater  by  fire  in 
1848,  he  played  occasionally  at  Burton’s  theater  and  the 
Winter  Garden.  He  closed  his  career  as  an  actor  in 
1865,  and  retired  to  his  country  home.  Placide  was 
one  of  the  most  conscientious  of  American  actors  and 
filled  a wide  range  of  characters. 

PLATT,  Orville  H.,was  born  July  19,  1827,  at 
Washington,  Conn.,  and,  after  obtaining  a good  com- 
mon school  education,  studied  law.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1849,  and  began  practice  at  Meriden. 
After  filling  the  offices  of  clerk  of  the  State  Senate, 
secretary  of  state,  and  State  senator,  he  was,  in  1864, 
elected  to  the  State  legislature,  where  he  continued 
from  1864  to  1869,  serving  the  latter  year  as  speaker. 
In  1878  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate, 
and  was  elected  in  1884  for  the  term  expiring  March  4, 


PLA-PLE 


1891.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  reelected  for  the 
term  expiring  in  March,  1897. 

PLATT,  Thomas  Collier,  is  a native  of  Owego, 
N.  Y.,  where  he  was  born  July  15,  1833.  He  matricu- 
lated  at  Yale  College,  but,  on  account  of  failing  health, 
left  there  before  graduation,  and  entered  upon  a com- 
mercial career,  also  engaging  in  banking  and  lumber 
operations.  In  1872  he  was  elected  to  congress,  again 
in  1874,  and,  upon  the  expiration  of  Francis  Kernan’s 
term  as  United  States  senator,  was  chosen  his  succes- 
sor, January  18,  1881.  He  remained  such  until  the 
May  following,  when,  owing  to  troubles  with  the 
resident  in  regard  to  federal  appointments  in  New  York, 
oth  Senators  Platt  and  Conkling  (q.v.)  resigned 
and  returned  home.  He  failed  of  a re  election,  and 
became  connected  with  the  United  States  Express  Com- 
pany, of  which  he  has  been  president  since  1883.^  He 
also  held  the  position  of  commissioner  of  quarantine  of 
New  York  city  from  1880  to  1888,  when  he  was 
removed  on  the  ground  of  non-residence  in  New  York 
city.  He  is  a member  of  the  Republican  national  com- 
mittee, and  the  most  powerful  Republican  politician  in 
the  state. 

PLAYFAIR,  Lyon,  Lord,  K.C.B.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
was  born  at  Meerut,  Bengal,  May  21,  1819,  and 
died  May  29,  1898.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Andrews, 
and  early  took  especial  interest  in  chemistry.  In  1834 
he  studied  chemistry  under  Prof.  Thomas  Graham,  at 
the  Andersonian  University,  Glasgow;  but  his  health 
failing  in  1837,  he  revisited  India,  and  upon  his  recov- 
ery returned  to  England.  In  1838  he  went  to  Giessen, 
to  study  organic  chemistry  under  Liebig,  translated  some 
of  his  works  into  English,  and  on  his  return  to  Scot- 
land undertook  the  management  of  the  large  calico- 
print  works  of  Messrs.  Thompson,  of  Clitheroe; 
whence  he  removed,  in  1843,  to  Manchester,  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  royal  institu- 
tion. In  1844,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  late  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  he  was  appointed  on  the  commission  con- 
stituted to  examine  into  the  sanitary  condition  of  the 
large  towns  and  populous  districts.  At  the  close  of  the 
commission  Professor  Playfair  was  appointed  by  the 
late  Sir  R.  Peel,  chemist  to  the  Museum  of  Practi- 
cal Geology.  In  the  exhibition  of  1851  he  was  ap- 
pointed special  commissioner  in  charge  of  the  depart 
ment  of  juries;  and  at  the  close  of  the  exhibition,  in 
recognition  of  his  scientific  services,  he  was  made 
a companion  of  the  Bath.  At  the  exhibition  of  1862 
he  again  had  charge  of  the  department  of  juries.  In 
the  French  exhibition  of  1878  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
who  was  the  president  of  the  English  commission,  ap- 
pointed Mr.  Playfair  as  chairman  of  the  finance  commit- 
tee, which  was  charged  with  the  executive  work.  On  the 
establishment  of  the  department  of  science  and  art,  in 
1853,  he  was  appointed  joint  secretary  with  Mr.  Henry 
Cole;  but  in  1856,  when  Mr.  Cole  assumed  the  office  of 
secretary,  he  became  inspector-general  of  government 
museums  and  schools  of  science.  In  1857  Professor 
Playfair  was  elected  president  of  the  Chemical 
Society  of  London,  and  in  1858  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  in  the  University  of  Ed- 
inburgh. He  was  president  of  the  civil  service  in- 
quiry commission  of  1874,  which  produced  an  elabo- 
rate scheme  for  the  reorganization  of  the  civil  service; 
was  elected  as  member  of  parliament  for  the  universities 
of  Edinburgh  and  St.  Andrews  in  the  general  election 
of  1868,  ancl  is  a Liberal  in  politics.  He  held  office  in 
the  ministry  of  1873-74,  as  postmaster-general,  and  was 
then  made  privy  councillor.  After  the  general  election 
of  1880  he  was  appointed  chairman  of  ways  and  means 
and  deputy^ speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons.  These 
offices  he  resigned  in  the  session  of  1883,  being  on  his 


6739 

retirement  created  a K.C.B.  In  the  general  election  of 
1885  he  was  returned  for  the  south  division  of  Leeds, 
and  was  appointed  vice-president  of  the  council  in  Mr. 
Gladstone’s  government  of  1886.  He  was  reelected  in 
18S6  and  1892  and  made  a peer  in  1892.  He  is  com- 
mander of  the  Legion  of  Honor;  commander  of  the 
Austrian  Order  of  Francis  Joseph;  knight  of  the  Por- 
tuguese Order  of  the  Conception;  knight  of  the  Swedish 
Order  of  the  Northern  Star,  and  knight  of  Wiirtem- 
berg.  He  was  created  LL.D.  of  the  University  of  Ed- 
inburgh, April  12,  1869.  He  is  the  author  of  numer- 
ous scientific  memoirs,  and  on  general  subjects  he  has 
published  Science  in  its  Relations  to  Labor , On  the 
Food  of  Man  in  Relation  to  his  Useful  Work,  On  Pri- 
mary and  Technical  Education,  On  T'eaching  Univer- 
sities and  Examining  Boards , Universities  in  their  Re- 
lation to  Professional  Education,  The  Progress  of 
Sanitary  Reform,  and  Science  in  Relation  to  the  Public 
Weal,  an  address  as  president  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  1885. 

PLEASANTON,  Alfred,  was  born  at  Washington, 
D.  C.,  June  7,  1824,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1844,  entering  the  army  immediately  thereafter,  and 
participating  in  the  Mexican  war,  where  he  was  made 
first-lieutenant  by  brevet  for  “ gallant  conduct  ” at  Palo 
Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma.  He  subsequently  served 
on  the  frontier  and  in  the  Seminole  war,  meanwhile 
being  commissioned  first-lieutenant  in  1849  and  captain 
in  1855.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  war  he  was 
in  Utah,  whence,  accompanied  by  his  regiment,  he 
returned  overland  to  the  States.  During  the  Peninsu- 
lar campaign  of  1862  he  was  major  of  the  second 
cavalry,  but  in  July  of  that  year  became  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers,  and  commanded  the  cavalry 
division  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  in  its  pursuit  of 
the  Confederate  army  into  Maryland.  He  served  in 
the  battles  of  Antietam,  South  Mountain,  and  Freder- 
icsburg,  and  by  his  skillful  maneuvering  at  Chancellors- 
ville  on  May  2,  1863,  repulsed  the  advance  of  Jackson’s 
Confederate  corps,  and  saved  the  Union  army  from 
disaster.  For  bravery  at  Antietam  he  was  brevetted 
lieutenant-colonel  in  1862,  becoming  major-general  of 
volunteers  in  June,  1863,  and  brevet-colonel  July  2nd  of 
the  same  year.  At  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  General 
Pleasanton  commanded  the  cavalry  engaged.  In  1864 
he  forced  Sterling  Price  to  retire  from  Missouri.  In 
March,  1865,  he  was  brevetted  brigadier- general  of  the 
United  States  army  for  services  in  Missouri,  and  major- 
general  for  services  during  the  war.  He  resigned 
from  the  army  in  1868,  subsequently  serving  as  col- 
lector of  internal  revenue,  and  for  some  years  as 
president  of  the  Terre  Haute  and  Cincinnati  railroad. 
He  was  placed  on  the  retired  list,  with  the  rank  of 
colonel,  in  1888.  He  died  Feb.  17.  1897. 

PLEVILLE  LE  PELEY,  Georges  Rene,  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  of  French  naval  officers,  was 
born  at  Granville,  June  26,  1726.  He  ran  away  from 
school  in  1738,  to  enter  the  service  as  a cabin-boy,  and 
in  1742  succeeded  to  the  lieutenancy  of  a privateer 
operating  in  Canadian  waters.  He  was  taken  prisonei' 
by  the  English  in  1746,  and  upon  his  release  com 
manded  the  Hirondelle  off  Canada,  where  he  captured 
three  ships  after  a prolonged  and  desperate  contest. 
In  1778,  while  associated  in  tile  command  of  the  flag- 
ship of  Admiral  d’Estaing,  the  Languedoc , he  added  to 
his  reputation  by  his  daring  achievements  at  the  capture 
of  Grenada  and  other  West  Indian  ports.  His  sym- 
pathies were  strongly  with  the  colonies  during  the 
Revolutionary  war,  and  found  practical  expression.  He 
led  a company  to  repel  the  attack  made  by  the  British 
upon  Savannah,  October  9,  1779,  served  under  De 
Guichen  in  1780,  and  at  Yorktown  was  attached  to  the 


PLU-POL 


6740 

command  of  De  Grasse.  In  1783  he  was  appointed  a 
commodore  in  the  French  navy  and  made  a number  of 
voyages  to  North  America.  During  the  continuance  of 
the  French  Revolution,  the  principles  of  which  he  advo- 
cated in  1789,  he  represented  France  at  Ancona  and 
Corfu,  and  was  successively  appointed  rear-admiral  and 
vice-admiral,  the  latter  in  March,  1798,  in  the  French 
navy,  also  holding  the  naval  portfolio  from  April  to  J uly 
of  the  same  year.  During  the  year  following  he  be- 
caane  senator  of  France,  and  in  1804  was  by  Napoleon 
decorated  with  the  grand  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 
He  died  in  Paris,  October  2,  1805. 

PLUMPTRE,  Edward  Hayes,  D.D.,  dean  of 
Wells,  born  August  6,  1821;  was  scholar  of  University 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  B.  A.  (double  first 
class)  in  1844,  and  M.A.  in  1847.  He  became  a fel- 
low of  Brasenose  -College  in  1844.  Doctor  Plumptre 
was  for  four  years  (1869-74)  one  of  the  Old  Testament 
company  of  the  committee  of  revisers  of  the  author- 
ized version  of  the  Bible  appointed  by  convocation. 
He  was  installed  dean  of  Wells,  December  21,  1881. 
He  died  February  I,  1891. 

PLUNKET,  David  Robert,  (Lord  Rathmore), 
is  the  fourth  son  of  the  third  Lord  Plunket,  and  a 
grandson  of  the  first  Lord  Plunket,  the  great  orator 
and  lawyer,  who  held  the  great  seal  in  Ireland  from 
1830  to  1834,  and  again  from  1835  to  1841.  He  was 
born  December  3,  1838,  and  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  where  he  took  his  bachelor’s  degree 
in  1859.  He  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar  in  1862,  and 
in  1868  was  appointed  “ Law  Adviser  to  the  Castle  at 
Dublin.”  He  was  nominated  a Q.C.  in  1868.  He 
was  elected  M.P.  for  the  University  at  Dublin  in  the 
Conservative  interest  in  1870,  when  he  succeeded  An- 
thony Lefroy,  resigned,  and  has  sat  for  the  university 
ever  since.  Mr.  Plunket  was  solicitor-general  for  Ire- 
land from  December,  1874,  to  March,  1877,  and  first 
commissioner  of  works  in  Lord  Salisbury’s  adminis- 
tration, June,  1885,  to  February,  1886,  a post  which 
he  again  filled  in  the  cabinet  of  August,  1886. 

PLUNKET,  Lord,  Protestant  archbishop  of  Dub- 
lin, eldest  son  of  the  third  Lard  Plunket,  by  Charlotte, 
daughter  of  the  late  Rt.  Hon.  Charles  Kendal  Bushe, 
was  born  in  1828,  and  succeeded  to  the  title  on  the  death 
of  his  father  in  1871.  He  was  chaplain  to  his  uncle, 
the  late  Bishop  of  Tuam,  1857-64;  treasurer,  and  sub- 
sequently precentor,  of  St.  Patrick’s  Cathedral,  1864-76; 
and  bishop  of  Meath,  1876-84.  On  the  resignation  of 
Archbishop  Trench,  Lord  Plunket  was  elected  arch- 
bishop of  Dublin  (1884).  He  is  one  of  the  senate  of  the 
Royal  University  of  Ireland.  Died  April  1,  1897. 

POCAHONTAS,  daughter  of  Powhatan,  an  Indian 
chief,  born  in  Virginia,  about  1595;  died  at  Gravesend, 
England,  March  21,  1616.  She  is  celebrated  for  her 
heroism  in  saving  the  life  of  Capt.  John  Smith,  who  was 
condemned  to  death  by  her  father  in  1607.  She  was 
converted  to  Christianity  in  1613,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  married  to  John  Rolfe,  a young  widower. 
Among  her  descendants  in  Virginia  was  John  Randolph, 
the  statesman. 

POCHIN.,  Henry  Davis,  born  at  Wigston,  Leices- 
tershire, England,  1824,  and  died  October  28,  1895. 
He  was  educated  at  Leicester  and  studied  chemistry  at 
the  Pharmaceutical  Society,  London.  Subsequently  he 
started  bu&ines-s  in  Manchester  as  a manufacturing 
chemist,  and  soon  afterward  discovered  the  means  of 
completely  decomposing  China  clay  (silicate  of  alumina) 
by  sulphuric  acid,  which  produced  a rich  salt  of  sulphate 
of  alumina.  Another  invention  which  Mr.  Pochin 
patented  in  connection  with  Mr.  Edward  Hunt,  was 
the  purification  of  rosin,  by  means  of  distillation.  Rosin 
refined  by  his  process  js  now  yery  largely  used  in  the 


manufacture  of  the  pale  yellow  soaps  of  commerce, 
being  the  foundation  of  almost  all  fancy  soaps. 

POLAND,  Luke  Potter,  jurist,  born  in  Westford, 
Vt.,  November  1,  1815;  died  in  Waterville,  Vt.v 
July  2,  1887.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1836, 
and  in  1848  was  the  Free-soil  candidate  for  lieu- 
tenant governor.  In  the  same  year  he  was  elected  a 
judge  of  the  Vermont  Supreme  Court,  and  was  reelected 
each  succeeding  year,  becoming  chief  justice  in  i860, 
until  he  was  appointed,  in  November,  1865,  to  serve  out 
the  unexpired  term  of  Jacob  Collamer  in  the  United 
States  Senate.  He  afterward  entered  the  House  of 
Representatives,  and  served  from  1867  until  1875. 
While  in  the  Senate  he  secured  the  passage  of  a bankrupt 
law.  As  a member  of  the  House  he  was  chairman  of 
the  committee  to  investigate  the  outrages  of  the  Ku-Klux 
Klan,  and  of  the  investigation  committee  on  the  Credit 
Mobilier  transactions;  also  of  a committee  on  the  recon- 
struction of  the  Arkansas  State  Government.  In  1878 
Mr.  Poland  was  a representative  in  the  State  legislature. 
He  was  again  sent  to  congress  in  1883,  serving  until 
March  3,  1885. 

POEY,  Felipe,  Cuban  naturalist,  born  in  Havana, 
May  26,  1799.  He  was  graduated  in  law  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Madrid,  but  gradually  abandoned  his  practice 
as  a lawyer  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  natural 
history.  In  1827  he  aided  in  founding  th t.  Societe Ento- 
mologique  in  Paris,  and  contributed  notes  and  drawings 
to  the  Histoire  Nature  lie  des  Poissons.  In  1833  he 
returned  to  Havana,  and  in  1842  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  comparative  anatomy  and  zoology  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Havana.  From  1851  until  i860  he  published 
at  intervals  his  Historia  Natural  de  la  Isla  de  Cuba. 
He  was  appointed  in  1863  to  the  chair  of  botany,  miner- 
alogy, and  geology,  and  from  1868  to  1875  brought  out 
his  extensive  work,  Synopsis  Piscicum  Cubensium. 
This  work  was  purchased  by  the  Spanish  government, 
and  received  a gold  medal  and  honorable  mention  in 
the  exposition  of  Amsterdam  in  1883.  Poey  was  a 
member  of  almost  every  scientific  society  in  Europe  and 
America,  and  his  specimens  in  life  drawing  are  to  be 
found  in  the  United  States  national  museum  and  the 
Spanish  museum  of  Madrid.  He  died  January  28,  1891. 

POLE,  William,  Mus.Doc.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.S.E., 
civil  engineer,  was  born  in  1814.  From  1871  to  1883 
he  was  consulting  engineer  for  the  imperial  railways  of 
Japan,  and  on  his  retirement  the  mikado  honored  him 
with  the  decoration  of  the  third  degree  (knight  com- 
mander) of  the  Imperial  Order  of  the  Rising  Sun.  He 
served  on  the  council  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engi- 
neers from  1871  to  1885,  in  which  year  he  was  appointed 
honorary  secretary.  Between  1859  and  1867  he  was 
professor  of  civil  engineering  at  University  College, 
London,  and  lectured  at  the  Royal  Engineer  Establish- 
ment, Chatham.  He  published  in  1844  a quarto  trea- 
tise on  the  steam  engine  ; in  1848  a translation  of  a Ger- 
man work  on  the  same  subject ; in  1864  and  1870 
Scientific  Chapters  in  the  Lives  of  Robert  Stephenson 
and  I.  K.  Brunell\  in  1872  a treatise  on  iron  ; and  in 
1877  The  Life  of  Sir  William  Fairbairn.  Died,  1900. 

POLK,  Leonidas,  born  in  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  April 
10,  1806;  died  on  Pine  Mountain,  Ga.,  June  14,  1864. 
He  was  graduated  in  1827  at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy,  and  brevetted  second  lieutenant  of  artillery. 
He  soon  resigned  his  commission  to  study  for  the  min- 
istry. In  1830  he  was  made  deacon  in  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  church,  and  in  1831  was  ordained  priest. 
Pie  became  rector  of  St.  Peter’s  church,  in  Columbia, 
Tenn.,  in  1833,  and  in  1838  he  received  the  degree  of 
S.T.D.  In  the  same  year  he  was  elected  and  conse- 
crated missionary-bishop  of  Arkansas  and  part  of  In- 
dian Territory,  with  provisional  charge  qf  the  diocese* 


P O L—  P O N 


of  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana,  and  the  missions 
in  the  republic  of  Texas.  He  resigned  all  these  charges 
in  1841,  with  the  exception  of  the  diocese  of  Louisiana, 
of  which  he  remained  bishop  until  his  death.  He 
initiated  the  movement,  in  1856,  which  resulted  in  the 
establishment  of  the  University  of  the  South  at  Sewanee, 
Tenn.  When  the  Civil  war  broke  out,  he  accepted  an 
offer  of  a major-generalship  in  the  Confederate  army, 
and  under  his  general  direction  the  extensive  works  at 
New  Madrid  and  Fort  Pillow,  Columbus,  Ky.,  Island 
No.  10,  Memphis,  and  other  points  were  constructed. 
As  commander  of  the  first  corps  of  Johnston’s  and 
Beauregard’s  army,  he  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Shiloh, 
Tenn.,  and  in  the  subsequent  operations  that  ended  in 
the  evacuation  of  Corinth.  He  commanded  the  army 
of  Mississippi  at  the  battle  of  Perryville,  during  the 
Confederate  invasion  of  Kentucky,  and  was  soon  after- 
ward promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He 
was  relieved  of  his  command  after  the  battle  of  Chicka- 
mauga,  for  disobedience  of  orders,  but  in  the  following 
year,  his  prestige  being  restored,  he  united  his  command 
with  the  army  of  Gen.  Joseph  E.  Johnston.  General 
Polk  was  killed  by  a cannon  shot  while  reconnoitering 
on  Pine  Mountain,  near  Marietta,  Ga. 

POLLARD,  Edward  Albert,  born  in  Nelson 
county,  Va.,  February  27,  1828;  died  in  Lynchburg, 
Va.,  December  12,  1872.  After  finishing  his  education 
in  1849  he  went  to  California  and  engaged  in  journal- 
ism until  1855,  after  which  he  spent  some  time  in 
Northern  Mexico  and  Nicaragua.  During  the  admin- 
istration of  President  Buchanan  he  was  clerk  of  the 
judiciary  committee  in  the  House  of  Representatives 
and  openly  advocated  the  doctrine  of  secession.  From 
1861  until  1867  he  was  principal  editor  of  the  Richmond 
Examiner.  Near  the  close  of  the  war  he  started  to 
England  to  promote  the  sale  of  his  works,  but  was 
captured  by  union  soldiers  and  held  for  eight  months 
at  Fort  Warren  and  Fortress  Monroe.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  books,  including  The  Lost  Cause,  Lee  and 
his  Lieutenants,  Life  of  Jefferson  Davis,  etc.  After 
the  war  Mr.  Pollard  made  his  residence  in  New  York 
and  Brooklyn  for  several  years,  often  contributing  to 
current  literature. 

POLLEN,  John  Hungerford,  M.  A.,  born  in  Eng- 
land in  1820;  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Christchurch, 
Oxford,  and  was  elected  to  a fellowship  of  Merton, 
where  he  painted  the  college  chapel.  He  studied  paint- 
ing in  Rome,  was  appointed  professor  of  fine  arts  by 
Cardinal  Newman,  in  the  Catholic  University  of  Dub- 
lin ; built  and  painted  the  church  in  Stephen’s  Green, 
was  appointed  official  editor  of  the  Museum  at  South 
Kensington,  and  was  inter  alia  editor  of  the  Universal 
Catalogue  of  Books  on  Art.  He  has  contributed  to  the 
Encyclopcedia  Britannica , Art  Journal,  Magazine  of 
Art , and  several  periodicals  on  subjects  connected  with 
the  fine  arts,  and  was  cantor  lecturer  of  the  Society  of 
Arts  in  1885.  Mr.  Pollen  is  corresponding  member  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Madrid,  the  Archaeological  So- 
ciety of  Belgium,  and  other  learned  bodies. 

POLLOCK,  Frederick,  was  born  in  England,  De- 
cember 10,  1845,  and  educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  became  fellow  in 
1868.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln’s  Inn  in 
1871,  and  was  an  examiner  in  law  at  Cambridge, 
1879-81.  In  1882  he  was  made  professor  of  jurispru- 
dence at  University  College,  London;  in  1883  was  ap- 
pointed corpus  professor  of  jurisprudence  at  Oxford, 
and  in  1884  professor  of  common  law.  He  is  also  edi- 
tor of  the  Law  Quarterly  Review , and  has  been  hon- 
orary librarian  of  the  Alpine  Club  since  1881. 

POLLOCK,  Sir  Charles  Edward,  was  born  in 
England,  October  21,  1823,  and  received  his  education 


6741 

at  St.  Paul’s  School.  When  his  father,  the  late  Sir 
Frederick  Pollock,  was  attorney-general  in  1843-44, 
Mr.  Pollock  acted  as  his  secretary,  and  on  the  eleva- 
tion of  his  father  to  the  position  of  lord  chief  baron  of 
the  exchequer  in  1844,  Mr.  Pollock  became  a pupil  of 
the  late  Mr.  Justice  Willes,  in  whose  chambers  he  re- 
mained for  nearly  three  years.  Mr.  Pollock  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1847,  and  was  created  a queen’s  counsel  in 
1866.  He  was  appointed  a baron  of  the  exchequer  in 
succession  to  Mr.  Baron  Channell,  resigned,  in  Janu- 
uary,  1873,  and  soon  afterward  received  the  honor  of 
knighthood.  Before  his  elevation  to  the  bench  he  pub- 
lished several  legal  text-books,  including  a Treatise  on 
the  Law  of  Merchant  Shipping , and  another  on  the 
Law  and  Practice  of  the  County  Courts.  Died,  1897. 

POLLOCK,  Sir  William  Frederick,  Bart.,  born 
in  London  in  1815,  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  of  which  he  was  a scholar  (B.A.  degree 
1836 — M.A.  1840).  He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the 
Inner  Temple  in  1838,  and  went  the  northern  circuit. 
He  was  appointed  a master  of  the  Court  of  Exchequer 
in  1846,  and  queen’s  remembrancer  in  1874,  and  be- 
came senior  master  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature 
upon  the  coming  into  operation  of  the  Judicature  Acts. 
He  resigned  his  offices  in  1886.  Sir  Frederick  Pollock 
was  president  of  the  Equitable  Assurance  Society  and 
vice-president  of  the  Literary  Fund,  and  was  honorary 
secretary  to  the  Society  of  Dilettanti,  and  for  many 
years  constantly  a manager  of  the  Royal  Institution. 
Sir  Frederick’s  translation  of  Dante’s  Divine  Comedy , 
in  blank  verse  and  line  for  line  with  the  original,  ap- 
peared in  1854.  Macready's  Reminiscences  were  edited 
by  him  in  1875.  He  contributed  to  the  Quarterly  and 
Edinburgh  Reviews,  to  Frazer's  Magazine,  to  the 
Fortnightly  and  Nineteenth  Century,  and  other 
periodicals.  Sir  Frederick  married,  in  1844,  Juliet, 
daughter  of  the  Rev.  Id.  Creed,  vicar  of  Corse,  Glouces* 
tershire,  and  niece  of  the  Rt.  Hon.  J.  C.  Herries.  He 
succeeded  his  father  as  second  baronet  in  1870  and  died 
December  24,  1 888. 

POLLOCK,  Walter  Herries,  born  in  London, 
1850;  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  in  1871,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  in  1874.  Mr.  Pollock 
has  delivered  lectures  at  the  Royal  Institution  on  his- 
torical and  literary  subjects  such  as  Richelieu,  Colbert, 
Victor  Hugo,  Sir  Francis  Drake,  the  drama,  etc.,  and 
is  the  author  of  Lectures  on  French  Poets,  The  Picture's 
Secret,  a novel,  Songs  and  Rhymes,  English  and 
French , Verses  of  Two  Tongues , and  The  Poet  and  the 
Muse,  translated  with  introduction  in  original  verse, 
from  Alfred  de  Musset’s  Nuits.  In  1884  Mr.  Pollock 
became  editor  of  the  Saturday  Review,  of  which  he  had 
long  acted  as  assistant  editor. 

PONSONBY,  Gen.  Sir  Henry  Frederick, 
K.C.B.,  was  born  at  Corfu,  England,  in  1825,  and  after 
receiving  a professional  education  at  the  Royal  Military 
College,  Sandhurst,  was  appointed  ensign  in  the  49th 
regiment  in  1842.  After  being  transferred  to  the 
grenadier  guards,  he  was  appointed  aide-de-camp  to 
the  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  in  1849  was  made 
private  secretary  to  the  earl  of  Clarendon,  an  office 
which  he  held  under  Lords  St.  Germans  and  Carlisle 
while  viceroys  of  Ireland.  In  1855  he  joined  the  Gren- 
adier Guards  in  the  Crimea,  and  served  at  the  siege  of 
Sebastopol.  On  April  8,  1870,  he  was  appointed  private 
secretary  to  Queen  Victoria,  and  in  October,  1878, 
keeper  of  the  privy  purse.  Died  Nov.  21,  1895. 

PONTIAC,  chief  of  the  Ottawas,  born  on  the 
Ottawa  river  about  1720;  died  in  Cahokia,  111.,  in  1769. 
He  defended  Detroit  on  behalf  of  the  French  in  1746, 
against  an  attack  by  several  Indian  tribes  from  the 


POO 


6742 

north,  and  he  is  supposed  to  have  led  the  Ottawas  at 
Braddock’s  defeat  in  1755.  His  hatred  of  the  English 
increased  after  they  had  conquered  Canada,  and  he  pre- 
pared to  exterminate  them  by  organizing  a conspiracy 
among  all  the  tribes  between  the  Ottawa  and  the  lower 
Mississippi.  At  the  time  agreed  upon  for  the  attack 
each  tribe  was  to  dispose  of  the  garrison  of  the  nearest 
fort,  and  then  a general  movement  was  to  be  made 
upon  the  settlements.  Pontiac  assigned  to  himself  the 
task  of  taking  Detroit,  and  May  7,  1763,  was  ap- 
pointed for  the  attack,  but  an  Indian  girl  betrayed  the 
plot  to  the  commander  of  the  post,  and  the  garrison 
was  prepared.  Foiled  in  his  design  Pontiac  neverthe- 
less surrounded  Detroit  with  his  warriors  on  May  12th, 
and  began  a siege.  In  spite  of  his  vigilance,  however, 
the  garrison  was  supplied  with  food  by  the  Canadian 
settlers.  Schooners  loaded  with  supplies  and  reen- 
forcements were  sent  to  Detroit  by  way  of  Lake  Erie, 
but  were  captured  by  the  Indians  before  reaching  the 
post.  Subsequently  a schooner  succeeded  in  reaching 
Detroit,  and  the  English,  believing  themselves  suf- 
ficiently strong  to  attack  the  Indian  camp,  sent  out  250 
men  on  the  night  of  July  31st  for  that  purpose.  They 
were  repulsed  with  a loss  of  59  men,  killed  and 
wounded.  The  siege  was  raised  October  12th,  and 
Pontiac  retired  to  organize  another  movement,  but 
failed.  In  the  meantime,  however,  eight  of  the  twelve 
fortified  forts  that  were  attacked  had  been  destroyed, 
and  their  garrisons  massacred.  In  1766  a meeting  of 
Indian  chiefs,  including  Pontiac,  was  held  at  Oswego, 
where  a treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  with  Sir  William 
Johnson.  Pontiac  was  murdered  in  1769  by  a Kaskas- 
kia  Indian,  who  was  bribed  with  a barrel  of  whisky  to 
kill  the  chief. 

POOLE,  Reginald  Stuart,  LL.D.  Cantab.,  born 
in  London,  February  27,  1832;  was  educated  privately 
in  Egypt  under  the  direction  of  E.  W.  Lane,  his  uncle. 
He  was  appointed  assistant,  department  of  antiquities, 
British  Museum,  1852;  transferred  to  new  department 
of  coins  and  medals,  1861;  and  appointed  assistant 
keeper  of  coins,  1866,  and  keeper,  1879.  He  was  editor 
of  the  Official  Catalogues  of  Greek , Roman,  Oriental, 
and  English  Coins,  lectured  on  archaeology  and  art  at 
the  Royal  Academy  and  the  Slade  School,  University 
College ; was  a correspondent  of  the  Institute  of  France; 
member  of  the  Imperial  German  Archaeological  Insti- 
tute ; a life-governor  of  University  College,  London; 
vice-president  of  the  Numismatic  Society  ; and  an  hon- 
orary secretary  of  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund,  and  of 
the  Society  of  Medallists.  He  died  in  1895. 

POOLE,  Stanley  Lane,  born  in  London,  Decem- 
ber 18,  1854.  As  early  as  1870  his  studies  had  been 
turned  toward  numismatics  by  his  uncle,  the  keeper  of 
coins  in  the  British  Museum,  and  in  1872  he  published 
his  first  treatise  on  Arabic  coins  in  the  Chronicle  of  the 
Numismatic  Society.  In  1874  he  was  appointed  by  the 
trustees  of  the  British  Museum  to  write  the  official 
Catalogue  of  the  Oriental  Coins  in  the  national  collec- 
tion. Two  volumes  of  a subsequent  Catalogue  of 
Indian  Coins  were  published  in  1885.  On  the  death  of 
E.  W.  Lane,  in  1876,  the  duty  of  completing  his  great 
Arabic  lexicon  devolved  on  Mr.  Poole,  who  brought 
out  the  sixth  and  seventh  volumes  between  187  7 and 
1885,  an(l  published  a Life  of  E.  W.  Lane  in  the  former 
year.  In  1883  he  was  sent  to  Egypt  by  the  science  and 
art  department,  for  which  he  wrote  a handbook  of  the 
Art  of  the  Saracens,  1886. 

POOLE,  William  F. , a distinguished  American 
bibliographer,  was  born  in  Salem,  Mass.,.  December 
24,  1821.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1849;  was  assistant 
librarian  of  the  Boston  Athenaeum  in  1851-52  and 
1 856-69;  organized  the  Cincinnati  Public  Library  in 


1869,  the  Chicago  Public  Library  in  1874,  and  presided 
over  it  until  1887,  when  he  resigned  to  organize  the 
Newberry  Library  of  Chicago,  of  which  he  was  libra- 
rian until  his  death,  March  11,  1894. 

POOR,  Charles  Henry,  was  born  in  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  Juneau,  1808;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  No- 
vember 5,  1882.  He  entered  the  United  States  navy 
as  a midshipman  March  1,  1825,  and  was  successively 
promoted  until  he  attained  the  rank  of  commodore, 
January  2,  1863.  He  was  given  command  of  the  St. 
Louis , of  the  home  squadron,  in  1860-61,  and  in  the 
latter  year  had  charge  of  an  expedition  that  was  sent  to 
reenforce  Fort  Pickens.  During  1861-62,  while  in 
command  of  the  frigate  Roanolte  of  the  North  Atlantic 
blockading  squadron,  he  passed  the  Confederate  bat- 
teries under  fire  while  proceeding  from  Hampton 
Roads  toward  Newport  News  to  assist  the  Congress 
and  Cumberland.  The  sloop  of  war  Saranac,  of  the 
Pacific  squadron,  was  under  his  command  from  1863 
until  1865.  During  that  time  he  compelled  the  release 
of  a United  States  mail  steamer  that  had  been  illegally 
detained  at  Aspinwall,  and  obliged  the  authorities  of 
Rio  Hacha,  New  Grenada,  to  hoist  and  salute  the 
American  flag  after  it  had  been  insulted.  He  was  sub- 
sequently for  two  years  in  charge  of  the  naval  station 
at  Mound  City,  111.,  and  was  made  rear-admiral 
September  20,  1868.  He  was  commandant  of  the 
Washington  navy  yards  in  1869,  and  afterward  com- 
manded the  North  Atlantic  squadron  up  to  the  date  of 
his  retirement  from  the  service,  June  9,  187a  In 
1871-72  he  was  a member  of  the  retiring-board. 

POOR,  Enoch,  born  in  Andover,  Mass.,  June 21, 
1736;  died  near  Hackensack,  N.  J. , September  8, 
1780.  After  the  battle  of  Lexington,  when  the  New 
Hampshire  assembly  resolved  to  raise  2,000  men,  Poor 
was  given  command  of  one  of  the  regiments.  He  served 
at  the  siege  of  Boston  and  then  went  to  New  York, 
where  he  afterward  received  orders  to  join  the  disastrous 
Canadian  expedition  with  his  regiment.  On  the  retreat 
from  that  country,  the  Americans  occupied  and 
strengthened  Crown  Point,  and  when  General  Philip 
Schuyler  ordered  the  evacuation  of  that  place  a written 
remonstrance  against  such  a step  was  sent  to  General 
Washington  by  twenty-one  field  officers,  headed  by  Poor, 
John  Stark,  and  William  Maxwell.  Washington  con- 
curred in  this  view,  but  refused  to  overrule  General 
Schuyler’s  action.  Poor  was  commissioned  brigadier- 
general  February  21,  1777,  and  held  a command  in  the 
campaign, against  Burgoyne.  He  distinguisliad  himself 
for  great  gallantry  at  Stillwater  and  Saratoga.  After 
the  surrender  of  Burgoyne  he  joined  Washington  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  subsequently  shared  the  hardships  of 
the  army  at  Valley  Forge.  In  1778  he  fought  at  the 
battle  of  Monmouth,  and  in  1779  was  Sullivan’s 
expedition  against  the  Indians  of  western  New  York. 
In  August,  1780,  Poor  was  given  command  of  a brigade 
of  light  infantry,  but  survived  his  appointment  only  a 
few  weeks,  succumbing  to  an  attack  of  fever. 

POOR,  Benjamin  Perley,  born  near  Newburyport, 
Mass.,  November  2,  1820;  died  in  Washington,  D.C., 
May  30,  1887.  He  served  an  apprenticeship  in  a print- 
ing office  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  and  for  two  years  before 
he  was  twenty  years  old  he  had  edited  the  Southern 
Whig,  of  Athens,  Ga.,  a paper  purchased  for  him  by 
his  father.  He  went  to  Europe  in  1841  as  attach^  of 
the  American  legation  at  Brussels,  and  while  there  was 
the  foreign  correspondent  of  the  Boston  Atlas,  besides 
acting  for  four  years  as  the  historical  agent  of  Massa- 
chusetts in  France.  Returning  to  America  in  1848,  he 
was  successively  editor  of  the  Boston  Bee  and  Sunday 
Sentinel,  and  in  1854  he  began  the  work  which  he  con- 
tinued the  rest  of  his  life,  that  of  Washington  corres- 


POP  — P O R 


pondent.  He  was  interested  in  military  matters,  and 
served  as  major  for  a short  time  during  the  Civil  war. 
Among  his  publications  were  Campaign  Life  of  General 
Zachary  7'aylor,  Rise  and  Fall  of  Louis  Philippe , 
Early  Life  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte , The  Conspiracy 
Trial  for  the  Micrder  of  Abraham  Lincoln , E'ederal 
and  State  Charters , The  Political  Register  and  Con- 
gressional Directory , Life  of  Burnside , and  Perley's 
Reminiscences  of  Sixty  Years  in  the  National  Metrop- 
olis. He  was  secretary  of  the  United  States  Agricul- 
tural Society,  and  editor  of  its  Journal  in  1857.  In 
1867  he  began  to  edit  the  Congressional  Directory.  He 
supervised  the  indices  of  the  Congressional  Record , and 
for  many  years  had  charge  of  the  annual  abridgement  of 
the  public  documents.  He  compiled  a Descriptive 
Catalogue  of  the  Government  Publications  of  the  United 
States,  1774.-1881 , by  order  of  congress.  He  also 
compiled  the  various  treaties  negotiated  by  the  United 
States  Government  with  different  countries. 

POPE,  John,  American  soldier,  was  born  in  Kas- 
kaskia,  111.,  March  16,  1822.  He  was  graduated  from 
the  West  Point  Military  Academy  in  1842,  and  was 
assigned  to  the  engineering  and  topographical  corps 
with  the  rank  of  second  lieutenant.  He  saw  service  in 
the  Florida  Indian  war,  and  served  under  General  Tay- 
lor in  the  Mexican  war,  winning  two  brevets  for  gal- 
lantry. He  was  also  engaged  in  exploration  and  light- 
house duty.  Just  prior  to  the  outbreak  of  the  war  he 
was  court-martialed  for  disrespectful  remarks  concern- 
ing President  Buchanan,  but  the  charges  were  not 
pressed.  He  was  one  of  President  Lincoln’s  escort  to 
Washington  on  the  occasion  of  his  first  inauguration. 
In  1861  he  was  made  brigadier-general  and  assigned  to 
duty  in  Missouri,  where  his  operations  against  the 
Confederates  were  successful.  He  was  next  assigned  to 
the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Mississippi,  and  here, 
too,  success  attended  his  movements,  he  taking  many 
prisoners  at  New  Madrid  and  Island  No.  iq.  For 
these  services  he  was  made  major-general  of  volunteers 
and  brigadier  in  the  regular  arpiy.  In  1862  he  was 
called  to  Washington  and  assigned  to  the  command  of 
the  army  of  Virginia,  superseding  McClellan  (who  re- 
tained the  army  of  the  Potomac)  as  its  chief.  Here 
his  good  fortune  seemed  to  desert  him.  He  left  Wash- 
ington July  29th,  with  “ headquarters  in  the  saddle,” 
and  in  less  than  a month  had  been  utterly  defeated  by 
Stonewall  Jackson  at  the  second  Bull  Run.  He  re- 
turned to  Washington  and  resigned  his  command,  being 
then  sent  to  Minnesota  to  conduct  the  war  against  the 
Indians.  After  the  Civil  war  had  ended  he  was  placed 
in  command  of  one  of  the  Southern  military  districts, 
and  later  was  in  charge  of  the  department  of  the  Mis- 
souri. In  1882  he  was  made  major-general  in  the 
regular  army,  and  had  written  several  works,  among 
them  being  Explorations  from  the  Red  River  to  the 
Rio  Grande  and  the  Campaign  in  Virginia.  The  loss 
of  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  was  the  occasion  of  much 
dispute  and  political  rancor,  Pope  charging  that  his  de- 
feat  was  due  to  non-support  and  conspiracy,  these 
charges  finally  concreting  in  the  long  unsettled  Fitz- 
John  Porter  imbroglio.  (See  Porter,  Fitz-John.) 
General  Pope  was  placed  on  the  retired  list  of  the  army 
in  March,  1886,  and  died  September  23,  1892. 

PORTER,  David,  naval  officer,  was  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  February  1,  1780;  and  died  in  Pera,  near  Con- 
stantinople, Turkey,  on  March  3,  1843.  The  family 
for  five  generations  had  been  a sea-faring  one,  and 
it  claims  at  present  the  most  distinguished  officers  in 
the  United  States  navy.  In  1798  David  entered  the 
navy  as  a midshipman  on  board  the  United  States  ship 
Constellatioti  and  participated  in  the  war  with  the 
French.  Next  year  he  was  made  lieutenant  and  was  as- 


6743; 

signed  to  the  West  Indies  station,  where  he  saw  service 
against  the  pirates  in  those  waters.  On  his  next  as- 
signment he  had  a similar  experience  with  the  Tripoli- 
tan corsairs,  and.  in  one  of  the  engagements  with  the 
latter,  he  was  captured  and  imprisoned  for  some  months. 
In  1806  he  was  made  master,  and  in  1812  captain.  In 
the  latter  year  he  fought  in  the  Essex  the  famous  ac- 
tion with  the  Alert , which  he  sank  in  eight  minutes.  He 
made  numerous  captures  during  the  war  of  1812,  both 
of  British  ships  and  Peruvian  privateers,  nearly  destroy- 
ing the  British  whale  fisheries  in  the  Pacific.  On  March 
28,  1814,  while  lying  in  the  neutral  harbor  of  Valparaiso 
with  the  two  ships,  Essex  and  Essex  Jr.,  he  was  at- 
tacked by  the  two  British  vessels,  Phoebe,  and  Cherub , 
which  were  more  than  double  his  strength,  and  after  a 
desperate  fight  was  forced  to  surrender.  He  was  pa- 
roled and  after  a number  of  vicissitudes  reached  New 
York.  From  1815  till  1824  Captain  Porter  was  a mem- 
ber of  the  board  of  navy  commissioners.  In  1825  he 
reentered  active  service,  and,  while  acting  against  the 
pirates  in  West  Indian  waters,  he  became  involved  in 
complications  with  the  Spanish  Government, in  the  course 
of  which  he  was  adjudged  to  have  exceeded  his  powers 
as  a naval  officer,  was  court-martialed  and  sentenced  to 
suspension  from  the  service.  Thereupon  he  resigned 
his  commission  and  entered  the  service  of  Mexico  as 
commander-in-chief  of  its  naval  forces.  He  subsequent- 
ly returned  to  the  United  States  and  in  1829  he  was 
appointed  consul  of  Algiers,  and  in  the  next  year  minis- 
ter to  Turkey,  where  he  remained  till  his  death.  He 
was  the  author  of  a Journal  of  the  Cruise  of  the  Essex , 
and  from  his  letters  several  other  interesting  books  have 
been  compiled.  It  can  be  said  of  him  that  the  two 
most  distinguished  officers  of* the  United  States  navy 
during  the  late  war  received  their  earliest  training  on 
his  ship.  These  two  were  his  son  and  adopted  son, 
David  D.  Porter  and  David  G.  Farragut. 

PORTER,  David  Dixon,  American  admiral,  is  the 
son  of  the  subject  of  the  preceding  sketch,  and  was 
born  at  Philadelphia,  June  8,  1814.  He  saw  his  first 
battle  in  the  Mexican  navy  at  the  time  his  father  was 
chief  in  command  of  that  service,  and  in  1829,  when  his 
father  had  returned  to  the  United  States,  he  became  a 
midshipman  in  the  United  States  navy.'  He  served  in 
the  Mediterranean  station  till  1835,  at  which  time  he 
was  assigned  to  the  United  States  coast  survey  corps. 
He  was  made  a lieutenant  in  1841.  In  1845  was  de- 
tailed  on  special  duty  at  the  observatory  at  Washington, 
which  post  he  resigned  to  take  part  in  the  Mexican  war. 
During  this  conflict  he  served  at  Vera  Cruz  and  at  other 
points.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was  again  engaged 
on  the  coast  survey,  and  in  184911c  entered  on  the  com- 
mand of  the  California  line  of  mail  steamers.  He  after- 
ward returned  to  the  regular  navy,  and  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  war  he  had  attained  the  rank  of  commander. 
His  first  service  in  this  struggle  was  the  relief  of  Fort 
Pickens,  in  Pensacola  harbor.  In  1862  he  was  in  com- 
mand of  the  flotilla  of  mortar  boats  operating  against 
New  Orleans  and  the  adjacent  forts.  1 Ie  was  next  en- 
gaged in  the  unsuccessful  attack  on  Vicksburg,  July, 
1862.  In  January,  1863,  he  captured  Arkansas  Post, 
and  in  April  destroyed  the  Grand  Gulf  batteries.  At 
this  time  he  was  made  rear-admiral,  and  had  command 
of  all  the  naval  forces  on  the  Mississippi  river.  In  the 
second  siege  of  Vicksbur'g,  resulting  in  the  capture  of 
that  city,  his  efficient  and  hearty  cooperation  with  the 
land  forces  under  General  Grant  were  repeatedly  noticed 
and  eulogized  in  his  reports  by  that  general.  After  the 
fall  of  Vicksburg  he  assisted  Banks  in  his  Red  river 
expedition  in  1864.  The  same  year  saw  him  transferred 
to  the  James  river  in  Virginia,  and  he  was  employed  in 
the  two  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher  (in  the  second  one  of 


POR-POT 


6744 

which  the  fort  was  captured),  besides  other  important 
expeditions.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was  made  vice- 
admiral,  and  in  1866  he  became  superintendent  of  the 
naval  academy  at  Annapolis,  Md.  In  1870,  on  the 
death  of  Admiral  Farragut,  he  became  admiral  (com- 
mander-in-chief)  of  the  navy.  He  died  in  Washington, 
D.  C.,  on  February  12,  1891.  Admiral  Porter  wrote 
several  books,  among  them  being  Life  of  Commodore 
David  Porter , Incidents  and  Anecdotes  of  the  Civil 
War , History  of  the  Navy  in  the  War  of  the  Rebellion , 
and  two  works  of  fiction. 

PORTER,  Fitz-John,  American  soldier,  was  born 
at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  June  13,  1822,  being  a nephew 
of  Com.  David  Porter.  He  entered  West  Point  in 
1841;  was  graduated  in  1845;  entered  the  artillery  as 
second  lieutenant,  and  saw  his  first  service  in  the  Mexi- 
can war  with  General  Scott,  being  wounded  in  the 
battles  around  the  city  of  Mexico.  He  was  twice 
brevetted  for  gallantry  during  the  war,  and  in  1849  he 
was  appointed  instructor  of  cavalry  and  artillery  at 
West  Point.  He  remained  here  till  1S56,  when  he  was 
assigned  to  the  adjutant -general’s  department.  In 
1858  he  took  part  with  A.  S.  Johnston  in  the  Utah  ex- 
pedition. In  1861  he  had  reached  the  rank  of  colonel 
in  the  regular  army,  and  on  the  beginning  of  hostilities 
was  made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He  was 
chief  of  staff  of  the  commanding  general  till  August, 
1861,  when  he  was  given  the  command  of  a division  for 
the  defense  of  Washington  city.  He  took  part  in  the 
Peninsular  campaign,  conducting  the  siege  of  Yorktown 
and  commanding  the  fifth  army  corps  of  the  army  of 
the  Potomac.  For  his  gallantry  at  the  battle  of  the 
Chickahominy  he  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  in  the 
regular  army,  and  made*  major-general  of  volunteers. 
After  the  Peninsular  campaign  had  closed  Porter  and 
his  command  were  assigned  to  the  army  of  Virginia 
under  General  Pope.  At  the  second  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  Porter  was  ordered  to  attack  Jackson’s  flank,  but 
failed  to  move  (as  he  alleged)  on  account  of  Longstreet 
being  immediately  in  his  front.  Pope  laid  the  blame  of 
his  defeat  on  Porter’s  inactivity,  and  even  charged  him 
with  treachery.  Soon  after  this  event  McClellan  was 
restored  to  the  chief  command,  and  General  Porter 
participated  in  the  battle  of  Antietam.  On  Novem- 
ber 27,  1862,  he  was  tried  by  court-martial  on  a charge 
of  disobedience  of  orders,  and  after  a tedious  investiga- 
tion was  cashiered  from  the  army.  Appeal  was  taken, 
and  after  unwearied  efforts  on  the  part  of  General  Porter 
and  his  friends,  a board  of  inquiry  was  called  to  pro- 
ceed with  a rehearing  of  the  case,  and  Porter  was  in 
1878  declared  blameless.  President  Arthur  in  1882  re- 
mitted a portion  of  his  sentence,  but  refused  to  sign  a bill 
for  his  relief.  In  Cleveland’s  administration,  however, 
a bill  was  passed  and  signed  by  the  president  authoriz- 
ing the  restoration  of  Porter  to  the  regular  army,  with 
the  rank  of  colonel,  the  bill  taking  effect  in  1886.  Dur- 
ing the  years  of  suspension  from  the  army  General 
Porter  had  been  engaged  in  business  in  New  York,  and 
was  successively  superintendent  of  the  New  Jersey 
insane  asylum,  commissioner  of  public  works  of  New 
Yorkvity,  and  police  commissioner  of  the  same  city.  Of 
Porter’s  innocence  of  the  charges  against  him,  most 
army  officers  are  now  convinced;  General  Grant  as 
early  as  1882  expressing  his  conviction  of  the  injustice 
of  his  sentence,  although  while  president  he  had  refused 
to  allow  the  reopening  of  the  case.  Died  May,  1901. 

PORTER,  Horace,  born  at  Huntington,  Pa.,  April 
I5,  1837,  son  of  David  Rittenhouse  Porter  (1788-1867), 
who  was  governor  of  Pennsylvania,  1838-45,  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  i860,  was  a member  of  Grant’s  staff 
with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  from  April,  1864,  to 
the  end  of  the  war,  was  Grant’s  private  secretary,  1869- 


73,  and  resigned  from  the  army  in  1873  with  the  brevet 
rank  of  brigadier-general. 

PORTER,  Josias  Leslie,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  was  born 
October  4,  1823,  at  Burt,  county  Donegal,  Ireland, 
educated  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  and  the  Free  Church  College,  and  or- 
dained in  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  England  in  1846. 
He  went  on  a mission  to  Syria  in  1849,  became  profes- 
sor of  biblical  criticism  in  the  Assembly’s  College,  Bel- 
fast, was  appointed  by  parliament  commissioner  of  in- 
termediate education  (Ireland)  in  1878,  and  nominated 
by  the  crown  president  of  Queen’s  College,  Belfast, 
and  senator  of  the  Queen’s  University  in  1879,  and 
senator  of  the  Royal  University  of  Ireland  in  1880. 
He  died  March  16,  1889. 

PORTER,  Noah,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  was  born  at 
Farmington,  Conn.,  December  14,  1811.  Pie  received 
the  degree  of  A.  B.  at  Yale  College  in  1831,  and  taught 
in  schools  at  New  Haven  from  1831  to  1833,  and  was  a 
tutor  at  Yale  from  1833  to  1835,  studying  theology  at 
the  same  time.  In  1836  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
Congregational  church  at  New  Milford,  Conn.,  and  in 
1843  was  settled  at  Springfield,  Mass.  He  returned  to 
Yale  as  professor  of  metaphysics  and  moral  philosb- 
phy  in  1846,  and  on  the  resignation  of  Doctor  Woolsey 
in  1871  was  elected  president  of  Yale.  He  was  author 
of  Historical  Discoicrses  (1840)  ; The  Educational  Sys- 
tems of  the  Puritans  and  the  Jesuits  Compared  (1851)  ; 
The  Human  Intellect  (1868)  ; Books  and  Reading 
(1870);  American  Colleges  and  the  American  Public 
(1870);  Elements  of  Intellectual  Philosophy  (1871); 
The  Science  of  Nature  Versus  the  Science  of  Man  (1871); 
Science  and  Sentiment  (1882)  ; Elements  of  Moral 
Science  (1885);  Bishop  George  Berkeley  (1885);  and 
Kant's  Ethics  (1886).  Doctor  Porter  was  the  principal 
editor  of  the  revisions  of  Webster's  Dictionary  (1864 
and  1880).  He  died  March  4,  1892. 

POST,  Philip  Sidney,  Illinois  congressman,  tenth 
district,  was  born  in  Florida,  Orange  county,  N.  Y., 
March  19,  1833 ; was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Illinois  in 
1856;  entered  the  Union  army  in  1861  as  second-lieu- 
tenant, 59th  Illinois  infantry;  was  promoted  to  colonel, 
March  19,  1862  ; was  transferred  to  the  fourth  army 
corps,  August,  1864;  was  promoted  brigadier-general 
by  brevet;  was  in  command  of  Western  Texas  in  1865, 
headquarters  at  San  Antonio;  was  appointed  consul  to 
Vienna  in  1866 ; was  promoted  consul-general  for 
Austria-Hungary,  1874;  resigned  in  1879;  was  member 
at  large  of  the  Illinois  Republican  State  central  com- 
mittee from  1882  to  1886;  was  commander  department 
of  Illinois,  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic,  in  1886;  and 
served  in  congress  as  a Republican,  from  1886  until 
his  death,  January  6,  1895. 

POTT,  Alfred,  B.D.,  born  at  Norwood,  England, 
September  30,  1822.  He  was  appointed  vicar  of 
Cuddesdon  in  1852 ; first  principal  of  the  Theological 
College  there  in  1853  ; rector  of  East  Hendred,  Berks, 
in  1858;  vicar  of  Abingdon  in  1868;  archdeacon  of 
Berkshire  in  1870  ; chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Oxford  in 
1873  ; vicar  of  Clifton  Hampden,  Oxfordshire,  in  1874  ; 
and  vicar  of  Sonning,  Berks,  in  1882.  Archdeacon 
Pott  is  the  author  of  Confirmation  Lectures  (1850); 
Village  Sermons  (1867) ; and  several  “ charges,”  ser- 
mons, and  tracts. 

POTTER,  Alonzo,  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop  of 
Pennsylvania,  was  born  in  La  Grange,  Dutchess  county, 
N.  Y.,  July  6,  1800,  and  died  in  San  Francisco,  Cal., 
July  4,  1865.  He  was  graduated  from  Union  College 
in  1818  with  the  highest  honors,  and  shortly  after  began 
his  theological  studies  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  S.  H. 
Turner.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one  he  became  a pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  and  philosophy  in  Union  College, 


P o T — P O U 


at  the  same  time  continuing  his  theological  studies.  He 
was  shortly  after  made  a deacon,  and  in  1824  was 
ordained  a priest  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church, 
and  immediately  entered  on  the  ministry  of  that  com- 
munion in  Boston.  In  1832  he  was  again  called  to  a 
professorship  in  Union  College.  In  1838  he  was  elected 
its  vice-president,  in  which  position  he  remained,  being 
practically  the  head  of  the  college,  till  his  election  to  the 
bishopric  in  1845.  His  chief  claim  to  fame  rests  on 
his  benevolence  and  efforts  in  behalf  of  the  negro  race 
in  America.  His  health  began,  in  1858,  to  fail  under 
the  pressure  of  his  heavy  duties,  and,  although  an  as- 
sistant was  appointed  to  assist  him,  the  aid  came  too 
late,  and  he  died  in  San  Francisco,  on  July  4,  1865. 

POTTER,  George,  born  at  Kenilworth,  England, 
in  1832;  was  apprenticed  to  a carpenter  and  joiner 
at  Coventry,  where  he  worked  several  years  after  he 
had  learned  his  trade.  In  1857  the  workmen  in  the 
building  trades  started  an  agitation  for  a reduction  in 
their  hours  of  labor,  and  Mr.  Potter  was  sent  as  a 
delegate  to  represent  the  carpenters  and  joiners,  when 
he  soon  attracted  attention  by  his  argumentative  and 
practical  speeches,  and  subsequently  he  was  elected 
secretary.  The  great  lock-out  in  the  building  trades  of 
August,  1859,  occurred,  and  he  was  called  from  his 
trade  to  conduct  the  movement  on  behalf  of  the  work- 
men. After  this  Mr.  Potter  established  the  Beehive , 
an  organ  of  labor  on  behalf  of  working-men.  The 
paper  afterward  changed  its  name  to  the  Industrial 
Review.  Mr.  Potter  took  active  part  in  all  the  social 
and  political  movements  of  the  English  working  classes 
for  more  than  thirty  years.  In  1873  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  London  School  Board,  and  was  reelected 
in  1876.  At  the  general  elections  of  1874  and  1886 
he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  representation 
of  Peterborough.  He  was  the  author  of  articles  on  capital 
and  labor,  andtrades’  unions  and  cooperation,  and  of  a 
series  of  social  and  political  tracts  for  the  people,  which 
are  largely  circulated.  He  died  June  3,  1893. 

POTTER,  Henry  Codman,  D.D,,  LL.D.,  son  of 
the  late  bishop  of  Pennsylvania,  and  nephew  of  the 
bishop  of  New  York,  was  born  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y., 
May  25,  1835.  He  graduated  from  Union  College, 
Schenectady,  and  from  the  Theological  Seminary  of 
Alexandria,  Va.  (1857).  His  first  rectorship  was  in  a 
small  village  (Greensburg)  in  Pennsylvania,  from  which 
he  went  to  St.  John’s  church,  Troy,  N.  Y.,  and  after- 
ward to  Boston.  In  1868  he  became  rector  of  Grace 
church,  New  York,  where  he  remained  until  1883, 
when  he  was  consecrated  assistant  bishop  of  New  York. 
In  1887  the  death  of  his  uncle  left  him  the  sole  re- 
sponsibility of  the  episcopate,  which  he  has  since  filled. 
He  received  his  degrees  from  Union  and  Trinity  Col- 
leges. He  has  published  Sisterhoods  and  Deaconesses 
( 1872);  The  Gates  of  the  East  (1876);  and  Sermons  of  the 
City  ( 1 880),  besides  a number  of  sermons  and  discourses. 

POTTER,  Horatio,  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop 
of  New  York,  was  born  in  La  Grange,  N.  Y.,  Febru- 
ary 9,  1802,  and  died  in  New  York  city,  January  2, 
1887.  He  was  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1826, 
entered  the  ministry  as  deacon  in  1827,  and  was 
ordained  priest  in  1828.  In  the  last  year  he  became  a 
professor  in  Trinity  College,  retiring  in  1833  to  accept 
the  pastorate  of  St.  Peter’s  church,  Albany.  In  1854 
he  was  made  provisional  bishop  of  New  York,  and  in 
1861,  on  the  death  of  Bishop  Onderdonk,  he  became 
bishop  of  the  diocese.  In  1883  he  contracted  a case  of 
pneumonia,  from  which,  after  an  illness  of  three  years 
and  eight  months,  he  died.  When  he  took  charge  of 
his  diocese  matters  were  in  a state  of  the  greatest  dis- 
traction, but  the  bishop  soon  restored  order,  and  under 
his  administration  his  charge  became  one  of  the  most 


6745 

flourishing  in  the  country.  He  was  a man  of  unusual 
literary  attainments,  although  he  does  not  appear 
prominently  as  an  author. 

POTTER,  Joseph  Haydn,  soldier,  was  born  in 
New  Hampshire,  October  12,  1822.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  West  Point  in  1843.  For  the  next  two  years 
he  was  engaged  in  garrison  duty,  at  the  end  of  that 
time  serving  in  the  Mexican  war.  He  was  promoted 
to  first  lieutenant  in  1847,  and  became  a captain  in 
1856.  He  was  a member  of  the  Utah  expedition,  and 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war  was  stationed  in  Texas, 
where  he  was  captured,  but  was  exchanged  in  1862. 
He  became  colonel  of  the  12th  New  Hampshire  vol- 
unteers, and  took  part  in  the  campaigns  of  the  army  of 
the  Potomac,  being  promoted  major  in  the  regular 
army  in  1863.  He  was  wounded  and  captured  at 
Chancellors ville,  and  was  brevetted  colonel  for  gallantry 
in  the  last-named  engagement.  He  was  exchanged  in 
1863,  and,  after  serving  as  assistant  provost  marshal  of 
Ohio,  he  was  put  in  command  of  a brigade  of  the  army 
of  the  James,  18th  corps.  He  was  soon  after  trans- 
ferred to  the  24th,  and  remained  chief  of  staff  of  this 
corps  till  the  war  closed,  at  which  time  he  was  brevet 
brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army  and  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  was  promoted  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  1866,  and  in  1873  was  made  colonel.  He 
was  four  years  governor  of  the  Soldiers’  Home,  Wash- 
ington, after  which  time  he  was  made  a brigadier- 
general  in  the  regular  army,  and  was  put  in  command 
of  the  department  of  Missouri.  Pie  was  retired  in 
October,  1886,  and  died  December  I,  1892. 

POTTER,  Robert  B.,  soldier,  was  born  in  Sche- 
nectady, N.  Y.,  on  July  16,  1829,  and  died  in  Newport, 
R.  I.,  February  19,  1887.  He  studied  law,  and  on  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  gave  up  a successful  practice  to 
become  major  of  the  51st  New  York  regiment.  He 
took  part  in  most  of  the  engagements  of  the  army  oi 
the  Potomac,  and  in  1863  he  was  made  brigadier-gen- 
eral of  volunteers.  He  was  then  transferred  to  the 
Southwest  and  took  part  in  the  Vicksburg  and  Knox- 
ville campaigns.  In  September,  1865,  he  was  made 
major-general  of  volunteers,  and  assigned  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut  district  of 
the  department  of  the  East.  He  was  mustered  out  of 
service  in  1866,  and  for  three  years  was  receiver  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Great  Western  railroad.  After  he  had 
concluded  his  duties  in  this  position  he  spent  some 
time  in  England,  and  then  returned  to  Newport,  where 
he  died.  He  was  the  son  of  Bishop  Alonzo  Potter,  of 
Pennsylvania. 

POUYER-QUERTIER,  Augustin  Thomas,  a 
French  statesman,  was  born  September  3,  1820,  at 
Etoutteville-en-Caux  (Seine-Inferieure).  In  1854  he 
was  elected  maire  of  Fleury-sur-Andelle,  which  he  also 
represented  in  the  conseil  g£n£ral.  Subsequently  he 
became  a member  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  at 
Rouen;  administrator  of  the  Bank  of  France  (branch 
of  the  Seine-Inferieure) ; and  president  of  the  commit- 
tee formed  for  the  relief  of  the  workmen  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  cotton.  In  1857  and  1863  he  was 
elected  a deputy  in  the  Corps  L^gislatif  in  the  govern- 
ment interest  for  the  first  circonscription  for  the 
department  of  the  Seine-Inferieure.  After  the  fall  of 
the  empire  M.  Pouyer-Quertier  was  returned  to  the 
National  Assembly,  and  was  intrusted  by  M.  Thiers 
with  the  conduct  of  the  negotiations  with  Germany  re- 
specting the  Alsace-Lorraine  treaties,  which,  in  Octo- 
ber, 1871,  he  brought  to  a successful  issue.  He  was 
promoted  to  be  a grand  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor, 
October  20,  1871.  He  was  elected  a Senator  in  Jan- 
uary, 1876,  and  served  until  defeated  in  1891.  He  died 
April  2,  1891, 


P o W — P R A 


6746 

POWDERLY,  Terence  Vincent,  master  work- 
man of  t he  Knights  of  Labor,  was  born  at  Carbondale, 
Penn. , January  22,  1849,  and  educated  at  the  public 
schools.  When  seventeen  years  of  age  he  was  em- 
ployed in  the  machine  shops  of  the  Delaware  and  Hud- 
son Canal  Company,  and  in  1869  obtained  work  in  the 
shops  of  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  and  Western  road 
at  Scranton,  where,  in  1871,  he  became  a member  of 
the  Machinists’  and  Blacksmiths’  Union.  During  1874 
he  joined  Assembly  88,  Knights  of  Labor,  and  since 
that  date  has  been  active  in  promoting  objects  for  which 
the  organization  was  created.  He  was  elected  grand 
worthy  foreman  of  the  Knights  by  the  second  general 
assembly,  which  convened  at  St.  Louis  in  1879,  and  at 
the  convention  held  in  Chicago  during  September  of 
the  same  year  he  was  elected  grand  master  workman,  and 
was  repeatedly  reelected,  in  spite  of  the  opposition 
made  to  him,  until  1893,  when  he  was  defeated.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Labor  Advocate , a regu- 
lar contributor  to  the  Journal  of  United  Labor  and 
other  periodicals,  and  has  been  several  times  elected 
mayor  of  Scranton. 

POWELL,  John  Wesley,  geologist,  born  in  Mount 
Morris,  N.  J.,  March  24,  1834.  Powell  manifested  a 
preference  for  the  physical  sciences,  and  spent  much  of 
his  time  in  making  collections  of  geological  and  natural 
history  specimens.  In  his  researches  he  was  assisted 
by  the  Illinois  Natural  Plistory  Society,  which  elected 
him  its  secretary.  At  the  commencement  of  the  civil 
war  he  enlisted  as  a private  in  an  Illinois  regiment  and 
xose  to  be  lieutenant-colonel  of  artillery.  After  the  war 
he  was  professor  of  geology  and  curator  of  the  museum 
in  Illinois  Wesleyan  University,  and  held  a similar  post 
in  the  Illinois  Normal  University.  In  1868  he  organ- 
ized a party  for  the  exploration  of  the  grand  canon  of 
the  Colorado,  which  feat  they  successfully  completed  in 
about  three  months.  The  success  of  the  expedition  led 
the  general  government  to  sanction  the  establishment  of 
a topographical  and  geological  survey,  the  management 
of  which,  after  undergoing  many  modifications,  has 
assumed  its  present  form  under  the  title  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey.  Meantime  Major  Powell, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  had 
established  a Bureau  of  Ethnology,  of  which  he  remained 
the  chief  until  1881,  when,  on  the  resignation  of  Clar- 
ence King,  the  director  of  the  Geological  Survey,  I19 
was  made  chief  of  that  department,  a position  he  now 
holds.  He  has  received  honorary  degrees  from  various 
colleges  and  universities  both  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe,  and  is  a member  of  many  learned  societies. 
His  writings  are  numerous  and  are  regarded  as  standard 
and  exhaustive  on  the  subjects  whereof  they  treat. 

POWHATAN,  Indian  chief,  was  born  in  Virginia 
at  a point  nearly  opposite  Richmond  on  the  south  of 
the  James  river,  circa  1550,  and  died  in  that  State  in 
April,  1618.  He  was  at  the  time  of  the  settlement  of 
Jamestown  an  old  man  of  polygamous  connections,  with 
a family  of  thirty  children.  At  first  he  was  friendly 
with  the  whites,  but  through  the  actions  of  Captain 
Smith,  became  their  enemy.  His  attempt  to  destroy 
the  English  colonies,  however,  was  frustrated  by  the  in- 
formation conveyed  to  the  English  by  his  daughter, 
Pocahontas,  {q.v.)  The  traditional  grave  of  the 
chief  is  located  near  Richmond,  Va.,  at  a point  on  an 
eminence  just  above  the  Rocketts  Flats,  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  James  river,  the  site  being  on  the  planta- 
tion formerly  owned  by  the  Mayo  family. 

POWNALL,  Thomas,  English  statesman,  was  born 
m Lincoln,  England,  in  1720,  and  died  in  Bath,  Eng- 
land, in  1805.  His  introduction  to  American  affairs 
took  place  in  1753,  when  he  came  to  this  country  as 
private  secretary  to  Sir  Danvers  Osborne,  governor  of 


New  York.  His  first  recorded  appearance  in  a delib- 
erative body  was  in  1754  at  the  Albany  Congress. 
While  here  he  seemed  to  comprehend  the  necessities  of 
the  American  political  situation,  and  advocated  the  de- 
limitation of  the  French  and  British  possessions  in 
Ameidca  with  a neutral  Indian  strip  between  them.  He 
acted  as  agent  for  the  colonies  in  London  about  thij 
time,  and  in  1755  he  helped  conduct  negotiations  be- 
tween Massachusetts  and  New  York  relative  to  prose- 
cuting the  war  against  the  French.  In  the  same  year 
he  was  made  lieutenant-governor  of  New  Jersey,  and  in 
the  next  year  he  became  governor  of  Massachusetts. 
In  1760  he  became  governor  of  South  Carolina,  but 
never  served,  returning  almost  immediately  to  England, 
where  he  was  elected  to  parliament.  He  served  with 
the  English  forces  in  Germany,  and  after  the  peace  of 
Paris  he  again  sat  in  parliament.  He  was  always  the  firm 
friend  of  the  colonies,  and  opposed  all  measures  of  op- 
pression, direct  and  indirect.  He  seemed  to  understand 
more  clearly  than  his  contemporaries  the  inevitable  re- 
sult of  the  Revolutionary  war,  for  six  years  before  its 
end  he  declared  English  sovereignty  over  the  American 
colonies  gone  forever,  and  advocated  measures  of  con- 
ciliation in  the  hope  of  forestalling  French  influence. 
When  the  independence  of  the  United  States  was  ac- 
knowledged he  declared  that  the  supremacy  of  England 
in  the  future  was  a matter  of  doubt,  as  the  new  nation 
was  a formidable  rival.  It  was  not  only  as  a statesman 
that  Pownall  was  conspicuous.  He  was  also  a scientist 
and  a man  of  extensive  learning.  His  literary  produc- 
tions are  numerous,  the  principal  and  best  one,  perhaps, 
being  a paper  on  the  Colonial  Constitutions.  He  was 
a member  of  many  learned  societies,  and  by  some  was 
thought  to  have  been  the  author  of  the  Junius  Letters. 
His  whole  career  entitles  him  to  be  be  considered  rather 
an  American  than  an  English  statesman,  as  he  devoted 
his  entire  life  to  the  amelioration  of  American  political 
conditions. 

POYNTER,  Edward  John,  R.A.,  English  artist, 
born  at  Paris,  March  20,  1836,  studied  art  both  in 
England  and  on  the  Continent.  He  became  principal 
of  the  National  Art  Training  School  at  South  Kensing- 
ton. Among  his  well  known  paintings  are  Lsrael  in 
Egypt*  Rhodope , The  Festival , Atalanta’s  Race,  The 
Fortune  Teller , and  Zenobia , and  the  following,  which 
were  shown  at  the  World’s  Fair  in  Chicago  in  1893 : 
JLiadumene , Under  the  Sea  Wall,  On  the  Terrace  and 
> White  Roses.  He  published,  in  1879,  Ten  Lectures  on  A rt. 

PRADO,  Mariano  Ignacio,  born  at  Huanuco, 
Peru,  1826,  declared  himself  supreme  chief  of  Peru  in 
1856,  united  with  Chili  in  declaring  war  on  Spain,  and 
repelled  the  Spanish  attack  in  Callao,  but  was  exiled 
in  1868.  Returning  afterwards  he  was  regularly  elected 
president  in  1876  and  served  until  1879,  when,  after 
repeated  defeats  in  the  war  with  Chili,  he  went  to 
Europe  to  buy  iron  clads,  and  the  government  was 
seized  by  General  Pierola. 

PRATT,  Calvin  E.,  soldier  and  jurist,  was  born  in 
Massachusetts,  January  23,  1828,  He  studied  law,  be- 
ginning to  practice  in  1852,  engaging  desultorily  in  pol- 
itics. In  1856  he  was  a member  of  the  Democratic 
convention  that  nominated  Buchanan  for  the  presidency. 
In  1861,  in  New  York  city,  in  which  place  he  then  re- 
sided, he  raised  a regiment  and  commanded  it  at  the 
first  battle  of  Bull  Run,  afterward  participating  in  the 
campaigns  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac.  In  1862  he 
was  made  brigadier- general  of  volunteers,  which  posi- 
tion he  resigned  in  1863.  After  the  war  he  was  collector 
of  the  port  of  Brooklyn;  and  in  1869  he  was  chosen 
a judge  of  the  State  Supreme  Court,  and  reelected  for  a 
term  of  fourteen  years  in  1877. 

PRATT,  Enoch,  philanthropist,  was  born  in  North 


PR A—PRE 


Middleborough,  Mass.,  on  September  io,  1808.  He 
commenced  life  in  a subordinate  capacity  in  a mercantile 
house  in  Boston,  and  in  1831  he  removed  to  Baltimore, 
engaging  in  business  as  a commission  merchant,  found- 
ing two  large  wholesale  iron  firms.  He  early  interested 
himself  in  works  of  public  charity,  founded  the  House 
for  Reformation  and  Instruction  of  Colored  Children  at 
Cheltenham,  and  the  Maryland  School  for  the  Deaf  and 
Dumb.  He  also  endowed  an  academy  in  his  native 
town  with  $30,000.  But  the  crowning  work  of  his 
public  philanthropy  is  the  “ Enoch  Pratt  Free  Library,” 
which  he  established  in  connection  with  the  city  govern- 
ment of  Baltimore,  at  a cost  of  $1,150,000,  besides  the 
amount  expended  by  the  city.  The  library  was  form- 
ally opened  January  4,  1886.  Died  Sept*  1896. 

PRATT,  Orson,  Mormon  apostle,  was  born  in 
Hartford,  N.  Y.,  September  19,  1811,  and  died  in  Salt 
Lake  City,  October  3,  1881.  He  was  well  educated, 
being  a profound  mathematician  and  Hebrew  scholar. 
In  September,  1830,  he  joined  the  Mormon  Church, 
passing  through  successive  offices  of  elder  and  high 
priest,  and  becoming  one  of  the  apostles  in  1835.  His 
abilities  made  him  a great  power  in  the  church,  and  he 
was  especially  useful  in  proselyting,  being  repeatedly 
sent  on  missionary  tours  to  different  sections.  He  and 
Erastus  Snow  were  the  first  Mormons  to  enter  Salt  Lake 
Valley.  For  some  time  he  held  the  professorship  of 
mathematics  in  the  Deseret  University,  and  for  eighteen 
months  edited  The  Seer,  a Mormon  paper,  published  in 
Washington,  D.  C.  He  was  a member  of  the  legis- 
lative assembly  of  the  Territory  of  Utah  at  its  first  ses- 
sion, and  subsequently,  whenever  he  was  within  the 
limits  of  the  territory;  and  was  seven  times  its  speaker. 
His  theological  discussions  and  polemical  writings  gave 
him  a wide  reputation,  and  his  mathematical  treatises 
are  of  no  mean  order  of  merit.  He  is  the  author  of 
the  Law  of  Planetary  Rotation,”  in  which  he  claims 
to  show  that  the  cube-roots  of  the  densities  of  the 
planets  are  as  the  square-roots  of  the  periods  of  their 
rotation.  His  writings  comprise  a long  list,  and  deal 
with  a great  variety  of  subjects,  metaphysical  and 
physical. 

PREBLE,  Edward,  American  naval  officer,  was 
born  in  Portland,  Maine,  August  15,  1761,  and  died 
there  on  August  25,  1807.  He  began  his  seafaring  career 
in  1778  in  his  seventeenth  year,  by  running  away  and 
shipping  in  a privateer.  He  next  entered  the  service  of 
Massachusetts  in  the  State  navy,  shipping  on  board  the 
Protector , with  which  vessel  he  was  captured  afterward, 
and  confined  to  the  British  prison  ship  at  New  York. 
On  his  release  he  again  entered  the  State  navy,  and 
after  the  war  cruised  around  the  world ‘in  the  merchant 
service.  Upon  the  organization  of  the  national  navy 
he  was  one  of  the  original  five  lieutenants  commis- 
sioned, and  took  command  of  the  brig  Pickering. 
He  was  made  captain  in  1799,  and  was  sent  to  China  in 
the  Essex  to  convoy  a merchant  fleet  from  that  country. 
In  1803  he  sailed  in  the  Constitution  at  the  head  of  the 
expedition  against  the  Barbary  states,  and  by  his  skill 
and  courage  forced  the  Sultan  to  renew  the  treaty  of 
1786.  During  the  blockade  of  Tripoli  the  Phila- 
delphia, one  of  his  fleet,  ran  aground  and  was  captured, 
and  Preble  perfected  plans  for  her  recapture  and  destruc- 
tion, which  were  executed  by  Stephen  Decatur.  Preble 
then  blockaded  the  coast  and  made  an  attack  on  Tripoli, 
which  compelled  the  Tripolitans  to  sue  for  peace  and 
waive  all  claim  for  future  tribute,  offering  at  the  same 
time  to  reduce  the  ransom  of  American  prisoners  one- 
half.  He  was  relieved  in  1804  and  sailed  for  home. 
So  thorough  was  the  work  he  had  done,  that  no  fight- 
ing was  necessary  after  he  left.  He  arrived  in  the 
United  States  in  1805,  and  was  the  recipient  of  a vote 


6747 

of  thanks  and  a medal  from  congress.  President  Jef- 
ferson offered  him  a seat  in  his  cabinet  as  secretary  of 
the  navy,  but  ill  health  compelled  him  to  decline.  He 
then  retired  to  Portland,  where  he  died  two  years  later. 

PREBLE,  George  EIenry,  nephew  of  Edward 
Preble,  was  born  at  Portland,  Me.,  February  25,  1816, 
died  at  Boston,  Mass.,  March  1,  1885.  He  entered 
the  navy  as  midshipman,  in  1835,  was  commander  of 
the  St.  Louis  and  the  Katahdin  in  the  Civil  war  and 
rose  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  two  years  before  he 
retired  in  1876.  He  wrote  a Preble  family  history  and 
History  of  the  Flag  of  the  United  States  of  America , 
Naval  and  Yacht  Club  Signals,  etc. ' 

PRENDERGAST,  Lieut. -General  Sir  Harry, 
K.C.B.,  English  soldier,  born  October  15,  1834,  won 
the  Victoria  cross  for  conspicuous  bravery  at  Mundis- 
sore,  in  the  Abyssinian  war  commanded  a detachment  of 
three  companies  of  Madras  sappers  and  miners,  during 
Lord  Ripon’s  viceroyalty  was  appointed  an  honorary 
aide-de-camp,  and  has  since  held  a command  in  Madras. 
He  marched  against  King  Theebaw  of  Upper  Burmah, 
in  1885,  reached  Mandalay  on  November  28,  and  sur- 
rounded the  city  and  palace,  the  king  surrendering  on 
the  next  day.  Pie  was  afterward  commander  of  all 
the  forces  in  Burmah  and  served  as  Governor-Gener- 
al’s Agent  in  Beloochistan  and  at  Baroda. 

PRENTICE,  George  D.,  American  journalist,  was 
born  in  Preston,  Conn.,  December  18,  1802,  and  died 
in  Louisville,  Ky.,  January  20,  1870.  He  was  a 
remarkable  example  of  precocity,  having,  it  is  said, 
taught  school  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  He  was  a graduate 
of  Brown  University,  and  had  studied  law,  but  never 
practiced,  his  entire  bent  seemingtobe  toward  journal- 
ism. His  first  editorial  venture  was  in  connection  with 
the  Connecticut  Mirror , his  next  charge  being  the  New 
England  Weekly  Review.  He  removed  to  Kentucky, 
and  in  1831  became  the  editor  of  the  Louisville 
Journal , a whig  daily.  Under  his  conduct  in  i860 
this  paper  was  intensely  loyal  to  the  Union,  but  not  a 
supporter  of  Lincoln’s  administration.  It  made  a 
wide  reputation  for  ability,  and  its  editor  was  regarded 
as  a writer  in  whom  were  combined  wit,  humor,  satire, 
and  incisiveness.  Prentice  resigned  the  editorship 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  but  continued  to  con- 
tribute to  the  paper  till  its  consolidation  into  the 
present  Courier- Journal.  He  wrote  several  poems, 
and  was  a contributor  to  the  wit  column  of  the  New 
York  Ledger.  His  other  writings  are  numerous  and 
cover  a wide  range  of  subjects. 

PRENTISS,  Benjamin  Mayberry,  American  sol- 
dier, was  born  in  Wood  county,  Va.  (now  West  Vir- 
ginia), November  23,  1819.  He  emigrated,  with  his 
parents,  to  Missouri  in  1835,  and  then  to  Illinois,  in 
1841.  He  was  sent  in  1845  with  the  militia,  of  which 
he  was  lieutenant,  to  expel  the  Mormons  from  Illinois, 
and  the  next  year  entered  the  Mexican  war  as  captain 
of  volunteers.  At  the  commencement  of  the  Civil  war 
he  reorganized  his  old  company,  was  appointed  colonel 
of  the  7th  Illinois  regiment,  and  was  promoted  briga- 
dier general  in  May,  1861.  He  was  placed  in  command 
of  Cairo,  111.,  and  thence  was  transferred  to  Missouri, 
where  he  fought  the  battle  of  Mt.  Zion,  gaining  a vic« 
tory  over  a large  body  of  Confederates.  He  partici- 
pated in  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  on  the  first  day  of  which 
he,  with  most  of  his  command,  was  captured.  He  was 
exchanged  in  1862,  and  promoted  major-general  of  vol- 
unteers in  November  of  that  year.  He  fought  Holmes 
and  Price  at  Helena,  Ark.,  defeating  them  on  July 
3,  1863.  He  resigned  his  commission  and  retired  to 
private  life  in  October  of  the  same  year.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  court-martial  that  tried  and  convicted 
Gen.  Fitz-John  Porter,  (g.v.)  Died  Feb.  8,  1901.. 


P R E 


6748 

PRENTISS,  Seargeant  Smith,  orator,  was  born 
in  Portland,  Me.,  September  30,  1808,  and  died  at 
Longwood,  Miss.,  July  1,  1850.  His  was  a most  brill- 
iant mind  in  a weakly  body,  he  being  a cripple  all  his 
life.  He  was  educated  at  Bowdoin  College,  where  he 
graduated  in  1826.  The  next  year  he  emigrated  to 
Mississippi,  and  at  once  became  the  idol  of  the  people 
of  that  State.  He  was  sent  repeatedly  to  the  State 
legislature,  and  in  1837  he  was  elected  to  congress,  but 
the  seat  was  contested  by  Colonel  Claiborne;  which 
gave  rise  to  the  celebrated  investigation,  in  which  Pren- 
tiss defended  his  claims  in  a speech  before  the  House  of 
three  days’  duration,  the  effect  of  which  was  to  materi- 
ally enhance  his  reputation  and  give  him  more  than  a 
local  fame.  His  claim  was  rejected  by  the  casting  vote 
of  the  speaker,  and  on  his  return  to  his  constituency  he 
was  reelected  by  an  overwhelming  majority.  His  law 
practice  was  immense,  and  his  powers  as  a pleader 
wonderful;  in  fact.,  it  was  said  to  be  tantamount  to  a 
verdict  in  his  favor  to  allow  him  to  address  the  jury  last. 
He  was  the  beau  ideal  of  Southern  chivalry,  and  his 
social  qualifications  made  him  the  object  of  the  affections 
of  all  with  whom  he  came  in  contact.  He  remained  in 
Mississippi  until  the  repudiation  of  the  public  debt  by 
that  State,  in  1845,  when,  considering  the  common- 
wealth disgraced,  he  removed  to  New  Orleans,  where 
he  was  compelled,  by  ill-health,  to  retire  from  public 
life,  and  in  1850  to  return  to  Longwood,  near  Natchez, 
Miss.,  where  he  died.  Two  of  his  most  noted  orations 
were  one  delivered  in  Boston,  in  Fanueil  Hall,  on  the 
occasion  of  a dinner  given  in  honor  of  Daniel  Webster, 
and  another  made  before  a Kentucky  court  in  a success- 
ful defense  of  Judge  Clarke,  his  friend,  who  was  charged 
with  murder. 

PRESCOTT,  Albert  B.,  American  chemist,  was 
born  in  Hastings,  N.  Y.,  December  12,  1832.  He 
studied  medicine  in  the  University  of  Michigan,  and  on 
his  graduation  in  1864  at  once  entered  the  army  as  sur- 
geon. At  the  close  of  the  war  he  became  assistant 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Ann  Arbor,  and  in  1870 
was  made  professor  of  chemistry  and  pharmacy.  Since 
1876  he  has  been  dean  of  the  school  of  pharmacy  and 
since  1884  a director  of  the  chemical  laboratory  of  the 
university.  He  was  a member  of  the  committee  for 
the  revision  of  the  United  States  Dispensatory  in  1880. 
He  is  a member  of  many  scientific  societies,  both  at 
home  and  abroad,  and  has  been  president  of  the  Ameri- 
can Chemical  Society,  and,  in  1891,  president  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science. 
He  has  written  much  and  well  on  the  subject  of  chem- 
istry and  kindred  subjects,  his  publications  all  being 
considered  standard  in  their  class. 

PRESCOTT,  William,  soldier,  was  born  in  Greton, 
Mass.,  February  20, 1726,  and  died  in  Pepperell,  Mass., 
October  13,  1795.  He  served  in  the  French  and  Indian 
war,  and  his  conduct  was  such  as  to  cause  the  tender  of 
a commission  in  the  regular  British  army,  which  he  de- 
clined. In  1774,  on  the  commencement  of  hostilities 
between  the  colonists  and  the  English,  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  a regiment  of  minute  men,  and  in  1775  he 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Lexington.  He  then  con- 
ducted his  men  to  Cambridge,  where  his  command  was 
incorporated  into  the  continental  army.  In  June,  1775, 
he  went  to  Charlestown  and  fortified  Bunker  Hill,  but 
afterward  changed  his  position  to  Breed’s  Hill,  which 
he  took  possession  of  and  fortified  during  the  night. 
On  the  1 7th  General  Gage  attacked  this  position  and 
Prescott  fought  the  battle,  erroneously  called  the  battle 
of  Bunker  Hill.  Although  the  colonial  forces  were 
forced  to  retreat,  it  proved  one  thing — that  the  colonial 
troops  could  cope  with  British  regulars — and  greatly 
encouraged  the  Americans  in  their  struggle,  Prescott 


was  among  the  last  to  retreat,  and  offered  to  return  and 
retake  the  position  if  he  were  reenforced.  He  remained 
with  the  army  for  about  two  years,  when  he  resigned, 
but  in  a few  months  (October,  1777)  he  joined  the 
northern  army  under  General  Gates  and  participated  in 
the  battle  of  Saratoga.  After  the  battle  he  retired  to 
his  home,  and  for  many  years  sat  in  the  Massachusetts 
legislature  and  aided  the  cause  of  the  Revolution,  both 
by  counsel  and  also  by  more  material  aid. 

PRESSENSfi,  Edmond  de,  D.D.,  a Protestant 
minister,  born  at  Paris,  January  27,  1824;  pursued  his 
studies  in  that  city,  at  Lausanne,  under  Professor  Vinet, 
and  at  the  Universities  of  Halle  and  Berlin.  On  hi, 
return  to  Paris  he  was  appointed  pastor  of  theTaitbout 
chapel,  where  he  soon  gained  a high  reputation  as  a 
preacher.  He  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  the 
University  of  Breslau  in  1863.  He  satin  the  nation’ 
assembly  as  a deputy  for  the  department  of  the  Seine 
from  July,  1871,  till  the  close  of  the  year  1875,  anc^  he 
was  elected  a life  senator,  November  17,  1883.  Of  hit 
numerous  works  many  have  been  translated  into  English, 
and  have  an  extensive  circulation  both  in  England  and 
America.  He  died  April  8,  1891. 

PRESTON,  William  Ballard,  American  states 
man,  was  born  in  Smithfield,  Montgomery  county,  Va. , 
November  25,  1805,  and  died  there  November  16,  1862. 

He  studied  law,  and  early  entered  politics,  it  being  said 
of  him  that  throughout  his  career  he  was  never  defeated 
in  any  popular  election.  He  was  elected  to  congress  in 
1846,  and  held  the  secretaryship  of  the  navy  under 
President  Taylor,  retiring  on  the  death  of  that  gentle- 
man. He  was  sent  by  the  government  as  commissioner 
to  France  to  negotiate  a commercial  compact  between  the 
two  countries,  but  the  Civil  war  prevented  the  consum- 
mation of  the  scheme.  He  was  several  times  a presiden- 
tial elector  prior  to  the  war.  He  was  an  anti-secession 
member  of  the  secession  convention,  and  only  went  with 
his  State  when  war  was  inevitable.  He  then  became  a 
member  of  the  Confederate  Senate,  in  which  he  served 
till  his  death. 

PRESTON,  William  Campbell,  statesman,  was 
born  of  Virginian  parents  at  Philadelphia,  December  27, 
1794;  and  died  at  Columbia,  S.  C.,  May  22,  i860.  He 
began  his  education  at  Washington  College,  Va.,  but  on 
account  of  his  health  was  sent  south  and  was  graduated  at 
the  College  of  South  Carolina.  He  made  his  perma- 
nent residence  in  South  Carolina  in  1822,  and  at  once 
began  a public  career  which  ended  only  wfith  his  death. 

He  was  elected  a member  of  the  legislature  in  1832,  and 
in  1836  was  sent  to  the  United  States  Senate,  where  he 
was  aligned  with  the  Calhoun  Democrats — a states  rights 
and  free  trade  advocate.  A difference  between  him  and 
his  colleague,  Calhoun,  led  to  his  resignation  in  1842. 

He  was  president  of  the  College  of  South  Carolina  from 
1845  to  185 1 , and  did  much  to  resuscitate  that  institu- 
tion. He  was  the  founder  of  the  Columbia  Lyceum, 
donating  a large  and  valuable  library.  He  received  the 
degree  of  LL.D.  from  Harvard  in  1846.  He  was  a man 
of  profound  learning  and  was  admittedly  the  most 
finished  orator  the  South  ever  produced.  His  death,  it  is 
said,  was  hastened  by  his  grief  at  the  attitude  of  South 
Carolina  in  regard  to  secession,  notwithstanding  the  * 
fact  that  he  was  in  his  earlier  years  an  advocate  of  the 
doctrine  of  nullification.  He  received  the  congratula- 
tions of  a friend  on  his  departure  before  the  commence- 
ment of  the  strife  and  acquiesced  in  the  sentiment  that 
it  was  best  to  be  gone. 

PRESTWICH,  Sir  Joseph,  F.R.S.,  was  born  at 
Pensbury,  Clapham,  near  London,  March  12,  1812. 

He  was  educated  at  various  preparatory  schools,  and 
in  Paris,  and  finally  at  University  College,  London. 
Mr.  Prestwich’s  first  works  were  paper*  on  theG&mrie 


PRI-PRO 


iclilhyolites,  and  shells  in  the  Till  of  Banffshire,  and  on 
the  geology  of  Coalbrook  Dale,  which  were  followed  by 
a series  of  papers  on  tertiary  geology,  and  by  two  papers 
on  the  quaternary  beds  of  the  valley  of  the  Somme.  He 
is  also  the  author  of  a little  work  on  the  geology  of  the 
neighborhood  of  London,  and  of  a more  elaborate  work, 
The  Water-bearing  Strata  of  the  Country  around  Lon- 
don. In  1849  the  Geological  Society  awarded  him  the 
Wollaston  medal  for  his  researches.  In  1865  the  Royal 
Society  awarded  him  a royal  medal  for  his  contribu- 
tions to  geological  science.  He  served  on  the  royal 
coal  commission  of  1866,  and  on  the  royal  commission 
on  water  supply  of  1867.  He  was  president  of  the 
Geological  Society,  1870-72;  vice  president  of  the  Royal 
Society,  1870-71.  In  1874  the  institution  of  civil  engi- 
neers awarded  him  a Telford  medal  and  premium.  He 
became  professor  of  geology  at  Oxford,  June  29,  1874, 
in  succession  to  the  late  Professor  Phillips.  In  1885  he 
was  elected  by  the  Institute  of  France  a corresponding 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Died  June,  1896. 

PRICE,  The  Rev.  Bartholomew,  M.A.,  F.R.S., 
was  born  in  Gloucestershire,  England,  in  1818,  was  edu- 
cated at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  and  was  graduated 
B.  A.  in  1840.  He  was  appointed  Sedleian  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  at  Oxford  in  1853,  and  is  a member 
of  the  Hebdomadal  Council,  a delegate  of  the  Claren- 
don Press,  a curator  of  the  Bodleian  Library,  an  hon- 
orary fellow  of  Queen’s  College,  Oxford,  a member  of 
the  governing  body  of  Winchester  College,  and  a vis- 
itor of  Greenwich  Observatory.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
work  on  the  infinitesimal  calculus.  Professor  Price 
died  December  29,  1898. 

PRICE,  Bo'namy,  M.  A.,  was  born  in  Guernsey, 
England,  May  22,  1807,  and  was  graduated  at  Oxford. 
He  was  appointed  assistant  master  in  Rugby  School  in 
February,  1830,  and  professor  of  political  economy  in 
the  University  of  Oxford  in  February,  1868.  Professor 
Price  was  the  author  of  many  articles  in  reviews  and 
magazines,  besides  several  more  pretentious  works. 
Although  Professor  Price’s  views  on  economical  mat- 
ters were  not  generally  accepted,  his  great  abilities 
were  universally  recognized,  and  he  was  regarded  an 
authority  on  agricultural  subjects.  He  was  a member 
of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Agricultural  Depression. 
He  died  January  8,  1888. 

PRICE,  Sterling,  American  soldier,  was  born  in 
Prince  Edward  county,  Va.,  September  11,  1809,  and 
died  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  September  29,  1867.  He  was 
educated  at  Hampden-Sidney  College,  and  after  a law 
course  removed  to  Chariton  county,  Mo.,  entering  ac- 
tively into  politics  and  public  affairs.  He  was  sent  both 
to  congress  and  the  State  legislature, and  when  the  Mex- 
ican war  broke  out  he  resigned  his  seat  in  the  former 
body  to  serve  as  colonel  of  a cavalry  regiment.  He 
made  the  trip  with  his  command  overland  from  Leaven- 
worth to  Santa  Fe,  and  upon  his  arrival  at  the  latter 
point  was  placed  in  command  of  the  territory  comprised 
in  New  Mexico,  of  which  he  completed  the  conquest  in 
a short  time.  He  invaded  old  Mexico,  and  gained  sev- 
eral brilliant  victories  and  was  made  military  governor 
of  Chihuahua.  He  was  governor  of  Missouri  for  four 
years,  and  served  in  various  other  offices  within  the 
State.  He  was  president  of  the  State  convention  of 
1861,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war  he  became 
major-general  of  the  Missouri  State  forces  (Confeder- 
ate), and  fought  and  defeated  General  Lyon  at  Wilson’s 
creek.  Soon  after  he  captured  Lexington,  taking 
3,500  prisoners,  but  was  forced  to  retreat  by  General 
Fremont.  He  then  was  superseded  by  Van  Dorn.  Price 
participated  in  the  campaigns  of  that  general  till  the  lat- 
ter was  ordered  to  Tennessee;  he  also  took  part  in  the 
Mississippi  campaign  under  Beauregard  and  Pemberton, 
53-J 


6749 

being  next  transferred  to  the  command  of  the  army  of 
the  West.  He  saw  service  in  Tennessee  and  was  again 
placed  under  the  command  of  Van  Dorn.  He  was 
then  transferred  to  the  trans-Mississippi  department 
and  was  assigned  the  command  of  Arkansas,  whence 
he  was  driven  by  General  Steele.  From  this  time  he 
was  engaged  in  guerilla  warfare  in  Missouri.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  he  went  to  Mexico,  but  returned  in 
1866,  dying  the  next  year. 

PRIESTLEY,  Sir  William  Overend,  a cele- 
brated English  physician,  born  near  Leeds,  Yorkshire, 
June  24,  1829,  and  educated  at  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, settled  in  London  in  1856,  and  became  suc- 
cessively lecturer  at  the  Grosvenor  Place  School  of 
Medicine,  professor  of  obstetric  medicine  in  King’s 
College,  London,  and  consulting  physician  to  King’s 
College  Hospital.  He  is  a member  of  various  learned 
societies  and  has  written  many  works  on  natural  his- 
tory and  medicine. 

PRIME,  Samuel  lREN^EUS,born  at  Ballston,  N.  Y., 
November  4,  1812,  became  a Presbyterian  clergyman, 
writer,  and  editor,  taking  charge  of  the  New  York  Ob- 
server in  1840,  contributing  widely  popular  letters  under 
the  name  of  “ Irenseus  ” and  publishing  The  Power  of 
Prayer  { 1859);  The  Alhambra  and  the  Kremlin  (1873), 
and  other  books  of  travels.  He  died  July  18,  1885. 

PRIME,  William  Cowper,  brother  of  the  above, 
born  at  Cambridge,  N.  Y.,  October  31,  1825,  edited 
the  New  York  Journal  of  Commerce  and  wrote  Tent 
Life  in  the  Holy  Land  (1859) ; Pottery  and  Porcelain 
(1877),  and  other  works. 

PRINTZ,  Johan,  colonial  governor,  was  born  in 
Bottneryd,  Sweden,  circa  1600,  and  died  in  1663.  He 
was  the  third  governor  of  the  Swedish  colony  in  New 
Jersey,  and  for  an  account  of  his  administration  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  article  on  the  United  States. 

PRITCHARD,  The  Rev.  Charles,  D.D.,  F.R.S., 
F.G.S.,  was  born  about  1808,  and  was  graduated  B.A. 
in  1830  as  fourth  wrangler  at  St.  John’s  College,  Cam- 
bridge, of  which  society  he  was  elected  a fellow.  He 
was  well  known  in  the  scientific  world,  and  wrote 
various  treatises,  many  of  which  are  published  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society.  He 
was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society 
in  January,  1866;  Hulsean  lecturer  at  Cambridge  in 
February,  1867;  and  Savilian  professor  of  astronomy 
at  Oxford,  February  10,  1870.  In  1886  he  was  awarded 
the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  and 
was  elected  honorary  fellow  of  St.  John’s  College, 
Cambridge.  He  died  May  28,  1893. 

PROCTOR,  Henry  A.,  a British  soldier,  was  born 
in  Wales  in  1787,  and  died  in  Liverpool  in  1859.  He 
entered  the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  of  1812-15  was  sent  to  Canada  in  command 
of  a regiment.  He  compelled  Hull  to  retreat  from 
Amherstburg,  and  subsequently  gained  the  victory  of 
Brownston,  leading  to  the  fall  of  Detroit  and  the  sur- 
render of  Hull.  He  defeated  Winchester  near  French- 
town,  for  which  he  was  madeabrigadier,  but  was  in  turn 
defeated  by  General  W.  H.  Harrison  at  Lower  San- 
dusky, again  by  Major  Groghan  on  August  2,  1813, 
and  totally  defeated  by  Harrison  at  the  battle  of  the 
Thames  in  October,  1813 ; for  which  latter  defeat  he  was 
court-martialed  and  suspended.  He  was  reinstated, 
however,  and  afterwards  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant' 
general. 

PROCTOR,  Richard  Anthony,  B.A.,  was  born 
at  Chelsea,  March  23,  1837.  He  graduated  as  twenty- 
third  wrangler  from  St.  John’s,  Cambridge,  in  i860. 
He  was  appointedan  honorary  fellow  of  King’s  College, 
London,  in  1873,  and  fellow  of  the  Royal  Astronomical 
Society  in  1866.  He  was  appointed  honorary  secretary 


PRO— PUL 


6750 

of  that  society,  and  editor  of  its  proceedings,  in 
February,  1872,  but  resigned  these  offices  in  November, 
1873.  Having  analyzed  results  collected  by  the 
Herschels,  Struve,  and  others,  and  carried  out  a series 
of  original  researches,  including  the  construction  of  a 
chart  of  324,000  stars,  Mr.  Proctor  was  led  to  a new 
theory  of  the  structure  of  the  stellar  universe;  investi- 
gated the  conditions  of  the  transits  of  Venus  in  1874 
and  1882,  and  published  many  illustrative  charts.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  popular  astronomical  writers,  and 
his  productions  are  numerous,  covering  other  than 
professional  topics  in  some  instances.  In  1879  Mr. 
Proctor  left  England  for  America  and  Australasia.  He 
lectured  in  all  the  principal  towns  of  Victoria,  New 
South  Wales,  South  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New 
Zealand.  He  started  Knowledge  as  a weekly  journal  in 
1881,  but  altered  it  to  the  monthly  form  in  1885,  He 
died  in  New  York  city  of  yellow  fever,  contracted  in 
Florida,  September  12,  1888. 

PROCTOR,  Thomas,  Revolutionary  soldier,  was 
born  in  Ireland  in  1739,  and  died  in  Philadelphia  in 
1806.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  he  raised  an 
artillery  company,  which  was  increased  to  a battalion, 
and  finally  to  a regiment.  He  did  good  service  in  the 
campaigns  under  Knox  and  Wayne,  and  participated  in 
the  horrors  of  Valley  Forge.  His  regiment  was  after- 
ward consolidated  with  the  Continental  army,  and  he 
was  commissioned  a colonel  of  artillery.  He  resigned 
his  commission  after  good  service,  and  became  a muni- 
cipal officer  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  a commissioner 
in  1791  to  treat  with  the  Miami  Indians,  and  two  years 
later  commanded  the  Pennsylvania  troops  in  the  Whisky 
war.  He  was  afterward  major-general  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania militia.  His  organization  of  artillery  exists  to- 
day in  the  2nd  regular  regiment  United  States  artillery, 
which  is  the  lineal  successor  of  Proctor’s  regiment. 

PROVANCHER,  Leon,  Canadian  author  and 
scientist,  was  born  in  the  Province  of  Quebec  in  1820. 
He  was  for  some  years  parish  priest  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  communion,  but  withdrew  from  the  pastorate 
on  account  of  ill  health,  and  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of 
natural  history  and  general  literature.  His  contribu- 
tions to  the  natural  history  of  Canada  have  been  nu- 
merous and  valuable,  and  he  was  made  D.S.C.  in  1880. 
He  is  the  founder  of  Le  Naturalisle  Canadien.  His 
writings,  which  are  of  a high  order  of  merit,  are  in  the 
French  language,  and  are  directed  chiefly  to  the  de- 
scription of  specimens  of  insect  and  floral  life  of  his 
native  land.  He  is  said  to  have  described  at  least  200 
new  species  of  Hymenoptera. 

PROVOOST,  Samuel,  the  first  Protestant  Episcopal 
bishop  of  New  York,  was  born  in  New  York  city  in 
February,  1742,  and  died  there  September  6,  1815.  He 
was  the  foremost  of  the  first  seven  graduates  of  Columbia 
College,  and  finished  his  education  at  Cambridge,  Eng- 
land. He  was  ordained  priest  in  1766,  and,  having 
married,  returned  to  New  York,  and  became  assistant 
rector  of  Trinity  parish,  which  position  he  resigned  in 
1774  on  account  of  political  differences  with  his  parish- 
ioners. During  the  Revolutionary  war  he  was  engaged 
in  agricultural  and  literary  pursuits,  on  one  or  more 
occasions  serving  in  local  defense  against  the  British. 
He  was  offered  the  rectorship  of  several  churches  in 
other  parts  of  the  country  in  the  meantime,  but  declined 
them.  When  the  war  was  over  he  was  elected  rector  of 
Trinity  church.  He  was  made  a member  of  the  board 
of  regents  of  the  New  York  University,  and  in  1786  was 
elected  the  first  bishop  of  New  York.  Immediately 
thereupon  he  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania.  In  Novembei  he  sailed  for 
England,  where  he  was  consecrated  by  the  English 
hierarchs,  and  on  his  return  was  made  chaplain  of  the 


United  States  Senate.  On  the  inauguration  of  Wash 
ington  Bishop  Provoost  officiated  at  the  religious  service! 
incident  to  that  ceremony.  He  consecrated  the  first 
bishop  receiving  the  imposition  of  hands  in  America., 
the  subject  being  Bishop  Claggett  of  the  Maryland 
diocese.  Provoost  was  a man  of  great  learning,  but  one 
so  indifferent  to  literary  fame  that  he  left  nothing  in  a 
permanent  shape  for  future  readers.  He  died  of  a stroke 
of  apoplexy,  and  lies  buried  in  Trinity  church-yard. 

PRYOR,  Roger  A.,  American  lawyer,  was  born 
near  Petersburg,  Va.f  July  19,  1828.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Hampden-Sidney  College,  and  studied  law  at 
the  University  of  Virginia,  but  began  life  as  a journalist. 
He  was  attached  to  the  Washington  Union  first  and 
subsequently  became  the  editor  of  the  Richmond 
Enqtiirer,  the  great  political  guide  sheet  of  the  Southern 
ante-war  Democracy.  At  an  early  age  he  entered 
politics,  and  was  sent  on  a special  mission  to  Greece  by 
President  Pierce.  He  was  a Democrat  of  the  most 
extreme  states  rights  stamp,  and  his  utterances  were 
always  aggressive  and  offensive  in  regard  to  his  oppo- 
nents. His  course  involved  him  in  several  duels,  and 
one  of  his  speeches  in  Congress  (to  which  he  was  sent 
to  fill  a vacancy  in  1858-59)  led  to  the  imbroglio  with 
John  F.  Potter,  of  Wisconsin,  in  which  Pryor  refused 
to  fight  a duel  to  which  he  had  challenged  Potter,  on 
account  of  the  selection  of  bowie-knives  as  the  weapons. 
Pryor  was  an  ardent  advocate  of  secession  and  war, 
and  was  a member  of  the  provisional  congress  at  Rich- 
mond, being  afterward  a member  of  the  regular  Con- 
federate congress.  He  entered  the  Confederate  army 
in  1862  and  was  made  a brigadier-general  shortly  after- 
ward. He  resigned  in  1863,  and  was  captured  by  the 
Union  forces  in  1864,  and  spent  some  time  in  confine- 
ment in  Fort  Lafayette.  After  the  war  he  went  to 
New  York  and  engaged  successfully  in  the  practice  of 
law,  being  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  criminal  lawyers 
in  the  country.  Among  the  noted  cases  in  which  he  has 
recently  figured  were  the  Beecher-Tilton  suit,  the 
Guiteau  murder  trial,  and  the  trial  of  O’Donnell  for 
the  murder  of  James  Carey,  the  Irish  informer. 

PUGH,  James  Lawrence,  American  senator,  was 
born  in  Burke  county,  Ga. , December  12,  1820.  He 
studied  law,  and  commenced  its  practice  in  Eufaula, 
Ala.  He  began  his  political  career  as  a presidential 
elector  in  1848,  apd  again  in  1856.  He  was  elected  to 
the  House  of  Representatives  in  1859,  from  which  he 
retired  on  the  secession  of  his  State  in  1861.  He  served 
two  terms  in  the  Confederate  congress,  and  was  for  a 
time  a private  in  the  Confederate  army.  After  the  war 
he  resumed  his  law  practice,  and  again  took  an  active 
part  in  politics,  being  president  of  the  State  Democratic 
convention  in  1874,  and  a member  of  the  Constitutional 
convention  in  1875.  He  was  presidential  elector  in 
1876,  and  in  1885  was  elected  to  fill  a vacancy  in  the 
United  States  Senate  caused  by  the  death  of  Senator 
Houston;  on  the  expiration  of  his  first  term  he  was  re- 
elected, and  is  now  one  of  the  senators  from  Alabama, 
his  term  to  expire  in  1897. 

PULASKI,  Kazimierz  or  Casimir,  Polish  soldier, 
was  born  in  Podolia  in  1748,  and  was  killed  near  Savan- 
nah, Ga.,  October  H,  1799.  He  commenced  his  career 
as  a soldier  in  the  service  of  the  duke  of  Courland,  and 
in  176 7 was  engaged  in  the  partisan  warfare  consequent 
on  the  confederation  of  Barr.  He  was  active  in  the 
campaigns  against  the  Russians,  and  was  made  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Polish  forces,  but  was  defeated, 
and  the  political  intrigues  resultant  on  a plot  to  abduct 
the  Polish  king,  in  which  he  is  supposed  to  have  taken 
part,  culminated  in  the  partition  of  Poland,  and  Pulaski 
was  outlawed  and  forced  to  fly  the  country,  with  a price 
upo.”  Ve  bpad.  He  wandered  over  various  countries  of 


PUL— PUT 


Europe,  and  finally  at  Paris  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Benjamin  Franklin,  through  whose  influence  he  came 
to  America,  and  took  part  in  the  war  for  independence. 
He  entered  the  army  as  a staff  officer  under  Washing- 
ton, and  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Brandywine.  For 
services  rendered  here  he  was,  on  Washington’s  recom- 
mendation, made  a brigadier-general.  He  participated 
in  the  campaigns  of  Washington,  and  cooperated  with 
Wayne,  but  owing  to  the  jealousy  of  the  American 
officers  for  a foreigner,  who  could  scarcely  speak  Eng- 
lish, he  was  forced  to  return  to  the  immediate  command 
of  Washington,  with  whom  he  spent  the  spring  at 
Valley  Forge.  Shortly  after  he  raised  his  famous  legion, 
consisting  of  cavalry  and  infantry,  and  did  good  service 
in  the  northern  country.  He  became  dissatisfied  with 
his  petty  command,  and  intended  to  resign  and  return 
to  Europe,  but  was  dissuaded  by  Washington,  and  was 
transferred  to  South  Carolina,  entering  Charleston  in 
May,  1779.  He  forced  the  British  to  evacuate  South 
Carolina,  and  in  September  was  ordered  to  Georgia  to 
conduct  the  advance  guard  of  General  Lincoln’s  army. 
Here  he  rendered  invaluable  services,  opening  communi- 
cation between  the  French  fleet  and  the  American  army. 
He  was  active  in  the  siege  of  Savannah,  but  was 
mortally  wounded  just  before  the  end  of  the  campaign. 
He  was  taken  aboard  the  United  States  brig  Wasp,  and 
died  as  the  ship  stood  out  to  sea.  He  was  buried  at 
sea,  and  the  funeral  services  were  held  at  Chaideston 
afterward.  A monument  was  erected  to  his  memory 
by  the  citizens  of  Savannah,  La  Fayette  laying  the 
corner  stone  in  1824,  on  the  occasion  of  his  visit  to  this 
country. 

PULITZER,  Joseph,  journalist,  was  born  in  Buda- 
Pesth,  Hungary,  April  10,  1847.  He  received  his 
education  in  his  native  land  and  came  to  America  in 
early  youth.  He  made  St.  Louis  his  first  permanent 
residence,  and  began  his  journalistic  career  as  a reporter 
on  the  Westlicke  Post , a German  newspaper,  under  the 
editorial  direction  of  Carl  Schurz.  He  was  a member 
of  the  Missouri  legislature  in  1869  and  of  the  constitu- 
tional convention  in  1874.  In  1878  he  founded  the  St. 
Louis  Post-Dispatch  by  purchase  and  consolidation,  and 
he  still  retains  his  interest  in  the  paper.  He  purchased 
the  New  York  World  in  1883,  and  is  now  its  editor 
and  proprietor.  Under  his  management  the  paper  has 
taken  a new  lease  of  life,  and  its  prosperity  has  been 
unexampled.  Besides  the  political  offices  recounted 
above  Mr.  Pulitzer  has  served  as  a delegate  to  several 
national  conventions,  and  in  1884  was  elected  to  con- 
gress, but  was  a member  only  a few  months,  resigning 
on  account  of  pre-ssure  of  editorial  duties. 

PULLING,  Alexander,  sergeant-at-law,  born  at 
St.  Arvan’s,  Monmouthshire,  December  1,  1813;  was 
educated  at  a private  school,  and  afterward  at  Mer- 
chant Taylor’s  school,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the 
Inner  Temple  in  1843;  was  made  a sergeant-at-law, 
1863  ; andbecame  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  South  Wales 
circuit.  He  was  appointed  a revising  barrister  in  1857, 
a magistrate  for  Gloucestershire  in  1867.  Mr.  Sergeant 
Pulling  originated  the  useful  reform  in  the  English  law 
reporting  system,  which  is  now  carried  out  by  the  Coun- 
cil of  Law  Reporting.  He  was  a working  member  of 
that  body,  and  was  one  of  the  senior  members  of  the 
Law  Amendment  Society.  From  1863  he  was  one  of 
the  managing  trustees  of  the  Stamford  Mercury  until 
his  death,  January  15,  1895.  He  wrote  several  works 
on  law  and  treatises  on  economic  questions. 

PURCELL,  John  B.,  Roman  Catholic  archbishop, 
was  born  in  Mallow,  county  Cork,  Ireland,  February 
26,  1800,  and  died  in  Brown  county,  Ohio,  July  4, 
1883.  He  immigrated  to  America  when  a young  man 
and  engaged  in  teaching  shortly  afterward,  beginning 


6751 

at  St.  Mary’s  College,  Maryland,  his  theological  course, 
which  he  concluded  in  the  College  of  St.  Sulpice,  Paris, 
where  he  was  ordained  in  1826.  Returning  to 
America  he  became  professor  of  philosophy  in  St. 
Mary’s  College,  Emmettsburg,  Md.,  afterward  being 
elevated  to  tne  presidency  of  the  school.  Here  his 
success  as  an  educator  and  organizer  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  the  American  prelates,  and  he  was  nomi- 
nated bishop  of  Cincinnati,  and  consecrated  in  1833. 
Under  his  administration  the  diocese  increased  rapidly 
in  wealth  and  numbers,  and  in  1847  was  divided  into 
two,  and  again  subdivided  later.  He  was  made  arch- 
bishop in  1850,  and  received  the  pallium  from  the  pope 
in  person.  He  founded  the  theological  school  of 
Mount  St.  Mary’s  of  the  West,  besides  a convent  and 
other  religious  houses.  Owing  to  the  pressing  needs 
of  his  new  congregations  and  educational  and  benevo- 
lent enterprises  he  was  induced  to  use  money  which  his 
brother  had  been  allowed  to  receive  on  deposit.  The 
amount  of  liabilities  thus  contracted  reached  nearly 
$4,000,000.  There  could  be  no  suspicion  of  dishonesty 
on  the  part  of  the  aged  prelate;  the  failure  was  due  en- 
tirely to  a lack  of  knowledge  of  the  banking  business. 
He  tendered  his  resignation  in  1880,  but  it  was  not  re- 
ceived, as  it  was  felt  that  to  do  so  would  imply  dis- 
trust, and  he  was  given  a coadjutor  instead,  he  retiring 
from  active  life.  His  brother  Edward,  who  was  vicar- 
general  of  the  archdiocese,  died  of  a broken  heart  con- 
sequent on  their  financial  troubles.  Archbishop  Pur- 
cell was  a profound  theologian,  an  accomplished 
polemic,  and  a gifted  lecturer  and  author.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  one  of  the  most  generous  of  men,  donat- 
ing his  entire  income  to  works  of  charity.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Vatican  council  of  1869  and  opposed  the 
doctrine  of  papal  infallibility,  but  subscribed  to  it  when 
it  was  finally  promulgated. 

PUTNAM,  Frederick  Ward,  anthropologist  and 
scientist,  was  born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  April  16,  1839. 
He  received  his  early  training  under  Louis  Agassiz,  and 
shortly  became  his  assistant  at  Harvard.  Soon  after 
he  took  charge  of  the  museum  at  the  Essex  Institute, 
and  in  1867  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the 
museum  of  the  East  India  Marine  Society.  On  the  con- 
solidation of  these  last  two  institutions  with  the  Pea- 
body Institute,  under  the  title  of  the  Peabody  Academy 
of  Sciences,  Professor  Putnam  was  made  its  director, 
holding  this  position  till  1876.  He  succeeded  Professor 
Wyman  in  charge  of  the  Peabody  Museum  at  Harvard, 
and  in  1886  he  was  made  professor  of  American  archae- 
ology and  ethnology  at  that  institution.  Meantime  fie 
had  filled  the  post  of  instructor  in  the  School  of  Natural 
History  on  Penikese  Island,  and  been  appointed  assist- 
ant on  the  Kentucky  geological  survey  (1874).  A year 
later  he  received  a commission  from  the  United  States 
engineer  department  to  report  on  the  archaeological  collec- 
tions of  the  department.  He  was  fish  and  game  com- 
missioner for  Massachusetts  several  terms.  His  re- 
searches, while  sometimes  invading  the  field  of  zoology, 
are  generally  confined  to  archaeology  and  anthropology, 
on  which  topics  probably  no  man  in  the  United  States 
is  better  informed.  He  is  a member  and  officer  of 
numerous  scientific  societies,  and  at  the  inception  of 
the  World’s  Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago  in  1893 
he  was  appointed  chief  of  the  department  of  Ethnology, 
Archaeology,  Progress  of  Labor  and  Inventions.  At 
the  close  of  the  fair  he  became  curator  of  the  new  Field 
Columbian  Museum. 

PUTNAM,  Israel,  was  born  at  Salem,  Mass.,  Jan- 
uary 7,  1718,  removing  to  Pomfret,  Conn.,  in  1739. 
Courage,  strong  will,  and  knowledge  of  men,  rather 
than  of  books,  soon  made  him  a leader  among  his  neigh- 
bors. In  the  French  and  Indian  war  he  became  one  of 


<5752  PUV- 

the  most  renowned  of  the  “ rangers,”  or  partisan  soldiers, 
who  fought  the  Indians  with  their  own  weapons;  and 
at  the  end  of  the  war  he  had  reached  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
ant-colonel of  the  Connecticut  troops.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolutionary  war,  one  of  the  four  major-generals’ 
commissions  was  given  to  Putnam.  He  was  an  active 
leader  at  Bunker  Hill,  commanded  at  New  York  and 
in  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  and  was  put  in  charge  of 
the  Hudson  river  defenses  in  1777,  being  the  first  to  see 
the  strategic  importance  of  West  Point.  In  1779  he 
was  stricken  with  paralysis  and  forced  to  retire  from 
military  life.  Many  fantastic  tales  are  told  in  regard  to 
the  eccentricities  and  vagaries  of  the  man,  it  being  at 
this  point  of  time  hard  to  distinguish  the  true  from  the 
false.  He  died  at  Brooklyn,  Conn.,  May  19,  1790. 

PUVIS  DE  CHAVANNES,  Pierre,  a French 
painter,  was  born  at  Lyons,  December  14,  1824.  Plis 
first  considerable  work  was  a series  of  five  compositions 
intended  for  the  dining-room  of  his  brother.  One  of 
these,  Un  Retour  de  Chasse , was  exhibited  at  the  salon 
of  1859.  In  1861  he  exhibited  La  Paix  and  La  Guerre. 
These  two  subjects  won  for  him  his  first  public  success. 
He  has  also  exhibited  V Automne,  1864;  La  Nuit , 
which  attracted  great  attention  ; La  Vigilance  and  La 
Fantaisie , 1866;  Le  Jeu , 1868;  Massilia , 1869. 
Shortly  after  this  date  M.  de  Chavannes  began  to  treat 
a different  order  of  subjects.  In  1881  he  exhibited  Le 
Pauvre  Pecheur  in  the  Salon  in  1882 ; Doux  Pays  in 
1884;  Bois  Sacre',  and  other  symbolical  pictures  at 
later  times. 

PYAT,  F£lix,  French  political  agitator,  writer  and 
dramatist,  born  at  Vierzon,  October  4,  1810,  received 
an  excellent  education,  studied  law  at  Paris,  and  was 
admitted  an  advocate  in  1831.  Contrary  to  the  wishes 
of  his  friends,  he  devoted  himself  to  literature,  and  after 
'Writing  for  the  Figaro  and  the  Charivari , was  attached 
to  the  Siecle.  As  an  author  he  is  best  known  by  his 
dramas,  such  as  Mathilde , Diogene , and  Le  Chiffonnier 
de  Paris.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  of  1848, 
he  abandoned  literature  for  politics,  joining  the  ranks 
of  Ledru  Rollin,  with  whom  he  went  into  exile.  He 
was  tried  for  some  political  offense  before  the  correc- 


QUACKENBOS,  George  Payn,  was  born  in 
New  York  city,  September  4,  1826;  died  in  New 
.London,  Merrimack  county,  N.H.,  July  24,  1881. 
After  he  was  graduated  at  Columbia,  in  1843,  took 
up  the  study  of  law,  but  abandoned  it  to  become  princi- 
al  of  a large  collegiate  school  in  New  York  city,  where 
e remained  many  years.  He  was  editor  of  the  Lite- 
rary Magazine  from  1848  until  1850,  and  compiled  sev- 
eral dictionaries  of  foreign  languages.  His  productions 
were  chiefly  school-books,  among  which  were  First 
Lessons  in  Composition  (New  York,  1851);  Advanced 
Course  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition  (1854);  School 
History  of  the  United  States  (1857);  Natural  Philoso- 
phy (1859);  a series  of  English  grammars  (1862-64);  one' 
of  arithmetics  (1863-74);  and  Language  Lessons  (1876). 
Wesleyan  gave  him  the  degree  of  LL.D.  in  1863. 

QUACK ENBUSH,  Stephen  Platt,  was  bom  in 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  January  23,  1823.  He  became  a mid- 
shipman in  the  United  States  navy  in  1840,  was  made 
lieutenant  in  1855,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
commander  in  1862.  #He  served  with  distinction  dur- 
ing the  Civil  war,  being  in  charge  of  the  Delaware , the 
Unadilla,  the  Pequot,  the  Patapsco , and  the  Mingo,  of 
the  blockading  squadron.  He  held  the  enemy  back 
when  Gen.  Ambrose  E,  Burnside’s  army  withdrew 


-QUA 

tional  police  in  Paris,  and  was  sentenced  to  a fine  and 
imprisonment  in  1861.  Soon  after  the  establishment  of 
the  Republic  in  1870,  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  became 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  communists,  and  the  editor  of 
several  revolutionary  journals.  On  the  capture  of  Paris 
by  the  Versailles  army,  Pyat — nicknamed  Til  lustre 
fuyard — escaped.  In  March,  1873,  he  was  condemned 
to  death.  The  amnesty  of  July  14,  1880,  permitted 
him  to  return  to  Paris.  He  died  August  4,  1889. 

PYNCHON,  William,  colonist,  born  in  Springfield, 
England,  in  1590;  died  at  Wraysbury,  England,  Octo- 
ber 29,  1662.  He  came  to  America  in  company  with 
John  Winthrop,  in  1630,  and  settled  at  Roxbury,  Mass., 
where  he  engaged  in  the  fur  trade,  and  was  made  treas- 
urer of  the  colony.  Later,  when  some  of  the  settlers 
desired  to  locate  on  the  Connecticut  river,  he  led  them 
in  1636,  to  Springfield,  Mass.,  where  land  was  bought, 
and  Pynchon  was  made  chief  magistrate.  In  1650  he 
visited  London  and  published  a book,  The  Meritorious 
Price  of  Our  Redemption  (London,  1650),  which  was 
pronounced  heretical,  and  he  was  removed  from  office. 
In  consequence  of  this  violent  action  of  the  colonial 
authorities  and  the  ill  treatment  to  which  he  became 
subjected,  he  returned  to  England  in  September,  1652, 
leaving  his  children  as  permanent  settlers  in  New  Eng- 
land. He  took  up  his  residence  near  Windsor,  on  the 
Thames,  and  engaged  in  theological  writings  in  con- 
formity with  the  teachings  of  the  Church  of  England. 
His  works  are  characterized  by. great  ability. 

PYNE,  Louisa  (Madame  Bodda-Pyne),  a popular 
English  singer,  born  in  1832;  made  her  first  appearance 
about  1842.  She  sang  in  Paris  with  great  success  in 
1847,  and  visited  the  United  States,  where  she  was 
enthusiastically  received,  in  1854.  After  an  absence  of 
three  years  she  returned  to  her  native  land,  and  was, 
in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Harrison,  joint  lessee  for  a 
short  season  of  the  Lyceum  and  Drury  Lane,  and  from 
1858  till  1862  of  Covent  Garden  theater.  The  enter- 
prise having  failed,  Miss  Louisa  Pyne  transferred  her 
service  to  Her  Majesty’s  theater,  and  frequently  per- 
formed at  Queen  Victoria’s  concerts  at  Windsor  Castle 
and  Buckingham  Palace.  She  married  Mr.  Frank  Bodda. 


from  Aquia  creek,  throwing  a large  body  of  Confed- 
erates into  confusion  and  enabling  the  army  to  land  at 
Roanoke.  He  was  in  the  battles  of  Elizabeth  City 
and  New  Berne,  N.C.,  where  he  flew  the  divisional 
flag  of  Commodore  Stephen  C.  Rowan.  At  Winton, 
N.C.,  where  700  or  800  Union  men  had  been  reported, 
and  a white  flag  displayed  as  a decoy  to  the  naval  ves- 
sels, he  engaged  the  Confederate  batteries  and  a regi- 
ment of  infantry.  Winton  was  destroyed  in  consequence 
of  the  display  of  the  white  flag.  Quackenbush  com- 
manded the  Pequot  at  Sewell’s  Point  landing,  Wilcox 
landing,  and  Malvern  Hill,  on  James  river,  receiving  a 
shot  that  took  off  his  right  leg.  In  the  retreat  to  Har- 
rison’s landing  he  covered  the  rear-guard  of  the  army. 
In  1863,  while  in  charge  of  the  Unadilla , he  captured 
the  Princess  Royal , containing  engines  for  an  iron-clad 
then  building  in  Richmond,  machinery  for  shaping 
projectiles,  and  quinine.  In  1864,  while  dragging  for 
torpedoes  in  Charleston  harbor,  his  ship,  the  Patapsco , 
was  struck  by  one,  and  sunk.  Afterward  he  protected 
Georgetown,  S.C.,  with  the  steamer  Mingo  and  a force 
of  light-draught  vessels,  and  prevented  the  reerection 
of  a fort  by  the  enemy.  He  was  made  commander  in 
1866,  captain  in  1871,  and  commodore  in  1880.  In 
1885  he  was  retired,  and  died  February  4,  1890. 


QUA- 

QUAIN,  Richard,  M.D.,  was  born  at  Mallow, 
Ireland,  October  30, 1816,  and  educated  at  the  Diocesan 
School  at  Cloyne.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  went  to 
London  and  entered,  in  January,  1837,  the  medical 
faculty  of  University  College.  In  1843  he  was  elected 
a fellow  of  University  College.  He  took  the  degree  of 
M.B.  at  the  University  of  London  in  1840,  gaining  the 
scholarship  and  gold  medal  in  physiology,  as  well  as 
honors  in  surgery  and  midwifery;  and  in  1842  he 
graduated  M.D.  In  May,  i860,  he  was  nominated  a 
member  of  the  Senate  of  the  University.  In  1846  he 
became  a member  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians 
of  London ; in  1851  was  elected  a fellow,  and  afterward 
filled  the  offices  of  senior  censor  and  member  of  council ; 
he  was  Lumleian  lecturer  (in  1853),  and  Harveian 
orator  in  1855.  He  was  elected  a fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1871 ; was  a fellow  and  vice-president  of  the 
Royal  Medico-Chirurgical  and  Medical  Societies  of 
London.  One  of  the  founders  of  the  Pathological 
Society,  he  filled  its  presidential  chair,  as  well  as  that 
of  the  Harveian  Society.  He  was  a fellow  of  the 
Statistical  and  Zoological  Society,  and  a member  of 
other  learned  societies.  He  died  in  1887. 

QUARTLY,  Arthur,  artist,  was  born  in  Paris, 
France,  May  24,  1839;  died  in  New  York  city,  May 
19,  1886.  He  was  taken  to  London  when  a child,  and 
from  1848  to  1850  he  studied  at  Westminster.  In  1851 
he  came  to  the  United  States  and  was  soon  afterward 
apprenticed  to  a sign  painter  in  New  York,  where  he 
followed  his  trade  until  1862.  He  then  went  to  Balti- 
more and  for  ten  years  was  engaged  in  business,  devot- 
ing his  leisure  hours  in  the  meantime  to  the  study  of 
painting.  In  1873  he  opened  a studio,  and  in  1875  he  re- 
turned to  New  York,  where  he  soon  became  widely 
known  as  one  of  the  foremost  of  American  marine  paint- 
ers. He  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy in  1879,  and  became  an  academician  in  1886.  In 
1885  he  went  to  Europe  and  remained  abroad  about  a 
year,  returning  a few  months  before  his  death.  Among 
his  paintings  are  Morning  Effect,  North  River ; Close  of 
a Stormy  Day , From  a North  River  Pier  Head',  An 
Afternoon  in  August ; Trinity  from  the  River. 

QUATREFAGES,  Jean  Louis  Armand  de,  born 
at  Vallerauge  (Gard),  France,  February  10,  1810,  of  a 
Protestant  family ; completed  his  education  at  Stras- 
burg,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D.,  and  began  to 
write  on  subjects  of  natural  philosophy  as  early  as 
1829.  In  1839  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  zoology  at 
Toulouse,  but  soon  resigned  that  appointment  and  went 
to  Paris.  In  1842,  and  after  having  traveled  round 
the  coasts  of  Italy  and  Sicily,  he  contributed  some 
papers  on  natural  history  to  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes, 
republished  in  1854  under  the  title  of  Souvenirs  d'un 
Naturaliste.  He  was  nominated  professor  of  natural 
history  in  the  Lycee  Napoleon  in  1850,  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  April  26,  1852, 
was  nominated  a chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
April  25,  1845,  was  called  to  the  chair  of  anatomy  and 
ethnology  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Paris 
in  1855,  and  was  promoted  grand  officer  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor  in  1863.  He  died  November  11,  1892. 

QUAY,  Matthew  Stanley,  was  born  in  Dillsburg, 
York  county,  Penn.,  September  30,  1833,  and  was  grad- 
uated at  Jefferson  College,  in  that  State,  in  1850.  He 
began  the  practice  of  law  in  1854,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  appointed  prothonotary  of  Beaver  county,  an 
office  which  he  held  until  1861,  when  he  resigned  to 
accept  a lieutenancy  in  the  10th  Pennsylvania  reserves. 
Subsequently  he  was  made  assistant  commissary-gen- 
eral of  the  State,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel, 
and  shortly  afterward  was  appointed  private  secretary 
to  Gov.  Andrew  G.  Curtin.  In  August,  1862,  he  was 


- Q u 1 6753 

commissioned  colonel  of  the  134th  Pennsylvania  regi- 
ment, but  his  health  having  become  impaired  he  was 
mustered  out  December  7th  of  the  same  year.  After- 
ward, however,  December  13th,  he  took  part  in  the 
assault  on  Marye’s  Heights  as  a volunteer.  He  served 
three  terms  in  the  State  legislature,  and  in  1869  he  es- 
tablished and  edited  the  Beaver  Radical.  In  1873  he 
became  secretary  of  the  commonwealth,  resigning  in 
1878  to  accept  the  appointment  of  recorder  of  Philadel- 
phia. This  office  he  resigned  in  1879,  and  was  again 
appointed  secretary  of  the  commonwealth,  filling  that 
post  until  October,  1882.  He  was  elected  State  treas- 
urer in  1885,  and  United  States  Senator  in  1887  and 
1893,  becoming  the  Republican  leader  of  the  State. 

QUEEN,  Walter  W.,  was  born  in  Washington, 
D.  C.,  October  6,  1824.  As  a midshipman  in  the 
United  States  navy,  he  served  in  the  Mexican  war  on 
the  frigate  Cumberland , taking  part  in  the  attacks  on 
Alvarado,  Tampico,  Tuspan,  and  Vera  Cruz.  In  1848 
he  was  dismissed  from  the  service  for  fighting  a duel, 
but  was  reinstated  in  1853,  and  two  years  later  attained 
the  rank  of  lieutenant.  In  1861,  while  on  special  duty 
in  the  steam  sloop  Powhatan,  he  reenforced  Fort  Pick- 
ens, Fla.,  and  at  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Jackson 
and  Fort  St.  Philip,  he  commanded  a division  of  the 
mortar  flotilla  under  David  D.  Porter.  He  was  with 
Flag  Officer  David  G.  Farragut  when  he  passed  the 
batteries  with  his  fleet  during  the  attack  on  Vicksburg. 
Pie  was  made  lieutenant-commander  in  1862,  and  on 
May  5,  1864,  with  the  steam  gunboat  Wyalusing,  he 
engaged  the  Confederate  ram  Albemarle  and  her  con- 
sorts. In  1866  he  became  commander,  with  special 
duty  on  the  Hartford , rising  to  the  rank  of  captain  in 
1874,  commodore  in  1883,  and  rear-admiral  in  1886. 
He  was  retired  in  1886  and  died  October  24,  1893. 

QUINBY,  Isaac  Ferdinand,  was  born  near  Mor- 
ristown, N.  J.,  January  29,  1821.  He  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy  in  1843,  partici- 
pated in  several  of  the  closing  skirmishes  of  the  Mexi- 
can war,  and  in  1851  became  professor  of  mathematics 
in  the  newly  founded  university  of  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
He  resigned  from  the  army  March  16,  1852,  and  held 
his  professorship  until  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil 
war,  when  he  became  colonel  of  the  thirteenth  N ew  Y ork 
regiment.  He  resigned  his  commission  August  2,  1861, 
but  on  March  17,  1862,  he  was  appointed  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers,  and  assigned  to  the  command  at 
Columbus,  Ky.  In  the  following  October  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  seventh  division  of  the  army 
of  the  Tennessee,  and  was  with  Grant  at  Vicksburg, 
participating  in  the  assault  of  May  19,  1863,  and  the 
subsequent  movements.  Illness  compelledhim  to  return 
to  the  North  in  June,  and  on  December  31,  1863,  he 
resigned  his  commission  and  resumed  his  duties  as  pro- 
fessor in  the  university.  During  the  two  presidential 
terms  of  General  Grant  he  was  U nited  States  marshal  for 
the  northern  district  of  New  York,  and  in  May,  1885,  he 
was  appointed  city  surveyor  of  Rochester.  General 
Quinby  revised  some  of  the  works  in  Robinson' s Course 
of  Mathematics,  and  added  a treatise  of  his  own,  Differ- 
ential and  Integral  Calculus.  He  died  Sept.  18,  1891. 

QUINCY,  Edmund,  American  author,  born  in 
Boston,  February  1,  1808;  died  in  Dedham,  Mass., 
May  17,  1877.  Pie  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1827, 
and  soon  after  began  to  attract  attention  by  his  writ- 
ings. His  excellent  biography  of  his  father,  Josiah 
Quincy,  is  especially  esteemed.  In  1854  he  published 
the  novel,  Wensley,  which  was  pronounced  by  Whittier 
the  best  book  of  its  kind  since  the  Blithedale  Romance. 
He  was  an  active  participant  in  the  anti-slavery  move- 
ment, and  for  many  years  contributed  able  articles  to 
the  anti-slavery  press. 


QUI-RAF 


6754 

QUINTARD,  Charles  Todd,  was  born  in  Stam- 
ford, Conn.,  December  22,  1824.  He  was  graduated 
in  medicine  at  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York 
in  1847,  and  afterward  removed  to  Athens,  Ga.,  where 
he  began  the  practice  of  his  profession.  In  1851  he 
was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  physiology  and  patho- 
logical anatomy  in  the  medical  college  at  Memphis, 
Tenn.,  and  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Medical 
Recorder.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  church  in  1856,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
following  year  was  made  rector  of  Calvary  church, 
Memphis.  At  the  end  of  the  year  he  resigned,  and  at 
the  request  of  the  bishop  accepted  the  rectorship  of  the 
Church  of  the  Advent,  Nashville,  Tenn.  During  the 
war  he  was  chaplain  of  the  first  Tennessee  regiment. 
He  was  elected  bishop  of  Tennessee,  September  7,  1865, 
and  later  reestablished  the  University  of  the  South,  at 
Sewanee,  Tenn.,  becoming  its  first  vice-chancellor. 
Bishop  Quintard  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from 
Columbia  in  1866,  and  that  of  LL.D.  from  Cambridge, 
England,  in  1867. 

QUITMAN,  John  Anthony,  was  born  in  Rhine- 
beck,  N.  Y.,  September  1,  1799  and  died  in  Natchez, 
Miss.,  July  17,  1858.  He  was  educated  for  the  Lutheran 
ministry,  and  in  1816  was  appointed  tutor  in  the  clas- 
sical department  of  Hartwick  Seminary.  Two  years 
later  he  became  a professor  in  Mount  Airy  College, 


Germantown,  Penn. , and  while  there  he  decided  to  adopt 
the  legal  profession  instead  of  the  ministry.  In  1819  he 
went  to  Ohio  and  studied  law,  and  in  1821  he  settled  in 
Nachez,  Miss.,  where  he  became  trustee  of  the  State 
University.  He  was  elected  to  the  legislature  in  1825, 
was  chancellor  of  the  State  from  1828  until  1834,  and 
afterward  was  president  of  the  State  Senate,  at  which 
time  he  was  also  charged  with  the  functions  of  governor, 
that  office  having  become  vacant.  In  1836,  at  the  head 
of  a body  of  men  which  he  had  raised,  he  aided  the 
Texans  against  Mexican  incursions,  and  in  1846  he  en- 
tered  the  Mexican  war  as  a brigadier-general  undei 
General  Taylor.  He  won  distinction  by  his  conspicu- 
ous bravery  at  Monterey,  Vera  Cruz,  and  Alvarado,  and 
assisted  in  taking  possession  of  the  city  of  Pueblo,  for 
which  he  was  brevetted  major-general.  Later,  he 
stormed  the  defenses  of  Chapultepec,  and  Gen.  Win- 
field Scott  appointed  him  governor  of  the  city  of  Mex- 
ico. On  his  return  to  the  United  States  he  was  elected 
governor  of  Mississippi.  At  that  time  he  advocated  the 
annexation  of  Cuba  to  the  United  States,  and  was 
prosecuted  for  alleged  complicity  in  the  filibustering  ex- 
pedition under  Lopez.  The  jury  disagreed,  but  General 
Quitman  resigned  the  governorship,  and  from  1854  until 
1858  he  represented  his  district  in  congress,  where  he 
was  at  the  head  of  the  military  committee. 


R. 


RACINE,  Antoine,  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  wasborn 
near  Quebec,  Canada,  on  January  26,  1822.  He  was 
primarily  educated  by  his  uncle,  a parish  priest;  entered 
the  seminary  in  1834,  and  was  ordained  priest  ten 
years  later.  He  held  various  pastorates,  and  was  active 
in  behalf  of  emigrants,  founding  a journal  in  their  inter- 
est called  the  Canadian  Emigrant.  He  was  transferred 
to  St.  John’s  church,  Quebec,  in  1853,  was  nominated 
bishop  of  Sherbrooke  in  1874,  and  consecrated  by  Arch- 
bishop Taschereau  in  October  of  that  year.  He 
immediately  proceeded  to  erect  an  ecclesiastical  college 
in  his  episcopal  city,  which  he  named  for  St.  Charles 
Borromeo.  This  school  is  now  in  a flourishing  con- 
dition. He  was  also  the  founder  of  various  other  de- 
nominational institutions,  and  administered  his  diocese 
most  efficiently. 

RADEMACPIER,  Joseph,  Roman  Catholic  bishop, 
was  born  in  Michigan,  December  3,  1840.  He  was 
graduated  from  St.  Michael’s  Theological  Seminary,  at 
Pittsburgh,  and  ordained  priest  in  1863,  his  first  charge 
being  at  Attica,  Ind.  He  served  in  several  other 
parishes,  and  in  1877  was  made  chancellor  of  the 
diocese.  He  Avas  nominated  bishop  of  Nashville  in 
1883,  and  confirmed  and  consecrated  by  Archbishop 
Feehan  of  Chicago.  Since  that  time  he  has  given  his 
entire  attention  to  his  diocese  with  marked  success. 

RADFORD,  William,  was  born  in  Virginia,  March 
1,  1808.  He  entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in  1825, 
and  became  lieutenant  in  1837.  He  saw  service  in  the 
Mexican  war,  taking  part  in  the  action  with  the  Malek 
Adel  at  Mazatlan.  He  was  promoted  commander  in 
1855,  captain  in  1862,  and  commodore  in  1863.  He 
commanded  the  ironclad  division  of  Porter’s  fleet  at 
Fort  Fisher,  rendering  most  efficient  service.  During 
a portion  of  the  war  he  was  on  special  duty  at  Fort 
Monroe.  He  was  made  rear-admiral  in  1866,  and  com- 
manded the  European  squadron  in  1869-70.  On  March 
1,  1870,  he  retired.  He  died  in  1890. 

RAF,  John,  explorer,  was  born  in  the  Orkney 
Islands  September  30,  1813.  He  was  graduated  from 


the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1833,  and  entered  the 
service  of  the  Pludson  Bay  Company  as  surgeon,  living 
at  Morse  Fort  till  1845,  during  which  residence  he  made 
many  explorations.  In  1846  he  wintered  at  Repulse 
Bay  and  explored  about  635  miles  of  land.  In  1848  he 
accompanied  Sir  John  Richardson  in  a search  for  Sir 
John  Franklin,  and  in  1850  commanded  a similar  ex- 
pedition sent  out  by  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  In 
this  last  expedition  he  found  some  wood  which  probably 
formed  a part  of  Sir  John  Franklin’s  ship,  and  this  was 
the  first  information  of  a tangible  nature  received  of  the 
whereabouts  of  Franklin’s  party.  He  received  from 
the  English  government  the  reward  of  ^10,000  ($50,- 
000)  for  the  discovery  of  the  fate  of  Franklin’s  expedi- 
tion. He  made  extensive  explorations  during  his  ex- 
pedition, adding  much  to  our  knowledge  of  the  geogra- 
phy of  the  Arctic  seas.  He  was  also  employed  in  the 
survey  for  a cable  between  England  and  America,  and 
conducted  a telegraph  survey  across  the  continent  from 
Winnipeg  to  the  Pacific.  He  received  several  honorary 
degrees  from  literary  institutions,  among  them  those 
of  LL.D.,  from  Edinburgh  University,  and  M.D. 
from  McGill  College,  Montreal.  Pie  published  an 
account  of  his  explorations.  He  died  July  21,  1893. 

RAFF,  George  Wertz,  author,  born  in  Tuscara- 
was, Ohio,  March  24,  1825  ; died  in  Canton,  Ohio, 
April  14,  1888.  He  was  a “self-made”  man,  as  his 
advantages  in  youth  were  extremely  limited.  He  was 
clerk  of  the  court  of  Stark  county  for  two  years,  judge 
of  the  probate  court  for  three  years,  and  on  his  removal 
to  Canton  filled  several  municipal  offices.  Lie  was 
president  of  the  Canton  savings  bank,  an  institution 
which  he  founded.  His  publications  are  chiefly  guides 
to  legal  procedure  in  various  classes  of  actions  and  are 
regarded  as  excellent  specimens  of  their  kind. 

RAFF,  Joseph  Joachim,  musical  composer,  was 
born  at  Lachen,  on  the  Lake  of  Zurich,  Switzerland, 
May  27,  1822.  In  1843  Mendelssohn  gave  him  an  in- 
troduction to  the  firm  of  Breitkopf  and  Hartel,  who 
first  brought  his  compositions  before  the  public.  In 


RAI-RAM 


1846  Mendelssohn  invited  him  to  become  his  pupil,  but 
died  before  the  project  could  be  carried  out.  Later 
Raff  published  Die  Wagnerfrage , a pamphlet  which 
excited  considerable  attention.  In  1850  he  went  to 
Weimar,  and  here  his  opera,  Konig  Alfred , was  first 
performed  at  the  Court  theater.  In  1856  he  went  to 
Wiesbaden,  and  became  a highly  successful  teacher  of 
the  pianoforte.  His  An  das  Vaterland  obtained  the 
first  prize  offered  by  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde 
in  Vienna,  in  1863.  Dame  Kobold , a comic  opera,  was 
produced  at  Weimar  in  1870.  He  wrote  a large  num- 
ber of  symphonies  and  concertos,  and  much  chamber 
music.  In  1877  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  con- 
servatoire at  Frankfort.  He  died  June  24,  1882. 

RAIKES,  Henry  Cecil,  was  born  in  England 
in  1838,  and  was  educated  at  Shrewsbury  school, 
and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  was  .called 
to  the  bar  at  the  Middle  Temple  in  1863,  and  elected 
a bencher  in  1880.  From  1868  to  1880  he  sat  as  a 
Conservative  for  Chester;  afterward  for  Preston  until 
November,  1882,  when  he  was  elected  one  of  the 
members  for  Cambridge  University,  which  he  repre- 
sented until  his  death.  From  1874  to  1880  he  was 
chairman  of  ways  and  means  and  deputy  speaker  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  In  1886  Lord  Salisbury  ap- 
pointed him  postmaster-general.  He  died  in  Novem- 
ber, 1891. 

RALSTON,  William  C.,  banker,  was  born  in 
Wellsville,  Ohio,  Jahuary  12,  1826,  and  died  in  San 
Francisco,  Cal.,  August  27,  1875.  In  1849  he  emi- 
grated to  California,  where  he  gave  his  attention  to  all 
kinds  of  business  enterprises,  and  became  president  of 
the  Bank  of  California.  In  August,  1875,  James  G. 
Flood  made  a demand  on  the  bank  for  nearly  $6,000,- 
000  and,  although  the  institution  was  solvent,  its 
assets  were  so  invested  as  not  to  be  immediately  avail- 
able, and  the  president  was  compelled  to  surrender  all 
his  property  to  meet  the  call.  This  so  affected  his 
mind  that  he  drowned  himself. 

RALSTON,  William  Ralston  Shedden,  M.  A., 
was  born  in  1828,  and  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, England,  from  1846  to  1850,  and  obtained  the 
degree  of  M.A.  From  1853  to  1875  he  served  in  the 
British  Museum  as  an  assistant  librarian.  He  pub- 
lished several  works  on  Russian  folk  lore  and  transla- 
tions from  the  literature  of  that  country.  He  also 
contributed  a great  number  of  articles  to  English  pe- 
riodicals. He  died  August  7,  1889. 

RAMIREZ,  Ignacio,  Mexican  statesman  and  jurist, 
was  born  in  San  Miguel  el  Grande,  June  23,  1818,  and 
died  in  June,  1879.  He  was  of  pure  Aztec  blood,  and 
was  thoroughly  educated,  graduating  in  law  in  1841. 
In  1846  he  founded  a paper,  which,  becoming  obnox- 
ious, was  suppressed  by  the  government.  Soon  after 
the  establishment  of  the  Federal  system  Ramirez  be- 
came secretary  to  the  governor  of  the  State  of  Mexico, 
and  took  an  important  part  in  organizing  resistance  to 
the  Americans  in  the  war  with  this  country.  From  that 
time  forward  his  life  ran  parallel  with  and  formed  a 
part  of  the  history  of  the  many  internal  dissensions  and 
revolutions  in  Mexico,  he  being  first  in  power  and  then 
in  banishment,  holding  many  of  the  highest  offices  in 
the  State.  His  last  position  was  on  the  bench  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  which  he  occupied  till  his  death.  In 
addition  to  his  political  occupations  he  was  a volumi- 
nous author,  both  of  prose  and  poetry,  and  was  for 
some  years  associate  editor  of  El  Correo  de  Mexico. 

RAMSAY,  David,  author  and  physician,  was  born 
in  Lancaster  county,  Penn.,  April  2,  1749,  and  died  in 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  May  8,  1815.  He  took  an  active 
art  in  the  Revolution,  and  his  skill  as  a physician,  and 
is  readiness  with  his  pen,  made  him  a power  in  the 


6755 

land.  So  obnoxious  was  he  to  the  British,  that  he  was 
held  in  close  confinement  for  eleven  months  as  a host- 
age. He  served  in  the  Continental  congress,  and  as  a 
surgeon  in  the  army.  He  met  his  death  by  a pistol  in 
the  hands  of  a lunatic,  against  whose  mental  soundness 
he  had  testified.  His  brother  Nathaniel,  was  also  a 
noted  Revolutionary  patriot,  being  a colonel  in  the  Con- 
tinental army,  and  undergoing  a long  imprisonment  at 
the  hands  of  the  British.  He  was  a member  of  con- 
gress, and  served  as  marshal  of  the  district  of  Maryland. 
He  was  afterward  made  naval  officer  for  the  Baltimore 
district,  holding  the  position  under  five  presidents. 
He  was  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1751,  and  died  in  Bal- 
timore in  1817. 

RAMSAY,  George  Douglas,  soldier,  was  born  in 
Dumfries,  Va.,  February  21,  1802,  and  died  in  Wash- 
ington in  May,  1882.  He  was  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1820,  and  was  assigned  to  the  artillery.  In 
1835  he  was  made  captain  of  ordnance,  and  had  charge 
of  various  arsenals  till  the  commencement  of  the  Mexi- 
can war.  He  served  in  this  war,  and  was  chief  of  ord- 
nance for  General  Taylor’s  army.  After  the  Mexican 
war  he  again  took  charge  of  the  arsenals,  and  was  made 
a member  of  the  ordnance  board.  When  the  Civil 
war  broke  out  he  was  put  in  command  of  the  Washing- 
ton arsenal,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  remain- 
ing at  that  post  till  1863.  In  September  of  that  year 
he  was  made  chief  of  ordnance  of  the  United  States 
army,  and  promoted  brigadier-general,  serving  in  this 
capacity  till  1864,  when  he  was  retired  with  the  brevet 
rank  of  major-general  in  the  regular  army  “for  long 
and  faithful  services.” 

RAMSAY,  Sir  Andrew  Crombie,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
born  in  1814,  and  educated  at  Glasgow,  was  appointed 
to  the  geological  survey  of  Great  Britain  in  1841,  and 
became  director  of  the  same  in  1845.  He  was  nomi- 
nated professor  of  geology  at  University  College  in 
1848,  lecturer  on  geology  at  the  Royal  School  of  Mines 
in  1851,  and  was  president  of  the  Geological  Society  in 
1862  and  1863.  In  1872  he  was  appointed  director-gen- 
eral of  the  geological  survey  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  of  the  Museum  of  Practical  Geology.  He  wrote 
extensively  on  scientific  subjects,  and  was  a member 
of  many  learned  societies.  He  died  December  9,  1892. 

RAMSEUR,  Stephen  Dodson,  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  North  Carolina,  May  31,  1837,  and  was 
killed  at  Cedar  Creek,  Va.,  October  20,  1864.  He  was 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  i860,  assigned  to  the  artil- 
lery and  placed  on  garrison  duty  at  Fort  Monroe.  In 
1861  he  was  transferred  to  Washington,  but  resigned 
and  entered  the  Confederate  army  as  captain  of  artillery. 
During  the  Peninsular  campaign  he  had  command  of 
the  artillery  of  the  right  wing  of  the  Confederate  army, 
with  the  rank  of  major.  Soon  after  he  was  transferred 
to  the  infantry  and  made  a colonel.  In  November, 
1862,  he  was  promoted  brigadier,  and  succeeded  to  the 
command  of  Gen.  G.  B.  Anderson’s  North  Carolina 
brigade,  in  which  position  he  took  a creditable  part  in 
the  campaigns  of  Northern  Virginia.  In  June, 1864,  he 
was  brevetted  major-general  and  transferred  to  Early’s 
army  in  the  valley  of  Virginia,  participated  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Winchester,  and  was  mortally  wounded  at  Cedar 
Creek,  while  trying  to  rally  his  retreating  command. 

RAMSEY,  Alexander,  was  born  near  Harris- 
burg, Penn.,  September  8,  1815.  lie  was  graduated  at 
Lafayette  College,  and  early  entered  politics,  being  a 
clerk  in  the  register’s  office  in  1828.  In  1840  he  was 
secretary  of  the  electoral  college  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
in  1841  clerk  of  the  State  House  of  Representatives.  In 
1842  he  was  elected  to  congress,  serving  four  years. 
He  was  chairman  of  the  Whig  State  central  commit- 
tee, and  was  the  first  Territorial  governor  of  Minnesota 


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5?j6 

.During  his  term  of  office  in  this  capacity  he  negotiated 
important  treaties  with  the  Indians,  and  secured  the 
title  of  large  territory  for  the  government.  He  was 
mayor  of  the  city  of  St.  Paulin  1855,  and  governor  of  the 
State  of  Minnesota  in  1860-63,  being,  in  the  latter  year, 
sent  to  the  United  States  Senate  from  that  State,  and 
holding  his  seat  twelve  years.  In  1879  he  succeeded 
Hon.  G.  W.  McCrary  as  secretary  of  war,  and  held 
the  office  till  the  close  of  Hayes’  administration.  In 
1882  he  was  a member  of  the  Utah  commission,  since 
which  time  he  has  acted  as  commissioner  in  several 
instances  for  the  government. 

RANDALL,  Alexander  Williams,  was  born  in 
Montgomery  county,  N.  Y.,  October  31,  1819.  and  died 
in  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  July  25,  1872.  He  studied  law,  and 
commenced  to  practice  at  Waukesha,  Wis.,  in  1840. 
His  first  political  preferment  was  the  postmastership  of 
Waukesha.  He  was  a member  of  the  State  Consti- 
tutional Convention  of  Wisconsin  in  1847,  and  in  1855 
was  sent  to  the  legislature.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
appointed  judge  of  the  Milwaukee  Circuit  Court.  In 
1857,  and  again  in  1859,  he  was  elected  governor  of  the 
State,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  was  a zealous 
Union  man,  exceeding  his  constitutional  powers  in  the 
organization  and  and  equipment  of  troops  for  the  army, 
which  actions  the  legislature  afterward  approved.  At 
the  close  of  his  second  gubernatorial  term  he  intended 
to  enter  the  army,  but  was  sent  as  minister  to  Italy  by 
President  Lincoln.  He  resigned  in  1862,  and  was  made 
first  assistant  postmaster-general,  and  in  1866  became 
postmaster-general,  serving  three  years. 

RANDALL,  James  Ryder,  American  song  writer, 
was  born  in  Baltimore  in  January,  1839.  He  traveled 
in  South  America,  and  on  his  return  engaged  in  jour- 
nalism in  Louisiana.  His  health  not  permitting  him 
to  enter  the  army,  he  employed  his  pen  with  ardor  in 
behalf  of  the  Southern  cause,  writing,  among  other 
productions,  several  songs,  one  of  which,  Maryland , 
my  Maryland , was  styled  the  Marseillaise  of  the  Con- 
federacy. After  the  war  he  removed  to  Augusta,  Ga., 
where  he  engaged  as  associate  editor  of  the  Constitu- 
tionalist, and  in  1866  became  its  chief. 

RANDALL,  Samuel  Jackson,  American  states- 
man, was  born  in  Philadelphia,  October  10,  1828.  He 
was  intended  for  mercantile  pursuits,  but  becoming  en- 
gaged in  ward  politics,  he  was  elected  to  the  city  coun- 
cil,four  times  successively,  and  next  to  the  State  legislat- 
ure. In  1863  he  was  elected  to  congress,  and  served 
without  intermission  from  that  date  till  his  death,  his 
district  being  the  only  Democratic  one  in  Philadelphia. 
He  early  attracted  attention  by  his  abilities  and  qualifi- 
cations as  a debater,  and  his  executive  powers  were 
shown  during  his  speakership  of  the  Flouse  of  Represent- 
atives, which  office  he  filled  for  three  successive  terms, 
being  first  elected  to  fill  the  vacancy  caused  by  the 
death  of  Michael  C.  Kerr.  His  speeches  on  the  force  bill 
gave  him  great  distinction  and  made  his  name  the  fore- 
most in  his  party  with  Democrats  of  all  classes.  He  was 
regarded  as  the  leader  of  the  protectionist  wing  of  the 
Democratic  party,  and,  while  chairman  of  the  House 
committee  on  aporopriations,  took  a decided  stand  in 
favor  of  the  economical  administration  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  forced  a proportional  reduction  of  the  various 
appropriations  for  governmental  purposes.  During 
his  entire  term  he  was  either  an  officer  of  the  House  or 
a member  or  chairman  of  some  important  committee, 
holding  at  the  time  of  his  death  a membership  on  the 
committee  on  appropriations.  He  was  several  times 
‘urged  as  the  Democratic  candidate  for  president,  but  was 
never  nominated.  He  died  April  14,  1890. 

RANDOLPH,  Alfred  Magii.l,  Protestant  Episco- 
pal bishop,  was  born  in  Winchester,  Va.,  August  31, 


1836.  He  was  graduated  at  William  and  Mary  College, 
and  took  a theological  course  at  the  Virginia  Theological 
Seminary  at  Alexandria,  being  ordained  and  taking  the 
rectorship  of  St.  Geerge’s  church,  Fredericksburg,  Va. , 
in  1858.  In  1862,  owing  to  the  partial  demolition  ot 
his  church  and  the  scattering  of  his  congregation  by  the 
battles  around  the  town,  he  left  Fredericksburg  and 
joined  the  Confederate  army,  serving  as  chaplain  till 
the  war  closed.  He  was  then  rector  of  Christ  church, 
Alexandria,  and  in  1867  became  pastor  of  Emmanuel 
church,  Baltimore,  where  he  remained  till  1883,  when 
he  was  elected  assistant  bishop  of  Virginia,  a position 
he  now  fills.  He  is  the  leader  of  the  low  church  wing 
of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  that  State.  The  degree  of 
D.  D.  was  conferred  on  him  by  William  and  Mary 
College,  and  LL.  D.  by  Washington  and  Lee  University. 

RANDOLPH,  Edmund  Jennings,  born  in  Will- 
iamsburg, Va.,  August  10,  1753;  died  in  Clarke 
county,  Va.,  September  13,  1813.  He  read  law  with 
his  father,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  Although  his 
parents  were  ardent  Tories  and  had  sailed  for  England 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  Randolph  eventually 
became  aide-de-camp  to  Washington.  Later,  he  was 
elected  mayor  of  Williamsburg,  became  the  first  attor- 
ney-general of  Virginia,  and  in  1779  was  elected  to 
congress.  From  1786  to  1788  he  was  governor  of  Vir- 
ginia; on  September  27,  1789,  was  appointed  attorney- 
general  of  the  United  States,  and  on  January  2,  1794, 
on  the  retirement  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  became  secre- 
tary of  State,  which  office  he  was  compelled  to  relin- 
quish in  consequence  of  charges  of  venality,  based  on  a 
letter  from  the  French  minister,  Tauchet,  which  was 
intercepted,  translated,  and  published  by  the  British 
minister  in  Philadelphia.  After  his  resignation  Mr. 
Randolph  returned  to  the  practice  of  his  profession  in 
Richmond,  Va.  He  was  one  of  the  counsel  of  Aaron 
Burr  ( q.v .)  on  his  trial  for  treason.  His  writings  were 
mostly  of  a political  nature. 

RANDOLPH,  Francis  Charles  Hingeston, 
M.  A.,  born  March  31,  1833;  was  educated  at  Exeter  Col- 
lege, Oxford  (B.A.,  1855;  M.A.,  1858).  Having  held 
a curacy  in  Oxford  (Holywell),  he  was  appointed  in 
1859  to  the  perpetual  curacy  of  Hampton  Gay,  near 
Oxford,  and  in  i860  to  the  rectory  of  Ringmore, 
Devon.  He  was  appointed  dean-rural,  1879;  and  preb- 
endary of  Exeter,  1885.  Since  1850  he  has  published 
many  valuable  works,  mostly  dealing  with  antiquities, 
sacred  and  profane. 

RANDOLPH,  George  V/.,  was  born  at  Monticello, 
Va.,  March  10,  1818,  and  died  near  Charlottesville, 
Va.,  April  10,  1878.  He  was  a midshipman  in  the 
United  States  navy  till  his  nineteenth  year,  when  he 
entered  the  University  of  Virginia  and  was  graduated 
therefrom.  He  studied  law  and  acquired  a large  prac- 
tice in  the  city  of  Richmond.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
war  he  raised  the  command  which,  under  Magruder’s 
leadership,  fought  Butler  at  Big  Bethel.  He  was  made 
a brigadier-general,  but  was  subsequently  appointed 
secretary  of  war  of  the  Confederate  States.  This 
office  he  resigned  and  again  took  the  field,  till  compelled 
by  ill-health  to  retire,  when  he  ran  the  blockade  and 
spent  several  years  abroad.  He  was  one  of  the  peace 
commissioners  sent  to  consult  President  Lincoln  shortly 
after  his  election,  with  the  object  of  averting  war. 
After  his  return  to  this  country  he  retired  from  active 
life  and  died  at  his  country-seat. 

RANDOLPH,  Peyton,  patriot,  was  born  in  Will- 
iamsburg, Va.,  in  1721,  and  died  in  Philadelphia, 
October  22,  1775.  He  was  graduated  at  William  and 
Mary;  then  studied  law,  and  became  king’s  attorney  for 
the  colony  under  the  governorship  of  Sir  William 
Gooch.  He  early  became  involve^  in  the  disputes  be 


RAN 


tween  the  crown  and  the  people  of  the  colonies,  being 
sent  to  England  by  the  colonists  to  resist  the  imposition 
©f  a tax  on  land  patents.  For  the  offense  of  leaving 
the  colony  without  permission,  he  was  removed  by  the 
governor  from  his  office  of  attorney,  but  was  reinstated 
on  the  demand  of  the  people.  During  the  French  and 
Indian  war  he  raised  a troop,  and  saw  some  service 
under  Colonel  Byrd.  He  was  a member  of  the  Vir- 
ginia House  of  Burgesses,  and  was  appointed  speaker  in 
1766.  He  was  chairman  of  the  committee  of  cor- 
respondence between  the  colonies,  and  was  president  of 
the  convention,  1774,  which  took  the  first  steps  toward 
organizing  the  congress  at  Philadelphia,  and  he  headed 
the  list  of  the  seven  members  sent  thereto  by  Virginia. 
For  his  participation  in  this  convention  a bill  was  intro- 
duced into  parliament  to  attaint  him,  but  it  failed  to 
pass.  He  was  unanimously  elected  president  of  the 
first  congress,  his  even  temperament  and  great  legal 
knowledge  giving  him  unbounded  influence  over  the 
body.  During  the  exciting  times  just  prior  to  the  com- 
mencement of  hostilities  between  England  and  the  col- 
onies, he  was  a prominent  actor,  being  president  both 
of  congress  and  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses.  On 
the  adjournment  of  the  Burgesses  in  1775,  he  returned 
to  resume  his  duties  in  congress,  where  he  was  stricken 
with  apoplexy  and  died.  He  revised  the  laws  of  Vir- 
ginia, and  was  one  of  the  examiners  of  Patrick  Henry 
when  he  applied  for  a license  to  practice  law,  and  his 
name  is  attached  to  the  latter’s  license.  He  lies  buried 
in  the  chapel  of  William  and  Mary  College. 

RANDOLPH,  Theodore  F.,  American  statesman, 
was  born  in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  June  24,  1816,  and 
died  in  Morristown,  N.  J.,  November  7,  1883.  After 
a residence  in  the  South  he  returned  to  New  Jersey, 
and  settled  at  Morristown.  He  was  shortly  after  elected 
to  the  legislature,  and  at  once  took  a prominent  place 
in  that  body.  He  was  the  chairman  of  the  special  com- 
mittee on  the  peace  conference  of  1861,  and  was  author 
of  the  measures  for  the  relief  of  soldiers’  families.  He 
was  elected  State  senator  in  1861,  and  served  till  1865. 
He  had  become  draft  commissioner  for  Hudson  county 
in  1862.  Pie  engaged  in  railroad  affairs  for  a time  after 
the  war,  and  was  made  governor  of  New  Jersey  in 
1868.  He  was  elected  United  States  senator  in  1874, 
and  was  a member  of  the  special  committee  on  South 
Carolina  election  frauds.  He  was  a patentee  of  several 
mechanical  inventions.  His  administration,  both  in 
state  and  railroad  affairs,  was  highly  energetic  and  uni- 
formly successful. 

RANDOLPH,  Thomas  Jefferson,  was  born  at 
Monticello,  Va.,  September  12,  1792,  and  died  near 
Charlottesville,  Va.,  October  8,  1875.  He  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Virginia,  and  early  began  to  take 
part  in  the  politics  of  the  State.  He  was  the  author  of 
a bill  in  the  Virginia  legislature  to  free  the  slaves  in 
Virginia  by  a system  of  gradual  emancipation,  which 
had  been  suggested  by  his  grandfather,  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son. The  bill  was  defeated,  owing  to  the  intense  feel- 
ing caused  by  the  acts  of  Northern  and  foreign  aboli- 
tionists. He  was  the  author  of  the  tax  bill  of  1842, 
which  saved  the  State  from  bankruptcy.  In  1851-52  he 
took  part  in  the  constitutional  convention,  and  in  1872 
he  presided  at  the  Baltimore  Democratic  convention. 
He  was  an  author  of  no  mean  ability,  and  was  the  lit- 
erary executor  of  Thomas  Jefferson.  He  was  for  many 
years  connected  with  the  University  of  Virginia,  be- 
ing for  thirty  years  a visitor  and  for  seven  years  its 
rector. 

RANKE,  Leopold  von,  the  great  German  historian, 
was  born  at  Wiehe,  Saxony,  December  21,  1795.  He 
was  educated  at  Leipsic,  and  in  1818  became  a tutor  in 
the  gymnasium  at  Frankfort,  being  removed  thence  by 


6757 

a call  to  Berlin  in  1825  to  occupy  the  post  of  professor 
extraordinary  of  history  in  the  University  theie.  In 
1824  he  published  his  first  historical  work,  A history 
of  the  Romance  and  German  Nations.  His  original 
intention  was  to  show  the  essential  unity  of  European 
civilization,  and  the  design  was  to  treat  the  different- 
states  all  in  one  combined  work,  but  this  plan  was 
afterward  modified  and  he  treated  them  separately,  pro- 
ducing a series  of  the  best  histories  ever  penned.  In 
the  odd  moments  of  time  which  he  could  snatch  from 
his  graver  labors  Ranke  diverted  himself  by  writing  a 
few  monographs  and  delivering  lectures  on  literary 
topics.  His  work,  The  Romish  Papacy , its  Church 
and  State , while  not  his  best,  is  his  most  widely  read 
effort ; having  been  translated  into  almost  every  civil- 
ized language.  After  he  had  finished  his  great  work  on 
European  history,  at  the  age  of  eighty  Ranke  began  his 
History  of  the  IVorld  and  lived  to  complete  twelve 
volumes.  He  was  assisted  by  the  government  in  every 
way  possible,  and  he  well  repaid  all  favors  shown  him. 
In  1865  he  was  knighted;  in  1867  he  was  made  chan- 
cellor of  the  order  Pour  le  merite ; in  1882  he  was  made 
a privy  councilor,  and  in  1885  his  ninetieth  birthday 
was  made  a national  holiday,  the  Emperor  William  call- 
ing on  him  at  his  residence  and  congratulating  him. 
His  later  works  show  no  diminution  of  power,  and  he 
wrote  till  within  a few  days  of  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  May,  1886. 

RANSOM,  George  Marcellus,  naval  officer,  was 
born  in  Otsego,  N.  Y.,  January  18,  1820.  He  entered 
the  navy  in  1839  and  received  his  promotion  through 
different  grades  till  he  became  lieutenant  commander, 
in  1862.  He  served  in  the  Western  Gulf  blockading 
squadron  and  saw  some  severe  fighting,  took  part  in 
Farragut’s  operations  against  New  Orleans,  and  on  the 
Mississippi  river.  For  his  services  he  was  promoted 
commander  in  1863,  and  was  transferred  to  the  North 
Atlantic  blockading  squadron,  again  earning  promotion. 
He  was  made  captain  in  1870,  and  commodore  in  1877. 
He  was  retired  in  1882. 

RANSOM,  Matt  Whittaker,  senator,  was  born 
in  Warren  county,  N.  C..  October  8,  1826.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  North  Carolina,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1847.  He  was  a Whig  presi- 
dential elector  in  1852,  and  was  attorney-general  of  the 
State  for  three  years.  Seceding  from  the  Whig  party, 
he  was  sent  to  the  legislature  by  the  Democrats,  and 
was  one  of  the  North  Carolina  commissioners  to  the 
Confederate  congress.  He  was  opposed  to  the  war,  but 
on  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  he  enlisted,  and  was 
shortly  made  colonel  in  the  35th  North  Carolina  infan- 
try. He  participated  in  all  the  campaigns  of  northern 
Virginia,  and  was  promoted  successively  brigadier  and 
major-general.  After  the  war  he  returned  to  his  practice. 
Hewas  U.  S.  senator  from  1872  until  1895,  when  he  was 
appointed  minister  to  Mexico  by  President  Cleveland. 

RANSOM,  Thomas  Edward  G. , soldier,  was  born  in 
Norwich,  Vt. , November  29,  1834,  and  died  near  Rome, 
Ga.,  October  29,  1864.  He  was  a civil  engineer  by 
profession,  but  entered  the  army  on  the  outbreak  of 
hostilities  as  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  1 ith  Illinois.  He 
participated  in  the  Fort  Henry  and  Fort  Donelson 
campaigns  and  was  twice  severely  wounded.  His 
bravery  earned  promotion  to  a colonelcy.  At  Shiloh  he 
was  again  wounded,  but  did  not  leave  the  field.  He  was 
chiefof  staff  for  Gen.  J.  A.  M’Clernand,  inspector-general 
of  the  army  of  the  Tennessee,  and  a member  of  Gen- 
eral Grant’s  staff.  In  1863  he  was  promoted  brigadier, 
and  commanded  a division  in  the  Red  river  campaign. 
He  was  fatally  wounded  at  Sabine  cross  roads,  and, 
though  he  continued  to  direct  his  troops  in  pursuit  of 
Hood’s  army,  he  finally  succumbed  to  the  effects  of  the 


RAN— RAW 


6758 

wound,  two  months  after  receiving  his  brevet  as  major- 
general. 

RANTOUL,  Robert,  Jr.,  statesman,  was  born  in 
Beverly,  Mass.,  August  13,  1805,  and  died  in  Washing- 
ton, August  7,  1852.  He  was  a graduate  of  Harvard, 
.and  began  the  practice  of  law  in  1829,  at  once  taking 
very  high  rank  in  the  legal  profession.  He  was  elected 
to  the  legislature  in  1834,  and  served  four  years.  He 
was  appointed  United  States  district  attorney  for  Mas- 
sachusetts in  1845,  resigning  in  1849.  In  1850  he  was 
the  organizer  of  the  Illinois  Central  railroad.  In  1851 
he  was  elected  United  States  senator  to  succeed  Daniel 
Webster,  and  held  the  position  nine  days.  Soon  after 
he  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Representatives  and 
served  till  his  death.  In  addition  to  his  political  serv- 
ices Mr.  Rantoul  was  prominent  as  a lawyer,  being 
engaged  in  many  important  cases,  such  as  the  Dorr  re- 
bellion trials,  and  often  successfully  opposing  the  most 
eminent  lawyers  of  the  day.  He  was  an  active  friend  of 
industrial  reform,  and  a violent  opponent  of  slavery 
extension.  He  was  also  a strong  temperance  agitator, 
but  deprecated  legislative  interference. 

RAPP,  George,  communist,  born  in  Wiirtemberg, 
Germany,  in  1770;  died  in  Economy,  Penn.,  August  7, 
1847.  He  early  planned  a commune.  Hampered  in 
his  purpose  by  the  German  government,  Rapp  came  to 
America.  In  1803  he  arrived  with  a band  of  followers 
who  founded  the  town  of  Harmony,  in  Butler  county, 
Penn.,  and  engaged  in  manufactures  and  agriculture. 
In  1815  they  changed  their  location  to  the  Wabash 
river,  Ind.,  where  they  bought  a tract  of  27,000  acres, 
and  began  a new  settlement  under  the  name  of  New 
Harmony.  In  1824  the  Harmonists  sold  their  land 
and  improvements.  Returning  to  Pennsylvania  they 
founded  two  settlements,  Harmony  and  Economy,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Alleghany  river,  seventeen  miles 
northwest  of  Pittsburgh,  Penn.  The  present  community 
possess  3,500  acres  of  land,  engage  in  agriculture, 
raise  cattle  and  silk  worms,  make  wine,  and  produce 
silk,  woolen,  and  cotton  manufactures.  The  members 
are  celibates,  and  increase  by  the  accessions  of  new 
converts ; their  society  is  flourishing  and  highly  re- 
spected. George  Rapp,  during  his  lifetime,  was  the 
director  and  was  succeeded  by  President  Becker. 

RASPAIL,  FRANgois  Vincent,  a noted  French 
chemist  and  revolutionary  leader,  was  born  in  1 794. 
He  received  a liberal  training  and  in  1830  began  his 
course  as  a political  agitator  by  taking  up  arms  against 
Charles  X.  In  1848  he  was  a prominent  revolutionary 
figure,  and  proclaimed  a republic  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville 
far  in  advance  of  events.  In  1849  he  was  tried  for 
conspiracy  and  treason  and  sentenced  to  six  years’  im- 
prisonment. In  the  commune  of  1871  he  was  again  a 
noted  actor,  despite  his  age.  He  was  an  excellent 
writer  on  professional  topics,  and  several  of  his  works 
have  been  extensively  translated  and  are  standards  of 
chemistry  the  world  over.  He  died  in  1878  and  lies 
buried  in  Pere  la  Chaise,  where  his  tomb  forms  one  of 
the  attractions  of  the  cemetery. 

RASSAM,  Hormuzd,  was  born  in  1826,  at  Mossul, 
in  Northern  Mesopotamia.  In  1845  he  joined  Mr.  Lay- 
ard  to  assist  him  in  his  Assyrian  researches.  When 
Mr.  Layard  returned  to  England  in  1847,  Mr.  Rassam 
came  with  him  to  complete  his  studies  at  Oxford,  but  at 
the  end  of  1849  he  was  sent  out  by  the  British  Museum 
authorities  to  assist  Mr.  Layard  in  his  second  undertak- 
ing. Mr.  Layard  commissioned  Mr.  Rassam  to  succeed 
him.  During  this  expedition  Mr.  Rassam  discovered 
in  Nineveh  the  palace  of  Sardanapalus.  After  this  he 
held  a political  appointment  at  Aden.  When  the  quar- 
rel took  place  in  1861  between  the  Imam  of  Muscat 
and  his  brother,  the  of  Zanzibar,  Mr.  Rassam 


was  chosen  by  Lord  Elphinstone,  the  governor  of  Bom- 
bay, to  represent  the  British  government  at  Muscat 
while  the  governor-general  of  India  was  trying  to  act  as 
a mediator  between  the  brothers.  He  was  sent  as  am- 
bassador to  King  Theodore  of  Abyssinia  to  secure  the 
release  of  some  British  citizens,  but  was  himself  impris- 
oned for  two  and  a half  years,  when  he  and  the  others 
were  released  by  Sir  Robert  Napier.  Mr.  Rassam  pub- 
lished a narrative  of  the  British  Mission  to  Theodore , 
King  of  Abyssinia.  In  1876  he  was  selected  by  the 
trustees  of  the  British  Museum  to  conduct  the  Assyrian 
explorations.  From  that  time  until  July,  1882,  he  con- 
ducted the  British  national  archaeological  researches  in 
Assyria,  Armenia,  and  Babylonia.  He  discovered, 
among  other  sites,  the  great  cities  of  Sippara,  or  Sep- 
harvaim,and  Cuthah,  situated  in  southern  Mesopotamia. 
During  the  Turko-Russian  war  he  was  sent  by  the 
British  foreign  office  on  a special  mission  to  Asia  Minor, 
Armenia,  and  Kurdistan,  to  inquire  into  the  condition 
of  the  different  Christian  communities,  who  were  said 
to  be  maltreated  by  their  Moslem  fellow  countrymen. 

RATTAZZI,  Urbano,  Italian  statesman,  was  born 
in  1808,  and  died  in  1873.  He  was  elected  to  the  cham- 
ber of  deputies  in  1848,  and  became  a leader  of  the 
Democratic  section  of  that  body.  In  this  year  he  was 
called  on  to  form  a new  ministry,  which  lasted  only  a 
short  while,  in  consequence  of  the  disastrous  battle  of 
Novarra.  In  1854  he  was  minister  of  justice,  and  was 
for  a short  time  prime  minister  in  1859.  He  was  again 
prime  minister  in  1862,  resigning  the  same  year.  In 
1867  he  was  again  in  power,  but  resigned  on  account  of 
accusations  against  him  of  favoring  the  French  cause. 
His  resignation  was  followed  soon  after  by  his  death. 

RAWLINS,  John  A.,  soldier,  was  born  in  East 
Galena,  111.,  February  13,  1831,  and  died  in  Washing- 
ton, September  9,  1869.  After  being  engaged  as  a char- 
coal burner,  he  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1854.  In  1857  he  was  elected  city  attorney  for 
Galena;  in  i860  he  was  an  elector  on  the  Douglas 
ticket.  He  was  opposed  to  any  armed  interference  with 
slavery,  but  when  the  war  broke  out  he  upheld  the  ad- 
ministration heartily,  and,  on  enlisting,  was  made  an 
aid-de-camp  to  General  Grant,  who  had  a high  opinion 
of  Rawlins’  ability.  He  joined  Grant  at  Cairo,  with 
the  rank  of  captain  and  assistant  adjutant-general,  and 
from  that  time  was  constantly  with  him  till  the  end  of 
the  war.  His  promotion  was  constant  and  rapid  and 
in  1865  he  was  brevetted  major-general  United  States 
army.  In  1869  he  was  made  secretary  of  war,  holding 
that  position  till  his  death. 

RAWLINSON,  George,  M.A.,  born  about  1815, 
entered  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  England,  in  1835; 
took  a first  class  in  classics  in  1838 ; and  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  Exeter  College  in  1840.  He  obtained  the 
Denyer  prize  for  a theological  essay  in  1842,  and  again 
in  1843  ; and  having  held  for  some  years  a tutorship  in 
his  college,  was  appointed  moderator  in  1852  ; became 
public  examiner  in  1854;  again  in  1856,  1868,  and  1874; 
and  preached  the  Bampton  lecture  in  1859.  He  was 
elected  without  a contest  to  the  Camden  professorship 
of  ancient  history  in  the  university  in  1861.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1872,  he  was  appointed  a canon  of  Canterbury. 
He  wrote  Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern 
World,  works  on  the  sixth  and  seventh  oriental  mon- 
archies and  many  other  books. 

RAWLINSON,  Sir  Henry  Creswicke,  K.C.B., 
F.R.S.,born  at  Chadlington,  Oxfordshire,  England,  in 
1810,  served  in  the  Bombay  army  from  1827  till  1833  ; 
was  sent  to  Persia  in  November,  1833,  and  between 
that  time  and  December,  1839,  was  actively  employed 
in  various  parts  of  that  country.  When  the  rupture 
•with.  Lersia  compelled,  English  officers  to  withdraw 


RAW 

j-om  chat  country,  he  proceeded  through  Scinde  to  Af- 
ghanistan, and  in  June,  1840,  was  appointed  political 
agent  at  Kandahar.  In  March,  1844,  he  was  appointed 
consul  at  Bagdad;  in  1850  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-colonel  in  Turkey;  in  1851  was  made 
consul-general,  resigning  his  post  in  February,  1855, 
^nd  was  made  a director  of  the  East  India  Company, 
and  K.C.B.  in  1856,  and  a member  of  the  Council  of 
India  from  September,  1858,  to  the  following  April. 
He  was  member  for  Reigate,  in  the  Liberal  inter- 
est, from  February  to  September,  1858,  and  was 
returned  for  Frome  at  the  general  election  in  July, 
1865.  He  was  the  author  of  several  papers  on  Oriental 
antiquities  and  geographical  research,  and  was  a 
distinguished  archaeologist.  He  died  March  5,  1895. 

RAWLINSON,  Sir  Robert,  C.B. , civil  engineer, 
born  in  Bristol,  February  28,  1810.  In  1831  he  en- 
tered the  Liverpool  dock  engineer’s  office,  and  in  1836 
passed  on  to  the  Blisworth  contract  (London  and  Bir- 
mingham railway)  under  Robert  Stephenson.  He  was 
then  engaged  in  the  construction  of  several  other  works 
of  internal  improvement.  In  the  autumn  of  1848 
Mr.  Rawlinson  was  appointed  one  of  the  first  super- 
intendent inspectors  under  the  Public  Health  Act. 
In  the  spring  of  1855  he  was  sent  as  engineering  sani- 
tary commissioner  to  the  British  army  in  the  East.  Here 
his  work  was  most  efficient,  and  afforded  the  pattern  for 
various  other  national  systems  of  hospital  sanitation — 
prominent  among  the  beneficiaries  being  the  United 
States  in  the  Civil  war.  Died  May  31,  1898. 

RAY,  John,  American  lawyer,  was  born  in  Missouri, 
October  14,  1816,  and  died  in  New  Orleans  March  4, 
1888.  He  received  a university  education,  removed 
to  Monroe,  La.,  and  studied  law,  being  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1839.  From  the  first  he  took  a high  rank.  He 
served  in  early  life  in  both  houses  of  the  State  legisla- 
ture, and  was  candidate  for  lieutenant-governor  on  the 
Whig  ticket.  He  was  a presidential  elector  in  i860  for 
Bell  and  Everett.  During  the  war  he  was  a Union 
man,  and  at  the  end  of  the  war  was  elected  to  congress, 
but  was  not  allowed  to  take  his  seat.  For  four  years, 
1868-72,  he  was  State  senator,  and  was  engaged  in 
revising  the  State  code  of  Louisiana.  He  was  registrar 
of  the  State  land  office  in  New  Orleans  four  years.  In 
1873  he  was  elected  to  the  Senate  by  the  Kellogg  legis- 
lature, but  was  again  rejected.  He  was  special  attorney 
in  1878  to  prosecute  the  “ whisky  ring  ” cases.  He  was 
also  counsel  in  many  other  causes  celebre ’,  among  the 
most  noted  being  the  suit  of  Mrs.  Myra  Clark  Gaines. 
He  was  the  author  of  Ray's  Digest  of  Louisiana  Lazo. 

RAYMOND,  Henry  Jarvis,  American  journalist, 
was  born  in  Lima,  N.  Y.,  January  24,  1820,  and  died  in 
New  York  city,  June  18,  1869.  He  was  graduated 
from  the  University  of  Vermont,  and  studied  law.  On 
the  establishment  of  the  New  York  Tribtine,  Mr.  Ray- 
mond became  assistant  editor.  His  next  journalistic 
engagement  was  with  the  Courier  and  Enquirer.  In 
1849  he  was  a Whig  member  of  the  State  legislature, 
and  in  1850  was  made  speaker.  He  founded  the  New 
York  Times  in  1851.  In  1854  he  was  lieutenant- 
governor  of  the  State.  He  was  one  of  the  organizers 
of  the  Republican  party.  After  the  battle  of  Bull  Run 
he  favored  the  organization  of  a provisional  govern- 
ment, with  greater  powers  than  then  existed.  In  1864 
he  was  elected  to  congress,  where  his  position  as  to  the 
reconstruction  of  the  seceding  States  was  unique.  He 
was  tendered  various  other  political  preferments,  but  de- 
clined them  all,  and  returned  to  his  profession.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  party  platforms  and  addresses, 
and  was  equally  powerful  as  an  orator  or  writer. 

RAYMOND,  John  T.,  actor,  was  born  in  Buffalo, 
IN.  V.,  April  5,  1836,  and  died  in  Evansville,  Ind., 


-REA  6759 

April  10,  1887.  His  real  name  was  John  O’Brien.  He 
made  his  debut  at  the  Rochester  theater  in  1853,  in  The 
Honeymoon.  His  first  tour  was  made  with  E.  A. 
Sothern,  in  our  Our  American  Cousin , he  taking  the 
part  of  “Asa  Packard.”  After  playing  in  various  other 
comedies,  Raymond,  in  1871,  went  to  New  York,  where 
he  scored  the  success  of  his  life  in  The  Gilded  Age. 
This  play  he  made  peculiarly  his  own,  and  delighted 
thousands  with  his  whimsically  humorous  rendition  of 
“Colonel  Sellers.”  He  made  a European  tour  in  the 
character,  but  did  not  meet  with  success,  and  soon  re- 
turned to  America.  He  made  his  last  appearance  on 
the  stage  in  Hopkinsville,  Ky. 

RAYMOND,  Rossiter  W.,  mining  engineer,  was 
born  in  Cincinnati,  April  27,  1840;  and  was  educated  in 
the  Brooklyn  Polytechnic  Institute  and  the  Royal  Mining 
Academy  at  Freiberg,  Saxony.  He  also  took  university 
courses  at  Heidelberg  and  Munich.  He  served  in  the 
United  States  army  as  aide-de-camp  from  1862  to  1864, 
when  he  resigned  and  settled  in  New  York  city  as  a con- 
sulting engineer.  In  1868  he  was  made  census  commis- 
sioner, holding  the  office  eight  years,  and  publishing 
many  valuable  metallurgical  reports.  He  lectured  on 
economic  geology  at  Lafayette  College  for  twelve  years. 
Heis  a member  of  various  mining  and  engineering  socie- 
ties, and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  Insti- 
tute ©f  Mining  Engineers.  He  has  written  extensively 
on  professional  subjects,  and  has  sometimes  found  diver- 
sion in  literary  work  of  a lighter  character.  He  has 
edited  several  mining  journals,  and  has  held  various  gov- 
ernment commissions,  for  which  his  technical  knowl- 
edge makes  him  peculiarly  fit. 

READ,  Clare  Sewell,  a distinguished  agricultur- 
ist, was  born  at  Ketteringham,  Norfolk,  England,  in 
1826.  He  entered  parliament  in  1865  in  the  Conserva- 
tive interest,  as  a member  for  East  Norfolk.  After  the 
dissolution  in  1868  he  was  returned  for  the  southern  sec- 
tion of  the  county,  and  continued  to  represent  that  con- 
stituency until  1885.  In  1874  he  was  appointed  parlia- 
mentary secretary  of  the  local  board.  He  is  president 
of  the  Norfolk  Chamber  of  Agriculture,  and  an  asso- 
ciate of  the  Farmers’  Club. 

READ,  George,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, born  in  Cecil  county,  Md.,  September  17, 

1 733?  died  in  Newcastle,  Del.,  September  21, 1798.  He 
was  educated  in  Chester,  Penn.,  and,  at  the  early  age  of 
nineteen,  became  a member  of  the  Philadelphia  bar.  In 
1754  he  went  to  Newcastle,  Md.,  and  from  1763  to  1774 
was  attorney  of  Kent,  Delaware,  and  Sussex  counties. 
In  1774  he  was  elected  to  the  first  congress  that  met  at 
Philadelphia.  From  1789  to  1793  he  was  United  States 
senator,  and  subsequently  became  chief  justice  of  Dela- 
ware. 

READ,  John  Meredith,  F.  R.G.S.,  was  born  at 
Philadelphia,  February  21,  1837,  and  received  his  edu- 
cation in  a military  school.  He  graduated  M.A.  at 
Brown  University  in  1858,  and  LL.  B.  at  the  Albany 
Law  School  in  1859,  and  studied  civil  and  international 
law  in  Europe.  He  entered  the  army  and  won  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general  at  the  age  of  twenty-three.  He  was 
chairman  of  a committee  of  three  to  draft  a bill  appro- 
priating $3,000,000  for  the  purchase  of  arms  and  equip- 
ments, and  received  the  official  thanks  of  the  war  de- 
partment for  his  ability  in  the  organization  and  equip- 
ment of  troops  during  the  war.  He  was  appointed,  in 
1869,  consul-general  of  the  United  States  for  France 
and  Algeria,  to  reside  at  Paris.  General  Read  like- 
wise acted  as  consul-general  of  Germany  during  the 
Franco-German  war,  and  afterward,  for  nearly  two 
years,  directed  all  the  consular  affairs  of  that  empire. 
From  1873  to  1879  he  was  United  States  minister  to 
Greece.  General  Read  was  president  of  -the  American 


R £ A — R E D 


6760 

Social  Science  Congress  at  Albany  in  1868,  and  a vice- 
president  of  the  British  Social  Science  Congress  at 
Plymouth  in  1872.  He  is  an  honorary  fellow  or 
member  of  a great  number  of  learned  bodies. 

READ,  Opie  P.,  was  born  in  Nashville,  Tenn., 
December  22,  1852,  and  was  educated  at  a private 
school.  In  1873  he  became  associated  with  the  Frank- 
lin (Ky.)  Patriot , and  afterward  had  charge  of  the  city 
department  of  the  Little  Rock  (Ark.)  Gazette.  Here 
he  first  became  known  through  his  sketches  of  South- 
ern life  and,  his  inimitable  negro  dialect  stories.  In 
1882  he  began  the  publication  of  the  Arkansaw  Trav- 
eller, and  he  has  written  many  popular  novels. 

READ,  Thomas  Buchanan,  poet,  born  in  Chester 
county,  Penn.,  March  12,  1822;  died  in  New  York 
city,  May  11,  1872.  In  1839  he  went  to  Cincinnati, 
where  he  found  a home  with  S.  V.  Clevenger,  the 
sculptor,  learned  sign-painting,  and  at  intervals  attended 
school.  Later  he  wandered  from  place  to  place,  paint- 
ing signs  or  portraits,  giving  public  entertainments,  or 
making  cigars.  During  the  Civil  war  he  gave  public 
readings,  and  recited  war-songs  in  the  camps  of  soldiers; 
his  poem,  The  Wagoner  of  the  Alleghanies,  was  read 
throughout  the  country  by  Mr.  J.  E.  Murdoch,  the 
elocutionist.  Among  his  paintings  are  several  well- 
known  compositions  of  undoubted  merit. 

REAGAN,  John  H.,  senator,  was  born  in  Sevier 
county,  Tenn.,  October  8,  1818.  In  1839  he  went  to 
Texas,  where  he  served  against  the  Indians  under  A.  S. 
Johnston,  declining  a commission  in  the  army.  He 
began  the  siudy  of  law  and  was  licensed  to  practice.  In 
1846  he  became  probate  judge  of  Henderson  county, 
and  the  next  year  was  sent  to  the  legislature,  where  he 
served  on  important  committees.  In  1852  he  was  dis- 
trict judge,  and  he  was  successful  in  driving  out  of  his 
district  a large  portion  of  the  lawless  element  that  in- 
fested it.  He  was  elected  to  congress  in  1856,  serving 
till  the  war  broke  out,  when  he  became  a member  of 
the  State  Secession  Convention;  voted  for  secession, 
and  was  sent  to  the  provisional  congress.  He  was  made 
postmaster-general  of  the  Confederacy,  and  was  for  a 
short  time  acting  secretary  of  the  treasury.  After  the 
fall  of  the  Confederacy  he  was  captured  with  Jefferson 
Davis,  and  confined  for  many  months  in  Fort  Warren. 
After  his  release  some  of  his  utterances  were  miscon- 
strued, and  he  was  relegated  to  private  life  for  nine 
years,  but  he  was  elected  to  congress  in  1874,  and  suc- 
cessively till  1887,  in  which  year  he  was  elected  senator 
for  Texas,  resigning  in  1891.  He  was  almost  contin- 
uously chairman  of  the  committee  on  commerce,  and  was 
one  of  the  authors  of  the  inter-state  commerce  law. 

REALF,  Richard,  poet,  was  born  in  England  in 
1834,  and  died  in  California  in  October,  1878.  His 
early  life  was  spent  in  his  native  country,  where  some 
of  nis  poems  were  published.  In  1854  he  came  to 
America,  and  was  engaged  as  a city  missionary  and 
street  exhorter  in  New  York  city.  In  1856  he  emi- 
grated to  Kansas,  and  at  once  became  an  adherent  of 
John  Brown,  having  assigned  to  him  the  office  of  secre- 
tary of  state  in  the  new  government  which  Brown  pro- 
posed to  found.  When  Brown  was  captured  at  Harper’s 
Ferry,  Realf  was  arrested  in  Texas,  and  narrowly  es- 
caped lynching  on  his  trip  to  Washington.  He  enlisted 
in  the  army  in  1862,  and  served  till  the  close  of  the  war. 
Some  of  his  best  poems  were  written  in  the  field,  and 
they  became  widely  popular  among  the  soldiers.  He 
rose  to  the  rank  of  captain.  After  the  war  he  estab- 
lished a negro  school  in  South  Carolina,  and  was 
collector  of  revenue  for  Edgefield  district.  He  re- 
signed the  position,  and  turned  his  attention  to  jour- 
nalism and  lecturing,  residing  in  Pittsburg.  His 
lectures  were  highly  spoken  of,  and  he  was  much 


admired.  He  committed  suicide  on  account  of  domestic 
complications. 

RECLUS,  Jean  Jacques  Elis£e,  a French  geo- 
graphical writer,  was  born  at  Sainte-Foy-la-Grande 
(Gironde),  March  15,  1830,  and  educated  in  Rhenish 
Prussia.  Holding  extreme  democratic  opinions,  he 
left  France  after  the  coup  d'etat  of  December  2,  1851, 
and  traveled  from  1852  to  1857  in  England,  Ireland, 
the  United  States,  Central  America,  and  New  Grenada, 
where  he  stayed  several  years.  On  his  return  to  Paris 
he  communicated  to  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  the 
Tour  du  Monde,  and  other  periodicals,  the  results  of 
his  voyages  and  geographical  researches.  When  the 
insurrection  of  March  18,  1871,  broke  out,  M.  Reclus, 
after  publishing  an  eloquent  appeal  to  his  countrymen 
in  favor  of  conciliation,  flung  in  his  lot  with  the  Com- 
mune. For  this  he  was  sentenced  to  transportation  for 
life  (November,  1871).  His  sentence  was,  however, 
commuted  into  one  of  banishment  in  February,  1872. 
He  subsequently  resided  at  Lugano,  in  Switzerland. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  benefit  of  the  amnesty  in 
March,  1879. 

REDFIELD,  Isaac  F.,  was  born  in  Connecticut, 
April  10,  1804,  and  died  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  March 
23,  1876.  He  was  graduated  from  Dartmouth,  and 
began  the  practice  of  law  in  1825.  He  was  attorney 
for  Orleans  county  from  1832  to  1835,  when  he  became 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Vermont.  In  1852  he 
became  chief  justice  and  retired  from  the  bench  in  i860. 
From  1857  to  1861  he  held  the  chair  of  medical  juris- 

rudence  at  Dartmouth.  In  1861  he  made  Boston  his 

ome,  where  he  remained  till  his  death.  He  was  sent 
to  Europe  in  1867  as  special  attorney  for  the  United 
States,  and  had  charge  of  many  important  cases  in  Eng- 
land and  France.  He  received  the  degree  of  LL.  D. 
from  both  Trinity  and  Dartmouth.  He  wrote  a long 
list  of  legal  works,  and  for  fourteen  years  was  the  edi- 
tor of  the  American  Law  Register. 

REDGRAVE,  Richard,  R.A.,  was  born  in  Pim- 
lico, April  30,  1804.  He  began  to  study  from  the  mar- 
bles in  the  British  Museum  in  1822,  and  was  admitted 
a student  in  the  Royal  Academy  in  1826.  He  twice 
competed,  but  without  success,  for  the  academy  gold 
medal.  A picture  exhibited  at  the  British  Institution, 
Gulliver  on  the  Farmer’s  Table,  bought  for  the  purpose 
of  engraving,  was  his  first  success.  In  conjunction  with 
Mr.  H.  Cole  he  formed  the  Museum  of  Ornamental 
Art  at  Marlborough  House,  which  enlarged  under  their 
joint  charge  into  tne  Museum  of  Art  at  South  Kensing- 
ton. In  1851  Mr.  Redgrave  was  named  one  of  the 
jurors  on  the  section  of  fine  arts.  The  arrangements 
for  representing  British  art  in  the  Paris  Universal  Ex- 
hibition of  1855  were  intrusted  to  him.  In  1858  he 
was  appointed  surveyor  of  crown  pictures.  Mr.  Red- 
grave resigned  his  appointment  as  keeper  of  the  royal 
pictures  and  his  connection  with  the  Department  of  Sci- 
ence and  Art  in  1880.  He  died  December  14,  1888. 

RED  JACKET,  or  Sagoxewatha,  chief  of  the  Seneca 
Indians,  born  near  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  1751  ; died  in 
Seneca  village,  N.  Y.,  January  30, 1830.  After  the  death 
of  Brant  he  became  the  most  important  member  of  his 
tribe.  During  the  Revolution  he  served  the  cause  of 
Great  Britain,  but  in  the  war  of  1812  fought  on  behalf 
of  the  United  States.  In  1810  he  gave  information  to 
the  Indian  agents  of  the  attempts  of  Tecumseh  and  the 
Prophet  to  draw  the  Senecas  into  the  western  conspiracy, 
and  in  the  same  year  visited  Washington  city,  where  he 
delivered  an  eloquent  speech  on  the  subject.  Red 
Jacket  was  a patriot,  and  loved  his  nation,  but  pre- 
dicted the  eventual  extinction  of  the  Indian  race.  In  his 
old  age  he  became  drunken  and  lost  his  intelligence.  His 
remains  were  buried  in  Forest  Lawn  cemetery,  Buffalo- 


R E D — R E E 


REDMOND,  J.  E.,  born  in  Ireland  in  1856,  entered 
parliament  in  1880  as  member  for  New  Ross,  and  was 
elected  for  Wexford  in  1885,  and  for  Waterford  City  in 
1892.  He  was  one  of  the  most  popular  of  Parnell’s 
lieutenants  and  an  ardent  champion  of  his  chief  in  the 
divisions  among  the  Irish  nationalists,  becoming  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Parnellite  wing,  which  in  1895  took 
his  name,  becoming  known  as  the  Redmondites. 

REDPATH,  James,  author  and  journalist,  born  in 
Scotland,  1833,  died  February  10,  1891.  He  became  an 
editor  of  the  New  York  Tribune  at  the  age  of  nineteen, 
was  a noted  abolitionist;  Kansas  correspondent  of  the 
Tribune  during  the  border  warfare,  and  war  correspond- 
ent during  the  Civil  war.  He  founded  colored  schools 
and  an  orphans’  asylum  in  South  Carolina;  traveled 
through  Ireland  during  the  famine  of  1881  for  the 
Tribune ; lectured  in  the  United  States  on  Ireland; 
published  Redpath's  Weekly  in  behalf  of  the  Irish  cause, 
and  became  an  editor  of  the  North  American  Review 
in  1886. 

REDWOOD,  Abraham,  philanthropist,  born  in 
Antigua,  West  Indies,  in  1709,  died  in  Newport,  R.  I., 
March  6,  1788.  He  gave  $2500,  in  1747,  for  a public 
library  in  Newport,  still  known  as  the  Redwood  Li- 
brary, $2500  for  a Quaker  school,  and  $2500  for  a col- 
lege in  Providence,  R.  I. 

REED,  Henry,  born  in  Philadelphia,  July  11,  1808, 
and  lost  at  sea,  September,  1854,  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  was  professor  of  Eng- 
lish literature  there  from  1831,  his  courses  of  lectures 
having  great  literary  merit. 

REED,  Joseph,  born  in  Trenton,  N.  J.,  August  27, 
1741;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  March  5,  1785. 
He  was  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1757,  studied  law, 
was  admitted  to  practice  in  1763,  and  spent  two  years 
as  a law  student  in  the  Middle  Temple  in  London.  In 
1765  he  returned  to  Trenton,  and  followed  his  profes- 
sion; but  in  1770  again  went  to  England,  where  he 
married.  Returning,  he  settled  in  Philadelphia.  In 
January,  1775,  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  second 
provincial  congress.  When  the  Revolutionary  troubles 
began,  Mr.  Reed  was  chosen  lieutenant-colonel,  and 
later  became  military  secretary  to  General  Washington. 
In  October,  1775,  he  returned  to  Philadelphia,  and  on 
June  5th  of  the  following  year  became  adjutant-general 
of  the  American  army,  with  the  rank  of  colonel.  In 
1 777  Colonel  Reed  was  made  brigadier-general  and  was 
appointed  chief-justice  of  Pennsylvania  under  the  new 
constitution  but  declined  both  these  appointments, 
however.  He  was  with  the  army  at  the  battles  of 
Brandywine,  Germantown,  and  Monmouth.  Later  he 
declined  a number  of  proffered  offices,  and  in  December, 
1778,  was  chosen  president  of  the  supreme  executive 
council  of  Pennsylvania,  in  which  office  he  continued 
three  years.  He  was  an  author  of  some  pretensions. 

REED,  Sir  Edward  James,  M.P.,  born  at  Sheer- 
ness, September  20,  1830,  was  educated  at  the  School 
of  Mathematics  and  Naval  Construction,  Portsmouth, 
served  in  a subordinate  capacity  in  Sheerness  dockyard, 
and  was  afterward  editor  of  the  Mechanics'  Magazine. 
He  paid  great  attention  to  naval  architecture,  on  which 
he  became  an  authority,  and  was  induced  to  accept  the 
secretaryship  of  the  Institution  of  Naval  Architects. 
He  submitted  to  the  admiralty  proposals  to  reduce  the 
dimensions,  cost,  and  time  required  for  building  iron- 
clads, and  was  soon  after  appointed  chief  constructor 
of  the  navy.  He  was  returned  to  parliament  in  the 
Liberal  interest  as  member  for  the  Pembroke  boroughs 
at  the  general  election  of  February,  1874.  He  repre- 
sented that  constituency  till  April,  1880,  when  he  was 
returned  for  Cardiff.  He  was  reelected  for  Cardiff  at 
the  general  election  in  November,  1885,  and  again  in 


6761 

February,  1886,  on  his  appointment  as  a lord  of  the 
treasury  in  Mr.  Gladstone’s  administration.  He  has 
been  several  times  decorated  and  knighted  by  different 
sovereigns,  and  he  also  appeared  before  the  public  as 
an  author.  v 

REED,  Thomas  Allen,  born  at  Watchet,  Somer- 
setshire, England,  April  6,  1826;  was  associated  with 
Mr.  Isaac  Pitman  in  the  promulgation  of  phonography, 
and  he  was  for  many  years  the  head  of  a firm  of  short- 
hand writers  in  London.  He  was  also  president  of  the 
London  Phonetic  Shorthand  Writers’ Association ; past 
president  of  the  Shorthand  Society;  member  of  the 
Council  of  the  Institute  of  Shorthand  Writers;  and  hon- 
orary member  of  many  foreign  shorthand  associations. 

REED,  Thomas  Brackett,  statesman,  was  born 
in  Maine,  October  18,  1839.  He  was  graduated  from 
Bowdoin  in  i860,  and  studied  law.  In  1864  he  entered 
the  navy  as  acting  assistant  paymaster,  remaining  in  that 
position  till  1865.  He  then  resumed  his  profession.  In 
1868  he  was  a member  of  the  lower  branch  of  the  Maine 
legislature,  and  next  session  was  a senator.  He  was 
attorney-general  of  the  State  for  two  years,  and  city 
solicitor  for  Portland  for  four  years.  He  was  elected 
a member  of  congress  in  1876,  and  has  since  been  con- 
tinuously reelected.  In  the  fifty-first  congress  he  was 
elected  speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  and 
the  vigor  of  his  administration  attracted  widespread  at- 
tention. He  is  a Republican,  and  one  of  the  leading 
members  of  his  party.  With  the  defeat  of  Harrison  in 
1892  Reed  became  a leading  candidate  for  president 
in  1896. 

REEDER,  Andrew  Horatio,  first  governor  of 
Kansas,  was  born  in  Easton,  Penn.,  August  6,  1807, 
and  died  there  July  6,  1864.  He  was  a Democrat,  and 
was  made  governor  of  Kansas  on  account  of  his  politi- 
cal antecedents ; but  on  his  arrival  in  Kansas,  the  state 
of  affairs  existing  there  caused  a change  of  faith.  He 
endeavored  to  secure  fair  elections,  but  failed,  men 
from  Missouri  taking  possession  of  the  polls  and  “stuff- 
ing” the  ballot-boxes  with  atrocious  audacity.  In  the 
first  legislative  election,  the  number  of  illegal  votes 
was  four  times  that  of  the  legal.  Reeder  being  a lawyer 
and  a strict  constructionist,  was  fain  to  be  governed  by 
the  face  of  the  returns,  issuing  certificates  of  election 
to  the  fraudulently  elected  candidates,  at  the  same  time 
seeking  aid  from  Washington  to  prosecute  the  partici- 
pants in  the  frauds.  The  attorney-general  refused  to 
aid  him  in  this  measure,  and  President  Pierce  requested 
his  resignation  as  governor  of  the  Territory.  He  then 
settled  in  Lawrence,  Kan.,  and  took  an  active  part 
in  the  free-state  movement,  which  originated  at  Law- 
rence, and  held  its  first  convention  near  that  place.  He 
was  twice  chosen  as  delegate  to  congress,  and  twice 
refused  his  seat  by  that  body.  Under  the  Topeka  con- 
stitution, he,  in  company  with  James  H.  Lane,  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  but  neither  gentle- 
man was  allowed  to  take  his  seat.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  war,  he  and  Gen.  Nathaniel  Lyon,  of  Missouri, 
were  among  the  first  brigadiers  appointed  by  President 
Lincoln,  but  Mr.  Reeder  refused  to  serve  on  the  ground 
that  he  was  too  old  to  learn  a new  profession.  He  then 
retired  to  private  life  at  Easton,  where  he  died. 

REEVE,  Henry,  C.B.,  born  in  Norfolk,  England, 
in  1813,  was  educated  at  Geneva  and  Munich,  and  ap- 
pointed in  1837  to  the  office  of  registrar  of  the  privy  coun- 
cil, holding  it  until  1887.  He  succeeded  the  late  Sir 
G.  C.  Lewis  as  editor  of  th o.  Edinburgh  Review  in  1855. 
He  published  numerous  historical  and  political  essays. 
He  was  elected  in  1865  a corresponding  member  of  the 
institute  of  France  by  the  Acad6mie  des  Sciences 
Morales  et  Politiques.  The  University  of  Oxford  con- 
ferred on  him  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  Died  Oct.,  1895,, 


REE-REM 


6762 

REEVES,  Helen  B.  See  Mathers,  H.  B. 

REEVES,  Sims,  famous  tenor  singer,  born  at 
Shooters  Hill,  Kent,  England,  October  21,  1822,  made 
his  first  appearance  on  the  stage  at  Newcastle,  in  1839, 
and  soon  sang  in  Italian  opera  at  La  Scala,  Milan. 
His  first  original  character  was  in  Balfe’s  opera  of  the 
Maid  of  Honor , and  he  appeared  at  the  Queen’s 
theater,  as  “ Carlo,”  in  Linda  di  Chamouni,  in  1848, 
and  long  held  the  rank  of  first  English  tenor  and  a great 
popular  favorite.  He  died  Oct.  25,  1900. 

REHAN,  Ada  C.,  a noted  actress  whose  real  name 
is  Crehan,  was  born  at  Limerick,  Ireland,  February 
22,  i860,  was  brought  to  America  in  1866,  and  made 
her  debut  at  the  age  of  sixteen  at  Albany,  New  York, 
in  “ L’Assommoir.”  After  playing  with  Edwin  Booth, 
she  was  engaged  in  1878  by  Augustin  Daly,  as  leading 
lady  of  his  famous  stock  company,  retaining  that  posi- 
tion until  1895,  when  she  began  starring  under  his 
management.  In  1888  and  later  years  she  achieved  a 
splendid  success  in  repertoire  in  London,  and  is  im- 
mensely popular  in  the  United  States,  where  she  has 
created  over  40  roles  in  light  comedy  and  is  most  suc- 
cessful in  the  exacting  part  of  “Katherine”  in 
Taming  of  the  Shrew  and  as  “ Rosalind,”  as  “Viola” 
and  as  “ Countess  Vera  ” in  the  Last  Word. 

REICHEL,  Charles  Parsons,  D.  D.,  Bishop  of 
Meath  from  1885,  and  professor  at  Dublin  University, 
was  born  near  Leeds,  England,  and  educated  at  Berlin 
and  Dublin,  and  was  prominent  in  the  councils  of  the 
Church  of  Ireland.  He  died  March  29,  1894. 

REID,  Samuel  Chester,  born  at  Norwich,  Conn., 
August  25,  1 795»  entered  the  American  navy,  as  com- 
mander of  a privateer,  repulsed  a British  attack  on 
Fayal  in  1814.  and  designed  the  American  flag  in  its 
present  form.  He  died  January  28,  1861. 

REID,  Sir  Thomas  Wemyss,  born  at  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne,  England,  in  1842,  conducted  provincial  news- 
papers, became  editor  of  the  Speaker  in  1890,  has 
contributed'*  largely  to  leading  reviews  and  magazines, 
and  has  written  several  works  of  fiction,  political  and 
economic  essays,  and  sketches  of  English  statesmen 
in  Cabinet  Portraits.  He  was  knighted  in  1894. 

REID,  Whitelaw,  born  at  Xenia,  Ohio,  October 
27,  1837;  was  graduated  at  Miami  University  in  1856, 
and  took  editorial  charge  of  the  Xenia  News  during 
the  year  following.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil 
war  he  became  the  Washington  correspondent  of  the 
Cincinnati  Gazette , and  his  letters,  written  from  the 
capital  over  the  nom  de  plume  of  “ Agate,”  attracted 
wide-spread  attention.  Afterward  he  accompanied  the 
Union  army  on  its  march  South,  and  his  descriptions  of 
the  engagements  which  occurred  at  various  points  in 
Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  and  ’Tennessee,  were  valuable 
contributions  to  the  record  of  the  war.  In  1865  he 
accepted  an  editorial  position  on  the  staff  of  the  New 
York  Tribune,  and,  upon  the  death  of  Horace  Greeley, 
he  succeeded  to  the  ownership  and  management  of  that 
paper.  In  the  local,  State,  and  national  campaigns 
which  have  occurred  since  Mr.  Reid  became  a resident 
of  New  York,  he  has  exercised  a powerful  influence  in 
shaping  public  opinion,  and  upon  the  accession  of  Pres- 
ident Harrison  he  was  appointed  United  States  minister 
to  Paris.  He  is  the  author  of  a number  of  books  relat- 
ing to  the  history  of  Ohio  during  the  war,  to  the  condi- 
tion of  the  South  after  the  war,  and  upon  subjects,  of  a 
olitical  and  journalistic  character.  Mr.  Reid  resigned 
is  post  at  Paris  in  June  1892  and  received  the  Repub- 
lican nomination  for  Vice-President  at  the  National 
Convention  held  in  Minneapolis. 

REINPIART,  Benjamin  F.,  an  American  artist, 
born  at  Waynesburg,  Penn.,  August  29,  1829,  and 
studied  his  art  at  the  New  York  National  Academy. 


In  1850  he  visited  Europe  and  continued  his  studies  at 
Diisseldorf,  Paris,  and  Berlin.  Upon  his  return  to  the 
United  States  he  located  in  New  York,  remaining  there 
until  i860,  when  he  went  to  England,  and  for  the  next 
eight  years  resided  in  London.  In  1869  he  again  be- 
came established  in  New  York,  and  in  1871  was  made 
a member  of  the  National  Academy.  His  paintings, 
which  consist  largely  of  historical  subjects  and  por- 
traits of  distinguished  public  men  of  Europe  and  the 
United  States,  are  highly  valued  He  died  in  Phila- 
delphia, May  3,  1885. 

REINKENS,  Joseph  Hubert,  D.D.,  one  of  tru,- 
leaders  of  the  “ Old  Catholic  ” movement  in  Germany, 
was  born  at  Burtschied,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  March  1,  1821, 
and  was  ordained  priest  in  1848.  He  filled  various 
ecclesiastical  positions,  and  was  professor  in  the  uni- 
versity for  several  terms.  He  was  one  of  the  fourteen 
professors  who,  at  Nuremburg,  protested  against  the 
Vatican  decrees  in  August,  1870.  For  this  he  was  sus- 
pended from  his  professorship,  and  in  1872  he  was  ex- 
communicated. Doctor  Reinkens  became  a prominent 
leader  of  the  so-called  “Old  Catholics,”  and  was 
elected  bishop  of  the  new  sect,  June  4,  1873,  at 
Cologne.  Doctor  Reinkens  has  published  numerous 
works  in  German  on  the  theological  controversies  of 
the  day.  He  died  Jan.  5,  1896. 

REMINGTON,  Joseph  P.,  an  American  chemist; 
was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  March  26,  1847,  and  be- 
came a graduate  of  the  college  of  pharmacy  in  that  city 
during  1866,  succeeding  to  the  professorship  of  theory 
and  practice  in  the  Philadelphia  college  eight  years 
later.  He  was  given  the  degree  of  master  in  pharmacy 
by  the  same  institution  in  1880.  During  the  latter  year 
(he  became  the  first  president  of  the  American  Pharma- 
ceutical Association,  and  vice-president  of  the  committee 
appointed  to  revise  the  United  States  Pharmacopoeia. 
He  is  also  a member  of  the  leading  pharmaceutical  asso- 
ciations of  Europe,  and  of  similar  associations  in  several 
States  of  the  Union.  He  is  editor  of  the  United  States 
Dispensatory  and  a contributor  of  articles  on  scientific 
subjects  to  American  and  foreign  periodicals. 

REMINGTON,  Philo,  an  American  inventor,  was 
born  at  Litchfield,  N.  Y.,  October  31,  1816;  was  edu- 
cated at  the  common  schools,  and  upon  his  graduation 
from  the  academy  at  Cazenovia,  N.  became  an 
apprentice  in  a factory,  of  which  he  was  subseqently 
appointed  superintendent.  Later,  he  became  a member 
of  the  firm  of  E.  Remington  & Sons,  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  fire-arms,  and  making  a specialty  of  the 
Remington  breech-loading  rifle.  Later  still,  the  firm 
came  into  possession  of  an  invention  which  was  per- 
fected as  a type-writer  under  their  direction  and  has 
come  into  almost  universal  use.  Since  1886,  when  the 
firm  was  dissolved,  Mr.  Remington  has  taken  no  active 
part  in  business  affairs. 

REMSEN,  Ira,  was  born  in  New  York  city,  Feb- 
ruary 10,  1846,  and  is  a graduate  of  the  medical  depart- 
ment of  Columbia  College.  He  studied  chemistry  in 
the  universities  of  Munich  and  Gottingen,  and  in  1870 
became  an  assistant  at  Tubingen,  returning  to  the 
United  States  during  1872,  when  he  was  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  chemistry  and  physics  in  Williams  College. 
He  remained  there  four  years,  and  then  resigned  to 
accept  a similar  position  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity. The  results  of  his  investigations  and  experiments 
there  'include  saccharine,  sulphur-fluoresciens  and  other 
chemical  developments.  In  1881  he  made  a successful 
examination  of  the  causes  of  the  unhealthy  condition  of 
the  water  used  for  drinking  and  domestic  purposes  in 
Boston,  and  was  also  employed  by  the  National  Board 
of  Health  to  conduct  certain  investigations.  In  1870 
the  degree  of  Ph.D.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  tltf 


REN 


University  of  Gottingen.  He  is  also  a member  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  of  the  leading  asso- 
ciations of  the  same  character  in  Europe.  The  Ameri- 
can Chemical  Journal  was  established  by  him  in  1879* 
and  in  1901  he  became  president  of  Johns  Hopkins. 

RENAN,  Joseph  Ernest,  philologist,  member  of 
the  French  Institute,  born  at  Tr£guier,  Cotes-du-Nord, 
France,  February  27,  1823 ; was  destined  for  the  eccle- 
siastical profession,  and  went  to  Paris  at  an  early  age  in 
order  to  study.  But  his  independence  of  thought  did 
not  accord  with  the  necessary  qualifications  for  the 
priesthood,  and  he  quitted  the  seminary  in  order  to  be 
better  able  to  pursue  his  own  course.  In  1848  he 
gained  the  Volney  prize  for  a memoir  upon  the  Semitic 
languages.  His  work,  entitled  Etude  de  la  Langue 
Grecque  an  Moyen  Age,  published  in  1845,  was  crowned 
by  the  Institute.  In  1849  he  was  sent  to  Italy  on  a 
literary  mission  by  the  Academie  des  Inscriptions  et 
Belles-Lettres,  in  1851  was  attached  to  the  department 
of  manuscripts  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  and  in 
1856  was  elected  a member  of  the  Academie  des  In- 
scriptions in  place  of  M.  Augustin  Thierry.  At  the 
end  of  i860  he  was  sent  on  a mission  to  Syria.  In 
1862  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew,  but  did 
not  permanently  occupy  th'e  chair  for  fear  of  a renewal 
of  the  manifestations  which  occurred  at  his  opening 
lecture  in  February.  In  1863  he  published  his  well- 
known  Vie  de  Jesus,  the  result  being  that  the  author 
was  dismissed  from  his  professorship.  M.  Duruy,  the 
minister  of  public  instruction,  endeavored  to  conceal 
the  significance  of  this  dismissal  by  giving  him  an  office 
in  the  Bibliotheque  Imperiale ; he,  however,  strongly 
rotested  against  the  appointment,  which  was  revoked 
une  11,  1864.  At  the  elections  to  the  Corps  Legis- 
late in  May,  1869,  he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate 
in  the  second  circonscription  of  the  department  of 
Seine-et-Marne.  M.  Renan  was  elected  a member  of 
the  French  Academy,  June  13,  1878,  in  the  room  of  M. 
Claude  Bernard.  He  attended  the  congress  of  Orient- 
alists held  at  Florence  in  September,  1878.  M.  Renan, 
in  addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned,  published 
also  numerous  memoirs  on  comparative  philology, 
and  other  articles  of  a literary  character,  in  the  different 
periodicals.  He  was  elected  director  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1881 and  in  1883,  became  manager  of  the 
College  de  France.  He  died  October  2,  1892. 

RENDEL,  Sir  Alexander  Meadows,  civil  engi- 
neer,born  in  1829;  educated  at  King’s  School,  Canter- 
bury, and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  (scholar  and 
wrangler),  studied  as  engineer  under  his  father,  on 
whose  death,  in  1856,  he  became  engineer  to  the  Lon- 
don Dock  Company,  the  Leith  harbor  and  dock  com- 
missioners, the  East  Indian  railway,  and  other  com- 
panies. He  visited  India  in  1857-58,  and  subsequently 
built  the  Shadwell  New  Basin,  the  Royal  Albert 
Dock,  and  other  works,  and  became  engineer  in  Eng- 
land to  the  secretary  of  state  for  India.  He  is  a mem- 
ber of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers. 

RENDEL,  George  Whitwick,  was  educated  at 
Harrow,  and  as  a civil  engineer  in  his  father’s  office. 
He  joined  Sir  William  Armstrong’s  firm  at  Elswick  in 
1858,  as  managing  partner  of  the  new  Elswick  Ord- 
nance Works.  He  took  a large  part  in  the  develop- 
ment of  guns,  ironclads  and  ships  of  war.  He  devised 
and  carried  out  the  system  of  hydraulic  machinery  for 
mounting  and  working  heavy  guns.  He  designed  and 
directed  the  building  of  the  Esmeralda  for  the  Chilian 
Government,  the  swiftest  and  most  powerful  unarmored 
.cruiser  of  her  time,  and  the  numerous  gunboats  known 
as  the  “alphabetical  gunboats,”  built  on  the  Tyne  for 
the  Chinese  Government.  He  was  a member  of  the 
committee  on  designs  of  ships  of  war,  appointed  by  the 


676^ 

English  Government  in  1871,  and  was  appointed  a 
civil  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  March,  1882,  resigning  in 
June,  1885. 

RENDEL,  Lord,  formerly  Stuart  Rendel,  M.  P., 
was  born  in  1834  and  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in  1856.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1861,  but  never  practiced;  was 
appointed  (on  behalf  of  Sir  William  Armstrong)  mem- 
ber of  the  Armstrong  and  Whitworth  Committee,  which 
sat  from  1861  to  1863,  and  carried  out  the  most  exhaust- 
ive known  series  of  artillery  experiments;  became  a 
member  of  Sir  William  Armstrong’s  firm  in  February, 
1870,  and  its  managing  partner  in  London;  was  long 
closely  associated  with  the  growth  of  the  great  works 
at  Elswick,  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  and  was  an  officer  of 
the  Order  of  Charles  Albert  of  Italy,  and  a knight  of 
the  Order  of  Charles  XII.  of  Spain.  In  1880  he  retired 
from  the  Armstrong  firm,  and  contested  and  won  the 
representation  in  parliament  of  the  county  of  Mont- 
gomery as  a Liberal.  In  December,  1886,  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  North  Wales  Liberal  Federa- 
tion. He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  by  Gladstone  in 
1894  as  Baron  Rendel  of  Hatchlands. 

RENO,  Jesse  L.,  was  born  at  Wheeling,  Va.,  June 
20,  1823,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846.  He 
served  in  the  Mexican  war,  participating  in  the  siege  of 
Vera  Cruz  and  all  the  leading  battles  of  the  campaign, 
during  which  he  was  promoted  to  lieutenant  and  cap- 
tain. In  1849  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy,  and  was  in  charge 
of  the  arsenal  at  Mount  Vernon,  Ala.,  when  it  was 
seized  by  the  Confederates  in  1861.  During  the  Civil 
war  he  commanded  a brigade  in  Burnside’s  army  on 
its  march  into  North  Carolina,  and  was  present  at  the 
assault  upon  Roanoke  Island,  also  in  the  battles  of 
Camden  and  New  Berne.  In  the  fall  of  1862  he  was 
promoted  to  be  major-general  of  volunteers,  and  par- 
ticipated in  the  battles  of  the  second  Bull  Run  and 
Chantilly.  He  was  killed  while  leading  the  ninth 
army  corps  at  the  battle  of  South  Mountain,  Septem- 
ber 14,  1862. 

RENOUF,  Sir  Peter  le  Page,  Oriental  scholar,  was 
born  in  the  isle  of  Guernsey,  Great  Britain,  in  1824; 
received  his  early  education  in  Elizabeth  College  there, 
and  afterward  became  a scholar  of  Pembroke  College, 
Oxford.  At  Easter,  1842,  he  became  a member  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  On  the  opening  of  the 
Catholic  University  of  Ireland,  in  1855,  he  was  ap- 
pointedby  Doctor  Newman  professor  in  that  institution, 
where  he  filled  the  chairs  of  ancient  history  and  Eastern 
languages.  In  1864  he  became  one  of  the  inspectors 
of  schools,  and  he  has  since  continued  to  hold  that  ap- 
pointment. While  at  the  Catholic  University  he  was 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  Atlantis  and  of  the  Home  and 
Foreign  Review ; and  he  has  since  contributed  to  vari- 
ous other  periodicals.  Some  papers  by  Mr.  Renouf  are 
published  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Biblical 
Archceology.  A list  of  his  writings  would  include  a 
long  list  of  books,  treating  chiefly  of  archaeology  and 
antiquities  of  the  East.  After  the  death  of  Dr.  Samuel 
Birch,  in  1885,  Mr.  Renouf  was  appointed  to  succeed 
him  as  keeper  of  Egyptian  antiquities  at  the  British 
Museum.  He  died  Oct.  14,  1897. 

RENSHAW,  William  B.,  naval  officer,  was  born 
at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  October  11,  1816,  and  entered  the 
navy  December  22,  1831.  He  secured  promotion 
through  the  various  official  grades  during  the  period 
intervening  between  1837  and  1861,  when  he  became 
commander  and  was  attached  to  Adm.  D.  G.  Farragut’s 
squadron.  On  October  10,  1861,  he  effected  the  capt- 
ure of  Galveston,  Texas,  after  a prolonged  blockade  of 
that  port.  In  December  of  the  same  year,  the  city  was 


R E N—  R H E 


6764 

captured  by  the  Confederates  under  Gen.  J.  B.  Ma- 
gruder.  While  the  action  was  in  progress,  Renshaw 
was  mortally  wounded,  dying  January  1,  1863. 

RENWICK,  James,  LL.D.,  born  at  Liverpool,  May 
30,  1790,  graduated  at  Columbia  College,  1807,  became 
professor  of  chemistry  there  in  1820,  served  in  the  en- 
gineer corps  of  the  United  States  army,  and  was  a mem- 
ber of  the  government  commission  to  determine  the 
boundary  line  between  the  United  States  and  the  British 
possessions.  He  died  June  12,  1863. 

RESZKE,  Edouard  de,  famous  bass  singer,  brother 
of  Jean,  was  born  at  Warsaw,  1855,  made  a continental 
reputation  in  grand  opera  as  early  as  1880  and  sang 
with  great  success  in  the  United  States  in  1892,  1894 
and  1895.  He  has  a powerful  voice,  artistic  execution 
and  fine  presence  and  is  equally  perfect  in  serious  or 
comic  parts.  His  “ Mephistopheles  ” in  Faust  is  one 
of  his  best  roles. 

RESZKE,  Jean  de,  romantic  tenor  singer,  was  born 
at  Warsaw,  January  14,  1852,  first  sang  as  a baritone 
at  Venice,  in  1874,  later  assumed  tenor  rSles,  and  in  1884 
made  a great  hit  in  Paris  in  Herodiade.  He  sang  in 
grand  opera  in  the  United  States  in  1893,  1894  and  1894 
and  his  magnificent  rendition  of  “ Romeo,”  “ Faust,” 
“ Rhadames  ” and  other  roles  made  him  a popular  idol. 

REUTER,  Baron  Paul  Julius,  was  born  at  Cassel, 
Germany,  in  1818.  He  was  connected  with  the  electric 
telegraph  system  from  its  earliest  establishment.  The 
practical  working  of  the  telegraph,  in  1849,  between 
Aix-la-Chappelle  and  Berlin — the  first  section  open  to 
the  public — convinced  him  that  a new  era  in  corre- 
spondence had  arisen,  and  in  the  former  town  he  estab- 
lished the  first  center  of  an  organization  for  collecting 
and  transmitting  telegraphic  news.  As  the  various 
telegraph  lines  were  opened  in  succession,  they  were 
made  subservient  to  his  system ; and  when  the  cable 
between  Calais  and  Dover  was  laid  in  1851,  Mr.  Reuter, 
who  had  become  a naturalized  British  subject,  transferred 
his  chief  office  to  London.  Previously  to  the  opening 
of  his  office,  the  leading  London  papers  had  furnished 
the  public  with  scanty  and  incomplete  intelligence, 
which  was  reproduced  by  the  rest  of  the  press,  and  Mr. 
Reuter,  to  remedy  this  defect,  established  agencies  in 
all  parts  of  the  world  to  supply  him  with  news,  since 
which  time  the  British  press  has  contained  a daily  record 
of  the  latest  important  events  connected  with  politics, 
commerce,  and  science.  Died  Feb.  25,  1899. 

REVERE,  Paul,  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  January 
I,  1735;  died  there  May  10,  1818.  In  1756  he  was  ap- 
pointed a lieutenant  of  artillery,  and  stationed  at  Lake 
George,  N.  Y.  He  took  part  in  the  expedition  to  cap- 
ture Crown  Point.  After  establishing  himself  in  Bos- 
ton, Revere  learned  the  art  of  copper-plate  engraving. 
In  1775  he  engraved  the  paper  money  ordered  by  the 
Massachusetts  legislature,  and  took  part  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  tea  in  Boston  harbor.  On  the  night  of  April 
18,  1775,  occurred  his  famous  ride, in  which  he  notified 
the  people  of  the  British  expedition  to  seize  the  mil- 
itary stores  at  Concord.  Subsequent  to  the  evacua- 
tion of  Boston  a regiment  of  artillery  was  formed 
there,  of  which  Revere  became  lieutenant-colonel.  He 
took  part  in  the  unsuccessful  Penobscot  expedition  of 
1779,  an^  after  the  war  he  resumed  his  business.  In 
1795,  as  grand  master  of  the  Free  Masons,  he  laid  the 
corner-stone  of  the  Boston  State  house. 

REVILLE,  Albert,  pastor  and  French  Protestant 
writer,  was  born  at  Dieppe,  November  4,  1826.  He 
contributed  to  the  most  important  French  Protestant 
organs,  and  took  a prominent  position  among  his  co-re- 
ligionists by  his  writings.  For  some  months  he  was 
vicar  at  Nimes,  then  pastor  at  Luneraz,  near  Dieppe, 
and  in  1851  he  was  called  to  Rotterdam  as  pastor  of  the 


Walloon  church.  In  1862  the  University  of  Leyden 
conferred  upon  him  the  degree  of  doctor  ; and  in  1880 
he  was  appointed  titular  professor  of  religious  history 
at  the  College  of  France.  Fie  has  written  numerous 
theological  essays,  and  is  one  of  the  chief  French  Prot- 
estant Liberals. 

REYER,  Ernest,  whose  real  name  is  Rey,  born  at 
Marseilles,  France,  Dec.  1,  1823,  composed  the  music 
for  several  successful  operas,  wrote  for  the  Paris  Press, 
and,  after  the  death  of  Berlioz,  became  musical  critic  to 
the  Journal  des  Debats.  He  was  afterward  appointed 
librarian  to  the  Opera,  and  succeeded  David  at  the  In- 
stitute in  1876. 

REYNA  BARRIOS,  Jose  Maria,  who  was  elected 
president  of  Guatemala  for  four  years,  beginning  March, 
1892,  prepared  to  go  to  war  with  Mexico  in  1894 
over  a disputed  boundary  line,  but  owing  to  the  repud- 
iation by  Guatemala,  shortly  before,  of  its  foreign  debt 
President  Barrios  was  unable  to  raise  a war  loan  and 
in  1895  was  obliged  to  apologize  to  Mexico  and  meet 
its  terms. 

REYNOLDS,  Alexander,  W.,  was  a native  of 
Clarke  county,  Va.,  and  was  born  in  1817,  and  grad- 
uated at  West  Point  in  1838.  He  was  a general  in  the 
Confederate  army  from  1863,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
Civil  war  entered  the  service  of  the  Khedive  of  Egypt. 
He  was  prominent  in  the  war  with  Abyssinia,  but  later 
on  resigned  his  commission  and  located  at  Cairo, 
Egypt.  He  died  at  Alexandria,  in  that  country,  May 
26,  1876. 

REYNOLDS,  Henry  Robert,  D.D.,  was  born  at 
Romsey,  Hampshire,  England,  February  26,  1825,  and 
educated  at  Howard  College  and  at  University  College, 
London.  He  graduated  B.A.  in  1844;  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  University  College  in  1848,  and  received  the 
degree  of  D.D.  from  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in 
1869.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  the  Congregational 
church  at  Halstead,  in  Essex,  in  1846;  removed  to 
Leeds  and  became  minister  of  the  East  Parade  Congre- 
gational church  in  that  town  in  1849;  was  appointed 
president  of  the  Countess  of  Huntingdon’s  College  at 
Cheshunt  in  i860,  and  also  professor  of  theology  and 
exegesis.  Doctor  Reynolds  was  one  of  the  editors  of 
the  British  Quarterly  Review  from  1866  to  1874.  He 
was  the  editor  of  and  contributor  to  two  series  of  essays 
on  church  problems,  entitled  Ecclesia , in  1869  and 
1870;  is  author  of  numerous  other  homiletic  and  exe- 
getical  papers,  and  has  also  written  several  scriptural 
commentaries.  He  died  Oct.  10,  1896. 

REYNOLDS,  John  Fulton,  was  born  in  Lancas- 
ter, Penn.,  in  1820,  and  died  near  Gettsyburg,  July  1, 
1863.  He  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841,  and 
was  commissioned  first  lieutenant  in  1846.  He  served 
in  the  Mexican  war,  against  the  Rogue  River  Indians,  in 
the  Utah  expedition,  and  in  1859  became  commandant 
at  West  Point.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war  he 
was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel,  and  was  soon  pro- 
moted brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He  took  part 
in  the  campaigns  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  and  it 
was  due  to  him  that  at  second  Bull  Run  the  Union 
army  was  saved  from  a disastrous  rout.  He  was  pro- 
moted major-general  of  volunteers  in  1862,  and  suc- 
ceeded Hooker  in  command  of  the  first  army  corps. 
On  the  first  day  of  the  battie  of  Gettysburg  he  was  in 
command  of  the  left  wing,  consisting  of  three  corps, 
and  early  in  the  fight  was  struck  by  a rifle  ball,  which 
caused  instant  death.  Several  monuments  have  been 
erected  to  his  memory,  one  of  which  stands  on  the  spot 
on  which  he  met  his  death. 

RHETT,  Robert  Barnwell,  an  American  senator 
and  politician,  was  a native  of  Beaufort,  S.  C.  He 
was  born  December  24,  l8ooj  was  admitted  to  the 


R HO 

bar  in  1821,  entered  the  State  legislature  in  1826,  was 
attorney-general  of  the  State  in  1832,  a member  of  con- 
gress, 1837-49,  and  in  1851  was  elected  United  States 
senator  to  succeed  Calhoun.  He  was  an  earnest 
state’s  right  supporter  and  wrote  the  document  issued 
by  the  secession  convention  of  South  Carolina,  vindi- 
cating the  right  of  that  State  to  dissolve  its  connection 
with  the  Federal  government.  During  the  Civil  war 
he  sat  in  the  Confederate  Congress,  and  died  Sep- 
tember 14,  1878. 

RHIND,  Alexander  Colden,  born  October  31, 
1821,  in  New  York  city,  entered  the  navy  in  1838, 
commanded  the  Constellation,  and  watched  the  Southern 
blockade  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  throughout  which 
he  did  most  gallant  service,  became  rear-admiral  and 
was  retired  in  1883. 

RHODES,  Albert,  born  February  1,  1840,  at 
Pittsburgh, has  served  as  American  consul  at  Jerusalem, 
in  Germany  and  in  France,  and  now  resides  at  Paris. 
He  has  written  books  of  life  abroad,  and  contributed 
to  American  and  foreign  publications. 

RHODES,  Cecil,  the  “Diamond  King”  of  South 
Africa,  premier  of  England’s  Cape  Colony  since  1890, 
and  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of  the  time,  was 
the  younger  son  of  an  English  gentleman  of  moderate 
means,  went  out  to  Africa  to  hunt  diamonds  and  at 
first  met  with  but  little  success,  but  by  energy  and 
shrewdness  combined  various  Kimberley  mines  under 
his  direction,  and  amassed  an  immense  fortune.  He 
entered  politics  and  the  same  qualities  forced  him  to 
the  front.  He  held  office  in  several  ministries,  was 
the  prime  mover  in  obtaining  mining  rights  over  Mata- 
beleland,  and  in  1890  became  premier  of  the  Cape  and 
has  held  office  ever  since.  He  personally  directed  the 
successful  war  with  King  Lobengula  and  the  Matabeles 
in  1893.  While  in  England,  in  1891,  he  gave  $50,000 
for  the  support  of  Home  Rule.  Died  March  25,  1902. 

RIBOT,  Alexander  F£lix  Joseph,  lawyer,  born 
at  St.  Omer,  France,  in  1842,  was  elected  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1878,  as  a moderate  Repub- 
lican, and  became  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  in  1890, 
and  Prime  Minister  in  December,  1892,  holding  the 
latter  office  three  months. 

RICASOLI,  Bettino,  Baron,  born  at  Florence, 
March  9,  1809,  took  active  part  in  the  liberation  of 
Italy,  was  governor  of  Sardinia,  i860;  member  of  the 
first  Italian  Parliament,  1861;  and  twice  premier,  1862 
and  1866.  He  died  October  28,  1880. 

RICE,  Allen  Thorndyke,  was  born  June  18, 
1853,  at  Boston,  Mass.,  and  graduated  at  Oxford,  1875. 
In  1876  he  became  the  owner  and  editor  of  the  North 
American  Review  and  in  1884  purchased  Le  Matin,  a 
leading  journal  of  Paris,  France.  He  originated  and 
directed  an  expedition  to  Mexico  and  Central  America, 
conducted  by  the  United  States  and  France,  to  investi- 
gate conditions  of  prehistoric  civilization  in  those 
countries,  and  brought  the  Australian  ballot  system  to 
public  attention.  He  was  defeated  for  congress  in 
1886,  and  in  1889  was  appointed  United  States  min- 
ister to  St.  Petersburg,  but  died  May  16,  1889,  before 
entering  upon  his  official  duties. 

RICE,  James,  soldier,  born  in  Worthington,  Mass., 
December  27,  1829;  died  near  Spottsylvania  C.  H., 
May  11,  1864.  He  was  colonel  of  the  44th  New  York 
regiment,  participated  in  the  battle  of  Yorktown  and 
subsequent  campaigns  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac, 
was  commissioned  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in 
1863,  and  in  th  Wilderness  campaign  led  his  brigade 
until  killed  in  the  engagement  near  Spottsylvania  C.  H. 

RICE,  Thomas  D.,  born  in  New  York  city,  May  20, 
1808 ; died  September  19,  t86o,  was  one  of  the  first 
of  negro  impersonators  and  became  very  popular. 
54-J 


— RIC  67  65 

In  1836  Rice  performed  at  the  Surrey  theater  in  Lon- 
don, and  at  other  playhouses  in  England,  Scotland  and 
Ireland.  Fora  long  time  he  was  the  recipient  of  a large 
income,  which  he  squandered  in  reckless  profusion. 

RICHARDS,  Vice-Admiral  Sir  George  Henry, 
C.B.,  F.R.S.,  was  born  January  13,  1820,  at  Anthony, 
Cornwall,  England.  After  receiving  a suitable  education 
at  a private  school,  he  was  appointed  to  the  naval  service 
in  1833,  made  a lieutenant  in  1842,  a commander  in  1846, 
a captain  in  1854,  rear-admiral  in  1870,  and  vice-admiral 
in  1877.  While  a captain  he  served  as  naval  aide-de-camp 
to  the  queen,  was  present  during  the  Chinese  war  of 
1841-42,  at  the  action  and  storming  of  the  forts  at  Obli- 
gado  in  the  Parana  river,  1845,  and  was  commander  of 
H.M.S.  Assistance , in  search  of  Franklin  in  the  Arctic 
regions  during  1852-54.  He  was  knighted  in  1877. 
He  is  a member  of  many  learned  societies,  and  has  been 
engaged  in  many  nautical  surveys.  Died  Nov.  14,  1896. 

RICHARDS,  Thomas  Addison,  landscape  painter, 
is  a native  of  London,  England.  He  was  born  Decem- 
ber 3,  1820;  arrived  in  the  United  States  in  1831,  and 
for  ten  years  was  a resident  of  Georgia,  but  studied  art 
in  New  York  city.  He  was  chosen  a member  of  the 
National  Academy  in  1848,  secretary  of  that  organiza- 
tion in  1852,  and  in  1858  became  director  of  the  Cooper 
School  of  Design.  In  1878  he  was  made  an  M.A.  by 
the  New  York  University,  and  has  been  art  professor 
there  since  1867.  His  paintings  are  numerous,  and 
his  publications  on  art  well  known  and  popular. 

RICHARDS,  William  T.,  artist,  born  at  Philadel- 
phia, November  14,  1833,  where  he  also  received  in- 
struction in  his  art,  going  abroad  in  1855  to  complete 
his  studies.  He  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1856, 
but  has  since  revisited  Europe,  and  in  1878  resided  in 
London,  where  he  practiced  his  profession,  and  exhibited 
at  the  Royal  Academy.  He  established  a studio  in . 
Philadelphia  in  1880,  became  a member  of  the  local 
and  national  academies,  and  in  1885  was  awarded  the 
Temple  medal.  His  specialty  is  the  painting  of  marine 
views.  He  also  excels  in  water-colors. 

RICHARDSON,  Albert  Deane,  journalist,  born 
at  Franklin,  Mass.,  October  6,  1833,  and  educated  at 
the  common  schools  of  that  village.  His  first  journal- 
istic experience  was  at  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  whence  he 
went  to  Kansas  in  1857,  and  took  part  in  the  political 
movements  of  that  period,  acting  with  the  anti-slavery 
party,  and  giving  the  result  of  his  observations  through 
the  columns  of  the  Boston  Journal.  During  1859  he 
accompanied  Horace  Greeley  to  Pike’s  Peak,  and  in  the 
winter  preceding  the  war,  made  a tour  of  the  South  as 
correspondent  of  the  New  York  Tribune.  During  the 
earlier  part  of  the  war  he  acted  in  a similar  capacity 
for  the  same  paper,  but  on  the  night  of  May  3,  1863, 
he  was  captured  while  attempting  to  run  the  batteries 
of  Vicksburg.  Junius  Henri  Browne,  also  of  the  Trib- 
une staff,  and  Richard  T.  Colburn,  of  the  New  York 
World,  who  accompanied  Richardson,  were  captured 
with  him,  and  all  were  imprisoned  at  various  points  in 
the  South  for  nearly  two  years.  They  effected  their 
escape,  however,  from  the  prison  at  Salisbury,  N.  C.f 
making  their  way  to  the  Federal  lines,  and  upon  their 
arrival  home  published  a list  of  the  Union  soldiers  who 
had  died  in  Southern  prisons  up  to  the  date  of  their 
escape.  After  the  war  Richardson  was  engaged  in  lect- 
uring, also  doing  work  on  the  Tribune , and  was  shot 
in  the  office  of  that  paper,  November  26,  1869,  by 
Daniel  McFarland,  on  account  of  the  sympathy  Rich- 
ardson had  manifested  for  Abby  Sage  McFarland,  wife 
of  his  assailant,  from  whom  she  had  obtained  a divorce. 
He  died  at  New  York,  December  2,  1869,  having  been 
previously  married  to  Mrs.  McFarland  by  Henry  Ward 
Beecher.  Besides  works  on  his 'experience  during  cap- 


RIC 


6766 

tivity,  Richardson  was  the  author  of  a Life  of  General 
Grant . 

RICHARDSON,  Sir  Benjamin  Ward,  F.R.S., 
born  October  31,  1828,  at  Somerby,  in  the  county  of 
Leicester,  England;  was  educated  at  Anderson’s  Uni- 
versity, Glasgow.  He  graduated  in  medicine  at  the 
University  of  St.  Andrews  in  1854,  and  received  the 
honorary  degree  of  M.A.  from  the  same  university  in 
1859.  He  gained  the  Fothergillian  gold  medal  in  1854, 
for  an  essay  on  the  diseases  of  the  child  before  birth ; 
and  the  Astley  Cooper  prize  of  $1,500  in  1856,  for  an 
essay  on  the  coagulation  of  the  blood.  Dr.  Richardson 
became  a member  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians 
by  examination  in  1856,  and  was  elected  a fellow  of  the 
college  in  1861 ; he  was  elected  a fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1867, and  Croonian  lecturerin  1873;  honorary 
member  of  the  Philosophical  Society  of  America  in  1863; 
of  the  Imperial  Leopold  Carolina  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  1867;  and  ofthe  Physiological  and  Statistical  Academy 
of  Milan  in  1870.  He  is  the  originator  of  several  new 
methods  in  antiseptic  surgery.  He  originated,  and  for 
some  years  edited,  the  Journal  of  Public  Health , and 
afterward  the  Social  Science  Review.  Dr.  Richardson’s 
principal  contributions  to  medical  and  scientific  litera- 
ture have  been  directed  to  the  advancement  of  medical 
practice  by  the  experimental  method.  He  has  been 
president  of  the  Medical  Society  of  London  and  four 
times  president  of  the  St.  Andrews  Medical  Graduates’ 
Association.  In  1869  he  succeeded  Lord  Jerviswoode 
as  assessor  for  the  general  council  in  the  University 
Court  of  St.  Andrews.  He  is  honorary  physician  to 
the  Royal  Literary  Fund,  the  Newspaper  Press  Fund, 
and  the  National  Society  of  Schoolmasters.  Dr. 
Richardson’s  most  recent  researches' have  been  directed 
to  the  study  of  the  diseases  incident  to  modern  civiliza- 
tion. He  has  written  a novel,  besides  scientific  works, 
and  was  knighted  in  1893.  Died  Nov.  21,  1896. 

RIC.HARDST)N,  Charles  Francis,  an  American 
author,  who  was  born  at  Hallowell,  Me.,  May  29, 1851, 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  the  class  of  1871, 
and  subsequently  was  attached  to  the  editorial  depart- 
ment of  various  New  York  weeklies.  In  1882  he  was 
Called  to  the  chair  of  English  Literature  of  Dartmouth. 
He  has  written  a number  of  books  on  American  litera- 
ture, also  a volume  of  poems. 

RICHARDSON,  Henry  Hobson,  architect,  born 
in  Priestley’s  Point,  La.,  September  29,  1838;  died  in 
Brookline,  Mass.,  April  28,  1886.  He  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1859,  after  which  he  wqnt  to  Paris  to 
study  architecture.  In  1865  he  returned  to  the  United 
States,  and  found  his  first  employment  in  Springfield, 
Mass.  His  best  work  began  in  1871,  when  he  erected 
the  Brattle  Street  Church  in  Boston.  In  the  year  follow- 
ing his  plans  were  chosen  from  among  many  for  Trinity 
Church,  Boston,  which  was  finished  in  1877,  and 
is  considered  one  of  the  handsomest  church  buildings  in 
the  United  States. 

RICHARDSON,  Israel  B„,  born  at  Fairfax,  Vt., 
December  15,  1815;  died  at  Sharpsburg,  Md.,  Novem- 
ber 3,  1862.  He  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841, 
and  served  through  the  Florida  and  Mexican  wars,  ob- 
taining promotion  in  each.  He  retired  from  the  army 
in  1855,  but  reentered  the  service  at  the  breaking  out  of 
the  Civil  war  as  colonel  of  the  2d  Michigan  infantry. 
He  was  present  at  Bull  Run,  fought  through  the  Pe- 
ninsular campaign,  becoming  a major-general  of  volun- 
teers, and  was  prominently  mentioned  for  his  services 
at  the  second  Bull  Run,  South  Mountain,  and  Antie 
tam,  receiving  wounds  at  the  latter  which  subsequently 
proved  fatal. 

RICHARDSON,  William  A.,  was  born  at  Tyngs- 
borongh,  Mass.,  Novembers.  1821;  graduated  at  Hat 


vard  in  1841,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1843, 

From  the  latter  year  until  1869,  when  he  was  appointed 
assistant  secretary  of  the  treasury,  he  was  engaged  in 
the  practice  of  law,  and  held  a number  of  State  offices 
in  Massachusetts,  besides  revising  the  statutes  of  that 
State.  In  1871  he  negotiated,  in  Europe,  the  sale  of 
bonds  of  the  funded  loan  of  the  .United  States,  and  in 
1873  became  secretary  of  the  treasury.  The  year  fol- 
lowing he  accepted  a position  on  the  bench  of  the  Court 
of  Claims,  and  in  1885  was  elected  to  the  position  of 
chief-justice  of  that  tribunal,  and  was  also  a professor 
in  the  Law  School  of  Georgetown,  D.  C.  In  1873  he 
received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Columbian  Uni- 
versity. He  is  the  author  of  works  on  banking,  and 
on  the  debt  of  the  United  States.  Died  Oct.,  1896. 

RICHMOND  AND  GORDON,  Duke  of(Charles 
HenrY  Gordon  Lennox,  K.G.),  was  born  at  Rich- 
mond House,  Whitehall,  England,  February  27,  1818, 
and  educated  at  Westminster  School  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford.  In  i860  he  succeeded  his  father  as  Duke  of 
Richmond,  to  which  dukedom  was  added  in  1876  that 
of  Gordon.  He  represented  West  Sussex  in  the  Con- 
servative interest  from  July,  1841,  till  he  succeeded 
his  father.  He  was  the  acknowledged  leader  cf  the 
Conservative  party  in  the  House  of  Peers  from  Feb- 
ruary 26,  1870,  till  Mr.  Disraeli’s  elevation  to  the  peer- 
age as  earl  of  Beaconsfield.  When  that  party  returned 
to  office  in  February,  1874,  he  was  made  lord  president 
of  the  council,  and  he  retained  that  office  until  the  de- 
feat of  the  Conservatives  in  April,  1880.  In  Lord  Salis- 
bury’s first  ministry  the  duke  of  Richmond  held  the 
position  of  president  of  the  board  of  trade  from  Jan- 
uary to  August,  1885,  and  was  then  appointed  to  fill  the 
new  post  of  secretary  for  Scotland. 

RICHMOND,  Dean,  was  born  at  Barnard,  Vt., 
March  31,  1804,  and  when  eight  years  of  age  removed 
with  his  parents  to  western  New  York.  In  1842  he 
engaged  in  commercial  ventures  at  Buffalo,  and  later 
invested  in  railway  interests-.  Through  his  labors  and 
influence  the  present  New  York  Central  railroad  sys- 
tem was  established  by  the  consolidation  of  minor  roads, 
and  in  1853  he  was  elected  vice-president  of  that  corpo- 
ration,. succeeding  to  the  presidency  in  1864.  Mr. 
Richmond  became  prominent  in  New  York  politics 
early  during  his  residence  there,  and  at  the  date  of  his 
death  in  New  York  city,  August  27,  1866,  was  the  re- 
cognized leader  of  the  Eastern  Democracy. 

RICHMOND,  George,  R.A.  (retired), born  in  1809; 
early  began  to  study  art,  and  in  1824  became  a student  at 
the  Royal  Academy.  In  1837  he  left  England  for  Italy, 
and  spent  two  years  in  the  study  of  the  great  works  in 
Venice,  Florence,  and  Rome.  In  1854  he  exhibited  a 
whole-length  portrait  of  Sir  Robert  Harry  Inglis,  and 
from  this  time  he  has  been  almost  exclusively  employed 
in  oil  painting.  In  1847  he  was  appointed  by  Mr. 
Gladstone  a member  of  the  council  of  the  Government 
Schools  of  Design;  and  in  1856  by  Sir  G.  Cornewall 
Lewis,  one  of  the  royal  commissioners  for  determining 
the  national  gallery  site,  etc.  In  1867  the  University  of 
Oxford  conferred  upon  him  the  honorary  degree  of 
D.C.L.  He  died  March  21,  1896. 

RICHMOND,  William  Blake,  A.R.A.,  was  born 
in  London,  November  29,  1843.  In  1859  and  i860  he 
traveled  in  Italy,  working  at  several  pictures,  which  were 
not  exhibited.  In  1865  he  again  went  to  Italy,  and  studied 
at  Rome,  working  at  sculpture,  architecture,  fresco,  and 
tempera  painting.  Between  1865  and  1 868  he  painted 
The  Procession  of  Bacchus.  In  1870  he  settled  in 
England,  and  painted  numerous  portraits  and  other 
pictures.  Since  that  time  Mr.  Richmond  has  exhibited 
at  the  Grosvenor  and  the  Academy.  Mr.  Richmond 
was  elected  Slade  professor  at  Oxford,  but  resigned  the 


R I C — R I E 


post  a few  years  later.  He  received  an  honorary  M. 
A.  degree,  and  was  elected  fellow  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquarians. 

RICHTER,  Eugen,  born  at  Diisseldorf,  Prussia, 
July  30,  1838,  a radical  politician,  entered  the  Reich- 
stag in  1867  and  the  Prussian  Landtag  in  1869,  and  has 
been  in  succession  the  leader  of  the  progressist  party, 
of  the  German  liberal  party,  and  of  their  successor, 
the  radical  peoples  party  (Freisinnige  Volkspartei). 
He  is  an  able  speaker  and  one  of  the  foremost  members 
of  the  German  parliament.  He  has  written  Pictures 
of  the  Future  and  other  socialistic  works. 

RICHTER,  Hans,  a celebrated  conductor  of  orches- 
tral concerts,  was  born  April  4,  1843,  at  Raab  in  Hun- 
gary. At  first  a hornplayer,  Esser  brought  him  under 
the  notice  of  Wagner,  who  took  him  to  Lucerne  where 
he  made  the  first  fair  copy  of  the  score  of  the  Meister- 
singer.  He  first  attracted  general  attention  in  January, 
1875,  when  he  conducted  a grand  orchestral  concert  at 
Vienna,  and  he  was  invited  to  assume  direction  of  the 
Court  Opera  theater  on  the  retirement  of  Herbeck  in 
April  of  the  same  year.  In  1877  he  produced  the 
“Walkyrie”  in  Vienna,  and  followed  it  in  1878  by 
other  portions  of  the  tetralogy.  In  1879  he  began  the 
series  of  orchestral  concerts  in  London,  which,  under 
his  direction,  have  excited  much  attention. 

RICHTER,  Henry  Joseph,  born  in  Oldenburg, 
Germany,  April  9,  1838,  emigrated  to  the  United 
States  in  1854,  was  ordained  a priest  and  became  the 
first  Catholic  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Grand  Rapids, 
Mich.,  in  1883. 

RICKETTS,  James  B.,  Gen.,  was  born  in  New 
York  city,  June  21,  1817,  and  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1839,  being  assigned  to  the  artillery  branch  of  the 
service.  He  was  engaged  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  in 
the  wars  with  the  Seminole  Indians  in  Florida,  and  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war  was  a captain.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  at  Bull  Run,  and  later  was  promoted  to 
be  lieutenant-colonel  and  brigadier-general  by  brevet. 
He  participated  in  all  the  battles  in  Virginia  during  the 
summer  of  1862;  was  made  major  of  the  1st  artillery 
June  1,  1863,  and  brevet  colonel  in  the  regular  army 
for  heroic  conduct  at  the  battle  of  Cold  Harbor.  His 
further  services  were  rendered  at  Petersburg,  Cedar 
Creek,  and  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley  against  Early. 
He  was  later  promoted  to  be  major-general ; retired 
from  active  service  in  1867,  and  died  at  Washington, 
D.  C.,  September  22,  1887. 

RICORD,  Philippe,  M.D.,  an  eminent  physician 
and  surgeon,  born  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  December  10, 
1800;  began  the  study  of  medicine  at  Philadelphia, 
and  in  1820  made  a voyage  to  Europe,  and  settled  in 
Paris.  In  1826  he  engaged  in  the  practice  of  his  pro- 
fession at  Olivet,  returning  at  the  expiration  of  two 
years  to  Paris,  where  he  accepted  an  invitation  to  give 
a series  of  lectures,  and  in  1831  became  head  surgeon 
of  the  leading  hospital  in  that  city.  His  services  were 
in  continual  demand  there  for  nearly  thirty  years,  dur- 
ing which  he  extended  his  reputation  as  a specialist  to 
all  parts  of  the  world.  In  July,  1862,  he  became  the 
physician  of  Prince  Napoleon,  and  consulting  surgeon 
of  the  emperor,  who  testified  his  appreciation  of  the 
services  rendered  in  the  most  substantial  manner.  Dur- 
ing the  siege  of  Paris  he  was  president  of  the  ambu- 
lance corps,  and  was  promoted  to  be  grand  officer  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor.  He  died  October  22,  1889. 

RIDDELL,  Mrs.  Charlotte  Eliza  Lawson,  is 
the  youngest  child  of  James  Cowan,  of  Carrickfergus, 
county  Antrim,  Ireland.  She  is  married  to  J.  H.  Rid- 
dell, Esq.,  a civil  engineer,  by  whose  initials  she  is 
generally  known.  Mrs.  Riddell  is  the  author  of  many 
popular  novels. 


6767 

RIDDING,  George,  D.D.,  born  in  England  about 
1829,  and  educated  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  was 
head  master  of  Winchester  College,  1868-84,  an(l  be- 
came Bishop  of  Southwell  in  1884. 

RIDDLEBERGER,  Harrison  Holt,  born  in  Ed- 
enburg,  Shenandoah  county,  Va.,  October  4,  1844, 
received  a common  school  education,  served  three 
years  in  the  Confederate  army,  becoming  captain  of 
cavalry,  studied  law,  was  commonwealth’s  attorney  of 
his  county  for  two  terms,  twice  a member  of  the  house 
of  delegates  of  Virginia  and  once  of  the  State  Senate. 
He  also  edited  three  newspapers — the  Tenth  Legion , 
the  Shenandoah  Democrat  and  the  Virginian,  wras  a 
member  of  the  State  committee  of  the  conservative 
party  until  1875,  and  in  1881,  while  commonwealth’s 
attorney  and  State  senator,  wras  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate  as  a Readjuster,  in  the  place  of  John  W. 
Johnson,  Conservative,  and  took  his  seat  December  3, 
1883.  His  term  of  service  expired  March  3,  1889,  when 
he  was  succeeded  by  John  S.  Barbour,  Democrat.  He 
died  at  his  home  in  Woodstock,  Va.,  January  21,  1890. 

RIDPATH,  John  Clark,  LL.D.,  historian,  born 
in  Greencastle,  Indiana,  in  1840,  graduated  at  Indiana 
Asbury  University  in  1873,  became  professor  of  his- 
tory and  vice  president  there,  and  secured  for  the  in- 
stitution an  endowment  of  nearly  two  million  dollars, 
the  name  being  changed  to  De  Pauw  University  in 
honor  of  the  donor.  Since  1879  Dr.  Ridpath  has 
devoted  himself  to  literature,  producing  his  Popular 
History  of  the  United  States , a sale  of  nearly  half  a 
million  copies  justifying  the  title;  Cyclopedia  of  Uni- 
versal History,  Great  Races  of  Mankind  and  other 
works,  all  marked  by  broad  learning  and  a dignified 
but  readable  style.  He  died  July  31,  1900. 

RIEDESEL,  Frederica  Charlotte  Louisa,  Bar- 
oness von,  born  in  Brandenburg,  Germany,  in  1746; 
died  in  Berlin,  Germany,  March  29,  1808.  She  was 
married  to  the  German  general  of  that  name  (see  below), 
who  served  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution.  The  wifh 
followed  the  husband  wherever  he  was  stationed.  She 
attended  the  sick  and  wounded,  and  nursed  Gen. 
Simon  Fraser  on  his  death-bed.  Her  Letters  and 
Journal  were,  published  in  Berlin  in  1800. 

RIEDESEL,  Frederick  Adolph,  Baron  von,  Ger- 
man soldier,  born  in  Lauterback,  Germany,  June  3, 
1738;  died  in  Brunswick,  Germany,  January  6,  1800. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Marburg  and,  entering 
the  army,  was  employed  by  the  British  in  the  Seven 
Years  War.  In  1767  he  was  adjutant-general  in  the 
Prussian  army,  and  in  1 772  became  colonel.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  American  Revolution,  20,000  Hessians 
were  imported  into  America  by  the  British.  Colonel 
Riedesel  took  service  as  brigadier-general  of  the  Bruns- 
wick contingent  of  4,000  men,  and  arrived  at  Quebec 
on  June  1,  1776.  After  spending  a preparatory  year  in 
Canada,  he  united  with  the  expedition  under  General 
Burgoyne,  and  aided  at  the  capture  of  Ticonderoga.  On 
October  7th  he  was  made  prisoner  at  Saratoga,  was 
exchanged  in  1779,  and  later  was  placed  in  command 
on  Brooklyn  Heights.  In  1781  General  Riedesel  went 
to  Canada,  and  two  years  later  returned  to  Germany, 
where  he  eventually  was  promoted  lieutenant-general, 
and  commandant  of  the  city  of  Brunswick. 

RIEL,  Louis,  a Canadian  revolutionist,  was  born 
at  St.  Boniface,  Manitoba,  October  23,  1844,  and  com- 
pleted his  education  at  the  Jesuit  College,  Montreal. 
The  son  of  a representative  leader  of  the  Indians  in  the 
northwest  who  headed  the  opposition  to  the  authority 
of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  Riel  early  in  life  mani- 
festedhis  defiance  of  Canadian  domination,  and  in  1869 
headed  a company  which  resisted  the  admission  into  the 
Dominion  of  Lieutenant-Governor  William  McDougall. 


RIG-RIN 


6768 

The  same  year  the  insurgents  set  up  a government  at 
Fort  Garry,  with  Riel  as  president,  and  between  that 
date  and  the  arrival  on  the  scene  of  a force  under  Gen- 
eral Wolseley,  in  1870,  they  captured  two  parties  of 
Canadians,  severally  under  the  command  of  a Doctor 
Schultz  and  Major  Bolton,  and  executed  one  of  the 
number  named  Thomas  Scott.  Riel  escaped,  and  in 
1873  secured  an  election  tothe  Dominion  parliament.  He 
was  refused  admission,  and  afterward  was  twice  elected 
a representative,  but  did  not  qualify.  He  was  declared 
an  outlaw  by  the  authorities,  and  was  next  heard  of 
in  Montana,  whence  he  removed  to  Duck  Lake,  in 
1884,  accompanied  by  his  followers,  and  in  1885  again 
organized  a provisional  government.  This  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  seizure  of  the  goods  stored  by  the  gov- 
ernment at  Duck  Lake.  On  March  26,  1885,  the  forces 
under  Riel  defeated  a detachment  of  police  commanded 
by  Maj.  L.  N.  F.  Crozier,  and  committed  numerous 
depredations.  Soon  after  this,  a force  of  Canadian  sol- 
diers put  a period  to  further  insurrectionary  movements 
and  effected  the  capture  of  Riel.  He  was  tried  and 
convicted  of  treason  at  Regina,  where  he  was  executed 
November  16,  1885,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  made 
to  secure  a commutation  of  the  penalty. 

RIGDON,  Sidney,  Mormon  leader,  born  in  St. 
Clair  township, Penn., February  19,1793;  diedinFriend- 
ship,  N.  Y.,  July  14,  1876.  He  began  life  as  a farmer, 
learned  the  printer’s  trade,  studied  fof  the  ministry,  and 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  the  Baptist  church.  Later  he 
went  to  Bainbridge  and  Mentor,  Ohio,  where  a traveling 
Mormon  elder  and  former  Baptist  preacher,  Parley  P. 
Pratt,  requested  the  privilege  of  preaching  in  Mr.  Rig- 
don’s  pulpit.  The  occasion  led  to  Mr.  Rigdon’s  “con- 
version,” and  he  was  baptized  a member  of  the  Latter- 
Day  Saints  in  October,  1830.  The  new  “convert”  there- 
after met  Joseph  Smith  at  Fayette,  N.  Y.,  and  together 
they  devised  a scheme  for  the  extension  of  their  teachings. 
Rigdon  transferred  to  Smith  as  many  of  his  followers  as 
he  could  influence,  and  unitedly  the  two  went  to  Ohio, 
proselyting  at  various  places.  Eventually  they  erected  a 
mill,  opened  a store,  and  established  a bank  in  Kirtland. 
In  November,  1837,  their  bank  stopped  payment,  and 
the  two  associates  fled  to  Missouri,  to  avoid  arrest  by 
the  authorities.  Here  they  were  arrested,  imprisoned 
for  several  months,  and  escaped.  When  the  new  church 
was  established  at  Nauvoo,  Rigdon  was  one  of  its  pres- 
idents, and  while  at  that  place  was  twice  tarred  and 
feathered,  and  once  imprisoned  for  misdemeanors. 
When  Joseph  and  Hiram  Smith  were  killed  at  Carthage, 
111.,  on  June  27,  1844,  Rigdon  and  Brigham  Young  be- 
came candidates  for  the  leadership,  and  the  “Twelve 
Apostles  ” chose  the  latter.  Rigdon  then  refused  to 
submit  to  their  authority,  was  cut  off  from  communion 
with  “ God’s  chosen  people,”  went  to  Pittsburg,  Penn., 
and  thence  to  Friendship,  N.  Y.  Here  he  remained 
for  many  years,  and  to  the  last  declared  his  belief  in 
the  Book  of  Mormon. 

RIGG,  James  Harrison,  D.D.,  was  born  in  1821, 
at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  England.  He  received  his  ed- 
ucation at  Old  Kingswood  school,  where  he  was  after- 
ward a teacher,  and  in  1845  he  entered  the  Wesleyan 
ministry.  He  was  one  of  the  leading  writers  for  the 
Biblical  Review  (1846-49),  and  at  the  time  of  the  con- 
troversy in  Methodism  (1849)  wrote  many  articles  for 
the  Watchman.  In  1851  he  went  to  Guernsey  as  Wes- 
leyan minister,  and  in  1853  removed  to  Brentford, 
which  place  he  left  in  1856;  and  he  next  resided  in 
Stockport,  Manchester,  and  the  neighborhood  for  eight 
years.  In  1864  he  was  removed  to  Folkestone.  In 
1867  he  removed  to  Tottenham,  in  1868  he  became 
principal  of  the  Wesleyan  Training  College,  and,  in 
1878,  president  of  the  Wesleyan  conference. 


RIIS,  Jacob,  born  at  Ribe,  Denmark,  May  3,  1849, 
became  a reporter  on  New  York  newspapers  and  an 
investigator  of  the  conditions  of  life  among  the  poorer 
classes  in  New  York  which  he  has  truthfully  and 
graphically  depicted  in  his  How  the  Other  Half  Lives 
(1890),  and  Children  of  the  Poor  (1892). 

RILEY,  Bennett,  born  at  Alexandria,  Va.,  Novem- 
ber 27,  1787;  entered  the  army  when  a youth,  and  was 
promoted  to  be  ensign  of  the  8th  infantry,  January  19, 
1813.  He  fought  in  the  wars  with  Great  Britain  and 
Mexico,  also  in  Florida,  and  secured  steady  advance- 
ment in  rank  from  ensign  to  brigadier-general.  After 
the  Mexican  war  he  was  invested  with  the  command  of 
the  department  of  the  Pacific,  subsequently  becoming 
military  governor  of  California,  and  later  still  the  gov- 
ernor of  that  Territory,  so  remaining  until  California 
was  admitted.  He  died  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  June  9,  1853. 

RILEY,  Charles  Valentine,  born  at  London, 
England,  September  18,  1843,  and  educated  at  Dieppe, 
France,  also  at  the  University  of  Bonn;  came  to  Amer- 
ica in  i860,  and  located  in  Illinois,  later  becoming 
associated  with  the  Chicago  Evening  Journal  and 
Prairie  Farmer , in  an  editorial  capacity.  He  served 
during  the  Civil  war  as  a member  of  the  134th  Illinois 
infantry,  and,  after  a brief  connection  with  the  Prairie 
Farmer,  was  appointed  State  entomologist  of  Missouri. 
In  1877  he  resigned  that  position  to  accept  the  office  of 
chief  of  the  entomological  commission  of  the  United 
States,  and  was  appointed  entomologist  of  the  agricul- 
tural department  in  1878.  He  organized  the  entomo- 
logical branch  of  that  department  in  188 1,  in  the  charge 
of  which  he  has  since  continued,  also  having  the  custody 
of  the  insect  department  of  the  National  Museum,  which 
now  contains  over  100,000  specimens  given  it  by  Pro- 
fessor Riley.  He  has  also  delivered  lectures  on  ento- 
mology at  many  of  the  leading  colleges  in  the  country. 
He  received  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  from  Missouri  State 
University  in  1873,  a gold  medal  from  France  for  his 
investigations  concerning  the  insects  injurious  to  the 
growth  and  development  of  the  vine,  and  a like  token  of 
appreciation  for  his  collection  of  insects  displayed  at 
the  Edinburgh  International  Exhibition,  and  is  a mem- 
ber of  the  leading  scientific  organizations  in  this  country 
and  in  Europe.  He  has  been  a voluminous  writer  on 
entomology,  and  is  the  author  of  works  dealing  with 
the  various  phases  of  that  science.  Died  Sept.,  1895. 

RILEY,  James  Whitcomb,  born  at  Greenfield,  Ind., 
1852,  a popular  poet  and  writer  of  dialect  verse  whose 
pieces,  largely  descriptive  of  rural  life,  have  appeared 
in  magazines  and  newspapers  all  over  the  country.  He 
was  connected  with  the  Indianapolis  Journal  early  in 
his  career.  He  has  published  The  Old  Swimmin ’ Hole , 
etc.  (1873);  Afterwhiles  (1887);  Character  Sketches 
(1887);  Old  Fashioned  Roses  (1888);  Pipes  o'  Pan 
(1889);  Green  Fields  and  Running  Brooks  (1893); 
Armazindy  (1894),  and  other  volumes  of  poetry. 

RIMMER,  William,  born  at  Liverpool,  England, 
February  20,  1816;  came  to  America  with  his  parents 
when  he  was  two  years  old.  Prior  to  i860,  Rimmer, 
who  had  meanwhile  graduated  in  medicine,  practiced 
his  profession.  In  that  year,  however,  he  exhibited  the 
result  of  his  art  studies,  ahead  of  St.  Stephen  sculptured 
from  a section  of  granite,  and  soon  after  he  opened  a 
studio  in  Boston,  whence  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of 
art  anatomy  at  Harvard  University.  He  also  painted 
many  pictures,  and  was  for  four  years  director  of  the 
Cooper  Institute  School  of  Design  in  New  York  city. 
He  died  at  South  Milford,  Mass.,  August  20,  1879. 

RINEHART,  William  Henry,  sculptor,  born 
near  Union  Bridge,  Md.,  September  13,  1825;  died  in 
Rome,  Italy,  October  28,  1874.  He  received  an  ordi- 
nary education.  In  1844  he  went  to  Baltimore  to  learn 


R I N — R IT 


the  stone  cutter’s  trade,  and  in  his  leisure  hours  he 
studied  drawing  and  the  elements  of  sculpture.  In  1855 
he  went  to  Italy  for  study,  and  two  years  later  returned 
to  Baltimore,  where  he  opened  a studio;  in  1858  he 
settled  in  Rome.  In  1866  and  1872  he  made  visits  to 
the  United  States,  where,  from  time  to  time,  he 
received  many  remunerative  orders  for  statues  and 
busts.  He  left  $45,000  in  his  will  for  a lectureship  on 
sculpture  in  Baltimore,  and  also  a fund  for  needy  art- 
students. 

RINGGOLD,  Samuel,  an  artillery  officer  and  com- 
mander of  Ringgold’s  battery  during  the  Mexican  war; 
was  born  in  Washington  county,  Md.,  about  1800,  and 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1818.  For  gallantry  in  the 
Florida  war  he  was  made  major  by  brevet.  In  the 
Mexican  war  he  originated  a branch  of  the  artillery 
service  which  immediately  became  popular  and  has 
since  been  known  as  “ flying  artillery,”  also  inventing 
improvements  in  the  equipment  of  the  cavalry  service, 
more  especially  in  respect  to  cavalry  saddles.  He  was 
fatally  wounded  at  Palo  Alto,  and  died  at  Point  Isabel, 
Tex.,  May  n,  1846. 

RIORDAN,  Patrick  William,  Roman  Catholic 
archbishop,  was  born  in  Ireland  in  1841.  He  was 
educated  in  Chicago  and  Paris.  He  was  ordained  in 
1865,  and  retuned  to  the  United  States,  being  appointed 
professor  at  the  Catholic  Seminary  in  Chicago.  In  1883 
he  was  made  Bishop  of  Cabasa  and  assistant  to  the 
Archbishop  Alemany,  of  San  Francisco,  and  after  the 
third  plenary  council  of  Baltimore  he  succeeded  to  the 
archbishopric,  which  position  he  now  holds. 

RIPLEY,  George,  American  scholar,  was  bom  in 
Greenfield,  Mass.,  October  3,  1802,  and  died  in  New 
York,  July  4,  1880.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1823,  and  spent  three  years  in  a divinity  school,  taking 
holy  orders  in  1826.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Transcendental  Club,  and  the  whole  of  his  long  life  was 
devoted  to  the  pursuit  of  literature.  He  was  a contrib- 
utor to  the  leading  papers  of  the  day  and  joint  editor 
with  Charles  A.  Dana  of  the  New  American  Encyclo- 
pedia. The  University  of  Michigan  conferred  on  him 
the  degree  of  LL.D.  in  1874. 

RIPON,  Marquis  of  (George  Frederick  Sam- 
uel Robinson,  K.G.),  was  born  in  London,  October 
24,  1827,  and  succeeded  to  his  father’s  titles,  January 
28,  1859,  and  to  those  of  his  uncle,  as  third  Earl  De 
Grey,  November  14th,  in  the  same  year.  He  began 
his  political  life  as  attache  to  a special  mission  to  Brus- 
sels in  1849.  At  the  general  election  in  1852  he  was 
returned  as  member  for  Hull,  and  continued  to  sit  for 
that  borough  until  1853.  At  the  general  election  for 
1857  he  was  returned  for  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire. 
In  June,  1859,  the  year  in  which  he  succeeded  to  the 
peerage.  Lord  Herbert  selected  him  for  the  post  of  under- 
secretary for  war,  and  in  February,  1861,  upon  the 
accession  of  Sir  George  C.  Lewis  as  chief  secretary,  he 
was  made  under-secretary  for  India.  Upon  the  death  of 
Sir  G.  C.  Lewis,  in  April,  1863,  he  took  the  place  of  his 
chief  as  secretary  for  war,  together  with  a seat  in  the  cab- 
inet. He  remained  at  the  war  office  nearly  three  years, 
and  in  February,  1866,  when  Sir  Charles  Wood,  after- 
ward Viscount  Halifax,  withdrew  from  the  ministry,  was' 
appointed  secretary  of  state  for  India.  On  Mr.  Glad- 
stone’s accession  to  office,  in  December,  1868,  he  was 
appointed  lord  president  of  the  council.  He  was  cre- 
ated a knight  of  the  garter  in  1869.  In  1871  he  acted 
as  chairman  of  the  high  joint  commission,  which 
arranged  the  treaty  of  Washington,  and  was  created 
Marquis  of  Ripon.  In  1870  he  was  installed  as  grand 
master  of  the  Freemasons  of  England,  which  position 
he  resigned  upon  joining  the  Catholic  Church.  On  the 
return  of  Mr.  Gladstone  to  power  the  Marquis  of  Ripon 


6769 

was  appointed  viceroy  of  India,  in  which  capacity  he 
gained  the  friendship  of  the  natives  and  the  hatred  of 
the  official  class.  He  was  recalled  by  the  Tory  minis- 
try. Lord  Ripon  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  1886, 
and  colonial  secretary,  1892-95. 

RISTICH,  John,  a Servian  statesman,  born  at 
Kragujevatz  in  1831,  began  his  studies  in  Germany, 
and  continued  them  at  Paris.  Under  the  government 
of  Prince  Karageorgevitch  he  was  appointed  secretary 
and  afterward  head  of  a department  of  the  office  of  the 
minister  of  the  interior.  Milosch  Obrenovitch  III.,  on 
his  return  in  1858,  appointed  M.  Ristich  secretary  to  a 
deputation  which  he  sent  to  Constantinople,  and  at  a 
later  period  the  same  prince  accredited  him  as  the 
representative  of  Servia  at  the  Sublime  Porte.  Scarcely 
had  he  been  installed  in  his  post,  however,  when  the 
crisis  commenced  which  culminated  in  the  bombard- 
ment of  Belgrade  (1862).  M.  Ristich  extricated  him- 
self with  such  ability  from  the  difficulties  which  ensued, 
that  five  years  later  (1867)  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  the 
evacuation  of  all  the  Servian  fortresses  occupied  up  to 
that  time  by  the  Turkish  troops.  This  service  gained 
for  him  the  portfolio  of  foreign  affairs,  but  he  soon  re- 
signed it.  On  the  assassination  of  Prince  Michael  he 
was  sent  to  Paris  to  escort  Prince  Milan  to  his  domin- 
ions. He  was  a member  of  the  council  which  governed 
the  country  during  the  minority  of  Prince  Milan.  This 
council,  on  the  prince’s  attaining  his  majority,  became  a 
ministry,  in  which  M.  Ristich  held  the  portfolio  for  for- 
eign affairs.  When  the  insurrection  occurred  in  Herze- 
govina he  became  minister  for  foreign  affairs.  He  held 
the  office  of  foreign  minister  during  the  disastrous  war 
with  Turkey  (1877),  in  which  the  Servians  were  thor- 
oughly defeated.  In  1878  he  was  sent  to  the  congress 
of  Berlin.  From  that  date  he  was  often  prominent  in 
Servian  affairs,  and  was  chief  of  the  council  of  regency 
of  the  young  King  Alexander  from  the  abdication  of 
his  father,  Milan  Obrenovitch  (y.  v.),  March  6,  1889, 
until  Alexander  dismissed  the  regency  and  assumed 
control  in  his  own  name  in  1893. 

RISTORI,  Adelaide,  tragic  actress,  was  born  at 
Cividale,  in  Italy,  in  1821.  Having  accepted  in  1855 
an  engagement  in  Paris  at  the  time  when  Rachel  was 
in  the  zenith  of  her  fame,  her  appearance  was  regarded 
by  the  French  as  an  open  challenge  to  contest  the 
supremacy  of  their  tragic  queen.  The  genius  of  Ristori 
triumphed  and  from  that  moment  her  position  was 
unassailed.  Her  reception  in  England  was  equally  en- 
thusiastic, and  she  appeared  in  Spain  in  1857,  in  Hol- 
land in  i860,  in  Russia  in  1861,  at  Constantinople  in 
1864,  in  the  United  States,  and  other  parts  of  the 
world,  with  success.  Among  her  most  famous  char- 
acters are  those  of  “Medea,”  “Lady  Macbeth,” 
“Phaedra,”  “Deborah,”  “Judith,”  and  “Camilla.” 
She  is  married  to  the  Marquis  del  Grillo. 

RITCHIE,  Anna  Isabella.  See  Thackeray, 
Miss. 

RITCHIE,  Charles  Thomson,  M.  P.,  was  born  at 
Dundee,  Scotland,  in  1838,  and  is  engaged  in  business 
in  the  east  of  London.  In  1874  he  was  elected  as  a 
Conservative  member  for  the  Tower  Hamlets,  and  con- 
tinued to  hold  the  seat  until  1885,  A^hen,  after  the  Re- 
distribution bill,  he  was  returned  for  the  St.  George’s 
division  of  the  old  borough.  In  Lord  Salisbury’s  first 
administration,  having  gained  a considerable  reputation 
for  practical  ability  and  conversance  with  affairs,  he 
was  made  secretary  to  the  admiralty,  and  in  his  second 
cabinet  he  was  president  of  the  local  government  board. 
He  took  a prominent  part  in  the  agitation  against  for- 
eign bounties  on  sugar.  He  was  defeated  in  1892. 

RITCHIE,  Mrs.  See  Mowatt,  Anna  Cora. 
RITTENHOUSE,  David,  astronomer,  was  born  in 


RIV-ROB 


6770 

Roxborough,  Penn.,  1732,  and  died  in  Philadelphia, 
Tune  26,  1796.  He  early  displayed  a predilection  for 
mathematics  and  astronomical  studies,  and  in  1751  es- 
tablished himself  as  an  instrument  maker  in  Norriston. 
In  1763  he  took  part  in  the  survey  which  determined 
the  line  between  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland,  now 
known  as  Mason  and  Dixon’s  line.  He  was  also  en- 
gaged in  several  other  surveys  for  the  colonies ; and 
made  numerous  instruments  for  the  use  of  educational 
institutions. 

RIVES,  Amalie,  the  daughter  of  the  Hon.  W.  C. 
Rives,  was  born  in  Richmond,  Va.,  August  23,  1863. 
She  was  educated  at  home,  and  at  an  early  age  exhibited 
the  inherited  literary  powers  she  possessed.  Her  first 
story,  A Brother  to  Dragons , appeared  in  the  Atlantic 
Monthly  in  1888.  Since  that  time  her  contributions  to 
novelistic  literature  have  but  confirmed  her  claims  to 
distinction.  She  is  married  to  J.  A.  Chanler  of  New 
York  city.  An  erotic  novel  called  The  Quick  or  the 
Dead  brought  her  name  into  prominence. 

RIVES,  William  C.,  American  statesman,  was  born 
in  Nelson  county,  Va.,  May  4,  1793,  and  died  near 
Charlottesville,  Va.,  April  25,  1868.  He  was  graduated 
at  William  and  Mary  College  and  studied  law  under 
Thomas  Jefferson.  He  early  entered  politics  and  was 
several  times  a member  of  the  State  legislature.  In 
1822  he  was  first  sent  to  congress,  and  served  for  three 
successive  terms,  after  which  he  was  minister  to  France 
and  negotiated  the  treaty  of  1831.  In  1832  he  was 
made  a senator,  and  resigned  at  the  instance  of  his 
constituency,  because  he  would  not  censure  President 
Jackson  for  removing  the  deposits  from  the  United 
States  bank.  He  was  reelected  in  1835  and  voted  for 
Benton’s  famous  “expunction  resolution.”  He  was 
again  minister  to  France  in  1849*53.  In  1861  he 
was  one  of  the  five  Southern  “peace”  commissioners. 
He  was  an  anti-secessionist,  but  served  in  the  first  two 
Confederate  congresses.  He  was  a writer  of  great 
ability  and  was  the  author  of  several  historical  and 
philosophical  pamphlets. 

RIVIERE,  Briton,  R.A.,  a distinguished  animal 
painter,  was  born  in  London,  August  14,  1840.  He 
entered  the  University  of  Oxford,  took  his  B.A.  degree 
in  1867,  and  that  of  M.A.  in  1873.  The  first  pictures 
he  exhibited  were  home  rural  scenes.  From  this  date 
till  1864  he  was  absent  from  the  academy  as  an  exhib- 
itor, but  in  the  last-mentioned  year  he  sent  Iron  Bars 
and  Romeo  and  Juliet.  From  this  time  he  has  been 
constantly  before  the  public  and  his  productions  are 
very  numerous.  He  was  made  a member  of  the  acad- 
emy in  1881. 

RIVINGTON,  James,  journalist,  born  in  London, 
England,  about  1724;  died  in  New  York  city  in  July, 
1802.  In  1760  he  came  to  America.  For  a year  he 
lived  in  Philadelphia,  but  in  1761  went  to  New  York 
city,  where  he  opened  a book  store,  and  in  1773  began 
to  publish  the  Gazetteer.  In  his  newspaper  he  severely 
reflected  on  the  patriotic  movements  of  the  day,  and  on 
November  23,  1775,  the  “ Sons  of  Liberty”  destroyed 
his  press  and  molded  his  type  into  bullets.  There- 
after Rivington  went  to  England,  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed royal  printer  for  New  York.  On  his  return,  in 
October,  1777,  he  published  the  Loyal  Gazette , which 
afterward  became  the  Royal  Gazette.  When  the  Brit- 
ish evacuated  New  York  city  he  remained  there,  re- 
moved the  royal  arms  from  his  office,  and  began  to 
publish  Rivington1  s New  York  Gazette  and  Universal 
Advertiser.  In  1783  this  newspaper  ceased  to  exist. 

ROACH,  John,  shipbuilder,  was  born  in  Mitchells- 
town,  Ireland,  in  1815,  and  died  in  New  York  in  1887. 
He  emigrated  to  America  at  an  early  age,  and  was  em- 
ployed in  a machine  shop  in  New  York.  He  then  en- 


gaged in  land  speculation  in  Illinois,  but  returned  to 
New  York  and  started  business  on  his  own  account.  A 
fire,  destroying  his  shop,  nearly  bankrupted  him,  but  be- 
ginning over  and  making  a specialty  of  large  compound 
engines,  he  was  soon  on  the  high  road  to  prosperity. 
He  bought  and  consolidated  several  large ' iron  works 
and  the  ship  yards  in  Chester,  Penn. , and  began  ship- 
building for  the  government.  He  built  the  monitors 
constructed  during  General  Grant’s  presidency,  and  later 
the  Chicago , Atlanta , and  Boston , besides  the  dispatch 
boat,  Dolphin.  The  failure  of  his  business  was  precipi- 
tated by  the  refusal  of  the  government  to  accept  the 
Dolphin.  After  some  alterations,  however,  it  was  ac- 
cepted, and  Roach  resumed  business.  This  failure  is 
said  to  have  hastened  his  death. 

ROBERT  I.  (Robert-Charles-Louis  Marie 
de  Bourbon),  ex-Duke  of  Parma,  born  July  9,  1848, 
succeeded  his  father,  Duke  Ferdinand  Charles  III., 
March  27,  1854,  as  Robert  I.,  under  the  regency  of  his 
mother,  the  dowager-Duchess  Louise-Marie-Theresede 
Bourbon,  daughter  of  the  Duke  de  Berry.  Her  rule 
came  to  an  end  in  185-9,  in  consequence  of  the  revolu- 
tion, and,  with  her  son,  she  sought  refuge  in  the  Hel- 
vetic States.  The  ex-Duke  Robert  married  at  Rome, 
April  5,  1869,  the  Duchess  Maria  Pia,  daughter  of  the 
late  Ferdinand  II.,  King  of  Naples. 

ROBERTS,  General  Lord  Frederick  Sleigh, 
Bart.,  G.C.B.,  V.C.,  was  born  in  1832,  and  educated 
at  Eton,  Sandhurst,  and  Addiscombe,  England.  He  re- 
ceived his  first  commission  as  second  lieutenant  in  the 
Bengal  artillery,  and,  after  passing  through  the  va- 
rious other  grades,  was  promoted  to  lieutenant-general 
in  1879.  He  served  with  distinction  throughout  the 
Indian  Mutiny  campaign.  Throughout  the  Abyssinian 
campaign  of  1868  he  held  the  office  of  assistant  quarter- 
master-general. He  also  acted  as  assistant  quarter- 
master-general with  the  Cachar  column  in  the  Looshai 
expeditionary  force  (1871-72).  At  the  beginning  of  the 
Afghan  campaign  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
Kuram  field  force;  subsequently  he  had  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  army  in  Afghanistan,  and  annihilated  the 
power  of  Ayoob  Khan.  On  the  return  of  Sir  Frederick 
Roberts  to  England  he  was  loaded  with  honors,  and  was 
created  a baronet.  In  February,  1881,  he  was  appointed 
to  succeed  Sir  George  Colley  in  the  command  of  the 
troops  in  Natal  and  the  Transvaal,  but  peace  was  con- 
cluded with  the  Boers  before  his  arrival  in  the  colony. 
He  was  afterward  appointed  a member  of  the  council  of 
Madras,  commanded  the  troops  in  that  presidency, 
1881-85,  then  became  commander-in-chief  in  India, 
conducted  the  Burmese  expedition  and  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  in  1892  as  Lord  Roberts  of  Kandahar  and 
Waterford.  From  1899  to  1901  he  served  in  South  Africa. 

ROBERTSON,  George  Croom,  was  born  at  Aber- 
deen, Scotland,  March  10,  1842,  educated  at  Aberdeen 
Grammar  School,  and  graduated  M.  A.  in  Aberdeen 
University  in  1861.  He  was  assistant  professor  of 
Greek  in  the  University  of  Aberdeen  from  1864  to 
1866,  and  professor  of  philosophy  and  logic  in  Uni- 
versity College,  London,  from  December,  1866,  be- 
sides being  philosophical  examiner  in  the  Universities 
of  London,  Aberdeen  and  Cambridge  successively  for 
many  years.  He  assisted  Professor  Bain  in  editing 
Grotes’s  Aristotle,  contributed  to  the  ninth  edition  of  the 
Encyclopcedia  Britannica  and  wrote  much  for  educa- 
tional journals.  He  died  September  21,  1892. 

ROBERTSON,  James,  pioneer,  born  in  Brunswick 
county,  Va.,  June  28,  1742  ; died  in  Chickasaw  county, 
Tenn.,  September  1,  1814.  He  received  only  the 
rudiments  of  an  education,  and  in  1 759  accompanied 
Daniel  Boone  on  his  third  expedition  beyond  the  Alle- 
ghany Mountains,  In  the  spring  following  he  pioneered 


ROB 


sixteen  families  westward.  In  1779,  Robertson,  fol- 
lowed by  seme  of  the  settlers  of  the  Watauga  Valley, 
settled  at  Nashville,  Tenn.  During  the  Revolutionary 
war  he  supported  the  American  cause.  In  1790  he  was 
appointed  a brigadier-general,  and  held  the  post  of  In- 
dian commissioner  until  his  death. 

ROBERTSON,  Miss  Agnes,  stage  name  of  Mrs. 
Dion  Boucicault,  born  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  De- 
cember 25,  1833,  gave  concerts  in  public  before  she 
was  eleven  years  old,  began  her  theatrical  career  in  Hull 
at  sixteen,  married  Dion  Boucicault  in  1853  and  came 
to  America  where  she  at  once  became,  and  long  con- 
tinued, a popular  actress.  Her  son,  Aubrey  Bouci- 
cault, was  in  1895,  a rising  young  actor. 

ROBESON,  George  M.,  secretary  of  the  navy  under 
Grant,  was  born  in  Warren  county,  N.J.,  in  1827.  He 
was  graduated  at  Princeton,  and  studied  law.  He  was 
made  prosecuting  attorney  for  Camden  county,  N.  J., 
in  1859,  and  took  an  active  part  in  organizing  troops  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  war,  being  a brigadier-general  under 
the  State  commission.  After  the  war  he  was  attorney- 
general  of  New  Jersey,  and  resigned  this  office  to  be- 
come secretary  of  the  navy  under  General  Grant  in  1869. 
Since  that  time  he  has  been  several  times  a member  of 
congress. 

ROBINSON,  Annie  Douglas,  poet,  was  born  in 
Plymouth,  N.  H.,  January  12,  1842.  Her  maiden 
name  was  Green.  Under  the  pen  name  of  “Marian 
Douglas  ” she  has  written  much  for  the  magazines  and 
newspapers, and  has  also  published  a prose  story  entitled 
Peter  and  Polly  or  Home  Life  in  New  England  One 
Hundred  Years  Ago. 

ROBINSON,  Beverly,  soldier,  born  in  Virginia  in 
1723;  died  inThornbury,  England,  in  1792.  He  was  a 
major  under  General  Wolfe  at  the  taking  of  Quebec  in 
1 759.  Although  he  opposed  many  measures  that  led  to 
the  separation  of  the  colonies  from  Great  Britain,  he 
became  colonel  of  a regiment  of  Loyalists.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  somewhat  concerned  in  the  treason 
of  Gen.  Benedict  Arnold.  His  country  house  opposite 
West  Point,  standing  about  half  a mile  back  from  the 
river,  was  Arnold’s  headquarters.  After  the  conviction 
of  Major  Andr6  he  accompanied  the  commissioners 
sent  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton  to  Washington’s  head- 
quarters, to  plead  for  Andre’s  life.  On  the  return  of 
peace  between  Great  Britain  and  her  former  colonies, 
Colonel  Robinson  went  to  New  Brunswick,  and  after- 
ward retired  to  a country  home  near  Bath,  England, 
until  his  death. 

ROBINSON,  Edward,  biblical  scholar,  was  born  in 
Southington,  Conn.,  April  10,  1794;  died  in  New  York 
city,  January  27,  1863.  Pie  was  graduated  from  Ham- 
ilton College  in  i860,  and  after  a short  time  spent  in 
reading  law,  he  became  professor  of  Greek  and  mathe- 
matics in  that  college.  He  also  occupied  chairs  in  the 
theological  seminary  at  Andover,  and  wrote  much  of 
an  expository  and  exegetical  character  on  the  Bible  and 
biblical  literature.  He  was  a member  of  many  learned 
societies,  and  received  the  honorary  degrees  of  LL.D. 
and  D.D.  from  several  colleges  and  universities.  His 
publications  include  a long  list  of  works,  of  deep  re- 
search and  great  learning,  covering  all  phases  of  bib- 
lical criticism. 

ROBINSON,  Ezekiel  Gilman,  educator,  was  born 
in  Attleboro,  Mass.,  March  23,  1815.  Pie  was  gradu- 
ated at  Brown,  and  then  took  a course  in  the  Newton 
Theological  Seminary.  After  a few  years  pastorate  he 
became  professor  of  biblical  interpretation  in  the  theo- 
logical seminary  at  Covington,  Ky.,  and  in  1853  he 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Rochester;  in  i860 
he  became  its  president.  This  position  he  resigned  in 
1872  to  become  president  of  Brown  University,  which 


677 1 

post  he  held  until  1889.  He  had  several  honorary  de- 
grees conferred  on  him,  and  wrote  much  for  the  press, 
chiefly  in  the  nature  of  sermons  and  review  articles. 
He  died  June  13,  1894. 

ROBINSON,  Sir  J.  Charles,  born  1824,  formerly 
art  superintendent  of  the  South  Kensington  Museum, 
was  an  F.S.A.,  honorary  member  of  the  Academy  of  St. 
Luke  in  Rome,  Florence,  Bologna,  Madrid,  Lisbon, 
etc.,  and  a knight  commander  of  the  Order  of  Isabella 
la  Catolica  and  of  Santiago  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  In 
association  with  the  Marquis  d’Azeglio,  Italian  minister 
in  London,  and  the  late  Baron  Marochetti,  Mr.  Robin- 
son founded,  and  for  many  years  directed  as  honorary 
secretary,  the  well  known  Fine  Arts  Club,  now  the  Bur- 
lington Fine  Arts  Club.  In  1869  he  resigned  his  ap- 
pointment at  South  Kensington  on  a retiring  pension. 

ROBINSON,  Sir  John  R.,  born  at  Witham,  Es- 
sex, England,  November  2,  1828.  On  coming  to  Lon- 
don, in  1846,  he  joined  the  paper  which  had  been  known 
as  Douglas  J err  old's  Newspaper,  and  soon  afterward 
undertook  the  editorship  of  the  Evening  Express.  This 
was  the  property  of  the  Daily  News,  and  Mr.  Robinson 
soon  took  an  active  part  in  the  conduct  of  the  morning 
paper.  On  the  change  of  proprietorship  in  1868,  when 
the  Daily  News  joined  the  ranks  of  the  penny  papers, 
he  was  appointed  sole  manager.  For  many  years  Mr. 
Robinson  was  a copious  contributor  to  the  columns  of 
the  American  press,  including  the  Boston  Advertiser 
and  the  Chicago  Tribune.  He  also  edited  a work  on 
shorthand.  He  was  knighted  in  1893. 

ROBINSON,  Lucius,  ex-governor  of  New  York, 
was  born  in  Windham,  Greene  county,  N.  Y.,  Novem- 
ber 4,  1810.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1832,  and 
was  successively  district  attorney  and  master  in  chancery 
for  New  York  city.  He  was  elected  to  the  legislature 
as  a Republican  in  1859,  and  State  comptroller  in  1861 
and  1863.  He  was  a member  of  the  constitutional  com- 
mission of  1871,  and  was  reelected  comptroller  in  1875. 
In  1876  he  was  chosen  governor,  and  was  renominated 
in  1879,  but  defeated.  He  died  March  23,  1891. 

ROBINSON,  Philip  Stewart  (known  as  Phil 
Robinson),  born  at  Chunar  in  India,  October  13,  1849 ; 
and  educated  at  Marlborough  College,  joined  the  Pio- 
neer as  sub-editor  to  his  father  in  1869,  contributing  to 
that  journal  (1870-71)  the  papers  afterward  republished 
as  In  My  Indian  Garden.  Fie  was  appointed  (1872) 
editor  of  the  revenue  archives  of  the  Benares  Province. 
Meanwhile  he  was  gazetted  professor  of  literature 
(1873),  and  exchanged  (1875)  to  the  chair  of  logic  and 
metaphysics,  and  held  simultaneously  the  appointment 
to  the  supreme  government  of  censor  of  the  vernacular 
press.  He  retired  from  the  service  in  1877,  joined  the 
Daily  Telegraph  in  the  same  year,  and  served  as  one 
of  the  war  correspondents  of  that  journal.  He  traveled 
over  the  United  States  as  special  commissioner  of  the 
New  York  World.  Fie  is  a regular  contributor  to  the 
Contemporary  Review,  Gentlemen's  Magazine , and 
Harper's  Alonthly,  besides  having  written  several 
books. 

ROBINSON,  Sir  IIercules  George  Robert, 
G.C.M.G.,  was  born  in  1824;  died  October  28,  1897. 
Was  educated  at  Royal  Military  College,  Sandhurst, 
England  ; held  a commission  in  the  87th  foot,  but  re- 
tired from  the  service  in  1846,  and  was  employed  in 
various  capacities  in  the  civil  service  in  Ireland  until 
1852.  He  was  appointed  president  of  Montserrat  in 
1854,  lieutenant-governor  of  St.  Christopher’s  in  1855, 
succeeded  Sir  John  Bowring  as  governor  of  Hong 
Kong  in  1859,  when  he  received  the  honor  of  knight- 
hood, was  promoted  to  the  governorship  of  Ceylon  in 
January,  1865,  and  to  the  governorship  of  New  South 
Wales  in  March,  1872.  In  August,  1874,  he  proceedea 


r O B — R O D 


6772 

to  the  Fiji  Islands  on  special  duty,  held  other  posts 
and  was  commissioner  to  Mauritius,  in  1886. 

ROBSON,  Stuart,  a popular  American  comedian, 
born  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  March  4,  1836,  went  on  the 
stage  at  Baltimore  in  1852.  His  first  great  success  was 
as  “ Captain  Crosstree  ” in  Black-eyed  Susan  at  Boston 
in  1870.  Soon  after  he  formed  a partnership  with  W. 

H.  Crane  which  was  remarkably  successful  in  Our 
Boarding  House , in  sumptuous  revivals  of  The  Comedy 
of  Errors  and  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  the  two  come- 
dians playing  the  two  “ Dromios  ” in  the  first  named 
comedy,  and  in  The  Henrietta,  Bronson  Howard’s 
drama  of  Wall  street  life,  which  had  a phenomenally 
successful  run,  Mr.  Robson’s  part  of  “ Bertie,  the 
Lamb  ” being  considered  by  many  his  greatest  suc- 
cess. He  separated  from  Mr.  Crane  in  1889  and  has 
since  produced  The  Henrietta,  She  Stoops  to  Conquer 
and  other  plays. 

ROCA,  Julio  A.,  born  at  Tucuman,  July,  1843,  an 
Argentine  general  and  statesman  who  led  the  military 
expedition  of  1879  which  opened  Patagonia  to  settle- 
ment and  was  president  of  the  Republic,  1880-86. 

ROCHAMBEAU,  Jean  Baptiste  Donatien  de 
Vimeure,  Count  de,  French  soldier,  bornin  Vendome, 
France,  July  1,  1725;  died  at  Thore,  France,  May  10, 
1807.  In  1742  he  entered  the  army  and  served  in  Ger- 
many and  Bohemia.  In  1749  he  became  governor  of 
Vendome,  and,  after  successive  promotions,  on  March 

I,  1 780,  attained  the  grade  of  lieutenant-general.  In 
the  last  named  year  Count  Rochambeau,  at  the  head  of 
6,000  men,  was  sent  to  America,  to  aid  the  cause  of  the 
patriots.  The  French  troops  embarked  at  Brest.  On 
July  1 2th  the  soldiers  were  landed  in  a body  in  Rhode 
Island,  where  Newport  became  the  general’s  head- 
quarters. On  September  22d  Rochambeau  had  an  in- 
terview with  the  American  commander-in-chief,  when 
the  operations  of  the  following  campaign  were  con- 
certed. Soon  afterward  the  French  army  was  re- 
enforced by  the  arrival  of  Admiral  de  Grasse  with  3,000 
additional  troops.  On  June  18,  1781,  Rochambeau 
left  Rhode  Island,  defeated  a detachment  of  the 
British  army,  and  joined  the  Americans  nine  miles 
above  King’s  Bridge  on  the  Harlem  river.  This  move- 
ment compelled  the  British  commander  to  abandon 
his  purpose  to  relieve  General  Cornwallis.  The  united 
armies  then  pushed  forward  to  Williamsburg,  Va.,  and 
on  September  29,  1781,  began  the  siege  of  Yorktown. 
Admiral  de  Grasse  having  intercepted  the  British 
fleet,  Lord  Cornwallis  found  his  defense  hopeless,  and 
surrendered.  Later  the  French  general  sent  de  Lau- 
zun’s  legion  to  the  assistance  of  General  Greene.  On 
January  14,  1783,  having  completed  his  purpose, 
Rochambeau  embarked  for  France  at  Chesapeake  Bay, 
arriving  at  Brest  in  March.  He  was  made  governor 
of  Picardy  and  Artois,  and  in  1791  became  a marshal 
of  France.  Two  years  later  his  conduct  at  the  head  of 
the  army  of  the  North  greatly  disappointed  expectation. 
Rochambeau  narrowly  escaped  the  guillotine.  In  1804 
Napoleon  conferred  on  him  a pension  and  the  grand 
cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

ROCHEFORT-LU£AY,  Victor  Henri,  Count 
de,  commonly  known  as  Henri  Rochefort,  a French 
journalist,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1830.  After  contribu- 
ting to  various  papers  he  joined  the  staff  of  the  Fi- 
garo, but  in  1865  he  retired  to  save  the  journal  from 
prosecution  and  established  the  Lanterne.  The  paper 
was  soon  suppressed  on  account  of  its  violent  attacks 
upon  the  imperial  family,  and  its  author  was  condemned 
to  a year’s  imprisonment,  and  to  pay  a fine  of  10,000 
francs.  M.  Rochefort  fled  to  Brussels  and  continued 
to  publish  the  Lanterne  till  August,  1869,  when,  on  his 
election  to  the  legislative  body,  he  was  permitted  to  re- 


turn to  Paris.  In  the  same  year  he  founded  the  Mar- 
seillaise, in  which  Victor  Noir  was  a collaborator.  The 
attacks  in  this  journal  on  Prince  Pierre  Bonaparte  led 
to  the  assassination  of  Victor  Noir  by  the  Prince;  the 
paper  was  seized  and  M.  Rochefort  committed  to  the 
prison  of  Sainte  Pelagie.  On  the  proclamation  of  the 
Republic  in  September,  1870,  he  was  released  by  the 
mob,  and  was  for  a short  time  connected  with  the 
government  of  national  defense.  On  May  19,  1871, 
while  endeavoring  to  escape  from  Paris,  he  was  taken, 
tried  by  court-martial,  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment 
for  life.  Subsequently  M.  Rochefort  was  transported 
to  New  Caledonia,  but  effected  his  escape  in  1874.  He 
returned  to  Europe  and  attempted  to  revive  the  Lan- 
terne in  London  and  Geneva,  but  without  success. 
The  general  amnesty  of  July  11,  1880,  permitted  M. 
Rochefort  to  return  to  Paris,  where  he  at  once  as- 
sumed the  direction  of  a new  Radical  paper,  L'Lntran- 
sigeant,  and  renewed  his  attacks  upon  all  the  govern- 
ments in  turn.  He  was  again  elected  for  Paris,  but 
parliament  was  irksome  to  him,  and  he  resigned.  In 
1888  he  advocated  the  election  of  General  Boulanger, 
and  when  the  latter  fled  to  escape  arrest  Rochefort 
went  with  him  to  England,  where  he  resided  for 
several  years. 

ROCKEFELLER,  John  D.,  born  in  Owego,  N. 
Y.,  in  1839,  removed  with  his  parents  to  Cleveland,  O., 
and  was  educated  in  its  public  schools.  He  evinced 
great  aptitude  for  business,  and  from  very  small  be- 
ginnings soon  began  to  get  rich.  In  i860,  when  pe- 
troleum discoveries  created  the  “oil  fever,”  he  was 
proprietor  of  a refinery  in  Cleveland  with  a modest 
capital.  He  took  prominent  part  in  developing  the 
Standard  Oil  Company,  a monopolistic  corporation 
which  bought  up  or  killed  off  competition  until  it  se- 
cured control  of  the  oil  production  of  the  country.  Mr. 
Rockefeller  became  president  of  the  Company,  by 
which  he  was  made  enormously  wealthy.  Since  1890, 
he  reconstructed  the  Chicago  University  with  a total 
endowment  of  nearly  $4,000,000  and  has  also  given 
liberally  to  other  public  and  religious  objects. 

RODGERS,  John,  naval  officer,  born  in  Harford  . 
county,  Md.,  1771,  served  in  the  merchant  marine,  be- 
coming captain,  entered  the  navy  as  lieutenant  of  the 
Constellation,  earned  distinction  fighting  the  Tripoli- 
tans and  in  the  war  of  1812  commanded  the  Presi- 
dent, and  took  twenty-three  prizes.  He  became  pres- 
ident of  the  naval  commission,  holding  the  office  till 
his  death  in  1838. 

RODGERS,  John,  naval  officer,  born  in  Harford 
county,  Md.,  August  8,  1812,  son  of  the  preceding, 
entered  the  navy  in  1828,  was  commander  at  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  war,  superintended  the  construction 
of  river  gunboats,  captured  the  Confederate  iron-clad 
Atlanta,  in  Warsaw  sound,  and  performed  other  no- 
table services.  He  became  rear  admiral  in  1869;  and 
was  superintendent  of  the  naval  observatory  from  1877 
till  his  death,  May  12,  1882. 

RODMAN,  Isaac  P.,  soldier,  was  born  in  South 
Kingston,  R.  I.,  August  18,  1822,  and  died  in  Sharps- 
burg,  Md.,  September  30,  1862.  He  was  educated  in 
the  common  schools,  and  early  entered  politics,  being 
several  times  sent  to  the  legislature.  In  1861  he  raised 
a company  of  the  4th  Rhode  Island  regiment,  and  for 
gallantry  at  Bull  Run  he  was  made  lieutenant-colonel 
of  the  regiment.  In  1862,  in  reward  for  gallant  serv- 
ices, he  was  promoted  brigadier-general,  and  while  lead- 
ing the  third  division  of  the  ninth  army  corps  United 
States  army,  at  Sharpsburg,  he  fell  mortally  wounded. 

RODMAN,  Thomas  Jefferson,  soldier  and  in 
ventor,  was  born  in  Salem,  Ind.,  July  30,  1815,  and  died 
in  Rock  Island,  111.,  June  7,  1871.  He  was  graduated 


ROD- 

at  West  Point  in  1841,  and  assigned  to  the  ordnance 
department.  He  gave  all  his  time  and  attention  to  the 
production  of  improved  cannon  and  ammunition,  the 
Rodman  gun  being  his  invention.  He  was  superin- 
tendent of  various  arsenals  during  his  service,  and  was 
the  first  to  propose  the  use  of  the  mammoth  powder  in 
heavy  ordnance.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  super- 
intendent of  the  Rock  Island  arsenal,  and  had  reached 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  regular  army. 

RODNEY,  C^SAR,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence; born  in  Dover,  Del.,  October  7,  1728; 
died  there,  June  29,  1784.  Previous  to  1774  he  had 
been  chosen  to  a number  of  minor  offices,  and  in  that 
year  was  made  a delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress, 
and  again  served  as  such  in  the  following  year.  In  1775 
Mr.  Rodney  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  the 
Delaware  militia.  On  June  5th  he  was  chosen  judge 
of  admiralty,  and  later  in  the  same  year  made  major- 
general  of  militia,  and  president  of  Delaware.  The  last 
named  office  he  held  four  years,  and  declined  a reelec- 
tion. 

ROE,  Edward  Payson,  author,  born  in  Moodna, 
N.  Y.,  March  7,  1838;  died  in  Cornwall,  N.  Y. , July 
19,  1888.  He  was  educated  at  Williams,  but  did  not 
graduate.  Later  he  studied  at  Auburn  and  at  Union 
Theological  Seminary  in  New  York  city,  and  from  1862 
Until  1865  was  a chaplain  of  volunteers  in  the  Union 
army.  Thereafter  he  became  settled  as  pastor  of  a 
Presbyterian  church  at  Highland  Falls,  N.  Y.,  and  in 
1874  removed  to  Cornwall,  on  the  Hudson  river. 
Most  of  his  books  have  been  reprinted  in  England. 
Mr.  Roe’s  sixteen  works,  mostly  novels,  have  found 
entrance  into  many  households. 

ROEBLING,  Washington  Augustus,  civil  en- 
gineer, was  born  in  Saxenburg,  Penn.,  May  26,  1837. 
He  was  graduated  as  a civil  engineer,  and  began  by 
assisting  his  father,  on  the  Alleghany  suspension  bridge. 
In  1861  he  enlisted  in  the  United  States  army,  and  was 
engaged  first  in  engineering  and  then  in  balloon  serv- 
ice. After  the  war,  during  which  he  attained  the  rank 
of  colonel,  Roebling  assisted  his  father  on  the  Cincin- 
nati suspension  bridge,  and  in  various  other  under- 
takings. In  1869  he  began  operations  on  the  great 
Brooklyn  bridge,  which  he  completed  in  1883,  at  a cost 
of  $13,000,000.  Since  that  time  he  has  been  engaged 
in  the  wire-making  business  in  Trenton,  N.  J.  He  is 
the  author  of  a treatise  on  military  engineering. 

ROEBUCK,  John  Arthur,  politician,  was  born  in 
Madras,  India,  December  29,  1802,  and  died  in  Eng- 
land, November  30,  1879.  He  studied  law,  and  in 
1832  was  elected  to  parliament,  becoming  prominent  as 
a radical  leader.  In  1835  he  was  agent  for  the  Lower 
Canada  Assembly,  in  the  deadlock  between  that  body 
and  the  governor.  In  1878  he  was  a privy  councilor. 
He  was  always  a strong  opponent  of  England’s  en- 
croachments on  what  he  regarded  as  the  Canadian 
prerogative.  He  wrote  several  works  of  a historical 
and  political  nature. 

ROGERS,  George  Clarke,  soldier,  was  born  in 
Piermont,  Grafton  county,  N.  H.,  in  1838.  He 
removed  to  Illinois,  and,  having  studied  law,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  i860.  He  raised  a company  of 
men  in  Lake  county  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  and 
was  soon  made  its  captain.  For  gallant  conduct  at 
Shiloh  he  was  promoted  lieutenant-colonel  and  soon 
after  colonel.  He  gained  great  distinction  in  the 
Atlanta  campaign,  and  on  March  13,  1865,  was  brevetted 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He  resumed  his  law 
practice  after  the  war,  and  has  been  since  1885  chairman 
of  the  board  of  pension  appeals. 

ROGERS,  Henry  Darwin,  geologist,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  August  1,  1808,  and  died  near  Glasgow, 


-ROL  6773 

Scotland,  May  29,  1866.  He  was  graduated  at  William 
and  Mary  College,  Virginia,  and  in  1830  was  elected  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  and  natural  philosophy  at  Dickinson. 
He  afterward  lectured  at  Franklin  Institute,  and  in  1835 
he  was  professor  of  geology  and  mineralogy  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania.  He  conducted  several  geolog- 
ical surveys  for  the  different  State  governments,  and  in 
1858  he  was  elected  professor  of  natural  history  at  Glas- 
gow, where  he  remained  till  his  death.  He  has  published 
about  fifty  papers — almost  all  of  them  relating  entirely 
to  geology  and  mineralogy. 

ROGERS,  John,  sculptor,  was  born  in  Salem, 
Mass.,  October  30,  1829.  He  was  educated  in  the 
Boston  public  schools,  and  was  apprenticed  to  a machin- 
ist. Here  his  attention  was  drawn  to  sculpture,  and 
in  1858  he  went  to  Europe  to  study.  In  1859  he  returned 
and  located  in  Chicago,  where  his  work  soon  brought 
him  into  notice.  The  Civil  war  was  prolific  in  furnish- 
ing him  with  subjects,  and  he  has  illustrated  almost 
every  phase  of  life  in  his  groups.  His  compositions 
are  over  fifty  in  number,  and  have  met  with  a large  sale. 
He  was  also  the  modeler  of  the  statue  of  Gen.  John 
F.  Reynolds,  at  the  city  hall  in  Philadelphia. 

ROGERS,  Randolph,  sculptor,  was  born  in  Water- 
loo, near  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  July  6,  1825.  He  was  en- 
gaged in  mercantile  pursuits  till  1848,  when  he  went  to 
Europe  to  study  art,  remaining  there  two  years.  He 
returned  to  New  York  and  opened  a studio,  where  he 
remained  five  years.  Pie  then  again  went  to  Italy, 
where  he  has  since  resided.  He  has  executed  numerous 
ideal  groups  and  heroic  statues,  the  most  noted  of  his 
works  in  the  latter  line  being  the  figures  surrounding 
the  equestrian  statue  of  Washington  at  Richmond,  Va., 
and  the  monument  to  Col.  Samuel  Colt,  in  Hartford, 
Conn.  He  died  Jan.  15,  1892. 

ROGERS,  William,  was  born  in  London  in  1819; 
and  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  took  his  B.A.  degree  in  1840.  In  1843  he 
was  appointed  curate  at  Fulham,  and  in  1844  incum- 
bent of  St.  Thomas,  Charterhouse.  In  1863  he  was  ap- 
pointed rector  of  St.  Botolph,  Bishopsgate,  which  post 
he  has  held  ever  since.  He  was  also  chaplain  in  ordi- 
nary to  the  queen,  and  prebendary  of  St.  Paul’s 
Cathedral.  He  is  a prominent  educator. 

ROGERS,  William  Barton,  geologist,  was  born 
in  Philadelphia,  December  7,  1804,  and  died  in  Boston, 
May  30,  1882.  He  was  graduated  from  William  and 
Mary  College,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  his  professor- 
ship there  in  1828.  He  was  next  professor  of  geology 
and  natural  philosophy  at  the  University  of  Virginia, 
where  he  attained  a high  reputation.  He  organized  the 
State  geological  survey,  and  in  1853  resigned  his  pro- 
fessorship and  went  to  Boston.  Here  he  founded  the 
Institute  of  Technology,  of  which  he  became  first  presi- 
dent. This  office  he  resigned  on  account  of  ill  health, 
but  again  filled  from  1878  till  his  death.  He  was  a mem- 
ber of  a number  of  learned  societies,  and  had  received 
honorary  degrees  from  several  institutions  of  learning. 
He  was  the  author  of  numerous  papers  on  geology 
and  natural  philosophy,  besides  several  treatises  on 
mechanics. 

ROLFE,  William  James,  editor  and  scholar,  was 
born  in  Newburyport,  Mass.,  December  10,  1827.  He 
was  graduated  from  Amherst  in  1849,  and  at  once  en- 
gaged as  a teacher  in  the  Cambridge  (Mass.)'  high 
school.  In  1869  he  began  his  career  as  an  editor,  and 
since  that  time  has  been  engaged  on  several  nigh  class 
journals  and  also  in  annotating  various  classic  poems 
and  prose  productions.  His  editions  are  all  regarded  as 
standard  works  of  their  kind,  his  notes  on  Shakespeare 
being  particularly  excellent. 

R.OLLINS,  Edward  Henry,  senator,  was  born  iu 


6774  ROM- 

Somersworth  (now  Rollinsford),  N.  H.,  October  3, 
1824.  He  was  educated  in  Dover,  and  went  to  Boston, 
where  he  learned  the  druggist’s  business,  and  established 
himself  in  the  trade.  In  1855-57  he  was  a member  of 
the  legislature,  serving  as  speaker  one  year.  In  i860 
he  was  chairman  of  the  delegation  to  the  National  Re- 
publican Convention.  He  served  in  congress  for  six 
years,  and  in  1868  he  became  secretary  and  treasurer  of 
the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  Company.  He  was  United 
States  senator,  1877-83,  and  president  of  the  Boston, 
Concord  and  Montreal  railroad.  He  died  July  31,  1889. 

ROMANES,  George  John,  F.R.S.,  born  in  King- 
ston, Canada,  May  20,  1848.  In  1867  he  entered  Gon- 
ville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  became  a 
scholar  in  natural  science.  In  1870  he  graduated  in 
natural  science  honors,  was  Burney  prize  essayist  in 
1873,  and  Croomian  lecturer  to  the  Royal  Society  in 
1875.  Having  published  a series  of  papers  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions  on  the  nervous  system  of 
Medusa,  he  was  elected  a fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
in  1879.  Subsequently  he  had  continued  to  contribute 
papers  both  to  the  Transactions  and  to  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Royal  and  other  learned  societies ; and  in 
1881  was  again  appointed  Croomian  lecturer  on  the  lo- 
comotor system  of  Echinodermata . Shortly  afterward 
he  became  zoological  secretary  to  the  Linnean  Society. 
He  was  a champion  of  Darwinianism  and  wrote  Dar- 
win and  after  Da?win  (1892).  He  died  May  23,  1894. 

ROMERO,  Matias,  Mexican  statesman,  was  born 
in  Oaxaca,  February  24,  1837.  He  was  educated  in 
the  law,  and  was  at  an  early  age  given  a diplomatic 
post  under  Juarez.  In  1859  he  was  made  secretary  of 
legation  in  Washington,  and  later  charge  d'affaires.  In 
1863  he  resigned  his  post  and  entered  the  army,  but 
was  returned  to  Washington  as  minister  to  the  United 
States  in  1868,  and  negotiated  several  important  treaties 
between  the  two  countries.  He  afterward  became  sec- 
retary of  treasury  under  Juarez,  and  on  his  resignation 
of  this  office  served  as  congressman.  He  was  a cabinet 
officer  under  Diaz  and  became  postmaster-general  in 
1880.  During  Garfield’s  administration  he  was  again 
Mexican  minister  to  the  United  States,  and  he  adjusted 
the  difficulties  pendingbetween  the  two  countries.  He 
still  holds  the  office  of  minister,  having  been  suc- 
cessively reappointed.  He  has  been  a prolific  author, 
chiefly  of  official  books  and  papers,  and  has  had  some 
experience  as  a railroad  financier. 

ROOSEVELT,  Robert  Barnwell,  lawyer  and 
sportsman,  born  in  New  York  city,  August  7,  1829, 
was  fish  commissioner  of  the  State  of  New  York,  1868- 
88,  Democratic  member  of  congress,  1871-73,  and 
United  States  minister  to  the  Netherlands  in  1888.  He 
wrote  Game  Fish  of  North  America,  Game  Birds  of 
North  America,  Five  Acres  too  Much  and  other  works. 

ROOSEVELT,  Theodore,  merchant  and  philan- 
thropist, born  in  New  York  city,  September  22,  1831  ; 
died  February  9,  1878.  He  founded  the  Orthopaedic 
Hospital,  and  was  chairman  of  the  State  Board  of 
Charities. 

^ROOSEVELT,  Theodore,  son  of  the  above,  born 
in  New  York  city,  October  27,  1858,  graduated  at  Har- 
vard 1880,  was  elected  to  the  State  Assembly,  1881-84, 
as  a Republican,  was  an  active  and  effective  civil  serv- 
ice reformer  and  was  appointed  United  States  Civil 
Service  Commissioner  by  President  Cleveland.  He 
•wxoXffHukting  Trips  of  a Ranchman,  lives  of  Thomas 
H.  Benton  and  Gouverneur  Morris,  The  Winning  of 
the  .West  (3  vols.,  1894)  and  other  works.  In  1895 
he  became  Police  Commissioner  of  New  York,  and  in 
1901  President  of  the  United  States. 

ROOT,  - George  Frederick,  musician,  born  in 
Sheffield ; Mass.,  August  30,  1820.  He  was  self- 


-ROS 

taught,  became  a teacher  in  1838,  studied  in  Paris,  1850, 
53.  He  published  Tramp,  Tramp,  Tramp , the  Boys 
are  Marching',  The  Battle  Cry  of  Freedom  and  many 
other  popular  songs.  He  died  August  6,  1895. 

ROSA,  Carl,  violinist  and  conductor,- was  born  at 
Hamburg,  March  22,  1842,  made  his  debut  when  eight 
years  old,  and  studied  at  Leipsic  and  Paris.  Return- 
ing to  his  native  city,  he  was  appointed  conductor  of  the 
Philharmonic,  and  gave  a successful  series  of  popular 
concerts  of  chamber  music.  Next  he  visited  the  United 
States,  where  he  was  engaged  by  the  late  Mr.  Bateman 
to  conduct  a concert  tour.  There  Mr.  Rosa  married 
Madame  Parepa,  the  leading  singer  of  the  company; 
and  afterward  he  undertook  the  production  of  opera  on 
his  own  account.  The  success  which  attended  the 
English  opera  season  in  America  in  1871-72  led  to  the 
determination  to  make  an  essay  in  England.  In  1872 
Mr.  Rosa  and  his  wife,  with  a strong  company,  went  to 
England,  and  on  September  11,  1875,  inaugurated  a 
seven  weeks’  successful  season  of  opera  at  the  Princess’ 
theater.  The  great  merit  of  Mr.  Rosa  was  that  he 
gave  a great  impetus  to  English  opera.  It  was  he  who 
created  a growing  appetite  for  the  performances  of  operas 
in  English,  and  who  fostered  the  compositions  of  Eng- 
lish-speaking musicians.  He  died  April  30,  1889. 

ROSAS,  Juan  Manuel  de,  Argentine  dictator,  was 
born  in  Buenos  Ayres,  March  30,  1793,  and  died  in 
England,  March  14,  1877.  He  early  entered  the  army, 
first  as  a captain  of  militia,  and  after  participating  in  the 
various  revolutions  and  internal  commotions  that  dis- 
turbed his  country,  he  was  made  governor,  December 
6,  1829.  At  first  his  government  was  a mild  one,  but 
it  soon  became  arbitrary,  and  when  his  resignation  was 
accepted  by  the  legislature  he  fomented  difficulties 
which  prevented  his  successor  holding  office,  and  he  was 
again  elected — being  given  extraordinary  powers — and 
held  office  from  1835  till  1852,  when  he  fled  the  country, 
his  tyranny  having  caused  a revolution  that  endan- 
gered his  life. 

ROSCOE,  Sir  Henry  Enfield,  M.P.,  F.R.S., 
LL.D.,  born  January  7,  1833,  in  London.  He  was 
educated  at  Liverpool  High  School,  University  College, 
London,  and  Heidelberg  (B.A.,  London,  1852) ; was 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  at  Owen’s  College, 
Victoria  University,  Manchester,  in  1858;  elected  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1863;  and  received  the 
royal  medal  of  that  society  in  1873.  Professor  Roscoe 
has  published  several  series  of  investigations  on  the 
measurement  of  the  chemical  action  of  light  in  con- 
junction with  Professor  Bunsen,  of  Heidelberg,  and  is 
author  of  many  papers  in  the  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions and  scientific  journals  on  other  subjects.  The 
University  of  Dublin  conferred  upon  him  the  honorary 
degree  of  LL.D.  in  1878,  that  of  Cambridge  in  1883, 
and  that  of  Montreal  in  1884,  and  he  is  honorary  mem- 
ber of  the  German  Chemical  Society,  and  of  many  for- 
eign academies.  He  is  joint  editor  with  Professors 
Huxley  and  Balfour  Stewart  of  Macmillan’s  Science 
Primer  Series,  and  author  of  the  Chemistry  Primer. 
He  was  elected  a member  of  parliament  in  1885,  1886, 
and  1892  for  South  Manchester  as  a Liberal. 

ROSE,  Chauncey,  philanthropist,  born  in  Wethers- 
field, Conn.,  December  24,  1794;  died  in  Terre  Haute, 
Ind.,  August  13,  1877.  He  received  a common  school 
education,  and  in  18 17  traveled  through  the  western  and 
southwestern  States,  finally  settling  in  Terre  Haute. 
Here  he  became  a successful  land  and  railway  specu- 
lator, and  also  inherited  a large  estate  from  one  of  his 
brothers.  The  proceeds  of  his  brother’s  legacy,  amount- 
ing to  more  than  $1,500,000,  he  expended  in  various 
charities ; from  his  own  resources  he  contributed 
$12,000  to  endow  an  academy  in  Wethersfield,  and 


R O S 


made  philanthropic  donations  in  and  around  Terre 
Haute,  amounting  to  over  $1,000,000. 

ROSE,  Sir  John,  Bart,  born  in  Aberdeenshire, 
Scotland,  emigrated  to  Canada  in  1836,  was  a volunteer 
in  suppressing  the  rebellion  of  1837  and  assistant  re- 
corder of  the  court  martial  established  for  the  trial  of 
offenses  occuring  during  the  insurrection.  He  became 
a lawyer  in  1842  and  solicitor-general  in  1857,  was  a 
member  of  parliament  for  the  city  of  Montreal,  1 85 7— 
69,  held  several  cabinet  offices,  was  active  in  promot- 
ing federation  and  in  1870  removed  to  England,  where 
he  became  a banker  and  was  created  K.C.M.G.  in 
1870.  He  died  August  24,  1888. 

ROSEBERY,  Earl  of  (The  Right  Hon.  Archi- 
bald Philip  Primrose),  premier  of  England,  1894-95, 
was  born  in  London  in  1847,  and  educated  at  Eton, 
and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  succeeded  to  the 
title  on  the  death  of  his  grandfather,  the  fourth  earl  of 
Rosebery,  in  1868,  making  his  maiden  speech  in  the 
House  of  Lords  in  1871.  He  was  a president  of  the 
social  science  congress  which  met  at  Glasgow,  October 
I,  1874;  on  November  16,  1878,  he  was  elected  lord 
rector  of  the  University  of  Aberdeen  and  in  November, 
1880,  he  was  elected  lord  rector  of  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  A strong  Liberal  and  Home  Ruler  in  pol- 
itics, he  was  appointed  under-secretary  of  state  for  the 
home  department  in  August,  1881,  resigning  in  June, 
1883,  and  in  November,  1884,  became  lord  privy  seal 
and  first  commissioner  of  works.  In  Mr.  Gladstone’s 
short  government  in  1886  he  was  secretary  for  foreign 
affairs,  and  established  a high  reputation.  Though  a 
peer,  he  moved  in  1884  for  a select  committee  to  inquire 
into  the  best  means  of  improving  the  efficiency  of  the 
House  of  Lords.  Pie  is  a strong  advocate  of  imperial 
federation,  takes  great  interest  in  movements  for  the 
improvement  of  the  social  condition  of  the  masses,  and 
presented  a magnificent  swimming  bath  to  the  People’s 
Palace  in  the  east  end  of  London.  He  was  elected, 
with  Sir  John  Lubbock,  for  the  city  division  to  the 
London  county  council  in  1889,  and  became  chairman 
of  that  body  in  1890  and  again  for  a short  time  in  1892. 
When  Mr.  Gladstone  succeeded  to  power  Lord  Rose- 
bery became  secretary  for  foreign  affairs,  and  on  the 
resignation  of  Mr.  Gladstone  in  March,  1894,  he  be- 
came premier  and  carried  on  the  government  success- 
fully for  fifteen  months  with  the  small  majority  of  his 
party,  which  kept  growing  smaller  with  every  by-elec- 
tion. Early  in  1895  a severe  attack  of  illness  disposed 
Lord  Rosebery  to  resign  the  premiership  but  he  was 
persuaded  not  to  do  so.  When  Lord  Rosebery  leaped 
into  prominence  in  1894  as  the  head  of  the  government 
it  was  said  of  him  that  when  a youth  at  college  he  de- 
clared he  would  do  three  things,  marry  the  richest 
heiress  of  her  year,  win  the  Derby  and  become  premier. 
That  year  saw  the  completion  of  the  prophecy.  He 
had  married  in  1878,  Hannah,  daughter  of  Baron 
Mayer  de  Rothschild,  who  died  in  1890,  and  in  1894 
he  not  only  became  prime  minister  of  England, 
but  won  the  English  Derby  with  , his  horse,  Ladas. 
He  won  a second  Derby  in  June,  1895,  and  lost  his 
premiership  a few  days  later,  June  24,  resigning  on  a 
Liberal  defeat  in  the  Commons.  Lord  Rosebery  pub- 
lished a monograph  on  William  Pitt , the  Younger , 
in  i8qi. 

ROSECRANS,  William  Starke,  soldier,  born  at 
Kingston,  Ohio,  September  6,  1819.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  United  States  military  academy  in  1842, 
and  entered  the  engineer  corps  as  brevet  second  lieu- 
tenant. In  1847  he  was  employed  on  repairs  at  Fort 
Adams,  R.  I.  In  1854  he  resigned  from  the  army,  and 
became  a civil  engineer  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  war  he  was  made  colonel 


6775 

of  the  23d  Ohio  volunteers  on  June  10,  1861,  and  in 
the  same  year  was  promoted  brigadier-general  of 
the  United  States  army.  In  April,  1862,  he  joined 
General  Buell’s  army,  and  at  the  siege  of  Corinth  com- 
manded a division.  On  September  19th  he  defeated 
Gen.  Sterling  Price  at  Iuka.  In  October,  1862,  he 
commanded  the  army  of  the  Cumberland  at  Murfrees- 
boro, Tenn.  He  fought  the  unsuccessful  battle  of 
Chickamauga.  On  October  16th  he  was  relieved  of 
his  command,  and  transferred  to  Missouri  to  defend 
that  State  against  the  invasion  of  Gen.  Sterling  Price. 
After  the  close  of  the  war  he  was  brevetted  major- 
general,  and  on  March  28,  1867,  resigned  from  the 
army.  In  1868  he  was  for  some  months  United  States 
minister  to  Mexico,  and  in  1881  was  chosen  to  con- 
gress from  California,  serving  two  terms.  In  June, 
1885,  he  was  made  register  of  the  United  States  treas- 
ury. He  died  March  11,  1898. 

ROSELIUS,  Christian,  lawyer,  was  born  neat 
Bremen,  Germany,  August  10,  1803,  and  died  in  New 
Orleans,  September  5,  1873.  He  emigrated  to  Amer- 
ica in  1820,  and,  having  learned  the  printing  business, 
he  established  and  edited  a literary  paper  called  the 
Halcyon , which  was  a failure.  He  then  turned  his  at- 
tention to  the  law,  and  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1828.  He  rapidly  rose  to  the  front  in  his  profession, 
and  soon  became  the  most  eminent  civil  lawyer  in  Lou- 
isiana. In  1841  he  was  attorney-general  of  the  State 
and  served  two  years.  In  1863  he  was  tendered  the 
supreme  judgeship  of  the  State,  but  refused  to  accept 
unless  the  court  were  preserved  from  military  interfer- 
ence. He  was  at  one  time  offered  a partnership  with 
Daniel  Webster,  but  declined,  preferring  to  remain  in 
the  South. 

ROSS,  Alexander  Milton,  M.D.,  was  born  at 
Belleville,  Ontario,  Canada,  December  13,  1832. 

While  yet  a boy  he  went  to  New  York,  and  became  a 
compositor  on  the  Evening  Post,  then  edited  and  owned 
by  William  Cullen  Bryant.  In  1851  he  began  the 
study  of  medicine,  taking  his  degree  in  1855.  From 
1855  to  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war  he  took  an  active 
part  in  the  anti-slavery  agitation.  During  that  war  h6 
served  for  a short  time  as  surgeon  in  the  Federal  army, 
and  was  subsequently  employed  by  President  Lincoln 
as  confidential  correspondent  in  Montreal.  He  after- 
ward became  a member  of  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  of  Quebec  and  Ontario.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  society  for  the  diffusion  of  Physio- 
logical knowledge  in  1881;  and  in  1885  attempted  to 
prevent  the  small-pox  epidemic  by  directing  public  at- 
tention to  the  sanitary  condition  of  Montreal.  Fie  has 
been  a member  of  the  British  Association  of  Science 
for  fifteen  years,  and  of  the  American  and  French  asso- 
ciations for  eleven  years,  and  is  a fellow  of  a number  of 
scientific  societies.  He  has  been  knighted  by  the  em- 
peror of  Russia,  king  of  Italy,  king  of  Greece,  king  of 
Portugal,  king  of  Saxony,  and  shah  of  Persia,  and  has 
received  many  other  honors.  For  many  years  he  has 
been  eminent  as  a naturalist.  Died  Oct.,  1897. 

ROSS,  George,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, was  bom  in  New  Castle,  Delaware,  in  I73°» 
and  died  in  Lancaster,  Penn.,  in  July,  1779.  He  began 
to  study  law  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1751,  settling  in  Lancaster,  Penn.  He 
was  a member  of  the  Pennsylvania  Assembly  in  1768-70, 
and  was  one  of  the  commission  appointed  to  draft  a 
declaration  of  rights  on  the  dissolution  of  the  proprie- 
tary. He  was  elected  to  the  first  general  congress  at 
Philadelphia  in  1774,  and  continued  a member  till  1 777t 
when  his  health  compelled  him  to  resign.  He  was  an 
active  promoter  of  the  American  cause  against  the 
British,  and  was  the  author  of  the  report  urging  th* 


6776  R O S 

fortification  of  Philadelphia.  In  1779  he  was  made 
Judge  of  the  court  of  admiralty  of  Pennsylvania,  hold- 
ing that  position  till  his  death. 

ROSS,  John,  Cherokee  Indian  chief,  born  in  the 
Cherokee  country,  Georgia;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
August  1,  1866.  He  was  a half-breed  Indian,  acquired 
a good  English  education,  and  in  1828  became  principal 
chief  of  his  tribe.  In  1835  trouble  arose  between  the 
Cherokees  about  their  removal  from  Georgia,  and  they 
were  conveyed  to  lands  farther  west  with  much  difficulty. 
When  the  Civil  war  opened  Ross  called  a council  of  the 
Cherokees,  and  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Confeder- 
ates, which  was  more  defensive  than  aggressive  against 
the  national  forces,  in  consequence  of  which  his  tribe 
lost  their  lands.  Ross  was  the  author  of  Letters  to  a 
Gentleman  in  Philadelphia  ( 1 836). 

ROSS,  Sir  John,  K.C.B.,  born  at  Stonehouse, 
Cumberland,  England,  March  18,  1829,  began  his  ser- 
vice on  April  14,  1846,  when  he  joined  the  Rifle  Brigade 
as  second  lieutenant.  As  adjutant  of  the  second  bat- 
talion, this  officer  was  present  at  Alma  and  Inkerman, 
and  received  a brevet  majority  with  three  medals  for 
his  services  in  the  Crimea.  He  was  engaged  in  the 
suppression  of  the  Indian  mutiny.  For  services  he 
obtained  a brevet  lieutenant-colonelcy,  medal  and  C.B. 
He  was  present  at  the  action  of  the  Shuhkudder  with 
the  Rifle  Brigade  in  January,  1864,  and  commanded  the 
Bengal  troops  in  the  Perak  expedition  of  1875-76.  In 
1878  he  was  selected  to  command  the  brigade  of  Indian 
troops  which,  during  the  Eastern  crisis,  was  brought  to 
Malta.  From  this  he  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  reserve  division  of  the  Afghanistan  Field  Force 
under  Sir  Frederick  Roberts,  with  whom,  in  1880,  he 
made  the  march  from  Cabul  to  Candahar,  in  command 
of  the  infantry  brigades.  In  1881  he  was  placed  in 
command  of'the  Poonah  division  of  the  Bombay  army, 
which  he  relinquished  in  1886,  on  promotion  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  died  in  1888. 

ROSS,  Leonard  Fulton,  an  American  lawyer, 
soldier  and  farmer,  born  in  Fulton  county,  Illinois, 
July  18,  1823,  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  raised  the 
17th  Illinois  regiment  in  1861,  and  was  commissioned 
brigadier -general  of  volunteers,  April  25,  1862,  being 
promoted  later  to  the  command  of  a division. 

ROSS,  Robert,  born  in  Ross  Trevor,  England, 
about  1 770,  led  the  British  corps  sent  to  this  country  in 
1814,  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Bladensburg  and  at 
the  sacking  and  burning  of  Washington,  and  was  killed 
at  North  Point,  Md.,  September  12,  1814,  while  lead- 
ing the  advance  on  Baltimore. 

ROSSER,  Thomas  Lafayette,  Confederate  soldier, 
was  born  in  Campbell  county,  Va.,  October  15,  1836. 
He  was  about  to  graduate  from  the  West  Point 
Academy,  but,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  war,  he  re- 
signed, and  entered  the  Confederate  army  as  lieutenant 
of  artillery.  He  was  rapidly  promoted,  and  in  June, 
1862,  he  was  transferred  from  artillery  and  given  the 
command  of  a cavalry  regiment.  He  was  soon  made 
brigadier,  and  given  the  command  of  the  cavalry  in  the 
Shenandoah  Valley.  He  served  under  Jubal  A.  Early, 
and  participated  in  the  battle  of  Cedar  Creek,  earning 
laurels  by  his  brilliant  fighting  qualities.  After  the  war 
he  turned  his  attention  to  engineering,  and  was  engaged 
on  the  Northern  Pacific  and  Canadian  Pacific  railways. 
He  is  now  engaged  in  mining,  and  is  the  consulting 
engineer  of  several  roads. 

ROSSETTI,  Christina  Georgina,  was  born  in 
London,  December,  1830,  and  educated  at  home.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  the  well-known  commentator  on 
Dante,  and  sister  of  Dante  Gabriel,  William  Michael, 
and  Maria  Rossetti.  She  wrote  numerous  prose  and 
poetical  compositions  and  died  December  29,  1894. 


-ROT 

ROSSETTI,  William  Michael,  brother  of  Dante 
Gabriel  and  Christina  Georgina  Rossetti,  was  bom  in 
London,  September  25,  1829,  and  educated  at  King’s 
College  School,  London.  He  was  appointed,  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1845,  to  an  extra  clerkship  in  the  excise  office, 
London  (now  the  inland  revenue  office),  and  became, 
in  July,  1869,  assistant  secretary  in  the  same  office. 
Mr.  Rossetti  has  been  a critic  of  fine  art  and  literature 
since  1850.  He  has  acted  in  that  capacity  for  numer' 
ous  journals.  He  has  published  Dante's  Comedy,  the 
Inferno , translated  into  blank  verse,  1865,  and  original 
work  in  the  shape  of  art  criticisms,  poems,  etc. 

ROSSI,  Ernesto,  an  Italian  actor,  born  at  Leg- 
horn in  1829,  received  his  early  education  in  his  native 
town,  and  afterward  studied  law  in  the  University  of 
Pisa.  Having  a great  liking  for  the  stage,  he  often 
took  a part  in  amateur  theatricals.  After  having  ap- 
peared at  Milan,  Turin,  and  other  Italian  cities,  he 
went  in  1853  with  Mdlle.  Ristori  to  Paris,  where, 
by  his  masterly  acting,  he  enabled  the  French  public  to 
appreciate  the  works  of  several  Italian  dramatists. 
After  having  visited  Portugal  and  Spain,  he  returned  to 
Paris  in  1875;  and  gave  at  the  Salle  Ventadour,  with 
remarkable  success,  a series  of  Shakspearean  representa- 
tions, in  which  he  himself  played  the  leading  parts.  M. 
Rossi,  who  has  been  styled  the  “ Italian  Talma,”  is  the 
author  of  some  dramatic  pieces  of  no  great  merit.  He 
has  been  decorated  with  the  cross  of  SS.  Maurice  and 
Lazarus.  Died  June  4,  1896. 

ROSSITER,  Thomas  Prichard,  painter,  born  in 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  September  29,  1817;  died  in  Cold 
Spring,  N.  Y.,  May  17,  1871.  In  1841  and  1842  he 
studied  in  Paris  and  London,  and  for  the  next  five  years 
had  a studio  in  Rome,  sketching  during  the  summers  in 
Italy,  Germany,  and  Switzerland.  On  his  return  to 
the  United  States  he  settled  in  New  York  city.  In 
1853  he  again  visited  Europe,  and  later  opened  a 
studio  in  Paris,  where  he  remained  three  years.  At  the 
universal  exhibition  of  1855  he  received  a gold  medal 
for  his  Venice  (1854),  and  at  the  Salon  of  the  same  year 
a third-class  medal.  From  1856  until  i860  he  lived 
in  New  York  city,  and  later  retired  to  Cold  Spring. 
In  1849  he  was  elected  a national  academician. 

ROST,  Reinhold,  Ph.D.,  was  born  February  2, 
1822,  at  Eisenberg,  in  Saxe-Altenburg,  where  his  father 
was  archdeacon,  and  educated  at  the  Gymnasium  at 
Altenberg  and  the  University  of  Jena,  where  he  took 
his  degree  of  Ph.D.  in  1847.  Doctor  Rost  went  to 
London  in  the  same  year;  was  appointed  Oriental 
lecturer  in  St.  Augustine’s  College,  Canterbury,  in 
1850;  secretary  to  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  in  1863; 
and  librarian  to  the  India  office  (1869).  Died  Feb.,  1896. 

ROTHERMEL,  Peter  Frederick,  painter,  born 
in  Nescopack,  Penn.,  July  18,  1817.  He  received  an 
ordinary  education,  studied  land  surveying,  and  at  the 
age  of  twenty-two  devoted  his  time  to  art  studies. 
From  1856  to  1859  he  was  in  Europe.  Since  his  return 
to  the  United  States  he  has  lived  in  Philadelphia,  where, 
from  1847  until  1855,  he  was  a director  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania academy.  He  devoted  his  early  days  mostly  to 
portrait  painting,  and  died  August  15,  1895. 

ROTHSCHILD,  Alfred  de,  second  son  of  the  late 
Baron  Lionel  de  Rothschild,  was  born  July  20,  1842, 
and  educated  at  Cambridge.  He  was  a member  of  the 
firm  of  N.  M.  Rothschild  & Sons,  a director  of  the 
Bank  of  England,  and  consul-general  for  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  Empire.  Like  almost  all  the  members  of 
his  family,  he  is  a passionate  collector  of  works  of  art ; 
especially  of  Dutch,  French,  and  old  English  pictures, 
Sevres  china,  Louis  XVI.  furniture  and  bronzes,  and 
Renaissance  enamels  and  metal  work. 

ROTHSCHILD,  Baron  Ferdinand  James  de, 


r O T — R U D 


M.  P.,  son  of  Baron  Aurelius  de  Rothschild,  of  Vienna, 
was  born  in  Paris,  December  19,  1839,  and  educated  at 
Vienna.  He  has  been  long  resident  in  England,  and 
at  a bye-election  in  1885  was  returned  member  for 
Aylesbury,  being  reelected  at  the  general  election  of 
1885,  and  again  as  a Unionist  Liberal  in  1886  and  1892. 
He  died  December  17,  1898. 

ROTHSCHILD,  Nathaniel  Mayer  de,  first  Lord 
Rothschild,  eldest  son  of  Baron  Lionel  Nathan  de 
Rothschild,  was  born  in  London,  November  8,  1840, 
and  educated  at  King’s  College  School,  London,  and 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  was  elected  as  Liberal 
member  for  Aylesbury,  1865,  and  retained  the  seat 
until  1885,  when  he  was  created  a peer.  He  is  head  of 
the  London  banking  firm  of  N.  M.  Rothschild  & Sons. 

ROUSSEAU,  LovellH.,  soldier,  wasbornin  Ken- 
tucky, August  4,  1818,  and  died  in  New  Orleans,  Janu- 
ary 7,1869.  Hereceived but  little  schooling,  butstudied 
law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1841.  He  was  sent 
to  the  legislature  of  Indiana,  at  once  taking  a prominent 
place  in  that  body.  He  enlisted  in  the  Mexican  war, 
and  saw  hard  service.  Immediately  on  his  return  from 
the  war  he  was  elected  to  the  Indiana  Senate,  and  served 
two  terms.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Kentucky  Senate  (having  moved  to  that 
State  in  1849),  and  was  earnest  in  his  efforts  to  keep 
Kentucky  in  the  Union.  He  resigned  his  seat  and  set 
about  organizing  troops  for  the  United  States  army,  and 
was  made  colonel  of  a regiment.  In  October,  1861, 
he  was  promoted  brigadier-general  and  took  part  in  the 
Shiloh  campaign,  and  was  further  promoted  major-gen- 
eral for  bravery.  He  subsequently  commanded  the  fifth 
division  of  the  army  of  the  Cumberland,  and  partici- 
pated in  Grant’s  and  Sherman’s  campaigns.  He  com- 
manded one  of  the  Southern  military  districts  till  1865. 
He  was  elected  to  congress  from  Kentucky,  serving  for 
a year  when  he  resigned.  He  was  made  brigadier-gen- 
eral in  the  regular  army  by  President  Johnson,  and  was 
brevetted  major-general  for  meritorious  services.  He 
was  sent  as  commissioner  to  receive  Alaska  from 
Russia,  and  was  first  governor  of  that  territory.  He  was 
afterward  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  department 
of  the  Gulf,  and  remained  there  till  his  death. 

ROUSSET,  Camille  F£lix  Michel,  a French  his- 
torian, born  at  Paris,  February  15,  1821  ; became  pro- 
fessor of  history  at  Grenoble,  next  at  the  College  Bour- 
bon (afterward  called  the  Lycee  Bonaparte),  from  1845 
to  1863,  and  in  1864  was  appointed  historiographer  and 
librarian  to  the  ministry  of  war.  On  December  30, 
1871,  he  was  elected  a member  of  the  French  Academy 
by  seventeen  votes  against  twelve  recorded  for  M. 
Vielcastel.  He  died  October  20,  1892. 

ROUTH,  Edward  John,  M.A.,  D.  Sc.,  LL.D., 
F.R.S.,  was  born  at  Quebec,  Canada,  in  1831.  At 
the  age  of  eleven  he  was  brought  to  England,  and  sub- 
sequently was  sent  to  University  College  school.  In 
October,  1851,  he  entered  Peterhouse,  Cambridge.  In 
1854  he  graduated  as  senior  wrangler.  He  was  then 
elected  a fellow  of  Peterhouse,  and  adopted  the  profes- 
sion of  teaching.  From  1861  to  1886  (with  the  single 
exception  of  1883),  the  senior  wrangler  has  every  year 
been  his  pupil,  besides  twice  before  that  date ; in  all 
twenty-five  times.  He  has  also  had  among  his  pupils 
forty-one  Smith’s  prizemen.  In  1884  Doctor  Routh 
was  appointed  a fellow  of  the  University  of  London, 
and  is  a member  of  the  governing  body  of  that  univer- 
sity. He  has  had  several  degrees  conferred  on  him, 
and  is  a member  of  many  learned  societies. 

ROWAN,  Stephen  C.,  was  born  in  Ireland,  Decem- 
ber 25,  1808.  He  came  to  this  country  in  early  life, 
and  was  appointed  midshipman  from  Ohio  in  1826.  He 
was  commissioned  lieutenant  in  1837,  and  served  in  the 


6777 

Coast  Survey.  He  took  part  in  the  Mexican  war,  and 
was  highly  commended  for  meritorious  services  in  this 
campaign.  He  was  on  ordnance  duty  at  various  times, 
and  when  the  Civil  war  broke  out  was  commander  of 
the  Pawnee.  He  was  a citizen  of  Virginia,  and  had 
married  there,  but  remained  loyal  and  retained  com- 
’mand  of  the  Pawnee.  His  services  on  this  vessel  were 
of  inestimable  value  to  the  Union.  In  1862  he  was 
transferred  to  the  Delaware  and  commanded  the  attack- 
ing force  at  Roanoke  Island.  So  conspicuous  were  his 
services  that  he  was  promoted  captain  and  commodore 
in  the  same  day.  He  received  a vote  of  thanks  and  in 
1866  was  promoted  rear-admiral.  He  served  on  va- 
rious naval  boards,  commanded  the  Norfolk  navy  yard, 
and  while  chief  of  the  Asiatic  squadron,  in  1870,  was 
made  vice-admiral.  He  served  as  governor  of  the 
Philadelphia  Naval  Asylum,  and  from  1882  as  chair* 
man  of  the  lighthouse  board.  He  died  in  1890. 

ROWSELL,  Thomas  James,  M.A.  (1816-1894), 
chaplain  to  the  Queen,  educated  at  Tonbridge  School 
and  Cambridge,  was  for  seventeen  years  engaged  as 
rector  of  St.  Peter’s  district,  Stepney,  and  was  ap- 
pointed rector  of  St.  Margaret’s,  Lothbury,  in  i860. 
He  was  three  times  the  select  preacher  before  the 
University  of  Cambridge.  In  November,  1881,  he 
was  appointed  a canon  of  Westminster.  Died,  1894. 

ROWTON,  Lord  (Montagu  William  Lowry 
Corry),  was  born  in  London,  October  8,  1838.  He 
was  educated  at  Harrow  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  taking  his  degree  in  i860.  Called  to  the 
bar  at  Lincoln’s  Inn  in  1863,  he  practiced  for  three 
years  on  the  Oxford  circuit,  and  in  1866  was  appointed 
private  secretary  to  Mr.  Disraeli,  then  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer.  ^ At  the  termination  of  Lord  Beaconsfield’s 
government  in  1880,  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage. 
Lord  Beaconsfield  bequeathed  to  Lord  Rowton  the 
wholeofhisletters, papers, documents,  and  manuscripts. 

ROZE,  Marie,  operatic  singer,  was  born  March  2, 
1850,  in  Paris.  From  her  earliest  childhood  Marie1  Roze 
showed  a passion  for  music,  and  at  the  age  of  thirteen, 
on  the  advice  of  Auber,  she  was  sent  to  the  Paris  Con- 
servatoire to  study  singing,  where  she  speedily  gained 
the  highest  honors,  and  was  selected  to  sing  before 
Napoleon  III.  In  1867  she  first  appeared  in  opera, 
singing  the  part  of  Harold’s  Marie  with  such  success 
that  she  soon  became  the  most  popular  actress  and 
singer  in  Paris.  During  the  Franco-Prussian  war  and 
the  siege  of  Paris,  Marie  Roze  remained  in  the  city, 
turning  her  house  into  a hospital  for  wounded  soldiers, 
and  organizing  numerous  concerts  for  the  benefit  of  the 
sick  and  wounded.  In  1877  she  married  Colonel 
Mapleson,  and  in  the  same  year  undertook  a tour 
through  America,  which  lasted  over  two  years. 

RUBINSTEIN,  Anton,  a Russian  pianist  and  com- 
poser, was  born  at  Wechwotynetz,  on  the  frontier  of 
Roumania,  November  30,  1830.  He  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance in  public  when  only  eight  years  old.  At  Ber- 
lin he  studied  composition  under  Dehn.  He  then  re- 
turned to  his  native  country,  where  he  was  appointed 
pianisttothe  Grand  Duchess  Helena,  and  subsequently 
director  of  the  concerts  of  the  Russian  Musical  Society. 
In  1872-73  he  visited  America.  After  1867  Rubinstein 
held  no  official  post,  spending  his  time  in  traveling 
and  composing.  Both  in  playing  and  in  composition 
he  aimed  at  what  maybe  called  the  “ grand  style,”  ex- 
celling more  in  splendor  and  sublimity  than  in  correct- 
ness and  delicacy  of  detail.  He  died  November  20, 1894. 

RUDOLF,  Franz  Karl  Josef,  archduke  and 
prince  imperial  of  Austro-Hungary,  was  born  August 
21,  1858,  and  died  of  a gunshot  wound  January  30, 
1889.  He  was  the  only  son  of  the  present  emperor, 
and  had  been  carefully  educated,  his  taste  seeming  to 


RUF-RUS 


6778 

incline  more  to  science  and  art  than  to  politics.  He  ! 
was  the  author  of  several  geological  and  topographical 
papers,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  had  planned  a 
more  pretentious  volume.  He  was  an  officer  of  rank  in 
the  imperial  army,  but  gave  little  attention  to  military 
matters.  The  circumstances  of  his  death  are  obscure,  ( 
one  authority  advancing  the  theory  of  suicide,  while  an- 
other asserts  that  he  was  shot  through  mistake  by  a 
forester.  He  was  married  to  the  duchess  of  Saxony, 
and  his  death  will  probably  involve  the  alienation  of  the 
imperial  throne  from  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  as  there 
is  now  no  direct  male  heir  of  that  line. 

RUFFIN,  Edmund,  agriculturist,  was  born  in 
Prince  George  county,  Va.,  January  5,  1794,  and  died 
in  Amelia  county,  June  15,  1865.  He  was  graduated 
from  William  and  Mary  College,  and  held  many  public 
offices.  He  was  .a  practical  agriculturist  and  edited 
several  newspapers  in  the  interest  of  the  farming  com- 
munity. He  was  a State’s  rights  man,  a secessionist, 
and  a member  of  the  military  company  selected  by 
Beauregard  to  open  fire  on  Fort  Sumter.  Being  the 
oldest  member  of  the  company,  to  hiui  was  delegated 
this  duty.  After  the  war  he  committed  suicide,  being  un- 
willing to  live  under  the  United  States  government. 
He  was  the  first  to  discover  the  agricultural  value 
of  marls  and  other  calcareous  deposits,  and  thus 
added  many  millions  to  the  agricultural  wealth  of  Vir- 
ginia. His  writings  are  numerous  and  valuable. 

RUFFINI,  Giovanni,  Italian  novelist,  was  born  in 
1807,  and  died  in  1881.  He  was,  for  political  reasons, 
compelled  to  leave  Italy  and  sojourned  temporarily  first 
in  France  and  then  in  England,  being  finally,  after  the 
accession  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  allowed  to  return  to  his 
native  country.  While  a resident  of  England  he  pro- 
duced his  first  novel — a book  written  in  English — and 
this  was  followed  by  other  works  of  fiction. 

RUGER,  Thomas  Howard,  born  at  Lima,  New 
York,  April  2,  1833,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1854, 
resigned  from  the  army  to  study  law  but  volunteered 
in  1861,  commanded  a division  at  Gettysburg,  aided 
in  suppressing  the  draft  riots  in  New  York  in  1863,  be- 
came a colonel  in  the  regular  army  in  1865,  was  sup- 
erintendent at  West  Point,  1871-76;  promoted  briga- 
dier-general, 1880,  and  promoted  major-general,  1894, 
with  command  of  the  division  of  the  Missouri. 

RUGGLES,  George  David,  born  in  Newburg,  N. 
Y.,  September  11,  1833;  graduated  at  West  Point, 
1855,  saw  frontier  duty,  served  in  Indian  expeditions, 
became  assistant  adjutant-general,  1861 ; engaged  in 
the  organization  of  volunteer  companies,  commenced 
active  field  service  in  1862,  was  in  many  important 
battles,  including  Antietam  and  South  Mountain,  and 
at  the  close  of  the  war  was  adjutant-general  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  rose  through  various 
grades,  becoming  adjutant-general  of  the  United 
States  army  in  1894. 

RUGGLES,  Timothy,  born  at  Rochester,  Mass., 
October  20,  1711,  was  a lawyer,  a general  in  the 
French  and  Indian  war  and  president  of  the  Stamp 
Act  Congress  of  1765,  but  refused  to  sign  the  address 
and  petitions  it  drew  up  for  which  the  general  court 
publicly  censured  him.  He  emigrated  to  Nova  Scotia, 
1776,  and  died  there  August  4,  1 795- 

RULISON,  Nelson  S.,  born  in  New  York,  April 
24,  1842,  was  educated  at  the  Gouverneur  Wesleyan 
Academy,  and  the  Episcopal  General  Theological  Sem- 
inary, New  York  city,  was  ordained  in  1866,  held  va- 
rious pastorates,  and  in  1884  was  elected  assistant 
bishop  of  Central  Pennsylvania. 

RUMBQLD,  Sir  Horace,  Bart.,  born  in  England, 
1829,  entered  the  diplomatic  service  as  attache  at 
Washington,  1848,  and  rose  to  be  envoy  extraordinary 


and  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic in  1879;  to  Sweden  and  Norway,  1881;  and  to 
Greece,  1884. 

RUNYON,  Theodore,  LL.D.,  born  in  Somerville, 
N.  J.,  October  25,  1822  ; graduated  at  Yale,  1842,  be- 
came a lawyer,  held  many  local  and  State  offices  and 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  took  the  first  fully  equipped 
and  organized  brigade  to  the  front  and  was  personally 
thanked  by  President  Lincoln.  He  became  a brevet 
major-general.  He  was  appointed  DjrHresident  Cleve- 
land, in  1893,  ambassador  extraordinary  and  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  Germany.  Died  Jan.  27,  1896. 

RUSDEN,  George  William,  F.R.G.S.,  was  in 
1849  appointed  agent  for  the  establishment  of  national 
schools  in  Victoria,  held  various  offices  in  the  colony 
from  1851  to  1882,  and  wrote  several  works  of  history 
and  fiction. 

RUSH,  James,  physician,  was  the  son  of  the  noted 
Dr.  Benjamin  Rush,  and  was  born  in  Philadelphia, 
March  1,  1786,  and  died  there  May  26,  1869.  He  was 
graduated  at  Princeton,  and  took  a course  of  medicine 
at  the  universities  of  Pennsylvania  and  Edinburgh. 
On  the  completion  of  his  medical  studies  he  returned  to 
Philadelphia  and  began  the  practice  of  his  profession, 
which  he  soon  relinquished  for  literary  and  scientific 
pursuits..  He  bequeathed  $100,000  for  the  foundation 
of  the  Ridgeway  branch  of  the  Philadelphia  library. 
His  publications  were  not  numerous,  and  were  mostly 
of  a purely  speculative  turn,  although  some  of  them 
dealt  with  physical  and  literary  topics. 

RUSH,  Richard,  statesman,  was  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, August  29,  1780,  and  died  there  July  30,  1859. 
He  was  a graduate  of  Princeton,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1800.  He  soon  became. a prominent  advo- 
cate, and  held  several  offices  of  importance.  In  1811 
he  was  comptroller  of  the  currency,  and  in  1814  United 
States  attorney-general.  In  1817  he  was  for  a short 
time  secretary  of  state,  and  was  then  appointed  minis- 
ter to  England,  where  he  performed  some  important 
diplomatic  services.  In  1825  he  was  secretary  of  the 
treasury,  and  in  1828  he  was  candidate  for  the  vice- 
presidency under  Adams.  Subsequently  he  held  sev- 
eral minor  political  offices,  was  from  1847  to  1851 
minister  to  France,  and  was  the  first  to  recognize  the 
new  republic.  He  was  a member  of  several  scientific 
societies,  and  an  author  of  no  mean  pretensions.  He 
was  the  commissioner  who  secured  the  legacy  left  for 
the  establishment  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  In 
politics  he  was  anti-Mason,  and  a Democrat  after  1834, 
writing  powerful  arguments  against  the  U.  S.  bank. 

RUSK,  Jeremiah  McLain,  governor  of  Wiscon- 
sin and  secretary  of  agriculture,  was  born  in  Morgan 
county,  Ohio,  June  17,  1830.  He  received  a common 
school  education,  and  was  engaged  in  farming  till  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  war.  He  enlisted,  and  in  1862  was 
made  major  of  the  25th  Wisconsin.  He  served  with 
Sherman  from  this  date  till  the  close  of  the  war,  attain- 
ing the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  In  1865  was 
bre vetted  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  After  the 
war  he  held  a number  of  civil  offices  in  Wisconsin,  and 
in  1870  he  was  sent  to  congress,  and  served  three 
terms.  He  declined  the  offices  of  minister  to  Paraguay 
and  Uruguay,  and  of  chief  of  the  bureau  of  printing 
and  engraving.  In  1882  he  was  elected  governor  of 
Wisconsin  and  served  three  successive  terms.  He  was 
a candidate  for  the  Republican  nomination  for  Presi- 
dent in  1888  and  on  March  4,  1889,  he  entered  Presi- 
dent Harrison’s  cabinet  as  the  first  secretary  of  agrP 
culture.  He  died  November  21,  1893. 

RUSK,  Thomas  J.,  American  senator,  was  born  in 
Camden,  S.  C.,  August  8,  1802,  and  died  in  Texas, 
July  29,  1856.  After  practicing  law  for  some  time  in 


R U S 


Georgia,  in  1835  he  removed  to  Texas.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  convention  which  declared  the  independ- 
ence of  Texas,  was  the  first  secretary  of  war  of  the  repub- 
lic, and  after  Gen.  Houston  was  wounded  at  San  Jacinto 
became  commander-in-chief  of  the  Texan  army,  con- 
tinuing in  this  position  till  1836.  He  was  again  chosen 
secretary  of  war,  but  resigned  after  a few  months’  serv- 
ice. He  was  a member  of  the  supreme  court  of  Texas, 
and  president  of  the  convention  that  declared  the  an- 
nexation of  Texas  to  the  United  States,  and  on  the 
admission  of  Texas  to  the  Union  was  chosen  its  first 
United  States  senator,  serving  from  1846  to  1856,  when 
he  committed  suicide,  having  been  crazed  by  domestic 
troubles. 

RUSKIN,  John,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  son  of  a London 
merchant,  was  born  in  London  in  February,  1819,  and 
was  educated  privately  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
where  he  gained  the  Newdigate  prize  in  1839.  He 
then  devoted  himself  to  painting.  The  author’s  suc- 
cess as  a writer  on  art  was  decided  by  the  warm  recep- 
tion accorded  to  a volume  entitled  Modern  Painters , of 
which  several  editions  have  since  been  published.  Mr. 
Ruskin  temporarily  diverted  his  attention  from  the 
study  of  painting  to  that  of  architecture,  and  wrote 
The  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture,  published  in  1849, 
as  a first  result,  followed  by  the  first  volume  of  The 
Stones  of  Venice,  in  1851,  the  second  and  third  volumes 
of  which  appeared  in  1853.  The  illustrations  in  the 
last-named  productions,  which  excited  some  of  the 
same  professional  hostility  that  his  first  publication 
svoked,  displayed  to  much  advantage  his  artistic 
powers.  Mr.  Ruskin  has  expounded  his  views  both  in 
lectures  and  in  newspapers  and  reviews.  Mr.  Ruskin 
was  appointed  Rede  lecturer  at  Cambridge,  in  April, 
1867,  and  the  senate  conferred  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
Upon  him,  May  15th.  He  was  also  selected  Slade  pro- 
fessor of  fine  arts  at  Oxford,  being  thrice  reelected.  He 
was  obliged  to  resign  the  post  in  1884  on  account  of 
failing  health.  Of  late  he  has  been  issuing,  in  parts, 
his  autobiography,  under  the  title  of  Prczterita.  For 
several  years  he  has  lived  in  retirement  at  Brantwood, 
Coniston.  He  died  Jan.  20,  1900. 

RUSSELL,  of  Killowen,  Charles,  Lord,  first 
lawyer  of  Great  Britain,  was  born  in  Ireland,  1833, 
was  elected  to  parliament  in  1880  as  a Radical,  was  1 
attorney-general  in  1886  and  again  in  1892,  was  ap- 
pointed a life  peer  early  in  1894  and  Lord  Chief  Justice 
of  England  in  July,  1894.  As  a lawyer  he  had  a world- 
wide reputation,  defended  Parnell  successfully  against 
the  Ti?nes,  defended  Mrs.  Maybrick,  was  of  English 
counsel  in  the  Bering  Sea  arbitration  in  1893  and  was 
an  eloquent  supporter  of  Home  Rule  in  the  Com- 
mons. He  died  August  10,  190c. 

RUSSELL,  David  A.,  soldier,  was  born  in  Salem, 
N.  Y.,  December  10,  1820,  and  died  near  Winchester, 
Va.,  September  19,  1864.  He  was  graduated  from 
West  Point  in  1845,  served  in  the  Mexican  war  and  was 
promoted  for  gallantry.  When  the  Civil  war  broke  out 
he  had  attained  the  rank  of  captain,  and  was  for  a year 
employed  on  the  defenses  of  Washington  city.  In  1862 
he  was  made  colonel  of  the  7th  Massachusetts  volun- 
teers, and  served  with  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  in  the 
Peninsular  campaign.  He  was  several  times  brevetted 
and  promoted  in  the  regular  army,  and  in  November, 
1862,  he  became  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He 
took  part  in  the  Rappahannock  and  Gettysburg  cam- 
paigns, again  earning  promotion.  During  the  Rapidan 
campaign  he  was  made  a brigadier  in  the  regular  army. 
After  this  campaign  he  was  once  more  engaged  on  the 
defenses  of  Washington,  whence  he  was  transferred  to 
the  Shenandoah  Valley,  and  met  his  death  in  the  battle 
of  Opequan,  just  two  months  after  having  again  earned 


6779 

promotion  in  the  regular  army,  this  time  being  made 
major-general. 

RUSSELL,  George  William  Erskine,  was  born 
in  England,  February  3,  1853,  and  educated  at  Harrow 
and  University  college,  Oxford.  He  entered  the  Inner 
Temple,  1875,  was  elected  Liberal  member  of  par- 
liament for  Aylesbury,  1880  and  1885,  and  was  par- 
liamentary secretary  to  the  local  government  board, 
1883-85.  He  stood  unsuccessfully  for  the  Fulham  di- 
vision of  Chelsea  in  1885  and  1886,  but  was  elected  for 
North  Beds  in  1892,  and  was  appointed  under  secretary 
for  Indiain  that  year,  and  under  secretary  for  the  Home 
Department  in  1894.  He  wrote  a Life  of  Gladstone, 
George  Eliot,  The  Trustees  of  Posterity,  and  many 
lectures  and  essays. 

RUSSELL,  PI ENRY,,  vocalist,  was  born  in  England 
in  1813.  He  was  of  Jewish  birth,  and  early  evinced 
dramatic  and  musical  talent.  He  settled  in  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  in  1833,  and  became  widely  known  as  a com- 
poser and  vocalist.  Pie  accumulated  considerable  wealth 
by  his  concerts  and  entertainments,  and,  after  success- 
ful tours  in  the  United  States  and  Europe,  abandoned 
the  business,  and  became  a money  lender.  His  songs 
are  still  sung,  and  are  good  specimens  of  lyric  effort, 
especially  A Life  on  the  Ocean  Wave,  while  There's  a 
Good  Time  Coming , To  the  West,  and  others  stimulated 
emigration  to  this  country. 

RUSSELL,  John  PIenry,  naval  officer,  born  in 
Frederick  city,  Md.,  July  4,  1827.  He  entered  the 
navy  as  a midshipman  in  1841,  and  was  attached  to  the 
St.  Mary's  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  during  1844-46.  He 
participated  in  the  first 'operations  of  the  Mexican  war. 
He  was  commissioned  master  in  1855,  and  lieutenant 
later  in  the  same  year.  He  was  on  duty  at  the  Wash- 
ington navy  yard  when  the  rebellion  broke  out,  and  was 
one  of  the  officers  remaining  loyal  to  the  Union,  though 
his  natural  sympathies  were  with  the  South.  Lieu- 
tenant Russell  rendered  valuable  assistance  in  prevent- 
ing the  vessels  at  the  Norfolk  navy  yard  from  falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  secessionists.  In  September, 
1861,  he  commanded  a boat  expedition  to  cut  out  the 
privateer  Judah , at  Pensacola,  under  the  protection  of 
shore  batteries  and  9,000  men.  With  one  hundred  men 
Russell,  after  a severe  hand-to-hand  fight,  succeeded  in 
destroying  the  privateer  and  regaining  his  own  boat. 
This  act  was  alluded  to  by  Admiral  Porter  in  his  Naval 
History  as  one  of  the  most  daring  feats  taking  place 
during  the  war,  and  the  navy  department  took  occasion 
to  compliment  the  officer  on  his  gallant  conduct.  Rus- 
sel was  placed  in  command  of  a steamer  in  Farragut’s 
squadron,  and  when  at  Baton  Rouge  he  did  another 
gallant  act,  for  which  he  was  publicly  thanked  by  the 
admiral  and  personally  thanked  by  President  Lincoln. 
It  was  bravely  saving  the  lives  of  the  officers  and  men 
in  the  flagship  during  the  guerilla  attack.  Russell  was 
rapidly  promoted,  and  became  a captain,  commanding 
the  sloop  Plymouth  in  1875.  It  was  by  his  prompt 
measures  that  the  vessels  and  men  of  the  North  Atlantic 
squadron  were  saved  from  an  epidemic  of  yellow  fever 
at  Key  West.  October  30,  1883,  he  was  made  a com- 
modore, and  placed  in  charge  of  the  navy  yard  at  Mare 
Island.  On  March  4,  1886,  he  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral,  and  voluntarily  went  upon  the 
retired  list  August  27th  of  the  same  year. 

RUSSELL,  William  Clark,  an  English  novelist, 
born  in  1844.  His  stories  are  nearly  all  sea  tales,  or, 
at  least,  sea  incidents  figure  very  prominently  in  most 
of  them.  His  Wreck  of  the  Grosvenor  is  said  to  be  his 
best  work,  but  he  has  written  many  others  of  absorbing 
interest. 

RUSSELL,  William  Howard,  Sir,  born  at  Lily- 
vale,  Dublin,  March  28,  1821 ; was  educated  at  a 


RUT—  RYA 


6780 

private  school  in  Dublin,  and  at  Trinity  College.  In 
1843  he  accepted  an  engagement  on  the  staff  of  the 
Times , and  in  1844  was  appointed  to  report  on  the 
potato  famine  in  Ireland.  In  1846  he  entered  the  Mid- 
dle Temple,  and  in  1850  was  called  to  the  bar,  but  soon 
gave  up  legal  practice,  in  order  to  act  as  special  cor- 
respondent to  the  Times  during  the  Crimean  war.  His 
letters  during  this  time  were  the  chief  means  of  making 
known  to  England  the  condition  of  the  army,  and  the 
terrible  hardships  endured  by  the  British  soldiers  in 
the  winter  months.  When  the  Indian  mutiny  broke 
out  he  proceeded  to  Calcutta,  and  was  with  Lord 
Clyde,  from  the  capture  of  Lucknow  till  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  mutiny.  In  1858  he  returned  to  England, 
and  established  the  Army  and  Navy  Gazette , of  which 
he  is  now  editor  and  principal  proprietor.  In  1861  he  was 
once  more  engaged  as  war  correspondent  during  the  early 
part  of  the  Civil  war,  and  was  present  at  Bull  Run.  When 
war  between  France  and  Prussia  was  declared  in  1870, 
Mr.  Russell  went  to  Berlin,  and  thence  accompanied 
the  staff  of  the  Crown  Prince,  being  present  at  the 
battle  of  Sedan,  and  at  the  siege  and  fall  of  Paris.  In 
1875  he  was  attached  as  honorary  private  secretary  to 
the  staff  of  the  Prince  of  Wales.  He  has  published 
some  of  his  notes  in  book  form.  In  June,  1895,  he 
was  knighted  by  Queen  Victoria. 

RUTGERS,  Henry,  patriot,  born  in  New  York 
city,  October  7,  1745;  died  there,  February  17,  1830. 
Graduating  at  Columbia  College  in  1766,  he  became  a 
captain  in  the  American  army,  and  later  was  colonel 
of' a militia  regiment  in  New  York.  Colonel  Rutgers 
was,  for  several  terms,  a member  of  the  New  York 
State  legislature.  He  was  a man  of  unbounded  liber- 
ality, and  gave  his  property  freely  for  schools,  churches, 
and  like  charities.  He  gave  $5,000  to  revive  Queens 
College  in  New  Jersey,  the  name  of  which  was  after- 
ward changed  to  a Rutgers  College.” 

RUTHERFORD,  Rev.  William  Gunion,  born 
1853;  was  educated  at  St.  Andrew’s  University,  and  at 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  M.A.  in 
1876.  He  also  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  St. 
Andrew’s  in  1884.  He  was  ordained  deacon  in  1883, 
and  priest  in  1885.  He  held  a classical  mastership  at 
St.  Paul’s  School  from  1876  to  1883,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed, without  examination,  fellow  and  praelector  of 
University  College,  Oxford.  In  the  same  year  he  be- 
came head-master  of  Westminster  School.  He  has 
published  translations  of  several  classics. 

RUTHERFURD,  Lewis  Morris,  famous  American 
scientist,  born  in  Morrisania,  N.  Y.,  November  25, 
1816.  He  was  graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1834, 
and  studied  law  with  William  H.  Seward.  Although 
admitted  to  the  bar,  and  practicing  law  with  Hamilton 
Fish  in  New  York  city,  he  soon  abandoned  it,  and 
devoted  his  time  to  scientific  studies,  more  particu- 
larly in  the  direction  of  astronomical  photography. 
Mr.  Rutherfurd  invented  and  constructed  a number 
of  instruments  which  have  proved  of  great  value  to  as- 
tronomers. He  constructed  a micrometer  for  the 
measurement  of  astronomical  photographs,  for  use 
upon  pictures  of  solar  eclipses  or  transits  and  upon 
groups  of  stars,  of  which  he  has  measured  several  hun- 
dred, showing,  as  he  claims,  that  the  photographic 
method  is  at  least  equal  in  accuracy  to  that  of  the 
heliometer  or  filar-micrometer,  and  far  more  convenient. 
In  1870  he  constructed  a ruling  engine,  which  produced 
interference-gratings  on  glass  and  speculum  metal,  that 
were  superior  to  all  others  until  a recent  invention  by 
Prof.  Henry  A.  Howland.  Mr.  Rutherfurd  was  one  of 
the  original  members  named  in  the  act  of  congress  in 
1863,  creating  the  National  Academy  of  Science,  and 
In  1887  was  appointed  by  the  president  as  its  representa- 


tive to  the  international  conference  in  Paris,  but  was 
obliged  to  decline,  on  account  of  ill  health.  He  was  for 
years  a trustee  of  Columbia  College,  resigning  in  1874, 
and  donated  his  instruments  to  that  institution,  where 
they  are  now  mounted.  He  died  May  30,  1892. 

RUTLAND,  Duke  of,  Charles  Cecil  John 
Manners,  K.G.,  was  born  May  16, 1815,  and  educated 
at  Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  As  marquis 
of  Granby  he  was  one  of  the  members  in  the  Conserva- 
tive interest  for  Stamford  from  August,  1837,  till  July, 
1852,  when  he  was  returned  for  North  Leicestershire, 
which  he  continued  to  represent  till  he  succeeded  his 
father  in  the  dukedom,  January  20,  1857.  He  died  in 
1887,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  John  Manners,  (q.v.) 

RUTLEDGE,  Edward,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C.5  November 
23,  !749;  died  there,  January  23,  1800.  Edward  read 
law  in  the  office  of  his  brother  John,  and  at  the  Temple  in 
London  in  1769-73,  remaining  four  years  in  England. 
On  his  return  to  Charleston  he  was  married,  and  in  1774 
sent  to  the  Continental  congress,  remaining  until  1777. 
In  company  with  Benjamin  Franklin  and  John  Adams, 
Rutledge  was  delegated  to  confer  with  Lord  Howe, 
British  commissioner,  concerning  proposals  for  a rec- 
onciliation with  the  mother  country.  The  three  met 
the  British  admiral  on  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  September 
II,  1776,  but  the  conference  was  futile.  On  May 
1, 1780,  while  Charleston  was  invested  by  the  enemy, 
he  was  dispatched  by  General  Lincoln  to  hasten  the 
accession  of  reenforcements,  when  he  was  captured, 
sent  to  St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  and  kept  imprisoned  a 
year.  After  being  exchanged,  he  lived  in  Philadelphia 
until  the  British  retired  from  his  native  State.  After 
the  return  of  peace  he  settled  again  in  Charleston,  and 
for  seventeen  years  practiced  his  profession.  In  1798 
Rutledge  was  chosen  governor  of  South  Carolina. 

RUTLEDGE,  John,  statesman,  born  in  Charles- 
ton, S.  C.,  in  1739;  died  there  July  23,  1800.  He  was 
a son  of  Dr.  John  Rutledge,  a north  of  Ireland  emi- 
grant, and  was  a brother  to  Edward,  (q.v.)  He  was 
sent  to  England  to  study  law  at  the  Temple  in  London, 
and  in  1761  began  practice  in  Charleston,  S.  C.  In 
1765  he  was  a leading  member  of  the  stamp-act  con- 
gress in  New  York  city,  and  in  1774  of  the  first  Con- 
tinental congress  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.  In  1776  he 
became  chairman  of  the  committee  which  prepared  the 
State  constitution  for  South  Carolina,  and  was  chosen 
governor  of  that  State.  After  the  fall  of  Charleston 
Rutledge  retired  to  North  Carolina,  and  until  the  close 
of  the  war  accompanied  the  army  of  General  Greene. 
In  1782  he  relinquished  the  governorship,  after  being 
elected  to  the  Continental  . congress,  and  in  March, 
1784,  became  chancellor  of  South  Carolina.  On  July 
1,  1795,  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court. 

RYAN,  Abraham  Joseph,  born  in  Norfolk,  Va., 
August  15,  1839;  died  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  April  22, 
1886.  Early  in  life  he  became  impressed  with  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  religion  and  resolved  to  enter  the  priest- 
hood. He  studied  the  usual  classic  and  theological 
works,  and  was  ordained.  During  the  war  he  became 
a chaplain  in  the  Confederate  army,  serving  until  peace 
was  declared.  Father  Ryan  was  rather  given  to  poetry, 
and  after  General  Lee’s  surrender,  wrote  The  Con - 
quered  Banner.  Going  to  New  Orleans,  he  became 
the  editor  of  a weekly  Roman  Catholic  paper  called  the 
Star.  Later  on  he  founded  the  Banner  of  the  South  at 
Knoxville,  but  only  retained  his  connection  with  it  for 
a short  time.  He  became  pastor  of  St.  Mary’s  church. 
Mobile,  Ala.,  but  in  1880  went  North,  where,  in  Balti- 
more, he  published  a volume  of  poems.  At  the  time  of 
his  death  Father  Ryan  was  engaged  on  a Life  of  Christ , 


R Y A— R YL 


RYAN,  George  Edward,  jurist,  born  in  Newcastle 
House,  county  Meath,  Ireland,  November  13,  1810; 
iied  in  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  October  19,  1880.  Mr. 
Ryan’s  parents  intended  making  him  a priest,  but  he 
preferred  the  law,  and,  coming  to  the  United  States, 
began  study  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1836.  That 
same  year  he  removed  to  Chicago  and  became  the  editor 
of  a paper  called  the  Tribune , which  was  discontinued 
in  1841.  From  Chicago  Mr.  Ryan  went  to  Racine, 
and  thence  to  Milwaukee,  where  he  became  a noted 
lawyer,  trying  some  of  the  most  important  cases 
known  in  Wisconsin.  He  was  city  attorney  of  Mil- 
waukee in  1870-72,  and  on  June  17, 1874,  was  appointed 
chief  justice  of  the  State. 

RYAN,  James,  bishop,  born  in  Thurles,  county 
Tipperary,  Ireland,  in  1848.  He  was  still  a child  when 
brought  to  the  United  States.  He  studied  for  the 
priesthood  and  became  a professor  in  St.  Joseph’s  Sem- 
inary. After  his  ordination  he  was  stationed  in  Ken- 
tucky for  seven  years,  when  he  went  to  Illinois  and  was 
appointed  pastor  at  Wataga.  In  1881  he  was  made 
rector  of  Ottawa,  and  in  1888  he  was  nominated  bishop 
of  Alton. 

RYAN,  Patrick  John,  born  in  Cloneyharp,  near 
Thurles,  Ireland,  February  20,  1831.  He  studied  in 
Dublin,  and,  intending  a preparation  for  the  American 
mission,  went  to  Carlow  College.  He  came  to  the 
United  States,  and  in  1853  went  to  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
finishing  his  ecclesiastical  studies  in  Carondelet  Semi- 
nary, and  in  1854  became  a priest.  In  1872  he  was 
made  vicar  general,  and  was  elected  coadjutor  arch- 
bishop of  St.  Louis.  In  1884  he  was  nominated  arch- 
bishop of  Philadelphia.  He  was  present  at  the  third 
plenary  council  of  Baltimore  in  1884,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  proceedings.  In  1887  he  went 
to  Rome  for  the  purpose  of  arranging  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a Catholic  university  in  Washington. 

RYAN,  Stephen  Vincent,  bom  near  Almonte, 
Upper  Canada,  January  1,  1825.  Moving  with  his 
arents  to  Pottsville,  Penn.,  he  entered  St.  Charles 
eminary,  Philadelphia,  in  1840,  and  in  1844  became 
a member  of  the  Lazarist  order.  He  studied  theology 
at  St.  Mary’s  of  the  Barrens,  Missouri,  and  was  raised  to 
the  priesthood  in  St.  Louis,  June  24,  1849.  Bishop 
Ryan  has  frequently  been  sent  abroad  on  important 
missions  in  connection  with  the  church.  He  established 
the  mother-house  and  novitiate  of  the  community  at 
Germantown  and  transferred  his  residence  there  from 
St.  Louis.  He  died  April  10,  1896. 

RYAN,  William  Albert  Charles, born  in  Toronto, 
Canada,  March  28,  1843;  died  Santiago,  Cuba,  No- 
vember 4,  1873.  Ryan  was  educated  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  to  enlist  when  the  rebellion 
broke  out,  and  served  in  the  Union  army  all  through  the 
war,  reaching  the  rank  of  captain.  Hisloveof  warfare 
unsatisfied,  he  joined  the  Cuban  Junta  in  the  insur- 
rection in  1869,  and  became  chief  of  staff  to  Thomas 
Jordan,  commander  of  the  revolutionary  forces,  with 
the  title  of  general.  General  Ryan  was  sent  to  the 
United  States  several  times  for  recruits,  and  in  the  last 
of  these  expeditions  in  the  Virginius  in  1873,  was 
captured  by  the  Spanish  man-of-war  Tornado  and  taken 
to  Santiago.  Here  the  passengers,  commander,  and 
crew  were  tried  by  court-martial  and  General  Ryan  and 
fifty-one  others  were  executed.  The  massacre  was 
stopped  by  the  interference  of  the  captain  of  a British 
war  vessel.  The  surviving  prisoners  were  released  on 
the  demand  of  the  United  States  Government.  The 
affair  created  a great  furore  and  Spain  paid  an  indemnity 
in  settlement. 


MI 


6781 

R YD  BURG,  Abraham  Victor,  a Swedish  au- 
thor, born  at  Jonkoeping,  December  18,  1829;  was 
educated  at  Vexio,  and,  in  1851,  entered  the  University 
of  Lund  for  a short  time.  He  became  a private  tutor, 
and  in  1855  joined  the  staff  of  the  Goteborgs  Handels 
och  Sjofarts  Tidning.  In  1876  he  was  instructed  by 
the  local  government  of  Gottingberg  to  inaugurate  the 
philosophical  and  historical  conferences,  which  con- 
tinue to  be  held  annually.  In  1877  he  was  elected  to 
the  Swedish  Academy,  and  in  the  same  year  the  Uni- 
versity of  Upsal  conferred  upon  him  tne  degree  of 
doctor.  He  has  written  Fribytaren  pa  Ostersjon% 
1857;  Singralla,  1864;  A Kristus  i Sinforiit , 1868; 
Faust,  1878;  Dektar , 1882;  and  contributed  extensively 
to  the  literary  journals  of  his  country.  Died  Sept.,  1895. 

RYDER,  Albert  Pinkham,  an  American  artist, 
was  born  in  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  March  19,  1847.  Mr. 
Ryder  was  especially  noted  for  his  fine  coloring.  He 
studied  under  William  E.  Marshall,  and  for  three  years 
was  abroad  visiting  the  great  art  centers  of  the  old 
world.  He  began  exhibiting  in  the  Academy  of  Design 
in  1873.  Among  his  works  are  Curfew  Houry  Farm 
Yard , and  Phantom  Ship. 

RYDER,  William  Henry,  a wealthy  charitable 
clergyman,  was  born  in  Provincetown,  Mass.,  July  13, 
1822.  He  was  entirely  self-educated,  and  early  began 
to  preach  the  doctrine  of  universal  salvation.  When 
twenty-one  years  of  age  he  became  pastor  of  the  First 
Universalist  Church  at  Concord,  N.  H.,  and  at  Nashua 
he  also  occupied  a pulpit  for  two  years.  Mr.  Ryder 
traveled  for  a time,  and  finally,  in  i860,  he  became  pastor 
of  St.  Paul’s  church  in  Chicago.  He  gave  away  more 
than  half  a million  dollars  to  different  charities,  and 
among  other  bequests  is  one  that  provides  for  free  lect- 
ures annually  under  the  control  of  the  first  churches  in 
the  Universalist,  Presbyterian,  and  Congregational  de- 
nominations and  the  mayor  of  Chicago,  “ in  aid  of  the 
moral  and  social  welfare  of  the  citizens  of  Chicago, 
upon  a strict  anti-sectarian  basis.”  He  died  March  8, 
1888. 

RYERSON,  John,  Canadian  clergyman,  was  born  in 
Norfolk,  Ontario,  June  12,  1800,  and  died  in  Simcoe, 
Ontario,  October  5,  1878.  He  began  preaching  at  the 
early  age  of  eighteen.  The  Canadian  conference  sent 
Mr.  Ryerson  to  explore  the  mission  field  in  the  North- 
west Territory,  then  under  the  direction  of  the  London 
Wesleyan  committee,  being  desirous  to  control  it  in  the 
colonial  dominion.  He  covered  the  entire  Hudson  Bay 
Territory  in  a yacht  and  in  canoes,  and  then  went  to 
England  and  succeeded  in  effecting  the  transfer.  Mr. 
Ryerson’s  journey  is  described  in  a work  entitled  Hud- 
son's Bay , or  a Missionary  Tour  in  the  Territory  oj 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company. 

RYLE,  John  Charles,  D.D.,  bishop  of  Liverpool, 
born  near  Macclesfield,  in  1816;  educated  at  Eton  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in 
1836,  was  Craven  University  scholar,  and  took  a first 
class  in  classical  honors.  Having  been  admitted  into 
orders  in  1841,  he  was  curate  at  Exbury,  in  the  New 
Forest;  was  appointed  rector  of  St.  Thomas’,  Win- 
chester, in  1843;  rector  of  Helmingham,  Suffolk,  in 
1844;  vicar  of  Stradbroke,  Suffolk,  in  1861;  rural  dean 
of  Hoxne,  in  1869;  and  an  honorary  canon  of  Nor- 
wich in  1871.  He  was  nominated  to  the  deanery  of 
Salisbury  in  March,  1880,  and  soon  afterward  appointed 
bishop  of  Liverpool.  He  was  consecrated  in  York 
Minster  (June  11,  1880).  He  is  the  author  of  numer- 
ous theological  and  polemic  works.  Doctor  Ryle  is  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  Evangelical  School,  and  has  had 
difficulties  with  High  Church  clergy.  Died  June,  1900. 


6y  82 


SAB-SAI 


S. 


Q ABINE,  Sir  Edward,  a British  soldier,  was  born  in 
'w  Dublin,  Ireland,  October  14, 17 88,  and  died  in  Rich- 
mond, England,  June  26,  1883.  He  received  a military 
education,  became  a captain  in  the  army,  and  served 
during  the  Revolutionary  war.  He  was  appointed  as- 
tronomer in  Sir  John  Ross’  first  Arctic  expedition  in 
1818,  and  again  with  William  Edward  Parry  in  1819-20, 
when  he  made  some  very  important  researches  in  terres- 
trial magnetism.  Sir  Edward  has  made  a series  of 
Arctic  voyages,  and  his  discoveries  led  to  the  establish- 
ment of  magnetic  observatories  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
colonies.  He  continued  his  scientific  work  until  his 
death.  He  was  aided  greatly  by  his  wife  in  preparing 
reduction  tables  and  charts  of  all  the  observations  that 
have  been  made  in  terrestrial  magnetism,  and  in 
the  various  works  he  has  written  upon  this  subject. 

SACHER-MASOCH,  Leopold  von,  novelist,  born 
at  Lemberg,  the  capital  of  Austrian  Poland,  January  27, 
1836;  passed  through  the  normal  school  and  the  gym- 
nasium of  his  native  city,  studied  philosophy  at  Gratz 
and  Prague,  obtained  his  doctor’s  degree  at  the  age  of 
nineteen,  and  two  years  later  became  a private  teacher 
of  history  in  the  University  of  Gratz.  In  1857  he  pub- 
lished his  historical  account  of  The  Insurrection  in 
Ghent  Under  Charles  V.  (Der  Aufsstand  in  Gent 
unter  Karl  V.);  and  in  1866  his  first  novel,  Eine 
galizische  Geschichte.  His  literary  success  led  him  to 
abandon,  in  1869,  the  profession  of  a teacher,  when  he 
began  to  devote  his  time  entirely  to  writing.  He  pro- 
duced a great  many  works,  most  of  which  obtained 
considerable  popularity.  He  died  March  9,  1895. 

SAFFORD,  Truman  Henry,  astronomer  and 
mathematician,  born  in  Royalton,  Vt.,  January  6,  1836. 
He  early  attracted  attention  by  his  remarkable  feats  of 
calculation.  Even  as  a child  there  was  hardly  a problem 
in  figures  given  him  that  he  could  not  mentally  solve. 
He  prepared  an  almanac  when  only  nine  years  of  age, 
and  from  that  time,  or  at  least  after  he  had  graduated, 
as  he  did,  from  Harvard  in  1854,  he  put  his  wonderful 
powers  to  practical  use.  He  spent  several  years  in  the 
observatory  at  Hartford,  and  in  1865  was  appointed 
professor  of  astronomy  in  the  University  of  Chicago 
and  at  Williams  College  in  1876.  Professor  Safford, 
has  made  several  catalogues  of  the  stars,  and  also 
some  maps  of  great  value.  Died  June  13,  1901. 

SAGASTA,  Praxedes  Mateo,  a Spanish  states- 
man, was  born  at  Torrecilla  de  Cameros,  July  21,  1827. 
He  studied  in  the  School  of  Engineers  at  Madrid,  prac- 
ticed his  profession  at  Valladolid  and  Zamora,  and  was 
elected  by  the  latter  town  to  the  Constituent  Cortes  of 
1854.  He  took  part  in  the  insurrection  of  1856,  and 
was  obliged  to  seek  refuge  in  F ranee.  On  the  amnesty 
being  proclaimed,  he  returned  to  Spain,  and  became  a 
professor  in  the  School  of  Engineers  at  Madrid.  He 
was  also  the  editor  of  La  Iberia , the  principal  organ  of 
the  Progressist  party.  After  the  unsuccessful  insurrec- 
tion of  June,  1866,  he  was  again  placed  under  the  neces- 
sity of  seeking  an  asylum  in  France,  and  he  did  not 
return  to  Spain  until  after  the  fall  of  Queen  Isabella  II. 
Appointed  minister  of  the  interior  in  the  first  cabinet 
formed  by  General  Prim,  he  gradually  adopted  more 
and  more  the  views  of  that  statesman  and  of  the  Con- 
servative party,  and  completely  broke  ofif  his  relations 
with  his  old  friend  Zorilla.  He  continued  to  be  minister 
of  state  and  minister  of  the  interior  in  the  first  cabinet 
of  King  Amadeus,  and  during  that  monarch’s  brief  reign 
h^  took  part  in  several  ministerial  combinations,  either 


as  a member,  or  as  president  of  the  council.  In  June. 
1875,  he  gave  in  his  adherence  to  the  cause  of  Al- 
fonso XII.,  and  endeavored  to  form  a Liberal  Constitu- 
tional party.  Subsequently  he  joined  the  opposition, 
and  attacked  the  administrations  formed  by  Martinez 
Campos  and  Canovas  (1877-79).  When  a new  Liberal 
party  was  formed  in  1880  Senor  Sagasta  gave  in  his 
adhesion  to  it.  The  Conservative  cabinet  of  Sefior 
Canovas  del  Castillo  was  overthrown  early  in  the  year 
1881,  and  a coalition  between  Senor  Sagasta  and  General 
Martinez  Campos  came  into  power.  Sagasta’s  ministry 
remained  in  office  till  October,  1883,  when  it  was  super- 
seded by  a cabinet  formed  from  the  Dynastic  Left. 
This,  however,  was  shortlived,  and  was  followed  by  a 
return  of  the  Conservatives  to  power.  On  the  death  of 
Alfonso  XII.  Senor  Sagasta  came  back,  and  was  again 
prime  minister,  1885-90  and  from  1893  to  March,  1895, 
when  Canovas,  in  turn  superseded  him. 

SAINTE-CLAIRE  DEVILLE,  Henri  Etienne, 
was  born  March  11,  1818,  in  the  island  of  St.  Thomas, 
in  the  Antilles,  and  studied  in  France.  On  leaving  col- 
lege, he  constructed,  at  his  own  expense,  a chemical 
laboratory,  and  pursued  his  researches,  without  either 
master  or  pupils,  for  nearly  nine  years.  In  1844  he  was 
intrusted  with  the  organization  of  the  faculty  of  sciences 
at  Besangon,  of  which  he  was,  in  1845,  named  dean  and 
professor.  In  1849  he  discovered  and  made  known  the 
preparation  and  properties  of  anhydrous  nitric  acid;  in 
1852  he  published  an  important  paper  upon  the  metallic 
carbonates  and  their  combinations;  and  in  1853  he  dis- 
covered a new  method  of  mineral  analysis.  About  that 
time  M.  Sainte-Claire  Deville  studied  the  new  metal, 
aluminum,  discovered  by  Woehler,  of  Gottingen,  then 
but  imperfectly  understood.  Required  by  the  emperor 
to  inquire  into  the  best  means  of  producing  aluminum 
at  a cheap  rate,  he  tried,  in  conjunction  with  M.  Debray, 
numerous  experiments  in  the  manufactory  of  Javel,  and 
succeeded  in  obtaining,  in  the  course  of  a few  months, 
several  ingots  of  the  metal,  which  were  exhibited  at  the 
Exposition  Universelle  of  1855.  He  died  in  1881. 

ST.  CLAIR,  Arthur,  soldier,  was  born  in  Scotland 
in  1734,  and  died  in  Greensburg,  Penn.,  August  31, 
1818.  Graduating  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  he 
studied  medicine,  but  instead  of  practicing,  he  bought  a 
commission  in  the  army,  and  came  to  America,  serving 
under  General  Wolfe  at  the  capture  of  Quebec.  He 
resigned  in  1762  and  established  a Scottish  colony  in 
the  Ligonier  valley,  Pennsylvania.  During  the  Revo- 
lutionary war  he  fought  with  the  colonists  against  Eng- 
land, and  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-gen- 
eral. 

SAINT-GAUDENS,  Augustus,  sculptor,  born  in 
Dublin,  Ireland,  March  1,  1848.  He  came  with  his 
parents  to  New  York  when  he  was  an  infant,  and  in 
later  years  he  became  a cameo  cutter.  He  began 
modeling  in  1865-66,  and  studied  at  the  National 
Academy.  Ambitious  to  become  a sculptor,  he  went 
to  Paris  in  1867  and  studied  under  the  direction  of 
Fran?ois  Jouffrov.  In  Rome  he  produced  his  first 
figure,  Hiawatha,  in  1871.  A year  later  he  returned  to 
New  York,  where  he  has  since  resided,  and  made  him- 
self well  known  in  his  profession. 

ST.  JOHN,  Percy  Bolingbroke,  born  at  Ply- 
mouth, March  4,  1821 ; was  the  eldest  son  of  the  late  Mr. 
James  Augustus  St.  John,  whom  he  accompanied  in  his 
continental  wanderings,  and  chose  at  an  early  age  the 
profession  of  literature.  After  writing  one  book  and 


S A I - 

various  magazine  articles,  he  started  for  America,  and 
after  some  travels  by  sea  and  land  he  entered  upon  his 
career  as  a writer,  chiefly  of  Indian  tales,  for  Chambers ’ 
Journal , and  as  a lecturer  on  Texas  and  Mexico.  In 
1847  he  became  correspondent  in  Paris  of  the  North 
British  Daily  Mail . He  died  in  March,  1889. 

ST.  MEMIN,  Charles  Balthazar  Julien 
F£vre  de,  artist,  born  in  Dijon,  France,  March  12, 
1770;  died  there  June  23,  1852.  In  1793  he  went  to 
Canada  and  New  York  city.  As  an  amateur  he  had 
practiced  drawing,  painting,  carving,  and  gilding  on 
wood.  By  means  of  a machine  which  he  invented  he 
copied  in  this  country  the  likenesses  of  more  than  800 
noted  individuals.  St.  Memin  divided  his  residence  in 
the  United  States  between  the  cities  of  Philadelphia 
and  New  York,  with  numerous  temporary  visits  to 
other  places. 

SAINTSBURY,  George  Edward  Bateman,  was 
bom  at  Southampton,  England,  on  October  23,  1845, 
and  educated  at  King’s  College  School,  London.  In 
1863  he  was  elected  to  a post-mastership  at  Merton 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in 
1868  and  that  of  M.A.  in  1873.  After  holding  for  a 
few  months  a mastership  in  the  Manchester  Grammar 
School,  he  became  senior  classical  master  in  Elizabeth 
College,  Guernsey,  and  held  that  post  from  1868  to 
1874.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  to  the  head 
mastership  o.  the  Elgin  Educational  Institute,  which 
he  resigned  in  1876. 

SAINT--SAENS,  Charles  Camille,  musical  com- 
poser, was  born  in  Paris,  October  9,  1835.  At  seven, 
he  began  to  study  the  piano  with  Stamaty,  and  after- 
ward had  lessons  in  harmony  from  Maleden.  In  1847 
he  entered  Benoist’s  class  at  the  Conservatoire,  obtained 
the  second  organ  prize  in  1849,  and  the  first  in  1851. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  composed  his  first  symphony, 
which  was  performed  with  success  by  the  Societe  de 
Sainte  Cecile.  He  visited  England  in  1877,  and  played 
at  the  Musical  Union.  In  1874  and  1879  he  took  part 
in  the  Philharmonic  concerts,  and  on  December  6, 
1879,  he  conducted  his  Rouet d' Ompkale,  at  the  Crystal 
Palace.  In  addition  to  his  other  claims  to  distinction, 
M.  Saint-Saens  is  an  able  musical  critic,  and  has  con- 
tributed articles  to  La  Renaissance , L?  Estafette,  and 
Le  Voltaire.  He  was  elected  a member  of  the  Institute, 
February,  19,  1881. 

SAIN  T-V ALLIER,  Charles  Raymond  de  la 
Croix  de  Chevrieres,  Comte  de,  a French  senator 
and  diplomatist,  descended  from  an  ancient  Legitimist 
family,  was  born  at  the  chateau  of  Coucv-les-Eppes 
(Aisne),  Sept.  12,  1838,  and  died  Feb.  4,  1886.  Enter- 
ing the  diplomatic  service  he  was  attached  to  the  lega- 
tion at  Lisbon,  next  to  that  at  Munich,  and  aftemard 
to  the  embassy  at  Vienna.  On  the  death  of  Comte  de 
Moustier,  who  died  when  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
M.  de  Saint-Vallier  gave  up  his  under-secretaryship  and 
repaired  to  Stuttgart  as  envoy  (February,  1869).  Hav- 
ing in  vain  cautioned  Napoleon  touching  Wiirtemberg’s 
policy  in  the  war,  M.  de  Saint-Vallier,  when  his  govern- 
ment would  not  be  warned,  had  to  leave  Germany,  and 
was  forthwith  dispatched  to  the  then  important  post  at 
Copenhagen.  M.  de  Saint-Vallier  was  appointed  by 
Marshal  MacMahon  as  ambassador  to  Berlin  in  1877,  on 
the  recommendation  ofM.  Waddington,  who  had  become 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.  As  second  plenipotentiary 
of  France  he  rendered  valuable  assistance  to  M.  Wad- 
dington at  the  congress  of  Berlin  (1878).  He  was  suc- 
ceeded at  the  court  of  Berlin  by  M.  de  Courcel. 

SALA,  George  Augustus  Henry,  journalist  and 
author,  son  of  an  Italian  gentleman  who  married  a 
favorite  English  singer  of  West  Indian  extraction,  born 
in  London  in  1828,  was  brought  up  with  a view  to  follow- 


-SAL  6785 

ing  art  as  a profession,  but  quitted  it  for  literature,  and 
became  a constant  contributor  to  Household  Words. 
He  was  an  extensive  and  regular  contributor  to  the 
Welcome  Guest , the  founder  and  first  editor  of  the 
Temple  Bar  Magazine , for  which  he  wrote  the  stories 
of  The  Seven  Sons  of  Mammon , and  Captain  Danger - 
ous , afterward  republished  as  separate  works;  wrote  for 
several  years  in  the  Illustrated  London  News , the 
Hogarth  papers  in  the  Cornhill  Magazine , and  a story 
entitled  Quite  A lone,  for  All  the  Year  Rounds  which 
appeared  in  a separate  form  in  November,  1864.  He 
also  wrote  Echoes  of  the  Week  in  the  Illustrated  Lon- 
don News.  He  came  as  a special  correspondent  for 
the  Daily  Telegraph  to  the  United  States,  in  1863,  and 
on  his  return,  at  the  close  of  1864,  published  the  result 
of  his  observations  under  the  title  of  America  in  the 
Midst  of  War.  He  wrote  in  1864  a series  of  graphic 
letters  for  the  Daily  Telegraph , from  Algeria,  during 
the  Emperor’s  visit  to  that  colony,  and  revisited  Al- 
geria and  Morocco  in  1875.  In  1870  Mr.  Sala  was  at 
Metz  and  in  Eastern  France  as  war  correspondent  for 
the  Daily  Telegraph.  After  witnessing  the  fall  of  the 
empire  in  Paris  on  September  4th,  he  went  to  Rome  to 
record  the  entry  of  the  Italian  army  into  the  Eternal 
• City.  In  January,  1875,  he  again  visited  Spain  on  the 
occasion  of  the  entry  of  Alfonso  XII. ; on  his  return  in 
April  he  was  dispatched  to  Venice  to  describe  the  fetes 
consequent  on  the  interview  of  the  Emperor  Francis 
Joseph  and  King  Victor  Emmanuel,  and  he  afterward 
published  his  impressions  under  the  title  of  Two  Kings 
and  a Kaiser.  In  December,  1876,  he  again  visited 
Russia.  He  died  December  8,  1895. 

SALAMAN,  Charles  Kensington,  composer  and 
professor  of  music,  born  in  London,  March  3,  1814, 
was  educated  by  private  tuition.  He  began  the  study 
of  music  at  a very  early  age  under  Charles  Neate  and 
Doctor  Crotch,  made  his  first  appearance  as  a composer 
and  pianist  in  1828,  and  entered  the  musical  profession 
in  1831.  Mr.  Salaman  has  acquired  considerable 
reputation  as  a pianist  in  England,  Germany,  and 
Italy,  and  was  elected  an  honorary  member  of  the 
Academy  of  St.  Cecilia  at  Rome  in  1846. 

SALDANHA,  Oliveira  E.  Daun,  Duke  of,  a 
Portuguese  statesman,  was  born  at  Arinhaga,  about 
1791.  The  family  name  was  Joao  Carlos.  The  duke 
began  his  political  career  early  in  life,  and  in  1825  was 
appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  later  he  be- 
came minister  of  war  under  Dom  Pedro.  He  held 
joint  command  of  the  constitutional  army  with  Pal- 
mella,  and  was  very  successful  as  a general.  He  be- 
came prime  minister  in  1851,  and  remained  in  power  for 
five  years.  He  died  in  London  on  November  21,  1876. 

SALISBURY,  Edward  Elbridge,  philologist, 
was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  April  6,  1814.  Graduating 
at  Yale,  he  first  took  up  the  study  of  theology,  but 
from  1836  to  1839  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  ot 
the  Oriental  languages.  He  secured  a part  of  Silvestre 
de  Sacy’s  library,  with  whom  he  studied  abroad,  as  he 
did  also  with  Franz  Bopp,  in  Berlin.  A professorship 
of  Arabic  and  Sanskrit  was  created  for  him  at  Yale  in 
1841,  and  he  subsequently  gave  the  college  his  valuable 
library.  Professor  Salisbury  has  written  much  on  the 
Oriental  languages,  and  has  been  made  member  of  a 
great  number  of  societies,  both  at  home  and  abroad. 
In  1885  he  published  a large  volume  of  Genealogical 
and  Biographical  Monographs , to  which  additional 
volumes  are  being  added. 

SALISBURY,  Marquis  of  (The  Right  Hon. 
Robert  Arthur  Talbot  Gascoigne  Cecil,  K.G.), 
eldest  surviving  son  of  the  second  Marquis  of  Salisbury, 
born  at  Hatfield  in  1830,  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated,  and  was 


SAL 


6784 

elected  a fellow  of  All  Souls’  College  (1853).  In  1853 
he  was  elected  M.P.  for  Stamford,  and  he  represented 
that  borough  in  the  Conservative  interest  until  his  suc- 
cession to  the  marquisate  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
April  12,  1868.  While  in  the  Lower  House  he  was 
known  as  Lord  Robert  Cecil,  until  the  decease  of  his 
elder  brother,  on  June  14,  1865,  when  he  assumed  the 
courtesy  title  of  Viscount  Cranborne.  In  Earl  Derby’s 
third  administration  he  was,  in  July,  1866,  appointed  sec- 
retary of  state  for  India,  which  post  he  resigned  on  ac- 
count of  a difference  in  opinion  respecting  the  reform 
bill,  March  2,  1867.  On  November  12,  1869,  he  was 
elected  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford,  in  suc- 
cession to  the  late  Earl  Derby.  He  was  again  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  state  for  India  when  Mr.  Disraeli 
returned  to  office  in  February,  1874.  When  at  the 
close  of  the  war  between  Turkey  and  Servia,  differences 
arose  between  the  former  power  and  Russia,  the  mar- 
uis  of  Salisbury  was  sent  as  special  ambassador  to  the 
ublime  Porte,  and  he  and  Sir  Henry  Elliot  acted  as 
joint  plenipotentiaries  of  Great  Britain  at  the  confer- 
ence of  Constantinople.  On  April  2,  1878,  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  and  clearly 
enunciated  the  policy  of  the  English  Government  with 
regard  to  the  Eastern  question.  He  and  the  earl  of 
Beaconsfield  soon  afterward  were  the  representatives  of 
Great  Britain  at  the  congress  of  Berlin.  The  queen 
invested  the  marquis  of  Salisbury  with  the  order  of  the 
Garter,  July  30th.  On  August  3d  he  and  the  earl  of 
Beaconsfield  received  the  freedom  of  the  city  of  Lon- 
don, and  were  afterward  entertained  at  a grand  banquet 
at  the  Mansion  House.  He  went  out  of  office  with  his 
party  after  the  defeat  they  sustained  at  the  general  elec- 
tion of  April,  1880.  At  a meeting  of  Conservative 
peers  held  on  May  9,  1881,  after  the  death  of  Lord 
Beaconsfield,  the  marquis  of  Salisbury  was  elected  to 
lead  the  party  in  the  House  of  Lords.  Since  then  his 
career  has  been  identified  with  that  of  the  Conservative 
party.  He  opposed,  but  finally  accepted,  the  Irish 
Land  Act  of  1881 ; he  vigorously  criticised  Mr.  Glad- 
stone’s Egyptian  policy;  he  carried  the  rejection  of  the 
county  franchise  bill  in  1884;  he  represented  the  Con- 
servatives at  the  conference  between  the  opposing 
leaders,  which  led  to  the  framing  of  the  redistribution 
bill  of  1885.  On  June  9th  of  that  year  Mr.  Gladstone 
was  beaten  on  a budget  vote,  and  resigned,  and  Lord 
Salisbury  took  office  as  premier.  The  principal  events 
of  his  short  tenure  of  power  were,  the  annexation  of 
Burmah,  and  the  reopening  of  the  Eastern  question  by 
the  revolution  in  Eastern  Roumelia  and  the  Servo- 
Bulgarian  war;  England  supporting  Prince  Alexander 
by  her  “ friendly  ” neutrality.  After  the  general  election 
of  November,  1885,  Lord  Salisbury  resigned  without 
meeting  parliament.  He  vigorously  opposed  Mr.  Glad- 
stone’s home  rule  policy,  and  after  the  second  general 
election,  in  1886,  he  became  once  more  prime  minister. 
He  introduced  a bill  in  the  House  of  Lords  in  1888  for 
the  reform  of  that  assembly  and  the  creation  of  life 
peers=  He  resigned  in  1892  after  Conservative  defeat 
in  the  general  election  and  in  the  commons.  He 
came  into  power  again  June  26,  1895,  being  called  by 
Queen  Victoria  to  form  a Conservative  Cabinet  on 
the  defeat  of  Lord  Rosebery’s  government  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  He  retired  in  1902. 

SALM-SALM,  Prince  Felix,  born  in  Anhalt, 
Prussia,  December  25,  1828,  fought  bravely  in  a 
Prussian  cavalry  regiment  in  the  Schleswig-Holstein 
war,  entered  the  Austrian  army,  lost  his  fortune,  offered 
his  services  to  the  United  States  in  1861,  serving  all 
through  the  war,  and  retiring  in  1865  with  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general;  went  to  Mexico,  and  on  July  1, 
1866,  was  appointed  on  the  general  staff  with 


the  rank  of  colonel.  He  became  the  Emperor  Maxi- 
milian’s aide-de-camp  and  chief  of  his  household,  but 
was  captured  at  Queretaro  with  the  emperor.  After 
Maximilian’s  execution  Salm-Salm  returned  to  Europe, 
and,  entering  the  Prussian  army,  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Gravelotte,  near  Metz,  Alsace,  August  18,  1870. 
Prince  Felix  had  a romantic  marriage.  His  wife  was 
born  in  Baltimore  in  1842,  and  died  in  Coblentz,  Ger- 
many, in  1881.  She  was  a circus  rider  and  rope  dancer, 
earning  quite  a reputation  under  the  name  of  Leclercq. 
She  was  married  to  the  prince  August  30,  1862.  She 
was  with  him  all  through  his  Southern  and  Mexican 
career,  and  made  strenuous  efforts  to  secure  the  release 
of  the  emperor,  with  her  husband.  She  performed 
useful  service  during  the  campaigns  with  Salm-Salm, 
and  after  his  death  she  organized  a hospital  brigade, 
which  accomplished  much  good  during  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war. 

SALMON,  George,  D.D.,  born  in  Dublin  in  1819, 
was  educated  at  Cork,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
where  he  graduated  as  senior  moderator  in  mathe- 
matics in  1839.  He  was  successively  scholar  and  fellow 
of  his  college,  and  was  elected  regius  professor  of 
divinity  in  the  University  of  Dublin  in  1866.  Besides 
various  contributions  to  theological  and  mathematical 
periodicals,  he  is  the  author  of  treatises  on  Conic 
Sections , on  The  Higher  Plane  Cui'ves , on  The 
Geometry  of  Three  Dimensions , and  on  The  Modern 
Higher  Algebra. 

SALNAVE,  Sylvain,  president  of  Hayti,  was  born 
in  Cape  Haytien  in  1832,  and  died  in  Port-au-Prince  on 
January  15,  1870,  by  the  hand  of  the  executioner.  He 
enlisted  when  but  eighteen  years  of  age,  and  was  a 
captain  of  cavalry  during  the  Soulouque  insurrection, 
which  terminated  in  the  overthrow  of  the  self-styled 
emperor  in  1859.  He  quarreled  with  Geffrard,  who 
was  in  command  of  the  army,  concerning  the  attitude 
of  the  latter  in  being  too  subservient  to  Spain  regarding 
the  occupancy  by  that  nation  of  the  Dominician 
territory.  The  commander  had  lost  his  influence  in  the 
republic  and  was  powerless  to  punish  Salnave,  who, 
taking  advantage  of  the  state  of  affairs,  incited  insur- 
rections, being  finally  elected  president,  June  14,  1867. 
In  1869,  however,  another  insurrection  was  inaugurated 
by  Nissage-Saget  on  account  of  his  despotic  rule,  which 
culminated  in  his  defeat  at  the  bombardment  of  Port- 
au-Prince  January  10,  1870.  Salnave  was  taken 
prisoner  and  surrendered  to  Nissage-Saget,  tried  and 
condemned  to  death  by  court-martial  on  charges  of 
treason  and  bloodshed,  and  was  at  once  executed  on  the 
steps  of  the  ruined  palace. 

SALOMON,  Louis  E.  F.,  ex-president  of  Hayti, 
born  in  1815;  died  in  Paris  on  October  19,  1888.  Salo- 
mon was  an  active  and  shrewd  politican,  and  exercised 
a great  influence  on  the  politics  of  Hayti.  He  was  a 
full-blooded  negro.  The  revolution  of  1879  was  the 
event  which  brought  him  into  prominence,  and  he  be- 
came president  of  the  republic,  holding  the  office  for 
seven  years.  The  revolution  of  August,  1888,  drove 
him  from  the  island,  and  he  died  in  exile. 

SALTONSTALL,  Gurdon,  governor  of  Connecti- 
cut, born  in  Haverhill,  Mass.,  March  27,  1666;  died  in 
New  London,  Conn.,  September  20,  1724.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1684,  studied  theology,  and 
on  November  19,  1691,  was  ordained  clergyman  of  New 
London,  Conn.  In  1709  he  introduced  the  first  print- 
ing press  in  Connecticut,  influenced  the  building  of 
Yale  College  at  New  Haven  instead  of  Hartford,  and 
later  took  the  principal  direction  of  its  affairs.  He  was 
annually  chosen  governor  from  1708  until  his  death. 

SALTUS,  Edgar,  an  American  author,  native  of 
New  York  city,  born  June  8,  1858,  He  pursued  hU 


SAL-SAN 


studies  at  various  universities  in  France  and  Germany, 
finally  graduating  at  the  law  school  of  Columbia  Col- 
lege in  1880.  He  abandoned  the  profession  of  the  law 
for  that  of  literature,  and  has  published  a number  of 
works  of  fiction,  designed  to  illustrate  the  “ pessimistic 
school  of  philosophy.  ” He  has  also  been  the  author  of 
poetical  contributions  to  the  daily  press  and  current 
periodicals. 

SALVINI,  Tommaso,  tragedian,  was  born  at  Milan, 
January  1,  1830,  and  died  December  15,  1896.  His 
father  was  an  actor,  and  his  mother  an  actress  named 
Guglielmina  Zocchi.  Before  he  was  thirteen  Salvini  had 
already  won  a kind  of  renown  in  juvenile  characters. 
He  joined  the  Ristori  troupe,  and  shared  with  that 
great  actress  many  a triumph.  In  1849  Salvini  entered 
the  army  of  Italian  independence,  receiving  in  recog- 
nition of  his  services  several  medals  of  honor.  Peace 
being  proclaimed,  he  again  appeared  upon  the  stage  in 
a company  directed  by  Signor  Cesare  Dondini.  He 
played  in  the  Edipo  of  Nicolini — a tragedy  written  ex- 
pressly for  him — and  achieved  a great  success.  Next 
he  appeared  in  Alfieri’s  Saul.  He  visited  Paris,  where 
he  played  “ Orasmane,”  “ Orestes,”  “ Saul,”  and  “ Othel- 
lo.” In  1865  occurred  the  sixth  centenary  of  Dante’s 
birthday,  and  the  four  greatest  Italian  actors  were 
invited  to  perform  in  Silvio  Pellico’s  tragedy  of  Fran- 
cesca di  Rimini,  which  is  founded  on  an  episode  in  the 
Divina  Commedia.  The  cast  originally  stood  on  the 
play-bills  thus:  “ Francesca,”  Signora  Ristori;  “ Lance- 
lotto,”  Signor  Rossi;  “ Paulo,”  Signor  Salvini;  and 
“Guido,”  Signor  Majeroni.  In  1868  Signor  Salvini 
visited  Madrid,  where  Isabella  II.  conferred  upon  him 
many  marks  of  favor,  and  so  shortly  afterward  did  King 
Luis  of  Portugal,  who  frequently  entertained  him  at 
the  royal  palace  of  Lisbon.  Signor  Salvini  visited 
America  in  1874  and  England  in  1875,  having  immense 
success,  especially  in  the  character  of  “ Othello.  ” He 
made  his  first  appearance  in  Brussels,  as  “Othello,” 
December  25,  1877.  Signor  Salvini  has  become  in  late 
years  one  of  the  most  popular  foreign  actors  coming  to 
America.  He  has  made  a number  of  professional  visits, 
and  at  one  and  all  has  been  received  most  enthusiastic- 
ally, the  only  fault  found  with  him  being  that  he  would 
not  learn  to  speak  the  English  language.  His  son 
Alexander  has  also  created  a good  impression  in  the 
United  States  in  romantic  drama  and  tragedy. 

SAMBOURNE,  Edward  Linley,  one  of  the  most 
original  and  inventive  caricaturists  and  humorous 
artists  of  the  day,  was  born  January  4,  1845,  and  was 
educated  at  the  City  of  London  College,  and  the  College, 
Chester.  He  was  intended  for  the  engineering  pro- 
fession, and  was  placed  at  John  Penn  & Son’s  works, 
Greenwich,  1861-67,  but  in  1867  he  was  introduced  to 
Mark  Lemon,  and  published  his  first  drawing  in  Punch, 
April  27,  1867.  Since  then  he  has  devoted  himself  to 
the  art  of  illustration. 

SAND  AY,  William,  D.D.,  was  born  at  Notting- 
ham, England,  August  1,  1843,  and  educated  at  Repton 
School,  and  at  Balliol  and  Corpus  Christi  Colleges, 
Oxford,  being  elected  scholar  of  the  latter  in  1863.  In 
1882  he  was  appointed  professor  of  exegesis  at  Oxford, 
in  succession  to  Canon  Liddon,  who  resigned  the  post. 
Doctor  Sanday  has  published  A uthorship  and  Historical 
Character  of  the  Fourth  Gospel , 1873 ; The  Gospel  in 
the  Second  Century,  1876  ; Commentaries  on  Romans 
and  Galatians , 1878;. and  is  joint  editor  with  the 
bishop  of  Salisbury  of  Variorum  Bible , and  Old  Latin 
Texts. 

SANDERSON,  John  Scott  Burdon,  was  born  at 
Newcastle-on-Tyne,  in  December,  1828,  and  educated 
at  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  Doctor  Sancierrson  wljs 
employed  by  Lie  eoya.1  commissioners  to  make  investi- 


6785 

gations  respecting  the  cattle  plague,  1865-66;  was  sent 
by  the  British  Government  to  North  Germany  in 
1865  to  inquire  into  an  epidemic  of  cerebro-spinal 
meningitis  ; and  was  occupied  in  an  inquiry  for  a royal 
commission  as  to  the  influence  of  extreme  heat  on  the 
health  of  workers  in  the  Cornwall  mines,  in  1869.  For 
his  researches  on  animal  and  plant  electricity,  and  on 
the  nature  of  contagion,  he  received  a royal  medal  in 
1883. 

SANDFORD,  Charles  Waldegrave,  D.D., 
bishop  of  Gibraltar,  son  of  the  late  Archdeacon  Sand- 
ford,  born  in  1828,  received  his  academical  education 
at  Oxford,  was  for  several  years  senior  censor  of  Christ 
Church;  became  commissary  of  the  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury in  1869,  and  rector  of  Bishopsbourne,  Kent,  in 
1870.  On  the  resignation  of  Bishop  Harris  he  was 
nominated  by  the  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies  to 
the  see  of  Gibraltar,  and  was  consecrated  at  Oxford, 
February  1,  1874. 

SANDFORD,  Daniel  Fox,  D.D.,  late  bishop  of 
Tasmania,  born  in  1831,  in  Scotland.  After  taking 
orders  he  become  incumbent  of  St.  John’s,  Edinburgh; 
and,  having  been  elected  to  the  bishopric  of  Tasmania, 
he  was  consecrated  April  25,  1883.  He  resigned  in 
1889. 

SANDS,  Robert  Charles,  born  in  Flatbush,  L.  I., 
May  11,  1799;  died  in  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  December 
17,  1832.  He  was  graduated  at  Columbia  in  1815. 
While  at  college  he  became  co-editor  of  a literary 
paper,  Academic  Recreations,  which  was  published  for 
about  a year.  In  1824  he  issued  the  Atlantic  Maga- 
zine, which  later  became  the  New  York  Review,  and 
in  connection  with  W.  C.  Bryant,  conducted  it  from 
1825  until  1827. 

SANDYS,  John  Edwin,  M.A.,  son  of  the  late 
Rev.  T.  Sandys  (who  was  a missionary  of  the  C.  M.  S. 
for  nearly  forty  years  in  Bengal),  was  born  May  19, 
1844.  He  was  educated  at  Repton  school,  and  entered 
St.  John’s  College,  Cambridge,  as  a minor  scholar  in 
1863.  Sandys  was  the  author  of  many  learned  works. 

SANKEY,  Ira  David,  evangelist,  bornin  Edinburgh, 
Lawrence  county,  Penn.,  August  28,  1840.  His  father 
was  a banker,  and  also  mixed  slightly  in  politics,  being 
elected  to  the  State  legislature.  Ira  very  early  in  life 
evinced  great  fondness  for  music,  and  became  the  leader 
of  the  church  choir  in  N ewcastle,  Penn. , to  which  town  the 
family  had  removed.  Mr.  Sankey’s  habits  and  inclina 
tions  were  entirely  religious.  He  became  superintend- 
ent of  the  local  Sunday  school,  and  was  prominent  in 
the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  in  the  town.  He  went  to  Indianapolis 
in  1870  as  a delegate  to  some  convention,  and  it  was 
there  he  first  met  Mr.  Dwight  L.  Moody.  From  that 
time  they  worked  together  for  years,  Sankey’s  singing 
being  a great  auxiliary  to  Mr.  Moody’s  evangelical 
work.  Mr.  Sankey  has  given  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  of  New- 
castle a fully  equipped  building,  reading-rooms,  gym- 
nasium, etc.,  and  also  a building  lot  to  the  Methodist 
Church  Society,  with  which  he  united  when  only  fifteen 
years  of  age.  Mr.  Sankey  has  a fine  baritone  voice, 
and  his  songs  are  very  catchy  with  an  audience.  His 
published  volume  of  Sacred  Songs  and  Solos  has  had  a 
wider  circulation  than  any  other  recent  book  of  hymns. 

SANT,  James,  R.A.,  was  born  at  Croydon,  April 
23,  1820,  and  received  his  first  instructions  in  art  from 
John  Varley,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  British  school  of 
painting  in  water  colors.  It  was  not,  however,  till  1842 
that  he  devoted  himself  to  painting  as  a profession  by 
becoming  a student  of  the  Royal  Academy,  where  he 
studied  for  four  years.  Shortly  after  leaving  he  began 
to  exhibit  those  “ subject  pictures,”  or  “ fancy  subjects,” 
or  single  figures  generally,  and  these  frequently  chil- 
dren, by  which  he  is  probably  most  widelv  known,  many 


&j%6  SAN- 

of  them  having  been  engraved.  He  was  elected  A.R.  A. 
in  1861;  R.A.  in  1870;  and  in  January,  1871,  wasap- 
pointed  principal  painter  in  ordinary  to  the  queen  in 
succession  to  the  late  Sir  George  Hay  ter.  In  June, 

1877,  Mr.  Sant  was  elected  a corresponding  member  of 
the  Royal  Accademia  Raffaello  in  Urbino. 

SANTLEY,  Charles,  baritone  singer,  born  at 
Liverpool;  after  receiving  a good  musical  and  general 
education  in  his  own  country  he  proceeded  to  Italy  to 
complete  his  professional  training.  He  made  his  first 
appearance  as  an  operatic  singer  in  England,  at  Covent 
Garden  Opera,  during  the  Pyne- Harrison  management, 
and  achieved  his  first  great  success  in  the  part  of  “ Rhine- 
berg”  in  Vincent  Wallace’s  opera  of  Lurline , in  March, 
i860.  His  voice  is  as  remarkable  for  its  quality  as  for  the 
extent  of  its  register,  in  the  upper  part  of  which  it  par- 
takes of  a pure  tenore  robusto , while  in  the  lower  por- 
tion it  displays  the  rich  qualities  of  the  basso  prof  undo. 

SARASATE,  Martin  Meliton,  Spanish  violin- 
ist, was  born  at  Pampeluna,  March  10.  1844.  He  en- 
tered the  Paris  Conservatoire  in  January,  1856,  and 
gained  the  first  prizes  for  solfeggio  and  violin.  He 
then  entered  Reber’s  harmony-class  and  secured  a 
premier  accessit  in  1859,  but  shortly  after  relinquished 
the  study  of  composition  for  the  career  of  a concert 
layer.  His  performances  were  highly  successful.  He 
as  played  in  nearly  all  the  great  towns  between  Portu- 
gal and  Norway,  and  London  and  Moscow,  and  visited 
America,  North  and  South;  the  last  time  in  the  spring 
of  1894.  His  first  appearance  in  London  was  at  the 
Philharmonic  concert  on  May  18,  1874.  Musicians 
dispute  whether  Senor  Sarasate  or  Herr  Joachim  is  the 
first  violinist  of  the  day. 

SARCEY,  Francisque,  French  writer,  was  born 
at  Dourdan,  October  8,  1828,  and  educated  at  the  Nor- 
mal School;  turned  to  literature  in  Paris,  first  writing 
for  the  Figaro  and  the  Revue  Europeenne.  In  1859  he 
accepted  the  post  of  dramatic  critic  to  the  newly-founded 
Opinion  Nationale , and  in  1867  accepted  a similar 
ost  on  the  Temps , which  he  has  since  occupied.  He 
as  published  several  books,  but  the  only  one  that  made 
a great  impression  was  his  History  of  the  Siege  of  Paris, 
1870;  written  from  a diary  kept  throughout  the  siege. 
Among  his  other  works  are  Le  Nouveau  Seigneur  du 
Village , 1862;  Le  Mot  et  la  Chose , 1862;  Le  Piano 
de  Jeanne , 1876;  and  Comediens  et  Comediennes , 

1878.  He  died  May  16,  1899. 

SARDOU,  Victorien,  the  celebrated  French  dra- 
matist, son  of  M.  Leandre  Sardou,  was  born  in  Paris, 
September  7,  1831.  His  first  comedy,  La  Taverne  des 
Etudiants , was  brought  out  at  the  Odeon  theater  in 
Paris,  April  1, 1854,  and  proved  a complete  failure.  M. 
Sardou  turned  his  attention  again  to  dramatic  composi- 
tion, and  quickly  built  up  for  himself  a brilliant  reputa- 
tion. M.  Sardou’s  earlier  pieces  were  performed  at  the 
Theatre  Dejazet,  viz.: — Les premieres  Amies  de  Figaro , 
September  27,  1859;  Monsieur  Garat , April  30,  i860; 
and  Les  Pres-Saint-  Gervais , April  24, 1862.  M.  Sardou 
has  since  produced  a large  number  of  dramatic  pieces  in 
rapid  succession.  Several  of  his  contemporaries  have 
not  hesitated  to  accuse  him  of  plagiarism,  and  to  assert 
that  he  composes  rapidly  because  he  is  not  at  all  scru- 
pulous as  to  the  sources  from  which  he  borrows  his 
ideas.  Subjoined  is  a list  of  his  other  works,  with  the 
dates  of  their  first  representation : — Les  Gens  nerveux 
(Palais  Royal,  November  4,  1859);  Les  Pattes  de 
Mouche  (Gytnnase,  May  15,  i860) ; Nos  Lntimes,  one 
of  his  most  brilliant  successes  (Vaudeville,  November 
16,  1861);  L,a  Perle  noire  (Gymnase,  April  12,  1862); 
Les  Diables  noirs  (Vaudeville,  1863)  ; Don  Quichotte 
(1864);  Les  Vieux  Garmons  (Gymnase,  January  21, 
(865);  Maison  neuve  (Vaudeville,  December  4,  1866) ; 


-S  AR 

Seraphine , originally  entitled  La  Divote  (Gymnast, 
December  21,  1868);  Patrie  (Porte-Saint-Martin, 

March  18,  1869);  Fernande  (Gymnase,  March  8,  1870); 
Rabagas  (Vaudeville,  January,  1872),  apiece  which  was 
supposed  to  have  reference  to  M.  Gambetta ; Les  Mer- 
veilleuses  (Theatre  des  Variates,  1873);  D Oncle  Sam , 
a satire  on  American  society  (Vaudeville,  November, 
1873);  La  Haine , a tragedy  which  was  not  successful 
(Gaite,  December,  1874);  Ferreol  (Gymnase,  Novem- 
ber, 1875);  Dora , a comedy  in  five  acts  (Vaudeville, 
January,  1877)  ; and  Les  Bourgeois  de  Pontarsy  (Vaude- 
ville, 1878);  Daniel  Roehat , a five-act  comedy  (Thea- 
tre Fran^ais,  February  16,  1880) ; and  Odette , a play  in 
four  acts  (Vaudeville,  November,  1881);  Divor^ons , a 
comedy  in  three  acts  (1881) ; Fedora , The'odora  and  La 
Tosca  (Part  Sainte  Martin  Theatre,  1887),  the  last  three 
being  written  for  Madame  Sarah  Bernhardt,  and  pro- 
duced with  great  success  in  this  country  by  Fanny 
Davenport.  Flis  Thermidor , based  on  the  French 
revolution,  was  produced  in  January,  1891,  but  pro- 
hibited by  the  government.  His  Gismonda  was  pro- 
duced by  Bernhardt  at  the  Theatre  Renaissance,  Paris, 
October  31,  1894.  He  was  decorated  with  the  Legion 
of  Honor  in  1863,  and  elected  a member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  June,  1 877. 

SARGENT,  Aaron  Augustus,  born  in  Newbury- 
port,  Mass.,  September  £8,  1827,  died  in  San  Francisco, 
Cal.,  August  14,  1887.  Fie  was  successively  a printer 
and  a reporter,  going  to  California  in  1849,  mining, 
running  the  Nevada  Journal,  studying  law,  and  serv- 
ing as  district  attorney  of  Nevada  county,  1856.  He 
was  a Republican  in  politics,  was  sent  to  Congress  in 
i860,  and  to  the  Senate  in  1863,  drew  up  the  first  Pa- 
cific railroad  act  that  passed  Congress,  and  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  Germany  in  1882,  but  when  the 
German  authorities  excluded  American  pork  from  the 
empire  he  resigned  in  disgust.  He  was  offered  the 
Russian  mission  by  President  Arthur,  but  declined  it. 

SARGENT,  Charles  Sprague,  an  American 
botanist,  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  April  24,  1841. 
After  graduating  he  served  as  a volunteer  staff  officer 
in  the  Union  army,  and  afterward  was  appointed  a di- 
rector of  the  botanic  garden,  and  later  of  the  arbor- 
etum of  Harvard  University,  and  professor  of  arbor- 
culture.  For  the  tenth  census  of  the  United  States 
Professor  Sargent  made  a special  report  on  the  forests 
of  North  America,  which  was  published  in  full. 

SARGENT,  Epes,  was  born  at  Gloucester,  Mass., 
September  27,  1813,  and  died  at  Boston,  December  31, 
1880.  He  became  a student  at  Harvard  University, 
paying  particular  attention  to  the  study  of  belles-lettres. 
Subsequently  he  was  associated  in  editing  and  publish- 
ing the  Boston  Daily  Advertiser , and  Boston  Atlas , 
but  in  1839  removed  to  New  York  city,  where  he  occu- 
pied an  editorial  position  upon  The  Mirror , and  for 
several  years  officiated  in  a similar  capacity  upon  the 
Boston  Evening  Transcript.  On  retiring  from  the  lat- 
ter position,  he  edited  a series  of  elementary  school- 
books, and  wrote  a number  of  dramas,  among  which 
was  the  Bride  of  Genoa , produced  in  1836,  followed  by 
the  Priestess , and  others. 

SARMIENTO,  Domingo  Faustino,  president  of 
the  Argentine  Republic,  was  born  in  San  Juan,  Feb- 
ruary 13,  1811.  Sarmiento  might  properly  be  called 
the  educator  of  South  America.  He  received  but  a 
limited  education,  and  in  1829  he  participated  in  the 
rising  against  Rossa  and  Quiroga,  but  seeing  the  in- 
evitable defeat  of  the  insurrectionists  he  took  refuge  in 
Chili.  Here  he  developed  his  educational  propensities, 
and  served  as  clerk  part  of  the  time,  but  taught  school 
the  greater  part,  filling  in  the  interim  as  overseer  in  a 
mine.  Under  the  protection  of  Manuel  Montt  he 


S A R- 

founded  the  first  normal  school  in  South  America.  He 
traveled  through  Europe  and  the  United  States  to  study 
the  primary  school  system,  for  the  Chilian  government, 
which  published  his  work  on  popular  education.  In 
1851,  when  General  Urquiza,  aided  by  Brazil  and* 
Uruguay,  revolted  against  Rossa,  Sarmiento  left  Chili, 
and  took  part  in  the  campaign  that  ended  successfully 
February  3,  1852,  with  the  battle  of  Monte  Caseros. 
In  Buenos  Ayres  he  founded  a paper  devoted  to  the 
promotion  of  public  instruction.  In  1859  he  was  elected 
senator,  and  in  i860  minister  of  public  instruction. 
He  became  minister  of  the  interior  in  1861,  and  min- 
ister to  Chili  in  18G4,  and  to  the  United  States  in  1865, 
and  while  at  Washington  was  elected  president  of  the 
Argentine  Republic  in  1868.  During  his  administra- 
tion, railways  and  telegraphs  were  constructed,  and  the 
educational  interests  of  the  State  advanced.  He  died 
September  11,  1888. 

SARTAIN,  John,  born  in  London,  October  24, 
1808,  was  a line-engraver  there  and  in  1830  came  to 
the  United  States,  where  he  was  one  of  the  first  to 
introduce  mezzotint  engraving.  For  some  years  he 
was  occupied  as  a painter  of  portraits  in  oil,  and  of 
miniatures  in  water  colors  on  ivory,  and  he  produced 
many  engravings  for  books.  Died  Oct.  25,  1897. 

SATOLLI,  Francis,  prelate  and  diplomat  of  the 
Holy  See,  born  in  Perugia,  Italy,  in  1841,  and  edu- 
cated in  the  diocesan  seminary  of  his  native  city,  over 
which  Archbishop  Joachim  Pecci,  afterwards  Pope  Leo 
XIII., presided, early  distinguished  himself  as  an  orator 
and  linguist,  and  on  the  accession  of  Leo  XIII.  was 
chosen  his  chief  assistant  in  the  work  of  promoting 
theological  studies.  He  became  successively  profes- 
sor in  the  Propaganda  and  Roman  Seminary,  president 
of  the  Academy  of  Noble  Ecclesiastics,  and  Archbishop 
of  Lepanto.  In  1889  he  was  deputed  by  the  pope  to 
represent  him  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  on  the  occasion  of 
the  centenary  of  the  Catholic  hierarchy  in  this  country, 
also  at  the  inauguration  of  the  Catholic  University, 
Washington,  D.  C.  In  1892  he  was  appointed  legate 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States. 
He  has  written  a Course  of  Philosophy  on  the  Summa 
of  St.  Thomas,  and  essays  on  various  philosophical 
themes. 

SAXE,  John  Godfrey,  a well  known  and  popular 
American  poet,  was  born  at  Highgate,  Vt.,  June  2, 
1816,  and  died  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  March  31,  1887.  He 
entered  the  St.  Albans  (Vt.)  grammar  school,  thence 
matriculating  at  the  Wesleyan  University  of  Middletown, 
Conn.,  and  graduated  in  1839  at  the  Middlebury  (Vt.) 
College.  Three  years  later  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
and  began  the  practice  of  law  at  St.  Albans,  where  he 
was  thus  engaged  until  1850.  During  this  period  he 
was  a frequent  contributor  of  verses  to  the  Knicker- 
bocker Magazine,  besides  publishing  a number  of  poems, 
including  Progress:  a Satire , in  1846,  followed  in  1847 
by  The  Rape  of  the  Lock , The  Proud  Miss  McBride  in 
1848,  and  The  Times  in  1849.  In  1850  he  entered  the 
field  of  journalism  as  managing  editor  of  the  Bur- 
lington Sentinel , and  in  1856  became  attorney  gen- 
eral of  Vermont.  Later  he  was  the  nominee  of  the 
Democratic  party  for  governor,  but  was  defeated,  and 
abandoned  politics  for  literature  and  the  lecture  plat- 
form. In  1859  a volume  of  poems  from  his  pen  was 
published  under  the  title,  The  Money  King  and  Other 
Poems ; in  1864  Clever  Stories  of  Many  Nations  Ren- 
dered in  Rhyme;  The  Masquerade  and  Other  Poems , 
in  1866;  Leisure  Day  Rhymes , in  1874,  and  other  pro- 
ductions. He  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Even- 
ing Journal,  of  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  1872,  having  taken 
up  his  residence  in  that  city  meanwhile,  and  while  thus 
occupied  his  wife,  three  daughters,  and  a son  died,  pro- 


-SAY  6787 

ducing  a shock  from  the  effects  of  which  he  never 
recovered.  He  died  universally  lamented. 

SAXE- WEI  MAR,  Carl  Bernhard,  Duke  of,  was 
born  at  Weimar  in  1792.  The  duke  was  a gallant 
soldier,  and  served  in  the  campaigns  against  the  French 
from  1806  to  1815.  He  published  Travels  in  North 
America , and  Summary  of  the  Campaign  in  Java  in 
1828.  He  died  July  31,  1862. 

SAY,  Jean  Baptiste  L£on,  a French  statesman, 
born  at  Paris,  June  6,  1826,  and  died  April  21,  1896. 
He  studied  political  economy,  and  for  many  years  was 
editor  of  the  Journal  des  Dibats , of  which  he  con- 
tinues to  be  the  principal  proprietor.  He  was  an  un- 
successful candidate  for  the  Corps  Legislatif  in  1869, 
but  in  February,  1871,  he  was  returned  to  the  National 
Assembly  as  one  of  the  representatives  of  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Seine.  In  J une  the  same  year  he  became 
prefect  of  the  department.  On  December  7,  1872,  he 
was  made  minister  of  finance  by  M.  Thiers.  He 
again  accepted  the  portfolio  of  finance  in  M.  Buffet’s 
administration,  in  March,  1875-  Soon  afterward  he 
was  elected  a senator  for  the  department  of  Seine-et- 
Oise;  his  term  of  office  expired  in  1882.  He  retained 
his  portfolio  in  the  Dufaure  cabinet  of  May  10,  1876, 
and  in  the  Jules  Simon  cabinet  of  December  13th  fol- 
lowing, but  he  retired  with  the  latter  May  17,  1877. 
When  a new  ministry  was  formed  under  the  presidency 
of  M.  Dufaure  in  December,  1877,  M.  Leon  Say  again 
became  minister  of  finance,  and  retained  the  position  in 
the  first  cabinet  formed  by  President  Grevy.  He  re- 
tired  from  the  administration,  December  17,  1879, 
with  the  head  of  the  cabinet,  M.  Waddington,  and  re- 
sumed his  place  among  the  members  of  the  Left  Centre. 
In  April,  1880,  he  was  appointed  ambassador  in  Lon- 
don, but  returned  to  Paris  in  the  course  of  a few  weeks, 
in  consequence  of  his  having  been  elected  president  of 
the  Senate,  May  25,  1880,  in  place  of  M.  Martel,  who 
had  resigned  on  account  of  ill-health.  A short  time 
previously  to  this  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political 
Sciences  had  elected  M.  Leon  Say  as  successor  to  M. 
Michael  Chevalier  (April  24).  He  was  reelected  presi- 
dent of  the  senate,  January  20,  1881,  and  he  became 
minister  of  finance  in  the  De  Freycinet  cabinet,  formed 
January  30,  1882.  M.  Leon  Say  has  written  The'orie 
des  Changes  Etrangers,  translated  from  the  English, 
and  preceded  by  an  introduction;  Histoire  de  la  Caisse 
d"1  Escompte,  1848;  La  Ville  de  Paris  et  le  Credit  Fon- 
der, etc.  In  December,  1874,  the  French  Academy  of 
Moral  and  Political  Sciences  elected  M.  Leon  Say  to 
the  seat  left  vacant  by  the  death  of  M.  Dubois. 

SAY,  Thomas,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  July 
27,  1787.  In  1812  he  was  one  of  the  incorporators  of 
the  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  as  also 
its  curator  and  a conspicuous  contributor  to  its  Journal. 
In  1818,  in  conjunction  with  a number  of  scientists,  he 
undertook  an  exploring  expedition  along  the  coast  of 
Georgia  and  Florida,  but  was  prevented  by  Indian  hos 
tilities  from  pursuing  his  investigations  to  a satis- 
factory result,  and  in  1819  accompanied  Maj.  S.  W. 
Long’s  expedition  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  the  ca- 
pacity of  geologist.  In  1823  he  was  one  of  a party 
seeking  the  source  of  the  St.  Peter  (Minn.)  river,  and 
two  years  later  became  associated  with  Robert  Owen 
in  the  latter’s  socialistic  scheme  at  New  Harmony,  Ind. 
Their  venture  resulted  in  failure.  Say  remained  in 
charge  for  the  purpose  of  closing  up  the  affairs  of  the 
society,  and  died  there  October  10,  1834.  During  his 
lifetime  he  published  a number  of  works  on  entomology 
and  conchology. 

SAYCE,  Archibald  Henry,  born  near  Bristol, 
England,  September  25,  1846.  He  became  scholar  of 
Queen’s  College,  Oxford,  in  1865,  first  class  in  modera 


SCA-SCH 


6788 

tions  in  1866,  was  first  class  in  the  final  classical  schools 
in  1868,  was  elected  a fellow  of  his  college  in  1869, 
tutor  in  1870,  and  since  then  senior  tutor.  He  was 
ordained  deacon  in  1870,  and  priest  in  1871.  He  be- 
came deputy-professor  of  comparative  philology  in 
1876;  an  elector  to  the  chair  of  Celtic  in  the  same  year, 
and  public  examiner  in  the  school  of  theology  in  1877. 
He  has  been  a member  of  the  Old  Testament  Revision 
Committee  since  1874,  and  received  an  honorary  LL.D. 
degree  at  Dublin  in  1881. 

SCANNELL,  Richard,  a Roman  Catholic  bishop, 
was  born  in  county  Cork,  Ireland,  May  12,  1844.  He 
studied  at  Middleton,  Cork,  and  entered  the  Foreign 
Mission  College  of  All  Hallows,  Dublin.  He  came  to 
the  United  States  in  1871,  shortly  after  being  ordained 
apriest.  He  organized  the  congregation  of  St.  Joseph’s, 
West  Nashville,  and  on  the  creation  of  the  diocese  of 
Concordia,  Kan. , he  was  elected  bishop  and  consecrated 
November  30,  1887. 

SCARBOROUGH,  John,  was  born  in  Castlewellan, 
in  the  north  of  Ireland,  April  25,  1831.  He  came  to 
the  United  States  in  1840,  and  received  his  early  edu- 
cation in  Lansingburg,  N.  Y.,  graduating  from  Trinity 
in  1854.  He  studied  theology,  was  ordained  deacon  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  church  in  1857,  and  was 
elected  bishop  of  New  Jersey,  being  consecrated  in  St. 
Mary’s  church,  Burlington,  N.  J.,  February  2,  1875. 

SCHAFF,  Philip,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Chur, 
Switzerland,  January  1,  1819.  He  was  educated  at 
Chur,  Stuttgart,  Tubingen,  Halle  and  Berlin.  From 
1842  to  1844  he  lectured  in  the  University  of  Berlin  on 
exegesis  and  church  history.  In  1844  he  came  to 
America,  where  he  became  professor  of  theology  in  the 
Lutheran  Seminary  of  Mercersburg,  Penn.  (1844-63). 
He  removed  to  New  York  in  1863;  was  secretary  of 
the  New  York  Sabbath  Committee,  1864-69;  and  lec- 
turer at  the  theological  seminaries  in  Andover,  Hart- 
ford, and  New  York.  In  1871  he  became  professor  of 
church  history  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Amer- 
ican branch  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  and  was  sent 
three  times  (1869,  1872,  1873)  to  Europe  to  arrange  for 
the  general  conference  which  was  held  in  New  York  in 
October,  1873.  He  was  a member  of  many  historical 
and  literary  societies,  and  president  of  the  American 
Bible  Revision  Committee,  He  died  October  20,  1893. 

SCHARF,  Sir  George,  RS.A.,  bom  December  16, 
1820  ; was  educated  at  London  University  school,  and, 
having  gained  medals  at  the  Society  of  Arts,  was  ad- 
mitted a student  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1838.  His 
first  published  work  was  a series  of  etchings,  entitled 
Scenic  Effects , illustrating  the  Shakspearean  and  class- 
ical revivals  by  Macready,  when  manager  of  Covent 
Garden  theater  in  1838-39.  He  was  elected  F.S.  A.  in 
1852,  and  corresponding  member  of  the  Archaeological 
Institute  of  Rome  in  1858.  He  delivered  a course  of 
lectures  on  Italian  art  at  the  Royal  Institution,  and  was 
appointed  art  secretary  at  the  Manchester  exhibition  of 
1857,  and  in  the  same  year  secretary  and  keeper  or  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery.  Died  April  19,  1895. 

SCHENCK,  Robert  Cumming,  diplomatist,  was 
born  in  Franklin,  Ohio,  October  4,  1809.  He  was 
graduated  at  Miami  University  in  1827.  He  studied 
law  with  Thomas  Corwin  and  practiced  in  Dayton, 
Ohio.  He  served  three  terms  in  Congress  and  was 
invariably  on  some  important  committee.  His  first 
diplomatic  mission  was  to  Brazil,  where  he  was  sent  in 
1857.  He,  in  connection  with  John  S.  Pendleton, 
made  some  important  treaties  of  friendship  and  com- 
merce with  the  Argentine  Republic.  Returning  home, 
Mr.  Schenck  devoted  his  time  to  the  railroad  business 
*antil  the  war  broke  out,  when  he  received  the  first 


appointment  of  brigadier-general  from  President  Lin. 
coin,  his  commission  being  dated  May  17,  1861.  He 
was  wounded  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and  in 
1862  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  He 
was  again  sent  to  Congress  in  1866,  and  in  1870  he  was 
appointed  minister  to  Great  Britain.  General  Schenck’s 
name  is  well  known  in  connection  with  the  Emma  silver 
mine,  in  which  he  was  a director,  and  the  failure  or 
which  caused  him  to  resign  his  post  and  return  to  the 
United  States,  resuming  law  practice  in  Washington, 
D.  C.,  which  he  continued  until  his  death,  March  23, 
1890. 

SCHERER,  Edmond  Henri  Adolphe,  French 
critic  and  senator,  was  born  in  Paris,  April  8,  1815,  and 
partly  educated  at  the  College  Bourbon ; he  then  spent 
two  years  in  England,  and  afterward  went  to  Strasburg, 
where  he  studied  theology.  In  1843  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  exegesis  at  the  ficole  Evangelique  at  Geneva, 
at  the  same  time  editing  a journal,  The  Reformation  in 
the  XIXth  Century.  In  1850  he  gave  up  the  professor- 
ship, and  from  that  time  became  one  of  the  chief  leaders 
of  the  liberal  movement  in  Protestant  theology.  In 
1870  began  his  political  career.  At  Versailles  he  was 
elected  a member  of  the  municipal  council,  and  ren- 
dered signal  service  throughout  the  difficulties  of  the 
war.  In  1871  he  was  elected  to  the  national  assembly 
for  the  department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  and  became  a 
steady  supporter  of  the  republican  government.  In  1875 
he  was  elected  senator.  For  many  years  M.  Scherer  was 
one  of  the  principal  writers  on  the  Temps , only  giving 
up  his  connection  with  the  paper  for  a short  time  in 
1879.  He  was  a frequent  contributor  to  the  Revue  de 
Theologie  et  de  Philosophie  Chretienne,  and  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  Bibliotheque  Universelle  of  Geneva.  In 
i860  he  published  a collection  of  the  articles  that  had 
appeared,  under  the  title  of  Melanges  de  Critique  Re- 
ligieuse — a book  that  made  a considerable  impression. 
Scherer  died  at  Paris,  March  16,  1889. 

SCHERZER,  Karl  von,  a German  explorer,  was 
born  in  Vienna,  Austria,  May  1,  1821.  Inheriting  an 
independent  fortune  and  fond  of  travel,  he  gratified  his 
taste  in  this  direction  to  an  unlimited  degree.  Being  an 
active  participant  in  the  social  and  economical  reforms 
under  discussion  in  the  empire  in  1848,  he  was  exiled, 
and  made  his  home  in  Italy.  There  he  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Dr.  Moritz  Wagner,  and  the  latter  devel- 
oped the  scheme  of  exploring  North  America.  They 
spent  the  year  1852  visiting  the  principal  States,  Central 
America,  and  the  West  Indies.  In  1855,  through  the 
influence  of  Archduke  Maximilian,  afterward  emperor 
of  Mexico,  an  expedition  was  fitted  out  by  the  Austrian 
government  for  a voyage  around  the  world,  and  Scherze* 
was  placed  in  charge.  The  voyage  was  made  in  the 
interest  of  science  and  was  fruitful  in  results.  be- 

came, on  his  return  in  1859,  a councilor  of  thr  board  of 
trade,  and  held  an  office  in  the  bureau  of  roreign  rela- 
tions, and  was  intrusted  with  the  work  &.  compiling  the 
commercial  statistics  of  the  empire.  F or  this  service  he 
was  given  letters  of  nobility,  and  in  1L69  took  command 
of  an  expedition  to  explore  Easterr.  Asia.  He  was 
afterward  made  consul  general  in  several  places  for  the 
Austrian  government.  He  has  written  many  works 
descriptive  of  his  travels. 

SCHILLING,  Johann,  a German  sculptor,  was 
born  at  Mittweida,  in  Saxony,  June  23,  1828.  After 
studying  with  Rietschel  and  Hanel  he  made  his  d£butas 
a sculptor,  in  1851,  with  a beautiful  group — Amor  and 
Psyche.  Working  then  at  Berlin  with  Drake  he  pro- 
duced a pair  of  relief  medallions — Jupiter  and  Venus — 
which  procured  him  a traveling  scholarship;  and  the 
result  of  the  two  years’  residence  in  Italy  which  he  was 
thus  enabled  to  spend,  were  his  Wounded  Achilles  and 


S C H 


his  Centaur  and  Venus.  Returning  to  Dresden,  he 
turned  out  in  rapid  succession  a variety  of  high  produc- 
tions; and  undertook  the  execution  of  the  city  of  Spiers 
figure  for  the  Luther  monument  at  Worms.  Equal  ad- 
miration was  bestowed  on  his  Four  Seasons  on  the 
Briihl  Terrace  at  Dresden,  his  Schiller  statue  at  Vienna, 
his  Maximilian  statue  at  Trieste,  and  his  War  Memorial 
at  Hamburg,  which  were  all  surpassed  and  crowned  by 
the  Grand  National  Monument , on  the  edge  of  the 
Niederwald,  overlooking  the  Rhine.  This  was  unveiled 
by  the  Emperor  William,  September  28,  1883. 

SCHLEY,  Winfield  Scott,  a naval  officer,  was 
born  in  Frederick  county,  Md.,  October  9,  1839.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  Naval  Academy  and  served  on  the 
frigate  Niagara.  On  July  16,  1862, he  was  made  a lieuten- 
ant, and  from  that  time  on  he  alternated  between  active 
service  in  different  parts  of  the  world  and  as  instructor 
at  the  Naval  Academy.  In  1874  he  was  promoted  to 
commander,  and  in  1888  to  captain. 

SCHLIEMANN,  Heinrich,  F.S.A.,  was  born  at 
Ankershagen  in  Mecklenburg,  in  1822.  He  engaged 
in  trade,  and,  having  amassed  a fortune,  he  began  his 
archaeological  investigations  and  excavations  in  the 
East.  In  1874  he  published  Troy  and  its  Remains , 
which  contains  a full  account  of  the  researches  and  dis- 
coveries made  by  him  at  Hissarlik,  the  site  of  ancient 
Troy,  and  in  the  Trojan  plain.  In  February,  1874,  he 
obtained  permission  from  the  Greek  Government  to 
excavate  Mycenae,  where,  in  1877,  he  discovered  the 
five  royal  tombs  which  local  tradition  pointed  out  to 
Pausanias  as  those  of  Agamemnon  and  his  companions, 
who  were  murdered  by  ^Egisthus.  In  England  Doctor 
Schliemann  met  with  a most  flattering  reception.  He 
was  elected  an  honorary  member  of  the  Grocers’  Com- 
pany, a fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  a member 
of  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects,  and  of  the 
Archaeological  Institute.  Many  of  the  antiquities  discov- 
ered by  Doctor  Schliemann  at  Hissarlik  were  exhibited 
at  the  South  Kensington  Museum  at  the  close  of  1877, 
and  about  the  same  time  there  appeared  in  English, 
Mycence;  a Narrative  of  Researches  and  Discoveries 
at  Mycence  and  Tiryns , by  Dr.  Henry  Schliemann, 
the  Preface  by  the  Right  Hon.  W.  E.  Gladstone, 
M.P.  Doctor  Schliemann  built  a house  in  Athens  and 
continued  his  excavations  and  researches  for  many 
years.  He  died  December  27,  1890,  leaving  several 
unfinished  works. 

SCHMIDT,  Ernst,  M.D.,  was  born  in  1830  at 
Ebern,  near  Bamberg  in  Bavaria.  He  graduated  at 
the  Wurzburg  School  of  Medicine  during  1850,  and  com- 
pleted his  medical  education  in  Prague,  Vienna,  and 
Paris.  Until  1857  Doctor  Schmidt  was  the  assistant 
of  Bamberger,  Marcus,  and  Seauzoni,  eminent  German 
surgeons,  but  in  this  year  he  came  to  America,  and  lo- 
cated in  Chicago.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  he 
entered  the  service  as  surgeon  of  the  2d  Missouri  regi- 
ment, afterward  being  assigned  to  the  medical  superin- 
tendency of  the  St.  Louis  military  hospital.  He  re- 
signed the  position,  however,  and  returned  to  Chicago, 
where  he  was  elected  coroner  of  Cook  county.  In 
1879  Doctor  Schmidt  was  the  Socialist  candidate  for 
mayor  of  Chicago,  but  was  defeated. 

SCHMIDT,  Heinrich  Julian,  a German  critic, 
was  born  at  Marienwerder,  March  7,  1818.  He  was 
educated  at  Konigsberg,  and,  after  giving  a short  time 
to  journalism  and  teaching,  he  began  to  devote  himself 
to  literature.  He  wrote  the  History  of  Ro7nance,  His- 
tory of  Intellectual  Life  in  Germany , and  many  other 
works.  He  died  March  27,  1886. 

SCHMITZ,  Leonhard,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.E., 
was  born  at  Eupen,  near  Aix-la  Chapelle,  March  6, 
1807;  studied  history  and  philology  at  the  University  of 


6789 

Bonn  under  Niebuhr,  Welcker,  and  others,  from  1828  till 
1832,  and  afterward  taught  with  success  at  the  gymna- 
sium of  Bonn.  In  1836  he  removed  to  England,  and 
occupied  himself  chiefly  with  writing  on  classical,  his- 
torical, and  educational  subjects.  He  died  in  1890. 

SCHNEIDER,  Hortense  Catherine,  a French 
actress,  born  at  Bordeaux  about  1835;  displayed  while 
very  young  an  aptitude  for  the  stage,  and  at  the  age  of 
fifteen  played  with  applause  in  Michel  et  Christine  at 
the  Athenee  of  her  native  city.  She  met  with  consider- 
able success,  which  was  increased  by  her  performances 
at  the  Theatre  du  Palais  Royal,  where  she  made  her 
first  appearance,  August  5,  1858.  Mile.  Schneider 
continued  her  professional  career  until  in  1869,  when 
she  retired.  She  died  in  1889. 

SCHNITZLER,  Eduard  (Emin  Pasha),  was  an 
Austrian,  and  was  born  at  Oppeln  in  1840.  He 
studied  medicine  at  Breslau,  Berlin,  and  Konigsberg, 
and  in  1868  was  appointed  a surgeon  in  the  Turkish 
army.  He  was  sent  to  Egypt,  and  became  surgeon- 
general  in  the  army  of  General  Gordon,  then  in  com- 
mand of  the  British  forces  in  Africa.  In  1878  he  was 
appointed  bey  of  the  equatorial  provinces  and  was  after- 
ward given  the  title  of  pasha.  Within  three  years  he 
drove  the  slave  traders  out  of  his  dominions,  and  the 
provinces  which  up  to  that  time  had  cost  the  govern- 
ment $200,000,  were  made  not  only  self-supporting, 
but  were  able  to  send  to  the  Cairo  government  a 
surplus  of  $40,000  a year  after  paying  all  expenses 
and  completing  extensive  public  works.  His  system 
of  government  was  kind  but  firm,  and  he  soon  ob- 
tained the  full  confidence  of  his  people.  He  estab- 
lished training  stations  at  all  convenient  points  in  the 
provinces;  agriculture  was  developed,  and  civilization 
and  its  beneficial  results  were  to  be  seen  on  all  sides. 
The  natives  were  taught  how  to  make  boots  and  wagons, 
while  cotton,  rice,  coffee,  indigo,  and  tobacco  were 
raised  with  success.  The  Mahdi  could  but  look  with 
discontent  upon  the  loss  of  so  vast  a territory  and  so 
tnany  people;  and  the  slave  traders  could  not  rest  easy 
while  being  robbed  of  their  prey.  The  slave  traders 
had  been  General  Gordon’s  worst  enemies,  and  they 
now  became  the  supporters  of  the  Mahdi  in  his 
attempts  to  drive  Emm  Pasha  from  the  provinces. 
His  headquarters  had  been  fixed  at  Wadelai  on  Lake 
Albert  Nyanza.  He  formed  friendly  relations  with  the 
kings  of  Uganda  and  Unjoro,  and  the  latter  remained 
faithful,  but  the  throne  of  the  former  obtained  a new 
king  who  was  opposed  to  the  missionary  work  being 
done  in  the  provinces,  and  who  was  under  the  influence 
of  the  Arab  slave-traders,  and  was  able  to  make  the  situ- 
ation of  the  pasha  very  uncomfortable.  Emin  became 
actually  imprisoned  in  his  own  country,  and  in  1882  was 
entirely  cut  off  from  the  outside  world.  So  closely  was 
he  blockaded  that  it  was  1886  before  he  succeeded  in 
sending  out  word  of  his  situation,  which  he  did  finally 
by  the  aid  of  negro  runners.  At  this  time  he  had  ten 
fortified  stations  along  the  Nile,  while  his  command 
included  1,500  soldiers,  ten  Egyptian  and  fifteen  negro 
officers,  and  twenty  Coptic  officials.  He  knew  he  could 
make  his  escape  by  cutting  his  way  through  his 
besiegers,  but  he  at  no  time  thought  of  doing  such  a 
thing,  as  it  would  leave  the  women  and  children  to  be- 
come the  victims  of  the  slavers.  Emin  Pasha,  notwith- 
standing the  peril  of  his  position,  seems  to  have  taken 
things  very  coolly;  he  kept  the  people  busy  with  their 
manufactures  and  agricultural  duties,  keeping  his  forces 
mainly  toward  the  Upper  Nile,  his  natural  line  of  re- 
treat. The  first  absolutely  reliable  information  regard- 
ing Emin’s  situation  was  received  in  England,  through 
Doctor  Junker,  a Russian  explorer,  who  made  his  way 
out  of  the  pasha’s  dominions,  encountering  many  dangers. 


S C H 


6790 

but  finally  reaching  England.  It  was  then  learned  that 
the  pasha  was  losing  one  after  another  of  his  outlying 
stations,  and  at  the  time  Doctor  Junker  left  him  he  was 
at  Wadelai.  Doctor  Junker’s  report  created  intense  ex- 
citement in  England  and  Germany,  and  in  Egypt.  No 
steps  were  taken,  however,  toward  a relief  expedition 
until  a Mr.  Mackinnon,  of  Glasgow,  and  some  other 
Scotchmen,  raised  a fund  of  $100,000  and  sent  for 
Henry  M.  Stanley  to  lead  an  expedition.  Stanley  was 
at  the  time  on  a lecture  tour  in  the  United  States,  but 
he  at  once  canceled  all  engagements  and  started  for 
England,  and  on  February  3,  1887,  sailed  for  Zanzibar 
by  way  of  the  Suez  canal.  The  particulars  of  this  ex- 
pedition will  be  found  under  Stanley’s  name  in  this 
volume.  That  after  untold  hardships  and  suffering  he 
finally  reached  Emin  Pasha,  is  well  known,  and  also 
that  he  guarded  him  safe  from  Wadelai  to  Zanzibar, 
which  point  they  reached  on  December  4,  1889.  Emin 
Pasha  entered  the  service  of  the  German  East  Africa 
company  and  in  April,  1890,  departed  for  the  interior 
at  the  head  of  a large  force,  under  German  officers, 
with  military  stores  and  goods  for  trading  to  establish 
stations  and  reopen  the  caravan  routes  that  had  been 
closed  during  the  rebellion  of  the  coast  tribes.  He 
established  stations  at  Bukoba  and  Karangwe.  It  was 
ascertained  in  1893  that  he  was  killed  in  an  engage- 
ment with  the  Arabs,  near  Nyangwe,  in  the  fall  of 
1892,  and  eaten  by  cannibals. 

SCHOFIELD,  John  McAllister,  was  born  in 
Chautauqua  county,  N,  Y.,  September  29,  1831.  He 
graduated  at  the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point  in 
1853;  remained  there  for  five  years  as  instructor  in 
natural  philosophy;  and  from  185810  1861  was  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy  at  Washington  University, 
St.  Louis,  Mo.  Soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the  ; Civil 
war  he  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers, 
and  served  with  credit  in  Missouri  and  Kansas.  In 
1864  he  joined  the  army  of  General  Sherman,  and  bore 
a prominent  part  in  all  its  operations  until  the  close  of 
the  war.  In  1864  he  was  made  brigadier-general  and 
in  1869  major-general  in  the  regular  army.  In  1867 
he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  military  district  of 
Virginia.  In  May,  1868,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of 
war;  but  he  resigned  in  March,  1869,  and  was  assigned 
to  the  command  of  the  department  of  Missouri,  and  in 
1870  to  that  of  the  Pacific.  From  1876  to  1881  he  was 
superintendent  of  the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point, 
commanded  the  department  of  the  Pacific,  1882-86,  and 
the  division  of  the  Atlantic,  1886  to  April  5,  1888,  when, 
on  General  Sheridan’s  death  he  succeeded  him  in 
the  command  of  the  United  States  army.  Early  in 
1895  Congress  revived  the  grade  of  lieutenant-gen- 
eral and  he  was  nominated  to  that  rank  by  President 
Cleveland,  February  6. 

SCHOLTEN,  Johannes  Hendrik,  born  in  Vlen- 
ten,  August  17,  1811,  was  professor  of  theology  at 
Leyden,  1843,  and  regarded  as  the  father  of  the  Leyden 
school  of  theology.  He  died  April  10,  1885. 

SCHOTT,  Wilhelm,  orientalist,  born  at  Mainz, 
Germany,  September  3,  1802,  published  his  first  work, 
An  Essay  on  the  Tartar  Languages,  in  1836  and  many 
works  on  the  Siamese,  Japanese,  Chinese  and  other 
eastern  languages  and  literatures.  He  was  professor- 
extraordinary  in  the  University  of  Berlin  for  many 
years.  He  died  January  21,  1889. 

SCHREINER,  Olive,  born  about  1863,  in  Cape 
Town,  the  daughter  of  a German  Lutheran  clergyman, 
became  widely  known  in  1883  by  her  Story  of  an  Afri- 
can Farm,  a powerful,  spiritual  autobiography,  in  the 
form  of  a novel.  She  also  published  Dreams  (1891) 
and  Dream  Life  and  Real  Life  (1893),  and  married  Mr, 
Cfinwright,  a colonist,  February  25,  1894. 


SCHUMANN,  Madame  Clara  {nee  Wieck),  was 
born  September  13,  1819,  at  Leipsic,  and  very  early  dis- 
played remarkable  musical  gifts.  At  twelve  she  appeared 
at  one  of  the  “ Gewandhaus  ” concerts  at  Leipsic,  and 
from  that  time  traveled  over  Europe,  creating  a great 
sensation  in  Vienna,  Berlin,  and  Paris.  In  1837  she 
became  engaged  to  the  composer,  Robert  Schumann,  and 
married  him  in  1840.  On  the  death  of  her  husband,  in 
1856,  she  removed  with  her  children  to  Berlin,  and  has 
since  resided  at  Wiesbaden  and  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
Madame  Schumann,  besides  teaching  at  the  Conserva- 
toire of  Frankfort,  has  frequently  played  in  most  of  the 
chief  cities  of  Europe,  the  works  of  her  husband  being 
generally  the  favorites  in  her  repertoire.  In  1886  she 
visited  London  and  played  to  crowded  audiences  in  St. 
James’  Hall.  Died  May  20,  1896. 

SCHURZ,  Carl,  was  born  at  Liblar,  near  Cologne, 
Germany,  March  2,  1829.  In  1848  he  became  associated 
with  Gottfried  Kinkel  in  editing  a revolutionaryjournal, 
and  subsequently  he  participated  in  the  insurrectionary 
movement  in  South  Germany.  At  the  surrender  of  the 
fortress  of  Rastadt,  he  escaped  into  Switzerland, 
whence  in  May,  1850,  he  returned  secretly  to  Germany 
and  rescued  Kinkel.  The  two  escaped  to  Leith,  Scot- 
land. In  1852  Schurz  came  to  the  United  States,  re- 
mained in  Philadelphia  for  two  years,  and  then  settled 
in  Wisconsin.  The  following  year  he  was  nominated 
by  the  Republicans  for  lieutenant-governor  of  the  State, 
but  was  defeated.  In  1861  he  was  appointed  minister 
to  Spain,  where  he  remained  till  December,  1861;  re- 
turning to  the  United  States,  he  entered  the  army,  and 
in  the  May  following  was  appointed  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers.  He  took  part  in  the  second  battle  of 
Bull  Run,  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general, 
and  commanded  a division  in  the  battles  of  Chancellors- 
ville  and  Gettysburg.  In  the  autumn  of  1863  he  went 
to  Tennessee,  and  took  part  in  several  battles,  but 
resigned  in  1865.  In  1866  he  removed  to  Detroit, 
Mich.,  where  he  founded  and  edited  for  some  time  the 
Detroit  Post.  In  1868  he  removed  to  St.  Louis,  and 
in  1869  was  elected  United  States  senator  from  Mis- 
souri. In  the  presidential  canvass  of  1872  he  united 
with  the  “ Liberals,”  who  nominated  Mr.  Greeley  for 
president,  in  opposition  to  General  Grant;  but  on  the 
defeat  of  Mr.  Greeley  he  returned  to  the  regular  Repub- 
lican party;  and  in  1876  took  an  active  part  in  the 
canvass  of  Mr.  Hayes,  by  whom  he  was,  in  1877,  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  the  interior.  At  the  expiration  of 
his  term,  1881,  he  removed  to  New  York,  and  was  the 
editor  of  the  Evening  Post  until  August,  1883.  Since 
then  he  has  been  engaged  in  literary  pursuits.  In  1884 
he  took  a leading  part  in  opposing  the  election  of  James 
G.  Blaine  and  advocating  that  of  Grover  Cleveland. 

SCHUVALOFF,  Count  Peter,  was  born  in  Russia 
in  1828.  He  entered  the  military  service,  and  was  ad- 
vanced subsequently  to  the  post  of  chief  of  the  secret  police. 
His  appointment  as  ambassador  to  England  was  looked 
upon  by  some  in  Russia  as  a kind  of  exile.  Some  believed 
that  he  was  sent  to  England  owing  to  Prince  Gortscha- 
koff ’s  jealousy,  the  prince  looking  upon  him  as  his  rival 
and  aspirant  for  the  post  of  chancellor.  Other  reasons 
of  a more  private  nature  were  likewise  assigned  for  his 
expatriation;  but  on  the  other  hand  it  was  said  that  the 
czar  had  chosen  him  for  his  representative  in  England 
on  account  of  the  confidence  he  reposed  in  the  count’s 
ability,  and  his  devotion  to  the  empire.  On  the  occa- 
sion of  his  retiring  from  his  post  in  London  (November, 
1879),  the  czar  appointed  him  a knight  of  the  St.  Wlad- 
imir  Order,  first  class.  Count  Schuvaloff  died  March 
22,  1889. 

SCHUYLER,  Eugene,  a diplomatist,  was  born  in 

Ithaca*  N-  Y.»  February  36,  1840,  and  graduated  at 


S C H — S C L 


Vale  in  1859,  and  later  at  the  Columbian  Law  School. 
He  was  given  a consulship  at  Moscow,  and  subse- 
quently was  made  secretary  of  legation  at  St.  Peters- 
burg. Schuyler  held  the  same  position  at  Constanti- 
nople in  1876,  and  was  ordered  to  investigate  the 
Turkish  massacres  in  Bulgaria.  He  served  in  various 
places,  and  in  1884  was  appointed  minister  resident  and 
consul-general  to  Greece,  Servia,  and  Roumania.  After 
leaving  the  last  post  Mr.  Schuyler  returned  home  and 
engaged  in  literary  work.  Williams  College  conferred 
on  him  the  degree  of  LL.D.  in  1882,  and  Yale  did  the 
same  in  1885.  He  was  a contributor  to  various  maga- 
zines and  reviews,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  Mr. 
Schuyler  died  July  18,  1890. 

SCHUYLER,  Peter,  was  the  first  mayor  of  Albany, 
N.  Y.  He  was  born  in  Albany,  September  17,  1657, 
and  died  there  February  19,  1724.  In  1667  he  was 
captain  of  a militia  company,  and  afterward  was  made 
a colonel.  Colonel  Schuyler  was  conspicuous  for  his 
influence  with  the  Indians.  In  all  the  negotiations  with 
them  he  was  most  successful,  and  gained  many  advan- 
tages for  the  whites.  Albany  was  incorporated  as  a city 
July  22,  1688,  and  Peter  Schuyler  became  mayor. 

SCHUYLER,  Philip  John,  American  general,  was 
born  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  November  20,  1733.  He  was 
of  an  old  and  wealthy  Dutch  family,  and  in  early  man- 
hood became  a leader  in  the  affairs  of  the  colony  of 
New  York.  He  reached  the  rank  of  major  in  the 
French  and  Indian  war,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
revolutionary  struggle  was  made  one  of  the  American 
major-generals.  He  took  part  in  the  expedition  against 
Canada  in  1775,  but  ill-health  compelled  him  to  retire. 
He  took  the  leading  part  in  preparing  to  meet  Bur- 
goyne’s  expedition  in  1778;  but  troops  had  to  be  called 
in  from  other  States,  and  he  was  subjected  to  jealousies 
which  thwarted  him  at  every  step.  Nevertheless,  his 
arrangements  were  so  complete  that  he  had  really  check- 
mated Burgoyne  before  congress  superseded  him  in  the 
command  by  the  appointment  of  Gates,  who  reaped 
all  the  glory  which  should  have  accrued  to  Schuyler. 
Retiring  from  the  army,  he  served  for  three  years  in 
the  Continental  congress,  and  in  the  United  States 
senate,  1789-91,  and  1797-98.  He  died  at  Albany, 
November  18,  1804. 

SCHWANN,  Theodore,  M.  D.,  a German  physi- 
ologist, was  born  at  Neuss,  in  the  Rhine  Provinces, 
December  7>  1810.  He  was  credited  with  being  a 
brilliant  scholar  at  Bonn,  Berlin,  and  Wurzburg,  taking 
the  degree  of  M.D.,  and  passing  the  State  examination 
in  1824.  Doctor  Schwann  spent  forty  years  in  impor- 
tant work  in  connection  with  anatomy,  and  made  some 
very  valuable  discoveries,  one  of  them  being  that  of  the 
presence  of  pepsin  in  the  gastric  juice.  Doctor  Schwann 
died  at  Cologne,  January  11,  1882. 

SCHWARTZ,  Wilhelm,  a German  author,  was 
born  in  Berlin,  September  4,  1821.  He  was  educated 
at  Leipsic,  and  has  published  some  works  on  mythology 
and  popular  superstitions. 

SCH  WARZENBERG,  Cardinal  Frederick  von, 
prince  bishop  of  Prague,  a member  of  the  princely 
house  bearing  his  name,  was  born  April  6,  1809.  Hav- 
ing completed  his  education  and  taken  holy  orders,  the 

rince  became,  in  1836,  bishop  of  Salzburg.  In  1842 

e was  made  a cardinal,  and  in  1849  was  translated  as 
prince  bishop  of  Prague.  At  the  oecumenical  council 
of  the  Vatican  (1869-70)  the  cardinal  belonged  to  the 
“ Inopportunist  ” party,  but  afterward  unreservedly 
accepted  the  dogma  of  the  infallibility  of  the  sovereign 
pontiff.  He  died  March  2 7, 1885. 

SCHWATKA,  Frederick,  explorer,  was  born  at 
Galena,  111.,  September  29,  1849.  He  graduated  from 
the  United  States  military  academy  at  West  Point  in 


6791 

1871,  subsequently  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1875.  He  then  began  the  study  of  medi- 
cine, and  received  his  degree  at  New  York  in  1876.  In 
June,  1878,  he  sailed  to  the  Arctic  regions,  in  command 
of  the  Franklin  search  party,  which  returned  in  Sep- 
tember, 1880,  having  discovered  and  buried  many  of 
the  skeletons  of  Sir  John  Franklin’s  lost  party,  and 
cleared  up  much  of  the  mystery  that  had  shrouded  their 
fate.  He  explored  the  course  of  the  Yukon  river, 
Alaska,  1884,  resigned  from  the  army,  1885,  conducted 
an  exploring  expedition  to  Mexico,  1889,  and  brought 
back  with  him  a dozen  cave  dwellers  for  exhibition 
purposes,  the  result  not  being  financially  successful. 
He  published  Along  Alaska's  Great  River,  Nimrod 
of  the  North , The  Franklin  Search  and  other  works. 
He  died  November  2,  1892. 

SCHWEINFURTH,  Georg  August,  was  born 
at  Riga,  Russia,  September  29,  1836.  Receiving  a 
thorough  education,  he  engaged  in  botanical  expeditions 
in  the  Upper  Nile  regions  of  Africa.  He  has  written 
several  works  containing  the  result  of  his  researches. 

SCH  WEINITZ,  Edmund  Alexander  de,  was  born 
in  Bethlehem,  Penn.,  March  20,  1825.  He  began  his 
education  at  Nazareth,  and  later  went  to  Berlin,  where 
he  attended  the  university.  In  1867  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Moravian  theological  school  at  Bethlehem, 
and  was  consecrated  bishop  of  the  Moravian  church  in 
1870.  He  originated  and  for  ten  years  edited  The 
Moravian,  the  weekly  journal  of  his  church,  until  1884, 
when  he  became  president  of  the  theological  seminary. 
He  wrote  a number  of  works,  the  chief  being  The 
Moravian  Manual.  He  died  December  18,  1887. 

SCLATER,  Philip  Lutley,  M.A.,  born  at  Hod- 
dington  House,  Hants,  England,  in  1829,  was  educated 
at  Winchester  school,  and  at  the  age  of  sixteen  was  elect- 
ed scholar  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
graduated  in  1849,  taking  a first  class  in  mathematics. 
He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln’s  Inn  in  1855,  and 
went  the  western  circuit  for  several  years ; became 
secretary  to  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  in  1859, 
was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1861,  and  was  made  doctor 
philosophise  by  the  University  of  Bonn  ( honoris  causa) 
in  i860.  In  1875  Mr.  Sclater  was  appointed  private 
secretary  to  his  brother,  the  Right  Hon.  G.  Sclater- 
Booth,  president  of  the  local  government  board,  but 
resigned  that  office  in  1877.  In  the  same  year  he  be- 
came one  of  the  general  secretaries  to  the  British  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  and  continued 
to  act  in  that  capacitv  until  1882. 

SCLATER-BOOTH,  George,  M.P.,  F.R.S. , was 
born  in  London  in  1826.  From  Winchester  school, 
where  he  obtained  the  gold  medal  for  Latin  verse,  he 
proceeded  to  Balliol  College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1847).  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  of  the  Inner  Temple  in  1851.  In 
1857  he  was  elected  M.P.  for  North  Hampshire,  which 
constituency  he  continued  to  represent  in  the  Conserva- 
tive interest  until  1887.  As  secretary  of  the  poor  law 
board  in  1867,  he  represented  that  department  in  the 
lower  house.  On  the  resignation  of  Lord  Derby  in 
February,  1868,  Mr.  Sclater-Booth  was  appointed  to 
the  secretaryship  of  the  treasury,  in  the  room  of  Mr. 
Hunt,  who  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  During 
Mr.  Gladstone’s  administration  he  served  as  chairman 
of  the  committee  on  public  accounts.  On  the  formation 
of  Mr.  Disraeli’s  government,  in  1874,  he  was  sworn  in 
as  a privy  councilor,  and  appointed  to  the  office  of  pres- 
ident of  the  local  government  board,  which  he  held  till 
the  Conservatives  resigned  in  April,  1880.  During  the 
period  of  Mr.  Gladstone’s  administration,  1880-85, 
Mr.  Sclater-Booth  acted  as  chairman  of  the  grand 
committees.  In  1887  he  was  created  a peer  with  the 
title  of  Baron  Basing.  He  died  October  23,  1894, 


S C O — s c u 


6792 


SCOTT,  Benjamin,  F.R.A.S.,  chamberlain  of  Lon- 
don, was  born  in  1814,  and,  having  entered  the  cham- 
berlain’s office,  attained  the  post  of  chief  clerk  in  1842, 
but  resigned  that  and  other  offices  in  1853.  He  founded 
the  Bank  of  London,  to  which  he  was  secretary  until 
the  death  of  Sir  John  Key,  in  1858,  when  he  was  unani- 
mously elected  chamberlain.  He  died  Jan.  17,  1892. 

SCOTT,  Charles  Broderick,  D.D.,born  at  Dub- 
lin, Ireland,  January  18,  1825,  was  educated  at  Eton, 
and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated 
B.A.  in  1848  as  senior  classic  and  22d  wrangler.  He 
became  head  master  of  Westminster  School  in  1855; 
a prebendary  of  St.  Paul’s  in  1874;  and  an  honorary 
student  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1875.  Doctor 
Scott  resigned  the  head-mastership  of  Westminster 
School  in  May,  1883,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  W.  G. 
Rutherford. 

SCOTT,  Clement,  a well-known  literary  man, 
journalist  on  the  permanent  staff  of  the  Morning  Chron- 
icle and  Saturday  Review , which  he  helped  to  start, 
was  born  October  6,  1841,  at  Christ  Church  parsonage, 
Hoxton,  London,  and  educated  at  Marlborough  Col- 
lege, Wiltshire.  He  was  appointed  to- a clerkship  in 
the  war  office  by  Lord  Herbert  of  Lea  in  May,  i860, 
and  retired  on  a pension  in  May,  1879.  He  then  joined 
the  editorial  staff  of  the  Daily  Telegraph , to  which 
paper  he  had  contributed  dramatic  criticisms  and  special 
articles  since  1873. 

SCOTT,  Dred,  born  a slave  in  Missouri  in  1810; 
died  about  1857.  In  1854  his  master,  Doctor  Emerson, 
an  army  surgeon,  took  him  North  and  for  some  years 
he  was  a resident  of  free  States — Illinois  first  and  then 
Wisconsin.  While  North  he  married  and  had  two 
children.  On  being  taken  back  South  he  sued  for  his 
freedom  on  the  ground  that  he  had  lived  in  a free  State. 
Scott  won  his  case  in  St.  Louis,  where  the  suit  was 
brought,  and  his  master  appealed  it  to  the  Supreme 
Court,  where  the  decision  was  reversed.  His  family 
was  then  sold  away  from  him,  and  this  gave  excuse 
for  another  suit  in  the  federal  courts.  Scott  lost 
his  case,  but  made  an  appeal,  and  as  the  affair  had  by 
this  time  created  much  excitement,  many  of  the  promi- 
nent lawyers  of  the  country  volunteered  to  take  part  in 
the  argument.  On  Scott’s  side  were  George  T.  Curtis 
and  Montgomery  Blair,  while  for  the  master  there  ap- 
peared Reverdy  Johnson  and  Henry  S.  Geyer.  The 
case  was  tried  in  1856,  and  the  opinion  of  the  lower 
court  was  confirmed,  but,  as  Justice  Nelson’s  opinion 
was  exceedingly  brief,  Chief  Justice  Taney  was  asked  to 
give  a more  elaborate  one.  This  he  did  on  March  6, 
1857,  and  it  created  intense  interest.  Scott  and  his 
family  passed  by  inheritance  to  Calvin  C.  Chaffee,  and 
on  May  26,  1857,  they  were  given  their  freedom  in  St. 
Louis  by  Taylor  Blow,  to  whom  Mr.  Chaffee  conveyed 
them  for  that  purpose. 

SCOTT,  Julian,  an  artist,  was  born  in  Johnson, 
Lamoille  county,  Vt.,  February  14,1846.  He  entered 
the  Union  army  in  1861,  and  during  his  term  of  service 
made  some  sketches  of  life  in  military  hospitals  which 
attracted  considerable  attention.  In  1863  he  began 
studying  under  Emanuel  Lentze,  and  continued  until 
1868.  His  pictures  were  first  exhibited  at  the  Academy 
of  Design  in  1870. 

SCOTT,  Robert,  D.D.,  derives  his  descent  from 
the  Scotts  of  Harden,  Scotland,  and  was  born  in  1811, 
in  Devonshire,  where  his  father  held  a living.  From 
Shrewsbury  school  he  proceeded  to  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  where  he  obtained  the  Craven  University 
scholarship  in  1830,  a studentship  of  Christ  Church 
the  same  year,  and  the  Ireland  University  scholarship 
three  years  subsequently.  He  graduated  B.  A.  in  1883, 
being  in  the  first  class  in  classics.  He  was  for  some 


years  prebendary  of  Exeter  cathedral.  In  1854  h% 
was  elected,  on  the  death  of  Doctor  Jenkyns,  to  the 
mastership  of  Balliol  College.  In  1861  he  succeeded 
Doctor  Hawk  as  professor  of  the  exegesis  of  Holy- 
Scriptures  at  Oxford;  and  in  1870  he  was  appointed 
dean  of  Rochester.  He  died  December  2,  1887. 

SCOTT,  Robert  Henry,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.> 
born  at  Dublin,  January  28,  1833;  was  educated  at 
Rugby,  and  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he  gradu- 
ated as  first  senior  moderator  in  experimental  physics 
in  1855.  He  was  appointed  lecturer  in  mineralogy  to 
the  Royal  Dublin  Society  in  1862,  and  director  of  the 
meteorological  office  in  1867,  a title  changed  to  “secre- 
tary of  the  meteorological  council”  in  1877. 

SCOTT-SIDDONS,  Mary  Frances,  an  English 
actress,  born  in  1848.  She  made  her  first  appearance  on 
the  stage  at  an  early  age,  and  at  once  established  a 
reputation  for  beauty,  grace,  and  dramatic  abilities. 
She  afterward  made  a professional  tour  through  Europe, 
Australia,  and  the  United  States,  where  she  attracted  fa- 
vorable comment.  She  married  an  officer  in  the  Eng- 
lish navy  named  Scott,  and  of  late  years  has  won  an  en- 
viable reputation  as  a public  reader. 

SCOTT,  Thomas  Alexander,  was  born  in  Lou- 
don, Franklin  county,  Penn.,  December  28,  1824,  and 
died  in  Darby,  Penn., May  21,  1881.  Left  an  orphan  at 
the  age  of  ten,  he  worked  on  alarm  and  served  in  stores, 
attending  a village  school  during  all  spare  time.  In  1850 
he  became  connected  with  the  Pennsylvania  railroad,  and 
in  1858  its  superintendent,  being  elected  vice-president 
in  1859.  He  entered  the  army  at  the  breaking  out  of 
the  rebellion  and  was  appointed  on  Governor  Curtin’s 
staff,  aiding  greatly  in  equipping  volunteers  and 
sending  them  to  the  front.  At  the  request  of  the 
secretary  of  war  he  opened  a new  line  from  Wash- 
ington to  Philadelphia,  and  in  #May,  1861,  he  was 
commissioned  colonel  of  volunteers,  and  on  May 
23d  was  put  in  charge  of  all  government  railway 
and  telegraph  lines.  Colonel  Scott  was  the  first 
assistant  secretary  of  war,  and  was  sent  in  January, 
1862,  to  organize  transportation  in  the  Northwest,  and 
in  March  to  do  the  same  on  the  Western  rivers.  He 
resigned  for  a time,  but  feeling  his  services  were 
needed  he  again  entered  the  government  employment, 
and  aided  greatly  in  the  transportation  of  men  and  supr 
plies  all  through  the  war.  Colonel  Scott  was  mainly 
instrumental  in  making  the  Pennsylvania  system  what 
it  is  to-day,  by  securing  control  of  Western  lines.  He 
became  president  of  the  Union  Pacific,  and  finally  suc- 
ceeded to  the  presidency  of  the  Pennsylvania  railroad. 

SCRIVENER,  Frederick  Henry  Ambrose,  a 
well-known  English  biblical  scholar,  born  September 
29,  1813,  at  Bermondsey,  and  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  aided  in  revising  the  New  Testament 
and  wrote  much  New  Testament  criticism.  He  died 
November  2,  1891. 

SCUDDER,  Horace  E.,  a popular  American 
author,  born  at  Boston,  Oct.  16,  1838  and  educated  at 
Williams  College,  wrote  The  Bodley  Books , George 
Washington , and  other  works,  edited  the  American 
Commonwealth  series  and  in  1890  became  editor  of  the 
Atlantic  Monthly. 

SCUDDER,  Samuel  Hubbard,  born  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  April  13,  1837;  graduated  at  Williams  College, 
1857,  studied  science  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  and  was 
appointed  assistant  to  Professor  Agassiz.  He  was 
afterward  secretary  and  president  of  the  Society  of 
Natural  History  in  Boston,  librarian  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege, and  in  1886  was  employed  by  the  United  States 
as  paleontologist  of  the  geological  survey.  He  is  a 
member  of  many  learned  societies,  the  author  of 
entomological  works,  and  has  been  a frequent  con* 


S E A — S E E 


tributor  of  articles  and  reports  on  the  results  of  his  in- 
vestigations to  societies  and  magazines. 

SEABURY,  Samuel,  Episcopal  bishop,  born  in 
Groton,  Conn.,  November  30,  1729;  died  in  New 
•London,  Conn.,  February  25,  1796.  He  was  graduated 
at  Yale  in  1748,  and  thereafter  studied  theology.  As 
was  the  case  with  most  of  the  Episcopal  clergy,  he  was 
a Royalist,  and  became  obnoxious  to  the  Whigs  by 
his  Farmer's  Letters , reflecting  on  the  Continental 
congress  of  November  and  December,  1774.  At  one 
time  he  was  imprisoned  at  New  Haven  for  six  weeks. 
On  March  25,  1783,  the  Episcopal  ministers  of  Con- 
necticut elected  him  bishop.  Difficulty  stood  in  the 
way  of  his  being  consecrated  by  the  English  bishops, 
and  he  was  privately  consecrated  by  three  Scottish 
bishops  at  Aberdeen,  on  November  14,  1784.  There- 
after he  resided  in  New  London  until  his  death.  He 
was  rector  of  St.  James’  church  and  bishop  of  Con- 
necticut. 

SEARING,  Laura  Redden,  an  American  author, 
weN  known  to  the  literary  world  as  “ Howard  Glyndon,” 
was  born  February  9,  1840,  at  Somerset,  Md.  In  1850 
she  was  attacked  with  spinal  meningitis,  which  left  her 
deaf  and  unable  to  articulate.  Her  parents  subse- 
quently removed  to  St.  Louis,  that  their  daughter  might 
be  treated  for  her  infirmities,  and  while  there  she  be- 
came a contributor  to  the  daily  press.  She  entered  the 
employ  of  the  St.  Louis  Republican  in  i860,  and  later 
became  the  Washington  correspondent  of  that  paper. 
She  visited  Europe  in  1865,  and  remained  abroad  three 
years,  a portion  of  her  time  corresponding  for  the  New 
York  Times.  Upon  her  return  in  1868,  she  was 
employed  by  the  New  York  Mail , and  remained  with 
that  paper  until  her  marriage,  in  1876,  to  E.  W.  Sear- 
ing, since  when  she  has  resided  in  California. 

SEARLE,  Arthur,  born  at  London,  England,  Oc- 
tober 21,  1837;  came  to  the  United  States  at  an  early 
age,  and  in  1856  was  graduated  at  Harvard  Universit). 
He  made  a specialty  of  astronomical  studies,  and,  after 
serving  for  sixteen  years  as  assistant  professor  of  that 
science,  was,  in  1887,  called  to  the  chair  of  astronomy 
at  Harvard.  He  is  a member  of  the  American  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  and  has  furnished  the  results  of  his  in- 
vestigations to  periodicals  and  magazines  published  in 
the  United  States  and  Europe. 

SEARLE,  George  Mary,  was  born  in  England, 
June  27,  1839,  and  became  a graduate  of  Harvard  in 
the  class  of  1857.  From  that  year  until  1866  he  was 
engaged  at  the  Dudley  Observatory,  Harvard  Univer- 
sity, and  in  the  employ  of  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment as  professor  of  astronomy.  During  the  latter 
year  he  studied  theology,  and  in  1871  was  ordained  a 
priest  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  since  which  time 
he  has  been  connected  with  the  Paulist  Seminary,  New 
York. 

SECCHI,  Pietro  Angel,  an  Italian  scientist,  born 
at  Reggionell  Emilia,  July  29,  1818.  He  was  educated 
for  the  church,  and  after  removing  to  the  United  States 
taught  at  Georgetown,  D.  C.  He  was  called  to  take 
charge  of  the  observatory  at  Rome  in  1850,  and  his 
discoveries  and  observations,  subsequently  made,  have 
been  considered  of  the  greatest  importance.  He  died 
February  26,  1878. 

SEDDON,  James  A.,  an  American  lawyer,  is  a 
native  of  Stafford  county,  Va.  He  was  born  July  15, 
1815,  and,  upon  graduating  from  the  law  department  of 
the  University  of  Virginia,  began  the  practice  of  his 
profession  at  Richmond.  He  was  elected  to  congress 
in  1845,  and  reelected  in  1849.  He  was  a delegate 
from  Virginia  to  the  Peace  Congress  which  convened  at 
Washington  in  1861,  and  upon  the  secession  of  his  State 
was  chosen  a member  of  the  Confederate  congress.  He 


6793 

was  afterward  appointed  Confederate  secretary  of  war, 
and  served  from  1862  until  January,  1865.  He  died  in 
Goodrich  county,  Va.,  August  19,  1880. 

SEDDON,  John  Pollard,  was  born  September 
19,  1827,  at  London;  and  educated  at  Bedford  Gram- 
mar School.  He  was  articled  1848-51  to  Professor 
Donaldson,  architect,  and  from  1852  to  1862  was  in 
partnership  with  John  Prichard,  diocesan  architect,  at 
Llandaff.  In  1862  he  settled  in  London,  where  he 
actively  engaged  in  his  profession. 

SEDGWICK,  Amy,  a popular  actress,  was  born  at 
Bristol,  England,  October  27,  1835.  After  having 
passed  through  a training  for  the  stage  at  an  amateur 
theater  near  London,  where  Elton,  Reeve,  Robson,  and 
other  dramatic  “ stars  ” first  trod  the  boards,  she  made 
her  first  public  appearance  in  the  summer  of  1853,  as 
“ Julia,”  in  The  Hunchback , at  the  Richmond  theater. 
Her  performance,  though  not  unsuccessful,  did  not  give 
promise  of  the  celebrity  she  afterward  attained.  In  the 
summer  of  1857  Mr.  Buckstone  engaged  her  for  the 
Haymarket  theater,  where  she  made  her  appearance  as 
Pauline,  in  The  Lady  of  Lyons,  and  on  the  first  night 
created  a great  sensation,  and  afterward  appeared  in  an 
original  part  in  The  Unequal  Match.  In  1858  she  was 
married  to  Dr.  W.  B.  Parkes,  but  was  left  a widow  in 
1863. 

SEDGWICK,  Catherine  Maria,  author,  was  born 
in  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  December  28,  1789;  died  near 
Roxbury,  Mass.,  July  31,  1867.  She  was  well  educated, 
and  in  1813  assumed  the  management  of  a private 
school,  which  she  continued  for  fifty  years,  and  became 
a popular  novelist.  She  also  wrote  for  periodicals  and 
annuals. 

SEDGWICK,  John,  soldier,  born  in  Cornwall, 
Conn.,  September  13,  1813;  died  near  Spottsylvania 
Court  House,  Va.,  May  9,  1864.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy  in  1837,  appointed 
second  lieutenant  of  artillery,  served  against  trie  Semi- 
noles  in  Florida,  and  later  on  the  frontier  during  the 
Canada  border  troubles.  He  took  part  in  the  Mexican 
war,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war  was  lieuten- 
ant-colonel of  the  second  cavalry.  In  August,  1861, 
Sedgwick  was  commissioned  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers, and  assigned  to  the  army  of  the  Potomac.  At 
Antietam  Sedgwick  was  wounded,  but  would  not  allow 
himself  to  be  taken  from  the  field.  While  directing  the 
gunners  in  placing  some  pieces  of  artillery  in  position  in 
front  of  Spottsylvania  Court  House,  he  was  shot  in  the 
head  and  instantly  expired. 

SEDGWICK,  Theodore,  was  born  near  Hartford, 
Conn.,  in  1746.  In  1766  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar. 
He  accompanied  the  expedition  against  Canada  in  1776, 
and  became  a member  of  the  Continental  congress  in 
1785.  He  was  also  a member  of  the  Massachusetts 
Assembly  of  1788,  by  which  the  Federal  constitution 
was  accepted,  and  the  year  following  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  congress,  remaining  there  until  1796, 
when  he  was  elected  United  States  senator.  He  was 
subsequently  a member  of  the  lower  house  of  congress, 
of  which  he  was  speaker  in  the  session  of  1799,  becom- 
ing justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Massachusetts  in 
1802,  and  so  continuing  until  his  death,  at  Boston, 
January  24,  1813. 

SEELEY,  Sir  John  Robert,  was  born  in  London, 
in  1834.  He  was  educated  at  the  City  of  London  School, 
of  which  he  became  the  captain,  and  thence  proceeded 
to  Christ’s  College,  Cambridge.  He  took  his  B.  A.  de- 
gree in  1857,  when  he  was  bracketed  with  three  others 
at  the  head  of  the  first  class  in  the  classical  tripos,  and 
he  was  also  senior  chancellor’s  medalist.  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  modern  history  at  Cambridge,  Oc- 
tober q,  i860.  Professor  Seeley’s  chief  work,  published 


6794  S E E - 

anonymously  in  1865  (though  1866  is  the  date  on  the 
title  page),  is  entitled  Ecce  Homo  : a Sicrvey  of  the  Life 
and  Work  of  Jesus  Christ.  It  passed  rapidly  through 
several  editions,  created  great  excitement  among  the 
members  of  the  various  Protestant  communities,  and 
elicited  numerous  replies.  Died  Jan.  13,  1895. 

SEELYE,  Julius  Hawley,  was  born  near  Bethel, 
Conn.,  September  14,  1824,  and  was  graduated  at  Am- 
herst College  in  1849.  He  studied  theology  at  the 
seminary  of  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  also  at  Halle,  Germany, 
and  was  ordained  in  1 853.  The  same  year  he  was  called 
to  the  first  Dutch  Reformed  Church  of  Schenectady, 
N.  Y.  In  1858  he  severed  his  connection  with  that 
church  to  accept  the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Amherst, 
and  in  1874  was  elected  to  congress  as  a Republican, 
serving  until  March  4,  1877,  when  he  entered  upon  the 
duties  of  president  of  Amherst  College.  He  was  made 
a D.D.  in  1862  by  Union  College,  and  an  LL.D.  by 
Columbia  College  in  1876.  He  wrote  numerous  essays 
addresses,  translations,  and  works  of  a miscellaneous 
character.  He  died  May  12,  1895. 

SEELYE,  Laurens  Clark,  was  born  in  Bethel, 
Conn.,  September  20,  1837,  and  was  graduated  at 
Union  College  during  June,  1857.  He  afterward  be- 
came a theological  student  at  Andover,  and  from  i860 
to  1863  continued  his  studies  at  the  universities  of 
Heidelberg  and  Berlin.  The  First  Congregational 
Church  at  Springfield  was  the  charge  to  which  he  was 
first  assigned,  and  he  subsequently  became  professor  of 
rhetoric  at  Amherst.  In  1872  he  was  one  of  the  incor- 
porators of  the  Smith  Female  College,  Northampton, 
Mass.,  and  in  1874  was  elected  to  the  presidency  of 
that  institution.  He  was  made  a D.D.  by  Union  Col- 
lege in  1875. 

SEEMAN,  Berthold,  a German  explorer,  a 
native  of  Llanover  was  born  February  28,  1825. 
in  1846  he  entered  the  service  of  the  English  Govern- 
ment as  the  naturalist  to  accompany  the  Herald  on  a 
voyage  around  the  world.  He  afterward  made  a tour 
through  Central  America.  He  published  accounts  of 
his  voyages  to  the  East,  to  the  Arctic  regions,  and  to 
other  parts  of  the  world ; was  the  editor  of  a botanical 
journal,  and  made  frequent  contributions  to  London 
periodicals  of  a scientific  character.  He  died  in  Nica- 
ragua, October  10,  1871. 

SEGUIN,  Edouard,  physician,  born  in  Clamecy, 
France,  January  20,  1812;  died  in  New  York  city,  Octo- 
ber 28,  1880.  He  was  taught  at  the  French  colleges  of 
Auxerre  and  St.  Louis,  and  subsequently  studied  medi- 
cine. In  1838  he  opened  a school  in  Paris  for  idiots. 
Tn  1848  he  came  to  the  United  States  and  opened  a 
similar  school,  which  expanded  into  the  N e w Y ork  State 
asylum  at  Syracuse.  In  1863  Doctor  Seguin  settled  in 
New  York  city,  where  he  gained  high  repute  as  a spe- 
cialist in  nervous  diseases,  and  in  1873  was  appointed 
United  States  commissioner  of  education  at  the  Vienna 
exposition.  He  wrote  sundry  manuals  and  treatises, 
mostly  in  the  French  language,  and  invented  the  physi- 
ological thermometer. 

SELBORNE,  Earl  of  (The  Right  Hon.  Roun- 
dell  Palmer),  was  born  at  Mixbury,  England, 
November  27,  1812.  He  was  educated  at  Rugby  and 
Winchester  schools,  and  was  elected  in  1830  to  an  open 
scholarship  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
graduated  as  a first  class  in  classics,  in  Easter  term, 
1834.  He' was  made  Q.C.  in  1849,  entered  parliament 
and  became  solicitor-general.  In  October,  1863,  on 
the  death  of  Sir  William  Atherton,  he  became  attor- 
ney-general,  and  retired  from  office  with  Lord  John 
Russell’s  second  administration  in  June,  1866.  On  the 
return  of  the  Liberal  party  to  power,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Mr.  Gladstone,  in  December,  1868,  he  was  of- 


-S  E M 

[ fered  the  chancellorship,  but,  not  being  able  to  indorse 
the  policy  of  the  government  in  relation  to  the  Irish 
church,  declined  taking  office.  Sir  Roundell  Palmer’s 
views  on  the  Irish  Church  question  were  embodied  at 
the  time  in  a speech  addressed  by  him  to  his  constitu* 
ents  at  Richmond.  He  concurred  with  the  govern- 
ment in  recommending  the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish 
Church,  but  differed  from  them  on  the  question  of  dis- 
endowment.  He  was  appointed  lord  chancellor  of 
England,  in  successibn  to  Lord  Hatherley,  in  October, 
1872,  on  which  occasion  he  was  created  Baron  Selborne, 
»of  Selborne,  in  the  county  of  Hants.  Ten  years  later 
he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  earl.  He  again  became 
lord  chancellor  in  Gladstone’s  second  ministry,  1880- 
85,  but  disapproved  the  premier’s  Irish  policy,  refused 
to  join  his  cabinet  in  1886  and  spoke  against  Home 
Rule.  He  died  in  1895. 

SELLAR,  Alexander  Craig,  born  at  Morvich, 
Scotland,  in  1835,  and  educated  at  Rugby,  and  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  entered  parliament  as  a Liberal,  but 
broke  with  Gladstone  in  1886  and  was  reelected  as  a 
Liberal  Unionist.  He  died  January  17,  1890.  ' 

SELLAR,  William  Young,  LL.D.,  born  in  Suther- 
landshire,  Scotland,  in  1825,  and  educated  at  Glasgow 
University  ,and  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  became  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  at  St.  Andrews,  1861,  and  professor  of 
humanity  (the  Latin  language  and  literature)  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  1863.  He  published  Roman 
Poets  of  the  Republic  (1863),  Roman  Poets  of  the  Augus- 
tan Age  (1877)  and  other  works,  and  contributed  arti- 
cles on  Latin  literature  to  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica , 
ninth  edition.  He  died  October  12,  1890. 

SELOUS,  Frederick  Courteney,  the  greatest 
hunter  of  modern  times,  born  in  London,  England,  in 
1852,  went  to  Africa  in  1871  as  explorer  and  pioneer, 
and  on  numerous  hunting  trips  from  then  to  the  pres- 
ent time,  making, an  astonishing  record  in  the  slaughter 
of  lions  and  other  big  game,  besides  opening  Mashona- 
land  to  English  trade  in  1889. 

SELWYN,  John  Richardson,  son  of  the  late  Dr. 
George  Augustus  Selwyn,  bishop  of  Lichfield,  was  born 
in  1845,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
He  held  several  curacies,  entered  on  the  Melanesian 
mission  in  1872,  and  in  February,  1877,  became  succes- 
sor to  Bishop  Patteson,  the  first  bishop  of  Melanesia, 
who  was  consecrated  in  1861,  and  murdered  in  1871. 

SEMBRICH,  Marcella,  vocalist,  was  born  at 
Lemberg,  Austria,  February  15,  1858,  and  for  some 
years  studied  the  piano  and  violin  under  the  best  mas- 
ters. While  receiving  piano  lessons  from  Liszt  at 
Vienna,  it  was  discovered  that  she  had  a splendid  voice, 
and  she  was  at  once  sent  to  Milan  to  study  singing. 
She  made  her  debut  as  an  opera  singer  at  Athens  in  / 
Puritana,  1877.  Mile.  Sembrich  has  sung  in  all  the 
principal  cities  of  Europe,  and  has  been  everywhere 
received  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm.  In  1883-84  she 
was  a member  of  an  Italian  opera  company  at  New 
York,  where  she  created  a great  sensation  by  the  com- 
pass of  her  voice  and  the  brilliance  of  her  execu- 
tion. 

SEMMES,  Raphael,  a naval  officer  who  made  him- 
self well  known  by  his  services  in  the  interest  of  the 
Confederacy,  was  born  in  Charles  county,  Md.,  Sep- 
tember 27,  1809,  and  died  in  Mobile,  Ala.,  August  30, 
1877.  In  1826  he  was  appointed  a midshipman  in  the 
navy.  He  managed  to  study  law  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar,  but  the  navy  had  more  charms  for  him  than  a 
law  office,  and  in  1837  he  took  a commission  a?  lieu- 
tenant in  the  navy.  Semmes  served  in  various  capaci- 
ties until  the  breaking  out  of  the  rebellion,  when  he 
resigned  and  united  his  fortunes  with  the  South.  Go- 
ing to  New  Orleans,  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the 


SEN— SEY 


6795 


steamer  Sumter.  With  her  he  did  great  execution 
for  the  Confederacy,  and  when  his  vessel  was  blockaded 
at  Tangiers,  Semmes  sold  her  and  made  his  way  to 
England.  There  the  fast  sailing  steamer  Alabama  was 
built  for  the  South,  and  Semmes,  being  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  captain,  was  put  in  command  of  her  at  the 
Azore  Islands.  With  the  Alabama,  Semmes  became 
a veritable  scourge  of  the  seas;  he  captured,  pil- 
laged and  burned  sixty-two  United  States  merchant- 
men. Th & Alabama  was  a wooden  vessel  and  was 
built  by  Messrs.  Laird  & Son,  at  Birkenhead,  near 
Liverpool.  The  American  minister  to  England  warned 
the  authorities  that  all  was  not  right  with  the 
vessel,  which  ostensibly  was  being  built  for  a mer- 
chantman, but  it  was  plainly  evident  from  her 
hatches,  from  the  great  number  of  berth  hooks,  and 
from  her  extra  heavy  planking,  that  she  was  destined  for 
some  other  purpose.  The  English  Government  showed 
the  most  culpable  negligence  in  regard  to  the  Alabama. 
When  it  was  made  too  plain  to  be  controverted  that 
she  was  a vessel  being  built  in  the  interest  of  the  South- 
ern Confederacy,  she  was  allowed  to  get  away  into  the 
open  sea,  and  was  armed,  manned,  and  stocked  from 
English  ports.  Up  to  the  time  of  her  leaving  England 
the  was  known  as  “ No.  290,”  but  once  away  the  mask 
was  torn  off,  and  Captain  Semmes,  from  the  quarter- 
deck, read  his  commission  from  Jefferson  Davis,  presi- 
dent of  the  Southern  Confederacy,  as  commander  of  the 
Alabama.  This  man  used  themost  unscrupulous  means 
to  make  his  captures,  frequently  making  the  United 
States  merchantmen  believe  his  was  a United  States 
vessel,  until  he  had  boarded  them  and  made  their  crew 
prisoners.  The  Alabama  met  the  fate  that  was  her  due, 
however,  off  Cherbourg  harbor,  France,  on  June  19, 
1864.  Captain  Semmes  had  put  into  the  harbor,  and 
shortly  after  the  Kearsarge , in  command  of  Capt. 
John  A.  Winslow,  appeared  outside. 

Semmes  appealed  willing  to  fight,  and  made  his 
preparations  while  the  Kearsarge  awaited  him.  The 
naval  duel  lasted  less  than  an  hour  and  the  Alabama 
was  sunk.  Captain  Semmes  was  taken  from  the  water 
by  John  Lancaster  on  board  the  English  yacht  Deer- 
hound. The  Alabama  had  120  men  and  the  Kearsarge 
162,  both  boats  having  seven -guns.  On  October  3d 
Captain  Semmes  sailed  for  Havana,  and  from  there  went 
to  Mexico,  making  his  way  in  a roundabout  manner 
into  the  Southern  States.  He  was  appointed  rear-ad- 
miral of  the  Confederate  navy  and  ordered  to  the  James 
river  squadron.  He  guarded  the  approach  to  Rich- 
mond until  the  city  was  evacuated.  After  the  war 
Semmes  took  up  his  long  delayed  practice  of  the  law, 
and  with  newspaper  work  and  as  a professor  in  a mili- 
tary institute  in  Louisiana,  finished  an  active  life. 

SENIOR,  William,  journalist  and  author,  is  the 
angling  editor  of  the  London  Field,  and  member  of  the 
councils  of  the  National  Fish  Culture  Association  and 
National  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  River  Pollution. 
In  1875  he  accepted  a government  appointment  as  editor 
of  tlje  Queensland  Hansard,  and  proceeded  to  that 
colony  to  start  an  official  daily  report  of  the  parliament- 
ary debates.  He  returned  after  five  years’  residence  in 
Queensland,  to  England,  and  rejoined  the  special  cor- 
respondent staff  of  the  Daily  News. 

SERGEANT,  John,  was  born  in  Newark,  N.  J., 
about  1710;  was  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1730,  and 
until  1735  occupied  the  chair  of  assistant  professor  at 
that  institution.  He  then  became  a missionary  among 
the  Indians,  settling  among  them  during  1735,  and  a 
year  later  was  located  at  Stockbridge,  Mass.  He  died 
at  Stockbridge,  July  27,  1749. 

SERPA-PINTO.  See  Pinto,  ante. 

SERRANO,  Francisco,  was  born  near  Cadiz, 


Spain,  October  1 7,  1810,  and  became  a cadet  at  the 
military  academy  of  that  country  in  1822,  and  three 
years  later  an  ensign  in  the  army.  He  supported  the 
claims  of  Isabella  II.,  and  participated  in  the  struggle 
that  culminated  in  the  downfall  of  Espartero.  Mean- 
while, he  was  promoted  to  be  major-general,  and  in 
1843  was  elected  speaker  of  the  Cortes,  after  which, 
until  his  death,  he  was  prominently  identified  with  the 
revolutionary  movements  that  took  place  in  Spain.  He 
filled  the  positions  of  minister  of  war,  lieutenant- 
general,  senator,  captain-general  of  Grenada  and  New 
Castile,  returning  from  Saragossa,  where  he  had  been 
in  exile,  to  become  a participant  in  the  revolution  of 
O’Donnell  and  Espartero,  and  uniting  with  the  former 
in  1856,  b^  whom  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Paris 
the  following  year.  In  i860  he  was  transferred  to 
Cuba  as  captain-general  of  that  dependency,  and  for 
his  diplomatic  services  in  connection  with  the  acquisi- 
tion of  Santo  Domingo,  was  named  duke  de  la  Torre. 
Subsequently  he  was  exiled  to  the  Canary  Islands,  but 
returned  and  aided  in  the  deposition  of  Queen  Isabella, 
and  after  serving  as  regent  of  the  kingdom  until  the  ac- 
cession of  Amadeo,  was,  by  the  latter,  appointed  secre- 
tary of  state.  He  commanded  the  Carlists,  but  went 
to  France  in  1873.  He  was  made  chief  of  staff  of  Gen- 
eral Pavia  in  1874,  and  interested  himself  actively  in  the 
fortunes  of  Alfonso  XII.  in  1875.  He  died  at  Madrid, 
November  26,  1885. 

SERVER  PASHA,  a Turkish  statesman,  com- 
menced his  official  career  in  the  imperial  divan,  and, 
after  filling  the  post  of  chief  of  the  correspondence  de- 
partment of  the  minister  of  war,  was  appointed  first 
secretary  of  the  Ottoman  embassy  at  Vienna.  Server 
Pasha  possessed  in  an  eminent  degree  all  the  qualifica 
tions  necessary  for  the  high  post  of  minister  for  foreign 
affairs,  to  which  he  was  appointed — experience  in  its 
special  duties,  a very  conciliatory  manner,  a European 
education,  and  great  popularity  with  the  diplomatic 
body.  The  improvements  carried  out  by  him  during  the 
time  he  was  mayor  of  Constantinople,  1868-70,  caused 
him  to  be  styled  the  “ Haussmann  of  Stamboul.” 

SEVIER,  John,  born  in  Rockingham  county,  Va., 
September  23,  1745;  died  in  Georgia,  September  24, 
1815.  He  was  educated  at  the  academy  at  Fredericks- 
burg; married  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  and  eventually 
founded  the  village  of  Newmarket,  in  the  Shenandoah 
Valley.  He  soon  became  known  as  an  Indian  fighter. 
In  1779  he  was  commissioned  lieutenant-colonel,  and 
defeated  the  Indians  at  Boyd’s  creek,  and  on  October 
7th  defeated  the  Loyalists  at  King’s  mountain.  In 
1784  North  Carolina  ceded  her  territory  beyond  the 
mountains  to  the  general  government,  and  the  settlers, 
finding  their  interests  neglected,  organized  a separate 
State  called  Franklin,  and  chose  Sevier  for  its  governor. 
In  1796  the  part  ceded  by  North  Carolina  was  erected 
into  the  State  of  Tennessee;  Sevier  was  elected  its 
governor,  serving  two  terms;  in  1803  he  was  again 
chosen,  and  served  six  years.  In  1811  he  was  elected 
to  congress. 

SEWELL,  Elizabeth  Missing,  sister  of  the  Rev. 
William  Sewell,  was  born  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  in 
1815.  She  became  known  as  a writer  of  High  church 
fiction  by  her  Amy  Herbert,  1844.  It  was  followed  by 
a long  list  of  stories,  many  of  them  having  become 
popular  in  later  years. 

SEYMOUR,  George  Franklin,  a bishop  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  church,  was  born  in  New  York 
city,  January  5,  1829;  was  graduated  at  Columbia  Col- 
lege in  1850,  and  at  the  General  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York,  during  1854.  He  was  ordained  a priest  in 
1855,  and  was  engaged  in  missionary  services  at 
Annandale,  N.  J.,  for  the  five  years  next  succeeding,  es- 


6796  SEY- 

tablishing,  while  there,  a school  now  known  as  St. 
Stephen’s  College.  After  filling  the  rectorship  of 
churches  at  Manhattanville,  Hudson,  and  Brooklyn,  N. 
Y.,  he  was,  in  1874,  elected  bishop  of  Illinois,  but 
failed  of  confirmation  by  the  House  of  Deputies.  On 
April  2,  1878,  he  declined  the  bishopric  of  the  diocese 
of  Springfield  in  that  State,  to  which  he  had  been 
elected  the  previous  October,  but  in  May,  1878,  he  was 
again  elected  to  the  same  bishopric  and  accepted.  He 
was  consecrated  June  nth  following,  and  has  since  ad- 
ministered the  affairs  of  the  diocese.  In  1867  the 
degree  of  S.T.D.  was  conferred  on  him  by  Racine 
(Wis.)  College,  and  that  of  LL.D.,  by  Columbia  in 
1878.  He  has  been  a frequent  contributor  to  religious 
publications,  and  is  the  author  of  works  on  questions  of 
interest  to  the  church. 

SEYMOUR,  Horatio,  governor  of  New  York,  was 
born  at  Pompey,  N.  Y.,  May  31,  1810.  Mr.  Seymour 
studied  law  and  practiced  in  Utica.  He  was  for  years 
the  recognized  leader  of  the  Democratic  party,  and  was 
by  it  nominated  for  governor  of  the  State  in  1850,  but 
was  defeated  by  Washington  Hunt.  He  was  nomi- 
nated again  in  1852,  and  was  this  time  elected  by  a large 
majority,  only  to  be  defeated  again  when  running  for 
the  same  office  in  1854.  In  the  crisis  of  1861  Mr.  Sey- 
mour gave  the  national  government  cause  to  fear  that 
he  was  in  too  deep  sympathy  with  the  Southern  move- 
ment, and  the  fear  was  augmented  when,  in  1862,  he  was 
again  elected  governor  of  the  State.  He  was  actually 
accused  of  desiring  to  urge  the  adhesion  of  New  York 
city  to  the  Southern  Confederacy.  He  in  1863  still 
further  compromised  himself  by  his  opposition  to  Pres- 
ident Lincoln’s  drafts,  and  insisted  they  should  be 
stopped  until  the  courts  decided  upon  their  constitu- 
tionality. Nothing  treasonable  was  ever  shown  against 
Governor  Seymour,  and  some  historians  speak  of  him 
as  one  of  the  most  active  and  zealous  of  all  the  “ war 
governors.”  Governor  Seymour  was  president  of  the 
Democratic  national  convention  held  in  Chicago  in 
1864,  and  again  at  New  York  in  1868,  where  he  was 
nominated  for  the  presidency  of  the  United  States,  but 
was  defeated  by  General  Grant.  After  this  campaign 
Governor  Seymour  retired  to  private  life,  and  died  on 
February  12,  1886. 

SHALER,  Nathaniel  S.,  an  American  scientist, 
was  born  at  Newport,  Ky.,  February  22,  1841. 
He  received  his  education  at  Miami  University,  and 
graduated  from  Lawrence  Scientific  School,  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  in  1862.  Two  years  later  he  accepted 
the  position  of  assistant  in  the  zoological  museum  at 
Harvard  University,  becoming  professor  of  zoology  at 
the  same  institution  in  1887,  meanwhile  filling  a similar 
position  at  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School.  He  was 
employed  by  the  State  of  Kentucky  to  conduct  a geo- 
logical survey  in  1873,  and  by  the  United  States,  in 
1884,  to  direct  the  geological  survey  of  the  Atlantic 
coast.  He  has  been  the  author  of  contributions  to  the 
Popular  Science  Monthly  and  other  magazines,  and  is  a 
member  of  many  scientific  societies. 

SHARPLESS,  James,  painter,  born  in  England 
about  1751 ; died  in  New  York  city,  February  26,  1811. 
He  was  educated  for  the  priesthood  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  afterward  studied  art.  He  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1794.  In  1796  he  took  Wash- 
ington’s portrait  in  profile,  in  Philadelphia.  It  has 
always  been  regarded  as  a truthful  likeness. 

SHARSWOOD,  George,  was  born  at  Philadelphia, 
July  7,  1810;  was  graduated  at  the  Pennsylvania  Univer- 
sity in  1828,  and  on  September  5,  1831,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  of  his  native  State.  He  was  not  long 
engaged  in  the  practice  of  his  profession,  becoming  a 
member  of  the  legislature  in  1837,  and  serving  in  that 


-S  H A 

capacity  at  intervals  until  1844.  A year  later  he  waa 
appointed  to  the  bench  of  the  Philadelphia  District  Court, 
where  he  remained  until  1867,  when  he  was  elected  to 
the  State  Supreme  Court,  and  served  part  of  the  time  as 
chief  justice,  until  1880,  when  he  retired.  He  was 
made  an  LL.D.  by  New  York  University  and  Columbia 
College,  and  died  at  Philadelphia,  May  28,  1883. 

SHATTUCK,  Aaron  D.,  born  in  New  Hampshire, 
March  9,  1832;  studied  art  in  the  Boston  studios  and 
also  at  the  New  York  Academy  of  Design.  He  became 
an  associate  and  an  academician  in  i860,  and  was  re- 
cording secretary  of  the  association  for  one  term.  His 
pictures  consist  almost  entirely  of  scenes  from  farm  life 
in  America. 

SHAW,  Eyre  Massey,  was  born  in  1830,  and  edu- 
cated at  Queenstown,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
where  he  took  his  B.A.  and  M.A.  degrees.  He  entered 
the  army,  but  retired  in  i860.  He  was  appointed  chief 
officer  of  the  Metropolitan  Fire  Brigade  of  London, 
England,  in  1861. 

SHAW,  Henry,  born  July  24,  1800;  emigrated  to 
the  United  States  when  nineteen  years  old.  He  located 
in  St.  Louis,  where  he  was  engaged  in  business  for 
nearly  a quarter  of  a century,  and  accumulated,  a large 
fortune.  He  was  the  founder  of  Shaw’s  Garden,  near 
St.  Louis,  which  he  donated  to  that  city,  together  with 
other  properties  iii  the  vicinity.  He  also  gave  liberally 
to  Washington  University  and  other  educational  and 
scientific  institutions.  He  died  at  St.  Louis,  August  25, 
1889. 

SHAW,  Henry  W.  (“  Josh  Billings  ”),  was  born  at 
Lanesborough,  Mass.,  April  21,  1818,  and  matriculated 
at  Hamilton  College  in  1832,  but  left  that  institution 
without  graduating.  He  settled  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y., 
upon  his  return  in  1858,  and  became  a contributor  of 
amusing  sketches  to  the  daily  press.  They  received 
little  attention,  however,  and  about  i860  he  wrote  an 
Essay  on  the  Muel , which  was  first  printed  in  a New 
York  paper,  and  attracted  attention,  comment,  and 
imitation.  His  productions  were  in  constant  demand 
thereafter,  and  he  wrote  for  a large  syndicate  of  papers. 
Later  he  issued  Josh  Billings''  Farmers’  Allminax , 
which  was  continued  annually  for  a number  of  years, 
and  attained  to  an  enormous  circulation.  He  became 
a lecturer  about  the  close  of  the  war,  and  was  also  a 
regular  contributor  to  New  York  magazines  and  week- 
lies, and  published  a number  of  “ Josh  Billings’  ” books 
in  addition  to  the  Allminax.  He  died  at  Monterey, 
Cal.,  October  14,  1885. 

SHAW,  Lemuel,  was  born  at  Barnstable,  Mass.,  in 
1781,  and  died  in  Boston  in  1861.  Mr.  Shaw  became  an 
able  jurist.  He  was  for  several  years  a member  of  the 
State  legislature,  and  in  1830  was  appointed  chief  justice 
of  Massachusetts. 

SHAWBENA,  a chief  of  the  Ottawas,  born  near 
Toledo,  Ohio,  about  1775,  was  with  Tecumseh  in  many 
of  the  latter’s  encounters  with  the  whites,  including  the 
battle  of  the  Thames,  fought  during  1813,  at  -which 
Tecumseh  was  mortally  wounded.  Shawbena  subse- 
quently surrendered  to  General  Cass  at  Detroit  and  was 
afterward  of  great  assistance  to  the  American  forces. 
For  many  years  Shawbena  resided  in  DeKalb  county, 
111.,  where  his  estate  was  then  and  is  still  known  as 
“ Shawbena’ s Grove.”  He  removed  to  Missouri  in 
1837,  but  returned  to  Illinois  upon  the  death  of  his  son 
at  the  hands  of  hostile  Indians,  and  was  again  removed, 
this  time  to  the  reservation  in  Kansas.  He  again  re- 
turned to  Illinois,  but  was  ejected  from  his  property 
by  a decision  of  the  secretary  of  the  interior,  and  removed 
to  a tract  of  land  near  Morris,  111.,  where  he  died  July 
27,  1859. 

SHAYS,  Daniel,  born  in  Hopkinton,  Mass.,  in 


SHE 


1^47;  died  in  Sparta,  N.  Y.,  September  29,  1825.  He 
was  an  ensign  at  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  and  after- 
ward a captain.  Captain  Shays  was  chosen  leader  of 
a band  of  insurgents,  who,  in  January,  1787,  attempted  to 
capture  the  Continental  arsenal  at  Springfield,  and  se- 
cure a removal  of  the  heavy  taxes  caused  by  the  high  sal- 
aries paid  to  officials.  In  February,  1 788,  the  rebels  were 
entirely  overcome.  Shays  retired  to  Vermont,  and  later 
received  a pardon.  In  his  old  age  the  State  of  Massa- 
chusetts gave  him  a pension  for  military  services  during 
the  Revolution. 

SHEA,  John  D.  G.,  was  born  July  22,  1824,  near 
New  York  city,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  but  abandoned 
law  for  literature,  publishing  Discovery  and  Explora- 
tion of  the  Mississippi  Valley  (1853),  History  of  the 
Catholic  Missions  Among  the  Indian  Tribes  of  the 
United  States  (1854),  Lincoln  Memorial  (1869),  and 
other  works,  besides  his  History  of  the  Catholic  Church 
in  the  United  States , in  five  volumes,  not  quite  com- 
pleted on  his  death,  February  22,  1892. 

SHEDD,  William  Greenough  Thayer,  D.D., 
LL.D.,  was  born  at  Acton,  Mass.,  June  21,  1820, 
graduated  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1843, 
held  various  pastorates  and  became  professor  of 
ecclesiastical  history  at  Andover,  1854  and  professor 
of  systematic  theology  at  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York  in  1874.  He  wrote  many  theological  works 
and  translations  and  died  November  17,  1894. 

SHELBY,  Isaac,  soldier,  born  in  North  Mountain, 
Md.,  December  11,  1750;  died  near  Stanford,  Ky., 
July  18,  1826.  He  was  educated  at  Fredericktown, 
and  in  177 1 removed  with  his  father  to  what  is  now 
Bristol,  Tenn.  Later  he  repaired  to  Boonesborough, 
Ky.,  where  he  settled  as  a planter.  In  1792,  when 
Kentucky  became  a State,  Shelby  was  chosen  its  first 
governor.  In  the  war  of  1812  he  organized  a body  of 
4,000  volunteers,  led  them  as  a reenforcement  to  Gen. 
W.  H.  Harrison,  and  fought  at  the  battle  of  the 
Thames.  In  1818  he  joined  with  Gen.  Andrew  Jack- 
son  in  making  a treaty  with  the  Chickasaw  Indians. 

SHEPARD,  Charles  Upham,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  naturalist,  born  at  Little  Compton,  R.  I.,  in 
1804,  and  died  May  1,  1886.  He  graduated  at  Amherst 
College,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in 
Charleston  Medical  College  in  I034,  and  professor  of 
natural  history  in  Amherst  College.  One  of  his  works 
was  a Report  on  the  Geographical  Survey  of  Connecti- 
cut. 

SHEPARD,  Elliott  F.,  was  born  at  Jamestown, 
Chautauqua  county,  N.  Y.,  July  25,  1833,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  the  New  York  City  University.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1858,  and  practiced  his  profession 
in  New  York  city  until  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil 
war.  In  1861  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  recruit- 
ing service  at  Elmira,  N.  Y. , and  rendered  valuable 
services.  He  subsequently  aided  in  the  enlistment  of 
the  51st  regiment  of  New  York  infantry,  and  at  the 
close  of  hostilities  returned  to  the  practice  of  law. 
He  became  attorney  for  the  New  York  Central  road 
and  in  1868  married  W.  H.  Vanderbilt’s  eldest  daughter, 
who  inherited  several  million  dollars.  In  1888  he 
became  owner  and  editor  of  the  New  York  Mail  and 
Express , in  which  he  bitterly  opposed  Sunday  travel 
and  traffic.  He  died  March  24,  1893. 

SHEPSTONE,  Sir  Theophilus,  born  in  England, 
1817,  served  in  the  Kaffir  war,  1835,  and  was  long  in 
the  colonial  service.  He  crowned  the  king  of  Zululand 
in  1873,  annexed  the  Transvaal  in  1879  and  restored 
Cetewayo  in  1883.  Fie  died  June  24,  1893. 

SHERBROOKE,  Viscount  (The  Right  Hon. 
Robert  Lowe),  was  born  at  Bingham  in  1811,  and 
educated  at  Winchester  and  at  University  College,  Ox- 
uO — J. 


6797 

ford,  where  he  graduated  in  ftigh  honors  in  1833.  Edu- 
cated for  the  law,  he  practiced  successfully,  and  in  1842 
he  went  to  Australia.  He  returned  to  England  in 
1851,  and  served  the  government  in  various  capacities, 
mainly  under  Mr.  Gladstone.  In  1868  he  became 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  In  1880  he  was  made  a 
peer.  He  was  created  honorary  LL.D.  of  Edinburgh  in 
1867,  andD.C.L.  of  Oxford,  1870.  Hedied  July27, 1892. 

SHERIDAN,  Philip  Henry.  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  New  York  on  March  6,  1831,  and  died  in 
Massachusetts  in  August,  1888.  His  early  education 
was  meagre  in  the  extreme,  his  origin  being  humble. 
His  natural  abilities  having  attracted  the  notice  of  the 
congressman  for  his  district,  he  received  an  appoint- 
ment to  a cadetship  in  the  West  Point  Military  Acad- 
emy, and,  having  entered  that  institution  in  1848,  he 
was  graduated  in  1853 — having  been  suspended  one 
year  for  insubordination — being  thirty-fourth  in  a class 
of  fifty-two,  among  whom  were  several  other  noted 
soldiers  on  both  sides  of  the  conflict  during  the  late 
Civil  war.  He  was  brevetted  second  lieutenant  of 
infantry,  and  served  in  various  portions  of  the  country 
till  1861,  at  which  »time  he  had  reached  the  rank  of 
captain.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  in  1861,  he  was 
sent  to  the  far  South,  and  in  December  of  the  same 
year  was  made  quartermaster  of  the  army  of  South- 
western Missouri.  He  was,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
next  year,  made  chief  quartermaster  of  Halleck’s  army, 
in  Mississippi.  He  was  shortly  afterward  promoted 
• colonel  of  the  2d  Michigan  cavalry,  and  in  July,  1862,  he 
became  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  being  assigned 
to  the  eleventh  division  of  the  army  of  the  Ohio. 
At  the  battle  of  Perryville  Sheridan  particularly  dis- 
tinguished himself,  and  from  this  time  his  fame  as  a 
soldier  began  to  increase.  Fie  was  accredited  with 
the  salvation  of  the  Union  army  from  defeat  in  this 
engagement.  He  was,  shortly  after  this,  transferred 
to  the  command  of  a division  of  the  army  of  the  Cum- 
berland, and  took  an  important  part  in  the  battle  of 
Stone  River,  and,  in  recognition  of  his  services,  was 
made  major-general  of  volunteers.  At  Chickamauga 
the  disastrous  rout  of  the  Federal  army  was  changed  into 
an  orderly  retreat  by  the  exertions  of  Sheridan,  and 
during  the  operations  around  Chattanooga  he  was  an 
important  factor  in  the  success  of  the  Union  arms. 
After  this  campaign  was  over,  and  General  Grant  had 
been  made  commander-in-chief  of  the  Union  armies, 
General  Sheridan  was  transferred  to  the  army  of  the 
Potomac  and  given  command  of  all  the  cavalry  of  the 
army,  that  branch  of  the  ‘service  being  erected  into  a 
separate  command  for  the  purpose.  Entering  upon 
the  service  in  Virginia  during  the  bloody  Wilderness 
campaign,  his  vigilance  and  ability  contributed  in  no 
small  degree  to  the  accomplishment  of  General  Grant’s 
plans.  His  maneuvers  to  cover  the  rear,  flanks,  and 
van  of  the  Federal  army  were  of  incalculable 
value  to  the  commanding  general,  and  his  services 
secured  for  him  the  high  personal  regard  and  confidence 
of  General  Grant.  During  this  campaign  he  made 
several  raids  into  the  surrounding  country,  cutting  the 
lines  of  communication  with  the  Confederate  bases  of 
supply,  and  on  one  occasion  making  a dash  at  Rich- 
mond, but,  finding  the  defenses  too  strong  for  cavalry 
attack,  retired  leisurely,  rejoining  the  army  on  May  25th, 
having  inflicted  immense  damage  and  received  but  little 
harm  in  return.  It  was  during  one  of  the  fights  oi  this 
raid  that  Gen.  J.  E.  B.  Stuart  was  killed  at  Yellow 
Tavern — a terrible  blow  to  the  Confederate  cause.  So 
valuable  had  been  Sheridan’s  services,  and  so  great  was 
the  confidence  which  General  Grant  had  in  him,  that 
he  was  selected  for  the  important  position  of  com- 
mander of  the  army  of  the  Shenandoah,  to  which  war 


SHE 


67  98 

assigned  the  duty  of  covering  Washington  and  destroy- 
ing the  supplies  which  the  Confederates  were  drawing 
from  the  fertile  country  of  the  valley  of  Virginia.  Here 
he  met  and  defeated  Early,  driving  him  in  utter  defeat 
down  the  valley  as  far  as  Waynesboro,  and  scattering 
his  demoralized  army  to  the  winds.  Shortly  after,  on 
the  reorganization  and  reenforcement  of  Early’s  army, 
the  Federal  troops  were  surprised  and  panic  stricken  at 
Cedar  Run,  and  the  appearance  of  Sheridan  (who  has- 
tened up  from  Winchester)  alone  saved  the  army  from 
annihilation.  This  incident  in  his  career  has  been  cel- 
ebrated in  song  and  story  until  now  it  is  hard  to  separate 
fact  from  fiction  in  the  accounts  of  “ Sheridan’s  Ride.” 
He  performed  the  duty  assigned  to  him  so  zealously  and 
thoroughly  that  his  devastation  of  the  valley  of  Virginia 
brought  upon  him  the  charge  of  unnecessary  cruelty 
and  rapacity;  but  his  apologists  have  justified  his 
measures  as  a necessity  of  war. 

For  his  services  in  this  campaign  he  was  gazetted 
major-general  in  the  regular  army  in  October,  1864, 
and  received  the  thanks  of  congress  for  gallantry  and 
meritorious  services.  He  took  a prominent  part  in  the 
campaigns  of  1865,  and  his  raids  with  the  cavalry  under 
his  command  contributed,  in  no  ^mall  degree,  to  the 
downfall  of  the  Confederacy.  He  particularly  distin- 
guished himself  at  Five  Forks  and  again  at  Sailors’ 
Creek.  His  actions  at  this  time  were  the  subject  of 
repeated  commendations  from  General  Grant,  who 
seemed  to  find  no  terms  too  strong  to  express  his  regard 
and  admiration  for  the  man  and  his  generalship.  After 
the  war  he  was  made  commander  of  the  department  of 
the  Gulf;  his  conduct  during  this  time  has  been 
severely  criticised,  particularly  his  administration  of 
affairs  in  New  Orleans.  He  was  next  transferred  to 
the  department  of  the  Missouri  and  conducted  several 
campaigns  against  the  Indians.  When  Grant  became 
president  General  Sherman  was  made  general  of  the 
army  and  Sheridan  became  lieutenant-general,  it  being 
understood  that  these  titles  were  to  expire  with  these 
incumbents.  In  1870  he  went  to  Europe  to  witness 
the  conduct  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  and  on  his  re- 
turn was  commander  of  the  western  and  southwestern 
military  divisions.  In  1883,  on  the  retirement  of  Gen- 
eral Sherman,  he  became  general-in-chief,  being  the 
nineteenth  occupant  of  that  position.  In  1888  a bill  was 
passed  and  signed  by  the  president  (Cleveland),  bestow- 
ing upon  him  for  life,  the  rank  and  emoluments  of  full 
general.  It  was  said  of  him  that  he  was  never  defeated, 
and,  uniformly,  where  present,  turned  the  tide  of  defeat 
into  victory.  He  was  greatly  beloved  by  his  officers 
and  men  and  enjoyed  their  thorough  confidence,  and 
their  affection  was  exhibited  in  the  imposition  upon  him 
of  the  title  of  “Little  Phil.”  He  was  the  author  of 
Personal  Memoirs , which  were  published  in  two  vol- 
umes in  New  York  in  1888. 

SHERMAN,  John,  statesman,  was  born  May  10, 
1823,  at  Lancaster,  Ohio.  When  he  was  but  six  years 
old  his  father  died,  leaving  a large  family  in  reduced 
circumstances,  and  he  was  subsequently  adopted  by  a 
relative  living  at  Mount  Vernon,  Ohio.  At  the  age  of 
twelve  a sister  took  charge  of  him  and  put  him  in  a 
school  at  Lancaster,  where  he  acquired  an  education. 
He  studied  law  with  his  brother,  C.  T.  Sherman,  at 
Mansfield,  where  he  afterwards  practiced  for  ten  years, 
and  where  he  was  married  in  1848  to  a daughter  of 
James  Stewart.  In  1855  he  was  elected  to  the  thirty- 
fourth  congress  in  the  interest  of  the  Free-Soil  party, 
and  was  reelected  to  the  thirty-fifth  and-  thirty-sixth  con- 
gresses. He  became  a power  on  the  floor  and  in  com- 
mittees, and  was  recognized  as  the  foremost  man  in  the 
House,  particularly  in  matters  affecting  finance.  He 
was  again  elected  to  congress  in  i860,  but  in  the  fol- 


lowing year  was  chosen  to  the  United  States  Senate 
where  he  at  once  became  a leader.  After  the  close  of 
the  Civil  war  he  and  Thaddeus  Stevens  prepared  the  bill 
for  the  reconstruction  of  the  Southern  btates,  which 
was  passed  by  congress  in  the  winter  of  1866-67.  In 
March,  1877,  Senator  Sherman  was  appointed,  by 
President  Hayes,  secretary  of  the  treasury,  a position 
which  he  retained  until  the  close  of  Mr.  Hayes’  admin- 
istration in  1881,  when  he  reentered  the  Senate,  of 
which  he  is  still  a member.  It  was  due  to  his  manage- 
ment while  at  the  head  of  the  treasury,  that  the  resump- 
tion of  specie  payments  was  effected  in  1879  without 
disturbance  to  the  financial  or  commercial  interests  of 
the  country.  He  was  a prominent  candidate  for  the 
Republican  presidential  nomination  in  1880,  and  again 
in  1888.  He  died  October  22,  1900.  He  was  in  1895 
a member  of  the  committee  on  foreign  relations,  the 
committee  on  finance,  the  select  committee  to  in- 
vestigate the  condition  of  the  Potomac  River  Front 
of  Washington,  the  select  committee  on  Universities 
of  the  United  States,  and  the  select  committee  on  the 
quadro-centennial. 

SHERMAN,  Thomas  W.,  bom  at  Newport,  R.  L, 
March  26,  1813;  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  the 
summer  of  1836.  He  was  attached  to  the  artillery 
branch  of  the  service  in  the  Florida  war,  and  in  the  war 
with  Mexico  was  made  captain  by  brevet  for  gallant 
services  at  Buena  Vista.  He  was  transferred  from  the 
frontier  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war,  and  promoted 
to  be  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  5th  artillery,  engaged  in 
the  defense  of  the  national  capital.  He  took  part  in 
the  expeditions  against  Southern  ports,  commanded  the 
forces  led  against  Port  Royal,  and  subsequently  a divis- 
ion in  the  army  operating  in  Tennessee.  After  the  bat- 
tle of  Corinth,  Miss.,  at  which  he  was  present, 
he  was  transferred  to  the  department  of  the  Gulf, 
and  remained  in  New  Orleans  until  the  attack 
upon  Port  Hudson.  At  that  engagement  he  led  the 
advance  (May  27,  1863),  where  he  lost  his  right  leg. 
Upon  his  restoration  to  duty  he  was  placed  in  charge  of 
the  defenses  of  Louisiana.  After  the  war  he  was  sta- 
tioned at  Fort  Adams,  R.  I.,  as  colonel  of  the  3d  ar- 
tillery, and  was  retired  from  active  service  December 
31,  1870,  with  the  rank  of  major-general.  He  died  at 
Newport,  R.  I.,  March  16,  1879. 

SHERMAN,  Roger,  born  in  Newton,  Mass., 
April  19,  1721;  died  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  July  23, 
1793.  Roger  Sherman’s  father  was  a poor  man,  and  a 
small  farmer.  As  he  was  unable  to  give  his  son  a col- 
lege education,  Roger  picked  it  up  as  best  he  could, 
became  a prominent  lawyer,  and  when  he  removed 
to  New  Haven  was  made  treasurer  of  Yale  Col- 
lege, and  in  1766  was  appointed  judge  of  the  Su- 
preme Court.  When  the  Revolution  began  he  sided 
with  the  patriots,  and  in  August,  1774,  was  chosen  as 
delegate  to  the  Continental  congress.  Later,  with 
Adams,  Franklin,  Jefferson  and  Livingston,  he  was  one 
of  the  committee  who  drew  up  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. From  1784  until  his  death  he  was  mayor  of 
New  Haven,  and  in  1791  was  United  States  senator  for 
Connecticut. 

SHERMAN,  William  Tecumseh,  American  sol- 
dier, was  born  in  Ohio,  February  8,  1820.  Early  in 
life  he  was  adopted  by  Thomas  Ewing  (q.  v.),  and  in 
1836  he  was  sent  to  West  Point,  from  which  institution 
he  was  graduated  in  1840,  being  sixth  in  a class  of  forty- 
two  members.  He  was  commissioned  second  lieutenant 
of  artillery  in  that  year  and  sent  to  Florida, being  thence 
transferred  to  various  posts  till  the  outbreak  of  theMex- 
ican  war.  At  this  period  he  was  sent  to  California,  where 
he  served  with  distinction  under  Generals  Kearny  and 
Smith.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  became  captain  in 


SHE 


the  commissary  department,  and  in  this  capacity  was 
stationed  in  St.  Louis  and  New  Orleans.  In  1853  he 
resigned  his  commission  in  the  army  and  was  appointed 
manager  of  the  branch  bank  of  Lucas,  Turner  & Co., 
San  Francisco,  Cal.  He  was  subsequently  transferred 
to  the  New  York  branch  of  the  house.  After  severing 
his  connection  with  the  firm,  he  practiced  law  for  a 
time  in  Leavenworth,  Kan.,  and,  in  i860,  became  presi- 
dent of  the  State  Military  Academy  at  Alexandria,  La. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  war  he  returned  to  St. 
Louis,  where  he  engaged  in  the  street  railway  business, 
being  president  of  the  Fifth  street  line.  His  sentiments 
and  expressions  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  Civil  war  at 
this  time  caused  him  to  be  looked  upon  with  distrust  as 
a radical,  or,  in  modern  terminology,  a “ crank,”  he  re- 
garding the  preparations  then  made  as  totally  inadequate 
to  suppress  the  rebellion,  which,  he  insisted,  was  not  a 
mere  riot  to  be  put  down  by  a sheriff’s  posse,  but  the 
beginning  of  a war  to  be  fought  out  by  colossal  armies. 
In  May,  1861,  he  was  commissioned  colonel  in  the  reg- 
ular army,  and  ordered  to  report  to  General  Scott  at 
Washington.  At  Bull  Run  he  commanded  a brigade  in 
Tyler’s  division,  and  was  a participant  in  the  defeat  of 
the  Northern  forces  in  that  battle.  In  August  he  was 
made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  sent  to  Ken- 
tucky to  act  as  lieutenant  to  Gen.  Robert  Anderson. 
Here  his  declaration  that  60,000  men  were  required  to 
drive  the  secessionists  out  of  that  State  and  that  200,000 
were  necessary  to  hold  the  State  for  the  Union,  met  with 
a cold  reception,  and  he  was  relieved  of  the  command  to 
which  he  had  succeeded  on  the  resignation,  on  account 
of  ill  health,  of  General  Anderson.  He  was  then  placed 
in  command  of  Benton  Barracks,  St.  Louis.  After  the 
capture  of  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson  by  General  Grant, 
Sherman  was  assigned  to  the  army  of  the  Tennessee,  in 
which  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  fifth  division. 
At  the  battle  of  Shiloh  he  took  an  important  part,  and 
was  wounded  in  the  hand.  During  the  advance  on  Cor- 
inth he  acted  with  distinguished  bravery  and  judg- 
ment, and  was  made  major-general  of  volunteers  in 
recognition  of  his  services.  In  July  General  Grant 
was  made  commander  of  the  department  of  the  Ten- 
nessee, and  Sherman  was  sent  to  Memphis  to  put 
the  city  in  a state  of  defense.  His  administra- 
tion of  affairs  in  this  city  has  been  the  subject  of 
much  adverse  criticism,  but  the  events  of  the  war  are 
yet  of  too  recent  a date  to  enable  an  impartial  estimate 
t>f  his  services  in  this  connection  to  be  formed.  During 
the  operations  against  Vicksburg,  Sherman  bore  a most 
conspicuous  part,  and  in  reward  for  his  services  was 
made  brigadier- general  in  the  regular  army.  On  Octo- 
ber 4th  Sherman  was  ordered  to  move  toward  Chatta- 
nooga. On  the  morning  of  November  24th  Sherman 
took  up  a position  on  the  northern  end  of  Mission 
Ridge,  and  sustained  the  heaviest  shocks  of  battle  in 
that  bloody  engagement.  On  the  next  morning  the 
enemy  were  in  retreat,  and  to  Sherman  was  assigned  the 
duty  of  pressing  them  back  toward  Ringgold,  at  which 
place  he  arrived  the  same  day,  cutting  the  enemy’s  com- 
munications as  he  went.  From  this  time  till  March, 
1864,  he  was  engaged  in  the  various  military  operations 
transpiring  in  the  section  of  the  country  in  which  he 
was  stationed,  during  which  time  he  relieved  Burnside 
at  Knoxville,  and  attacked  and  defeated  the  Confeder- 
ates at  Jackson  and  Meridian.  In  March,  General 
Grant  was  made  commander-in-chief  of  the  armies  of 
the  United  States,  and  he  almost  immediately  assigned 
Sherman  to  the  command  of  the  military  division  of  the 
Mississippi,  in  connection  with  which  appointment  Gen- 
eral Grant  indited  a letter  of  commendation  and  thanks 
to  Sherman,  who  was  also  the  recipient  of  a vote  of 
thanks  from  congress  for  brilliant  services  in  the  Chat- 


6795 

tanooga  campaign.  Soon  after  his  appointment  to  the 
command  of  the  division  he  received  orders  to  proceed 
from  Chattanooga  to  Atlanta.  His  force  amounted  to 
90,000  men,  while  he  was  confronted  by  Johnston  with 
an  army  of  62,000.  The  first  collision  of  the  forces  oc- 
curred at  Dalton.  Johnston  retreated.  The  next  scene 
of  operations  was  Allatoona  pass,  which  Sherman  car- 
ried, fighting  in  rapid  succession  the  bloody  battles  of 
New  Hope  Church,  Dallas,  and  Kenesaw  Mountain. 
By  July  17th  he  was  ready  to  begin  the  direct  attack  on 
Atlanta.  On  the  20th  he  fought  the  battle  of  Peach 
Tree  Creek;  on  the  22d  he  fought  another  on  the  east 
side  ’of  Atlanta,  and  on  the  28th  the  engagement  at 
Ezra  Church  took  place,  all  these  being  Union  successes. 
After  several  ineffectual  attempts  on  the  lines  of  com- 
munication of  the  Confederates,  General  Sherman  finally 
fought  the  battle  of  Jonesboro,  in  which  the  Confederates 
were  defeated,  and  on  September  1st  Atlanta  was  evac- 
uated. Thence  Sherman  took  up  his  “ march  to  the 
sea.”  On  December  24,  1864,  he  had  occupied  Savan- 
nah and  captured  150  guns,  large  stores  of  ammunition, 
and  25,000  bales  of  cotton.  These  he  laid  at  President 
Lincoln’s  feet  as  a Christmas  gift.  The  value  of  these 
operations  cannot  be  overestimated,  as  they  opened  a 
line  of  communication  between  the  seacoast  and  the 
fleet  and  the  interior  of  the  State,  and  thence  to  other 
portions  of  the  hostile  territory. 

In  the  meantime  Sherman  had  been  promoted  major- 
general  of  the  United  States  army,  and  on  January  jo, 
1865,  he  was  the  recipient  of  a vote  of  thanks  from 
congress  for  his  triumphal  march  through  Georgia. 
From  Savannah,  Sherman  marched  northward  through 
the  Atlantic  States,  flanking  Charleston,  S.  C.,  and  com- 
pelling its  surrender.  Advancing  into  North  Carolina, 
he  opened  communication  between  Schofield’s  command 
and  his  own,  fighting  at  Averysborough  and  Benton- 
ville.  At  Goldsborough  he  met  Schofield  on  March 
23d,  and  leaving  Schofield  there  with  his  command,  he 
visited  General  Grant  and  President  Lincoln  at  City 
Point,  Va.,  where  the  historic  interview  on  board  the 
Ocean  Queen  was  held.  Sherman  was  on  April  10th 
ready  to  move  northward  to  cut  Lee’s  lines  of  commu- 
nication or  to  reenforce  Grant,  as  circumstances  should 
dictate.  On  the  12th  he  received  news  of  Lee’s  sur. 
render,  and  on  the  14th  proposals  from  Gen.  Joseph  E. 
Johnston,  looking  to  a conference  preliminary  to  the  sur- 
render of  the  Confederate  army  under  that  general.  In 
the  articles  of  agreement  he  was  said  to  have  exceeded 
his  powers,  and  the  conference  was  repudiated  by  the 
secretary  of  war,  who  ordered  General  Grant  to  proceed 
to  North  Carolina,  and  negotiate  the  terms  of  sur- 
render. General  Sherman  bitterly  resented  the  action 
of  Secretary  Stanton  at  the  time,  but  they  were  finally 
reconciled.  It  has  always  been  credited  to  Sherman 
that  his  efforts  were  the  outcome  of  an  honest  desire  to 
avoid  further  strife,  and  a humane  disposition  to  render 
further  bloodshed  impossible.  On  May  24th  his  army 
passed  in  final  review  before  the  president,  and  on  the 
30th  Sherman  took  leave  of  them  in  an  affecting  and 
eloquent  valedictory.  He  was  immediately  assigned  to 
the  command  of  the  Division  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
this  position  he  held  till  March,  1869.  When  General 
Grant  was  made  general  of  the  army,  in  1866,  Sherman 
succeeded  him  as  lieutenant-general,  and  on  the  election 
of  Grant  to  the  presidency,  Sherman  became  general, 
which  position  he  held  till  February,  1884,  when  he  was 
retired  on  full  pay.  In  1871-72  he  made  a professional 
tour  of  Europe,  and  was  everywhere  received  with 
great  consideration.  He  received  many  honors,  hav- 
ing been  the  recipient  of  degrees  from  several  col- 
leges and  universities ; and,  from  1871  to  1883,  was  a 
member  of  the  board  of  regents  of  the  Smithsonian 


68oo 


SHI- 

Institution.  He  wrote  his  life  under  the  title  of  Me- 
moirs of  General  William  T.  Sherman , by  Himself. 
Gen.  Sherman  died  in  New  York  city,  Feb.  14,  1891. 

SHIELDS,  James,  was  born  in  Dungannon,  Ire- 
land, in  1810,  and  died  in  Ottumwa,  Iowa,  in  June, 
1879.  Shields  had  an  exceedingly  active  career.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  studied 
law,  and  in  1843  was  chosen  judge  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Illinois.  He  fought  under  Generals  Taylor 
and  Scott  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  was  made  brigadier- 
general.  He  was  United  States  Senator  from  Illinois 
from  1849  to  1855.  He  went  to  Minnesota  and  was 
sent  to  the  senate  from  that  State  also.  He  went  to 
California  but  remained  there  only  a short  time,  going  to 
Carrollton,  Mo.,  where  he  again  took  up  the  practice  of 
law.  He  was  a railroad  commissioner,  and  from  1874 
to  1879  was  a member  of  the  State  legislature. 

SHILLABER,  Benjamin  Penhallow,  writer 
of  the  “ Mrs.  Partington  ” sketches,  was  born  in 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  July  12,  1814.  From  1840 

until  1850  he  was  editor  of  the  Boston  Post , from 
1851  until  1853  edited  a comic  weekly,  The  Carpet  Bag, 
and  from  1856  until  1866  conducted  the  Saturday 
Evening  Gazette.  His  “ Mrs.  Partington  ” sayings 
gave  him  a wide  reputation.  He  died  Nov.  24,  1890. 

SHIPLEY,  Orby,  M.A.,  was  born  July  1,  1832,  at 
Southampton,  England,  and  was  educated  at  Jesus  Col- 
lege, Cambridge.  For  twenty-three  years  he  worked 
as  a clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England  ; and  on  Oc- 
tober 26,  1878,  was  received  into  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  He  is  the  author  of  some  tracts,  pamphlets, 
theological  books,  and  sermons  and  is  an  occasional 
contributor  to  periodic  literature. 

SHIPPEN,  Edward,  jurist,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Penn.,  February  16,  1720;  died  there  April  16,  1806. 
Young  Shippen  read  law  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  and 
in  1748  went  to  London  to  complete  his  course  of  study 
at  the  Middle  Temple.  Returning  to  Philadelphia,  he 
became,  in  1770,  a member  of  the  provincial  council, 
serving  for  five  years.  He  was  a royalist,  during 
the  Revolution,  and  became  associate  justice  and 
chief  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Pennsylvania. 
His  third  daughter,  Margaret,  was  the  second  wife  of 
Gen.  Benedict  Arnold. 

SHIRAS,  George,  Jr.,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Pitts- 
burg, Pa.,  January  26,  1832 ; graduated  from  Yale, 
1853,  and  practiced  law  in  Pennsylvania  till  appointed 
Associate  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States,  by  President  Harrison,  to  succeed  Justice 
Bradley.  He  took  the  oath  of  office  October  10,  1892. 

SHIRLAW,  Walter,  painter,  born  in  Paisley, 
Scotland,  1838,  was  brought  to  America  in  1840,  stud- 
ied in  Munich,  1870-77,  and  painted  Toning  of  the 
Bell  (1874),  and  Sheep- Shearing  in  the  Bavarian  High- 
lands (1876),  which  received  honorable  mention  at  the 
Paris  Exhibition  of  1878,  and  with  Rufina  were  exhib- 
ited at  the  World’s  Fair  in  Chicago  in  1893.  He 
painted  other  well-known  pictures  and  is  a National 
Academician. 

SHIRLEY,  William,  colonial  governor,  born  in 
Preston,  England,  1693 ; died  in  Roxbury,  Mass., 
March  24,  1771.  He  came  to  Boston,  Mass,  in  1734, 
practiced  law  and  in  1741  was  appointed  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  continuing  as  such  until  1745.  He  went 
abroad,  returned  in  1753  as  governor,  built  several 
forts  in  Maine,  and  in  1 755  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  British  forces  in  North  America,  planned  the  expe- 
dition against  the  French  at  Niagara  and  led  it  as  far  as 
Oswego.  In  1 756  he  was  made  lieutenant-general  and 
governor  of  the  Bahama  Islands,  returning  to  Massa- 
chusetts in  1770. 

SHORE,  Thomas  Teignmouth,  born  at  Dublin, 


-SIC 

Ireland,  1841 ; was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin, where  he  graduated  in  1861.  He  has  published 
Some  Difficulties  of  Belief  The  life  of  the  World  to 
Come , and  a volume  of  sermons  to  children,  St.  George 
for  England. 

SHORT,  Charles,  born  at  Haverhill,  Mass.,  May 
28,  1821,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  University,  1846; 
in  1863  was  called  to  the  presidency  of  Kenyon 
College,  Gambier,  Ohio,  remaining  there  until  1868, 
when  he  accepted  the  professorship  of  Latin  at  Columbia 
College,  where  he  remained  until  his  death,  December 
24,  1886.  He  was  a member  of  the  committee  on  the 
revision  of  the  New  Testament,  and  was  the  author  of 
standard  text  books  and  translations  from  the  classics. 
He  was  made  an  LL.D.  by  Kenyon  College  in  1868. 

SHORTHOUSE,  John  Henry,  was  born  in  1834, 
in  Great  Charles  street,  Birmingham,  England,  and 
educated  at  private  schools.  He  is  the  author  of  the 
celebrated  romance,  John  Inglesant,  which  was  first 
privately  printed  and  afterward  published  in  1881,  and 
excited  much  interest.  He  has  also  written  Sir  Per- 
cival  (1886),  Countess  Eve  (1888),  and  other  works. 

SHUFELDT,  Robert  Wilson,  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  Dutchess  county,  N.  Y.,  February 
21,  1822,  and  passed  as  midshipman  July  2,  1845.  He 
secured  promotion,  and  resigned  from  the  navy  in  June, 
1854,  to  accept  a position  in  the  service  of  the  Collins 
line  of  steamers,  operating  between  New  York  and 
Liverpool.  In  1861  he  became  United  States  consul  at 
Havana,  Cuba,  but  resigned  in  1863  to  reenter  the  navy. 
He  was  in  command  of  the  Conemaugh  off  Charleston 
and  of  the  Bcetius  belonging  to  the  squadron  blockading 
the  eastern  gulf  ports.  After  the  close  of  hostilities  he 
was  transferred  to  the  East  India  and  Asiatic  waters, 
where  he  commanded  the  Hartford  and  Wachusetts,  re- 
spectively. Later  he  was  in  charge  of  the  Miantonomah 
and  directed  the  expedition  sent  to  the  isthmus  of  Tehuan- 
tepec for  purposes  of  survey  and  exploration.  His  next 
important  service  was  as  commissioner  to  the  East 
Indies  and  Africa  in  connection  with  the  reopening  of 
the  American  trade.  He  was  promoted  through  the 
various  grades  of  the  navy,  and  was  retired  February 
27,  1884.  He  died  Nov.  7,  1895. 

SIBLEY,  Henry,  was  born  in  Louisiana  about  1815. 
He  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838,  and  enlisted 
in  the  Confederate  army  in  1861.  His  service  was  con- 
fined to  New  Mexico,  where  he  commanded  a small 
army  which  made  an  attack  upon  Fort  Craig  in  1862. 
He  attained  the  rank  of  general.  Died  in  1886. 

SIBLEY,  Henry  H.,  was  born  in  Detroit,  Mich., 
in  1811.  He  became  governor  of  Minnesota  in  1857, 
and  was  appointed  brigadier-general  in  1862.  He  led 
an  expedition  against  the  Sioux  Indians  in  June  and 
July,  1863.  He  died  February  18,  1891. 

SICKLES,  Daniel  E.,  was  born  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  October  20,  1823  ; graduated  at  the  New  York 
University,  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1844.  He  became  a member  of  the  State  legislature  in 
1847,  city  attorney  of  New  York  in  1853,  and  the  same 
year  secretary  of  the  American  legation  in  London. 
Two  years  later  he  was  sent  to  the  State  Senate  and  in 
1857  was  elected  to  congress  and  reelected  in  1S59. 
During  his  first  congressional  term  he  killed  Philip  Bar- 
ton Key,  the  tragedy  growing  out  of  the  latter’s  inti- 
macy with  Sickles’  wife.  He  was  tried  and  acquitted. 
He  entered  the  service  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  as 
commander  of  the  Excelsior  brigade,  and  was  conspicu- 
ous for  gallantry  in  the  various  battles  of  the  Peninsular 
campaign,  also  at  Antietam,  Fredericksburg,  Chancel- 
lorsville,  and  Gettysburg,  where  he  lost  a leg.  In  1865 
he  was  commissioner  to  the  South  American  republics, 
and  in  1866  was  appointed  to  the  colonelcy  of  the  42d 


SID-  SIM 


6801 


infantry.  The  year  following  his  gallantry  at  Freder- 
icksburg and  Gettysburg  he  was  recognized  by  pro- 
motion to  be  major-general.  From  1865  to  1867  he 
was  commander  of  the  second  military  district,  with 
headquarters  at  Columbia,  S.  C.,  whence  he  was  re- 
moved by  President  Johnson,  during  the  latter  year. 
He  was  placed  on  the  retired  list  of  the  army  with  the 
rank  of  major-general  in  May,  1869,  becoming  United 
States  minister  to  Spain  one  month  later.  He  resigned 
that  position  in  1873,  at  once  resuming  his  residence  in 
New  York  city.  In  1890  he  was  appointed  sheriff  of 
Kings  county,  and  served  in  congress,  1893-95. 

SIDGWICK,  Henry,  M.A.,  born  at  Skipton  in 
Yorkshire,  England,  in  1838,  was  educated  at  Rugby 
and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  appointed 
Knightsbridge  professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  1883. 
Mr.  Sidgwick  is  the  author  of  works  on  The  Methods  of 
Ethics , and  on  the  Principles  of  Political  Economy , and 
of  several  articles.  He  died  Aug.  18,  1900. 

SIGEL,  Franz,  soldier,  born  in  Sinsheim,  Baden, 
November  18,  1824.  He  was  graduated  at  the  Military 
School  at  Carlsruhe.  In  1852  he  came  to  the  United 
States,  and  for  some  years  taught  mathematics  and 
history  in  German  academies.  At  the  breaking  out  of 
the  Civil  war  Sigel  organized  a regiment  of  infantry  and 
a battery,  doing  good  service  for  the  Union  among  the 
Missouri  rebels.  He  was  made  a brigadier-general  in 
May,  1861.  He  fought  and  won  the  battle  of  Pea 
Ridge,  and  was  at  the  second  Bull  Run.  On  Septem- 
ber 14,  1862,  General  Sigel  was  placed  in  command  of 
the  eleventh  army  corps  under  Gen.  John  Pope, 
and  in  March,  1864,  was  ordered  to  the  command  of 
the  department  of  West  Virginia.  General  Sigel  met 
the  enemy  on  May  15,  1864,  under  General  Brecken- 
ridge,  and  was  badly  defeated.  His  command  was 
taken  from  him  and  given  to  General  Hunter.  Sigel 
resigned  and  became  the  editor  of  a German  news- 
paper, the  Baltimore  Wecker.  Going  to  New  York 
city  in  the  fall  of  1867,  he  was  made  collector  of  that 
port,  and  in  1886  was  appointed  pension  agent.  Gen- 
eral Sigel  has  written  several  books  relating  to  the 
German  revolution.  XHed.  Aug.  21, 1902. 

SIGOURNEY,  Lydia  Huntley,  born  in  Norwich, 
Conn.,  September  1,  1791;  died  in  Hartford,  Conn., 
June  10,  1865.  As  a child,  she  was  precocious  in  ac- 
quiring knowledge,  studied  at  Hartford  and  Norwich 
schools,  and  taught  for  five  years  in  the  first-mentioned 
city.  In  1815  her  first  volume  was  published,  Moral 
Pieces  in  Prose  and  Verse ; and  in  1819  she  was  married. 
During  her  life  she  published  forty-six  different  works, 
and  contributed  2,000  articles  to  about  300  periodicals. 
In  1840  Mrs.  Sigourney  visited  Europe,  and  two  vol- 
umes of  her  verses  were  issued  in  London.  Mrs. 
Sigourney  always  retained  her  interest  in  education, 
and  was  noted  for  her  sympathy  with  the  poor  and 
afflicted.  Many  of  her  prose  writings  were  of  a semi- 
religious character. 

SIKES,  Sir  Charles  William,  born  in  1818;  was 
the  founder  of  penny  savings  and  post  office  savings’ 
banks.  In  1833  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Hudders- 
field Banking  Company,  the  second  stock  joint  bank  es- 
tablished in  England.  In  1837  Mr.  Sikes  became  one 
of  the  cashiers  of  the  company,  and,  in  1882,  its  manag- 
ing director.  In  1850  he  addressed  a letter  to  the  Leeds 
Mercury , in  which  he  recommended  the  formation  of 
penny  savings’  banks  in  connection  with  mechanics’and 
similar  institutes.  The  committee  of  the  Yorkshire 
Union  of  Mechanics’  Institutes  gave  their  cordial  sanc- 
tion to  the  scheme  set  forth,  and  penny  banks  were  soon 
established  in  connection  with  nearly  every  mechanics’ 
institute  in  Yorkshire.  Sikes  was  knighted  in  1881. 
He  died  October  15,  1889. 


SILL,  Joshua  W.,  was  born  at  Chillicothe,  Ohio, 
December  6,  1831,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  the 
class  of  1853.  He  afterward  was  appointed  professor 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy,  and  resigned 
in  January,  1861,  to  accept  the  chair  of  mathematics  at 
the  Brooklyn  Polytechnic  College.  In  April  of  the 
same  year  he  was  appointed  adjutant-general  of  Ohio, 
and  in  August  following  was  placed  in  command  of 
the  33d  regiment  of  Ohio  infantry.  For  the  next 
twelve  months  he  was  identified  with  the  operations  of 
the  army  in  Kentucky,  Mississippi,  and  Tennessee,  and 
rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  was  killed 
at  Shiloh,  April  6,  1862. 

SIMCOE,  John  Graves,  British  soldier,  born  near 
Exeter,  England,  February  25,  1752;  died  in  Torbay, 
October  26,  1806.  Simcoe  fought  against  the  patriots 
during  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  in  1791  was  gov- 
ernor of  Upper  Canada.  From  December,  1796,  until 
July,  1797,  he  was  in  command  at  Santo  Domingo. 

SIMEONI,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  cardinal,  was  born 
at  Paliano,  in  the  diocese  of  Palestrina,  July  23,  1816, 
and,  having  been  ordained  priest,  he  was,  on^ccount 
of  his  solid  learning,  employed  in  offices  of  considerable 
importance.  Having  been  created  cardinal  in  1875,  he 
remained  in  the  nunciature  at  Madrid  in  the  quality  of 
pro-nuncio,  and  on  the  death  of  Cardinal  Antonelli,  in 
1876,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  to  Pius  IX., 
an  office  which  he  retained  until  the  death  of  that  pon- 
tiff. He  was  made  prefect  of  the  Propaganda,  by  Pope 
Leo  XIII.,  in  1878.  He  died  Jan.  14,  1891. 

SIMMONS,  Franklin,  was  born  January  11,  1842. 
He  developed  a talent  for  sculpture  early  in  life,  and 
visited  Italy  in  1868.  In  1865  he  modeled  medallion 
portraits  of  the  cabinet  at  Washington,  and  in  1888  exe- 
cuted a number  of  busts  of  leading  Americans.  His 
principal  works  embrace  statues  of  Oliver  P.  Morton, 
Henry  W.  Longfellow,  and  others,  with  a large  num- 
ber of  ideal  pieces  in  bronze  and  marble. 

SIMMONS,  Sir  John  Lintorn,  G.C.B.,  was  born 
at  Langford,  Somerset,  England,  in  1821,  and  educated 
at  Elizabeth  College,  Guernsey,  and  at  the  Military 
Academy,  Woolwich.  He  entered  the  royal  engineers 
in  1837,  and  after  serving  for  several  years  in  North 
America  was  appointed  inspector  of  railways,  Decem- 
ber, 1846,  and  in  1850  secretary  to  the  railway  commis- 
sioners. In  1853,  being  in  Turkey,  he  was  specially 
employed  by  the  late  Viscount  Stratford  de  Redcliffe  on 
several  important  missions,  and  became  commissioner 
with  the  Turkish  Army  under  the  command  of  Omar 
Pasha,  in  which  position  he  served  on  the  Danube. 
He  was  appointed  governor  of  Malta,  April  19,  1884, 
holding  office  some  years. 

SIMMONS,  William  Henry,  engraver,  was  born 
in  London,  June  11,  1811.  Whileapupil  with  Messrs. 
Finden  he  obtained  the  large  silver  medal  of  the  Society 
of  Arts  in  1833,  for  a finished  engraving  from  an  origi- 
nal design.  Mr.  Simmons  died  in  England,  June  10, 1882. 

SIMMS,  William  Gilmore,  born  at  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  April  17,  1806.  He  studied  both  law  and  medi- 
cine, but  devoted  his  attention  to  literary  pursuits,  and 
when  twenty-one  years  of  age  published  a volume  of 
poems.  In  1828  he  succeeded  to  the  editorship  of  the 
Charleston  Gazette , of  which  he  subsequently  became 
the  owner.  It  turned  out  to  be  a disastrous  venture 
financially,  and,  after  publishing  a collection  of  poems, 
he  retired  to  his  estate  near  Midway,  S.  C.,  and  there 
wrote  a series  of  novels  illustrative  of  Southern  life 
and  customs.  He  also  prepared  a geography  of  South 
Carolina,  and  contributed  a number  of  sketches,  stories, 
reviews,  etc.,  to  magazines,  which  have  since  been 
collected  and  published  in  book  form,  He  died  al 
Charleston,  June  11,  1870, 


6802 


S I M 


SIMON,  John,  C.B.,  F.R  A,  born  in  1816,  became 
an  honorary  fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in 
1844;  medical  officer  of  the  privy  council,  surgeon  to 
St.  Thomas’  Hospital,  and  was  the  first  appointed  offi- 
cer of  health  to  the  city  of  London.  He  is  the  author 
of  several  papers  on  physiology,  pathology,  and  sur- 
gery, and  of  reports  and  other  official  papers  relating  to 
the  sanitary  state  of  the  people  of  England. 

SIMON,  Jules,  a French  statesman,  was  born  at 
Lorient  (Morbihan),  December  31,  1814.  The  name 
given  to  him  by  his  parents  was  Jules  Frangois  Simon 
Suisse,  but  he  adopted  the  name  of  Simon,  and  has 
never  been  known  by  any  other.  He  studied  in  Lori- 
ent and  at  Vannes,  after  which  he  entered  as  an  assist- 
ant teacher,  the  Lycee  at  Rennes.  He  remained  at  the 
normal  school  for  some  time,  was  received  as  fellow  of 
philosophy  in  1835*  and  professed  that  science  success- 
ively at  Caen  and  Versailles.  At  the  latter  place  he 
achieved  a brilliant  success.  In  December,  1847,  he 
founded  at  Paris,  in  conjunction  with  his  university  col- 
league, M.  Amedee  Jacques,  a political  and  philosoph- 
ical review  called  La  Liberte  de  Penser.  M.  Simon  ed- 
ited the  political  department  of  that  publication. 

On  the  formation  of  the  government  of  national  de- 
fense in  September,  1870,  he  took  the  post  of  minister 
of  public  instruction,  public  worship,  and  fine  arts. 
After  the  armistice  he  was  sent  to  Bordeaux  to  see  that 
the  decrees  relating  to  the  elections  were  carried  out  in 
their  integrity,  and  not  with  the  modifications  intro- 
duced by  M.  Gambetta.  At  the  elections  of  February 
8,  1871,  M.  Simon’s  candidature  failed  at  Paris,  but  he 
was  reelected  a representative  of  the  department  of  the 
Marne  in  the  national  assembly.  He  classed  himself 
among  the  members  of  the  Left,  and  was  chosen  by  M. 
Thiers  to  take,  in  the  cabinet  of  conciliation  formed 
February  19,  1871,  the  portfolio  of  public  instruction. 
He  held  it  till  May,  1873,  when  he  resumed  his  seat 
among  the  members  of  the  Left,  who  made  him  their 
president.  On  December  16,  1875,  he  was  elected  a 
senator  for  life.  In  December,  1876,  M.  Dufaure  re- 
signed, and  a new  ministry  had  to  be  formed,  which, 
according  to  constitutional  principles,  must  rest  upon 
a parliamentary  majority.  The  president  sent  for  M. 
Jules  Simon,  who  became  premier,  holding,  with  the 
presidency  of  the  council,  the  portfolio  of  the  interior. 
The  cabinet  lasted  till  May  16,  1877,  when  Marshal 
MacMahon  sent  M.  Simon  a letter,  which  was,  in  fact, 
nothing  less  than  a dismissal  from  office.  M.  Simon 
went  immediately  to  the  Marshal  and  tendered  his 
resignation,  which  was  accepted.  M.  Simon  was 
elected  a member  of  the  French  Academy  in  November, 

1875,  in  the  place  of  the  Comte  de  Remusat,  and  was 
formally  received  into  that  learned  body,  June  22, 

1876.  M.  Jules  Simon  vigorously  opposed  the  bill  in- 
troduced by  M.  Ferry  in  1879  for  the  suppression  of 
the  non-authorized  religious  congregations.  In  April, 
1880,  the  French  Academy  elected  him  a member  of 
the  new  supreme  educational  council,  and  on  November 
II,  1882,  he  was  elected  permanent  secretary  of  the 
academy  of  moral  and  political  science,  in  the  place  of 
M.  Mignet.  He  has  brought  out  editions  of  the  philo- 
sophical works  of  Descartes,  Bossuet,  Malebranche, 
and  Antoine  Arnauld;  and  has  contributed  to  the  Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes.  Died  June  8,  1896. 

SIMONIN,  Louis  Laurent,  a French  engineer  and 
author,  was  born  at  Marseilles,  August  22,  1830,  and 
died  in  1886.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  geology 
to  the  ficole  Centrale  d’ Architecture  in  1865,  and  be- 
came an  expert  in  the  examination  of  mines.  He  was  a 
frequent  visitor  to  the  United  States.  The  professor 
published,  in  France,  a number  of  valuable  worV% 
mostly  concerning  America. 


SIMPSON,  Edmund,  actor,  born  in  England  in 
1784;  died  in  New  York  city,  July  31,  1848.  He  made 
his  first  appearance  as  “Baron  Steinforth,”  in  The 
Stranger.  Coming  to  the  United  States,  he  joined  a 
dramatic  corps  in  New  York  city.  He  became,  in  1810, 
stage  manager  of  the  Park  theater,  and  later  was  joint 
manager  and  manager  until  1848,  when  he  retired  in 
poor  circumstances.  The  theater  with  which  he  was 
connected  for  so  many  years  became  the  dramatic 
temple  of  the  United  States  under  his  able  management, 
and  it  was  there  that  nearly  all  the  noted  actors  of  the 
time  in  this  country  made  their  appearance. 

SIMPSON,  Edward,  born  at  New  York  city 
March  3,  1824,  and  graduated  at  the  Annapolis  Naval 
Academy  in  the  class  of  1846.  He  was  present  at  the 
capture  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  participated  in  the  subse- 
quent naval  engagements  of  the  Mexican  war.  He  was 
afterward  attached  to  the  coast  survey,  and  to  the 
Brazil  and  East  India  squadrons;  was  also  assistant 
instructor  and  commander  of  cadets  at  the  naval 
academy,  remaining  in  the  latter  position  until  1863. 
In  that  year  he  commanded  the  Passaic  off  Charleston, 
and  commanded  at  other  points  along  the  southern 
coast,  including  Mobile,  where  he  participated  in  the 
capture  of  that  city.  After  the  war  he  was  employed 
on  various  missions  and  in  several  official  capacities 
until  March  3,  1886,  when  he  was  placed  on  the  re- 
tired list  with  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  He  died  De- 
cember 2,  1888. 

SIMPSON,  John  Pai  grave,  born  in  Norfolk, 
England,  early  in  the  nineteenth  century;  received  his 
education  under  a private  tutor  and  at  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  B.A., 
and  proceeded  M.A.  in  due  course.  A severe  reverse 
of  fortune  caused  him  to  devote  his  attention  to  litera- 
ture, and  for  many  years  he  contributed  to  Blackwood 
and  Fraser's  Magazines  and.  Bentley's  Miscellany.  He 
wrote  Second  Love , and  other  Tales , published  in  1846; 
and  produced  about  sixty  pieces  of  different  kinds.  He 
died  in  1887. 

SIMPSON,  Matthew,  was  born  at  Cadiz,  Ohio, 
June  21,  1810.  He  graduated  as  a physician  in  1833, 
and  in  1839  was  elected  president  of  the  Indiana 
Asbury  University  (Methodist).  He  was  elected  bishop 
in  1852.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  President  Lin- 
coln, and  was  a zealous  supporter  of  the  national  cause 
during  the  rebellion.  He  died  June  18,  1884 

SIMPSON,  William,  was  born  at  Glasgow',  Octo- 
ber 28,  1823.  He  began  life  as  an  architect,  and  then 
took  to  art.  He  went  through  the  war  in  the  Crimea 
as  an  artist,  and  published  sketches  in  two  volumes,  en- 
titled Campaigns  in  the  East.  Mr.  Simpson  has  pub- 
lished other  works  relating  to  his  extensive  travels  in 
the  East. 

SIMS,  Charles  N.,  an  American  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  is  a native  of  Union  county, 
Ind.,  born  May  18,  1835.  He  graduated  at  De 
Pauw  University  in  1859,  became  president  of  a college 
at  Valparaiso,  Ind.,  the  year  following,  and  afterward 
was  the  pastor  of  churches  in  the  Indiana,  Pennsylvania, 
New  York,  and  New  Jersey  conferences.  He  was  made 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Syracuse,  N.  V.,  in 
1880,  and  has  served  in  other  official  capacities,  besides 
contributing  to  magazines  and  the  religious  press.  He 
was  made  an  LL.D.  by  his  alma  mater  in  1882. 

SIMS,  George  Robert,  born  in  London,  Septem- 
ber 2,  1847,  and  educated  at  Hanwell  College,  and 
afterward  at  Bonn.  He  first  joined  the  staff  of  Fun  on 
the  death  of  Tom  Hood  the  younger  in  1874;  and  the 
Weekly  Dispatch  the  same  year.  Taking  to  the  dra- 
matic field,  he  produced  his  first  play,  Crutch  and  Tooth- 
pick,  at  the  Royalty  theater  in  April,  1879;  Mother-in • 


S I M - 

law , 1881;  Member  for  Slocum,  1881.  These  were 
followed  by  The  Lights  of  London , Romany  Rye , Ln 
the  Ranks,  and  others  that  have  become  very  popular  in 
the  United  States. 

SIMS,  James  Marion,  surgeon;  born  in  Lancaster 
county,  S.  C.,  January  25,  1813;  died  in  New  York 
city,  November  13,  1883.  He  was  graduated  at  South 
Carolina  College  in  1832,  and  studied  medicine  in 
Charleston  and  Philadelphia.  In  1853  Doctor  Sims 
removed  to  New  York  city.  In  1857  he  visited 
Europe,  but  in  1868  returned  to  settle  in  New  York 
city.  ‘ Part  of  the  last  period  of  his  life  was  spent  with 
his  family  in  Paris.  Among  his  benefactions  is  the 
J.  Marion  Sims  asylum  for  the  poor,  in  Lancaster,  S.  C. 
He  is  chiefly  famed  for  his  surgical  appliances  and 
inventions. 

SIMS,  Winfield  Scott,  an  American  electrician, 
was  born  in  New  York  city,  April  6,  1844;  ai  d upon 
completing  his  education  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  entered 
the  army,  and  served  during  the  Civil  war.  He  is  the 
inventor  of  an  electric  motor,  also  of  a device  for  the 
conduct,  location,  and  explosion  of  submarine  tor- 
pedoes; the  latter  consisting  of  a boat,  the  movements 
of  which  are  governed  by  power  generated  on  board 
an  accompanying  boat,  or  on  the  shore. 

SIMSON,  Martin  Edward,  a German  jurist,  was 
born  at  Konigsberg  in  1810.  After  studying  at  Bonn 
under  Niebuhr  he,  in  1836,  became  a professor  of  law 
at  Konigsberg.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  Na- 
tional Assembly  at  Frankfort  in  1848. 

SITTING  BULL,  the  chief  of  the  Sioux  Indians  of 
Dakota,  was  born  in  1836  or  thereabouts,  and  owes 
his  reputation  to  his  victory  over  the  forces  of  General 
Custer  at  the  battle  of  the  Rosebud  on'  the  Little 
Big  Horn  in  June,  1876;  General  Custer,  together  with 
his  entire  command,  being  cut  off  from  escape  and 
slaughtered.  Sitting  Bull  made  his  escape  to  Canada, 
but  surrendered  in  1880,  and  remained  on  the  Indian 
reservation  until  December,  1890,  when  he  was  shot  by 
a body  of  Indian  police  who  had  captured  him. 

SKEAT,  Walter  William,  M.A.,  born  in  Lon- 
don, November  21,  1835,  was  educated  at  Kings’  Col- 
lege School;  at  Sir  R.  Cholmeley’s  School,  Highgate; 
and  at  Christ’s  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  gradu- 
ated B.A.  in  1858,  being  fourteenth  wrangler.  Mr. 
Skeat,  who  has  chiefly  devoted  his  attention  to  early 
English  literature  and  English  etymology,  has  published 
manv  volumes  of  that  character. 

SKELTON,  Sir  John,  a Scottish  author,  born 
in  Edinburgh,  July  18,  1831.  He  was  educated  at  St. 
Andrew’s  and  Edinburgh.  His  books  include  Nuga 
Critic  a,  A Campaign  at  Honie , The  Impeachment  of 
Mary  Stuart,  Essays  in  Romance.  Died  July  20,  1897. 

SKENE,  Philip,  soldier,  born  in  England,  Febru- 
ary, 1725;  died  June  10,  1810.  He  entered  the  British 
army,  came  to  America,  and  fought  with  the  Royalists 
in  the  Revolutionary  war.  He  received  a grant  of  land, 
and  by  purchase  made  it  60,000  acres.  Here  he  estab- 
lished a town,  which  he  named  Skenesborough,  now 
Whitehall,  N.  Y.,  which  was  burned  by  the  British  to 
prevent  its  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  patriots.  Skene 
was  in  London  when  peace  was  proclaimed  between 
England  and  the  colonies,  and  he  at  once  came  to  Amer- 
ica in  the  endeavor  to  recover  his  property.  Not  being 
successful,  the  British  Government  gave  him  ^20,000 
compensation,  and  a pension  of  ^240  a year. 

SKENE,  William  Forbes,  was  born  at  Inverie, 
Kincardineshire,  Scotland,  June  7,  1809,  and  educated  at 
the  High  School  of  Edinburgh.  He  then  studied  in 
Germany,  and  at  the  Universities  of  Edinburgh  and 
St.  Andrew’s.  He  afterward  entered  the  legal  profes- 
sion as  a writer  to  the  Signet,  In  1881  he  was  ap~ 


- S L O 6803 

pointed  historiographer  for  Scotland  in  the  room  of  the 
late  Dr.  Hill  Burton.  He  died  August  29,  1892. 

SKINNER,  Richard,  a jurist  of  Connecticut,  born 
at  Litchfield,  May  30,  1778,  who,  upon  his  admission  to 
the  bar,  removed  to  Manchester,  Vt.,  where  he  began 
the  practice  of  law.  He  was  a member  of  the  lower 
house  of  congress  in  1813-15,  a justice  of  the  Vermont 
Supreme  Court  in  1817,  speaker  of  the  Vermont  Legisla- 
ture during  the  year  following,  and  governor  of  that 
State  from  1820  to  1823.  He  was  also  connected  with 
various  associations  of  a scientific  and  benevolent  char- 
acter, and  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  the  advancement 
of  educational  interests.  He  was  made  an  LL.D.  by 
Middlebury  College  in  1817,  and  died  at  Manchester, 
May  23,  1833. 

SKOBELEFF,  Mikhail  Dimitryevitch,  a Rus- 
sian soldier,  born  in  the  Riazan  district  in  1845.  He 
was  educated  in  a military  school  in  St.  Petersburg. 
He  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  1873-76  by  gallant 
service  in  the  Khiva  and  Khokand  wars,  becoming  a 
major-general.  He  was  also  conspicuous  in  the  T urkish 
war  in  1877.  He  died  July  7,  1882. 

SLEMMER,  Adam  J.,  Gen.,  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1828;  was  graduated  at  West 
Point,  July  1,  1850.  He  was  engaged  in  services  on 
the  frontier,  also  as  professor  of  mathematics  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  until  i860,  when  he 
was  sent  South,  and  had  charge  of  one  of  the  forts  in 
Charleston  harbor.  Later,  he  was  transferred  to 
Florida,  and  secured  possession  of  Fort  Pickens, 
January  10,  1 861,  holding  it  until  relieved  by  the 
United  States  Government.  In  May,  1861,  he  was 
promoted  major  of  the  16th  infantry,  and  later, 
served  in  the  Southwestern  armies.  He  fought  at 
Corinth,  Miss.,  and  became  brigadier-general,  but  was 
so  severely  wounded  at  Stone  River  as  to  incapacitate 
him  from  further  active  service.  Subsequently  he  was 
promoted  to  be  colonel  by  brevet  of  the  4th  infantry, 
and  placed  in  command  of  Fort  Laramie,  Kan.,  where 
he  died,  October  7,  1868. 

SLIDELL,  John,  born  in  New  York  city  in  1793; 
died  in  London,  July  29,  1871.  Mr.  Slidell  played  a 
somewhat  prominent  part  in  the  Rebellion,  acting  in  the 
interest  of  the  Confederacy.  He  was  graduated  at 
Columbia  in  i8-io,  and  shortly  after  entered  mercantile 
life  in  his  native  city.  A little  later  he  read  law,  and  in 
1819  removed  to  Louisiana,  where  he  became  district 
attorney,  a position  he  held  until  1833.  He  was  sent  to 
congress,  and  in  1845  was  appointed  minister  to  Mexico. 
In  1853  he  was  elected  United  States  senator,  serving 
until  February  4,  1861.  Mr.  Slidell  was  known  in 
congress  as  a rabid  States’  rights  man,  and  when  his 
State  withdrew  from  the  Union,  in  1861,  he  gave  up  his 
seat  in  the  Senate  and  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Con- 
federacy. In  the  same  year  he  and  John  Y.  Mason,  of 
Virginia,  were  dispatched  upon  a diplomatic  mission  to 
France,  the  object  being  to  enlist  and  solicit  more  sub- 
stantial aid  in  the  way  of  a loan.  The  two  embassadors 
sailed  from  Havana  in  the  British  steamer  Trent , but 
were  seized  on  the  open  seas  by  Capt.  Charles  Wilkes, 
commander  of  the  frigate  San  Jacinto , and  were  im- 
prisoned in  Fort  Warren,  Boston  harbor.  The  British 
government  demanded  that  the  prisoners  should  be 
liberated,  a demand  which  was  at  once  complied  with, 
and  Messrs.  Slidell  and  Mason  sailed  from  Boston  to 
England.  Mr.  Slidell  went  at  once  to  Paris  and  had 
conferences  with  Napoleon  III.  Some  time  after  this 
Mr.  Slidell  settled  in  England  and  remained  there  until 
he  died. 

SLOAN,  Samuel,  an  American  designer  and  builder, 
was  born  March  7,  1815,  in  the  county  of  Chester, 
Penn.,  and,  upon  the  completion  of  his  education, 


SLO-SMI 


6804 

applied  himself  to  the  study  of  architecture.  He  fur- 
nished the  plans  for  the  insane  asylum  at  Montgomery, 
Ala.,  as  also  for  other  prominent  public  and  private 
edifices  in  other  portions  of  the  country,  and  was  the 
author  of  standard  works  on  architecture.  He  died  at 
Raleigh,  N.  C.,  July  19,  1884. 

SLOCUM,  Henry  W.,  an  American  soldier,  born 
at  Delphi,  Onondaga  county,  N.  Y.,  September  24, 
1827;  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1852,  and  after 
serving  in  the  artillery  until  1856,  resigned.  He  after- 
ward practiced  law  at  Syracuse,  and  served  one  term  in 
the  legislature  of  New  York,  but  upon  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  reentered  the  army  as  colonel  of  the  27th  New 
York  infantry.  He  was  wounded  at  the  first  battle  of 
Bull  Run,  and  in  August,  following,  was  made  briga- 
dier-general. In  the  Peninsula  campaign  he  was  promo- 
ted to  be  major-general  of  volunteers,  and  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  the  following  spring  commanded  the  twelfth 
army  corps,  with  which  he  participated  in  the  battles 
of  Chancellorsville,  Fredericksburg,  and  Gettysburg. 
He  was  conspicuous  in  the  southwest  in  1864,  suc- 
ceeding Gen.  Joseph  H.  Hooker  as  commander  of  the 
twentieth  corps,  and  accompanying  Sherman  on  his 
march  to  the  Carolinas  in  command  of  the  left  wing  of 
the  army.  In  1865  he  located  at  Brooklyn,  and  was 
defeated  for  the  office  of  secretary  of  New  York.  In 
1868,  1870  and  1884  he  was  elected  to  congress  as  a 
Democrat.  He  died  April  14,  1894. 

SLOPER,  E.  H.  Lindsay,  musical  composer  and 
pianist,  born  in  London,  June  14,  1826;  although  not 
intended  by  his  parents  to  become  a professor,  was 
allowed  to  follow  the  bent  of  his  inclination.  He  studied 
diligently  for  years  under  the  best  instructors,  and  in 
1871  he  visited  the  United  States  and  Canada,  in  com- 
pany, at  first,  with  a distinguished  English  concert 
party;  and, when  there,  was  also  associated  in  a short 
professional  tour  with  Miss  Clara  L.  Kellogg.  Of 
late  years,  like  many  of  his  brother  professors,  he 
chiefly  devoted  his  time  to  the  laborious  duties  of 
tuition.  He  died  July  3,  1887. 

SMALLEY,  Eugene  V.,  an  American  journalist, 
born  July  18,  1841,  in  Portage  county,  Ohio,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  public  schools  of  that  State.  He  served 
through  the  war  as  a member  of  the  7th  Ohio  infantry, 
and  began  his  journalistic  career  as  a correspondent 
during  his  residence  in  Washington,  where  he  served 
as  a committee  clerk  from  1868  to  1873.  He  was  foun- 
der of  the  Northwest , a magazine  published  at  St. 
Paul,  Minn.,  and  has  been  a contributor  to  periodicals 
and  the  daily  press  for  many  years. 

SMALLEY,  George  W.,  an  American  journalist, 
was  born  at  Franklin,  in  the  county  of  Suffolk,  Mass., 
June  2,  1833;  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1853, 
studied  law  and  practiced  his  profession  at  Boston  until 
1861.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  war  he  became 
a correspondent  of  the  New  York  Tribune.  He  served 
in  that  capacity  until  1863,  accompanying  the  Union 
army  to  North  Carolina,  Virginia,  and  Pennsylvania, 
and  furnishing  descriptions  of  the  battles  he  witnessed 
that  secured  for  their  author  a national  reputation.  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  to  a position  in  the 
editorial  department  of  the  Tribune , and  afterward  was 
sent  to  Europe  by  that  paper,  when  he  established  a 
London  bureau.  His  principal  professional  work 
while  abroad  has  been  letters  descriptive  of  the  war 
between  Austria  and  Prussia,  descriptive  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war,  of  the  death  and  burial  of  the  German 
emperors,  and  of  the  social  and  political  conditions 
existent  in  the  countries  he  visited. 

SMILES,  Samuel,  born  at  Haddington,  Scotland, 
in  1812;  was  educated  for  the  medical  profession,  and 
practiced  for  some  time  as  a surgeon  at  Haddington; 


but,  abandoning  medicine,  he  succeeded  the  late  Mr. 
Robert  Nicoll  as  editor  of  the  Leeds  Times.  He  be- 
came, in  1845,  secretary  of  the  Leeds  and  Thirsk  rail- 
way, and  after  ten  years  ( on  the  amalgamation  of  that 
railway  with  the  North-Eastern),  he  transferred  his 
services,  at  the  end  of  1854,  to  the  South-Eastern  rail- 
way, from  which  he  retired  in  1866.  He  is  best  known 
as  the  author  of  Self  Help,  and  of  the  lives  of  several 
distinguished  engineers.  He  edited  the  autobiography 
of  Mr.  James  Nasmyth,  1883,  and  has  been  a constant 
contributor  to  the  Quarterly  Review  and  other  period- 
icals. 

SMILLIE,  George  H.,  an  American  artist,  was 
born  in  New  York  city,  December  29,  1840,  where  he 
studied  art  and  executed  an  occasional  order  during  his 
early  career.  He  received  instruction  from  William 
Cumming  Smillie,  his  father,  and  others,  and  passed 
nearly  the  entire  year  1871  in  the  Yosemite  Valley, 
among  the  canons  of  Colorado,  and  at  other  scenic 
points  in  the  West,  engaged  in  sketching  and  painting. 
During  1884  he  visited  Europe  and  continued  his 
studies.  He  is  an  academician  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy, and  is  a member  of  art  societies  in  this  country 
and  in  Europe.  He  excels  both  in  oil  painting  and  in 
water  colors,  and  the  products  of  his  professional 
labors  have  been  numerous  and  popular. 

SMILLIE,  James,  born  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 
November  23,  1807;  died  in  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  De- 
cember 4,  1885.  In  1819  he  was  apprenticed  to  a silver 
engraver,  and  later  worked  with  an  engraver  of  pic- 
tures. Coming  to  Canada,  and  later  to  New  York 
city,  he  made  a series  of  engravings  from  Weir’s  paint- 
ings for  the  New  York  Mirror.  From  1861  until  his 
death  he  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  bank-note 
engraving.  In  his  best  days  Mr.  Smillie  was  noted  as 
a landscape  engraver. 

SMITH,  Andrew  Jackson,  a native  of  Bucks 
county,  Penn.,  born  April  28,  1815  ; graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1838,  and  at  the  commencement  of  the  Civil 
war  was  a captain  of  infantry  serving  on  the  frontier. 
He  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  2d  California  cavalry 
in  1861  and  assigned  to  the  department  of  Missouri, 
where  he  became  chief  of  that  branch  of  the  service. 
In  1862  he  operated  in  Tennessee,  but  after  the  sur- 
render of  Corinth  was  sent  to  the  department  of  Ohio. 
Later  he  participated  in  the  battles  occurring  about 
Vicksburg  during  the  siege  of  that  city,  also  in  those 
of  the  Red  River  expedition.  In  1864  he  relieved 
Missouri  from  the  presence  and  depredations  of  Trice’s 
army,  joined  in  the  pursuit  of  Hood’s  army  upon  its 
retreat  from  Nashville,  and  commanded  the  advance 
upon  Mobile,  being  also  present  at  the  capture  of  that 
stronghold.  He  became  colonel  of  the  7th  regular 
cavalry  in  1866,  commanded  the  department  of  Mis- 
souri in  1867  and  1868,  and  in  May  of  the  year  follow- 
ing resigned  his  commission. 

SMITH,  Benjamin  Bosworth,  LL.D.,  a bishop  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States, 
was  a native  of  Bristol,  R.  I.,  born  June  13,  1794; 
graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1816,  and  was  or- 
dained priest  June  24,  1818.  He  at  once  entered  upon 
the  discharge  of  his  ministerial  duties,  and  during  his 
career  as  rector  occupied  the  pulpits  of  churches  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, Vermont,  Virginia,  Pennsylvania  and  Ken- 
tucky. He  was  consecrated  the  first  Episcopal  bishop 
of  the  latter  State  October  31,  1832,  and  became  the 
senior  bishop  of  his  church  upon  the  death  of  Bishop 
Hopkins,  January  9,  1868.  In  addition  to  his  pa- 
rochial and  episcopal  duties,  Bishop  Smith  was  at 
times  editor  of  church  journals,  also  the  author  of  works 
on  church  discipline  and  religious  subjects.  He  was 
made  an  S.T.D.  by  Hobart  college  in  1831,  and  an 


S M I 


LL.D.  by  Brown  University  in  1872,  and  by  Griswold 
(Iowa)  College  in  1870.  He  died  in  New  York  city, 
May  31,  1884. 

SMITH,  Benjamin  Leigh,  was  born  in  England, 
March  12,  1828,  and  educated  at  Jesus  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  graduated  as  a wrangler  in  1852.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  by  the  Inner  Temple  in  1856,  but 
gave  himself  up  to  navigation.  He  made  five  voyages 
to  the  Arctic  regions  and  has  done  much  in  the  way  of 
discoveries.  He  took  deep-sea  temperatures,  which 
added  much  to  the  knowledge  of  the  gulf  stream,  and 
established  the  fact  of  warm  under-currents  flowing  be- 
neath surface-water  of  a much  lower  temperature.  His 
last  trip  was  in  1881,  when  he  started  in  the  Eira  for 
Franz  Joseph  Land,  which  he  reached  on  July  24th, 
but  the  Eira  was  crushed  in  the  ice  on  August  21st, 
and  sank  before  many  stores  were  saved.  The  crew 
built  a hut  of  turf  and  stones,  where  they  wintered, 
living  mostly  on  bears  and  walruses.  On  June  21,  1882, 
they  left  in  four  boats,  and  reached  Nova  Zembla  on 
August  2d.  The  next  day  they  fell  in  with  the  Willem 
Barents  and  the  Hope , which  had  been  sent  to  their 
relief,  and  they  arrived  at  Aberdeen  on  board  the  Hope 
on  August  20th.  Mr.  Smith  received  a gold  medal  of 
the  Paris  Geographical  Society  in  1880;  and  a gold 
medal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  in  1881. 

SMITH,  Caleb  B.,  an  American  lawyer,  born  at 
Boston,  Mass.,  April  16,  1808;  removed,  with  his 
parents,  to  Ohio  six  years  later ; was  educated  at  Miami 
University,  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1828,  and  the  same 
year  began  the  practice  of  his  profession  at  Conners- 
ville,  Ind.  He  afterward  became  a member  of  the 
State  legislature,  and  upon  the  expiration  of  his  legis- 
lative career,  in  1849,  resumed  the  practice  of  law  at 
Cincinnati,  O.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  in- 
terior by  President  Lincoln,  and  in  1862  became  judge 
of  the  United  States  Court  for  the  district  of  Indiana. 
He  died  January  7,  1864. 

SMITH,  Charles  Emory,  an  American  journalist, 
born  February  18,  1842,  at  Mansfield,  Conn.,  and  edu- 
cated at  Union  College.  Upon  his  graduation,  in  1861, 
he  became  connected  with  the  Albany,  N.  Y.,  papers, 
and  served  there  in  an  editorial  capacity  on  the  Express , 
and  later  on  the  Journal.  In  1880  he  assumed  charge 
of  the  Philadelphia  Press,  and  has  continued  that  con- 
nection except  in  the  interval  of  1890-93,  when  he  was 
United  States  minister  to  St.  Petersburg. 

SMITH,  Charles  Ferguson,  an  American  soldier  ; 
born  at  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  April  24,  1807;  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1825,  and  from  1829  to  1842  served  at 
the  academy  as  professor  of  tactics,  adjutant  of  the 
post,  and  in  command  of  the  cadets.  He  participated 
in  the  campaigns  of  Texas  prior  to  the  Mexican  war, 
and  was  conspicuous  in  the  latter  contest,  being  present 
at  all  the  leading  battles,  and  securing  promotion  from 
a lieutenancy  to  the  rank  of  colonel  by  brevet  at  the 
close  of  hostilities.  In  1855  he  became  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  the  10th  infantry,  and  engaged  in  the  expedi- 
tion to  the  Red  river  and  Utah.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  war  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  forces 
at  Washington  city,  subsequently  being  transferred  to 
Kentucky,  where  he  was  made  colonel  of  the  3d  infan- 
try. He  participated  in  the  operations  against  Forts 
Henry  and  Donelson,  and  to  his  bravery  and  skillful 
tactics,  it  was  said  at  the  time,  the  capture  of  the  latter 
stronghold  was  due.  He  died  April  25,  1862,  at  Savan- 
nah, Tenn.,  whither  he  had  been  sent  to  prepare  for  a 
forward  movement  against  Shiloh,  having,  one  month 
previous,  been  made  a major-general  of  volunteers. 

SMITH,  Charles  Roach,  F.S.A.,  born  in  the  Isle 
of  Wight,  England,  early  in  the  century;  has  written 
Collectanea  Antigua,  The  Antiquities  of  Richborough , 


6805 

Reculver  and  Lymne,  Illustrations  of  Roman  London. 
With  Mr.  T.  Wright  he  founded  the  British  Archaeo- 
logical Association,  the  forerunner  of  the  numerous 
archaeological  societies,  and  many  of  his  contributions 
are  in  its  Journal.  He  received  the  first  medal  of  the 
London  Numismatic  Society,  of  which  for  some  years 
he  ^as  secretary.  He  died  August  2,  1890. 

SMITH,  Daniel  B.,  an  American  scientist,  was 
born  July  14,  1792,  at  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  and  after 
obtaining  an  education  at  the  village  school,  entered 
upon  commercial  pursuits,  and  so  continued  for  many 
years.  During  that  period  he  was  made  professor  of 
chemistry  in  Haverford  College,  was  one  of  the  incor- 
porators of  the  Philadelphia  College  of  Pharmacy, 
assisted  in  founding  the  Journal  of  Pharmacy  and  in 
the  organization  of  the  Pharmaceutical  Association  of 
the  United  States.  He  was  a member  of  leading  philo- 
sophical and  scientific  societies  in  various  parts  of  this 
country  and  Europe,  and  the  author  of  a number  of 
works  on  chemistry.  He  died  near  Philadelphia, 
March  29,  1883. 

SMITH,  Edward  Kirby,  born  in  St.  Augustine, 
Fla.,  May  16,  1824.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1845,  and  received  the  rank 
of  brevet  second  lieutenant,  and  at  once  took  part  in 
the  Mexican  war.  He  went  to  West  Point  as  professor 
of  mathematics,  received  a captain’s  commission,  and 
went  to  the  frontier  in  1855.  In  1861  he  was  promoted 
to  major,  and  when  Florida  seceded  was  appointed 
lieutenant-colonel  of  cavalry  in  the  Confederate  army. 
He  made  himself  a great  record  during  the  Rebellion, 
reaching  in  1864  the  rank  of  full  general.  General 
Smith’s  most  efficient  service  was  in  managing  the 
blockade-running  department  in  the  ^ Southwestern 
States.  He  forwarded  much  cotton  to  Europe,  and 
received  in  return  from  France  and  England  munitions 
of  war  and  material  for  clothing.  He  established 
furnaces  and  factories,  and  when  the  war  closed  his 
department  was  more  than  self-supporting.  General 
Smith  did  some  excellent  work  in  the  field,  and  won 
some  notable  battles.  He  was  president  of  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  Telegraph  Company,  1866-68,  chancellor  of 
the  University  of  Nashville,  1870-75,  and  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  University  of  the  South  at  Sewanee, 
Tenn.  from  1875  until  his  death,  March  28,  1893. 

SMITH,  Francis  Hopkinson,  born  in  Baltimore, 
Md.,  October  23,  1838,  a successful  civil  engineer, 
artist  and  author,  produced  admirable  water  color 
paintings,  and  wrote  and  illustrated  A White  Umbrella 
in  Mexico,  American  Illustrators,  Colonel  Carter  of 
Cartersville,  and  other  works. 

SMITH,  George,  financier,  born  in  Aberdeenshire, 
Scotland,  March  8,  1808;  founded  the  Firemen’s 

Marine  and  Fire  Insurance  Company  at  Milwaukee  in 
1837,  and  in  1839  established  the  first  bank  in  Chicago. 
He  has  lived  in  London  since  1861. 

SMITH,  George,  an  American  educator  and  writer, 
was  born  in  Delaware  county,  Penn.,  February  12, 
1804;  matriculated  at  the  Pennsylvania  University. 
He  devoted  his  attention  to  the  study  of  medicine  at 
that  institution,  graduated  in  1826,  and  at  once  com- 
menced the  practice  of  his  profession.  He  served  as 
State  senator  and  judge  of  the  Common  Pleas  Court,  in 
his  native  county,  for  nearly  thirty  years,  giving  special 
consideration  meanwhile  to  scientific  and  educational 
interests,  and  being  also  the  founder  of  an  institute  of 
science  in  Delaware  county.  Pie  was  a contributor  to 
the  press  of  articles  on  geology  and  other  scientific  sub- 
jects, also  the  author  of  several  works  of  an  historical 
character.  He  died  March  10,  1882. 

SMITH,  George  Barnett,  F.R.G.S.,  was  born  at 
Ovenden,  near  Halifax,  Yorkshire,  England,  May  17, 


6 8o6 


SMI 


1841,  and  educated  at  the  British  Lancasterian  School, 
Halifax.  At  a very  early  age  he  began  to  write  poems 
and  sketches,  and  to  contribute  to  the  local  press.  In 
March,  1864,  he  went  to  London  for  the  purpose  of 
pursuing  a journalistic  and  literary  career.  His  first 
published  work  was  a volume  of  poems,  followed  by 
Poets  and  Novelists , a series  of  literary  studies,  and 
Shelley:  a Critical  Biography.  In  1879  was  published 
his  Life  of  Mr.  Gladstone , a work  which  has  attained 
great  popularity.  Two  years  afterward  appeared  the 
companion  work,  The  Life  of  Mr.  Bright , which  was 
also  very  favorably  received.  His  Half-Hours  with 
Famous  Ambassadors  appeared  in  1883. 

SMITH,  George  Vance,  B.A.,  Philos,  and  Theol. 
Doct.,  was  educated  for  the  Nonconformist  ministry, 
and  is  principal  of  the  Presbyterian  College,  Carmar- 
then, Wales.  He  is  the  author  of  various  works,  in- 
cluding The  Prophecies  relating  to  Nineveh  and  the 
Assyrians  from  the  Hebrew.  He  was  a member  of  the 
company  for  the  revision  of  the  New  Testament  from 
the  formation  of  the  company,  in  May,  1870,  till  the 
conclusion  of  the  work. 

SMITH,  George  W.,  an  American  divine,  was 
born  at  Catskill,  N.Y.,  November  21,  1836;  graduated 
at  Hobart  College  in  1857,  and  was  ordained  a priest 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  1864.  He  ac- 
cepted the  rectorship  of  various  churches  in  Washing- 
ton, D.C.,  afterward  serving  as  assistant  mathematical 
professor  at  the  United  States  Academy,  Annapolis, 
Md.,  and  as  chaplain  in  the  navy;  also  as  rector  of  the 
Church  of  the  Redeemer,  Brooklyn,  N.Y,,  until  1883, 
when  he  was  elected  president  of  Trinity  College,  from 
which  he  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  the  same  year, 
having  previously  been  made  a D.D.  by  Hobart,  in 
1880,  and  subsequently  by  Columbia  College. 

SMITH,  Gerret,  philanthropist,  born  in  Utica, 
N.  Y. , March  6,  1797;  died  in  New  York  city,  Decem- 
ber 28,  1874.  His  father  left  him  a vast  estate,  con- 
sisting of  over  a million  acres  of  land  in  northern  New 
York.  He  graduated  at  Madison  College  in  1818,  and 
then  gave  himself  up  entirely  to  the  management  of  his 
property.  Being  of  a philanthropic  turn  of  mind,  he,  in 
1825,  joined  the  American  Colonization  Society,  and  gave 
away  many  of  his  acres  to  colored  people.  His  interest 
and  sympathy  being  more  particularly  with  the  negro, 
he  dropped  the  colonization  society  and  identified  him- 
self with  the  Anti-Slavery  Society,  and  later  he  gave  to 
actual  settlers  of  any  race  or  color.  In  1852  he  was 
elected  to  congress,  and  some  years  after  he  became  in- 
terested in  the  free  soil  settlers  in  Kansas,  and  it  is 
claimed  that  in  1859  he  gave  strong  encouragement  to 
John  Brown,  the  noted  abolitionist,  in  his  raids  in  Vir- 
ginia. During  the  war  Mr.  Smith  equipped  a colored 
regiment,  and  when  peace  was  declared  was  one,  with 
Horace  Greeley  and  Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  to  sign  Jef- 
ferson Davis’  bail  bond.  Mr.  Smith  left  by  will  a fort- 
une of  about  a million  dollars,  having  given  away  in 
his  life  time  about  eight  times  as  much. 

SMITH,  Goldwin,  LL.D.,  M.A.,  historian,  was 
born  at  Reading,  Berkshire,  August  13,  1823,  and  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  Oxford.  He  gained,  in  1842,  the 
Hertford  Scholarship,  and  in  1845  the  scholarship 
founded  by  Dean  Ireland.  In  the  latter  year  he  gradu- 
ated B.  A.  as  first  class  in  classics,  and  subsequently  he 
proceeded  to  the  degree  of  M.A.  In  1858  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  regius  professorship  of  modern  history 
at  Oxford,  and  he  held  this  chair  till  1866.  His  tenure 
of  the  chair  was  marked  by  the  delivery  of  a large  num- 
ber of  brilliant  public  lectures.  Professor  Goldwin 
Smith  was  a prominent  champion  of  the  American 
Federal  government  during  the  Civil  war.  In  1864  he 
visited  the  United  States  on  a lecturing  tour.  He  met 


with  an  enthusiastic  reception,  and  Brown  University 
conferred  upon  him  the  honorary  degree  of  LI.. D.  On 
his  return  he  published  England  and  America , 1865, 
and  The  Civil  War  in  America.  In  November,  1868, 
having  resigned  his  chair  at  Oxford,  he  settled  as  pro- 
fessor of  English  and  constitutional  history  in  the  Cor- 
nell University  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  In  1871  he  removed 
to  Toronto,  Canada,  and  edited  the  Canadian  Monthly. 
During  his  occasional  visits  to  England,  Mr.  Goldwin 
Smith  has  written  much  in  the  English  reviews,  and 
during  the  home  rule  controversy  of  1886,  his  voice  waj 
raised  on  the  platform  and  in  the  press,  in  the  strongest 
opposition  to  Mr.  Gladstone’s  proposals. 

SMITH,  Green  Clay,  an  American  soldier,  divine, 
and  presidential  candidate,  was  born  July  2,  1832,  at 
Richmond,  Ky.;  graduated  at  Transylvania  University 
in  1850,  from  the  law  school  at  Lexington  three  years 
later,  and  at  once  entered  upon  the  practice  of  his  pro- 
fession. In  i860  he  was  elected  to  the  legislature 
from  Covington,  Ky. , and  in  1861  enlisted  as  a private 
in  the  Union  army.  He  was  promoted  from  the  ranks 
to  a brigadier-general,  but  resigned  his  commission, 
December  1,  1863,  to  take  his  seat  as  a member  of 
congress,  to  which  position  be  had  been  elected  while 
serving  in  the  army  of  the  Tennessee.  He  was 
reelected  in  1865,  but  resigned  the  year  following  to 
accept  the  appointment  of  governor  of  Montana,  ten- 
dered him  by  President  Johnson.  In  1869  he  'vas 
ordained  a Baptist  minister,  and  has  since  occupied  the 
pulpits  of  various  charges  in  Kentucky.  In  1876  the 
Prohibitionists  made  him  the  candidate  of  their  party 
for  president  of  the  United. States.  Died  June,  1895. 

SMITH,  Gustavus  W.,  born  in  Scott  county,  Ky., 
January  1,  1822,  and  upon  graduating  at  West  Point 
with  the  class  of  1842,  was  assigned  to  the  engineer 
department.  He  was  afterward  assistant  professor  of 
engineering  at  West  Point,  and  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  but  resigned  his  commission  of  captain  in  1853. 
From  that  date  he  was  in  the  employ  of  the  Cooper  & 
Hewitt  iron  works,  New  York;  street  commissioner  of 
New'  York  city,  and  otherwise  engaged  until  1861,  when 
he  became  a major-general  in  the  Confederate  army. 
He  served  in  the  army  of  Northern  Virginia,  being  tem- 
porarily in  command  in  May,  1862,  subsequently  at 
Richmond  and  in  Georgia.  He  was  taken  prisoner  dur- 
ing 1865,  and  after  the  war,  was  in  charge  of  the  Chat- 
tanooga (Tenn.)  iron  works.  Since  then  he  has  held 
the  office  of  commissioner  of  insurance  in  Kentucky 
and  latteriv  resided  in  New  York.  Died  June,  1896. 

SMITH,  Hoke,  born  in  Newton,  North  Carolina, 
September  2,  1855 ; was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Atlanta, 
Ga.,  1873,  and  at  once  began  practice  in  that  city,  achiev- 
ing a good  reputation  as  a lawyer;  established  the 
Atlanta  Journal  in  1887,  consistently  supporting  Presi- 
dent Cleveland  and  the  low  tariff  policy,  and  was  ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  the  Interior,  in  President  Cleve- 
land’s second  cabinet,  taking  office  March  7,  1893. 

SMITH,  James,  an  American  patriot  and  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  Ireland, 
but  emigrated  to  America  wuth  his  parents  and  settled 
in  Pennsylvania  during  1729.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  and  practiced  law  for  many  years,  but  upon  the 
call  for  volunteers  against  Great  Britain  in  1774,  he  en- 
listed the  first  company  raised  in  Pennsylvania:  He 
was  one  of  the  delegates  to  the  convention  called  for 
June  18,  1776,  and  proclaimed  himself  in  favor  of 
declaring  the  colonies  independent  of  the  mother 
country.  He  participated  in  the  deliberations  of  the 
Pennsylvania  constitutional  convention  of  July  15, 
1776,  and  five  days  later  he  was  elected  a representative 
in  the  Continental  congress,  where  he  served  until  1778, 
going  the  next  year  to  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania 


S M I 


as  a representative,  and  in  1784  he  was  elected  to  con- 
gress. He  died  at  York,  Penn.,  July  11,  1806. 

SMITH,  John  Lawrence,  an  American  chemist, 
born  near  Charleston,  S.  C.,  December  16,  1818,  and 
died  in  1884.  He  was  educated  at  Charleston  College, 
at  the  University  of  Virginia,  in  the  South  Carolina 
College,  and  in  Europe  in  1841-44.  Returning  home 
from  abroad  he  practiced  medicine,  but  gave  a good 
deal  of  attention  to  chemistry.  In  1846-50  he  was  in 
Asiatic  Turkey  as  cotton  and  mining  expert,  and  later 
held  professorships  in  several  universities. 

SMITH,  Jonathan  B.,  a soldier  of  the  Revolution 
and  member  of  the  Continental  congress,  was  born  at 
Philadelphia,  February  21,  1 742 ; graduated  at  Prince- 
ton in  1760,  and  was  among  the  first  citizens  of  the 
State  to  protest  against  the  encroachments  of  Great 
Britain.  He  was  elected  to  congress  in  1 777,  and  served 
as  a delegate  during  that  year  and  1778.  He  held 
various  civil  and  judicial  offices  during  the  war,  and 
subsequent  thereto  was  elected  auditor  of  Pennsylvania. 
He  was  one  of  the  organizers  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  of  which  he  was  trustee,  and  for  many 
years  a member  of  the  Philosophical  Society  of  America. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  June  16,  1812. 

SMITH,  Joseph,  Mormon  leader,  born  in  Sharon, 
Vt.,  December  23,  1805;  died  in  Carthage,  111.,  June 
27,  1844.  His  parents  were  poor,  and  when  he  was 
sixteen  years  of  age,  in  the  midst  of  a revival,  four  of  his 
family  united  with  the  Presbyterian  Church.  In  1823 
Joseph  pretended  to  have  had  visions  and  interviews 
with  angels,  by  whom  the  book  of  Mormon  was  revealed 
to  him.  This  volume  was  eventually  published  at 
Palmyra,  N.  Y.,  in  1830.  A Mormon  church  was  es- 
tablished on  April  6th  of  that  year  in  Fayette,  N.  Y. 
The  membership  rapidly  increased,  and  Ohio  was  at 
first  declared  to  be  the  promised  land  of  the  new  de- 
nomination. The  first  Mormon  temple  was  erected  at 
Kirtland,  Ohio,  and  dedicated  on  March  27,  1836.  In 
j83 7— 3S  difficulties  arose  among  the  members  occa- 
sioned by  financial  troubles  and  unbelief,  so  that  many 
members  left  the  denomination;  and  on  January  13, 
1838,  Smith  fled  from  his  creditors  to  Far  West,  Mo., 
followed  by  his  converts.  Hardly  had  they  entered 
Missouri  before  the  citizens  rose  against  them,  and  the 
strife  threatened  to  assume  the  character  of  internal 
warfare.  The  Mormons  then  wandered  to  Illinois, 
where  their  coming  occasioned  trouble,  and  their  lead- 
ers were  frequently  arrested.  Here  they  began  the  set- 
tlement of  Nauvoo  and  a city  charter  was  obtained, 
signed  by  the  governor  of  the  State  on  December  16, 
1840.  Subsequently  Smith  was  chosen  mayor  and  sole 
trustee  of  the  Mormon  Church,  with  unlimited  powers; 
a military  organization  of  1,500  men  was  formed,  called 
the  “ Nauvoo  Legion,”  and  Smith  was  appointed  lieu- 
tenant-general. Missionaries  sent  to  England  brought 
large  accessions  of  members,  and  the  erection  of  a new 
temple  attracted  others.  In  1843  several  high-handed 
measures  were  carried  by  Smith  and  his  immediate  ad- 
visors, causing  a serious  split  in  the  denomination.  In 
1844  the  apostates  established  a newspaper  in  Nauvoo 
for  the  purpose  of  denouncing  Smith,  and  making  war 
upon  the  auxiliary  leaders  of  his  people.  The  sheet, 
called  the  Nauvoo  Exposition , began  and  ended  with  a 
single  number  reflecting  on  the  immorality  of  the 
“ spiritual  wife  ” system,  then  newly  introduced.  On  one 
side  the  opposition  was  then  summarily  driven  out  of 
the  city  by  the  Mormon  leaders,  and  the  newspaper 
property  destroyed;  on  the  other  a warrant  was  issued 
for  the  arrest  of  Joseph  and  his  brother  Hyram,  and 
both  were  sent  to  jail.  For  their  protection  the  gov- 
ernor had  a guard  placed  over  the  building.  On  the 
evening  of  Tune  27,  1844,  a party  of  100  armed  men. 


6807 

with  blackened  faces,  rushed  into  the  jail  and  shot  the 
two  brothers. 

SMITH,  Joshua  Hett,  lawyer,  born  in  New  York 
city  in  1736;  died  there  in  1818.  He  was  a younger 
brother  of  William  Smith,  the  historian.  Smith’s  claim 
to  notoriety  is  based  entirely  upon  his  connection  with 
the  treason  of  Benedict  Arnold.  It  was  at  Smith’s  house 
that  the  traitor  and  Major  Andre  met  to  arrange  plans, 
and  when  Andre  was  ready  to  return  to  the  Vulture , 
Smith,  who  was  to  have  taken  him,  for  some  reason 
refused  to  do  so.  Smith  was  arrested  for  his  supposed 
connection  with  the  plot,  but  after  an  imprisonment  for 
several  months  made  his  escape,  in  disguise,  to  New 
York  city,  where  he  was  protected  by  the  royalists.  He 
went  to  England  after  the  war,  but  later  came  back  to 
the  United  States. 

SMITH,  Melancthon,  an  American  naval  officer, 
a native  of  New  York  city,  born  May  24,  1810, 
and  was  graduated  at  the  New  York  naval  academy 
April  28,  1832.  From  that  date  until  the  commence- 
ment  of  the  Civil  war  his  duties  were  principally  of  $ 
routine  character.  In  July,  1861,  he  silenced  the  gun? 
of  the  fort  on  Ship  Island,  and  in  December  of  the  sam^ 
year  compelled  the  surrender  of  the  fort  at  Biloxi  or 
the  Gulf.  He  was  with  Favragut  at  Forts  Jackson 
and  Phillip,  and  on  his  way  up  the  Mississippi  encoun- 
tered and  sunk  the  confederate  iron  clad  Manassas 
below  the  city  of  New  Orleans  in  1862.  He  par- 
ticipated in  the  assault  upon  Fort  Hudson,  in  the 
attacks  upon  Fort  Fisher,  N.  C.,  and  afterward  served 
on  James  river,  and  in  command  of  the  fleet  operating 
in  Albemarle  Sound.  After  the  war  he  was  chief  of  the 
naval  recruiting  service,  commanded  at  the  New  York 
navy  yard,  and  was  retired  May  24,  1871,  with  the  rank 
of  rear  admiral.  He  died  July  19,  1893. 

SMITH,  Robert  Angus,  F.R.S.,  born  near  Glas- 
gow, Scotland,  February  15,  1817;  was  educated  at 
Glasgow,  and  studied  chemistry  at  Giessen,  under  Lie- 
big, from  1839  till  1841.  Assisting  Dr.  Playfair,  he 
labored  on  the  sanitary  condition  of  towns  in  Lanca- 
shire, and,  while  practicing  as  a professional  chemist, 
wrote  numerous  papers  relating  to  the  condition  of 
the  air.  His  report  to  the  British  Association,  in  1848, 
on  the  air  and  water  of  towns,  gave  a great  impulse 
to  the  question  of  sanitation  and  a paper  on  the 
air  of  towns  in  the  Che7nical  Society's  fournal  of  1858 
first  produced  data  establishing  the  difference  of  the 
town  and  country  air  wherever  found.  Having  been 
appointed  by  the  royal  mines  commission  to  inquire 
into  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  metalliferous 
mines,  he  drew  up  a very  valuable  report,  which  con- 
tains analyses  of  the  air  of  mines  and  the  variations 
from  pure  air.  In  1882  he  published  the  first  report 
under  the  Rivers  Pollution  Prevention  Act,  containing 
investigations  on  water  and  drainage,  and  later  he  wrote 
a volume  on  Science  in  Early  Manchester . He  died 
May  12,  1884. 

SMITH,  Robert  Payne,  D.D.,  dean  of  Canter- 
bury, born  in  Gloucestershire,  England,  in  November, 
1818;  was  educated  at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  of 
which  he  was  scholar,  and  where  he  graduated  in  1841. 
He  is  known  as  a profound  Hebraist  and  an  excellent 
Arabic  scholar,  and  his  Messianic  Interpretation  of  the 
Prophecies  of  Isaiah , published  in  1862,  affords  proof 
of  his  erudition.  He  was  a member  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment revision  committee.  In  January,  1871,  Dr.  Smith 
was  raised  to  the  deanery  of  Canterbury,  made  vacant 
by  the  death  of  Dr.  H.  Halford.  Died  March,  1895. 

SMITH,  Richard,  an  American  journalist,  a native 
of  Ireland;  born  June  30,  1823.  Accompanied  by  his 
widowed  mother,  he  emigrated  to  the  United  States  in 
1840,  and  one  year  later  settled  at  Cincinnati.  Ohio.  Xr 


68o8  SMI 


1844  he  obtained  a position  on  the  Cincinnati  Price 
Current ,and  became  agent  for  the  Associated  Press,  con- 
tinuing to  discharge  the  duties  incident  to  both  positions 
until  1854,  when  he  secured  an  interest  in  the  Cincin- 
»ati  Gazette , and  thereafter  directed  the  policy  of  that 
paper  until  the  organization  of  the  Commercial  Gazette 
company  in  1880,  when  the  interests  of  the  Cincinnati 
Commercial  were  consolidated  with  those  of  the  Gazette 
under  the  above  corporate  title.  He  is  vice-president 
and  member  of  the  directory  of  the  company,  and  exerts 
a powerful  influence  professionally  and  politically  in 
Ohio. 

SMITH,  Seba,  an  American  journalist,  born  at  Buck- 
field,  Me.,  September  14,  1792;  graduated  at  Bowdoin 
College  in  1818,  and  located  at  Portland.  He  was  the 
editor  of  a number  of  papers  published  in  his  native 
State,  but  is  best  known  to  the  reading  public  as  the 
author  of  a collection  of  sketches  issued  during  the  ad- 
ministration of  President  Andrew  Jackson  under  the 
pseudonym,  “ IVlajor  Jack  Downing.”  He  died  at  Pat- 
chogue,  L.  I.,  July  29,  1868. 

SMITH,  Sir  Albert  James,  a Canadian  jurist, 
was  born  in  New  Brunswick  in  1824,  where  he  was 
also  admitted  to  the  bar  and  practiced  law.  Subse- 
quently he  became  a member  of  the  assembly  of  that 
country,  serving  from  1852  until  the  province  was  made 
part  of  Canada  in  1867,  when  he  was  chosen  to  the 
Dominion  parliament  and  reelected  in  1872  and  1878. 
In  1873'he  was  tendered  the  lieutenant-governorship  of 
New  Brunswick,  but  declined  the  honor,  and  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  marine  and  fisheries.  In  1877  he 
was  before  the  fisheries  commission  which  convened  at 
Halifax  as  the  Dominion  representative,  and  in  1878 
was  made  a knight  commander  of  the  order  of  St. 
George. 

SMITH,  Sir  David,  a jurist  and  statesman  of  Can- 
ada, was  born  in  England  September  4, 1 764,  but  emi- 
grated to  the  dominion  of  Canada,  where  he  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  was  afterward 
a member  of  parliament,  and  otherwise  identified  with 
the  administration  of  the  government.  In  recognition 
of  his  services  he  was  knighted,  August  30,  1821.  He 
died  in  the  county  of  Northumberland,  England,  May 
9»  1837. 

SMITH,  Sir  Donald  Alexander,  was  born  in 
Scotland  about  1820,  and  at  an  early  age  settled  in  Can- 
ada as  an  employe  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  He 
has  been  a conspicuous  figure  in  Canadian  politics  for 
years,  having  served  in  the  legislature  of  Manitoba,  also 
in  the  dominion  parliament  almost  continuously  from 
1871  to  1887.  To  his  efforts  also  is  due  in  a large 
measure  the  completion  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  road, 
for  which  he  was  knighted  in  1886.  He  is  a member  of 
many  scientific  and  art  organizations,  and  the  Montreal 
scholarship  in  the  College  of  Music,  London,  was  estab- 
lished through  his  liberality. 

SMITH,  Thomas,  a clergyman  of  the  colonial 
period,  was  born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  March  10,  1702; 
graduated  at  Harvard  University  in  1720,  and  was  pas- 
tor of  the  first  church  at  Portland,  Me.,  for  a contin- 
uous period  of  sixty-nine  years.  He  died  in  that  city 
May  25,  1795. 

SMITH,  Thomas  Kilby,  born  at  Boston,  Mass., 
September  23,  1820;  graduated  at  the  College  of  Cin- 
cinnati in  1837,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1845. 
He  held  various  public  offices  until  the  breaking  out 
of  the  Civil  war,  when  he  entered  the  Union  army  as 
lieutenant-colonel  of  the  54th  regiment  of  Ohio  volun- 
teers. He  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Pittsburgh 
Landing,  at  Corinth,  before  Vicksburg,  and  with  Banks 
on  his  Red  River  campaign.  Afterward  he  participated 
in  the  campaigns  in  Tennessee  and  Alabama.  He  re- 


signed July  1,  1864,  on  account  of  ill-health,  and  after 
the  war  was  appointed  American  consul  at  Panama. 
He  was  promoted  through  various  grades  to  be  major- 
general  of  volunteers,  and  died  in  New  York  city, 
December  14,  1887. 

SMITH,  Sir  William,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.,  classical 
examiner  in  the  University  of  London,  born  in  London, 
in  1813 ; received  his  education  at  that  university,  where 
he  gained  the  first  prizes  in  the  Latin  and  Greek  classes ; 
was  intended  for  the  bar,  but  abandoned  the  profession 
of  the  law  for  the  study  of  classical  literature.  In  1850 
Doctor  Smith  began  the  publication  of  his  School  Dic- 
tionaries, and  of  his  more  voluminous  publications, 
consisting  of  A Classical  Dictionary  of  Mythology , 
Biography , and  Geography  ; A Smaller  Classical  Dic- 
tionary, abridged  from  the  preceding  work ; A Smaller 
Dictionary  of  Antiquities  and  many  other  works.  He 
was  classical  examiner  at  the  University  of  London, 
1853-69,  was  editor  of  the  Quarterly  Review  from 
1867  until  his  death,  and  was  knighted  in  1892.  He 
died  October  7,  1893. 

SMITH,  William,  a patriot  of  the  Revolutionary 
war,  a member  of  the  Continental  congress,  auditor  of 
the  treasury  in  1791,  and  a presidential  elector  at  the 
second  election  of  George  Washington,  was  born  at 
Baltimore  about  1 730,  and  died  in  that  city  March  27, 
1814. 

SMITH,  William,  an  American  politician,  was 
born  in  the  county  of  King  George,  Va.,  September  6, 
1796;  and  upon  his  admission  to  the  bar  opened  an 
office  in  Culpeper  county,  where  he  also  devoted  his 
attention  largely  to  politics.  He  was  elected  to  the 
State  Senate  in  1830,  to  congress  in  1840,  and  in  1845 
the  legislature  chose  him  to  be  governor  of  the  State. 
He  visited  the  Pacific  coast  in  1850,  but  returned  to 
Virginia  after  a year’s  absence,  and  served  in  congress 
from  1853  to  1861.  He  entered  the  Confederate  army 
at  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  war,  and  was  wounded 
during  the  campaign  that  succeeded  the  battle  of  Malvern 
Hills.  In  1863  he  was  elected  governor  of  the  State, 
and  remained  such  until  the  surrender  at  Appomattox. 
He  was  known  as  “ Extra  Billy”  Smith,  because  of  the 
extra  charges  he  made  for  carrying  the  United  States 
mails.  His  death  occurred  at  Warrenton,  Va.,  May 
18,  1887. 

SMITH,  Willtam,  jurist,  born  in  NewYotk  city, 
June  25,  1728;  died  in  Quebec,  Canada,  November  3, 
1793.  After  graduating  at  Yale  he  practiced  law,  and 
in  1763  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  province  of 
New  York.  During  the  Revolution  he  claimed  to  be 
entirely  neutral,  but  was  put  on  parole  at  Livingston 
Manor  on  the  Hudson.  He  went  to  England  with  the 
British  troops.  From  1786  until  he  died,  at  Quebec, 
he  was  chief  justice  of  Canada. 

SMITH,  William  Henry,  M.P.,  was  born  in 
London,  June  24,  1825.  He  was  educated  at  the 
grammar  school,  Tavistock.  He  was  financial  secre- 
tary of  the  treasury  from  February,  1874,  till  August  8, 
1877,  when  he  was  appointed  first  lord  of  the  admiralty, 
in  suecession  to  the  late  Mr.  Ward  Hunt.  On  the 
resignation  of  Sir  Wm.  Hart  Dyke  in  January,  1886, 
Mr.  W.  H.  Smith  was  appointed  chief  secretary  for 
Ireland,  but  the  Salisbury  government  fell  immediately 
afterward,  and  he  only  held  the  appointment  for  six 
days.  In  Lord  Salisbury’s  second  administration  he 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  State  for  war.  When  the 
ministry  was  reconstructed  on  the  resignation  of  Lord 
R.  Churdhill,  Mr.  Smith  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury 
and  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons.  Mr.  Smith  was 
a member  of  the  first  and  second  school  boards  for 
London,  his  retirement  in  1874  being  occasioned  by  the 
pressure  of  official  duties.  He  died  October  6,  1891. 


SMI-SOW 


SMITH,  William  Robertson,  M.A.,  LL.D., 
was  born  at  Keig,  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland,  November 
8,  1846,  and  educated  privately,  and  then  at  Aberdeen 
University,  the  New  College,  Edinburgh,  and  the  uni- 
versities of  Bonn  and  Gottingen.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Free  Church  College, 
Aberdeen,  in  1870,  and  was  removed  from  this  office  by 
an  extraordinary  act  of  the  general  assembly  in  1881,  on 
account  of  his  critical  views  as  to  the  Old  Testament 
published  in  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica  and  else- 
where. Since  then  he  was  associated  with  Professor 
Baynes  in  editing  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica.  In 
February,  1886,  he  was  appointed  librarian  at  Cam- 
bridge. He  published  Lectures  on  the  Religion  of  the 
Semites  and  other  works,  and  died  March  31,  1894. 

SMITHSON,  James,  philanthropist,  born  in  Eng- 
land about  1754;  died  in  Genoa,  Italy,  June  27,  1829. 
He  was  a natural  son  of  the  duke  of  Northumberland. 
For  a time  he  bore  the  name  of  James  Lewis  Macie, 
but  in  1791  changed  it  to  James  Smithson.  In  1786  he 
was  graduated  at  Oxford.  He  spent  much  time  in 
traveling  on  the  European  continent,  engaged  in  scien- 
tific observations,  carrying  with  him  a portable  labora- 
tory, and  formed  a large  collection  of  gems  and  min- 
erals. Mr.  Smithson  was  a member  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  England,  and  of  the  French  Institute.  He 
bequeathed  his  property,  about  ^120,000,  to  a nephew, 
on  the  condition  that,  should  the  latter  die  without 
heirs,  the  estate  be  “left  to  the  United  States,  for  the 
purpose  of  founding  an  institution  at  Washington  to  be 
called  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  for  the  increase  and 
diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men.”  The  nephew 
died  in  1835  without  heirs,  and  the  property  came  into 
possession  of  the  U nited  States  Government,  amounting 
to  $508,318.46.  In  1846  this  institution  was  founded. 

SMYBERT,  John,  painter,  born  in  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  about  1684;  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1751. 
He  studied  the  elements  of  his  art  in  his  native  place, 
and  extended  his  studies  in  London.  Bishop  Berkeley 
engaged  Smybert  to  accompany  him  to  North  Amer- 
ica, in  1729.  He  went  to  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1730,  was 
married,  and  established  himself  as  a portrait  painter. 
His  works  were  held  in  esteem  by  W.  Allston  and 
others. 

SMYTH,  Egbert  Coffin,  D.D.,  a noted  divine, 
born  at  Brunswick,  Me.,  August  29,  1829.  Graduat- 
ing at  Bowdoin  College  in  1848,  he  studied  divinity, 
and  in  1863  was  called  to  the  chair  of  ecclesiastical 
history  in  Andover  Seminary.  Doctor  Smyth  has  been 
a large  contributor  to  current  literature. 

SMYTH,  Newman,  D.D.,  an  American  divine, 
was  born  in  Brunswick,  Me.,  June  25,  1843.  His  full 
name  is  Samuel  Phillips  Newman  Smyth,  and  he  is  a 
■orother  of  Egbert  Coffin  Smyth.  After  graduating  at 
Bowdoin  College,  he  entered  the  Congregational  min- 
istry, but  he  was  rejected  on  suspicion  of  doctrinal 
unsoundness  when  proposed  for  a professorship  in 
Andover  Seminary.  He  was  soon  after  called  to  a 
pastorate  in  New  Haven. 

SMYTH,  Piazzi,  a British  astronomer,  was  born  at 
Naples,  January  3,  1819.  He  held  some  high  positions 
in  various  universities,  and  in  1845  was  made  royal 
astronomer  for  Scotland.  Professor  Smyth’s  literary 
works  are  well  known. 

SNELLING,  Josiah,  a distinguished  soldier  of  the 
early  days  of  the  Republic,  was  born  at  Boston,  Mass., 
in  1782,  and  was  member  of  a company  of  soldiers 
while  yet  a boy.  He  participated  in  the  wars  with  the 
Indians  at  the  West,  also  in  the  war  of  1812,  and  was 
present  in  the  leading  battles  that  occurred  from  Tip- 
pecanoe to  the  surrender  of  Detroit,  where  he  was  cap- 
ered and  taken  to  Montreal.  Meanwhile,  he  had  been 


6809 

promoted  inspector-general  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel,  and  later  colonel  of  the  5th  infantry.  In  1819 
he  was  ordered  to  take  charge  of  operations  in  the 
Northwest,  and  in  1824  completed  Fort  St.  Anthony 
on  the  Mississippi  river,  between  the  present  cities  of 
St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis,  the  name  of  which  was  after- 
ward changed  to  Fort  Snelling.  He  was  the  author  of 
works  on  the  campaigns  of  the  Northwest,  and  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C.,  August  20,  1829. 

SORBY,  PIenry  Clifton,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  was 
born  at  Woodbourne,  near  Sheffield,  England,  May  10, 
1826,  and  educated  at  the  Sheffield  Collegiate  School. 
He  is  the  author  of  many  papers  on  the  microscopical 
structure  of  rocks,  on  the  construction  and  use  of  the 
microspectroscope  in  studying  animal  and  vegetable 
coloring  matter,  on  a new  method  of  studying  the  op- 
tical characters  of  minerals,  on  the  physical  geography 
of  former  geological  periods,  and  on  various  other 
subjects  connected  with  geology  and  the  use  of  the 
microscope. 

SOTHERN,  Edward  Askew,  English  actor,  was 
born  in  Liverpool,  April  1,  1830,  and  he  died  in  Lon- 
don, January  20,  1881.  His  relatives  intended  him  to 
enter  the  church,  but  in  1851  he  came  to  the  United 
States  and  made  his  appearance  on  the  stage.  He 
played  “Dr.  Pangloss”  in  Boston,  but  was  not  well 
received.  He  became  a member  of  a company  in  New 
York,  and  after  several  years  achieved  a great  success 
as  “ Lord  Dundreary  ” in  Our  American  Cousin.  Later 
he  played  several  roles  with  success,  none  of  which 
ever  eclipsed  his  first. 

SOULE,  Pierre,  statesman  and  soldier;  born  in 
Castillion,  France,  in  September,  1802;  died  in  New 
Orleans,  March  26,  1870.  He  was  first  taught  at  th< 
Jesuit  College  in  Toulouse,  but  later  went  to  Bordeaux. 
While  editing  a paper*  in  Paris  he  attacked  the  ministry 
of  Charles  X.,  and  was  compelled  to  leave  France.  He 
first  went  to  Hayti,  and  from  there,  in  September,  1826, 
to  Baltimore,  and  a little  later  to  New  Orleans.  He 
was  desirous  of  studying  the  English  language,  and  he 
did  so  diligently  in  his  spare  hours.  When  he  had  suf- 
ficiently mastered  that  he  began  studying  law,  and  was 
soon  admitted  to  practice.  In  1847  he  was  appointed 
to  fill  a vacancy  in  the  United  States  Senate,  and  was 
afterward  elected  for  a full  term.  In  1853  he  was  sent 
as  minister  to  Spain,  and  while  there  engaged  in  a duel 
with  the  Marquis  de  Tourgot,  and  crippled  him  for 
life.  In  June,  1855,  he  resigned  and  returned  to  New 
Orleans.  He  remained  in  New  Orleans  until  the  city 
fell,  in  1862,  when  he  became  a prisoner  in  Fort  Lafay- 
ette, in  New  York  harbor.  On  his  release  he  went  to 
Nassau,  West  Indies,  but  later  joined  the  staff  of  Gen- 
eral Beauregard  and  went  to  Richmond,  where,  in  1863, 
he  was  made  a brigadier-general,  and  was  commissioned 
to  raise  a foreign  legion.  He  failed  to  do  so,  however, 
and  then  went  to  Havana,  where  he  remained  until 
the  close  of  the  war.  Then,  returning  to  his  home  in 
New  Orleans,  he  resumed  the  practice  of  law. 

SOULOUQUE,  Faustin,  emperor  of  Hayti,  born 
about  1785.  He  was  a full-blooded  negro,  and  was 
originally  a slave,  but  by  courage,  energy,  and  good 
luck,  reached  the  highest  position.  He  entered  the 
army  and  became  a general.  He  was  elected  president 
in  1847,  but  being  ambitious,  usurped  the  title  of  em- 
peror in  1849.  As  might  be  expected,  his  reign  was 
cruel  and  tyrannical,  and  he  was  deposed  in  1859,  and 
retired  to  France,  where  he  died  in  1867. 

SOWER,  Christopher,  born  near  Mauburg,  Ger- 
many, in  1693 ; died  in  Germantown,  Penn.,  September 
25,  1758.  Sower  came  to  the  United  States  in  1724, 
and  settled  in  Lancaster  county,  Penn.,  but  in  1 73 a 
moved  to  Germantown.  He  published  a German  al 


68  io 


SPA- 


manac,  which  was  continued  annually  by  himself  and  de- 
scendants until  1798.  He  started  a paper,  and  printed  a 
German  edition  of  the  Bible.  He  established  a type 
foundry,  compounded  a printer’s  ink,  made  paper  and 
bound  books.  He  introduced  cast-iron  stoves  into  use, 
and  made  the  old-fashioned  eight-day  clocks.  He 
amassed  quite  a fortune,  and  though  he  remained  strictly 
neutral  during  the  Revolution,  he  was  arrested  as  a spy 
and  his  estate  confiscated. 

SPALDING,  John  Franklin,  bishop  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church,  was  born  August  25,  1828. 
at  Belgrade,  Me.,  and  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in 
1853.  He  afterward  pursued  a course  of  theological 
study  at  the  General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York, 
and  was  ordained  priest  July  14,  1858.  He  was  rector 
of  churches  in  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and 
Pennsylvania  until.  1873,  when  he  was  consecrated 
missionary  bishop  of  Colorado  and  Wyoming.  He  was 
made  a D.D.  by  Trinity  College  in  1874,  and  is  the 
author  of  a number  of  religious  works. 

SPALDING,  John  Lancaster,  D.D. , an  American 
bishop,  was  born  at  Lebanon,  Ky.,  June  2,  1840.  He 
was  liberally  educated,  and  graduated  in  1859.  In  1877, 
having  become  a Catholic  priest,  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Peoria,  111.,  being  the  first  to  bear  that  title. 
He  wrote  Religious  Mission  of  the  Irish  People , and 
many  other  works. 

SPARKS,  Jared,  historian  and  biographical  writer, 
born  in  Willington,  Conn.,  May  10,  1789;  died  in  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  March  14,  1866.  He  graduated  from 
Harvard,  studied  theology,  and  was  ordained  minister 
of  the  First  Unitarian  Church  of  Baltimore.  He  was 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  North  American  Review , 
and,  after  some  years  of  travel  in  Europe,  he  became 
proprietor  and  editor  of  the  Magazine.  He  turned  his 
attention  to  biography  and  history.  In  1849  he  was 
president  of  Harvard  University,  but  resigned  in  1853. 
According  to  some,  Professor  Sparks’  histories  are 
hardly  reliable. 

SPEED,  James,  an  American  jurist,  was  born 
March  11, 1812,  in  Kentucky;  graduated  at  St.  Joseph’s 
College,  Bardstown,  and  at  Transylvanian  University, 
Lexington,  and  located  at  Louisville,  in  the  practice  of 
law.  He  was  elected  to  the  legislature  in  1847,  and  *n 
1849  was  the  candidate  of  the  anti-slavery  party  for  the 
constitutional  convention,  but  was  defeated.  In  1861 
he  was  a member  of  the  faculty  of  the  law  department 
in  the  Louisville  University,  and  during  the  Civil  war 
was  active  in  his  efforts  to  prevent  the  secession  of 
Kentucky.  He  served  in  the  State  Senate  from  1861 
until  1863,  and  in  addition  to  the  faithful  performance 
of  his  public  duties,  was  mustering  officer  for  volun- 
teers. He  was  appointed  attorney-general  of  the 
United  States  in  1864,  but  resigned  in  1866,  owing  to 
his  disagreement  with  President  Johnson  in  respect  to 
the  latter’s  policy,  and  died  in  Jefferson  county,  Ky., 
June  25,  1887. 

SPENCE,  Donald  Maurice,  M.A.,  dean  of  Glou- 
cester, born  in  London  in  1836,  was  educated  at 
Westminster  School  and  at  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Cambridge  (B.A.,  1864;  M.  A.,  1866).  In  1877  lie  was 
resented  to  the  vicarage  of  St.  Pancras,  London,  void 
y the  promotion  of  Dr.  Anthony  Wilson  Thorold  to 
the  see  of  Rochester.  Mr.  Spence,  was  in  the  same 
year  appointed  rural  dean  of  St.  Pancras.  He  has  con- 
tributed many  papers  to  the  Bible  Educator ; is  joint 
author  with  Dean  Howson  of  a Commentary  on 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (Anglo-American  commentary); 
and  is  one  of  the  commentators  of  the  New  Testament, 
and  also  of  the  Old  Testament,  edited  by  the  bishop  of 
Gloucester  and  Bristol. 

SPENCER,  Herbert,  was  born  at  Derby,  England, 


-S  PI 

in  1820.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  became  a civil 
engineer,  but  after  about  eight  years  abandoned  the 
profession,  having  during  this  period  contributed  various 
papers  to  the  Civil  Engineers  and  Architects'  Journal. 
His  first  productions  in  general  literature  were  in  the 
shape  of  a series  of  letters  on  The  Proper  Sphere  op 
Government , published  in  the  Nonconformist  news- 
paper in  1842,  which  were  reprinted  in  pamphlet  form. 
From  1848  to  1853  he  was  engaged  as  sub-editor  of  the 
Economist,  and  during  this  time  published  his  first  con- 
siderable work,  Social  Statics;  or,  the  Conditions  es- 
sential to  Human  Happiness  specified,  and  the  first  of 
them  developed,  1851.  In  1855  appeared  his  Principles 
of  Psychology,  which  interpreted  the  phenomena  of  mind 
on  the  general  principle  of  evolution  (this  was  four  years 
before  the  Origin  of  Species  appeared).  A breakdown 
in  health  followed,  which  prevented  work  for  eighteen 
months.  In  1857,  1858,  and  1859,  he  was  occupied  in 
writing  various  essays  for  the  quarterly  reviews,  etc.  In 
i860  Mr.  Spencer  issued  the  programme  of  his  System 
of  Synthetic  Philosophy,  which  proposed  to  carry  out 
in  its  application  to  all  orders  of  phenomena  the  general 
law  of  evolution  set  forth  in  two  essays  published  in 
1857.  To  the  execution  of  this  project  his  subsequent 
life  has  been  mainly  devoted.  Mr.  Spencer’s  works 
have  been  extensively  translated.  All  are  rendered 
into  French,  nearly  all  into  German  and  Russian,  many 
into  Italian  and  Spanish;  and  his  work  on  education 
has  appeared  also  in  Hungarian,  Bohemian,  Polish, 
Dutch,  Danish,  Swedish,  Greek,  Japanese,  and  Chinese. 

SPENCER  John  Canfield,  lawyer  and  statesman, 
born  at  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  in  1788,  and  died  in  Albany  in 
May,  1855.  He  practiced  law  and  in  1816  was  sent  to 
congress,  later  becoming  a senator  from  New  York 
State.  He  was  secretary  of  war  from  1841  101843,  and 
was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  the  latter 
year.  He  was  thoroughly  opposed  to  the  annexation 
of  Texas  and  resigned  his  office. 

SPENCER  (Earl),  John  Poyntz  Spencer,  K.G., 
born  in  England  in  1835;  received  his  education  at 
Plarrow  school  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  in  1857.  In  December,  1868,  he 
was  appointed  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland.  He  retained 
that  office  till  the  resignation  of  the  Gladstone  ministry 
in  February,  1874.  On  the  return  of  the  Liberals  to 
office  in  May,  1880,  he  was  appointed  lord  president 
of  the  council.  He  was  nominated  lord  lieutenant  of 
Ireland  on  the  resignation  of  Earl  Cowper,  May  4, 
1882,  retaining  his  seat  in  the  cabinet.  He  arrived  in 
Dublin  Castle  on  May  6th,  on  the  evening  of  which  day 
Lord  Frederick  Cavendish,  the  newly  appointed  chief 
secretary,  and  Mr.  Thomas  A.  Burke,  the  under-secre- 
tary, were  stabbed  to  death  by  assassins  in  the  Phoenix 
Park,  close  to  the  castle.  After  this  it  fell  to  Lord 
Spencer  to  administer  the  provisions  of  the  Crimes  Act. 
The  University  of  Dublin  conferred  on  Lord  Spencer 
the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.,  June  30,  1883. 

SPIELHAGEN,  Friedrich,  a German  novelist, 
was  born  at  Magdeburg,  February  20,  1829.  At  an 
early  age  he  accompanied  his  father  to  Stralsund,  and 
on  this  journey  the  sea  made  a lasting  impression  on  the 
susceptible  mind  of  the  future  novelist,  who  has  in  most 
of  his  works  described  life  and  incidents  at  sea  with 
remarkable  force  and  vividness.  Since  the  year  1854  he 
has  brought  out,  with  ever-increasing  success,  a series 
of  novels,  which  have  gained  for  him  a foremost  place 
among  German  writers  of  fiction. 

SPiNNER,  Francis  E.,  an  American  politician, 
was  born  in  Herkimer  county,  New  York,  in  1802.  He 
was  elected  to  congress  for  the  seventeenth  district  of 
New  York,  and  served  from  1855  to  1861.  He  was 
then  appointed  treasurer  of  the  United  States.  His 


s P I _ s T A 


peculiar  signature  on  paper  money  made  his  name  a 
well-known  one.-  He  died  December  31,  1890. 

SPINOLA,  Francis  B.,  was  born  near  Stony  Brook, 
L.  I.,  March  19,  1821,  educated  in  Dutchess  county, 
and  was  in  business  in  New  York  thereafter.  He  was 
a delegate  to  the  Charleston  convention  in  i860.  In 
1862  he  raised  a brigade  and  served  through  the  war, 
resigning  in  1865  with  rank  of  brigadier-general.  He 
was  elected  to  congress  from  New  York  city  in  1886, 
1888  and  1890,  and  died  April  13,  1891. 

SPOFFORD,  Harriet  Prescott,  author,  born  in 
Calais,  Me.,  April  3,  1835.  For  many  years  she  was 
a resident  of  Newburyport,  Mass.  She  began  writing 
for  several  story  papers  of  Boston,  and  since  1859 
contributed  to  the  Atlantic  Monthly , and  other  leading 
periodicals.  In  1865  she  was  married  to  R.  S.  Spof- 
ford, a lawyer  of  Boston.  She  died  in  1895. 

SPOFFORD,  Henry  Martyn,  was  a native  of  Gil- 
martin,  N.  H.,  born  September  8,  1821.  He  was 
educated  at  Amherst,  afterward  removing  to  Louisiana, 
where  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and  began  the  prac- 
tice of  law.  He  was  elevated  to  the  supreme  bench  of 
the  State  in  1854,  and  four  years  later  removed  to  New 
Orleans.  In  1877  Judge  Spofford  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  by  one  of  two  contending  legisla- 
tures, but  was  refused  admission.  He  died  at  Red 
Sulphur  Springs,  Va.,  August  20,  1880. 

SPOTSWOOD,  Alexander,  governor  of  Virginia, 
born  in  Tangier,  Morocco,  in  1676 ; died  in  Annapolis, 
Md.,  June  7,  1740.  In  early  manhood  he  served  in 
the  European  wars  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough. 
He  was  appointed  governor  of  Virginia,  where  he 
arrived  in  June,  1710.  He  had  some  difficulties  with 
the  colonists,  but  in  the  main  governed  to  their  satisfac- 
tion. He  took  much  interest  in  William  and  Mary 
College,  and  introduced  numerous  reforms.  In  1722 
Spotswood  was  removed  from  his  post,  and  from  1 730 
to  1 739  was  postmaster-general  of  the  colony. 

SPRAGUE,  Charles,  poet,  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
October  26,  1791;  died  there,  January  22,  1875.  His 
first  poem  was  a prologue  on  the  occasion  of  the  open- 
ing of  the  Park  theater  in  New  York.  In  1829  he  de- 
livered before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  society,  of  Harvard, 
his  poem  on  Curiosity.  Several  collections  of  his 
works  have  been  published  in  New  York  city  and  in 
Boston,  Mass. 

SPRINGER,  William  M.,  an  American  lawyer 
and  statesman,  was  born  May  30,  1836,  at  New  Leb- 
anon, Sullivan  county,  Ind.;  graduated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Indiana  in  1858,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  one 
year  later,  and  began  the  practice  of  his  profession  at 
Springfield,  111.  He  was  a member  of  the  Illinois 
constitutional  convention  of  1862,  and  of  the  State  legis- 
lature in  1871,  and  served  continuously  as  a Democrat 
in  congress  from  his  first  election  in  1875  to  1895. 
During  his  official  career  there  he  has  served  on  the 
leading  committees,  notably  on  that  reporting  the  elec- 
toral commission  bill,  and  on  the  committee  which  in- 
vestigated the  presidential  election  of  1876.  Pie  was 
also  the  author  of  the  resolution  adopted  by  the  House 
in  1875,  declaring  against  a third  term  in  the  presi- 
dential office,  and  of  the  bills  which  provided  for  the 
organization  of  State  governments  in  Dakota,  Mon- 
tana, Washington,  and  New  Mexico.  He  took  an  act- 
ive part  in  tariff  discussions,  and  was  chairman  of  the 
Committee  on  Appropriations,  1893-95.  Defeated  for 
reelection  in  1894,  he  was  appointed  Federal  Judge  of 
Oklahoma  by  President  Cleveland  in  March,  1895. 

SPULLER,  Eugene,  a French  politician,  born  at 
Seurre  (Cote  d’Or),  December  8,  1835;  studied  at  the 
Lyceum  and  the  faculty  of  laws  at  Dijon,  and  became 
a member  of  the  Paris  bar  in  1862.  After  having  been 


68ll 

employed  in  several  political  cases,  he  abandoned  the 
legal  profession  in  order  to  engage  in  active  political  life 
and  journalism.  Having  formed  a friendship  with  M. 
Gambetta,  he  became,  in  1868,  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Revue  Politique.  He  was  also  one  of  the  contribu- 
tors to  the  Encyclopedie  Generate.  After  the  revolu- 
tion of  September  4,  1870,  he  was  M.  Gambetta’s  con- 
fidential friend  and  secretary,  and  in  November,  1871, 
he  became  the  principal  editor  of  La  Republique  Fran- 
faise.  On  February  6,  1880,  he  was  elected  president 
of  the  advanced  left  deputies,  and  he  was  elected  vice- 
president  of  the  chamber  in  1890.  Died  July,  1896. 

SPURGEON,  Charles  H addon,  a noted  English 
preacher,  born  at  Kelvedon,  Essex,  June  19,  1834. 
He  was  educated  at  Colchester,  Maidstone,  and  else- 
where, and  became  usher  in  a school  at  Newmarket. 
Against  the  opposition  of  many  of  his  relatives,  who 
were  Independents,  Spurgeon  adopted  Baptist  views, 
and  became  very  active  in  religious  work.  He  preached 
his  first  sermon  when  only  sixteen  years  of  age,  at 
Teversham,  near  Cambridge,  and  a little  later  preached 
at  Waterbeach  by  invitation,  becoming  pastor  of  the 
chapel  there.  This  edifice  soon  failed  to  hold  the 
crowds  that  came  there  to  hear  the  now  well-known 
speaker.  Invitations  came  to  Mr.  Spurgeon  from 
London,  and  he  finally  accepted  the  pastorate  of  the 
New  Park  street  chapel,  addressing  his  first  congrega- 
tion there  in  1853.  The  chapel  was  soon  found  to  be 
too  small,  and  it  was  enlarged.  The  first  enlargement, 
however,  proved  insufficient,  and  its  size  was  again  in 
creased,  and  finally  it  became  necessary  to  build  the 
Metropolitan  Tabernacle,  which  was  opened  in  1861. 
Mr.  Spurgeon’s  sermons  were  published  weekly  from 
1855  until  his  death  and  were  translated  in  various 
foreign  languages.  He  also  wrote  The  Treasury  of 
David , Salt  Cellars , two  volumes  of  proverbs,  and  other 
works,  edited  The  Sword  and  Shield,  and  was  extremely 
active  in  charitable  measures,  founding  the  Stockwell 
Orphanage  and  other  institutions.  He  died  Jan.  31,  1892. 

SQUIER,  Ephraim  George,  was  born  at  Bethle- 
hem, N.  Y.,  June  17,  1821.  In  his  youth  he  worked 
on  a farm  in  summer,  and  taught  school  in  winter.  In 
1848  he  was  appointed  charge  d ’ affaires  to  the  republics 
of  Central  America.  He  spent  1863-64  in  Peru  (as 
United  States  commissioner),  examining  the  remains  of 
the  Inca  works,  and  had  begun  the  publication  of  Peru  : 
Incidents  and  Explorations  in  the  Land  of  the  Incas 
(1877),  when  interrupted  by  a mental  disorder.  He 
died  April  17,  1888. 

STAINER,  Sir  John,  born  in  England,  1840,  was 
a chorister  at  St.  Paul’s  at  the  age  of  seven,  organist  to 
St.  Michael’s  College,  Tenbury,  at  sixteen,  and  organist 
of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  at  19.  He  is  a brilliant 
instrumentalist  and  composed  many  anthems,  church 
services  and  songs,  and  wrote  a Treatise  on  Harmony 
and  other  works.  He  was  knighted  in  1888  and  became 
professor  of  music  at  Oxford  in  1889.  Died  Mar.,  1901. 

STAMBULOFF,  Stephen,  one  of  the  foremost 
statesmen  of  Europe  and  in  large  measure  the  maker  of 
the  modern  independent  state  of  Bulgaria,  was  born  in 
1853,  and  educated  in  Russia.  He  was  Prime  Minister 
under  Prince  Alexander  when  the  Servians  were  de- 
feated at  Slivnitza,  was  president  of  the  Sobranje, 
1884-86,  regent  of  Bulgaria,  1886-87,  and  premier 
under  Prince  Ferdinand,  1887-94,  during  which  time 
he  steadily  pursued  his  policy  of  consolidating  the 
kingdom  and  fostering  a national  spirit.  He  frustrated 
numerous  conspiracies,  and  by  his  command  many 
of  the  conspirators  were  executed  for  treason.  He 
was  stabbed  in  the  streets  of  Sophia,  July  15,  1895, 
and  died  from  the  effects  of  his  wounds  three  days 
later. 


S T A 


6812 

STANBERRY,  Henry,  was  born  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  February  20,  1803;  educated  at  Washington 
(Penn.)  College,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1824.  He 
removed  to  Lancaster,  Ohio,  and  in  1846  became  at- 
torney-general of  the  State.  He  was  a member  of  the 
Ohio  constitutional  convention  of  1850,  and  removed 
to  Cincinnati  of  1853,  where  he  practiced  law  until 
1866.  In  this  year  he  accepted  the  appointment  of 
attorney-general  of  the  United  States,  tendered  him 
by  President  Johnson.  He  resigned  the  trust,  how- 
ever, to  appear  in  behalf  of  Johnson  upon  the  latter’s 
impeachment  trial.  Upon  his  acquittal,  the  President 
nominated  Mr.  Stanberry  to  be  an  associate  justice  of 
the  Supreme  Court,  and  upon  the  Senate’s  refusal  to 
confirm  the  appointment,  Stanberry  again  took  up  his 
residence  at  Cincinnati.  He  died  in  New  York  city, 
June  26,  1881. 

STANDISH,  Miles,  soldier,  born  in  Lancashire, 
England,  about  1584;  died  in  Duxbury,  Mass.,  Octo- 
ber 3,  1656.  He  entered  the  British  army  in  the  Neth- 
erlands, and  rose  to  the  rank  of  captain.  Later  he  ac- 
companied the  Pilgrims  to  Cape  Cod  on  board  the  May- 
flower. On  September  21st,  after  the  founding  of 
Plymouth,  Standish,  with  ten  armed  followers,  and 
three  savages  as  guides,  explored  the  land,  anchoring 
off  Thomson’s  Island,  and  entered  that  portion  of  the 
country  now  known  as  Quincy.  In  1625  he  went  to 
England  as  agent  for  the  colony,  and  returned  in  the 
following  year  with  supplies.  Besides  being  military 
head  of  the  colony,  he  was  its  counselor,  and  for  a long 
time  its  treasurer.  He  was  an  iron-nerved  Puritan. 
He  is  the  hero  of  Longfellow’s  poem,  The  Courtship  of 
Miles  Standish. 

STANFORD,  Charles  Villiers,  was  born  at 
Dublin,  December  30,  1852.  In  1870  he  matriculated 
at  Queen’s  College,  Cambridge,  but  shortly  afterward 
migrated  to  Trinity,  where,  on  the  death  of  Dr.  J.  L. 
Hopkins,  in  1873,  he  was  elected  organist  of  the  col- 
lege, a post  he  has  retained  ever  since.  Doctor  Stan- 
ford has  composed  a large  number  of  important  works. 

STANFORD,  Leland,  senator,  was  born  at  Water- 
vliet,  N.  Y.,  March  9,  1824,  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1849,  and  opened  an  office  at  Port  Washington,  Wis., 
the  same  year.  He  removed  to  California  in  1852,  and 
locating  at  Michigan  Bluff,  in  Placer  county,  engaged  in 
mining  and  commercial  ventures  until  1856,  when  he 
established  himself  at  San  Francisco.  He  was  a dele- 
gate to  the  Chicago  convention  that  nominated  Abraham 
Lincoln,  was  elected  governor  of  California  in  1861, 
and  United  States  Senator  in  1885,  and  1891.  He  was 
first  president  of  the  Central  Pacific  in  1861,  con- 
structed that  railroad,  and  made  a vast  fortune  from  it 
and  the  Union  Pacific.  In  1 886  he  founded  the 
Leland  Stanford  Junior  University  (q.  v.),  in 
memory  of  his  son,  at  Palo  Alto,  and  gave  it  to  the 
State  of  California,  increasing  the  endowment  at  his 
death,  June  20,  1893,  to  the  magnificent  sum  of  $20,- 
000,000.  Suit  was  begun  against  his  estate  in  1894  by 
the  United  States  government  to  recover  $15,000,000 
for  government  loans  made  for  the  construction  of  the 
Union  Pacific. 

STANHOPE,  Edward,  born  in  England,  Septem- 
ber 24,  1840,  and  educated  at  Harrow,  and  Christ 
Church,  Oxford.  Was  elected  fellow  of  All  Souls, 
1862.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1865,  and  was  elected 
member  of  parliament  for  Mid-Lincolnshire  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1874,  for  which  constituency  he  sat  until 
1885,  when  he  was  elected  for  the  Horncastle  divi- 
sion of  that  county.  He  was  parliamentary  secretary 
to  the  Board  of  Trade  from  November,  1875,  to  April, 
1878.  In  1886,  he  was  appointed  Secretary  of  State 
for  the  colonies  by  Salisbury.  He  died  in  1893. 


STANWIX,  John,  British  soldier,  born  in  England, 
about  1690;  died  at  sea  in  Decembey,  1765.  In  1706 
oung  Stanwix  entered  the  British  army,  and  from 
eing  captain  of  grenadiers,  became  colonel  and  equerry 
to  the  Prince  of  Wales.  In  1756  he  was  made  colonel 
in  the  6th  royal  American  regiment.  On  arrival,  his 
headquarters  were  at  Carlisle,  Penn.,  where,  on  Decem- 
ber 27,  1 75 7,  he  was  appointed  brigadier-general.  In 
1 759  General  Stanwix  superintended  the  repairs  of  the 
old  fort  at  Pittsburg.  In  1759  he  became  major-gen- 
eral, and  in  1761  was  appointed  lieutenant-general. 
On  his  return  to  England  he  became  governor  of  the 
Isle  of  Wight  and  was  a member  of  parliament.  He  was 
lost  at  sea  while  crossing  from  Dublin  to  Holyhead. 

STANLEY,  Frederick  Arthur,  Lord  Stanley 
of  Preston,  G.  C.  B.,  was  born  in  London  in  1841, 
and  received  his  education  at  Eton.  He  entered  the 
grenadier  guards  in  1858,  was  appointed  lieutenant  and 
captain  in  1862,  and  retired  from  the  army  in  1865.  In 
Lord  Salisbury’s  government  he  was  Secretary  of  State 
for  the  colonies  from  June,  1885,  till  February,  1886,  and 
in  the  cabinet  of  August,  1886,  was  appointed  president 
of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  raised  to  the  peerage  as 
Lord  Stanley  of  Preston.  He  was  governor-general 
of  Canada,  1888-93,  and  became  Earl  of  Derby  on  his 
brother’s  death,  1893. 

STANLEY,  Sir  Henry  M.,  born  near  Denbigh,  in 
Wales,  in  1840.  When  three  years  old  he  was  placed 
in  the  poor-house  of  St.  Asaph,  where  he  remained  ten 
years,  and  received  an  education  which  enabled  him  to 
teach  in  a school.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  sailed  as 
cabin-boy  in  a vessel  bound  for  New  Orleans.  Here 
he  was  adopted  by  a merchant  named  Stanley,  whose 
name  he  took,  in  place  of  his  original  one,  which  was 
John  Rowlands.  His  patron  died  without  leaving  a 
will,  and  young  Stanley  was  left  to  his  own  resources. 
He  enlisted  in  the  Confederate  army;  was  made  a 
prisoner;  and  joined  the  Federal  marine  service.  In 
1867  was  sent  by  the  New  York  Herald  as  its  corre- 
spondent with  the  British  army  in  Abyssinia,  and  subse- 
quently traveled  in  Spain  and  elsewhere.  He  was  finally 
sent  by  the  editor  of  the  Herald  to  find  Doctor  Living- 
stone, of  whom  nothing  had  been  heard  for  more  than 
two  years.  Stanley  reached  Zanzibar,  on  the  east  coast 
of  Africa,  early  in  January,  1871,  and  on  October  28th 
reached  Ujiji,  on  Lake  Tanganyika,  where  Livingstone 
had  just  arrived  from  the  southwest.  Stanley  remained 
with  him  until  February,  1872,  when  Livingstone 
started  on  the  journey  from  which  he  never  returned, 
and  Stanley  made  his  way  back  to  Europe.  The  eclat  of 
this  exploit  induced  the  conductors  of  the  New  York 
Herald  and  of  the  London  Daily  Telegraph  to  send  him, 
at  their  own  expense,  on  another  African  expedition.  He 
reached  Zanzibar  in  the  autumn  of  1874,  and,  learning 
that  Livingstone  was  dead,  resolved  to  go  northwest- 
ward, and  explore  the  region  of  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza. 
This,  after  many  encounters  with  the  natives,  he  reached 
in  February,  1875,  and  judged  it  to  be  the  largest  body 
of  fresh  water  on  the  globe,  its  estimated  area  being 
40,000  square  miles.  He  then  pushed  westward  toward 
Lake  Albert  Nyanza,  and  satisfied  himself  that  it 
was  not,  as  had  been  generally  supposed,  connected 
with  Lake  Tanganyika.  Forced  by  the  hostility  of  the 
natives  to  return  to  Ujiji,  he  determined  to  descend  the 
great  river  discovered  by  Livingstone,  believed  by  him 
to  be  the  Nile,  rightly  thought  by  others  to  be  the 
Congo,  and  named  by  Livingstone,  the  Lu&laba,  and  by 
Stanley,  the  Livingstone.  The  descent,  chiefly  by 
canoes,  occupied  him  eight  months,  cost  the  lives 
of  35  out  of  his  150  men,  and  was  accomplished 
under  the  greatest  difficulties  and  privations.  On 
reaching  a settlement  on  the  coast,  a Portuguese 


STA- 

national  vessel  took  him  to  St.  Paul  de  Loanda, 
whence  an  English  vessel  conveyed  the  party  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  thence  to  Zanzibar.  Here 
his  men  were  left  at  their  homes,  and  Stanley  reached 
England  in  February,  1878.  He  has  published  an  ac- 
count of  his  first  expedition,  under  the  title  How  I 
Found  Livingstone , 1872.  Of  his  other  expedition  an 
account  is  given  in  Through  the  Dark  Continent , 1878 
(abridged  edition,  1885).  The  president  of  the  French 
Geographical  Society  presented  the  cross  of  chevalier 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor  to  Mr.  Stanley  at  the  Sorbonne, 
Paris,  June  28,  1878.  In  1879-82  he  visited  Africa 
again  under  the  auspices  of  the  African  International 
Association,  founded  at  Brussels.  The  object  he  had 
in  view  was  to  develop  the  great  basin  of  the  River 
Congo.  The  king  of  the  Belgians  devoted  from  his  pri- 
vate purse  $250,000  per  annum  toward  this  costly  enter- 
prise. He  completed  the  work  in  1884,  having  estab- 
lished trading  stations  along  the  Congo  river  from  its 
mouth  to  Stanley  Pool,  1,400  miles  by  river.  In  1885 
he  published  The  Congo  and  the  Founding  of  its  Free 
State.  (See  Zaire. ) 

The  death  of  General  Gordon  brought  trouble  for 
Emin  Bey  or  Emin  Pasha,  and  he  was  compelled  to 
retreat  south  to  a branch  of  the  Nile  which  isues  from 
Lake  Albert  Nyanza.  Here  he  was  practically  block- 
aded and  lay  for  months  constantly  threatened  with 
danger.  In  the  latter  part  of  December,  1886,  an  ex- 
pedition was  sent  to  his  relief  under  command  of 
Stanley.  Stanley  reached  Zanzibar,  where  he  recruited 
a force  and  took  it  by  steamer  around  the  Cape  and 
thence  up  the  Congo  river  1,300  miles  to  Yambuya, 
where  he  left  part  of  his  command  as  a rear  guard.  It 
was  June  15,  1887,  when  he  reached  this  point  and  he 
concluded  to  make  it  the  base  of  operations  for  the  ex- 
pedition. With  389  men  he  entered  the  unexplored 
forest  with  Kavalli  for  his  objective  point,  distant  330 
miles.  On  December  14,  1887,  he  reached  Kavalli, 
but  could  hear  nothing  of  Emin.  Compelled  to 
return  to  the  forest  for  a steel  whale  boat  he  had 
left  there,  it  was  April,  1888,  when  he  again  reached 
the  banks  of  Lake  Albert  Nyanza,  upon  which  the  vil- 
lage of  Kavalli  stands,  and  this  time  he  received  a let- 
ter from  Emin  and  the  next  day  they  met.  Leaving  a 
supply  of  stores  for  Emin’s  use,  Stanley  once  more 
plunged  into  the  forest  to  learn  what  had  become  of  his 
rear  guard,  which  had  been  ordered  to  follow  him  when 
fresh  stores  should  arrive  from  the  south.  Nothing 
had  been  heard  of  it,  and  he  retraced  his  steps  to  Yam- 
buya, where  it  had  been  left,  before  he  learned  its  fate. 
Major  Barttelot,  who  had  been  left  in  command,  had 
been  murdered,  together  with  nearly  all  the  English 
officers.  More  than  half  the  native  force  had  deserted 
or  died.  Reorganizing  once  again  his  force,  Stanley 
started  through  the  forest  for  Albert  Nyanza,  making 
his  third  trip  through  it,  and  in  January,  1889,  he 
succeeded  in  reaching  Kavalli  for  the  last  time.  It 
took  three  months  to  prepare  to  escort  Emin  Pasha 
and  his  people  to  Zanzibar.  April  10th  they  started, 
going  to  the  southern  extremity  of  Lake  Albert 
Nyanza,  and  on  December  4th  reached  their  destination. 
Besides  accomplishing  the  direct  object  of  his  expedi- 
tion, this  is  said  to  have  been  the  most  important  one 
Stanley  had  made  into  the  interior  of  the  dark  con- 
tinent, by  reason  of  the  new  discoveries  he  made.  His 
fate  for  a*  long  time  was  uncertain.  Mr.  Stanley  re- 
turned to  England  after  his  last  expedition.  He  was 
married  July  12,  1890,  to  Miss  Dorothy  Tennant,  a 
noted  London  artist. 

STANSFELD,  Sir  James,  was  born  at  Halifax, 
England,  in  1820,  and  educated  at  University  College, 
London,  where  he  attained  the  degree  of  LL.B.  He 
57-J 


-STE  6813 

was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  inner  temple  in  1840,  and 
held  many  minor  offices  under  Liberal  administrations. 
Mr.  Stansfeld  supported  Mr.  Gladstone’s  home  rule 
policy,  and  in  1886,  on  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Cham- 
berlain, succeeded  him  as  president  of  the  local  gov- 
ernment board,  reentering  the  cabinet  for  the  first  time 
for  twelve  years.  He  has  continued  to  sit  for  Halifax 
since  1859.  Mr.  Stansfeld  is  well  known  for  his  op- 
position to  the  Contagious  Diseases  Acts,  and  his  sup- 
port of  woman’s  suffrage.  Died  Feb.  17,  1898. 

STAPLETON,  Augustus  Granville,  born  in 
1800;  was  educated  at  Rugby  and  St.  John’s,  Cam- 
bridge. He  was  appointed  private  secretary  to  Mr. 
Canning  in  1822.  At  that  statesman’s  death  he  was 
made  a commissioner  of  customs,  and,  having  been  in- 
trusted with  Canning’s  papers,  he  published,  in  1830, 
his  Political  Life  during  his  last  tenure  of  office.  . Mr. 
Stapleton  contributed  letters  on  foreign  policy,  signed 
“ Sulpicius,”  to  the  Times  during  April  and  May,  1836. 
In  1871  he  published  The  French  Case  Truly  Stated , 
showing  how  the  French  Government  was  beguiled 
into  the  declaration  of  war  against  Prussia;  and  in 
1873,  essays  in  Macmillan' s Magazine  commenting, 
from  a contemporary  point  of  view,  on  Charles  Gre- 
ville's  Memoirs. 

STARK,  John,  soldier,  born  in  Londonderry,  N.H., 
August  28,  1728;  died  in  Manchester,  N.  H.,  May  8, 
1822.  While  engaged  in  hunting  he  was  taken  pris- 
oner by  Indians,  and  held  for  six  weeks,  until  set  free 
on  the  payment  of  ransom.  He  took  an  active  part 
in  the  French  war,  and  when  it  ended  returned  to  his 
farm,  remaining  there  until  the  beginning  of  the  Revo- 
lution. On  learning  of  the  conflict  at  Lexington,  he 
repaired  to : Cambridge,  Mass.  Here  he  was  made 
colonel  of  a body  of  New  Hampshire  troops,  and  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  He  fought  through 
the  war  and  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general.  Except  Sumter,  who  died  in  1832,  he  was 
the  last  surviving  general  of  the  Revolution. 

STARKEY,  Thomas  Alfred,  a bishop  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  Philadelphia 
in  1824,  and,  having  been  educated  as  an  engineer, 
pursued  that  profession  until  1845.  He  subsequently 
studied  for  the  ministry,  and  was  ordained  a priest, 
May  21,  1848.  He  served  as  rector  of  churches  in 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  and  elsewhere  until 
January  8,  1880,  when  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
the  diocese  of  Newark,  N.  J. 

STARKWEATHER,  John  C.,  Gen.,  a native  ot 
Cooperstown,  N.  Y.,  born  May  11,  1830,  graduated  at 
Union  College  in  1850,  and  practiced  law  in  Mil- 
waukee, Wis.,  until  1861.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  war  he  entered  the  army  and  participated  in  most 
of  the  battles  of  the  southwest.  He  was  wounded  at 
Chickamauga,  and  was  mustered  out  May  11,  1865, 
with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  practiced  law 
at  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  died  in  December,  1890. 

STEAD,  William  Thomas,  an  English  journalist 
and  author  of  great  ability,  but  sensational  methods, 
was  born  July  5,  1849;  became  editor  of  the  Northern 
Echo,  1871,  assistant  editor  of  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette, 
1880,  and  editor-in-chief,  1883.  He  wrote  The  Truth 
About  the  Navy,  1884,  The  Maiden  Tribute  of  Modern 
Babylon,  1885,  an  exposure  of  London  iniquities  which 
gained  him  imprisonment;  No  Reduction,  No  Rent,  a 
record  of  a visit  to  Ireland;  The  Pope  and  the  New 
Era , and  many  other  works.  He  left  the  Pall  Mall 
Gazette  on  founding,  in  1890,  the  Review  of  Revierus, 
which  he  edits.  He  visited  the  United  States  in  1893, 
spent  some  time  in  Chicago,  and  wrote,  If  Christ  Came 
to  Chicago,  dealing  sensationally,  but  vigorously,  with 
real  and  fancied  evils. 


S T E 


6814 

STEDMAN,  EdmunB  Clarence,  was  born  at 
Hartford*  Conn.,  October  8,  1833.  He  studied  at  Yale 
College,  and  in  1852  became  editor  of  the  Norwich 
(Conn.)  Tribune , and  in  1853  of  the  Winsted  (Conn.) 
Herald.  He  removed  to  New  York  in  1855,  where,  in 
1859,  he  became  a contributor  of  poetry  to  the  Trib- 
une. From  1861  to  1863  he  was  a war  correspond- 
ent of  the  New  York  World.  He  became  a stockbroker 
in  New  York  city  in  1865  and  has  written  lyric  poetty 
and  poetical  criticism  of  great  literary  merit.  He  pub- 
lished Victorian  Poets  (1875);  Poets  of  America  (1885) 
atid  edited  with  Miss  Ellen  M.  Hutchinson  A Library 
cf  American  Literature  (1890). 

STEEDMAN,  James  B.,  was  born  in  the  county  of 
Northumberland,  Penn.,  July  30,  1818,  and  removed 
to  Ohio  in  1837,  settling  at  Toledo.  In  1843  he  was 
elected  to  the  State  legislature.  After  spending  a year 
in  California,  he  was  elected  a member  of  the  Ohio 
board  of  public  works  in  1851,  served  as  public  printer 
during  the  administration  of  James  Buchanan,  and 
became  colonel  of  the  4th  Ohio  infantry  at  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  war.  He  commanded  a division  in 
the  army  of  the  Cumberland,  and  at  the  battle  of 
Chickamauga  was  conspicuous  for  his  gallantry,  and 
was  promoted  to  be  major-general.  At  the  battle  of 
Nashville  he  was  equally  prominent.  After  the  war  he 
was  appointed  collector  of  internal  revenue  by  Presi- 
dent Johnson,  whence  he  returned  to  Ohio  in  1879,  and 
was  elected  to  the  State  Senate.  He  died  at  Toledo, 
October  18,  1883. 

STEELE,  Frederick,  Gen.,  an  American  soldier, 
was  born  January  14,  1819,  at  Delhi,  N.  Y. ; graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1843,  and  was  promoted  for  gallant 
conduct  in  the  battles  of  the  Mexican  war.  In  Febru- 
ary, 1861,  he  became  colonel  of  the  8th  Iowa  infantry, 
and  operated  in  southwest  Missouri  and  Arkansas. 
He  was  engaged  in  the  battles  about  Vicksburg,  and, 
upon  the  surrender  of  that  city,  was  promoted  to  be 
lieutenant-colonel.  He  was  prominent  at  the  capture 
of  Little  Rock,  also  in  the  campaign  against  Mobile, 
and  at  the  close  of  the  war  was  made  brevet  brigadier- 
general  in  the  regular  army.  He  died  at  San  Mateo, 
Cal.,  January  12,  1868. 

STEELE,  Sir  John,  R.S.A.,  sculptor,  born  in 
Aberdeen,  Scotland,  in  1804;  studied  art  in  Edinburgh, 
where  his  parents  resided;  afterward  proceeded  to 
Rome,  and  on  his  return  from  that  city,  in  1833,  distin- 
guished himself  by  a colossal  model  of  Alexander  and 
Bucephalus,  now  cast  in  bronze  and  erected  in  Edin- 
burgh. One  of  his  principal  works  in  Edinburgh,  the  sit- 
ing colossal  figure  of  the  queen,  in  her  royal  robes,  with 
orb  and  scepter,  above  the  Royal  Institution,  gained  for 
him  the  appointment  of  sculptor  to  her  majesty  for  Scot- 
land. In  August,  1876,  the  queen  conferred  knighthood 
on  the  sculptor.  Sir  John  Steele  executed  for  America 
a colossal  statue  in  bronze  of  the  great  Scottish  poet, 
Robert  Burns,  erected  in  the  Central  Park,  New  York. 
He  died  September  15,  1891. 

STEINITZ,  W.,  a noted  chess  player,  is  a native  of 
Prague,  of  humble  origin,  and  a self-made  man.  In 
1873  he  won  the  great  tournament  in  Vienna,  and  at 
the  London  chess  tournament  in  1883  he  secured  the 
second  prize.  In  1886  he  played  against  Zukertort,  in 
America,  for  the  championship,  and  was  never  beaten 
in  a championship  contest  from  1866  until  Emanuel 
Lasker  defeated  him  in  1894.  He  contributes  exten- 
sively to  chess  literature.  Died  Aug.  13,  1900. 

STEINMETZ,  Karl  Friedrich  von,  a German 
soldier,  was  born  at  Eisenach 'in  1796,  and  died  at 
Landeck,  August  4,  1877.  He  became  a lieutenant  in 
1814,  and  distinguished  himself  in  command  of  the 
division  which  repulsed  the  Austrians  at  the  battle  of 


Skalitz.  During  the  Franco-Prussian  war  he  invaded 
France  in  advance  of  the  army  in  1870,  and  was  largely 
instrumental  in  defeating  the  French  at  Metz. 

STEPHEN,  Sir  Alfred,  G.C.M.G.,  C.B.,  born 
in  England  in  1802,  was  educated  at  the  Charterhouse, 
and  the  grammar  school  of  Honiton,  Devon.  He  was 
chief  justice  of  New  South  Wales  from  1844  till  No- 
vember, 1873;  received  knighthood  in  1846,  and  was 
appointed  governor  of  New  South  Wales  in  Novem- 
ber, 1875.  He  died  October  14,  1894. 

STEPHEN,  Sir  James  Fitzjames,  K.C.S.I., 
D.C.L.,  eldest  son  of  the  late  Right  Hon.  Sir  James 
Stephen,  born  at  Kensington  Gore,  London,  March  3, 
1829,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  was 
made  a member, of  the  royal  commission  appointed  in 
1878  to  inquire  into  the  provisions  of  a draft  code  re- 
lating to  indictable  offenses,  published  a General 
View  of  the  Criminal  Law  of  England , Digest  of  the 
Law  of  England,  and  other  works,  and  was  a judge  of 
the  English  high  court  of  justice  from  1879  to  1891, 
when  he  resigned  and  was  given  a baronetcy.  He 
died  March  12,  1894. 

STEPHEN,  Sir  Leslie,  was  born  at  Kensing- 
ton, England,  November  28,  1832,  and  educated  at 
Eton  School  and  at  King’s  College,  London,  whence  he 
proceeded  to  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  gradu- 
ated B.A.  in  1854,  and  M.A.  in  1857.  He  was  editor 
of  the  Cornhill  Magazine  from  1871  till  1882,  when  he 
resigned  that  post  in  order  to  undertake  the  responsible 
task  of  editing  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography,  a 
labor  which  failing  health  obliged  him  to  relinquish  in 
1891.  In  May,  1883,  he  was  elected  to  the  lectureship 
of  English  literature  at  Cambridge,  resigning  twelve 
months  later.  He  has  written  The  Playground  of 
Europe,  Essays  on  Free  Thinking  and  Plain  Speaking, 
The  Science  of  Ethics  and  other  works.  Mr.  Stephen, 
who  is  a brother  of  the  late  Sir  James  Fitzjames  Stephen, 
married  Harriet  Marian,  younger  daughter  of  William 
Makepeace  Thackeray,  the  celebrated  novelist. 

STEPHENS,  Ann  Sophia,  author,  born  in  Derby, 
Conn.,  in  1813;  died  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  August  20, 
1886.  She  was  married  in  1831,  and  settled  in  Port- 
land, Me.  There,  in  1836,  she  founded  the  Portland 
Magazine,  which  she  continued  until  1837.  In  1836  she 
published  the  Portland  Sketch  Book.  In  1837  her  hus- 
band was  appointed  to  a position  in  the  New  York 
custom-house,  and  while  in  that  city  she  edited  the 
Ladies'  Companion  for  several  years,  and  later  became 
editorial  writer  for  Graham's  Magazine  and  Peterson's 
Magazine.  In  1843  she  founded  The  Ladies'  World, 
and  in  1840  The  Lllustrated  New  Monthly  and  wrote 
Fashion  and  Famine  (1854)  and  many  other  novels. 

STEUBEN,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  August  Hein- 
rich Ferdinand,  Baron  von,  was  born  at  Madge- 
burg,  Prussia,  November  15,  1730.  Entering  the  army 
at  fourteen,  he  rose  to  be  adjutant-general  and  staff- 
officer  to  Frederick  the  Great.  After  his  retirement 
from  active  service,  Silas  Deane  induced  him  to  go  to 
America,  where  he  was  made  major-general  and  in- 
spector-general. He  rendered  eminent  service  by  giving 
the  army  its  first  systematic  drill.  In  this  department 
he  was  the  most  important  accession  which  the  Ameri- 
can army  received  from  Europe.  He  settled  as  a farmer 
on  land  in  what  is  now  Steuben  county,  N.  Y.,  given 
him  by  the  State,  and  died  there  November  28, 

r794-  ' A 

STEVENS,  Edwin  Augustus,  an  American  inven- 
tor, was  born  at  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  July  28,  1 795>  anc* 
early  in  life  was  made  treasurer  of  the  Camden  and  Am- 
boy railroad.  He  was  constantly  devising  plans  for 
the  improvement  of  the  mechanical  department  of  the 
service,  and  for  improved  equipments  and  rolling 


STE 


6815 


stock.  He  also  invented  the  **  air-tight  fire  room  ” 
and  its  application  to  vessels,  and  devoted  years  to 
the  study  of  plans  formulated  with  a view  to  perfect 
improvements  in  naval  warfare.  The  Naugatuck . one 
of  the  first  ships  to  attack  the  Merrimac , was  presented 
to  the  government  by  Mr.  Stevens;  the  Stevens  battery 
he  donated  to  New  Jersey,  and  directed  in  his  will  that 
a fund  of  $1,000,000  should  be  set  apart  for  its  com- 
pletion. He  also  founded  the  Stevens  Institute  at  Ho- 
boken, and  provided  liberally  for  its  support.  His  death 
occurred  in  Paris,  France,  August,  1868. 

STEVENS,  John,  a member  of  the  Continental 
tongress,  was  born  at  New  York  city  in  1708,  but 
settled  in  New  Jersey  and  was  for  six  years,  from  1776 
to  1782,  vice-president  of  the  New  Jersey  council.  In 
1 783  he  was  elected  to  congress,  and  became  prominent 
as  a member  of  committees,  also  in  debate,  and  in 
1787  was  chairman  of  the  State  convention  at  which  the 
ratification  of  the  Federal  constitution  was  perfected. 
He  died  in  1792. 

STEVENS  Thomas  H.,  an  American  naval  officer, 
was  born  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  February  22,  1795.  His 
name  was  Holdup,  and,  upon  the  death  of  his  parents, 
he  was  adopted  by  a family  in  that  city  named  Stevens, 
through  whose  influence  he  was  enabled  to  secure 
admission  to  the  navy.  During  the  war  of  1812  he 
was  actively  engaged  on  the  Niagara  frontier,  and  re- 
ceived promotion  for  bravery.  Later  he  participated 
in  the  battle  of  Lake  Erie,  with  Com.  Oliver  H.  Perry, 
and  compelled  the  surrender  of  the  Queen  Charlotte. 
His  services  in  that  action  were  recognized  by  Con- 
gress, from  which  he  received  a silver  medal,  as  also 
by  the  citizens  of  Charleston,  who  presented  him 
with  a sword.  Subsequently,  he  was  in  command  of 
vessels  attached  to  the  Mediterranean  and  West  Indian 
squadrons,  became  a captain  in  1836,  and  died  January 
22,  1841,  while  in  command  of  the  Washington  navy 
yard. 

STEVENS,  Isaac  Ingalls,  an  American  soldier, 
was  born  March  28,  1818,  at  Andover,  Mass.,  and 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1839.  He  served  through 
the  Mexican  war  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  taking  of  the 
city,  where  he  was  dangerously  wounded.  He  resigned 
from  the  army  in  1853  to  accept  the  governorship  of 
Washington  Territory,  and  the  same  year  surveyed  the 
route  of  the  Northern  Pacific  road  from  Minnesota  to 
Puget  Sound.  While  Territorial  executive  he  concluded 
treaties  with  the  Indians  of  Washington  and  Oregon, 
put  down  an  insurrection  among  them,  and  was  of  in- 
estimable value  to  the  government  in  the  administration 
of  affairs  within  his  jurisdiction.  He  was  sent  as  a del- 
egate to  congress  in  1857,  and  served  until  1861.  When 
the  Civil  war  began  he  became  colonel  of  the  79th  reg- 
iment of  New  York  volunteers,  and  fought  at  Bull 
Run.  He  was  promoted  brigadier-general  during  Sep- 
tember of  the  same  year,  and  participated  in  the  attack 
upon  Port  Royal.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  Penin- 
sula campaign  ne  was  ordered  to  Virginia,  and  rendered 
important  services  under  General  Pope.  He  was  ap- 
pointed major-general  July  4,  1862,  and  was  killed  at 
Chantilly  on  the  first  of  the  following  September. 

STEVENSON,  Adlai  Ewing,  was  born  in  Chris- 
tian county,  Ky.,  in  1835.  He  was  educated  at 
Center  College,  Danville,  Ky.,  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1858  and  practiced  law  at  Bloomington  andMetamora, 
111.  He  served  two  terms  as  Prosecuting  Attorney  of 
Woodford  county,  and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1874 
and  1878.  In  1885  he  became  First  Assistant  Post- 
mas.ter  General,  which  office  he  held  during  Mr.  Cleve- 
land’s full  term.  In  1892  Mr.  Stevenson  was  elected 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

STEVENSON,  Andrew,  an  American  statesman 


and  educator,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Culpeper,  Va., 
in  1784,  and  began  his  public  career  at  an  early  age. 
He  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Delegates  in  1804,  and 
as  a Democratic  representative  in  congress  in  1823, 
serving  until  1834,  part  of  the  time  as  speaker.  He 
was  United  States  minister  to  England  for  five  years 
from  1836,  and  was  elected  dean  of  the  University  of 
Virginia  in  1842.  He  died  on  his  plantation  in  Albe- 
marle county,  Va.,  January  25,  1857. 

STEVENSON,  Robert  Louis,  a Scottish  author, 
born  in  Edinburgh  in  1850.  He  at  first  studied  for  an 
engineer,  and  later  the  law.  In  1879  he  came  to  the 
United  States,  and  married.  He  won  wide  reputation 
as  a writer  by  his  delightful  story,  Treasure  Island , in 
1883,  and  by  his  Master  of  Ballantrae , Dr.  Jekyll  and 
Mr.  Hyde  and  other  works.  He  died  December  3, 
1894,  on  his  island  estate  in  Samoa. 

STEVENSON,  Thomas  G.,  an  American  soldier, 
was  born  February  3,  1836,  at  Boston,  where  he  was 
also  educated.  He  entered  the  army  at  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war  as  a major  of  militia,  and,  after  serving 
as- drill  master  at  Fort  Independence,  was  made  colonel 
of  the  24th  regiment  of  Massachusetts  infantry.  His 
service  was  in  North  and  South  Carolina  until  1863, 
during  which  time  he  was  promoted  to  be  brigadier- 
general.  He  subsequently  commanded  a division  of 
the  ninth  army  corps,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Spottsylvania  Court  House,  May  10,  1864. 

STEWART,  Alexander  Turney,  merchant,  born 
in  Belfast,  Ireland,  October  12,  1803;  died  in  New 
York  city,  April  10,  1876.  Mr.  Stewart  started  a dry 
goods  house  in  New  York  city,  on  September  2,  1825. 
This  business  became  simply  gigantic;  he  established  a 
wholesale  branch,  and  his  sales  annually  amounted  to 
over  $50,000,000.  During  the  famine  in  Ireland,  Mr. 
Stewart  sent  a shipload  of  provisions  to  that  country, 
and  after  the  Franco-German  war,  sent  a shipload  of 
flour  to  F ranee.  He  contributed  $50,000  to  the  Chicago 
fire  sufferers,  and  gave  the  sufferers  from  the  floods 
in  Silesia  $10,000.  He  was  engaged  in  building  a 
large  iron  and  brick  structure  to  be  a home  for  work- 
ing  girls,  and  to  cost  over  $1,000,000,  at  the  time  of 
his  death.  When  General  Grant  was  elected  president 
of  the  United  States,  he  appointed  Mr.  Stewart  secre- 
tary of  the  treasury,  but  a law  which  prohibits  a man 
engaged  in  importing  goods  from  holding  any  cabinet 
office  made  him  ineligible.  Mr.  Stewart  left  an  estate  of 
about  $40,000,000.  The  building  intended  for  working 
girls  was  changed  into  a hotel;  his  large  art  gallery  was 
sold  at  auction  in  1887,  Judge  Hilton  managing  affairs 
for  the  widow.  After  Mr.  Stewart’s  burial,  his  remains 
were  stolen,  and  have  never,  confessedly,  been  recovered, 
though  it  has  been  given  out  that  they  had  been  found 
and  secretly  interred. 

STEWART,  Balfour,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
born  November  1,  1828,  at  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  was 
educated  at  the  Universities  of  St.  Andrews  and  Edin- 
burgh. He  was  appointed  director  of  the  Kew  Ob- 
servatory, July  1,  1859.  Doctor  Stewart  was  the  dis- 
coverer of  the  law  of  equality  between  the  absorptive 
and  radiative  powers  of  bodies,  for  which  he  received 
the  Rumford  medal  from  the  Royal  Society  in  1868. 
He  was  the  author  of  Heating  Produced  by  Rotation  in 
Vacuo;  and  wrote  numerous  papers  on  meteorology 
and  magnetism.  He  died  December  19,  1887. 

STEWART,  Charles,  naval  officer,  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, Penn.,  July  28,  1778;  died  in  Bordentown, 
N.  J.,  November  6,  1869.  At  the  age  of  thirteen 
young  Stewart  became  a cabin  boy,  and  gradually 
rose  to  the  captaincy  of  a merchant  vessel.  Going 
into  the  navy,  he  in  1800  commanded  the  schooner 
Experiment  * and  captured  several  French  vessels.  In 


04i6 


S T E — S T O 


1804  he  became  attached  to  the  Mediterranean  squad- 
ron under  Commodore  Preble,  and  two  years  later  was 
promoted  captain.  On  the  outbreak  of  war  with  Great 
Britain  he  took  command  of  the  Constellation , and 
later  of  the  Constitution , making  several  important 
captures.  In  1862  he  was  made  rear-admiral  on  the 
retired  list. 

STEWART, Sir  Donald  Martin,  Bart.,  G.C.B., 
was  born  in  1824.  He  received  his  education  at  the 
University  of  Aberdeen,  and  entered  the  Bengal  staff 
corps  in  1840.  He  served  against  the  hill  tribes  in  the 
Peshawur  district  in  1854  and  1855,  when  he  was  honor- 
ably mentioned  in  the  dispatches.  Stewart  did  great 
service  in  the  British  army  in  the  East  Indies;  rose  to 
the  rank  of  general,  received  the  thanks  of  parliament, 
and  was  made  G.C.B.  and  baronet. 

STEWART,  Sir  Robert  Prescott,  Mus.Doc., 
was  born  in  Dublin  in  December,  1825.  He  received 
his  education  in  the  school  of  Christ  Church  Cathedral, 
Dublin,  and  at  the  age  of  eighteen  he  was  appointed 
organist  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  of  both  the 
Dublin  cathedrals.  He  composed  a number  of  canta- 
tas. He  died  March  2 c;,  1894. 

STEWART,  Sir  Thomas  Grainger,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  September  23,  1837,  was  edu- 
cated at  the  high  school  and  university  of  Edinburgh, 
and,  after  graduating,  studied  in  the  universities  and 
hospitals  of  Berlin,  Prague,  and  Vienna.  On  his 
return  to  Edinburgh  he  became  resident  physician  in 
the  Royal  Infirmary,  and  there  made  observations 
upon  the  diagnosis  of  certain  forms  of  kidney  disease, 
which  attracted  considerable  attention.  Doctor  Stew- 
art is  the  author  of  a book  on  Bright’s  disease  of  the 
kidneys. 

STIGAND,  William,  born  in  1827;  was  educated 
at  Shrewsbury  and  St.  John’s  College,  Cambridge. 
After  studying  the  equity  branch  of  the  profession  of 
the  law,  he  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln’s  Inn  in 
June,  1852.  He  has  written  several  books  and  poems. 

STILES,  Ezra,  educator,  born  in  North  Haven, 
Conn.,  November  29, 1727;  died  in  New  Haven,  Conn., 
May  12,  1795-  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1746. 
From  1778  until  his  death  he  was  president  of  Yale 
College.  He  made  some  of  the  first  electrical  experi- 
ments in  New  England,  and  taught  all  the  natural 
sciences.  His  diary  and  other  writings  are  preserved 
in  the  library  of  Yale  College. 

STILLP,  Alfred,  an  American  plr  cian,  was 
5om  October  30,  1813,  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  and 
graduated  at  the  Pennsylvania  University  in  1832, 
afterward  pursuing  his  studies  at  Paris  and  Vienna. 
Upon  his  return  to  the  United  States  he  filled  the  chair 
of  medicine  and  practice  in  the  Medical  College  of 
Pennsylvania  for  five  years,  and  in  1864  was  called  to 
the  same  professorship  in  the  Pennsylvania  University, 
where  he  remained  until  1884,  part  of  the  time  lectur- 
ing at  the  Philadelphia  hospital.  He  was  made  an 
LL.D.  by  Pennsylvania  College  in  1876,  and  became 
the  president  of  the  American  Medical  Society  in  1862. 
He  is  also  a member  of  medical*  and  scientific  societies 
of  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  and  in  other  cities,  and  is  the 
author  of  valuable  works  on  medicine  and  the  treatment 
of  diseases.  He  died  Sept.  24,  1900. 

STILLfi,  Chas.  J.,  an  American  historical  writer; 
barn  September  23,  1819;  was  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege in  1839,  and  later  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but 
adopted  literature  as  a profession.  He  was  for  two 
years  professor  of  history  in  the  Pennsylvania  Univer- 
sity, and  was  instrumental  in  procuring  the  erection  of 
buildings  for  the  scientific  department  of  that  institu- 
tion, which  was  established  through  his  influence  and 
labors.  He  is  the  author  of  works  of  a local  char* 


acter,  and  of  publications  connected  with  the  history  of 
the  Civil  war.  He  was  made  LL.D.  by  Yale  College 
in  1868.  He  died  Aug.  11,  1899. 

STILLMAN,  Wm.  James,  an  American  author, 
born  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  June  1,  1828;  was  grad- 
uated at  Union  College  in  1848,  and  in  1849  visited 
Europe  to  pursue  a course  of  study  in  landscape  paint- 
ing. Since  1870  he  has  been  identified  with  literary 
work,  having  served  as  correspondent  of  the  London 
Times  in  Montenegro,  Greece,  and  elsewhere  in  Eu- 
rope, as  the  art  critic  of  the  Evening  Post , New  York, 
and  editor  of  art  publications  in  the  United  States  and 
Europe.  He  is  the  author  of  a number  of  works  on  art 
and  artists,  and  the  resident  correspondent  at  Rome  of 
the  London  Ti?nes.  Died  July  5,  190L 

STIMPSON,  William,  an  American  scientist,  born 
February  14,  1832,  at  Roxbury,  Mass.,  and  studied 
under  Louis  Agassiz.  In  1852  he  was  attached  to  the 
expedition  to  the  North  Pacific  in  the  capacity  of  nat- 
uralist and  upon  his  return  in  1856  located  at  Wash- 
ington. In  1864  he  was  made  a member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  Chicago,  and  in  1872  was  employed 
by  the  United  States  Government  as  superintendent  of 
the  deep  sea  dredgings  conducted  by  the  coast  survey 
off  the  coast  of  Florida.  He  was  a member  of  many 
scientific  societies  and  the  author  of  various  works  on 
scientific  subjects.  He  died  in  Maryland  May  26,  1872. 

STIRLING,  James  Hutchison,  LL.D.,  born  at 
Glasgow,  June  22,  1820;  was  educated  at  Glasgow 
University,  and  spent  six  years  in  France  and  Ger- 
many. He  became  LL.D.  of  Edinburgh,  1867;  and  a 
foreign  member  of  the  Philosophical  Society  of  Berlin, 
1871.  He  relinquished  professional  practice  in  1851, 
and  went  to  the  Continent  to  pursue  there  his  literary 
and  philosophical  studies.  The  following  are  the  titles 
of  some  of  his  works : Sir  William  Hamilton , on  the 
Philosophy  of  Perception ; Schwegler’s  History  of  Philo- 
sophy, translated  and  annotated. 

STIRLING,  Mrs.,  an  accomplished  and  versatile 
actress,  born  in  England  in  1817;  was  educated  at  a 
convent  in  France,  and,  on  her  return  home,  finding 
that  her  family  had  fallen  into  pecuniary  difficulties, 
determined,  although  then  but  sixteen  years  of  age,  to 
try  her  fortune  upon  the  stage.  Adopting  the  name  of 
Miss  Fanny  Clifton,  she  obtained  an  engagement  at  the 
East  London  theater,  at  which  her  reception  was  en- 
couraging, attributable  in  no  small  degree  to  her  hand- 
some person  and  musical  voice.  This  was  followed  by 
a long  and  successful  career,  during  which  she  played 
with  some  of  the  best  English  actors,  and  made  a name 
in  some  great  parts.  She  died  Dec.,  1895. 

STIRLING,  Sir  Thomas,  an  English  soldier,  who 
entered  the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  participated  in 
many  of  the  battles  of  the  Revolutionary  war.  He  was 
appointed  brigadier- general  under  Sir  Henry  Clinton, 
whom  he  accompanied  in  the  latter’s  expedition  against 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  during  1780,  and  in  February,  1782, 
was  promoted  to  be  major-general.  He  was  knighted 
in  1796,  and  died  May  9,  1808. 

STOCKS,  Lumb,  R.A.,  born  November  30,  1812, 
at  Lightcliffe,  near  Halifax,  Yorkshire;  was  educated 
at  Horton,  near  Bradford,  and  became  in  after  years 
an  engraver  of  note.  He  died  April  28,  1892. 

STOCKTON,  Francis  Richard,  an  American 
writer,  was  born  at  Philadelphia,  April  5, 1834,  and  died 
April  20,  1902.  He  attended  the  Phila.  High  School 
in  1852,  and  began  file  as  an  engraver,  but  abandoned- 
engraving  to  devote  himself  to  journalism.  His  earli- 
est writings  were  a number  of  fantastic  tales  for  children 
contributed  to  the  Riverside  Magazine  and  other  peri- 
odicals. He  subsequently  became  connected  with  a 
daily  paper  in  Philadelphia,  and  afteryvard  with  Hearth 


STO 


and  Home , New  York.  Later  he  joined  the  editorial 
staff  of  Scribner’s  Monthly  (now  The  Century ),  and  on 
the  establishment  of  St.  Nicholas  became  its  assistant 
editor.  His  Rudder  Grange  papers,  which  appeared 
in  Scribner’s,  were  the  first  to  attract  general  public 
attention,  which  he  has  successfully  held  by  the  novel 
character  of  the  short  stories  for  which  he  is  chiefly 
celebrated.  Among  the  best  known  of  these  are  The 
Lady  or  the  Tiger , The  Transferred  Ghost , The  Spec- 
tral Mortgage  and  Negative  Gravity  and  he  has  also 
published  The  Late  Mrs.  Null , The  Squirrel  Inn , and 
other  novels,  and  Pomono's  Travels  (1894). 

STOCKTON,  Richard,  born  near  Princeton,  N.  J., 
October  1,  1730;  died  there  February  28,  1781.  He 
was  graduated  at  Princeton,  studied  law  in  Newark, 
and  in  1754  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1778  he  was 
made  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  New  Jersey,  and 
in  that  year  submitted  to  Lord  Dartmouth  An  Expedi- 
ent for  the  Settlement  of  the  American  Disputes . In 
1776  he  was  chosen  a member  of  the  Continental  con- 
gress which  met  in  Philadelphia,  and  he  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence. 

STOCKTON,  Robert  Field,  naval  officer,  born 
in  Princeton,  N.  J.,  August  20,  1795;  died  there,  Oc- 
tober 7,  1866.  He  left  Princeton  College  before  com- 
pleting his  course,  and  in  1811  entered  the  United  States 
navy  as  midshipman.  In  1821  the  American  Coloniza- 
tion Society  obtained  his  services  to  command  the 
schooner  Alligator  to  prepare  to  found  the  colony  of 
Liberia  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  From  1826  until 
1836  he  was  on  leave  of  absence  and  lived  in  Princeton, 
N.  J.  At  that  time  he  succeeded  in  completing  the 
Delaware  and  Raritan  canal.  Captain  Stockton  went 
to  Texas  as  bearer  to  its  government  of  the  United 
States  resolutions  in  favor  of  annexation.  In  the 
Mexican  war  he  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  naval 
forces  on  the  Pacific. 

STODDARD,  Charles  Warren,  an  American 
author,  born  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  August  7,  1843,  and 
educated  in  New  York  city.  He  began  to  contribute 
poems  to  the  daily  press  at  an  early  age,  and  later  in  life 
became  a public  lecturer.  While  a resident  of  Cali- 
fornia he  visited  Honolulu,  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  as  the  representative  of  the 
San  Francisco  Chronicle , afterward  filling  the  chair  of 
English  literature  in  the  University  of  Notre  Dame  at 
South  Bend,  Ind.,  and  at  the  Catholic  University, 
Washington.  He  has  published  poems  and  sketches. 

STODDARD,  Richard  Henry,  was  born  at  Hing- 
ham,  Mass.,  in  July,  1825.  His  family  removed,  in 
1835,  to  New  York,  where  he  learned  the  trade  of  an 
iron-molder.  In  1848  he  began  to  write  for  period- 
icals, both  in  prose  and  verse.  He  has  published  A dven- 
tures  in  Fairyland , Town  and  Country , The  Story  of 
Little  Red  Riding  Hood , The  Children  in  the  Wood, 
(1866),  Putnam  tlie  Brave,  Memoir  of  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 

STOKES,  Sir  George  Gabriel,  born  August 
13,  1819,  at  Skreen,  county  Sligo;  was  educated  at 
Doctor  Wall’s  school  in  Dublin,  at  the  Bristol  College, 
and  at  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  gradu- 
ated B.A.  in  1841;  in  1852  he  was  awarded  the  Rum- 
ford  medal  by  the  Royal  Society,  in  recognition  of  his 
services  to  the  cause  of  science  by  his  discovery  of  the 
change  in  the  refrangibility  of  light.  An  account  of 
this  discovery  will  be  found  in  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions for  1852.  He  became  a secretary  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1854,  and  president  in  1885,  resigning  in 
1890.  From  1887  to  1892  he  represented  Cambridge 
University  in  parliament.  In  1889  he  was  created  a 
baronet.  In  1891  he  published  Natural  Theology. 

STOKES,  Sir  John,  K.C.B.,  was  born  in  Kent  in 
1825,  and  received  his  education  at  the  Proprietary 


6817 

School,  Rochester,  and  at  the  military  academy,  Wool- 
wich. He  entered  the  royal  engineers  as  second  lieu- 
tenant in  1843,  and  saw  active  service  in  the  Kaffir  wars 
of  1846-47  and  1850-51,  for  which  he  has  the  medal, 
and  received  the  thanks  of  the  commander-in-chief. 
He  did  excellent  service  on  the  Suez  Canal  affairs  in 
London  and  Egypt  in  1874.  In  1881  he  was  appointed 
deputy-adjutant-general  royal  engineers.  He  retired 
with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  1887. 

STOKES,  William,  the  author  of  Stokes  on  Memory, 
was  born  at  Brighton,  March  20,  1836.  After  achieving 
remarkable  success  in  his  native  town,  he  appeared  in 
London,  and  on  June  18,  1861,  gave  his  first  lecture  on 
memory  at  the  Royal  Colosseum,  Regent’s  Park.  In 
addition  to  his  popular  treatise,  Stokes  on  Me?nory,  he 
has  written  a standard  series  of  memory-aiding  works 
on  rapid  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  drawing,  music, 
and  other  subjects. 

STONE,  Charles  P.,  an  American  soldier,  was 
born  September  30,  1824,  at  Greenfield,  Mass.,  and 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1845.  He  served  in  the 
Mexican  war  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  surrender  of  the 
city  of  Mexico,  and  was  subsequently  in  the  discharge 
of  routine  duty  until  his  resignation,  in  1856,  to  take 
part  in  an  expedition  organized  for  the  exploration  of 
Sonora,  Mexico.  He  was  appointed  colonel  of  the 
14th  infantry,  May  14,  1861,  and  was  engaged  in  opera- 
tions about  Washington  until  February  9,  1862,  when 
he  was  placed  under  arrest  and  imprisoned  at  Fort  La- 
fayette until  the  following  August.  He  was  then  re- 
leased, no  charges  having  been  preferred  against  him, 
and  restored  to  his  command  in  1863.  The  same  year 
he  was  transferred  to  the  department  of  the  Gulf,  and 
was  honorably  mustered  out  of  the  service  April  4th, 
with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  resigned  his 
commission  in  September  following,  and  in  1870  ac- 
cepted a command  in  the  Egyptian  army.  He  returned 
to  the  United  States  in  1883,  and  was  engaged  as  con- 
sulting engineer  upon  many  important  public  works. 
He  died  January  24,  1887. 

STONE,  Thomas,  a signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  was  a native  of  Charles  county,  Md., 
born  in  1 743 ; studied  law  at  Annapolis  and  began  the 
practice  of  his  profession  at  Frederick  in  1 770.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Continental  congress  in  1774,  1775,  and 
1776;  supported  the  adoption  of  the  resolution  of  May 
15th  of  the  latter  year,  declaratory  of  colonial  independ- 
ence, and  signed  the  Declaration,  July  4th,  following. 
When  Maryland  refused  to  enter  the  “ Union  of  States,” 
Mr.  Stone  became  a member  of  the  Provincial  Senate, 
but  in  1783-84  was  reelected  to  congress,  where  he 
served  as  a member  of  the  more  important  committees. 
He  died  at  Alexandria,  Va.,  October  5,  1787. 

STONE,  Edward  James,  F.R.S.,  was  born  in 
London,  February  28,  1831.  He  did  not  begin  to 
study  classics  or  mathematics  until  he  was  past  the  age 
of  twenty,  but  nevertheless  graduated  as  fifth  wrangler 
at  Cambridge  in  1859.  He  was  appointed  chief  assist- 
ant at  Greenwich  in  i860;  her  majesty’s  astronomer  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1870 ; and  Radclifle  observer 
at  Oxford  in  1879.  He  has  contributed  a large  number 
of  papers  on  all  branches  of  astronomy  to  the  Royal 
Astronomical  Society,  and  the  results  of  experiments 
on  the  heating  powers  of  stars,  magnetic  observations 
made  in  Namaqualand,  and  a determination  of  the 
velocity  of  sound,  to  the  Royal  Society. 

STONE,  Lucy,  an  American  reformer,  was  born 
August  13,  1818,  at  West  Brookfield,  Mass.,  graduated 
in  1847  at  Oberlin  (Ohio)  College,  and  at  once  entered 
upon  her  career  as  a lecturer  and  reformer,  her  specialty 
being  woman’s  rights.  In  1848  she  was  employed  by  the 
Anti-Slavery  Society  of  Massachusetts  to  deliver  lect< 


68 1 8 


S T O 


ures  in  various  parts  of  the  Eastern  States  and 
Canada.  She  was  married  to  H.  B.  Blackwell,  of  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio,  in  1855,  but  maintained  her  prominence 
as  a public  speaker,  and  as  an  advocate  in  behalf  of  the 
individual  liberty  of  her  own  sex.  She  was  conspicuous 
in  procuring  the  organization  of  the  Woman’s  Suffrage 
Association  of  the  United  States,  and  assisted  in  the  ed- 
itorial management  of  the  Woman's  Journal  and  simi- 
lar publications.  She  died  October  8,  1893. 

STONE,  Marcus,  R.A.,  painter  of  historical  and 
genre  subjects,  was  born  in  London.  July  4,  1840.  He 
was  elected  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  January 
24,  1877,  and  was  made  full  R.A.  on  January  7,  1887. 
Mr.  Stone  received  one  of  the  medals  awarded  to  the 
English  school  at  the  Vienna  and  Philadelphia  Interna- 
tional exhibitions.  As  a very  young  man  he  illustrated 
Dickens,  and  lately  Anthony  Trollope  and  the  Cornhill 
Magazine. 

STONE,  Warren,  an  eminent  American  physician, 
was  born  February,  1808,  at  St.  Albans,  Vt.,  and 
gained  his  degree  at  a medical  college  in  Massachusetts. 
He  removed  to  New  Orleans  in  1832,  and  in  1837  was 
appointed  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  University  of 
Louisiana,  subsequently  being  called  to  the  chair  of 
surgery,  which  he  occupied  until  his  death  at  Baton 
Rouge,  December  6,  1872.  He  was  the  author  of 
works  on  diseases  incident  to  southern  latitudes,  and 
of  numerous  contributions  to  medical  journals. 

STONEMAN,  George,  an  American  cavalry  leader, 
was  born  August  8,  1822,  in  Chautauqua  county,  N.  Y. , 
and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846.  He  served  in 
Oregon  and  California  until  1857,  going  thence  to  Texas, 
Where  he  was  at  the  opening  of  the  Civil  war.  He  en- 
tered that  contest  as  major  of  the  first  cavalry,  was 
promoted  to  be  brigadier-general,  August  1,  1861,  and 
commanded  the  cavalry  division  of  the  army  of  the 
Potomac  in  the  Peninsular  campaign.  He  was  at  Fred- 
ericksburg with  the  third  army  corps,  having  been 
made  a major-general  in  the  month  of  November  pre- 
vious, and  in  1863  and  1864  was  conspicuous  as  a cav- 
alry leader,  especially  in  the  campaigns  against  Atlanta, 
Ga.,  and  Asheville,  N.  C.  He  retired  from  the  service 
in  1871,  and  in  1883  was  elected  governor  of  California 
as  a Democrat.  He  died  September  5,  1894. 

STOREY,  George  Adolphus,  A.R.A.,  born  in 
London,  January  7,  1834;  was  educated  at  Paris.  He 
returned  to  London  in  1850,  and  first  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1852.  In  1863  he  was  in  Spain, 
painting  portraits  at  Madrid.  In  the  following  year  he 
first  attracted  the  special  notice  of  the  public  by  his 
picture  of  The  Meeting  of  William  Seymour  with  the 
Lady  Arabella  Stuart  at  the  Court  of  James  /.,  1609. 
It  was  followed  by  a succession  of  works  that  have 
made  the  name  of  Storey  famous.  He  became  an 
academician  in  1876. 

STOREY,  Wilbur  F.,  an  American  journalist,  was 
born  at  Salisbury,  Vt.,  December  19,  1819,  completed  his 
education  there,  and  learned  the  trade  of  a printer. 
In  1838  he  came  West,  and  settled  at  LaPorte,  Ind., 
where  he  divided  his  time  between  editing  a weekly 
paper,  and  managing  a retail  drug  store.  Thence  he 
removed  to  Michigan,  and,  settling  in  Detroit  during 
1853,  went  to  work  on  the  Free  Press , becoming  its 
editor  and  owner  within  a short  time.  In  1861  he 
purchased  the  Chicago  Times.  His  administration  was 
such  as  to  create  a wide  demand  for  each  issue,  and  the 
circulation,  which  had  previously  been  insignificant, 
gradually  increased  in  volume,  until  it  was  among  the 
largest  west  of  New  York  city.  During  the  war  the 
Times  was  sought  to  be  suppressed  by  order  of  General 
Burnside,  but  through  the  influence  of  David  Davis, 
Judge  Drummond,  and  others,  the  order  was  revoked  bv 


President  Lincoln.  In  the  latter  part  01  the  seventies 

Mr.  Storey  was  overtaken  with  nervous  prostration,  re- 
sulting finally  in  an  attack  of  paralysis,  from  the  effects 
of  which  he  died  in  1885. 

STORRS,  Emery  A.,  an  eminent  American  lawyer, 
was  born  at  Hinsdale  in  Cattaraugus  county,  N.  Y., 
August  12,  1833,  studied  law  in  that  village,  and  upon 
his  admission  to  the  bar,  September  5,  1854,  became 
a member  of  a legal  firm  in  Buffalo.  In  1858  he  re- 
moved to  New  York  city  and  in  the  year  following  he 
opened  an  office  in  Chicago.  From  the  date  of  his 
advent  into  the  latter  city  he  became  prominent,  and 
during  the  latter  years  of  his  professional  career  was 
identified  with  nearly  every  case  of  importance  adjudi- 
cated in  the  State  or  Federal  courts  of  that  district. 
He  was  a delegate  at  large  to  the  National  Republican 
conventions  of  1868,  1872,  1876,  and  1880,  and  his 
services  as  a public  speaker  were  enlisted  throughout 
the  succeeding  campaigns.  He  died  September  12, 
1885,  at  Ottawa,  111. 

STORRS,  Richard  Salter,  D.D.,  bom  at  Brain- 
tree, Mass.,  August  21,  1821;  graduated  at  Amherst 
College,  1839.  He  studied  law,  and  afterward  theology 
at  the  Andover  Seminary,  where  he  graduated  in  1845. 
He  has  been  pastor  of  a church  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  since 
1846.  Dr.  Storrs  is  noted  as  an  eloquent  preacher  and 
as  a student  of  history.  From  1848  to  1861  he  was  one 
of  the  editors  of  The  Independent.  He  wrote  a num- 
ber of  works  on  church  history.  Died  June,  1900. 

STORY,  Robert  Herbert,  born  at  Rosoneath 
Manse,  Scotland,  January  28,  1835.  He  was  educated 
at  Edinburgh,  Heidelberg,  and  St.  Andrews.  As  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Scottish  “ Church  Service  Soci- 
ety,” and  convener  of  its  “ editorial  committee,”  he  has 
had  charge  of  its  publication  of  Euchologion : a Book 
of  Common  Order. 

STORY,  William  Wetmore,  was  born  at  Salem, 
Mass.,  February  19,  1819,  and  was  made  A.B.  (Har- 
vard), 1838.  He  studied  law  under  his  father,  judge 
Joseph  Story,  and  published  several  legal  works,  but 
subsequently  devoted  himself  to  sculpture  and  literature. 
Since  1848  he  has  passed  most  of  his  time  in  Italy. 
Among  his  sculptures  are  numerous  ideal  figures  and 
groups,  many  admirable  busts,  a statue  of  Edward 
Everett,  one  of  Chief  Justice  Marshall,  and  another 
of  George  Peabody  for  the  corporation  of  London. 
He  was  also  a writer  of  prose  and  poetry,  and  has 
contributed  many  works  of  interest.  Died  Oct.,  1895. 

STOUGHTON,  John,  D.D. ; born  at  Norwich, 
November  18, 1807;  was  educated  at  Highbury  College, 
Islington,  now  incorporated  with  New  College,  St. 
John’s  Wood,  and  University  College,  London.  Doc- 
tor Stoughton  is  the  author  of  numerous  works,  among 
them  being  the  following:  Windsor  in  the  Olden  Time , 
Spiritual  Heroes , Ages  of  Christendom,  Church  and 
State  Two  Hundred  Years  Ago,  Ecclesiastical  History 
of  England,  Haunts  and  Homes  of  Martin  Luther , 
Progress  of  Divine  Revelation.  Died  Oct.,  1897. 

STOUGHTON,  William,  governor  of  Massachu- 
setts, born  in  England,  May  30,  1632;  died  in  Dor- 
chester, Mass.,  July  7,  1701.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1650.  From  1677  to  1679  he  was  in  Eng- 
land as  agent  of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts.  On  his  re- 
turn he  acted  as  chief  justice  from  July  to  December,  1686, 
and  in  1689  became  one  of  the  committee  of  safety  that 
wrested  the  government  from  Gov.  Edmund  Andros. 
Stoughton,  on  the  death  of  Sir  William  Phips,  became  act- 
ing governor.  On  December  22, 1692,  he  was  appointed 
chief  justice  of  the  Superior  Court,  and  as  such  pre- 
sided during  the  trials  for  witchcraft.  He  donated  to 
Harvard  College  money  and  lands,  and  gave  liberally  to 
the  churches  of  Milton  and  Dorchester. 


STO- 

STOWE,  Calvin  Ellis,  D.D.,  an  American  divine, 
was  born  at  Natick,  Mass.,  in  1802.  After  graduating 
from  Bowdoin  College,  he  became  professor  of  languages 
in  Dartmouth  College  in  1836.  He  married,  in  1832, 
Harriet  Elizabeth  Beecher,  daughter  of  the  Rev.  Lyman 
Beecher,  and  author  of  Uncle  Toni's  Cabin.  Between 
1852  and  1864  he  was  professor  of  sacred  literature  in 
Andover  Theological  Seminary.  He  died  August  22, 
1886. 

STOWE,  Mrs.  Harriet  Elizabeth,  daughter 
of  Lyman  Beecher,  was  born  at  Litchfield,  Conn., 
June  15,  1811.  She  was  associated  with  her  sister 
Catherine  in  the  labors  of  a school  at  Hartford,  in  1827, 
afterward  removed  to  Walnut  Hill,  near  Cincinnati,  and 
was  married  in  1832  to  the  Rev.  Calvin  E.  Stowe,  D.D. 
Mrs.  Stowe  wrote  several  tales  and  sketches,  which 
were  afterward  collected  under  the  title  of  The  May 
Flower , 1849.  1850  she  contributed  to  the  National 

Era,  an  anti-slavery  paper  published  at  Washington, 
Uncle  Tom's  Cabin , as  a serial.  This  was  published 
in  book  form  in  1852,  and  met  with  great  success; 
313,000  copies  were  sold  in  the  United  States  within 
three  years  and  a half,  and  in  all,  over  500,000  copies, 
including  a German  edition.  In  Great  Britian  its  sale 
was  enormous.  It  has  been  translated  into  more  than 
twenty  languages,  including  Welsh,  Russian,  Armenian, 
Arabic,  Chinese,  and  Japanese;  there  were  fourteen 
different  German  and  four  different  French  versions; 
and  it  was  dramatized  in  various  forms.  Mrs.  Stowe  has 
published  a great  many  books  since  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin. 
She  visited  Europe  in  1853,  and  the  following  year 
published  Sunny  Memories  of  Foreign  Lands.  A little 
work  entitled  Geography  for  My  Children  was  pub- 
lished in  1855,  and  the  next  year  appeared  her  second 
anti-slavery  novel,  Dred:  a Tale  of  the  Dismal  Swamp, 
re-published  in  1859  under  the  title  of  Nina  Gordon. 
In  subsequent  works  Mrs.  Stowe  has  delineated  the 
domestic  life  of  New  England  of  fifty  or  a hundred  years 
ago.  In  September,  1869,  Mrs.  Stowe  contributed  to  the 
Atlantic  Monthly  and  to  Macmillan' s Magazine  an 
article,  entitled  The  True  Story  of  Lady  Byron's  Life. 
This  article  evoked  a storm  of  literary  criticism,  which 
was  by  no  means  allayed  by  the  publication  in  1870  of 
her  work  entitled  Lady  Byron  Vindicated.  Mrs. 
Stowe  died  July  1,  1896. 

STRAFFORD,  Earl  of  (The  Right  Hon. 
George  Henry  Charles  Byng),  was  born  in  London 
in  1830.  He  received  his  education  at  Eton  and  at 
Oxford.  In  1855  he  was  attached  to  Earl  Russell’s 
special  mission  to  Vienna.  He  was  parliamentary  sec- 
retary to  the  poor  law  board  from  1865  till  July,  1866. 
He  succeeded  to  the  earldom  on  the  death  of  his  father 
in  1886. 

STRATTON,  Charles  Carroll,  an  American 
divine,  was  born  January  4,  1833,  at  Mansfield,  Penn., 
and  educated  at  the  University  of  Willamette,  Ore. 
He  became  a minister  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  1875,  ar)d  two  years  later  accepted  the  presi- 
dency of  the  Pacific  University.  Under  his  administra- 
tion the  institution  became  popular  and  prosperous,  but 
in  1887  he  dissolved  his  connection  with  it,  and  assumed 
the  presidency  of  the  Mills  College,  at  Oakland,  Cal. 
He  has  published  a number  of  works,  including  a 
volume  of  sermons. 

STRAUSS,  Johann,  an  Austrian  composer,  was 
born  in  Vienna  in  1825.  He  has  achieved  great  fame 
for  his  waltzes  and  his  operas.  His  brothers,  Joseph 
and  Eduard,  have  also  become  famous  for  their  compo- 
sitions of  dance  music.  Died  June,  1899. 

STREET,  Alfred  Billings,  an  American  philan- 
thropist, was  born  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  November  5, 
1791,  and  died  at  that  city  June  12,  1866.  He  was  a 


- S T R 6819 

man  of  large  wealth,  which  he  gave  freely  to  deserving 
objects.  To  his  munificence  Yale  College  is  indebted 
for  its  school  of  art  and  for  the  Street  professorship, 
also  for  the  endowment  of  the  Titus  Street  theological 
professorship. 

STRINGHAM,  Silas  H.,  an  American  naval  offi- 
cer, born  November  7,  1798,  at  Middletown,  N.  Y., 
was  appointed  midshipman  in  the  navy  November  15, 
1809.  Five  years  later  he  was  promoted  to  be  lieu- 
tenant, and  up  to  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  war,  his 
service  was  active  and  continuous.  He  participated  in 
the  naval  engagements  of  the  Algerine  and  Mexican 
wars,  was  engaged  in  contests  off  the  coast  of  Africa 
for  the  prevention  of  the  slave  trade,  in  the  suppression 
of  piracy  in  the  Gulf,  and  severally  commanded  at  the 
New  York,  Boston,  and  Norfolk  navy  yards.  After  the 
commencement  of  the  Civil  war  he  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  North  Atlantic  squadron.  He  was  present 
at  the  capture  of  the  forts  at  Hatteras  inlet,  but  resigned 
December  21,  1861,  on  account  of  age.  In  1862  he  was 
promoted  to  be  rear-admiral,  and  died  at  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  February  7,  1876. 

STRONG,  James,  an  American  educator,  was  born 
August  14,  1822,  in  New  York  city;  graduated  at  Wes- 
leyan University  in  1844,  and  thereafter  devoted  his 
attention  to  study  and  instruction.  He  paid  special 
atttention  to  Greek  and  Hebrew.  In  1858  he  accepted 
the  professorship  of  biblical  literature  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Troy,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1868  became  professor  of 
exegetical  theology  in  the  Drew  Seminary,  at  Madi- 
son, N.  J.  He  produced  works  on  biblical  subjects, 
translations,  and  other  publications,  his  last  work  be- 
ing an  encyclopaedia  of  biblical  literature.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  committee  on  the  revision  of  the 
authorized  version  of  the  Bible.  He  died  August  7, 
1894. 

STRONG,  James  Hooker,  an  American  naval  offi- 
cer, was  born  April  26,  1814,  at  Canandaigua,  Ontario 
county,  N.  Y.,  and  was  graduated  at  the  Naval  Academy 
June  4,  1836.  He  became  commander  at  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Civil  war,  and  during  that  struggle  was  at- 
tached to  the  South  Atlantic  and  Western  Gulf  squad- 
rons. He  was  present  at  the  capture  of  Mobile,  and 
rendered  efficient  service.  After  the  war  he  served  as 
commander  of  the  Brooklyn  navy  yard,  also  of  the 
steamer  Canandaigua,  and  in  various  other  official 
capacities  until  April  25,  1876,  when  he  was  retired  with 
the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  He  died  at  Columbia,  S.  C., 
November  23,  1882. 

STROSSMAYER,  Joseph,  D.D.,  a distinguished 
prelate  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  born  at  Essak, 
in  Sclavonia,  February  4,  1815;  received  his  education 
in  the  universities  of  Vienna  and  Padua,  and  on  May  20, 
1850,  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Bosnia  and  Sirmio. 
During  the  sittings  of  the  CEcumenical  Council  of  the 
Vatican  in  1869-70,  he  was  constantly  represented  as  an 
earnest  opponent  of  the  dogma  of  the  infallibility  of 
the  Pope,  but  the  bishop  denied  the  language  he  was 
accused  of  using. 

STROTHER,  David  Hunter,  an  American  writer, 
was  born  in  Martinsburg,  Va.,  .September  16,  1816. 
About  1830,  having  meanwhile  paid  some  attention  to 
drawing,  he  visited  Philadelphia,  where  he  entered  upon 
a course  of  study.  He  afterward  took  up  his  residence 
in  Europe,  and  upon  his  return  to  the  United  States,  in 
1845,  settled  in  New  York,  afterward  removing  to  Vir- 
ginia.  Early  in  the  fifties  he  began  a series  of  articles 
descriptive  of  life  in  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and 
other  portions  of  the  South,  which  were  illustrated  by 
his  own  designs,  and  published  in  Harper's  Magazine 
under  the  name  “ Porte  Crayon. " They  attracted  marked 
attention.  During  the  Civil  war  he  served  in  the  Union 


6820 


SUL 


STU- 

army  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers. After  the  war  he  resigned  his  contributions  of 
sketches  to  magazines  and  weekly  periodicals.  He  died 
at  Charleston,  W.  Va.,  March  8,  1888. 

STUART,  Alexander  H.  H.,  an  American  lawyer 
and  statesman,  was  born  April  2,  1807,  at  Staunton, 
Va.,  and  graduated  at  the  University  of  Virginia,  in 
1828.  He  began  the  practice  of  law  at  Staunton  dur- 
ing the  same  year,  and  in  1836  was  elected  to  the  State 
legislature,  where  he  was  continued  until  1840.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  was  made  a representative  in  congress, 
and  in  1850  entered  the  cabinet  of  President  Fillmore 
as  secretary  of  the  interior.  He  labored  to  prevent  the 
secession  of  Virginia,  and,  after  the  war,  was  instru- 
mental in  securing  the  restoration  of  order  and  the  en- 
forcement of  the  laws  in  that  State.  He  was  a mem- 
ber of  the  faculty  of  the  University  of  Virginia  for 
eight  years,  resigning  in  1886,  and  was  president  of 
the  Historical  Society  of  Virginia.  He  died  Feb.  13,1891. 

STUART,  James,  M.  P.,  born  at  Markinch, 
Fifeshire,  January  2.  1843;  was  educated  at  home, 
at  St.  Andrew’s  University,  and  graduated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  Professor  Stuart  has  taken 
a leading  part  in  popular  education.  He  has  been 
instrumental  in  the  foundation  and  establishment  of 
several  local  colleges;  has  taken  special  interest  in 
women’s  education,  having  originated  the  ladies’  lec- 
tures in  1867,  and  the  Cambridge  higher  examination 
for  women  in  1868.  At  the  general  election  of  1885, 
Hackney  being  divided  into  seven  districts,  Professor 
Stuart  stood  for  the  Hoxton  division  of  Shoreditch, 
and  was  elected  by  a majority  of  1,037.  He  was  again 
returned  (as  a Gladstone  Liberal)  in  1886  (but  by  a 
majority  of  only  245),  and  in  1892. 

STUART,  James  Ewell  Brown,  Confederate 
officer,  born  in  Patrick  county,  Va.,  February  6,  1833; 
died  in  Richmond,  Va.,  June  12,  1864.  He  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy  in  1854.  With 
the  commission  of  second  lieutenant  he  entered  the 
army  and  fought  Indians  for  three  years.  In  1861  he 
joined  the  Confederate  army  with  the  rank  of  colonel, 
and  served  throughout  the  war,  greatly  distinguishing 
himself.  He  fought  with  Jackson  and  Lee,  and  won 
some  very  important  battles,  gaining  the  rank  of 
general.  With  the  exception  of  Sheridan,  General 
Stuart  was  without  doubt  the  foremost  cavalry  leader 
in  either  army.  The  boldness  and  rapidity  of  his 
movements  were  remarkable.  His  death  resulted 
from  a wound  received  in  the  battle  of  Yellow  Tavern, 
Hanover  county,  Va. 

STUBBS,  William,  Bishop  of  Oxford,  since  1889, 
and  a distinguished  English  historian,  was  born  at 
Knaresborough,  June  21,  1825;  educated  at  Ripon, 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  ordained  in  1848,  and  ap- 
pointed professor  of  modern  history  at  Oxford,  1866, 
curator  of  the  Bodleian  library,  1868,  and  Bishop  of 
Chester,  1884.  He  wrote  The  Constitutional  History 
of  England,  a work  of  great  erudition,  and  other  valu- 
able works.  He  died  April  22,  1901. 

STURGIS,  Samuel  D.,  an  American  soldier,  born 
in  Pennsylvania,  June  11,  1822,  and  was  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  the  class  of  1846.  In  the  war  with  Mex- 
ico he  was  present  at  nearly  all  the  battles  of  note,  and 
was  captured  at  Buena  Vista.  He  subsequently  did 
garrison  duty  until  1861,  when  he  was  in  charge  of 
Fort  Smith,  Ark.,  but  retired  with  his  command  and 
came  North.  He  took  command  of  the  Union  forces 
at  Wilson’s  Creek,  Mo.,  after  the  death  of  General 
Lyon,  and  August  10,  1861,  was  made  brigadier-general, 
attached  to  the  army  of  the  Tennessee.  In  1862  he 
was  transferred  to  Washington,  and  was  present  at 
Antietam  and  Fredericksburg, being  thereafter  assigned 


to  the  department  of  Ohio,  as  commander  of  cavalry; 
later  he  operated  in  Tennessee  and  Mississippi,  and  was 
retired  June  n,  1886,  having  been  promoted  to  be 
major-general  in  1865.  He  died  September  28,  1889. 

STUYVESANT,  Peter,  Dutch  governor  of  New 
York,  born  in  Holland,  in  1602;  died  in  New  York 
city  in  August,  1682.  He  was  appointed  director- 
general  of  the  New  Netherlands,  and  reached  New 
Amsterdam  on  May  11,  1647.  Among  his  first  procla- 
mations were  orders  to  enforce  the  rigid  observance  of 
Sunday,  and  prohibit  the  sale  of  liquor  and  fire-arms 
to  the  Indians.  In  September,  1650,  a meeting  of 
boundary  commissioners  took  place  at  Hartford,  Conn., 
where  the  different  colonial  lines  were  permanently 
fixed,  to  the  dissatisfaction  of  most  of  Stuyvesant’s 
people.  He  fortified  the  city,  by  making  a ditch,  run- 
ning from  the  North  river  to  the  East  river,  and  erect- 
ing breastworks.  In  1655  he  equipped  a fleet  of  seven 
ships  with  700  men,  sailed  into  Delaware  Bay,  and  took 
possession  of  the  colony  of  New  Sweden.  In  1664 
King  Charles  ceded  a large  tract  of  land,  which  in- 
cluded the  New  Netherlands,  to  his  brother,  the  duke 
of  York.  Four  British  war-ships,  with  450  men,  com- 
manded by  Capt.  R.  Nicholls,  took  possession  of  the 
harbor,  and  on  August  30th,  Sir  George  Cartwright 
bore  to  Stuyvesant  a summons  to  surrender.  At  first 
he  sent  a defiant  reply  to  the  British  naval  commander, 
and  ordered  his  troops  to  prepare  for  an  attack,  but 
later  signed  a treaty  at  his  house  on  September  9,  1664. 
Nicholls  was  proclaimed  governor,  and  the  settlement 
became  New  York.  In  the  following  year  Governor 
Stuyvesant  went  to  Holland  to  report,  and  on  his  re- 
turn spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  on  his  farm. 

SUCRE,  de,  Antoine  Jose,  a South  American  pa- 
triot, born  in  Cumana,  in  1793,  aQd  was  killed  some 
time  after  1830.  He  fought  under  Bolivar,  and  in  1819 
was  made  a brigadier-general.  He  succeeded  Bolivar  as 
commander,  and  was  instrumental  in  freeing  the 
country  from  Spanish  thralldom.  He  was  created 
grand  marshal  of  Ayacucho,  and  in  1825  was  chosen 
president  of  Bolivia. 

SULLIVAN,  Barry,  tragedian,  born  at  Birming- 
ham in  1824;  made  his  first  appearance  on  the  stage  at 
Cork,  in  1840,  when  his  success  was  so  great  that  he 
determined  to  adopt  the  stage  as  a profession,  and  he 
followed  it  with  uniform  success,  playing  in  all  the 
principal  cities  in  the  world.  He  died  May  3,  1891. 

SULLIVAN,  Edward,  bishop,  was  born  in  Ireland, 
in  1835,  and  studied  theology  upon  the  completion  of 
his  preliminary  education.  He  was  ordained  a priest 
in  1857,  and  was  assigned  to  the  parish  of  St.  George, 
Montreal,  where  he  became  assistant,  afterward  becom- 
ing rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Chicago.  He  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Algoma,  Canada,  in  1882. 

SULLIVAN,  John,  soldier,  born  in  Berwick,  Me., 
February  17,  1740;  died  in  Durham,  N.  H.,  January, 
1795.  Beingmajor  of  a militiaregimentat  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Revolution,  he  received  the  commission  of 
brigadier-general,  and  was  present  at  most  of  the  im- 
portant battles  of  the  war.  In  1789  General  Sullivan 
retired  from  the  army  and  resumed  the  practice  of  law, 

SULLIVAN,  Sir  Arthur  Seymour,  was  born  in 
London,  May  13,  1842.  His  father  was  principal  pro- 
fessor at  Kneller  Hall,  the  training  school  for  British 
military  bands.  He  received  his  first  systematic  instruc- 
tion in  music  at  the  Chapel  Royal,  St.  James’s,  under 
the  Rev.  Thomas  Helmore,  and  he  was  still  a choris- 
ter when,  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  he  gained,  the  first 
time  it  was  competed  for,  the  Mendelssohn  scholarship. 
After  two  years’  study  under  Mr.  (afterward  Sir  Stern- 
dale)  Bennett,  and  Mr.  (afterward  Sir  John)  Goss,  he 
studied  at  Leipsic  for  three  years  at  the  Conservatorium. 


SUL- 

Upon  his  return  to  England  in  1861,  he  brought  with 

him  his  music  to  Shakespeare’s  Tempest,  which  was  per- 
formed for  the  first  time  at  the  Crystal  Palace.  His 
next  work  was  the  cantata  Kenilworth , produced  at 
the  Birmingham  Festival  in  1864.  This  was  followed 
by  a number  of  works  before  he  wrote  the  light  operas 
that  have  given  him  a world-wide  reputation.  These 
are  The  Sorcerer , H.  M.  S.  Pinafore , The  Pirates  of 
Penzance , Patience , Iolanthe,  Princess  Ida , The  Mi- 
kado, Ruddygore  and  The  Gondoliers , and  were  written 
in  conjunction  with  Mr.  W.  S.  Gilbert,  ( q.v .)  In  his 
song- writing,  which  is  extensive,  his  popularity  has  been 
greater,  perhaps,  than  that  of  any  other  English  com- 
poser. He  was  also  musical  editor  of  Church  Hymns , 
for  which  he  composed  several  of  the  best  known 
tunes.  He  was  knighted  by  the  queen  at  Windsor, 
May  24,  1883.  He  died  Nov.  22,  1900. 

SULLY,  James,  M.  A., born  at  Bridgewater,  Somer- 
setshire,  in  1842;  was  educated  in  the  Independent’Col- 
lege,  Taunton,  the  Regent’s  Park  College  (one  of  the 
affiliated  colleges  of  the  University  of  London),  and  the 
University  of  Gottingen.  He  took  to  a literary  career 
in  1871,  beginning  as  a contributor  to  the  Saturday , 
Fortnightly,  and  Westminster  reviews.  He  is  the 
author  of  Sensations  and  Intuition:  Studies  in  Psy- 
chology and  ^Esthetics,  and  Pessimism:  a History  and 
a Criticism,  Illusions , and  other  works. 

SULLY,  Thomas,  painter,  born  in  Horncastle, 
England,  June  8,  1783;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Penn., 
November  5,  1872.  He  came  to  the  United  States 
with  his  parents  in  1792.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he  was 
placed  in  an  insurance  office;  at  the  age  of  sixteen  went 
to  his  brother,  a miniature  painter  in  Richmond,  Va. 
Sully  studied  at  home  and  abroad,  but  in  1810  became 
permanently  settled  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  where  he 
executed  numerous  portraits  in  oil  of  distinguished  peo- 
ple. In  1837  he  visited  England  to  paint  Queen  Vic- 
toria in  her  coronation  robes.  He  also  illustrated  sev- 
eral books. 

SULLY-PRUDHOMME,  Ren£  Francois  Ar- 
MAND,  French  poet,  was  born  in  Paris,  March  16, 
1839,  and  educated  at  the  Lyc£e  Bonaparte.  He  after- 
ward became  a lawyer’s  assistant,  and  published  his 
first  volume  of  poems  in  1865.  It  attracted  consider- 
able attention,  and  the  poem  Le  Vase  Feli  was  pro- 
nounced a masterpiece  of  its  kind.  In  1881  he  became 
a member  of  the  Academy. 

SUMNER,  Edward  V.,  an  American  general, 
born  in  Boston  in  1796.  He  distinguished  himself  in 
the  Mexican  war  and  was  made  a colonel  in  1855  and  a 
brigadier-general  in  1861.  He  was  in  a number  of  the 
important  battles  of  the  war  and  died  at  Syracuse, 
N.  Y.,  March,  1863. 

SUMNER,  William  Graham,  was  born  at  Pater- 
son, N.  J.,  October  30,  1840;  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege in  1863,  and  later  pursued  a course  of  study  at  the 
universities  of  Gottingen,  Germany,  and  Oxford,  Eng- 
land. He  was  ordained  a minister  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  1867,  and,  until  1872,  was  assistant 
rector  of  Calvary  church,  New  York  city.  In  1872  he 
was  called  to  the  chair  of  political  economy  and  social 
science  at  Yale  College.  He  is  a free  trader  and  has 
written  History  of  American  Currency,  and  other  works. 

SUMTER,  Thomas,  was  bom  in  Virginia  in  1734, 
and  died  near  Camden,  S.  C.,  June  1,  1832.  He  re- 
moved to  South  Carolina  when  a boy,  and  entered  the 
American  army  as  lieutenant-colonel  in  1776.  When 
the  British  had  apparently  overrun  the  State  he  kept  up 
rhe  struggle,  retreating/  when  hard  pressed,  to  the 
swamps  of  the  interior.  He  was  made  brigadier-gen- 
eral, and  thanked  by  congress.  He  was  a representative 
for  South  Carolina  from  1789  to  1793  and  from  1797  to 


S W E 6821 

1801 ; United  States  senator  from  1801  to  1810,  and 
minister  to  Brazil  from  1810  to  1811. 

SUTRO,  Adolph  H.,  was  born  at  Aix-la-Chapellet 
Rhenish  Prussia,  April  29,  1830,  and,  upon  the  death 
of  his  father,  came,  with  the  survivors  of  the  family,  to 
the  United  States  in  1850,  and  located  at  Baltimore. 
Sutro  thereupon  went  to  California,  thence  to  Nevada, 
and,  after  a brief  period  of  prospecting,  arranged  for 
the  construction  of  what  has  since  been  known  as  the 
“ Sutro  tunnel.”  The  undertaking  having  been  char- 
tered  by  the  Nevada  legislature,  and  by  acts  of  congress 
in  1865  and  1866,  operations  were  commenced  October 
10,  1869.  Work  progressed,  notwithstanding  its  fre- 
quent interruption  by  the  flooding  of  the  excavations; 
and  the  tunnel  was  completed  in  1879.  It  communi 
cates  with  the  Savage  mine  at  a depth  of  over  1,600 
feet,  and  connects  with  the  “ Comstock  Lode  ” at  a dis- 
tance of  nearly  five  miles  from  the  tunnel’s  mouth,  the 
main  tunnel  being  also  connected  with  mines  adjoining 
by  lateral  excavations.  By  the  terms  of  his  contract 
with  the  company  for  whose  benefit  the  work  was 
carried  on,  Sutro  received  $2  for  each  ton  of  ore  re- 
covered from  the  mines  from  the  date  when  the  same 
was  reached.  He  derived  millions  of  dollars  for  his 
services,  a portion  of  which  he  expended  in  beautifying 
San  Francisco.  Died  Aug.  8, 1898. 

SUTTER,  John  Augustus,  pioneer,  born  in  Kan- 
dern,  Germany,  February  15,  1803;  died  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  June  17,  1880.  In  1834  he  came  to  the 
United  States  and  settled  for  a short  time  in  St.  Louis, 
Mo.  Sutter  soon  began  a roving  life,  visiting  the 
Sandwich  Islands  and  Alaska,  and  finally  settling  on  the 
present  site  of  Sacramento,  Cal.  Here  he  obtained  a 
grant  of  land  from  the  Mexican  Government  and  be- 
came rich  in  lands  and  cattle.  When  gold  was  first 
discovered  in  California  it  was  at  a mill  on  Sutter’s 
property.  In  the  excitement  that  followed  his  laborers 
deserted  him,  his  lands  were  lawlessly  overrun  by  gold 
seekers,  and  gradually  he  was  despoiled  of  his  posses- 
sions until  he  was  reduced  to  absolute  want.  The 
legislature  of  California  granted  him  a pension  of  $250 
per  month.  Sutter  moved  East,  first  going  to  Lan- 
caster, Penn.,  and  from  there  to  Washington,  where  he 
died. 

S WAYNE,  Noah  Haynes,  LL.D.,  an  American 
jurist,  was  born  December  7,  1804,  in  Culpeper  county, 
Va.  He  was  educated  at  Waterford,  in  that  State,  and 
upon  his  admission  to  the  bar  removed  to  Ohio,  and 
established  himself  at  Coshocton,  where  he  began  the 
practice  of  his  profession.  He  served  as  prosecuting 
attorney  of  the  county,  also  as  a member  of  the  State 
legislature ; and,  upon  his  appointment  as  district  attor- 
ney for  the  State  in  1831,  removed  to  Columbus,  the 
capital.  He  appeared  as  counsel  in  many  of  the  leading 
causes  heard  and  determined  by  the  Supreme  Court  ol 
the  State,  and  became  prominent  by  reason  of  his  asso- 
ciation with  the  defense  of  escaped  slaves.  He  was 
identified  with  the  Republican  party  from  its  inception, 
and  in  1862  was  appointed  one  of  the  justices  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  by  President  Lin- 
coln. In  1863  Dartmouth  College  conferred  the  degree 
of  LL.D.,  and  in  1865  he  was  similarly  honored  by 
Yale  College.  He  died  in  New  York  city,  June  8, 1884. 

SWEATMAN,  Arthur,  D.D.,  bishop  of  Toronto, 
Canada,  was  born  in  London,  England,  November  19, 
1834.  He  was  educated  at  London  University  College, 
and  is  an  honor  graduate  of  Christ’s  College,  Cam- 
bridge. In  1862  he  was  appointed  to  the  curacy  of  St. 
Stephen’s,  Canonbury.  On  the  invitation  of  Bishop 
Hellmuth  he  accepted,  in  1865,  the  head  mastership  of 
Hellmuth  Boys’  College,  London,  Ontario.  Resigning 
his  educational  charge,  he  became  assistant  rector  a* 


6822 


S W E — S Y M 


St.  Paul’s,  Woodstock,  U.C.,  and  arch-deacon  of  Brant; 
and,  during  the  bishop  of  Huron’s  absence  in  England, 
acted  as  his  commissioner.  In  March,  1879,  he  suc- 
ceeded Bishop  Bethune  in  the  see  of  Toronto. 

SWEENY,  Thomas  William,  born  in  Cork,  Ire- 
land, December  25,  1820.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1832,  and  in  1848  was  made  lieutenant  in  the 
regular  army.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war  under 
Gen.  Winfield  Scott,  and  later  was  sent  to  California, 
accepted  a captain’s  commission  in  the  Union  army  in 
the  Civil  war,  reaching  the  rank  of  brigadier-general, 
and  took  part  in  the  Fenian  invasion  of  Canada.  He 
died  April  10,  1892. 

SWEENY,  John,  a Roman  Catholic  bishop  of 
Canada,  was  born  near  Clones,  Ireland,  in  1821,  and 
at  an  early  age  accompanied  his  father  to  New  Bruns- 
wick, locating  at  St.  John.  His  education  was  com- 
menced at  St.  Dunstan’s  College  and  completed  at  the 
College  of  Quebec,  where  he  graduated  in  1844,  when 
he  was  immediately  ordained  a priest.  After  discharg- 
ing the  duties  of  his  office  in  various  parishes  of  New 
Brunswick,  he  became  vicar-general  of  the  diocese,  and 
in  i860  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Southern  New 
Brunswick,  his  see  being  located  at  St.  John. 

SWIFT,  Lewis,  an  American  astronomer,  was  born 
at  Clarkson,  Monroe  county,  N.  Y.,  February  29,  1820, 
and  was  educated  at  the  academy  in  his  native  town. 
He  began  his  professional  career  as  a lecturer  on  mag- 
netic and  electrical  phenomena,  illustrating  his  subjects 
by  experiments  and  exhibitions.  Between  the  years  1862 
and  1869  he  made  a number  of  important  astronomical 
discoveries,  and  in  1872  located  at  Rochester,  where  the 
Warner  Observatory  was  erected,  in  which  he  has  since 
pursued  his  investigations.  Flis  discoveries  include 
the  comet  of  1862,  and  similar  bodies  at  intervals  from 
that  year  to  the  present  time.  The  value  of  his  re- 
searches has  been  recognized  by  the  Vienna  Academy 
of  Sciences  of  France,  by  private  individuals,  and  in 
other  forms,  including  the  conferring  on  him  of  the 
degree  of  Ph.D.  by  the  Rochester  University,  and  by 
his  election  to  membership  of  the  Royal  Astronomical 
Society  of  Great  Britain.  He  has  been  the  inventor  of 
microscopic  and  astronomical  appliances,  and  is  a fre- 
quent contributor  of  articles  to  scientific  publica- 
tions. 

SWINBURNE,  Algernon  Charles,  was  born  in 
London,  April  5,  1837.  He  entered  as  a commoner  at 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  in  1857,  but  left  the  university 
without  taking  a degree.  He  became  an  author  of  some 
note,  a number  of  tragedies  being  among  his  works. 

SWING,  David,  an  American  clergyman,  was  born 
at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  August  23,  1830,  and  graduated  at 
Miami  University,  at  Oxford  in  that  State,  during  the 
summer  of  1852.  He  prepared  himself  for  the  ministry, 
but  in  1853  became  professor  of  languages  at  Oxford, 
where  he  remained  until  1866,  when  he  was  called  to 
the  pastorate  of  the  Fourth  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Chicago.  After  the  fire  of  1871,  in  which  the  church 
was  destroyed,  Professor  Swing  preached  in  McVicker’s 
theater.  In  1874  charges  of  heterodoxy  were  made 
against  him  by  Prof.  F.  L.  Patton,  but  after  a trial  con- 
tinuing many  weeks  he  was  acquitted.  He  soon  after 
resigned  from  the  Chicago  Presbytery,  and  from  1878, 
when  the  Music  Hall  of  Chicago  was  completed,  he 
occupied  the  auditorium  of  that  edifice  for  church  pur- 
poses, preaching  there  each  Sunday,  to  a congregation 
that  was  limited  only  by  the  capacity  of  the  accom- 
modations available,  until  his  death,  Oct.  31,  1894. 

SWORD,  James  B.,  an  American  artist,  was  born 
at  Philadelphia,  October  11,  1839.  He  studied  his  pro- 
fession at  the  Philadelphia  Academy  during  1861, 
though  he  had  executed  a number  of  sketches  while 


traveling  in  China  and  throughout  the  United  States  at 
a date  anterior  to  that  year.  His  works  are  suggestive 
of  American  scenery  and  are  highly  commended.  In 
1878  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Philadelphia  Art 
Society,  a position  he  has  since  occupied. 

SYBEL,  Heinrich  von,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  . 
living  German  historians,  born  at  Diisseldorf,  Decem- 
ber 2,  1817;  studied  history  for  four  years  at  Berlin, 
under  the  famous  Von  Ranke,  took  his  degrees  at  the 
University  of  Bonn,  and  became  extraordinary  profes- 
sor there  in  1844.  He  was  appointed  director  of  the 
Prussian  State  Archives  at  Berlin  in  1875.  His  princi- 
pal work  is  a History  of  the  French  Revolution , which 
has  been  translated  into  English  by  Mr.  Walter  C. 
Perry,  from  the  third  German  edition.  Died  Aug.,  1895. 

SYKES,  George,  an  American  soldier,  was  born 
at  Dover,  Del.,  October  9,  1822,  and  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1842,  being  commissioned  a lieutenant 
in  the  third  infantry.  He  served  in  Florida  and  Texas 
until  the  Mexican  war,  in  which  he  took  an  active 
part,  participating  in  all  the  battles  leading  up  to  the 
capture  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  at  which  he  was  present. 
He  was  promoted  to  be  brevet-captain  for  his  gallantry 
in  the  various  campaigns,  and  at  the  opening  of  the 
Civil  war  was  stationed  on  the  frontier.  He  was  ap- 
pointed a major  of  the  14th  regular  infantry  in  May, 
1861,  and  brigadier-general  during  September  of  the 
same  year.  In  the  Peninsular  campaign  he  was  attached 
to  Fitz-John  Porter’s  command,  fought  at  Gaines’ 
Mills  and  in  other  engagements,  and  was  made  major- 
general  of  volunteers  in  November,  1862.  He  led 
the  fifth  corps  at  the  battles  of  Chancellorsville  and 
Gettysburg,  and  was  actively  engaged  until  he  was 
transferred  to  Fort  Leavenworth,  in  1864.  He  died  at 
Fort  Brown,  Texas,  February  9,  1880,  colonel  of  the 
20th  infantry,  and  his  remains  were  interred  at  West 
Point. 

SYLVESTER,  James  Joseph,  M.A.,  LL.D., 

F.  R.S.,  was  born  September  3,  1814,  in  London. 
Professor  .Sylvester  is  chiefly  known  as  an  algebraist, 
and  as  a friend  and  fellow-worker  of  Arthur  Cayley. 
He  has  given  a theory  of  versification  in  a volume  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  Laws  of  Verse ; is  the  inventor 
of  the  plagiograph,  the  geometrical  fan,  and  other 
geometrico-mechanical  instruments.  Died  Mar.,  1897. 

SYMINGTON,  Andrew  James,  was  born  at  Pais- 
ley, Scotland,  July  27,  1825,  and  obtained  his  education 
in  the  Paisley  Academy.  When  nineteen  years  of 
age  he  became  a contributor  of  German  translations  to 
the  standard  periodicals  of  the  day,  notably  the  Edin- 
burgh Magazine , and  in  1859  visited  Iceland,  an  ac- 
count of  his  journey  and  experiences  being  subse- 
quently published  in  a book,  Pen  and  Pencil  Sketches 
of  Faroe  and  Iceland . He  passed  the  year  1874  in  the 
United  States,  and  wrote  the  result  of  his  observations, 
including  sketches  of  some  of  the  leading  men,  which 
were  also  published  in  book  form.  He  is  a member  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  Copenhagen,  and  of  the  Biograph- 
ical Society  of  New  York,  and  is  the  author  of  a number 
of  works  in  addition  to  those  mentioned,  which  have 
been  republished  in  America. 

SYMMES,  John  Cleves,  soldier,  born  in  New 
Jersey  in  1780;  died  in  Plamilton,  Ohio,  May  28,  1829. 
His  uncle,  of  the  same  name,  was  chief  justice  of  New 
Jersey,  and  obtained  a government  grant  of  1,000,000 
acres  of  land  in  Ohio,  on  which  he  founded  the  settle- 
ments of  North  Bend  and  Cincinnati.  Symmes  entered 
the  army  as  an  ensign  in  1802,  became  captain  in  the 
war  of  1812,  and  served  at  the  battle  of  Niagara,  and 
in  the  sortie  from  Port  Erie.  Later  he  was  settled  in 
Newport,  Ky.,  where  he  devoted  his  time  to  natural 
philosophy.  In  1818  he  promulgated  the  novel  theory, 


SYM-TAI 


by  speech  and  in  type,  that  the  earth  is  a hollow  sphere, 
habitable  within,  and  open  at  the  poles  for  the  admis- 
sion of  light,  containing  within  six  or  seven  concentric 
hollow  spheres,  also  open  at  the  poles.  In  1822  he  peti- 
tioned congress  to  fit  out  an  expedition  to  test  his  hy- 
pothesis. In  i826-27he  lectured  on  this  subject  at  Union 
College  where  his  address  was  received  with  ridicule. 


6823 

SYMONDS,  John  Addington,  born  at  Bristol, 
England,  October  5,  1840;  was  educated  at  Harrow 
School,  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  wrote  an 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Dante ; Studies  of  the 
Greek  Poets , 2 vols.;  Sketches  in  Italy  and  Greece ; 
Renaissance  in  Italy,  and  other  similar  works.  He 
died  at  Rome,  April  19,  1893. 


T. 


TAAFFE,  Count  Edward  Francis  Joseph,  Aus- 
trian statesman,  born  at  Prague,  February  24,  1833, 
is  both  an  Austrian  Count  and  Viscount  Taaffe  of  Cor- 
ren,  and  Baron  of  Ballymote,  Sligo,  in  the  Irish  peer- 
age. He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Salzburg  in  1863, 
became  Austrian  Minister  of  the  Interior  and  Vice-Pres- 
ident of  the  Ministry  in  1867,  and  President,  1869; 
became  Governor  of  the  Tyrol  in  1871,  and  was  again 
premier  from  1879  to  1893.  Died  Nov.  29,  1895. 

TACHE,  Alexander  Antoine,  born  in  Riviere-du- 
Loup,  Canada,  July  23,  1823,  died  June  22,  1894.  He 
graduated  at  the  college  of  St.  Hyacinth,  studied  the- 
ology, became  an  Oblate  monk,  labored  as  a missionary 
among  the  Red  River  Indians, reached  St.  Boniface,  1845, 
and  was  there  raised  to  the  priesthood.  Summoned  to 
France  by  the  superior  of  the  Oblate  Fathers,  he  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Arath  in  Viviers,  November  23, 
1851.  He  made  a visit  to  Rome  and  then  returned  to 
Canada  to  his  missionary  work.  He  founded  hew 
missions,  and  through  him  many  chapels  and  schools 
were  built.  About  this  time  the  Metis  had  some  griev- 
ances, and  Bishop  Tache  laid  them  before  the  Canadian 
Government,  to  which  no  attention  was  paid.  He  was 
obliged  to  go  to  Italy  to  take  part  in  the  council  of  the 
Vatican  at  Rome,  and  during  his  absence  the  troubles 
came  to  a crisis.  He  at  once  returned  and  quieted  the 
insurrection.  He  was  empowered  by  the  Imperial  and 
Dominion  Governments  to  offer  full  pardon  for  all 
political  offenses  committed  by  the  insurrectionists. 
On  September  22,  1871,  St.  Boniface  was  erected  into 
a see- and  Bishop  Tache  was  appointed  archbishop. 

TACHE,  Sir  Etienne  Paschal,  a Canadian  states- 
man, was  born  in  St.  Thomas,  Lower  Canada,  Sep- 
tember 5,  1795,  and  died  there  July  29,  1865.  Serving 
in  the  war  of  1812,  he,  at  its  close,  began  the  study  and 
later  the  practice  of  medicine,  which  he  continued  until 
1841,  when  he  entered  parliament.  He  was  deputy  ad- 
jutant-general in  1847-48,  and  following  that  was  com- 
missioner of  public  works.  Pie  was  knighted  in  No- 
vember, 1858,  as  a recognition  of  his  services,  and  was 
appointed,  jointly  with  Sir  Allan  MacNab,  to  the 
honorary  rank  of  colonel  in  the  British  army  and  aide- 
de-camp  to  the  queen. 

TAFT,  Alphonso,  was  born  in  Townshend,  Vt., 
November  5,  1810.  Graduating  at  Yale,  he  remained 
there  as  tutor  from  1835  to  1837.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1838  and'began  practice  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
after  1840.  Judge  Taft’s  political  career  was  not  a very 
exciting  one.  He  was  defeated  for  congress  in  1856  by 
George  H.  Pendleton,  and  in  1875  was  candidate  for 
governor  of  Ohio,  but  an  opinion  he  had  expressed  on 
the  question  of  the  Bible  in  the  public  schools  created 
so  much  opposition  that  he  was  defeated.  This  same 
opinion,  however,  was  affirmed  later  by  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Ohio,  and  is  now  a law  of  the  State.  When 
William  W.  Belknap  resigned  as  secretary  of  war 
Judge  Taft  was  chosen  by  the  president  to  fill  the 
vacancy,  and  on  March  8,  1876,  he  was  duly  installed, 
but  in  the  following  May  was  transferred  to  the  attorney- 


generalship,  a post  he  held  until  the  expiration  of 
President  Grant’s  term  of  office.  The  judge  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  Austria  in  April,  but  was  transferred 
to  Russia  in  August,  1885.  He  was  a trustee  of 
the  University  of  Cincinnati,  and  in  1872-82  served  on 
the  corporation  of  Yale,  which  gave  him  the  degree  of 
LL.  D.  in  1867.  He  died  in  May,  1891. 

TAGLIONI,  Marie,  a celebrated  ballet  dancer,  was 
born  in  Stockholm  in  1804,  and  died  in  1884,  in  London. 
She  was  taught  dancing  by  her  father,  FillippoTaglioni, 
who  was  ballet  master  in  her  native  town.  She  made 
tours  through  all  the  principal  cities  of  the  Continent 
and  succeeded  in  amassing  a large  fortune,  but  lost  it 
in  the  Franco-German  war,  after  she  had  retired  to 
private  life.  In  1832  she  married  Count  Gilbert  de 
Voisins.  After  the  loss  of  her  property  she  went  to 
London  and  supported  herself  by  teaching  dancing. 

TAINE,  Hippolyte  Adolphe,  a member  of  the 
French  Academy,  born  April  21,  1828,  at  Vouziers 
(Ardennes);  pursued  his  studies  with  brilliant  success  in 
the  College  Bourbon,  gaining  the  prize  of  honor  for 
rhetoric  at  the  general  competition  of  1847,  and  being 
in  the  following  year  first  on  the  list  of  those  admitted 
to  the  normal  school  (section  of  literature).  After 
having  obtained,  in  1853,  the  diploma  of  doctor  in 
letters,  he  renounced  the  career  of  university  teaching 
and  brought  out  several  works.  Two  of  these,  written 
in  a most  brilliant  style,  contained  opinions  diametrically 
opposed  to  the  traditional  doctrines  of  the  university, 
and  produced  a great  sensation.  In  March,  1863,  M. 
Taine  was  appointed  examiner  in  literature  at  the 
military  school  of  Saint- Cyr,  and,  in  October,  1864, 
professor  of  the  history  of  art  and  esthetics  at  the 
iLcole  des  Beaux  Arts.  In  June,  1868,  he  married  the 
daughter  of  M.  Denuelle,  a rich  merchant.  M.  Taine 
was  a candidate  for  the  seat  in  the  French  Academy 
that  had  been  vacated  by  the  death  of  M.  Thiers,  but 
he  was  unsuccessful,  being  defeated  by  M.  Henri 
Martin,  the  historian.  V ery  soon  afterward,  however, 
M.  Taine  gained  the  coveted  seat  among  the  forty, 
being  elected  on  November  14,  1878,  in  the  place  of  M. 
de  Lemenie.  M.  Taine  was  distinguished  as  historian, 
philosopher  and  critic,  his  chief  works  being  Classical 
Philosophy  of  the  igth  Century  in  France , History  of 
English  Literature,  a profound  and  comprehensive 
work,  The  Intelligence,  and  The  Origins  of  Contempo- 
rary France.  He  died  March  6,  1893. 

TAIT,  Arthur  Fitzwilliam,  a painter,  was  born 
at  Livesey  Hall,  near  Liverpool,  England,  August  5, 
1819.  In  his  profession  he  was  mainly  self-taught. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1850,  and  soon  began 
to  attract  attention  by  his  pictures  of  animals.  Many 
of  his  works  have  been  lithographed  or  engraved. 

TAIT,  John  Robinson,  artist,  was  born  in  Cim 
cinnati,  Ohio,  January  14,  1834.  Graduating  at 

Bethany  College,  Virginia,  in  1852,  he  went  abroad, 
It  was  nearly  twenty  years  after  this  before  he  made 
himself  any  reputation  as  an  artist,  having  devoted  his 
time  mainly  to  literature  and  to  amateur  sketching.  In 


TAI-TAL 


68  24 

1859  he  went  abroad  a second  time,  and  began  studying 
at  Diisseldorf  under  August  Weber  and  Andreas  Achen- 
bach.  His  works  include  Lake  of  Four  Cantons , 
A Rainy  Day,  Under  the  Willows , and  many  others. 

TAIT,  Peter  Guthrie,  M.A.,  was  born  at 
Dalkeith,  Scotland,  April  28,  1831,  and  educated  at  the 
Academy  and  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  at  Peter- 
house,  Cambridge,  where  he  was  senior  wrangler  and 
first  Smith’s  prizeman.  In  1852  he  was  elected  fellow 
of  Peterhouse,  and  in  1854  was  appointed  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Queen’s  College,  Belfast,  where  he  re- 
mained until  i860,  when  he  was  elected  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  at  Edinburgh.  Professor  Tait  has 
published  a number  of  scientific  and  other  works, 
among  which  are:  Dynamics  of  a Particle , 1856; 
Elements  of  Philosophy , 1873;  Quaternions,  1867; 

Thermo-dynamics,  1868;  Recent  Advances  in  Physical 
Science , 1876;  Heat  and  Light,  1884;  Properties  of 
Matter,  1885,  besides  a large  number  of  papers  con- 
tributed to  periodicals.  Died  July  4,  1901. 

TAIT,  P.  MacNaghten,  F.R.G.S.,  was  born  in 
Edinburgh  in  1823.  He  first  entered  an  insurance  office 
in  Edinburgh,  and  in  1851  proceeded  to  India;  was  in 
India  from  1857  to  1859,  the  years  of  the  mutiny,  when 
he  raised  the  rifle  company  of  the  Calcutta  volunteer 
guards,  in  which  he  held  a command.  Subsequently 
he  traveled  in  India,  Ceylon,  China,  Japan,  Canada, 
and  the  United  States.  He  has  contributed  largely  to 
the  Calcutta  Quarterly  Review,  also  to  the  Examiner , 
and  other  London  weekly  papers.  His  writings  are 
mainly  upon  matters  of  mortality  and  on  subjects  inter- 
esting to  insurance  companies. 

TALBOT,  Edward  Stuart,  M.A.,  bom  in  Lon- 
don, 1844.  He  was  educated  at  Charterhouse  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  obtained  a first  class 
Lit.  Hum.,  1865,  and  first  class  law  and  modern  his- 
tory, 1866.  He  was  ordained  in  1867  and  1870.  He 
was  elected  senior  student  of  Christ  Church  in  1866,  and 
wrote  the  Ellerton  prize  essay  in  1869,  on  the  Influ- 
ence of  Christianity  on  Slavery.  In  1870  he  was  ap- 
pointed first  warden  of  Keble  College,  Oxford,  and  was 
select  preacher  in  1873  and  in  1883. 

TALBOT,  Ethelbert,  bishop,  was  born  in  Fayette, 
Mo.,  October  9,  1848.  He  went  to  Dartmouth,  where 
he  graduated  in  1870,  and  at  the  general  theological 
seminary  in  1873,  being  the  same  year  ordained  deacon 
in  the  Church  of  the  Transfiguration.  He  soon  became 
rector  of  St.  James’  Church  at  Macon,  Mo.,  remaining 
there  until  elected  to  the  episcopate.  He  was  conse- 
crated in  1887  missionary  bishop  of  Wyoming  and 
Idaho. 

TALBOT,  Joseph  Cruikshank,  Protestant  Epis- 
copal bishop,  was  born  in  Alexandria,  Va.,  September 
5,  1816,  and  died  in  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  on  January  15, 
1883.  He  was  of  Quaker  extraction,  and  was  educated 
at  Pierpont  Academy,  in  his  native  town.  He  engaged 
in  business  in  Louisville  in  1835,  but  while  there  he 
became  impressed  with  the  religious  service  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  soon  uniting  with  it  and 
abandoning  Quakerism.  Studying  under  the  direction 
of  the  bishop,  he  became  a candidate  for  holy  orders, 
and  was  made  a deacon  in  Christ’s  Church,  Louisville, 
September  5,  1846.  In  1853  Bishop  Talbot  went  to 
Indiana,  and  became  rector  of  Christ  Church,  at  Indian- 
apolis. In  1865  he  was  elected  assistant  bishop  of 
Indiana,  and  upon  the  death  of  Bishop  Uphold,  in  1872, 
he  became  bishop  of  Indiana. 

TALBOT,  Silas,  a Revolutionary  officer,  was  born 
in  Dighton,  Bristol  county,  Mass.,  in  1 75 1,  and  died 
in  New  York  city,  June  30,  1813.  Even  as  a boy  he 
exhibited  the  traits  that  in  later  life  made  him  famous 
for  his  boldness,  and  the  energetic  bravery  with  which 


he  fought  the  British  was  not  exceeded  by  any  other 
man  in  the  army.  During  the  first  excitement  in  the 
colony  he  organized  a company,  and  when  the  news  of 
Lexington  reached  him  he  put  his  company  at  the 
service  of  Rhode  Island,  received  a commission  as 
captain,  and  joined  the  patriot  army  in  the  siege  of  Bos- 
ton. Later  he  joined  Washington’s  army,  and  attempted 
to  burn  the  British  fleet  by  sending  a fire  ship  into  the 
midst  of  it.  He  set  fire  to  one  of  their  vessels,  but  it 
was  eventually  rescued.  From  this  time  until  1779  his 
career  was  one  of  continued  brilliancy  and  dash,  and 
congress  repeatedly  voted  him  thanks.  He  was  made  a 
captain  of  the  navy  in  1779,  and  ordered  to  protect  the 
coast  of  Long  Island.  While  in  command  of  the  ship 
George  Washington  he  was  made  a prisoner  by  the 
British,  but  after  months  of  privations  and  cruelty  he 
was,  through  the  efforts  of  Benjamin  Franklin  and  John 
Jay,  exchanged  for  a British  officer.  Captain  Talbot 
was  wounded  thirteen  times,  and  carried  to  his  grave 
five  British  bullets.  He  was  buried  in  Trinity  church- 
yard, New  York  city. 

TALBOT,  Thomas,  governor  of  Massachusetts,  was 
born  in  Cambridge,  N.  Y.,  September  7,  1818,  and 
died  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  October  6,  1886.  He  was  a lin- 
eal descendant  of  John  Talbot,  first  earl  of  Shrewsbury. 
In  1840  he  entered  into  a partnership  with  his  brother 
Charles  in  Billerica,  Mass.,  in  the  manufacture  of 
broadcloth,  where  the  business  rapidly  increased,  and 
he  soon  accumulated  a fortune.  Mr.  Talbot  was  for 
many  years  a member  of  the  governor’s  council,  and  in 
1872  was  chosen  lieutenant-governor  on  the  Republi- 
can ticket,  and  on  the  election  of  Gov.  William  Wash- 
burn to  the  United  States  Senate  he  became  governor 
of  Massachusetts.  Some  of  his  official  acts  caused  an 
opposition  to  his  election  in  1874,  but  in  1878  he  was  re- 
elected, defeating  Benjamin  F.  Butler  and  Josiah  Y. 
Abbott,  candidates  of  the  two  wings  of  the  Democratic 
party. 

TALBOT,  William  Henry  Fox,  was  born  in 
Wiltshire,  England,  in  1800.  Mr.  Talbot  was,  without 
question,  the  real  inventor  of  photography;  but,  by  con- 
cealing the  fact  for  five  or  six  years,  Daguerre,  who, 
it  seems,  was  working  on  the  same  problem,  published 
his  discovery,  before  Talbot  was  ready,  in  1839.  He, 
however,  afterward  discovered  the  process  of  photog- 
raphy on  paper.  His  process  was  called  calotype  or 
Talbotype.  This  inventor  died  September  17,  1877. 

TALCOTT,  John,  soldier,  was  born  in  Braintree, 
England,  about  1630;  died  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  July  23, 
1688.  He  came  to  America  with  his  father  in  1632; 
was  ensign  and  afterward  captain  of  colonial  troops 
from  1650  until  1660;  was  assistant  magistrate  of  the 
colony  of  Connecticut  before  it  was  joined  to  New 
Haven,  and  was  treasurer  from  1660  until  1676.  Dur- 
ing the  Indian  war  of  1676  he  was  in  command  of  the 
army,  with  the  rank  of  major,  and  did  excellent  service. 
He  soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  was 
known  as  the  “Indian  fighter.”  His  official  papers, 
some  of  which  are  preserved  among  the  State  records  in 
Hartford,  contain  interesting  notes  regarding  the  war 
with  King  Philip. 

TALLMADGE,  Benjamin,  was  one  of  the  most  act- 
ive soldiers  in  the  Revolutionary'  war.  He  was  the  son  of 
a clergyman,  and  was  born  at  Brookhaven,  N.  Y., 
February  25,  1754-  He  received  a high  school  educa- 
tion, and  graduated  at  Yale  in  1773.  June»  1776, 
he  was  appointed  a lieutenant  and  adjutant  in  a Con- 
necticut regiment.  He  served  throughout  the  entire 
war,  being  rapidly  promoted  by  General  Washingtor 
for  brave  conduct  and  efficient  service.  In  December, 
1776,  he  was  made  a captain  of  the  second  light 
dragoons,  and  in  the  April  following  was  made  major- 


T A L — TAN 


On  September  5,  I77&  He  wai  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  colonel.  He  was  for  some  time  a member  of  Wash- 
ington’s staff,  and  had  the  custody  of  Maj.  John  Andre 
until  his  execution.  Litchfield,  Conn.,  had  become 
Colonel  Tallmadge’s  home,  and  after  the  war  he  re- 
turned there  and  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits.  He 
was  sent  to  congress  on  the  Federalist  ticket  in  1801, 
and  served  until  1817.  Colonel  Tallmadge  married  the 
daughter  of  General  Floyd,  a signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence.  He  died  at  his  home,  Tallmadge 
Place,  in  Litchfield,  March  7,  1835. 

TALLMADGE,  James,  wasborn  in  Stanford,  N.  Y. , 
January  28,  1778;  died  in  New  York  city,  September 
29,  1853.  He  was  graduated  at  Brown  in  1798,  studied 
law,  and  afterward  divided  his  time  for  several  years 
between  the  practice  of  his  profession  and  agricultural 
pursuits.  In  the  war  of  1812  he  commanded  a company 
of  home-guards  in  the  defense  of  New  York.  He  was 
a member  of  congress  from  December  1,  1817,  until 
March  3,  1819,  and  in  the  latter  year  made  his  famous 
speech  in  opposition  to  the  extension  of  slavery.  He 
was  a member  of  the  State  Assembly  of  New  York  in 
1824,  and  in  the  following  year  became  lieutenant- 
governor.  He  founded  the  American  Institute,  of 
which  he  was  president  for  nineteen  years,  and  aided  in 
the  establishment  of  the  University  of  New  York, 
which  gave  him  the  degree  of  LL.D.  in  1838.  Gen- 
eral Tallmadge  was  a vigorous  writer  and  an  eloquent 
orator. 

TALMAGE,  Thomas  De  Witt,  clergyman,  born 
in  Bound  Brook,  N.  J. , January  7,  1832.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and 
graduated  at  the  New  Brunswick  Theological  Seminary 
in  1856.  His  first  pastorate  was  at  Belleville,  N.  J., 
in  the  Presbyterian  Church.  In  1859  he  went  to  Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y.,  and  in  1862  became  located  in  Philadel- 
phia, Penn.  There  he  remained  seven  years,  when  he 
was  called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  Central  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Brooklyn,  L.  I.  In  the  last  named  city, 
where  he  is  still  stationed,  he  has  gathered  a large 
number  of  followers,  and  acquired  a national  reputa- 
tion for  effective  but  rather  sensational  pulpit  oratory. 
His  congregation  built  him  a church  in  1870,  having  a 
seating  capacity  of  3,400,  which  was  called  the  Brook- 
lyn Tabernacle.  The  building  was  mainly  of  wood, 
and  in  1871  it  was  enlarged  to  hold  500  more  people, 
but  in  December  of  the  next  year  it  was  destroyed  by 
fire.  On  February,  1874,  a new  tabernacle  was  dedi- 
cated. The  style  was  Gothic,  and  it  had  a seating 
capacity  of  5,000.  This  edifice  was  burned  in  1890,  re- 
built and  burned  again  in  May,  1894.  Died  April,  1902. 

TALON,  chief  of  the  Ottawas,  was  born  about  1675. 
He  was  spokesman  for  the  Indian  allies  of  the  French 
in  their  conference  with  Callieres,  the  French  governor 
of  Canada  in  1701.  In  the  attack  on  Detroit  by  the 
Ottawas  in  1706  he  saved  the  life  of  Father  Constantin, 
the  chaplain  of  the  fort.  In  1707  he  represented  the 
Ottawa  chiefs  at  Montreal,  and  told  Vaudreuil,  the 
governor,  that  the  trouble  at  Detroit  had  been  occa- 
sioned by  the  commandant,  Bourgmont,  who  had  seven 
times  refused  him  an  audience.  The  governor  refused 
to  make  peace  except  on  condition  that  Le  Pesant,  the 
chief  who  was  supposed  to  have  incited  the  attack  on 
Detroit,  should  be  surrendered.  Le  Pesant  gave  him- 
self up,  but  was  pardoned  on  the  entreaty  of  Talon  and 
other  chiefs.  The  date  of  Talon’s  death  is  unknown. 

TALON,  Jean  Baptiste,  Canadian  administrator, 
wasborn  in  Picardy,  France,  in  1625;  died  in  Ver- 
sailles in  1691.  He  held  government  offices  in  Bor- 
deaux, Lyons,  and  Hainaut,  and  on  March  23, 1663,  was 
appointed  intendant  of  police,  justice,  and  finance  to 
French  North  America.  He  caused  the  first  ships  to  be 


682  5 

built  in  the  colony,  and  established  trade  between  Canada 
and  the  West  Indies.  He  established  a military  aris- 
tocracy, promoted  emigration,  and  laid  taxes  and  re- 
strictions on  the  unmarried  of  both  sexes.  In  1672  he 
returned  to  France  to  become  a member  of  the  royal 
household.  His  Me  moire  d la  Majeste  sur  Vetat  pre- 
sent du  Canada  was  published  in  1667.  Talon  was  an 
unusually  efficient  and  far  seeing  statesman. 

TAMBERLIK,  Henri,  tenor  singer,  born  at  Rome 
in  1820,  made  his  first  appearance  at  Naples  in  1841, 
and  after  visiting  various  parts  of  Europe,  sang  at 
Covent  Garden  Opera,  London,  taking  the  leading 
tenor  parts  with  conspicuous  success.  He  fulfilled 
engagements  in  North  and  South  America,  and  sang  at 
Paris  in  1858,  and  again  in  1869.  In  the  latter  year  he 
established  a large  manufactory  of  firearms  at  Madrid. 
Tamberlik  died  March  15,  1889. 

TAMMANY,  chief  of  the  Delaware  Indians,  lived  in 
the  seventeenth  century  and  was  a party  to  William 
Penn’s  treaty.  At  that  time  his  tribe  was  in  constant 
warfare  with  the  Six  Nations  and  the  Manhattan  Indians. 
Little  is  known  of  his  history,  but  all  accounts  agree 
that  he  was  a sachem  of  great  power  and  influence, 
much  feared  by  his  enemies.  At  the  close  of  the  Revo- 
lution the  Pennsylvania  troops  took  Tammany  as  their 
patron  saint,  and  his  day,  March  12,  was  celebrated 
with  festivities.  He  has  since  been  made  the  patron  of 
a powerful  political  organization  in  New  York  city, 
which  perpetuates  his  name. 

TANEY,  Roger  Brooke,  chief  justice,  was  born 
in  Calvert  county,  Md.,  March  17,  1777.  He  was 
the  son  of  a Roman  Catholic  planter,  of  a family  that 
came  to  Maryland  from  England.  Young  Taney  was 
graduated  at  Dickinson  College  in  1795,  and  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  Maryland,  in  1799.  Entering  politics 
he  was  elected  to  the  house  of  delegates  in  the  same 
year,  and  was  the  youngest  member  of  that  body.  Like 
many  other  Federalists,  he  became  a supporter  of  Jack- 
son  about  1824,  and  was  called  by  him  to  the  office  of 
secretary  of  the  treasury  in  1833.  During  his  term  as 
secretary  Taney  put  himself  in  antagonism  to  the 
senate  by  supporting  Jackson  in  his  attempt  to  get 
supreme  control  of  the  government  funds.  There  was 
a clause  in  the  charter  of  the  bank  of  the  United  States 
which  allowed  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  to  place  de- 
posits in  other  places  than  the  bank,  at  the  same  time 
stating  his  reasons  for  the  order.  The  real  meaning  of 
the  clause  was  to  cover  points  where  there  was 
no  branch  bank,  but  Jackson  chose  to  construe  it 
to  mean  that  the  treasurer  could  refuse  to  deposit  the 
revenues  in  any  branch  bank,  or  in  the  mother  bank, 
as  well.  Taney,  according  to  the  president’s  request, 
gave  the  order,  and  the  bank  of  the  United  States  re- 
ceived no  more  of  the  revenues.  The  Senate  would 
not  confirm  the  treasurer  in  his  position,  but  he  had 
already  done  the  work  he  and  the  president  wished. 
Taney  succeeded  John  Marshall  as  chief  justice  of  the 
United  States.  He  easily  yielded  to  the  all-pervading 
spirit  of  the  times,  that  slavery  was  right  and  just.  Fie 
rendered  the  important  decision  in  the  famous  Dred 
Scott  case  in  1857.  Judge  Taney  made  use  of  the  fol- 
lowing language  in  giving  this  decision  : “For  more 
than  a century  before  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
the  negroes  had  been  regarded  as  beings  of  an  inferior 
order,  and  altogether  unfit  to  associate  with  the  white 
race,  either  in  social  or  political  relations,  and  so  far 
inferior  that  they  had  no  rights  which  the  white  man 
was  bound  to  respect,  and  that  the  negro  might  justly 
and  lawfully  be  reduced  to  slavery  for  his  benefit.  ” He 
also  declared  that  the  Missouri  Compromise  was  uncon- 
stitutional, and  that  the  suit  Dred  Scott  had  brought 
for  his  freedom  must  be  dismissed  for  want  of  jurisdic- 


6826  TAN- 

tion.  It  has  been  proven  in  later  years  that  Taney  never 
used  the  language  imputed  to  him  above.  He  certainly 
did  decide  against  Dred  Scott,  but  he  did  not  say  that 
“ a slave  has  no  rights  which  a white  man  is  bound  to 
respect.”  The  position  he  took  on  these  matters  in 
earlier  years  refutes  the  idea  of  his  ever  having  used  the 
language. 

In  1810  Judge  Taney  defended  Gen.  James  Wil- 
kinson, when  on  trial  before  a court  martial,  and,  though 
he  refused  a fee  for  his  services,  he  was  compelled  to 
share  the  odium  that  attached  to  that  officer.  Taney 
seems  to  have  been  particularly  unfortunate  in  the 
nature  of  the  cases  he  undertook.  In  1819  he  defended 
one  Jacob  Gruber,  who  had,  in  camp  meeting,  con- 
demned slavery  in  bitter  terms.  Taney  said  that 
slavery  was  a blot  on  our  national  character.  The 
intimate  connection. Chief  Justice  Taney  had  with  slave 
questions  makes  the  date  of  his  death,  October  12, 
1864,  peculiarly  interesting.  It  was  on  this  date  that 
the  State  of  Maryland  abolished  slavery.  Taney  was 
connected  with  a great  number  of  important  cases,  both 
as  the  lawyer  and  the  judge  upon  the  bench.  His 
decisions  and  opinions  are  contained  in  the  Supreme 
Court  reports  of  Benj.  R.  Curtis,  Benj.  C.  Howard, 
and  Jeremiah  S.  Black.  At  the  age  of  seventy-seven 
he  began  an  autobiography,  which  he  brought  down  to 
1801.  Chief  Justice  Taney  was  married  in  1806  to 
Anne  Phoebe  Charlton  Key,  sister  of  Francis  Scott 
Key.  He  died  Oct.  12,  1864. 

TANN,  Ludwig  von  der,  Bavarian  general,  was 
born  at  Tann,  June  18,  1815;  died  at  Meran,  April  26, 
1881.  He  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  was 
made  a lieutenant-general  in  i860.  In  the  war  of  1866 
he  was  chief  of  staff  to  Prince  Charles  of  Bavaria,  and 
in  the  war  with  France  he  commanded  the  first  Bavarian 
corps.  He  took  a prominent  part  in  the  operations  at- 
tending the  siege  of  Paris. 

TAPPAN,  Arthur,  abolitionist,  was  born  in 
Northampton,  Mass.,  May  22,  1786,  and  died  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  July  23,  1865.  Receiving  an  ordinary 
common  school  education,  he  started  in  business  for 
himself  in  Portland,  Me.  In  1814  he  removed  to  New 
York  city  and  opened  a wholesale  dry  goods  house,  in 
which  business  he  was  very  successful  and  made  a great 
deal  of  money.  He  was  noted  for  his  charities  and  was 
identified  with  a number  of  institutions  and  religious 
societies.  In  1828  he  founded  the  New  York  Journal 
of  Commerce , and  in  1833,  being  warmly  interested  in 
the  slave  question,  he  established  the  Emancipator. 
So  thoroughly  identified  was  he  with  this  movement 
that,  on  October  2,  1833,  be  was  chosen  president  of  the 
New  York  city  Anti-Slavery  Society,  and,  during  the 
years  of  his  commercial  success,  he  gave  that  or- 
ganization $1,000  a month.  Unfortunately,  however, 
his  firm  failed,  and  he  becoming  a poor  man,  his  sub- 
stantial charities  ceased,  though  the  disposition  to  give 
still  remained. 

TAPPAN,  Benjamin,  jurist,  was  born  in  North- 
ampton, Mass.,  May  25,  1 773;  died  in  Steubenville, 
Ohio,  April  12,  1857.  He  received.a  public  school  edu- 
cation, and  learned  copper-plate  engraving  and  print- 
ing, but  subsequently  became  a lawyer  and  practiced  in 
Steubenville.  He  was  elected  to  the  legislature  in 
1803,  served  in  the  war  of  1812  as  aide  to  Gen.  William 
Wadsworth,  was  a judge  of  one  of  the  county  courts, 
and  was  president  judge  of  the  fifth  Ohio  circuit  for 
seven  years.  President  Jackson  appointed  him  United 
States  judge  for  the  district  of  Ohio  in  1833,  and  he  was 
United  States  senator  from  December  2,  1839,  until 
March  3,  1845.  He  became  identified  with  the  Free- 
soil  movement  at  its  inception,  and  was  widely  known 
for  his  anti-slavery  sentiments.  He  compiled  and  pub- 


-TAU 

lished  Cases  Decided  in  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas% 
with  an  appendix. 

TAPPAN,  Henry  Philip,  was  born  in  Rhinebeck, 
N.  Y.,  April  23,  1805;  died  in  Vevay,  Switzerland, 
November  15,  1881.  After  his  graduation  at  Union 
College  and  Auburn  Theological  Seminary,  he  served 
for  a year  as  associate  pastor  of  a Dutch  Reformed 
church  in  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  and  for  a short  time  as 
pastor  of  a Congregational  Church  in  Pittsfield,  Mass., 
which  charge  he  was  compelled  by  ill  health  to  resign. 
From  1832  until  1838  he  was  professor  of  moral  phi- 
losophy in  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  Y ork,  and 
in  1852  he  became  first  chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Michigan.  In  1863  he  retired  and  went  to  Europe, 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  Union  Col- 
lege gave  him  the  degree  of  D.D.  in  1845,  and  Columbia 
that  of  LL.D.  in  1853.  Doctor  Tappan  wrote  a num- 
ber of  works  on  mental  and  moral  philosophy,  and  on 
educational  subjects. 

TARLETON,  Sir  Banastre,  an  English  officer 
who  came  to  America  with  Lord  Cornwallis.  He  was 
born  in  Liverpool,  England,  on  August  21,  1754,  and 
died  in  England  January  23,  1833.  He  served  with 
credit  during  the  Revolutionary  war,  but  was  completely 
defeated  by  General  Morgan  at  Cowpens,  S.  C.,  in  1781. 

TASCHEREAU,  Elzear  Alexandre,  Canadian 
cardinal,  was  born  in  Sainte  Marie  de  la  Beauce,  prov- 
ince of  Quebec,  February  17,  1820.  He  was  ordained 
a priest  September  13,  1842,  and  for  twelve  years  occu- 
pied the  chair  of  moral  philosophy  in  the  Seminary  of 
Quebec.  He  was  sent  to  Rome  in  1854  to  present  the 
decrees  of  the  second  provincial  council  of  Quebec  to 
the  pope  for  ratification,  remaining  there  two  years  to 
pursue  the  study  of  canon  law.  After  his  return  he  was 
director  of  the  Petit  Seminaire  until  1859,  when  he  was 
appointed  director  of  the  Grande  Seminaire.  In  i860 
he  became  superior  of  the  seminary  and  rector  of  Laval 
University,  and  in  1862  was  appointed  vicar-general  of 
the  diocese  of  Quebec.  He  became  archbishop  of 
Quebec  in  February,  1871,  and  was  consecrated  March 
19th  by  Archbishop  Lynch,  of  Toronto.  In  1886,  after 
several  visits  to  Rome,  he  became  the  first  Canadian 
cardinal,  and  immediately  after  his  elevation  he  issued  a 
circular  forbidding  the  sale  of  liquors  :on  Sunday.  He 
died  April  12,  1898. 

TATTNALL,  Josiah,  son  of  Josiah  iattnall,  states- 
man, was  born  in  Bonaventura,  near  Savannah,  Ga. , 
November  9,  1795,  and  died  there  June  14,  1871.  His 
father  served  in  General  Nathanael  Greene’s  army  until 
the  close  of  the  war.  Josiah,  the  younger,  was  educated 
in  England,  but  in  1811  he  came  home  and  entered  the 
United  States  navy  as  a midshipman.  He  served  in  the 
war  of  1812,  and  was  also  very  active  in  the  Mexican 
war.  General  Santa  Anna  was  put  in  his  care  after  his 
capture,  and  he  personally  prevented  an  attack  on  the 
Mexican  general  by  an  excited  mob.  Tattnall,  then  a 
captain,  was  wounded  at  the  bombardment  of  Tuscan. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Rebellion,  Captain  Tattnall 
resigned  and  offered  his  services  to  the  State  of  Georgia. 
In  March,  1862,  he  was  ordered  to  take  command  of  the 
iron  clad  Merrimac,  Franklin  Buchanan  having  been 
wounded.  To  save  the  vessel  from  capture  he  destroyed 
her,  and,  being  censured  by  a court  of  inquiry,  he  de- 
manded a court-martial,  which  honorably  acquitted 
him.  After  the  war  he  took  his  family  to  Nova 
Scotia,  but  for  pecuniary  reasons  returned  to  his  old 
home,  where  he  was  made  collector  of  the  port,  r posi- 
tion he  held  until  his  death. 

TAUCHNITZ,  Bernhard  Christian,  publisher  at 
Leipsic,  celebrated  for  his  editions  of  Greek  and  Latin 
classics,  Hebrew  and  Greek  Bibles,  but  best  known  to 
travelers  and  writers  for  his  continental  editions  of 


T A Y 


British  authors,  is  a member  of  an  old  family  of  book- 
sellers and  printers — Karl  Tauchnitz,  half  a century 
ago,  having  made  himself  famous  for  his  cheap  editions 
of  the  classics.  He  was  born  at  Schleinitz.  near  Naum- 
burg,  in  1816,  and  died  August  13,  1895.  He  began,  in 
1841,  his  series  of  English  authors.  In  order  to  mark 
his  appreciation  of  the  endeavors  of  Tauchnitz  to 
familiarize  in  Germany  the  chefs  d'ceuvre  of  a literature 
of  which  he  himself  was  so  great  an  admirer,  the  duke 
of  Saxe-Coburg,  the  brother  of  the  late  prince  consort, 
raised  him  to  the  rank  of  baron. 

TAYLER,  Frederick,  painter  in  water  colors,  born 
near  Elstree,  Herts,  April  30,  1804;  became  a con- 
tributor to  the  exhibitions  of  the  old  Water  Color  So- 
ciety in  1831,  his  pictures  being  chiefly  taken  from  sub- 
jects in  highland,  rural,  and  sporting  life.  Some  of 
his  earlier  Scenes  on  the  Moors  were  painted  in  con- 
junction with  the  late  George  Barrett.  Occasionally  he 
has  executed  compositions  of  importance  from  Sir  W. 
Scott’s  works,  in  which  his  spirited  style  in  the  painting 
of  horses  and  dogs  is  turned  to  good  account,  as  in  the 
Festival  of  the  Popinjay , in  1854.  He  went  to  Paris 
as  one  of  the  jurors  in  the  fine  art  department  of  the 
French  great  exhibition  in  1833,  and  received  the 
cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  He  died  in  1889. 

TAYLOR,  Alexander  Smith,  ethnologist,  was 
born  in  Charleston,  S.C.,  April  16,  1817;  died  near 
Santa  Barbara,  Cal.,  July  27,  1876.  After  traveling 
extensively,’  he  settled  in  California  in  1848,  and  lived 
at  Monterey  until  i860.  He  was  clerk  of  the  United 
States  district  court  at  that  place  in  1853 . Later  he 
made  his  home  on  a ranch  near  Santa  Barbara.  He 
wrote  much  on  the  Indian  race,  the  history  of  Cali- 
fornia, and  natural  history,  besides  publishing  a trans- 
lation of  the  diary  of  Juan  Rodriquez  Cabrillo. 

TAYLOR,  Alfred,  a Presbyterian  clergyman,  born 
in  1-831  at  Philadelphia,  and  pastor  of  churches  of  the 
Presbyterian  denomination  at  Williamsport,  Bristol, 
and  other  points  in  the  State.  He  was  at  one  time 
editor  of  tne  Sunday  School  Workman , and  is  the 
author  of  hymn  books  and  publications  having  refer- 
ence to  Sunday  school  work. 

TAYLOR,  Archibald  A.  E.,  a Presbyterian 
divine,  was  born  at  Springfield,  Ohio,  August  27,  1834; 
graduated  at  Princeton  College  in  1854,  and  at  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary  three  years  later.  He  has 
occupied  the  pulpit  at  Dubuque,  Iowa,  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  and  elsewhere,  and  was  president  of  Wooster 
(Ohio)  College  for  ten  years  from  1873,  since  which  time 
he  has  been  editor  of  the  St.  Louis  Mid-Continent , the 
official  paper  of  Southwest  Presbyterians.  The  degrees 
of  D.D.  and  LL.D.  have  been  conferred  upon  him  by 
Wooster. 

TAYLOR,  Benjamin  Franklin,  author  and  poet, 
was  born  in  Lowville,  N.  Y.,  July  19,  1819,  and  died 
in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  February  24,  1887.  Graduating  at 
Madison  University  in  1839,  he  soon  after  became  the 
literary  editor  of  the  Chicago  Evening  Journal , and 
from  i860  to  1865  was  its  western  war  correspondent. 
Mr.  Taylor  was  an  exceedingly  pithy  writer,  and  many 
of  his  letters  to  the  Journal  were  copied  in  foreign 
English  papers,  and  some  were  translated  and  printed 
in  other  languages.  Mr.  Taylor  was  a great  traveler 
and  frequently  delivered  lectures.  Among  his  well- 
known  works  is  The  World  on  Wheels. 

^TAYLOR,  Charles,  D.D.,  master  of  St  John’s 
College,  Cambridge,  born  in  Middlesex,  England,  May 
27,  1840;  was  educated  at  King’s  College  School,  Lon- 
don, and  St.  John’s  College,  Cambridge.  He  pro- 
ceeded to  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1862,  and  in  the  same 
year  became  the  editor  of  the  Oxford , Cambridge , and 
Dublin  Messenger  of  Mathematics.  In  1863  he  pub- 


6827 

fished  his  first  work  on  Geometrical  Conics.  He  was 
elected  fellow  of  St.  Jchn’s  College  in  1864,  and  master 
of  the  same,  1881,  and  shortly  afterward  received  the 
degree  of  D.D.,  jure  dignitatis.  He  is  the  author  of 
numerous  articles  on  Hebrew,  geometrical,  and  other 
subjects. 

TAYLOR,  George,  a signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  was  born  in  Ireland  in  1716,  and 
emigrated  to  America  in  1736,  locating  at  Durham, 
Penn.  He  was  a member  of  the  provincial  assemblies 
that  convened  in  Philadelphia  during  1774,  1775^  and 
1776,  and  served  in  congress  until  March,  1777.  He 
died  at  Easton,  Penn.,  February  23,  1781. 

TAYLOR,  Isaac,  M.A.,  Litt.D.,  LL.D.,  canon  of 
York,  born  May  2,  1829,  in  England,  is  the  eldest 
son  of  the  late  Isaac  Taylor,  author  of  the  Natural 
History  of  Enthusiasm.  Educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  he  obtained  the  silver  oration  cup  and 
graduated  as  a wrangler  in  1853.  In  1854  he  edited  a 
translation  of  Becker’s  Charicles.  He  was  ordained  in 
1857  to  a country  curacy,  and  published  in  i860  7'he 
Liturgy  and  the  Dissenters.  He  afterward  took 
charge  of  a London  parish.  During  a visit  to  Italy 
in  1872  his  attention  was  directed  to  the  unsolved 
problem  of  the  language  and  ethnological  affinities  of 
the  Etruscans.  In  1879  he  received  from  the  Univer- 
sity of  Edinburg  the  degree  of  LL.D.,  honoris  causa , 
in  recognition  of  his  discoveries  and  philological  attain- 
ments. In  1883  Doctor  Taylor  published,  in  two  large 
volumes,  his  important  work,  entitled  The  Alphabet , 
an  Account  of  the  Origin  and  Development  of  Letters , 
in  which  he  endeavored  to  trace  the  origin  of  all  known 
alphabets  to  one  primitive  script,  developed  by  the 
Phoenecians  from  the  hieratic  Egyptian  writing.  In 
1885  he  was  made  canon  of  York.  Died  Oct.  18,  1901. 

TAYLOR,  Isaac  E.,  an  author  and  native  of  Essex, 
England,  was  born  in  1834,  graduated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  in  1853,  taking  orders  in  the  church 
of  England  three  years  later.  He  is  the  author  of 
works  principally  of  a philological  character,  which  have 
attained  to  a wide  circulation  both  in  England  and 
throughout  Great  Britain. 

TAYLOR,  James  Monroe,  D.D.,  a Baptist  divine, 
born  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  August  5,  1848,  and  educated 
at  the  University  of  Rochester;  subsequently  graduated 
at  the  Rochester  Theological  Seminary,  and  completed 
his  studies  in  Europe.  From  1873  to  1881  he  was 
stationed  at  South  Norwalk  in  charge  of  a Baptist 
church,  and  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  until  June,  1886, 
when  he  became  president  of  Vassar  College. 

TAYLOR,  John,  successor  to  Brigham  Young  as 
president  of  the  Mormon  church,  was  born  at  Win- 
throp,  England,  November  1,  1808,  and  became  con- 
verted to  the  Mormon  faith  during  1836,  at  Toronto, 
Canada.  From  that  date  up  to  his  death,  July  25, 
1887,  he  was  identified  with  the  management  of  that 
church,  being  also  editor  of  The  Mormon  and  other 
church  publications.  He  was  an  earnest  advocate  of 
polygamy,  and  was  indicted  for  that  crime  in  March, 
1885,  but  escaped  trial  by  flight,  and  remained  in  hiding 
until  he  died. 

TAYLOR,  John  W.,  an  American  jurist  and  speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives,  was  born  at  Charlton, 
in  Saratoga  county,  N.  Y.,  March  26,  1784,  and  died 
at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  September  8,  1854.  He  served  in 
congress  continuously  for  a period  of  twenty  years  from 
May  14,  1813;  was  speaker  of  the  House  at  the  date  of 
the  passage  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  and  delivered 
the  first  speech  in  that  body  opposing  the  extension 
of  slavery.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  National 
Republican  party,  and  a public  speaker  of  extended 
reputation. 


682$  T A Y - 

TAYLOR,  Richard,  a son  of  President  Zachary  Tay- 
lor, was  born  at  New  Orleans,  January  27,  1826;  and 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1845.  He  participated 
in  the  battles  of  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  and 
when  the  Civil  war  broke  out  was  a sugar  planter  in  St. 
Charles  Parish,  La.  He  entered  the  Confederate  army, 
as  colonel  of  the  9th  Louisiana  regiment,  and  served 
through  the  campaign  of  Northern  Virginia,  during 
which  he  became  a major-general.  He  defeated  General 
Banks’  Red  River  expedition  in  1864.  He  surrendered 
during  May,  1865,  and  after  the  war  figured  in  politics 
as  a prominent  Democrat.  He  died  in  New  York  city, 
April  12,  1879. 

TAYLOR,  Sir  Richard  Chambre Hayes,  K.C.B., 
born  at  Dublin,  March  19,  1819;  was  educated  at  Hazle- 
wood  School,  and  at  the  Royal  Military  College,  Sand- 
hurst, and  entered  the  army  as  ensign  of  the  79th 
Highlanders  in  1835.  He  served  in  various  colonies 
and  in  the  Crimean  war,  including  the  battles  of  the 
Alma  and  Balaklava,  siege  and  fall  of  Sebastopol.  He 
was  active  also  in  the  Indian  mutiny.  Pie  was  pro- 
moted colonel,  May,  1858;  major-general,  March,  1868; 
lieutenant-general,  October,  1877;  general,  April,  1883: 
and  nominated  C.B.,  1857,  and  K.C.B.,  1882. 

TAYLOR,  William,  a bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Rockbridge  county,  Va., 
May  2,  1821,  and  became  an  itinerant  in  1843,  since 
when  his  missionary  labors  in  all  parts  of  Europe, 
Egypt,  Australia,  Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  Asia,  Africa, 
and  India  have  been  constant  and  productive  of  great 
good.  On  May  22,  1882,  he  was  consecrated  mission- 
ary bishop  of  Africa,  and,  going  to  Central  Africa,  located 
thirty-six  mission  stations,  also  providing  seventy  mis- 
sionaries for  their  management  and  conduct.  He  is  the 
author  of  a number  of  religious  works,  also  of  works 
relating  to  missionary  labors.  Died  May,  1902. 

TAYLOR,  William  Mackergo,  a prominent 
American  clergyman,  born  in  Kilmarnock,  Scotland, 
October  23,  1829.  He  graduated  at  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity, also  at  the  Presbyterian  Seminary  of  Edin- 
burgh, was  licensed  to  preach  in  1853,  and  in  1872 
accepted  charge  of  the  Broadway  Tabernacle  Church  in 
New  York  city.  His  writings  upon  religious  and 
biblical  subjects  are  numerous,  and  are  accepted  as 
authorities.  He  died  in  February,  1895. 

TAYLOR,  William  Rogers,  an  American  naval 
officer,  was  born  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  November  7,  1811, 
and  entered  the  navy  as  a midshipman,  April  1,  1828. 
From  that  date  up  to  November  7,  1873,  when  he  was 
retired,  he  was  constantly  in  the  service,  in  which  he 
rose  steadily  in  official  rank  from  passed  midshipman  to 
that  of  rear-admiral,  the  latter  promotion  taking  effect 
January  19,  1871.  He  died  April  14,  1889. 

TAZEWELL,  Littleton  Waller,  born  in  Will- 
iamsburg, Va.,  December  17,  1774;  died  in  Norfolk, 
Va.,  March  6,  i860.  He  was  graduated  at  William 
and  Mary  in  1792,  read  lav/,  and  in  1796  was  admitted 
to  the  Richmond  bar.  In  i?oo  he  was  elected  a mem- 
ber of  Congress.  In  1819  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
United  States  commissioners  for  the  purchase  of 
Florida  from  Spain,  and  in  1824  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate,  where  he  served  two  terms.  He 
opposed  the  nullification  measures  of  South  Carolina, 
but  also  dissented  from  the  high  Federal  doctrines  of 
President  Andrew  Jackson.  In  1834  he  became  gov- 
ernor of  Virginia,  and  after  the  expiration  of  his  term 
of  office  retired  from  politics. 

TCHERNAIEFF,  Michael  Gregorovitch,  a 
Russian  general,  born  October  24,  1828;  entered  the 
Russian  military  service  in  1847,  distinguished  himself 
greatly  in  the  Crimean  war,  and  attained  the  rank  of  a 
general  of  infantry.  On  the  conclusion  of  the  Crimean 


-TEC 

war  he  was  first  appointed  chief  of  the  staff  of  a 
division  in  Poland,  and  in  1838  he  was  sent  to  Oren- 
burg in  the  capacity  of  aide  du  chef  de  la  ligne  du  Syr 
Daria.  In  1859  commanded  an  expedition  on  Lake 
Aral,  to  support  the  Khirgiss  tribes,  at  war  with  the 
Khivans.  After  a period  of  service  as  quartermaster- 
general  of  the  left  flank  of  the  line  held  by  the  army  of 
the  Caucasus,  Tchernaieff  for  some  time  acted  as  chief 
of  the  staff  of  the  corps  at  Orenburg.  After  a time  he 
retired  from  the  army,  and  passed  a legal  examination 
qualifying  him  to  adopt  the  profession  of  a notary,  when 
the  emperor  begged  him  to  reenter  the  army.  He  did 
so  in  compliance  with  the  imperial  request,  and  was 
reinstated  in  his  rank.  After  vainly  waiting  a whole  ] 
year  for  active  employment,  he  again  retired  from  the 
army,  and  purchased  the  Ruski  Mir , a journal  which  I 
boldly  advocated  Slav  interests,  and  of  which,  after  he 
had  quitted  the  military  service  altogether,  in  July, 
1874,  he  became  the  recognized  editor.  When,  in  1875, 
the  insurrection  in  Herzegovina  broke  out,  he  opened  a 
subscription  in  its  behalf,  and  afterward,  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1876,  he  went  to  Belgrade  and  took  the  com- 
mand-in-chief of  the  Servian  army.  The  campaign 
was  most  disastrous  to  the  Servians,  although  their 
army  was  largely  reenforced  by  Russian  volunteers. 
Tchernaieff’s  proclamation  of  Prince  Milan  as  king  of 
Servia  was  much  censured  at  the  time  as  a rash  and 
foolish  act.  General  Tchernaieff  left  St.  ‘Petersburg 
September  12,  1882,  for  Tashkend,  to  take  up  the  reins 
of  government  there.  Died  Aug.  17,  1898. 

TECK,  Prince  and  Duke  of  (Francis  Paul 
Charles  Louis  Alexander),  count  of  Hohenstein, 
only  son  of  Duke  Alexander  of  Wiirtemberg  and  the 
Countess  Hohenstein,  was  born  August  27,  1837.  By 
the  German  law,  the  marriage  of  his  mother  to  Duke 
Alexander  was  only  recognized  as  morganatic,  and  con- 
sequently Prince  Teck  and  his  two  sisters  bore  the 
titles  of  count  and  countesses  of  Hohenstein  until 
December  I,  1863,  when  a royal  decree  of  the  king  of 
Wiirtemberg  conferred  upon  them  the  title  of  Prince 
and  Princess  Teck.  He  served  in  the  Austrian  army, 
but  resigned  his  commission  in  1866.  He  married  the 
Princess  Mary  Adelaide,  of  Cambridge,  June  12th,  and 
was  created  an  Hon.  G.C.B.  (civil  division),  July  6, 
1866. 

TECUMSEH,  a Shawnee  chief,  was  born  on  the  Sci- 
oto river,  not  far  from  the  present  site  of  Springfield, 
Ohio,  about  the  year  1768.  His  father  was  a brave,  and 
was  killed  in  battle  while  Tecumseh  was  a child.  The 
youth  early  began  to  show  an  antipathy  to  the  whites, 
and,  as  he  grew  older,  developed  great  abilities  as  an  or- 
ganizer and  leader.  When  but  twenty  years  of  age  he  en- 
gaged in  a fight  with  Kentucky  troops  at  Mad  river, 
and,  it  being  his  first  engagement,  it  is  said  he  turned 
and  ran  ; though  it  is  certain  that  a little  later  he 
became  as  brave  as  the  bravest,  and  never  flinched 
when  under  the  hottest  fire.  Tecumseh  claimed  that 
the  treaties  by  which  large  tracts  of  Indian  land  had 
been  given  to  the  settlers  were  illegal,  and  he  set  about 
forming  a coalition  with  all  the  western  and  southern 
tribes.  His  brother,  Ellskwatawa  ( q.v .),  known  as 
the  “ Prophet,”  joined  with  him  in  this  endeavor,  and  to- 
gether they  obtained  a very  considerable  following. 
Gen.  William  Henry  Harrison  was  then  governor  of 
the  Northwestern  territory,  and  warned  the  two  chiefs 
that  their  schemes  would  certainly  react  upon  themselves. 

In  August,  1810,  they  were  invited  to  a conference 
with  the  governor,  and  Tecumseh  appeared  with  400 
fully-armed  warriors,  whom  he  encamped  in  a grove 
near  Vincennes,  Ind.  The  Indian  chief  refused  to  en- 
ter a house  for  the  “quiet  talk,”  saying,  “houses  were 
built  for  you  to  hold  councils  in ; Indians  hold  theirs  in 


TEF  — TEN 


die  open  air.”  He  made  an  eloquent  speech  and  was 
invited  to  take  a seat  near  General  Harrison.  In  the 
discussion  that  followed,  Tecumseh  exhibited  great 
violence  and  the  council  ended.  The  next  day  he 
expressed  great  contrition,  and  another  attempt  was 
made  to  come  to  an  understanding,  but  it  was  futile,  the 
conference  ending  without  result.  The  Indian  depre- 
dations continued  and  increased,  and  another  con- 
ference was  held. 

Nothing  was  accomplished,  and  a few  days  later  he 
set  out  to  secure  the  Creeks,  Choctaws,  and  Cherokees 
for  his  proposed  combination  of  forces.  It  has  been 
claimed  that  Tecumseh  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Tippecanoe,  but  that  is  not  so;  he  was  not  in  command; 
his  brother,  the  “ Prophet,”  made  the  assault  during  the 
chiefs  absence  and  was  badly  beaten,  though  General 
Harrison  had  but  900  men,  and  the  Indian  forces  were 
much  larger.  In  1812  Tecumseh  joined  the  English 
and  was  given  the  rank  of  a brigadier- general.  He  re- 
fused to  meet  the  Americans  in  council,  and  was  in  the 
action  at  Raisin  river,  though  having  been  severely 
wounded  just  previously  at  Maguaga.  He  led  2,000 
warriors  at  the  siege  of  Fort  Meigs,  where  he  saved  the 
American  prisoners  from  massacre.  He  urged  General 
Proctor  to  attack  General  Harrison  when  he  landed, 
after  the  battle  of  Lake  Erie,  and  took  part  in  the 
British  retreat,  and  was  wounded  while  holding  the 
passage  of  a stream.  He  was  with  Proctor  at  the  bat- 
tle of  the  Thames,  Ontario,  October  5, 1813,  and  having  a 
presentiment  of  his  death,  took  off  his  British  uniform 
and  clothed  himself  in  his  hunting  dress.  His  Indians 
were  driven  back,  but  Tecumseh  fought  desperately, 
and  though  the  report  has  never  been  truly  verified,  it 
is  said  he  was  killed  in  a hand-to-hand  encounter  with 
Col.  Richard  M.  Johnston.  The  Americans  did  not 
know  for  several  days  that  Tecumseh  was  dead. 

TEFFT,  Benjamin  Franklin,  LL.D.,  a minister 
and  author,  was  born  at  Floyd,  Oneida  county,  N.  Y. , 
August  20,  1813,  and  graduated  at  Wesleyan  Univer- 
sity in  1835.  He  entered  the  Methodist  ministry  as 
pastor  of  the  church  at  Bangor,  Me.,  and  thereafter, 
until  1861,  was  engaged  as  minister  or  teacher  in  various 
parts  of  the  country.  In  1861  he  was  appointed  consul 
at  Stockholm,  and  in  1864  immigration  agent  in  the 
north  of  Europe  for  Maine.  He  took  pastoral  charge 
of  a church  at  Portland,  Me.,  in  1866,  and  in  1873 
edited  the  Northern  Border , a publication  issued  at 
Bangor.  Besides  numerous  contributions  to  the  litera- 
ture of  the  day,  Mr.  Tefft  was  the  author  of  many  works 
of  a religious  and  historical  character.  In  1846  Ohio 
Wesleyan  University  conferred  the  degree  of  D.D.,  and 
in  1852  Madison  University,  that  of  LL.D.  He  died 
at  Brewer,  Penobscot  county,  Me.,  September  16, 1885. 

TEGETMEIER,  William  B.,  F.Z.S.,  of  German 
extraction,  was  born  at  Colnbrook,  Bucks,  England, 
in  1816,  and  educated  for  the  medical  profession  at 
University  College,  London.  Mr.  Tegetmeier  is  well 
known  as  the  author  of  The  Poultry  Book,  Pigeons , 
The  Natural  History  of  the  Pheasants , Monograph  of 
the  Cranes,  etc.,  and  as  having  republished  many  rare 
ornithological  treatises.  He  has  devoted  much  atten- 
tion to  the  variation  of  species,  and  greatly  assisted  Mr. 
Charles  Darwin  in  the  preparation  of  his  volumes  on 
The  Variation  of  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domesti- 
cation, and  other  works.  Mr.  Tegetmeier  is  editor  of 
several  departments  in  the  Field  newspaper. 

TEMPLE,  Frederick,  D.D.,  bishop  of  London, 
born  November  30,  1821;  was  educated  at  the  grammar 
school  at  Tiverton,  and,  proceeding  to  Oxford,  became 
scholar  of  Balliol  College,  and  took  his  degree  of  B.A. 
in  1843  as  a double  first  class.  He  was  elected  fellow 
and  mathematical  tutor  of  his  college,  and,  having  been 
68-J 


6829 

ordained  in  1846,  was  appointed  principal  of  the  Train- 
ing College  at  Kneller  Hall,  near  Twickenham,  in  1848, 
and  on  the  resignation  of  Doctor  Goulburn,  in  1858, 
head  master  of  Rugby  School.  Doctor  Temple,  who 
was  a chaplain  to  the  queen,  gained  some  notoriety  in 
i860  as  the  author  of  the  first  of  the  seven  Essays  and 
Reviews.  At  the  general  election  of  1868  Doctor 
Temple  took  an  active  part  in  Warwickshire  in  support 
of  Mr.  Gladstone’s  measure  for  the  disestablishment  of 
the  Irish  church;  and  the  premier  nominated  him  to  the 
bishopric  of  Exeter,  in  succession  to  the  late  Doctor 
Philpotts — an  appointment  which  caused  considerable 
commotion  in  clerical  circles.  Doctor  Temple  received 
episcopal  consecration  at  Westminster,  December  21, 
1869,  together  with  the  bishops-elect  of  Bath  and  Wells, 
and  of  the  Falkland  Islands.  Doctor  Temple  published 
Sermons  Preached  in  Rugby  Chapel  in  1858-60 , in 
1861.  In  April,  1883,  he  was  elected  Bampton  lecturer 
at  Oxford  for  the  ensuing  year.  On  the  death  of  Doc- 
tor Jackson  in  January,  1885,  Doctor  Temple  was  ap- 
pointed bishop  of  London,  and  was  succeeded  at  Exeter 
by  Doctor  Bickersteth. 

TEMPLE,  Sir  Richard,  Bart.,  G.C.S.I.,  M.P., 
entered  the  third  class  of  the  Bengal  civil  service  in  1846, 
and  eventually  was  appointed  political  resident  at 
Hyderabad.  He  was  foreign  secretary  and  a member 
of  council  to  the  governor-general  of  India  from  1868 
to  1874.  His  services,  especially  during  the  famine 
years  1874  and  1877,  were  remarkable.  On  his  return 
home  he  offered  himself  as  a Conservative  candidate  for 
East  Worcestershire,  but  was  defeated.  He  now  sits, 
however,  for  the  Evesham  division;  is  vice-chairman  of 
the  London  school  board;  and  has  been  president  of 
the  social  science  congress.  He  is  the  author  of  Men 
and  Events  of  my  Time  in  India,  1882;  Oriental 
Experience  : a selection  of  essays  and  addresses,  1883; 
and  Cosmopolitan  Essays,  1886. 

TEMPLE,  William  Grenville,  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  Rutland,  Vt.,  March  23,  1824,  and 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in  1846. 
He  participated  in  the  capture  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  in  the 
naval  operations  against  Mexico.  He  also  assisted  in 
the  survey  of  the  canal  and  railroad  across  the  Isthmus 
of  Tehuantepec,  in  1852.  During  the  Civil  war  he  was 
attached  to  the  eastern  and  western  Gulf  squadrons, 
and  participated  in  the  attack  upon  Fort  Fisher,  the 
capture  of  Wilmington,  N.  C.,  the  bombardment  of  the 
James  River  forts,  and  the  capture  of  Petersburg  and 
Richmond.  He  was  promoted  through  the  various 
official  grades  to  rear-admiral,  February  22,  1884,  and 
then  retired  from  the  service.  He  died  June  28,  1894. 

TENNEY,  Sanborn,  an  eminent  naturalist,  was 
born  at  Stoddard,  N.  H.,  January  13,  1827,  and  died 
at  Buchanan,  Mich.,  July  9,  1877.  He  graduated  at 
Amherst  in  1853,  and  became  professor  of  natural  his- 
tory at  Vassar  College,  and  later  at  Williams  College. 
He  owes  his  reputation  chiefly  to  his  works  on  geology 
and  r.at’ira!  history. 

TENN1EL,  Sir  John,  artist,  son  of  John  Baptist 
Tenniel,  born  in  London,  in  1820;  was  educated  at 
Kensington.  At  a very  early  age  he  showed  a taste 
for  art,  and  while  a boy  his  first  picture  was  exhibited, 
and  sold  at  the  Gallery  of  British  Artists,  in  Suffolk 
street.  He  studied  art  in  his  own  way,  and  may  be 
said  to  have  been  entirely  self-taught.  In  1851  he  be- 
came a member  of  Punch's  staff,  and  from  that  time 
has  contributed  to  the  illustrations  of  that  periodical. 

TENNYSON,  Alfred,  Lord,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S., 
poet  laureate,  was  born  in  Somersby,  Lincolnshire,  Eng- 
land, August  6,  1809.  He  was  the  third  son  of  the  late 
Rev.  G.  C.  Tennyson,  by  whom  he  was  educated  at 
the  parsonage,  and  fully  prepared  for  his  entrance  to 


TER 


6830 

Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  early  developed  a 
genius  for  \crse  making,  and  while  at  Trinity  in  1829 
obtained  the  chancellor’s  medal  for  a poem  in  blank 
verse,  the  title  being  Timbuctoo.  He  had,  however, 
two  years  previously,  in  conjunction  with  his  brother 
Charles,  published  a small  volume  of  poems,  and  in 
1830,  while  still  an  undergraduate,  he  produced  his 
Poems , chiefly  lyrical.  It  was  not  until  1842  that 
Tennyson  did  anything  to  excite  particular  attention. 
In  that  year  there  were'published  two  volumes,  mainly 
a reproduction  of  earlier  writings,  but  to  which  were 
added  Locksley  Hall , The  Talking  Oaks , Dora , Morte 
d' Arthur  and  other  poems,  since  become  famous. 
These  volumes  at  once  gave  Mr.  Tennyson  a reputation 
and  placed  him  in  the  first  rank  of  English  poets.  His 
title  to  this  position  was  further  borne  out  by  the  pub- 
lication a little  later  of  The  Princess , a medley, 
in  1847,  and  of  In  Memoriam , in  1849.  This  last 
work  was  issued  anonymously,  and  was  a tribute  to 
the  memory  of  a dear  friend  of  his  earlier  days  at 
Cambridge,  Arthur  H.  Hallam,  the  son  of  the  emi- 
nent historian.  The  death  of  Wordsworth  in  1850 
made  it  a matter  of  course,  so  popular  had  Mr.  Tenny- 
son become,  that  he  was  made  poet-laureate  in  1851. 
It  was  about  this  time,  too,  that  Tennyson  married, 
returning  to  Faringford,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  where 
he  lived  until  1869.  Following  his  becoming  poet- 
laureate,  Mr.  Tennyson  published,  in  1852,  his  Ode  on 
the  Death  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington , which  made  its 
appearance  on  the  day  of  the  great  soldier’s  funeral, 
and  until  his  death  few  events  of  interest  to  an 
Englishman  transpired  without  commemoration  in  the 
way  of  a poem  from  the  laureate.  In  1855  Mr.  Tenny- 
son produced  Maud,  and  in  1859  the  first  four  of  his 
Idyls  of  the  King,  Enid,  Vivien,  Elaine  and  Guinevere. 
Enoch  Arden  was  written  in  1864,  and  in  1870  The 
Holy  Grail.  Gareth  and  Lynette  was  published  in 
1872,  and  the  Idyls  of  the  King  completed  in  1873. 
Tennyson  wrote  several  dramas,  Queen  Mary,  Harold, 
and  The  Promise  of  May,  between  the  years  1875  and 
1882.  The  latter  was  brought  out  at  the  Globe  Theater, 
November  n,  1882.  He  also  wrote  The  Cup,  pro- 
duced at  the  Lyceum  theater,  January  3,  1881,  Mr. 
Henry  Irving  taking  the  leading  role.  Queen  Mary 
was  also  produced  there.  The  Falcon,  play,  was  first 
put  on  the  stage  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Kendal  in  1881,  and 
it  was  published  in  1884. 

In  1855  the  University  of  Oxford  conferred  on  the 
laureate  the  degree  of  D.C.L.,  while  the  fellows  of 
his  own  college  at  Cambridge  elected  him  an  honorary 
fellow  in  1869.  It  was  in  this  year  the  poet  moved 
from  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  took  up  his  residence  in 
Petersfield,  Hampshire.  In  December,  1883,  Tenny- 
son was  created  a lord,  with  the  rank  and  title  of  Baron 
Tennyson  of  Aldworth,  Sussex,  and  of  Freshwater, 
Isle  of  Wight.  His  literary  activity  continued  and  he 
wrote  these  plays,  Becket,  in  1884  and  The  Foresters, 
in  1892,  both  of  which  have  been  produced  on  the  stage, 
and  the  following  volumes  of  poetry : Tiresias,  Locksley 
Hall  Sixty  Years  After,  Demeter,  The  Death  of  CEnone, 
A k bar’s  Dream,  and  other  Poems,  published  in  1892. 
He  died  a painless  death  from  old  age  on  October 
6,  1892. 

TERHUNE,  Mary  Virginia,  known  as  “ Marion 
Harland,”  was  born  in  Amelia  county,  Va.,  about  1830. 
Her-  father  was  Samuel  P.  Hawes,  formerly  of  Massa- 
chusetts, but  who  afterward  went  to  Virginia,  and  there 
established  a mercantile  business.  Miss  Hawes  began 
writing  at  an  early  age;  at  fourteen  she  was  a regular 
contributor  to  a weekly  paper  in  Richmond,  and  two 
years  later  sent  a sketch  entitled  Marrying  Through 
Prudential  Motives  to  a magazine.  In  1856  Miss  Hawes 


married  a minister  named  E.  P.  Terhune  and  moved 
north,  making  her  home  mainly  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  and 
in  Springfield,  Mass.  She  has  been  an  untiring  writer, 
and  has  contributed  largely  to  magazines.  She  edited 
a monthly  called  Babyhood  for  two  years,  besides  con- 
ducting departments  in  Wide  Awake  and  St.  Nicholas. 
In  1888  she  established  a magazine  called  The  Home - 
Maker. 

TERRY,  Alfred  Howe,  a prominent  officer  of  the 
Federal  army  during  the  Civil  war,  was  born  at  Hartford, 
Conn.,  November  10,  1827.  He  studied  law  at  Yale 
College,  and  practiced  for  a number  of  years.  From 
1854  to  i860  he  was  clerk  of  the  Superior  and  Supreme 
Courts  of  Connecticut.  Mr.  Terry  was  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Rebellion  a colonel  of  the  second  Connecticut  mili- 
tia regiment,  which  was  mustered  into  the  United  States 
service  at  the  first  call  for  troops  as  the  second  Connect- 
icut volunteers.  Colonel  Terry  remained  at  its  head  until 
1862,  in  April,  when  he  was  made  a brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  and  took  a prominent  part  in  the  capture 
of  Fort  Wagner.  General  Terry  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  northern  district  of  the  department  of 
the  South,  including  the  islands  from  which ^the  oper- 
ations against  Charleston  had  been  carried  on.  General 
Terry’s  military  career  was  one  of  great  brilliancy  and 
efficiency,  but  though  in  numerous  hot  engagements 
his  most  notable  feat  was  in  all  probability  the  capture 
of  F ort  Fisher,  which  was  accomplished  in  connection 
with  Admiral  Porter’s  naval  forces.  Fort  Fisher  com- 
manded the  sea  approaches  to  Wilmington,  N.  C.,  and 
after  the  failure  of  a first  attempt  to  capture  it,  General 
Terry  was  ordered  by  Grant  to  renew  the  attack,  which 
he  did  with  a force  of  about  8,000  men.  After  landing 
his  troops  he  threw  up  entrenchments  about  two  miles 
north  of  the  fort.  Admiral  Porter  then  opened  fire, 
and  from  4:30  to  6 P.  m.  there  were  fired  four  shots 
per  second,  or  20,000  in  all.  This,  it  is  claimed,  jvas  the 
heaviest  bombardment  of  the  war.  This  was  on  Janu- 
ary 13,  1865.  On  the  14th  the  line  of  intrenchments 
was  all  completed,  and  Gen.  Charles  J.  Paine  was 
placed  in  command,  with  a division  of  infantry.  General 
Terry  had  meanwhile  made  a reconnoissance  of  the 
fort,  and,  as  it  was  readily  seen  that  supplies  for  his 
troops  could  only  be  landed  with  difficulty,  and  that  an 
open  beach  in  midwinter  was  a poor  place  in  which  to 
establish  a siege,  he  determined  to  carry  the  point  by 
assault,  and  made  arrangements  to  this  effect  with 
Porter  as  to  the  plan  of  attack.  At  11  A.M.,  on  the 
15th,  Admiral  Porter  opened  fire  with  every  gun  in  his 
fleet,  and  the  fort  was  completely  silenced.  Regiments 
were  then  pushed  forward  to  within  200  yards  of  the 
fort,  taking  shelter  in  shallow  trenches.  Porter  landed 
some  2,000  sailors  and  marines,  who  took  up  a position 
200  yards  from  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
northern  face  of  the  fort.  At  3:30  P.M.,  at  a signal 
from  General  Terry,  the  fleet  ceased  firing  and  the 
troops  rushed  forward  and  gained  a foothold  upon 
the  parapet.  Then  began  a hot  hand-to-hand  fight,  the 
opposing  parties  firing  directly  in  each  others’  faces. 
The  fort  was  more  difficult  to  take  by  reason  of  the 
traverses,  each  one  of  which  was  stubbornly  held  by  the 
enemy.  By  10  o’clock  the  occupation  of  the  works  was 
complete.  The  garrison  was  originally  2,500  men,  and 
1,971  of  them,  with  112  officers,  were  made  prisoners, 
the  others  being  killed  or  wounded.  The  Union 
loss  was  681  men,  of  whom  only  88  were  killed. 
General  Grant,  in  speaking  of  this  capture,  said:  “ Thus 
was  secured,  by  the  combined  efforts  of  the  army  and 
navy,  one  of  the  most  important  successes  of  the  war. 
General  Terry  was  promoted  to  be  a brigadier  general 
in  the  regular  army,  and  a major-general  of  volunteers, 
and  congress  passed  him  a vote  of  thanks.  He  was 


T ER  — T H A 


brevetted  major-general  in  the  regular  army  March  13, 
1865  ; made  a full  major-general  March  3,  1886,  and  in 
1888  voluntarily  retired.  He  died  December  16,  1890. 

TERRY,  Ellen  Alice,  an  English  actress,  born  at 
Coventry,  England,  February  27,  1848,  began  her  pro- 
fessional career  in  child’s  parts  in  1856  at  the  Princess’ 
theater,  London,  under  the  management  of  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Charles  Kean.  She  first  played  with  Henry 
Irving  at  the  Queen’s  theater  in  Taming  of  the  Shrew, 
left  the  stage  for  seven  years ; in  1875  played  “Portia” 
at  the  Prince  of  Wales’  under  Mr.  Bancroft  and  returned 
to  Mr.  Irving  when  he  leased  the  Lyceum  theater. 
She  has  been  very  successful  with  him  as  “Portia,” 
“Juliet,”  and  “Rosalind,”  and  in  other  roles  and  has 
won  great  popularity  on  her  visits  to  the  United 
States. 

TESLA,  Nikola,  electrician  and  inventor,  born  in 
Plerzegovina  in  1858,  studied  engineering  in  the  Ecole 
Polytechnique,  Paris,  was  engineer  of  the  Edison  sta- 
tion, Paris,  and  was  employed  at  Edison’s  laboratory 
near  Orange,  N.  J.,  leaving  after  several  years  to  open 
a laboratory  of  his  own  for  independent  research.  He 
believed  that  by  causing  matter  to  pass  to  the  stage  of 
luminous  vibration,  without  remaining  for  any  appre- 
ciable time  in  the  stage  of  heat  vibration,  it  would  pro- 
duce light  without  heat,  and  in  developing  his  theory 
he  has  made  many  striking  experiments  and  discoveries, 
receiving  a current  of  200,000  volts  in  his  body  without 
■harm,  whereas  a current  of  2,000  volts  is  fatal.  He 
hopes  to  set  matter  into  vibration  at  a rate  of  three 
million  vibrations  a second,  and  in  the  meantime  has 
shown  that  electric  lamps  and  motors  can  be  operated 
on  one  wire  without  a circuit  and  in  1888  invented  the 
rotary  field  motor,  the  multiphase  system  of  which  is 
to  be  used  in  the  50,000  horse  power  plant  being  built 
to  transmit  the  water  power  of  Niagara  Falls  to  Buffalo 
and  other  distant  places. 

TEWFIK  PASHA  (Mohammed  Tewfik),  the  late 
khedive  of  Egypt,  was  born  November  10,  1852.  He 
was  the  eldest  son  of  the  ex-khedive  Ismail.  He  suc- 
ceeded to  the  viceroyalty  of  Egypt  by  a decree  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire,  August  8,  1879.  His  succession 
was  a roundabout  matter,  coming  after  numerous  deaths 
in  the  Mahammed  Ali  family,  and  after  the  abdiction  of 
his  father.  He  always  acted  in  close  harmony  with  the 
British  authorities.  He  married  the  Princess  Emineh, 
daughter  of  the  late  El  Hamy  Pasha,  in  1873,  and 
died  in  January,  1892. 

THACKERAY,  Anne  Isabella  (Mrs.  Richmond 
Ritchie),  daughter  of  the  great  novelist,  William  Make- 
peace Thackeray,  was  born  in  Albion  street,  London, 
in  1838.  Some  years  of  her  childhood  were  spent  in 
Paris,  but  she  has  passed  the  greater  part  of  her  life  in 
Kensington.  Her  first  published  work  was  The  Story 
of  Elizabeth , 1863,  which  -\vas  at  once  successful;  this 
has  been  followed  by  numerous  other  works  of  fiction. 

THATCHER,  Henry  Knox,  American  naval  offi- 
cer, was  born  in  Thomaston,  Me.,  May  26,  1806,  and 
died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  April  5,  1880.  His  grandfath- 
er was  Gen.  Henry  Knox.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
United  States  military  academy  in  1822.  He  changed 
his  cadetship  for  an  appointment  in  the  navy,  and  en- 
tered that  service  as  a midshipman  on  March  4,  1823. 
He  became  passed  midshipman  in  1829,  and  was  pro- 
moted to  lieutenant  in  1833,  and  by  the  action  of  the 
naval  retiring  board,  September  14,  1855,  he  became 
a commander.  On  July  16th  he  was  made  a commo- 
dore. Commodore  Thatcher  served  in  various’  parts 
of  the  world  during  his  early  days  in  the  navy,  spend- 
ing much  time  in  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean  in  command  of  stations.  While  in  command  of 
the  North  Pacific  squadron  he  was  presented  with  a 


6831 

medal  and  made  a knight  of  the  Order  of  Kamehameha 
I.,  by  the  king  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  congress  pass- 
ing an  act  allowing  him  to  accept  the  honors. 

His  continued  service  abroad  prevented  Commodore 
Thatcher  from  taking  an  active  part  in  the  early  years 
of  the  Civil  war.  In  July,  1863,  he  was  ordered  home 
from  the  Mediterranean  and  took  charge  of  the  steam- 
frigate  Colorado  on  the  North  Atlantic  blockade,  and 
rendered  Commodore  Porter  great  assistance  in  his 
naval  support  of  General  Terry  at  the  capture  of  Fort 
Fisher.  He  was  appointed  rear-admiral  in  advance  of 
the  regular  promotion,  and  was  ordered  to  succeed  Vice- 
Admiral  Farragut  in  command  of  the  Western  Gulf 
squadron  at  Mobile.  It  was  in  this  command  that 
Admiral  Thatcher  did  the  Union  great  service  and 
caused  the  navy  department  to  send  him  congratulations 
upon  his  success.  He  captured  Mobile  and  the  Con- 
federate fleet  after  its  flight  up  the  Tombigbee  river. 
On  Jun'e  2,  1865,  he  occupied  Galveston,  Tex.,  and 
soon  had  the  entire  Gulf  coast  restored  to  the  Union. 
In  1866  he  received  his  regular  commission  as  rear- 
admiral  and  was  placed  on  the  retired  list,  May  26, 
1868.  After  his  return  home  he  was  port  admiral  at 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  from  1869  to  1871,  after  which  he 
was  unemployed  until  his  death. 

THAXTER,  Celia,  poet,  was  born  in  Portsmouth, 
N.  H.,  June  29,  1836.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Thomas 
B.  Laighton,  an  old  resident  of  the  Isle  of  Shoals, 
where,  at  Appledora,  Celia  spent  most  of  her  life.  In 
1851  she  married  Levi  Lincoln  Thaxter,  of  Watertown, 
Mass.  She  published  Among  the  Isle  of  Shoals , 
Driftweed,  Poems  for  Children,  The  Cruise  of  the 
Mystery,  and  other  works.  She  died  August  28,  1894. 

THAYER,  Abbott  Henderson,  an  artist,  was 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  August  12,  1849.  He  studied 
in  the  Brooklyn  Academy  of  Design  and  the  National 
Academy,  under  Lemuel  E.  Wilmarth.  He  spent 
three  years  with  Jean  L.  Gerome  in  Paris,  and  also 
studied  with  Charles  E.  R.  H.  Lehman  at  the  ficole 
des  Beaux  Arts.  Thayer  painted  animals  chiefly  until 
his  studies  abroad,  when  he  devoted  his  attention  with 
much  success  to  figure  painting.  At  the  Paris  salon  of 
1877  he  exhibited  his  Sleep,  and  the  year  following 
sent  a portrait.  Child  and  Cats,  Woman  and  the  Swan, 
and  An  Angel  are  some  of  his  works. 

THAYER,  John  Milton,  soldier  and  statesman, 
was  born  at  Bellingham,  Mass.,  January  24,  1820, 
Graduating  at  Brown  in  1841,  he  studied  and  practiced 
law.  In  1854  he  went  to  Nebraska.  He  was  here 
made  a brigadier-general  of  militia  and  organized  sev- 
eral expeditions  against  the  Indians.  He  was  the  colo- 
nel of  the  First  Nebraska  infantry,  and  led  a brigade 
at  Fort  Donelson  and  at  Shiloh.  He  resigned  July  19, 
1865,  and  served  as  United  States  senator,  1867-71. 
General  Grant  appointed  him  territorial  governor  of 
Wyoming.  Returning  to  Nebraska,  he  was  elected 
governor  in  1886.  Governor  Thayer  has  been  depart- 
ment commander  of  the  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic 
in  Nebraska. 

THAYER,  Sylvanus,  an  American  soldier  and 
military  engineer,  was  born  at  Braintree,  Mass.,  June9, 
1785,  and  died  in  South  Braintree,  Mass.,  September  7, 
1872.  After  graduating  at  Dartmouth  in  1807,  and  at 
the  United  States  military  academy  in  1808,  Thayer 
was  assigned  to  the  corps  of  engineers.  F or  four  years 
he  served  as  engineer  and  as  instructor  in  mathematics 
at  the  academy,  and  was  promoted  first  lieutenant  July 
1,  1812.  During  the  war  of  1812-14  he  served  with 
Gen.  Plenry  Dearborn  on  the  Niagara  frontier  and 
with  Gen.  Wade  Flampton  on  Lake  Champlain  in 
1813.  In  1814  he  was  sent  to  Europe  to  study  the 
operations  of  the  allied  armies  before  Paris,  and  to 


6832  THE- 

examine  military  works.  He  was  recalled,  however,  in 
1817,  and  made  superintendent  of  the  academy  at  West 
Point.  The  present  efficient  condition  of  this  military 
School  is  due  in  a great  measure  to  the  labors  and  abili- 
ties of  Colonel  Thayer,  and  his  monument  there  bears 
the  inscription,  “ Colonel  Thayer,  Father  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy.”  For  thirty  years  he  was 
engaged  in  the  construction  of  defenses  in  and  about 
Boston  harbor.  On  June  1,  1863,  he  was  retired  from 
active  service,  and  received  the  brevet  of  brigadier- 
general.  General  Thayer  was  also  a writer,  and  his 
papers  on  practical  engineering  are  considered  valuable. 

THEEBAW,  ex-king  of  Ava  (Burmah),  was  the 
eleventh  king  of  the  Alompra  dynasty,  founded  in  1753 
by  the  first  Burmese  king  of  that  name.  He  was  born 
in  1858,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Mindong  Min,  in 
October,  1878.  He  was  placed  on  the  throne  by  the  in- 
trigues of  the  favorite  queen  of  the  late  king,  who  as- 
sumed the  position  of  dowager-queen,  and  caused  Thee- 
baw  to  be  proclaimed.  Theebaw  sought  to  injure 
British  trade  and  influence  by  placing  the  control  of  the 
whole  commerce  of  his  country  and  the  taxation  of  the 
frontier  in  the  hands  of  French  agents,  and  took  away 
the  teak  forests  from  British  concessionnaires  to  give  to 
French  monopolists.  In  November,  1885,  an  ulti- 
matum was  dispatched  By  the  English  Government  to 
King  Theebaw,  but  the  proposals  for  an  amicable  set- 
tlement were  refused.  General  Prendergast  then  sailed 
up  the  Irrawaddy  to  Theebaw’s  capital,  and  proclaimed 
his  deposition  and  the  annexation  of  Upper  Burmah  to 
England.  Theebaw  surrendered  November  29th,  and 
shortly  afterward  was  sent,  first  to  Rangoon,  thence  to 
British  India,  where  he  still  remains. 

THEED,  William,  sculptor  (son  of  William  Theed, 
a well-known  sculptor  in  his  time,  and  an  R.A.),  was 
born  at  Trentham,  Staffordshire,  England,  in  1804. 
For  some  years  of  his  early  life  he  was  a pupil  of 
Bailey,  the  sculptor  of  the  Nelson  monument  in  Trafal- 
gar square.  In  1826  Mr.  Theed  went  to  Rome,  where 
be  studied  under  the  celebrated  Thorwaldsen,  Gibson, 
Wyatt,  and  Tenerani.  In  1844  Mr.  Gibson  was  com- 
missioned by  the  late  prince  consort  to  send  over  de- 
signs by  the  best  English  artists  in  Rome  for  four 
marble  statues  to  be  placed  in  Osborne.  Mr.  Theed 
received  a commission  to  execute  two  of  them,  his 
Narcissus  at  the  Fountain  and  Psyche  Lamenting  the 
Loss  of  Cupid.  Mr.  Theed  designed  and  executed  the 
colossal  marble  group  representing  “Africa”  on  the 
Albert  memorial  in  Hyde  Park.  His  twelve  bronze 
alto-reliefs  from  English  history  are  in  the  princes’ 
chamber,  house  of  lords.  Among  other  works  are 
marble  life-size  statues  of  Mr.  Gladstone,  Mr.  Bright, 
etc.  Died  in  1894. 

THIBAUDIN,  Jean,  a French  general,  was  born 
at  Moulins-Engilbert  (Nievre),  November  13,  1822,  and 
received  his  military  education  at  Saint-Cyr.  He  first 
saw  active  service  in  Africa,  and  afterward  went  through 
the  Italian  campaign.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war  he  was  sent  as  lieutenant-colonel  to  serve 
under  General  Frossard,  and  took  part  in  the  battles  of 
Forbach  and  Rezonville.  He  served  as  minister  of  war 
in  1883.  On  the  visit  of  the  late  Alfonso  XII.,  king  of 
Spain,  to  Paris,  in  September,  1883,  General  Thibaudin 
was  thought  to  be  compromised  in  the  hostile  demon- 
strations that  took  place,  and  he  was  dismissed  from 
the  ministry  (October  5,  1883).  In  1885  he  resumed 
his  duties  as  a member  of  the  committee  of  infantry. 

THOMAS,  Charles,  a soldier  of  over  forty-five 
years’  service  in  the  American  army,  was  born  in  Penn- 
sylvania about  1800,  and  died  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
February  1,  1878.  After  entering  the  army  he  was 
rapidly  promoted,  being  made  8 brevet  heutenant- 


-T  HO 

colonel  for  meritorious  service  m Mexico,  and  brevet 
major-general  for  the  same  during  the  Civil  war. 
General  Thomas  retired  from  active  service  in  Tuly. 
1866. 

THOMAS,  Charles  Louis  Ambroise,  a French 
musical  composer,  born  at  Metz,  August  5,  1811;  is  the 
son  of  a distinguished  professor  of  musip.  He  entered 
the  Conservatoire  in  1828,  and  there  gained  many 
prizes,  including  the  grand  prize  of  Rome  at  the  compe. 
tition  of  1832.  After  his  return  from  Italy  he  pro- 
duced many  works,  including  Mignon,  Le  Carnival  de 
Venice , and  Francois e de  Rimini.  Died  Feb.,  1896. 

THOMAS,  Cyrus,  a noted  American  entomologist 
and  archaeologist,  was  born  in  Kingsport,  Tenn.,  July 
27,  1825.  He  practiced  law  until  1865,  when  he 
entered  the  ministry  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Church.  He  interested  himself  much  in  the  study  of 
geology  and  geography,  and  in  1869  joined  Prof.  F.  V. 
Hayden  in  the  survey  of  the  Territories.  He  was 
elected  professor  of  natural  sciences  in  the  year  1873, 
in  the  Southern  Illinois  Normal  University,  and  in 
1876  was  appointed  State  entomologist  of  Illinois. 
A year  later  he  became  a member  of  the  United  States 
Entomological  Commission,  and  since  1882  has  been 
archaeologist  to  the  United  States  bureau  of  ethnology. 
Professor  Thomas  has  written  many  valuable  works  on 
these  subjects. 

THOMAS,  Elisha  Smith,  D.D.,  Protestant  Epis- 
copal bishop,  was  born  at  Wickham,  Mass.,  March  2, 
1834;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1858  and  at  Berkley  Divinity 
School  in  1861,  being  ordained  the  same  year.  He 
passed  1869  in  Europe,  and  upon  his  return  became 
rector  of  St.  Mark’s  church,  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  where 
he  remained  until  July  1,  1876,  when  he  accepted  the 
rectorship  of  St.  Paul’s  church,  St.  Paul,  Minn.  On 
May  1,  1887,  he  was  consecrated  assistant  bishop  of 
Kansas,  and  later  was  elevated  to  the  bishopric.  He 
died  March  9,  1895. 

THOMAS,  Frederick  W.,  was  born  at  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  in  1808,  and  died  September  30,  1866. 
He  is  noted  in  literature  as  the  author  of  Clinton  Brad- 
shaw^ John  Randolph  of  Roanoke , and  sketches  of 
character,  men  and  subjects  prominent  during  the 
times  in  which  he  lived. 

THOMAS,  George  H.,  American  soldier,  was  born 
in  Southampton  county,  Va.,  July  31,  1816,  and 
died  in  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  March  28,  1870.  At  the 
age  of  twenty  years  he  received  an  appointment  to  the 
West  Point  Military  Academy,  from  which  institution 
he  graduated  in  1840.  He  was  commissioned  lieuten- 
ant in  the  third  artillery  in  the  same  year,  and  was  first 
assigned  to  duty  in  New  York,  but  was  soon  sent  to 
Florida,  to  take  part  in  the  Indian  war,  where  his  gal- 
lantry gainedhim  abrevetin  1841.  After  various  trans- 
fers he  was  sent  to  Texas,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Mexican  war  he  accompanied  General  Taylor’s  army, 
distinguishing  himself  at  Monterey  and  Buena  Vista, 
being  brevetted  captain  for  gallantry.  In  the  latter  bat- 
tle the  success  of  the  Afnerican  arms  was,  in  great 
measure,  due  to  the  artillery  under  the  command  of 
Thomas,  and  the  young  officer  was  highly  complimented 
by  his  superiors.  He  remained  in  Texas  and  Mexico 
till  1849,  when  he  was  again  sent  to  Florida.  In  1851 
he  was  detailed  as  instructor  of  artillery  and  cavalry  at 
the  West  Point  Military  Academy,  remaining  there  four 
years.  On  the  formation  of  the  new  cavalry  regiments, 
Thomas  was  made  junior  major  of  one  of  them — the 
historic  second.  He  was  again  ordered  to  Texas,  and 
remained  there  till  1861,  when  he  obtained  leave  of 
absence;  before  his  leave  had  expired,  his  regiment, 
which  had  been  surrendered  in  Texas,  arrived  in  New 
York,  and  he  was  ordered  to  rejoin  it  and  conduct  it  to 


THO  6833 


the  barracks  at  Carlisle,  Penn.  While  on  this  duty  Fort 
Sumter  was  fired  on,  and  the  colonel,  R.  E.  Lee,  ten- 
dered his  resignation,  most  of  the  other  Southern 
officers  having  done  so  before.  Thomas  was  solicited 
to  go  with  his  State,  but  remained  loyal  to  the  Union. 
He  was  given  the  command  of  a brigade,  at  the  head 
of  which  he  crossed  the  Potomac  into  Virginia,  where 
he  put  to  flight  a militia  force  under  T.  J.  (Stonewall) 
Jackson,  on  July  2d.  He  led  Paterson’s  column  in  the 
Bull  Run  campaign,  and  in  August,  1861,  was  made 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  assigned  to  duty  in 
Kentucky.  Here  for  a few  months  he  was  engaged  in 
drilling  raw  recruits,  his  material  afterward  forming 
the  first  brigade  of  the  army  of  the  Cumberland. 
Early  in  January,  1862,  he  entered  East  Tennessee  and 
fought  the  battle  of  Mill  Springs,  defeating  the  Confed- 
erates under  Gen.  Felix  K.  Zollicoffer,  who  was  killed 
in  the  engagement.  He  took  part  in  the  Shiloh  cam- 
paign, and  in  April,  1862,  was  made  major-general.  On 
September  29th  the  chief  command  of  the  army  of  the 
Ohio  was  tendered  Thomas,  but  was  declined  by  him, 
and  in  October  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  five 
central  divisions  of  the  army.  In  December  he  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Stone  River,  and  it  was  due  to  his 
fighting  qualities  that  the  national  army  was  saved  from 
defeat.  At  Chickamauga  he  bore  the  brunt  of  the  at- 
tack, and  though  the  result  was  a tactical  defeat  for  the 
Union  army,  the  victory  was  a barren  one  for  the  South. 
Immediately  after  this  Thomas  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  army  of  the  Cumberland,  and,  although  his  posi- 
tion was  critical  in  the  extreme,  he  held  his  own  till  the 
battle  of  Chattanooga  released  his  army  from  its  peril. 
In  the  spring  of  1864  he  entered  the  Atlanta  campaign 
at  the  head  of  65,000  men,  and  took  the  greater  share 
of  the  continuous  fighting  of  that  memorable  series  of 
battles.  After  the  Atlanta  campaign  Thomas  was 
sent  to  Nashville,  to  guard  the  river  during  Sherman’s 
march  to  the  sea.  Here  he  found  himself  confronted 
by  Hood,  whom  he  repulsed  at  Franklin,  Tenn.,  in- 
flicting heavy  loss  on  the  Confederates.  The  Union 
army  was  concentrated  at  Nashville,  where  the  difficul- 
ties attending  his  position  prevented  Thomas’  moving  as 
promptly  as  it  was  thought  he  should  do,  and  he  was 
summarily  removed  from  command  by  General  Grant. 
This  action  of  Grant’s  has  caused  much  controversy,  but 
Thomas  was  afterward  restored  to  his  command, 
although  General  Grant  himself  set  out  for  the  scene  of 
operations.  On  December  16th  Thomas  again  gave 
Hood  battle,  and  succeeded  in  thoroughly  annihilating 
his  army.  This  battle  of  Nashville  substantially  ended 
the  war  in  that  quarter.  On  the  first  anniversary  of  the 
battle  he  received  a gold  medal  from  the  State  of  Ten- 
nessee. After  the  campaign  had  closed  Thomas  remained 
An  command  of  his  department,  and  it  was  a raiding  party 
which  he  had  sent  out  that  captured  Jefferson  Davis. 
After  the  war  had  ceased  General  Thomas  waa  placed  in 
command  of  the  military  district  of  the  Tennessee,  in 
which  position  he  remained  till  1867,  when  he  was  as- 
signed to  the  third  military  district.  While  in  this 
position  he  declined  the  promotion  to  lieutenant-gen- 
eral, which  was  tendered  him.  In  1869  he  was  removed 
to  the  military  district  of  the  Pacific,  with  headquarters 
at  San  Francisco,  where  his  death  occurred. 

THOMAS,  Isaiah,  bom  in  Boston,  Mass.,  January 
I9>  *749;  died  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  April  4,  1831. 
About  the  year  1 770  he  entered  into  partnership  with 
his  former  employer  in  publishing  the  Massachusetts 
Spy.  When,  the  Tories  at  Boston  loudly  opposed 
Thomas’  Whig  principles  he  transplanted  his  types  and 
ress  to  Worcester,  Mass.,  where  the  newspaper  is  still 
eing  published.  In  1801  Mr.  Thomas  retired  from 
the  conduct  of  the  paper.  In  1812  he  founded  the 


Worcester  Antiquarian  Society,  donating  to  it  his  large 
and  valuable  library,  besides  giving  land  ana  building 
its  hall,  with  a provision  of  about  $24,000  for  its  main- 
tenance. Thomas  also  established  the  New  England 
Almanac.  In  1818  Alleghany  College  gave  him  the 
degree  of  LL.  D.  He  was  the  author  of  a History  of 
Printing , and  was  the  first  to  introduce  music  type  in 
America. 

THOMAS,  John,  founder  of  the  sect  known  as  “ The 
Christadelphians,”  was  born  in  London,  England,  April 
12,  1805,  and  came  to  America  in  1850.  He  made  many 
converts  to  his  religion,  both  in  this  country  and  Great 
Britain,  also  disseminated  his  views  through  the  columns 
of  various  papers,  of  which  he  was  the  editor.  He  died 
in  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  March  5,  1871,  appointing  Robert 
Roberts,  of  Birmingham,  England,  his  successor. 

THOMAS,  Lorenzo,  general,  was  born  at  New 
Castle,  Del.,  October  26,  1804,  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1823.  He  participated  in  the  Florida  and  Mex- 
ican wars,  and  was  brevetted  lieutenant-colonel  for  gal- 
lantry at  Monterey.  He  was  chief  of  staff  to  Gen.  Win- 
field Scott  from  1853  to  1861,  being  made  adjutant- 
general  of  the  army,  August  3d  of  the  latter  year,  with 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  In  1863  he  began  \ 
the  organization  of  the  colored  troops,  so  continuing 
until  the  close  of  the  war.  Upon  the  removal  of  Edwin 
M.  Stanton  as  secretary  of  war  by  President  Johnson, 
General  Thomas  was  appointed  secretary  ad  interim , 
but  was  unable  to  qualify.  He  was  brevetted  major- 
general  March  13,  1865,  retired  February  22,  1869,  and 
died  at  Washington,  March  2,  1875. 

THOMAS,  Philip  Francis,  was  born  at  Easton,  in 
Talbot  county,  Md.,  September  12,  1810;  educated  at 
Dickinson  College,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1831. 

He  served  in  the  State  legislature,  and  one  term  as 
member  of  congress,  from  1839  to  1841,  declining  a re- 
nomination, and  from  1848  to  1851  was  governor  of  the 
State.  In  December,  i860,  he  became  secretary  of  the 
treasury,  vice  Howell  Cobb,  resigned,  and  in  1866, 
being  at  that  time  a member  of  the  Maryland  House  of 
Delegates,  was  chosen  United  States  senator,  but  was 
refused  his  seat  “ because  of  having  given  aid  and  com- 
fort to  the  Rebellion.”  In  1874  he  was  elected  to  con- 
gress, and  in  1878  to  the  legislature,  since  when  he  has 
resided  at  Easton,  where  he  is  engaged  in  the  practice 
of  law.  He  died  Oct.  2,  1890. 

THOMAS,  Theodore,  musician,  was  born  at  Esens, 
Hanover,  Germany,  October  11,  1835.  He  first  played 
in  public  at  the  age  of  six.  In  1845  his  family  removed 
to  the  United  States,  and  for  two  years  he  played  violin 
solos  at  concerts  in  New  York.  He  then  traveled  for 
a time  in  the  South,  and,  returning  to  New  York  in  1851 
played  at  concerts  and  at  the  opera,  at  first  as  one  of  the 
principal  violinists,  and  afterward  as  orchestral  leader 
.until  1861.  In  connection  with  others  he  began  a series 
of  chamber  concerts  in  1855,  which  were  continued 
until  1869.  His  first  symphony  concerts  were  given  in 
1864-65,  and  extended  (excepting  from  1869  to  1872) 
until  he  left  New  York,  in  1878,  to  take  the  direction 
of  the  College  of  Music  at  Cincinnati.  He  remained  in 
Cincinnati  until  1880,  when  he  resigned  this  position  and 
returned  to  New  York.  With  brief  intervals  he  was 
conductor  of  the  Brooklyn*  Philharmonic  Society  from 
1862,  and  of  the  New  York  Philharmonic  Society  from 
1878  to  1891.  From  1866  to  1878  he  gave  summer 
concerts  nightly  in  various  cities ; and  in  1869  he 
made  his  first  concert  tour  in  the  eastern  and  western 
States,  which  he  has  repeated  from  time  to  time  since. 

He  has  conducted  five  music  festivals  in  Cincinnati 
(1873,  1875,  1878,  1880,  and  1882),  one  in  Chicago 
(1882),  and  one  in  New  York  (1882).  In  the  winter 
of  1885-86  he  organized  a series  of  popular  concerts 


6834  T H O 


in  New  York,  and  in  the  same  season  he  became  the 
conductor  of  the  newly  established  American  opera. 
In  June,  1890,  he  married  a Miss  Fay,  of  Chicago,  a 
lady  also  endowed  with  great  musical  attainments,  and 
in  1891  his  orchestra  was  permanently  established  in 
Chicago,  giving  two  concerts  weekly  at  the  Auditorium 
during  each  winter  season. 

THOMAS,  Theodore  G.,  M.D:,was  born  on  the 
island  of  Edisto,  S.  C.,  November  21,  1821.  He  was 
professor  of  obstetrics  and  diseases  of  women  in  the 
College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New  York,  and 
president  of  the  American  Gynoecological  Society  in 
1879.  His  medical  works  are  regarded  as  standard 
authorities  both  in  England  and  America. 

THOMPSON,  Alfred  W.,  artist,  was  born  in 
Baltimore,  Md.,  May  27,  1840;  and  studied  art  under 
Gieyere,  Pasini,  and  others  in  Paris,  but  returned  to 
the  United  States  in  1868,  locating  in  New  York.  He 
has  been  an  extensive  traveler  in  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa;  is  a member  of  the  National  Academy  and  of 
the  American  Artists’  Society,  and  excels  in  landscapes 
and  battle  pictures. 

THOMPSON,  Cephas  G.,  artist,  born  in  Middle- 
borough,  Mass.,  August  3,  1809,  died  in  New  York 
city,  January  5,  t888.  His  earlier  efforts  were  made  in 
Boston  and  New  York,  but  in  1852  he  visited  Europe 
and  studied  in  Rome  for  the  next  seven  years.  His 
most  celebrated  work  was  Beatrice  Cenci.  He  returned 
to  America  in  iSbo,  and  settled  in  New  York,  where  he 
became  a member  of  the  National  Academy.  He 
painted  a large  number  of  portraits,  including  Nathaniel 
Hawthorne,  William  Cullen  Bryant  and  others. 

THOMPSON,  Daniel  P. , born  at  Charlestown, 
Mass.,  October  1,  1793;  was  graduated  at  Middlebury 
College  in  1820,  studied  law,  and,  in  1823,  engaged  in 
the  practice  of  his  profession  at  Montpelier,  Vt.,  where 
he  held  numerous  local  offices.  He  was  secretary  of 
state  from  185310  1855,  also  editor  of  the  Green  Mount- 
ain Freeman  from  1849  to  1856,  and  contributed  polit- 
ical and  other  literature  to  magazines  and  the  press,  be- 
sides publishing  volumes  of  romance  and  poetry  descrip- 
tive of  New  England  life,  many  of  which  have  been  re- 
published in  England.  He  died  at  Montpelier,  June  6, 
1868. 

THOMPSON,  Edward  Maunde,  born  May  4, 
1840,  in  Jamaica;  was  educated  at  Rugby.  He  was  ap- 
pointed an  assistant  in  the  British  Museum  in  May, 
1861,  became  assistant- keeper  of  the  MSS.  in  1871,  and 
was  appointed  keeper  of  the  MSS.  in  succession  to  Mr. 
Bond,  in  1878.  He  is  joint  editor  of  the  publications 
of  the  Paleographical  Society. 

THOMPSON,  Elizabeth,  a philanthropist,  was 
born  in  Lyndon,  Vt.,  February  21,  1821.  She  came 
from  rather  obscure  parentage,  her  father  being  a farmer 
in  a small  way,  and  Elizabeth  was,  therefore,  at  an  early 
age,  obliged  to  “work  out,”  which  she  did,  taking 
places  in  different  families  as  a domestic.  This  training 
gave  her  an  insight  into  the  needs  of  the  working 
classes,  and  engendered  a charitable  disposition  widely 
at  variance  with  her  means.  The  opportunity  came  to 
her,  however,  to  do  a great  work.  In  1843  she  met 
Thomas  Thompson,  a wealthy  Boston  man,  whom  she 
m rried.  Her  husband  readily  acceded  to  her  wishes 
to  spend  money  liberally  for  charity’s  sake,  and  up  to 
the  time  of  his  death,  in  1869,  many  individuals  and 
institutions  had  reason  to  thank  this  generous  couple. 
After  her  husband’s  death  Mrs.  Thompson  continued 
her  beneficences.  She  became  a warm  supporter  of 
the  cause  of  temperance,  and  supported  many  public 
and  private  charities.  She  was  one  of  the  largest 
contributors  to  the  Vassar  College  telescope,  and  gave 
to  the  Concord  School  the  building  where  its  summer 


meetings  are  held.  Mrs.  Thompson  founded  the  “ Eliz- 
abeth Thompson  Science  Fund,”  by  giving  $25,000  for 
the  advancement  of  scientific  research. 

THOMPSON,  Hugh  Miller,  D.D.,  bishop,  was 
born  in  county  Derry,  Ireland,  June  5,  1830.  Coming 
to  the  United  States,  he  attended  the  Nashotah  Sem- 
inary, from  which  he  graduated  D.D.  in  1852.  He  en- 
tered the  Episcopal  ministry,  and  in  1883  was  conse- 
crated assistant  bishop  of  Mississippi.  Bishop  Thomp- 
son has  written  a number  of  books. 

THOMPSON,  Jacob,  was  born  in  Caswell  county, 
N.  C.,  May  15,  1810;  died  in  Memphis,  Tenn.,  March 
24,  1885.  He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of  North 
Carolina  in  1831,  and  afterward  practiced  iaw  in  the 
Chickasaw  country,  Mississippi.  He  represented  his 
district  in  congress  from  1839  until  1857,  when  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  interior  by  President  Buch- 
anan. He  resigned  that  office  January  8,  1861,  because, 
as  he  claimed,  troops  had  Jieen  ordered  to  reenforce 
Fort  Sumter  without  the  consent  of  the  cabinet.  He 
was  elected  governor  of  Mississippi  in  1862,  and  in  1864 
was  sent  to  Canada  as  a Confederate  commissioner.  He 
was  chief  promoter  of  the  plot  to  release  the  Confed- 
erate prisoners  at  Camp  Douglas,  near  Chicago,  and  to 
seize  that  city,  and  has  been  charged  with  attempts  to 
organize  other  such  movements  in  the  North. 

THOMPSON,  Jefferson  M.,  general,  was  born  at 
Harper’s  Ferry,  Va.,  January  22,  1826;  was  educated  in 
the  public  schools,  and  at  an  early  age  removed  to  St. 
Joseph,  Mo.,  where  he  became  mayor  in  1859.  At  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Civil  war  he  entered  the  Confeder- 
ate army  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  After 
the  war  he  settled  in  New  Orleans,  and  was  made 
chief  engineer  of  the  levee  system.  He  died  at  St.  Jo- 
seph, Mo.,  in  the  summer  of  1876. 

THOMPSON,  Jerome,  an  American  artist,  born  in 
Middleborough,  Mass.,  January  30,  1814.  He  devoted 
his  art  largely  to  portrait  painting  and  the  painting 
of  scenes  suggestive  of  life  in  America.  He  became  a 
resident  of  New  York  about  1832,  and  died  in  1886. 

THOMPSON,  John  Reuben,  author,  was  born  in 
Richmond,  Va.,  October  23,  1823;  died  in  New  York 
city,  April  30,  1873.  He  was  graduated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Virginia  in  1844,  and  alterward  began  the  prac- 
tice of  law  in  Richmond,  but  soon  abandoned  that  pro- 
fession for  literature.  In  1847  he  became  editor  of  the 
Southern  Literary  Messenger,  and  continued  to  con- 
duct that  magazine  until  1859.  In  Augusta,  Ga., 
he  edited  the  Southern  Field  and  Fireside , went  to 
Europe  in  1863,  and  became  connected  with  the  staff  of 
the  London  Index,  at  the  same  time  contributing  to 
Blackzvood' s Magazine.  He  returned  to  America  after 
several  years,  and  became  literary  editor  of  the  New  York 
Evening  Post. 

THOMPSON,  Joseph  P.,  D.D.,  was  born  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1819,  and  died  in  Berlin,  September  20, 
1879.  He  was  for  many  years  pastor  of  the  Broadway 
Tabernacle  Church,  New  York,  and  aided  in  establish- 
ing the  Brooklyn  Independent , New  Englander,  and 
other  journals,  to  which  he  was  a frequent  contributor. 
He  was  the  author  of  biblical  works,  and  wrote  for 
the  North  American  Review  and  seveial  other  secular 
periodicals. 

THOMPSON,  Launt,  sculptor,  was  born  in  Ab- 
beyleix,  Qjieen’s  county,  Ireland,  February  8,  1833. 
He  studied  anatomy  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  at  the  age  of 
fourteen,  and  later  entered  a medical  college,  but 
abandoned  medicine  for  art,  and  worked  for  nine  years 
in  the  studio  of  Erastus  D.  Palmer,  the  sculptor.  He 
removed  to  New  York  in  1858,  and  his  talent  for  medal- 
lion portraits  secured  him  remunerative  employment. 
The  following  year  he  became  an  associate  of  the 


T H O 


Academy  of  Design,  and  in  1862  was  elected  an  acade- 
mician. He  went  to  Italy  in  1868,  and  again  in  1875, 
and  in  1874  he  became  vice-president  of  the  National 
Academy.  In  the  latter  year  Yale  conferred  on  him 
the  honorary  degree  of  M.  A.  He  died  Sept.  26,  1894. 

THOMPSON,  Rich ar r>  W.s  was  in  Culpeper 
county,  Virginia,  June  9,  1809,  and  died  February  9, 
1900.  He  removed  to  southern  Indiana,  where  he 
studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834.  He 
settled  at  Bedford,  Ind.,  was  elected  to  the  lower  house 
of  the  legislature  in  1834,  and  to  the  upper  house  in 
1836,  served  in  congress  from  1841  until  1843,  and 
again  from  1847  until  1849.  He  was  offered  the  Aus- 
trian mission  by  President  Taylor,  the  recordership  of 
the  land  office  by  President  Fillmore,  and  a seat  on  the 
bench  of  the  Court  of  Claims  by  President  Lincoln,  but 
he  declined  all  these  offices.  In  1867-69  he  was  judge 
of  the  eighteenth  circuit  of  Indiana.  Mr.  Thompson 
entered  President  Hayes’  cabinet  as  secretary  of  the 
navy,  March  12,  1877,  resigning  in  1881  to  become 
chairman  of  the  American  committee  of  the  Panama 
canal  company.  He  is  the  author  of-  The  Papacy  and 
the  Civil  Power , and  a History  of  the  Tariff. 

THOMPSON,  Robert  Ellis,  was  born  in  Lurgan, 
Ireland,  in  1844;  was  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1865,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  by 
the  Reformed  presbytery  of  Philadelphia  in  1867.  In 
1868  he  became  professor  of  Latin  and  mathematics  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  was  given  the  chair  of 
social  science  in  1871,  and  that  of  history  and  English 
literature  in  1881.  He  edited  the  Penn  Monthly  from, 
1870  until  1880,  and  subsequently  became  editor  of  The 
American , a weekly  journal  of  literature,  science,  and 
the  arts,  published  in  Philadelphia.  He  received  the 
degree  of  Ph.  D.  from  Hamilton  College  in  1870,  and 
that  of  S.T.D.  from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1887.  He  wrote  a number  of  works  on  political  econ- 
omy and  the  tariff  as  a protection  to  home  industry,  and 
lectured  on  these  subjects  at  Harvard  and  Yale. 

THOMPSON,  Sir  Hendry,  F.R.C.S.,  born  at 
Framlingham,  Suffolk,  England,  August  6,  1820,  and 
educated  at  University  College,  London;  was  appointed 
assistant  surgeon  of  University  College  Hospital,  Lon- 
don, in  1853,  surgeon  in  1863,  professor  of  clinical  sur- 
gery in  1866,  and  consulting  surgeon  in  1874.  In 
1884  he  held  the  post  of  professor  of  surgery  and 
pathology  to  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  London. 
He  gained  the  Jacksonian  prize  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  in  1852,  with  an  essay  on  The  Pathology  and 
Treatment  of  Stricture  of  the  Urethra;  and  the  same 
prize  in  1860,  with  an  essay  on  The  Healthy  and  Morbid 
Anatomy  of  the  Prostate  Gland.  He  was  appointed 
surgeon-extraordinary  to  the  late  king  of  the  Belgians 
in  1863,  and  to  the  present  king  in  1866.  He  was 
knighted  in  1867.  Since  1873  he  has  been  a promi- 
nent advocate  of  cremation.  Sir  Flenry  Thompson 
studied  painting  under  Mr.  Elmore  and  Mr.  Alma 
Tadema,  and  he  has  frequently  exhibited  pictures  at  the 
Royal  Academy,  in  the  Salon  of  Paris,  and  elsewhere. 

THOMPSON,  Sir  John,  eminent  Canadian  lawyer 
and  statesman,  was  born  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia, 
November  10, 1844.  He  was  a member  of  the  execu- 
tive council,  and  attorney-general  of  Nova  Scotia, 
1878,  premier  of  Nova  Scotia,  1882,  and  judge  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Nova  Scotia,  1882-1885.  He  en- 
tered the  Dominion  Parliament,  1885,  arranged  the 
fishery  treaty  between  England  and  the  United  States, 
and  was  knighted  in  1888  for  his  services  in  that  re- 
gard. He  became  premier  of  Canada  in  1892,  serving 
until  his  death,  December  12,  1894. 

THOMPSON,  Smith,  jurist,  was  born  in  Stanford, 
Dutchess  county,  N.  Y.,  January  17,1768;  died  at 


6835 

] Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  December  18,  1843.  He  was 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  1788,  and  adopted  the  pro- 
fession of  a lawyer,  practicing  at  Poughkeepsie.  In 
1800  he  was  elected  to  the  legislature,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  was  a delegate  to  the  State  constitutional 
convention.  He  refused  an  appointment  as  attorney 
for  the  middle  district  of  New  York,  and  later  declined 
the  mayoralty  of  New  York  city.  In  1802  he  became 
associate  justice  of  the  State  Supreme  Court,  and  in 
1814  was  appointed  chief  justice,  which  post  he  held 
until  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  navy  by  Presi> 
dent  Monroe  in  1818.  He  was  elevated  to  the  bench 
of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  in  1823,  and  re- 
mained there  until  his  death. 

THOMPSON,  Waddy,  was  born  in  Pickensville, 
S.  C.,  September  8,  1798;  died  in  Tallahassee,  Fla., 
November  23,  1868.  He  was  graduated  at  South 
Carolina.  College  in  1814,  and  five  years  later  began  the 
practice  of  law.  He  served  four  years  in  the  legisla- 
ture prior  to  1830,  and  then  became  solicitor  of  the 
western  circuit.  From  1835  . until  1841  he  was  one  01 
the  leaders  of  the  Whig  party  in  congress,  and  in  1842 
he  was  appointed  minister  to  Mexico,  where  he  made 
two  important  treaties  with  the  Mexican  Government 
and  procured  the  release  of  more  than  200  Texan 
prisoners.  He  subsequently  published  Recollections  of 
Mexico. 

THOMPSON,  Zadoc,  naturalist,  was  bom  in  Bridge- 
water,  Vt.,  May  23,  1796;  died  in  Burlington,  Vt.,  Jan- 
uary 19,  1856.  He  was  a graduate  of  the  University  of 
Vermont,  and  became  a tutor  there  in  1825.  After 
some  editorial  experiences  with  literary  papers  in  Ver- 
mont, he  removed  to  Canada,  studied  theology  at  Sher- 
brooke, and  in  1835  was  made  a deacon  in  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church.  Returning  to  Burlington,  Vt.,  he 
was  for  a time  a professor  in  the  Vermont  Episcopal 
Seminary,  and  in  1845  he  became  State  geologist,  which 
office  he  held  until  1848.  He  accepted  the  chair  of 
chemistry  and  natural  history  in  the  University  of  Ver- 
mont in  1851,  and  in  the  same  year  was  sent  as  a com- 
missioner to  the  World’s  Fair  in  London  to  exhibit  a col- 
lection of  American  woods,  for  which  he  received  a 
bronze  medal.  Professor  Thompson  published  several 
works  on  the  natural,  civil  and  statistical  history  of 
Vermont,  and  the  geography  and  geology  of  that  State. 
For  thirty-four  years  he  made  the  astronomical  calcu- 
lations for  Walton's  Registers. 

THOMSEN,  Wilhelm  L.  P.,  an  eminent  Danish 
philologist,  was  born  at  Copenhagen,  January  25,  1842; 
educated  at  the  leading  German  and  Danish  universities, 
and  in  1871  was  appointed  to  the  philological  chair  of 
the  university  in  his  native  city.  He  has  been  a fre- 
quent contributor  of  articles  upon  the  philology  of 
ancient  and  modern  languages. 

THOMSON,  Charles,  born  in  Maghera,  Ireland, 
November  29,  1729.  He  came  to  this  country  in  1740, 
studied  at  a seminary  in  New  London,  Penn.,  and,  after 
his  education,  conducted  a Quaker  school  at  New- 
castle. Like  many  other  bom  Irishmen,  he  favored 
resistance  to  the  oppressive  exactions  of  Great  Britain, 
and  in  September,  1774,  he  went  to  Philadelphia  with 
his  bride,  a sister  of  Benjamin  Harrison,  the  signer, 
where  he  had  been  chosen  secretary  of  the  first  Con- 
tinental congress,  and  continued  in  that  office  until 
1789.  He  died  in  Lower  Merion,  Penn.,  August  16, 
1824. 

THOMSON,  James,  a Scottish  poet,  bom  at  Port 
Greenock,  November  23,  1834.  Entering  the  army,- he 
was  for  ten  years  a regimental  schoolmaster.  Thom- 
son early  showed  capabilities  as  a poet,  and  his  City  of 
Dreadful  Night  has  always  been  considered  an  exceed' 
ingly  fine  production.  It  was  published  in  i88a  Sev 


T H O 


6836 

eral  other  of  his  works  have  been  well  received.  Mr. 
Thomson  died  in  London  on  June  8,  1882. 

THOMSON,  John  Edgar,  a civil  engineer,  was 
born  at  Springfield,  Penn.,  February  10,  1808,  and  died 
in  Philadelphia,  May  27,  1874.  His  first  professional 
work  was  the  survey  of  the  Philadelphia  and  Columbia 
railroad  in  1827.  Five  years  later  he  was  appointed 
chief  engineer  of  the  Georgia  railroad,  becoming  chief 
engineer  of  the  Pennsylvania  Central  in  1847,  and  its 
president  in  1852,  in  which  position  he  was  retained 
until  his  death. 

THOMSON,  Mortimer,  a journalist  and  humorous 
writer,  well  known  under  the  pseudonym  “ Q.  K.  Phi- 
lander Doesticks,  P.  B.,”  was  born  at  Riga,  Monroe 
county,  N.  Y.,  September  2,  1832,  and  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan  while  yet  a boy.  After  the  trial  of 
a number  of  vocations,  Thomson  became  an  attache  of 
the  New  York  Tribune , in  which  his  articles,  both  in 
prose  and  verse,  attracted  immediate  attention,  more 
particularly  his  descriptive  writings  relating  to  slavery, 
and  incidents  connected  with  the  system.  During  the 
later  years  of  his  life  he  became  a public  lecturer,  and 
was  quite  popular.  He  also  wrote  several  well-known 
books,  and  made  a collection  of  his  fragmentary  pieces, 
all  of  a humorous  character.  He  died  in  New  York, 
June  25,  1875. 

THOMSON,  Sir  William,  F.R.S.,  LL.D., 
D.C.L.,  was  born  at  Belfast  in  June,  1824.  At  the 
early  age  of  eleven  William  entered  the  University  of 
Glasgow,  and  shortly  after  completing  his  course  he  re- 
moved to  Peterhouse,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated 
in  1845  as  second  wrangler,  being  immediately  after- 
ward elected  to  a fellowship.  In  1846  he  was  made 
professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Glasgow,  and  still  occupies  that  post.  In  the  same 
year  he  accepted  the  editorship  of  the  Cambridge  and 
Dublin  Mathetnatical  yournal.  It  is  in  connection 
with  submarine  telegraphy  that  Mr.  Thomson’s  labors 
in  electrical  science  are  best  known,  he  being  the  in- 
ventor of  the  mirror  galvanometer  and  the  siphon- 
recorder,  which,  owing  to  their  extreme  delicacy,  can 
be  worked  by  very  low  battery  power,  a circumstance 
that  tends  greatly  to  the  preservation  of  the  cables. 
To  the  science  of  magnetism  also  Sir  W.  Thomson 
has  made  important  additions;  but  it  is  in  the  investi- 
gation of  the  nature  of  heat  that  his  extraordinary 
power  of  mathematical  insight  is  seen  to  the  greatest 
advantage.  He  was  created  Baron  Kelvin  in  1892. 

THOMSON,  William,  D.D.,  archbishop  of  York, 
born  at  Whitehaven,  Cumberland,  February  11,  1819; 
was  educated  at  Shrewsbury  School  and  the  Queen’s 
College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  was  successively  scholar, 
fellow,  tutor,  and  provost.  He  took  the  degree  of 
B.A.  in  1840,  and  was  ordained  deacon  in  1842,  and 
priest  in  1843.  He  became  tutor  of  his  college,  and 
was  appointed  select  preacher  at  Oxford  in  1848.  He 
was  chosen  to  preach  the  Bampton  lectures  in  1853. 
In  1861  he  became  bishop  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol. 
On  the  death  of  Archbishop  Sumner,  Doctor  Longley 
was  translated  to  Canterbury,  the  archiepiscopal  see  of 
York  became  vacant,  and  after  some  delay  the  appoint- 
ment was,  contrary  to  all  precedent,  conferred  (Novem- 
ber, 1862,)  on  Doctor  Thomson,  who  had  not  been  a 
twelvemonth  bishop.  The  enthronization  was  cele- 
brated in  York  Minster,  February  24,  1863.  He  died 
December  25,  1890. 

THORFINN,  a Scandinavian  navigator,  was  born 
in  Norway,  and  died  at  Glomboland,  Iceland,  about 
1016.  In  1006  he  went  to  Iceland  with  two  vessels, 
and  married  Gudrida.  She  induced  him  to  organize  an 
expedition  to  Vineland,  an  unexplored  country  to  the 
north  of  Greenland.,  whither  he  set  sail  in  1007.  He 


passed  what  is  now  known  as  Newfoundland,  next  com- 
ing to  Nova  Scotia  and  sailing  along  the  New  Eng-, 
land  coast  to  Cape  Cod.  His  crew  wintered  at  an 
island  called  by  them  “ Stroumey,”  but  supposed  to 
be  Martha’s  Vineyard,  or  Nantucket,  and  decided  upon 
making  a permanent  settlement.  This  was  not  done, 
however,  but  a settlement  was  commenced  at  Mount 
Hope  Bay,  called  Thorfinnsbudir,  where  a son  was 
born  to  Thorfinn,  the  first  white  child  born  within  the 
present  limits  of  the  United  States.  After  encounter- 
ing attacks  from  the  Esquimaux,  discontent  among  his 
men,  and  other  troubles,  Thorfinn  returned  to  Ice- 
land, thence  to  Norway,  again  to  Iceland,  and  there  re- 
mained until  he  died. 

THORNTON,  Anthony,  a soldier  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, was  born  at  Ormsby,  Caroline  county,  Va.,  Feb- 
ruary 1,  1748,  and  served  through  the  war,  being  also 
present  as  colonel  of  a regiment  at  the  surrender  of 
Cornwallis.  His  brothers  were  also,  in  the  war,  one  of 
them  being  a captain  of  cavalry  and  the  other  an  officer 
connected  with  General  Washington’s  military  staff. 
Colonel  Thornton  died  at  Paris,  Bourbon  county,  Ky., 
December  21,  1828. 

THORNTON,  Matthew,  a signer  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  was  a native  of  Ireland,  but 
when  three  years  of  age  came  with  his  father  to  Amer- 
ica. He  was  educated  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  and  as  a 
physician  attained  to  prominence  and  wealth.  A resi- 
dent of  New  Hampshire,  he  joined  in  the  opposition 
then  manifested  toward  the  royal  prerogatives,  and 
upon  being  chosen  a delegate  to  the  Continental  con- 
gress, affixed  his  name  to  the  Declaration,  though  not 
present  at  the  date  of  its  passage.  He  died  at  New- 
buryport,  Mass.,  June  24,  1803. 

THORNTON,  Sir  Edward,  G.C.B.,  is  the  son  of 
the  late  Right  Hon.  Sir  Edward  Thornton,  G.C.B., 
who  was  for  some  time  envoy  extraordinary  and  minis- 
ter plenipotentiary  in  Portugal,  and  upon  whom  the 
citle  of  Count  de  Cassilhas,  in  that  kingdom,  was 
conferred  by  King  John  VI.  of  Portugal.  Sir  Edward 
Thornton,  who  succeeded  to  the  title  of  Count  de  Cas- 
silhas (in  the  kingdom  of  Portugal)  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  about  1850,  entered  the  diplomatic  service  in 
1842,  and  was  attached  to  various  missions,  in  different 
parts  of  the  world,  Portugal,  Mexico,  South  American 
states,  and  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  taking  the  place  of 
Sir  Frederick  Bruce. 

THORNYCROFT,  Hamo,  A.R.A.,  sculptor,  son 
of  Thomas  and  Mary  Thornycroft  (< q.v .),  was  born  in 
London,  March  9,  1850.  He  was  brought  up  in 
Cheshire,  and  educated  at  Macclesfield  Grammar 
School,  and  at  University  College,  London.  At  the 
age  of  seventeen  he  began  to  work  in  his  father’s  studio, 
and  in  1869  was  admitted  a student  at  the  schools  of 
the  Royal  Academy.  He  became  a noted  sculptor,  and 
the  author  of  several  excellent  works. 

THORNYCROFT,  John  Isaac,  builder  of  torpedo 
boats,  eldest  son  of  Thomas  and  Mary  Thornycroft,  was 
born  on  February  1,  1843,  in  the  Via  Felice,  Rome. 
His  mechanical  training  was  commenced  at  an  early 
age  by  his  father,  who  made  a locomotive,  on  which  his 
children  rode  round  his  studio.  The  cylinders  of  this 
locomotive  were  afterward  adapted  by  his  eldest  son  to 
form  the  engines  of  a very  successful  model  steamer, 
which  contained  several  of  the  most  important  elements 
to  which  the  success  of  the  modern  torpedo  boat  is  due 
— the  closed  stokehole  and  fan,  by  means  of  which  air 
can  be  forced  through  the  fire,  and  the  relatively  large 
size  and  low  position  of  the  propeller.  In  1863  he  de- 
signed the  Ariel , which  was  built  at  Chiswick,  where 
he  started  as  an  amateur  boat-builder.  After  build- 
ing the  Ariel  Mr.  Thornycroft  studied  for  nine  months 


as  a draughtsman  to  Palmer’s  Shipbuilding  Company, 
on  the  Tyne;  he  then  went  to  Glasgow  to  go  through 
the  engineering  course  at  that  University.  On  leaving 
the  University  he  spent  nine  months  at  Mr.  John 
Elder’s,  of  Govan,  studying  the  method  of  shipbuilding 
on  the  Clyde.  He  then  returned  to  Chiswick,  and  be- 
came a builder  of  torpedo  boats.  In  this  profession  he 
rapidly  took  the  first  place ; and  he  has  constructed  a 
very  large  number  of  such  boats  for  the  British  and 
other  governments. 

THORNYCROFT,  Mary,  daughter  of  the  late  Mr. 
ohn  Francis,  sculptor,  was  born  in  1814,  at  Thorn- 
am,  in  Norfolk.  From  an  early  age  she  was  admitted 
to  her  father’s  studio,  and  soon  became  an  exhibitor  of 
heads  and  busts  at  the  Royal  Academy.  The  work 
which  first  attracted  the  attention  of  the  public  was  a 
life-sized  statue  called  the  Flower-Girl.  Miss  Francis 
became  the  wife  of  Mr.  Thornycroft,  who  had  been  a 
pupil  of  her  father.  In  1840  Mrs.  Thornycroft  was  pat- 
ronized by  the  Queen,  and  she  executed  a number  of 
works  for  the  royal  family.  She  died  February  2,  1895. 

THOROLD,  Rev.  Anthony  Wilson,  D.D., 
bishop  of  Winchester,  England,  was  born  at  Hougham, 
June  13,  1825,  and  educated  at  Queen’s  College,  Oxford 
(B.A.  1847;  M.A.  1850;  D.D.,  by  diploma,  1877). 
On  the  recommendation  of  Lord  Beaconsfield,  he  was 
nominated  by  the  crown  to  the  bishopric  of  Rochester, 
in  succession  to  Doctor  Claughton,  who  had  been 
translated  to  the  newly  constituted  see  of  St.  Albans. 
He  was  consecrated  in  Westminster  Abbey,  July  25, 
1877.  In  1890  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Winches- 
ter. He  is  the  author  of  several  devotional  works,  in- 
cluding The  Presence  of  Christ.  Died  July,  1895. 

THORPE,  Thomas  Bangs,  born  in  Westfield, 
Mass.,  March  1,  1815;  died  in  New  York  city  in  Oc- 
tober, 1878.  He  studied  three  years  at  Wesleyan 
University,  and  made  a tour  through  the  Southwestern 
States,  settling  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  in  1836.  Fora  time- 
he  edited  a Whig  newspaper  in  New  Orleans;  in  1844  he 
edited  the  Concordia  Intelligencer , in  1846  established 
the  Baton  Rouge  Conservator , and  in  1859  published 
and  edited  in  New  York  city  the  Spirit  of  the  Times . 
In  the  Mexican  war  he  attained  the  rank  of  colonel. 

THORPE,  Thomas  Edward,  F.R.S.,  was  born 
near  Manchester,  England,  December  8,  1845,  being 
the  son  of  a Manchester  merchant.  He  was  educated  at 
the  universities  of  Heidelberg  and  Bonn,  and  was  ap- 
pointed demonstrator  of  chemistry  at  Owen’s  Cbllege 
in  1869.  professor  Thorpe  is  the  author  of  fifty-two 
memoirs  on  chemistry  and  physical  chemistry,  and  has 
likewise  written  various  articles  in  Watt’s  Dictionary 
of  Chemistry , and  is  a frequent  contributor  to  Nature 
and  other  scientific  periodicals.  Professor  Thorpe 
was  a member  of  the  solar  eclipse  expeditions  of  1870 
and  1878. 

THRING,  Edward,  headmaster  of  Uppingham 
School,  England,  was  born  on  November  29,  1821. 
In  the  autumn  of  1832  he  was  sent  to  Eton,  and  passed 
from  Eton  to  King’s  College,  Cambridge,  in  1841.  He 
died  October  22,  1S87. 

THURMAN,  Allen  G.,  an  American  jurist  arid 
statesman,  was  born  at  Lynchburg,  Va.,  November  13, 
1813,  a descendant  of  Joseph  Hewes,  one  of  the  signers 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  When  six  years  of 
age  he  accompanied  his  parents  to  Chillicothe,  Ohio, 
and  was  educated  at  the  academy  in  that  city.  He  be- 
gan life  as  a surveyor,  but  studied  law  in  the  office  of  Gov. 
William  Allen,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1835. 
In  1844  he  was  elected  a representative  in  congress,  and 
served  one  term,  declining  a renomination.  In  1851  he 
was  elevated  to  the  supreme  bench  of  Ohio,  and  for  two 
years  was  chief  justice  of  that’ tnounai.  rie  was  the 


Democratic  candidate  for  governor  of  Ohio  against 
Rutherford  B.  Hayes  in  1866,  but  was  defeated.  He 
became  United  States  senator  March  4,  1869,  and  was 
reelected  in  1874.  As  senator  he  formulated  what  is 
known  as  the  “ Thurman  Act,”  to  compel  the  execution, 
by  the  Pacific  roads  of  their  contracts  with  the  govern- 
ment, and  secured  its  passage.  At  the  national  Demo- 
cratic conventions  of  1876,  1880,  and  1884 he  was  a can- 
didate for  the  presidential  nomination,  and,  at  the  con- 
vention of  his  party  in  1888,  was  made  the  candidate  for 
vice-president.  He  made  a vigorous  campaign,  but  was 
defeated,  and  has  since  remained  at  his  home  in  Colum- 
bus, Ohio.  He  died  Dec.  12,  1895. 

THURSBY,  Emma  C.,  an  American"  singer,  was 
born  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  February  21,  1857,  and  studied 
her  art  under  the  direction  of  Meyer,  Rudesdorff,  and 
others;  also  in  Italy,  whither  she  went  in  1873.  On 
her  return  she  sang  in  the  Broadway  Tabernacle  and 
other  New  York  churches,  and  has  since  made  repeated 
concert  tours  of  the  United  States  and  Europe.  She 
has  steadily  declined  to  appear  in  opera,  and  makes  a 
specialty  of  sacred  music. 

THURSTON,  Robert  Henry,  was  born  at  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  October  25, 1839,  and  upon  his  graduation 
at  the  scientific  school  of  Brown  University,  in  1859, 
adopted  the  profession  of  mechanical  engineering.  He 
served  in  the  navy  during  the  Civil  war,  and  partici- 
pated in  the  attacks  upon  Port  Royal  and  Charleston, 
In  1865  he  became  assistant  professor  of  experimental 
philosophy  at  the  naval  academy,  Annapolis,  and  in 
1870  visited  Europe.  He  has  also  been  connected  with 
the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology  and  Cornell 
University,  been  a member  of  the  United  States  Com- 
mission to  the  Vienna  Exposition;  of  the  commission 
constituted  by  the  government  to  investigate  the  causes 
of  boiler  explosions;  vice-president  of  the  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science ; also  vice- 
president  of  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers, 
and  president  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers.  He  is  the  inventor  of  a number  of  mechan- 
ical devices,  and  the  author  of  a large  collection  of  works 
relating  to  mechanical  art. 

TICKNOR,  William  Davis,  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  publishing  house  of  Ticknor  & Co.,  Boston,  Mass., 
was  born  in  Lebanon,  N.  H.,  August  6,  1810,  and  died 
at  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  April  10,  1864. 

TIDBALL,  John  C.,  general,  was  born  in  Ohio 
county,  Va.,  January  25,  1825,  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1848.  During  the  Civil  war  he  was  attached 
to  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  and  served  in  all  the  Vir- 
ginia campaigns.  After  the  war  he  served  in  Astoria, 
Alaska,  California,  North  Carolina,  and  elsewhere,  and 
on  November  1,  1883,  was  assigned  to  the  command  of 
Fort  Monroe.  He  was  promoted  from  captain  through 
the  various  grades  to  major-general  of  volunteers,  for 
gallant  services  in  the  war,  and  was  retired  in  1889. 

TIEBOUT,  Cornelius,  born  in  New  York  city  in 
1777;  died  in  Kentucky  in  1830.  He  was  apprenticed 
to  a silversmith,  and  made  some  attempts  at  engraving 
on  copper.  In  1795  he  went  to  London  and  received 
instruction  from  James  Heath,  returning  after  two 
years,  and  locating  at  Philadelphia.  He  worked  mostly 
in  stipple,  and  among  his  folio  engravings  are  portraits 
of  leading  Americans. 

TIETJENS,  or  TITIENS,  Teresa,  one  of  the 
greatest  of  recent  operatic  singers,  was  born  at  Ham- 
burg, of  Hungarian  parents,  1834;  and  made  her  appear- 
ance in  that  city  in  the  character  of  “ Lucretia  Borgia  ” 
in  1849,  taking  at  once  a high  position  on  the  lyric 
stage;  at  Frankfurt,  and  Vienna  she  was  even  more 
warmly  received;  and  her  first  appearance  in  London 
in  1858  was  a triumph.  awu  ociovcr  3,  1877 


6838  T I L - 

TILGHMANN,  William,  bom  in  Talbot  county,  I 
Md.,  August  12,  1756;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1783,  I 
and  commenced  practice  at  Philadelphia  in  1793.  In 
1801  he  became  chief  justice  of  the  Circuit  Court  of  the 
United  States,  but  resumed  practice  one  year  later,  and 
in  1806  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Pennsylvania.  He  died  in  Philadelphia, 
April  30,  1827. 

TILLEY,  Sir  Samuel  Leonard,  Canadian  states- 
man, born  in  Gagetown,  New  Brunswick,  May  8,  1818. 
He  received  an  ordinary  education,* and  at  the  age  of 
twelve  went  to  St.  John.  In  June,  1850,  he  was  chosen 
to  a seat  in  the  houseof  assembly,  and  in  i854reelected. 
In  November  he  entered  the  cabinet  of  the  Liberal 
administration  as  provincial  secretary,  and  later  he  rose 
to  be  premier.  Subsequently,  he  was  made  a com- 
panion of  the  Bath-,  became  a member  of  the  Canadian 
privy  council,  and  was  appointed  minister  of  customs 
in  the  first  cabinet  of  the  Dominion.  On  February  22, 
1873,  he  was  made  minister  of  finance,  and  later  be- 
came lieutenant-governor  of  New  Brunswick.  This 
office  he  held  until  Sept.,  1893.  Died  June  25,  1896. 

TILTON,  Theodore,  an  American  writer  and 
author,  was  born  in  New  York  city  October  2,  1825; 
graduated  at  the  College  of  New  York  in  1855,  and 
after  a year’s  service  on  the  New  York  Obsei'ver , became 
editor  of  the  Independent,  and  remained  in  that  position 
for  fifteen  years.  He  has  been  connected  editorially 
with  the  Brooklyn  Union  and  other  papers,  and  was 
Orominent  as  a lecturer.  In  1874  he  prosecuted  Henry 
Ward  Beecher  for  alienating  his  wife’s  affections,  and 
the  trial  which  took  place  attracted  universal  attention. 
Since  1883  Tilton  has  resided  abroad. 

TIM  BY,  Theodore  R.,  an  American  inventor,  born 
at  Dover,  N.  Y.,  April  5,  1822;  received  a common 
school  education,  and  early  in  life  evinced  the  posses- 
sion of  inventive  talents  of  a high  order.  In  1841  he 
exhibited  to  army  officers  at  Washington  his  plans  for  a 
revolving  tower,  and  in  1862  procured  letters  patent 
upon  the  design,  the  same  year  contracting  with  the 
constructors  of  the  Monitor  for  the  use  of  his  “revolv- 
ing tower”  upon  that  vessel,  for  a consideration  of 
$5,000  royalty.  He  also  invented  the  American  pattern 
of  the  turbine  water-wheel,  the  system  of  firing  guns 
by  electricity,  etc.,  also  completing  other  designs  and 
improvements  of  value.  In  1866  Madison  University 
conferred  the  degree  of  A.  M.  on  him,  and  in  1882, 
Wooster  (Ohio),  College  that  of  S.D. 

TIMROD,  Henry,  poet,  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C., 
December  8,  1829;  died  in  Columbia,  S.  C.,  October  6, 
1867.  He  entered  the  University  of  Georgia,  but  did 
not  finish  the  college  course.  From  1849  to  *853  he 
contributed  poetry  to  several  magazines,  and  in  1850  a 
small  volume  of  his  poems  was  published.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Civil  war  he  wrote  a number  of  impas- 
sioned war  lyrics  that  spread  his  name  among  the  South- 
ern people.  In  1863  he  went  to  Columbia,  S.  C., 
where  he  became  editor  and  part  proprietor  of  The 
South  Carolinian  newspaper,  but  the  burning  of  Colum- 
bia swept  away  all  his  possessions. 

TINGEY,  Thomas,  a distinguished  naval  officer, 
was  born  in  England,  September  11,  1750,  and  removed 
to  America  prior  to  the  Revolutionary  war.  He  assisted 
in  the  organization  of  the  navy  in  1798,  and  in  July, 
1799,  captured  a fleet  of  French  war  ships  off  the  West 
Indies.  During  the  war  of  1812  he  was  in  active  service, 
and  when  Washington  was  captured  by  the  British  he 
set  fire  to  the  navy  yard  in  obedience  to  orders.  He 
died  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  February  23,  1829,  after  a 
service  of  more  than  fifty  years  in  the  United  States 
navy. 

TISZA,  Koloman  von,  prime  minister  of  Hungary, 


-TO  I. 

1 was  born  at  Geszt,  December  16,  1830,  and  educated 

I for  the  civil  service,  but  his  career  was  blocked  at  the 
outset  by  the  revolution  of  1848.  In  1859  he  first 
became  known  as  an  opponent  of  the  government 
policy  of  religious  intolerance.  In  i860  his  party 
gained  some  independence;  he  then  obtained  a seat 
in  the  Hungarian  parliament,  and  succeeded  Count 
Teleki  as  a leader  of  the  Moderate  Radicals.  In  1875, 
carrying  over  this  branch  to  the  united  Liberals  under 
Deak,  he  became  minister  of  the  interior,  and  subse- 
quently prime  minister  of  the  Hungarian  cabinet.  In 
the  critical  period  of  1876-78  he  opposed  Russia  and 
Panslavism,  being  less  vacillating  than  Count  Andrassy, 
who  had  kept  hesitating  between  Russia  and  Germany 
in  their  views  of  the  Eastern  question.  He  resigned 
with  his  co-ministers  when  Austrian  finances  were 
insufficient  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  Bosnian  occu- 
pation, but  eventually  returned  to  his  position  as 
premier,  retaining  it  until  1890. 

TITCOMB,  Jonathan  Holt,  D.D.,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1819,  anc^  educated  at  Peterhouse,  Cambridge 
(B.A.  1841;  M.A.  1843.)  Having  been  appointed  by 
the  crown  to  the  bishopric  of  Rangoon,  in  British 
Burmah,  he  was  consecrated  in  Westminster  Abbey 
December  21,  1877.  He  resigned  his  bishopric  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year  1882,  and  died  April  2,  1887. 

TODD,  David  Peck,  astronomer,  born  at  Lake 
Ridge,  N.  Y.,  March  19,  1855,  and  was  graduated  at 
Amherst  College  in  1875.  Since  then  he  has  been 
constantly  engaged  in  scientific  investigations.  He  had 
charge  of  the  government  expedition  to  Texas  to 
observe  the  eclipse  of  the  sun  in  1878,  and  has  since 
been  connected  with  expeditions  to  ail  parts  of  the 
world  for  the  purpose  of  making  meteorological  and 
astronomical  observations,  besides  acting  as  professoi 
of  astronomy  at  Amherst,  and  of  astronomy  and 
higher  mathematics  at  Smith’s  College.  He  is  a 
member  of  a large  number  of  scientific  societies,  and 
his  published  works  are  numerous. 

TODD,  John,  born  in  Rutland  county,  Vt.,  October 
9,  1800,  and  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1822,  after 
which  he  attended  the  theological  seminary  at  Andover 
and  was  ordained  a minister  of  the  Congregational 
Church.  His  services  as  pastor  were  employed  at 
Northampton,  Pittsfield,  Philadelphia  and  elsewhere. 
He  was  an  eloquent  and  polished  writer,  and  many  of 
his  publications  have  been  translated  into  German, 
French,  Italian,  Turkish,  Greek,  etc.  In  1845  Will- 
iams College  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  D.D. 
He  died  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  August  24,  1873. 

TOLLENS,  Hendrik,  a popular  Dutch  poet  of 
modern  times,  was  born  at  Rotterdam,  September  24, 
1780.  In  his  seventeenth  year  he  began  to  study  Eng- 
lish, German,  and  Latin.  At  nineteen  he  published 
translations  from  the  French  poets,  and  three  years 
later  appeared  his  New  Songs  and  Idyls  in  which  he 
first  appeared  as  an  original  poet.  Shortly  afterward 
followed  another  collection  of  miscellaneous  poems;  in 
1885  his  tragedy  of  Lucretia;  and  in  1806  that  of  the 
Hoekschen  and  Kabeljaauwschen , or  the  contest  be- 
tween the  nobility  and  the  towns  in  Holland  in  the 
olden  time,  both  original  pieces  of  great  merit.  He 
died  at  Rijswijk,  October  21,  1856. 

TOLSTOI,  Lyeff  N.,  Count,  a Russian  author, 
was  born  at  Tuba,  August  28,  1828,  and  educated 
partly  at  home  and  partly  at  the  Kazan  University. 
He  served  in  the  army  from  1851  until  the  close  of  the 
Crimean  war,  when  he  turned  his  attention  to  litera- 
ture, having  written  a number  of  books  while  in  the 
field,  two  of  which,  The  Cossacks  and  Childhood  and 
Youth , were  subsequently  printed  in  Europe.  After 
the  publication,  in  1860,  of  War  and  Peace,  Tolstoi 


TOM- 

devoted  a larger  portion  of  his  time  to  the  education 
and  improvement  of  the  peasantry,  and  during  recent 
ears  has,  in  dress,  customs,  and  occupation,  adapted 
imself  to  the  association  of  that  class  of  people  in 
Russia.  His  writings  and  peculiarities  are  made  the 
subject  of  frequent  discussion  both  in  America  and 
Europe,  where  his  novel,  Anna  Karenma , is  said  to  be 
more  generally  read  than  any  other  of  his  productions. 
By  many  his  sanity  is  doubted,  while  an  equal  number 
regard  him  with  profound  veneration.  The  patronage 
of  his  works  in  the  United  States  is  of  comparatively 
recent  date,  and  here  he  has  come  to  be  regarded  as 
the  leading  Russian  author.  He  published  The Kreutzer 
Sonata  in  1890,  and  War  in  1892. 

TOMOCHICHI,  Indian  chief,  born  in  Georgia, 
about  1642;  died  there  October  5,  1739.  In  1733  he 
met  General  Oglethorpe,  and  arranged  with  him  to  cede 
to  the  white  settlers  the  territory  between  the  Savannah 
and  Altamaha  rivers.  In  1734  Tomochichi  and  his 
wife  visited  England,  in  company  with  the  General  and 
five  Indians.  After  remaining’  in  London  four  months 
they  were  conveyed  on  shipboard  in  royal  carriages 
and  embarked  for  Savannah,  after  being  assured  of  the 
friendship  of  the  British  monarch. 

TOMPKINS,  Daniel  D.,  vice-president  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Westchester  county,  N.Y., 
June  21,  1774;  was  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in 
1795,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1797.  He  began  to 
take  part  in  politics  at  an  early  age,  and  after  filling 
minor  offices  was  in  1804  elected  to  congress,  but  re- 
signed to  accept  a seat  on  the  supreme  bench  of  New 
York.  In  1807  he  was  elected  governor  of  the  State, 
and  reelected  in  1809,  1811,  1813,  and  1815.  During 
the  war  with  Great  Britain,  he  contributed  his  time, 
money,  and  credit  to  the  promotion  of  a successful 
issue,  and  declined  the  position  of  secretary  of  state, 
tendered  him  by  President  Madison,  because  his  serv- 
ices as  governor  of  New  York  might  be  of  greater  value 
to  the  country.  In  1816  he  was  elected  vice-president 
of  the  United  States,  and  reelected  in  1820.  He  was 
also  a regent  of  the  State  University,  assisted  in  the 
establishment  of  the  public  school  system,  and  was 
generally  identified  with  the  development  of  internal 
improvements  in  the  State  throughout  his  life.  He 
died  on  Staten  Island,  June  n,  1825. 

TONE,  Theobald  Wolfe,  Irish  patriot,  was  born 
in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1763.  Pie  was  the  founder  of 
the  Society  of  United  Irishmen.  In  1796  he  applied  to 
the  French  directory  to  send  an  expedition  against 
England.  His  application  was  received  with  favor,  and 
a fleet,  commanded  by  General  Hoche,  soon  after  set 
sail.  But  the  expedition  encountered  a hurricane, 
which  disabled  and  scattered  the  vessels,  and  caused 
the  undertaking  to  be  abandoned.  Subsequently  Tone 
led  a small  armament  against  England,  but  was  taken 
prisoner  in  a battle,  was  tried  and  condemned  to  death. 
He  committed  suicide  in  prison  in  1798. 

TONER,  Joseph  Meredith,  born  in  Pittsburg, 
Penn.,  April  3,  1825,  educated  at  the  Western  Pennsyl- 
vania University  and  Mount  St.  Mary’s  College,  and 
completed  his  medical  studies  at  the  Vermont  Medical 
College,  and  Jefferson  Medical  College,  and  in  1855  he 
settled  in  Washington  I).  C.  He  originated  the  library 
of  the  American  Medical  Association  in  1868,  and  in  1871 
founded  the  Toner  lectures.  In  1873  Doctor  Toner  was 
president  of. the  American  Medical  Association,  and  in 
1882  gave  his  entire  library  of  26,000  books  and  18,000 
amphiets,  to  the  United  States  Government.  He 
as  published  more  than  fifty  pamphlets  on  medical 
subjects. 

TONTI,  Chevalier  Henry  de,  Italian  explorer, 
born  in  Gaeta,  Italy,  about  1650;  died  in  Mobile,  Ala., 


-TOR  6839 

in  September,  1704.  In  company  with  the  Sieur  de 
La  Salle  he  came  to  Quebec  in  1678.  Soon  afterward 
he  completed  the  fort  at  Niagara,  designed  by  La  Salle. 
In  1680,  learning  that  Fort  Crevecoeur  was  threatened 
by  the  Iroquois  Indians,  he  marched  to  its  aid,  and  in 
1681  he  sailed  up  the  Illinois  river  and  wintered  in 
Green  Bay.  In  the  following  year  Tonti  descended  the 
Mississippi  river  with  La  Salle,  and  in  1686  he  visited 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  by  way  of  F ort  Louis  and 
Chicago,  to  ascertain  the  fate  of  La  Salle.  Disheart- 
ened on  learning  the  death  of  hi?  friend,  he  retired  to 
live  among  the  Illinois  tribe,  where  he  was  discovered 
in  1 700  by  Iberville. 

TOOLE,  John  Laurence,  comedian,  born  in  Lon- 
don, England,  March  12,  1830;  was  educated  at  the  City 
of  London  School,  and  became  a clerk  to  a wine-mer- 
chant, but  soon  quitted  this  occupation  to  join  the  City 
Histrionic  Club,  where  his  qualifications  for  the  dramatic 
profession  were  soon  recognized,  and  he  found  a favor- 
able opportunity  to  appear  before  a public  audience 
at  a benefit  to  Mr.  F.  Webster,  at  the  Haymarket  thea- 
ter, July  22,  1852.  He  has  for  more  than  thirty  years 
been  a popular  favorite,  whether  it  be  in  the  broad  re- 
gion of  farce,  or  in  those  more  important  parts  in  which 
tears  and  laughter  equally  predominate;  such  as  “ Caleb 
Plummer,”  in  the  version  of  Mr.  Dickens’  Cricket  on 
the  Hearth , or  the  honest  fireman,  “Joe  Bright,”  in 
the  drama  Through  Fire  and  Water.  On  Novem- 
ber 17,  1880,  he  undertook  the  management  of  the 
Folly  theater,  which  he  had  reconstructed  in  accordance 
with  all  the  requirements  of  the  authorities,  and  re- 
named, calling  it  after  his  own  name — Toole’s  theater. 
Mr.  Toole  has  played  in  the  United  States  with  great 
success. 

TOOMBS,  Robert,  statesman,  born  in  Wilkes 
county,  Ga.,  July  2,  1810;  died  in  Washington,  Ga., 
December  15,  1885.  He  studied  at  the  University  of 
Georgia,  was  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1828,  at- 
tended lectures  in  the  law  department  of  the  University 
of  Virginia,  and  in  1830  was  admitted  to  practice.  He 
then  settled  in  Wilkes  county,  and  soon  became  a 
leader  among  the  State-rights  Whigs.  In  1844  he  was 
sent  to  congress,  where,  in  1850,  he  contributed  to  the 
passage  of  the  compromise  measures.  From  1853  to 
1861  he  was  a member  of  the  United  States  Senate, 
and  as  such  belonged  to  the  .Southern  extremists;  at 
the  end  he  ardently  favored  disunion,  and  in  March, 
1861,  was  formally  expelled  from  the  senate.  At  the 
beginning  of  national  disruption  he  was  a member  of 
the  Confederate  congress,  and  its  second  choice  foE  the 
presidency.  On  the  election  of  Jefferson  Davis  he  be- 
came secretary  of  state,  but  soon  resigned  to  accept 
the  commission  of  brigadier-general.  After  fighting  at 
the  second  Bull  Run  battle  and  Antietam  he  retired. 
After  the  close  of  the  war  he  spent  several  years  in 
Cuba,  France,  and  Great  Britain,  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  1867,  resumed  practice,  and  accu- 
mulated an  estate  valued  at  $500,000.  As  he  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  United  States 
Government,  he  was  debarred  from  the  rights  of  citizen- 
ship. In  1872  he  was  a member  of  the  Georgia  Demo- 
cratic State  convention,  and  in  1874  he  conducted  a 
warfare  against  railroads  on  behalf  of  his  State,  and 
collected  from  them  $300,000. 

TORBERT,  Alfred  Thomas  Archimedes,  was 
born  in  Georgetown,  Del.,  July  1,  1833;  died  at  sea 
September  3,  1880.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1855,  and,  after  several 
years’  service  in  the  South  and  West,  entered  the  Civil 
war  in  1861  as  captain  in  the  5th  United  States  infantry 
and  colonel  of  a New  Jersey  regiment.  He  was 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Crampt'on’s  Gap,  September 


6840  T0R- 

14,  1862,  and  in  the  following  Novemoer  was  commis- 
sioned brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He  was  bre- 
vetted  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  regular  army  in  May, 

1864,  and  colonel  in  September  of  the  same  year,  and 
was  also  brevetted  major-general  of  volunteers.  As  chief 
of  cavalry  he  commanded  three  divisions  of  the  army  of 
the  Shenandoah  under  General  Sheridan,  distinguishing 
himself  at  several  hard-fought  battles.  On  March  13, 

1865,  he  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  of  the  United 
States  army.  He  resigned  October  31,  1866,  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  San  Salvador  in  1869,  was  afterward 
consul-general  at  Havana,  and  still  later  at  Paris,  resign- 
ing in  1878.  He  lost  his  life  by  the  foundering  of  the 
steamer  Vera  Cruz  off  the  coast  of  Florida,  while  on  his 
way  to  Mexico  as  president  of  a mining  company. 

TORRENS,  William  Torrens  McCullagh,  born 
in  October,  1813;  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin (B.A.  1834;  LL.B.  1840),  and  became  a member  of 
Lincoln’s  Inn,  and  practiced  at  the  common  law  bar. 
He  was  appointed  a commissioner  of  the  poor  law  in- 
quiry in  Ireland  in  1835,  private  secretary  to  Lord 
Taunton  (then  Mr.  Labouchere)  in  1846.  In  1869  he 
obtained  the  adoption  of  the  system  for  London  of 
boarding  out  children  by  poor  law  guardians.  When 
purchase  in  the  army  was  abolished,  he  carried  an  ad- 
dress to  the  crown  against  sending  soldiers  under  age 
to  serve  in  hot  climates.  To  him  also  is  due  the  enact- 
ment removing  the  principal  prisons  from  the  metropo- 
lis, in  order  to  provide  sites  for  workmen’s  dwellings 
and  public  gardens.  He  died  April  26,  1894. 

TORREY,  John,  botanist,  was  born  in  New  York 
city,  August  15,  1796;  died  there  March  10,  1873. 
After  a public  school  education  he  was  graduated  at  the 
College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  and  began  the  prac- 
tice of  medicine,  devoting  his  leisure  time  to  botany  and 
other  scientific  pursuits.  From  August  5,  1824,  until 
August  31,  1828,  he  was  assistant  surgeon  in  the  United 
States  army,  serving  at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  as  acting  professor  of  chemistry,  mineralogy, 
and  geology.  From  1827  until  1855  he  was  professor  of 
chemistry  and  botany  in  the  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons  in  New  York  city,  and  was  then  made  pro- 
fessor emeritus.-  He  was  also  professor  of  chemistry  at 
Princeton  from  1830  until  1854.  He  was  appointed 
assayer  in  the  United  States  assay  office  in  New  York 
city  in  1853,  and  continued  to  fill  that  office  until  his 
death.  In  i860  he  became  emeritus  professor  in  Colum- 
bia College,  of  which  he  was  a trustee.  Doctor  Torrey’s 
works  on  natural  history  and  botany  attracted  universal 
attention.  The  degree  of  A.M.  was  conferred  on  him 
by  Yale  in  1823,  and  that  of  LL.D.  by  Amherst  in  1845. 

TORREY,  Joseph,  a Congregational  clergyman, 
born  at  Rowley,  Mass.,  February  2,  1797;  was  a 
graduate  of  Dartmouth  College  in  1816,  and  of  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  Andover  in  1819.  He  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  tne  University  of  Ver- 
mont in  1827,  and  filled  the  same  until  1842,  becoming 
professor  of  intellectual  philosophy  in  the  latter  year, 
and  president  of  the  institution  in  1862.  He  was  made 
a D.D.  by  Harvard  in  1850,  and  left  a number  of  works 
of  a miscellaneous  and  religious  character.  He  died  at 
Burlington,  Vt.,  November  26,  1867. 

TOTTEN,  George  Mukrson,  civil  engineer,  was 
born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  May  28,  1809  ; died  in  New 
York  city,  June  8,  1884.  His  work  as  a civil  engineer 
began  on  the  Farmington  canal  in  1827.  He  was  sub- 
sequently employed  on  the J uniata  canal  inPennsylvania, 
the  Delaware  and  Raritan  canal  in  New  Jersey,  and 
the  building  of  the  railroad  from  Reading  to  Port  Clin- 
ton. After  several  years  of  railroad  work  he  was  ap- 
pointed engineer-in-chief  of  the  Canal  del  Dique  in  1843, 
and  in  1850  he  became  engineer-in-chief  of  the  Panama 


TOW 

railroad,  to  which  he  gave  twenty-five  years  of  service. 
He  was  with  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  in  1879  on  the  com- 
mission to  decide  on  the  canal  project  across  the  isthmus, 
and  afterward  engaged  in  the  survey  of  a railroad  in 
Venezuela.  On  his  return  he  was  made  consulting  engi- 
neer of  the  Panama  railroad. 

TOTTEN,  Joseph  Gilbert,  soldier,  born  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  August  23,  1788;  died  in  Washington, 
D.  C.,  April  22,  1864.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in  1805,  an^  com- 
missioned second  lieutenant  of  engineers.  He  began 
his  work  with  the  construction  of  Castle  Williams  and 
Fort  Clinton  in  New  York  harbor,  where  he  was  oc- 
cupied from  1808  to  1812.  Meanwhile  he  was  promoted 
to  first  lieutenant,  and  later  made  chief  engineer  of  the 
army  on  the  Niagara  frontier,  where  he  participated  in 
the  battle  of  Queenstown.  In  1813  he  served  as  chief 
engineer  of  the  army  under  General  Dearborn.  He 
also  was  intrusted  with  the  inspectorship  and  supervis- 
ion of  the  United  States  Military  Academy  at  West 
Point.  During  the  Mexican  war  he  directed  the- siege 
of  Vera  Cruz,  for  which  he  was  brevetted  brigadier- 
general.  After  serving  in  other  capacities,  he  became 
brigadier-general,  and  on  April  21,  1864,  was  brevetted 
major-general. 

TOUCEY,  Isaac,  an  American  statesman,  born  in 
Newton,  Conn.,  November  5,  1796,  and  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1818.  In  1835  he  was  elected  to  congress, 
where  he  served  two  terms,  and  in  1846,  in  default  of 
an  election  by  the  people,  was  chosen  governor  of  Con- 
necticut by  the  State  legislature.  He  became  attorney- 
general  of  the  United  States  in  1848,  and  afterward 
served  in  the  legislature  of  his  native  State  until  1852, 
when  he  was  elected  United  States  senator  by  the  Dem- 
ocrats for  the  term  expiring  March  3,  1857.  During 
the  administration  of  President  James  Buchanan,  Sena- 
tor Toucev  was  secretary  of  the  navy,  afterward  return- 
ing to  Hartford,  Conn.,  where  he  died  July  30,  1869. 

TOURGEE,  Albion  Winegar,  author,  born  in 
Williamsfield,  Ohio,  May  2,  1838;  studied  at  Kings- 
ville Academy,  and  was  graduated  at  Rochester  Univer- 
sity in  1861.  Thereaf  ter  he  served  in  the  national  army 
from  1861  to  1865,  and  when  the  war  closed  settled  in 
Greensboro,  N.  C.,  as  lawyer  and  editor.  From  1868 
to  1874  he  served  as  judge  of  the  Superior  Court,  and 
in  1875  was  a member  of  the  State  constitutional  con- 
vention. He  was  the  author  of  A Fool's  Errand , a 
work  dealing  with  the  condition  of  North  Carolina  dur- 
ing the  reconstruction  period.  In  1866-67  he  published 
in  Greensboro  the  Union  Register , and  in  1882  pub- 
lished in  Philadelphia  Our  Continent , a literary  weekly, 
which  was  discontinued  in  1885,  after  a serious  loss  in 
money  to  its  projector.  He  has  frequently  given  lec- 
tures, and  now  resides  in  Mayville,  N.  Y.,  engaged  in 
literature. 

TOWLE,  George  M.,  was  born  in  Washington, 
D.  C.,  August  27,  1841.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale 
and  at  the  Harvard  law  school,  and,  after  practicing  law 
for  three  years  in  Boston,  was  appointed  United  States 
consul  at  Nantes,  France,  in  1866.  In  1868  he  was 
transferred  to  the  consulate  at  Bradford.  England,  and 
after  two  years  returned  to  Boston,  and  became  man- 
aging editor  of  the  Boston  Covunercial  Bulletin.  In 
1871  he  was  foreign  editor  of  the  Boston  Post,  a posi- 
tion which  he  held  until  1876,  besides  being  a contribu- 
tor to  a number  of  periodicals  both  in  Europe  and 
America.  He  wrote  American  Society,  Beaconsfield, 
Heroes  of  History,  Literature  of  the  English  Language, 
and  other  works.  He  died  August  8,  1893. 

TOWNE,  Edward  C.,  American  scientific  writer, 
born  in  Goshen,  Mass.,  in  1834,  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1856  with  first  honors,  and  entered  the  ministry  in  i860, 


TOW-TRE 


6841 


but  retired  in  1868  to  devote  himself  to  special  studies 
and  literary  work.  In  1895,  on  the  establishment,  by 
The  Werner  Company,  publishers,  of  Chicago,  of  the 
Home  University  League,  and  its  magazine,  Self  Cul- 
ture, Mr.  Towne  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  League 
and  editor  of  the  magazine.  He  has  written  The  Ques- 
tion of  Hell  (1873),  Electricity  and  Life , or  The  Electro- 
Vital  Theory  of  Nature  (188 7),  and  other  works  of  a 
scientific  character. 

TOWNSEND,  George  Alfred,  journalist,  born  in 
Georgetown,  Del.,  January  30,  1841,  became  a war  cor- 
respondent of  the  New  York  Herald  in  1862,  reporting 
the  operations  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  in  the  Penin- 
sula, and  Pope’s  campaign  in  northern  Virginia,  deliv- 
ered lectures  in  Europe  on  the  Civil  war  in  the  same 
year,  was  engaged  by  the  New  York  World  as  war 
correspondent  in  1864,  and  speedily  gained  a high  rep- 
utation as  a descriptive  writer.  He  has  since  written 
much  for  the  press  over  the  signature  of  “ Gath,”  and 
has  written  The  Entailed  Hat  and  Katy  of  Catoctin , 
novels,  Washington  Outside  and  Inside,  and  other  works. 

TOWNSEND,  Luther  Tracy',  born  in  Orono, 
Me.,  September  27,  1838,  became  a Methodist  preacher, 
took  part  in  the  Civil  war  as  adjutant  of  the  16th  New 
Hampshire  volunteers,  and  in  1873  became  professor 
of  practical  theology  at  Boston  University. 

TOWSON,  Nathan,  was  born  near  Baltimore, 
Md.,  January  22,  1784;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
July  20,  1854.  At  the  beginning  of  the  war  of  1812 
he  was  appointed  captain  in  the  2d  United  States 
artillery,  and  made  a record  for  gallantry  in  a number  of 
engagements,  particularly  in  the  capture  of  the  brig 
Caledonia  from  under  the  guns  of  Fort  Erie,  October  8, 
1812,  for  which  he  was  brevetted  major.  He  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  corps  of  artillery  in  May,  1814,  and  to  the 
light  artillery  May  17,  1815.  For  bravery  at  the  battl? 
of  Chippewa,  July  5,  1814,  he  was  brevetted  lieutenant- 
colonel,  and  after  again  distinguishing  himself  in  the 
assault  upon  Fort  Erie,  in  August  of  the  same  year,  he 
was  made  a brevet  colonel.  In  1819  he  was  appointed 
paymaster-general  of  the  army,  and  in  1821  the  presi- 
dent nominated  him  colonel  of  the  2d  artillery,  but  the 
Senate  failed  to  confirm  the  nomination,  and  Colonel 
Towson  was  reappointed  paymaster-general  in  May, 
1822.  He  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  June  30, 
1834,  and  for  gallant  service  during  the  war  with 
Mexico  he  was  brevetted  major-general,  May  30,  1848. 

TOY,  Crawford  H.,  was  born  in  Norfolk,  Va., 
March  23,  1836,  was  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Virginia  in  1856,  and  ten  years  later  entered  upon  a two 
years’  course  of  study  at  the  University  of  Berlin.  In 
1869  he  became  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Southern 
Baptist  Theological  Seminary,  at  Greenville,  S.  C.,  and 
Louisville,  Ky.  There  he  remained  until  1879,  and 
since  1880  he  has  been  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Harvard. 
He  has  written  articles  on  Semitic  philology  and  biblical 
criticism,  and  is  the  author  of  History  of  the  Religion 
of  Israel  and  Quotations  in  the  New  Testament. 

TRACY,  Albert  H.,  was  born  at  Norwich,  Conn., 
June  17,  1793;  educated  at  home,  and  upon  his  admis- 
sion to  the  bar  in  1815  located  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  where 
he  attained  to  professional  and  political  eminence.  He 
was  barely  of  the  required  age  when  elected  as  a rep- 
resentative in  the  sixteenth  congress,  and  his  career 
while  there  was  such  as  to  secure  his  reelection  to  the 
two  congresses  next  succeeding.  In  1830  he  was 
elected  to  the  Connecticut  State  Senate,  where  he 
served  for  eight  years.  He  was  a candidate  for  United 
States  senator  in  1839,  and  after  his  defeat  retired  to 
private  life.  He  died  at  Buffalo,  September  12,  1859. 

TRACY,  Benjamin  F.,  is  a native  of  Tioga  county, 
N . Y. , and  was  born  about  1 830.  He  was  admitted  to  the 


bar  in  1851,  and  elected  district  attorney  of  the  county 
three  years  later.  Subsequently  he  became  a member  of  the 
State  assembly,  and  during  his  term  of  service  led  in  the 
efforts  made  to  secure  the  defeat  of  a bill  providing  for 
the  construction  of  a surface  railway  on  Broadway, 
New  York  city.  This  was  in  June,  1862,  and  the  same 
year  he  raised,  at  the  request  of  Governor  Morgan,  two 
regiments  of  infantry,  the  107th  and  the  109th  New 
York,  commanding  the  latter,  and  retiring  from  the 
army  at  the  close  of  the  war  as  brigadier-general.  He 
was  district  attorney  from  1866  to  1873,  acted  as 
counsel  in  the  Beecher-Tilton  case  in  1875,  and  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  navy  by  President  Harrison, 
March  5,  1889. 

TRAILL,  Henry  Duff,  D.C.L.,  was  born  at  Black- 
heath,  England,  August  14,  1842,  and  educated  at 
Merchant  Taylors’  School,  whence  he  proceeded,  as 
probationary  fellow,  to  St.  John’s  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1864.  He  was  called  to 
the  bar  by  the  Society  of  the  Inner  Temple  in  1868. 
He  adopted  the  journalistic  and  literary  profession  in 
1871,  and  has  been  an  extensive  contributor  to  the  Pall 
Mall  Gazette  (under  the  original  management),  the  St. 
James ’ Gazette,  the  Daily  Telegraph , the  Saturday  Re- 
view, etc.  He  published,  in  1881,  Central  Government', 
in  1882,  Sterne  and  Recaptured  Rhymes ; in  1884,  The 
New  Lucian,  a series  of  dialogues  of  the  dead,  and 
Coleridge',  and  in  1886,  Shaftesbury,  a monograph  con- 
tributed to  the  English  Worthies.  Died  Feb.,  1901. 

TRAUTWINE,  John  Cresson,  a surveyor  and 
civil  engineer,  was  born  at  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  March 
30,  1810.  He  served  in  the  office  of  City  Engineer 
William  Strickland,  of  Philadelphia,  and  was  employed 
with  Mr.  Strickland  in  the  erection  of  the  mint  and 
other  structures,  in  Philadelphia.  Between  1831  and 
1844  he  served  in  the  several  capacities  of  assistant  en- 
gineer of  the  Philadelphia,  Wilmington  and  Baltimore 
road,  chief  engineer  of  the  Philadelphia  and  Trenton, 
and  in  a similar  capacity  on  the  Iliawasse,  later  known 
as  the  Tennessee  and  Georgia  road.  In  1858  he  was  in 
the  sevice  of  the  leading  railway  systems  of  the  country, 
and  in  that  year  arranged  the  dock  system  which  is  now 
employed  at  Montreal,  Canada.  He  retired  from 
active  work  in  1864,  but  up  to  his  death,  September 
14,  1883,  his  services  and  counsel  were  in  constant 
requisition. 

TREAT,  Robert,  one  of  the  colonial  governors, 
was  born  in  England  during  1622,  and  when  a boy 
came  with  his  father  to  Mathersfield,  Conn.  In  1639 
he  removed  to  Milford.  Treat  removed  to  Newark, 
N.  J.,  and  lived  thereuntil  1672,  when  he  returned  to 
Milford  and  took  a prominent  part  in  the  wars  against 
the  Indians,  participating  in  the  massacre  of  the  Narra- 
gansetts,  December  19,  1675,  and  in  other  engagements. 
In  1676  he  was  chosen  deputy  governor  of  Connecticut, 
succeeding  to  the  governorship  in  1683,  and  serving  as 
such  until  1698,  excepting  two  years,  during  which  he 
was  under  Sir  Edmund  Andros.  Governor  Treat  died 
at  Milford,  Conn.,  July  12,  1710. 

TRELAWNY,  Sir  John  Salisbury,  was  born  in 
England,  June  2,  1816,  and  educated  at  Westminster 
and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  became  B.  A. ; 
he  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln’s  Inn  in  1841,  and 
succeeded  his  father  as  ninth  baronet,  November  15, 
1856.  He  was  one  of  the  members  for  Tavistock  in 
the  Liberal  interest  from  March,  1843,  tdl  April,  1852, 
when  he  retired.  Subsequently  standing  in  1852,  he 
was  unsuccessful,  but  was  again  elected  in  March,  1857, 
and  retired  at  the  general  election  in  July,  1865.  He 
was  well  known  in  the  House  of  Commons  as  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  anti-church,  rate  movement,  and  for 
several  years  proposed  a motion  on  that  Mibiect,  He 


6842  T R E- 

was  elected  for  East  Cornwall  in  1868,  and  held  that 
seat  till  February,  1874.  He  died  in  1885. 

TRENCH ARD,  Stephen  D.,  an  officer  of  the 
United  States  navy,  was  born  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  July 
10, 1818,  and  entered  the  service  as  midshipman,  October 
lo,  1834.  He  was  made  lieutenant,  February  27,  1847, 
and  in  that  year  was  attached  to  the  Saratoga , blockad- 
ing the  Mexican  ports.  Between  1853  and  1857  he 
was  engaged  upon  the  coast  survey,  and  during  the  lat- 
ter year  was  with  the  Powhatan , on  a diplomatic  mis- 
sion to  China,  as  aide  to  Com.  Josiah  Tat  nail.  At  the 
engagement  on  Peiho  river,  Tretichard  was  slightly 
wounded.  Upon  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  war,  he 
was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  Keystone  State, 
and  subsequently  to  the  command  of  the  Rhode  Island. 
He  served  in  the  West  India  waters  on  the  lookout  for 
the  Alabama  and  Florida,  also  making  a number  of 
valuable  captures  and  taking  an  active  part  in  the 
assault  and  bombardment  of  Fort  Fisher.  He  was 
promoted  captain  in  July,  1866,  and  commodore  on 
May  7,  1871.  He  was  in  command  of  the  North  At- 
lantic squadron,  consisting  of  twenty-one  vessels,  in 
1876,  as  rear-admiral,  to  which  position  he  had  been 
’advanced  August  ip.  1875,  anc^  died  Nov.  15*  1883. 

TRENHOLM,  George  A.,  secretary  of  the  Con- 
federate States  treasury,  was  born  in  South  Carolina, 
and  for  years  prior  to  the  Civil  war  was  head  of  a 
large  cotton  house,  with  headquarters  at  Charleston. 
During  the  progress  of  hostilities  he  was  engaged  in 
“running  the  blockade,”  but  in  1864  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  treasury  of  the  Confederacy,  remaining 
in  that  position  until  the  war  closed,  after  which  he  was 
taken  prisoner  and  imprisoned  until  pardoned  by  Presi- 
dent Andrew  Johnson  in  October,  1865.  He  died  in 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  December  10,  1876. 

TREVELYAN,  Sir  George  Otto,  M.P.,  was  born 
July  20,  1838,  at  Rothley  Temple,  Leicestershire,  Eng- 
land. He  was  educated  at  Harrow  School  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  He  was  elected  member  for  Tyne- 
mouth in  the  Liberal  interest  in  1865,  and  for  the 
Border  burghs  in  1868.  He  was  appointed  civil  lord 
of  the  Admiralty,  in  Mr.  Gladstone’s  government,  in 
December,  1868,  but  resigned  office  in  July,  1870.  He 
succeeded  Mr.  Shaw-Lefevre  as  parliamentary  secretary 
to  the  admiralty  in  November,  1880,  and  held  that 
office  until  his  appointment,  after  the  murder  of  Lord 
Frederick  Cavendish,  as  chief  secretary  to  the  lord-lieu- 
tenant  of  Ireland  (May  9,  1882).  This  arduous  post  he 
held  through  two  most  trying  years,  and  in  October, 
1884,  he  joined  the  cabinet  as  chancellor  of  the  Duchy 
of  Lancaster.  He  was  secretary  for  Scotland  in  Mr. 
Gladstone’s  third  and  fourth  governments,  and  re- 
mained in  Lord  Rosebery’s  cabinet  in  1894,  when  he 
was  member  for  Glasgow.  Lie  has  written  a Life  of 
Lord  Macaulay  and  other  works. 

TRIMBLE,  Isaac  Ridgeway,  born  in  Culpeper 
cotinty,  Va.,  May  15,  1802;  died  in  Baltimore,  Md., 
January  2,  1888.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1822,  and,  after  serving  in 
the  army  until  1833,  he  resigned  to  pursue  civil  en- 
gineering. As  chief  engineer  of  the  Baltimore  and 
Susquehanna  railroad  he  completed  that  line  to  York, 
Penn.,  in  1837.  He  was  chief  engineer  of  the  Philadel- 
phia, Wilmington  and  Baltimore  railroad,  and  of  the 
Boston  and  Providence  railroad,  and  subsequently  was 
engaged  in  railroad  operations  in  the  West  Indies.  In 
May,  1861,  he  became  colonel  of  engineers  in  the  mili- 
tary service  of  the  State  of  Virginia,  and,  by  order  of 
Gen.  Robert  E.  Lee,  took  charge  of  the  construction 
of  the  forts  and  field  works  for  the  defense  of  Norfolk. 
He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier,  after  which 
he  blockaded  the  Potomac  river  by  constructing  bat- 


-T  R O 

teries  at  Evansport.  In  November.  i86l,lie  was  as- 
signed to  the  command  of  the  seventh  division  of  Ewell’s 
command,  was  at  the  battles  of  Cross  Keys,  Gaines*' 
Mills,  and  Slaughter’s  Mountain  in  the  summer  of  1862, 
and  with  two  regiments  captured  Manassas  Junction, 
August  27,  1862.  He  was  wounded  the  next  day  at  the 
second  battie  of  Bull  Run,  and  on  the  recommendation  of 
Gen.  Thomas  J.  Jackson,  he  was  appointed  major-gen- 
eral, April  23, 1863.  General  Trimble  did  good  service 
at  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg,  and  in  the  latter  bat- 
tle he  lost  a leg  and  was  captured.  He  was  a prisoner 
twenty-one  months  at  Johnson’s  Island,  and  when  ex- 
changed, in  April,  1865.  the  war  was  practically  over. 
He  returned  to  Baltimore.,  where  he  continued  to  reside 
until  his  death. 

TRIMBLE,  Robert,  jurist,  was  born  in  Berkeley 
county,  Va.,  in  1777;  died  August  25,  1828.  His 
parents  removed  to  Kentucky  when  he  was  a child,  and 
in  1803  he  settled  in  Paris,  Ky.,  and  began  the  practice 
of  law.  He  served  ont  term  in  the  legislature,  but 
after  that  never  would  accept  a nomination  for  any 
political  office.  He  became  second  judge  of  the  Court 
of  Appeals  in  1808,  chief  justice  of  Kentucky  in  1810, 
United  States  district  attorney  in  1813,  and  district 
judge  of  Kentucky  in  1816.  He  held  the  latter  office 
until  1826,  when  he  was  appointed  a justice  of  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court,  filling  that  post  until  his 
death. 

TRISTRAM,  Henry  Baker,  D.D.,  was  born  in 
England,  May  11,  1822,  and  educated  at  the  grammar 
school  of  Durham,  and  at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford. 
In  1845  he  was  ordained.  He  resided  at  Bermuda  three 
years,  and  accepted,  in  1849,  the  rectory  of  Castle 
Eden,  Durham.  There  he  remained  till  1855.  The 
winter  of  1855  he  spent  in  the  city  and  neighbor- 
hood of  Algiers,  making  several  excursions  into  the 
northern  Sahara.  The  second  winter  of  his  stay  was 
altogether  occupied  in  traversing  the  Sahara  beyond  the 
range  of  the  Atlas  Mountains.  The  third  winter  spent 
in  thr  Mediterranean  afforded  him  his  first  opportunity 
of  visiting  Palestine.  On  the  conclusion  of  his  tour 
through  Palestine  he  returned  to  England,  being  ap- 
pointed in  i860  master  of  Greatham  Hospital  and  vicar 
of  Greatham,  Durham.  In  1863  he  again  visited  the 
Holy  Land,  directing  his  attention  particularly  to  the 
basin  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  to  the  districts  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan. In  1872  he  made  a tour  in  Moab;  in  1881  in  Meso- 
potamia and  Armenia;  in  1874  he  was  made  a canon  of 
Durham;  and  in  1879  the  earl  of  Beaconsfield  offered  him 
the  bishopric  of  Jerusalem,  which  he  declined.  Doctoi 
Tristram  wrote  a number  of  books  descriptive  of  the 
Holy  Land  and  of  his  travels  in  the  East. 

TROBRIAND,  Philip  de,  was  born  at  Tours, 
France,  June  4,  1816.  He  was  educated  at  Orleans, 
and  in  1841  he  removed  to  New  York  and  entered  the 
field  of  journalism,  in  which  he  achieved  success.  In 
1861  he  enlisted  in  the  United  States  volunteer  army, 
and  during  the  Civil  war  rose  to  the  command  of  a 
division.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  became  a colonel 
in  the  regular  army,  and  continued  in  the  service  until 
1879,  when  he  retired.  His  principal  published  work 
is  Quatre  Ans  de  Campagnes  a PArmee  du  Potomac , 
which  appeared  in  1867. 

TROCHU,  Louis  Jules,  a French  general,  was 
born  in  Bretagne,  March  12,  1815,  and  received  his 
education  in  the  Military  Academy  of  St.  Cyr.  In  1837 
he  entered  an  artillery  regiment  as  lieutenant.  His 
talents  soon  attracted  attention,  and  in  particular  that 
of  Marshal  Bugeaud,  who,  in  recognition  of  his  bravery 
displayed  in  the  battles  of  Sidi-Yussuf  and  Isly,  made 
him  his  adjutant.  His  services  in  the  Crimean  war  gained 
for  him  the  rank  of  a general  of  division.  In  this 


TRO 


capacity  he  received  a command  in  the  Italian  cam- 
paign of  1859.  On  the  conclusion  of  peace  he  was 
relegated  to  the  ministry  of  war,  and  received  the 
grand  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  Niel  had  intended 
him  for  his  successor  as  minister  of  war,  but  the  latter’s 
celebrated  brochure  on  French  military  affairs  had 
drawn  down  upon  him  the  displeasure  of  the  imperial 
court.  Before  the  war  of  1870-71,  General  Trochu 
held  command  of  the  army  division  in  Toulouse,  which 
Niel  and  Leboeuf  had  held  before  him.  In  the  crisis 
which  followed  the  battle  of  Sedan  he  was  made  gov- 
ernor of  Paris  and  commander- in-chief  of  all  the  forces 
destined  for  the  defense  of  the  capital,  which  he  held 
until  the  city  surrendered  to  the  German  hosts.  In 
October,  1871,  he  was  elected  president  of  the  council- 
general  for  Morbihan;  but  he  afterward  resigned  this 
post  In  1873  he  published  a work  entitled  Pour  la 
Verite  et  pour  la  Justice , in  justification  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  national  defense.  Died  Oct.  7,  1896. 

TROLLOPE,  Edward,  D.D.,  F.S.A.,  bishop  of 
Nottingham,  born  April  15,  1817;  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  was  pre- 
sented to  the  rectory  of  Leasingham,  Lincolnshire,  in 
1843,  was  collated  to  a prebend  in  the  Cathedral  church 
of  Lincoln  in  1861,  was  elected  proctor  in  convoca- 
tion for  the  diocese  of  Lincoln  in  1866,  and  appointed 
archdeacon  of  Stow  and  prebendary  of  Liddington  in 
1867.  Having  been  appointed  bishop  suffragan  of  the 
see  of  Nottingham  in  the  room  of  Dr.  Henry  Mac- 
kenzie, resigned,  he  was  consecrated  December  21,  1877. 
He  wrote  extensively  on  historical  topics  of  ancient  and 
mediaeval  times,  and  upon  church  matters,  his  works 
including  a Life  of  Adrian  IV.  Pie  died  Dec.  10,  1893. 

TROLLOPE,  Sir  Henry,  born  in  Norwich,  Eng- 
land in  1756,  entered  the  navy  in  1770,  fought  at  Lex- 
ington and  Bunker  Hill,  and  in  the  siege  of  Boston, 
assisted  at  the  taking  of  Rhode  Island  and  the  attacks 
on  F orts  Montgomery  and  Clinton,  and  afterward  served 
at  Philadelphia.  He  became  a full  admiral  in  1812, 
and  died  November  2,  1839. 

TROOST,  Gerhard,  mineralogist,  was  born  in  Bois 
le  Due,  Holland,  March  15,  1776;  and  died  in  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  August  14,  1850.  His  special  studies 
Were  chemistry,  geology,  and  natural  history,  and  in 
1801  he  received  the  degree  of  master  in  pharmacy  from 
the  University  of  Amsterdam.  In  1809,  while  studying 
in  Paris,  he  was  appointed  by  Louis  Bonaparte,  then 
king  of  Holland,  scientific  attache  of  a naval  expedi- 
tion to  Java,  but  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English, 
and,  after  being  held  a prisoner  at  Dunkirk  for  a short 
time,  sailed  for  America,  hoping  to  reach  Java  by 
that  route.  Soon  after  his  arrival  Java  was  sur- 
rendered to  the  English,  and  Troost  decided  to  remain 
in  the  United  States.  He  assisted  in  founding  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  in  Philadelphia  in  1812, 
and  was  president  of  that  institution  until  1817.  In 
1821  he  became  professor  of  mineralogy  in  the  Phila- 
delphia Museum,  and  in  1827  he  went  to  Nashville, 
Where,  in  the  following  year,  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry,  geology,  and  mineralogy,  a chair 
which  he  held  until  his  death.  He  was  also  State 
geologist  of  Tennessee  from  1831  until  1849. 

TROWBRIDGE,  Edmund,  was  born  in  Newton, 
Mass.,  in  1709;  died  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  April  2, 
1792.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1728,  and  be- 
came attorney-general  of  Massachusetts  in  1749.  He 
was  for  a long  time  known  by  the  name  of  Goff,  after 
an  uncle.  He  was  a member  of  the  council  several 
years,  but  his  apparent  indifference  to  British  aggres- 
sions caused  him  to  be  retired  by  his  party  in  1766. 
The  next  year,  however,  he  was  appointed  to  the  su- 
preme bench  of  Massachusetts,  and  gained  a wide  repn- 


6843 

tation  as  a profound  lawyer  and  an  able  and  upright 
judge.  His  stern  sense  of  justice  threatened  to  become 
embarrassing  to  him  in  view  of  his  attachment  to  the 
royal  government,  and  in  1772  he  resigned  his  office 
and  retired  to  private  life.  As  an  executor  of  John 
Alfred,  he  founded  in  Harvard  the  Alfred  professor- 
ship of  natural  religion,  moral  philosophy,  and  civil 
polity. 

TROWBRIDGE,  John,  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
August  5,  1843.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1866,  and  in  1870  he  established  in  that  university  a 
laboratory  course  of  instruction  in  physics,  of  which 
the  Jefferson  physical  laboratory  is  the  outgrowth.  In 
1873  Harvard  conferred  upon  him  the  degree  of  S.D., 
and  in  1880  he  was  appointed  professor  of  experimental 
physics.  He  held  this  chair  until  1888,  when  he  was 
advanced  to  the  Rumford  professorship  of  the  applica- 
tion of  science  to  the  useful  arts.  The  scientific  work 
of  Professor  Trowbridge  has  consisted  largely  of  origi- 
nal investigations,  and  his  later  papers  have  had  much 
to  do*  with  electricity.  Among  the  instruments  devised 
by  him  are  a new  form  of  galvanometer,  a new  induc- 
-tion  coil,  and  a new  form  of  mirror  galvanometer.  He 
has  written  more  than  fifty  papers  on  scientific  subjects. 
Since  1879  ^as  t>een  an  associate  editor  of  the 
American  Journal  of  Sciencey  with  charge  of  the  notices 
on  physics.  He  is  a member  of  many  societies,  include 
ing  the  National  Academy  of  Science,  and  was  one  of 
the  editors  of  the  Annals  of  Scientific  Discovery  for 
1869,  published  in  1870. 

TROWBRIDGE*,  John  Townsend,  was  born  ir 
Ogden,  N.  Y.,  September  18, 1827.  He  began  literary 
work  in  New  York.  In  1848  he  settled  in  Boston,  and 
has  since  been  connected  with  many  magazines  and 
newspapers.  From  1870  until  1873  he  was  managing 
editor  of  Our  Young  Folks.  He  has  written  numerous 
books  of  adventure,  travel,  and  fiction,  his  stories  for 
boys  being  especially  successful.  He  has  also  written 
a number  of  poems,  of  which  The  Vagabonai  is  perhaps 
the  best  known.  Mr.  Trowbridge  was  one  of  the 
original  contributors  to  the  Atlantic  Monthly. 

TROWBRIDGE,  William  P.,  engineer,  was  born 
in  Oakland  county,  Michigan,  May  25,  1828.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Military  Academy  in 
1848;  was  made  second  lieutenant  in  the  corps  of 
engineers,  and  assigned  to  duty  in  the  United  States 
coast  survey  at  his  own  request.  He  was  engaged  in 
the  primary  triangulation  of  the  coast  of  Maine,  and 
subsequently  executed  surveys  of  Appomattox  river  and 
James  river  in  Virginia,  with  a view  to  the  improve- 
ment of  their  navigation.  In  1853  he  went  to  the 
Pacific  coast  under  orders  to  make  a series  of  tidal  and 
magnetic  observations,  and  while  engaged  in  this  work 
he  became  first  lieutenant,  December  18,  1854.  Re- 
turning from  the  West  in  1856,  he  resigned  from  the 
corps  of  engineers  to  accept  the  professorship  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  University  of  Michigan;  but  a year  later 
he  returned  to  service  on  the  coast  survey.  After  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  war  he  was  placed  in  charge  of 
the  engineer  office  in  New  York  city,  and  while  there 
superintended  the  construction  of  the  fort  at  Willett’s 
Point,  N.  Y. , and  other  important  works.  From  1865 
until  1869  he  was  vice-president  of  the  Novelty  Iron 
Works  of  New  York  city,  and  then  became  professor  of 
dynamical  engineering  in  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School 
of  Yale.  In  1876  he  took  charge  of  the  engineering 
department  of  the  School  of  Mines  of  Columbia.  The 
degree  of  A.M.  was  conferred  on  him  by  Rochester  in 
1856,  and  by  Yale  in  1870,  that  of  Ph.  D.  by  Princeton 
in  1879?  nnd  that  of  LL.D.  by  Trinity  in  1880.  He 
published  Heat  as  a Source  of  Powers  and  other  works. 
He  died  August  12,  1892. 


6844  TRU- 

TRUMBULL,  James  H.,  LL.D.,  a noted  philolo- 
gist, is  a native  of  Stonington,  Conn.,  and  he  was 
born  December  20,  1821.  He  entered  Yale  College  in 
(838,  and  in  1842-43  assisted  in  the  compilation  of  a 
catalogue  of  the  mammalia,  reptiles,  fishes  and  shells  of 
die  State.  He  settled  in  Hartford  in  1847,  and  until 
1 861  was  assistant  secretary  of  state,  becoming  secre- 
tary in  the  latter  year,  and  so  continuing  until  1864. 
During  the  same  period  he  was  a member  of  the  Con- 
necticut Historical  Society,  trustee  of  the  Watkins 
Free  Library  of  Hartford,  also  its  librarian,  an  officer  of 
the  Wadsworth  Athensenum,  and  prominently  connected 
With  other  societies  of  a scientific  and  miscellaneous 
character.  In  1858  he  began  to  devote  his  attention  to 
the  Indian  languages  of  North  America,  and  has  since 
prepared  a dictionary  and  vocabulary  to  John  Eliot’s 
Indian  Bible.  In  1873  he  was  appointed  to  lecture  on 
Indian  languages  in  Yale  College,  but  loss  of  health  and 
other  causes  compelled  him  to  resign.  For  years  he  has 
been  a contributor  of  articles  on  various  subjects  to 
societies  and  periodicals.  The  catalogue  of  American- 
isms made  by  him  for  George  Brinley  secured  for  Mr. 
Trumbull  a pronounced  and  widely  extended  reputa- 
tion. In  1871  Yale  College,  and  in  1887  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, conferred  the  title  of  LL.D.  upon  Trumbull, 
and  in  that  latter  year  Columbia  College  conferred  that 
of  L L.D.  He  died  Aug.  5,  1897. 

TRUMBULL,  Lyman,  jurist,  was  born  at  Colches- 
ter, Conn.,  October  12,  1813,  and  began  his  public 
career  when  he  was  twenty  years  of  age,  as  head  master 
of  an  academy  of  learning  in  Georgia.  He  studied  law 
in  that  State,  where  he  was  also  admitted  to  practice,  in 
1837,  and  during  the  same  year  he  removed  to  Belleville, 
111.  In  1841  he  became  secretary  of  state,  and  in  1848 
was  elevated  to  the  supreme  bench  of  the  state.  He  was 
elected  to  congress  as  a Democrat  in  1854,  and  while 
serving  as  representative  was  chosen  United  States  Sen- 
ator for  the  term  commencing  March  4,  1855.  i860, 

having  meanwhile  acted  with  the  Republican  party  and 
against  his  colleague,  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  on  the  ques- 
tion of  slavery,  Senator  Trumbull  was  prominently 
mentioned  in  connection  with  the  Republican  nomina- 
tion for  the  presidency,  but  he  heartily  coincided  with 
the  action  of  the  Chicago  convention,  and  labored  ear- 
nestly for  the  election  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  In  1861  he 
was  reelected  to  the  Senate,  where  he  took  an  active  part 
in  securing  the  passage  of  the  constitutional  amendment 
providing  for  the  abolition  of  slavery,  and  was  one  of 
the  Republicans  who  voted  against  the  impeachment  of 
President  Johnson.  He  returned  to  the  Democratic 
party,  and  was  its  candidate  for  Governor  of  Illinois  in 
1880.  For  many  years  he  practiced  law  in  Chicago, 
and  in  1895  appeared  before  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court 
as  counsel  for  Eugene  V.  Debs.  Died  June  25,  1896. 

TRUXTUN,  Thomas,  was  born  in  Jamaica,  Long 
Island,  February  17,  1755;  died  in  Philadelphia,  May 
5,  1822.  He  served  for  a short  time  on  a British  war 
ship,  and  afterward  became  captain  of  a vessel  in  the 
merchant  marine.  In  1775  he  brought  quantities  of 
powder  to  Philadelphia,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  his 
vessel  was  seized  by  the  British  frigate  Argo.  He  was 
next  lieutenant  on  the  privateer  Congress , and  later 
commanded  the  Independence , with  which  he  took  a 
number  of  prizes  off  the  Azore  Islands.  Returning,  he 
fitted  out  the  ship  Mars  with  twenty  guns,  and  cap- 
tured several  vessels  in  the  English  channel.  In  1781 
he  was  in  charge  of  the  St.  James , with  which  he  dis- 
abled a British  ship  of  thirty-two  guns.  In  1794  he 
commanded  the  frigate  Constellation,  and  was  made 
captain  of  the  West  India  squadron.  After  several  vic- 
tories, he  was  appointed  in  1802  to  command  a squadron 
in  a war  with  Tripoli,  but,  taking  offense  because  he  was 


-TSE 

refused  a captain  to  his  flag  ship,  he  declined  the  ap- 
pointment. President  Jefferson  afterward  ordered 
Truxtun’s  name  struck  off  the  list,  and  his  naval  career 
ended  there.  Commodore  Truxtun  was  noted  for  never 
having  been  defeated  in  battle. 

TRUXTUN,  William  Talbot,  a rear-admiral  in 
the  United  States  navy,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  March 
11,  1824,  and  graduated  at  the  Naval  Academy  as  a 
passed  midshipman,  August  10,  1847.  His  service  since 
then  was  almost  continuous  on  the  Pacific  station;  at 
the  laying  of  the  Atlantic  cable;  with  the  Strain  expe- 
dition across  the  Isthmus;  in  the  Paraguay  war,  and  in 
the  North  American  squadron,  where  he  was  continued 
during  the  Civil  war.  On  July  16,  1862,  he  was  pro- 
moted to  lieutenant-commander,  and  participated  in 
the  capture  of  Plymouth,  N.C.,  the  assaults  upon  Fort 
Fisher,  and  in  all  the  engagements  along  the  North 
Carolina  coast.  After  the  war  his  promotion  was  quite 
rapid,  he  having  been  successively  advanced  to  the  rank 
of  commander  July  25,  1866;  captain,  September  25, 
1873;  commodore,  May  II,  1882,  and  rear-admiral, 
February  18,  1886.  His  service  during  the  same  period 
was  in  the  Pacific  squadron  and  North  Atlantic  squad- 
ron, as  commander  at  the  Norfolk  navy  yard,  and  in 
other  fields  of  usefulness.  He  was  retired  by  law  as  a 
commodore,  March  II,  1886,  and  died  Feb.  27,  1887. 

TRYON,  William,  was  born  in  Ireland  about 
1725,  and  for  a brief  period  served  in  the  British  army. 
He  wasappointedlieutenanDgovernor  of  North  Carolina 
through  the  influence  of  the  earl  of  Hillsborough,  a rela- 
tive by  marriage,  and  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies, 
becoming  governor  of  NewYork  through  the  same  agency 
in  July,  1771.  His  administration  of  affairs  was  charac- 
terized by  extravagance,  and  became  so  rigorous  as  to 
estrange  him  from  the  people,  while  his  expeditions 
against  Danbury,  Fairfield  and  Norwalk,  Conn.,  were 
attended  by  inhumanities  that  made  him  an  object  of  de- 
testation to  American  patriots,  and  after  his  resignation, 
March  21,  1778,  he  returned  to  England,  and  died  in 
London,  February  27,  1788. 

TSCHUDI,  Friedrich  von,  a Swiss  author, 
brother  of  John  J.  von  Tschudi,  was  born  at  Glarus 
in  1820,  and  began  life  as  a clergyman,  a profession 
which  he  abandoned  in  1846  for  that  of  politics. 
His  most  important  literary  work  was  that  devoted  to 
an  exposition  of  Alpine  zoology,  issued  in  1852,  which 
has  passed  through  a large  number  of  editions.  He 
also  issued  a book  on  the  relations  of  birds  and  insects 
to  agriculture,  and  in  1884  became  a member  of  the 
council  of  the  Polytechnique  School  of  Switzerland. 
He  died  January  25,  1886. 

TSCHUDI,  Johann  Jacob  von,  a Swiss  traveler 
and  author,  was  born  at  Glarus,  July  25,  1818. 
He  attended  the  universities  of  Leyden  and  Paris,  and 
in  1838  visited  Peru,  where  he  remained  for  five  years 
engaged  in  exploring  the  country  and  making  collec- 
tions of  leaves,  grasses,  etc.  From  Peru  he  went  to 
Vienna,  in  1843,  thence  sailing  to  Brazil  and  other 
countries  in  South  America,  and  accepting,  in  i860, 
the  position  of  minister  from  Switzerland  to  Brazil,  in 
which  capacity  he  served  eight  years,  when  he  was 
promoted  to  a similar  post  at  the  court  of  Vienna. 
His  collections  of  plants,  etc.,  for  the  museums  of  the 
German  universities,  are  valuable,  and  his  works  on 
the  fauna  of  Peru,  the  topography  of  the  Andes,  and 
on  other  subjects,  are  numerous  and  of  great  impor- 
tance. He  died  October  8,  1889. 

TSENG,  Marquis,  envoy  extraordinary  and  minister 
plenipotentiary  fromChinato  the  courts  of  London,  Paris, 
and  St.  Petersburg,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Tseng  Kwo- 
fan,  the  firstmarquis,  andthe  most  distinguished  states- 
man who  had  appeared  in  China  for  many  years.  He 


TU  C 


was  a native  of  Hunata,  and  was  born  about  1848.  He 
succeeded  his  kinsman,  Two  Ta-Jen,  as  minister  of 
China  to  the  courts  of  London  and  Paris  in  1878,  and 
afterward,  when  the  question  of  the  retrocession  of 
Kuldja  threatened  to  produce  a rupture  of  friendly  rela- 
tions between  Russia  and  China,  he  was  also  accredited 
to  St.  Petersburg.  It  was  by  him  that  the  treaty  of 
St.  Petersburg,  replacing  that  of  Livadia,  was  negoti- 
ated; and  in  1883  he  endeavored  to  come  to  an  arrange- 
ment with  France  on  the  subject  of  Tonquin.  He 
died  April  12,  1890. 

TUCK,  Joseph  Henry,  an  inventor,  was  born  at 
Dorchester,  Mass.,  March  12,  1812;  graduated  at  the 
Boston  High  School,  and,  while  employed  in  a candle 
factory,  perfected  his  first  invention,  known  as  the 
“endless  wick.”  In  1837  he  removed  to  England,  and 
during  his  residence  of  twenty-five  years  in  London, 
where  he  was  employed  as  an  engineer,  he  was  con- 
tinually developing  and  improving  mechanical  equip- 
ments and  appliances.  His  discoveries  embraced  gas 
and  water  pipes,  ventilating  and  dredging  machines,  a 
rotary-engine,  and  many  other  articles  of  utility  and 
value.  It  is  claimed  for  him  that  he  was  the  originator 
of  the  plan  for  an  electric  submarine  cable  between 
Dover  and  Calais,  laid  in  1848,  and  the  author  of  the 
designs  upon  which  the  Suez  canal  was  afterward  con- 
structed, but  that  he  was  defrauded  of  the  benefits  that 
accrued  from  the  application  of  principles  he  discovered 
in  both  instances.  He  returned  to  the  United  States 
in  1865,  and  has  since  resided  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

TUCKER,  Beverly,  was  born  in  Arnchester,  Va.,  in 
1820 ; died  July  4, 1890.  He  first  came  prominently  into 
notice  in  1853,  when,  as  editor  of  the  Washington  Sen- 
tinel, he  was  a fearless  advocate  of  the  doctrine  of  State 
rights.  President  Buchanan  appointed  him  consul  to 
Liverpool  in  1857,  and  upon  his  return  in  1861  he  en- 
tered the  service  of  the  Confederate  government,  and 
was  twice  entrusted  with  important  missions  to  Eng- 
land and  Canada.  After  the  war  he  went  to  England, 
and  was  subsequently  an  exile  in  Canada,  but  as  soon 
as  his  disabilities  were  removed  he  again  took  up  his  res- 
idence in  Washington,  spending  his  summers  at  Berkeley 
Springs,  Va.  In  1889  he  was  named  by  President  Har- 
rison as  one  of  the  commissioners  on  the  Samoan  claims, 
but  the  objections  that  were  raised  on  account  of  his 
Confederate  record  caused  the  appointment  to  be  with- 
drawn. 

TUCKER,  Henry  St.  George,  LL.D.,  was  born 
at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  December  29, 1780,  and  educated 
at  William  and  Mary  College.  Upon  his  admission  to 
the  bar  he  settled  at  Winchester,  Va.,  in  1802,  where 
he  remained  in  the  active  practice  of  his  profession  until 
the  war  of  1812,  in  which  he  participated.  From  1815 
to  1818  he  was  a member  of  congress,  afterward  a mem- 
ber of  the  State  Senate  until  1824,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed chancellor  of  Virginia,  succeeding  to  the  chief 
justiceship  of  the  Court  of  Appeals  in  1831,  and  to  the 
law  professorship  of  the  University  of  Virginia  in  1841. 
He  resigned  that  position  in  1845,  on  account  of  his 
failing  health,  and  died  at  Winchester,  Va.,  August  28, 
1848.  Judge  Tucker  declined  the  attorney- generalship 
of  the  United  States  tendered  him  by  President  Jack- 
son,  and  was  the  author  of  Commentaries  on  the  Law  of 
Virginia  and  other  works  bearing  upon  the  admin- 
istration of  the  laws.  In  1837  he  received  the  degree 
of  LL.D.  from  William  and  Mary  College. 

TUCKER,  John  Randolph,  a naval  officer,  was 
born  at  Alexandria,  Va.,  January  31,  1812,  and  entered 
the  navy  as  a midshipman  June  1,  1826.  He  partici- 
pated in  the  capture  of  Tabasco  and  in  other-  engage- 
ments of  the  Mexican  war,  and  from  1855  to  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war  between  the  States,  was  in  charge  of  the 
jy-J 


684? 

receiving  ship  Pennsylvania , at  Norfolk,  also  serving 
as  ordnance  officer  at  the  Norfolk  navy  yard.  Upon 
the  secession  of  Virginia  he  resigned  his  position  in  the 
United  States  navy,  and  became  commander  in  the 
Virginia  navy.  He  was  afterward  transferred  to 
the  Confederate  navy,  and  served  until  the  evacuation 
of  Richmond,  when  he  became  a soldier  in  Ewell’s 
corps  of  the  army  of  Northern  Virginia,  and  with  that 
command  covered  the  retreat  of  the  Confederate  army. 
In  1866  he  was  appointed  a rear-admiral  in  the  Peruvian 
navy,  and  during  the  war  between  Chili,  Peru  and  Spain 
commanded  the  forces  of  the  two  republics.  He 
returned  to  V irginia  at  the  close  of  hostilities,  and  died 
at  Petersburg,  June  12,  1883. 

TUCKER,  Luther,  was  born  in  Brandon,  Vt.,  May 
7,  1802;  died  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  January  26,  1873. 
After  serving  an  apprenticeship  at  the  printer’s  trade 
he  traveled  as  a journeyman  through  the  New  England 
and  Middle  States,  and  in  1825  formed  a partnership 
with  Henry  C.  Sleight  in  Jamaica,  Long  Island,  where 
they  published  standard  works  for  New  York  houses. 
He  went  to  Rochester  in  1826,  and  began  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Daily  Advertiser , the  first  daily  newspaper 
published  west  of  Albany.  He  founded  the  Genesee 
Farmer , an  agricultural  paper,  January  1,  1831,  and  it 
met  with  such  success  that  he  sold  the  Advertiser  va.  1839, 
and  in  1840  combined  his  agricultural  journal  with  the 
Cultivator  of  Albany.  The  combination  was  issued 
from  Albany  under  the  name  of  the  Cultivator.  In  1853 
he  established  The  Country  Gentleman , a weekly,  but 
in  1866  consolidated  it  with  the  Cultivator , which  is 
still  published  by  his  sons. 

TUCKER,  St.  George,  LL.D.,  was  bom  in  the 
island  of  Bermuda,  July  10,  1752,  and,  when  a boy, 
accompanied  his  father  to  America,  settling  in  Vir- 
ginia. He  was  graduated  at  William  and  Mary  Col- 
lege in  1772,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  practice, 
but  in  1775  returned  to  Bermuda.  Two  years  later  he 
again  became  a resident  of  Virginia,  and,  having  joined 
the  Continental  army,  undertook  an  expedition  to  Ber- 
muda. The  expedition  proved  successful,  resulting  in 
the  capture  of  a large  amount  of  munitions  of  war.  He 
rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  was  present 
at  the  surrender  of  Yorktown,  where  he  was  wounded 
by  the  explosion  of  a shell.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  general  court  of  Virginia, 
succeeding,  in  1803,  to  a justiceship  of  the  Court  of 
Appeals,  and  later  to  the  judgeship  of  the  United 
States  Circuit  Court  for  the  Eastern  District  of  Vir- 
ginia. During  this  period  he  was  also  professor  of  law 
at  William  and  Mary  College.  He  died  at  Warmin- 
ster, Va.,  November  10,  1828. 

TUCKER,  Samuel,  was  born  in  Marblehead, 
Mass.,  November  1,  1747;  died  in  Bremen,  Me.,  March 
10,  1833.  At  the  age  of  eleven  he  ran  away  to  sea, 
and  in  1768  acquired  command  of  a merchantman, 
making  many  voyages  as  a captain.  General  Washing- 
ton commissioned  him  a captain  of  the  navy  January 
20,  1776,  and  soon  afterward,  while  cruising  in  a small 
schooner,  he  captured,  after  a desperate  fight,  a British 
transport  with  troops  and  stores.  He  was  first  given 
command  of  the  schooner  Franklin , but  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Hancock  in  March,  1 776,  and  with  these 
two  schooners  he  captured  more  than  thirty  British 
vessels  during  that  year,  some  of  them  very  valuable 
prizes.  He  commanded  the  frigate  Boston , in  which 
John  Adams  went  as  minister  to  France  in  February, 
1778,  and  captured  five  prizes  on  his  return  voyage. 
In  the  following  year  he  captured  the  British  frigate 
Poley  and  several  privateers,  and  while  sailing  with  the 
Deane>  under  Commodore  Samuel  Nichmson,  hi? 
vessel,  the  Boston , took  the  sloop-of-war  Thomt  uiv 


6846  T U C - 

aided.  Tucker  was  with  the  American  squadron  when 
it  was  taken  by  the  British  fleet  on  the  surrender  of 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  in  1779,  was  paroled  May  20,  1780, 
and,  returning  to  Boston,  assumed  command  of  his 
former  prize,  the  Thorn , with  which  he  did  effective 
work.  In  July,  1781,  he  was  captured  by  the  British 
frigate  Hind , off  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  river, 
and  after  being  held  for  a time  at  Prince  Edward  Island, 
was  paroled.  After  the  war  Tucker  received  a vote  of 
thanks  from  congress  for  his  services.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  in  1814,  serving 
four  years,  and  was  a member  of  the  Maine  Legisla- 
ture in  1820-21.  In  his  old  age  he  was  in  reduced 
circumstances,  through  being  defrauded  of  his  prizes, 
and  deprived  of  full  compensation  for  his  services  as  a 
captain  in  the  navy. 

TUCKER,  Thomas  Tudor,  treasurer  of  the  United 
States  during  the  early  history  of  the  republic;  was 
a native  of  the  island  of  Bermuda,  having  been  born 
at  Port  Royal  during  1745.  He  studied  medicine* 
was  admitted  to  practice,  and  emigrated  to  South 
Carolina,  whence  he  was  a delegate  to  the  Continental 
congress.  After  the  adoption  of  the  constitution,  he 
was  a member  of  congress  for  two  terms,  and  in  1801 
was  appointed  treasurer  of  the  United  States,  serving 
in  that  capacity  until  his  death,  which  occurred  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  May  2,  1828. 

TUCKERMAN,  Henry  Theodore,  a well-known 
writer  of  prose  and  verse,  was  born  at  Boston,  Mass., 
April  20,  1813,  and  died  in  New  York  city,  December 
17,  1871.  Upon  completing  his  education  he  visited 
Europe,  and  upon  his  return,  in  1835,  published  the 
Italian  Sketch  Book.  Two  years  later  he  again  went 
to  Europe,  remaining  there  until  1839,  when  he  came 
back  to  America,  and  during  the  same  year  published 
Isabel , or  Sicily,  & Pilgrimage.  In  1845  he  removed 
to  New  York  city,  where  he  resided  until  his  death, 
engaged  in  litetary  pursuits.  Plis  most  important 
Works  are  Thoughts  on  the  Poets  (1846);  Artist  Life 
(1847),  and  The  Optimist  (1850). 

TUCKERMAN,  Joseph,  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.* 
January  18,  1 778;  died  in  Havana,  Cuba,  April  20, 
1840.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1798,  entered 
the  Unitarian  ministry  in  1801,  and  in  1826  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  American  Unitarian  association  minis- 
ter at  large  in  Boston.  He  afterward  made  a scientific 
study  of  pauperism  and  the  administration  of  charity, 
and,  by  introducing  practical  methods  of  dealing  with 
the  poor,  rose  to  a prominent  rank  among  the  bene- 
factors of  mankind.  His  principles  were  adopted  in 
France  and  England,  resulting  in  the  Tuckerman  In- 
stitute of  Liverpool  and  many  other  associations.  The 
degree  of  D.D.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  Harvard 
in  1824.  His  principal  writings  have  been  collected 
under  the  title  of  Elevation  of  the  Poor. 

TUKE,  D.  HACK,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.,  LL.D.,  Lon- 
don, was  born  at  York,  England,  in  1827.  Dr.  Tuke 
Was  the  editor  of  the  Journal  of  Mental  Science.  In 
1881  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Medico- Psycho- 
logical Association  of  Great  Britain.  In  addition  to  a 
treatise  on  Sleep-walking  and  Hypnotism , Dr.  Tuke 
published  the  results  of  a visit  which  he  paid  to  asy- 
lums in  Canada  and  the  United  States.  The  exposure 
of  the  bad  condition  of  certain  asylums  in  Canada  has 
already  born  fruit.  He  died  March  5,  1895. 

TULANE,  Paul,  founder  of  the  lulane  University 
of  Louisiana,  was  born  at  Cherry  Valley,  N.  J.,  in 
May,  1801.  During  the  winter  of  1822,  Mr.  Tulane 
settled  in  New  Orleans,  where  he  was  continuously  en- 
gaged in  business  until  1873,  when  he  returned  to  New 
Jersey.  His  attachment  to  the  city  wherein  he  had  ac- 
quired an  immense  fortune,  remained  undisturbed  by  h is 


-TUR 

removal,  and  on  May  2,  1882,  he  conveyed  property 
located  in  New  Orleans,'  valued  at  over  one  million 
dollars,  to  a board  of  seventeen  administrators,  direct- 
ing that  the  same,  or  its  proceeds,  be  applied  to  the 
higher  education  of  the  white  youth  of  Louisiana. 
Upon  this  endowment  the  Tulane  University  was  es- 
tablished during  1884,  and  has  met  with  very  pro- 
nounced success.  It  now  has  twenty  professors,  as- 
sistant professors  and  instructors,  with  a curriculum 
embracing  every  department  of  knowledge,  and  a 
steadily  increasing  number  of  matriculants.  Mr. 
Tulane  died  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  March  27,  1887. 

TULLOCH,  John,  a noted  clergyman  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church  of  Scotland,  was  born  in  Perthshire,  in 
1823,  and  died  in  1886.  He  was  for  years  prominent 
in  theological  and  educational  affairs,  and  the  author 
of  a number  of  literary  works  which  have  become 
famous.  Among  the  latter,  The  Being  and  Attributes 
of  God,  published  in  1855,  obtained  for  its  author  a 
prize  of  $3,000. 

TUPPER,  Martin  Farquhar,  F.R.S.,  born  in 
London,  in  1810,  was  educated  at  the  Charterhouse 
and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  took  the  de- 
grees of  B.A.,  M.A.,  and  D.C.L.  He  was  called  to 
the  bar,  but  never  practiced,  and  published  Geraldine 
and  Other  Poems  (1838J;  Proverbial  Philosophy  ( 1839- 
44),  a book  which  went  through  countless  editions  in 
Europe  and  America,  and  many  other  productions,  in- 
cluding a variety  of  articles,  reviews,  and  fugitive  pieces 
in  prose  and  verse.  He  died  November  29,  1889. 

TUPPER,  Sir  Charles,  K.C.M.G.,  born  July  2, 
1821;  is  the  son  of  the  Rev.  Charles  Tupper,  D.D.,  of 
Kingston,  Nova  Scotia.  He  is  an  M.A.  and  D.C.L., 
of  Acadia  College,  Nova  Scotia,  took  the  degree  of 
M.D.  at  Edinburgh,  and  obtained  the  diploma  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in  that  city  in  1843. 
From  1857  to  i860  he  was  a member  of  the  executive 
council,  and  provincial  secretary  of  Nova  Scotia;  and 
prime  minister  of  that  province  from  1864,  until  he  re- 
tired from  office  with  his  government  on  the  Union 
Act  coming  into  force,  July  1,  1867.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Privy  Council  in  1870,  and  was  presi- 
dent of  that  body  until  July,  1872,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  inland  revenue.  In  1873  he  was 
nominated  minister  of  customs ; minister  of  public 
works  in  1878,  and  minister  of  railways  and  canals  in 
1879.  He  resigned  his  seat  in  the  cabinet  in  1884, 
and  in  May  of  that  year  was  appointed  high  commis- 
sioner for  Canada  in  London.  In  1887-88  he  was  one 
of  the  negotiators  of  the  fisheries  treaty  with  the 
United  States,  and  was  knighted  for  his  services. 

TUPPER,  Sir  Charles  Hibbert,  lawyer,  son  of 
the  above,  born  in  Amherst,  Nova  • Scotia,  August  3, 
1855,  became  Canadian  minister  of  marine  and  fish- 
eries in  1888,  and  minister  of  justice,  1894. 

TURNER,  Charles  Tennyson,  English  clergy- 
man, born  in  1808  at  Somersby.  Was  a brother  of 
Alfred  Tennyson,  with  whom  he  published  Poems  by 
Tzoo  Brothers , in  1827.  He  adopted  his  grandmother’s 
name  of  Turner.  He  died  April  28,  1879. 

TURNER,  Charles  Yardley,  born  at  Baltimore, 
November  25,  1850,  studied  art  in  New  York,  and  in 
1878-81,  in  Europe,  under  Munkacsy,  Leon,  Bonnat 
and  other  celebrated  artists ; returned  to  America  in 
1881,  and  in  1883  gained  the  Hallgarten  prize  by  his 
Courtship  of  Miles  Standish,  which,  with  John  Alden's 
Letter , Pride  of  the  Farm , Washing  Day,  Afternoon  Tea 
Gossips,  and  other  of  his  paintings,  attracted  marked 
attention  at  the  World’s  Fair,  in  Chicago,  in  1893. 

TURNER,  Godfrey  Wordsworth,  born  in  Lon- 
don, 1825,  studied  art,  and  entered  on  newspaper  work 
With  Mr.  Thornton  Hunt,  on  the  Spectator.  At  the 


T U R ~ 

same  time  he  wrote  for  the  Morning  Chronicle  and  the 
Leader.  Afterward,  from  being  fine  art  critic  of  the 
John  Bull,  he  transferred  his  services  to  the  Daily  News, 
during  the  editorship  of  Mr.  Thomas  Walker.  In 
December,  i860,  he  joined  the  staff  of  the  Daily  Tele- 
graph, and,  on  the  outbreak  in  Jamaica,  he  was  dis- 
atched  with  the  royal  commission  to  that  island.  He 
as  been  an  industrious  contributor  to  the  magazines 
and  periodicals,  andheis  the  author  of  Jest  and  Earnest , 
Homely  Scenes  from  Great  Painters,  Art  Studies , and 
other  books.  Died  June,  1896. 

TURNER,  Nat,  a Virginia  slave,  and  leader  of  the 
Southampton  insurrection  of  1831,  was  born  about 
1800,  and  hanged  at  Jerusalem,  Va.,  November  n, 
1831.  He  assumed  to  -be  inspired  by  heaven  to  pro- 
cure the  freedom  of  his  race,  and  in  the  autumn  of 
1831,  accompanied  by  half-a-dozen  men,  began  his 
efforts  in  that  behalf.  He  proceeded  from  house  to 
house,  his  force  steadily  augmenting  in  numbers,  and  at 
the  end  of  forty-eight  hours  had  killed  fifty-five  white 
persons  without  any  of  his  followers  having  sustained 
injury,  but,  as  they  approached  Jerusalem,  they  encoun- 
tered an  army  of  white  men,  by  whom  they  were  put  to 
flight.  Turner  escaped  to  the  woods,  where  he  remained 
hidden  for  some  weeks,  but  was  finally  captured,  tried, 
convicted  of  murder,  and  hanged.  His  companions  to 
the  number  of  fifty-three  were  eventually  captured,  and 
seventeen  of  them  met  with  a fate  similar  to  that  which 
had  been  meted  out  to  their  chief.  The  occurrence 
caused  a feeling  of  apprehension  to  sweep  over  the 
Slave  States,  but  there  was  no  evidence  ever  adduced 
that  Turner’s  movement  was  anticipated  by  the  negroes, 
or  that  the  latter  expected  to  take  part  in  it. 

TURNER,  Thomas,  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  December  23,  1808;  be- 
came a midshipman  April  21,  1825,  past  midshipman 
six  years  later,  and  a lieutenant  December  22,  1835. 
From  1837  to  the  Civil  war  he  served  in  the  frigates 
Macedonia  and  Colombia,  commanded  the  store-ship 
Fredonia  in  1847,  also  the  Reefer  arid  Albany , and  the 
sloop  Saratoga  from  1858  to  i860,  having  been,  mean- 
while, promoted  to  be  commander.  On  March  6th  of 
the  latter  year  he  captured  the  Miramon  and  Marquis 
de  Havana  off  Vera  Cruz,  to  blockade  which  port  in 
the  interest  of  the  revolutionary  party  of  Mexico,  they 
had  been  purchased  by  General  Miramon.  During  the 
Civil  war  he  commanded  the  New  Ironsides , an  armored 
ship  attached  to  the  South  Atlantic  squadron,  and  was 
present  at  the  attacks  made  upon  the  forts  off  Charleston 
in  1863.  He  was  made  commodore  in  1862;  rear- 
admiral  June  24,  1868;  and  retired  April  21,  1870,  after 
nearly  forty- five  years  of  active  service.  He  died  at  Glen 
Mills,  Penn.,  March  24,  1883. 

Tt)RR,  Stephen,  Gen.,  born  at  Baja,  in  Hungary, 
in  1825;  became  a lieutenant  in  the  Austrian  army  in 
1848.  The  revolutionary  government  of  Hungary  hav- 
ing called  upon  all  Hungarians  serving  under  the  Aus- 
trian flag  in  Italy  to  desert  to  the  Piedmontese,  he  went 
Over  to  the  latter  from  Buffalora,  in  January,  1849,  and 
was  appointed  colonel  of  the  Hungarian  legion  in  the 
Sardinian  service.  After  the  disaster  of  Novara,  Colo- 
nel Tiirr  lived  for  four  years  on  a small  pension  granted 
to  him  by  the  Sardinian  Government.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  Russian  war,  he  vainly  endeavored  to  serve  under 
Omar  Pasha,  but  succeeded  in  taking  part  as  a volunteer 
in  several  of  the  battles  of  the  Crimea,  and  received  a 
commission  from  Colonel  McMurdo,  the  officer  in  com- 
mand of  the  British  transport  service.  While  engaged 
in  the  performance  of  his  duty,  and  in  connection  with 
this  employment,  in  the  autumn  of  1855,  he  was  arrested 
at  Bucharest  by  the  Austrians  as  a deserter,  and  sent 
under  escort  to  Cronstadt  to  be  tried  there.  His  ille- 


-TWI  6847 

gal  arrest  caused  great  excitement  throughout  Europe, 
and,  after  a long  incarceration,  he  was  tried  by  court- 
martial,  and  sentenced  to  death;  which  sentence  was, 
however,  commuted  to  perpetual  banishment.  In  the 
Italian  war  in  1859,  he  was  appointed  a member  of 
Garibaldi’s  staff,  with  the  rank  of  colonel.  In  the  spring 
of  i860,  when  Garibaldi  planned  his  Sicilian  expedition, 
Colonel  Tiirr  again  served  under  him  in  the  capacity  of 
aide-de-camp,  and  before  Palermo  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  general  of  division.  The  part  he  played  in  the 
War  of  Liberation  was  acknowledged  by  the  govern- 
ment of  Victor  Emmanuel,  who  promoted  him  to  the 
rank  of  general  of  division  in  the  army  of  Italy  in  1861, 
and  confided  to  him  the  military  command  of  the  town 
and  province  of  Naples.  Since  his  marriage  he  has 
made  two  journeys  to  Roumania,  with  a view  to  creat- 
ing difficulties  for  Austria  in  the  East  of  Europe.  These 
political  journeys  were,  however,  thought  to  be  com- 
promising to  the  Italian  Government,  and,  accordingly. 
Colonel  Tiirr  resigned  his  commission  in  1864. 

TUTTLE,  Daniel  Sylvester,  D.D.,  a bishop  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  church,  was  born  at  Wind- 
ham, Greene  county,  N.  Y.,  January  26,  1837;  gradu- 
ated at  Columbia  College  in  1857,  and  five  years  later 
at  the  General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York.  He 
became  deacon,  January  29,  1862,  and  was  ordained 
priest,  July  19,  1863,  taking  charge  of  Zion  Church  at 
Morris,  Otsego  county,  N.  Y.  In  1866  Columbia  Col- 
lege conferred  the  degree  of  S.T.D.  upon  him,  and  oil 
the  first  of  May  of  the  following  year  he  was  conse- 
crated missionary  bishop  of  Utah,  Montana,  and  Idaho, 
Utah  and  Idaho  remaining  in  his  charge  when  Mon- 
tana was  disconnected  from  them,  and  so  continuing 
until  1886,  when  he  was  elected  bishop  of  Missouri,  to 
fill  the  vacancy  caused  by  the  death  of  Bishop  Robert- 
son. 

TtJTTLE,  Herbert,  a prominent  educator,  was 
born  in  Bennington,  Vt.,  November  29,  1846,  and 
graduated  at  the  State  University  in  1869.  He  began 
his  career  as  a journalist,  so  continuing  until  1880,  when 
he  Was  appointed  a lecturer  at  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan, becoming,  in  1881,  assistant  professor  of  politics 
and  international  law  at  Cornell.  He  is  the  author  of 
German  Political  Leaders , History  of  Prussia  to  the 
Accession  of  Frederick  the  Great  and  Histoiy  of  Prussia 
Under  Frederick  the  Great  Died  June,  1894. 

TWIGGS,  David  Emanuel,  was  born  in  .Rich- 
mond county,  Ga.,  in  1790,  and  became  a captain  in 
the  8th  United  States  infantry,  March  12,  1812.  He 
was  engaged  in  the  war  with  Great  Britain,  also  in  the 
Mexican  war,  in  which  he  participated  in  all  the  lead- 
ing battles,  and  was  promoted  from  a subordinate  rank 
to  major-general  by  brevet  for  gallant  conduct  at  Palo 
Alto,  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  and  Monterey,  being  also 
the  recipient  of  a swprd,  presented  him  by  congress. 
At  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  war  he  was  stationed 
in  Texas,  and  surrendered  his  army,  together  with  its 
stores  and  equipments,  to  the  Confederates,  for  which 
he  was  dishonorably  dismissed  from  the  United  States 
army.  In  May,  1861,  he  was  appointed  a major- 
general  in  the  Confederate  army,  and  given  the  com- 
mand of  Louisiana.  He  resigned  this  command  in 
1862,  and  died  September  15th  of  the  same  year  at 
Augusta,  Ga. 

TWISS,  Sir  Travers,  Q.C.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  was 
born  in  Westminster,  March  19,  1809,  and  died  Jan- 
uary 14,  1897.  At  Oxford  he  graduated  in 

1830,  and  became  fellow  and  tutor  of  his  college.  Fro..* 
1835  till  1839  he  was  one  of  the  public  examiners  at 
Oxford,  in  1838  he  was  elected  a fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society;  from  1842  till  1847  was  professor  of  political 
economy  in  the  University  of  Oxford;  from  18^2  till 


T YL— T YN 


6848 

l855  professor  of  international  law  in  King’s  College, 
London,  and  was  appointed  regius  professor  of  civil 
law  in  the  University  of  Oxford.  In  1840  he  was  called 
to  the  bar  at  Lincoln’s  Inn,  and  in  1849  he  was  aP' 
pointed  commissary-general  of  the  city;  in  1852  vicar- 
general  of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  in  1858, 
on  th6  advancement  of  the  Right  Hon.  Dr.  Lushington 
to  the  office  of  judge  of  the  Arches  Court  of  Canter- 
bury, was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  diocese  of 
London.  In  1862  he  was  appointed  advocate  general 
of  the  Admiralty.  On  the  transfer  of  the  testamentary 
and  matrimonial  jurisdiction  from  the  ecclesiastical  to 
the  civil  courts,  Doctor  Twiss  was  created  a queen’s 
counsel,  elected  a bencher  of  Lincoln’s  Inn,  became 
queen’s  advocate-general  in  August,  and  was  knighted 
in  November,  1867.  In  1872  Sir  Travers  Twiss  re- 
signed all  his  appointments,  and  has  since  devoted  him- 
self to  literary  and  scientific  pursuits,  being  a frequent 
contributor  to  the  Nautical  Magazine , the  Law  Maga- 
zine and  Review , the  Encyclopcedia  Britannic  a,  and 
La  Revue  de  Droit  International , being  also  a vice- 
president  of  L’lnstitut  de  Droit  International,  estab- 
lished in  1872,  and  of  the  association  for  the  reform  and 
codification  of  the  law  of  nations,  established  in  1873. 

TYLER,  Daniel,  was  born  in  Brooklyn,  Wind- 
ham county,  Conn.,  January  7,  1799;  died  in  New 
York  city,  November  30,  1882.  He  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in  1819,  an<^  *n 
January,  1828,  while  first  lieutenant  of  artillery,  he  was 
sent  to  Europe  to  obtain  data  for  a work  on  the  F rench 
system  of  artillery.  The  result  was  a translation  of  the 
French  authorities  on  the  subject,  and  300  lithographed 
copies  in  three  volumes  were  sent  to  the  war  depart- 
ment in  Washington,  D.  C.  He  also  obtained  a large 
collection  of  drawings  and  memoirs,  relating  to  artil- 
lery practice  in  France.  In  1834  he  resigned  from  the 
army  to  become  president  of  an  iron  and  coal  company 
in  Lycoming  county,  Penn.,  and  in  1840  he  became 
resident  of  the  Norwich  and  Worcester  railroad,  which 
e completed.  He  was  engaged  in  railroad  operations 
until  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed colonel  of  the  first  Connecticut  volunteers, 
April  23,  1861.  After  the  battle  of  Blackburn’s  Ford 
and  Bull  Run,  in  which  he  commanded  a division,  he 
was  mustered  out  August  11,  1861,  but  was  reappointed 
in  the  United  States  volunteer  service  with  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general,  March  13,  1862.  He  served  with  the 
army  of  the  Mississippi  at  the  siege  of  Corinth,  served 
on  the  military  commission  that  investigated  General 
Buell’s  campaign  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  guarded 
the  upper  Potomac,  and  was  in  command  of  Harper’s 
Ferry  and  Maryland  Heights  in  June,  1863.  He  re- 
signed his  commission  April  6,  1864,  and  after  traveling 
extensively  in  the  South  and  in  Europe,  he  established 
large  cotton  and  iron  manufactories  in  Alabama  in  1872, 
and  built  the  town  of  Anniston,  Ala.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Mobile  and  Montgomery  railroad  from 
1873  to  1879. 

TYLER,  Erastus  B.,  was  bom  in  West  Blooming- 
ton, Ontario  county,  N.  Y.,  April  24,  1822.  He  was 
educated  at  Granville  (Ohio)  College,  and  was  engaged 
in  business  until  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war,  when 
he  was  commissioned  colonel  of  the  7th  Ohio  volun- 
teers. He  commanded  a brigade  at  the  battles  of  Cross 
Lanes,  W.  Va. , August  26,  1861;  Winchester,  Va. , 
March  23,  1862;  Port  Republic,  Va. , June  9,  1862,  and 
Fredericksburg,  December  13,  1862.  At  the  last 
named  battle  he  was  wounded.  He  was  made  briga- 
dier-general May  14,  1862,  and  was  mustered  out  of 
service  August  24,  1865. 

TYLER,  Lyon  Gardiner,  son  of  the  tenth  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  was  bom  in  Charles  City 


county,  Virginia,  in  August,  1853.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  University  of  Virginia  in  1875,  after  which  he 
studied  law.  From  January,  1877,  until  November, 
1878,  he  was  professor  of  belles-lettres  in  William  and 
Mary  College,  and  was  afterward  principal  of  a high 
school  in  Memphis,  Tenn.  In  1882  he  established  him- 
self in  Richmond,  where  he  devoted  himself  for  a num- 
ber of  years  to  politics  and  the  practice  of  law.  As  a 
member  of  the  house  of  delegates,  to  which  he  was 
elected  in  1887,  he  advocated  the  bills  to  establish  a 
labor  bureau,  to  regulate  child  labor,  and  to  aid  Will- 
iam and  Mary  College.  He  was  elected  president  of 
William  and  Mary  College  in  1888.  He  has  published 
The  Letters  and  Times  of  the  Tylers. 

TYLER,  Moses  Coit,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Gris- 
wold, Conn.,  August  2, 1835;  graduated  at  Yale  College 
in  the  class  of  1857,  and  studied  theology  at  the  Andover 
Seminary.  In  i860  he  became  pastor  of  the  First 
Congregational  church  of  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.  sub- 
sequently professor  of  English  literature  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  where  he  remained  until  1881, 
since  when  he  has  been  professor  of  American  history 
at  Cornell  University.  In  1875  he  was  given  the  de- 
gree of  LL.D.  by  Wooster  University,  and  in  1888 
Columbia  College  conferred  that  of  LL.D.  He  has 
published  a number  of  miscellaneous  works,  and,  be- 
sides filling  the  position  of  literary  editor  of  the  New 
York  Christian  t/nion,has  been  a frequent  contributor 
to  reviews  and  magazines.  Died  Dec.  28,  1900. 

TYLER,  Royall,  was  born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  July 
18,1757;  read  law  in  the  office  of  John  Adams,  and  in  1790 
settled  at  Guilford,  Vt.,  where  he  engaged  in  the  practice 
of  his  profession.  Early  in  1794  he  became  associate 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  State,  and  six  years 
later  was  elected  chief  justice  of  that  tribunal.  During 
his  professional  and  judicial  career  he  was  a frequent 
contributor  of  songs,  odes,  prologues,  etc.,  to  the  New 
England  papers,  being  also  the  author  of  The  Contrast , 
a play  produced  in  New  York  city  in  1786,  and  editor 
of  the  Reports  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Vermont.  He 
died  at  Brattleboro,  Vt.,  August  16,  1826. 

TYLOR,  Edward  Burnett,  F.R.S.,  was  born 
at  Camberwell,  October  2,  1832,  and  educated  at  the 
school  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  Grove  House,  Totten- 
ham. He  was  elected  a fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
1871;  received  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  from  the 
University  of  St.  Andrews  in  1873,  and  of  D.C.L. 
from  the  University  of  Oxford  in  1875.  In  March, 
1883,  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  Oxford  Uni- 
versity museum.  Later  in  the  same  year  (October)  he 
was  appointed  to  a readership  in  anthropology,  and  the 
degree  of  M.A.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  decree  of 
the  House  of  Convocation.  Mr.  Tylor  is  president  of 
the  Anthropological  Society,  and  the  author  of  Ana- 
huac , or  Mexico  and  the  Mexicans , and  other  works  on 
philosophy,  art,  science,  and  customs. 

TYNDALE,  Hector,  was  bom  at  Philadelphia, 
March  24,  1821,  and  first  became  prominent  as  the  volun- 
teer escort  of  Mrs.  John  Brown,  on  her  journey  to  Harp- 
er’s Ferry,  to  bid  her  husband  farewell,  and  recover  his 
body  after  execution.  When  the  war  broke  outTyndale 
was  appointed  major  of  the  28th  Pennsylvania  infantry, 
and  remained  in  active  service  until  May,  1864,  when  he 
was  disabled  by  wounds  and  resigned  his  commission. 
He  was  promoted  to  be  lieutenant-colonel  in  April, 
1862,  and  to  be  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  Novem- 
ber 29th,  following,  for  “ conspicuous  gallantry,  self- 
possession,  and  good  judgment  at  Antietam.  ” In  March, 
1865,  he  was  brevetted  major-general  of  volunteers  for 
gallant  conduct  during  the  war.  In  1868  he  was  the 
Republican  candidate  for  mayor  of  Philadelphia,  but 
was  defeated.  He  died  in  that  city,  March  19,  1880. 


T YN-  U N D 


TYNDALL,  John,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  was  born  about 
1820,  in  the  village  of  Leighlin-bridge,  near  Carlow,  in 
Ireland.  In  1844  he  was  engaged  by  a firm  in  Man- 
chester, and  in  1847  he  accepted  an  appointment  as 
teacher  in  Queenwood  College,  in  Hampshire.  Here 
he  became  acquainted  with  Mr.  (now  Doctor)  Frank- 
land,  who  was  resident  chemist  to  the  college,  and  in 
1848  the  two  friends  quitted  England  together,  and 
repaired  to  the  .University  of  Marburg,  in  Hesse-Cassel, 
where  they  studied  under  Bunsen  and  other  eminent 
professors.  Afterward  Mr.  Tyndall  prosecuted  his  re- 
searches in  the  laboratory  of  Magnus,  at  Berlin.  In 
1853  he  was  chosen  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in 
the  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,  and  succeeded 
the  celebrated  Faraday  as  superintendent.  The  publi- 
cation of  an  essay  on  the  cleavage  of  slate  rocks  was  the 
proximate  cause  of  his  joining  his  friend,  Professor 
Huxley,  in  a visit  to  the  glaciers  of  Switzerland  in  1856 ; 
and  they  afterward  published  a joint  paper  on  the  struc- 
ture and  motion  of  glaciers.  He  returned  to  Switzer- 
land in  1857,  1858,  and  1859,  and  during  the  latter  year 
commenced  his  researches  on  radiant  heat,  which  dis- 
closed relations  previously  unthought  of  between  this 
agent  and  the  gaseous  form  of  matter.  Mr.  Tyndall  was 
a Rumford  Medalist  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  a mem- 
ber of  various  foreign  scientific  societies ; he  was  made 
LL.D.  of  Cambridge,  in  1855,  and  LL.D.  of  Edin- 
burgh, in  1866.  In  1872  Professor  Tyndall  went  on  a 
lecturing  tour  in  the  United  States,  in  the  course  of 
which  he  delivered  thirty-five  lectures,  which  returned 
him  $23,100.  After  paying  expenses,  a fund  of  over 
$13,000  remained,  and  this,  before  leaving  for  Europe, 
the  professor  placed  in  the  hands  of  a committee,  who 
were  authorized  “to  expend  the  interest  in  aid  of 
students  who  devote  themselves  to  original  research.” 
Professor  Tyndall  presided  at  the  annual  meeting  of 
the  British  association  held  at  Belfast,  in  August,  1874. 
He  accepted  the  presidency  of  the  Birmingham  and 
Midland  Institute  for  the  year  1877.  For  some  years 
Professor  Tyndall  was  scientific  adviser  to  the  board  of 
trade  and  to  the  lighthouse  authorities,  but  he  resigned 
those  offices  in  May,  1883.  He  was  a zealous  materialist. 


6849 

Among  his  works  are  Essays  on  the  Imagination  in 
Science',  Six  Lectui-es  on  Light’,  Fermentation  ; Frag- 
ments of  Science  (1882),  and  New  Fragments  (1892). 
He  died  December  4,  1893. 

TYNER,  James  Noble,  ex-postmaster-general  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  at  Brookville,  Ind.,  Janu- 
ary 17,  1826,  and  graduated  at  the  Brookville  Academy 
in  1844.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  during  1857,  and 
engaged  in  the  practice  of  his  profession  at  Peru,  at 
the  same  time  paying  considerable  attention  to  politics. 
After  serving  in  positions  of  minor  importance,  he  was 
elected  to  congress  as  the  Republican  successor  of 
Daniel  D.  Pratt,  who  had  been  made  United  States 
senator,  remaining  in  the  lower  house  until  1875,  when 
he  was  appointed  second  assistant  postmaster-general 
by  President  Grant,  and  became  postmaster-general 
July  12,  1876,  upon  the  resignation  of  Marshall  Jewell. 
In  April,  1877,  he  was  made  first  assistant  postmaster- 
general,  and  served  until  the  fall  of  1881.  He  has  since 
engaged  in  the  practice  of  law. 

TYNG,  Stephen  H.,  clergyman,  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, June  28,  1839.  He  was  graduated  at  Williams 
in  1858,  and  after  studying  theology  at  the  Alexandria 
Seminary,  Virginia,  he  was  ordained  deacon  May  8, 
1861.  Two  years  later  he  was  made  a priest,  and  ap- 
pointed rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Mediator  in  New 
York  city.  In  1865,  after  serving  for  a time  in  the 
United  States  army  as  chaplain  of  the  12th  New 
York  volunteers,  he  established  the  Church  of  the 
Holy  Trinity  in  New  York,  and  remained  in  charge  of 
that  parish  until  his  resignation  in  April,  1881.  He 
then  went  to  Paris,  and,  forming  a connection  with  a 
large  insurance  company,  remained  a resident  of  that 
city.  In  1867  he  was  arraigned  before  an  Episcopal 
tribunal  on  the  charge  of  preaching  in  a Methodist 
church,  an  offense  against  the  canon  law  of  his  church, 
and,  being  found  guilty,  was  censured  by  the  bishop  of 
New  York.  Williams  gave  him  the  degree  of  D.D. 
in  1872.  He  was  editor  of  The  Working  Church  and 
The  Christian  at  Work  from  1864  to  1870,  and  pub 
lished  several  volumes  of  sermons  and  other  religious 
works.  He  died  Nov.  17.  1898. 


U. 


ULLMANN,  Daniel,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Wil- 
mington, Del.,  April  28,  1810;  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1829;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and  began 
practice  in  New  York  in  1854.  He  was  the  defeated 
candidate  of  the  Know-Nothing  party  for  governor  of 
New  York,  and  when  the  war  broke  out  became  colonel 
of  the  78th  regiment  of  New  York  infantry.  He  be- 
came brigadier-general  January  13,  1863,  and  brevet 
major-general  March  13,  1865.  He  retired  from  the 
army  to  scientific  study,  and  died  September  20,  1892. 
ULRICH,  Charles  Frederick,  an  American 
ainter,  born  in  New  York  city,  March  18,  1858,  where 
e also  studied  art,  going  thence  to  Munich,  where  he 
won  a bronze  medal  in  1876.  He  has  won  other 
prizes,  and  his  An  Italian  Idyl , Glass  Blowers,  and 
In  the  Land  of  Promise,  were  exhibited  at  the  World’s 
Fair  in  Chicago,  in  1893. 

UNCAS,  an  Indian  chief,  was  born  in  Connecticut, 
about  1588,  and  for  some  years  was  identified  with  the 
Pequot  tribe.  Internal  dissensions,  however,  caused 
his  expulsion,  and,  gathering  together  a number  of  his 
followers,  he  settled  near  Lyme,  Conn.,  where  he 
founded  the  tribe  known  as  Mohegans.  During  sub- 
sequent years  he  acquired  additional  territory  as  the 


result  of  victories  over  neighboring  tribes,  and  in  1637 
he  combined  with  the  colonists  for  the  destruction  of 
the  Pequots  and  the  Indians  generally  distributed 
throughout  that  portion  of  New  England.  These  ar- 
rangements becoming  known,  Miantonomo,  chief  of 
the  Narragansetts,  invaded  the  land  of  the  Mohegans 
with  a thousand  of  his  followers,  and  a desperate  en- 
gagement resulted,  in  which  the  Narragansetts  were 
defeated,  and  their  chief  was  taken  prisoner.  He  was 
tried  before  the  colonial  authorities,  and,  upon  being 
sentenced  to  death,  was  taken  to  Norwich,  where  he 
was  brained  by  a tomahawk  in  the  hands  of  a brother 
of  Uncas.  This  occurrence  was  the  signal  for  a coali- 
tion of  the  Mohawks,  Potomotoes,  Narragansetts,  and 
other  tribes  against  the  Mohegans,  and  for  the  next 
few  years  Uncas  was  almost  continuously  engaged  in 
defending  his  country  from  their  invasion.  He  died 
near  Norwich,  Conn.,  in  1682. 

UNDERWOOD,  Francis  H.,  LL.D.,  author,  was 
born  at  Enfield,  Mass.,  January  12,  1825,  and  educated 
at  Amherst.  He  was  for  many  years  the  literary 
adviser  of  the  publishing  house  of  Phillips,  Sampson 
& Co.,  and  for  two  years  assisted  in  the  management 
of  th z Atlantic  Monthly.  His  works,  chiefly  of  a mis- 


6850  V N D - 

cellaneous  character,  are  numerous.  He  died  April 
21,  1894. 

UNDERWOOD,  John  William  Henry,  jurist, 
was  born  in  Elbert  county,  Ga.,  November  20,  1816; 
died  in  Rome,  Ga.,  July  18,  1888.  After  practicing 
law  for  a number  of  years  in  Habersham  county,  he 
removed  to  Rome,  Ga.,  in  1851.  In  1843  he  was 
elected  solicitor-general  for  the  western  circuit,  but  re- 
signed in  1846,  and  in  the  same  year  declined  an  ap- 
pointment as  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Nebraska.  He  served  in  the  Georgia  Legislature  in 
1857-58,  and  was  speaker  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives. From  December  5,  1859,  until  January  23, 
1861,  he  was  a member  of  congress,  resigning  when 
Georgia  seceded  from  the  union.  From  1867  until  the 
reconstruction  act  in  1868,  he  was  judge  of  the  Rome 
circuit,  being  restored  to  that  office  in  1874,  and  reap- 
pointed in  1878.  He  resigned  in  1882  to  become  a 
member  of  the  tariff  commission,  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Arthur. 

UNDERWOOD,  Joseph  R.,  an  American  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  in  1791  in  Goochland  county, 
Va.,  and  became  a citizen  of  Kentucky  in  1823.  He 
was  a representative  in  congress  from  the  Bowling 
Green  district  for  ten  years,  and  was  elected  United 
States  senator  in  1847.  He  died  August  26,  1876. 

UNDERWOOD,  Lucius  M.,  Ph.D.,  is  a native  of 
New  Woodstock,  N.  Y.,  where  he  was  born  October  26, 
1853,  and  is  a graduate  of  Syracuse  University.  From 
1880  to  1883  he  occupied  the  chair  of  botany  and  geol- 
ogy in  the  Wesleyan  University  of  Illinois,  accepting 
that  of  assistant  professor  of  botany  at  Syracuse  Univer- 
sity in  the  latter  year.  He  is  the  author  of  a number 
of  works  on  botany. 

UPCHURCH,  John  Jorden,  was  born  in  Franklin 
county,  N.  C.',  March  26,  1822;  died  in  Steelville,  Mo., 
January  18,  1887.  Pie  was  brought  up  on  a farm, 
failed  in  the  hotel  business  at  Raleigh,  was  for  thirteen 
years  master  mechanic  on  the  Mine  Hill  and  Schuylkill 
Haven  railroad,  and  lost  all  his  savings  in  an  oil  invest- 
ment in  1864.  In  1868,  while  employed  in  the  machine 
shops  of  the  Atlantic  and  Great  Western  railroad,  at 
Meadville,  Penn.,  he  founded  the  Ancient  Order  of 
United  Workmen,  and  organized  the  first  lodge  October 
27,  1868.  The  order  has  since  spread  to  every  State  and 
Territory  in  the  Union,  has  a membership  of  more  than 
200,000,  and  pays  out  fully  $2,000,000  annually  in  bene- 
fits to  the  families  of  deceased  members.  Upchurch 
afterward  traveled  much  in  the  interest  of  the  society 
established  by  him,  and  during  the  later  years  of  his  life 
resided  at  Steelville,  Mo. 


VAIL,  Alfred,  an  American  inventor;  born  in  Mor- 
ristown, N.  J.,  September  23,  1807,  and  a graduate 
of  New  York  University  in  the  class  of  1836.  Soon  after 
completing  his  collegiate  course,  Vail  became  a partner 
of  Prof.  3.  F.  B.  Morse  in  the  latter’s  system  of  teleg- 
raphy, and  it  was  agreed  between  them  that  in  consid- 
eration of  Vail’s  constructing  at  his  own  expense  a tel- 
egraph after  “ the  plan  and  invention  of  Morse,”  and 
exhibiting  the  same  before  a congressional  committee, 
also  procuring  a patent  therefor,  he  was  to  receive  one- 
fourth  of  the  rights  to  the  invention  in  the  United 
States.  Vail  was  successful  in  completing  the  appa- 
ratus, and  was  the  inventor  of  many  of  the  attachments 
and  mechanical  appliances  which  have  since  become 
part  of  the  system,  though  at  the  time  his  rights  in  the 


- V AL 

UPFIELD,  George,  bishop  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church,  was  born  in  Surrey,  England,  May  7, 
1796;  came  to  the  United  States  at  an  early  age,  was 
graduated  at  Union  College,  New  York,  in  1820,  became 
an  elder  in  the  Episcopal  Church  ten  years  later,  and  in 
1849  bishop  of  Indiana.  He  died  at  Indianapolis, 
August  26,  1872. 

UPHAM,  Chas.  Wentworth,  a minister  of  the 
Unitarian  Church,  was  born  at  Saint  John,  N.  B., 
in  1802,  and  first  occupied  a pulpit  in  1824,  at 
Salem,  Mass.  In  1844  he  abandoned  the  ministry, 
and  in  1854  was  elected  to  congress.  He  was  a fre- 
quent contributor  to  religious  and  secular  periodicals, 
and  the  author  of  the  Life  of  Sir  Henry  Vane.  He 
died  June  15,  1875,  at  Salem. 

UPHAM,  Samuel  Foster,  D.D.,  was  born  atDux- 
bury,  Mass.,  May  19,  1834,  and  graduated  at  Wesleyan 
University  in  1856.  Up  to  1881  he  officiated  as  pastor 
of  various  congregations,  and  in  that  year  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  practical  theology  in  Drew  Theological 
Seminary. 

UPHAM,  Thomas  Cogswell,  D.D.,  was  born  at 
Deerfield,  N.  H.,  in  1799;  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College,  and  was  for  some  years  a Congregational 
clergyman.  In  1825  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
philosophy  in  Bowdoin  College.  He  was  the  author  of 
numerous  works  of  a religious  and  philosophical  char- 
acter. He  died  in  1872. 

UPSHUR,  Abel  Parker,  was  a native  of  North- 
ampton county,  Va.;  became  secretary  of  the  navy  in 
1841  by  appointment  from  President  Tyler,  and  secre- 
tary of  State,  vice  Daniel  Webster,  in  May,  1843. 
He  was  killed,  February,  1844,  by  the  explosion  of  a 
cannon  on  board  the  gunboat  Princeton. 

UPSHUR,  John  Henry,  an  American  naval  officer, 
was  born  in  Northampton  county,  Va.,  December  5, 
1823,  and  entered  the  navy  November  4,  1841,  becom- 
ing a past-midshipman  in  1847,  after  the  fall  of  Vera 
Cruz,  in  the  bombardment  of  which  he  participated. 
He  was  promoted  to  be  master  July  18,  1855,  and  be- 
came lieutenant  on  September  14th  following.  At  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Civil  war  he  was  ordered  to  the 
North  Atlantic  squadron,  and  was  present  at  the  capt- 
ure of  the  forts  along  Hatteras  inlet  and  the  coast  of 
North  Carolina.  In  1862  and  1863  he  participated  in 
the  operations  of  the  South  Atlantic  squadron  off  South 
Carolina,  and  on  July  16th  of  the  former  year  was  pro- 
moted to  be  lieutenant-commander,  becoming  com- 
mander July  25,  1866;  captain,  July  31,  1872,  and  rear- 
admiral  October  1,  1884.  He  was  placed  on  the  retired 
list  June  1,  1885. 


premises  were  ignored  by  Morse,  and  the  claim  has 
since  been  authoritatively  made  that  the  merit  of  the 
present  system  is  due  to  Alfred  Vail  and  Joseph  Henry. 
He  died  at  Morristown,  N.  J.,  January  18,  1859. 

VAIL,  Thomas  Hubbard,  was  born  in  Richmond, 
Va.,  October  21,  1812,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Hartford,  Conn.,  and  at  the  General  Theological  Semi- 
nary. He  became  an  elder  in  the  church  in  1835,  and 
from  1837  to  1864  officiated  as  rector  in  New  England 
and  Iowa  parishes.  He  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Kansas  during  the  latter  year.  He  died  October  6,  1889. 

VALENTINE,  Edward  V.,  a sculptor,  -was  born  in 
Richmond,  Va.,  November  12,  1838,  and  began  his  art 
studies  at  the  Virginia  Medical  College  in  Richmond. 
Thereafter  he  pursued  a course  of  elementary  drawing, 


V AL- 

also  learning  the  rudiments  of  modeling,  And  in  1S59 
visited  Europe  and  passed  five  years  among  the  art 
studios  of  Florence,  Paris,  and  Berlin.  Later,  he  re- 
turned to  America  and  exhibited  at  Richmond  ideal 
heads  of  The  Samaritan  Woman , The  Penitent  Thief, 
etc.;  also  portrait  busts  of  General  Beauregard,  Gen. 
J.  E.  B.  Stuart,  “Stonewall”  Jackson,  Albert  Sidney 
Johnston  and  other  Southern  leaders,  which  elicited 
expressions  of  marked  admiration. 

VALLANDIGHAM,  Clement  L.,  an  American 
lawyer  and  politician,  was  born  at  New  Lisbon,  Ohio, 
in  1822,  and  for  a number  of  years  represented  the 
third  Ohio  district  in  congress.  During  the  Civil  war 
he  was  arrested  by  order  of  General  Burnside,  charged 
with  the  expression  of  disloyal  sentiments,  tried  before 
a court  marital,  and  in  1863  sent  beyond  the  Union 
lines.  He  was  the  same  year  nominated  for  governor 
by  the  Democrats,  but  defeated.  He  was  accidentally 
killed  while  handling  a pistol,  at  Lebanon,  Ohio,  in  1871. 

VAMBfiRY,  Arminius,  born  in  Hungary  in  1832, 
was  at  an  early  age  expelled  by  the  Austrian  authorities 
from  Pesth.  He  took  up  his  residence  at  Constanti- 
nople, visited  many  parts  of  the  East,  and  traveled  in 
the  disguise  of  a dervish,  by  routes  unknown  to  Euro- 
peans, through  the  deserts  of  the  Oxus  to  Khiva,  and 
thence  by  Bokhara  to  Samarcand,  in  1861-64.  His 
Travels  and  Adventures  in  Central  Asia  appeared  in 
London  in  1864.  He  has  been  appointed  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  at  the  University  of  Pesth.  His 
writings  are  numerous  and  cover  various  topics,  philo- 
logical. descriptive,  historical  and  political. 

VAN  ARSDALE,  John,  was  born  at  Goshen,  in 
Orange  county,  N.  Y.,  January  5,  1756,  and  partici- 
pated in  the  Revolutionary  war,  during  which  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain.  He  accompanied 
the  expedition  to  Quebec  under  Benedict  Arnold,  and 
was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner  at  Forts  Montgomery 
and  Collins.  After  the  British  evacuated  New  York, 
he  ascended  the  flag-staff  at  the  battery  and  cut  down 
the  English  flag,  which  the  enemy  had  placed  there  be- 
fore their  retreat.  He  died  at  New  York  city,  August 
14,  1836. 

VAN  BU  REN,  John,  was  born  at  Hudson, 
N.  Y.,  February  18,  1810,  the  son  of  Martin  Van 
Buren,  the  eighth  president  of  the  United  Stages.  He 
was  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1828,  and  entered  the 
office  of  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  where  he  became  a stu- 
dent at  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1830. 
After  a trip  to  Europe  he  engaged  in  the  practice  of 
his  profession  in  New  York,  and  in  1845  was  elected 
attorney-general  of  the  State.  He  took  an  active  part 
in  politics,  and  was  counsel  in  the  Edwin  Forrest  case, 
as  also  in  other  celebrated  litigation.  He  died  on  ship- 
board, en  route  from  Liverpool  to  New  York,  October 
13,  1866. 

VANCE,  Zebulon  B.,  United  States  senator  from 
North  Carolina,  was  born  in  Buncombe  county,  that 
State,  May  13,  1830;  educated  at  the  State  University, 
and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1852.  He  was  a member  of 
the  legislature,  also  of  congress,  previous  to  the  war ; 
a colonel  in  the  Confederate  army;  governor  of  North 
Carolina  in  1862,  also  in  1864  and  1876;  and  was 
elected  United  State  senate^,  first  in  1872,  when  he 
was  refused  admission,  again  in  1878,  for  the  third  time 
in  1884,  and  again  in  1890.  He  died  April  14,  1894. 

VAN  CLEVE,  Horatio  P.,  Gen.,  was  born  at 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  in  1810,  and  educated  at  West  Point, 
where  he  graduated  in  1831,  but  in  1836  resigned  from 
the  army  and  located  in  Ohio.  During  the  Civil  war 
he  served  in  the  Union  army,  and  was  conspicuous  for 
gallantry  at  Mill  Springs,  Stone  River,  Chickamauga, 
and  elsewhere,  for  which  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank , 


VAN  * 6&5j 

of  brigadier-general.  He  was  adjutant- general  of  Min- 
nesota 1866-70  and  1876-82,  and  died  April  24,  1891. 

VAN  CORTLAND,  uriau-e  ^.,  was  born  at 
Utrecht,  Holland,  in  1600,  and  arrived  at  New  Nether- 
lands, March  28,  1638,  in  the  service  of  the  Holland 
West  India  Company.  Thereafter  he  was  prominently 
identified  with  public  affairs  of  New  Netherlands,  serv- 
ing as  an  officer  of  the  customs,  a keeper  of  the  public 
stores,  and  in  other  positions  of  trust.  In  1648  he  en- 
gaged in  commercial  enterprises,  but  later  became  a 
colonel  in  the  militia,  and  finally,  in  1665,  burgomaster 
of  New  Amsterdam,  remaining  in  that  office  until  the 
capture  of  the  province  by  the  British  in  1664,  when  he 
was  one  of  the  commissioiiers  appointed  to  arrange 
the  terms  of  capitulation.  He  died  in  New  York  city, 
April  4,  1684. 

VANCOUVER,  George,  the  well-known  English 
navigator,  whose  name  has  been  given  to  an  island  off 
the  coast  of  British  Columbia,  was  born  in  1755,  and 
served  as  midshipman  under  Captain  Coot,  upon  the 
latter’s  leading  voyage.  During  1791  Vancouver  com- 
manded the  Discovery , sent  by  the  English  to  the 
northwest  coast  of  America,  and  made  a survey  of  the 
coast  in  a northerly  direction  from  latitude  300.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1795,  an(l  died  in  1798. 

VAN  DAM,  Rip,  one  of  the  governors  of  New 
York  during  colonial  days,  was  born  at  Albany  in  1662, 
where  for  many  years  he  was  a prominent  merchant. 
He  became  a member  of  the  assembly  in  1699,  and  upon 
the  death  of  John  Montgomery,  governor,  acted  as  the 
Colonial  executive,  from  July  1,  1 731,  until  August  I, 
1732,  when  Montgomery’s  successor  took  charge. 
Upon  the  death  of  Governor  Cosby,  George  Clarke, 
next  in  length  of  service  to  Van  Dam  as  member  of  the 
council,  qualified  as  Cosby’s  successor,  but  Van  Dam 
disputed  his  title,  and  bloodshed  was  only  avoided  by 
the  arrival  of  dispatches  from  England  recognizing 
the  justice  of  Clarke’s  claims.  Van  Dam  died  at  New 
York  city  in  1736. 

VANDERBILT,  Cornelius,  an  American  finan- 
cier, was  born  near  Stapleton,  Staten  Island,  May  27, 
1794,  and  died  in  New  York  city,  January  4, 1877.  He 
began  life  as  a ferryman,  and  in  1817  became  captain 
of  a steamer  plying  between  New  York  and  New 
Brunswick,  at  the  same  time  engaging  in  ventures  that 
not  only  brought  him  wealth,  but  the  reputation  of  a 
daring  and  successful  operator.  Some  years  later  his 
investments  in  railway  properties  were  very  large,  and 
at  the  time  of  his  death  his  holdings  Vepresented  up- 
ward of  one  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  dollars.  Upon 
his  death,  his  vast  fortune,  save  a number  of  bequests 
which  aggregated  about  fifteen  million,  was  inherited 
by  his  son,  William  H.  Vanderbilt.  During  his  life- 
time he  donated  one  million  of  dollars  to  the  founding 
of  the  Vanderbilt  University  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  also 
other  large  sums  for  public  and  private  benefits. 

VANDERBILT,  William  H.,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  born  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  Mayo,  1821, 
educated  at  the  Columbia  Grammar  School,  and  until 
he  was  twenty-one  years  of  age,  served  as  clerk  in 
various  establishments  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York. 
In  1842  he  took  charge  of  a farm  at  New  Dorp,  Staten 
Island,  and  later  was  associated  in  his  father’s  railroad 
operations;  his  life  thereafter  being  passed  in  railway 
enterprises.  Thepossessor ofimmense wealth,  Vander- 
bilt, during  the  latter  period  of  his  residence  in  New 
York,  expended  large  sums  in  the  erection  and  equip- 
ment of  buildings  for  residence  purposes,  for  the  pro- 
motion of  educational  and  humanitarian  objects  and  in 
the  purchase  of  paintings,  sculpture,  and  other  works  of 
art.  His  donations  to  benevolent  and  charitable  insti- 
tutions were  alsoliberal  and  wellplaced.  He  was  found 


V A N — V A U 


6852 

dead  on  the  library  floor  of  his  Fifth  avenue  residence 
in  New  York  city,  on  the  morning  of  December  8, 
1885. 

VANDERLYN,  John,  an  American  artist  of  widely 
extended  reputation,  was  born  at  Kingston,  N.  Y., 
October  15,  1775.  studied  under  Gilbert  Stuart 
at  Philadelphia,  also  abroad.  His  chief  productions 
embrace  The  Murder  of  Jane  McCrea , Marius  Amid 
the  Ruins  of  Carthage , Ariadne , the  portraits  of  Aaron 
Burr  and  Theodosia  Burr,  his  daughter;  Andrew  Jack- 
son,  James  Monroe,  John  C.  Calhoun,  and  Zachary 
Taylor.  Vanderlyn  died  at  Kingston,  September  24, 
1852. 

VAN  DORN,  Earl,  Gen.,  was  born  in  Mississippi 
in  1823,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842.  He 
entered  the  Confederate  army  in  1861,  and  commanded 
at  the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  Arkansas,  March  7 and  8, 
1862.  He  was  repulsed  before  Corinth  in  October  of 
the  same  year  by  General  Rosecrans,  and  met  his  death 
at  the  hands  of  Doctor  Lowry  in  Maury  county,  Tenn., 
in  May,  1863. 

VAN  ELTEN,  Hendrik  D.  K.,  a German- 
American  painter,  born  November  14,  1829,  at  Alk- 
mar.  North  Holland,  and  located  in  New  York  at  the 
close  of  the  Civil  war  He  studied  his  art  under 
C.  Sieste  and  other  German  painters,  and  has  acquired 
an  extended  reputation.  He  was  made  a member  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Design  in  1883. 

VAN  NESS,  Cornelius  P.,  LL.D.,  a distin- 
guished American  statesman,  was  bom  in  Vermont 
about  1781,  and  was  thrice  elected  governor  of  that 
State.  He  also  represented  the  United  States  at  the 
court  of  Spain  during  the  administration  of  President 
Andrew  Jackson,  and  died  at  Philadelphia  in  1852. 

VAN  RENSELLAER,  Philip  S.,  was  born  at  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.,  April  15,  1768,  and  died  there  September 
25,  1824.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Albany  Academy, 
and  held  the  office  of  mayor  of  that  city  continuously 
for  nearly  a quarter  of  a century.  He  was  an  enter- 
prising, public-spirited  citizen,  devoted  to  the  best  in- 
terests of  the  city  of  his  nativity. 

VAN  RENSSELAER,  Henry  K.,  a soldier  who 
commanded  a regiment  during  the  Revolution,  was 
born  near  Albany  in  1744,  and  died  at  Greenbush, 
N.  Y.,  September  9,  1816. 

VAN  RENSSELAER,  Henry  Killian  K.,born 
in  1763,  served  in  congress  from  1800  to  1812,  and 
died  at  Albany,  June  18,  1845. 

VAN  RENSSELAER,  Stephen,  LL.D.,  was  born 
in  New  York  in  1764,  and  died  in  1839.  He  was 
known  as  the  “ Patroon,”  and  as  the  founder  at  Troy, 
N.  Y.,  of  the  institution  now  known  as  the  “Poly- 
technic School.”  He  was,  during  his  career,  lieutenant- 
governor  of  the  State,  president  of  the  Erie  canal  com- 
missioners, commander  of  the  New  York  troops  in  the 
war  with  Great  Britain  during  1812,  ahd  chancellor  of 
the  University  of  New  York. 

VAN  TWILLER,  Worter,  a colonial  governor, 
born  at  Nieukirk,  Holland,  about  1580,  was  appointed 
governor  of  New  Netherlands  in  1633.  A man  inex- 
perienced in  the  affairs  of  government,  Van  Twiller  be- 
came involved  in  disputes  with  the  colonies  of  Con- 
necticut and  Massachusetts,  which  finally  resulted  in 
the  Hollanders  being  driven  out  of  Connecticut.  Van 
Twiller’s  administration,  however,  was  characterized  by 
the  projection  and  completion  of  valuable  improve- 
ments, and  the  acquisition  of  important  territory,  in- 
cluding Governor’s  Island,  also  Blackwell’s  Island,  both 
of  which  he  held  in  fee.  In  1637  he  was  removed  for 
incompetency,  William  Kieft  succeeding  him,  and  re- 
turned to  Amsterdam,  Holland,  where  he  died  about 
1646. 


VAN  VLECK,  Henry  Jacob,  a bishop  of  the 
Moravian  Church  in  America,  was  born  at  Philadelphia, 
June  29,  1822,  and  in  1841  was  graduated  at  the  Mora- 
vian Theological  Seminary,  in  Pennsylvania.  In  1867 
he  was  ordained  a Moravian  elder,  and  in  1881  conse- 
crated bishop. 

VAPEREAU,  Louis  Gustave,  author,  born  at 
Orleans,  April  4,  1819,  and,  in  1838  carried  off,  at  a 
competition  between  all  the  colleges  of  France,  the 
rize  for  philosophy,  established  by  M.  de  Salvandy. 
n consequence  of  the  restrictions  with  which  the  teach- 
ing of  philosophy  was  fettered,  in  1852  M.  Vapereau 
repaired  to  Paris,  completed  his  law  studies,  and  be- 
came  “ avocat  ” in  1854.  About  this  time  Messrs. 
Hachett  intrusted  to  him  the  direction  of  the  Diction - 
naire  des  Contemporaines , which  occupied  his  whole 
attention  for  four  years.  M.  Vapereau  subsequently 
brought  out  another  important  work,  a Dictionnaire 
Universal  des  Litteratures.  He  was  nominated  prefect 
of  the  Cantal  by  the  Government  of  the  National  Defense 
in  September,  1870,  was  prefect  of  the  department  of 
Tarn-et-Garonne  from  March  26,  1871,  till  March  31, 
1873,  and  was  decorated  with  the  Legion  of  Honor,  Feb- 
ruary 7,  1878. 

VARICK,  Richard,  a soldier  of  the  Revolutionary 
war,  was  born  at  Hackensack,  N.  J.,  March  25,  1753, 
and  entered  the  Colonial  army  as  a captain  of  militia. 
He  participated  in  the  battles  of  Stillwater  and  Saratoga, 
obtaining  frequent  promotion,  and  in  1780  became  in- 
spector-general.* He  also  acted  as  private  secretary  to 
General  Washington,  and  as  aide  to  Benedict  Arnold. 
From  1783  to  1789  he  was  city  recorder  in  New  York, 
attorney- general  of  the  State  for  two  years,  and  from 
1791  until  1801  mayor  of  New  York  city.  At  the  date 
of  his  death,  July  30,  1831,  he  resided  in  Jersey  City, 
and  was  president  of  the  American  Bible  Society. 

VASSAR,  Mathew,  the  founder  of  Vassar  College, 
was  a native  of  Norfolk,  England,  born  April  29,  1792, 
and  accompanied  his  father  to  America  in  1796,  settling 
on  a farm  near  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.  Five  years  later  the 
family  removed  to  Poughkeepsie,  where  Vassar,  Sr.,  es- 
tablished the  business  of  brewing  ale,  to  which  Mathew 
Vassar  subsequently  succeeded  and  from  which  he 
derived  large  profits.  In  1845  he  decided  to  apply  a 
portion  of  his  fortune  to  the  endowment  of  a school  for 
the  higher  education  of  women.  Such  decision  took 
shape  in  1861,  when  Mr.  Vassar  donated  $400,000  to 
that  object,  and  what  has  since  become  widely  known 
as  “Vassar  College,”  located  at  Poughkeepsie,  was  in- 
corporated. Its  success  became  at  once  instant  and 
pronounced,  and  its  reputation  as  an  educational  institu- 
tion widespread  and  deservedly  high.  Its  growth  has 
since  been  rapid  but  permanent,  and  its  offer  of  supe- 
rior advantages  for  the  acquisition  of  sound  scholarship 
and  a practical  education  is  accepted  by  matriculants, 
annually  increasing  in  number.  Mr.  Vassar  died  at 
Poughkeepsie,  June  23,  1868,  providing  in  his  will  for 
the  further  donation  of  $400,000,  the  same  to  be  ap- 
propriated to  the  support  of  the  institution. 

VAUGHAN,  Benjamin,  a political  economist,  born 
in  the  island  of  Jamaica,  West  Indies,  April  19,  1751; 
educated  at  Cambridge  University  and  at  the  Medical 
College  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1792  became  a mem- 
ber of  parliament.  Later  he  visited  France  and 
Switzerland,  and  later  still  permanently  removed  to  the 
United  States,  where  he  settled  upon  land  occupied  by 
the  present  city  of  Hallowell,  Me.  While  there  he 
published  Adyoss,  or  the  Rural  Socrates , and  a number 
of  political  papers.  In  1807  he  received  the  degree  of 
LL.D.  from  Harvard  University,  an  honor  duplicated 
in  1812  by  Bowdoin  College.  He  died  at  Hallowell, 
April  19,  1835. 


V A U - 

VAUGHAN,  Charles  John,  D.D.,  was  born  in 
1816,  educated  at  Rugby  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  closed  a brilliant  career  by  taking 
his  B.  A.  degree  in  1838.  He  was  elected  to  a fellow- 
ship at  Trinity  College  in  1839,  and  became  head  mas- 
ter of  Harrow  School  in  1844;  held  that  post  till  the 
close  of  1859,  when  he  resigned.  Early  in  i860  he  was 
offered,  but  refused,  the  bishopric  of  Rochester,  and 
shortly  afterward  was  appointed  to  the  vicarage  of 
Doncaster,  which  he  held  until  1869,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  mastership  of  the  Temple.  In  1879  he 
was  appointed  dean  of  Llandaff.  He  has  published 
Memorials  of  Harrow  Szindays,  a selection  of  sermons, 
preached  before  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge, 1876-78;  and  several  other  collections  of  ser- 
mons, besides  a number  of  works  of  a religious  charac- 
ter. He  died  Oct.  16,  1897. 

VAUGHAN,  Herbert,  D.D.,  Roman  Catholic 
Cardinal,  born  at  Gloucester,  April  15,  1832;  re- 
ceived his  education  at  Stonyhurst  College,  Lanca- 
shire, and  in  Rome.  He  founded  and  is  still  president- 
general  of  St.  Joseph’s  Foreign  Missionary  College, 
Mill  Hill,  Middlesex,  and  toward  the  close  of  the  year 
1871  accompanied  to  Maryland  the  first  detachment  of 
priests  who  were  sent  from  that  institution  on  a special 
mission  to  a colored  population  of  the  United  States. 
Desiring  to  remain  a priest,  he  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Salford  in  1872,  and  Archbishop  of  Westminster 
and  head  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  England, 
to  succeed  Cardinal  Manning,  Mardi  29,  1892,  being 
created  Cardinal  in  January,  1893. 

VAUX,  William  S.,  an  American  mineralogist, 
was  born  at  Philadelphia,  May  19,  1811,  where  he  died 
May  5,  1882.  He  became  president  of  the  Philadelphia 
Zoological  Society  in  1864,  and  was  vice-president  of 
the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  the  same  city,  also 
a leading  organizer  of  the  Numismatic  Society,  and 
prominently  connected  with  other  scientific  associations. 
The  “ William  S.  Vaux  collection”  in  the  Philadelphia 
Academy  was  donated  by  Mr.  Vaux. 

- VAUX,  William  S.  W.,  an  English  author,  was 
born  at  Ramsey  in  1818,  and  graduated  at  Oxford  in 
1840.  After  this  he  was  connected  with  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  British  Museum,  and  wrote  a series  of 
books  having  reference  to  the  antiquities  of  Nineveh, 
Persepolis,  Persia,  and  the  Greek  cities.  He  died  in 
1885. 

VEDDER,  Elihu,  an  American  artist,  was  born  at 
New  York  in  1836,  and  has  since  become  a resident  of 
Florence,  Italy.  His  works  include  The  Death  of 
Abel , A Venetian  Dancing  Girl , and  other  subjects, 
all  of  which  are  prominent  and  have  won  favorable 
criticism. 

VEITCH,  John,  M.A.,  born  at  Peebles,  Scotland, 
October  24,  1829;  received  his  early  education  at  the 
grammar  school,  and  in  1845  entered  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  where  he  gained  honors,  especially  in  logic 
and  moral  philosophy.  In  1850  he  published  a trans- 
lation of  the  Discourse  on  Methods , of  Descartes,  and 
in  1853  a translation  from  the  Meditations,  and  selections 
from  the  Principles  of  Philosophy,  of  Descartes,  with 
notes.  In  1855-56  he  acted  as  assistant  to  the  late  Sir 
W.  Hamilton,  professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  and  to  his  successor,  Professor 
Fraser,  until  i860,  when  he  was  appointed  to  the  pro- 
fessorship of  logic,  metaphysics,  and  rhetoric  in  the 
University  of  St.  Andrews.  In  1864  Mr.  Veitch  was 
appointed  to  the  professorship  of  logic  and  rhetoric  in 
the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  in  1872  he  received  the 
honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  from  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. He  was  the  author  of  The  Tweed  and  other 
Poems  (1875);  Lucretius  and  the  Atomic  Theory 


- V E R 6853 

(1875);  and  The  History  and  Poetry  of  the  Scottish 
Border  (1877).  He  died  September  3,  1894. 

VENABLE,  Charles  S.,  LL.D.,  a native  of 
Prince  Edward  county,  Va.,  having  been  born  there 
April  19,  1827,  was  educated  at  Hampden-Sidney  Col- 
lege, and  the  University  of  Virginia,  completing  his 
studies  at  the  Universities  of  Berlin  and  Bonn.  He 
filled  the  chair  of  physics  and  chemistry  in  the  U niversity 
of  Georgia  during  1856,  and  that  of  mathematics  and 
astronomv  in  the  University  of  South  Carolina  from 
1858  to  1861.  In  i860  he  viewed  the  solar  eclipse  in 
Labrador.  During  the  Civil  war  he  was  lieutenant- 
colonel  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  R.  E.  Lee,  and  in  1865  be- 
came professor  of  mathematics  at  the  University  of 
Virginia,  which  made  him  an  LL.D.  in  1868. 

VENNOR,  Henry  George,  meteorologist,  was 
born  at  Montreal,  Canada,  December  30,  1840,  and  was 
a graduate  of  McGill  University.  He  began  the  study 
of  the  weather  at  an  early  period  in  his  life,  subse- 
quently engaging  in  geological  surveys,  explorations 
etc.,  and*first  attracting  notice  as  a meteorologist  in  the 
autumn  of  1876,  when  he  predicted  a green  Christmas 
and  a rainy  New  Year,  both  of  which  were  verified. 
He  also  began  the  publication  of  Vennor's  Almanac, 
and  contributed  a number  of  articles  to  scientific  pub- 
lications. He  died  at  Montreal,  July  8,  1884. 

VERA,  Augusto,  an  eminent  Italian  philosopher, 
born  at  Amelia  in  1817,  and  died  in  1885.  He  was 
educated  at  Paris,  and  upon  his  return  to  Italy 
accepted  the  chair  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Milan,  afterward  at  the  University  of  Naples.  He 
published  a number  of  philosophical  works,  and  was 
the  leader  of  the  Italian  followers  of  Dr.  Hegel’s  sys- 
tem of  philosophy. 

VERDI,  Giuseppi,  composer,  born  at  Rancola,  in 
the  Duchy  of  Parma,  October  9,  1814;  received  his 
first  lessons  from  an  organist  in  Milan,  where  he 
resided  from  1833  till  1836,  and  in  1839  published  his 
earliest  work,  a musical  drama,  entitled  Oberto  di  San 
Bonifazio.  His  principal  compositions  are  serious 
operas,  and  the  Lombardi , one  of  his  first  productions, 
made  a strong  impression  throughout  Italy,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  his  fame.  Flis  best  known  operas 
are  Nabucodonosor,  Ernani  (founded  on  Victor  Hugo’s 
tragedy),  th & Due  Foscari,  Attila,  Macbeth,  the  Mas- 
nadiei'i  (founded  on  the  Robbers  of  Schiller),  Louisa 
Miller,  Rigoletto,  II  Trovatore,  La  Traviata , Un 
Ballo  in  Maschera  (performed  in  London  in  1861),  and 
Don  Carlos  (performed  at  the  Royal  Italian  Opera, 
Covent  Garden,  in  1867).  Signor  Verdi’s  more  recent 
operas  are  Giovanno  d ’ Arco,  in  1868;  La  Forza  del 
Destino,  in  1869;  Aida,  in  1872;  Qtello,  in  1887,  and 
Falstaff,  in  1893.  He  was  elected  a member  of  the 
Italian  parliament  in  1861,  and  is  a member  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  of  the  Academie  des  Beaux  Arts, 
and  grand  officer  of  the  Order  of  the  Crown  ot  Italy. 
He  died  January  27,  1901, 

VERDON,  Sir  George  Frederic,  born  January 
21,  1834,  and  educated  at  Rossall  College,  went  to  Mel- 
bourne, Australia,  in  1851,  and  engaged  in  commercial 
pursuits.  He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the 
volunteer  force  established  in  1854  for  the  defense  of  the 
colony,  and  in  1859  was  elected  member  for  Williams- 
town,  and  in  the  following  year  became  a minister  of 
the  crown.  As  honorary  secretary  to  the  Astronomical 
Observatory,  and  as  a member  of  the  government,  he 
was  enabled  to  secure  the  satisfactory  establishment  ol 
the  Observatory  on  a permanent  footing.  In  1866  the 
government  and  legislature  of  Victoria  resolved  upon 
sending  a minister  of  the  crown  to  England  for  the  pur- 
pose of  bringing  the  subject  of  the  defense  of  the  colony 
before  the  home  government,  and  Mr.  Verdon  was 


6354  VER 

selected  for  the  mission.  Shortly  after  his  return  to 
Victoria,  Mr.  Verdon  was  appointed  the  permanent 
representative  of  that  colony  in  England  as  agent- 
general.  He  died  Sept.  13,  1896. 

VERGENNES,  Charles  Gravier,  Count  de, 
statesman,  born  at  Dijon,  France,  December  28,  1717; 
was  educated  at  the  Jesuit  College,  and  from  1740  to 
1774  engaged  in  the  diplomatic  service.  When  Louis 
XVI.  ascended  the  throne,  Vergennes  became  his  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs,  in  which  capacity  he  favored 
the  cause  of  American  liberty,  and  in  1777  secured  the 
use  of  money  and  war  materials  for  the  colonial 
armies,  also  the  cooperation  of  the  French  army  and 
navy.  His  efforts  on  behalf  of  the  Americans  during 
the  Revolutionary  war,  at  a time,  too,  when  success 
seemed  improbable,  and  in  opposition  to  the  views  of 
the  prime  minister  and  secretary  of  the  treasury  of 
France,  has  caused  him  to  be  quoted  as,  incidentally, 
the  author  of  American  independence.  He  died  at 
Versailles,  February  13,  1787. 

VERNE,  Jules,  a popular  French  writer,. born  at 
Nantes,  February  8,  1828,  was  educated  in  his  native 
town,  and  afterward  studied  law  in  Paris.  Turning  his 
attention  to  dramatic  literature,  he  wrote  several 
pieces  for  the  stage.  But  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his 
scientific  romances,  the  first  of  which  appeared  in 
1863,  under  the  title  of  Cinq  Semaines  en  Ballon.  Its 
success  led  the  author  to  produce  a number  of  similar 
works,  of  which  most  have  been  translated  into  Eng- 
lish. He  is  regarded  as  the  best  living  writer  of  juve- 
uile  books,  and  his  writings  are  not  devoid  of  interest 
for  older  heads. 

VERNEY,  Sir  Harry,  born  in  1801;  was  educated 
at  Harrow,  and  at  the  Royal  Military  College,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1826,  and  assumed  the  name  of 
Verneyin  1827  on  inheriting  the  estates  of  Mary  Ver- 
ney,  Baroness  Fermanagh.  Pie  entered  the  army  in 
1819,  served  in  the  7th  Fusiliers,  and  in  the  Grenadier 
Guards,  and  retired,  in  1830,  with  the  rank  of  major. 
From  1832  to  1841  he  represented  Buckingham  in  par- 
liament; Bedford  from  1847  to  1852,  and  Buckingham 
again,  1857-74  and  1880-85.  He  died  February  12, 1894. 

VERPLANCK,  Gulian  C.,  American  author,  was 
born  in  New  York  city,  August  6,  1786;  graduated  at 
Golumbia  College  in  1801,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  but  practiced  only  a short  time.  After  traveling 
in  Europe,  he  returned  to  New  York  city,  where  he 
became  the  center  of  a coterie  of  authors,  and  during 
the  remaining  years  of  his  life  divided  his  attention 
and  labors  between  literature  and  politics.  He  was  a 
member  of  congress  for  eight  years,  from  1825,  and 
for  a continued  period  president  of  the  board  of  emi- 
gration commissioners.  Diea  March  iS,  187a 

VEST,  George  Graham,  was  born  at  Frankfort, 
Ky.,  December  6,  1830;  graduated  at  Center  College 
and  at  the  law  department  of  Transylvania  University, 
Lexington,  and  removed  to  Missouri  in  1853.  He 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1879,  to  fill 
out  the  unexpired  term  of  Lewis  V.  Bogy,  deceased; 
reelected  in  1885  and  agajn  in  1891. 

VETCH,  Samuel,  colonial  governor,  born  in  Edin- 
burgh, Scotland,  December  9,  1668;  died  in  London, 
England,  April  30,  1732.  On  November  5,  1688,  he 
accompanied  William,  prince  of  Orange,  to  England, 
whence  he  came  to  America,  returning  to  England  in 
1708  with  a proposal  from  the  colonists  of  New  York  to 
wrest  Canada  from  the  French.  On  his  return  to  Bos- 
ton an  expedition  was  organized  for  the  capture  of  An- 
napolis, Nova  Scotia.  This  was  successful,  and  Vetch 
became  governor  of  Nova  Scotia.  His  rule  of  the  prov- 
ince was  characterized  by  great  severity,  and  he  was 
removed  from  office.  Vetch  then  went  to  Boston, 


— VIC 

where  he  persistently  insisted  on  back  pay,  and  peti- 
tioned the  British  Government  for  some  office. 

VERRAZANO,  Giovanni  de,  navigator,  born  near 
Florence,  Italy,  in  1470;  died  in  1527.  In  1523  he 
sailed  from  Dieppe,  in  the  French  frigate  La  Daupkine . 
to  explore  the  coast  of  North  America.  He  landed 
near  Cape  Fear,  in  North  Carolina,  in  February,  1524, 
and  found  the  natives  friendly.  His  crew  captured  an 
Indian  boy  and  took  him  away  with  them.  Sailing  north 
ward  the  ship  entered  New  York  harbor,  in  which  they 
saw  about  thirty  canoes  manned  by  natives.  From  there 
they  came  to  Narragansett  Bay,  and  eventually  landed 
on  Newfoundland.  Early  in  July,  1524,  the  ex- 
plorers returned  to  Dieppe,  where  Verrazano  gave  a 
vague  account  of  his  discoveries.  Nothing  is  known 
wffh  certainty  about  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

VEZIN,  Hermann,  actor,  born  in  Philadelphia,  in 
1829,  took  the  degrees  of  B.  A.  and  M.A.  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania.  Having  a passion  for  the  stage,  he 
went  to  England,  and  obtained  an  engagement  in  the 
Theater  Royal,  York.  He  made  his  London  debut  at 
the  Princess’  theater  under  Charles  Kean’s  manage- 
ment, 1852.  Two  years  later  he  “ starred  ” through  the 
provinces.  Since  that  date  Vezin  has  acted  through- 
out the  United  States,  in  London,  and  the  provinces. 

VIARDOT-GARCIA,  Madame  Michelle  Paul- 
ine, vocalist,  daughter  of  the  great  tenor,  Emanuel 
Garcia,  and  sister  of  Madame  Malibran,  was  born  at 
Paris,  July  18,  1821.  She  made  her  first  appear- 
ance in  London  at  the  Opera  House  in  1839,  in  the 
character  of  “ Desdemona.  ” At  the  close  of  the  season 
she  joined  the  Italian  operatic  company,  then  acting  at 
the  Od£on,  in  Paris,  and  was  equally  successful,  and  in 
1841  she  reappeared  in  England.  Her  next  engage- 
ment was  at  Vienna,  and  she  afterward  appeared  at 
Berlin.  Her  name  is  associated  with  the  first  perform- 
ances of  Les  Huguenots,  in  which  she  took  the  part  of 
“Valentine,”  and  of  Le  Prophete,  in  which  she  per- 
formed the  part  of  “ Fides.” 

VIBERT,  Jehan  Georges,  a popular  portrait 
painter  of  France,  was  born  at  Paris,  September  30, 
1840,  and  pursued  his  art  studies  under  the  direction  of 
Francois  Picot,  the  eminent  historical  painter.  Vibert 
was,  in  1870,  decorated  with  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor,  and  enjoys  an  international  reputation.  Among 
his  most  celebrated  works,  The  Christian  Martyrs 
among  the  Lions  is  preeminent.  Died  July  1902. 

VICTORIA-ALEXANDRINA  (Queen  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  and  Empress  of  India),  only 
child  of  the  late  Duke  of  Kent  and  of  the  Princess  Louisa- 
Victoria  of  Saxe-Coburg,  was  born  at  Kensington 
Palace,  May  24,  1819 ; her  parents,  who  had  been 
for  some  time  residing  abroad,  having  hastened  to 
England,  in  order  that  their  child  might  “ be  born  a 
Briton.”  The  Duke  of  Kent  died  January  23,  1820, 
and  the  general  education  of  the  young  princess  was 
directed,  under  her  mother’s  care,  by  the  Duchess  of 
Northumberland,  wife  of  the  third  duke.  Until  with- 
in a few  weeks  of  her  elevation  to  the  throne  her  life 
was  spent  in  comparative  retirement,  varied  by  tours 
through  different  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Queen 
Victoria  succeeded  her  uncle,  William  IV. , June  20, 
1837,  as  Victoria  I.,  and  her  coronation  was  celebrated 
in  Westminister  Abbey,  June  28,  1838.  Her  Majesty 
was  married,  February  lo,  1840,  to  his  late  Royal 
Highness  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg  Gotha,  by 
whom  she  had  issue:  1.  H.R. H.  Victoria  Adelaide 
Mary  Louisa,  Princess  Royal,  born  November  21, 

1840,  married  January  25,  1858,  to  H.R. H.  the  Crown 
Prince  Frederick  William  of  Prussia.  2.  H.R.H. 
Albert  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  born  November  9, 

1841,  married  March  io,  1863,  the  Prinwss  Alexandra 


<5855 


VIC- 

of  Denmark.  3.  H.R.H.  Princess  Alice  Maud  Mary, 
born  April  15,  1843,  married  July  1,  1862,  to  Prince 
Louis  of  Hesse- Darmstadt  (she  died  December  14, 
1878).  4.  H.R.H.  Prince  Alfred  Ernest  Albert,  born 

August  6,  1844,  created  Duke  of  Edinburgh,  May  24, 
1866,  married  January  23,  1874,  the  Grand  Duchess 
Marie  Alexandrovna,  only  daughter  of  the  Emperor  of 
Russia.  5.  H.R.H.  Princess  Helena  Augusta  Victoria, 
born  May  26,  1846,  married  July  5,  1866,  to  Prince 
Christian  of  Schleswig-Holstein.  6.  H.R.H.  Princess 
Louise  Caroline  Alberta,  born  March  18,  1848,  married 
to  the  Marquis  of  Lome,  March  21,  1871.  7.  H.R.H. 

Prince  Arthur  William  Patrick  Albert,  Duke  of  Con- 
naught, born  May  1,  1850,  married  March  17,  1879, 
the  Princess  Louise  Margaret  Alexandra  Victoria  Agnes, 
third  daughter  of  Prince  Frederick  Charles  of  Prussia. 
8.  H.R.H.  Prince  Leopold  George  Duncan  Albert, 
Duke  of  Albany,  born  April  7,  1853,  married  April  2, 
1882,  the  Princess  Helen  Frederica  Augusta,  daughter 
of  the  Prince  of  Waldeck  and  Pyrmont  (he  died  March 
28,  1884)  ; and  9.  H.R.H.  Princess  Beatrice  Mary 
Victoria  Feodore,  born  April  14,  1857,  married  July 
23,  1885,  to  Prince  Henry  Maurice  of  Battenberg. 
rI  he  first  domestic  grief  which  Victoria  suffered  was  the 
loss  of  her  mother,  the  Duchess  of  Kent,  after  a short 
illness,  March  16,  1861,  followed  by  the  sudden  death 
of  the  Prince  Consort,  December  14th  in  the  same  yean 
The  leading  events  of  a political,'  legislative,  and  ad- 
ministrative character  that  have  occurred  during  her 
reign  will  be  found  under  their  appropriate  heads  in  the 
article  on  Great  Britain. 

By  virtue  of  the  power  conferred  by  an  Act  of  parlia- 
ment passed  in  the  previous  session,  her  majesty  was, 
on  January  1,  1877,  proclaimed  empress  of  India,  by 
the  governor-general,  at  the  camp  of  Delhi.  In  April, 
1882,.  an  attempt  on  the  queen’s  life  was  made  at 
Windsor  by  one  Roderick  Maclean,  who,  after  trial, 
was  ordered  to  be  confined  during  her  majesty’s  pleas- 
ure. The  Early  Days  of  His  Royal  Highness  the 
Prince  Consort , compiled  under  the  direction  of  her 
majesty,  by  Lieut. -Gen.  the  Hon.  C.  Grey,  was  pub- 
lished in  July,  1867,  and  was  followed,  in  1869,  by 
Leaves  from  the  Journal  of  our  Life  in  the  Highlands', 
and  in  1874,  by  the  first  volume  of  Mr.  (now  Sir) 
Theodore  Martin’s  Life  of  H.R.H.  the  Prince  Consort. 
which  she  supervised.  Xu  1885  her  majesty  published 
a second  volume  entitled  More  Leaves  from  the  Jour- 
nal, of  our  Life  in  the  Highlands.  She  died  Jan.  22, 
1901,  and  was  succeeded  by  Edward  VII. 

VICTORIA,  Guadalupe,  once  president  of  Mexico, 
was  born  in  Durango  in  1780,  and  upon  entering 
the  army  substituted  the  name  “Guadalupe  Victoria” 
for  Manuel  Felix  Fernandez,  his  legitimate  patronymic. 
The  scene  of  his  military  operations  was  for  some  years 
limited  to  the  province  of  Vera  Cruz  and  vicinity.  In 
1821,  however,  he  joined  Iturbide,  and  when  the  latter 
became  head  of  affairs,  Victoria  was  imprisoned.  He 
subsequently  escaped,  and,  joining  Santa  Anna,  became 
commander  of  Vera  Cruz.  The  republic  having  mean- 
while been  established,  he  was  on  October  10,  1824, 
elected  president,  and  later  he  secured  recognition  from 
England.  The  most  notable  feature  of  his  admin- 
istration was  the  abolition  of  slavery,  September  16, 
1825.  Upon  the  conclusion  of  his  official  term,  Vic- 
toria retired  to  private  life  and  died  at  Perote,  March 
21,  1843. 

VIDAURRI,  Santiago,  a soldier  and  statesman  of 
Mexico,  was  born  in  New  Leon  about  1807,  and  was 
convicted  of  treason  and  shot  at  the  city  of  Mexico 
during  1867.  Upon  the  flight  of  Santa  Anna  in  1855, 
Vidaurri  sought  to  become  his  successor,  and  in  Feb- 
ruary. 1846,  ciaimed  the  governorship  of  New  Leon, 


-*VIL 

VIEL-CASTEL,  Comte  de  (Louts),  statesman  and 
author,  born  in  France,  October'  14,  1800,  was  an 
attache  at  the  French  embassy  in  Spain  in  1821,  became 
secretary  of  legation,  and  acted  in  the  same  capacity 
at  Vienna  in  1828.  He  was  promoted  grand  cross  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1849.  He  died  in  1887. 

VIGFUSSON,  Gudbrand,  was  born  in  1830  in  the 
west  of  Iceland.  His  first  literary  essay  was  Timatal , 
or  an  essay  on  the  chronology  of  the  Icelandic  Sagas, 
written  in  Icelandic,  1854-55.  In  the  autumn  of  1864 
Mr.  Vigfusson  went  to  England,  and  died  January 
31,  1889. 

VIGNAU,  Nicholas,  soldier,  born  in  Saintonge, 
France,  about  1587  ; died  in  Canada  about  1630.  He 
came  to  North  America  in  1606,  and  took  part  in  Cham- 
plain’s second  voyage  of  discovery. 

VILAS,  William  F.,  ex-postmaster-general  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  at  Chelsea,  Vt.,  July  9,  1840. 
The  family  removed  to  Madison,  Wis.,  in  1851,  and  he 
graduated  from  the  Wisconsin  State  University  in  1858, 
and  from  the  Albany  (N.  Y.)  law  school  in  i860.  He 
entered  the  Federal  army  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
war,  and  soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  After  the 
close  of  the  war,  he  was  a successful  and  prominent 
lawyer  in  Wisconsin.  He  was  a member  of  the  State 
Legislature  in  1884-85,  and  chairman  of  the  national 
Democratic  convention  which  nominated  Mr.  Cleve- 
land to  the  presidency  in  1884.  On  March  5,  1885,  he 
was  appointed  postmaster-general,  and  served  until 
January  16,  1888,  when  he  became  secretary  of  the 
interior,  remaining  such  until  the  inauguration  of  Presi- 
dent Harrison,  when  he  returned  to  Madison.  In  Janu- 
ary, 1891,  he  was  elected  U.  S.  Senator  from  Wisconsin. 

VILLARD,  Henry,  financier,  was  born  in  Spire, 
Bavaria,  April  11,  1835.  After  receiving  his  educa- 
tion at  the  universities  of  Munich  and  Wurzburg  he 
came  to  this  country  in  1853,  and  engaged  in  the  study 
of  law  at  Peoria  and  Belleville,  Illinois,  thence  re- 
moving to  Chicago,  where  he  became  a newspaper 
writer.  Pie  married  a daughter  of  William  Lloyd 
Garrison  in  1866,  and  for  two  years  afterward  was 
European  correspondent  of  the  New  York  Tribune. 
He  first  became  interested  in  railroad  securities  in 
1870  at  Wiesbaden,  where  he  acted  as  agent  for  some 
German  bond-holders,  returning  to  the  United  States 
in  1874  to  l°°k  after  their  interests.  In  1875  Mr. 
Villard  became  president  of  both  the  Oregon  and  Cali- 
fornia railroad,  and  the  Oregon  Steamship  Company. 
The  European  investors  becoming  discouraged,  Mr. 
Villard  formed  an  American  syndicate  and  purchased 
the  steamship  property  in  1879,  and  formed  the 
Oregon  Railway  and  Navigation  Company.  He  was 
elected  president  of  the  Northern  Pacific  railway  in 
1881,  but  sacrificed  his  fortune  in  trying  to  support  the 
property,  and*  resigned  in  1884.  He  afterward  pur- 
chased heavily  of  the  stock  for  German  capitalists, 
and  in  1888  was  elected  a director  of  the  Northern 
Pacific  company,  and  president  of  the  Oregon  Railway 
and  Navigation  Compare  Mr.  Villard  has  given 
largely  to  educational  institutions.  Died  Nov.  12,  iqoo, 

VILLENEU  VE,  Pierre  Chari.es  John  Bap- 
tiste de,  was  born  at  Valensalbs,  France,  in  1763, 
and  entered  the  French  navy  at  an  early  age.  During 
the  American  Revolution,  Villeneuve,  in  conjunction 
with  D’Estaing,  prevented  the  embarkation  at  York- 
town  of  Cornwallis’  army,  and  compelled  their  surren- 
der, October  19,1791.  In  1796  Villeneuve'was  made 
rear-admiral,  and  later  vice-admiral.  He  participated 
in  the  battles  of  the  Nile  and  Trafalgar,  being  taken 
prisoner  at  the  latter,  and  one  year  later  (1806)  tool* 


6856  V I L - 

his  own  life,  owing  to  Napoleon’s  criticism  on  the 
French  defeat  at  Trafalgar. 

VILLIERS,  Charles  Pelham,  M.P.,  brother  of 
the  late  earl  of  Clarendon,  born  January  19,  1802,  and 
educated  at  St.  John’s  College,  Cambridge;  was  called 
to  the  bar  at  Lincoln’s  Inn  in  1827.  He  has  been  one 
of  the  members  in  the  House  of  Commons  for  Wolver- 
hampton since  1835.  He  joined  the  Liberal  govern- 
ment, and  was  appointed  judge-advocate-general  in  1853, 
was  president  of  the  poor-law  board,  and  became  a mem- 
ber of  Lord  Palmerston’s  second  administration  in  1859. 
Mr.  Villiers,  as  an  independent  Liberal  member,  was 
one  of  the  most  able  and  eloquent  leaders  of  the  anti- 
corn-law agitation,  and  to  the  triumph  of  the  cause  his 
earnest  speeches  and  persistent  motions  in  parliament 
contributed.  In  the  session  of  1865  he  introduced  a 
very  important  measure  in  connection  with  the  poor-law 
administration,  the  Union  Chargeability  Bill,  which  was 
carried  through  parliament,  and  has  become  law.  At 
fhp  last  three  general  elections  Mr.  Villiers  has  been 
'returned  unopposed  for  Wolverhampton.  He  died 
January  16.  1898. 

VILLIERS,  Frederic,  born  in  London  in  1850; 
was  educated  in  the  north  of  France.  Studied  in  the 
Schools  of  Art  at  South  Kensington,  and  became  a stu- 
dent of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1870.  In  1876,  as  special 
artist  and  correspondent  to  the  Graphic , he  went 
through  the  Servian  campaign  with  Mr.  Archibald 
Forbes,  and  returned  to  England  in  February,  1877. 
The  day  war  was  declared  between  Turkey  and  Russia, 
he  started  for  Bucharest,  where  he  joined  Mr.  Ferbes, 
and  was  present  at  all  the  chief  engagements.  In  June, 
1878,  he  went  to  Malta,  and  in  November  he  left  Eng- 
land for  Afghanistan.  He  went  through  the  first  part 
of  that  campaign  till  the  signing  of  the  treaty  of  Gand- 
amuk;  then  left  for  Australia,  traveled  through  New 
Zealand,  and  returned  to  England  via  San  P'rancisco 
and  New  York,  thus  making  a journey  round  the  world. 
Mr.  Villiers  left  England  for  Egypt  immediately  on  re- 
ceipt of  the  massacres  at  Alexandria;  was  on  H.M.S. 
Condor  during  the  bombardment  of  that  city,  and  landed 
with  the  marines.  In  February,  1884,  Mr.  Villiers 
left  for  Suakim  to  join  General  Graham,  who  had  gone 
to  avenge  the  defeat  of  General  Baker  at  the  first  battle 
of  Teb,  and  was  present  at  the  Arab  defeat  at  the  sec- 
ond battle  of  Teb.  On  March  13th  he  was  at  the  battle 
of  Tamai,  and  subsequently  accompanied  Admiral  Sir 
W.  Hewett  on  his  mission  to  the  court  of  King  John 
of  Abyssinia.  In  the  autumn  of  1884  and  the  spring  of 
1885,  Mr.  Villiers  was  with  the  Nile  expedition  for  the 
relief  of  Khartoum,  being  present  at  the  battles  of  Abu- 
Klea  and  the  advance  upon  Metemmeh,  and  in  Novem- 
ber, 1885,  started  for  Servia,  and  was  with  the  Servian 
forces  at  all  the  chief  encounters  with  the  Bulgarians. 
He  accompanied  Lord  Dufferin  on  his  journey  up  the 
Irrawaddy  to  Mandalay,  and  when  Lord.  Dufferin  re- 
turned to  India,  Mr.  Villiers  left  for  Constantinople  to 
await  the  development  of  events  in  the  Balkin  Penin- 
sula. 

VINCENNES,  Jean  Baptiste  Bissot,  Sieur  de, 
explorer,  born  in  Quebec,  Canada,  in  January,  1688  ; 
died  in  Illinois  in  1736.  As  a boy,  he  was  present  at 
a battle  between  the  French  and  Indians  at  Mackinaw, 
and  in  1701  entered  the  French  army  as  an  ensign.  In 
1712  he  preserved  Detroit  from  an  Indian  invasion, 
and  later  was  occupied  in  the  affairs  in  Ohio  and  Mich- 
igan, locating  about  1725  on  the  present  site  of  the  city 
of  Vincennes,  where  he  built  an  earth  fort  and  estab- 
lished a trading  post.  In  1736  he  engaged  in  an  un- 
successful expedition  against  the  Chickasaw  Indians, 
in  which  nearly  all  the  invaders  were  either  killed  or 
captured.  Vincennes  was  burned  at  the  stake. 


- V I o 

VINCENT,  Charles  Edward  Howard,  was  born 
May  31,  1849,  at  Slinfold,  Sussex,  Eng.,  entered  at 
the  Inner  Temple  in  1873;  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1876.  He  was  appointed  on  March  4,  1878,  to  reor- 
ganize the  detective  system  of  the  metropolitan  police. 
This  post  he  resigned  in  1884,  and  was  returned  as  con- 
servative member  for  Sheffield,  in  1885,  1886  and  1892. 

VINCENT,  John  H.,born  in  Tuscaloosa,  Ala.,  in 
1S32,  studied  for  the  Methodist  ministry  and  became 
an  itinerant  preacher.  He  edited  the  New  York  Sun- 
day School  Journal  and  in  1874  founded  the  Chautau- 
qua Assembly.  Mr.  Vincent  was  intimately  connected 
with  educational  work  at  Chautauqua  and  elsewhere 
until  he  became  in  1888  a Bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  church.  * 

VINTON,  Alexander  H.,  D.D.,  a prominent  min- 
ister of  the  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  Providence, 
R.  I.,  in  1809;  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1828,  and 
for  three  years  was  a medical  practitioner  at  Pomfret, 
Conn.  Subsequently  he  studied  for  the  ministry,  grad- 
uating at  the  general  theological  seminary  of  the  Epis- 
copal Church  in  1835,  the  same  year  becoming  rector  of 
St.  Paul’s  church  at  Portland,  Me.,  and  afterward 
serving  in  the  same  capacity  at  Boston,  Philadelphia, 
and  New  York  churches.  He  died  in  1881. 

VINTON,  Francis,  D.D.,  brother  of  Alexander 
H.  Vinton,  D.D.,  was  born  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  in 
1809,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1S30,  entering 
the  army  as  lieutenant  of  artillery.  He  remained  in 
the  service  until  1836,  when  he  resigned  and  matricu- 
lated at  the  General  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church.  He  entered  the  ministry  and 
served  as  rector  of  leading  Episcopal  congregations  in 
Brooklyn  and  New  York,  until  his  death  in  1872. 

VINTON,  Francis  Laurens,  an  American  army 
officer,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  a native  of  Port- 
land, Me.,  born  in  1835.  He  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1856,  but  resigned  without  entering  the  service,  and 
went  abroad.  During  the  Civil  war  he  served  in  the 
Peninsular  campaign,  and  was  promoted  to  be  brigadier- 
general.  He  was  disabled  at  Fredericksburg,  and 
resigned,  subsequently  becoming  professor  of  mining 
engineering  at  the  Columbia  School  of  Mines,  and  later 
a consulting  mining  engineer  at  Leadville,  Colo.,  where 
he  died  October  6,  1S76. 

VINTON,  Samuel  F.,  was  a native  of  South  Had- 
ley, Mass.,  born  September  25,  1792;  graduated  at 
Williams  College  in  1814,  and,  upon  his  admission  to 
the  bar  in  1S16,  removed  to  Gallipolis,  Ohio,  where  he 
began  the  practice  of  his  profession.  He  served  in 
congress  from  1823  to  1837,  and  again  from  1843  to 
1851.  He  died  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  in  1862. 

VIOLLET-LEDUC,  Eugene  E.,  was  born  in  Paris 
in  1814  and  there  became  a student  in  the  studio  of 
Leclerc,  an  eminent  designer  and  architect.  Le  Due 
made  a specialty  of  church  architecture,  after  Gothic 
and  mediaeval  designs,  and  superintended  the  recon- 
struction and  ornamentation  of  Notre  Dame  cathedral, 
Paris,  the  cathedral  at  Amiens,  and  other  church  edi- 
fices. He  was  also  a writer  on  the  subject  and  pub- 
lished several  works.  His  death  occurred  September 
18,  1879. 

VIOMliNIL,  Anthony  Charles  du  Houx,  Baron 
de,  soldier,  born  in  Fauconcourt,  France,  November 
30,  1728;  died  in  Paris,  November  9,  1792.  He  entered 
the  French  army  at  a very  early  age,  and  was  promoted 
captain  in  1747.  In  the  Prussian  Seven  Years  war  he 
was  colonel  of  volunteers.  In  1762  he  was  promoted 
brigadier-general,  in  1768  commanded  in  Corsica,  in 
1770  he  became  major-general,  and  captured  the  for- 
tress of  Cracow,  Poland.  In  1780  he  was  appointed 
next  in  command  to  Count  de  Rochambeau  in  the 


V I R — V O Y 


array  sent  to  support  the  American  colonies,  and  on 
June  13,  1781,  advanced  to  lieutenant-general  lor  gal- 
lantry at  the  siege  of  Yorktown.  Returning  home,  he 
became  governor  of  La  Rochelle  from  1783  to  1789, 
and  was  appointed  to  accompany  the  intended  flight  of 
Louis  XVI.  and  his  family  from  Paris.  In  an  attack 
on  the  Tuilleries  palace,  while  defending  the  king,  he 
was  so  severely  wounded  that  he  died  soon  after. 

VIRCHOW,  Rudolf,  a celebrated  German  anat- 
omist and  anthropologist,  was  born  at  Schivelbein  in 
Pomerania,  October  13,  1821,  and  studied  medicine  at 
Berlin.  In  1849  was  appointed  professor  of  anatomy 
at  Wurzburg,  and  soon  became  one  of  the  foremost  ex- 
ponents of  the  so-called  Wurzburg  school.  In  1856  he 
returned  to  Berlin  as  professor.  At  the  naturalist’s 
conference  at  Innsbruck  in  1869,  he  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  German  Anthropological  Society.  In 
1873  he  became  a member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  has  also  taken  a great  interest  in  the  spreading  of 
scientific  knowledge  among  the  people,  and  has  been 
since  1866  part  editor  of  a series  of  popular  lectures,  to 
which  he  |ias  contributed.  He  is  a member  of  the 
German  Reichstag.  Died  Sept.  5,  1902. 

VIRTUE,*  John,  D.D.,  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of 
Portsmouth,  was  born  in  Londpn,  April  28,  1826,  and 
ordained  priest  in  Rome  by  Cardinal  Patrizi  in  1851. 
Poplar  was  the  scene  of  his  first  missionary  labors,  and 
in  1853  he  went,  with  the  apostolic  nuncio  (afterward 
cardinal)  Bedini  as  his  secretary,  to  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  On  his  return,  in  acknowledgment  of  his 
services,  he  was  made  chamberlain  of  honor  to  Pope 
Pius  IX.  Father  Virtue  went  to  Aldershot  camp  on 
temporary  duty  in  1855  ; but  he  was  appointed  chap- 
lain to  the  forces  June  24,  1855,  a post  he  held  for 
exactly  twenty-seven  years.  He  was  appointed  cham- 
berlain of  honor  to  Pope  Leo  XIII.,  April  5,  1878;  the 
first  bishop  of  Portsmouth,  June  13,  1882;  and  was  con- 
secrated by  the  cardinal  archbishop  on  July  25th.  He 
has  edited  a number  of  books  and  contributed  various 
articles  to  the  Dublin  Review  and  the  Month. 

VIZCAINO,  Sebastian,  navigator,  born  in  Huelva, 
Spain,  about  1550;  died  in  Acapulco,  Mexico,  in  1615. 
In  1596  he  conducted  an  expedition  of  three  vessels 
from  Acapulco  to  California,  to  explore  the  rumored 
riches  of  that  country,  and  in  1602  he  was  appointed 
captain-general  of  a new  expedition  to  explore  the 
Pacific  coast  north  of  Cape  Mendocino.  He  sailed 
from  Acapulco  with  three  vessels  May  5th,  landed  in 
the  Bay  of  Monterey,  carefully  surveyed  the  coast 
northward,  reaching  the  mouth  of  what  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  Columbia  river,  and  in  March,  1603,  re- 
turned to  Acapulco.  Several  of  his  reports  have  been 
published  in  Madrid  and  Paris.  He  died  while  prepar- 
ing a third  expedition  to  the  Pacific  coast. 

VOGT,  Karl,  M.D.,  philosopher  and  author;  born 
at  Giessen,  July  5,  1817;  was  educated  there  under 
Liebig,  and  removing  to  Berne  in  1835,  studied  physi- 
ology and  graduated  M.D.  He  devoted  his  attention 
to  geology  and  zoology  under  Agassiz,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  zoology  in  the  university  of  his  native  town. 
Having  distinguished  himself  in  the  Frankfort  Parlia- 
ment of  1848,  he  retired  into  Switzerland,  and  delivered 
in  the  canton  of  Neufchatel  some  able  lectures  On 


6857 

Man,  His  Place  in  Creation , and  in  the  History  of 
the  Earth , which  made  his  name  known  far  and  wide 
on  the  Continent.  He  is  professor  of  natural  history 
in  the  University  of  Geneva,  a foreign  associate  of  the 
Anthropological  Society  of  Paris,  and  an  honorary  fel- 
low of  the  Anthropological  Society  of  London;  has 
published  several  works  and  delivered  various  lectures 
on  animals  and  travel.  Died  May  6,  1895. 

VOLK,  Leonard  W.,  an  American  sculptor,  was 
born  in  Hamilton  county,  N.  Y.,  November  7,  1828. 
After  engaging  in  various  occupations,  he  was,  in  1855, 
enabled  to  visit  Italy,  where  he  studied  modeling  for 
two  years,  when  he  returned  to  the  United  States  and 
located  in  Chicago.  In  1858  he  executed  a life-size 
statue  of  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  who  had  assisted  him  in 
making  his  trip  to  Italy,  and  in  i860  completed  a bust 
of  Abraham  Lincoln.  The  latter  was  destroyed  in  the 
great  fire  of  1871.  He  was  the  designer  of  the  Doug, 
las  monument  at  Chicago,  and  of  the  statues  of  Douglas 
and  Lincoln,  in  the  Illinois  State  capitol,  at  Springfield. 
Besides  these,  he  has  designed  a number  of  soldiers’ 
monuments  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  and  executed 
portrait -busts  of  prominent  citizens  of  Illinois  and  the 
Northwest. 

VOORHEES,  Daniel  W.,  an  American  jurist  and 
statesman,  Was  born  in  Butler  county,  Ohio,  September 
26,  1827,  and  in  1849  was  graduated  at  what  has  during 
later  years  been  known  as  “ DePauw  University.” 
Upon  his  admission  to  the  bar  in  1851  he  began  the 
practice  of  law  at  Covington,  Ind.,  and  soon  established 
a reputation  as  a public  speaker.  In  1858  he  was  ap- 
pointed United  States  attorney  of  Indiana,  and  during 
his  official  career  proceeded  to  Harper’s  Ferry,  and 
appeared  as  counsel  for  John  E.  Cook,  one  of  the  John 
Brown  band.  He  was  a member  of  congress  from  1861 
to  1866,  and  again  from  1869  to  1872,  serving  as  a mem- 
ber of  the  more  important  committees.  In  November, 
1877,  he  became  United  States  senator  from  Indiana, 
vice  Oliver  P.  Morton,  deceased,  and  was  elected  to 
that  body  in  1879,  and  again  in  1885,  and  in  1891  for 
the  term  ending  March,  1897.  Died  April  10,  1897. 

VOYSEY,  Rev.  Charles,  B.A.,  was  born  in  Lon- 
don, March  18,  1828;  educated  at  St.  Edmund  Hall, 
Oxford,  where  he  took  his  B.A.  degree  in  1851.  After 
serving  as  curate  in  various  parishes,  he  began  his  ca- 
reer as  a religious  reformer  by  the  publication  of  a ser- 
mon entitled  Is  every  Statement  in  the  Bible  about  our 
Heavenly  Father  strictly  true  ? This  was  soon  fol- 
lowed, in  1865,  by  The  Sling  and  the  Stone , which  ap- 
peared in  monthly  parts,  ana  was  continued  through  six 
years.  The  opinions  expressed  were  denounced  as 
heretical,  and  eventually,  in  the  spring  of  1869,  legal 
proceedings  were  instituted  by  the  Archbishop  of  York’s 
secretary  against  Mr.  Voysey.  The  case  was  heard  in 
the  Chancery  Court,  York  Minster,  December  1,  1869, 
when  judgment  was  pronounced  against  Mr.  Voysey, 
and,  on  appeal,  confirmed  by  the  judicial  committee  of 
the  privy  council,  which  sentenced  the  appellant  to  be 
deprived  of  his  living,  and  to  pay  the  costs,  February 
II,  1871.  Since  that  period  Mr.  Voysey  has  delivered 
sermons  and  lectures  chiefly  in  St.  George’s  Hall,  Lon- 
don, explanatory  of  his  theological  views,  also  preaching 
at  the  Theistic  Church,  Swallow  street,  Piccadilly. 


W A C — WAD 


68.cS 


w. 


WAGE,  Rev.  Henry,  D.D.,  principal  of  King’s 
College,  London,  was  born  in  London,  December 
io,  1836,  and  educated  at  Marlborough  and  Brasenose 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  i860. 
He  was  ordained  in  1861 ; served  as  curate  at  St.  Luke’s, 
Berwick  street,  from  1861  to  1863;  at  St.  James’, 
Piccadilly,  from  1863  to  1869;  and  was  lecturer  at 
Grosvenor  Chapel,  South  Audley  street,  from  1870  to 
1872.  In  1879  he  preached  the  Bampton  lectures  at 
Oxford  on  the  Foundations  of  Faith , and  was  select 
preacher  at  .Cambridge  in  1878,  and  at  Oxford  from 
1880  to  1882.  In  1875  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
ecclesiastical  history  in  King’s  College,  London;  and,  in 
1881,  he  was  nominated  by  the  bishop  of  London  a 
prebendary  of  St.  Paul’s.  He  is  the  author  of  lectures 
preached  in  1881  at  the  St.  James’,  Piccadilly,  and  of 
a number  of  religious  works. 

WADDEL,  John  Newton,  LL.D.,  an  eminent 
Presbyterian  minister  who  was  born  in  Wellington, 
S.C.,  April  2,  1812,  and  graduated  at  the  Georgia 
University  in  1829.  He  occupied  the  pulpit  of  various 
Presbyterian  churches  in  the  South  for  some  years, 
then  becoming  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  at  the 
University  of  Mississippi.  He  was  elected  to  a similar 
position  at  La  Grange  College,  in  1857,  and  became 
president  of  that  institution  about  i860.  From  1865  to 
1874  he  was  chancellor  of  the  Mississippi  University, 
being  appointed  in  the  latter  year  secretary  of  the  board 
of  education  for  the  Southern  Presbyterian  Church, 
and  so  continuing  until  1879,  when  he  was  appointed 
chancellor  of  the  Presbyterian  University  of  the  South- 
west. He  was  given  the  degree  of  D.D.  in  1851,  by 
the  Nashville  University,  and  that  of  LL.D.  by  the 
University  of  Georgia  in  1873. 

WADDELL,  JamesIredell,  wasbornin  Pittsboro, 
Chatham  county,  N.  C.,  in  1824,  and  died  in  Annapolis, 
Md.,  March  15,  1886.  He  became  a midshipman  in 
the  United  States  navy  September  10,  1841,  and  in  the 
following  year  was  lamed  for  life  by  a wound  received 
in  a duel.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  was  made 
second  lieutenant  and  navigator  of  the  Germantown  in 
1855.  In  January,  1862,  he  refused  the  command  of  a 
United  States  bomb-fleet,  and  in  February  entered  the 
Confederate  navy  at  Richmond,  Va.,  being  commis- 
sioned lieutenant.  He  served  on  the  ram  Louisiana  at 
New  Orleans,  and  was  subsequently  ordered  to  the 
command  of  the  Shenandoah  for  a cruise  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  This  ship  carried  the  Confederate  flag  around 
th  e world,  and  captured  thirty-eight  vessels,  of  which  she 
released  six  on  bond  and  destroyed  thirty-two.  This 
destructive  work  was  continued  until  August  2,  1865, 
more  than  three  months  after  the  surrender  of  General 
Lee,  when  Commander  Waddell  learned  for  the  first 
time  that  the  war  was  over.  He  surrendered  the  Shen- 
andoah to  the  British  Government,  and  resided  in  Paris 
for  several  years  before  returning  to  the  United  States. 

WADDINGTON,  William  Henry,  a French 
statesman  and  diplomatist,  was  born  in  Paris,  Decem- 
ber 11,  1826.  He  went  to  Rugby  school  in  February, 
1841,  and  remained  there  till  June,  1845,  when  he  went 
to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  graduated  in  1849 
as  second  in  the  first  class  of  the  classical  tripos. 
Soon  after  leaving  the  university  he  settled  in  France, 
having  become  a member  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries 
of  France,  and,  in  1865,  a member  of  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres.  In  February,  1871,  he 


was  sent  as  a representative  to  the  National  Assembly, 
from  the  department  of  the  Aisne.  At  first  he  sat  in 
the  left  center,  but  at  the  close  of  the  year  he  with- 
drew from  the  constitutional  monarchical  party,  and 
allied  himself  to  the  Republicans,  giving  a hearty  sup- 
port to  the  policy  of  M.  Thiers.  Appointed  minister  of 
public  instruction,  in  the  place  of  M.  Jules  Simon,  May 
19,  1873,  M.  Waddington  retired,  five  days  later,  with 
M.  Thiers,  and  resumed  his  seat  on  the  benches  of  the 
left  center.  Except  on  some  questions  of  detail,  or 
rather  of  procedure,  M.  Waddington  voted  regularly 
with  the  Republicans.  On  January  30,  1876,  he  was 
elected  a senator  for  the  department  of  the  Aisne,  to- 
gether with  M.  Henri  Martin  and  M.  Saint- Vallier; 
his  term  of  office  expired  in  1885.  Pie  was  recalled  to 
the  ministry  of  public  instruction  in  the  cabinet  of 
March  10,  1876,  in  succession  to  M.  Wallop  and  he  re- 
tained his  portfolio  under  the  administration  of  M. 
Jules  Simon,  with  whom  he  resigned  office  May  17, 

1877.  On  the  formation  of  the  Dufaure  cabinet  in 
December,  1877,  M.  Waddington  became  minister  of 
foreign  affairs.  He  was  the  first  plenipotentiary  of 
France  at  the  congress  of  Berlin  in  1878.  After  the 
resignation  of  Marshal  MacMahon  and  the  retreat  of 
M.  Dufaure,  M.  Waddington  was  invited  by  M. 
Grevy  to  remain  at  the  foreign  office  while  assuming 
the  presidency  of  the  council  (February  4,  1879).  On 
December  27,  1879,  he  resigned,  and  was  replaced  as 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  as  president  of  the 
council,  by  one  of  his  colleagues,  M.  de  Freycinet.  At 
this  juncture  he  refused  the  offer  of  the  London  em- 
bassy, and  paid  a visit  to  Italy,  where  he  was  received 
by  the  king  (March,  1880).  Pie  was  appointed  ambas- 
sador at  the  court  of  St.  James’  in  succession  to  M. 
Tissot,  in  July,  1883,  holding  the  position  six  years. 
The  King  of  the  Belgians  conferred  the  grand  ribbon 
of  the  Order  of  Leopold  on  M.  Waddington  in  April, 

1878.  He  was  a distinguished  archaeologist,  and  an 
honorary  fellow  of  Cambridge.  He  died  Jan.  13,  1894. 

WADE,  Benjamin  F.,  an  American  statesman,  was 
born  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  October  27,  1800,  and  re- 
moved to  Ohio  about  1821.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1825,  and  began  the  practice  of  law  in  the  coun- 
ties composing  what  is  known  as  the  Western  Reserve, 
so  continuing  until  1837,  when  he  was  elected  State 
senator,  and  in  1847  became  judge  of  the  third  judicial 
district  of  Ohio.  He  was  first  elected  United  States 
senator  by  the  Whigs  in  1851,  and  reelected  by  the  Re- 
publicans in  1857,  and  again  in  1863,  being  succeeded, 
March  4,  1869,  by  Allen  G.  Thurman  ( q.v .),  when 
he  retired  to  the  private  walks  of  life.  As  senator, 
Judge  Wade  was  an  ardent  supporter  of  the  Home- 
stead law,  and  as  ardently  in  favor  of  the  repeal  of  the 
Fugitive- slave  law.  During  the  discussions  of  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  in  1854,  he  was  conspicuous  for 
his  opposition  to  its  adoption,  andat  the  session  of  con- 
gress prior  to  the  Civil  war,  was  firm  and  unyielding 
in  his  refusal  to  “make  further  concessions  to  the  slave 
power.”  During  the  continuance  of  the  war  he  was 
chairman  of  the  committee  supervising  its  conduct,  and 
of  other  leading  committees  charged  with  duties  inci- 
dent thereto.  In  1867  he  was  elected  president  of  the 
Senate,  vice  Lafayette  S.  Foster,  and  served  in  that 
capacity  until  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office.  He 
died  March  2,  1878. 

WADE,  Sir  Thomas  Francis,  K.C.B.,  born  about 


WAD  — WAL 


1820,  entered  the  army  as  ensign  in  the  81  st  foot  in 
1838,  and  served  afterward  in  China  and  elsewhere 
in  ciie  42d  Highlanders  and  98th  foot,  from  which  he 
retired  as  lieutenant  in  1847.  In  1852  he  was  made 
vice-consul  at  Shanghai,  where  he  acted  as  inspector  of 
customs  for  the  Chinese  Government.  In  1855  he  was 
appointed  Chinese  secretary  at  Hong  Kong,  and  in  the 
same  year  he  was  sent  on  a special  mission  to  Cochin 
China.  He  was  attached  to  Lord  Elgin’s  mission  to 
China  in  1857-59,  and  in  the  last-named  year  he  was 
appointed  Chinese  secretary  to  the  English  mission  in 
China.  He  was  acting  charge  d'affaires  at  Pekin  from 
June,  1864,  tOsNovember,  1865,  and  again  from  Novem- 
ber, 1869,  to  July,  1871,  when  he  was  appointed  envoy 
extraordinary*  and  minister  plenipotentiary  and  chief- 
superintendent  of  British  trade  in  China.  He  was  ad- 
vanced to  the  rank  of  K.C.  B.  in  November,  1875.  Sir 
Thomas  Wade  is  the  autb or  of  Tzii-Erh  CVi/(  Progressive 
Course).,  1867,  which  deals  with  both  colloquial  and 
documentary  Chinese.  Died  July  31,  1895. 

WADHAMS,  Edgar  P.,  a bishop  of  the  Romap 
Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States,  was  born  May 
21,  1817,  at  Lewis,  in  the  State  of  New  York,  and 
in  1838  was  graduated  at  the  Middlebury  (Vt.)  College. 
In  1847  he  became  a graduate  of  the  General  Theologi- 
cal Seminary  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  took  dea- 
con’s orders.  Soon  after,  however,  he  embraced  the 
Roman  Catholic  faith,  and  at  the  conclusion  of  a course 
of  preparation  at  St.  Mary’s  Seminary,  near  Baltimore, 
was  ordained  priest.  He  served  as  vicar-general  of  the 
diocese,  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Ogdensburg  in  1872, 
and  died  in  December,  1891. 

WADSWORTH,  James  Samuel,  an  American 
general,  was  born  at  Geneseo,  in  Livingston  county, 
N.  Y. , and  fell  at  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  Va., 
May  6,  1864.  He  was  educated  at  both  Yale  and 
Harvard,  and  upon  completing  his  legal  studies  in  the 
office  of  Daniel  Wejbster,  about  1833,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar.  Inheriting  from  his  father  an  immense  area  of 
land  located  in  western  New  York,  General  Wadsworth 
devoted  his  time  and  attention  to  its  care,  also  paying 
particular  attention  to  the  promotion  of  educational 
interests.  When  the  Civil  war  broke  out  he  enlisted 
in  the  army,  and  became  brigadier-general.  He  partic- 
ipated in  the  battles  of  Fredericksburg,  Chancellors- 
ville,  and  Gettysburg,  and,  when  Grant  took  charge  of 
the  army  of  the  Potomac,  Wadsworth  was  assigned  to 
the  command  of  a division.  He  died  May  8,  1864. 

WAGNER,  Hermann,  a German  scholar,  born  in 
Erlanger,  June  23,  1840,  and  educated  at  Gottingen. 
Since  his  graduation  he  has  devoted  his  attention 
to  geography,  and  is  the  author  of  a number  of  works 
on  that  subject.  In  1876  he  accepted  a call  to  the  chair 
of  geography  at  the  Konigsberg  University. 

WAGNER,  John,  a distinguished  surgeon  of  South 
Carolina,  was  born  at  Charleston,  July  7,  1791;  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  in  1812,  and,  after  a course  of  study 
in  New  York,  became  a student  in  the  office  of  Sir 
Astley  Cooper,  London,  and  an  attendant  at  Guy’s 
Hospital,  that  city.  He  concluded  his  studies  in  Paris, 
and,  returning  to  the  United  States,  entered  upon  the 
practice  of  his  profession  at  Charleston,  where  he  also 
Filled  the  chair  of  surgical  anatomy  in  South  Carolina 
Medical  College,  also  that  of  surgery.  While  in 
Europe  the  Royal  College  of  .Surgeons,  London,  con- 
ferred on  him  the  degree  of  M.D.  He  died  at  Charles- 
ton, May  22,  1841. 

WAGNER,  Moritz  F.,  a German  explorer  and 
traveler,  was  born  at  Baireuth,  in  Bavaria,  October  3, 
1813;  educated  at  the  University  of  Augsburg,  and 
studied  natural  sciences  at  Paris  and  Munich.  His 
explorations,  made  under  the  auspices  of  the  Berlin 


6859 

Academy  of  Sciences,  jextended  over  Italy,  Asia 
Minor,  Persia  and  the  East,  the  United  States,  Cen- 
tral America,  the  West  Indies,  etc.  He  returned  to 
Germany  in  i860,  and  became  professor  of  geography 
at  Munich  University,  also  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  that  city  and  Berlin.  He  wrote  numerous 
works  on  science  and  travel,  and  many  magazine  con- 
tributions of  articles  relating  to  the  same  subjects.  He 
died  at  Munich  in  1887. 

WAGNER,  Rudolf  Johannes,  a distinguished 
German  chemist,  was  born  at  Leipsic,  February  13, 
1823;  educated  at  the  Leipsic  University  and  studied 
chemistry  there  and  in  Paris.  Subsequently  he  filled 
the  chair  of  chemistry  at  the  Universities  of  Wurz- 
burg and  Nuremberg,  and  in  1858  was  appointed  in- 
spector of  schools  for  Bavaria.  His  works  on  chem- 
istry are  standard  authorities.  He  died  Oct.  4,  1880. 

WAGNER,  Wilhelm,  an  accomplished  philologist 
of  Germany,  was  born  at  Steinau,  May  11,  1843,  and 
obtained  his  education  at  the  universities  of  Berlin  and 
Bonn.  He  afterwards  became  a teacher,  and  later  still 
devoted  his  attention  to  literary  work,  making  a spe- 
cialty of  ancient  authors,  among  whom  Plato  and  Ter- 
ence were  partly  annotated  by  him.  He  also  devoted 
considerable  attention  to  annotating  Shakespeare’s 
works  and  those  of  other  English  writers.  He  died 
at  Naples,  April  15,  1880. 

WAITE,  Morrison  Remick,  LL.D.,  was  born 
at  Lyme,  Conn.,  November  29,  1816.  He  received 
the  degree  of  A. B.  at  Yale  in  1837.  After  his  admis- 
sion to  the  bar  he  removed  to  Ohio,  where  he  prac- 
ticed successfully  in  Maumee  City  and  Toledo.  He 
was  a member  of  the  State  legislature  in  1849,  and 
one  of  the  arbitrators  of  the  Geneva  tribunal  in  1872. 
He  was  president  of  the  Ohio  constitutional  conven- 
tion in  1873,  and  in  March,  1874,  was  appointed  by 
President  Grant  chief  justice  ol  the  United  States. 
His  course  in  that  position  was  singularly  free  from 
political  or  personal  prejudice;  he  declined  to  serve ,as 
one  of  the  electoral  commission  to  decide  the  presi- 
dential controversy  of  1876,  and  in  other  instances 
showed  his  independence  of  political  considerations. 
In  1872  Yale  College  conferred  the  degree  of  LL.D., 
Kenyon  College  doing  likewise  in  1874,  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Ohio  in  1879.  In  1874  he  acted  as  presi- 
dent of  the  Ohio  constitutional  convention.  Among  the 
important  questions  presented  to  the  Supreme  Court 
for  determination  and  decided  by  Chief  Justice  Waite, 
were  those  affecting  polygamy,  election  laws,  the  civil- 
rights  law,  the  legal-tender  act,  the  cases  involving 
the  liability  of  Virginia  for  certain  State  debts,  the  case 
of  the  Chicago  anarchists,  the  Bell  telephone  case,  and 
many  others  equally  important,  with  which  the 
country  is  familiar.  He  died  March  23,  1888,  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  and  was  buried  at  Toledo,  Ohio. 

WALDEN,  John  M.,  a bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  born  at  Lebanon,  Ohio,  February 
11,  1831,  and  in  1852  was  graduated  at  Farmers’  Col- 
lege, at  College  Hill,  near  Cincinnati.  For  many 
years  thereafter  he  devoted  his  attention  to  educational 
and  editorial  work,  being  also  a member  of  the  consti- 
tutional convention  of  Kansas.  In  1858  he  entered  the 
ministry  at  Cincinnati,  and  filled  several  important 
posts.  He  was  subsequently  secretary  of  the  Freed- 
man’s Aid  Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
and  in  1868  became  one  of  the  agents  of  the  Western 
Methodist  Book  Concern,  remaining  in  that  position 
until  1884,  when  he  was  consecrated  bishop. 

WALDERSEE,  Mary,  Countess  von,  an  Ameri- 
can woman  of  remarkable  ability  and  history,  born  in 
New  York  city,  Oct.  3,  1837,  the  daughter  of  David  Lee, 
a wealthy  merchant.  While  in  France  in  1865  she  married 


o86o 


W A L 


Prince  Frederick,  of  Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg- 
Augustenburg-Noer,  an  Austrian  nobleman,  who  died 
soon  after.  In  1871  she  married  Count  von  Waldersee, 
an  influential  German  nobleman,  who  succeeded  von 
Moltke  as  field  marshal  of  the  German  army,  and  has 
held  other  high  offices.  Countess  von  Waldersee  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  William 
and  Empress  Victoria  of  Germany  and  through  her 
close  friendship  with  the  Empress  Augusta  retains  her 
potent  influence  at  the  court  of  Berlin. 

WALDSTEIN,  Charles,  archaeologist,  born  in  New 
York  city,  March  30,  1856,  and  educated  at  Columbia 
College  and  Heidelberg,  has  delivered  art  lectures  at 
the  British  museum  and  Columbia  College,  excavated 
sites  of  ancient  cities  in  Greece  and  Italy  and  made 
many  interesting  discoveries.  He  became  director 
of  the  American  School  of  Archaeology  in  Athens,  in 
1888,  is  one  of  the  foreign  editors  of  the  Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Archceology  and  has  published  The 
Balance  of  Emotion  and  Intellect , The  Art  of  Pheidias, 
and  The  Work  of  John  Buskin. 

WALKE,  Henry,  born  in  Princess  Ann  county, 
Va.,  December  24,  1808,  entered  the  navy  as  a mid- 
shipman from  Ohio,  1827,  was  executive  of  the  bomb 
brig  Vesuvius  in  the  Mexican  war  and  commanded  the 
gunboat  Carondelet  at  the  capture  of  Fort  Henry,  Feb- 
ruary 6,  1862,  and  at  the  capture  of  Fort  Donelson, 
running  the  batteries  of  Island  No.  10  and  performing 
other  brilliant  feats  during  the  war  and  several  times 
receiving  votes  of  thanks  from  Congress  and  compli- 
ments from  General  Grant.  He  became  rear-admiral, 
1870,  and  died  March  8,  1896.  He  wrote  and 

illustrated  Naval  Scenes  of  the  Civil  War  (1877). 

WALKER,  Amasa,  an  American  economist,  was  a 
native  of  Woodstock,  Conn.,  where  he  was  born  May 
4,  1799,  and  in  1814  began  his  commercial  career,  re- 
maining thus  engaged  until  1840.  In  1842  he  occupied 
the  chair  of  political  economy  at  Oberlin  (Ohio)  Col- 
lege, where  he  remained  seven  years.  In  1849  he  filled 
a similar  position  at  Amherst  College,  and  in  1862  was 
elected  to  congress,  serving  one  term.  He  was  the 
author  of  a number  of  works  on  political  economy.  He 
died  at  North  Brookfield,  Mass.,  October  29,  1875. 

WALKER,  Francis  Amasa,  LL.D.,  an  American 
ublicist  and  economist,  was  born  near  Boston,  Mass., 
uly  2,  1840,  and  graduated  at  Amherst  in  i860,  after- 
ward studying  law.  He  enlisted  in  the  Civil  war,  and 
was  made  brigadier-general  for  gallantry  at  Chancellors- 
ville  and  other  battles  in  Virginia.  From  1867  to  1869 
he  assisted  in  the  editorial  department  of  the  Spring- 
field  Republican.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  connected 
with  the  government  bureau  of  statistics,  and  he  super- 
intended the  collection  of  statistics  for  the  ninth  and 
tenth  censuses  of  the  United  States.  He  became  Indian 
commissioner,  and  in  1873  was  called  to  the  chair  of 
political  economy  of  Yale  College.  In  1881  he  was 
selected  for  the  presidency  of  the  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology.  He  has  published  works  on  politi- . 
cal  economy  and  other  subjects.  Died,  1897. 

' WALKER,  Frederick  A.,  R.A.,  an  English 
artist,  born  in  London  in  1840,  and  died  June  4,  1875. 
He  began  his  professional  career  as  an  engraver  on 
wood  for  a number  of  London  publications,  but  subse- 
quently devoted  his  attention  to  water-color  and  oil 
painting.  He  was  elected  to  the  Royal  Academy  in  1871. 

WALKER,  Frederick  William,  was  born  in 
London,  England,  July  7,  1830,  and  educated  at  Rugby, 
under  Dr.  Tait.  He  was  scholar  of  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Oxford,  1849;  was  called  to  the  bar,  Lincoln’s 
Inn,  1857 ; and  was  appointed  high  master  of  Manches- 
**r  Grammar  School,  1859;  examiner  at  Oxford,  1868; 
and  high  master  of  St.  Paul’s  School,  London,  1877. 


WALKER,  James,  an  English  artist,  born  in  that 
country,  June  3,  1819,  and  died  in  California  during 
September,  1889.  When  a child  he  accompanied  his 
parents  to  New  York,  where  he  resided  until  1884.  In 
that  year  he  moved  to  the  Pacific  coast  for  the  purpose 
of  painting  a battle  picture  ordered  for  a private  gallery 
in  San  Francisco.  His  specialty  was  pictures  of  that 
character,  The  Repulse  of  Longstreet  at  Gettysburg 
being  the  subject  of  one  of  them,  with  which  the 
artistic  world  is  familiar. 

WALKER,  Leroy  Pope,  an  American  lawyer  and 
statesman,  was  born  at  Huntsville,  Ala.,  July  8,  1817, 
and  early  in  life  became  conspicuous  as  a lawyer  and 
public  speaker.  Coming  thus  into  prominence  and  popu- 
larity, he  exerted  a potent  influence  in  the  State,  and 
was  elected  to  positions  of  importance,  including  the 
speakership  of  the  State  House  of  Representatives,  judge 
of  the  Circuit  Court,  and  to  other  places  of  trust.  He 
was  secretary  of  war  of  the  Confederate  States  in  1861 
and  1S62.  After  the  war  he  resumed  the  practice  of  law 
at  Huntsville,  where  he  died,  August  24,  1884. 

WALKER,  Robert  John,  statesman,  bom  in 
Northumberland,  Penn.,  July  23,  1801;  died  in  Wash- 
inton,  D.  C.,  November  11,  1869.  He  was  graduated 
in  August,  1819,  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
studied  law,  practiced  his  profession  at  Pittsburg,  and  in 
1826  removed  to  Natchez,  Miss.,  and  became  a promi- 
nent lawyer  and  Democratic  politician.  In  1836  he 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate.  Under  the 
administration  of  President  Polk  he  was  appointed  sec- 
retary of  the  United  States  treasury,  which  office  he 
conducted  with  ability  and  held  until  March  5,  1849. 
In  1853  he  served  as  commissioner  to  open  commercial 
relations  with  China  and  Japan,  in  1857  for  a brief  term 
as  governor  of  Kansas,  and  in  1863  and  1864  was 
financial  agent  for  the  United  States  in  Europe. 

WALKER,  Sears  Cook,  mathematician,  was  born 
in  Wilmington,  Mass.,  March  28,  1805,  and  died  in 
Cincinnati,  Ohio,  January  30,  1853.  He  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1825,  and  two  years  later  removed  to 
Philadelphia,  where  he  built  an  observatory  for  the  high 
school  in  1837.  The  astronomical  observations  and 
investigations  which  he  made  there  were  published 
in  the  American  Journal  of  Science  and  in  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Philosophical  Society  for  twelve  years.  In 
1847  he  was  given  charge  of  the  longitudinal  computa- 
tions of  the  United  States  coast  survey,  which  position  he 
held  until  his  death.  He  aided  in  developing  the  method 
of  determining  differences  of  longitude  by  telegraph, 
and  introduced  the  chronographic  system  of  recording 
observations.  By  the  introduction  of  his  parallactic 
tables,  first  prepared  in  1834,  a great  reduction  of  time 
was  effected  in  computing  the  phases  of  an  occultation. 
He  published  a number  of  astronomical  and  mathemat- 
ical papers. 

WALKER,  William,  adventurer,  born  in  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  May  8,  1824;  died  in  Trujillo,  Honduras, 
September  12,  i860.  After  studying  law  in  Nashville, 
and  medicine  in  Heidelberg,  Germany,  he  became  a 
journalist  in  NewOrleans  and  San  Francisco,  and  finally 
settled  as  a lawyer  in  Maryville,  Cal.  In  October,  1853, 
with  1 70  followers,  he  undertook  an  enterprise  against 
the  Northwestern  States  of  Mexico,  landing  at  La  Paz, 
naming  himself  president  of  the  country,  “ annexing  ” 
Sonora  by  proclamation,  and  surrendering  to  the  United 
States  authorities  at  San  Diego,  Cal.  In  1855  he  landed 
with  sixty-two  followers  at  Realejo,  Nicaragua,  raised 
a force,  captured  Granada,  and  in  September,  1856, 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  president  of  the  country. 
His  minister,  sent  to  Washington,  was  recognized  by 
the  United  States  Government,  but  his  arbitrary  and 
ill-considered  measures  soon  provoked  an  insurrection# 


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He  was  defeated  in  several  encounters,  burned  the  city 
of  Granada,  and  surrendered  at  San  Juan  del  Sur  to  the 
United  States  naval  forces  that  conveyed  him  to  Pan- 
ama. At  New  Orleans  he  was  tried  for  filibustering, 
and  escaped  conviction.  Thereafter  he  made  several 
attempts  to  invade  Honduras,  in  the  last  of  which  he 
surrendered  on  Tinto  river  to  the  British  man-of-war 
Icarus , was  delivered  to  the  Honduras  authorities,  un- 
derwent the  formality  of  a trial  by  court-martial,  and,  in 
accordance  with  Spanish  usage,  was  shot. 

WALKER,  William  David,  a bishop  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States,  was  born 
in  New  York  city,  June  29,  1839,  and  graduated  at 
Columbia  College  in  1859.  He  pursued  his  theological 
studies  at  the  General  Theological  Seminary,  New 
York,  where  he  graduated  in  1862,  and  was  ordained 
deacon  June  29th  of  the  same  year.  One  year  later  he 
was  ordained  priest  and  assigned  to  Calvary  church, 
where  he  remained  until  his  consecration  as  missionary 
bishop  of  North  Dakota,  December  20,  1883. 

WALKER,  William  H.  T.,  an  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Georgia  in  October,  1816,  and  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1837.  He  served  in  the  Florida  war 
and  participated  in  all  the  engagements  of  the  Mexican 
war,  being  wounded  at  Molino  del  Rey.  He  was  pro- 
moted to  major  and  lieutenant-colonel  for  gallantry  at 
Contreras,  Churubusco,  and  Molino  del  Rey,  and  in 
1854  was  appointed  commander  at  the  United  States 
Military  Academy.  He  served  in  the  Confederate 
army  during  the  Civil  war,  and  became  a major-general. 
He  was  killed  at  Decatur,  Ga.,  July  26,  1864. 

WALLACE,  Alfred  Russel,  F.  L.S.,  born  atUsk, 
Monmouthshire,  January  8,  1822;  was  educated  at  the 
Grammar  School,  Hertford,  and  articled  with  an  elder 
brother  as  land  surveyor  and  architect,  but  gave  up  this 
profession  in  order  to  travel  and  study  nature.  In  1848 
he  visited  the  Amazon  with  Mr.  Bates.  Returning  in 
1852,  he  published  his , Travels  on  the  Amazon  and  Rio 
Negro , and  a small  volume  on  Palm  Trees  of  the  Ama- 
zon, and  their  Uses.  In  1854  he  visited  the  Malay 
Islands,  where  he  remained  eight  years.  In  1868  he 
was  awarded  the  royal  medal  of  the  Royal  Society,  and 
in  1870  the  gold  medal  of  the  Soci£te  de  G£ographie  of 
Paris.  He  has  published  numerous  works  on  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  animals  and  plants  and  allied 
subjects.  The  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  was  con- 
ferred upon  him  by  the  University  of  Dublin  in  1882. 

WALLACE,  Sir  Donald  Mackenzie,  a Scottish 
author,  was  born  at  Paisley,  November  11,  1841,  and 
studied  at  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  Paris,  Berlin,  and 
Heidelberg.  He  was  graduated  as  doctor  of  laws  at  the 
last  named  place,  and  passed  M.A.  at  Edinburgh  in 
1859.  In  1870  he  went  to  Russia,  where  he  remained 
six  years,  gathering  the  material  for  his  greatest  work, 
Russia,  which  was  published  in  1877.  He  has  also 
written  Egypt  and  the  Egyptian  Question. 

WALLACE,  John  W.,  an  American  author,  was 
born  at  Philadelphia,  February  17,  1815,  and  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  Pennsylvania  University  in  1S33.  He  pur- 
sued the  study  of  law  at  Philadelphia,  also  at  the  Tem- 
ple, London,  and  upon  his  admission  to  the  bar  was 
appointed  a master  in  chancery  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Pennsylvania.  From  1842  to  1854  he  was  reporter 
of  the  United  States  Circuit  Court  for  the  third  judicial 
district,  and  from  1863  to  1877  reporter  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court.  He  was  also  president  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Historical  Society.  He  died  at  Phila- 
delphia, January  12,  1884,  and  left  a valuable  collection 
of  court  reports,  chronologically  arranged,  with  occa- 
sional remarks  on  their  respective  merits,  published  under 
his  direct  supervision. 

WALLACE,  Lewis,  born  in  Brookville,  Ind., 


April  10,  1827.  He  received  a good  education  and 
studied  law.  During  the  Mexican  war  he  entered  the 
army  as  first  lieutenant.  Thereafter  he  practiced  his 
profession  at  Covington  and  Crawfordsville.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  war  he  was  appointed  adjutant- 
general  of  Indiana,  became  colonel  of  volunteers,  and 
served  in  Western  Virginia.  In  September  he  was 
commissioned  brigadier  general  of  volunteers;  com- 
manded a division  at  the  capture  of  Fort  Donelson, 
and  was  made  major  general  of  volunteers.  His  divis- 
ion was  engaged  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  and  in  1863 
prevented  the  capture  of  Cincinnati  by  the  Confederates 
under  Gen.  Kirby  Smith.  Assigned  to  command  the 
middle  department  with  headquarters  in  Baltimore,  he 
intercepted  the  march  of  Gen.  J.  A.  Early  on  Wash- 
ington, and  was  by  him  badly  beaten  on  July  9,  1864, 
in  the  battle  of  the  Monocacy.  By  order  of  Gen.  H. 
W Halleck  he  was  removed  from  his  command,  but 
Gen.  U.  S.  Grant  reinstated  him.  After  the  war  he 
was  appointed  governor  of  Utah,  1878-81,  and  from 
1881-85  served  as  United  States  minister  to  Turkey. 
Since  then  he  has  returned  to  the  practice  of  law  in 
Crawfordsville,  and  given  his  attention  to  literature. 
He  wrote  The  Fair  God  (Boston,  1873) ; Ben  Hur , a 
Tale  of  the  Christ  (New  York,  1880);  The  Boyhood  of 
Christ  (New  York,  1883) ; a Life  of  Benjamin  Harri- 
son (1888)  and  The  Prince  of  India. 

WALLACE,  Robert,  M.  P.,  was  born  in  Fifeshire, 
Scotland,  June  24,  1831 ; was  educated  at  Geddes  In- 
stitution, Culross,  the  High  School,  Edinburgh,  and  the 
Universities  of  St.  Andrews  and  Edinburgh,  and  grad- 
uated M.  A.  in  the  former  in  1853.  He  entered  the 
church,  and  became  minister  of  Old  Greyfriars,  Edin- 
burgh, in  December,  1868;  D.D.  of  the  University  of 
Glasgow  in  1869;  and  professor  of  church  history  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  in  December,  1872.  He 
quitted  the  clerical  profession  in  August,  1876,  when 
he  became  editor  of  the  Scotsman  in  succession  to  the 
late  Doctor  Russel.  He  resigned  the  editorship  in 
November,  1880,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  Novem- 
ber, 1883.  After  the  dissolution  of  1886  he  opposed 
Mr.  Goschen  for  East  Edimburgh,  and  was  elected  as  a 
Liberal  by  a large  majority.  Died  June  6,  1899. 

WALLACE,  William  Harvey  Lamb,  was  born  at 
Urbana,  Ohio,  July  8,  1821 ; died  in  Savannah,  Tenn., 
April  10,  1862.  He  removed  to  Illinois  in  1832,  and 
adopted  the  profession  of  law,  but  in  the  same  year  that 
he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1846,  he  joined  the  first 
Illinois  regiment  of  volunteers  for  the  Mexican  war  as 
a private.  He  soon  attained  the  rank  of  adjutant,  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  BuenaVista  and  other  engagements, 
and  after  the  war  resumed  the  practice  of  law,  becoming 
district  attorney  in  1853.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
war  he  entered  the  service  as  colonel  of  the  nth  Illinois 
volunteers,  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  1862, 
and  was  mortally  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh. 

WALLACE,  William  Ross,  an  American  lawyer 
and  poet,  was  born  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  about  1819,  and 
was  educated  at  Bloomington,  Ind.,  also  attending 
college  at  South  Hanover,  in  the  same  State.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  at  Lexington,  and  in  1841  removed 
to  New  York  city,  when  he  divided  his  time  between 
literature  and  the  practice  of  his  profession.  He  wrote 
a number  of  patriotic  poems  which  attracted  favorable 
comment,  and  have  become  popular.  He  died  in  New 
York  city,  May  5,  1881. 

WALLACE,  William  Vincent,  a musician  and 
musical  composer,  was  born  at  Waterford,  Ireland, 
June  1,  1814.  He  gave  evidence  of  his  possession  of 
musical  abilities  of  a high  order  early  in  life,  and,  after 
making  a tour  of  India  and  the  East,  South  America, 
and  the  United  States,  located  in  London,  and  devoted 


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his  attention  to  music.  He  composed  a number  of 
operas,  among  which  Maritana  and  Lurline  are  the 
principal.  These  have  met  with  popular  approval. 
He  made  a second  tour  of  the  United  States  later  on, 
giving  concerts  in  all  the  leading  cities,  and  returned 
to  Europe,  dying  at  Haute  Garonne,  France,  October 
12,  1865. 

WALLACE,  James  William,  actor,  born  in  Lam- 
beth, England,  August  24,  1794;  died  in  New  York 
city,  December  25,  1864.  He  first  appeared  at  the 
Surrey  theater,  London,  as  a child,  among  the  super- 
numeraries; later  assumed  small  juvenile  parts  at  Drury 
Lane  theater,  and  in  1824  became  stage-manager ; fin- 
ally he  performed  at  the  Haymarket,  and  was  stage- 
manager  of  the  Princess’  theater.  For  nearly  twenty 
years  he  played  in  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 
From  1837  until  its  destruction  by  fire,  Wallack  con- 
ducted the  New  York  National  theater.  In  1852  he 
established  Wallack’s  theater,  on  a smaller  scale. 

WALLACK,  John  Lester,  actor,  born  in  New 
York  city,  January  1,  1820;  died  in  Stamford,  Conn., 
September  I,  1888.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  entered 
the  British  army  as  lieutenant,  remaining  two  years. 
Thereafter  he  turned  his  attention  to  the  drama.  He 
made  his  first  appearance  in  the  United  States  at  the 
New  York  Broadway  theater,  September  27,  1847,  as 
“ Sir  Charles  Coldstream  ” in  the  play  of  Used  Up.  He 
subsequentlyappeared  atthe  Bowery,  Burton’s,  Niblo’s 
and  Brougham’s  theaters,  and  in  1852  became  a perma- 
nent member  of  his  father’s  company,  where  he  played 
leading  parts.  On  the  death  of  his  father  in  1864,  he 
became  proprieter  of  Wallack’s  theater,  which  he  con- 
ducted twenty-four  years.  Among  pieces  for  the  stage 
he  wrote  the  Veteran  and  Rosedale , and  prepared  three 
papers  of  Theatrical  Reminiscences , published  in  Scrib- 
nir's  Magazine  shortly  after  his  death. 

WALLER,  Thomas  M.,  an  American  statesman  and 
jurist,  is  a native  of  New  York  city;  was  born  in  1840. 
He  was  adopted  by  a citizen  of  New  London,  Conn., 
taking  his  name,  and,  after  a course  of  study,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  about  i860.  He  entered  politics  as  a 
Democrat,  in  i86j,  and  soon  acquired  a widespread  rep- 
utation as  an  orator.  He  was  elected  to  the  legislatures 
of  1867,  1868,  1872  and  1876,  when  he  was  chosen 
speaker;  was  secretary  of  state  in  1870,  and  mayor  of 
New  London  in  1873.  In  1882  he  became  governor  of 
Connecticut,  and  in  1885  was  appointed  consul  at  Lon- 
don, England,  by  President  Cleveland. 

WALLIS,  S.  T.,  a distinguished  American  lawyer, 
born  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  September  8,  1816;  was  grad- 
uated at  St.  Mary’s  College,  near  that  city,  in  1832,  and 
five  years  later  became  a member  of  the  Maryland  bar. 
He  is  a member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Madrid  and 
a fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Copenhagen.  In  1861 
he  was  elected  to  the  state  legislature,  and,  as  chairman 
of  the  committee  on  federal  relations,  incurred  the  hos- 
tility ot  the  Federal  government  by  his  condemnation  of 
the  Civil  war.  He  was  arrested,  and  for  more  than 
ayear  imprisoned  in  various  forts  throughout  the  coun- 
try. Upon  his  release  he  resumed  the  practice  of  his 
profession.  In  1870  he  was  appointed  provost  of  the 
Maryland  University,  and  has  held  other  offices  of 
prominence  and  trust.  Pie  is  author  of  several  works 
on  Spain,  and  has  been  a frequent  contributor  of  arti- 
cles of  an  historical  and  political  character  to  the  daily 
press  and  monthly  periodicals. 

WALLIS,  Henry,  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Painters  in  Water  Color,  was  born  in  London  February 
21,  1830,  and  studied  in  the  art  school  of  F.  S.  Cary, 
London,  and  in  the  atelier  of  C.  Gleyre,  Paris,  Ecole 
des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris ; also  at  Rome  and  Venice. 
His  first  picture  (in  oil  color)  was  exhibited  at  the 


British  Institution,  1851.  His  most  celebrated  work 
was  The  Death  of  Chatterton.  He  joined  the  Royal 
Society  of  Painters  in  Water  Color  in  1879,  his  pictures 
exhibited  at  the  gallery  of  the  Society  being  mainly 
scenes  from  The  Merchant  of  Venice , and  Italian  and 
Oriental  subjects.  He  has  contributed  papers  to  artistic 
and  other  journals  on  the  history  of  painting  and  on 
ceramic  art. 

WALLON,  Henri  Alexandre,  was  born  at  Valen- 
ciennes, France,  December  23, 1812.  In  1840  he  became 
a professor  with  M.  Guizot  at  the  Sorbonne,  where  he 
lectured  on  history  and  geography.  In  i860  he  gained 
the  Golibert  prize  of  the  French  Academy  for  a work 
on  Joan  of  Arc.  He  was  returned  to  the  National 
Assembly  in  February,  1871,  as  a moderate  Conservative 
by  the  department  of  the  Nord,  but  he  joined  the 
Lavergne  group  on  the  question  of  constitutional  laws. 
M.  Buffet,  on  forming  his  administration  in  March, 
1875,  nominated  him  minister  of  public  instruction. 
It  was  he  who  proposed  the  clauses  which  first  gave 
constitutional  shape  to  the  Republic.  M.  Wallon  is  a 
member  of  the  institute,  and  a sound  and  capable  his- 
torian. His  chief  works  are  Richard  II.,  Histoire  de 
1' Esclavage  dans  V Antiquit / (2  vols.),  Jeanne  d’  Arc, 
and  Le  Tribunal  Rivol u tion naire  dc  Paris. 

WALPOLE,  Spencer,  lieutenant-governor  of  the 
Isle  of  Man,  was  born  February  6,  1839;  was  educated 
at  Eton.  He  entered  the  war  office  in  1858,  and  was 
made  one  of  her  majesty’s  inspectors  of  fisheries  in  1867, 
and  lieutenant-governor  of  the  Isle  of  Man  in  1882.  He 
is  the  author  of  A History  of  England  from  the  Con- 
clusion of  the  Great  War  in  1815,  and  has  been  a con- 
tributor to  periodical  literature. 

WALPOLE,  Sir  Spencer  Horatio,  born  1806,  and 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
Having  been  called  to  the  bar  in  1831,  by  the  Society 
of  Lincoln’s  Inn,  he  obtained  a large  practice  in  the 
courts  of  chancery,  and  became  a Q.C.  in  1846.  He 
was  returned  in  the  Conservative  interest  for  Midhurst, 
January,  1846,  and  represented  that  borough  till  Feb- 
ruary, 1856,  when  he  was  elected  one  of  the  members 
for  the  University  of  Cambridge.  On  the  accession  of 
Lord  Derby  to  office  in  1852,  Mr.  Walpole  accepted 
the  post  of  secretary  of  state  for  the  home  department, 
and  in  that  capacity  carried  through  parliament  the 
measure  for  embodying  the  militia.  After  leaving 
office  Mr.  Walpole  became  chairman  of  the  Great 
Western  railway.  He  held  the  seals  of  the  Home 
office  in  Lord  Derby’s  second  administration  in  1858, 
but  resigned  in  March,  1859.  He  was  appointed  sec- 
retary of  state  for  the  home  department  in  Lord  Derby’s 
third  administration  in  1866,  and  resigned  May  9,  1867, 
retaining  a seat  in  the  cabinet  without  office.  He  re- 
tired with  his  colleagues  in  1868.  Mr.  Walpole  re- 
signed his  seat  for  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  No- 
vember, 1882.  He  died  May  22,  1898. 

WALSH,  John,  a Roman  Catholic  bishop  of  Can- 
ada, was  born  in  the  county  of  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  May 
24,  1830,  and  studied  theology  at  St.  John’s  College, 
Waterford.  In  1852  he  emigrated  to  Canada  and  com- 
pleted his  studies  at  Montreal.  He  became  a priest 
November  1,  1854,  and  in  1856  was  assigned  to  the 
pastorate  of  St.  Mary’s  church,  Toronto.  He  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Sandwich  November  10,  1867,  but 
was  established  in  London,  where  he  was  constantly 
occupied  in  labors  connected  with  the  administration  of 
his  see.  In  1876  he  visited  Rome,  and  in  1884  partici- 
cipated,  upon  invitation,  in  the  deliberations  of  the 
plenary  council  convened  that  year  at  Baltimore,  Md. 
During  his  episcopate,  Bishop  Walsh  has  made  large 
additions  to  the  number  of  churches,  schools,  asylums, 
etc.,  within  big  jurisdiction.  Among  them  is  the  cathef 


W AL 


dral  at  London,  said  to  be  one  of  the  finest  church  edi- 
fices in  Canada. 

WALSH,  John  Henry,  F.R.C.S.,  was  born  at 
Hackney,  October  21,  1810,  and  educated  at  a private 
school  in  Dorsetshire.  He  practiced  as  a surgeon  at 
Worcester  until  1852,  AVhen  he  removed  to  London. 
He  has  been  editor  of  the  Field  since  1857.  Mr. 
Walsh  wrote  The  Greyhound  in  1855*  ft  was  first 
published  in  Bell' s Life , and  then  in  book-form.  He 
compiled  British  Rural  Sports  in  six  monfhs  of  1855  ; 
and  wrote  a series  of  dissertations  on  the  various  phases 
of  field  sports,  giving  directions  for  the  care  of  animals 
and  accoutrements.  He  died  February  12,  1888. 

WALSH,  Robert,  author,  born  in  Baltimore,  Md., 
in  1784;  died  in  Paris,  February  7,  1859.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Roman  Catholic  College  at  Baltimore,  and 
the  Jesuit  College  at  Georgetown,  D.  C.  After  com- 
pleting his  studies  he  went  to  Europe.  In  1809  he 
returned  home,  read  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but 
relinquished  his  profession,  and  in  1811  issued  The 
American  Review , a quarterly  publication,  which  con- 
tinued two  years.  He  next  edited  the  American  Regis- 
ter, and  in  1819  established  the  Philadelphia  National 
Gazette.  He  also  edited  The  Magazine  of  Foreign 
Literature  and  revived  The  American  Review  in  March, 
1827;  conducting  it  for  ten  years.  From  1845  to  1851 
he  was  American  consul  at  Paris,  and  continued  there 
until  the  time  of  his  death. 

WALSH,  William  J.,  Roman  Catholic  archbishop 
of  Dublin,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1841,  and  educated  at 
Maynooth.  He  completed  his  academic  course  in 
1864,  and  passed  into  the  Dunlioyne  establishment, 
where  he  spent  three  years  in  special  ecclesiastical 
studies.  Subsequently  he  became  assistant-librarian  at 
Maynooth  College,  and  in  1867  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  theology.  In  1878  he  became  vice-president 
of  the  college,  and  on  the  death  of  Doctor  Russell 
Doctor  Walsh  was^  unanimously  chosen  president  by 
the  Irish  Bishops.  Through  his  exertions  a commission 
was  instituted  to  inquire  into  the  Queen’s  Colleges  of 
Ireland.  For  some  time  he  was  a senator  in  the 
Royal  University  of  Ireland,  and  he  became  a member 
of  the  Chapter  of  Dublin  on  the  accession  of  Cardinal 
McCabe  to  the  archiepiscopal  throne.  On  the  death 
of  that  prelate  in  February,  1885,  Doctor  Walsh  be- 
came vicar  capitular,  and  was  eventually  appointed  to 
the  see  of  Dublin. 

WALSHE,  Walter  Hayle,  M.D.,  born  in  Dub- 
lin in  1816,  and  was  educated  at  Paris  and  in  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  graduated  M.D.  He  was  emeritus 
professor  of  medicine  in  University  College,  London, 
for  thirteen  years;  and  consulting  physician  to  three 
London  hospitals.  He  was  a fellow  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Physicians,  London,  and  an  associate  of  several 
foreign  medical  colleges,  and  wrote  much  on  the  nature 
and  treatment  of  diseases.  He  died  December  14, 1892. 

WALSH  AM,  Sir  John,  British  minister  at  Pekin, 
born  at  Cheltenham,  England,  in  1830.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  M.  A.  He  was  made  acting  consul  at  Mexico 
in  1859,  secretary  of  legation  in  1861,  charge  d'af- 
faires in  1863.  In  1866  he  was  transferred  as  second 
secretary  to  Madrid ; was  appointed  to  the  Hague  in 
1870,  and  promoted  to  be  secretary  of  legation  at 
Pekin,  October,  1873,  but  did  not  proceed.  From  1875 
to  1878  he  was  acting  charge  d'affaires  at  Madrid,  and 
then  went  to  Berlin  as  secretary  of  embassy.  In  1883 
he  was  transferred  to  Paris,  and  acted  as  minister 
plenipotentiary  during  the  absence  of  the  ambassador. 
From  October,  1885,  he  was  envoy  to  China,  and  also 
to  the  king  of  Corea  for  several  years. 

WALTER,  John,  eldest  son  of  the  late  Mr.  John 


6863 

Walter,  of  Bearwood,  Berks,  some  time  member  for 
that  county,  born  in  London,  England,  in  1818;  war; 
educated  at  Eton,  graduated  in  honors  at  Exeter  CoT 
lege,  Oxford,  took  his  M.A.  degree  in  1843,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln’s  Inn  in  1847.  He  was  an 
unsuccessful  candidate  in  the  Liberal-Conservative  inter- 
est for  Nottingham  in  1843;  was  returned  in  August,' 
1847,  the  day  after  his  father’s  death,  and  continued  to 
represent  that  borough  till  April,  1859,  when  he  was 
elected  for  Berks.  He  was  defeated  at  the  general  elec- 
tion in  July,  1865,  but  was  again  elected  in  1868,  1874, 
and  1880.  After  the  dissolution  of  1885,  Mr.  Walter 
did  not  offer  himself  for  reelection.  The  name  which 
Mr.  Walter  bore  was  intimately  associated  with  the  his- 
tory of  English  newspapers,  his  grandfather  having  pub- 
lished the  first  number  of  the  Times , January  1,  1788. 
His  father  raised  that  journal  to  eminence,  and  by  his 
energy  in  inducing  men  of  talent  to  contribute  to  its 
.columns,  rendered  it  a great  organ  of  free  opinions  and 
popular  knowledge;  and  he  himself  increased  the 
paper’s  influence  by  his  management.  He  died  No- 
vember 3,  1894. 

WALTER,  Thomas  Ustick,  architect,  was  bom  in 
Philadelphia,  Penn.,  September  4,  1804;  died  there 
October  30,  1887.  He  received  his  professional  educa- 
tion in  the  office  of  William  Strickland,  the  architect  of 
the  mint  and  the  custom-house,  Philadelphia,  and  in 
1830  began  practice  as  an  architect.  He  designed 
Girard  College,  which  was  completed  in  1847,  and  which 
is  claimed  to  be  the  finest  specimen  of  classic  architect- 
ure on  the  American  continent.  One  of  his  important 
works  was  the  breakwater  at  Laguayra  for  the  V enezue- 
lan  Government.  He  designed  the  extension  of  the 
capitol  at  Washington  in  1851,  and  later,  while  serving 
as  government  architect,  the  extensions  of  the  patent- 
office,  treasury,  and  post-office  buildings,  the  dome  on 
the  old  capitol,  the  congressional  library,  and  the  gov- 
ernment hospital  for  the  insane.  Mr.  Walter  was  a 
member  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  in  which  he  held  the 
professorship  of  architecture,  and  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was 
president  of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects.  In 
1853  he  was  given  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  by  the  Univer- 
sity of  Lewisburg,  Penn.,  and  in  1857  that  of  LL.D.  by 
Harvard. 

WALTON,  George,  bornin  Frederick  county,  Va., 
in  1740;  died  in  Augusta,  Ga. , February  2,  1804.  He 
read  law  in  Georgia,  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and 
made  his  home  in  Augusta.  He  was  from  1776  to  1781 
a delegate  to  the  Continental  congress.  In  1778  he  was 
made  colonel  of  militia,  and  engaged  in  the  defense  of 
Savannah,  where  he  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner. 
In  1779,  and  again  in  1789,  he  was  governor  of  Georgia, 
in  1783  served  as  chief  justice;  and  in  1795  he  became 
United  States  senator. 

WALWORTH,  Reuben  Hyde,  jurist,  born  in 
Bozrah,  Conn.,  October  27,  1788;  died  in  Saratoga 
Springs,  N.  Y.,  November27,  1867.  He  was  educated 
at  Hoosick,  N.  Y.s  and  in  1809  was  admitted  to  prac- 
tice. In  1810  he  settled  in  Plattsburg,  N.  Y.,  and  in 
1821  was  elected  a member  of  congress.  In  1823  he 
became  judge,  which  office  he  held  for  five  years,  when 
he  was  appointed  chancellor  of  New  York,  holding  the 
office  for  twenty  years.  In  1835  Princeton  gave  him 
the  degree  of  LL.D.  He  was  the  author  of  Rules  and 
Orders  of  the  New  York  Court  of  Chancery. 

WALWORTH,  Mansfield  T. , an  American  author, 
born  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  December  3,  1830,  graduated 
at  Union  College  when  he  was  nineteen  years  of  age, 
and  at  the  law  school  of  Harvard  University  in  1852. 
Upon  his  admission  to  the  bar  in  1855,  he  began  the 
practice  of  law,  but  after  a brief  period  gave  up  his  pro- 


w A N — W A R 


6864 


fession  and  devoted  his  attention  to  literature.  He  died 
in  New  York  city,  June  3,  1873,  from  the  effects  of  a 
bullet  wound  inflicted  by  his  son,  who  was  acquitted  of 
murder  on  the  ground  of  insanity  and  sent  to  an  asylum. 

WANAMAKER,  John, ex-postmaster-general  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  at  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  in 
1838,  and  received  his  education  in  the  common  schools. 
He  early  engaged  in  commercial  ventures,  and  during 
1861  established  a clothing  house  at  Philadelphia,  which 
has  been  extended  until  it  has  grown  to  be  one  of  the 
most  extensive  retail  establishments  in  the  country. 
The  cooperative  system  was  introduced  into  his  business 
in  1887.  Upon  the  inauguration  of  President  Harrison, 
Mr.  Wanamaker  became  the  postmaster-general  of  the 
United  States,  serving  until  March  4,  1893. 

WANKLYN,  James  Alfred,  an  eminent  chemist, 
was  born  at  Ashton-under-Lyne,  England,  in  1834.  He 
studied  chemistry  under  Bunsen,  in  Heidelberg,  and 
became  demonstrator  of  chemistry  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  in  1859,  was  professor  of  chemistry  at  the 
London  Institution  from  1863  to  1870,  and  lecturer  on 
chemistry  and  physics  at  St.  George’s  Hospital  from 
1 877  to  1880.  In  1858  he  prepared  propionic  acid  by 
the  action  of  carbonic  acid  on  sodium-ethyl.  Subse- 
quently he  pursued,  conjointly  with  Dr.  Emil  Erlen- 
meyer,  a series  of  researches  which  settled  some  im- 
portant chemical  problems,  among  them  the  fact  of 
isomerism  among  the  alcohols.  In  1871  he  conducted 
for  the  government  an  investigation  into  the  quality  of 
the  milk  supplied  to  the  London  workhouses.  Mr. 
Wanklyn  is  the  author  of  several  text  books  for  chem- 
ists and  officers  of  health.  In  1869  he  was  elected  a 
corresponding  member  of  the  Royal  Bavarian  Academy 
of  Sciences. 

WARD,  Adolphus  William,  born  at  Hampstead, 
England,  December  2, 1837;  was  educated  in  Germany 
and  at  Bury  St.  Edmund’s  Grammar  School.  In  1866  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  history  and  English  literature 
at  Owen’s  College,  Manchester.  He  held  various  exam- 
inerships  in  the  universities  of  Cambridge  and  London, 
and  was,  in  1879,  created  an  honorary  LL.D.  of  Glas- 
gow, and,  in  1883,  a Litt.D.  of  Cambridge.  He  took 
an  active  part  in  the  movement  for  the  foundation  of 
the  Victoria  University,  Manchester  (1880);  and  after- 
ward successively  held,  in  the  new  university,  the 
offices  of  chairman  of  the  General  Board  of  Studies, 
and  of  vice-chancellor.  Doctor  Ward  is  the  English 
translator  of  Curtius’  History  of  Greece,  and  author  of  a 
number  of  works  of  an  historical  character. 

WARD,  Artemas,  soldier,  born  in  Shrewsbury, 
Mass. , in  1727;  died  there  October  28,  1800.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1748,  and  in  1775  served  under 
General  Abercrombie,  where  he  rose  to  be  lieutenant- 
colonel.  On  October  27,  1774,  he  was  appointed  brig- 
adier-general by  the  provincial  council  of  his  State,  and 
on  May  19,  1775,  became  commander-in-chief  of  the 
forces  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  at  his  headquarters  in 
Cambridge  during  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  In  June, 
1775,  the  Continental  congress  placed  him  first  on  the 
list  of  major-generals;  as  such  he  was  chief  in  command 
during  the  siege  of  Boston,  and  became  second  on  the 
arrival  of  General  Washington.  In  consequence  of  ill 
health  he  resigned  his  command  in  April,  1776,  and  was 
elected  chief  justice  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  of 
Worcester  county.  From  1791  to  1795  he  served  in 
congress  as  a Federalist. 

WARD,  Genevieve,  actress,  born  in  New  York 
city,  March  27,  1833.  Being  endowed  with  a good 
Singing  voice,  she  studied  with  eminent  teachers,  and 
subsequently  appeared  at  the  opera  houses  of  Italy, 
Paris,  and  London.  She  also  sang  at  oratorios  in  Lon- 
don. Later  she  sang  in  New  York  city,  Philadelphia, 


! and  Havana.  Losing  her  voice,  she  went  on  the  stage, 

! in  1873,  failed  in  New  York,  but  scored  a hit  in  London 
as  “ Lady  Macbeth,”  and  played  with  success  in  France, 
England,  America,  India  and  Australia  until  her  re- 
tirement from  the  stage  in  1888.  She  managed  the 
Lyceum  Theatre,  London,  1885-88. 

WARD,  Henry  Augustus,  an  American  naturalist, 
born  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  March  9,  1834.  Studied  at 
Williams  and  was  professor  of  natural  science  in  the 
Rochester  University,  for  fifteen  years,  and  in  1871  ac- 
companied the  United  States  expedition  to  Santo 
Domingo,  as  naturalist.  He  owns  a laboratory  at 
Rochester,  where  he  also  has  one  of  the  most  complete 
zoological  and  mineralogical  cabinets  in  the  world. 

WARD,  Mrs.  Humphry,  famous  as  the  authoress 
of  Robert  Elsmere , an  agnostic  novel  which  was  the 
literary  sensation  of  its  year,  1888,  was  born  at  Ho- 
bart Town,  Tasmania,  in  1851,  the  daughter  of  Thomas 
Arnold,  niece  of  Matthew  Arnold,  and  granddaughter 
of  Dr.  Arnold,  of  Rugby.  She  married,  in  1872,  Mr. 
Thomas  Humphry  Ward,  writer  and  art  critic  of  the 
London  Times.  Her  other  novels  none  of  which  have 
excited  so  much  interest,  are:  Miss  Bretherton  (1884), 
David  Grieve  (1892)  and  Marcella  (1894). 

WARD,  John  Quincy  Adams,  was  born  at  Urbana, 
Ohio,  June  29,  1830.  In  1850  he  entered  the  studio  of 
; H.  K.  Browne,  an  eminent  sculptor,  where  he  remained 
; six  years.  In  1861  he  opened  a studio  in  New  York, 
where  he  modeled  his  Indian  Hunter , The  Good 
Samaritan,  a statue  of  Commodore  M.  C.  Perry,  The 
Freedman,  and  many  busts  and  small  works.  In  1869 
he  built  a studio  in  Forty-ninth  street,  New  York, 
where  he  made  The  Citizen  Soldier  and  statues  of 
Shakespeare,  General  Reynolds,  General  Washington, 
Gen.  Israel  Putnam,  an  equestrian  statue  of  General 
Thomas,  Gen.  Daniel  Morgan,  and  Lafayette.  He 
built  a larger  studio  in  1882,  where  he  made  the 
colossal  statue  of  Washington  for  the  New  York  sub- 
1 treasury  building,  a colossal  statue  of  President  Gar- 
field, The  Pilgrim,  etc.  For  three  years  he  was  vice- 
president  and  for  one  term  president  of  the  National 
Academy  of.  Design. 

WARD,  Lester  Frank,  an  American  botanist, 
born  at  Joliet,  111.,  June  18,  1841,  and  educated  at  the 
common  schools.  He  served  through  the  Civil  war, 
and  while  a resident  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  in  1872, 
began  the  study  of  botany.  In  1888  he  became  botanist 
of  the  United  States  geological  survey,  and  is  at  present 
curator  of  botany  and  fossil  plants  in  the  national  mu- 
seum. He  is  a member  of  leading  scientific  societies, 
and  a prominent  writer  on  flora  and  botany. 

WARD,  Richard,  colonial  governor,  was  born  in 
Newport,  R.  I.,  April  15,  1689;  died  there  August  21, 
1763.  He  became  attorney-general  of  the  colony  in 
1712,  was  made  deputy  and  clerk  of  the  assembly  in 
1714,  and  from  that  year  until  1730  served  as  recorder. 
He  became  deputy-governor  in  May,  1740,  and  two 
months  later,  on  the  death  of  Governor  Wanton,  he 
was  installed  as  governor  of  the  colony.  He  filled  that 
office  three  terms,  from  July  15,  1740,  until  May,  1743- 

WARD,  Thomas  Humphry,  M.A.,  was  born  at 
Hull,  England,  in  1845.  He  was  educated  at  Merchant 
Taylors’  School,  and  at  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  where 
he  graduated  in  1868.  Before  this  he  had  been  a candi- 
date for  the  civil  service  of  India,  and  in  1866  was  placed 
first  in  the  open  competition.  He  resigned,  however, 
without  proceeding  to  India,  and  in  February,  1869, 
was  elected  fellow  of  Brasenose,  of  which  college  he 
was  tutor  from  1870  to  1880.  He  then  engaged  in 
literary  work  in  London.  In  1880-81,  with  the  aid  of 
the  principal  critical  writers  of  the  day,  he  brought  out 
The  English  Poets:  Selections  with  Critical  Introdm - 


WAR 


6865 


Hons,  and  since  that  date  has  published  a large  number 
ef  miscellaneous  works. 

WARD,  William  Hayes,  LL.D.,  an  American 
traveler,  was  born  at  Abington,  Mass.,  June  25,  1835; 
graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  the  class  of  1856,  and 
pursued  his  theological  course  at  Andover,  where  he 
graduated  in  1859.  He  was  pastor  at  Oskaloosa,  Kan., 
for  a year,  and  from  1861  to  1868  taught  school.  In  the 
latter  year  he  became  associate  editor  of  the  Independent , 
remaining  in  that  capacity  until  1884,  when  he  took 
charge  of  the  expedition  sent  to  Babylonia.  He  is  a fre- 
quent contributor  to  religious  and  secular  papers,  and 
was  made  a D.D.  by  the  university  of  New  York,  also  by 
Rutger’s  College.  In  1885  Amherst  conferred  on  him 
the  degree  of  LL.  D. 

WARDER,  John  Aston,  physician,  was  born  near 
Philadelphia,  Penn.,  January  19,  1812;  died  in  North 
Bend,  Ohio,  July  14,  1883.  He  was  graduated  at  Jef- 
ferson Medical  College  in  1836,  and,  from  1837  until 
1855,  followed  his  profession  in  Cincinnati.  During 
that  time  he  gave  much  attention  to  educational  mat- 
ters, and  as  a member  of  the  Cincinnati  school-board 
he  kept  himself  informed  as  to  the  best  systems  of  in- 
struction. He  * served  on  the  State  board  of  agricult- 
ure, and  did  much  to  develop  public  interest  in  land- 
scape gardening.  In  1873  he  prepared  the  official 
report  for  the  United  States  Government  on  Forests 
and  Forestry,  for  the  World’s  Fair  at  Vienna,  and  in 
1883  he  became  honorary  president  of  the  Ohio  State 
Forestry  Association.  From  1850  until  1854  he  pub- 
lished the  Western  Horticultural  Review , and  after 
that  for  several  years  the  Botanical  Magazine  and 
Horticultural  Review.  He  contributed  extensively  to 
periodicals,  and  published  several  works  on  subjects 
pertaining  to  medical,  agricultural,  and  horticultural 
sciences. 

WARING,  George  E.,  was  born  in  Poundridge, 
New  York,  July  4,  1833,  and  died  October 

29,  1898.  For  a time  he  studied  agriculture  and 
lectured  on  that  subject  during  the  winter  of  1854  in 
Maine  and  Vermont.  He  was  drainage  engineer  of 
Central  Park,  New  York  city,  from  1857  until  1861, 
and  after  the  opening  of  the  Civil  war  served  as 
major  of  the  Garibaldi  guard  for  three  months.  Gen. 
John  C.  Fremont  appointed  him  major  of  cavalry  in 
August,  1861,  and  in  January  of  the  following  year  he 
was  commissioned  colonel  of  the  4th  Missouri  cavalry, 
in  which  capacity  he  served  throughout  the  war.  In 
June,  1869,  he  was  appointed  expert  and  special  agent 
of  the  tenth  census  of  the  United  States,  and  in  1882  he 
became  a member  of  the  national  board  of  health.  He 
devised  the  system  of  sewage  adopted  by  the  city  of 
Memphis  after  the  yellow  fever  epidemic  of  1878,  and 
is  the  inventor  of  many  sanitary  improvements  in  con- 
nection with  the  drainage  of  houses  and  towns.  He 
has  written  many  scientific  works,  and  in  1895  became 
superintendent  of  streets  in  New  York  city. 

WARNER,  Charles  Dudley,  was  born  at  Plain- 
field,  Mass.,  September  12,  1829.  He  received  the  de- 
gree of  A.B.  at  Hamilton  College  in  1851,  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  1856,  and  practiced  law  until  i860, 
when  he  entered  journalism  and  became  editor  of 
the  Hartford  (Conn.)  Press  and  Courant . He  has 
traveled  in  Europe  and  the  East  as  correspondent 
of  a number  of  American  newspapers,  and  for  the 
last  few  years,  in  addition  to  his  editorial  duties  in 
Hartford,  has  conducted  the  “Easy  Chair”  in 
Harper' s Magazine.  He  has  contributed  to  the  At- 
lantic and  other  periodicals,  and  has  published  vol- 
umes of  romance,  travel,  autobiography,  and  corre- 
spondence,besides  delivering  addresses  at  Bowdoin  and 
Yale  Colleges,  Washington  and  Lee  University,  ar*l  at 


other  educational  institutions.  Among  his  later  works 
are  the  novels:  Their  Pilgrimage  (1886),  A Little 
Journey  in  the  World  (1889),  and  The  Golden  House 
(1894).  He  wrote  The  Gilded  Age  with  Mark  Twain. 
He  died  Oct.  20,  1900. 

WARNER,  Susan,  born  in  New  York  city,  July 
11,  1819,  died  at  Highland  Falls,  N.  Y.,  March  17, 
1885.  Her  first  novel,  The  Wide , Wide  World,  written 
under  the  pseudonym  “ Elizabeth  Wetherell,”  was 
published  in  1850,  and  became  very  popular.  Its 
home  sales  reached  a quarter  of  a million  copies,  and 
in  Europe,  It  was  as  warmly  welcomed.  The  Wide , 
Wide  World  was  followed  by  Queechy  and  other  works 
in  rapid  succession,  all  of  which  met  with  equal  success 
in  this  country  and  abroad,  being  also  translated  into 
the  French,  German,  and  Swedish  languages.  Her 
last  effort  was  issued  in  1876,  and  is  known  as  Wycke 
Hazel. 

WARRE,  Rev.  Edmond,  D.D.,  head-master  or 
Eton  College,  was  born  in  1836,  and  educated  at  Eton 
and  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  was  elected  fellow 
of  All  Souls  in  1859,  anc^  retained  his  fellowship  three 
years.  In  i860  he  went  to  Eton  as  assistant  master,  a 
post  w hich  he  held  under  Doctors  Goodford,  Balston, 
and  Hornby,  until  the  resignation  of  the  last-named  in 
1884,  when  he  was  elected  to  the  vacancy  thereby  cre- 
ated by  the  governing  body,  and  shortly  afterward  he 
took  his  degree  of  D.D.  at  Oxford. 

WARREN,  Gouverneur  Kemble,  was  born  in 
Cold  Spring,  N.  Y.,  January  8,  1830;  died  in  Newport, 
R.  I.,  August  8,  1882.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1850,  and  after  serving 
as  topographical  engineer  on  a number  of  exploring 
expeditions  in  the  West  until  1859,  he  became  assistant 
professor  of  mathematics  at  the  academy.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Civil  war  he  became  colonel  of  the  5th 
New  York  volunteers,  and  in  the  spring  of  1862  he 
joined  the  army  of  the  Potomac  and  was  given  com- 
mand of  a brigade.  He  was  appointed  brigadier-gen- 
eral of  volunteers  September  26,  1862;  chief  of  engi* 
neers  in  March,  1863,  and  major-general  May  3,  1863, 
subsequently  assuming  command  of  the  fifth  corps.  He 
was  relieved  from  this  command  after  the  battle  of  Five 
Forks,  by  General  Sheridan,  who  charged  him  with 
procrastination  and  lack  of  military  skill.  General 
Warren  was  exonerated  from  these  charges  by  a court 
of  inquiry  in  1879.  He  became  brevet  major-general 
of  the  United  States  army,  March  13,  1865.  A statue 
of  General  Warren  was  unveiled  August  8,  1888,  on 
Little  Round  Top,  Gettysburg,  where  he  had  especially 
distinguished  himself  during  the  war. 

WARREN,  Henry  White,  D.D.,  a bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  church,  was  born  at  Williamsburg, 
Hampshire  county,  Mass.,  January  4, 1831;  graduated  at 
the  Wesleyan  University  in  1853,  and  two  years  later  was 
licensed  to  preach  the  gospel.  He  occupied  the  pulpits 
of  churches  of  the  Methodist  denomination  at  Boston, 
Cambridge,  Charleston,  and  in  other  cities  of  the  New 
England  conference,  whence  he  removed  to  Philadelphia, 
and  became  pastor  of  the  Arch  Street  church.  In  1881 
he  was  sent  from  that  city  as  a delegate  to  the  general 
conference,  convening  at  Cincinnati,  by  which  he  was 
elected  bishop,  his  jurisdiction  being  quite  extensive, 
with  headquarters  at  Denver,  Colo.  He  is  the  author  oi 
many  books  of  a miscellaneous  description,  and  a fre- 
quent contributor  to  church  magazines  and  periodicals. 

WARREN,  Joseph,  patriot,  born  in  Roxbury, 
Mass.,  June  11,  1741;  died  in  Charlestown,  Mass., 
June  17,  1775;  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1759,  and 
a year  later  became  master  of  Roxbury  Grammar 
School.  He  studied  medicine,  and  early  took  an 
interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  colony,  having  during  this 


68 66  WAR- 

period  several  open  contentions  with  the  royal  authori- 
ties. When  the  American  army  was  in  process  of  or- 
ganization, he  urged  the  appointment  of  George  Wash- 
ington as  commander-in-chief,  instead  of  Artemas 
Ward,  and  on  June  14th  was  himself  appointed  major- 
general  of  the  troops  of  Massachusetts.  He  refused  to 
take  command  at  Bunker  Hill,  saying  he  came  as  a 
volunteer  to  learn  from  older  soldiers.  He  was  killed 
in  that  battle.  Warren’s  four  orphan  children  were  left 
destitute  until  April,  1778,  when  Gen.  Benedict  Arnold 
came  to  their  relief.  He  contributed  $500  for  their 
education,  and  obtained  from  congress  the  amount  of  a 
major-general’s  half-pay  to  be  applied  to  their  support 
until  the  youngest  child  should  be  of  age. 

WARREN,  Mercy,  author,  born  in  Barnstable, 
Mass.,  September  25,  1728;  died  in  Plymouth,  Mass., 
October  19,  1814.  She  was  the  wife  of  James  Warren, 
president  of  the  Provincial  congress  of  Massachusetts, 
and  sister  to  James  Otis,  of  Revolutionary  fame.  Mrs. 
Warren  was  noted  as  one  of  the  early  literary  women 
of  America.  Her  writings  include  dramas,  novels, 
etc.,  some  of  which  are  contained  in  her  Poems , 
Dramatic  and  Miscellaneous.  She  also  published  a 
History  of  the  A meric  an  Revolution. 

WARREN,  William,  an  American  comedian,  born 
in  Philadelphia,  November  17,  1812,  died  in  Boston, 
September  21,  1888.  He  made  his  first  appearance 
on  the  stage  at  the  Arch  Street  theater,  Philadelphia, 
in  1832,  and  met  with  a success  so  gratifying  that 
he  decided  to  adopt  the  profession  of  an  actor.  In 
1841  he  appeared  in  New  York  city,  and  in  1845  in 
London.  He  retired  from  the  stage  in  1882,  after  a 
prosperous  professional  career  of  more  than  fifty 
years. 

WARREN,  William  Fairfield,  LL.D.,  a Meth- 
odist divine,  was  born  at  Williamsburg,  Mass.,  March 
13,  1833;  graduated  at  Wesleyan  University,  Middle- 
town,  Conn. , in  1853,  and  at  once  entered  upon  the 
ministry  in  the  New  England  conference.  Subsequently 
he  studied  theology  at  Andover,  Mass.,  and  at  the 
German  universities  of  Berlin  and  Halle.  He  became 
professor  of  theology  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Mission 
College  at  Bremen,  and  was  afterward  connected  with 
theological  institutes  at  Frankfort  and  Boston.  He  was 
a member  of  the  committee  on  the  revision  of  the  New 
Testament,  but  did  not  participate  in  the  proceedings. 
He  was  made  D.D.  by  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  University, 
and  LL.D.  by  the  Wesleyan  University  at  Middletown, 
Conn. 

WARRINGTON,  Lewis,  a distinguished  American 
naval  officer,  born  at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  in  1782,  and 
died  in  1851.  He  participated  in  many  of  the  naval 
engagements  of  the  war  of  1812,  and  distinguished  him- 
self as  a brave  and  aggressive  opponent.  He  com- 
manded the  Peacock  in  April,  1814,  and  with  her  effected 
the  capture  of  the  Epervier , a fully  equipped  British 
war  vessel.  For  this  act  of  bravery  he  was  promoted 
to  be  captain.  During  the  latter  years  of  his  profes- 
sional career  he  was  chief  of  the  ordnance  bureau. 

WASHBURN,  Cadwalader  Colden,  was  born  in 
Livermore,  Me.,  April  22,  1818;  died  in  Eureka 
Springs,  Ark.,  May  4,  1882.  In  the  spring  of  1839  he 
settled  at  Davenport,  Iowa,  where  he  studied  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  March  29,  1842.  The  same  year 
he  removed  to  Mineral  Point,  Wis. , where  he  and  Cyrus 
Woodman  established  the  Mineral  Point  bank  in  1852. 
He  served  in  congress  from  December  3,  1855,  until 
March  3,  1861,  and  at  the  opening  of  the  Civil  war  was 
commissioned  colonel  of  the  2d  Wisconsin  cavalry. 
After  gallant  service  in  Arkansas,  he  was  commissioned 
brigadier,  and  subsequently  major-general  of  volun- 
teers doing  good  work  at  Vicksbura*and  in  Texas.  From 


-WAS 

March  4,  1867,  until  March  3,  1871,  he  represented  the 
sixth  district  of  Wisconsin  in  congress,  after  which  he 
was  governor  of  Wisconsin  for  two  years.  In  1876  he 
erected  an  immense  flouring  mill  in  Minneapolis.  Be- 
sides  many  other  charities,  General  Washburn  be- 
queathed $50,000  to  found  a public  library  at  LaCrosse. 
and  $375,000  for  the  establishment  of  an  orphans’  home 
in  Minneapolis. 

WASHBURNE,  Elihu  Benjamin,  was  born  in 
Livermore,  Me.,  September  23,  1816;  died  in  Chicago, 
October  22,  1887.  After  a varied  experience  as  a 
printer’s  apprentice,  district  school  teacher,  and  assistant 
editor  of  the  Kennebec  Journal , he  began  the  study 
of  law  at  Kent’s  Hill  Seminary  in  1836,  and  fin- 
ished at  Harvard  in  1839.  He  removed  to  Galena, 
111.,  in  1840,  entered  into  a law  partnership  with 
Charles  S.  Hempstead,  and  became  an  active  Whig 
politician.  In  1852  he  was  elected  to  congress,  serving 
from  December  5,  1853,  until  March  6,  1869,  and  hold- 
ing the  chairmanship  of  the  committee  on  commerce 
for  ten  years.  He  was  a steadfast  friend  of  Gen. 
Ulysses  S.  Grant,  and  when  the  latter  became  president 
he  appointed  Mr.  Washburne  secretary  of  state,  which 
office  he  soon  afterward  resigned  to  become  minister  to 
France.  He  held  this  office  during  the  Franco-Prus- 
sian  war,  and  gained  the  high  esteem  of  both  the 
French  and  Germans.  He  returned  to  Chicago  in 
1880,  and  from  November,  1884,  until  his  death,  was 
president  of  the  Chicago  Historical  Society.  He  pub- 
lished Recollections  of  a Minister  to  France  in  1887. 

WASHBURN,  Israel,  was  born  in  Livermore,  Me., 
June  6,  1813;  died  in  Philadelphia,  May  12,  1883.  He 
was  educated  at  public  schools  and  by  private  tutors, 
studied  law,  and  began  the  practice  ol  that  profession  in 
Orono,  Me.,  in  1834.  He  soon  acquired  a reputation, 
and  in  1842  was  elected  to  the  legislature.  From  De- 
cember 1,  1851,  until  January  1,  1861,  he  represented 
his  district  in  congress,  and  then  became  governor  of 
Maine.  He  held  this  office  two  years,  and  in  1863  was 
appointed  by  President  Lincoln  collector  of  customs  at 
Portland,  Me.,  which  post  he  filled  until  1877.  The 
degree  of  LL.D.  was  conferred  on  him  by  Tufts 
College  in  1872.  He  was  a member  of  historical  and 
genealogical  societies,  and  was  president  of  the  board 
of  trustees  of  Tufts  College. 

WASHINGTON,  Bushrod,  son  of  John  Augustine, 
a younger  brother  of  George  Washington,  was  born  in 
Westmoreland  county,  Va.,  June  5,  1762,  and  died  in 
Philadelphia,  November  26,  1829.  He  was  graduated 
at  William  and  Mary  College  in  1778,  and  adopted  the 
profession  of  law,  but  served  as  a private  in  the  war  of 
the  Revolution  and  as  a member  of  the  Virginia  house 
of  delegates  in  1787.  In  1798,  while  residing  at  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  he  was  appointed  associate  justice  of  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court,  which  office  he  held  for 
the  remainder  of  his  life*  Judge  Washington  was 
known  as  a learned  jurist.  At  the  death  of  Martha 
Washington  he  inherited  the  Washington  mansion  and 
400  acres  of  the  Mount  Vernon  estate.  He  died  with- 
out issue. 

WASHINGTON,  John  Augustine,  a great-great- 
grandson  of  George  Washington’s  brother,  John 
Augustine,  was  born  in  Blakely,  Jefferson  county,  Va., 
May  3,  1821 ; died  near  Rich  Mountain,  Va.,  September 
13,  1861.  He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia in  1840, and  inherited  the  Mount  Vernon  property, 
which  he  sold  to  the  association  that  now  owns  it. 
When  the  Civil  war  began  he  entered  the  Confederate 
service  as  aide-de-camp  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Robert  E. 
Lee,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  was  killed 
with  a reconnoitering  party  near  Rich  Mountain. 

WASHINGTON,  John  Marshall,  soldier,  born 


WAS-WAT 


in  Virginia  in  October,  1797;  died  at  sea,  December 
24,  1853.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United  States 
Military  Academy  in  1814,  became  first  lieutenant  of 
artillery  May  23,  1820,  and  captain,  May  23,  1830. 
He  served  in  the  Creek  and  Seminole  wars,  and  subse- 
quently on  the  northern  frontier  during  the  Canada 
troubles,  which  ended  in  1840.  He  went  into  the  Mex- 
ican war  in  1846  and  commanded  a light  battery  at  the 
battle  of  Buena  Vista,  where  he  distinguished  himself 
by  guarding  the  pass  of  La  Angostura  against  vastly 
superior  numbers.  For  this  he  was  brevetted  lieuten- 
ant-colonel. From  June  24  until  December  14,  1847, 
he  was  acting  governor  of  Saltillo,  Mexico,  being  at  the 
same  time  chief  of  artillery  of  General  Wool’s  division, 
and  later  of  the  army  of  occupation.  He  commanded 
the  ninth  military  department  and  was  civil  and  mili- 
tary governor  of  New  Mexico  from  October,  1848,  until 
October,  1849.  Colonel  Washington  was  among  the 
many  officers  and  soldiers  who  were  drowned  when  the 
steamer  San  Francisco  was  wrecked  off  the  Capes  of  the 
Delaware  in  December,  1853. 

WASHINGTON,  William,  soldier,  born  in  Staf- 
ford county,  Va.,  February  28,  1752;  died  near  Charles- 
ton, S.  C.,  March  6,  1810.  He  was  educated  for  the 
church;  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution  served  as  captain 
of  infantry  and  was  promoted  to  be  lieutenant-colonel, 
and,  on  March  23, 1780,  at  Rantawles,  encountered  and 
defeated  Lieut. -Col.  Banastre  Tarleton.  At  the  battle 
of  Cowpens  he  had  a personal  encounter  with  the  English 
commander,  in  which  both  were  wounded.  He  partic- 
ipated in  the  operations  around  Guilford  Court  House, 
N.  C. , and  at  Eutaw  Springs  he  was  unhorsed,  received 
a bayonet  wound,  and  was  taken  prisoner.  In  1798  he 
was  appointed  brigadier-general. 

WATERHOUSE,  Alfred,  R.A.,  was  born  July  19, 
1830,  at  Liverpool,  England.  He  studied  architecture  in 
Manchester,  where  he^began  to  practice  his  profession, 
after  traveling,  chiefly  in  Italy.  His  first  considerable 
work  was  the  Manchester  Assize  Courts,  and  he  has 
since  been  the  architect  for  many  of  the  public  build- 
ings in  England.  Mr.  Waterhouse  received  a grand 
prize  for  architecture  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1867. 
and  a “ Rappel”  at  that  of  1878.  He  is  a member  of 
the  Royal  and  Imperial  Academy  of  Vienna,  an 
associate  of  the  Academie  Royale  des  Sciences,  des 
Lettres,  et  des  Beaux- Arts  de  Belgique,  and  was  elected 
an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  January  16,  1878, 
becoming  a full  member  June  4,  1885. 

WATERLOW,  Sir  Sydney,  was  educated  at  the 
grammar  school,  Southwark,  England,  and  at  the  age  of 
fourteen  was  apprenticed  to  the  late  Thomas  Harrison, 
government  printer ; at  eighteen  he  was  placed  in 
charge  of  the  Cabinet  Printing  Press,  at  the  foreign 
office,  Downing  street,  and  at  twenty  he  went  abroad. 
In  1866-67  he  filled  the  office  of  sheriff  of  London  and 
Middlesex,  and  received  the  honor  of  knighthood.  In 
the  following  year  he  agreed  to  contest  the  county  of 
Dumfries  in  the  Liberal  interest,  and  greatly  astonished 
the  Conservative  party  by  being  returned  at  the  head  of 
the  poll  for  a county  which  had  been  held  uncontested 
by  them  for  eighty  years.  In  1870  Sir  Sydney  was  ap- 
pointed on  the  royal  commission  for  inquiry  into 
friendly  and  benefit  building  societies,  and  in  1872  he 
was  elected  lord  mayor  of  London.  In  1874,  at  the 
general  election,  he  successfully  contested  Maidstone, 
but  lost  the  seat  in  1880,  and  was  elected  for  Graves- 
end, which  he  continued  to  represent  until  the  general 
election  of  1885. 

WATKIN,  Sir  Edward  William,  Bart.,  M.P., 
was  born  in  Manchester,  England,  about  1815,  and  was 
first  employed  in  his  father’s  counting-house  (ultimately 
becoming  a partner)  until  the  year  1845,  when  he  was 


6867 

appointed  to  the  secretaryship  of  the  Trent  Valley 
railway.  This  led  to  his  joining  the  London  and 
North-Western  Company,  and  to  his  various  positions 
as  general  manager,  and  afterward  as  a director  and 
chairman  of  the  Manchester,  Sheffield,  and  Lincoln- 
shire railway,  and  president  of  the  Grand  Trunk  rail- 
way of  Canada;  chairman  of  the  South-Eastern  rail- 
way, and  director  of  the  Great  Western  and  Great 
Eastern  Companies.  In  1861  he  undertook  a private 
mission  to  Canada,  at  the  desire  of  the  duke  of  New- 
castle, then  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies,  with  the 
object  of  bringing  the  five  British  provinces  into  union, 
and  the  establishment  of  a connection  between  Canada 
and  the  Atlantic  by  an  independent  railway  system, 
which  he  successfully  accomplished.  While  in  parlia* 
ment,  in  1866-67,  he  obtained,  as  the  chairman  of  two 
select  committees,  important  alterations  in  the  laws 
affecting  railways,  and  especially  the  change  in  the  law 
ot  limited  liability,  which  enabled  companies  to  reduce 
their  capital  by  mere  resolution,  and  without  winding 
up.  In  1868  he  received  the  honor  of  knighthood  and 
in  1880  was  created  a baronet.  He  was  high  sheriff  of 
Cheshire,  1874.  The  proposed  tunnel  under  the  chan- 
nel to  connect  England  and  France  is  an  enterprise 
witn  which  he  has  been  connected  in  conjunction  with 
the  late  Michel  Chevalier,  M.  Leon  Say,  and  other 
eminent  French  and  English  public  men.  Assuming 
the  experiment  to  succeed,  Mr.  Watkin  has  recom- 
mended Mr.  Gladstone  to  approach  the  European  and 
American  powers  with  a view  to  the  complete  neutral- 
ization of  the  work,  believing  that  this  would  do  away 
with  the  military  alarms  raised  on  the  question  of  late 
years.  At  present  the  works  near  Shakespeare  Cliff, 
Dover,  are  kept  in  repair  and  ventilation,  but  the  gov- 
ernment has  not  yet  shown  any  desire  to  give  the  sanc- 
tion necessary  to  their  completion.  It  is  understood 
that  Sir  Edward  has  investigated  the  question  of  con- 
necting the  south  coast  of  Scotland  and  the  north  coast 
of  Ireland  by  a submarine  tunnel.  In  1885,  and  again 
in  1886  and  1892,  he  was  returned  for  the  Hythe  di< 
vision  of  Kent.  Died  April  13,  190L 

WATSON*,  Alfred  A.,  D.D.,  an  American  Epis- 
copal bishop,  born  August  21,  1818,  in  New  York  city; 
educated  at  the  New  York  University,  and  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1841.  One  year  later  he  studied  for  the  min- 
istry,  and  was  ordained  priest  May  25,  1845,  at  Fayette- 
ville, N.  C.  In  1861  he  became  chaplain  of  a regiment 
of  North  Carolina  troops,  and  in  1863  was  selected  as 
the  assistant  to  Bishop  Atkinson.  He  became  rector 
of  St.  James  church,  Wilmington,  during  the  year  fol- 
lowing, and  occupied  the  pulpit  of  that  church  until 
April  1 7,  1884,  when  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  East 
Carolina,  a new  diocese  of  North  Carolina.  In  June, 
1868,  he  was  made  a D.D.  by  the  State  University. 

WATSON,  Elkanah,  an  American  traveler,  born 
in  Plymouth,  Mass.,  January  22,  1758;  died  in  Port 
Kent,  N.  Y.,  December  5,  1842.  As  a youth  he  was 
employed  by  a Providence  merchant,  and  in  1 777  went 
to  Charleston,  S.  C.,  to  purchase  produce  for  shipment 
to  Europe.  In  1779,  he  was  engaged  in  business  at 
Havre  and  Nantes,  France.  Returning  home,  he 
spent  four  years  in  South  Carolina,  and  lived  in  Albany 
in  1789,  where  he  was  the  first  to  urge  the  establish- 
ment of  a State  Canal  to  connect  the  waters  of  the  great 
lakes  with  the  Hudson  river;  he  also  organized  stage 
routes  to  the  West,  and  in  1816  he  visited  Michigan, 
and  explored  the  route  to  Montreal.  He  again  went 
to  Europe,  but,  in  1828,  located  in  Port  Kent,  on 
Lake  Champlain. 

WATSON,  James  Craig,  LL.D.,  was  born  in 
Canada  West,  January  28,  1838,  and  became  a graduate 
of  Michigan  University  in  1857,  after  which  he  rapidly 


6868 


WAT— WAY 


became  prominent  among  scientists  and  men  of  letters 
in  all  parts  of  the  U nited  States.  After  filling  the  chair 
of  astronomy  at  this  university  for  some  time  he  was 
called  to  the  professorship  of  mathematics  in  the  same 
institution,  and  in  1863  was  made  director  of  the  ob- 
servatory. In  1879  he  accepted  the  directorship  of  the 
Washburn  Observatory  at  Madison,  Wis.,  where  he  re- 
mained until  his  death,  November  23,  1880.  His  dis- 
coveries were  numerous,  including  twenty  asteroids, 
and  his  treatise  on  comets,  works  on  astronomy,  and 
treatment  of  scientific  subjects,  are  accepted  as  indis- 
putable authorities.  He  was  honored  by  degrees  con- 
ferred by  the  University  of  Leipsic,  Columbia  College, 
and  the  Khedive  of  Egypt.  He  died  November  23, 
1880. 

WATSON,  John  Dawson,  R.W.S.,  was  born  May 
20,  1832,  at  Sedbergh,  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire; was  educated  at  the  Edward  VI.  Grammar 
School  at  Sedbergh,  entered  the  School  of  Design  at 
Manchester  in  1847,  went  to  London  in  1851,  and 
became  a pupil  of  Alexander  Davis  Cooper,  and  a 
student  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He  exhibited  his  first 
picture,  The  Wounded  Cavalier , at  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion, Manchester,  in  1851.  He  exhibited  at  the  Royal 
Academy  for  the  first  time,  in  1853,  An  Artist' s Studio , 
and  has  continued  to  exhibit  to  the  present  time.  In 
1865  he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Society  of 
Painters  in  Water  Colors,  and  a member  of  the  same 
society  in  1870.  Died  fan.  3,  1892. 

WATSON,  William,  Lord,  son  of  Thomas  Wat- 
son, minister  of  Covington,  Lanarkshire,  where  he 
was  born  in  1828.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities 
of  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh,  and  admitted  an  advocate 
at  the  Scotch  bar  in  1851.  He  was  elected  dean  of  the 
Faculty  of  Advocates  in  1875.  In  November,  1876,  he 
was  elected  member  of  parliament  in  the  Conservative  in- 
terest, for  the  universities  of  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen,  and 
was  solicitor-general  for  Scotland  from  July,  1874,  till 
October,  1876,  when  he  was  appointed  lord  advocate.  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  created  LL.D.  of  Edinburgh.  He 
continued  to  represent  the  universities  of  Glasgow  and 
Aberdeen  till  April,  1880,  when  he  was  appointed  a 
lord  justice  of  appeal,  and  made  a peer  for  life. 

WATSON,  William,  a popular  English  poet,  born 
in  Wharfedale,  Yorkshire,  first  became  widely  known 
through  his  fine  poem  on  Wordsworth' s Grave  (1892), 
and  his  Lachrymae  Musarum,  containing  a.  splendid 
ode  on  the  death  of  Tennyson.  Gladstone  conferred 
on  him  the  civil  pension  of  $1,200  which  Tennyson 
had  received.  He  was  temporarily  insane  in  1892, 
but  entirely  recovered.  His  other  works  are : Love 
Lyrics ; Epigrams  of  Art,  Life  and  Nature ; The 
Prince's  Quest ; The  Eloping  Angels  (1893)  ; Excur- 
sions in  Criticism , a volume  of  essays  (1893);  and 
Odes  and  Other  Poems  (1894). 

WATTERSON,  Henry,  was  born  at  Washington, 
D.  C.,  February  14,  1840,  and  began  his  journalistic 
career  in  the  city  of  his  nativity.  He  removed  to  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  in  1861,  where  he  edited  the  Republican 
Banner , subsequently  serving  in  the  Confederate  army 
until  the  close  of  1864.  Soon  after  the  suspension  of 
hostilities  he  revived  the  Republican  Banner,  but  was 
called  to  the  editorial  chair  of  the  Louisville  Journal, 
which  he  consolidated  with  the  Courier  and  Times,  of 
that  city,  and,  in  conjunction  with  W.  N.  Haldeman, 
established  the  Courier- Journal , which  he  has  since 
editorially  managed.  He  has  served  in  congress  and 
as  member  of  the  national  Democratic  conventions, 
being  chairman  of  the  convention  which  placed  Samuel 
J.  Tilden  in  nomination  for  the  presidency  in  1876, 
and  chairman  of  the  committees  on  resolutions  in  the 
conventions  of  1888  and  1892.  He  is  prominent  as  an 


orator  and  political  speaker,  and  is  the  author  of  fre- 
quent contributions  to  the  daily  press  and  current 
magazines. 

WATTS,  Alaric  A.,  an  English -Journalist  and 
editor,  was  born  in  London  in  1 789,  and  died  there  in 
1864.  He  was,  during  his  career,  managing  editor  of 
papers  at  Leeds,  Manchester  and  other  cities,  also  pub- 
lisher of  Lyrics  of  the  Heart  and  other  Poems,  besides 
works  of  a miscellaneous  character. 

WATTS,  George  Frederick,  R.A.,  painter,' 
born  in  London  in  1820,  first  exhibited  at  the  Acad- 
emy in  1837.  In  addition  to  portraits,  he  made  some* 
historical  attempts,  such  as  Lsabella  Finding  Lorenzo 
Dead,  from  Boccaccio,  in  1840,  and  a scene  from  Cymbc- 
line,  in  1842.  At  Westminster  Hall,  in  1843,  his 
cartoon  of  Caractacus  Led  in  Triumph  Through  the 
Streets  of  Rome  obtained  one  of  the  three  highest  class 
prizes  of  ^300.  Having  spent  three  years  in  Italy,  he 
again  obtained,  in  1847,  the  highest  honors  at  the  com- 
petition in  Westminster  Hall.  His  two  colossal  oil- 
pictures,  Echo,  and  Alfred  Lnciting  the  Saxons  to  Pre- 
vent the  Landing  of  the  Danes,  which  secured  for  him 
one  of  the  three  highest  class  prizes  of  ^500,  were, 
with  the  pictures  of  Pickersgill  and  Cross,  purchased  by 
the  commissioners.  The  latter  is  in  one  of  the  commit- 
tee rooms  of  the  new  parliament  houses.  For  some 
time  he  has  exhibited  regularly  at  the  Royal  Academy 
and  Grosvenor  Gallery.  His  principal  productions 
have  been  portraits  and  ideal  or  mythological  subjects 
such  as  the  well-known  Lazo  and  Death,  Endymion, 
Orpheus  and  Eurydice,  Daphne,  and  Hope. 

WAUGH,  Edwin,  born  January  29,  1818,  at  Roch- 
dale, in  Lancashire,  Eng.,  was  descended  from  a bor- 
der family  long  settled  upon  their  own  land,  near  Halt- 
whistle.  He  was  educated  at  Davenport’s  Commercial 
Academy  at  Rochdale ; was  apprenticed  to  a bookseller 
and  printer ; and  after  his  apprenticeship  worked  as  a 
printer  and  bookseller  for  nearly  ten  years.  He  was 
then  appointed  secretary  to  the  Lancashire  Public  School 
Association  for  the  promotion  of  a national  plan  of 
secular  education.  He  was  connected  with  this  associa- 
tion for  nearly  five  years,  after  which  he  devoted  him- 
self entirely  to  literature.  Mr.  Waugh  received  a pen- 
sion of /‘90  from  the  Civil  List  in  1882.  He  died  in 
May,  1890. 

WAYLAND,  Francis,  born  in  New  York  city, 
March  11,  1796;  died  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  September 
30,  1865.  He  was  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1813. 
In  1816  he  entered  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  be- 
came tutor  of  Union  College,  and  in  1821  was  pastor  of 
the  First  Baptist  Church  in  Boston.  In  1826  Mr.  Way- 
land  accepted  a professorship  at  Union,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  was  made  president  of  Brown  University. 
This  office  he  filled  for  twenty-eight  years.  After  his 
retirement  he  was  for  eighteen  months  pastor  of  the 
First  Baptist  Church  in  Providence.  He  received  the 
degree  of  D.D.  from  Union  in  1827,  duplicated  by 
Plarvard  in  1829,  and  in  1852  was  also  created  LL.D. 
by  the  latter. 

WAYNE,  Anthony,  soldier,  born  in  Easton, 
Penn.,  January  1,  1745;  died  in  Erie,  Penn.,  Decem- 
ber 15,  1796.  He  was  educated  in  Philadelphia,  be- 
came a land  surveyor,  and  in  1 765  went  to  Nova  Scotia. 
When  the  American  colonies  opposed  the  domineering 
measures  of  Great  Britain  he  raised  a regiment,  of 
which  he  was  commissioned  colonel  on  January  3,  1 77^* 
After  the  battle  of  Three  Rivers,  where  he  was  wounded, 
he  was  placed  in  charge  of  Fort  Ticonderoga,  and  on 
F ebruary  21st  was  commissioned  brigadier-general.  He 
fought  at  the  battles  of  Brandywine,  Germantown,  and 
Monmouth,  captured  the  fort  of  Stony  Point  on  the 
Hudson  River,  and  successfully  attacked  Fort  Lee,  near 


WAY-WEB 


New  York  city.  Later,  Wayne  was  active  in  the  in- 
vestment and  capture  of  Yorktown.  The  brevet  of 
major-general  was  conferred  on  him  October  io,  1783. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  returned  to  his  home,  from 
there  went  to  Georgia,  and  was  elected  to  congress, 
serving  from  October  24,  1791,  to  March  21,  1792.  In 
April  of  the  last-named  year  he  was  promoted  general- 
in-chief  of  the  United  States  army.  In  August,  1794, 
with  1,000  men,  he  marched  against  the  Ohio  Indians 
and  signally  defeated  them,  and  while  descending  Lake 
Erie  on  his  way  from  Detroit  he  died  from  an  attack  of 
the  gout. 

WAYNE,  James  M.,  LL.D.,  as.  American  lawyer 
and  judge,  was  born  in  Georgia  during  1790,  educated 
at  Princeton,  and,  upon  being  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1810,  began  the  practice  of  law  at  Savannah.  He  was 
mayor  of  that  city,  member  of  the  State  legislature, 
judge  of  the  Superior  Court,  and,  from  1829  to  1835,  a 
representative  in  congress.  He  was  appointed  an  asso- 
ciate justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  by 
President  Jackson  in  January,  1835,  and  during  the 
Civil  war  maintained  his  allegiance  to  the  Union.  On 
the  bench  his  specialty  was  maritime  law,  and  his  de- 
cisions of  questions  involving  that  branch  of  jurispru- 
dence are  still  cited  as  reliable  and  conclusive.  He 
was  made  an  LL.D.  by  Princeton  in  1849,  and  died  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  July  5,  1867. 

WEATHERS,  William,  D.D.,  a Roman  Catholic 
prelate,  born  in  1814,  was  educated  at  St.  Edmund’s 
College,  Old  Hall  Green,  where  he  was  ordained  priest 
in  1838;  and  became  professor,  vice-president  and 
finally  president  in  1851,  which  office  he  continued  to 
hold  until  1869,  when  he  removed  to  Hammersmith  to 
become  the  first  president  of  St.  Thomas’  Theological 
Seminary.  He  was  made  a domestic  prelate  by  the 
Pope  in  1868,  and  in  1872  was  appointed  bishop  of 
Amycla,  in  partibus  infidelium , and  nominated  bishop 
auxiliary  for  the  diocese  of  Westminster,  England. 

WEAVER,  James  B.,  was  born  at  Dayton,  Ohio, 
June  12,  1833,  and  graduated  at  the.  law  school  of  the 
Cincinnati  College  in  1854.  He  served  in  the  Union 
army  during  the  Civil  war,  attaining  the  rank  of  briga- 
dier-general, and  at  the  conclusion  of  hostilities  prac- 
ticed law  in  Iowa.  He  was  elected  district-attorney  of 
the  Second  Judicial  District  of  that  State,  and  filled 
the  position  of  internal  revenue  assessor,  besides  that 
of  editor  of  the  Iowa  Tribune , issued  at  Des  Moines. 
He  was  elected  to  congress  in  1878,  in  1880  was  the 
Greenback  candidate  for  president  ; was  elected  to  con- 
gress in  1884  and  1886  and  was  the  People’s  Party 
candidate  for  president,  1892. 

WEBB,  Alexander  Stewart,  soldier,  was  born 
in  New  York  city,  February  15,  1835.  After  his  gradu- 
ation at  the  United  States  Military  Academy  in  1855,  he 
was  assigned  to  the  artillery,  serving  in  Florida  and 
Minnesota,  and  for  three  years  assistant  professor  at 
West  Point.  He  became  major  of  the  1st  Rhode  Island 
artillery  September  14,  1861,  was  in  the  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  subsequently  participating  in  the  Peninsular  cam- 
paign of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  and  in  the  Maryland 
and  Rappahannock  campaigns  as  chief- of- staff  of  the 
fifth  corps.  He  was  commissioned  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers,  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Gettysburg, 
and  received  from  General  Meade  a bronze  medal  for 
distinguished  personal  gallantry.  He  was  again  se- 
verely wounded  at  Spottsylvania  in  May,  1864,  and  upon 
his  recovery  was  made  chief-of-staff  to  General  Meade. 
He  was  brevetted  brigadier- general  and  major-general 
of  the  United  States  army,  March  13,  1865.  At  his  own 
request  General  Webb  was  discharged  from  the  service 
December  3,  1870.  In  July,  1869,  he  became  president 
of  the  Collegeof  the  City  of  New  York,  and  in  1870  Ho- 


6869 

bart  College  gave  him  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  In  1882  he 
published  The  Peninsula: McClellan' s Campaign  of  1862. 

WEBB,  James  Watson,  was  born  at  Claverack, 
N.  Y.,  February  8,  1802  ; died  in  New  York  city,  June 
7,  1884.  He  entered  the  regular  army  in  1819,  rose  to 
the  rank  of  adjutant  of  the  3d  regiment,  and  resigned, 
in  1827,  to  become  editor  of  the  New  York  Courier. 
Two  years  later  this  paper  was  consolidated  with  the 
Enquirer  under  the  name  of  the  Morning  Courier  and 
New  York  Enquirer , which  he  owned  and  edited  until 
June,  1861,  when  it  was  merged  in  the  World.  His 
paper  was  the  chief  advocate  of  the  principles  of  the 
Whig  party.  In  June,  1842,  he  fought  a duel  with  a 
Kentucky  member  of  congress,  Thomas  F.  Marshall, 
in  which  he  was  wounded.  He  became  engineer-in- 
chief  of  the  State  of  New  York,  with  the  rank  of  major- 
general,  in  1843.  In  1861  he  declined  the  mission  to 
Turkey  and  was  appointed  minister  to  Brazil,  in  which 
office  he  secured  the  settlement  of  long-standing  claims 
against  that  country.  He  published  a pamphlet  on 
National  Currency  in  1875. 

WEBER,  Georg,  historian,  born  at  Bergzahern, 
Germany,  February  10,  1808,  wrote  a History  of  the 
World  (15  vols.,  1857-80)  and  a popular  History  of 
German  Literature. 

WEBER,  William  Edward,  distinguished  Ger- 
man physicist,  born  at  Wittenberg,  October  24,  1804, 
died  June  23,  1891.  He  was  a professor  at  Gottingen 
from  1831  to  his  death,  except  during  twelve  years 
from  1837,  when  he  and  six  other  liberal  professors 
were  excluded  from  the  university.  He  was  noted  for 
his  researches  in  magnetism  and  electricity,  for  his 
wave-theory  and  works  on  that  subject,  and  for  many 
other  works. 

WEBSTER,  Augusta,  daughter  of  the  late  Vice- 
Admiral  Davies,  published  her  first  book,  Blanche 
Lisle,  and  other  Poems,  in  i860,  under  the  name  of 
“Cecil  Home.”  After  her  marriage  with  Mr.  Thomas 
Webster,  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  she 
published  Lesley's  Guardians,  a novel,  Lilian  Gray,  a 
poem,  and  other  works.  She  was  a member  of  the 
London  School  Board.  She  died  September  5,  1894. 

WEBSTER,  Fletcher,  was  born  at  Portsmouth, 
N.  H.,  July  23,  1813,  and,  after  graduating  at  Harvard 
in  1833,  studied  law  with  Daniel  Webster,  his  father. 
He  was  employed  in  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state 
during  his  father’s  incumbency  of  that  position,  after- 
ward becoming  secretary  of  the  American  legation  in 
China,  member  of  the  Massachusetts  legislature,  and 
collector  at  Boston.  He  was  killed  at  the  second 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  while  colonel  of  the  12th  Massa- 
chusetts infantry. 

WEBSTER,  Joseph  D.,  was  born  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, August  25,  1811,  and  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College  in  1832.  He  was  appointed  lieutenant  in  the 
army  in  1838,  and  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  during 
which  he  attained  the  rank  of  captain.  He  was  estab- 
lished in  Chicago,  111.,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war. 
His  services  as  an  engineer  were  employed  in  the  con- 
struction of  fortifications  at  Cairo,  111.,  and  other  points 
in  Southern  Illinois,  until  June,  1861,  when  he  became 
a paymaster  in  the  army,  and,  in  1862,  colonel  of  the 
1st  Illinois  artillery.  Later  he  was  chief-of-staff  for 
General  Grant,  and  participated  in  the  capture  of  Forts 
Henry  and  Donelson.  At  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  his 
efforts  on  the  first  day  are  said  to  have  saved  the  Union 
army.  He  was  present  at  the  surrender  of  Vicksburg, 
afterward  serving  in  Tennessee,  and  resigned  from  the 
army  in  November,  1865,  as  brevet  major-general  of 
volunteers.  He  returned  to  Chicago,  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed assessor  and  collector  of  internal  revenue,  also 
sub-treasurer.  He  died  in  that  city  March  12,  1876. 


6870  WEB- 

WEBSTF.R.  Sir  Richard  Evf.rard,  attorney- 

general  oi  England,  born  December  22,  1842;  re- 
ceived his  education  at  Charterhouse  School,  and  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  was  called  to  the  bar  at 
Lincoln’s  Inn  in  1868,  and  was  made  queen’s  counsel 
in  1876.  He  has  been  extensively  engaged  in  most  of 
the  heavy  commercial  and  railway  cases  of  the  day,  be- 
sides having  a large  general  practice;  has  been  retained 
in  numerous  appeal  cases  in  the  House  of  Lords  and 
appeared  for  the  Times  before  the  Parnell  Commission. 
From  July  to  November,  1885,  he  represented  Launces- 
ton, and  at  the  general  elections  of  1885,  1886  and 
1892,  he  successfully  stood  for  the  Isle  of  Wight.  He 
was  attorney-general  in  Lord  Salisbury’s  ministries. 

WEDMORE,  Frederick,  was  born  at  Clifton, 
England,  July  9,  1844,  and  entered  the  office  of  a 
Bristol  newspaper  before  he  was  nineteen.  He  subse- 
quently went  to  London,  writingfor  various  magazines 
and  devoting  himself  to  the  study  of  pictorial  and 
dramatic  art.  He  traveled  and  lived  for  some  time 
abroad,  chiefly  in  France,  and  subsequently  became 
known  as  a writer  on  the  arts.  In  1877  there  appeared, 
reprinted  from  Temple  Bar , Pastorals  of  France , Mr. 
Wedmore’s  single  work  of  poetical-prose  fiction.  He 
has  for  several  years  held  the  posts  of  art  critic  of 
the  Standard , and  dramatic  critic  of  The  Academy , 
and  he  has  also  written  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  and 
the  Fortnightly  Review.  In  the  Autumn  of  1885  he 
visited  the  United  States,  and  repeated  at  Harvard 
College,  and  before  the  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
Baltimore,  one  or  two  lectures  previously  delivered  in 
some  principal  English  cities. 

WEED,  Edwin  G.,  a bishop  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church,  was  born  at  Savannah,  Ga.,  July  23, 
1837,  and  became  a graduate  of  the  General  Theolog- 
ical Seminary,  New  York,  in  1870.  He  was  ordained 
priest  August  29,  1871,  and  accepted  a call  to  the  rec- 
torship of  the  Church  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  at  Sum- 
merville, Ga.,  where  he  remained  until  August  II, 
1886,  when  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Florida.  He 
has  been  made  a D.D.  by  the  University  of  the  South 
and  S.J.D.  by  Racine  (Wis.)  College. 

WEED,  Stephen  H.,  was  born  in  New  York  city, 
about  1834,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1854.  His 
first  services  were  on  the  frontier  in  Kansas,  Utah, 
and  elsewhere.  He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
captain  in  May,  1861,  and  served  throughout  the  Pen- 
insular campaign,  during  which  he  was  in  command 
of  a battery.  He  was  promoted  brigadier-general  for 
gallantry  at  Chancellorsville,  and  was  killed  at  Gettys- 
burg, July  2,  1863. 

WEED,  Thurlow,  born  in  Cairo,  N.  Y.,  Novem- 
ber 15,  1797;  died  in  New  York  city,  November  22, 
1882.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he  began  to  learn  the 

rinter’s  trade  in  Catskill,  N.  Y.,  and  at  twenty-two 

e edited  the  Norwich  Agriculturalist.  Two  years 
later,  at  Manlius,  N.  Y.,  he  founded  the  Onondaga 
County  Republican , and  in  1824  became  editor  and 
owner  of  the  Rochester  Telegraph.  In  1830  he  estab- 
lished the  Albany  Evening  Journal  and  controlled  it 
for  thirty-five  years  as  a Whig,  and  later  as  a Republi- 
can newspaper.  In  1867  he  became  editor  of  the 
Commercial  Advertiser  of  New  York  city.  In  the 
following  year  failing  health  compelled  him  to  resign. 

WEEKS,  Robert  Kelly,  was  born  September  21, 
1840,  in  New  York  city,  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1862,  and  from  the  law  school  of  Columbia  College, 
two  years  later.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but 
abandoned  the  profession  for  journalism.  He  died  at 
New  York,  April  13,  1876. 

WEEMS,  Mason  L.,  an  American  biographical 
writer  and  historian,  was  born  in  the  Shenandoah 


-WEI 

Valley,  Va.,  about  1760,  and  studied  theology  in  Lon- 
don.  He  was  ordained  a pastor  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  and  was  for  some  time  rector  of  the 
church  of  that  denomination  at  Mount  Vernon,  at- 
tended by  General  Washington’s  family.  He  resigned 
that  charge  in  1790,  and  became,  as  one  of  his  biog- 
raphers relates,  “ a book  agent.”  He  afterward  de- 
voted his  attention  to  preparing  sketches  of  prominent 
patriots  of  the  Revolution,  and  wrote  the  lives  of  Wash- 
ington, Marion,  Franklin,  and  others.  He  died  at 
Beaufort,  S.  C.,  May  23,  1825.  He  was  the  author  of 
the  ridiculous  “little  hatchet”  story  about  Washington. 

WEIGEL,  Erhard,  a German  astronomer,  author 
of  The  Mirror  of  the  Heavens , was  born  at  Wida, 
about  1625,  and  was  the  inventor  of  a number  of  as- 
tronomical and  mathematical  instruments.  He  was 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Jena  for  many  years,  and 
died  in  1699. 

WEIR,  Harrison  William,  born  at  Lewes,  May 
5,  1824,  was  in  1837  articled  to  learn  designing  on 
wood,  color-printing,  and  wood-engraving.  His  first 
picture,  the  Dead  Shot , was  afterward  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy,  and  his  first  wood  drawings  appeared 
in  the  Illustrated  London  News.  He  has  labored  to 
improve  children’s  books,  and  books  for  the  poorer 
classes;  and  is  best  known  by  his  pictures  of  birds,  fruit, 
and  animals,  and  has  also  been  successful  in  his  engrav- 
ings of  fish  and  flowers. 

WEIR,  J.  A.,  an  American  artist,  was  born  at  West 
Point,  N.  Y.,  August  30,  1852,  and  makes  a specialty 
of  portraits  and  sketches.  He  was  taught  the  rudiments 
of  art  by  Robert  W.  Weir,  his  father,  and  made  rapid 
rogress.  He  resides  in  New  York  city,  where  in  1888 
e received  the  first  prize  of  the  American  Art  Associ- 
ation. He  is  a member  of  the  American  Society  of  Art, 
and  an  academician  of  the  National  Academy. 

WEIR,  John  F.,  an  American  artist  and  sculptor,  was 
born  at  West  Point,  N.Y.,  August  28, 1841, son  of  Robert 
W.  Weir  ( q.v .),  under  whom  he  studied,  and  in  1861 
settled  in  New  York  city.  He  went  abroad  in  1869 
and  1880,  and  a number  of  his  pictures  were  exhibited 
in  Paris  and  London.  He  is  an  academician  of  the 
National  Academy,  director  of  the  school  of  fine  arts  at 
Yale  College,  and  was  judge  of  arts  at  the  Philadelphia 
Centennial.  His  pictures  are  noted  products  of  artistic 
genius;  equally  celebrated  is  the  statue  of  Professor 
Silliman  of  Yale  College,  executed  by  Weir,  and  located 
on  the  college  campus. 

WEIR,  Robert  Walter,  painter,  born  in  New 
Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  June  18,  1803.  At  the  age  of  nine- 
teen he  began  preliminary  studies  in  the  art  of  design. 
He  studied  in  Florence  and  Rome,  and  on  returning' to 
the  United  States  was  elected  an  academician  of  the 
National  Academy  in  1829,  and  three  years  later  was 
appointed  professor  of  drawing  at  the  United  States 
Military  Academy;  this  position  he  held  for  forty-two 
years.  His  works  include  portraits,  genre  pictures, 
and  historical  compositions.  He  died  May  1,  1889. 

WE1TZEL,  Godfrey,  was  born  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
in  1834,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1855,  being  at 
once  assigned  to  duty  in  the  engineer  corps  of  the  army. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  war  he  was  made  lieutenant 
of  engineers,  and  accompanied  General  Butler  to  New 
Orleans,  becoming  chief  engineer  of  the  department  of 
the  Gulf  upon  the  surrender  of  that  city.  When  Gen- 
eral Banks  superseded  Butler  at  New  Orleans,  Weitzel 
was  placed  in  command  of  a brigade  and.  was  present 
at  the  capture  of  Opelousas,  Alexandria,  and  Port  Hud- 
son. For  gallantry  at  the  taking  of  the  latter  he  was 
promoted  to  be  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  regular  army. 
His  subsequent  service  was  with  the  army  of  the  Poto- 
mac in  its  operations  against  Richmond,  and  when  that 


W E L 


city  surrendered  his  command  was  the  first  to  take  pos- 
session. He  became  brigadier-general,  1865 ; major- 
general  of  volunteers,  1866,  and  lieutenant-colonel  of 
engineers,  regular  army,  1882.  He  died  March  19,  1884. 

WEKERLE,  Dr.  Alexander,  Hungarian  states- 
man and  financier,  was  born  in  1849,  studied  law,  en- 
tered the  service  of  the  Ministry  of  Finance,  became 
Professor  of  Financial  Science  at  the  Budapest  Uni- 
versity, and  in  1887  succeeded  M.  Tisza  as  Minister  of 
Finance,  on  the  latter’s  suggestion.  He  was  appointed 
Premier  of  Hungary  in  1892.  He  secured  the  reform  of 
the  currency,  m 1892,  and  the  passage  of  his  Marriage 
Law  Reform  Bill  in  1894,  resigning  January  15,  1895. 

WELCH,  John,  was  born  in  Harrison  county, 
Ohio,  October  28,  1805;  graduated  at  Franklin  College 
in  the  class  of  1828,  and  five  years  later  was  admitted  to 
the  bar.  In  1846  he  was  elected  to  the  State  Senate, 
and  in  1850  became  a member  of  congress.  From  1862 
until  1875  he  wasa  representative  of  the  Ohio  judiciary, 
first  as  probate  judge  and  finally  as  one  of  the  justices  of 
the  Supreme  Court.  Franklin  College  conferred  the 
degree  of  LL.D.  upon  him  in  1867. 

WELCKER,  F.  G.,  an  eminent  German  scholar,  was 
born  at  Griinberg  in  1 784,  and  was  in  part  educated  at 
Giessen,  finally  completing  his  studies  at  Rome.  Upon 
his  return  to  Germany  he  took  a prominent  position  as 
a philologist,  and  made  numerous  and  valuable  contri- 
butions to  science.  He  was  professor  of  Greek  at  Gies- 
sen and  Gottingen  universities,  and  filled  the  chair  of 
philology  at  Bonn.  He  died  in  1868. 

WELCKER,  K.  T.,  a German  writer  and  publicist, 
brother  of  the  philologist,  F.  G.  Welcker  (see  above),  a 
native  of  Upper  Hesse,  was  born  in  1790,  and  studied  at 
the  universities  both  of  Giessen  and  Heidelberg.  Later 
he  filled  the  chair  of  law  professor  at  Kiel;  and  in  1831 
was  elected  to  the  council  of  Baden.  In  connection 
with  others  he  established  a paper  noted  for  the  liberal 
views  it  represented,  and  known  to  the  public  as  Der 
Freisinige , and  for  expressions  of  opinion  was  subjected 
to  arrest  and  imprisonment.  He  was  subsequently  re- 
leased, and  in  1848  was  sent  as  representative  to  the 
German  National  Assembly.  He  died  in  1869. 

WELDON,  C.  W.,  a Canadian  jurist,  was  born 
near  Richibucto,  New  Brunswick,  February  27,  1830; 
obtained  his  education  in  the  college  at  Windsor,  Nova 
Scotia,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1852,  where  he 
at  once  took  high  rank.  He  has  been  a member  of 
parliament  continuously  since  1878,  and  is  prominently 
identified  with  the  educational  and  material  interests 
of  New  Brunswick. 

WELDON,  Georgina,  was  born  in  England,  May 
24,  1837.  In  i860  she  married  William  Henry  Weldon, 
a lieutenant  in  the  18th  hussars,  and  in  consequence 
was  disinherited  by  her  father.  In  1861  she  conceived 
the  idea  of  starting  a musical  academy  for  the  careful 
training  of  artistes , and  in  order  to  gain  experience  she 
moved  to  London.  For  various  reasons,  however,  the 
plan  came  to  nothing.  In  1878  an  attempt  was  made 
to  remove  her,  by  her  husband’s  orders,  to  a lunatic 
asylum;  she,  however,  escaped  being  taken,  and  subse- 
quently brought  an  action  against  the  four  doctors  who 
had  given  their  consent;  she  gained  her  suit  and  was 
awarded  $25,000  damages.  Since  then  she  has  become 
celebrated  for  the  number  of  law  suits  in  which  she  has 
appeared,  always  defending  herself,  and  generally  gain- 
ing her  suit. 

WELLDON,  Rev.  James  Edward  Cowell,  was 
born  in  England,  April  25,  1854,  and  educated  at  Eton, 
and  at  King’s  College,  Cambridge.  In  1878  he  became 
fellow  and  tutor  of  King’s  College,  and  in  1883  was 
appointed  head  master  of  Dulwich  College,  which  he 
left  on  being  appointed  head  master  of  Harrow  School 


6871 

in  1 885 . M r.  W eldon  has  published  Politics  of  A ristotle 
Translated , with  Analysis  and  Notes , 1883,  and  several 
papers  read  at  church  congresses. 

WELLES,  E.  R.,  D.D.,  a bishop  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  near  Waterloo,  N.  Y., 
January  10,  1830,  and  graduated  at  Hobart  College 
when  he  was  twenty  years  old.  He  was  ordained  deacon 
in  1857,  and  the  year  following  became  a priest,  after 
which  he  organized  a parish  at  Red  Wing,  Minn.,  and 
became  the  rector  of  Christ  Church  in  the  Episcopal 
diocese  of  that  State,  so  remaining  until  October  24, 
1874,  when  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Wisconsin. 
He  was  the  author  of  many  sermons  and  papers  which 
have  been  published.  His  death  occurred  at  Waterloo, 
N.  Y. , October  19,  1888. 

WELLES,  Gideon,  was  born  in  Hartford  county, 
Conn.,  July  1,  1802,  obtained  his  education  at  the 
schools  of  Norwich,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but 
devoted  his  attention  to  journalism  and  politics.  He 
was  a member  of  the  State  legislature  for  nine  years 
from  1827,  and  editor  of  the  Hartford  Times  from  1826 
to  1854,  during  which  that  paper  was  the  journalistic 
representative  of  the  Connecticut  Democracy.  He  was 
also  State  comptroller  in  1842  and  1843,  and  in  1846 
was  appointed  to  a position  in  the  navy  department  at 
Washington,  remaining  in  charge  of  the  bureau  of 
clothing  until  1849.  ^55  he  was  one  °f  the 

organizers  of  the  Republican  party  of  Connecticut,  and, 
upon  the  election  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  was  made 
secretary  of  the  navy,  remaining  in  that  position  until 
the  inauguration  of  General  Grant  in  1869.  His  ad- 
ministration of  the  trust  was  characterized  by  a steady 
improvement  in  the  service  and  the  adoption  of  iron 
clads  as  war  vessels.  Subsequent  to  his  retirement, 
Mr.  Welles  became  affiliated  with  the  Liberal  Republi- 
cans, and  in  1876  he  acted  with  the  Democrats.  He 
wrote  at  frequent  intervals  for  the  daily  press,  and  was 
the  author  of  a number  of  books  and  papers  on  the 
conduct  of  the  navy  during  the  war.  He  died  February 
11,  1878. 

WELLING,  J.  C.,  an  American  journalist  and  edu- 
cator, was  born  at  Trenton,  N.  J.,  July  14,  1825,  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton  in  1844,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar. 
He  was  identified  with  the  cause  of  education  in  New 
York  city  until  1850,  when  he  became  associate  editor 
of  the  Washington  National  Intelligencer , succeeding 
to  the  position  of  editor-in-chief  during  1856.  In  1867 
he  became  president  of  St.  John’s  College  at  Annapolis, 
Md.,  and  in  1870  was  called  to  the  chair  of  belles-lettres 
at  Princeton,  resigning  that  position,  however,  in  1871, 
to  undertake  the  presidency  of  Columbian  University, 
Washington.  He  was  in  1877  appointed  chairman  of 
trustees  of  Corcoran  Art  Gallery,  and  in  1884,  regent 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution;  being  also  a member  of 
leading  scientific,  social,  and  literary  societies  in  the 
United  States,  president  of  the  Philosophical  Society 
of  Washington,  and  otherwise  associated  with  the  de- 
velopment of  education  and  art.  Died  Sept.  4,  1894. 

WELLS,  C.  H.,  an  American  naval  officer,  born  in 
Pennsylvania,  September  22,  1822;  entered  the  navy  in 
1840,  and  graduated  at  Annapolis  in  July,  1846.  He 
participated  in  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz,  being  also 
present  at  the  capture  of  other  Mexican  ports,  and  was 
attached  to  the  expedition  sent  out  in  1857  to  superin- 
tend the  laying  of  the  Atlantic  cable.  During  the  Civil 
war  he  served  with  the  South  Atlantic  squadron  and  as 
commander  at  the  navy  yard,  Philadelphia,  and  partic- 
ipated in  many  engagements,  notably  the  battle  in 
Mobile  Harbor,  culminating  in  the  surrender  of  the 
city.  After  the  war  he  was  attached  to  the  squadron 
serving  off  Brazil  and  later  off  the  coast  of  Italy.  He 
received  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  from  the 


WEL  — WEM 


6872 

French  Government  for  assistance  given  a French  iron- 
clad in  distress,  near  Spezia,  and  was  promoted  through 
the  regular  official  grades  of  the  navy  until  his  retire- 
ment as  rear-admiral,  September  22,  1884.  He  died  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  January  28,  1888. 

WELLS,  C.  W.,  an  eminent  physician  and  surgeon, 
was  born  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  in  1757,  and,  upon  com- 
pleting his  preparatory  studies  in  America,  went  to  Scot- 
land and  became  a matriculant  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  He  was  subsequently  admitted  to  the  prac- 
tice of  medicine,  and  locating  in  England  was,  in  1800, 
appointed  physician  to  the  Hospital  of  Saint  Thomas, 
London.  He  was  a fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and 
author  of  many  medical  essays.  He  died  in  1817. 

WELLS,  David  A.,  LL. D.,  an  American  publicist, 
was  born  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  June  17,  1828;  grad- 
uated at  Williams  in  1847,  and  during  the  year  fol- 
lowing became  connected,  editorially,  with  the  Spring- 
field  Republican.  He  subsequently,  until  1851,  was  a 
student  of  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  at  Harvard, 
and  soon  after  graduating  began  the  publication  of  a 
scientific  paper  at  Cambridge,  which  was  regularly 
issued  until  1866.  In  1865  he  visited  Washington  upon 
invitation,  and  was  chairman  of  a commission  organized 
to  consider  the  question  of  taxation  in  its  relation  to  the 
needs  of  the  government,  becoming  in  1866  head  of  the 
bureau  of  statistics.  He  was  at  this  time  an  earnest 
advocate  of  the  policy  of  protection,  but  as  the  result  of 
his  investigations  in  Europe,  whither  he  was  sent  by  the 
government  in  1867,  he  has  since  been  a prominent  sup- 
porter of  free  trade.  Of  late  years  he  has  frequently  been 
called  upon  to  serve  in  positions  of  trust,  notably  as  re- 
ceiver in  cases  of  bankrupt  corporations,  trustee  of  pub- 
lic works,  etc.  He  has  been  president  of  the  Free-trade 
League  of  America,  and  of  the  American  Social 
Science  Association,  also  member  of  the  academies  of 
France  and  Italy,  and  of  the  leading  societies  of  the 
United  States.  He  is  a writer  of  books  and  pamphlets 
on  economic  subjects,  many  of  which  have  been  re- 
ublished  in  England,  Germany,  and  France.  In  1874 
e was  made  a D.C.  L.  by  Oxford  University,  and  an 
LL.D.  by  Williams  College  in  1871.  He  died  Novem- 
ber 5,  1898. 

WELLS,  Henry  Tanworth,  R.A.,  was  born  in 
London  in  December,  1828.  His  first  practice  in  art 
was  as  a miniature  painter.  When  only  sixteen  years 
of  age  he  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy  a portrait  of 
Arthur  Prinsep,  a brother  of  Mr.  Valentine  Prinsep, 
the  painter.  From  the  year  in  which  he  first  exhibited 
till  1866  he  never  ceased  to  be  represented  as  a minia- 
turist on  the  walls  of  the  Academy;  and  down  to  i860 
he  usually  exhibited  eight  works  annually—  the  largest 
number  allowed.  Since  1861  Mr.  Wells  has  devoted 
his  energies  to  oil  painting,  and  since  1862  has  been  a 
constant  contributor  to  the  exhibitions  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  In  1866  he  painted  his  large  picture  of 
Volunteers  at  a Firing  Point , and  in  May  of  that  year 
be  was  elected  A.R.A.  Since  that  time  he  has  been  a 
constant  exhibitor  of  portrait  pictures,  some  of  which 
are  large  compositions.  He  became  an  academician  in 
1870. 

WELLS,  Horace,  M.D.,  said  to  have  been  the  dis- 
coverer of  nitrous-oxide-gas,  as  an  anaesthetic,  was  born 
at  Hartford,  Vt.,  January  21,  1815,  and  educated  in 
the  common  schools  of  his  native  town.  He  became  a 
dentist,  and  in  1836  began  to  experiment  with  a view  to 
the  discovery  of  some  form  of  narcotic  that  would 
effectually  “anaesthetize”  his  patients  while  being  oper- 
ated upon,  without  danger  or  entailing  serious  results. 
He  finally  reached  the  conclusion  that  nitrous-oxide-gas, 
or  “ laughing  gas,”  was  the  agency  to  be  employed,  and 
upon  public  trial  its  efficacy  was  conclusively  demon- 


strated. He  subsequently  exhibited  at  Boston,  Cam. 
bridge,  and  elsewhere,  with  but  indifferent  results. 
Later  the  discovery  became  the  subject  of  dispute 
between  Doctor  Wells  and  Dr.  W.  T.  G.  Morton,  the 
latter  insisting  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  invention, 
while  the  former  contended  that  he  had  communicated 
the  result  of  his  investigations  to  Doctor  Morton  upon 
visiting  Boston  in  1845.  The  patent,  however,  was 
issued  to  the  latter,  and  Doctor  Wells  removed  to  New 
York  city,  where  he  died  by  his  own  hand,  January  24, 
1848. 

WELLS,  James  Madison,  a Louisiana  planter,  also 
governor  of  that  State,  located  at  an  early  day  near 
Alexandria,  Rapides  parish,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
T.  J.  Wells,  his  brother,  engaged  extensively  in  cotton 
planting.  During  the  Civil  war  he  was  an  outspoken 
unionist,  and  in  1865  was  elected  governor  of  Louisiana. 
He  was  removed  from  that  office  by  military  order  in 
1866,  and  thereafter  was  conspicuous  during  the  recon- 
struction history  of  the  State.  He  was  a member  of  the 
returning  board  of  Louisiana,  which,  in  1877,  awarded 
the  electoral  vote  of  the  State  to  Hayes,  but  since  that 
date  has  lived  in  retirement. 

WELLS,  Sir  Thomas  Spencer,  was  born  in  1818 
at  St.  Alban’s,  England,  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  and  subsequently  studied  in  the  Anatom- 
ical School  at  Dublin,  and  at  St.  Thomas’  Hospital. 
He  was  admitted  a member  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  in  1841,  and  upon  returning  to  England  at 
the  close  of  the  Russian  war,  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  that  branch  of  professional  science  with  which 
his  name  is  associated — namely,  ovariotomy,  and  con- 
nected himself  with  the  Samaritan  Hospital  for  Women. 
He  was  president  of  the  College  of  Surgeons  in  1882-83, 
is  a fellow  of  the  Royal  Medical  and  Chirurgical 
Society,  and  surgeon  to  her  majesty’s  household.  Sir 
Spencer  Wells  is  the  author  of  several  important  sur- 
gical works,  especially  on  those  branches  of  operative 
surgery  to  which  he  was  devoted.  Died  Jan.,  1897. 

WELLS,  Walter,  was  born  at  Salisbury,  N.  H., 
in  November,  1830;  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College 
in  1852,  and  for  a number  of  years  taught  school  in 
the  East.  Later  he  removed  to  Pennsylvania,  and  ac- 
cepted the  professorship  of  physical  geography  in  the 
State  University.  In  1867  he  was  engaged  in  the  sur- 
vey of  the  water  power  of  Maine,  and  two  years  later, 
as  secretary  of  the  association  of  cotton  growers  and 
manufacturers,  prepared  the  report  on  the  growth  and 
manufacture  of  that  staple  in  the  United  States.  He 
died  at  Portland,  Me.,  April  21,  1881. 

WELSH,  Alfred  Hix,  is  a native  of  Fostoria, 
Ohio,  and  was  born  September  7,  1850.  He  entered 
Baldwin  University,  where  he  graduated  in  1872.  The 
year  following  he  accepted  the  chair  of  mathematics  at 
Buchtel  College,  where  he  remained  three  years.  In 
1876  he  was  a member  of  the  faculty  of  the  high  school 
at  Columbus,  Ohio,  and  in  1885  was  called  to  the 
chair  of  English  literature  in  the  University  of  Ohio. 
Professor  Welsh  is  the  author  of  a list  of  works  on 
grammar,  mathematics,  etc.,  in  use  among  the  schools, 
also  of  a number  of  miscellaneous  publications. 

WEMYSS,  Earl  of,  was  born  in  1818,  and  educated 
at  Eton  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  In  the  same  year 
he  was  returned  to  the  House  of  Commons  for  the 
Eastern  division  of  Gloucestershire,  which  he  repre- 
sented until  1846.  In  August,  1847,  he  was  returned  as 
a Liberal  Conservative  for  Haddingtonshire,  which  he 
continued  to  represent  until  his  succession  to  the  peer- 
age; was  a lord  of  the  treasury  under  the  Aberdeen 
ministry,  1852-55,  retiring  with  the  Peelite  party  in 
February  of  that  year  from  the  administration  of  Lord 
Palmerston.  As  Lord  Elcho,  he  took  a conspicuous 


WEN  — WES  6873 


part  in  the  volunteer  movement,  and  he  is  an  authority 
on  various  questions  connected  with  the  national  de- 
fense and  armaments.  He  succeeded  to  the  earldom 
of  Wemyss  on  the  death  of  his  father,  January  1,  1883. 

WENTWORTH,  John,  was  born  at  Sandwich, 
N.  H.,  March  5,  1815;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College 
in  1836,  and  the  same  year  removed  to  Illinois,  locating 
at  Chicago,  where  he  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar.  He  was  for  many  years  editor  of  the  Chicago 
Democrat ; served  in  congress  from  1843  to  1851,  from 

1853  to  1855,  anc*  from  to  *867,  and  was  one 

the  Democratic  representatives  instrumental  in  the 
organization  of  the  anti-slavery  party  after  the  Missouri 
Compromise  had  been  repealed.  He  was  afterward 
elected  mayor  of  Chicago,  and  contributed  largely  to 
laying  the  foundations  for  the  present  excellence  of  the 
various  departments  under  municipal  control.  He  was 
a member  of  the  State  constitutional  convention  of 
1861,  and  served  in  other  public  capacities  until  within 
a few  years  prior  to  his  death.  He  was  made  an  LL.D. 
by  Dartmouth  College,  and  was  also  president  of  the 
Alumni.  He  died  at  Chicago,  October  16,  1888. 

WENTWORTH,  Sir  John,  colonial  governor, 
born  in  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  August  9,  1737;  died  in 
Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  April  8,  1820.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  in  1755,  went  to  England  in  1765, 
and  from  1765  to  1775  served  as  governor  of  New 
Hampshire.  In  March,  1768,  he  arrived  in  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  and  entered  on  his  duties  as  governor  in  June, 

1 768.  As  such  he  gave  Dartmouth  College  its  charter  and 
endowed  it  with  44,000  acres  of  land.  At  the  outbreak 
of  internal  troubles  in  the  colony  he  fled  to  Fort  Will- 
iam and  Mary,  and  took  shelter  on  an  English  vessel. 
In  1775  Governor  Wentworth  sailed  for  England.  In 
1792  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Nova  Scotia,  which 
office  he  held  until  1808,  and  in  1795  he  was  created  a 
baronet. 

WERDER,  Avgust  von,  a Prussian  general,  was 
born  September  12,  1808,  entered,  in  1825,  the  regiment 
of  the  gardes-du-corps,  and  was,  on  account  of  his  special 
qualifications,  appointed  second  lieutenant  in  the  first 
regiment  of  infantry  guards.  From  1833  he  served  in 
various  branches  of  the  army,  securing  steady  promotion, 
and  becoming  in  March,  i860,  a major-general,  and  on 
une  8,  1866,  lieutenant-general,  in  which  latter  capacity 
e took  part  in  the  campaign  in  Bohemia  in  the  army 
of  Prince  Frederick  Charles.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Franco-German  war,  Lieutenant-General  von  Werder 
was  attached  to  the  superior  command  of  the  third 
army  corps  of  the  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia,  and  was 
engaged  before  Strasburg,  and  also  in  the  battles  near 
Belfort.  His  complete  defeat  of  Bourbaki’s  army  was 
of  enormous  importance  to  the  Germans,  as  was  shown 
by  the  gift  of  a sword  of  honor,  specially  made,  to  him 
by  the  emperor.  He  died  September  12,  1887. 

WERTMULLER,  Adolph  Ulric,  painter,  born 
in  Stockholm,  Sweden,  in  1751;  died  near  Marcus 
Hook,  Penn.,  October  5,  1811.  In  1782  he  was  made 
a member  of  the  French  Academy,  and  in  1787  became 
court  painter  in  Sweden.  In  1794  he  visited  the  United 
States,  went  abroad  alter  two  years,  returned  in 
1797  and  became  permanently  settled.  During  his 
first  visit  he  painted  several  portraits  of  Gen.  George 
Washington. 

WEST,  Benjamin,  an  American  mathematician, 
born  in  Massachusetts,  1730,  and,  prior  to  the  Revolu- 
tionary war,  a resident  of  Providence,  R.  I. , where  he  was 
engaged  in  commercial  pursuits.  In  1784  he  was 
teaching  mathematics  at  Philadelphia,  and  two  years 
later  filled  the  mathematical  chair  in  Brown  University, 
a position  he  retained  until  1800.  He  was  made  an 
A.M.  by  Brown,  Harvard,  and  Dartmouth,  and  an 


LL.D.  by  Brown.  He  died  at  Providence,  August 
13,  1813. 

WEST,  W.  E.,  an  American  artist,  born  at  Lexing- 
ton, Ky. , December  10,  1788;  died  at  Nashville,  Tenn., 
November  2,  1857.  He  began  the  study  of  art  in  his 
native  city,  and,  after  a course  of  instruction  at  Phila- 
delphia, visited  Europe,  taking  up  his  residence  at 
Florence,  Italy,  in  1819.  Pie  remained  there  until 

1826,  when  he  removed  to  London,  and  continued  a 
resident  of  that  city  for  many  years,  returning  to  the 
United  States  in  1840,  and  locating  at  Baltimore.  In 
1855  he  opened  a studio  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  and 
resided  in  that  city  until  his  death.  His  specialty  was 
portraits  and  “ vignette  pictures,”  of  which  he  executed 
quite  a number,  including  Jtidith  and  Holofernes , 
which  have  obtained  a national  reputation. 

WEST,  Sir  Lionel  Sackville,  was  born  July  19, 

1827,  and  entered  the  diplomatic  service  in  1847,  as  at- 

tache to  the  legation  at  Lisbon.  He  was  appointed 
first  paid  attach^  at  Berlin  in  1853,  and  secretary  of 
legation  at  Turin  in  1858,  was  charge  d'affaires  from 
August  to  November,  and  for  some  months  during  the 
years  1859  1863.  He  was  then  transferred  to 

Madrid,  and  in  1867  promoted  to  be  secretary  of  em- 
bassy at  Berlin,  and  minister  plenipotentiary  at  Paris 
during  the  absence  of  the  ambassador  in  1868  and  1869. 
From  February  16th  till  March  12,  1871,  he  was  chargi 
des  ar chives , and  was  again  minister  plenipotentiary 
from  September  19th  till  December  6,  1871,  and  from 
August  20th  till  November  7,  1872.  Promoted  to  be 
envoy  extraordinary  and  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the 
Argentine  Republic  in  September,  1872,  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Spain  in  1878,  and  to  Washington  in  1881, 
but  was  recalled  in  the  fall  of  1888,  at  President  Cleve- 
land’s request,  for  interfering  in  American  politics. 

WESTCOTT,  Brooke  Foss,  D.D.,  was  born  near 
Birmingham,  England,  in  January,  1825,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  obtained  the 
Norrisian  prize  in  1850,  and  was  ordained  deacon  and 
riest  in  the  following  year.  He  was  elected  fellow  of 
is  college  in  1849,  and  proceeded  M.A.  in  1851,  B.D. 
in  1865,  and  D.D.  in  1870.  Doctor  Westcott  received 
from  Oxford  University  the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L. 
in  1881,  and  that  of  D.D.  from  Edinburgh  University 
at  its  tercentenary  commemoration  in  1883.  He  was 
elected  regius  professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge,  No- 
vember 1, 1870,  and,  on  the  retirement  of  Doctor  Jeremie, 
Doctor  Westcott  was  nominated  honorary  chaplain  to 
the  queen  in  1875,  and  a chaplain  in  ordinary  in  1879. 
In  May,  1881,  was  published,  under  the  title  The  New 
Testament  in  Greek,  the  result  of  the  twenty- eight  years’ 
joint  labor  of  Doctors  Westcott  and  Holt  upon  the 
Greek  text.  In  October,  1883,  he  was  nominated  to  the 
canonry  of  Westminster,  vacated  by  Canon  Barry, 
bishop  designate  of  Sydney,  Australia.  He  was  one  of 
the  company  for  the  revision  of  the  authorized  version 
of  the  New  Testament.  Died  July  28,  1901. 

WESTCOTT,  Thompson,  was  born  at  Philadelphia, 
Penn.,  June  5,  1820,  and  educated  at  the  Pennsylvania 
University.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1841,  but 
adopted  journalism  as  a profession,  and  began  his 
career  in  a reportorial  capacity  on  the  Public  Ledger. 
From  1848  to  1884  he  was  editor  of  the  Philadelphia 
Sunday  Despatch , and  for  six  years  from  1863,  editor 
of  the  Philadelphia  Inquirer,  becoming  editor  of  the 
Philadelphia  Record  in  1884.  Subsequently  he  was  a 
contributor  to  the  leading  dailies  of  that  and  other 
cities,  and  was  the  author  of  a number  of  works,  chiefly 
biographical  and  historical.  He  died  at  Philadelphia, 
May  8,  1888. 

WESTLAKE,  John,  Q.C.,  was  born  at  Lost- 
withiel,  Cornwall,  England,  February  4.,  1828,  and 


W E S — W H E 


6874 

educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar,  was  one  of  the  founders  and  editors 
of  the  Revue  de  Droit  International  et  de  Legislation 
Comparee , published  at  Brussels,  and  the  author  of  a 
standard  work  on  international  law. 

WESTWOOD,  John  Obadiah,  entomologist,  born 
in  Sheffield,  England,  1805,  became  professor  of  zoology 
at  Oxford,  1861,  and  was  elected  to  fill  the  place  of  Hum- 
boldt, as  a corresponding  member  of  the  Entomological 
Society  at  Paris.  He  wrote  much  on  entomology  and 
archaeology  and  was  likewise  one  of  the  highest 
authorities  on  mediaeval  ivories.  He  died  January  2, 
1892. 

WETHERILL,  Charles  Mayer,  born  at  Phila- 
delphia, November  4,  1825;  graduated  at  the  Pennsyl- 
vania University  in  1845,  but  completed  his  studies  at 
the  College  of  France,  Paris,  and  the  University  of 
Giessen.  He  lectured  on  chemistry  at  the  Franklin 
Institute,  Philadelphia,  1849-52,  going  thence  to 
Washington  as  chemist  of  the  agricultural  department. 
He  was  professor  of  chemistry  at  Lehigh  (Penn.)  Uni- 
versity from  1866  till  his  death,  March  5,  1889.  He 
was  Ph.  D.  of  the  University  of  Giessen,  and  M.D.  of 
the  Medical  College  of  New  York;  was  a member 
of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  and  other  scien- 
tific organizations,  and  left  a large  number  of  papers 
on  scientific  subjects. 

WEYMAN,  Stanley  J.,  a popular  writer  of  roman- 
tic novels,  born  at  Ludlow,  England,  August  7,  1855, 
and  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  studied 
for  the  bar,  but  left  the  law  for  literature  with  the 
publication,  in  1889,  of  his  first  novel,  The  House  of  the 
Wolf.  In  1890  came  The  New  Rector , a story  of 
modern  English  life.  The  Story  of  Francis  Cludde 
(1891),  and  in  1893,  The  Gentleman  of  France , one  of 
the  most  popular  of  modern  novels,  which  has  been 
translated  into  half  a dozen  languages,  and  at  once 
established  his  fame.  Later  works  of  his  are  The 
Man  in  Black , Under  the  Red  Robe , a fascinating  tale 
of  love  and  adventure  in  the  times  of  Cardinal  Riche- 
lieu, and  My  Lady  Rotha. 

WHARTON,  Francis,  was  born  at  Philadelphia, 
March  7,  1820;  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1839,  and 
became  a member  of  the  Philadelphia  bar  in  1843.  In 
1845  he  was  assistant  attorney-general  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  for  seven  years,  from  1856,  filled  the  chair  of  logic 
and  rhetoric  m Kenyon  College,  at  Gambier,  Ohio. 
In  the  latter  year,  having  been  meanwhile  ordained  a 
minister  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  he  was 
called  to  the  rectorship  of  St.  Paul’s  Church,  Brookline, 
Mass.,  afterward  to  the  chair  of  international  and 
ecclesiastical  law  in  the  divinity  school  at  Cambridge, 
in  the  same  State.  In  1885  he  accepted  the  position  of 
solicitor  of  the  state  department  at  Washington,  and  in 
1888  the  editorship  of  the  diplomatic  correspondence 
of  the  United  States  during  the  Revolution.  Kenyon 
College  made  him  a D.D.  in  1863,  and  an  LL.D.  two 
years  later.  Edinburgh  University  conferred  the 
latter  degree  in  1883.  He  wrote  Wharton's  Crimi- 
nal Law , the  standard  authority  on  that  subject  in  the 
United  States,  also  of  numerous  works  on  law  and 
medical  jurisprudence,  and  court  reports.  He  died 
February  2,  1889. 

WHARTON,  T.  I.,  an  American  author,  born  at 
Philadelphia,  August  1,  1859;  graduated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania  twenty  years  later,  and  studiedlaw. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  has  since  devoted  his 
attention  to  literature,  and  is  the  author  of  a number 
of  works,  including  Hannibal  of  New  York , a novel. 

WHATCOAT,  Richard,  a bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Gloucester,  England, 
February  23,  1736.  and  when  twenty-two  years  of  age 


became  a convert  to  the  Methodist  faith,  having  pre- 
viously been  identified  with  the  Church  of  England. 
He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1769,  and  in  1784  was  or- 
dained a presbyter  by  John  Wesley,  who  sent  him  to 
America  in  the  capacity  of  a missionary.  He  was  de- 
scribed as  an  exhorter  of  wonderfully  persuasive  powers, 
and  his  success  has  been  pronounced.  He  was  consecrat- 
ed bishop  in  1800,  and  died  at  Dover,  Del.,  July  4,  1806. 

WHEATON,  Henry,  an  American  jurist,  born  near 
Providence,  R.  I.,  November  27,  1785;  was  graduated 
at  Brown  University,  in  the  class  of  1802,  and  three 
years  later  was  admitted  to  the  practice  of  law.  In  1812 
he  removed  to  New  York  city,  and  for  three  years  edited 
a paper  conducted  in  the  interest  of  the  party  in  power. 
He  next  served  in  an  official  capacity,  and,  during  his 
term  on  the  bench  of  the  Marine  Court  of  New  York, 
became  reporter  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States.  While  thus  occupied  he  was  a member  of  the 
New  York  constitutional  convention  of  1821,  served  in 
the  State  legislature,  revised  the  statutes  of  New  York, 
and  took  part  in  important  litigations  involving  much 
mooted  questions  of  law  and  equity.  He  went  to  Den- 
mark in  1827  as  the  American  consul,  became  minister 
to  Prussia  ten  years  later,  and  in  1847  declined  the  ap- 
pointment of  lecturer  on  constitutional  law  at  Harvard 
University.  He  was  a member  of  the  leading  scientific 
and  literary  societies  of  Europe  and  the  United  States, 
an  A.M.  of  Harvard  University,  and  an  LL.D.  of  Har- 
vard, Brown,  and  Hamilton.  He  was  the  author  of 
many  publications  on  law  and  of  a miscellaneous  charac- 
ter, and  died  at  Dorchester,  Mass.,  March  11,  1848. 

WHEDON,  Daniel  D.,  born  near  Onondaga,  N. 
Y.,  March  20,  1808;  was  graduated  at  Hamilton  College 
in  1828.  He  studied  law,  and  in  1833  accepted  the  chair 
of  ancient  languages  and  literature  at  Wesleyan  Col- 
lege, Middletown,  Conn.,  where  he  remained  ten  years, 
being  ordained  a minister  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  during  his  incumbency.  He  filled  various  pul- 
pits thereafter,  and,  in  1845,  was  chosen  professor  of 
logic  at  Michigan  University.  From  1856  he  was  for 
nearly  twenty  years  in  editorial  charge  of  the  Metho- 
dist Quarterly  Review.  Emory  and  Henry  College,  of 
Virginia,  made  him  a D.D.  in  1847.  He  died  October 
12,  1885.  He  was  the  author  of  commentaries  on  the 
Scripture,  and  of  a volume  of  public  addresses,  together 
with  numerous  sermons,  essays,  and  other  contributions 
to  the  press  and  magazines. 

WHEELER,  George  Montague,  was  born  in 
Grafton,  Mass.,  October,  1842.  After  graduating  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy  in  1866,  he  was 
assigned  to  the  corps  of  engineers.  He  was  employed 
on  the  Pacific  coast  at  San  Francisco,  in  the  construc- 
tion of  defenses  at  Fort  Point.  Receiving  the  rank  of 
lieutenant,  he  was  sent  to  make  a survey  of  Central 
Nevada.  His  organization  was  known  as  the  “Geo- 
graphical survey  of  the  territory  of  the  United  States 
west  of  the  100th  meridian,”  and  the  government  an- 
nually appropriated  money  for  this  purpose  until 
March,  1879.  Notwithstanding  that  the  survey  was 
intended  to  furnish  geographical  maps  of  the  territory, 
it  paid  no  little  attention  to  zoology  and  ethnology, 
studies  that  Captain  Wheeler  put  in  book  form,  and 
which  have  been  published.  He  was  promoted  to  a 
captaincy  March  30,  1879.  On  account  of  ill  health  he 
retired  from  active  service  June  15,  1888. 

WHEELER,  Joseph,  soldier,  born  in  Augusta,  Ga., 
September  10,  1836;  graduated  at  the  United  States 
Military  Academy  in  1859,  and  was  assigned  to  the 
United  States  cavalry.  He  entered  the  Confederate 
service  in  1861  as  colonel  of  an  Alabama  regiment  of 
infantry,  to  serve  in  the  West.  He  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Shiloh,  and  the  same  year  led  the  cavalry  in 


WHE- 

the  army  under  Gen.  Braxton  Bragg.  In  1862  he  was 
made  brigadier-general,  and  January  19,  1863,  was  pro- 
moted to  be  major-general.  He  commanded  the 
cavalry  at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  defeated  Stone- 
man  in  July,  1864,  capturing  that  officer,  with  many 
prisoners  and  all  his  artillery,  and  the  same  year  de- 
fended Savannah,  Ga. , and  Aiken,  S.  C.  On  February 
28,  1865,  he  was  promoted  to  be  lieutenant-general,  and 
continued  in  charge  of  the  cavalry  under  Gen.  Joseph 
E.  Johnston  until  the  end  of  the  war.  Later  he  was 
sent  to  congress,  and  in  January,  1888,  became  a 
regent  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

WHEELER,  William  A.,  was  born  in  Massachu- 
setts, November  14,  1833;  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College 
in  1853,  and  later  assisted  in  the  compilation  of  Wor- 
cester’s Dictionary , subsequently  rendering  a similar 
service  in  the  preparation  of  Webster's  Dictionary.  In 
1866  he  was  associated  with  the  management  of  the 
Boston  public  library,  and  about  this  period  collected 
data  for  works  which  were  afterward  published  under 
his  direction.  He  died  at  Roxbury,  Mass. , October  28, 
1874. 

WHEELER,  William  Almon,  vice-president  of 
the  United  States  from  1877  to  1881,  was  born  at 
Malone,  N.  Y.,  June  30,  1819.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1843,  served  several  terms  in  the  State  legis- 
lature, and  as  president  of  the  State  constitutional  con- 
vention of  1867,  and  was  a member  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  from  1861  to  1877.  He  was  nominated 
for  the  vice-presidency  in  1876  by  the  Republicans,  and 
was  seated,  after  a contest  before  the  electoral  com- 
mission. He  died  at  Malone,  June  4,  1887. 

WHEELOCK,  Eleazar,  educator,  was  born  in 
Windham  county.  Conn.,  April  22,  1711;  died  in  Han- 
over, N.  H.,  April  24,  1779.  He  was  graduated  at 
Yale  in  1733,  was  ordained  in  1735  over  the  second 
church  in  Lebanon,  Conn. , where  he  labored  thirty-five 
years.  He  also  took  pupils  into  his  house,  educated 
Samson  Occom,  a Mohican  Indian,  and  subsequently 
opened  an  Indian  missionary  school.  An  endowment 
of  ^10,000  was  obtained  in  England  for  this  work,  and 
the  school  was  removed  to  Dresden  (now  Hanover), 
N.  H.,  and  a seminary  added.  Wheelock  was  named 
as  founder  and  president  of  the  college,  which  was 
named  for  Lord  Dartmouth.  At  the  first  commence- 
ment, in  1771,  four  pupils  were  graduated,  but  the  num- 
ber had  increased  to  seventeen  in  the  year  of  the 
founder’s  death.  The  Indian  school,  which  was  the 
germ  of  Dartmouth  College,  was  broken  up  by  the  Rev- 
olution. Wheelock  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1767. 

WHEELOCK,  John,  an  American  educator,  was 
born  in  Connecticut,  in  January,  1754,  and  was  a mem- 
ber of  the  first  graduating  class  of  Dartmouth  College, 
in  1771.  In  the  war  of  the  Revolution  he  served  in 
various  capacities  until  1779,  when,  upon  the  death  of 
Eleazar  Wheelock,  his  father,  he  became  president  of 
Dartmouth  College.  His  administration  of  its  affairs, 
during  a period  of  nearly  forty  years,  has  left  its  im- 
press upon  the  succeeding  history  of  that  institution. 
The  means  of  support  were  materially  increased,  de- 
partments were  added,  the  faculty  was  augmented  in 
number,  buildings  to  accommodate  the  requirements  of 
an  improved  service  were  constructed  and  equipped, 
and  the  college  left  by  him  in  a flourishing  condition. 
He  was  removed  from  the  presidency  in  1815,  on  ac- 
count of  dissensions  among  the  trustees,  but  was  rein- 
stated two  years  later.  The  dissensions,  however,  led 
to  a prolonged  litigation,  in  which  Daniel  Webster  ap- 
peared as  counsel,  and  was  carried  to  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States.  Doctor  Wheelock  was  the 
author  of  a number  of  essays,  sketches,  and  biographical 


-WHI  6875 

writings.  He  was  made  an  LL.D.  by  Dartmouth  in 
1789,  and  died  April  4,  1817. 

WHEELOCK,  Joseph  A.,  an  American  journalist, 
was  born  at  Bridgstone,  in  the  province  of  Nova  Scotia, 
February  8,  1831,  and  was  educated  at  Sackville,  New 
Brunswick.  In  1850  he  came  to  the  United  States, 
and,  locating  in  Minnesota,  engaged  in  commercial  vent- 
ures. Six  years  later  he  was  managing  editor  of  a 
real  estate  and  financial  weekly,  issued  at  St.  Paul,  and 
in  1858  became  an  editorial  writer  for  the  St.  Paul 
Pioneer.  During  1861  he  established  the  St.  Paul 
Press , and  when  the  Pioneer-Press  of  that  city  was 
founded  he  took  editorial  charge,  and  has  since  directed 
the  policy  of  that  paper.  He  served  as  commissioner 
of  statistics  for  Minnesota  during  1861  and  1862,  and  in 
1871  was  appointed  postmaster  at  St.  Paul. 

WHEELWRIGHT,  William,  philanthropist,  born 
in  Newburyport,  Mass.,  in  1798;  died  in  London,  Eng- 
land, September  26,  1873.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a 
printer;  later  he  entered  the  merchant  marine,  and,  at 
the  age  of  nineteen,  commanded  a vessel.  From  1824 
to  1829  he  was  United  States  consul  at  Guayaquil,  and 
on  the  expiration  of  his  term  went  to  Valparaiso,  where 
he  established  lines  of  steamers  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and 
was  engaged  in  building  railways  and  telegraph  lines. 
During  his  life  he  gave  large  amounts  to  benevolent 
purposes,  and  he  left  $100,000  to  found  a scientific 
school  in  Newburyport. 

WHELAN,  James,  a Roman  Catholic  bishop,  was 
born  in  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  December  8,  1823;  came  to 
the  United  States  in  1833,  studied  theology  at  Spring- 
field,  Ky.,  and  Somerset,  Ohio,  and  was  ordained  a priest 
August  2,  1846.  In  1852  h'e  was  called  to  the  presidency 
of  St.  Joseph’s  College,  near  New  Lexington,  Ohio, 
becoming  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Miles  of  Tennessee,  May 
8,  1859,  and  upon  the  latter’s  death,  a year  later,  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Nashville.  During  the  war  he 
was  accused  of  making  remarks,  during  a visit  to  Bishop 
Spalding,  at  Louisville,  that  had  precipitated  an  advance 
by  the  Union  army,  and  in  1864  he  resigned  the  bishop- 
ric of  Nashville.  He  died  at  Zanesville,  Ohio,  February 
18,  1878. 

WHIPPLE,  Abraham,  a naval  officer  who  is  cred- 
ited with  having  “ fired  the  first  gun  of  the  Revolution 
on  water,”  was  a native  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  born 
September  16,  1733.  and  saw  his  first  service  as  com- 
mander of  a privateer  during  the  French  and  Indian 
war.  In  1 775  he  was  placed  in  command  of  two  vessels 
fitted  out  by  Rhode  Island,  and  thenceforward,  until 
1 780,  was  in  charge  of  war-ships  of  the  American  navy, 
doing  irreparable  damage  to  the  British  commerce. 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  captured  while  endeavoring  to 
give  aid  to  the  inhabitants  of  Charleston,  S.  C. , and  re- 
mained a prisoner  during  the  war.  H e died  at  M arietta, 
Ohio,  May  29,  1819. 

WHIPPLE,  Amiel  Weeks,  was  born  in  Green- 
wich, Mass.,  in  1818;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
May  7,  1863.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United  States 
Military  Academy  in  1841,  served  as  assistant  astron- 
omer and  engineer  until  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war, 
when  he  became  chief  topographical  engineer  on  the 
staff  of  Gen.  Irvin  McDowell.  After  the  first  battle  of 
Fredericksburg  he  was  attached  to  the  staff  of  Gen. 
George  B.  McClellan,  but  was  soon  appointed  brigadier- 
general  and  placed  in  command  of  the  defenses  of 
Washington,  south  of  the  Potomac  river.  For  his 
services  here  he  received  the  thanks  of  President 
Lincoln.  Later  he  took  part  in  the  engagements  at 
Blue  Ridge,  Waterloo,  Fredericksburg,  and  Chancellors- 
ville,  and  was  shot  in  the  last-named  battle,  May  4, 
1863.  He  lived  three  days  and  was  appointed  major- 
general  of  volunteers  for  gallantry.  He  had  also 


W H I 


6876 

received  the  brevet  of  major-general  in  the  regular 
army  for  services  during  the  war. 

WHIPPLE,  Edwin  Percy,  author,  born  in  Glouces- 
ter, Mass.,  March  8,  1819;  died  in  Boston,  Mass., 
une  16,  1886.  He  attended  the  public  schools  at 
alem  in  1837,  and  later  was  appointed  superintendent 
of  the  newsroom  of  the  Merchants’  Exchange  in  Boston. 
Following  this  he  wrote  for  the  Boston  Miscellany  and 
other  magazines,  and  lectured  in  Boston  and  other 
cities.  In  1872  he  became  literary  editor  of  the  Boston 
Globe , in  1877  wrote  for  the  North  American  Review , 
and  at  the  same  time  did  considerable  bookseller’s  job- 
work.  His  publications  are  numerous,  and  were  fol- 
lowed by  several  posthumous  publications. 

WHIPPLE,  H.  B.,  a bishop  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church,  was  born  at  Adams,  Jefferson  county, 
N.  Y.,  February  15,  1822,  and  entered  the  ministry  in 
1850,  as  rector  of  Zion  Church,  at  Rome,  N.  Y.  In 
1857  he  was  called  to  the  pulpit  of  the  Church  of  the 
Holy  Communion  at  Chicago,  and  on  October  13,  1859, 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Minnesota,  the  same  year 
receiving  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  Racine  (Wis.)  Col- 
lege. He  is  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Seabury  Mission 
at  Faribault,  Minn.,  also  of  the  Divinity  .School,  the 
Shattuck  School,  and  St.  Mary’s  Hall,  in  the  same  city. 
He  has  been  influential  in  promoting  the  civilization  of 
the  Indians  of  the  Northwest,  and  is  a frequent  con- 
tributor of  articles  on  ihe  Indian  question  to  papers  and 
magazines.  Died  Slept.  16,  1901. 

WHIPPLE,  William,  a signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  born  at  Kittery,  Me.,  January 
14,  1 730,  and  was  during  his  earlier  years  a sailor  and 
a merchant.  In  1775  he  was  elected  a representative  to 
the  Continental  congress  from  New  Hampshire,  and  re- 
elected in  1776,  signing  the  Declaration  the  same  year. 
He  was  appointed  brigadier- general  in  1777;  participated 
in  the  battles  of  Stillwater  and  Saratoga,  and,  in  con- 
junction with  Col.  James  Wilkinson,  represented  Gen. 
Horatio  Gates  at  Burgoyne’s  surrender.  He  resigned 
his  commission  in  1782,  and  subsequently  occupied 
various  public  offices  until  his  death  at  Portsmouth, 
N.  H.,  November  28,  1785. 

WHISTLER,  George  Washington,  was  born  at 
Fort  Wayne,  Ind.,  in  1800,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1819,  and  served  in  the  army  and  as  asssistant  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  until  January  1,  1834, 
when  he  resigned  his  commission.  Thereafter,  until  his 
death,  he  was  engaged  in  the  construction  and  opera- 
tion of  railroads,  including  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio, 
Boston  and  Albany,  and  other  railroad  lines.  In  1842 
he  was  employed  to  build  and  equip  the  railroad  from 
St.  Petersburg  to  Moscow,  Russia,  also  to  construct 
the  harbor  at  the  former  city.  F or  his  services  in  this 
capacity  he  received  the  decoration  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Anne  from  the  Emperor  Nicholas.  He  died  at  St. 
Petersburg,  April  7,  1849,  and  is  buried  at  Stonington, 
Conn. 

WHISTLER,  James  Abbott  McNeill,  painter, 
born  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  in  1834;  was  educated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy,  studied  drawing  and 
painting  in  Paris,  France,  and  in  1863  settled  in  Lon- 
don, England.  He  holds  original  views  concerning  his 
art,  and  has  made  interesting  experiments  with  color, 
in  quest  of  novel  effects.  Mr.  Whistler  is  also  cele- 
brated as  an  etcher,  and  is  the  author  of  etchings  and 
paintings  of  established  reputation  and  worth. 

WHITAKER,  O.  W.,  a bishop  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  Salem,  Mass.,  May  10, 
1830;  graduated  at  Middlebury  (Vt.)  College  in  1856, 
and  at  the  General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York, 
in  1863.  He  was  ordained  priest  the  same  year,  and, 
after  filling  the  pulpits  of  churches  in  Nevada  and  New 


Jersey,  was,  in  1868,  consecrated  missionary  bishop  of 
the  Nevada  diocese.  In  1886  he  was  elected  assistant 
bishop  of  Pennsylvania,  and  upon  the  death  of  Bishop 
Stevens,  June  11,  1887,  succeeded  to  the  bishopric  of 
that  State. 

WHITCOMB,  John,  an  American  soldier,  born  in 
Worcester  county,  Mass.,  in  1720.  He  served  with 
distinguished  gallantry  during  the  campaign  for  the 
capture  of  Crown  Point,  on  Lake  Champlain,  in  1755. 
Notwithstanding  his  age,  he  joined  the  American  army 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolutionary  war,  but  was  re- 
tired in  1776  with  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  died 
in  1812. 

WHITE,  Andrew  Dickson,  educator,  born  in 
Homer,  N.  Y.,  November  17,  1832,  and  in  1853  was 
graduated  at  Yale.  Thereafter  he  spent  several  years 
in  Europe.  Returning  home,  he  was,  in  1857,  chosen 
professor  of  history  and  English  literature  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  but  in  1867  was  appointed  first 
president  of  Cornell,  and  continued  as  such  until  1885. 
From  1879  to  1881  he  was  United  States  minister  to 
Germany  and  minister  to  Russia,  1892.  He  contributed 
$100,000  to  the  equipment  of  Cornell,  and,  besides,  made 
over  to  its  library  30,000  volumes  of  books  and  10,000 
pamphlets,  that  cost  him  $80,000.  He  has  contributed 
to  numerous  prominent  periodicals. 

WHITE,  Anthony  Walton,  a soldier  in  the  war 
of  the  Revolution,  was  born  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J., 
July  7,  1750,  and  in  1775  was  appointed  aide-de-camp 
to  General  Washington.  The  year  following  he  took 
command  of  a battalion  of  New  Jersey  troops,  and 
served  in  the  North  until  1780,  when  he  was  transferred 
to  the  South  and  placed  in  command  of  the  cavalry 
branch  of  the  service.  He  fought  in  the  campaigns  of 
the  Carolinas,  was  with  General  Lafayette  in  Virginia, 
and  with  Gen.  Anthony  Wayne  before  Savannah  in 
1782.  His  advances  of  money  for  the  equipment  and 
support  of  the  troops  under  his  command,  together 
with  the  amounts  in  that  behalf  he  obligated  himself 
to  pay,  rendered  General  White  bankrupt  at  the  close 
of  the  war.  He  died  at  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  February 
10,  1803. 

WHITE,  Daniel  A.,  bom  near  Lawrence,  Mass., 
June  7,  1776  ; was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1797,  and 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1804,  afterward  practicing  law  at 
New'buryport  and  Salem.  He  was  a member  of  the 
State  legislature  in  1810,  but  declined  an  election  to 
congress  in  1814,  and  from  that  date,  for  a period  of 
thirty-eight  years,  served  as  probate  judge  of  Essex 
county.  He  was  a member  of  the  State  Historical  So- 
ciety of  Massachusetts,  and  the  author  of  works  on  the 
jurisdiction  of  probate  law,  also  of  a miscellaneous 
character.  He  died  at  Salem,  March  30,  1861. 

WHITE,  Edward  Douglass,  Associate  Justice  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  was  born  in 
the  parish  of  Lafourche,  Louisiana,  November,  1845, 
and  educated  at  Mount  St.  Mary’s,  the  Jesuit  College 
of  New  Orleans,  and  at  Georgetown  College.  He 
served  in  the  Confederate  army,  practiced  law,  was 
elected  State  Senator,  1874,  appointed  Associate  Jus- 
tice of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Louisiana,  1878,  and 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  as  a Democrat,  tak- 
ing his  seat  March  4,  1891.  While  senator  he  was  ap- 
ointed,  February  19,  1894,  an  Associate  Justice  of  the 
upreme  Court,  and  took  his  seat  March  12. 

WHITE,  Horace,  an  American  journalist,  was 
born  at  Colebroolc,  N.  H.,  August  10,  1834;  accom- 
panied his  parents  to  Rock  county,  Wis.,  in  1837,  and 
graduated  at  Beloit  College  in  1853.  The  same 
he  adopted  journalism  as  a profession,  and  after  filling 
minor  positions  was  appointed  Washington  correspon- 
dent of  the  Chicago  Tribune.  He  became  editor  of 


W H I 


•hat  paper  in  1864  and  so  continued  for  ten  years, 
when  he  removed  to  New  York  city,  and  has  since 
edited  the  Evening  Post. 

WHITE,  Hugh  Lawson,  statesman,  born  in  Iredell 
county,  N.  C.,  October  30,  1773;  died  in  Knoxville, 
Tenn.,  April  10,  1840.  He  served  as  a private  in  the 
Cherokee  war,  after  which  he  studied  law  in  Philadelphia 
and  Lancaster,  Penn.,  thence  going  to  Knoxville,  Tenn. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-six  he  was  appointed  justice  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  that  State.  He  became  United 
States  district  attorney,  and,  in  1825,  succeeded  Gen. 
Andrew  Jackson  in  the  United  States  Senate.  He 
stood  as  a candidate  for  the  presidency  in  1836,  and 
received  the  electoral  votes  of  Georgia  and  Tennessee. 
Upon  his  retirement  from  national  politics  he  resumed 
the  practice  of  his  profession. 

WHITE,  Joseph  Blanco,  an  eminent  writer,  na- 
tive of  Seville,  Spain,  where  he  was  born  in  1775.  He 
early  abandoned  the  church,  for  which  he  had  been 
educated,  and  became  a resident  of  England.  He  was 
there  made  editor  of  Spanish  papers  and  periodicals 
published  in  London,  and  was  well  known  as  a con- 
tributor to  the  leading  English  magazines,  including  the 
Westminster  Review , the  Dublin  University  Review , 
and  other  journals.  He  wrote  a number  of  books  and 
was  the  author  of  poetical  contributions.  He  died  in 
1841. 

WHITE,  Julius,  was  born  at  Cazenovia,  Madison 
county,  N.  Y.,  September  26,  1817,  and  removed  to 
Illinois  in  1836.  He  subsequently  resided  in  Wiscon- 
sin and  was  a member  of  the  legislature  of  that  State  in 
1849.  He  afterward  returned  to  Illinois  and  was  ap- 
pointed collector  of  the  port  of  Chicago  by  Presi- 
dent Lincoln  in  1861,  but  resigned  to  accept  the  com- 
mand of  the  37th  regiment  of  Illinois  infantry.  He 
participated  in  the  campaigns  of  Missouri  and  Arkan- 
sas, and  was  prorhoted  brigadier-general  for  his  gal- 
lantry at  the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge.  He  afterward 
served  in  Virginia  and  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  sur- 
render of  Harper’s  Ferry,  in  September,  1862.  He 
resigned  in  1864,  and  at  the  close  of  the  war  became 
a major-general  by  brevet.  He  died  at  Chicago,  May 
12,  1890. 

WHITE,  Peregrine,  was  bom  November  20,  1620, 
on  board  the  Mayflower^  shortly  after  the  arrival  of 
that  vessel  off  the  coast  of  the  present  State  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  was  the  first  white  child  born  in  New 
England.  In  after  years  he  was  engaged  in  business  at 
Marshfield,  Mass.,  where  he  was  elected  to  office,  and 
where  he  died,  July  22,  1704. 

WHITE,  Phillips,  an  American  patriot,  born  in 
New  Hampshire  during  the  year  1730;  elected  a mem- 
ber of  the  Continental  congress  in  1782,  and  died  the 
year  following. 

WHITE,  Richard  Grant,  author,  born  in  New 
York  city,  May  22,  1821;  died  there,  April  8,  1885. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of  New  York  in 
1839,  studied  medicine  and  law,  and  in  1845  was  a<i- 
mitted  to  the  bar.  Soon  afterward  he  became  con- 
nected with  the  New  York  Courier  and  Enquirer  as 
art  critic,  and  so  continued  for  ten  years.  In  1846-47 
he  was  associate  editor  of  Yankee  Doodle , and  in  1861 
became  editor  of  the  New  York  World.  For  nearly 
twenty  years  he  was  connected  with  the  New  York  cus 
tom  house,  at  the  same  time  writing  for  magazines,  con- 
tributing to  cyclopaedias,  and  doing  booksellers’  work. 

WHITE,  Sir  William  Arthur,  was  born  in  1824, 
in  England,  and  educated  at  King  William’s  College, 
Isle  of  Man,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He 
entered  the  diplomatic  field  in  1857,  and  was  continu- 
ously employed  in  the  consular  service.  He  was  created 
K.C.M.G.,  and  died  in  1891. 

61-J 


6877 

WHITE,  William,  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop, 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  April  4,  1748;  died  there 
July  17,  1836.  He  studied  at  the  College  of  Phila- 
delphia, read  theology  under  Drs.  Richard  Peters  and 
Jacob  Duche,  and  in  1770  went  to  England  for  holy 
orders.  He  returned  to  America  in  1772,  and  became 
assistant  minister  of  Christ’s  church  and  St.  Peters. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  he  took  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  his  country,  and  on  the  approach  of  the 
British  army  to  Philadelphia  retired  to  Maryland.  On 
September  14,  1786,  he  was  elected  bishop  at  a con- 
vention of  the  diocese  of  Pennsylvania,  and,  in  com- 
pany with  Dr.  S.  Provoost,  who  had  been  chosen 
bishop  of  New  York,  sailed  for  England,  where  they 
were  consecrated  in  Lambeth  chapel,  and  in  April, 
1787,  returned  to  the  United  States,  where  for  nearly 
fifty  years  he  occupied  a prominent  position  in  the 
church. 

WHITE,  William  Henry,  was  born  at  Devon- 
port,  England,  February  2,  1845,  and  educated  at  the 
Royal  School  of  Naval  Architecture,  South  Kensington. 
He  graduated  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  students  in  1867, 
and  received  the  highest  diploma  as  naval  architect;  was 
at  once  appointed  to  the  constructive  department  at  the 
admiralty,  where  he  remained  until  1883,  rising  through 
the  various  grades  to  the  rank  of  chief  constructor. 
From  1883  to  October,  1885, he  was  engaged  in  the  or- 
ganization and  direction  of  the  shipbuilding  department 
of  the  Elswick  works  of  Sir  William  Armstrong  & Co. 
He  was  invited  by  the  admiralty,  in  1885,  to  assume  the 
office  of  director  of  naval  construction,  which  he  now 
holds  in  conjunction  with  that  of  assistant  controller  of 
the  navy.  He  is  vice-president  of  the  Institution  of 
Naval  Architects,  member  of  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers,  and  of  the  Royal  United  Service  Institution, 
and  author  of  publications  on  naval  architecture. 

WHITEHEAD,  Cortlandt.  a Protestant  Epis- 
copal bishop,  was  born  in  New  York  city,  October  30, 
1842;  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1863,  and  was  or- 
dained a priest  August  7,  1868.  He  served  as  rector  of 
the  parish  of  South  Bethlehem  until  his  consecration  as 
bishop  of  Pittsburgh,  January  25,  1882. 

WHITEHOUSE,  Henry  John,  a Protestant 
Episcopal  bishop,  was  born  in  New  York  city,  August 
19,  1803;  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in  1821  and 
at  the  General  Theological  Seminary  of  New  York 
in  1824;  was  ordained  a deacon  in  1827,  and  at  once 
took  charge  of  a parish  at  Reading,  Penn.  He  was 
called  to  St.  Paul’s  parish,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  in 
1830,  became  rector  of  St.  Thomas  Church,  New  York 
city,  in  1844,  and  in  1851  assistant  bishop  of  Illinois, 
succeeding  to  the  bishopric  upon  the  death  of  Philander 
Chase,  September  20,  1852.  Bishop  Whitehouse  was 
made  a D.D.  by  Oxford  and  an  LL.D.  by  Cambridge; 
Columbia  College  also  conferring  the  latter  degree  in 
1865.  He  died  at  Chicago,  August  10,  1874. 

WHITING,  Henry,  an  American  soldier,  born  in 
Massachusetts  in  1790,  and  entered  the  United  States 
army,  October  20,  1808.  He  served  in  Canada  during 
1813,  and  on  the  frontier,  becoming  quartermaster  of 
the  army  of  occupation  during  the  Mexican  war,  in 
which  he  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  for  gallant 
conduct  at  Buena  Vista.  He  died  at  St.  Louis,  Sep- 
tember 16,  1850.  He  was  chosen  a regent  of  Michigan 
University  in  1848,  and  was  the  author  of  poems  and 
works  of  fiction. 

WHITING,  William,  an  American  lawyer,  born 
at  Concord,  Mass.,  March  3,  1813.  He  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1833,  a,nd  from  the  law  department  of 
that  institution  in  1838.  In  1862  he  was  appointed 
solicitor  of  the  United  States  treasury,  and  ten  yearr 
later  elected  a member  of  congress,  but  died  in  June, 


W H i 


68^8 

1873,  before  qualifying  for  the  position.  He  was 
made  an  LL.D.  by  Colby  University  in  1872,  and,  as 
the  author  of  a work  entitled  The  War  Powers  of  the 
President  and  the  Legislative  Powers  of  Congress  in 
Relation  to  Rebellion , Treason , and  Slavery , acquired 
a national  reputation. 

WHITING,  William  H.  C.,  an  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Mississippi  in  1825;  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1845,  and  entered  the  service  in  the  engineer 
corps  of  the  army.  He  served  during  the  Civil  war  in 
the  Confederate  army,  where  he  rose  to  the  rank  of 
major-general.  He  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner 
at  Fort  Fisher  in  the  winter1  of  1864,  and  died  March 
10,  1865. 

WHITMAN,  Sarah  Helen  Power,  an  American 
poet,  born  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  early  in  the  year  1803, 
where  she  also  began  her  literary  career  in  1833.  She 
was  the  author  of  a work  on  the  life  and  critics  of  Edgar 
A.  Poe,  and  of  many  poems,  also  contributing  sketches, 
essays,  etc.,  to  magazines,  reviews,  and  the  daily  press. 
She  died  at  Providence,  June  27,  1878.  . 

WHITMAN,  Walter,  author,  born  in  West  Hills, 
L.  I.,  March  31,  1819.  In  the  Civil  war  Whitman’s 
brother  was  wounded,  which  circumstance  led  to  his 
becoming  a volunteer  army  nurse  at  Washington  and 
in  Virginia,  from  1862  to  1865.  Fatigue  and  exposure 
there  experienced  brought  on  an  illness  from  which  he 
never  entirely  recovered.  From  1865  to  1874  he  held 
a government  clerkship  in  Washington.  In  1873  he 
was  first  struck  with  paralysis.  At  the  end  of  his  ap- 
pointment he  retired  to  Camden,  N.  J.,  where  he  re- 
sided  until  his  death,  March  26,  1892.  His  writings 
have  found  favor  with  some  learned  reviewers  in  Great 
Britain  and  America.  His  Leaves  of  Grass,  first  pub- 
lished in  1855,  remains  his  boldest  and  most  character- 
istic performance.  At  first  it  was  derided  by  critics, 
and  condemned  for  its  supposed  indecencies,  until 
Ralph  Waldo  Emerson’s  commendation  procured  the 
author  a hearing  with  the  general  public. 

WHITNEY,  Mrs.  Adeline  D.  (Train),  Ameri- 
can writer,  born  in  Boston  in  1825  ; was  married  to 
Seth  D.  Whitney  in  1843,  and  has  since  resided  at 
Milford,  Mass.  She  has  published  Mother  Goose  for 
Grown  Folks , i860,  and  a long  list  of  novels,  also  a vol- 
ume of  poems  under  the  title  Pansies. 

WHITNEY,  Anne,  an  American  sculptor,  is  a 
native  of  Watertown,  Mass.,  where  she  also  began  her 
professional  work.  She  was  born  September  2,  1821, 
opened  a studio  in  1859  and  soon  after  went  to  Europe, 
where  she  devoted  four  years  to  study.  Upon  her  re- 
turn in  1873  s^e  established  herself  in  Boston,  and  has 
continued  a resident  of  that  city.  Her  works  embrace 
portraits,  groups,  busts,  statues,  etc.,  of  which  the 
more  prominent  are  statues  of  Samuel  Adams  in  the 
national  capitol,  and  of  Harriet  Martineau,  at  Welles- 
ley College. 

WHITNEY,  Eli,  inventor,  born  in  Westborough, 
Mass.,  December  8,  1765;  died  in  New  Haven,  Conn., 
January  8,  1825.  In  1792  he  was  graduated  at  Yale, 
went  to  Georgia,  and  for  a time  read  law,  while  living 
on  the  plantation  of  the  widow  of  Gen.  Nathanael 
Greene.  Here  he  invented  the  cotton  gin,  but  owing  to 
litigation  growing  out  of  the  claims  of  fraudulent  imi- 
tators, and  despairing  of  obtaining  his  rights  in  the 
South,  Whitney  went  to  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  1798, 
where  he  became  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  fire- 
arms, introducing  the  extension  of  machinery  in  place 
of  manual  labor. 

WHITNEY,  Josiah  D.,  an  American  geologist, 
was  born  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  November  23,  1819, 
V'd  graduated  at  Yale  College,  twenty  years  later. 
During  the  ensuing  three  years  he  was*  occupied  in  mak- 


ing geological  surveys  at  the  East,  and  in  1842  visited 
Europe,  where  he  pursued  his  studies  under  Liebig, 
Rose,  and  others.  Upon  his  return  to  the  United 
States,  after  an  absence  of  five  years,  he  was  for  a time 
engaged  on  a survey  of  the  Lake  Superior  iron  region. 
In  1855  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  chemistry  in  the 
Iowa  University,  and  subsequently  made  geological  sur- 
veys of  Iowa,  the  lead  districts  of  Southern  Wiscon- 
sin, and  other  portions  of  the  country.  In  1856  he 
became  geologist  of  Iowa;  in  i860  he  was  appointed  to 
a similar  position  in  California,  and  in  1865  accepted 
the  chair  of  geology  and  mining  at  Harvard  University. 
Upon  the  establishment  by  congress  in  1863  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences,  Professor  Whitney  was 
one  of  the  first  members  of  that  organization;  and  in 
1870  he  was  made  an  LL.D.  by  Yale  College.  The 
published  reports  of  his  surveys  fill  a number  of  vol- 
umes; and,  besides  his  translations  and  works  on  the 
metallic  wealth  of  the  United  States,  he  is  the  author 
of  many  articles  on  scientific  subjects,  printed  in  lead- 
ing magazines.  Died  Aug.  18,  1896. 

WHITNEY,  Myron  W.,  was  born  in  Massachu- 
setts, September  5,  1836,  and  made  his  first  professional 
appearance  in  Boston  during  the  winter  of  1858.  He 
afterward  studied  in  Florence  and  London,  and  in  1876 
was  the  chief  solo  singer  at  the  Philadelphia  centennial 
exposition.  His  specialty  is  oratorio  singing. 

WHITNEY,  William  Collins,  late  United  States 
secretary  of  the  navy,  was  born  at  Conway,  Mass., 
July  5,  1841,  and  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1863. 
He  studied  law  at  the  Harvard  Law  School  and  began 
its  practice  in  New  York  in  1865.  From  1875  to  *882 
he  was  corporation  counsel  of  New  York,  the  only  offi- 
cial position  held  by  him  until  appointed,  by  President 
Cleveland,  secretary  of  the  navy,  in  March,  1885,  a 
position  he  held  until  the  change  of  administration, 
March  4,  1889,  since  when  he  has  resided  in  New  York 
city,  engaged  in  the  practice  of  his  profession. 

WHITNEY,  William  D.,  an  American  philologist, 
was  born  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  February  9,  1827, 
and  graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1845.  Later  he 
studied  at  the  universities  of  Berlin  and  Tubingen,  and 
in  1854  became  the  professor  of  Sanskrit  at  Yale  Col- 
lege where  he  was  also  professor  of  philology.  He  was 
president  of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  and  his 
contributions  to  its  journal  were  numerous  and  valua- 
ble. He  was  also  a voluminous  writer  on  philologi- 
cal subjects  for  the  North  American  Review,  and 
other  prominent  periodicals,  and  a contributor  to 
cyclopaedias  and  scientific  publications.  He  was  made 
president  of  the  American  Philological  Society  upon  its 
organization;  was  a member  of  the  National  Academy 
of  Sciences,  and  a correspondent  of  the  academies  of 
Turin,  Berlin,  St.  Petersburg,  and  Rome,  and  also  of 
the  French  Institute.  He  was  regarded  as  one  of  the 
most  eminent  Sanskrit  scholars  and  philologists  of  the 
day.  He  died  June  7,  1894. 

WHITTEMOKE,  Amos,  an  American  inventor, 
was  a native  of  Massachusetts,  born  at  Cambridge, 
April  19,  1759.  He  was  early  employed  as  a gun- 
smith ; but  subsequently  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  cotton  and  wool  combs.  His  chief  invention  was 
the  adjustment  of  wire  teeth  in  cotton  cards  or  combs 
by  machinery.  The  work  had  previously  been  done 
by  hand.  It  was  patented  in  the  United  States,  and 
subsequently  sold  for  a very  large  price.  He  died  at 
Cambridge,  March  27,  1828. 

WHITTIER,  John  Greenleaf,  was  born  at  Haver- 
hill, Mass.,  Dec.  17,  1807.  Until  the  age  of  eighteen 
he  worked  on  a farm  and  occasionally  as  a shoemaker. 
In  1825  he  entered  a school  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
of  which  he  was  a member,  and  in  1829  went  to 


w H I — W I C 


Boston  as  editor  of  a newspaper,  the  American  Manu- 
facturer, and  in  the  following  year  became  editor  of  the 
New  England  Weekly  Review,  published  at  Hartford, 
Conn.,  but  in  1832  returned  to  Haverhill  to  edit  the 
Haverhill  Gazette,  and  work  upon  his  farm.  He  re- 
mained there  till  1836,  being  twice  a representative  in 
the  legislature  of  the  State.  In  1836  he  became  one  of 
the  secretaries  of  the  American  Anti-Slavery  Society, 
and  soon  after  removed  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  edited 
for  four  years  the  Pennsylvania  Freeman,  an  anti- 
slavery paper.  In  1840  he  returned  to  Massachusetts, 
and  settled  at  Amesbury,  where  he  afterward  resided, 
being  for  some  years  corresponding  editor  of  the  Na- 
tional Era,  published  at  Washington.  Mr.  Whittier’s 
works  are  among  the  best  known  and  most  popular 
of  all  American  authors.  They  include  publications  in 
prose  and  verse,  and  have  obtained  an  unprecedented 
circulation,  both  in  the  United  States  and  in  all  portions 
of  Europe.  Besides  these,  various  fine  illustrated  edi- 
tions of  some  of  his  shorter  poems  have  been  published 
separately.  In  1869,  and  again  in  1876,  was  published 
a uniform  edition  of  his  poems  up  to  date,  and,  in  1875 
he  published  a collection  of  poetry,  under  the  title  of 
Songs  of  Three  Centuries.  He  died  September  7,  1892. 

WHITTLE,  Francis  McNeece,  LL.D.,  a Protes- 
tant Episcopal  bishop,  was  born  near  Jerusalem, 
Mecklenburg  county,  Va.,  July  7,  1823,  and  became  a 
graduate  of  the  Alexandria  Theological  Seminary  in 
1847.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  October,  1848,  and 
after  officiating  as  rector  of  parishes  in  Virginia  and 
Kentucky  was  consecrated  assistant  bishop  of  the 
former  State,  April  30,  i860,  succeeding  to  the  bishop- 
ric April  4,  1876,  upon  the  death  of  Bishop  Johns. 
When  West  Virginia  was  made  a separate  diocese  in 
1877,  Bishop  Whittle  continued  in  charge  of  the 
diocese  of  North  Virginia.  He  was  made  LL.D.  by 
William  and  Mary  College  in  1873,  and  D.D.  by  the 
Ohio  Theological  Seminary  in  1867. 

WHITTLESEY,  Frederick,  an  American  jurist, 
was  a native  of  Connecticut,  being  born  in  Washington 
county,  June  12,  1799.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1818;  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  in  1822  settled  at 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  where  he  practiced  his  profession, 
and,  during  the  political  campaign  of  1828,  edited  a 
paper.  The  year  following  he  was  elected  treasurer  of 
Monroe  county.  In  1831  he  was  chosen  a representa- 
tive in  congress  and  afterward  served  on  the  bench  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  State.  He  died  at  Rochester, 
September  19,  1851. 

WHITTRIDGE,  Worthington,  an  American 
artist,  was  born  May  22, 1820,  near  Springfield,  in  Green 
county,  Ohio,  and  learned  his  art  among  the  studios  of 
Cincinnati.  In  1849  he  went  to  Europe,  where  he  pur- 
sued his  studies  at  Paris,  London,  and  Dusseldorf. 
After  a tour  through  Holland  and  Belgium  he  opened  a 
studio  in  Rome,  in  1855,  whence,  in  1859,  he  returned 
to  the  United  States  and  located  in  New  York.  He 
was  made  an  academician  of  the  National  Academy  in 
1861,  and  became  president  of  the  organization  in  1874. 
His  specialty  is  landscape  paintings,  and  his  works, 
which  are  mostly  American  scenes,  are  distinctively 
individual  and  true  to  nature. 

WHITWORTH,  Sir  Joseph,  Bart.,  engineer, born 
at  Stockport,  December  21,  1803.  In  1821  he  went  to 
Manchester,  and  in  1825  to  London.  In  1833  he  re- 
turned to  Manchester,  and  started  in  business  on  his 
own  account  as  a manufacturer  of  engineers’  tools,  thus 
founding  the  firm  of  which  he  became  the  head.  In 
1851  he  came  prominently  before  the  public  by  the  ex- 
hibit of  machine  tools  at  the  great  exhibition,  where  he 
exhibited  his  machine  for  measuring  differences  of  one- 
millionth  of  an  inch,  for  which  he  received  the  council 


6879 

medal.  In  1853  he  was  appointed  a royal  commissioner 
to  the  New  York  exhibition.  In  1854-55  he  began  his 
experiments  with  fire-arms,  which  led  to  the  production 
of  the  celebrated  Whitworth  rifle.  These  experiments 
were  extended  to  guns,  and  after  that  date  he  was  a 
strong  competitor  of  Sir  William  Armstrong  in  the  pro- 
duction of  rifle  ordnance.  In  1857  he  was  made  an 
F.R.S.,  in  1878  LL.D.,  Edinburgh,  and  previously 
D.C.L.,  Oxford.  He  died  at  Monte  Carlo,  Italy,  Jan- 
uary 22,  1887. 

WHYMPER,  Edward,  artist,  author,  and  traveler, 
was  born  in  London,  April  27,  1840.  In  1861  he  as- 
cended Mount  Pelvoux  (then  reputed  to  be  the  highest 
mountain  in  France),  and  discovered  from  its  summit 
another  mountain  500  feet  higher — the  Pointe  des 
iLcrins — which  is  the  loftiest  of  the  French  Alps.  Be- 
tween the  years  1861-65,  in  a series  of  expeditions  re- 
markable  for  boldness  and  success,  he  ascended  one 
peak  after  another  of  mountains  till  then  reputed  to  be 
inaccessible.  These  expeditions  culminated  in  the  as- 
cent of  the  Matterhorn,  July  14,  1865,  on  which  occa- 
sion his  companions,  the  Rev.  Charles  Hudson,  Mr. 
Hadow,  Lord  Francis  Douglas,  and  one  of  the 
guides,  lost  their  lives.  In  1867  he  traveled  in  north- 
west Greenland.  This  journey  was  characterized  by 
Sir  Roderick  Murchison  as  “truly  the  ne plus  ultra  of 
British  geographical  adventure  on  the  part  of'  an  indi- 
vidual.” In  1871  Mr.  Whymper  published  an  account 
of  his  Alpine  journeys,  under  the  title  Scrambles 
Among  the  Alps  in  the  Years  1860-69,  London,  1871. 
In  recognition  of  the  value  of  this  work,  its  author  re- 
ceived from  the  king  of  Italy  the  decoration  of  chevalier 
of  the  order  of  SS.  Maurice  and  Lazarus.  In  May,  1872, 
he  again  left  Copenhagen  for  North  Greenland,  and  in 
1879-80  Mr.  Whymper  traveled  in  the  Republic  of 
Ecuador,  exploring,  ascending,  and  measuring  the 
Great  Andes  on  and  near  the  equator.  On  this  journey 
he  made  the  first  ascents  of  Chimborazo  (20,517  feet), 
Sincholagua,  Antisana,  Cayambe,  Cotocachi,  and 
several  others. 

WHYTE,  William  Pinkney,  was  born  at  Balti- 
more, Md.,  August  9,  1824,  and  in  1846,  upon  his 
graduation  at  the  Harvard  law  school,  became  a mem- 
ber of  the  Maryland  bar.  He  served  in  the  State  legis- 
lature for  two  sessions,  1847-48,  as  State  comptroller 
in  1853,  and  in  1868  was  appointed  to  fill  the  vacancy 
in  the  United  States  Senate  caused  by  the  resignation 
of  Reverdy  Johnson.  Three  years  later  he  was  elected 
governor  of  the  State,  and  in  1874  was  reelected  to  the 
Senate  for  the  term  ending  March  4,  1881.  In  1887 
he  was  elected  attorney-general  for  the  State.  The 
University  of  Maryland  made  him  an  LL.D.  in  1874. 

WICKERSHAM,  James  Pyle,  born  in  the  county 
of  Chester,  Penn.,  March  5,  1825;  was  prominently 
identified  with  the  cause  of  education  in  Pennsylvania 
for  years,  and  was  editor  of  th6  School  Journal  of  that 
State.  He  was  made  an  LL.D.  in  1871,  and  in  1882  was 
appointed  United  States  minister  to  Denmark.  He  was 
also  the  author  of  a number  of  works  on  instruction 
and  education.  He  died  March  5,  1891. 

WICKES,  Lambert,  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  England  in  1735,  and  one  of  the  earliest  ap- 
pointed officers  in  the  colonial  navy.  He  commanded 
the  Reprisal  -when  that  vessel  carried  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin to  France,  and  until  1778,  when  the  Reprisal  went 
down  off  Newfoundland  with  all  on  board,  he  did  irre- 
parable damage  to  the  British  marine. 

WICKES,  Stephen,  M.D.,  was  born  March  18, 
1813,  at  Jamaica,  Long  Island,  and  educated  at  Union 
College,  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute  and  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  long  a successful 
practitioner  and  was  secretary  of  the  Historical  Society 


688o 


WIC- 

of  New  Jersey.  He  lived  in  retirement  after  1886,  de- 
voting his  attention  to  the  compilation  and  publication 
of  medical  works,  and  died  July  8,  1889. 

WICKHAM,  Edward  Charles,  was  born  Decem- 
ber 7,  1834,  and  educated  at  Winchester  College  and 
at  New  College,  Oxford.  He  won  the  chancellor’s 
prizes  for  Latin  verse,  1856,  Latin  essay,  1857,  and  was 
elected  fellow  of  New  College,  1854.  After  being 
ordained  he  went  as  assistant  master  to  Winchester, 
1857-59;  and  afterward  became  tutor  of  New  College, 
Oxford,  1859-73;  Whitehall  preacher,' 1872-73;  select 
reacher  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  1865-66,  1884- 
5;  master  of  Wellington  College,  1873.  He  is  the 
editor  of  Horace  in  the  Clarendon  Press  series;  and 
married,  December  27,  1873,  Agnes,  eldest  daughter  of 
the  Right  Hon.  W.  E.  Gladstone,  M.P. 

WICKHAM,  William  C.,  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  Richmond,  Va.,  September  21, 1820;  graduated 
at  the  Virginia  University,  studied  law  and  was 
admitted  to  practice.  He  was  a captain  in  the  4th 
Virginia  infantry  at  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  war, 
fought  through  the  campaign  of  Northern  Virginia, 
was  promoted  to  be  brigadier-general,  and  in  1864  be- 
came a member  of  the  Confederate  congress.  After  the 
war  he  was  chosen  to  the  State  Senate  as  a Republican. 
He  died  at  Richmond,  July  23,  1888. 

WIGFALL,  Lewis  T.,  an  American  lawyer  and 
soldier,  was  born  in  South  Carolina,  April  21,  1816,  and 
graduated  in  the  law  department  of  Virginia  University. 
Upon  his  admission  to  the  bar,  he  removed  to  Texas 
and  opened  an  office  at  Marshall.  He  was  a member 
of  the  State  legislature,  at  intervals,  from  1849  to  i860, 
and  was  during  the  latter  year  elected  United  States 
senator.  He  entered  the  Confederate  army  as  an  aide- 
de-camp  to  Gen.  P.  G.  T.  Beauregard,  and  received  the 
surrender  of  Fort  Sumter  from  Major  Anderson  in 
person.  He  was  promoted  to  be  brigadier-general, 
and  subsequently  represented  Texas  in  the  Confederate 
congress.  After  the  war  he  visited  Europe,  and  in 
1873  resumed  the  practice  of  law  at  Baltimore.  He 
died  at  Galveston,  Tex.,  February  18,  1874. 

WIGHTMAN,  William  Moy,  a bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  is  a native  of 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  and  an  alumnus  of  Charleston 
College.  He  was  born  January  29,  1808,  and  graduat- 
ed in  a 827,  being  licensed  to  preach  the  same  year. 
He  occupied  the  pulpit  of  various  churches  in  South 
Carolina  for  the  ensuing  six  years,  when  he  accepted 
the  chair  of  English  literature  in  Randolph-Macon 
College,  subsequently  becoming  editor  of  the  Southern 
Christian  Advocate , and,  in  1854,  president  of  Wood- 
ford College,  at  Spartanburg,  S.  C.,  also  chancellor  of 
the  Southern  University  of  Greensborough,  Ala.,  in 
1859.  He  was  made  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church  South  in  1866.  Bishop  Wightman  has 
been  made  D.  D.  by  Randolph-Macon  College,  and 
LL.D.  by  Charleston  College.  He  is  also  the  author 
of  a life  of  Bishop  Capers,  and  other  publications. 

WILBERFORCE,  Rev.  Ernest  Roland,  D.D., 
bishop  of  Newcastle,  was  born  at  Brigstone,  or  Brix- 
ton,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  January  22,  1840,  and  edu- 
cated at  Exeter  College,  Oxford.  He  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1864,  and  was  admitted  into  priest’s  orders 
in  the  following  year.  He  held  the  post  of  sub-almoner 
to  her  majesty  from  1871  till  1882,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed first  bishop  of  the  newly  created  see  of  New- 
castle-upon-Tyne. 

WILCOX,  Cadmus  M.,  born  in  North  Carolina, 
May  29,  1826,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846. 
He  served  through  the  Mexican  war  from  the  siege  of 
Vera  Cruz  to  the  surrender  of  the  Mexican  capital,  and 
was  three  times  promoted  for  gallant  conduct.  He 


- W I L 

subsequently  became  assistant  professor  of  mathematics 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy,  and  in  1857 
visited  Europe.  He  entered  the  Confederate  army  at 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  war,  was  engaged  in  all  the 
battles  of  the  army  of  Northern  Virginia,  from  the 
Peninsular  campaign  to  Appomattox,  and  retired  from 
the  service  a major-general.  After  the  war,  overtures 
were  made  to  him  by  the  khedive  of  Egypt  to  accept 
a command  in  the  Egyptian  army.  In  1886  he  was 
appointed  to  a position  in  the  general  land  office  at 
Washington,  D.  C.  He  died  December  2,  1890. 

WILCOX,  Ella  Wheeler,  an  American  poet  and 
writer,  was  born  in  1855  near  Madison,  Wis.,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  State  University  in  that  city.  She  was  for 
many  years  a contributor  to  the  Milwaukee  and  Madi- 
son papers,  of  poems,  sketches,  etc.,  the  demand  for 
her  productions  steadily  increasing,  and  extending  to 
the  leading  journals  and  periodicals  of  the  country. 
Her  writings  have  also  been  published  in  book  form. 

WILD,  Edward  A.,  was  born  at  Brookline,  Mass., 
November  25,  1825;  graduated  at  Harvard  University 
in  1844,  and  entered  the  army  as  captain  in  a Massa- 
chusetts regiment  at  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  war. 
He  served  through  the  Peninsular  campaign,  and  was 
afterward  assigned  to  the  recruiting  and  organizing  of 
colored  troops,  remaining  in  that  service  until  1864, 
when  he  accompanied  the  expedition  to  Roanoke  river, 
North  Carolina,  and  was  with  the  army  before  Richmond 
until  the  capture  of  that  city.  He  was  promoted  to  be 
brigadier-general  in  1863,  and  after  the  war  was  con- 
nected with  the  administration  of  the  Freedmen’s 
Bureau  in  Georgia. 

WILDE,  Oscar,  an  Irish  poet,  born  at  Dublin, 
October  16,  1856.  He  studied  first  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  finally  at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  grad- 
uating at  the  latter  institution  in  1878.  About  this  time 
he  affected  to  have  become  an  apostle  of  aestheticism,  and 
was  an  object  of  considerable  interest  by  reason  of  his 
dress  and  manners.  He  visited  Greece  in  1879,  an(^ 
1881  lectured  in  the  United  States.  He  is  the  author 
of  a number  of  poems  and  of  A Woman  of  No  Import- 
ance (1893),  and  other  plays.  Died  Nov.,  1900. 

WILDE,  Richard  H.,  a jurist  and  writer,  was  born 
at  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1789,  and  when  about  ten  years 
of  age  accompanied  his  parents  to  the  United  States. 
Upon  the  death  of  his  father,  the  family  removed  to 
Georgia,  where  Wilde  was  educated  to  the  law  and  ad- 
mitted to  practice  in  1809.  He  was  elected  to  congress 
in  1815,  and  reelected  upon  the  expiration  of  his  term, 
but  was  subsequently  defeated,  owing  to  his  opposition 
I to  measures  proposed  by  his  party  during  the  adminis- 
tration of  President  Jackson.  In  1835  he  visited  Europe 
and  passed  five  years  in  Italy,  making  a study  of  Italian 
literature  and  collecting  data  for  a life  of  Dante.  Upon 
his  return  to  the  United  States  he  published  a book  on 
the  Love , Madness  and  Imprisonment  of  Torquato 
Tasso,  which  was  pronounced  a work  of  substantial 
merit.  When  the  department  of  law  was  added  to  the 
University  of  Louisiana,  Mr.  Wilde  became  the  pro- 
fessor of  constitutional  law,  remaining  in  that  position 
from  1844  until  1847,  dying  °f  yellow  fever  in  the  epi- 
demic which  prevailed  in  that  city  during  the  latter 
year.  He  left  an  unfinished  life  of  Dante,  and  a large 
number  of  manuscripts  of  a miscellaneous  literary 
character. 

WILDE,  Sir  William  Robert  Wills,  was  born 
near  Castlerea,  Ireland,  during  1810;  studied  medicine 
and  became  an  M.D.  at  an  early  age.  He  attained  to 
eminence,  was  appointed  oculist  to  the  queen,  and  was 
knighted  in  1864.  He  was  the  author  of  works  on  the  eye 

I and  ear,  also  of  a miscellaneous  character,  and  was  the 
father  of  Oscar  Wilde, (q.v.)  He  died  April  19,  1876. 


688i 


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WILDER,  Burt  G.,  was  born  at  Boston,  August 
ii,  1841,  and  became  a graduate  of  the  scientific  and 
medical  departments  of  Harvard  in  1866.  During  the 
war  he  was  employed  as  assistant  surgeon  to  various 
Massachusetts  regiments.  In  1868  he  was  chosen  to 
the  chair  of  comparative  anatomy  and  physiology  at 
Cornell  University,  a position  in  which  he  is  still  main- 
tained. His  investigations  during  past  years  have  been 
of  a varied  character,  embracing  almost  every  phase  of 
scientific  research.  He  has  lectured  at  Bowdoin  Col- 
lege, Harvard,  and  Michigan  State  universities,  and 
elsewhere,  and  is  a prominent  member  of  the  leading 
scientific  societies  and  associations  in  the  United  States. 

WILDER,  Marshall  P.,  an  American  merchant, 
was  born  in  New  Hampshire,  September  22,  1787,  and 
in  1825  began  business  at  Boston.  He  was  a member 
of  the  Massachusetts  legislature  in  1839  and  senator 
ten  years  later,  being  also  president  of  the  Senate. 
He  was  one  of  the  originators  of  the  United  States 
Agricultural  Society,  and  of  the  American  Pomological 
Society,  and  served  as  president  of  each.  His  labors 
in  the  cause  of  science  were  constant  and  productive 
of  advantageous  results,  and  his  historical  and  agri- 
cultural addresses  have  been  sources  of  valuable  infor- 
mation. He  died  in  Boston,  December  16,  1886. 

WILDE Y,  Thomas,  the  author  and  promoter  in  the 
United  States  of  the  present  order  of  Odd-fellows, 
was  born  in  England,  January  15,  1783,  and  emigrated 
to  the  United  States  in  1817,  settling  at  Baltimore. 
Two  years  later  he  organized  the  first  lodge  of  Odd- 
fellows in  the  United  States  in  that  city,  and  for  six 
ears,  from  1825,  served  as  grand  sire.  He  died  Octo- 
er  19,  1861,  and  a monument  has  been  erected  to  his 
memory  in  Baltimore  by  the  Odd-fellows  of  the  United 
States. 

WILHELMJ,  August,  a composer  and  musician, 
was  born  at  Usingen,  Germany,  September  21,  1845, 
and  studied  his  art  under  the  direction  of  Ferdinand 
David.  When  a child  his  genius  for  music  attracted 
the  notice  of  Liszt,  to  whom  he  was  then  and  afterward 
indebted  for  much  good  advice.  His  forte  is  violin 
music,  and  critics  are  unanimous  in  pronouncing  him 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  performers  of  the  century. 
He  has  made  a number  of  concert  tours  throughout 
Europe  and  the  United  States,  being  everywhere 
greeted  with  pronounced  manifestations  of  appreciation. 

WILKES,  Charles,  naval  officer,  born  in  New 
York  city,  April  3,  1798;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
February  8,  1877.  He  entered  the  United  States 
navy  in  1818,  as  midshipman,  and  was  promoted  lieu- 
tenant in  1826.  In  1838  he  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  United  States  exploring  expedition,  and  with  six 
vessels  sailed  from  Norfolk,  Va. , and  returned  to 
New  York  city  in  1842.  In  the  following  year  he  was 
promoted  commander,  and  in  1848  the  London  Geo- 
graphical Society  honored  him  with  a gold  medal.  In 
1855  he  published  his  Theory  of  the  Winds  and  was 
made  captain.  Thereafter  he  spent  many  years  on 
special  duty  at  home.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Rebel- 
lion he  was  engaged  in  the  West  India  waters,  search- 
ing for  the  Confederate  cruiser  Sumter , when  he  en- 
countered the  British  steamer  Trent , engaged  in  con- 
veying two  Confederate  commissioners,  Mason  and 
Slidell,  to  England  and  France.  He  demanded  the  two 
officials,  and  bore  them  as  prisoners  of  war  to  Boston 
harbor.  His  action  nearly  involved  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States  in  war.  Wilkes  was,  however, 
promoted  to  be  commodore.  Later,  and  until  the  close 
of  the  war,  he  was  attached  to  the  West  Indian  squad- 
ron, and  was  retired  July  25,  1866,  with  the  rank  of 
rear-admiral. 

WILKINSON,  George  Howard,  bishop  of  Truro, 


was  educated  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford.  In  1867  he 
was  appointed  incumbent  of  St.  Peter’s,  Great  Wind- 
mill street,  London;  and  in  1870  he  became  vicar  of  St. 
Peter’s,  Eaton  square.  He  was  select  preacher  at  Ox- 
ford, 1879-81.  In  January,  1883,  he  was  appointed  to 
the  see  of  Truro,  and  was  consecrated  in  St.  Paul’s 
Cathedral  on  April  25th.  He  is  the  author  of  several 
works  on  devotional  and  religious  subjects. 

WILKINSON,  James,  soldier,  born  in  Benedict, 
Md.,  in  1757;  died  near  the  city  of  Mexico,  December 
28,  1825.  He  studied  medicine,  but  at  the  age  of  eight- 
een joined  the  army  under  Gen.  George  Washington 
at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  as  captain.  He  served  under 
Generals  Arnold  and  Gates,  and  carried  to  congress  the 
tidings  of  General  Burgoyne’s  surrender.  In  June, 
1776,  he  was  successively  advanced  to  the  rank  of  major 
and  colonel  and  brevet  brigadier-general.  At  the  ter- 
mination of  hostilities  he  went  to  Lexington,  Ky.,  and 
in  1789  engaged  in  trading  ventures  at  New  Orleans. 
These  not  proving  successful,  he  asked  to  be  reinstated 
in  the  army,  and  in  1791  he  was  appointed  lieutenant- 
colonel;  as  such  he  served  in  the  West  under  Gen. 
Anthony  Wayne.  In  1792  he  was  made  brigadier- 
general,  and  in  1796  became  commander  of  the  United 
States  forces.  In  1805  he  was  governor  of  Louisiana, 
and  disclosed  to  the  government  Aaron  Burr’s  plan  to 
erect  a southwestern  empire.  Burr  asserted,  and  Jack- 
son  believed,  that  Wilkinson  was  deeply  implicated  in 
this  scheme.  For  some  unknown  reason,  however,  he 
became  hostile  to  Burr,  and  betrayed  him.  In  1812  he 
went  to  New  Orleans,  where  he  improved  the  defenses, 
and  later  reduced  Mobile.  On  the  reorganization  of  the 
army,  in  1815,  he  was  not  included;  in  lieu  thereof  he 
received  a pension  from  his  native  State.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  Wilkinson  put  forth  his  own  side  of  his  story. 
He  then  purchased  an  estate  near  the  city  of  Mexico, 
where  he  lived  in  retirement  until  his  death. 

WILKINSON,  James  John  Garth,  M.D.,  born 
near  Gray’s  Inn  Lane,  London,  in  1812;  was  educated 
at  a private  school  at  Mill  Hill,  and  Totteridge,  Herts. 
He  translated  Swedenborg's  Animal  Kingdom , 1843-44, 
and  has  written  a number  of  works  on  anatomy  and 
medicine,  also  a pamphlet,  On  Social  Healthy  1865. 

WILKINSON,  Jesse,  a United  States  naval  officer, 
was  born  in  1790  in  Virginia,  entered  the  navy  in  1805, 
and  became  a lieutenant  in  1810.  He  participated  in 
the  war  of  1812,  in  command  of  the  Hornet.  He  was 
promoted  to  be  commander  about  1818,  and  was  in 
charge  of  a vessel  attached  to  Com.  David  Porter’s 
squadron,  serving  in  the  West  Indies  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  piracy  and  the  slave  trade.  He  afterward  com- 
manded the  United  States , of  the  Mediterranean  fleet, 
the  Macedonian , the  Raritan,  and  other  vessels.  He 
was  commander  at  the  Norfolk  Navy  Yard,  where  he 
died  May  23,  1861. 

WILKS,  Samuel,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,born  at  Camber- 
well, June  2,  1824,  and  educated  at  University  College, 
London.  He  was  created  M.D.  of  the  London  Uni- 
versity in  1850;  became  a fellow  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Physicians  in  1856;  a fellow  of  the  Royal  Society; 
physician  to  Guy’s  Hospital  and  lecturer  on  medicine, 
and  president  of  the  Pathological  Society.  He  was  the 
author  of  leading  lectures  and  works  on  medical  science, 
and  contributed  papers  on  Alcoholism  and  Vivisection 
to  the  Contemporary  Review  and  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury. He  delivered  the  Harveian  oration  at  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians,  June  26,  1879. 

WILLARD,  Emma  Hart,  was  born  in  Berlin, 
Conn.,  February  23,  1787;  died  in  Troy,  N.  Y.,  April 
15,  1870.  She  began  to  teach  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  wa* 
married  to  Dr.  John  Willard  at  Middlebury,  Vt.,  in 
1809,  opened  a school  for  girls  there,  1814;  conducted 


6882 


W 

the  Troy,  N.  Y.,  Female  Seminary,  traveled  abroad 
and  wrote  Letters  from  France  and  Great  Britain. 

WILLARD,  Edward  Smith,  a popular  and  finished 
English  character  actor,  was  born  in  1853,  went  on  the 
stage  at  sixteen,  became  famous  as  the  gentlemanly 
burglar  in  The  Silver  King,  in  Jim  the  Penman,  and 
in  1889  by  his  fine  performance  of  “ Cyrus  Blenkarn,” 
the  dreaming,  moody  potter  in  The  Middleman.  He 
played  in  the  latter  piece  and  in  Judah  in  this  country 
in  1890,  supported  by  Miss  Marie  Burroughs  achieving 
so  much  popularity  that  he  has  since  visited  America 
annually,  producing  The  Professor's  Love  Story, 
Wealth  and  John  Needham's  Double. 

WILLARD,  Frances  E.,  is  a native  of  New  York, 
born  at  Churchville,  September  28,  1839,  and  a graduate 
of  the  Northwestern  Female  College  at  Evanston,  111., 
in  1859,  subsequently  studying  in  Paris.  She  has  since 
filled  the  chairs  of  natural  science  and  aesthetics  at  North- 
western Female  College,  and  that  of  president  of  the 
Wesleyan  Female  College  at  Genesee,  N.  Y.  Upon  the 
death  of  O.  A.  Willard,  her  brother,  in  the  summer  of 
1878,  she  became  editor  of  the  Chicago  Evening  Post, 
also  president  of  the  women’s  Christian  temperance 
movement,  and  in  1882  a member  of  the  executive  com- 
mittee of  the  Prohibition  party.  Died  Feb.,  1897. 

WILLARD,  Sylvester  D.,  M.D.,  an  American 
physician,  born  at  Milton,  Conn.,  June  19,  1825; 

graduated  at  the  medical  college  of  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in 
1848.  In  1865  he  Was  appointed  surgeon-general  of 
New  York,  and  soon  after,  in  obedience  to  a resolution 
adopted  by  the  State  legislature,  made  a thorough  ex- 
amination into  the  condition  of  the  insane,  and  their 
treatment  at  the  asylums  of  the  State.  His  report  was 
accepted,  and  the  recommendations  contained  therein 
acted  upon,  including  the  building  of  an  asylum  for  the 
poor,  which  is  called  “ Willard  Asylum.”  He  died  at 
Albany,  April  2,  1865. 

WILLCOX,  Orlando  Bolivar,  was  born  in 
Detroit,  Mich.,  April  16,  1823,  and  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy  in  1847.  After 
taking  part  in  the  closing  scenes  of  the  Mexican  war, 
and  in  the  final  campaign  against  the  Seminoles,  he 
resigned  his  commission,  September  10,  1857,  and 
studied  law.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war  he 
entered  the  service  as  colonel  of  the  1st  Michigan  regi- 
ment, was  wounded  and  captured  at  Bull  Run,  and  held 
a prisoner  until  August  17,  1862,  when  he  was  exchanged 
and  commissioned  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  to 
date  from  July  21,  1861.  He  was  brevetted  major- 
general  August  1,  1864,  for  distinguished  and  gallant 
service  in  several  actions.  After  the  war  he  became 
assessor  of  internal  revenue  at  Detroit,  but  on  July  28, 
1866,  he  was  re-commissioned  in  the  regular  army  as 
colonel  of  the  29th  infantry.  He  received  the  brevets  of 
brigadier-general  and  major-general  March  2,  1867,  and 
was  promoted  to  brigadier- general  October  13,  1886. 
He  was  placed  on  the  retired  list  April  16,  1887,  at 
which  time  he  was  in  command  of  the  department  of 
the  Missouri. 

WILLEY,  W.  T.,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  western  Vir- 
ginia, October  18,  1811;  graduated  at  Madison  (Penn  ) 
College  in  1831,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1833. 
He  was  a member  of  the  State  constitutional  conven- 
tion of  1850,  also  of  the  convention  called  in  1861  to 
consider  the  question  of  secession.  When  the  ordi- 
nance in  that  behalf  was  adopted,  the  Union  members 
withdrew  from  the  convention,  organized  the  legislature 
at  Wheeling,  and  elected  Mr.  Willey  United  States 
senator.  He  was  reelected  upon  the  organization  of 
West  Virginia  as  a separate  State,  and  served  until 
March  4,  1871.  He  was  a member  of  the  constitu- 
tional convention  which  met  at  Wheeling  during  the 


I L 

latter  year,  and  has  since  been  engaged  in  the  practice 

of  his  profession. 

WILLIAM  I.,  late  emperor  of  Germany  and  king 
of  Prussia,  son  of  Frederick  William  III.  and  of 
Princess  Louise  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  and  brother 
to  the  late  king  of  Prussia,  born  March  22,  1797,  edu- 
cated as  a soldier,  and  took  part  in  the  campaigns  of 
1813  and  1815  against  France.  In  1840  he  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Pomerania,  which  post  he  held 
till  the  revolution  of  1848  broke  out,  when  he  took 
refuge  in  England.  He  was  elected  a member  of  the 
Constituent  Assembly  in  May,  1848,  returned  to  Ber- 
lin, and  took  his  seat  in  the  assembly,  June  8,  1848,  and 
was  made  commander-in-chief  of  the  Prussian  army 
acting  against  the  revolutionary  forces  of  Baden,  in 
June,  1849.  When  the  mind  of  his  brother  gave  way, 
in  1858,  the  prince  was  created  regent,  and  he  immedi- 
ately dismissed  the  Kreuz,  or  aristocratic  party,  and 
adopted  a liberal  policy.  His  brother,  Frederick 
William  IV.,  dying  without  issue,  January  2,  1861, 
he  succeeded,  under  the  title  of  William  I.,  to  the 
crown,  which  he  placed  upon  his  own  head  at  Konigs- 
berg,  October  18th,  on  which  occasion  he  emphatically 
asserted  the  doctrine  of  the  “ divine  right  of  kings.  ” 
No  sooner  was  he  seated  on  the  throne  than  he  began 
a contest  with  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  which  gradu- 
ally became  more  critical,  until,  after  Count  Bismarck - 
Schonhausen  had  been  appointed  prime  minister, 
in  1862,  the  feud  threatened  to  end  in  civil  war. 
Fortunately  for  him  the  aggressive  war  on  Denmark 
waged  by  Austria  and  Prussia  diverted  the  attention  of 
his  people  from  home  affairs  for  a time;  and,  after  the 
close  of  that  war  of  aggression  the  king  proved  by  his 
firm  attitude  his  fitness  as  a sovereign.  Much  against 
his  inclination,  he  embarked  on  a still  more  ambitious 
scheme,  and  prepared  to  obtain  supremacy  in  Germany 
by  force  of  arms  early  in  1866.  A treaty  of  alliance 
was  concluded  with  Italy,  an  ultimatum  was  forwarded 
to  the  smaller  states  in  the  north  of  Germany,  and  an 
immense  army  was  set  in  motion.  War  was  declared 
against, Austria,  June  17th,  and,  after  a short  campaign, 
in  which  William  I.  and  the  royal  princes  took  part, 
Austria  was  compelled  to  make  peace.  In  1867  the 
king  of  Prussia  became  the  head  of  the  powerful  North 
German  Confederation,  comprising  twenty-two  states, 
representing  a population  of  29,000,000.  The  part 
played  by  King  William  in  the  war  with  France  in 
1870-71,  resulted  in  the  complete  realization  of  the 
prime  minister’s  idea  of  united  Germany,  and,  on 
January  18,  1871,  King  William  of  Prussia  was  pro- 
claimed German  emperor,  within  the  Hall  of  Mirrors, 
in  the  palace  of  the  French  kings,  at  Versailles.  On 
September  2,  1873,  the  Column  of  Victory,  in  cele- 
bration of  Germany’s  success,  was  unveiled  by  the  em- 
peror in  Berlin.  The  meeting  of  the  emperors  of  Ger- 
many, Russia,  and  Austria  took  place  at  Berlin  in  the 
autumn  of  1872.  In  October  of  that  year  the  Emperor 
William  gave  a decision  adverse  to  England  on  the 
San  Juan  boundary  question  which  had  been  submitted 
to  his  arbitration  by  the  British  and  American  govern- 
ments. In  April,  1873,  he  visited  the  czar  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  in  October  of  the  same  year  he  proceeded  to 
Vienna  on  a visit  to  the  emperor  of  Austria.  The  well- 
known  correspondence  between  the  Emperor  William 
and  the  Pope  relative  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  Prussia  was  published  at  Berlin,  October  14, 
1873.  May,  1875,  the  czar  paid  a visit  to  the  em- 
peror  of  Germany  at  Berlin.  An  attempt  was  made 
to  assassinate  the  Emperor  William,  while  he  was 
driving,  on  the  afternoon  of  May  11,  1878,  in  Berlin. 
The  crime  was  committed  by  a young  Socialist  tinker 
named  Emil  Hoedel,  who  came  from  Leipsic.  He 


w 

fifed  two  shot*  from  a revolver,  but  neither  of  them  hit 
the  emperor,  who  stood  up  in  his  carriage  and  asked 
whether  they  were  aimed  at  him.  The  man  was  pur- 
sued; he  fired  two  or  three  more  shots  at  the  crowd,  but 
was  captured  and  handed  over  to  the  police,  to  whom  he 
said  he  had  no  intention  of  murder,  but.  being  unem- 
ployed and  dissatisfied  with  the  social  conditions  of  life, 
he  had  resolved  to  commit  suicide.  Subsequently  the 
prisoner  was  tried  for  the  offense,  found  guilty,  and 
executed.  A second  attempt  upon  the  life  of  the  em- 
peror was  made  on  June  2,  1878.  His  majesty  was 
driving  in  Unter  den  Linden  to  the  Zoological  Gardens, 
when  two  shots  were  fired  at  him  from  the  window  of 
a house,  and  he  was  wounded  in  several  places.  The 
emperor  returned  immediately  to  the  palace,  and  the 
physicians  who  removed  the  shot  reported  that  his 
majesty  was  out  of  danger.  The  would-be  assassin  was 
Doctor  Nobeling,  who,  after  attempting  to  commit  sui- 
cide, was  secured  and  removed  to  the  hospital,  where  he 
afterward  died  from  the  effects  of  the  wound  he  had 
inflicted  upon  himself.  William  I.  married,  June  n, 
1829,  the  Princess  Augusta,  daughter  of  Charles  Fred- 
erick, Grand  Duke  of  Weimar.  They  had  two  children 
— Prince  Frederick  William,  who,  upon  the  death  of 
his  father,  assumed  the  government  under  the  titles  of 
Frederick  I.  of  Germany  and  King  Frederick  III.  of 
Prussia  ( q.v .);  and  the  Princess  Louise  Mary,  born 
December  3,  1838,  married  September  20,  1856,  to 
Frederick  William,  Grand  Duke  of  Baden.  The  em- 
peror died  March  9,  1888. 

WILLIAM  II.,  emperor  of  Germany,  was  born  at 
Berlin,  January  27,  1859,  the  eldest  son  of  Crown 
Prince  Frederick  William  of  Prussia  (afterward  Fred- 
erick the  second  emperor  of  reunited  Germany)  and  the 
princess  royal,  Victoria  of  England.  Early  in  life  he 
manifested  a predilection  for  military  affairs,  and  acquired 
proficiency  in  the  school  of  the  soldier.  He  studied 
law,  science,  mathematics,  and  political  economy  at 
Bonn,  civil  service  under  Doctor  Aschenbusch,  president 
of  the  province  of  Brandenburg,  and  the  theory  of  gov- 
ernment under  Prince  Bismarck.  He  was  married  to 
Princess  Augusta  Victoria,  daughter  of  Frederick,  duke 
of  Schleswig-Holstein,  February  27,  1881,  and  his 
family  is  composed  of  seven  children.  Before  his  father’s 
death  he  evinced  a feeling  of  repugnance  for  the  peace- 
ful policy  inaugurated  by  the  latter,  and  it  was  feared 
his  accession  menaced  the  peace  of  Europe;  but  upon 
succeeding  to  the  throne  in  June,  1888,  he  issued  two  ad- 
dresses, one  to  the  army  and  the  other  to  the  navy,  which 
in  their  pacific  tone  were  quite  a surprise  to  the  outside 
world,  and  were  received  with  a degree  of  caution  as  to 
their  sincerity.  These  were  supplemented  by  an  address 
to  the  Prussian  people  dated  June  18th,  and  setting 
forth  the  determination  of  its  author  to  adopt  and  en- 
force a policy  that  would  preserve  the  peaceful  condi- 
tion existing,  protect  the  national  interests  and  pro- 
mote the  national  welfare.  One  week  later,  the  Reich- 
stag was  formally  opened  at  Berlin  with  magnificent 
ceremonials,  and  on  June  25th,  William  II.  took  the  oath 
and  was  formally  inducted  into  office,  his  opening  speech 
being  largely  devoted  to  the  arrangements  existing 
between  the  German  and  Russian  empires ; these,  he 
pledged,  would  remain  undisturbed.  On  July  13th  fol- 
lowing he  started  on  a tour  of  Europe,  and  while  absent 
visited  St.  Petersburg,  Stockholm,  and  Copenhagen. 
The  same  month  he  was  a guest  of  Prince  Bismarck, 
and  on  September  12th,  sojourned  for  several  days  at  the 
Vatican,  a guest  of  the  Pope.  At  the  opening  of  the 
Reichstag,  November  22d,  he  explained  that  the  object 
of  these  visits  was  to  maintain  the  peace  of  Europe.  He 
has  since  had  as  his  guests  several  of  the  reigning  sov- 
ereigns ; but  these  visits,  it  is  claimed,  have  no  political 


I L 6883 

significance.  Determined  to  be  Emperor  in  fact  he 
practically  dismissed  Bismarck  March,  17,  1890,  but 
they  have  since  been  reconciled.  He  visited  England 
in  1893  and  1894  and  visited  King  Humbert  of  Italy  at 
Venice  in  1894.  His  heir,  Prince  Friedrick  Wil- 
helm, was  born  May  6,  1882. 

WILLIAM  III.  (Alexander  Paul  Frederick 
Louis),  king  of  the  Netherlands,  prince  of  Orange  - 
Nassau,  grand  duke  of  Luxemburg,  and  duke  of  Lim- 
burg, born  February  19,  1817,  the  eldest  son  of  the  late 
King  William  II.,  by  the  Princess  Anne  Pauline,  sister 
of  the  late  Nicholas  I.,  Czar  of  Russia,  succeeded  March 
17,  1849,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  development  of  the 
liberal  institutions  then  recently  granted  to  his  country. 
He  rendered  effectual  aid  in  lightening  the  burdens  of 
his  people  by  reducing  his  civil  list  one-half,  and 
abrogated  the  concordat  concluded  with  the  Holy  See 
in  1827.  His  colonial  administration  was  also  success- 
ful. During  the  Russian  war  of  1854-56,  William  III. 
observed  the  strictest  neutrality.  He  married  in  1839, 
the  Princess  Sophia  Frederica  Matilda,  daughter  of 
William  I.,  king  of  Wiirtemberg  (she  died  June  3, 
1877),  by  whom  he  had  two  sons.  King  William  mar- 
ried, secondly,  at  Arolsen  (Waldeck),  on  January  7, 
1879,  the  Princess  Emma  Adelaide  Wilhelmina  The- 
resa (born  August  2,  1858),  daughter  of  Prince  George 
Victor,  of  Waldeck  and  Pyrmont,  by  whom  he  had  a 
daughter,  Wilhelmina.  In  November,  1890,  he  was 
declared  insane  and  on  November  23  he  died. 

WILLIAM  (Augustus  Louis  William  Maxi- 
milian Frederic),  Duke  of  Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel, 
born  April  25,  1806,  the  younger  son  of  the  late  Duke 
Frederic  William,  who  didd  in  1823,  and  brother  of  the 
ex- Duke  Charles  Frederic  Augustus  William.  He  as- 
sumed the  government  April  25,  1831,  at  the  request  of 
the  Germanic  Diet,  upon  the  compulsory  flight  of  his 
elder  brother,  the  late  duke  of  Brunswick,  whose  name 
afterward  became  well  known  in  London,  Paris,  and 
Geneva.  He  died  in  October,  1884. 

WILLIAMS,  Channing  M.,  a missionary  bishop 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  is  a native  of  Vir- 
ginia, born  at  Richmond,  July  18,  1829.  He  was 
educated  at  William  and  Mary  College  and  at  the  Alex- 
andria Theological  Seminary.  On  July  1,  1855,  he 
was  made  deacon,  and  in  November  of  the  same  year 
departed  for  China  as  a missionary.  After  his  ordina- 
tion as  priest,  January  11, 1857,  he  went  to  Japan,  and 
on  October  3,  1866,  was  consecrated  bishop  of  China. 
In  1874  he  became  bishop  of  Yeddo.  He  was  made  an 
S.J.T.  by  Columbia  College  in  1867. 

WILLIAMS,  Charles,  was  born  at  Coleraine,  Ire- 
land, May  4,  1838 ; educated  at  Belfast  Academy,  and 
at  Greenwich,  and  was  appointed  leader  writer  and 
reviewer  on  the  London  Evening  Herald  in  1859.  Fie 
became  special  correspondent  of  the  Standard  in  Octo- 
ber, 1859,  and  was  senior  special  correspondent  of  that 
journal  till  January  1,  1870,  when  he  accepted  the  edi- 
torship of  the  Evening  Standard , but  he  resigned  in 
1872  to  resume  his  old  post.  He  retired  from  the 
Standard  in  1874.  Mr.  Williams  saw  service  in  South 
and  Central  America,  and  accompanied  the  headquar- 
ters of  the  army  of  the  Loire  at  the  beginning  of  the 
second  phase  of  the  Franco-German  war,  and  was  one 
of  the  first  two  correspondents  in  Strasburg  after  the 
fall  of  that  city  in  1870.  In  1877  he  went  to  Armenia 
as  correspondent  on  the  staff  of  Ghazi  Moukhtar  Pacha; 
published  an  account  of  his  experience,  and  in  Novem- 
ber, 1878,  proceeded  to  Afghanistan.  He  accompanied 
the  Soudan  expedition,  and  attracted  some  attention  by 
an  attack  on  Sir  Charles  Wilson  for  his  conduct  of  the 
force  told  off  to  advance  upon  Khartoum. 

WILLIAMS,  Edward  P.,  naval  officer,  was  bora 


W I L 


6684 

in  Castine,  Me.,  February  26,  1833;  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy,  1853,  served  in  the 
Civil  war,  commanding  the  Powhatan ; commanded 
the  first  division  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Sumter,  Septem- 
ber 8,  1863,  was  captured  and  held  prisoner  one  year; 
became  commander,  1866,  and  was  given  command  of 
the  steamer  Oneida,  on  the  Asiatic  station,  1868.  On 
January  24,  1870,  his  vessel  was  run  down  by  the 
English  mail  steamer  Bombay  in  Yeddo  bay,  near 
Yokohama  and  sank  in  fifteen  minutes.  Captain  Wil- 
liams was  drowned  with  twenty-one  officers  and  115 
men. 

WILLIAMS,  George,  born  at  Dulverton,  England, 
October  11,  1821,  went  into  business  in  London,  was 
struck  by  the  neglected  condition  of  young  men  and 
on  June  6,  1844,  founded  the  Young  Men’s  Christian 
Association,  was  its  first  treasurer  and  has  always 
given  generously  to.  its  support. 

WILLIAMS,  George  Washington,  a mulatto, 
born  at  Bedford  Springs,  Penn.,  October  16,  1849, 
served  during  the  Civil  war,  as  a Union  soldier  and 
became  a lieutenant-colonel  in  the  Mexican  army.  He 
was  a preacher  in  Boston,  studied  law  in  Cincinnati, 
was  a member  of  the  Ohio  legislature  1879-81  and  in 
1885  was  appointed  minister  from  the  United  States  to 
Hayti.  At  the  conference  on  foreign  missions  in  Lon- 
don, England,  in  1888,  he  was  a delegate.  He  has 
edited  periodicals  and  written  a History  of  the  Negro 
Race  in  America  and  other  works. 

WILLIAMS,  Henry  Shaler,  was  born  in  Ithaca, 
N.  Y.,  March  6,  1847.  He  was  graduated  at  the  Shef- 
field Scientific  School  of  Yale,  and  afterward  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  paleontology  in  Cornell  Univer- 
sity, a chair  which  he  still  holds.  He  has  also  done 
good  service  in  paleontological  researches  for  the 
United  States  geological  survey,  and  has  contributed 
many  valuable  papers  to  scientific  literature.  He  is  a 
member  of  the  various  scientific  societies,  and,  in  1882, 
became  a fellow  of  the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science.  He  received  the  degree  of 
Ph.D.  from  Yale  in  1871. 

WILLIAMS,  Henry  Willard,  was  born  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  December  11,  1821;  was  graduated  in 
medicine  at  Harvard  in  1849, and  became  a distinguished 
oculist  of  Boston.  He  became  professor  of  ophthalmol- 
ogy at  Harvard  in  1871,  and  for  quarter  of  a century 
has  served  as  ophthalmic  surgeon  to  the  Boston  City 
Hospital.  Doctor  Williams  is  a member  of  many 
medical  societies  in  America  and  Europe,  and  for  years 
was  president  of  the  American  Ophthalmological 
Society.  Harvard  gave  him  the  degree  of  A.M.  in 
1868.  He  has  published  a number  of  works  on  medical 
science  and  diseases  of  the  eye. 

WILLIAMS,  James,  a soldier  of  the  Revolution, 
was  a native  of  Hanover  county,  Va.,  where  he  was 
born  in  1740.  His  parents  removed  to  South  Carolina, 
settling  in  Laurens  county  during  1743,  from  which  State 
he  was  elected  to  congress  in  1775.  The  ye^r  following 
he  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  of  militia,  and  was 
killed  October  8,  1780,  while  leading  the  attack  at 
King’s  Mountain  in  Gaston  county,  N.  C. 

WILLIAMS,  James  William,  D.D.,  bishop  of 
Quebec,  was  born  in  Hampshire,  England,  in  1825; 
educated  at  Crewkerne  School  and  at  Pembroke  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1851,  and 
proceeded  M.A.  and  D.D.  Having  been  ordained  he 
came  to  Canada  in  1857,  to  organize  a school  in  con- 
nection with  Bishop’s  College,  Lennoxville,  in  which 
he  held  the  post  of  classical  professor.  In  1863  he  was 
consecrated  fourth  bishop  of  Quebec.  Died  in  1892. 

WILLIAMS,  John,  LL.D.,  a Protestant  Episcopal 
bishop  ®f  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Deerfield, 


Mass.,  August  30,  1817.,  and  graduated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege in  1835.  studied  theology,  was  ordained  a 

minister  in  1838,  and,  after  a year’s  absence  in  Europe, 
accepted  the  post  of  assistant  at  Christ  church,  Middle- 
town,  Conn.  He  subsequently  became  rector  of  St. 
George’s  church,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1848  was 
chosen  to  be  president  of  Trinity  College.  October  29, 
1851,  he  was  made  assistant  to  Bishop  Brownell,  of 
Connecticut,  and  upon  the  death  of  the  latter,  in  1885, 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  that  diocese.  He  has  been 
dean  of  Berkeley  Divinity  School  since  it  was  founded, 
chancellor  of  Trinity  College,  chairman  of  the  House 
of  Bishops,  and  lecturer  at  the  General  Theological 
Seminary,  New  York,  also  at  Kenyon  College.  He  is 
D.D.  by  conferment  from  Union,  Trinity,  Columbia, 
and  Yale  colleges,  and  in  1870  was  made  an  LL.D.  by 
Hobart.  His  published  works,  principally  of  a religious 
character,  are  numerous.  Died  Feb.  7,  1899. 

WILLIAMS,  John,  a representative  in  the  Conti- 
nental congress  from  North  Carolina,  was  born  in 
Virginia,  and  became  a resident  of  North  Carolina 
about  1760.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  served  as 
judge  for  thirteen  years,  and  in  the  Continental  congress 
during  1 777  and  1778.  He  died  at  Granville  in  1799. 

WILLIAMS,  John  J.,  archbishop  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  was  born  April  27,  1822,  at  Boston, 
where  he  alsostudied  theology,  subsequently  graduating 
at  the  College  of  Montreal  in  1841,  and  completing  his 
course  in  Paris.  He  was  ordained  in  1845,  and  for 
many  years  thereafter  was  associated  with  the  Boston 
churches,  being  rector  at  the  Cathedral,  pastor  of  St. 
James’  parish,  etc.,  and  in  January,  1866,  appointed 
coadjutor  of  the  diocese.  He  succeeded  to  the  bishop- 
ric upon  the  death  of  Bishop  Fitzpatrick,  his  consecration 
occurring  March  nth  of  the  same  year.  He  remained 
bishop  until  1875,  when  his  authority  was  extended  to 
the  diocese  of  Portland,  Burlington,  Providence,  ind 
Springfield,  which  had  been  previously  included  within 
his  original  jurisdiction,  but  were  then  created  sub- 
dioceses, and  Bishop  Williams  received  the  pallium. 

WILLIAMS,  Jonathan,  soldier,  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  May  26,  1750;  died  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  May 
16,  1815.  For  a time  he  was  secretary  to  Benjamin 
Franklin,  in  Paris,  served  as  United  States  commercial 
agent,  and  studied  military  science  and  fortification. 
Returning  to  the  United  States  in  1785,  he  was  for  sev- 
eral years  a judge  of  common  pleas  in  Philadelphia,  and 
in  1801  was  appointed  major  of  artillery  and  engineers 
in  the  regular  army.  In  1802,  on  the  establishment  of 
the  military  academy  at  West  Point,  he  was  appointed 
its  superintendent,  but  in  the  following  year  resigned, 
on  a question  of  rank.  At  the  request  of  the  president 
he  reentered  the  army  as  lieu  ten  ant -colonel  and  resumed 
his  former  station.  Later  he  planned  and  superintended 
the  building  of  the  inner  forts  of  New  York  harbor. 
On  July  31,  1812,  he  resigned  from  the  army,  and  in 
1814  was  elected  to  congress. 

WILLIAMS,  Otho  H.,  an  American  soldier,  was 
born  in  Prince  George  county,  Md.,  in  1 749,  and 
entered  the  army  as  a lieutenant  in  1775.  He  was 
wounded  and  taken  prisoner  at  the  attack  upon  Fort 
Washington,  and  after  his  release  was  made  adjutant- 
general  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Horatio  Gates  and  Gen. 
Nathanael  Greene,  respectively.  At  the  battle  of 
Eutaw  Springs  he  led  the  charge  that  saved  the 
Colonial  army  from  defeat.  He  was  promoted  to  be 
brigadier-general,  and  at  the  close  of  the  war  was 
collector  at  Baltimore,  a position  he  held  until  hi* 
death,  in  1800. 

WILLIAMS,  Samuel  Wells,  LL.D.,  born  at 
Utica,  N.  Y.,  September  22,  1812;  was  educated  at 
the  Rennselaer  Institute,  Troy,  learned  printing,  and 


W I L 


in  1883  proceeded  to  China  as  a printer  for  the  mission- 
ary board  at  Canton,  and  aided  in  editing  The  Chinese 
Repository.  In  1858  he  assisted  Mr.  W.  B.  Reed,  the 
American  envoy,  in  the  negotiations  at  Tientsin,  and 
in  1859  went  with  Mr.  Ward  to  Peking  to  exchange  the 
ratifications.  In  i860  he  returned  to  the  United  States, 
then  went  to  China  as  secretary  of  legation,  and  ren- 
dered great  services  in  the  negotiations  with  China.  In 
1877  he  became  professor  of  the  Chinese  language  and 
literature  Yale  College  and  in  1881  president  of  the 
New  York  Bible  Society.  He  published  the  Middle 
Kingdom  and  other  books  about  the  Chinese.  He  died 
February  16,  1884. 

WILLIAMS,  Sir  William  Fenwick,  soldier,  born 
in  Annapolis  Royal,  Nova  Scotia,  December  4,  1800; 
died  in  London,  England,  July  26,  1883.  He  was 
graduated  at  Woolwich  in  1821,  and  in  1825  appointed 
second-lieutenant  of  artillery.  During  the  Crimean 
war  he  was  made  lieutenant-general  in  the  sultan’s 
army,  under  the  name  of  Williams  Pasha.  After  de- 
fending Kars  four  months  against  the  Russians,  his 
army  met  them  on  the  heights  above  the  city  and  de- 
feated thei:  forces,  but  on  November  14th  he  was  com- 
pelled to  surrender  the  city.  He  was  created  a baronet, 
with  a pension  of  $5,000,  was  also  decorated  with  the 
ribbon  of  the  Order  of  the  Bath,  and  received  distinc- 
tions from  Napoleon  III.  and  the  Sultan  of  Turkey. 
Oxford  gave  him  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  In  1856  he 
commanded  the  garrison  at  Woolwich,  and  was  elected 
to  parliament.  Retiring  in  1859,  General  Williams 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces 
in  North  America.  .On  August  2,  1868,  he  was  made 
a full  general,  and  in  1870  became  governor-general 
of  Gibraltar,  resigning  in  1875.  Two  years  later  Gen- 
eral Williams  retired  from  the  army. 

WILLIAMS,  Thomas,  was  born  in  the  State  of 
New  York  in  1845,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1837,  entering  the  service  as  a lieutenant  of  infantry. 
Later  he  became  assistant  to  the  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  the  military  academy.  In  the  Mexican  war 
he  was  at  the  capture  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  served  in  the 
battles  of  Contreras,  Chapultepec,  and  Churubusco. 
In  May,  1861,  he  was  promoted  to  be  captain,  and  to 
be  brigadier-general  from  September  28th  of  the  same 
year.  After  the  capture  of  Fort  Hatteras,  N.C.,  he 
was  placed  in  command  there,  participated  in  the  en- 
gagements which  preceded  the  opening  of  the  lower 
Mississippi,  and  superintended  the  construction  of  the 
canal  begun  opposite  Vicksburg  in  1862.  He  after- 
ward was  in  command  at  Baton  Rouge,  La.,  where  he 
was  killed  in  resisting  the  advance  of  Gen.  John  C. 
Breckenridge,  August  5,  1862. 

WILLIAMSON,  Alexander  William,  LL.D., 
was  born  May  1,  1824.  From  the  age  of  seventeen  he 
studied  in  the  universities  of  Heidelberg  and  Giessen, 
under  Gmelin  and  Liebig.  At  Giessen  he  published 
his  first  chemical  researches.  He  afterward  spent  three 
years  in  Paris  studying  the  higher  mathematics.  In 
1849  he  was  appointed  professor  of  practical  chemistry 
in  University  College,  London;  and  in  1855,  on  the  re- 
tirement of  Professor  Graham  from  the  chair  of  chem- 
istry in  the  same  college,  Doctor  Williamson  was 
chosen  to  succeed  him  in  that  office,  while  still  retaining 
the  chair  of  practical  chemistry.  For  important  and 
successful  labors  the  royal  medal  of  the  Royal  Society 
was  awarded  him  in  1862.  He  has  twice  been  presi- 
dent of  the  Chemical  Society.  In  1873  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,  the  same  year  foreign  secretary  of  the 
Royal  Society,  a corresponding  member  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  a fellow  of  the  Berlin  Chemical  Society, 
and  is  a member  of  other  societies.  The  University  of 


6885 

Dublin  conferred  on  him  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D. 
in  1878;  the  University  of  Edinburgh  also  conferred  on 
him  the  degree  of  LL.D.  He  has  written  Chemistry 
for  Students  and  other  scientific  works,  papers,  and 
addresses. 

WILLIAMSON,  Hugh,  statesman,  born  in  West 
Nottingham,  Penn.,  December  5,  1735;  died  in  New 
York  city,  May  22,  1819.  He  was  graduated  in 
1757  at  the  College  of  Philadelphia,  in  which,  from 
1760  to  1763,  he  was  professor  of  mathematics,  and 
later  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh  and  U trecht, 
received  his  degree,  and  settled  in  Philadelphia  as  a 
physician.  In  1777  he  engaged  in  business  at  Charles- 
ton, S.  C.,  thereafter  practiced  medicine  at  Edenton, 
N.  C.,  and  rendered  aid  to  the  wounded  at  the  battle  of 
Camden.  From  1784  to  1786  he  was  a member  of  the 
Continental  congress,  and  in  1787  was  delegate  to  the 
convention  that  framed  the  constitution.  He  was  also 
a member  of  the  first  United  States  congress,  and  later 
became  interested  in  the  New  York  canal  system;  was 
an  active  promoter  of  literary  and  scientific  societies, 
and  contributed  a number  of  papers  to  their  publica- 
tions. > 

WILLS,  William  Gorman,  born  in  1828,  in 
county  Kilkenny,  Ireland;  studied  at  an  early  age  at 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy  as  an  art  student,  and  had 
some  success,  chiefly  as  a portrait  painter,  in  Dublin 
and  London.  Mr.  Wills  was  chiefly  known  as  a dram- 
atist, his  principal  plays  being  The  Man  o'  Airlie% 
Charles  the  First , etc.  About  1875  Mr.  Wills  resumed 
the  practice  of  portrait  painting,  having  had  a large 
number  of  sitters,  among  them  the  Princess  Louise  and 
the  infant  Princess  Victoria.  Among  Mr.  Wills’  more 
recent  contributions  to  dramatic  literature  are  Jane 
Shore , England  in  the  Days  of  Charles  //.,  Ninony 
Olivia , Nell  Gwynne , Vanderdecken,  Claudian,  and  a 
free  adaptation  and  rearrangement  of  the  first  part  of 
Faust , containing  several  original  scenes  — Mr.  Irving 
playing  “ Mephistopheles  ” and  Miss  Terry  “ Margue- 
rite.” Mr.  Wills  also  wrote  several  novels,  the  best 
known  being  The  Wife's  Evidence  and  Notice  to  Quit , 
both  of  which  have  been  republished  in  this  country. 
He  died  December  14,  1891. 

WILMARTH,  Lemuel  Everett,  an  American 
artist,  was  born  at  Attleborough,  Mass.,  November  11, 
1835.  He  received  his  education  at  the  common 
schools  and  academies  of  his  native  State,  and  about 
1855  visited  Europe.  His  art  studies  were  pursued  in 
Munich  and  Paris,  after  which  he  returned  to  the 
United  States  and  opened  a studio  in  New  York.  In 
1870  he  assumed  charge  of  instruction  at  the  schools  of 
the  National  Academy,  and,  in  1874,  became  an  acade- 
mician. His  pictures,  which  are  of  a miscellaneous 
character,  are  highly  commended. 

WILMER,  Richard  Hooker,  Protestant  Episcopal 
bishop,  is  a native  of  Virginia,  born  at  Alexandria, 
March  15,  1816.  He  was  educated  at  Yale  College  and 
the  Virginia  Theological  Seminary,  from  which  he 
graduated  in  1839.  He  was  ordained  a minister  the 
year  following,  and,  until  1864,  served  as  rector  of 
various  parishes  in  his  native  State.  In  the  latter  year 
he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Alabama.  After  the  war 
his  church  was  “ suppressed  ” by  Gen.  G.  H.  Thomas, 
for  the  expression  by  Bishop  Wilmer  of  disloyal  senti- 
ment, but  President  Johnson  directed  the  revocation  of 
the  order.  Bishop  Wilmer  has  been  made  a D.D.  by 
William  and  Mary  College  of  Virginia,  and  an  LL.D. 
by  Oxford  (England)  University,  and  the  University  of 
Alabama. 

WILMOT,  David,  an  American  politician,  was 
born  in  Bethany,  Penn.,  January  20,  1814,  up°® 
his  admission  to  the  bar  became  a resident  of  To- 


6886 


W 

wanda,  in  the  same  State.  He  was  elected  to  Congress 
In  1845,  and  served  for  six  years.  He  was  subsequently 
elected  judge,  but  defeated  for  governor  in  1857,  and 
succeeded  Simon  Cameron  as  United  States  senator  upon 
the  latter’s  appointment  as  secretary  of  war  in  1861. 
He  was  the  author  of  what  is  known  as  the  “ Wilmot 
Proviso”  ( q.v .),  introduced  into  congress  in  1846, 
prohibiting  the  extension  of  slavery  into  certain  territory 
about  to  be  purchased  from  Mexico.  The  measure, 
which  was  defeated,  is  said  to  have  been  the  inspiration 
of  the  Republican  party.  He  was  appointed  to  the 
bench  of  the  Court  of  Claims  in  1863,  and  died  in  To- 
wanda,  Penn.,  March  16,  1868. 

WILSON,  Daniel  (Sir),  archaeologist,  and  edu- 
cator, born  at  Edinburgh,  in  1816,  and  educated  at  the 
University  of  Edinburgh;  Published  in  1851  his 
great  work,  The  Archceology  and  Prehistoric  Annals  of 
Scotland , with  about  200  illustrations,  which  gave  him 
a wide  reputation.  He  wrote  many  other  works  but 
his  greatest  book  was  his  Prehistoric  Man  : Researches 
Into  the  Origin  of  Civilization  in  the  Old  and  New 
Worlds  (1863).  In  1853  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  history  and  English  literature  in  the  University  of 
Toronto,  and  president  in  1881.  He  was  for  four 
years  editor  of  the  Journal  of  the  Canadian  Institute, 
and  in  1859  and  i860  was  president  of  the  institute.  In 
1882  he  was  named  by  the  Marquis  of  Lorne  a vice- 
president  of  the  literature  section  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  Canada,  and  was  knighted  in  1888.  He  died 
August  7,  1892. 

WILSON,  Ephraim  King,  born  in  Snow  Hill, 
Md.,  December  22,  1821,  studied  law,  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Maryland  house  of  delegates,  1847; 
was  Congressman,  1872;  State  district  judge,  1878-84 
and  United  States  Senator,  as  a Democrat,  from  1884 
to  his  death,  February  24,  1891. 

WILSON,  Francis,  a popular  American  comedian, 
in  comic  opera  first  went  on  the  stage  as  a negro  min- 
strel in  1878,  played  a small  part  in  London  Assurance. 
He  scored  his  greatest  hit  as  “Caddy,”  the  thief  in 
Erminie  under  Aronson’s  management.  He  organ- 
ized a company  of  his  own  in  1889  and  has  had  con- 
tinued success  in  the  light  operas:  The  Merry  Mon- 
arch, The  Liar  Tamer  (1893) ; and  The  Devil's  Deputy 
(1894;. 

WILSON,  George  Francis,  inventor,  manufac- 
turer and  philanthropist,  born  in  Uxbridge,  Mass., 
December  7,  1818,  invented  improvements  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  steel,  amassed  a fortune  and  left  $150,000 
to  Brown  University  on  his  death,  January  19,  1883. 

WILSON,  Henry  Bristow,  B.D.,  born  in  the 
city  of  London  in  1803,  was  educated  at  Merchant 
Taylors’  School,  and  at  St.  John’s  College,  Oxford. 
He  graduated  B.A.  in  high  classical  honors  in  1825, 
and  was  preferred  by  his  college,  in  1850,  to  the  vicar- 
age of  Great  Staughton,  Hants,  where  he  lived  many 
years.  He  wrote  several  sermons  and  pamphlets  on 
church  and  university  questions,  and  an  essay  on  the 
“National  Church,”  for  which  in  1862  he  was  sen- 
tenced by  the  Judge  of  the  Court  of  Arches  to  be  sus- 
pended for  one  year  from  his  benefice,  on  account  of 
certain  alleged  errors.  This  sentence  was  reversed  on 
appeal  to  the  Privy  Council.  He  died  in  1888. 

WILSON,  James,  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence, was  born  near  St.  Andrew’s,  Scotland, 
September  14,  1742  and  died  in  Edenton,  N.  C.,  August 
28,  1798.  He  came  to  America  about  1763,  studied  law 
in  Philadelphia,  and  had  established  a reputation  in  his 
profession  when  the  Revolution  began.  He  was  one  of 
the  Pennsylvania  representatives  in  congress  at  the  open- 
ing, May  10,  1775,  and  was  twice  reelected.  On  July  1, 
*776,  he  and  John  Morton  were  the  first  of  the  Pennsyl- 


I L 

vania  delegates  to  vote  for  independence,  and  they  wen, 
the  only  ones  except  Benjamin  Franklin  who  voted  foi 
the  adoption  of  the  declaration  on  July  4th.  He  became 
advocate-general  for  the  French  Government  in  the 
United  States  in  1779.  His  opposition  to  the  more  lib- 
eral provisions  of  the  constitution  made  him  unpopular, 
and  he  and  his  friends  were  besieged  by  a mob  October 
4th,  1779,  but  he  was  reelected  to  congress  in  1783  and 
again  in  1785,  and  continued  by  reelection  until  the 
adoption  of  the  present  constitution.  He  was  ap- 
pointed associate  justice  of  the  United  State  Supreme 
Court  in  1789.  Philadelphia  College  gave  him  the  de- 
gree of  LL.D. 

WILSON,  James  F.,  was  born  at  Newark,  Ohio, 
October  19,  1828,  and  upon  his  admission  to  the  bar 
settled  at  Fairfield,  Iowa.  He  participated  in  the  de- 
liberations of  the  Iowa  constitutional  convention  of 
1856;  was  elected  to  the  legislature  in  1857,  and  was 
chosen  State  senator  in  1859,  becoming  the  presiding 
officer  two  years  later.  He  took  his  seat  in  the  na- 
tional House  of  Representatives  December  2,  1861,  vice 
Samuel  R.  Curtis,  resigned;  was  thrice  reelected,  and 
then  sent  to  the  Senate,  where  he  was  associate  man- 
ager of  that  body  during  the  trial  of  Andrew  Johnson. 
In  1883  he  was  again  elected  to  the  Senate  and  reelected 
in  1889.  Died  April  22,  1895. 

WILSON,  James  Grant,  was  bom  in  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  April  28,  1832,  and  was  educated  at  College 
Hill,  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.  In  1855  he  established  in 
Chicago  the  first  literary  paper  published  in  the 
Northwest,  which  he  conducted  until  1862.  In  that 
year  he  was  commissioned  major  of  the  15th  Illinois 
cavalry,  and  after  active  service  in  the  South  until  Au- 
gust, 1863,  he  became  colonel  of  the  4th  regiment, 
United  States  colored  cavalry.  He  was  brevetted 
brigadier-general  in  1865,  and  since  the  war  has  resided 
in  New  York,  engaged  in  literary  pursuits.  In  1885  he 
was  appointed  president  of  the  New  York  Genealogical 
and  Biographical  Society,  and  is  a member  of  many  his- 
torical and  other  societies.  He  has  written  the  biog- 
raphies of  some  of  the  most  eminent  men  of  America, 
and  is  the  author  of  other  interesting  works. 

WILSON,  James  Harrison,  soldier,  born  near 
Shawneetown,  111.,  September  2,  1837,  was  educated 
at  McKendree  College,  and  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  i860.  Thereafter  he 
was  assigned  to  the  corps  of  topographical  engineers, 
served  in  Oregon  until  June,  1861,  and  on  September 
19th  of  that  year  was  made  first  lieutenant.  In  1862  he 
was  engaged  in  the  Port  Royal  expedition,  served  at  the 
bombardment  of  Fort  Pulaski,  was  acting  aide-de-camp 
to  Gen.  G B.  McClellan,  and  took  part  in  the  battles 
of  South  Mountain  and  Antietam.  At  the  end  of  that 
year  he  was  promoted  lieutenant-colonel  of  volunteers, 
served  as  chief  topographical  engineer  of  the  army  of 
the  Tennessee  until  October,  1863,  and  was  active  at 
the  siege  of  Vicksburg.  In  1863  he  was  made  captain 
of  engineers  and  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  In 
1864  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  third  division  of 
the  cavalry  corps  in  the  army  of  the  Potomac.  In  Oc- 
tober he  was  assigned  to  command  the  cavalry  of  the 
military  division  of  the  Mississippi,  and  did  efficient 
service  at  Selma,  Columbus,  and  Macon,  Ga.,  when  he 
was  promoted  major-general  of  volunteers.  At  that 
time  he  captured  five  cities,  288  guns,  and  6,820  prison- 
ers, including  Jefferson  Davis.  In  January,  1866,  he 
was  mustered  out  of  the  service  and  brevetted  major- 
general  of  the  United  States  army.  On  December  31, 
1870,  he  retired  from  military  service,  since  which  time 
he  has  been  engaged  in  railroading  and  engineering. 

WILSON,  J.  M.,  was  born  in  1836,  and  went  to 
St.  John’s  College,  Cambridge,  ia  1855.  He  was  ap* 


WIL-WIN 


pointed  natural  science  master  at  Rugby,  and  subse- 
quently senior  mathematical  master,  remaining  at 
Rugby  until,  in  1879,  he  became  headmaster  of  Clifton 
College. 

WILSON,  Joseph  Miller, engineer  and  architect, 
born  at  Phoenixville,  Pa.,  June  30,  1838,  graduated  at 
the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  1858,  became  as- 
sistant engineer  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  in  i860, 
and  chief  engineer,  1870-76,  and  designed  the  buildings 
of  the  Centennial  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia  in  1876, 
with  J.  MacArthur.  He  has  written  many  valuable 
professional  papers. 

WILSON,  Matthew,  portrait  painter,  born  in  Lon- 
don, England,  July  17,  1814,  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1832,  opened  studios  in  Philadelphia  and  later  in 
Brooklyn,  and  during  a long  and  successful  career 
painted  portraits  of  Presidents  Harrison,  Lincoln  and 
Arthur,  and  other  distinguished  men.  He  died  Feb- 
ruary 23,  1892. 

WILSON,  Sir  Adam,  born  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 
September  22,  1814,  emigrated  to  Canada  in  1830,  stud- 
ied and  practiced  law,  was  appointed  commissioner  for 
revising  the  statutes  of  Canada,  in  1856,  was  solicitor- 
general  of  Canada,  1862-63;  held  several  judicial  posi- 
tions, and  in  1884  he  was  made  chief  justice  ofthe  Court 
of  Queen’s  Bench,  and  knighted  in  1887. 

WILSON,  Sir  Charles  Rivers,  born  in  London, 
England,  February  19,  1831,  and  educated  at  Eton  and 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  became  an  authority  on  finan- 
cial questions,  was  appointed  comptroller-general  of 
the  national  debt  office  in  April,  1873,  went  to  Egypt 
to  devise  plans  to  remedy  the  financial  disorder  in  that 
country,  was  finance  minister  of  Egypt,  1878-79,  was 
created  a K.C.M.G.  1880,  and  has  since  served  the 
English  government  in  numerous  important  capacities. 

WILSON,  Sir  Charles  William,  K.C.B.,  was 
born  in  England,  March,  1836,  entered  the  Royal 
Engineers,  1855,  afid  became  colonel  1883.  He  served 
in  the  Egyptian  Expedition  of  1882,  led  the  Soudan  Ex- 
pedition and  commanded  the  force  in  its  attempt  to 
reach  Khartoum  and  to  rescue  General  Gordon.  He  is 
now  director-general  of  the  ordnance  survey  of  England. 

.WILSON,  Theodore  Delavan,  was  born  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  May  11,  1840.  He  learned  the  trade 
of  ship  building  in  the  Brooklyn  navy  yard ; was  ap- 
pointed carpenter  in  the  navy,  August  3,  1861,  and 
served  in  the  steamer  Cambridge , of  the  North  Atlantic 
blockading  squadron,  until  1864.  He  was  commis- 
sioned naval  constructor  July  1,  1873,  after  serving  for 
about  seven  years  as  assistant  naval  constructor  and 
instructor  in  naval  architecture  at  the  United  States 
naval  academy,  and  until  1882  was  engaged  at  the  Ports- 
mouth navy  yard.  In  1878  he  was  appointed  chief  of 
the  bureau  of  construction  and  repair,  and  in  1886  was 
reappointed  for  a term  of  four  years.  He  invented 
some  most  important  improvements  in  modern  ship- 
building; was  the  designer  of  the  Chicago , the  Boston , 
the  Atlanta,  and  a number  of  other  vessels,  and  is 
the  author  of  Shipbuilding , Theoretical  and  Practical. 
He  died  June  29,  1896. 

WILSON,  William  Dexter,  philosopher  and  the- 
ologian, born  at  Stoddard,  N.  FL,  February  28,  1816, 
graduated  in  1838  at  Cambridge  Divinity  School  and 
became  first  a Unitarian  minister,  but  in  1842  took 
orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church.  In  1850  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  philosophy  in  Hobart  College  and 
in  1868  transferred  his  services  to  Cornell  College,  in 
the  same  capacity.  He  has  written  The  Church  Iden- 
tified (1848),  Logic  ('1856),  Lectures  on  Psychology 
(1871),  Live  Questions  in  Psychology  and  Metaphysics 
(1877),  Foundations  of  Religious  Belie/  ("1883),  and 
other  works. 


6887 

WILSON,  William  Lyne,  statesman,  corn  in  Jef- 
ferson county,  Va.,  May  3,  1843,  and  educated  at  Col- 
umbian College  and  the  University  of  Virginia,  served 
in  the  Confederate  army,  was  professor  in  Columbian 
College,  practiced  law  at  Charleston,  was  a delegate  in 
1880  to  the  National  Democratic  Convention  at  Cincin- 
nati, and  was  chosen  an  elector  for  the  State  at  large 
on  the  Hancock  ticket.  He  was  president  of  the  West 
Virginia  University  in  1882-83,  resigning  because  of  his 
election  to  congress  as  a Democrat  from  the  second 
district  in  November,  1882.  He  received  the  degree 
of  LL.D.  from  Columbian  University  and  Hampden- 
Sidney  College,  Virginia,  and  was  appointed  a Regent 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  1884  and  reappointed 
in  1886.  In  congress  he  became  prominent  as  an  ora- 
tor and  an  able  advocate  of  the  Democratic  doctrine 
of  free  trade  and  was  successively  reelected,  serving 
six  terms.  In  1892,  he  was  permanent  president  of  the 
National  Democratic  Convention  at  Chicago,  which 
nominated  Grover  Cleveland  for  president,  and  in  the 
fifty-third  congress  he  was  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  Ways  and  Means,  the  leader  of  the  Democratic 
majority  on  the  floor  and  drafted  the  bill  for  the  revi- 
sion and  reduction  of  tariff  duties  known  as  the  “Wil- 
son Tariff  Bill.”  He  was  defeated  for  reelection  in 
1894  by  A.  G.  Dayton,  Republican,  by  a vote  of  23,343 
to  21,392,  but  on  February  28,  1895,  before  his  term  of 
service  had  quite  expired,  he  was  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Cleveland  postmaster-general  of  the  United  States, 
to  succeed  Wilson  S.  Bissell.  Died  Oct.  17,  1900. 

WILSON,  Woodrow,  born  at  Staunton,  Va.,  De- 
cember 28,  1856,  graduated  at  Princeton,  1879 ; prac- 
ticed law  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  a short  time,  studied  history 
and  politics  at  Johns  Hopkins  University,  1883-85  ; 
taught  history  at  Bryn-Mawr  College,  Pennsylvania, 
1885-86;  was  associate  professor  of  history  and  political 
science  there,  1886-88;  was  elected  professor  of  history 
and  political  economy  at  Wesleyan  University  in  1888, 
and  later  became  professor  of  finance  and  political  econ- 
omy at  Princeton.  He  is  an  able  writer  on  the  sub- 
jects which  he  has  made  his  special  study,  his  works 
including : Congressional  Govern?nent,  A Study  in 
American  Politics  (1885),  The  State  (1889),  Division 
and  Reunion  (1882-89),  and  An  Old  Master  and  Other 
Political  Essays  (1893). 

WIMAN,  Erastus,  born  in  Churchville,  Ontario, 
April  21,  1834,  was  a printer,  reporter  and  commercial 
editor  of  the  Toronto  Globe,  and  editor  ofthe  Montreal 
Trade  Review,  and  in  1867  acquired  a partnership  in  R. 
G.  Dun  & Co.’s  mercantile  agency,  New  York,  becom- 
ing later  its  principal  manager.  In  1881  he  accepted  the 
presidency  of  the  Great  Northwestern  Telegraph  Com- 
pany of  Boston  and  became  a director  of  the  Western 
Union  Telegraph  Company,  and  president  of  the  Staten 
Island  Rapid  Transit  Railway  Company.  He  did  much 
to  build  up  a sentiment  in  Canada  in  favor  of  commer- 
cial union  with  the  United  States,  and  in  1886  he  se- 
cured the  abolition  of  imprisonment  for  debt  in  New 
York. 

WINCHELL,  Alexander,  LL.D.,  geologist,  born 
in  North  East,  Dutchess  county,  N.  Y.,  December  31, 
1824;  graduated  at  Wesleyan  in  1847;  became  a teacher 
of  natural  science,  and,  in  1854,  professor  of  physics 
and  civil  engineering  in  the  University  of  Michigan; 
in  the  following  year  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of 
geology,  zoology,  and  botany,  which  he  held  until  1873, 
filling  a similar  professorship  in  the  University  of 
Kentucky  from  1866  until  1869.  He  was  director  of 
the  geological  survey  of  Michigan,  1859-71,  except 
during  the  war  and  was  subsequently  professor  of  ge- 
ology, zoology,  and  botany  in  both  the  Syracuse  and 
Vanderbilt  universities,  but  in  1878,  owing  to  his  be- 


6888 


W I N 


lief  in  the  existence  of  a preadamite  race,  and  his  de- 
fense of  the  doctrine  of  evolution,  he  was  forced  out  of 
Vanderbilt  by  the  abolition  of  his  lectureship.  In  1879 
he  accepted  the  chair  of  geology  and  paleontology  in 
the  University  of  Michigan.  His  name  has  been 
assigned  to  fourteen  new  species.  He  died  February 
19,  1891. 

WINCHELL,  Newton  Horace,  geologist,  born  at 
North  East,  Dutchess  county,  N.  Y.,  December  17, 
i839,  graduated  at  Michigan  University,  1866,  and  be- 
came superintendent  of  schools  and  assistant  State  geol- 
ogist of  Michigan.  In  1872  he  was  called  to  the  chair 
of  mineralogy  and  geology  in  Minnesota  University, 
and  made  State  geologist.  He  has  been  president  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Minnesota,  a member  of  the 
Assay  Commission  of  the  United  States,  and  editor  of 
the  American  Geologist. 

WINDER,  John  Henry,  born  in  Maryland,  1800; 
graduated  at  West  Point,  1820;  fought  in  the  Mexican 
war;  had  become  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate 
service  when  he  was  given  command  of  Richmond  and 
charge  of  Libby  prison  and  Belle  Isle,  and  later  of  the 
prison-pen  at  Andersonville,  where  his  cruelties  to 
Union  prisoners  rendered  his  name  infamous.  He 
died  in  1865. 

WINDISCHGRATZ,  Prince  Alfred,  prime  min- 
ister of  Austria,  was  educated  at  the  universities  of 
Bonn  and  Prague,  studying  for  the  law ; was  made  a 
Doctor  of  Law  in  1877,  and  appointed  a member  of  the 
Imperial  Court  of  Justice;  sat  in  the  Reichsrath  from 
1876  as  a Conservative  and  a Clerical,  and  was  also  a 
member  of  the  Bohemian  Diet.  In  November,  1893, 
he  was  called  upon  to  form  a Coalition  Ministry,  suc- 
ceeding Count  Taaffe  as  Premier,  and  accomplished 
the  task,  although  with  some  difficulty. 

WINDOM,  William,  secretary  of  the  treasury,  was 
born  in  Ohio,  May  10,  1827,  where  he»  was  also  edu- 
cated, and  in  1850  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Mount 
Vernon.  In  1855  he  removed  to  Winona,  Minn.,  and 
four  years  later  was  elected  to  congress,  serving  the 
next  ten  years  in  the  lower  house.  In  1870  he  became 
United  States  Senator,  vice  D.  S.  Norton,  deceased, 
and  in  1871  was  reelected,  and  again  reelected  in  1877. 
He  became  secretary  of  the  treasury  by  appointment 
from  President  Garfield,  and  upon  the  death  of  the  lat- 
ter was  once  more  sent  to  the  Senate  from  Minnesota, 
where  he  served  as  the  chairman  of  important  commit- 
tees. On  March  4 President  Benjamin  Harrison  ap- 
pointed him  secretary  of  the  treasury.  Mr.  Windom 
died  suddenly  in  New  York,  January  29,  1891. 

WINDTHORST,  Ludwig,  the  parliamentary  leader 
of  the  Catholic  party  in  Prussia,  was  born  January  17, 
1812.  He  attended  the  “ Carolinum,”  in  Osnabriick, 
and  continued  his  studies  at  Gottingen  and  Heidel- 
berg, became  an  advocate,  and  from  1863  to  1865,  was 
minister  of  justice  at  Hanover.  From  1849  to  1866  he 
was  a member  of  the  Assembly  of  the  Estates  of  the 
Realm,  and  in  1851  president  of  the  second  chamber 
of  the  same;  and  became  in  1867,  a member  of  the 
Prussian  House  of  Deputies,  always  boldly  upholding 
the  Catholic  cause  in  spite  of  the  stern  opposition  of 
Prince  Bismarck.  He  died  March  12,  1891. 

WINEBRENNER,  John,  was  born  in  Frederick 
county,  Md.,  March  24,  1797;  died  in  Harrisburg, 
Penn.,  September  12,  i860.  He  studied  theology  in 
Philadelphia,  became  a minister  of  the  German  Re- 
formed Church  in  1820,  and  was  in  charge  of  the  Salem 
Church  at  Harrisburg,  Penn.,  until  1827,  when  his 
views  and  practices  became  obnoxious  to  his  congrega- 
tion, and  he  retired.  His  connection  with  the  Re- 
formed Church  ceased  by  action  of  the  synod  in  Sep- 
tember, 1828,  and  in  October,  1830,  he  founded  a new 


denomination  that  he  called  the  “Church  of  God,” 
whose  members  hold  that  the  three  positive  ordinances 
of  perpetual  standing  are,  baptism  by  immersion,  the 
washing  of  feet,  and  the  Lord’s  supper.  This  sect  has 
grown  until  its  membership  in  1889  was  estimated  at 
65,000.  Winebrenner  published  a number  of  works 
on  practical  religion,  and  was  for  several  years  editor 
of  the  Gospel  Publisher , which  afterward  became  the 
Church  Advocate. 

WINSLOW,  John  Ancrum,  naval  officer,  born  in 
Wilmington,  N.  C.,  November  19,  1811 ; died  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  September  29,  1873.  He  entered  the 
United  States  navy  as  midshipman  February  1,  1827, 
and  on  February  9,  1839,  was  commissioned  lieutenant. 
He  was  engaged  in  the  Mexican  war,  was  present  at 
the  capture  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  commanded  the  schooner 
Morris , that  was  lost  on  a reef  off  that  port  in  1840. 
Promoted  to  commander,  he  rejoined  the  Mississippi 
River  flotilla  in  1861,  where  he  became  disabled  from 
active  duty  by  an  accident.  On  July  16,  1862,  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  United  States  steamer 
Kearsarge , specially  commissioned  to  pursue  the  Con- 
federate steamer  A labama.  Captain  Winslow  followed 
his  adversary  to  Cherbourg,  and  in  June,  1864,  block- 
aded her  in  that  harbor.  On  Sunday,  June  19,  1864, 
the  Alabama  came  forth,  escorted  by  a French  iron- 
clad and  the  British  yacht  Deerhound.  Captain  Winslow 
retired  seven  miles  from  shore,  to  be  beyond  neutral 
ground,  and  advanced  toward  the  Alabama.  The 
armament  of  the  two  vessels  was  about  equal.  After 
an  exchange  of  broadsides  for  about  an  hour,  the  Ala- 
bama made  for  the  shore  in  a crippled  condition  ; she 
soon  was  found  to  be  sinking,  and  surrendered.  Many 
of  her  crew,  including  her  commander,  Semmes,  were 
picked  up  floating  on  the  waves  just  before  the  Ala- 
bama went  to  the  bottom.  Captain  Winslow  was  pro- 
moted commodore  for  this  important  victory  in  1866, 
and  in  1867  commanded  the  Gulf  squadron,  was  chief 
of  the  Pacific  squadron  from  1870  to  1872,  and  on 
March  2,  1870,  was  promoted  to  be  rear-admiral. 

WINSLOW,  Josiah,  born  1629;  died  1680;  gov- 
ernor of  Plymouth  colony  from  1673  till  his  death, 
became  general-in-chief  of  the  united  colonies  1675. 

WINSLOW,  Miron,  born  at  Williston,  Vt.,  De- 
cember 11,  1789;  established  a mission  at  Ceylon,  1819, 
and  was  engaged  in  mission  work  at  Madras  until  his 
death,  Oct.  22,  1864.  He  was  an  LL.D.  of  Harvard,  and 
published  missionary  and  biographical  works,  a transla- 
tion of  the  Bible  into  the  language  of  the  East  Indies, 
and  a dictionary  of  the  same  language  of  70,000  words. 

WINSOR,  Justin,  author,  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
January  2,  1831.  He  studied  for  a time  at  Harvard, 
and  at  Heidelberg,  Germany.  From  1868  to  1877  he 
was  superintendent  of  the  Boston  public  library,  and 
thereafter  served  in  the  same  capacity  at  Harvard, 
where  he  still* remains.  In  1876  he  was  first  president 
of  the  American  Library  Association,  became  president 
of  the  American  Historical  Association,  and  served  as 
secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society.  In 
1 880  he  wrote  Readers ’ Handbook  of  the  A merican  Revo- 
lution, published  Cartier  to  Frontenac  (1894),  and  he 
wrote  other  historical  works  and  Shakespearian,  and 
edited  the  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America 
(8  vols. , 1884-89).  Died  Oct.  22,  1897. 

WINTER,  William,  journalist  and  author,  was 
born  at  Gloucester,  Mass.,  July  15,  1836,  and  is  a 
graduate  of  the  law  department  of  Harvard  University. 
In  1865  he  became  the  dramatic  editor  of  the  New  York 
Tribime.  His  published  writings  embrace  poems  and 
biographies  of  prominent  actors  and  dramatists. 

WINTHROP,  Robert  Charles,  was  born  in  Bos- 
ton, May  12,  1809.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard 


WIN  — WIS 


in  1828,  adopted  the  profession  of  law,  and  from.  1834 
until  1840  was  a member  of  the  lower  house  of  the 
Massachusetts  legislature,  of  which  he  was  speaker 
during  the  last  three  years  of  that  time.  He  was  then 
sent  to  congress,  where  he  served  ten  years  with  dis- 
tinction, being  speaker  of  the  House  from  1847  until 
1849,  and  in  1850  he  was  appointed  to  Daniel  Web- 
ster’s seat  in  the  United  States  Senate,  when  the  latter 
became  secretary  of  state.  His  course  on  the  slavery 
question  caused  him  to  be  defeated  for  election  to  the 
Senate  in  the  following  year,  and  also  prevented  his 
election  to  the  governorship  of  the  State.  He  was  a 
famous  orator  and  delivered  the  addresses  at  the  laying 
of  the  corner-stone  of  the  Washington  monument 
in  1848  and  at  its  completion  in  1885.  He  died  No- 
vember 16,  1894. 

WINTHROP,  Theodore,  author,  was  born  in 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  September  22,  1828;  died  near 
Great  Bethel,  Va. , June  10,  1861.  He  was  graduated 
at  Yale  in  1848,  went  to  Europe  the  following  year, 
and  in  1852  was  stationed  at  Panama  as  an  employe  of 
the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company.  He  subse- 
quently studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1855,  but  spent  most  of  his  time  in  literary  pursuits. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war  he  enlisted  in  the 
17th  New  York  regiment,  and  later  became  military 
secretary  to  Gen.  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  with  the  rank 
of  major.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Great  Bethel. 
Besides  many  sketches  and  poems  Winthrop  was  the 
author  of  the  novels  Cecil  Dreeme,  John  Brent , and 
Edwin  Brothertoft,  which  hold  a high  place  in  Ameri- 
can literature. 

WIRT,  William,  born  in  Bladensburg,  Md.,  No- 
vember 8,  1772;  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  February 
18,  1834.  He  aided  in  the  prosecution  of  Col.  Aaron 
Burr  for  treason.  His  principal  speech  on  this  occasion 
greatly  extended  his  fame.  In  1817  Wirt  became 
attorney-general  of  the  United  States,  and  removed  to 
Washington,  holding  this  office  for  twelve  years  and, 
resigning,  settled  in  Baltimore,  Md.  In  1832  Mr.  Wirt 
accepted  the  nomination  of  the  Anti-Masons  as  their 
candidate  for  the  presidency,  as  such  receiving  the  seven 
electoral  votes  of  Vermont. 

WISE,  Henry  Alexander,  statesman,  born  in 
Drummondtown,  Va.,  December  3,  1806;  died  in 
Richmond,  Va.,  September  12,  1876.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Washington  College,  Penn.,  in  1825,  and  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1828.  In  1833  he  was  elected  to 
congress  as  a Jackson  Democrat,  and  was  twice 
reelected.  In  congress  he  was  opposed  to  President 
Jackson’s  bank  policy,  strongly  favored  the  institution 
of  slavery,  and  after  John  Tyler’s  accession  to  the 
presidency  was  one  of  his  principal  supporters.  In 
May,  1844,  he  was  United  States  minister  to  Brazil, 
remaining  there  until  October,  1847.  In  1855  Mr. 
Wise  was  elected  governor  of  Virginia,  after  a hotly 
contested  campaign  on  the  Know-Nothing  question,  in 
which  he  denounced  the  members  of  that  party.  One 
of  the  last  acts  of  his  administration  was  signing  the 
death-warrant  of  John  Brown,  who  was  executed 
December  2,  1859.  In  February,  1861,  as  a member 
of  the  State  convention  he  made  a report  that  favored 
compromise  and  a peaceable  adjustment  of  the  injustice 
complained  of  by  the  seceded  States,  but  when  Virginia 
united  with  the  confederation  he  became  brigadier- 
general.  After  the  war  he  resumed  the  practice  of  law. 

WISE,  Henry  Augustus,  an  American  naval 
officer,  was  born  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  May  12,  1819, 
and  became  passed  midshipman  July  16,  1840.  Previous 
to  the  Civil  war  he  served  on  special  duty,  and  was  at- 
tached to  the  Mediterranean  and  Pacific  squadrons. 
In  i86t  he  was  engaged  in  the  blockade  of  Charleston, 


688 9 

S.  C.,  on  board  the  Niagara.  He  was  promoted  t© 
be  commander  July  16,  1862,  and  to  be  captain  Decem- 
ber 29,  1866,  and  until  January,  1869,  was  chief  of  the 
ordnance  bureau  of  the  navy.  He  died  April  2,  1869, 
at  Naples,  Italy,  whither  he  had  gone  on  leave  of 
absence.  He  was  the  author  of  a series  of  novels, 
illustrating  life  in  Mexico  and  in  the  tropics. 

WISE,  George  D.,  was  born  June  4,  1821,  in  the 
county  of  Accomac,  Va.,  and  graduated  at  the  Indiana 
University.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  opened 
an  office  in  Richmond,  where  he  practiced  several  years. 
He  served  through  the  war  in  the  Confederate  army, 
returning  to  the  practice  of  his  profession  at  the  con- 
clusion of  hostilities.  He  has  served  as  district  attorney 
in  his  native  State,  and  in  1880  was  elected  to  congress, 
and  served  until  1888.  In  the  latter  year  he  claimed 
the  seat,  but  congress  gave  it  to  his  competitor. 

WISE,  John,  aeronaut,  born  in  Lancaster,  Penn., 
February  24,  1808;  died  in  Lake  Michigan  in  Septem- 
ber, 1879.  His  first  ascension  from  Philadelphia, 
Penn.,  on  May  2,  1835,  was  experimental.  This  was 
followed  by  others  from  Lebanon  and  Lancaster,  Penn. 
In  May,  1836,  he  ascended  from  Lancaster,  and  in  the 
following  year  made  two  voyages  from  Philadelphia,  in 
the  first  of  which  he  alighted  in  the  Delaware  river.  On 
August  11,  1838,  he  ascended  from  Easton,  Penn., 
rising  to  a height  of  13,000  feet,  and  came  near  losing 
his  life  in  the  descent.  He  made  other  balloon  voyages 
until  1859,  when  they  numbered  about  230.  In  the 
last  named  year,  in  company  with  John  La  Mountain, 
he  made  the  noted  voyage  from  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  to  Jef- 
ferson  county,  N.  Y.  From  September,  1871,  until 
July,  1872,  he  served  as  librarian  of  the  Franklin  Insth 
tute,  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  and  thereafter  removed  to 
Missouri.  On  September  28,  1879,  he  made  an  ascen- 
sion at  St.  Louis,  in  company  with  several  others.  The 
balloon  was  last  seen  at  Carlinville,  111.,  and  later  the 
body  of  one  of  the  occupants  was  washed  ashore  on 
Lake  Michigan. 

WISE,  John  S.,  born  at  Rio  Janeiro,  Brazil, 
December  25,  1846,  was  educated  at  the  Lexing- 
ton (Va.)  military  institute.  He  served  through  the 
war  in  the  Confederate  army,  being  wounded  at  New 
Market.  After  the  fall  of  the  Confederacy,  he  studied 
law,  and  upon  his  admission  to  the  bar,  in  1867, 
opened  an  office  in  Richmond.  He  was  a Readjuster 
member  of  congress  for  one  term  from  1882,  and  in 
1885  was  defeated  for  governor  of  the  State  by  Fitz- 
hugh  Lee. 

WISSLER,  Jacques,  engraver,  born  in  Strasburg, 
Germany,  1803;  died  in  Camden,  N.  J.,  November  25, 
1887;  came  to  America  in  1849,  and  while  visiting 
Richmond,  Va.,  when  the  Civil  war  commenced,  was 
detained  by  the  Confederate  authorities,  to  engrave 
their  paper  currency  and  bonds.  He  made  a fortune 
at  this  work,  but  his  estate  was  confiscated  because  of 
his  loyalty  to  the  Union  cause.  Pie  was  a skillful  en- 
graver and  a successful  portrait  painter. 

WISSMAN,  Herrman  von,  German  soldier  and 
African  explorer,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  1853  ; 
in  1880,  as  lieutenant,  accompanied  Dr.  Pogge  to 
Nyangwe,  from  whence  he  crossed  the  continent  alone, 
to  Zanzibar,  November  15,  1882.  He  was  chief  of  a 
large  expedition  sent  out  by  King  Leopold  in  1883. 
He  was  appointed  imperial  German  commissioner  in 
1887  and  suppressed  the  uprising  under  Bushiri.  In 
1892  he  tried  to  take  two  steamers  to  Lake  Victoria, 
but  failed.  He  wrote  In  Inner  Africa  and  Under  the 
German  Flag  Through  Africa. 

WISTAR,  Caspar,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sep- 
tember 13,  1761 ; studied  medicine  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  and  abroad  and  for  two  years  was  president 


6890  WIT- 

of  the  Royal  Medical  Society  of  Edinburgh.  He  returned 
to  the  United  States  in  1 787,  and  entered  on  the  practice 
of  medicine  in  Philadelphia.  From  1789  to  1808  he 
was  connected  with  the  College  and  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  in  1815  was  chosen  president  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society.  Doctor  Wistar  con- 
tributed a number  of  papers  to  the  transactions  of  the 
College  of  Physicians,  and  he  was  also  the  author  of 
works  on  anatomy.  He  died  January  22,  1818. 

WITHERELL,  James,  was  born  in  Mansfield, 
Mass.,  June  16,  1759;  died  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  January 
9,  1838.  During  the  Revolutionary  war  he  served  in 
the  nth  Massachusetts  regiment  until  1783,  taking  part 
in  the  principal  battles  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey, 
and  being  severely  wounded  at  White  Plains.  He  took 
up  the  study  of  medicine,  but  afterward  removed  to 
Vermont  and  adopted  the  profession  of  law.  From 
1798  until  1803  he  was  a member  of  the  Vermont  legis- 
lature ; was  for  two  years  a judge  of  Rutland  county, 
and  State  councilor  until  1807,  in  which  year  he  was 
sent  to  congress.  He  resigned  in  1808  to  become 
United  States  judge  for  the  Territory  of  Michigan.  In 
1828  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  that  Territory  by 
John  Quincy  Adams.  He  left  a valuable  collection  of 
papers  on  the  history  of  Detroit  and  the  State  of  Mich- 
igan. 

WITHERS,  John  Mitchell,  was  born  in  Madi- 
son county,  Wis.,  January  12,  1814.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  United  States  Military  Academy  in  1835, 
commanded  the  Alabama  volunteers  during  the  Creek 
disturbances  in  1836,  studied  law  in  Tuscaloosa,  Ala., 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1838.  He  was  a law- 
yer and  merchant  in  Mobile  from  1841  until  1855,  when 
he  was  elected  to  the  legislature,  and  in  1856  he  be- 
came mayor  of  Mobile.  When  the  Civil  war  broke 
out  he  entered  the  Confederate  service  as  colonel  of  the 
3d  Alabama,  was  made  brigadier-general  in  July,  1861, 
and  major-general  early  in  1862.  He  commanded  a 
division  at  Shiloh,  was  at  the  battle  of  Stone  river,  and 
subsequently  had  charge  of  a department,  with  head- 
quarters at  Montgomery,  Ala.  After  the  war  he  be- 
came editor  of  the  Mobile  Tribune. 

WITHERS,  R.  E.,  an  American  publicist,  was  a 
native  of  Virginia,  and  was  born  September  18,  1821, 
and  became  a graduate  of  the  University  of  Virginia, 
in  1840.  He  was  for  many  years  a medical  practitioner 
in  Cumberland  county,  Va.,  thence  removing  to  Dan- 
ville. During  the  Civil  war  he  served  in  the  Confed- 
erate army,  but  was  severely  wounded  at  Gaines’  Mill, 
and  thereafter,  until  the  surrender,  was  director  of  the 
military  hospital  and  prison  at  Danville.  Subsequent 
to  the  war  he  edited  papers  at  Lynchburg  and  Rich- 
mond, was  lieutenant-governor  of  the  State,  and  in 
1874  became  United  States  senator.  In  1885  President 
Cleveland  appointed  him  consul  to  Hong  Kong,  China. 

WITHERSPOON,  John,  signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  born  in  Gifford,  Scotland,  February 
5,  1722,  died  near  Princeton,  N.  J.,  September  15, 
1794.  He  was  graduated  at  Edinburgh  University  in 
1742,  and  three  years  later  was  ordained  minister, 
serving  at  first  in  Paisley,  and  in  the  following  year 
was  chosen  moderator  of  the  synod  of  Glasgow  and 
Ayr.  In  1764  the  University  of  Aberdeen  conferred 
on  him  the  degree  of  D.D.,  and  August  17,  1768,  he 
was  inaugurated  president  of  Princeton  College.  He 
introduced  the  study  of  the  French  and  Hebrew  lan- 
guages, and  during  his  entire  presidency  officiated  as 
pastor  of  the  church  in  Princeton.  Quite  early  he  em- 
braced the  cause  of  the  patriots,  and  did  much  to  attach 
the  Scottish  and  Scottish- Irish  people  to  the  cause  of 
America.  He  counseled  resistance  to  the  tea-tax,  and 
on  June  22,  1776,  after  taking  part  in  the  overthrow  of 


- W O L 

the  authority  of  William  Franklin,  the  royal  governor, 
he  was  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress.  In  1783 
he  visited  England,  for  contributions  to  the  treasury  of 
Princeton  College.  On  his  return  to  the  United  States 
he  employed  himself  with  the  administrative  affairs  of 
the  college.  Two  years  before  his  death  he  became 
blind.  His  publications  include  books  of  an  ecclesi- 
astical character,  lectures,  essays,  etc. 

WOLCOTT,  Oliver,  born  in  Windsor,  Conn., 
November  26,  1726;  died  in  Litchfield,  Conn.,  Decem- 
ber 1,  1797.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1747,  and 
in  the  same  year  made  captain  of  a company  of  volun- 
teers. Later  he  studied  medicine.  Between  1774  and 
1 786  he  served  as  judge  of  the  County  Court  of  Common 
Pleas.  In  January,  1 776,  he  took  his  seat  as  a member 
of  the  Continental  Congress  and  signed  the  Declaration, 
and  on  his  return  to  his  State  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  fourteen  regiments  of  Connecticut  militia 
sent  for  the  defense  of  New  York.  In  1777  he  assisted 
Israel  Putnam  on  the  Hudson,  and  then  joined  Gen. 
Horatio  Gates,  taking  part  in  the  defeat  of  General 
Burgoyne.  From  1780  to  1784  he  was  again  in  con- 
gress, and  in  the  following  year  became  one  of  the 
commissioners  who  negotiated  a treaty  of  peace  with  the 
six  nations.  In  1796  he  was  elected  to  the  office  of 
governor  of  Connecticut,  which  office  he  held  until 
his  death. 

WOLCOTT,  Roger,  colonial  governor,  born  in 
Windsor,  Conn.,  January  4,  1679;  died  in  East  Wind- 
sor, Conn.,  May  17,  1767.  In  1710  he  was  made  justice 
of  the  peace,  and  in  1741  he  had  risen  to  be  deputy- 
governor  and  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court.  In 
1745  he  was  second  in  command  under  Sir  William 
Pepperell  of  the  Connecticut  contingent  of  the  forces 
sent  by  the  colonies  against  Louisburg,  with  the  rank 
of  major-general.  He  was  elected  governor  of  Con- 
necticut in  1750,  and  in  1754  he  retired  to  private 
life. 

WOLFE,  Catherine  Lorillard,  philanthopist, 
born  in  New  York  city,  March  28,  1828;  died  there 
April  4,  1887.  She  was  the  daughter  of  John  David 
Wolfe,  and  continued  her  father’s  charities.  She  estab- 
lished a home  for  incurables  in  Fordham,  N.  Y.,  made 
donations  of  money  to  Union  College,  to  St.  Luke’s 
Hospital,  New  York  city,  to  St.  Johnland,  L.  L,  aided 
in  building  the  American  chapels  at  Paris  and  Rome, 
established  an  Italian  mission  at  a cost  of  $50,000,  a 
newsboys’  lodging  house,  and  a Protestant  Episcopal 
diocesan  house,  which,  with  its  endowments,  cost  $170,- 
000,  besides  very  many  other  smaller  charities.  In  1884 
she  sent  an  expedition  to  Asia  Minor,  to  make  archaeo- 
logical searches.  Her  collection  of  paintings  was  given 
to  the  New  York  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  together 
with  $200,000  for  its  protection  and  enlargement. 

WOLFE,  John  David,  philanthropist,  born  in  New 
York  city,  July  24,  1792;  died  there  May  17,  1872. 
He  was  early  placed  in  training  with  a business  house, 
and  became  a hardware  merchant.  He  founded  a high 
school  for  girls  in  Denver,  Colo.,  a Protestant  Episcopal 
school  at  Topeka,  Kan.,  gave  the  building  for  a theo- 
logical seminary  connected  with  Kenyon  College,  a fund 
for  the  College  of  the  Sisters  of  Bethany,  at  Topeka, 
Kan.,  built  homes  for  needy  children  in  Suffolk  county, 
N.  Y.,  and,  in  connection  with  Mrs.  Peter  Cooper,  es- 
tablished the  “Sheltering  Arms”  charity  in  New  York 
city.  He  was  also  one  of  the  organizers  of  the  St. 
Johnland,  L.  I.,  charitable  institution,  became  its  first 
president,  and  gave  it  liberal  pecuniary  support. 

WOLFF,  Sir  Henry  Drummond,  was  born  at 
Malta,  October  12,  1830,  and  was  educated  at  Rugby 
and  on  the  continent.  He  entered  the  Foreign  Office, 
1840,  and  was  made  an  attach^  at  Florence  in  1852-53, 


w O L — W O O 


during  part  of  which  time  he  was  acting  chargp 
d'affaires.  He  held  minor  offices,  and  at  the  election 
of  1880  was  elected  M.P.  for  Portsmouth.  As  such 
he  was  one  of  the  active  group  known  as  the  Fourth 
Party.  In  June,  1885,  he  was  sworn  a privy  councilor, 
and  in  the  August  following  appointed  envoy  extraor- 
dinary and  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  sultan  of 
Turkey,  on  a special  mission  with  particular  reference 
to  the  affairs  of  Egypt,  and  ambassador  to  Persia  in 
1888.  He  is  a fellow  of  the  Royal  Geographical  So- 
ciety and  of  the  Royal  Colonial  Institute. 

WOLSELEY,  Viscount  (General  Sir  Garnet 
Joseph),  was  born  at  Golden  Bridge  House,  near  Dub- 
lin, Ireland,  June  4,  1833,  and  was  educated  at  a 
private  school  and  under  tutors.  He  entered  the 
British  army  as  ensign  in  March,  1852.  He  achieved 
distinction  in  the  Crimea,  where  he  served  with  the 
90th  light  infantry.  At  the  siege  of  Sebastopol  he  was 
severely  wounded,  after  which  he  received  the  Legion 
of  Honor  and  the  fifth  class  of  the  Turkish  Order  of 
the  Medjidie.  He  was  also  at  the  siege  and  capture  of 
Lucknow  and  the  defense  of  Alumbagh,  when  he  was 
made  brevet  lieutenant-colonel  and  mentioned  with 
commendation  in  dispatches.  He  was  appointed 
deputy  quartermaster- general  in  Canada  in  Octo- 
ber, 1867,  and  commanded  the  expedition  to  the  Red 
river;  was  nominated  a knight  commander  of  the 
Order  of  SS.  Michael  and  George  in  1870;  and  was 
assistant  adjutant-genex-al  at  headquarters  in  1871. 
Jle  was  appointed  in  August,  1873,  to  command 
the  troops  on  the  Gold  Coast  during  the  Ashantee 
war,  with  the  local  rank  of  major-general.  On 
September  12,  1873,  he  and  his  sta^  embarked  at 
Liverpool  for  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  Arriving  there 
in  advance  of  his  troops,  he  commenced  his  inland 
march  in  the  last  days  of  1873.  After  several  skir- 
mishes the  Asharitees  made  a final  stand  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  capital;  and,  after  defeating  the  enemy, 
Sir  Garnet  Wolseley,  on  February  5th,  entered  Coo- 
massie,  and  received  the  submission  of  the  king,  who 
agreed  to  appoint  commissioners  to  conclude  a treaty. 
The  success  of  the  expedition  justified  the  confidence 
which  had  been  reposed  in  the  commander-in-chief. 
On  his  return  to  England  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  received 
the  thanks  of  parliament  and  a grant  of  $125,000  for 
his  “ courage,  energy,  and  perseverance,”  in  the  conduct 
of  the  Ashantee  war;  was  created  a K.C.B.;  and  was 
presented  with  the  freedom  of  the  city  of  London  and 
a splendid  sword  of  the  value  of  100  guineas,  October 
22,  1874.  In  June,  1879,  he  was  sent  to  South  Africa, 
as  governor  and  high  commissioner  of  Natal  and  the 
Transvaal,  to  reorganize  the  affairs  of  Zululand,  and 
on  that  occasion  conducted  the  operations  against 
Secoeni,  whose  stronghold  he  destroyed.  Returning 
in  May,  1880,  he  was  appointed  quartermaster-general 
at  the  headquarters  of  the  army,  and  in  April,  1882, 
succeeded  Sir  Charles  Ellice  as  adjutant-general  of  the 
army.  He  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  expedition- 
ary force  sent  to  Egypt  in  1882;  received  the  thanks  of 
parliament;  and  was  gazetted  (November  20)  Baron 
Wolseley  of  Cairo,  and  of  Wolseley,  in  the  county  of 
Stafford.  For  his  services  in  Egypt  he  received  from 
the  khedive,  Tewfik  Pasha,  the  grand  cordon  of  the 
Osmanleh.  He  was  also  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
general,  in  1882.  He  was  made  D.C.L.  of  Oxford, 
and  LL.  D.  of  Cambridge.  In  June,  1883,  the  Uni- 
versity of  Dublin  conferred  upon  him  the  honorary  de- 
gree of  LL.D.  In  1884-85  he  was  commander-in- 
chief in  Egypt,  and  conducted  the  operations  under- 
taken for  the  relief  of  Khartoum,  for  which  services  he 
received  the  thanks  of  both  houses  of  parliament,  was 
made  K.P.,  and  raised  to  the  dignity  of  Viscount 


6891 

Wolseley.  He  became  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
in  Ireland  in  1890  and  field  marshal  in  1894.  He 
wrote  Narrative  of  the  War  with  China , works  on 
military  science,  magazine  articles  on  the  American 
Civil  war,  Marley  Castle,  a novel,  and  a life  of  the  Duke 
of  Marlborough  (1894). 

WOOD,  Alfonso,  an  American  botanist,  was  born 
at  Chesterfield,  N.  H.,  September  17,  1810,  graduated 
at  Dartmouth  College  in  1834,  and  during  1835  pur- 
sued a course  of  theological  studies  at  Andover.  He 
devoted  his  attention  to  botany,  and  was  engaged  in 
teaching  for  many  years.  He  was  president  of  the 
Ohio  Female  College,  professor  in  the  female  college  at 
Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  and  principal  of  the  Clinton 
Female  Seminary,  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  In  1867  he  re- 
tired to  private  life,  at  West  Farms,  N.  Y.,  where  he 
died,  January  4,  1881.  His  contributions  to  botanical 
journals  were  numerous,  and  his  publications  embrace 
a list  of  books  on  botany  that  are  highly  esteemed. 

WOOD,  DeVolson,  an  American  civil  engineer, 
was  born  at  Smyrna,  N.  Y.,  June  1,  1832,  and  gradu- 
ated at  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  Troy, 
N.  Y.,  in  1857.  The  same  year  he  accepted  a call  to 
the  chair  of  civil  engineering  at  the  Michigan  University. 
In  1872  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  mechanics  in  the 
Stevens  Institute,  subsequently  becoming  professor  of 
civil  engineering  in  the  same  institution,  where  he  yet 
remains.  He  is  the  author  of  a number  of  inventions 
of  utility  and  value,  also  of  a series  of  publications  of 
importance  to  the  profession.  He  was  made  an  A.M. 
by  Hamilton  College,  and  an  M.S.  by  the  University  of 
Michigan  during  1859.  Died  June  27,  1897. 

WOOD,  Fernando,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  June 
14,  1812,  and  became  a resident  of  New  York  city  eight 
years  later.  He  engaged  in  commercial  business  there 
early  in  life,  and,  becoming  identified  with  political  or- 
ganizations, was  elected  to  congress  in  1841.  Upon  the 
expiration  of  his  congressional  term  he  returned  to 
New  York,  and  in  1850  was  Democratic  nominee 
for  mayor  of  the  city,  but  was  defeated.  In  1854, 
however,  he  was  elected  to  that  office,  and  during  its 
administration  brought  about  reforms  that  so  impressed 
citizens  with  the  value  of  his  services,  that  he  was 
reelected  almost  unanimously.  During  his  second  term 
a conflict  arose  between  the  legislature  and  the  munic- 
ipal authorities,  in  respect  to  the  control  of  the  depart- 
ment of  police.  A riot  followed,  in  which  many  per- 
sons were  injured,  and  at  the  election  held  in  1857,  he 
was  defeated.  In  1859  was  once  more  elected,  and 
in  1863  was  returned  to  congress,  where  he  remained 
until  1865;  he  was  reelected  in  1867  and  served  until 
1877.  He  died  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  February  14, 
1881. 

WOOD,  George  B.,  an  American  chemist  and 
author,  born  at  Greenwich,  N.  J.,  March  13,  1797,  and 
was  educated  in  New  York,  also  at  the  Pennsylvania  Uni- 
versity, where  he  graduated  in  1815.  In  1817  he  was 
licensed  to  practice  medicine,  and  for  the  two  years 
next  succeeding  delivered  a series  of  lectures  on 
chemistry  in  Philadelphia.  From  the  latter  period 
until  i860  he  was  continuously  employed  as  a professor 
of  chemistry  in  the  Pennsylvania  University  and  Phila- 
delphia College  of  Pharmacy.  He  also  provided  for  the 
maintenance  of  five  professorships  in  the  former  institu- 
tion, and  by  his  will  directed  that  a sum  of  money  should 
be  appropriated  to  the  support  of  a ward  in  the  Hahn 
hospital,  Philadelphia.  He  was  the  author  (in  con- 
junction with  Prof.  F.  Boche)  of  the  United  States 
Dispensatory , and  of  numerous  works  on  materia 
medica — also  of  a history  of  Pennsylvania  University. 
He  died  at  Philadelphia,  March  3b,  1879. 

WOOD,  James,  statesman,  born  in  1750;  died  nee* 


woo 


6892 

Richmond,  Va.,  July  16,  1813.  He  served  during  the 
early  part  of  the  Revolution,  and,  when  General  Bur- 
goyne’s  captured  army  lay  at  Charlottesville,  Va.,  in  1778, 
Colonel  Wood  commanded  that  post.  In  1783  he  was 
promoted  brigadier-general  of  State  troops,  and  in  1789 
appointed  one  of  the  presidential  electors  for  Virginia. 
From  1796  until  1799  he  was  governor  of  Virginia.  In 
1801  he  became  president  of  the  society  for  promoting 
the  abolition  of  slavery  in  Virginia,  and  from  1802  until 
1814  served  as  president  of  the  Society  of  the  Cincinnati. 

WOOD,  John,  F.  R.  S.,  born  at  Bradford,  was  edu- 
cated at  a private  school  and  at  University  College,  Lon- 
don. In  1846  he  entered  King’s  College  Hospital,  be- 
coming house  surgeon  in  1850,  and  was  then  appointed 
surgeon  to  the  Lincoln’s  Inn  Infirmary.  He  gained 
successively  the  posts  of  examiner  to  the  universities  of 
London  and  Cambridge,  and  to  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians,  professor  of  surgery  at  King’s  College,  1871, 
examiner  to  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  and  in  1885 
Hunterian  professor  of  surgery  and  pathology.  Pro- 
fessor Wood  has  published  a large  number  of  lectures, 
articles,  and  papers  on  medical  subjects. 

WOOD,  John  George,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,  born  in  Lon- 
don, England,  in  1827;  was  educatedat  Ashbourne  Gram- 
mar School,  entered  Merton  College,  Oxford,  in  1844, 
was  elected  Jackson  scholar  in  1845,  and  graduated  B.A. 
in  1848  and  M.A.  in  1851;  was  ordained,  in  1852,  as 
chaplain  to  the  boatmen’s  floating  chapel,  Oxford;  ap- 
pointed assistant  chaplain  to  St.  Bartholomew’s  Hospi- 
tal, London,  in  1856,  and  resigned  the  appointment  in 
1862.  He  held  the  officeof  precentor  of  the  Canterbury 
Diocesan  Choral  Union  from  1868  to  1876.  He  has 
written  several  valuable  works  on  zoology;  among 
others,  a Popular  Natural  History.  He  edited  for 
some  time  the  Boy’s  Own  Magazine,  and  was  one  of  the 
associate  commissioners  of  the  great  exhibition  at  Paris 
in  1867.  In  1879  he  projected  a series  of  Sketch  Lect- 
ures on  zoology,  illustrating  them  by  extemporaneous 
drawings.  He  died  March  4,  1889. 

WOOD,  Gen.  Sir  Henry  Evelyn,  was  born  at 
Cressing,  England,  in  February,  1838,  entered  the  navy 
in  1852,  served  in  command  of  the  naval  brigade  in  the 
Crimea  (1854-55),  and  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Se- 
bastopol. At  the  unsuccessful  assault  on  the  Redan  he 
was  severely  wounded,  and  was  mentioned  with  praise  in 
Lord  Raglan’s  dispatches.  He  obtained  the  Crimean 
medal  with  two  clasps,  the  fifth  class  of  the  Order  of 
the  Medjidie,  and  a Turkish  medal;  and  was  made 
a knight  of  the  French  Legion  of  Honor.  In  the 
Indian  campaign  of  1858  he  served  as  a brigade-major, 
and  in  1859  and  i860  he  commanded  the  1st  regiment 
of  Beatson’s  irregular  horse,  and  received  the  thanks 
of  the  Indian  Government  for  his  pursuit  of  the  rebels 
in  the  Seronge  jungle;  he  also  won  the  Victoria  cross 
for  valor.  In  September,  1873,  he  accompanied  Maj- 
Gen.  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  to  the  Ashantee  war,  and 
organized  a native  force,  which  he  commanded,  with 
other  troops,  in  the  affairs  of  Essaman,  and,  on  the 
road  from  Mansu  to  the  river  Prah,  following  the  retreat 
of  the  Ashantee  army  from  the  coast.  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Wood  afterward  commanded  the  right  wing  of  the  army 
in  the  battles  of  Amoaful  Ordahsu,  and  the  capture  of 
Coomassie.  For  these  services  he  was  nominated  a 
C.B.,  promoted  to  the  brevet  rank  of  colonel,  and  re- 
ceived the  medal  with  clasp.  He  served  throughout  the 
Zulu  war  of  1879,  in  command  of  No.  4 column.  He 
defeated  the  Zulus  in  the  action  of  Kambula  on  March 
29th,  and  in  April  was  made  brigadier-general.  He  led 
the  advance  to  Ulundi  with  a flying  column,  and  was 
present  in  the  engagement  there  on  July  4th.  On  his 
return  to  England  he  was  received  by  the  queen  in 
person,  and  was  created  a K.C.B.  He  served  in  the 


Transvaal  war  of  1880-81,  with  the  local  rank  of  major- 
general;  was  nominated  one  of  her  majesty’s  commis- 
sioners for  settling  the  Transvaal  territory  in  April, 
1881;  and  was  appointed  to  command  the  troops  in  the 
Chatham  district  in  1882.  He  commanded  the  second 
brigade,  second  division  in  the  expedition  to  Egypt  in 

1882,  and  for  his  distinguished  services  received  the 
thanks  of  parliament.  In  December,  1882,  he  was  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief  of  the  Egyptian  army, 
ranking  as  chief  of  the  pashas,  or  sirdar.  In  July, 

1883,  he  was  appointed  an  extra  knight-commander  of 
the  Star  of  India. 

WOOD,  Thomas  John,  was  born  in  Munfordville, 
Ky.,  September  25,  1823.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy,  served  during  the 
Mexican  war,  was  captain  of  a cavalry  company  in 
Kansas  during  the  border  troubles  of  1855,  and  was 
with  the  Utah  expedition  under  Albert  Sidney  Johnston. 
He  was  commissioned  brigadier-general  of  volunteers 
in  October,  1861,  and  commanded  a division  in  the 
Tennessee  and  Mississippi  campaigns,  participating  in 
the  battle  of  Shiloh  and  the  siege  of  Gorin th.  He  was 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Stone  River,  December  31, 
1862,  and  afterward  commanded  a division  in  the  twenty- 
first  corps,  army  of  the  Cumberland.  He  was  again 
wounded  at  Lovejoy’s  Station  in  September,  1864. 
In  January,  1865,  he  was  made  major-general  of 
volunteers  and  commanded  various  districts  and  depart- 
ments until  he  was  mustered  out  of  the  volunteer 
service,  September  1,  1866.  General  Wood  received 
the  brevet  of  brigadier-general  in  the  United  States 
army  for  services  at  Chickamauga,  and  that  of  major- 
general  for  services  at  Nashville. 

WOOD,  Thomas  W.,  an  American  artist,  was  born 
at  Montpelier,  Vt.,  November  12,  1823,  and  studied 
his  art  in  Boston.  In  1858  he  visited  Europe,  and, 
upon  his  return  to  the  United  States,  was  for  some 
time  professionally  engaged  at  Nashville,  Louisville, 
and  other  points  in  the  South,  removing  to  New  York 
in  1866,  where  he  has  since  remained.  He  is  the 
author  of  the  Contraband , the  Recruit , and  the  Veteran , 
which  received  prizes  at  the  Academy  of  Design,  New 
York,  in  1867,  and  of  a large  number  of  works  on 
distinctly  American  subjects.  He  is  an  academician  of 
the  National  Academy,  and  a member  of  other  societies. 

WOODALL,  William,  M.P.,  was  born  in  1832, 
and  educated  at  Liverpool.  He  was  first  elected  to 
parliament  as  member  for  Stoke-on-Trent  at  the  gen- 
eral election  of  1880,  and  represented  that  constituency 
until  the  dissolution  of  1885,  when  he  was  returned  for 
Henley.  He  was  again  returned  in  1886,  became  sur- 
veyor general  of  ordinance,  was  reelected  in  1892  and 
on  Gladstone’s  coming  into  power  again  was  appointed 
financial  secretary  of  war. 

WOODBERRY,  G.  E.,  an  American  author,  was 
born  at  Beverly,  Mass.,  May  12,  1855,  and  became  a 
graduate  of  Harvard  University  in  the  class  of  1877. 
He  has  been  associate  editor  of  The  Nation , and  is  the 
author  of  a life  of  Edgar  Allan  Poe  and  other  -works. 
He  was  professor  of  English  literature  at  the  Nebraska 
State  University  for  several  years  between  1877  and  1883. 

WOODBRIDGE,  William  Channing,  was  born 
at  Medford,  Mass.,  December  18,  1794.  Upon  the  com- 
pletion of  his  collegiate  course  at  Yale,  he  studied  the- 
ology and  medicine,  but  afterward  devoted  his  at- 
tention to  teaching.  In  1820  he  visited  Europe,  and 
paid  close  attention  to  the  educational  systems  there 
employed,  particular  reference  being  had  to  that  of 
Pestalozzi.  Upon  his  return  to  the  United  States  he 
recommended  the  adoption  of  the  latter  by  the  common 
schools.  From  1831  to  1838  he  was  owner  and  editor  of 
the  Annals  of  Education,  and  was  the  author  of  a num- 


woo 


her  of  text  books  adapted  to  the  use  of  students.  H e 
died  in  Boston,  November  9,  1845. 

WOODBURY,  Daniel  Phineas,  was  born  in  New 
London,  N.  H.,  December  16,  1812:  died  in  Key 
West,  Fla.,  August  15,  1864.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy  in  1836.  As  lieu- 
tenant of  engineers  he  was  engaged  in  the  construction 
of  the  Cumberland  road  in  Ohio,  the  repairing  of  forti- 
fications at  points  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  as  an  assist- 
ant to  the  chief  of  engineers  at  Washington  until  1847, 
after  which  he  superintended  the  construction  of  Fort 
Kearny  and  Fort  Laramie.  He  became  captain  of 
engineers  March  3,  1853,  and  major  in  August,  1861, 
doing  good  service  during  the  Civil  war.  He  rose  to 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  March  19, 
1862,  and  commanded  the  engineer  brigade  of  the  army 
of  the  Potomac,  constructing  roads,  bridges,  and  cause- 
ways for  the  advance  upon  Richmond.  At  Fredericks- 
burg he  distinguished  himself  by  laying  and  removing 
pontoons  under  the  enemy’s  fire.  In  March,  1863,  he 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  district  of  Key  West, 
where  he  died  of  yellow  fever.  He  was  brevetted  ma- 
jor-general in  the  United  States  army  in  1862. 

WOODBURY,  Levi,  was  born  at  Francistown, 
N.  H.,  December  22,  1789,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  New  Hampshire  in  1812.  He  became  a leader 
of  the  Democratic  party  of  his  State,  was  appointed  to 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  State  in  1816,  elected  governor 
in  1823,  speaker  of  the  State  House  of  Representatives 
1825,  and  served  in  the  United  States  Senate  from  1825 
to  1831.  He  was  secretary  of  the  navy  in  1831,  and 
secretary  of  the  treasury  from  1834  to  1841.  Again 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1841,  he  served 
until  1845,  when  he  was  appointed  an  associate  justice 
of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court.  He  died  at 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  September  7,  1851. 

WOODHOUSE,  James,  an  American  scientist,  was 
born  at  Philadelphia,  November  17,  1770,  and  in  1787 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  where 
he  continued  until  1792,  engaged  in  the  study  of 
medicine.  In  1795  he  was  appointed  professor  of  chem- 
istry at  his  alma  mater,  and  remained  in  that  position 
until  his  death,  June  4,  1809.  He  is  the  author  of 
many  medical  and  scientific  works,  but  is  best  known 
as  the  chemist  who  first  established  the  fact  that  the 
Pennsylvania  anthracite  coal  was  superior  for  fuel  pur- 
poses to  the  bituminous  coal  of  Virginia. 

WOODS,  Sir  Albert  William,  F.S.A.,  was  born 
in  1816;  entered  the  College  of  Arms  as  portcullis  pur- 
suivant in  1838,  was  appointed  Lancaster  herald  in  1841, 
and  became  registrar  of  the  college  in  April,  1866.  He 
was  advanced  to  the  office  of  garter  principal  king-at- 
arms,  October  25,  1869,  in  succession  to  Sir  Charles 
George  Young,  deceased,  and  received  the  honor  of 
knighthood  on  the  nth  of  the  following  month.  He 
holds  the  office  of  registrar  and  secretary  to  the  Order  of 
the  Bath,  registrar  to  the  Order  of  the  Star  of  India,  and 
king-at-arms  to  that  of  St.  Michael  and  St.  George. 

WOODS,  Henry,  A.  R.Af,  born  April  23,  1847,  at 
Warrington,  in  Lancashire;  was  educated  at  the  local 
grammar  school,  entered  the  Warrington  School  of  Art 
as  a pupil  at  nine  years  of  age,  and  remained  there  until 
he  went  to  London,  in  the  winter  of  18^4,  having  ob- 
tained a “ National  Scholarship  ” in  the  \rt  Training 
Schools  at  South  Kensington.  When  the  Graphic  was 
started,  Mr.  Woods  was  one  of  the  first  members 
of  its  staff.  His  first  picture  exhibited  at  the  Royal 
Academy  was  a little  landscape,  at  the  first  exhibition 
held  at  Burlington  house.  Since  then  he  has  been  a 
regular  exhibitor.  In  1876  Mr.  Woods  first  went  to 
Venice,  and  joined  the  group  of  artists  who  have  made 
modern  Venetian  subjects  so  popular.  He  was  elected 
62-J 


6893 

associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1882.  Since  then, 
Mr.  Woods  has  painted  a considerable  collection  of 
works  of  art. 

WOODS,  Leonard,  was  born  in  Newbury,  Mass., 
November  24,  1807;  died  in  Boston,  December  24, 
1878.  He  was  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1827, 
and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1830.  At  the 
age  of  twenty-four  years  he  was  assisting  Professor 
Stuart  in  his  commentary  on  the  epistle  to  the  Romans, 
was  aiding  Professor  Robinson  in  editing  the  Biblical 
Repository , and  was  assistant  instructor  of  Hebrew  in 
the  seminary.  From  1834  until  1837  he  was  editor  of 
the  Literary  and  Theological  Review  in  New  York 
city;  became  professor  of  sacred  literature  in  Bangor 
Theological  Seminary  in  1836,  and  was  president  of 
Bowdoin  from  1839  until  1866.  His  writings  and  his 
conversation  were  remarkable  for  the  depth  of  thought 
and  profound  scholarship  they  displayed.  Harvard 
gave  him  the  degree  of  D.  D.  in  1846,  and  Bowdoin  that 
of  LL.D.  in  1866.  Among  his  later  works  was  an 
early  history  of  Maine,  which  he  was  commissioned  to 
write  by  the  legislature  of  that  State. 

WOODS,  William  B.,  was  born  at  Newark,  Ohio, 
August  3,  1824;  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1845, 
studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  practice.  In  1857  he 
was  a member  of  the  Ohio  legislature,  becoming  speaker 
of  that  body  in  1858,  and  when  the  Civil  war  broke 
out  he  entered  the  army  as  an  officer  of  the  76th  regi- 
ment of  Ohio  infantry.  He  fought  at  Shiloh,  and  in 
the  leading  battles  of  that  region,  served  at  Vicksburg 
and  Jackson,  was  with  General  Sherman  on  his  march 
through  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas,  and  retired  from 
the  service  in  1866  a brigadiei -general.  After  the  war 
he  was  identified  with  the  reconstruction  and  the  reor- 
ganization of  Alabama,  and  during  1868  became  State 
chancellor.  In  1869  he  was  appointed  circuit  judge  of 
the  United  States  for  the  fifth  circuit,  and  December  22, 
1880,  was  confirmed  as  associate  justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court.  He  died  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  May  14,  1887. 

WOODWARD,  Aubertine  A.  W.,  anative  of  Penn- 
sylvania, born  in  Montgomery  county,  September  27, 
1841,  and  educated  in  Philadelphia.  She  devoted  her 
attention  to  music  and  languages,  and  became  an  expert 
in  the  translation  of  French,  German,  Scandinavian, 
and  Norwegian  writers,  also  delivering  lectures  on 
foreign  literature.  Her  publications  embrace  English 
versions  of  works  of  fiction,  poetry,  biography,  etc.,  by 
the  leading  writers  of  Continental  Europe. 

WOODWARD,  Joseph  Janvier,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Penn.,  October  30,  1833;  died  near  that 
city,  August  17,  1884.  He  was  graduated  in  the  med- 
ical department  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1853,  an(*  was  subsequently  demonstrator  in  operative 
surgery  at  that  place,  and  clinical  surgical  assistant 
Afterward  he  was  in  charge  of  the  surgical  clinic  of  the 
university.  He  became  assistant  surgeon  in  the  United 
States  army  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war,  and  was 
soon  made  chief  medical  officer  of  the  fifth  division  in  the 
department  of  Northeast  Virginia.  In  May,  1882,  he 
was  assigned  to  the  surgeon -general’s  office  in  Wash- 
ington, where  he  devised  new  methods  of  photomicrog- 
raphy, and  laid  the  foundation  for  extensive  improve- 
ments in  the  construction  of  microscopic  adjectives. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  received  the  brevets  of  cap- 
tain, major,  and  lieutenant-colonel,  was  commissioned 
captain  and  assistant  surgeon,  July  28, 1866,  and  surgeon, 
with  the  rank  of  major,  June  26,  1876.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Medical  Association  and  of  the 
Philosophical  Society  of  Washington,  and  he  wrote  the 
Medical  and  Surgical  History  of  the  IVar . 

WOOD  vVC/RTH,  Samuel,  poet,  born  in  Scituate, 
Mass..  Tanuary  13,  1785;  died  in  New  York  city,  Decern- 


WOO-WOR 


6894 


ber  9, 1842.  He  received  an  ordinary  education,  and  at  the 
age  of  seventeen  was  apprenticed  to  a printer.  Soon  after- 
ward he  went  to  New  Haven,  Conn. , and  in  1809  he  re- 
moved to  New  York  city.  In  i8i6he  contracted  to  write  a 
historic  romance,  entitled  The  Champions  of  Freedom, 
and  in  1823,  in  connection  with  George  P.  Morris,  he 
established  the  weekly  New  York  Mirror.  After  a 
year’s  trial  he  withdrew  from  this  paper,  and  in  1827 
edited  a short-lived  publication,  The  Parthenon.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  plays,  which  became  popular. 
Later  in  life  he  became  impoverished  and  paralyzed. 

WOOL,  John  Ellis,  soldier,  born  in  Newburg, 
N.  Y.,  February  20,  1784;  died  in  Troy,  N.  Y.,  No- 
vember 10,  1869.  In  the  war  of  1812  he  entered  the 
army  as  captain  of  volunteers,  and  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Queenstown  Heights,  where  he  was  wounded. 
In  1813  he  was  promoted  for  gallantry  at  Plattsburg 
to  be  brevet  lieutenant-colonel,  and,  on  June  25,  1841, 
he  was  made  brigadier-general  of  the  United  States 
army.  At  Buena  Vista  he  was  second  in  command 
under  Gen.  Zachary  Taylor,  and  for  meritorious  conduct 
on  that  occasion  was  brevetted  major-general,  February 
23,  1847.  From  1848  to  1853  he  commanded  the 
eastern  military  division,  and  from  1854  to  1857  that  of 
the  department  of  the  Pacific.  In  i860  he  commanded 
the  department  of  the  East,  and  on  May  16,  1862,  be- 
came major-general  of  the  United  States  army.  He 
was  retired  from  active  service  August  1,  1863. 

WOOLMAN,  John,  Quaker  preacher,  was  born  in 
Northampton,  Burlington  county,  N.  J.,  in  August, 
1720;  died  in  York,  England,  October  7,  1772.  He 
learned  the  trade  of  a tailor,  which  he  used  as  a meS.ns 
of  support  while  traveling,  and  preaching  among  the 
'Various  societies  of  F riends  throughout  the  colonies.  He 
spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  as  an  itinerant 
preacher,  once  making  a tour  of  the  back  settlements  of 
Virginia,  and  later  visiting  the  Indians  on  the  Susque- 
hannah  river.  He  spoke  and  wrote  much  against 
slavery.  In  1772  he  went  to  England  to  attend  a 
quarterly  meeting  of  Friends  at  York,  and  while  there 
fell  a victim  to  smallpox.  Woolman’s  writings  have 
been  much  admired.  Among  his  posthumous  works  is 
The  Journal  of  John  Wooltnar? s Life  and  Travels  in 
Ike  Service  of  the  Gospel,  edited,  with  an  introduction, 
by  John  G.  Whittier.  * 

WOOLNER,  Thomas,  k.A.,  was  born  at  Hadleigh, 
in  Suffolk,  England,  December  17,  1826,  and  received 
his  education  at  Ipswich.  When  thirteen  years  of  age  he 
evinced  a talent  for  sculpture,  and  was  placed  in  the 
studio  of  William  Behnes,  under  whose  guidance  he 
studied  with  great  diligence  for  six  years,  acquiring  re- 
markable skill  as  a sculptor,  and  becoming  an  accom- 
plished draughtsman.  His  first  models  were  of  a poet- 
ical and  historical  character,  attracting  particular 
attention,  and  regarded  as  works  of  great  promise  in  the 
inventive  or  ideal  style  of  sculpture.  Mr.  Woolner 
went  to  Australia  in  1862,  and  during  a residence  of 
nearly  two  years  there  he  modeled  a number  of  char- 
acteristic likenesses  in  medallion.  On  his  return  to 
England  his  first  important  production  was  a life  size 
statue  of  Lwd  Bacon,  for  the  new  museum  at  Ox- 
ford, followed  by  many  pieces,  including  statues  of  dis- 
tinguished men  of  Europe.  He  was  afterward  engaged 
on  a colossal  state  e in  bronze  of  Captain  Cook,  for  the 

fovernment  of  Nc  v South  Wales,  to  be  erected  in 
lyde  Park,  Sydney,  overlooking  Sydney  Harbor.  In 
1871  Mr.  Woolner  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  in  December,  1874,  nominated  a royal 
academician.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Henry  Weekes,  in 
1877,  he  was  appointed  to  succeed  him  as  professor  of 
sculpture  in  the  Royal  Academy.  He  resigned  that 
professorship  in  January,  1 S 79.  Mr.  Woolner  after- 


ward executed  the  recumbent  statue  of  Lord  Frederick 
Cavendish,  now  in  Cartmel  Priory  Church,  and  the 
monument  of  Sir  Edwin  Landseer,  in  the  crypt  of  St. 
Paul’s  Cathedral.  He  published  the  poems  Pygmalion, 
Silenus  and  Tiresias.  He  died  October  7,  1892. 

WOOLSEY,  Theodore  Dwight,  LL.D.,  was 
born  at  New  York,  October  31,  1801 ; studied  the- 
ology at  Princeton;  was  a tutor  in  Yale,  1825-26; 
licensed  to  preach  in  1825,  and  studied  in  Germany, 
1827-30.  In  1831  he  was  elected  professor  of  the 
Greek  language  and  literature  in  Yale  College,  and 
fifteen  years  later  president  of  that  college.  He 
resigned  the  presidency  in  1871,  but  continued  in  the 
faculty.  Besides  many  occasional  orations,  addresses, 
and  essays,  he  published  translations  of  Greek 
plays,  besides  works  of  a legal,  religious,  and  miscel- 
laneous character.  President  Woolsey  was  for  several 
years  one  of  the  regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
and  was  chairman  of  the  American  division  of  the 
committee  on  the  revision  of  the  New  Testament.  He 
died  July  1,  1889. 

WOOSTER,  David,  soldier,  born  in  Stratford, 
Conn.,  March  2,  1710;  died  in  Danbury,  Conn.,  May 
2,  1777-  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1738,  and  in  the 
following  year  entered  the  colonial  army  as  lieutenant ; 
soon  afterward  he  was  made  captain  of  a vessel  built 
and  equipped  for  coast  defense.  In  1745  he  was  a 
captain  in  Col.  Aaron  Burr’s  regiment  in  the  expe- 
dition against  Louisburg.  In  1755  he  was  appointed 
colonel  of  a Connecticut  regiment,  and  during  the 
French  war,  1756  to  1763,  was  promoted  to  be  brig- 
adier-general. In  April,  1775,  he  originated  the  expe- 
dition that  captured  Fort  Ticonderoga,  and  on  the 
organization  of  the  Continental  army  was  appointed  one 
of  the  eight  brigadier-generals,  serving  for  a time  in 
Canada.  Subsequently  he  resigned  from  the  national 
army,  became  major-general  of  the  militia  of  Con- 
necticut, and  commanded  the  forces  in  Danbury  when 
that  place  was  invested  by  the  troops  under  Governor 
William  Try  on,  April  26,  1777.  In  the  ensuing  action 
he  fell,  mortally  wounded  by  a musket  ball. 

WOOLSON,  Constance  Fenimore,  a popular  nov- 
elist, niece  of  James  Fenimore  Cooper,  born  at  Clare- 
mont, N.  H.,  1848.  died  at  Venice,  Italy,  January  23, 
1894.  She  wrote  Castle  Nowhere,  Anne,  For  the  Major, 
East  Angels,  Jupiter  Lights  and  other  stories. 

WORCESTER,  Joseph  Emerson,  philologist,  born 
in  Bedford,  N.  H.,  August  24,  1784;  died  in  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  October  27,  1865.  As  a boy  he  worked 
on  a farm,  and  in  1811  was  graduated  at  Yale.  In  1830 
he  visited  Europe,  and  in  1847  received  the  degree  of 
LL.D.  from  Brown,  which  was  duplicated  by  Dart- 
mouth in  1856.  Doctor  Worcester  delivered  lectures, 
edited  a variety  of  gazetteers,  geographies,  histories,  and 
almanacs,  and  finally  made  a life  work  of  his  Dictionary 
of  the  English  Language. 

WORDEN,  JohnLorimer,  naval  officer,  born  in 
Westchester  county,  N.  Y.,  March  12,  1818,  entered 
thenavy  as  midshipman  January  12,  1835,  and  in  3840 
attended  the  naval  school  at  Philadelphia.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Civil  war  he  was  arrested  by  the  Confed- 
erates and  confined  for  seven  months.  Subsequently  he 
was  exchanged,  ordered  to  superintend  the  completion 
of  John  Ericsson’s  Monitor , and  appointed  to  take  com- 
mand. In  this  vessel  he  left  New  York  hastily,  and 
after  a stormy  and  hazardous  passage,  arrived  at  Hamp- 
ton Roads.  On  March  8th  the  Confederate  iron-clad 
ram  Merrimac  had  destroyed  the  wooden  ships-of-war 
Congress  and  Cumberland,  deeming  herself  invulner- 
able. The  commander  of  the  Monitor  only  reached  there 
in  time  to  hear  the  news,  and  finding  the  Minnesota 
aground  on  the  shoal,  anchored  alongside,  prepared  tc 


W O R — W R A 


defend  the  wooden  fleet  of  the  government  from  further 
disaster.  On  March  9th  the  Confederate  ram  prepared 
to  destroy  the  Minnesota,  but  when  she  had  approached 
within  a mile  the  Monitor  steamed  forth  to  intercept 
her  progress.  In  the  ensuing  action  the  Merrimac's 
broadsides  glanced  off  from  the  turret  of  the  Monitor, 
while  every  one  of  the  latter’s  deliberate  broadsides 
took  effect  on  the  Confederate  vessel.  This  cannonade 
continued  for  more  than  two  hours,  and  ended  in  a 
drawn  battle.  Later  Worden  destroyed  the  Confeder- 
ate privateer  Nashville,  which  had  taken  shelter  under 
the  guns  of  Fort  McAllister,  and  took  part  in  the  attack 
on  the  forts  of  Charleston  harbor  under  Admiral 
Dupont.  On  May  27,  1868,  he  was  promoted  commo- 
dore, and  from  1870  to  1874  he  served  as  superintend- 
ent of  the  United  States  Naval  Academy.  He  was 
commissioned  rear  admiral,  November  20,  1872,  and 
December  23,  1886,  was  retired  at  his  own  request. 

WORDSWORTH,  Rev.  Charles,  D.D.  and 
D.C.L.,  bishop  of  St.  Andrews,  Dunkeld,  and  Dun- 
blane, born  in  1806;  was  educated*  at  Harrow  and  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  took  the  degree  of 
B.A.  in  1830.  In  1835  he  was  selected  second  master 
of  Winchester  College,  but  resigned  in  1845,  and  ac- 
cepted in  1846  the  appointment  of  first  warden  of 
Trinity  College,  Glenalmond,  Perthshire,  which  he  held 
for  seven  years.  In  1852  he  was  elected  bishop  of  the 
united  dioceses  of  St.  Andrews,  Dunkeld,  and  Dun- 
blane, and  at  the  installation  of  the  late  Earl  of  Derby 
as  chancellor,  in  1853,  was  admitted  to  the  honorary 
degree  of  D.C.L.  by  the  University  of  Oxford.  In  1854 
he  resigned  the  wardenship  of  Glenalmond,  and  after- 
ward devoted  himself  exclusively  to  the  duties  of  the 
episcopate,  taking  an  active  part  in  the  affairs  of  the 
Scottish  Episcopal  Church.  He  was  one  of  the  New 
Testament  company  for  the  revision  of  the  authorized 
version  of  the  Bible,  and  his  published  works  are 
chiefly  of  a theological  character.  In  1885  he  re- 
ceived the  honorary  degree  of  D.D.  from  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  on  occasion  of  the  grand  tercentenary 
festival,  and  also  from  the  University  of  St.  Andrews 
in  the  same  year.  He  died  December  4,  1892. 

WORDSWORTH,  John,  D.D.,  bishop  of  Salis- 
bury, was  born  at  Harrow,  September  21,  1843,  and 
educated  at  Winchester  School  and  at  New  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in  1865.  He  was  ap- 
pointed prebendary  of  Lincoln  in  1870,  select  preacher 
at  Oxford  1876,  Bampton  lecturer  1881,  Oriel  professor 
of  the  interpretation  of  holy  scripture  1883,  and  canon 
of  Rochester  in  the  same  year.  On  the  death  of  Doctor 
Moberley  in  1885,  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Salisbury. 
Doctor  Wordsworth  is  the  author  of  several  elaborate 
articles  in  the  Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography,  and 
books  of  a religious  and  semi-religious  character. 

WORK,  Henry  C.,  an  American  composer  and 
musician,  is  a native  of  Connecticut,  and  was  born  at 
Middletown,  in  that  State,  October  I,  1832.  He  was 
educated  in  Illinois,  but  served  an  apprenticeship  to 
the  printing  trade  in  his  native  State,  where  he  became 
prominent  as  the  author  of  war  songs,  which  attained 
to  remarkable  popularity,  notably  Kingdom  Coming, 
Marching  Through  Georgia,  etc.  He  made  a fortune 
from  his  compositions,  but  lost  it  by  bad  investments, 
and,  in  1875,  sought  to  recoup  his  losses  as  composer 
for  Root  & Cady,  music  publishers.  He  died  at  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  June  8,  1884. 

WORMS,  Baron  Henry  de,  M.P.  for  East  Tox- 
teth  division  of  Liverpool,  was  born  in  London,  Octo- 
ber 20,  1840;  educated  in  Paris,  and  at  King’s  College, 
London,  of  whichhe  is  a fellow.  He  was  called  to  the 
bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  in  June,  1863,  and  practiced 
as  a barrister  for  about  three  years.  In  1880  he  became 


6895 

Conservative  member  for  Greenwich ; successfully  con- 
tested East  Toxteth,  in  1885  ; was  returned  unopposed 
in  1886,  and  reelected  in  1892.  He  was  parliamentary 
secretary  to  the  Board  of  Trade,  1885-86,  and  1886-88, 
and  under  secretary  of  State  for  the  colonies,  1888-92, 
and  an  active  and  effective  debater.  He  is  the  author 
of  The  Earth  and  its  Mechanism , England's  Policy  in 
the  East,  and  The  Austro- Hungarian  Empire . 

WORTH,  Charles  Frederick,  born  at  Bourn, 
England,  went  to  Paris  in  1846,  began  making  cos- 
tumes, and  achieved  great  success  as  a designer  of 
fashions,  his  establishment  in  the  Rue  de  la  Paix  be- 
coming the  first  emporium  for  the  latest  Paris  fashions. 
M.  Worth  employed  a thousand  persons,  and  was  for 
years  the  dictator  of  fashion  to  royalty  and  wealth, 
being  in  his  sphere  an  absolute  despot.  Queens  and 
princesses  who  asked  his  services  had  to  accept  his 
ideas.  He  died  March  11,  1894. 

WORTPI,  Thomas,  born  at  New  York  city,  Feb- 
ruary 12,  1834,  educated  himself  in  the  arts  of  design- 
ing and  drawing  on  wood;  illustrated  an  edition  of 
Plutarch  Restored,  in  1862,  and  works  of  prominent 
authors.  He  is  a noted  caricaturist. 

WORTH,  William  Jenkins,  soldier,  born  in 
Hudson,  N.  Y.,  March  I,  1794;  died  in  San  Antonio, 
Tex.,  May  17,  1849.  In  the  war  of  1812  he  was  suc- 
cessively commissioned  first  lieutenant  of  infantry, 
captain  and  major;  became  superintendent  of  the 
United  States  Military  Academy,  fought  in  the  Florida 
war,  and  in  the  war  with  Mexico;  took  part  in  all  en- 
gagements from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  City  of  Mexico, 
being  brevetted  major-general  for  his  services  at  Mon- 
terey. After  the  war  he  commanded  the  Department 
of  Texas. 

WORTHEN,  Amos  Henry,  geologist,  was  born  in 
Bradford,  Vt.,  October  31,  1813  ; died  in  Warsaw,  111., 
May  6,  1888.  In  1836  he  settled  in  Warsaw,  where  he 
engaged  in  business,  and  at  the  same  time  studied  the 
geological  features  of  that  region.  He  withdrew  from 
business  in  1842  and  spent  two  years  in  Boston,  where 
he  exchanged  a collection  of  minerals  for  a cabinet  of 
sea  shells.  By  comparing  these  with  his  fossil  speci- 
mens he  afterward  became  an  expert  paleontologist. 
Returning  to  Warsaw  he  greatly  increased  his  cabinet 
of  specimens,  and,  in  1851,  he  became  assistant  on  the 
newly-established  geological  survey  of  Illinois.  From 
1855  until  1858  he  held  a similar  office  in  the  survey  of 
Iowa,  and  was  then  appointed  State  geologist  of  Illi- 
nois. In  1877  he  was  made  curator  of  the  State  His- 
torical Library  and  Natural  History  Museum,  which 
office  he  held  until  his  death.  Mr.  Worthen  was  a 
member  of  several  scientific  bodies,  and  in  1872  was 
elected  to  the  National  Academy  of  Science. 

WORTHINGTON,  George,  LL.D.,  a Protestanc 
Episcopal  bishop  of  the  U nited  States ; born  at  Lennox, 
Mass.,  October  14,  1848;  graduated  at  Hobart  Col- 
lege in  i860,  and  three  years  later  at  the  general 
Theological  Seminary,  New  York.  He  was  ordained 
minister  in  1864,  and  became  assistant  rector  at  St. 
Paul’s  Church,  Troy,  going  thence,  as  rector,  to  Christ 
Church,  Ballston,  Spa,  in  the  same  State,  and  finally  to 
St.  John’s  Church,  at  Detroit,  Mich.  Being  refused 
an  election  as  bishop  of  Michigan,  he  declined  the 
missionary  bishopric  of  Shanghai,  China,  but  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Nebraska,  February  24,  1885. 
Hobart  College  conferred  the  degree  of  D.D.  in  1876, 
and  LL.D.  in  1885. 

WRANGEL,  Charles  Magnus  von,  clergyman, 
born  in  Sweden,  about  1730;  died  in  Sala,  Sweden,  in 
1786.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Upsala; 
in  1857  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  Gottingen 
University,  and  became  court  preacher.  In  1759  he 


WRA-WRI 


6896 

was  appointed  provost  ot  Swedish  churches  in  Amer- 
ica, and  in  the  same  year  arrived  in  Philadelphia, 
Penn.  After  nine  years’  service  Doctor  Wrangel  re- 
turned to  Sweden,  serving  to  the  end  of  his  life  as  a 
pastor  at  Sala. 

WRANGELL,  Ffrdinand  Petrovitch,  Baron 
VON,  navigator,  born  in  Pleskau,  Russia,  December  29, 
1796;  died  in  Dorpat,  Russia,  June  10,  1870.  He  was 
educated  at  a military  school  in  St.  Petersburg,  and 
entered  the  Russian  naval  service  in  1812.  In  1825  he 
circumnavigated  the  globe,  and  on  his  return  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Russian  America.  In  1834  he 
returned  home,  and  in  1837  was  promoted  rear-admiral, 
and  in  1847  became  vice-admiral.  Resigning  in  1849, 
he  assumed  the  presidency  of  the  newly  organized 
Russian  American  company,  and,  as  such,  opposed 
the  cession  of  Alaska  to  the  United  States,  writing  sev- 
eral articles  on  the  subject.  In  1854  he  reentered  active 
service,  becoming  successively  chief  assistant  to  the 
high -admiral,  admiral,  and  general  aide-de-camp  to  the 
emperor.  He  published  works  which  have  appeared  in 
the  English,  German,  French,  and  Russian  languages. 

WRIGHT,  Arthur  W.,  Ph.D.,  an  American  sci- 
entist and  educator,  was  born  in  Lebanon,  Conn.,  Sep- 
tember 8,  1836,  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1859,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1866.  He  subsequently 
became  a tutor  at  Yale,  going  thence  to  Williams  Col- 
lege in  1868,  as  professor  of  physics  and  chemistry, 
but  returning  to  Yale  in  1872  to  accept  a similar  posi- 
tion, where  he  has  since  remained.  He  has  made  a 
number  of  important  astronomical  discoveries,  and 
written  much  on  scientific  topics.  He  is  a member  of 
the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  and  a National 
Academician. 

WRIGHT,  Carroll  D.,  statistician,  born  at  Dun- 
barton, N.  H.,  July25, 1840,  served  in  the  Union  army, 
becoming  colonel;  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1865  ; was 
chief  of  the  Massachusetts  bureau  of  labor  statistics, 
1873-88,  and  became  first  United  States  commissioner 
of  labor  in  the  Interior  Department  in  1884.  He  has 
published  reports  of  Massachusetts  censuses,  statistics 
of  labor,  The  Factory  System,  of  the  United  States 
(1882),  Convict  Labor  (1886),  Strikes  and  Lock-outs 
(1887),  and  The  Relation  of  Economic  Conditions  to  the 
Causes  of  Crime  (1893). 

WRIGHT,  Elizur,  was  born  in  South  Canaan, 
Conn.,  February  12,  1804;  died  in  Medford.  Mass., 
November  21,  1885.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1826,  and  three  years  later  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics and  natural  philosophy  in  Western  Reserve 
College,  Hudson,  Ohio.  He  was  made  secretary  of 
the  American  Anti-Slavery  Society  which  was  formed 
in  Philadelphia  in  December,  1833,  and,  removing  to 
New  York,  he  assisted  in  editing  The  Emancipator. 
Between  that  time  and  1838  he  successively  conducted 
a paper  called  Human  Rights,  and  the  Quarterly  Anti- 
Slavery  Magazine , and  in  1839  became  editor  of  the 
Massachusetts  Abolitionist  in  Boston.  In  1846  he  es- 
tablished the  Chronotype , a daily  newspaper  which  was 
merged  in  the  Commonwealth  in  1850.  Mr.  Wright’s 
house  was  once  besieged  by  a mob  on  account  of  his 
anti-slavery  sentiments.  He  was  several  times  indicted 
for  libel  in  consequence  of  his  editorial  strictures  on  the 
liquor  interests,  and  once,  in  1851,  for  aiding  a runaway 
slave  to  escape.  Later  in  life  he  gave  his  attention  to 
invention  and  mechanics,  and  to  insurance  interests. 
He  aided  in  forming  the  Liberty  party  in  1840. 

WRIGHT,  Fanny,  reformer,  born  in  Dundee, 
Scotland;  died  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  December  14,  1852. 
From  1818  to  1820  she  traveled  in  the  United  States, 
and  on  her  return  to  Europe  published  Views  of 
Society  and  Manners  in  America.  She  then  spent 


| some  time  in  Paris  and  in  1825  returned  to  America 
rud purchased  2,400  acres  of  land  near  Memphis,  Tenn., 
where  she  endeavored  to  establish  a colony  of  emanci 
pated  slaves.  However,  her  plans  miscarried,  and  the 
negroes  in  the  colony  were  afterward  sent  to  Hayti. 
Later  she  became  associated  with  Robert  Dale  Owen  in 
New  Harmony,  Ind.,  edited  the  Gazette , and  also 
lectured  on  behalf  of  the  colony.  In  1838  Fanny 
Wright  went  to  France,  where  she  was  married  to  M. 
d’Arusmont,  from  whom  she  soon  separated,  and,  with 
her  daughter,  permanently  settled  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
living  in  retirement.  Her  publications  include  a num- 
ber of  miscellaneous  works. 

WRIGHT,  George  F.,  was  born  at  Whitehall, 
N.  Y.,  January  22,  1838,  graduated  at  Oberlin  College 
in  1859,  and  from  the  theological  department  of  that 
institution  in  the  summer  of  1862.  He  was  ordained  in 
September,  1863,  became  pastor  of  the  Congregational 
church  at  Bakersfield,  Vt.,  and  in  1872  took  charge 
of  a church  at  Andover,  Mass.  In  1881  he  became 
professor  of  languages  and  literature  in  the  seminary  at 
that  place.  He  served  on  the  geological  survey  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  since  1884  has  been  in  the  employ  of 
the  United  States,  in  the  department  of  glacial  geology 
in  the  government  survey.  He  has  published  works  on 
religious  and  geological  subjects. 

WRIGHT,  Horatio  G.,  born  at  Clinton,  Conn., 
March  6,  1820;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841,  and 
was  assistant  professor  of  engineering  at  the  Military 
Academy  until  1845.  From  that  date,  up  to  1861,  he 
served  in  the  engineer  corps.  He  planned  a portion  of 
the  defenses  of  Washington,  and  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  receiving  promotion  to  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  September  following. 
He  participated  in  the  campaign  which  resulted  in  the 
capture  of  Hilton  Head,  S.  C.,  and  in  1863  was  in 
command  of  the  department  of  Ohio,  whence  he  was 
ordered  to  Virginia  and  promoted  colonel  of  the  regu- 
lar army.  He  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  sixth 
corps  upon  the  death  of  General  Sedgwick,  in  1864, 
repulsed  the  advance  upon  Washington  of  General 
Early’s  army  the  same  year,  and  was  engaged  in  nearly 
all  the  battles  in  Virginia  from  that  time  until  the 
close  of  the  war.  He  was  promoted  through  the 
grades  of  lieutenant-colonel  and  colonel  to  be  chief  of 
engineers  with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  of  the 
United  States  army,  and  was  retired  from  service 
March  22,  1884.  He  died  July  2,  1899. 

WRIGHT,  Joseph,  portrait  painter,  born  in 
Bordentown,  N.  J.,  in  1756;  died  in  Philadelphia, 
Penn.,  in  1793-  In  1772  he  went  to  England  with  his 
parents,  and  there  studied  the  art  of  design,  devot- 
ing himself  particularly  to  portrait  painting.  From 
London  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  was  patronized  by 
Benjamin  Franklin.  In  1 783  he  painted  a three-quarters 
length  portrait  of  Gen.  George  Washington,  made  a 
duplicate  thereof,  and  also  executed  a miniature  profile 
from  life.  Later,  President  Washington  appointed  him 
first  draughtsman  and  die-sinker  in  the  United  States 
mint.  The  earliest  coins  and  medals  issued  by  the 
United  States  Government  were  from  his  designs. 

WRIGHT,  Luther,  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in 
November,  1796,  and  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1822.  He  became  a tutor  at  that  institution,  principal 
of  the  Leicester,  Mass.,  Academy,  and  taught  in  vari- 
ous portions  of  that  State  and  in  Connecticut.  He  died 
at  Easthampton,  Mass.,  September  5,  1870. 

WRIGHT,  Sir  James,  colonial  governor,  born  in 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  about  1714;  died  in  London,  Eng- 
land, November  20,  1785-  On  May  13,  1760*  he  be- 
came chief-justice  and  lieutenant-governor  of  South 
Carolina,  and  in  1764  was  made  governor  of  Georgia. 


w RI-WYN 


In  his  proclamations  he  recommended  the  people  to 
submit  to  the  royal  authority,  but  they  had  little  effect 
in  tranquilizing  the  discontented,  and  in  1768  Governor 
Wright  charged  the  assembly  with  revolutionary  con- 
duct, and  dismissed  it.  In  1775  several  British  ships- 
of-war  arrived  in  Tybee,  when  a mob  endeavored  to 
capture  the  governor,  but  he  escaped  to  find  refuge  on 
the  armed  ship  Scarborough.  On  the  termination  of 
the  war  his  extensive  possessions  were  confiscated. 
He  returned  to  England,  where  he  was  indemnified 
for  his  losses,  and  created  a baronet. 

WRIGHT,  William,  LL.D.,  born  in  India,  presi- 
dency of  Bengal,  January  17,  1830,  was  educated  at 
St.  Andrew’s,  Scotland,  and  Halle,  Prussia.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  Arabic  in  University  College, 
London,  in  1855;  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1856; 
assistant  in  the  department  of  MSS.  in  the  British 
Museum  in  1861 ; assistant  keeper  of  the  MSS.  in  1869 ; 
professor  of  Arabic  in  the  University  of  Cambridge  in 
1870.  He  was  a fellow  of  Queen’s  College,  Cambridge ; 
LL.D.  of  Cambridge,  Dublin,  Edinburgh,  St.  An- 
drews; D.D.  of  Jena;  and  Ph.D.  of  Leyden;  corre- 
spondent del’Institute  de  France;  corresponding  mem- 
ber of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  St.  Petersburg,  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Berlin,  the  Konigl  Gesselschaft  der 
Wissenschaften  of  Gottingen,  and  the  Reale  Instituto 
Lombardo ; honorary  member  of  the  Deutsche  Morgen- 
landische  Gesellschaft,  of  the  American  Oriental  Soci- 
ety, and  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal.  He  was  a 
voluminous  writer  on  travel,  languages,  etc.,  and  pub- 
lished a large  number  of  books.  He  died  May  22,  1889. 

WULLERSTORF  (Baron),  born  at  Trieste,  Janu- 
ary 29,  1816,  entered  the  College  of  Pioneers,  at  Tulin, 
near  Vienna,  and  became  in  1833  a cadet  in  the  Imperial 
navy.  He  studied  astronomy  under  the  celebrated  Von 
Littrow  ; was  appointed  in  1839  director  of  the  Nauti- 
cal Observatory  at  Venice,  and  was  decorated  with  the 
Iron  Cross.  In  1849  he  was  appointed  commodore; 
organized  the  naval  academy,  and  in  April,  1857,  he 
took  command  of  the  Novara , commissioned  for  a tour 
of  scientific  observation.  He  returned  home  in  1859; 
attained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1861,  and  was  sent 
to  Vienna  as  representative  of  th  e navy  in  the  Reichsrath. 
In  the  following  winter  he  visited  Switzerland,  Ger- 
many, France,  Belgium,  and  Holland,  in  order  to  study 
new  inventions  in  shipbuilding  and  iron  manufactories. 
Upon  his  return  he  was  appointed  admiral  of  the  port 
of  Venice,  and  in  1864  commander-in-chief  of  the  allied 
fleets  in  the  German  Ocean.  When  the  war  was  over 
he  retired  to  Gratz,  in  Styria,  and  was  appointed  min- 
ister of  commerce.  He  died  August  10,  1883. 

WURTELE,  J.  S.  C.,  D.C.L.,  was  born  January 
27,  1828,  near  Quebec,  Canada,  and  was  educated  at 
the  public  schools  of  that  city.  In  1850  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  and  for  many  years  occupied  the  chair 
of  commercial  law  in  McGill  University,  becoming 
queen’s  counsel  in  1873,  and  a member  of  the  legisla- 
ture during  the  sessions  of  1875,  1878,  1881,  and  1882, 
also  treasurer  of  the  province  in  the  latter  year.  At 
the  sessions  of  1884  and  1885  he  was  chosen  speaker. 
He  was  made  a B.C.L.  by  McGill  University  in  1872; 
D.C.L.  by  the  same  institution  in  1882,  and  an  officer 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor  the  same  year. 

WURTZ,  Charles  Adolphus,  an  eminent  scien- 
tist, was  born  in  Strasburg,  Alsace,  November  26, 
1817,  graduating  at  the  university  in  that  city  in  June, 
1843,  and  thereafter  devoted  his  time  to  the  study  of 
chemistry  and  cognate  subjects.  Soon  after  obtaining 
his  university  degree,  Wurtz  became  a resident  of 
Paris,  and  in  1850  accepted  the  chair  of  chemistry  in 
the  Institute  of  Versailles.  In  1875  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor in  the  Parisian  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  was 


6897 

the  author  of  a large  number  of  works  on  chemistry, 
and  made  frequent  discoveries  of  an  important  charac- 
ter in  his  investigations  into  that  science.  He  died 
May  11,  1884. 

WURTZ,  Henry,  an  American  chemist,  was  born 
June  5,  1828,  at  Easton,  Penn.,  and  graduated  at 
Princeton  in  1848.  He  afterward  studied  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  and  attended  a course  of  lectures  at  the 
Lawrence  Scientific  School  in  that  city.  Subsequently 
he  was  employed  by  the  State  of  New  Jersey  to  ac- 
company the  geological  survey  of  the  State  in  the  ca- 
pacity of  chemist.  He  also  served  as  professor  of  that 
science  in  colleges  at  Kingston,  Canada,  and  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  and  his  investigations  and  study  have 
accomplished  results  of  significant  consequence.  He 
has  otherwise  served  professionally,  and  is  the  author 
of  numerous  articles  on  chemistry  which  have  been 
published  in  the  scientific  periodicals  and  cyclopaedias 
of  the  United  States  and  Europe. 

WYLDE,  Henry,  Mus.D.  Cantab.,  Gresham  pro- 
fessor, was  born  at  Bushy,  England,  May  22,  1822, 
and  entered  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music.  In  1850 
Doctor  Wylde  took  his  degree  as  doctor  of  music  at 
the  University  of  Cambridge.  In  1851  he  was  ap- 
pointed a juror  at  the  Great  International  Exhibition 
of  that  year,  and  in  1852  founded  the  New  Philhar- 
monic Society.  In  1863  Doctor  Wylde  was  appointed 
by  the  lord  mayor,  aldermen,  and  members  of  the 
Gresham  committee,  one  of  the  seven  professors  of 
Gresham  College.  While  conductor  of  the  New  Phil- 
harmonic concerts,  Doctor  Wylde  produced  his  music 
to  Paradise  Lost,  the  cantata  entitled  Prayer  and  Praise, 
his  pianoforte  concerts  in  F minor,  and  some  vocal  music. 
He  also  published  works  on  the  science  of  music,  and 
on  counterpoint.  He  died  March  21,  1890. 

WYMAN,  Jeffries,  anatomist,  born  in  Chelms- 
ford, Mass.,  August  11,  1814;  died  in  Bethlehem,  N. 
H.,  September  4,  1874.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1833,  studied  medicine,  and  took  the  degree  of  M.D. 
in  1837,  and  afterward  went  to  Europe  to  extend  his 
studies.  In  1843  he  was  a professor  in  Hampden  Col- 
lege, Richmond,  Va.,  and  in  1847  at  Harvard.  Sub- 
sequently he  made  extensive  journeys  in  North  and 
South  America,  Europe,  and  Asia.  From  1856  to  1870 
he  was  president  of  the  Boston  N ational  History  Society, 
and  on  the  founding  of  the  Peabody  Museum,  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  in  1866,  was  chosen  its  curator.  He 
belonged  to  scientific  societies  in  Europe  and  America, 
issued  sundry  pamphlets  on  natural  history,  con- 
tributed many  papers  to  scientific  publications,  and  ex- 
posed several  frauds  attempted  in  comparative  anatomy. 

WYMAN,  Robert  H.,  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  July  12,  1822;  entered  the 
navy,  and  graduated  at  the  academy  in  1843.  During 
the  Mexican  war  he  participated  in  the  siege  and  cap- 
ture of  Vera  Cruz,  and  in  nearly  all  the  naval  engage- 
ments subsequently  occurring  until  peace  was  de- 
clared. Prior  to  the  Civil  war  he  was  employed  in 
routine  services,  but  in  1861  was  assigned  to  active 
duty.  He  was  attached  to  the  South  Atlantic  squad- 
ron, blockading  the  Southern  ports,  and  figured  promi- 
nently in  the  capture  of  Port  Royal,  S.  C.  Pie  after- 
ward served  as  commander  of  the  fleet  employed  in 
keeping  the  Potomac  free  from  obstructions,  and,  after 
the  war,  as  a member  of  the  light-house  board.  He 
was  promoted  through  the  various  grades  of  lieutenant, 
commander,  captain,  commodore,  and  rear-admiral, 
and  died  at  Washington  city,  December  2,  1882. 

WYNDHAM,  Charles,  a noted  English  comedian, 
was  born  in  Suffolk,  in  1841.  Receiving  a good  educa- 
tion, he  studied  medicine,  and  at  a very  early  age  began 
practice.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war  he  came  to 


w Y N — X U A 


6898 

the  United  States  and  entered  the  army  as  a surgeon. 
Wyndham,  from  boyhood,  had  a liking  for  theatric- 
als, and  had  been  pronounced  an  excellent  amateur. 
After  his  return  to  England  he  soon  developed  as  a 
first-class  actor,  and  played  his  first  public  engage- 
ment in  London  with  Laura  Keene.  It  is  a little  re- 
markable that  Wyndham  and  Irving,  in  view  of  their 
after  careers,  should  have  had  such  decided  ideas  as 
to  the  line  of  work  for  which  they  were  adapted.  Irv- 
ing in  his  early  days  imagined  he  would  make  the  come- 
dian of  the  age,  while  Charles  Wyndham  believed  he 
was  cut  out  for  tragedy  roles.  Irving  has  developed 
into  a high  mark  tragedian,  while  Wyndham’s  comedy 
is  pronounced  unexcelled.  Mr.  Wyndham,  once  started 
in  the  thespian  art,  made  rapid  progress.  He  has 
played  with  all  the  great  lights  in  the  Old  World  and 
soon  became  the  manager  of  the  Criterion  theater  in 
London.  He  has  made  a number  of  professional  tours 
of  the  United  States,  each  time  adding  to  the  good 
reputation  already  won. 

WYNKOOP,  Henry,  a distinguished  patriot  and 
member  of  the  continental  congress  from  Pennsylvania, 
was  born  in  that  State  during  1737,  and,  during  the  ex- 
citing days  that  preceded  and  accompanied  the  Revolu- 
tionary struggle,  was  a member  of  the  general  com- 
mittee of  safety,  and  of  other  committees  on  the  conduct 
of  the  war.  He  was  elected  to  the  Continental  con- 
gress in  1779,  and  twice  reelected,  also  serving  at  the 
sessions  of  the  United  States  congress  convened  in 
1789  and  1791.  He  died  in  Bucks  county,  Penn.,  Oc- 
tober 24,  1812. 

WYNN,  Richard,  a soldier  of  the  Revolution, 
born  in  Virginia  in  1749,  entered  the  patriot  army  as  a 


young  man  and  served  throughout  the  war.  He  was 
promoted  from  the  ranks  to  various  official  positions, 
becoming  brigadier- general  at  the  close  of  hostilities. 
He  subsequently  settled  in  South  Carolina,  where  he 
was  elected  to  congress  and  served  as  a representative 
until  his  death  in  1813. 

WYNNS,  Thomas,  was  born  in  North  Carolina 
in  1764,  and  entered  the  colonial  army  upon  the 
declaration  of  war  with  the  mother  country.  In  1780 
he  was  taken  prisoner  and  conveyed  to  London,  but 
returned  at  the  close  of  the  war  and  renewed  his  resi- 
dence in  North  Carolina.  He  was  a member  of  the 
convention  by  which  the  constitution  of  1788  was 
adopted,  and  afterward  served  as  a member  of  congress 
from  1802  to  1807.  He  died  in  Hertford  county,  N. 
C.,  June  3,  1825. 

WYTHE,  George,  born  in  Elizabeth  City  county, 
Va.,  in  1726;  died  in  Richmond,  Va.,  June  8,  1806. 
He  received  his  early  education  at  home,  which  was 
supplemented  by  study  at  William  and  Mary  College. 
At  the  age  of  thirty  he  was  chosen  to  the  House  of 
Burgesses,  where  he  continued  to  serve  until  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Revolution.  In  August,  1775,  he  was 
appointed  a delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress,  and 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He  after- 
ward became  professor  of  law  in  William  and  Mary 
College,  where  he  continued  ten  years.  Later  he  re- 
moved to  Richmond,  and,  toward  the  end  of  his  life, 
emancipated  his  slaves,  furnishing  them  with  the  means 
of  support  until  they  could  care  for  themselves.  In 
1790  William  and  Mary  gave  him  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
He  published  Decisions  in  Virginia  by  the  High  Court 
of  Chancery. 


X, 


XAVIER,  Jerome,  was  born  in  Navarre,  France. 

He  was  a relative  of  Saint  Francis,  and  went  as  a 
missionary  to  Goa  in  1571,  after  which  he  preached  at 
the  court  of  the  Mogul  emperor.  He  died  at  Goa  in 

1617. 

XERES,  Francisco,  a Spanish  historian,  was  born 
about  the  year  1500.  He  became  secretary  to  Pizarro, 
with  whom  he  went  to  Peru  about  1530.  In  1547  he 
published  A True  Account  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru. 

XIMENES,  Augustus  Louis  Marquis  de,  a 
French  poet  of  Spanish  extraction,  was  born  in  Paris 
dn  1726  and  died  in  1815.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Voltaire.  He  wrote  Don  Carlos,  a tragedy,  several 
poems,  and  critical  essays. 

XIMENES,  Carmona  Francisco  de,  a Spanish 
medical  writer,  born  at  Cordova,  near  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

XIMENES,  Francisco,  or  Ximenes  de  Cisneros, 
called  Cardinal  Ximenes,  was  born  at  Torrelaguna 
in  New  Castile  in  1436.  He  was  educated  at  Salamanca 
and  at  Rome.  In  1492  he  was  appointed  confessor  to 
Queen  Isabella,  and  as  archbishop  of  Toledo  in  1495, 
but  was  too  modest  to  accept.  About  1498  he  founded 
the  University  of  Alcala  de  Henases.  He  directed 
the  preparation  of  a Polygot  Bible  in  1502,  called  the 
Complutensian.  On  the  death  of  Philip,  in  1506,  he 
was  appointed  regent  and  guardian  of  Queen  Joanna, 
who  was  an  imbecile.  He  made  the  citizens  of  towns 
form  militiaregiments,  which,  while  itreducedthepower 
of  the  nobles,  promoted  that  of  the  crown.  In  1507 
he  became  cardinal,  and  in  1516  became,  by  the  will  of 
Ferdinand,  regent  of  all  Castile  during  the  absence  of 
King  Charles.  Cardinal  Ximenes  died  Nov.  8,  1517. 
XIMENES,  de  Quesada  (Gonzalo),  a Spanish  ex- 


plorer, born  in  Granada  about  the  year  1495.  He  be- 
gan in  1532  to  explore  the  region  since  called  New 
Granada,  and  in  1538  became  the  founder  of  Santa  Fe 
de  Bogota.  He  died  in  1546. 

XIMENES,  Leonardo,  a Sicilian  astronomer  and 
geometer,  was  born  at  Trapavi,  in  1716,  and  became 
a Jesuit.  He  was  appointed  a professor  of  geography 
at  Florence,  and  by  his  knowledge  of  hydraulics  pre- 
vented much  damage  by  the  overflowing  of  the  rivers. 
Ximenes  wrote  several  works  on  hydraulics,  and  founded 
an  observatory  at  Florence,  where  he  died  in  1785* 

XIMENES,  Pedro,  a theologian,  born  in  Holland 
of  Portuguese  parents,  in  1514,  and  died  in  1595*  He 
wrote  in  Latin  a work  called  Demonstration  of  the 
Catholic  Truth. 

XIMENES,  Rodrigo,  a Spanish  prelate  and 
historian,  who  later  became  Archbishop  of  Toledo. 
He  wrote  a history  of  Spain.  He  died  in  1274. 

XIMENEZ,  Francisco,  a Spanish  missionary,  born 
in  Estremadura  toward  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  died  in  Mexico,  July  31,  1537*  After 
graduating  in  theology  he  entered  the  Franciscan  order, 
in  the  convent  of  San  Gabriel,  in  Estremadura.  He 
came  to  Mexico  in  1523,  with  other  missionaries,  under 
charge  of  Fray  Martin  de  Valencia.  He  made  himself 
familiar  with  the  Mexican  language,  and  was  successful 
as  a missionary  among  the  natives. 

XIMENO,  Vincente,  a Spanish  biographer,  was 
born  at  Valencia  about  1700*  He  published  a history 
of  the  kingdom  of  Valencia. 

XUARES,  Gaspar,  a botanist  and  a member  of  the 
Jesuit  order.  He  was  born  in  Paraguay  in  1731,  and 
died  at  Rome  in  1804. 

XUARES,  Pedro,  Indian  chief,  was  born  in  Mexico 


XUA-YEA. 


about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He 
was  liberally  educated  and  wrote  a manuscript  work  in 
the  Aztec  language  under  the  Spanish  title  of  Memorial 
en  Lengua  Mexicana  Sobre  Cosas  Memorables. 

XUARES,  Roderick,  a Spanish  jurist,  born  at  Sala- 
manca and  lived  in  the  time  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

XYLANDER,  Gulielmus,  or  William,  was  born 
at  Augsburg,  Germany,  in  1532.  He  was  a man  of 


6899 

profound  learning,  and  made  numerous  translations 
from  the  Latin  and  Greek.  In  1558  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  at  Heidelberg.  He  died  in  1576. 

XYLANDER,  von,  Joseph  Karl  August,  was 
born  at  Munich  in  1794,  and  died  in  1854.  He  was  a 
prominent  officer  in  the  German  army,  and  a writer  on 
military  subjects.  He  was  the  author  of  Strategy  and 
its  Application,  and  also  of  a Manual  of  Tactics. 


Y. 


YALE,  Elihu,  philanthropist,  born  near  Boston, 
Mass.,  April  5,  1649;  died  in  England,  July  8, 
1721.  His  father  came  to  New  Haven  from  England  in 
1638,  but  returned  there  in  1651,  followed  by  his  family. 
In  1678  Elihu  went  to  Hindustan  and  acquired  great 
wealth.  Between  1714  and  1721  he  sent  to  the  incipient 
Yale  College  books  and  money  to  the  value  of  $4,000, 
and  on  the  removal  of  the  collegiate  school  from  Say- 
brook  to  New  Haven  it  was  named  “Yale,”  in  his  honor, 
the  name  being  formally  adopted  in  its  charter  of  1745. 

YALE,  Linus,  an  inventor,  was  born  in  Salisbury, 
N.  Y.,  April  4,  1821,  and  died  in  New  York  city, 
December  24,  1868.  As  a youth  Linus  showed  some 
talent  as  a portrait  painter,  but  a fondness  for  mechanics 
drew  him  into  the  field  of  invention.  In  1850  he  de- 
vised the  famous  Yale  lock  upon  which  he  later  im- 
proved. His  first  patent  created  a great  revolution  in 
locks  and  safes,  and  it  was  followed  by  others,  the  flat 
key  being  one  of  the  most  important.  He  also  devised 
the  double  lock  and  made  many  other  inventions. 

YAMAGATA,  Count,  field-marshal  of  the  Japanese 
army  and  one  of  Japan’s  most  brilliant  soldiers.  He 
commanded  the  attacking  forces  at  Ping  Yang,  Sep- 
tember 16,  1894,  where  the  Chinese  were  routed  with 
a loss  of  17,000  men  and  won  other  great  victories. 

YANCEY,  William  Lowndes,  statesman,  born 
in  Ogeechee  Shoals,  Ga.,  August  10,  1814;  died  near 
Montgomery,  Ala.,  July  28,  1863.  He  was  educated 
at  Williams,  studied  law  and  practiced  in  Abbeville, 
S.  C.  In  1836  he  removed  to  Alabama,  and  in  1844 
he  was  sent  to  congress  to  fill  a vacancy,  reelected  in 
1845  for  a full  term,  but  resigned  to  practice  his  pro- 
fession. In  i860,  when  the  Democratic  convention 
was  held  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  he  was  a member,  but 
withdrew  in  company  with  other  uncompromising  ex- 
tremists, and  made  a tour  through  the  North,  East, 
and  West,  speaking  in  New  York  and  Boston,  and 
urging  the  rejection  of  the  Republican  candidate.  In 
the  Alabama  convention,  which  met  at  Montgomery, 
January  7,  1861,  he  reported  the  ordinance  of  secession. 
He  left  New  York  city  in  March,  as  a Confederate 
commissioner,  to  seek  for  recognition  in  Europe,  but 
was  unsuccessful,  and,  returning  in  February,  1862, 
he  was  sent  to  the  Confederate  Senate. 

YATES,  Abraham,  was  born  in  Albany,  August 
23,  1724,  and  died  there  J une  30,  1796.  He  was  an 
active  patriot  during  the  war,  and  from  1777  to  1790 
was  State  senator  of  New  York.  He  was  receiver  of 
Albany  in  1778-79,  and  its  mayor  from  1790  to  1796. 

YATES,  Edmund  Hodgson,  born  in  July,  1831, 
was  for  many  years  chief  of  the  missing  letter  depart- 
ment in  the  English  post  office.  He  wrote  several 
novels  of  merit  and  in  conjunction  with  the  late  Mr.  F. 
E.  Smedley  and  the  late  Mr.  R.  B.  Brough,  he  edited 
Our  Miscellany.  Mr.  Yates,  who  also  wrote  dramas, 
and  was  the  theatrical  critic  of  the  Daily  News  for 
six  years,  edited  the  Temple  Bar  Magazine,  was  the 
first  editor  of  Tinsley's  Magazine,  and  a constant 
contributor  to  All  the  Year  Round.  Mr.  Yates  retired 


from  the  post  office  in  order  to  devote  himself  exclu- 
sively to  literature,  and  in  May,  1873,  he  was  ap- 
pointed London  representative  of  the  New  York 
Herald,  which  post  he  resigned  in  July,  1874,  when  he 
established  The  World  in  London.  In  1884,  Mr. 
Yates  published  two  volumes  of  Personal  Reminiscenses 
and  Experiences,  and  was  the  same  year  indicted  for  a 
libel  on  the  Earl  of  Lonsdale,  and  was  sentenced 
to  four  months’  imprisonment.  He  died  May  20, 
1894. 

YATES,  Peter  W.,  a member  of  the  Continental 
congress,  was  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.  He  was  a lawyer 
and  became  well  known  in  the  courts  of  Albany,  both 
before  and  after  the  Revolution.  He  was  a member  of 
the  committee  on  correspondence  in  1775,  but  resigned 
on  account  of  the  feeling  betrayed  by  some  of  his  col- 
leagues at  a letter  he  wrote  ridiculing  a public  recep. 
tion  given  to  Gen.  Philip  Schuyler. 

YATES,  Richard,  war  governor  of  Illinois,  was 
born  in  Warsaw,  Ky.,  January  18,  1818,  and  died  in 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  November  27,  1873.  He  was  thirteen 
years  of  age  when  his  family  moved  to  Illinois.  He 
graduated  at  Illinois  College,  Jacksonville,  studied 
law,  and  practiced  in  Springfield.  Elected  to  the  State 
legislature  in  1842,  he  was  sent  to  Congress  in  1850, 
being  the  youngest  member  of  that  body.  He  was 
elected  governor  in  i860  and  again  in  1862.  He  was 
an  outspoken  opponent  of  slavery  and  was  very  active 
in  raising  volunteers.  It  was  in  Governor  Yates’ 
office  that  Ulysses  S.  Grant  received  his  first  distinct 
recognition  as  a soldier.  Governor  Yates  was  elected 
United  States  senator  and  served  one  term,  from  1865 
to  1871.  He  died  in  St.  Louis  while  returning  from  a 
visit  to  Arkansas. 

YATES,  Robert,  a noted  jurist  of  the  early  colonial 
days,  was  born  in  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  on  March  17, 
1738,  and  died  in  Albany,  September  9,  1801.  He 
studied  law  under  William  Livingston,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1760.  He  was  a thorough  patriot 
during  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  wrote  some  stirring 
articles  under  the  name  of  “The  Rough  Hewer.” 
Judge  Yates  was  a member  of  the  committee  that 
drafted  the  first  constitution  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
and  in  the  same  year,  1776,  he  became  judge  of  the 
Supreme  Court  and  chief-justice  in  1790.  He  was 
commissioned  to  treat  with  other  States  in  regard  to 
territory,  and  settled  the  claims  of  New  York  against 
the  State  of  Vermont. 

YEAMES,  William  Frederick,  R.  A.,  was  born 
in  December  1835,  at  Taganrog,  on  the  Sea  of  Azoff, 
South  Russia.  He  received  his  first  instruction  in  art 
from  Mr.  George  Scharf,  who  taught  him  drawing  and 
anatomy,  and  in  1852  left  England,  in  order  to  advance 
his  art  education  in  Italy,  studying  at  Florence.  Sub- 
sequently he  spent  eighteen  months  in  Rome,  and  at 
length,  in  1858,  he  returned  to  England.  In  1859  he 
exhibited,  at  the  Royal  Academy,  a portrait  and  Tht 
Staunch  Friends,  a subject-picture  of  a jester  and 
monkey.  In  1861  he  was  represented  there  by  works, 


Y E L — Y O U 


6900 

also  in  1862,  and  thenceforward,  up  to  the  present 
time.  He  was  elected  a royal  academician,  June  19, 
1878. 

YELL,  Archibald,  lawyer,  was  born  in  Kentucky, 
in  1797,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Buena  Vista, 
Mexico,  February  23,  1847.  He  studied,  and  later 
practiced  law  at  Fayetteville,  Ark.  He  was  elected  to 
the  twenty-fourth  congress  and  served  there  until 
March  3,  1839.  He  became  governor  of  Arkansas  and 
held  the  office  from  1840  to  1844.  Once  again  he  was 
elected  to  congress,  butresignedin  1846  to  join  the  army 
in  Mexico.  He  entered  the  service  as  colonel  of  the 
1st  Arkansas  volunteer  cavalry,  and  while  leading  his 
men  at  Buena  Vista  was  killed  by  a Mexican  lan- 
cer. 

YEO,  J.  Burney,  M.D.,  was  born  at  Stonehouse, 
Devonshire,  and  in  1858,  became  a student  in  King’s 
College,  London.  In  1866  he  was  appointed  resident 
medical  tutor  in  King’s  College,  which  post  he  resigned 
in  1871  and  began  practice.  He  was  elected  fellow  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  (1876),  honorary  fel- 
low and  professor  of  Clinical  Therapeutics  in  King’s 
College,  London  (1885),  physician  to  King’s  College 
Hospital.  Doctor  Yeo  has  contributed  abundantly  to 
medical  literature,  and  has  furnished  numerous  lec- 
tures, commentaries,  etc.,  to  the  Lancet,  British 
Medical  Journal,  etc. 

YEWELL,  George  Henry,  artist,  born  in  Havre 
de  Grace,  Md.,  January  20,  1830.  He  studied  at  the 
National  Academy  under  Thomas  Hicks,  and  in  1856 
became  the  pupil  of  Thomas  Couture,  in  Paris.  Yewell 
has  painted  a great  variety  of  pictures,  but  of  late  years 
has  been  engaged  mostly  on  portraits.  He  was  elected 
an  associate  of  the  National  Academy  in  1862. 

YONGE,  Charles  Duke,  M.A.,  born  November, 
1812,  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Oxford,  where  he 
graduated  B.A.  in  1835,  taking  a first  class  degree. 
He  compiled  English  and  Greek  Lexicon,  short  par- 
allel lives  of  Epaminondas,  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
Philip,  and  Frederick  the  Great,  in  imitation  of  Plu- 
tarch’s method,  and  a number  of  historical,  classical, 
and  miscellaneous  publications.  He  died  Dec.  1,  1891. 

YONGE,  Charlotte  Mary,  was  born  in  1823. 
She  is  the  authoress  of  several  works  of  fiction,  in 
which  the  plot  is  made  to  enforce,  in  a plain  and  sober 
manner,  the  doctrines  of  what  is  called  the  High-Church 
school  of  opinion,  most  of  which  have  gone  through 
several  editions,  and  have  been  reprinted  in  a cheap 
form.  Miss  Yonge  has  also  published  a compendium 
©f  universal  history  for  young  people,  with  other  his- 
torical works,  and  works  of  fiction.  Died  Mar.,  1901. 

YOUMANS,  Edward  Livingston,  scientist,  born 
in  Coeymans,  N.  Y.,  June  3,  1821 ; died  in  New  York 
city,  January  18,  1887.  He  passed  his  boyhood  in 
Saratoga,  where  he  received  an  ordinary  education. 
Later  he  studied  medicine  and  chemistry,  and  received 
from  the  University  of  Vermont  the  degree  of  M.D. 
From  1852  to  i860  he  edited  instruction  books  in  vari- 
ous departments  of  natural  science.  In  1872  he  estab- 
lished the  Popular  Science  Review,  a monthly  published 
in  New  York  city,  of  which  he  continued  to  be  the 
editor  and  manager  to  the  time  of  his  death.  His 
published  volumes  include  A Icohol  and  the  Constitution 
of  Man,  with  other  works  of  a scientific  character. 

YOUNG,  Brigham,  for  nearly  forty  years  Presi- 
dent of  the  “ Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-Day 
Saints,”  better  known  as  “Mormons,”  was  born  in 
Whittingham,  Vt.,  June  1,  1801.  His  father  was  a 
farmer,  who  removed  to  New  York  State  when  the 
boy  was  three  years  old.  Brigham  had  not  the  bene- 
fit of  even  a common  school  education,  but  at  the 
age  of  sixteen  was  compelled  to  earn  his  living  as 


a sort  of  “Jack  of  all  trades”  — painter,  glazier,  and 
carpenter.  In  1831  he  became  a convert  to  the  Mor- 
mon doctrine,  and  a year  later  joined  Joseph  Smith  at 
Kirtland,  Ohio.  He  was  at  once  made  an  elder,  and 
did  missionary  work  in  Canada,  and  in  February,  1835, 
became  one  of  the  “twelve  apostles,”  and  president 
of  that  body  a year  later.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Mormon  tabernacle  at  Nauvoo,  111.,  and  in  1840 
went  to  England  as  amissionary.  There  he  met  with 
considerable  success.  He  was  in  New  Hampshire 
when  Joseph  and  Hyrum  Smith  were  murdered  by  a 
mob,  but  immediately  returned  to  Nauvoo  and  was 
chosen  president  of  the  church.  Early  in  February, 
1846,  he  led  the  Mormons  from  Nauvoo  across  the 
Mississippi;  first  into  Nebraska,  where  a temporary 
settlement  was  made,  and  thence  in  1848  to  the  shores 
of  the  Great  Salt  Lake.  On  March  12,  1849,  the  Mor- 
mons made  him  governor  of  “Deseret,”  and  on  Feb- 
ruary 3,  1851,  he  became  governor  of  the  Territory  of 
Utah,  under  commission  from  President  Fillmore.  In 
August,  1852,  he  promulgated  the  doctrine  of  polyga- 
mous marriage. 

The  Mormons  received  many  converts  from  Europe, 
and  began  to  arrogate  to  themselves  a position  inde- 
pendent of  the  United  States  government.  Young 
was  superseded  as  governor  by  President  Buchanan, 
and  a military  force  under  Albert  Sidney  Johnston  was 
sent  out  to  protect  the  Federal  judiciary  and  officers. 
Under  Young’s  rule  the  wilderness  of  the  Salt  Lake 
Valley  was  made  to  blossom  as  a rose  ; railroads  and 
♦elegraphs  were  introduced  and  many  improvements 
made.  In  1871  Young  was  indicted  for  polygamy, 
but  escaped  punishment.  He  died  on  August  29, 
1:877,  possessed  of  enormous  wealth  extorted  from  his 
dupes,  and  the  nominal  husband  of  some  scores  of 
women  and  putative  father  of  an  indefinite  number  of 
children. 

YOUNG,  Charles  Augustus,  Ph.D.  LL.D.,  an 
American  astronomer,  born  at  Hanover,  N.  H.,  De- 
cember 12,  1834.  He  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College  in  1853,  and  became  professor  of  mathematics  in 
Western  Reserve  College,  Hudson,  Ohio,  where  he  re- 
mained from  1857  to  1866.  In  1877  he  was  chosen 
professor  of  astronomy  at  Princeton  College.  His 
principal  work  is  The  Sun. 

YOUNG,  George,  born  in  1819,  and  educated  at 
Edinburgh,  was  called  to  the  Scotch  bar  in  1840,  ap- 
pointed solicitor-general  for  Scotland  in  1852,  and  re- 
tired in  1866.  In  April,  1865,  on  the  retirement  of 
Sir  W.  Dunbar,  Bart.,  he  was  elected  member  in  the 
Liberal  interest  for  the  borough  of  Wigton,  and  was 
again  returned  in  1^65  and  1868.  He  was  defeated  at 
the  general  election  of  February,  1874,  but  in  the  same 
month  he  was,  on  Mr.  Gladstone’s  recommendation, 
created  a lord  of  session  and  one  of  the  lords  of 
justiciary  in  Scotland. 

YOUNG,  John  Russell,  journalist,  was  born  in 
Dowington,  Chester  county,  Penn.,  November  20, 
1841.  He  was  educated  in  the  public  schools  of  Phila- 
delphia and  the  New  Orleans  high  school.  He  began 
his  newspaper  career  as  a copy  boy  on  the  Philadelphia 
Press,  and  when  the  Civil  war  began  he  was  sent  as 
correspondent  to  Virginia.  In  1864  he  was  with 
Banks  on  his  Red  River  expedition,  and  after  the  war  he 
returned  to  Philadelphia  and  was  given  editorial  charge 
of  the  Press.  He  made  two  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
start  a paper,  and  in  1871  went  to  Europe  as  corre- 
spondent of  the  New  York  Herald.  For  the  latter 
paper  he  went  with  President  Grant  around  the  world, 
and  when  he  returned  to  New  York  took  a position  on 
the  editorial  staff.  On  March  15th  he  was  appointed 
United  States  minister  to  China,  and  filled  the  post 


Y O U — Z I M 


until  Cleveland’s  election,  when  he  came  back  to  his 
old  place.  He  has  published  Around  the  World  with 
General  Grant.  Died  Jan.  17,  1899. 

YOUNG,  Samuel,  born  in  Lenox,  Mass.,  about 
1780,  and  removed  to  the  State  of  New  York  when  a 
boy.  He  became  active  in  politics,  and  was  for  many 
years  a State  senator.  He  acted  with  the  Democrats, 
ajid  was  a leader  of  the  Freesoilers,  or  Barnburners. 
Young  died  in  Ballston,  N.  Y.,  in  1850. 

YOUNG,  Sir  Allen,  born  in  1830,  Arctic  navigator, 
who  volunteered  and  filled  a responsible  position  on 
board  Lady  Franklin’s  little  ship,  the  Fox , in  McClin- 
tock's  memorable  voyage  (1857-60),  when  the  problem 
of  the  fate  of  Franklin  and  his  companions  was  solved. 
As  an  officer  of  the  royal  naval  reserve,  his  commission 
bears  date  from  the  first  creation  of  the  force.  In  1875 
he  made  in  his  yacht,  the  Pandora , an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt to  accomplish  the  Northwest  Passage,  and  to 
throw  some  further  light  on  the  proceedings  of  the  lost 
expedition  under  Franklin.  Again,  in  1876,  he  refitted 
the  Pandora  for  a second  attempt,  with  the  same  objects 
in  view;  but  the  admiralty,  having  been  unexpectedly 
called  upon  to  communicate  with  the  depots  of  the  gov- 


69OI 

ernment  expedition  in  Smith’s  Sound,  Captain  Young 
readily  responded  to  an  invitation  to  fulfill  this  impor- 
tant duty,  which  he  did  at  no  small  risk,  and  in  a manner 
which  was  deemed  thoroughly  satisfactory.  In  recog- 
nition of  this  service  he  received  the  honor  of  knight- 
hood, March  12,  1877. 

YOUNG,  Sir  John,  an  English  civil  officer,  born  in 
1807,  and  died  October  6,  1876.  In  1870  he  was  crea- 
ted Lord  Lisgar.  He  has  held  a number  of  offices 
under  the  government,  and,  from  1868  to  1872,  was 
governor-general  of  Canada. 

YULE,  Sir  Henry,  was  born  at  Inveresk,  near 
Edinburgh,  May,  1820.  He  entered  East  India  Military 
College,  Addiscombe,  February,  1837,  and  passed  for 
the  Bengal  engineers,  December,  1838.  He  went  to 
India,  1840,  and  was  attached  from  1843  for  several 
years  to  the  canal  department,  Northwest  Provinces, 
afterward  serving  in  the  army  and  railway  departments 
until  1855,  when  he  was  made  under-secretary  to  the 
government  of  India.  He  retired  in  1862  as  lieutenant- 
colonel,  with  honorary  rank  of  colonel.  He  was  made 
a member  of  the  council  of  India,  1875,  and  died. 
December  30,  1889. 


Z. 


ZALINSKI,  Edmund  Louis  Gray,  soldier,  was  born 
in  Kurnick,  Prussian  Poland,  December  13,  1849. 
Coming  to  the  United  States  in  1853,  he  attended 
school  at  Senaca  Falls,  N.  Y.,  and  later  at  the  high- 
school  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  where  he  graduated  in  1863. 
When  only  fifteen  years  of  age  he  entered  the  Union 
army,  first  as  volunteer  aide-de-camp  on  the  staff 
of  Gen.  Nelson  A.  Miles,  and  was  later  commissioned 
second  lieutenant  in  the  second  New  York  heavy  artil- 
lery for  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Hatcher’s  Run,  Va. 
He  remained  on  General  Miles’  staff  until  the  surren- 
der of  Lee,  and  was  mustered  out  of  the  service  Sep- 
tember, 1865,  and  was  recommended  for  an  appoint- 
ment in  the  regular  army,  commissioned  a second  lieu- 
tenant in  the  5th  United  States  artillery,  February  23, 
1866,  and  by  regular  promotion  became  captain,  De- 
cember 9,  1887.  He  was  on  duty  from  1872  to  1876  at 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  as  profes- 
sor of  military  science.  Captain  Zalinski’s  name  is 
widely  known  in  connection  with  the  development  of 
the  torpedo  gun,  and  by  the  invention  of  an  electrical 
fuse.  He  has  also  invented  other  things  now  in  prac- 
tical use  in  the  army. 

ZANARDELLI,  Giuseppe,  an  Italian  statesman, 
was  born  in  1826,  in  Brescia.  After  the  ministerial 
crisis  of  1876  he  became  minister  of  public  works  in 
the  first  Depretis  cabinet,  which  portfolio  he  resigned 
in  November,  1877,  in  consequence  of  differences  with 
Depretis,  which  made  it  impossible  for  him  to  sign,  as 
minister  of  public  works,  the  railway  convention  ar- 
ranged by  the  latter.  He  was  appointed  to  the  Home 
Office  in  the  Carioli  ministry  in  March,  1878. 

ZEILIN,  Jacob,  officer  of  marines,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Penn.,  jluly  16,  1806,  and  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  November  18,  1880.  Entering  the  marine 
corps  with  the  rank  of  second  lieutenant,  October  1, 
1831,  he  was  promoted  to  first  lieutenant,  September 
12,  1831.  He  cruised  in  the  Columbus  and  Congress 
during  the  Mexican  war,  and  participated  in  the  opera- 
tions on  the  Pacific  coast  in  defense  of  Monterey,  in 
July,  1846.  He  was  commissioned  captain,  September 
14,  1847,  and  served  at  New  York  and  in  Norfolk,  Va., 
in  1849-52.  When  the  Civil  war  began  he  took  com- 
mand of  the  right  company  in  the  marine  battalion  in 


cooperation  with  the  army  in  1861,  and  was  at  the  battle 
of  Bull  Run.  He  was  appointed  colonel  commandant 
of  the  marine  corps,  June  10,  1864,  and  assumed  con- 
trol at  headquarters,  Washington,  D.C.  He  retired 
on  account  of  old  age,  November  1,  1876. 

ZELLER,  Eduard,  German  theological  and  philo- 
sophical writer,  was  born  at  Kleinbottwar,  in  Wiirtem- 
berg,  January  22,  1814,  and  studied  in  Tubingen  and 
Berlin.  In  1847  he  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Berne,  in  1849  at  Marburg,  and  in  1862  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Heidelberg,  and  subsequently  at  Berlin, 
where  he  has  since  remained.  Several  sections  of  his 
History  of  Greek  Philosophy , which  is  still  the  standard 
work  on  the  subject,  and  widely  used  in  the  English 
universities,  have  been  translated  into  English. 

ZENGER,  John  Peter,  printer,  born  in  Germany, 
about  1680;  died  in  New  York  city  in  1746.  He  ar- 
rived in  America  about  1700,  and  worked  in  the  print- 
ingoffice  of  William  Bradford,  the  elder.  On  November 
5,  1733,  he  began  to  publish  the  New  York  Weekly 
Journal,  and  on  the  17th  of  that  month  was  arrested 
for  publishing  seditious  libels.  His  friends,  among 
whom  were  Rip  Van  Dam  and  James  Alexander,  em- 
ployed Andrew  Hamilton,  of  Philadelphia,  for  his  de- 
fense, which  stood  for  the  question  of  liberty  of  the 
press.  He  was  acquitted,  and  this  episode  has  been, 
not  unfitly,  termed  “the  morning-star  of  that  liberty 
which  subsequently  revolutionized  America.”  After 
Zenger’s  death  his  widow  and  son  continued  to  pub- 
lish the  Journal  until  1752. 

ZIMMERMANN,  Agnes,  was  born  at  Cologne, 
July  5,  1847;  wras  entered  at  nine  years  of  age  as  a stu- 
dent at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  where  Cipriani 
Potter  was  her  master  at  the  piano,  and  Doctor  Steg- 
gall  taught  her  harmony.  In  i860  she  obtained  the 
king’s  scholarship,  and  the  same  honor  fell  to  her  in 
1862,  and  in  1864  she  went  to  Germany,  where  she 
played  at  the  Leipsic  Gewandhaus  concerts  and  before 
the  court  of  Hanover,  meeting  with  the  most  enthusias- 
tic recognition  of  her  brilliant  talents  and  great  execu- 
tive power.  Returning  to  England,  she  grew  rapidly  in 
public  favor,  and  has,  perhaps,  no  equal  as  an  interpre- 
ter of  the  works  of  Sterndale  Bennett.  Miss  Zimmer* 
mann’s  own  compositions  are  well  known  to  musicians, 


Z I M — Z U K 


6902 

and  her  editions  of  Beethoven’s  and  Mozart’s  sonatas 
are  standard  works  among  students. 

ZIMMERN,  Helen,  was  born  in  the  free  Hanse 
Town  of  Hamburg,  March  25,  1846,  but  has  lived  in 
England  since  1850,  and  is  a naturalized  British  sub- 
ject. She  is  the  author  of  works  of  fiction  and  poetry. 

ZOLA,  Emile,  a French  writer,  born  at  Paris,  April 
2,  1840 ; passed  his  infancy  in  Provence  with  his  father, 
the  originator  of  the  canal  which  bears  his  name  at  Aix. 
He  then  studied  in  the  Lycee  Saint-Louis  at  Paris,  and 
obtained  employment  in  the  well-known  publishing  firm 
of  Hachette  & Co.  He  gave  up  that  situation  about 
1865,  in  order  to  devote  his  attention  exclusively  to  lit- 
erature. He  has  been  an  industrious  contributor  to 
the  newspaper  press,  and  has  written  works  of  fiction 
which  have  created  a great  sensation,  and  passed 
through  many  editions.  Died  Sept.  25,  1902, 

ZOLLICOFFER,  Felix  Kirk,  soldier,  born  in 
Maury  county,  Tenn.,  May  19,  1812;  died  near  Mill 
Springs,  Ky.,  January  19,  1862.  Felix  learned  the 
printer’s  trade,  and  later  ran  a paper  at  Paris,  Tenn. 
He  removed  to  Columbia  and  took  editorial  charge  of 
the  Observer.  He  was  a soldier  during  the  Seminole 
war,  but,  returning,  in  1837,  resumed  his  labors  on  the 
same  paper.  He  entered  the  Confederate  service  with 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  July  9,  1861,  but  his 
career  was  short  lived.  When  the  Federal  army  was 
about  to  enter  East  Tennessee,  General  Zollicoffer  went 
by  way  of  Cumberland  Gap  with  2,000  men  to  the  point 
of  threatened  attack.  He  established  his  camp  at  Mill 
Spring.  In  the  battle  that  ensued,  General  Zollicoffer 
having  ordered  an  advance,  rode  forward  with  some  of 
his  staff  officers  to  inspect  the  enemy’s  position,  and,  by 
mistake,  passed  beyond  their  lines.  He  endeavored  to 
retrace  his  steps  and  was  soon  in  front  of  the  4th 
Kentucky  regiment,  with  whom  he  exchanged  salutes, 
and  rode  off  undetected,  as  he  wore  a rubber  coat. 
One  of  his  staff,  however,  fired  a pistol  shot  toward  the 
national  line  which  drew  a volley  that  killed  the  gen- 
eral and  two  other  officers. 


ZORRILLA,  Jos£,  one  of  the  principal  poets  of 
Spain,  was  born  February  21,  1818,  at  Valladolid.  He 
studied  law  at  the  University  of  Toledo,  and  for  a time 
resided  in  Mexico.  He  first  came  into  notice  on  Feb- 
ruary 15,  1837,  through  a poem  read  at  the  funeral  of 
Larra.  His  principal  work  is  Don  Juan  Tenorio,  a 
fantastic  religious  drama,  1866.  A collection  of  his 
poems  was  published  in  1864.  He  died  Jan.  23,  1893. 

ZORRILLA,  Manuel  Ruiz,  was  born  in  Castile, 
in  1834.  He  was  a Madrid  barrister,  and  a deputy  in 
the  Cortes,  when  the  share  he  took  in  the  June  revolt, 
1866,  earned  him  a condemnation,  and  he  was  compelled 
to  seek  refuge  beyond  the  French  frontier.  In  the  pro- 
visional government  of  Admiral  Topete,  after  the  revo- 
lution of  1868,  he  was  minister  of  public  works,  law 
minister  to  Marshal  Serrano  in  1869,  and  as  president 
of  the  parliament,  advocated  the  duke  of  Aosta’s  can- 
didature to  the  throne.  On  the  accession  of  the  duke, 
under  the  title  of  Amadeo  I.,  Zorrilla  received,  almost 
alone  among  non-royal  personages,  the  famous  order 
of  the  Annunziata,  which  ranks  with  the  Golden  Fleece 
and  the  Garter.  When  Amadeo  abdicated,  Zorrilla 
went  to  Portugal  with  him.  He  went  back  to  Spain, 
but  having  allied  himself  openly  with  the  republicans, 
his  position  grew  intolerable  under  King  Alfonso,  and 
he  left  the  country.  He  lives  in  England,  France,  or 
Switzerland,  according  to  the  needs  of  the  moment,  and 
his  intrigues  are  a perpetual  source  of  anxiety  to  every 
Spanish  government  in  turn.  Uied  June,  1895. 

ZUKERTORT,  Dr.  J.  H.,  a distinguished  chess- 
player, was  born  in  Riga  in  1842.  In  1878  he  gained 
the  first  prize  at  the  chess  tournament  at  Paris.  Later, 
he  made  a tour  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  visiting 
Leipsic,  Dresden,  Cologrie,  Berlin,  and  other  chess 
centers.  In  1883  he  won  the  great  London  tournament 
but  failed  in  the  championship  match  with  Steinitz,  m 
America,  in  1886.  Doctor  Zukertort  wrote  several 
works  in  German;  he  edited  the  technical  department 
in  the  Westminster  Monthly , and  for  seven  years  was 
editor  of  the  Chess  Monthly.  He  died  June  20,  1888. 


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